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THE GIFT OF
Easton Kelsey

THE
ARCHITECTURE
MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO,
TRANSLATED
BY
JOSEPH GWILT.
G. WOODFALL, ANGEL court, ski NNER BTREET, London.
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
MARCUS VITRUVIUS Pollio,
IN TEN BOOKS.
T R A N'S LA. T E D F R O M T H E LAT IN
BY
JOSEPH G WILT,
FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON.
LONDON :
PRIESTLEY AND WEALE.
MDCCCXXVI.
s
tº
3-3 c. 3 ;
CONTENTS.
DEDICATION .
List of Subscribers
Preface
Life of Vitruvius
List of the several Editions and Versions of Vitruvius
List of the Chapters contained in the Work
Description of the Head-Pieces .
The Architecture of Vitruvius, Book I. .
. Book II. .
. Book III.
. Book IV. .
. Book W. .
. Book VI. .
. Book VII.
. Book VIII. .
. Book IX.
. Book X.
Plates, and Explanations of them .
Index .
PAGE
vii
ix
• XV
. xvii
... xxi
• XXXV
xl
. 33
75
97
123
. 161
191
227
259
293
. 347
369
TO THE KING.
SIRE, -
THE Writings of MARCUs WITRU-
v1Us Pollio have long been distinguished
by the especial patronage of Sovereigns.
That of GEORGE THE FourTH is now added
to those of Augustus, the Medici, Francis
the First, and Lewis the Fourteenth.
It would be presumptuous in me to
dwell on the singular connexion between
the successful cultivation of the Arts and
the appearance of the different Editions of
Vitruvius; but when we read the memo-
rable words of Augustus, his first Patron,
“ Urbem marmoream se relinquere, quam
viii
lateritiam accepisset,” we are so forcibly re-
minded of the taste and munificence of our
present Sovereign, that we look forward
with the highest expectations to the future,
while we reflect with gratitude on the
past.
With a deep sense of the obligation
your MAJESTY has conferred, by allowing
me to present this to your notice, and the
most sincere prayer, that, in a long conti-
nuance of your happy reign, the Nation
may receive the fulfilment of its wishes, I
have the honour to declare myself, with
every respect,
YOUR MAJESTY'S
MOST DUTIFUL AND FAITHFUL
SUBJECT AND SERVANT,
JOSEPH GWILT.
ix
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
ONLY TWENTY-FIVE LARGE PAPER COPIES HAVE BEEN PRINTED.
A.
ABRAHAM, Robert, Esq.
Ackermann, Mr.
Angell, Samuel, Esq.
Arch, Messrs.
Arch, Messrs. (large paper).
Atkinson, Mr. Charles.
BAILEY, George, Esq.
Baker, H. Esq.
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X
C.
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D.
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xi
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(large paper).
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H.
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I. J.
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xii
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Jupp, William, Esq.
K.
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L.
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xiii
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*
OGLE, John, Esq.
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R.
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xiv
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YoUNG, James, Esq.
PREFACE.
THE following Translation was commenced many
years since, under a conviction of the benefit I
should derive from it in my architectural studies;
but at the time of undertaking it, its publication
was not contemplated. During the progress of my
labours I found it useful to refer to the different
versions of the author, and more especially to that
of Newton, the only Englishman who has hitherto
translated and published the whole of the text of
Vitruvius. That translation I found so unsatis-
factory and incorrect, that my resolution was early
formed of making an endeavour, at some period,
to give the English student, not only a more con-
venient volume for reference, but, as I presume to
think, a truer interpretation of the text of the
author. Whether I have succeeded, must be sub-
mitted to the Reader's judgment. I have, perhaps,
adhered more closely to the text than the idiom
of our language may allow, but I trust that this will
be far from a serious charge against me. The edi-
tions chiefly used have been those of Philander,
Elzevir, the Bipont, and that of Schneider, which is
a most valuable book: not, however, without fre-
xvi
quent recurrence to the translations of Barbaro and
Perrault, and the excellent one of Galiani. The
plates subjoined to the work are not so numerous
as might have been desired. My reason for limiting
them to their present number has been more from
a desire to avoid conjectural representations than
to save trouble or expense in the publication. The
following version is without note or comment, but
I am in hopes that it may, at a future period, lead
to a further consideration of the precepts and doc-
trines of the only author, among the antients, on
the art of which I am an humble professor.
J. G.
LIFE OF WITRUVIUS.
THE materials for a life of Vitruvius are only to be
found in his own Treatise. Among the antient
authors he is merely mentioned by Pliny, as one
of those writers from whom he compiled; and
by Frontinus, in his Treatise on Aqueducts, as
the first who introduced the Quinarian measure.
Though practising in Rome, and in the service of
the emperors, living in Rome, and writing the sub-
joined work in that city, there appears nothing that
can lead us to assert that he was a native of the
place. Maffei, a Veronese, strove to prove the au-
thor his countryman, and in corroboration adduced
an inscription which existed on a triumphal arch
in Verona as hereunder;
L. VIT R U WIU S L. L. C E R DO
A R C H IT ECT U.S.
Had this arch, however, been built by our Author, it
would not prove him a native of the city, not look-
ing to the difference in the agnomen, a circum-
stance which Alciati attempted to reconcile, by
supposing that of Pollio to be a corruption of Pel-
lio, and that then it would be synonymous with
C
xviii
A
Cerdo, both the one and the other signifying a cur-
rier. Philander, however, completely refuted this
conjecture, if indeed refutation could have been
necessary, for the arch itself contained a violation
of a rule insisted on by Vitruvius, that dentils
should not occur under mutuli.
From the fragments of inscriptions relative to
the Vitruvia family, found in the neighbourhood of
Formiae (the present Mola di Gaeta), it has been
presumed, without a great stretch of probability,
that it was in this territory Vitruvius was born.
The age in which he lived was doubtless between
the time of the death of Julius Caesar and the bat-
tle of Actium, though some have assigned it to the
reign of Titus. But his omission of the mention of
a great number of magnificent buildings, erected
after the time of Augustus, and his especial men-
tion of the theatre of Pompey as the only one of
stone, sufficiently prove that such a conjecture is not
warranted by circumstances. The dedication, more-
over, points to Augustus as the patron of Vitruvius:
and the incident of C. Julius, the son of Masanissa,
who was in the army of Julius Caesar, having lodged
with him, as related in the third chapter of his
eighth book, seems clearly to indicate the time of
his existence.
It is likely that the following treatise was compos-
ed when he was advanced in life, and that it was pre-
sented to his patron after he had assumed the title
xix.
of Augustus, that is, twenty-five years before the
Christian aera, inasmuch as he speaks of a temple
erected to Augustus, in his Basilica at Fano.
He was, as may be collected from his writings,
by no means a successful professor, though well
born and well educated, and certainly, notwith-
standing the common sophisms of the age which
appear in his work, a man of no ordinary talent.
He was no less a military than a civil architect, as
may be gathered from the introduction to his first
book, as well as from the rules, now incompre-
hensible, but doubtless in his time sufficiently
clear, laid down in the tenth book, respecting
military engines. From the introduction to the
third book we learn, that he was of small stature,
and lived to some age. That he should have met
with opposition from his brethren is quite conso-
nant with later experience, for the rabble of igno-
rant builders, and artisans, and draftsmen, who in
the present day call themselves architects, and meet
with considerable patronage, are of the same class
as those that flourished subsequently to the time of
our author, even in the time of Michael Angelo da
Buonaroti.
LIST OF THE SEVERAL EDITIONS AND
�
1496.
VERSIONS OF VITRUVIUS.
. .—** Editio primceps.”—Without year, place, or printer's mame.
Primted at Rome, by George Herolt, under the superimtend-
emce of Sulpitius, in or about 1486. It begims without title
as follows:—“ Io. sULPITIUS LECTORI SALUTEM. Cum di-
vinum opus Victruvii: mom modo studiosis: sed reliquis ho-
minibus, &c.”—At the emd of the last book of Vitruvius are
the following verses :
Lector habes tandem veneranda volumina docti
Victruvii: quorum copia rara fuit.
Hæc lege: nam disces: mova: magna : recondita: pulchra :
Et quæ sint in re sæpe futura tua.
Emendata vides: sed peccat litera siqua
Corrige: memo satis lynceus esse potest.
To theVitruvius is subjoimed,—* Sexti Julii Frontini viri com-
sularis: de aquis que in urbem influumt: libellus mirabilis."—
The pages are of thirty-four limes, and the Vitruvius contains
minety-four fols. including the letter of Sulpitius, &c. The
Frontinus contaims only sixteem fols. Gaigmat Catalogue 54
framcs. La Valiere ditto 130 framcs. Polemus says there are
but few errors in this editiom. Harwood says it is a very
scarce book.
This Editiom begins thus.—“ Hoc im volumine hæc opera
contimentur. L. Vitruvii Pollionis de Architectura Libri de-
cem. Sexti Julii Fromtini de Aquæductibus Liber umus.
Angeli Politiami Opusculum : quod Pamepistemon inscribi-
tur. Angeli Politiami im priora Amalytica prælectio, cui ti-
tulus est Lamia."—At the emd of the Vitruvius :—“ Florentiæ
• impressum anmo a matali Christiano M.cccc.LxxxxvI."—fol.
xxii
—Accordimg to Fabricius, the orthography of this editiom is
more correct tham the preceding ome of Sulpitius; in other
respects it is very like it. It is quite as scarce as the editio
primceps.
¥ 1497. This Volume begims,—“ Hoc in Volumime comtimemtur : Cleo-
.- • • • midæ Harmonicum Introductorium imterprete Georgio Valla
Placentimo. L. Vitruvii Polliomis de Architectura Libri De-
cem. Sexti Julii Frontini de Aquæductibus Liber umά.
Angeli Politiani Opusculum: quod Pamepistemom inscribitur.
Angeli Politiani in priora Amalytica prælectio, cui titulus est
Lamia.”—At the end of the Vitruvius,—“ Impressum Vene-
tiis, per Simonem Papiensem dictum Bivilaquam : Amno
M.cccc.LxxxxvII. die tertio Augusti.”—fol. With a few
slight variations in the text, this is little more tham a reprimt
of the preceding Florence Editiom, as regards Vitruvius.
The Cleonidas is am addition to it. The name of the Editor
does mot appear ; he has divided the chapters of the first
book differently from those of the two former editions. This
book, though mot common, does mot fetch a large price.
1511.—** M. Vitruvius per Iocumdum solito castigatior factus, cum
figuris et tabula, ut iam legi et intelligi possit."—At the emd,
—“ Impressum Venetiis ac magis quam umquam aliquo alio
tempore emendatum : sumptu miraque diligentia Ioammis de
Tridino alias Tacuimo. Ammo Domini M.D.XI. die XXII.
Maii. Regmante inclito Duce Leomardo Lauredamo.”—fol.
—With many wood blocks. This was the first edition
illustrated with Figures. Jocumdus altered the text of the
two former editions in many places. Polemus thinks he car-
ried his emendatioms further tham he was justified in doing;
but he gives the preference to this over the former editions.
1513.—** Vitruvius iterum et Frontimus a Iocumdo revisi repurgatique
quantum ex collatiome licuit.”—At the emd:—“ Hoc opus ,
præcipua diligentia castigatum, et cura summa excusum est
Floremtiæ sumptibus Philippi de Giumta Florentimi, ammo Do-
mini M. D. XIII. memse Octobri."—Small octavo.—The figures
in this editiom are the same as the preceding, but consider-
xxiii
-,
ably reduced amd more imperfectly cut. It is extremely
scarce, and produced am enormous price (elevem guimeas) at am
auctiom in this country a few years since.
1522.—** M.Vitruvii de Architectura Libri decem muper maxima di-
ligentia castigati, atque excusi, additis Julii Frontini de Aquæ-
ductibus libris propter materiæ affinitatem.”—At the end :—
“ Impressum Floremtiæ per hæredes Philippi Iuntæ Anno
Domini, MDxxII. sexto Kal. Novembris."—Small octavo.
This is a reprimt of the precedimg editiom with the same blocks
for the figures.
1523.—** M. Vitruvii de Architectura Libri decem, summa diligentia
recogniti, atque excusi. Cum nommullis figuris sub hoc signo *
positis, numquam antea impressis. Additis Iulii Frontimi de
Aquæductibus libris, propter materiæ affinitatem. 1523.”—
Small octavo. Without place or primter's name. This is a
counterfeit of the Giunta editiom. Amd though Polemus
conjectures it was printed at Floremce, there is little doubt
that it was the work of Will. Huyom of Lyons. The figures
added with the mark * attached to them, are reduced from
those of the first Italiam versiom of the author by Cæsar
Cæsarianus 1521, which is hereinafter moticed.
l543.—** M. Vitruvii, viri suæ professiomis peritissimi, de Archi-
tectura Libri Decem, ad Augustum Cæsarem accuratiss. com-
scripti: et nunc primum im Germania qua potuit diligentia
excusi, atque hinc inde Schematibus mom iniucundis exornati. "
Adiecimus etiam propter argumenti conformitatem, Sexti
Iulii Frontini de Aquæductibus urbis Romae libellum. Item
ex libro Nicolai Cusani Card. de Staticis experimentis Frag-
mentum. Cum Imdice copiosissimo, et dispositione longe
meliori, quam antea."—At the end:—“ Argentorati. Im offi-
cina Knoblochiana per Georgium Machæropieum. Ammo
1543."—Quarto. The text is mearly the same as that of Jo-
cumdus. The figures of the wood-blocks are partly borrowed
from the Giumta edition, amd partly from the translation of
Cæsariamus.
1550.—** M. Vitruvii Polliomis, viri suæ professionis peritissimi, de
xxiv
Architectura Libri x. ad Augustum Cæsarem accuratissime
conscripti, et locis quam plurimis hac editiome emendati. Ad-
iunctis mumc primum Gulielmi Philamdri Castilionii Galli,
Civis Rom. Castigatiomibus atque Ammotatiomibus im eosdem
longe doctissimis ad Framciscum Valesium Galliarum Regem.
Una cum Lib. II. Sex. Iulii Frontimi de Aquæductibus urbis
Romæ, et Nicolai Cusami Dialogo de Staticis experimentis.
Cum Græco pariter et Latino indice, dispositione copiaque
elaboratissimo."—At the emd:—“ Argentorati, ex officina
Κmoblochiana, per Georgium Machaeropieum, Memse Au-
gusto, Ammo M.D.L.”—Quarto, The text is the same as that
of the 1543 editiom. The motes of Philander which are
added, were first published im 1544 at Rome im 8vo, but with-
out the text of Vitruvius.
l552.—** M. Vitruvii Pollionis de Architectura Libri decem ad Cæ-
sarem Augustum omnibus omnium editionibus longe emenda-
tiores, collatis veteribus exemplis. Accesserunt Gulielmi
Philamdri Castiliomii, civis Rom. Annotationes castigatiores,
et plus tertia parte locupletiores. Adiecta est Epitome im
omnes Georgii Agricolæ de mensuris et ponderibus Libros,
eodem autore. Cum Græco pariter et Latino'indice locu-
pletissimo. Lugduni. Apud Ioan. Tormæsium, 1552."—
Quarto. Philander himself superintended this editiom, chiefly
followimg the Giunta text, which he collated with several
MSS. The wood blocks are better tham in amy precedimg
editiom.
• 1567.—** M. Vitruvii Polliomis de Architectura Libri decem, cum
commentariis Danielis Barbari, electi Patriarchæ Aquilei-
emsis : multis ædificiorum, horologiorum, et Machinarum de-
scriptionibus, et figuris, uma cum indicibus copiosis, auctis et
illustratis. Venetiis. Apud Franciscum Framsciscium Se-
nensem, et Ioan. Crugher Germanum, 1567.”—Folio. Bar-
baro in this seems to have mostly followed Philander's editiom
of 1552.
1586.—** M. Vitruvii Pollionis de Architectura Libri decem, ad Cae-
sarem Augustum, omnibus omnium editionibus longe emen-
XXV
datiores, collatis veteribus exemplis. Accesserumt Gulielmi
Philandri Castilionii, Civis Rom. Ammotationes castigatiores
et plus tertia parte locupletiores. Adiecta est Epitome in
omnes Georgii Agricolae de mensuris et ponderibus libros
eodem auctore. Cum Graeco pariter et Latimo Indice locu-
pletissimo, M.D.LXXXVI. Apud Ioan. Tornaesium, typogr.
Reg. Lugd.”—Quarto. Harwood says that the Editor of this
edition was Jo. Tormaesius junior, and that it is more correct,
though less elegant than that produced by the father in 1552.
1649–" M. Vitruvii Pollionis de Architectura Libri decem, cum
1758.
notis, castigationibus, et observationibus Gulielmi Philandri
integris; Danielis Barbari excerptis, et Claudii Salmasii pas-
sim insertis. Praemittuntur Elementa Architecturae collecta
ab illustri Wiro Henrico Wottono Equite Anglo. Accedunt
Lexicon Vitruvianum Bernardini Baldi Urbinatis Guastellae
Abbatis; et eiusdem scamilli impares Vitruviani. De Pic-
tura Libri tres absolutissimi Leonis Baptistae de Albertis.
De Sculptura excerpta maxime animadvertenda ex Dialogo
Pomponii Gaurici Neapolit. Ludovici Demontiosii Com-
mentarius de Sculptura et Pictura. Cum variis Indicibus
copiosissimis. Omnia in unum collecta, digesta, et illustrata
a Ioanne de Laet Antverpiano. Amstelodami. Apud
Lud. Elzevirium. Ammo 1649.”—Folio. This has been
usually considered the best edition of the Author: it was
certainly at that period the most splendid edition, to which
the Elzevir type not a little contributed. De Laet pro-
fesses to follow the text of Philander's edition ; but neither
was this accurately done, nor were the notes of Philander, mor
the Lexicon of Baldus given entire, as the title would import.
The most valuable novelty in this edition is the Commentary
of Meibomius on those Chapters relating to musical notation.
An Edition by the Marchese Berardo Galiani. Folio.
Naples. This was accompanied by an Italian Version, which
will be hereafter moticed among the Italian Editions Har-
wood says this is a “a fair and valuable Edition.” Not no-
ticed by Schneider.
d
xxvi
1800.—** M. Vitruvii Pollionis de Architectura Libri decem. Ope
Codicis Guelferbytani, editionis principis, ceterorumque sub-
sidiorum recensuit, et Glossario, im quo vocabula artis propria
Germ. Ital. Gall. et Angl. explicamtur, illustravit Augustus
Rode Dessaviensis. Berolimi, sumtibus Aug. Mylii. 1800."—
Two thim volumes Quarto. The plates to this Editiom were
published im Folio im the emsuing year to the number of
twenty. The text of this Editiom is of little value. The
plates though ill executed and the glossary in five languages,
are useful to the Architectural student. It has mo notes ap-
pended.
1807.—** M. Vitruvii Pollionis de Architectura Libri Decem ad
Optimas Editiones collati. Præmittitur Notitia literaria Stu-
diis Societatis Bipontinae. Accedit Anonymi scriptoris ve-
teris Architecturæ compendium cum indicibus. Argemtorati
Ex Typographia Societatis MDcccvII.”—Octavo.
1807.—** Marci Vitruvii Pollionis De Architectura Libri Decem.
Ex fide librorum scriptorum recensuit, emendavit, suisque et
virorum doctorum Ammotationibus illustravit Io. Gottlob
Schmeider, Saxo. Lipsiæ, sumtibus et Litteris G. J. Göschem.
Amno MDcccvII."—3 Vols. Imper. Octavo. This Editiom,
the second amd third volumes of which are devoted to com-
mentaries om the text, is the best edition of the Author which
has appeared. It is much to be regretted that it was pub-
lished without plates ; with the addition of them it would
have been a perfect book.
SPANISH VERSIONS.
1602.—* Los diez libros de Arquitectura de Marco Vitruvio Pollion,
traducidos del Latin por Michaël de Urrea. Alcala de He-
marez. 1602.°— Folio. , ^ '
1787.—* Los diez libros de Architectura de M. Vitruvio Polliom,
traducidos del Latin y commentados por Don Joseph Ortiz
y Sanz. Presbitero, Madrid. 1787."—Large Folio, with
plates.
xxvii
FRIENCH WERSIONS.
1547.—“Architecture, ou Art de bien bastir de Marc Vitruve Pol-
lion, autheur Romain antique; mis de Latin en François par
Jan Martin, secretaire de Monseign. le Cardinal de Lenom-
court. Pour le Roy très Chrestien Henry II. A Paris.
Pour la veuve et heritiers de Jam. Barbè. 1547.”—Folio.
This was the first French Version of Vitruvius.
1572. A Reprint of the preceding by Jerome de Marnef et Guil.
Cavellat Fol. Paris.
1618. The Third French Version. Printed in Quarto at Geneva
from the two preceding Editions by Jean de Tournes.
1673.—“Les dix Livres d’Architecture de Vitruve, corrigez et tra-
duits nouvellement en François, avec des Notes et des Figures.
A Paris, chez Jean Bapt. Coignard. 1673.”—Large Folio.
This was a version worthy of Perrault the Translator.
Though in many parts it is impossible to agree with him in
his Interpretation of the Text, yet it is a most valuable work.
The figures are numerous and well executed on copper.
1684—“Les dix Livres d’Architecture de Vitruve corrigez et traduits
nouvellement en François, avec des Notes et des Figures.
Seconde edition revue, corrigée, et augmentée. Par M.
Perrault de l'Academie royale des Sciences, Docteur en
Medccine de la Faculté de Paris. A Paris, chez Jean Bapt.
Coignard, Imprimeur ordinaire du Roy, rue St. Jaques, a la
Bible d'or. 1684.”—Large Folio. This is, notwithstanding
the wear of the plates, the best of Perrault's Editions; and
copies of it, in which Seb. Le Clerc's plate representing the
machinery for raising the two large stones of the Pediment
of the Louvre appears, are valuable.
1816.-‘‘ L’Architecture de Vitruve traduite en François, avec des
remarques par le Bioul. Bruxelles 1816.”—Quarto, with
plates.
GERMAN WERSIONS.
1548.—“Vitruvius Teusch. Alles mit schoenen künstlichen Figuren
i und Antiquiteten, und Sonderlichen Commentarien zu meh-
xxviii
rerem Bericht und besserem Verstand gezieret und erklaeret.
Durch D. Gualtherum H. Rivium. Medic. & Mathem.
Wormals in teutsche sprach zu transferiren noch von nie-
mand sonst understandem, somderm für unmüglichen geachtet
worden. Zu Nürnberg trückts Johan Petreius.”—Folio.
With plates on wooden blocks cut by Erard Schaen.
1575. A repetition of the preceding. Basil. Folio.
1614. Another repetition with this title:–“ Vitruvius. Des aller-
namhafftigsten unmd Hocherfahrnestem, Roemischen Archi-
tecti, unnd Kunstreichen Werck oder Bawmeisters, Marci
Vitruvij Pollionis, Zehem Bücher von der Architectur und
künstlichem Bawen. Ein Schlüssel und eynleitung aller Ma-
thematischen unnd Mechanischen Kunst, Scharfsimmiger
fleissiger machtrachtung oder Speculation künstlicher Wercke
&c. Erstmals verteutscht, unnd in Truck verordnet durch
D. Gualterum H. Rivium, Wormals in Teutsche Sprach zu
transferiren, noch von niemand sonst understanden, Sonder
für unmüglich geachtet worden. Jetzt aber an vilen Orten
verbessert. Getruckt zu Basel. Durch Sebastian Henricpetri,
im Jar mach der Geburt Christi M.D.C.xIV.”—Folio.
1796.-“Des Marcus Vitruvius Pollio Baukunst. Aus der Roemis-
chem Urschrift übersetzt von August Rode, Zwey Thaile.
Leipzig.”—Quarto. In the first volume is a life of Vitru-
vius. This edition contains many illustrations of the
Author. -
ENGLISH.
1771, and 1791—“The Architecture of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio,
translated from the original Latin by W. Newton, Architect,
London, Dodsley.”—Large Folio. The first volume was
published in 1771, and the second in 1791, with many plates.
This Edition exhibits such a mixture of ignorance of the lan-
guage of the original in the translation of the text, with so
much intelligence in some of the notes, that it is difficult to
believe they are from the same hand.
xxix
Latterly has appeared a translation of the third, fourth,
fifth, and sixth books of Vitruvius, by W. Wilkins, A.M.
F.S.A.. The text of these, however, is not entire, and the
introduction to each of them is omitted altogether.—So that
hitherto the only entire English version is that by Newton
above mentioned.
ITALIAN.
1521.-‘‘Di Lucio Vitruvio Pollione de Architectura Libri Dece
traducti de Latino in Vulgare affigurati: Commentati: et con
mirando ordine Insigniti: per il quale facilmente potrai
trovare la multitudine de li abstrusi et reconditi Vocabuli a li
soi loci et in epsa tabula con summo studio expositi et emu-
cleati ad Immensa utilitate de ciascuno Studioso et benivolo
di epsa opera. Cum Gratia et Privilegio.”—At the end,
—“Qui finisce L'opera praeclara de Lucio Vitruvio Pollione
de Architectura traducta de latino in vulgare: Historiata
e Commentata a le spese e Instantia del Magnifico D. Au-
gustino Gallo Citadino Comense e Regio Referendario in
epsa Citate: e del mobile D. Aluisio da Pirovano Patricio
Milanese: Emendata e Castigata cum summo studio e dili-
gentia excepto alchume poche cosse quale sono poste mella
infrascripta tabula de li Errori li quali non se hano possuto
fugire per langustia, dil tempo,”—&c.—“E Impressa nel
amoena et delectevole Citate de Como per Magistro Gotardo
da Ponte Citadino Milanese; me 1 anno del nro Sigmore
Jesu Christo M.D.xxi. xv mensis Julii. Regmante il Chris-
tianissimo Re de Franza Francisco Duca di Milano,”—&c.—
“Laus Deo.”—Large Folio. This book, which is exceedingly
rare, is the earliest version of Vitruvius, and was translated
with the assistance of Benedict Jovius, by Caesar Caesarianus,
who was one of the architects of the Cathedral of Milan, circă
1491. As late as the year 1810 it was in contemplation to
finish some parts of that cathedral according to drawings left
by him. Some of the wood engravings of this edition were
reduced and inserted in the counterfeit copy of the Giunta
XXX
edition of 1523. Among the curious plates inserted in this
translation, are, on folio 14, and on the recto and reverse of
folio 15, a plan and two sections of the cathedral at Milan.
1524 –“ M. L. Vitruvio Pollione de Architectura traducto di Latino
in Vulgare dal vero exemplare con le figure a li soi loci con
mirando ordine insignito: con la sua tabula alphabetica: per
la quale potrai facilmente trovare la moltitudine de li vocabuli
a li soi loci con summa diligentia expositi: et enucleati: mai
più da niuno altro fin al presente facto ad immensa utilitate
di ciascuno studioso.”–At the end, “ Stampata in Venetia, in
le Case Joanne Antonio et Piero Fratelli de Sabio. Nel
anno del Signore, M.D.xxIIII. Del mese di Martio.”–Folio.
This is a repetition of the preceding edition, but without the
notes of Caesar Caesarianus.
1535.–“ M. L. Vitruvio Pollione di Architettura dal vero esemplare
latino nella volgar lingua tradotto: e con le figure a suoi
luoghi con mirando ordine insignito. Anchora con la tavola
alfabetica: nella quale facilmente si potra trovare la moltitu-
dine de vocaboli a suoi luoghi con gran diligenza esposti; e
dichiarati: mai piu da alcuno altro fin al presente stampato a
grande utilità di ciascuno studioso.”–At the end of the In-
dex,-“In Vinegia, per Nicolò de Aristotile detto Zoppino.
Nelli anni del Signor nostro Giesu Christo dopo la sua nativita
M.D.xxxv. del mese di Marzo.”–Folio. This is copied from
the preceding edition, but the Index is not quite so copious.
1536. A Translation of the first five Books, by Gianbatista Capo-
rali. Perugia. Folio.
1556.–“ I dieci libri dell' Architettura di M. Vitruvio, tradutti et
commentati da Monsignor Barbaro Eletto Patriarca d'Aqui-
leggia. Con due Tavole, l'una di tutto quello si contiene per
i Capi nell'Opera, l'altra per dechiaratione di tutte le cose
d'importanza. In Vinezia per Francesco Marcolini, MDLv1.”
–Folio.
1567.–“ I dieci Libri dell'Architettura di M. Vitruvio. Tradotti
| ct commentati da Mons. Daniel Barbaro eletto Patriarca d'A-
quileia, da lui riveduti et ampliati; et hora in piu commoda
XXXi
forma ridotti. In Venetia, Appresso Francesco de Frances-
chi Semese, et Giovanni Crugher Alemanno Compagni
MDLXVII.”-Quarto.
i; 1584 –“ I dieci Libri,”–&c. (ut supra).–“ In Venetia, Appresso
Francesco de Franceschi Senese, MDLXXXIIII.”-Quarto. Si-
milar to the preceding edition. -
1629 –“ I Dieci Libri dell'Architettura di M. Vitruvio, Tradotti,
et Commentati da Monsig. Daniel Barbaro Patriarca d'Aqui-
leia, da lui riveduti, et ampliati; et hora in questa nuova
Impressione per Maggior Comodità del Lettore, le materie
di ciascun Libro ridotte sotto capi, Stc. In Venetia. Appresso
Alessandro de Vecchj, MDcxxIx.”–Small Folio. Very similar
to the preceding edition.
1641.–“ L'Architettura di Vitruvio Libri Dieci. Tradotta, e Com-
mentata da Monsig. Daniel Barbaro Patriarca d'Aquileia, da
lui riveduta, et ampliata. Et hora in questa nuova Impres-
sione per maggior comodità del Lettore, le materie di ciascun
Libro ridotte sotto capi etc. In Venetia, MDcxxxxI. Per li
, Turrini.”-Small Folio. Little differing from the preceding.
1758 –“ L'Architettura di M.Vitruvio Pollione colla traduzione Ita-
ſi liana e Comento del Marchese Berardo, Accademico Ercola-
mense, Sc. In Napoli MDccLvIII. Nella Stamperia Simo-
niana.”–Folio. Accompanied with the Latin text.
1790. Another Edition, by Galiani, similar to the preceding, but
without the Latin text. -
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THE
A R C HITECTURE
OP
MARCUS WITRUWIUS POLLIO.
LIST OF THE CHAPTERs.
BOOK THE FIRST.
Introduction. (Page 1.)
What Architecture is : and of the Education of an Architect.
Chapter I.
Of those things on which Architecture depends. Chap. II.
Of the different Branches of Architecture. Chap. III.
Of the choice of Healthy Situations. Chap. IV.
Of the Foundations of Walls and Towers. Chap. V.
Of the Distribution and Situation of Buildings within the Walls.
Chap. VI.
Of the choice of Situations for Public Buildings. Chap. VII.
BOOK THE SECOND.
Introduction. (Page 33.)
Of the Origin of Building. Chap. I.
Of the Origin of all things according to the opinions of Philosophers.
Chap. II.
Of Bricks. Chap. III.
Of Sand. Chap. IV.
Of Lime. Chap. V.
Of Pozzolana. Chap. VI.
Of Stone Quarries. Chap. VII.
Of the different kinds of Walls. Chap. VIII.
Of Timber. Chap. IX.
Of the Firs called Supernas and Infernas, and of the Apennines.
Chap. X.
xxxvi
BOOK THE THIRL).
Introduction. (Page 75.)
Of the Design and Symmetry of Temples. Chap. I.
Of the Five Species of Temples. Chap. II.
Of Foundations, and of Columns and their Ornaments. Chap. III.
~~~~ - 3 * 3.
*** ***** ***.*.*.*.*.*
BOOK THE FOURTH.
Introduction. (Page 97.)
Of the Origin of the Three Sorts of Columns, and of the Corinthian
Capital. Chap. I.
Of the Ornaments of Columns. Chap. II.
Of the Doric Proportions. Chap. III.
Of the Interior of the Cell and the Arrangement of the Pronaos.
Chap. IV.
Of the different Aspects of Temples. Chap. V.
Of the Proportions of the Doors of Temples. Chap. VI.
Of the Tuscan Proportions: of Circular Temples, and other Species.
Chap. VII.
Of Altars to the Gods. Chap. VIII.
BOOK THE FIFTH.
Introduction. (Page 123.)
Of the Forum and Basilica. Chap. I.
Of the Treasury, Prison, and Curia. Chap. II.
Of the Theatre, and of its Healthy Situation. Chap. III.
Of Harmony. Chap. IV. º
Of the Wases used in the Theatre. Chap. V.
Of the Shape of the Theatre. Chap. VI.
Of the Portico and other Parts of the Theatre. Chap. VII.
Of the Three Sorts of Scenes, and of the Theatres of the Greeks.
Chap. VIII. -
Of the Porticos and Passages behind the Scenes. Chap. IX.
xxxvii
Of the Arrangement and Parts of Baths. Chap. X.
Of the Palaestra. Chap. XI.
Of Harbours and other Buildings in Water. Chap. XII.
BOOK THE SIXTH.
Introduction. (Page 161.)
Of the Situation of Buildings according to the Nature of Different
Places. Chap. I.
Of the Proportions of Private Buildings to suit the Nature of their
Sites. Chap. II.
Of Courts (Cavaedia). Chap. III.
Of Courts (Atria), Wings or Aisles (Alae), the Tablinum and the
Peristylium. Chap. IV.
Of Triclinia, CEci, Exedrae, Pinacothecae and their Dimensions.
Chap. V.
Of the Grecian OEci. Chap. VI.
Of the proper Aspects of Different Sorts of Buildings. Chap. VII.
Of the Forms of Houses suited to different Ranks of Persons. Chap.
VIII. -
Of the Proportions of Houses in the Country. Chap IX.
Of the Arrangement and Parts of Grecian Houses. Chap. X.
Of the Strength of Buildings. Chap. XI.
BOOK THE SEVENTH.
Introduction. (Page 191.)
Of Pavements. Chap. I.
Of Tempering Lime for Stucco. Chap. II.
Of Stucco Work. Chap. III.
Of Stucco Work in Damp Places. Chap. IV.
Of the Use of Painting in Buildings. Chap. V.
Of the Preparation of Marble for Plastering. Chap. VI.
Of Natural Colours. Chap. VII.
Of Vermilion and Quicksilver. Chap. VIII.
Of the Preparation of Vermilion. Chap. IX,
xxxviii
Of Artificial Colours. Of Black. Chap. X.
Of Blue, and of Burnt Yellow. Chap. XI. *
Of White Lead, Verdigrease, and Red Lead. Chap. XII.
Of Purple. Chap. XIII. -
Of Factitious Colours. Chap. XIV.
BOOK THE EIGHTH.
Introduction. (Page 227.)
Of the Method of Finding Water. Chap. I.
Of Rain Water. Chap. II.
Of the Nature of various Waters. Chap. III.
Of the Qualities of Waters in certain Places. Chap. IV.
Of the Means of Judging of Water. Chap. V.
Of Levelling, and the Instruments used for that Purpose. Chap.
VI.
Of conducting Water. Chap. VII.
BOOK THE NINTH.
Introduction. (Page 259.)
Of the Method of Doubling the Area of a Square. Chap. I.
Of the Method of constructing a Right Angled Triangle. Chap. II.
Of the Method of detecting Silver when mixed with Gold. Chap.
III. e
Of the Universe and the Planets. Chap. IV.
Of the Sun's Course through the Twelve Signs. Chap. V.
Of the Northern Constellations. Chap. VI.
Of the Southern Constellations. Chap. VII.
Of the Construction of Dials by the Analemma. Chap. VIII.
Of Various Dials, and their Inventors. Chap. IX.
BOOK THE TENTH.
Introduction. (Page 293.)
Of Machines and Engines. Chap. I.
xxxix
Of Machines of Draught. Chap. II.
Of Another Sort of Machine of Draught. Chap. III.
Of a Similar Machime, of Greater Power. Chap IV.
Of Another Machine of Draught. Chap. V.
Of Ctesiphon's Contrivance for Removing Great Weights. Chap.
VI.
Of the Discovery of the Quarry whence Stone was procured for the
Temple of Diama at Ephesus. Chap. VII.
Of the Principles of Mechanics. Chap. VIII.
Of Engines for raising Water; and first of the Tympanum. Chap.
IX.
Of Another Sort of Tympanum, and of Water Mills. Chap X.
Of the Water Screw. Chap. XI.
Of the Machine of Ctesibius for Raising Water to a Considerable
Height. Chap. XII.
Of Water Engines. Chap. XIII.
Of Measuring a Journey. Chap. XIV.
Of Catapultae and Scorpions. Chap. XV.
Of the Construction of the Balista. Chap. XVI.
Of the Proportions of the Balista. Chap. XVII.
Of the Preparation of the Balistae and Catapultae. Chap. XVIII.
Of Machines for Attack. Chap. XIX.
Of the Tortoise for Filling Ditches. Chap. XX.
Of Other Sorts of Tortoises. Chap. XXI.
Of Machines for Defence. Chap. XXII.
EXPLANATION OF THE HEAD PIECES PREFIXED
TO THE INTRODUCTION OF EACH BOOK.
Book I.
II.
III.
IV.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Plan of Rome.
Mount Athos, as proposed to be sculptured by Dino-
CrateS.
Plan of Athens.
Corinthian, Ionic, and Doric Orders.
. A Forum.
Prothyrum and Roman Shops.
Specimen of ancient Fresco Painting.
View of an Aqueduct.
The Earth, and Signs of the Zodiac.
Catapultae from the Trajan Column.
PRAEF. LIB, I,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
MARCU S W IT R U WIU S POLLIO.
BOOK THE FIRST.
Il C I RC E LAN IN I C. S.
12 H2 ANTHE ON.
13, MLAUSC LEtºi. C. E. A.TG
1.). CJ R U S AGöN.ALLS.
l6 C].B. CUS OF FI,0R A-.
16 'IH). ATRF, of PC, MP E.Y.
17 starriºr.
18 . Th.B. A.' I'R.F. C. E. B.A. I.B C S.
19 NAUTYſACH I A-.
2O AMPHIT CAS'ſ R. F.N. S.
* . BATHS DIO CL.E.T.
2 BATHS TITU S.
3 : C OJ.ISECIM . |
4. , NY.M.P.H.F.U.M. º
5 BATHS CARACAT.L.A. )
6 CIRCU'S MAXIMUS.
7 T.FORTUNA WTBI. .
8 T. CE PIE *-C E.
9 E CRUAL THA JAN.
10 Thijº, MARCELL.
INTRODUCTION.
WHILST, O Caesar, your god-like mind and genius were
engaged in acquiring the dominion of the world, your
enemies having been all subdued by your unconquerable
valour; whilst the citizens were extolling your victories,
and the conquered nations were awaiting your nod; whilst
the Roman senate and people, freed from alarm, were
enjoying the benefit of your opinions and counsel for
their governance; I did not presume, at so unfit a period,
B





2
to trouble you, thus engaged, with my writings on
Architecture, lest I should have incurred your displea-
sure. When, however, I found that your attention, not
exclusively devoted to state affairs, was bestowed on the
state of the public buildings, so that the republic was
not more indebted to you for its extended empire, in the
addition of so many provinces, than for your numerous
public buildings by which its grandeur is amply mani-
fested, I considered it right that no time should be lost
in laying these precepts before you. My reverence
for the memory of your virtuous father, to whom I was
well known, and from whom, now a participator in coun-
cil with the gods, the empire descended to you, has
been the cause of your good will towards me. Hence,
together with M. Aurelius, P. Numisius, and Cn. Cor-
nelius, I have been appointed to, and receive the emolu-
ments arising from the care of, the various engines of war
which you assigned to me on the recommendation of your
sister. As, through your kindness, I have been thus
placed beyond the reach of poverty, I think it right
to address this treatise to you; and I feel the more in-
duced to do so from your having built, and being still
engaged in the erection of, many edifices. It is proper
to deliver down to posterity, as a memorial, some account
of these your magnificent works. I have therefore given
such definite directions for the conduct of works, that
those already executed, as well as those hereafter to be
constructed, may be by you well known and understood.
In the following pages I have developed all the prin-
ciples of the art.
LIB, I, CAP, I,
3
CHAPTER H.
WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS : AND OF THE EDUCATION
OF AN ARCHITECT.
ARCHITECTURE is a science arising out of many other
sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning; by
the help of which a judgment is formed of those works
which are the result of other arts. Practice and theory are
its parents. Practice is the frequent and continued con-
templation of the mode of executing any given work, or of
the mere operation of the hands, for the conversion of
the material in the best and readiest way. Theory is the
result of that reasoning which demonstrates and explains
that the material wrought has been so converted as to
answer the end proposed. Wherefore the mere practical
architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons for the
forms he adopts; and the theoretic architect also fails,
grasping the shadow instead of the substance. He who is
theoretic as well as practical, is therefore doubly armed;
able not only to prove the propriety of his design, but
equally so to carry it into execution. In architecture, as
in other arts, two considerations must be constantly kept
in view; namely, the intention, and the matter used to
express that intention: but the intention is founded on
a conviction that the matter wrought will fully suit the
purpose; he, therefore, who is not familiar with both
branches of the art, has no pretension to the title of
architect. An architect should be ingenious, and apt in
the acquisition of knowledge. Deficient in either of these
qualities, he cannot be a perfect master. He should be a
4.
good writer, a skilful draftsman, versed in geometry and
optics, expert at figures, acquainted with history, informed
on the principles of natural and moral philosophy, some-
what of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences both of law
and physic, nor of the motions, laws, and relations to
each other, of the heavenly bodies. By means of the first
named acquirement, he is to commit to writing his ob-
servations and experience, in order to assist his memory.
Drawing is employed in representing the forms of his de-
signs. Geometry affords much aid to the architect: to it
he owes the use of the right line and circle, the level and
the square; whereby his delineations of buildings on
plane surfaces are greatly facilitated. The science of
optics enables him to introduce with judgment the requi-
site quantity of light, according to the aspect. Arithmetic
estimates the cost, and aids in the measurement of the
works; this, assisted by the laws of geometry, determines
those abstruse questions, wherein the different proportions
of some parts to others are involved. Unless acquainted
with history, he will be unable to account for the use of
many ornaments which he may have occasion to introduce.
For instance; should any one wish for information on the
origin of those draped matronal figures crowned with a
mutulus and cornice, called Caryatides, he will explain it
by the following history. Carya, a city of Peloponnesus,
joined the Persians in their war against the Greeks. These
in return for the treachery, after having freed themselves
by a most glorious victory from the intended Persian
yoke, unanimously resolved to levy war against the Ca-
ryans. Carya was, in consequence, taken and destroyed,
its male population extinguished, and its matrons carried
into slavery. That these circumstances might be better
LIB, I, CAP, I,
5
remembered, and the nature of the triumph perpetuated,
the victors represented them draped, and apparently suf-
fering under the burthen with which they were loaded,
to expiate the crime of their native city. Thus, in their
edifices, did the antient architects, by the use of these
statues, hand down to posterity a memorial of the crime
of the Caryans. Again; a small number of Lacedae-
monians, under the command of Pausanias, the son of
Cleombrotus, overthrew the prodigious army of the Per-
sians at the battle of Platea. After a triumphal exhibition
of the spoil and booty, the proceeds of the valour and
devotion of the victors were applied by the government
in the erection of the Persian portico; and, as an appro-
priate monument of the victory, and a trophy for the
admiration of posterity, its roof was supported by statues
of the barbarians, in their magnificent costume; indi-
cating, at the same time, the merited contempt due to
their haughty projects, intimidating their enemies by fear
of their courage, and acting as a stimulus to their fellow
countrymen to be always in readiness for the defence of
the nation. This is the origin of the Persian order for the
support of an entablature; an invention which has en-
riched many a design with the singular variety it exhibits.
Many other matters of history have a connexion with archi-
tecture, and prove the necessity of its professors being
well versed in it. Moral philosophy will teach the archi-
tect to be above meanness in his dealings, and to avoid
arrogance: it will make him just, compliant and faithful
to his employer; and what is of the highest importance,
it will prevent avarice gaining an ascendancy over him :
for he should not be occupied with the thoughts of filling
his coffers, nor with the desire of grasping every thing
6
in the shape of gain, but, by the gravity of his manners,
and a good character, should be careful to preserve his dig-
nity. In these respects we see the importance of moral
philosophy; for such are her precepts. That branch of
philosophy which the Greeks call pvaſioxoyſo, or the doc-
trine of physics, is necessary to him in the solution of
various problems; as for instance, in the conduct of
water, whose natural force, in its meandering and expan-
sion over flat countries, is often such as to require re-
straints, which none know how to apply, but those who
are acquainted with the laws of nature: nor, indeed, un-
less grounded in the first principles of physic, can he
study with profit the works of Ctesibius, Archimedes, and
many other authors who have written on the subject.
Music assists him in the use of harmonic and mathema-
tical proportion. It is, moreover, absolutely necessary in
adjusting the force of the balistae, catapultae, and scor-
pions, in whose frames are holes for the passage of the
homotona, which are strained by gut-ropes attached to
windlasses worked by hand-spikes. Unless these ropes
are equally extended, which only a nice ear can discover
by their sound when struck, the bent arms of the engine
do not give an equal impetus when disengaged, and the
strings, therefore, not being in equal states of tension, pre-
vent the direct flight of the weapon. So the vessels called
hzāic, by the Greeks, which are placed in certain recesses
under the seats of theatres, are fixed and arranged with a
due regard to the laws of harmony and physics, their tones
being fourths, fifths, and octaves; so that when the voice
of the actor is in unison with the pitch of these instruments,
its power is increased and mellowed by impinging there-
on. He would, moreover, be at a loss in constructing hy-
LIB, I, CAP, I,
7
draulic and other engines, if ignorant of music. Skill in
physic enables him to ascertain the salubrity of different
tracts of country, and to determine the variation of cli-
mates, which the Greeks call xxigoro, ; for the air and
water of different situations, being matters of the highest
importance, no building will be healthy without atten-
tion to those points. Law should be an object of his
study, especially those parts of it which relate to party-
walls, to the free course and discharge of the eaves’ wa-
ters, the regulations of sesspools and sewage, and those
relating to window lights. The laws of sewage require
his particular attention, that he may prevent his em-
ployers being involved in law-suits when the building
is finished. Contracts, also, for the execution of the
works, should be drawn with care and precision : be-
cause, when without legal flaws, neither party will be able
to take advantage of the other. Astronomy instructs
him in the points of the heavens, the laws of the celes-
tial bodies, the equinoxes, solstices, and courses of the
stars; all of which should be well understood, in the
construction and proportions of clocks. Since, therefore,
this art is founded upon and adorned with so many dif-
ferent sciences, I am of opinion that those who have
not, from their early youth, gradually climbed up to the
summit, cannot, without presumption, call themselves
masters of it. Perhaps, to the uninformed, it may appear
unaccountable that a man should be able to retain in his
memory such a variety of learning; but the close alliance
with each other, of the different branches of science, will
explain the difficulty. For as a body is composed of
various concordant members, so does the whole circle of
learning consistin one harmonious system. Wherefore
8
those, who from an early age are initiated in the differ-
ent branches of learning, have a facility in acquiring
some knowledge of all, from their common connexion
with each other. On this account Pythius, one of the
antients, architect of the noble temple of Minerva at
Priene, says, in his commentaries, that an architect should
have that perfect knowledge of each art and science
which is not even acquired by the professors of any one
in particular, who have had every opportunity of improv-
ing themselves in it. This, however, cannot be neces-
sary; for how can it be expected that an architect should
equal Aristarchus as a grammarian, yet should he not
be ignorant of grammar. In music, though it be evi-
dent he need not equal Aristoxenus, yet he should know
something of it. Though he need not excel, as Apelles,
in painting, nor as Myron or Polycletus, in sculpture,
yet he should have attained some proficiency in these arts.
So, in the science of medicine, it is not required that he
should equal Hippocrates. Thus also, in other sciences, it
is notimportant that pre-eminence in each be gained, but
he must not, however, be ignorant of the general principles
of each. For in such a variety of matters, it cannot be
supposed that the same person can arrive at excellence
in each, since to be aware of their several niceties and
bearings, cannot fall within his power. We see how few
of those who profess a particular art arrive at perfec-
tion in it, so as to distinguish themselves: hence, if
but few of those practising an individual art, obtain
lasting fame, how should the architect, who is required to
have a knowledge of so many, be deficient in none of
them, and even excel those who have professed any one
exclusively. Wherefore Pythius seems to have been in
LIB, I, CAP, I,
9
error, forgetting that art consists in practice and theory.
Theory is common to, and may be known by all, but the
result of practice occurs to the artist in his own art only.
The physician and musician are each obliged to have
some regard to the beating of the pulse, and the motion
of the feet, but who would apply to the latter to heal a
wound or cure a malady? So, without the aid of the for-
mer, the musician affects the ears of his audience by mo-
dulations upon his instrument. The astronomer and
musician delight in similar proportions, for the posi-
tions of the stars, which are quartile and trine, answer
to a fourth and fifth in harmony. The same analogy
holds in that branch of geometry which the Greeks call
2,670; ozzizög : indeed, throughout the whole range of art,
there are many incidents common to all. Practice alone
can lead to excellence in any one : that architect, there- .
fore, is sufficiently educated, whose general knowledge
enables him to give his opinion on any branch when
required to do so. Those unto whom nature has been
so bountiful that they are at once geometricians, astro-
nomers, musicians, and skilled in many other arts, go
beyond what is required of the architect, and may be
properly called mathematicians, in the extended sense of
that word. Men so gifted, discriminate acutely, and
are rarely met with. Such, however, was Aristarchus of
Samos, Philolaus and Archytas of Tarentum, Apollonius
of Perga, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Archimedes and Sco-
pinas of Syracuse : each of whom wrote on all the
Sciences. Since, therefore, few men are thus gifted, and
yet it is required of the architect to be generally well in-
formed, and it is manifest he cannot hope to excel in each
art, I beseech you, O Caesar, and those who read this
C
10
my work, to pardon and overlook grammatical errors;
for I write neither as an accomplished philosopher, an
eloquent rhetorician, nor an expert grammarian, but as
an architect: in respect, however, of my art and its prin-
ciples, I will lay down rules which may serve as an au-
thority to those who build, as well as to those who are
already somewhat acquainted with the science.
LIB, J. CAP. II,
11
CHAPTER II.
OF THOSE THINGS ON WHICH ARCHITECTURE
DEPENDS.
ARCHITECTURE depends on fitness (ordinatio) and ar-
rangement (dispositio), the former being called ráðic, in
Greek, and the latter 31&0squg; it also depends on propor-
tion, uniformity, consistency, and economy, which the
Greeks call oizoyopoio. Fitness is the adjustment of size
of the several parts to their several uses, and requires
due regard to the general proportions of the fabric: it
arises out of dimension (quantitas), which the Greeks call
worórns. Dimension regulates the general scale of the
work, so that the parts may all tell and be effective.
Arrangement is the disposition in their just and proper
places of all the parts of the building, and the pleasing
effect of the same ; keeping in view its appropriate cha-
racter. It is divisible into three heads, which, considered
together, constitute design: these, by the Greeks, are
named ièzi : they are called ichnography, orthography,
and scenography. The first is the representation on a
plane of the ground-plan of the work, drawn by rule and
compasses. The second is the elevation of the front,
slightly shadowed, and shewing the forms of the intended
building. The last exhibits the front and a receding side
properly shadowed, the lines being drawn to their proper
vanishing points. These three are the result of thought
and invention. Thought is an effort of the mind, ever
incited by the pleasure attendant on success in compass-
ing an object. Invention is the effect of this effort; which
19
aº
throws a new light on things the most recondite, and pro-
duces them to answer the intended purpose. These are
the ends of arrangement. Proportion is that agreeable
harmony between the several parts of a building, which
is the result of a just and regular agreement of them with
each other; the height to the width, this to the length,
and each of these to the whole. Uniformity is the parity
of the parts to one another; each corresponding with its
opposite, as in the human figure. The arms, feet, hands,
fingers, are similar to, and symmetrical with, one an-
other; so should the respective parts of a building corre-
spond. In Sacred buildings, for instance, the diameter
of the columns and the width of the triglyphs must be
similar. In the balista, by the size of the hole which
the Greeks call Tagirgºrow; in ships, by the space between
the thowls, which space in Greek is called 37m2.2iz}, we
have a measure, by the knowledge of which the whole of
the construction of a vessel may be developed. Consist-
ency is found in that work whose whole and detail are suit-
able to the occasion. It arises from circumstance, custom,
and nature. From circumstance, which the Greeks call
Sºpºriogºs, when temples are built, hypaethral and un.
inclosed, to Jupiter, Thunderer, Coelus, the Sun and
Moon; because these divinities are continually known to
us by their presence night and day, and throughout all
space. For a similar reason, temples of the Doric order
are erected to Minerva, Mars, and Hercules; on account
of whose valour, their temples should be of masculine
proportions, and without delicate ornament. The cha-
racter of the Corinthian order seems more appropriate
to Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and Nymphs of Foun-
tains ; because its slenderness, elegance and richness,
LIB, I, CAI, II,
13
and its ornamental leaves surmounted by volutes, seem
to bear an analogy to their dispositions. A medium be-
tween these two is chosen for temples to Juno, Diana,
Bacchus, and other similar deities, which should be of
the Ionic order, tempered between the severity of the
Doric and the slenderness and delicacy of the Co-
rinthian order. In respect of custom, consistency is pre-
served when the vestibules of magnificent edifices are
conveniently contrived and richly finished: for those
buildings cannot be said to be consistent, to whose splen-
did interiors you pass through poor and mean entrances.
So also, if dentilled cornices are used in the Doric order,
or triglyphs applied above the voluted Ionic, thus trans-
ferring parts to one order which properly belong to
another, the eye will be offended, because custom
otherwise applies these peculiarities. Natural consist-
ency arises from the choice of such situations for tem-
ples as possess the advantages of salubrious air and water;
more especially in the case of temples erected to Æscu-
lapius, to the Goddess of Health, and such other divini-
ties as possess the power of curing diseases. For thus
the sick, changing the unwholesome air and water to
which they have been accustomed for those that are
healthy, sooner convalesce; and a reliance upon the
divinity will be therefore increased by proper choice of si-
tuation. Natural consistency also requires that chambers
should be lighted from the east; baths and winter apart-
ments from the south-west; picture and other galleries
which require a steady light, from the north, because
from that quarter the light is not sometimes brilliant
and at other times obscured, but is nearly the same
throughout the day. Economy consists in a due and
14
proper application of the means afforded according to the
ability of the employer and the situation chosen; care being
taken that the expenditure is prudently conducted. In
this respect the architect is to avoid the use of materials
which are not easily procured and prepared on the spot.
For it cannot be expected that good pit-sand, stone, fir of
either sort, or marble, can be procured every where in
plenty, but they must, in some instances, be brought from
a distance, with much trouble and at great expense. In
such cases, river or sea-sand may be substituted for pit-
Sand; cypress, poplar, elm, and pine, for the different
sorts of fir; and the like of the rest, according to cir-
cumstances. The other branch of economy consists in
suiting the building to the use which is to be made of
it, the money to be expended, and the elegance appro-
priate thereto; because, as one or other of these circum-
stances prevails, the design should be varied. That
which would answer very well as a town house, would
ill suit as a country house, in which store-rooms must be
provided for the produce of the farm. So the houses of
men of business must be differently designed from those
which are built for men of taste. Mansions for men of
consequence in the government must be adapted to their
particular habits. In short, economy must ever depend
on the circumstances of the case.
LIB, I, CAP, III,
15
CHAPTER III.
OF THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF ARCHITECTURE.
ARCHITECTURE consists of three branches; namely, build-
ing, dialling, and mechanics. Building is divided into
two parts. The first regulates the general plan of the
walls of a city and its public buildings; the other re-
lates to private buildings. Public buildings are for three
purposes; defence, religion, and the security of the pub-
lic. Buildings for defence are those walls, towers, and
gates of a town, necessary for the continual shelter of its
inhabitants against the attacks of an enemy. Those for
the purposes of religion are the fanes and temples of the
immortal gods. Those for public convenience are gates,
fora or squares for market-places, baths, theatres, walks,
and the like ; which, being for public use, are placed in
public situations, and should be arranged so as best to
meet the convenience of the public. All these should pos-
sess strength, utility, and beauty. Strength arises from
carrying down the foundations to a good solid bottom,
and from making a proper choice of materials without
parsimony. Utility arises from a judicious distribution of
the parts, so that their purposes be duly answered, and
that each have its proper situation. Beauty is produced by
the pleasing appearance and good taste of the whole, and
by the dimensions of all the parts being duly propor-
tioned to each other.
16
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE CHOICE OF HEALTHY SITUATIONS.
IN setting out the walls of a city the choice of a healthy
situation is of the first importance: it should be on high
ground, neither subject to fogs nor rains; its aspects
should be neither violently hot nor intensely cold, but
temperate in both respects. The neighbourhood of a
marshy place must be avoided; for in such a site the
morning air, uniting with the fogs that rise in the neigh-
bourhood, will reach the city with the rising sun; and
these fogs and mists, charged with the exhalation of the
fenny animals, will diffuse an unwholesome effluvia over
the bodies of the inhabitants, and render the place pesti-
lent. A city on the sea side, exposed to the south or
west, will be insalubrious; for in summer mornings, a
city thus placed would be hot, at noon it would be
scorched. A city, also, with a western aspect, would even
at sunrise be warm, at noon hot, and in the evening of
a burning temperature. Hence the constitutions of the
inhabitants of such places, from such continual and ex-
cessive changes of the air, would be much vitiated. This
effect is likewise produced on inanimate bodies: nobody
would think of lighting his wine-cellar from the south or the
west, but from the north, an aspect not liable to these
violent changes. In granaries whose aspects are south
of the east or west, the stores are soon ruined; and
provisions, as well as fruits, cannot be long preserved
unless kept in apartments whose aspects are north of the
east or west. For heat, which acts as an alterative, by
LIB, I, CAP, IW,
17
drying up the natural moisture of any body, destroys and
rots those substances on which it acts. Iron, for instance,
naturally of a hard texture, becomes so soft when heated
in a forge as to be easily wrought into any form ; but if,
when heated, it is suddenly immersed in cold water, it
immediately regains its original quality. Thus, not only
in unwholesome, but also in salubrious districts, the
summer heats produce languor and relaxation of body;
and in winter, even the most pestilential situations be-
come wholesome, inasmuch as the cold strengthens and
restores the constitution of the inhabitants. Hence,
those who change a cold for a hot climate, rarely escape
sickness, but are soon carried off; whereas, on the other
hand, those who pass from a hot to a cold climate, far
from being injured by the change, are thereby generally
strengthened. Much care, then, should be taken so to
set out the walls of a city, that it may not be obnoxious
to the pestilential blasts of the hot winds. For as, ac-
cording to those principles which the Greeks call a rolzeiz,
all bodies are compounded of fire, water, earth, and air,
by whose union and varying proportions the different
qualities of animals are engendered ; so, in those bodies
wherein fire predominates, their temperament is de-
stroyed, and their strength dissipated. Such is the case
in exposure to certain aspects of the heavens whence the
heat insinuates itself through the pores in a greater de-
gree than the temperature of the system will bear. Bodies
which contain a greater proportion of water than is neces-
sary to balance the other elements, are speedily corrupted,
and lose their virtues and properties. Hence bodies are
much injured by damp winds and atmosphere. Lastly,
the elements of earth and air being increased or dimi-
D
18
nished more than is consistent with the temperature of
any given body, will have a tendency to destroy its equi-
librium; the earthy elements by repletion, the aërial by
the weight of the atmosphere. If any one doubt this, let
him study the different natures of birds, fishes, and ani-
mals of the land, and he will easily perceive the truth of
these principles, from the variety existing among them.
For there is one flesh of birds, another of fishes, and an-
other, very different, of land animals. Birds have a small
proportion of earth and water in their nature, a moderate
quantity of heat, and a considerable portion of air; whence,
being light by nature, from their component elements,
they more easily raise themselves in the air. Fishes, by
nature adapted to the watery element, are compounded
of but a moderate degree of heat, a considerable pro-
portion of air and earth, and a very small portion of
water, the element in which they live; and hence, easier
exist in it. Wherefore, when removed from it, they soon
die. Terrestrial animals, being constituted with much
air, heat, and water, and but little earth, cannot live in the
water, on account of the quantity of that element naturally
preponderating in their composition. Since, then, we are
thus constantly reminded, by our senses, that the bodies
of animals are so constituted, and we have mentioned
that they suffer and die from the want or superabundance
of any one element not suitable to their temperament,
surely much circumspection should be used in the choice
of a temperate and healthy site for a city. The precepts
of the ancients, in this respect, should be ever observed.
They always, after sacrifice, carefully inspected the livers
of those animals fed on that spot whereon the city was
to be built, or whereon a stative encampment was in-
LIB, I, CAP, IW,
19
tended. If the livers were diseased and livid, they tried
others, in order to ascertain whether accident or disease
was the cause of the imperfection; but if the greater
part of the experiments proved, by the sound and
healthy appearance of the livers, that the water and food
of the spot were wholesome, they selected it for the gar-
rison. If the reverse, they inferred, as in the case of
cattle, so in that of the human body, the water and food
of such a place would become pestiferous; and they
therefore abandoned it, in search of another, valuing
health above all other considerations. That the salubrity
of a tract of land is discovered by the pastures or food
which it furnishes, is sufficiently clear, from certain qua-
lities of the lands in Crete, situate in the vicinity of the
river Pothereus, which lie between the two states of
Gnosus and Gortyna. There are pasturages on each side
of this river: the cattle, however, pastured on the Gnossian
side, when opened, are found with their spleens perfect;
whilst those on the opposite side, nearer to Gortyna, re-
tain no appearance of a spleen. Physicians, in their endea-
vours to account for this singular circumstance, discovered
a species of herb eaten by the cattle, whose property was
that of diminishing the spleen. Hence arose the use of the
herb which the Cretans call &rAranyog, as a cure for those
affected with enlarged spleen. When, therefore, a city is
built in a marshy situation near the sea-coast, with a
northern, north-eastern, or eastern aspect, on a marsh
whose level is higher than the shore of the sea, the site is
not altogether improper; for by means of sewers the wa-
ters may be discharged into the sea; and at those times,
when violently agitated by storms, the sea swells and runs
up the sewers, it mixes with the water of the marsh, and
2O
prevents the generation of marshy insects; it also soon
destroys such as are passing from the higher level, by the
saltness of its water to which they are unaccustomed.
An instance of this kind occurs in the Gallic marshes
about Altinum, Ravenna, and Aquileia, and other places
in Cisalpine Gaul, near marshes which, for the reasons
above named, are remarkably healthy. When the marshes
are stagnant, and have no drainage by means of rivers
or drains, as is the case with the Pontine marshes, they
become putrid, and emit vapours of a heavy and pesti-
lent nature. Thus the old city of Salapia, in Apulia,
built, as some say, by Diomedes on his return from Troy,
or, as others write, by Elphias the Rhodian, was so placed
that the inhabitants were continually out of health. At
length they applied to Marcus Hostilius, and publicly
petitioned him, and obtained his consent, to be allowed
to seek and select a more wholesome spot to which the
city might be removed. Without delay, and with much
judgment, he bought an estate on a healthy spot close to
the sea, and requested the Roman senate and people
to permit the removal of the city. He then set out the
walls, and assigned a portion of the soil to each citizen at
a moderate valuation. After which, opening a communi-
cation between the lake and the sea, he converted the
former into an excellent harbour for the city. Thus the
Salapians now inhabit a healthy situation, four miles from
their ancient city.
LIB, I, CAP, W,
21
CHAPTER V.
OF THE FOUNDATIONS OF WALLS AND TOWERS.
WHEN we are satisfied with the spot fixed on for the site
of the city, as well in respect of the goodness of the air as
of the abundant supply of provisions for the support of the
population, the communications by good roads, and river
or sea navigation for the transport of merchandise, we
should take into consideration the method of constructing
the walls and towers of the city. Their foundations should
be carried down to a solid bottom, if such can be found,
and should be built thereon of such thickness as may be ne-
cessary for the proper support of that part of the wall which
stands above the natural level of the ground. They should
be of the soundest workmanship and materials, and of
greater thickness than the walls above. From the exte-
rior face of the wall towers must be projected, from which
an approaching enemy may be annoyed by weapons, from
the embrasures of those towers, right and left. An easy
approach to the walls must be provided against: indeed
they should be surrounded by uneven ground, and the
roads leading to the gates should be winding and turn
to the left from the gates. By this arrangement, the
right sides of the attacking troops, which are not covered
by their shields, will be open to the weapons of the be-
sieged. The plan of a city should not be square, nor
formed with acute angles, but polygonal; so that the
motions of the enemy may be open to observation. A
city whose plan is acute-angled, is with difficulty de-
fended; for such a form protects the attacker more than
22
the attacked. The thickness of the walls should be suf.
ficient for two armed men to pass each other with ease.
The walls ought to be tied, from front to rear, with
many pieces of charred olive wood; by which means
the two faces, thus connected, will endure for ages.
The advantage of the use of olive is, that it is neither
affected by weather, by rot, or by age. Buried in the
earth, or immersed in water, it lasts unimpaired: and
for this reason, not only walls, but foundations, and
such walls as are of extraordinary thickness, tied toge-
ther therewith, are exceedingly lasting. The distance
between each tower should not exceed an arrow's flight;
so that if, at any point between them, an attack be
made, the besiegers may be repulsed by the scorpions
and other missile engines stationed on the towers right
and left of the point in question. The walls will be in-
tercepted by the lower parts of the towers where they
occur, leaving an interval equal to the width of the tower;
which space the tower will consequently occupy: but the
communication across the void inside the tower, must
be of wood, not at all fastened with iron : so that, if
the enemy obtain possession of any part of the walls, the
wooden communication may be promptly cut away by the
defenders, and thus prevent the enemy from penetrating
to the other parts of the walls without the danger of pre-
cipitating themselves into the vacant hollows of the towers.
The towers should be made either round or polygonal.
A square is a bad form, on account of its being easily frac-
tured at the quoins by the battering-ram; whereas the
circular tower has this advantage, that, when battered, the
pieces of masonry whereofit is composed being cuneiform,
they cannot be driven in towards their centre without
LIB, I, CAP, W,
23
displacing the whole mass. Nothing tends more to the
security of walls and towers, than backing them with walls
or terraces: it counteracts the effects of rams as well as
of undermining. It is not, however, always necessary to
construct them in this manner, except in places where the
besiegers might gain high ground very near the walls, from
which, over level ground, an assault could be made. In
the construction of ramparts, very wide and deep trenches
are to be first excavated; the bottom of which must be
still further dug out, for receiving the foundation of the
wall. This must be of sufficient thickness to resist the
pressure of the earth against it. Then, according to
the space requisite for drawing up the cohorts in
military order on the rampart, another wall is to be
built within the former, towards the city. The outer
and inner walls are then to be connected by cross walls,
disposed on the plan after the manner of the teeth of a
comb or of a saw, so as to divide the pressure of the fill-
ing in earth into many and less forces, and thus prevent
the walls from being thrust out. I do not think it requi-
site to dilate on the materials whereof the wall should be
composed; because those which are most desirable, can-
not, from the situation of a place, be always procured. We
must, therefore, use what are found on the spot; such as
square stones, flint, rubble stones, burnt or unburnt bricks;
for every place is not provided, as is Babylon, with such
a substitute for lime and sand as burnt bricks and liquid
bitumen; yet there is scarcely any spot which does not
furnish materials whereof a durable wall may not be
built.
24
CHAPTER VI.
of THE DISTRIBUTION AND SITUATION OF BUILD-
INGS WITHIN THE WALLS.
THEIR circuit being completed, it behoves us to consider
the manner of disposing of the area of the space enclosed
within the walls, and the proper directions and aspects of
the streets and lanes. They should be so planned as to
exclude the winds: these, if cold, are unpleasant; if hot,
are hurtful; if damp, destructive. A fault in this respect
must be therefore avoided, and care taken to prevent
that which occurs in so many cities. For instance; in
the island of Lesbos, the town of Mytilene is magnificently
and elegantly designed, and well built, but imprudently
placed. When the south wind prevails in it, the inha-
bitants fall sick; the north-west wind affects them with
coughs; and the north wind restores them to health : but
the intensity of the cold therein is so great, that no one
can stand about in the streets and lanes. Wind is a
floating wave of air, whose undulation continually varies.
It is generated by the action of heat upon moisture, the
rarefaction thereby produced creating a continued rush
of wind. That such is the case, may be satisfactorily
proved by observations on brazen aeolipylae, which clearly
shew that an attentive examination of human inventions
often leads to a knowledge of the general laws of nature.
AEolipylae are hollow brazen vessels, which have an open-
ing or mouth of small size, by means of which they can
be filled with water. Previous to the water being heated
over the fire, but little wind is emitted, as soon, however, as
LIB, I. CAP, WI,
25
the water begins to boil, a violent wind issues forth.
Thus a simple experiment enables us to ascertain and de-
termine the causes and effects of the great operations of
the heavens and the winds. In a place sheltered from the
winds, those who are in health preserve it, those who are
ill soon convalesce, though in other, even healthy places,
they would require different treatment, and this entirely
on account of their shelter from the winds. The disorders
difficult to cure in exposed situations are colds, the gout,
coughs, phthisis, pleurisy, spitting of blood, and those
diseases which are treated by replenishment instead of ex-
haustion of the natural forces. Such disorders are cured
with difficulty. First, because they are the effect of cold;
secondly, because the strength of the patient being greatly
diminished by the disorder, the air agitated by the action
of the winds becomes poor and exhausts the body’s moist-
ure, tending to make it low and feeble; whereas, that air
which from its soft and thick nature is not liable to great
agitation, nourishes and refreshes its strength. Accord-
ing to some, there are but four winds, namely, Solanus,
the east wind, Auster, the south wind, Favonius, the west
wind, and Septentrio, the north wind. But those who are
more curious in these matters reckon eight winds; among
such was Andronicus Cyrrhestes, who, to exemplify the
theory, built at Athens an octagonal marble tower, on
each side of which was sculptured a figure representing
the wind blowing from the quarter opposite thereto. On
the top of the roof of this tower a brazen Triton with a rod
in his right hand moved on a pivot, and pointed to the
figure of the quarter in which the wind lay. The other
winds not above named are Eurus, the south-east wind,
Africus, the south-west wind, Caurus, by many called
E
26
Corus, the north-west wind, and Aquilo the north-east
wind. Thus are expressed the number and names of the
winds and the points whence they blow. To find and lay
down their situation we proceed as follows: let a marble
slab be fixed level in the centre of the space enclosed by
the walls, or let the ground be smoothed and levelled, so
that the slab may not be necessary. In the centre of this
plane, for the purpose of marking the shadow correctly, a
brazen gnomon must be erected. The Greeks call this
gnomon azio.9%go.g. The shadow cast by the gnomon is to
be marked about the fifth ante-meridianal hour, and the
extreme point of the shadow accurately determined. From
the central point of the space whereon the gnomon stands,
as a centre, with a distance equal to the length of shadow
just observed, describe a circle. After the sun has passed
the meridian, watch the shadow which the gnomon con-
tinues to cast till the moment when its extremity again
touches the circle which has been described. From the two
points thus obtained in the circumference of the circle de-
scribe two arcs intersecting each other, and through their
intersection and the centre of the circle first described
draw a line to its extremity: this line will indicate the
north and south points. One-sixteenth part of the circum-
ference of the whole circle is to be set out to the right and
left of the north and south points, and drawing lines from
the points thus obtained to the centre of the circle, we
have one-eighth part of the circumference for the region
of the north, and another eighth part for the region of the
south. Divide the remainders of the circumference on
each side into three equal parts, and the divisions or re-
gions of the eight winds will be then obtained: then let the
directions of the streets and lanes be determined by the
LIB, I, CAP. VI.
27
tendency of the lines which separate the different regions
of the winds. Thus will their force be broken and turned
away from the houses and public ways; for if the di-
rections of the streets be parallel to those of the winds,
the latter will rush through them with greater violence,
since from occupying the whole space of the surrounding
country they will be forced up through a narrow pass.
Streets or public ways ought therefore to be so set out,
that when the winds blow hard their violence may be
broken against the angles of the different divisions of the
city, and thus dissipated. Those who are accustomed to
the names of so many winds, will perhaps be surprised at
our division of them into eight only; but if they reflect that
the circuit of the earth was ascertained by Eratosthenes of
Cyrene, from mathematical calculations, founded on the
sun’s course, the shadow of an equinoctial gnomon, and the
obliquity of the heavens, and was discovered to be equal
to two hundred and fifty-two thousand stadia or thirty-one
millions and five hundred thousand paces, an eighth part
whereof, as occupied by each wind, being three millions
nine hundred and thirty-seven thousand five hundred
paces, their surprise will cease, because of the number
of impediments and reverberations it must naturally
be subject to in travelling such distance through such
varied space. To the right and left of the south wind blow
respectively Euronotus and Altanus. On the sides of Afri-
cus, the south-west wind, Libonotus southward and
Subvesperus northward. On the southern side of Favo-
nius, the west wind, Argestes, and on its northern side
Etesiae. On the western side of Caurus, the north-west
wind, Circius, on its northern side Corus. On the west-
ern and eastern sides respectively of Septentrio, the north
28
wind, Thrascias and Gallicus. From the northern side
of Aquilo, the north-east wind, blows Supernas, from its
southern side Boreas. Solanus, the east wind, has Car-
bas on its northern side, and Ornithiae on its southern
side. Eurus, the south-east wind, has Caecias and Vul-
turnus on its eastern and southern sides respectively.
Many other names, deduced from particular places, rivers,
or mountain storms, are given to the winds. There
are also the morning breezes, which the sun rising
from his subterranean regions, and acting violently on
the humidity of the air collected during the night, ex-
tracts from the morning vapours. These remain after
sunrise, and are classed among the east winds, and hence
receive the name of sºgo; given by the Greeks to that wind,
so also from the morning breezes they called the morrow
&ügloy. Some deny that Eratosthenes was correct in his
measure of the earth, whether with propriety or other-
wise, is of no consequence in tracing the regions whence
the winds blow : for it is clear there is a great difference be-
tween the forces with which the several winds act. Inas-
much as the brevity with which the foregoing rules are laid
down may prevent their being clearly understood, I have
thought it right to add for the clearer understanding
thereof two figures, or as the Greeks call them oºzåørø,
at the end of this book. The first shews the precise re-
gions whence the different winds blow. The second, the
method of disposing the streets in such a manner as to
dissipate the violence of the winds and render them in-
noxious. Let A be the centre of a perfectly level and
plane tablet whereon a gnomon is erected. The ante-
meridianal shadow of the gnomon being marked at B,
from A, as a centre with the distance AB, describe a
LD, ICAI. I.
29
complete circle. Then replacing the gnomon correctly,
watch its increasing shadow, which after the sun has
passed his meridian, will gradually lengthen till it become
exactly equal to the shadow made in the forenoon, then
again touching the circle at the point C. From the
points B and C, as centres, describe two arcs cutting each
other in D. From the point D, through the centre of
the circle, draw the line EF, which will give the north
and south points. Divide the whole circle into sixteen
parts. From the point E, at which the southern end of
the meridian line touches the circle, set off at G and H
to the right and left a distance equal to one of the said
sixteen parts, and in the same manner on the north side,
placing one foot of the compasses on the point F, mark
on each side the points I and K, and with lines drawn
through the centre of the circle join the points GK and
HI, so that the space from G to H will be given to the
south wind and its region; that from I to K to the
north wind. The remaining spaces on the right and left
are each to be divided into three equal parts; the ex-
treme points of the dividing lines on the east sides, to be
designated by the letters L and M ; those on the west by
the letters NO ; from M to O and from L to N draw
lines crossing each other: and thus the whole circum-
ference will be divided into eight equal spaces for the
winds. The figure thus described will be furnished with
a letter at each angle of the octagon. Thus, beginning
at the south, between the regions of Eurus and Auster,
will be the letter G; between those of Auster and Afri-
cus, H ; between Africus and Favonius, N.; between
that and Caurus, O ; K between Caurus and Septen-
trio; between Septentrio and Aquilo, I; between Aquilo
30
and Solanus, L; and between that and Eurus, M. Thus
adjusted, let a bevel gauge be applied to the different
angles of the octagon, to determine the directions of the
different streets and lanes.
LIB, I, CAP, W.H.
31
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE CHOICE OF SITUATIONS FOR PUBLIC
BUILDINGS.
THE lanes and streets of the city being set out, the choice
of sites for the convenience and use of the state remains
to be decided on ; for sacred edifices, for the forum, and
for other public buildings. If the place adjoin the sea,
the forum should be placed close to the harbour: if in-
land, it should be in the centre of the town. The tem-
ples of the gods, protectors of the city, also those of
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, should be on some eminence
which commands a view of the greater part of the city.
The temple of Mercury should be either in the forum,
or, as also the temple of Isis and Serapis, in the great
public square. Those of Apollo and Father Bacchus
near the theatre. If there be neither amphitheatre nor
gymnasium, the temple of Hercules should be near the
circus. The temple of Mars should be out of the city,
in the neighbouring country. That of Venus near to the
gate. According to the regulations of the Hetrurian
Haruspices, the temples of Venus, Vulcan, and Mars
should be so placed that those of the first be not in the
way of contaminating the matrons and youth with the
influence of lust; that those of Vulcan be away from
the city, which would consequently be freed from the
danger of fire; the divinity presiding over that element
being drawn away by the rites and sacrifices performing
in his temple. The temple of Mars should be also out
of the city, that no armed frays may disturb the peace of
32
the citizens, and that this divinity may, moreover, be ready
to preserve them from their enemies and the perils of war.
The temple of Ceres should be in a solitary spot out of
the city, to which the public are not necessarily led but
for the purpose of sacrificing to her. This spot is to be re-
verenced with religious awe and solemnity of demeanour,
by those whose affairs lead them to visit it. Appropriate
situations must also be chosen for the temples and places
of sacrifice to the other divinities. For the construc-
tion and proportions of the edifices themselves, I shall
give rules in the third and fourth books; because it ap-
pears to me, that in the second book I ought to ex-
plain the nature of the different materials employed in
building, their qualities and use; and then, in the other
books, to give rules for the dimensions of buildings, the
orders, and their proportions.
PRAEF. LIB, II,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
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INTRODUCTION.
DINoCRATEs the architect, relying on the powers of his
skill and ingenuity, whilst Alexander was in the midst of
his conquests, set out from Macedonia to the army, de-
sirous of gaining the commendation of his sovereign.
That his introduction to the royal presence might be fa-
cilitated, he obtained letters from his countrymen and
relations to men of the first rank and nobility about the
king's person; by whom being kindly received, he be-
F











34
sought them to take the earliest opportunity of accom-
plishing his wish. They promised fairly, but were slow
in performing; waiting, as they alleged, for a proper occa-
sion. Thinking, however, they deferred this without just
grounds, he took his own course for the object he had in
view. He was, I should state, a man of tall stature, pleas-
ing countenance, and altogether of dignified appearance.
Trusting to the gifts with which nature had thus endowed
him, he put off his ordinary clothing, and having anointed
himself with oil, crowned his head with a wreath of pop-
lar, slung a lion’s skin across his left shoulder, and carrying
a large club in his right hand, he sallied forth to the royal
tribunal, at a period when the king was dispensing jus-
tice. The novelty of his appearance excited the atten-
tion of the people; and Alexander soon discovering, with
astonishment, the object of their curiosity, ordered the
crowd to make way for him, and demanded to know who
he was. “A Macedonian architect,” replied Dinocrates,
“who suggests schemes and designs worthy your royal
renown. I propose to form Mount Athos into the statue
of a man holding a spacious city in his left hand, and in
his right a huge cup, into which shall be collected all the
streams of the mountain, which shall thence be poured
into the sea.” Alexander, delighted at the proposition,
made immediate inquiry if the soil of the neighbourhood
were of a quality capable of yielding sufficient produce for
such a state. When, however, he found that all its sup-
plies must be furnished by sea, he thus addressed Dino-
crates: “I admire the grand outline of your scheme, and
am well pleased with it: but I am of opinion he would
be much to blame who planted a colony on such a spot.
For as an infant is nourished by the milk of its mother,
PRAEF. LIB, II,
35
depending thereon for its progress to maturity, so a city
depends on the fertility of the country surrounding it for
its riches, its strength in population, and not less for its
defence against an enemy. Though your plan might be
carried into execution, yet I think it impolitic. I never-
theless request your attendance on me, that I may other-
wise avail myself of your ingenuity.” From that time
Dinocrates was in constant attendance on the king, and
followed him into Egypt; where Alexander having per-
ceived a spot, at the same time naturally strong, the centre
of the commerce of the country, a land abounding with
corn, and having those facilities of transport which the Nile
afforded, ordered Dinocrates to build a city whose name
should be Alexandria. Dinocrates obtained this honour
through his comely person and dignified deportment. But
to me, Emperor, nature hath denied an ample stature; my
face is wrinkled with age, and sickness has impaired my
constitution. Deprived of these natural accomplish-
ments, I hope, however, to gain some commendation
through the aid of my scientific acquirements, and the
precepts I shall deliver. In the first book I have treated
of architecture, and the parts into which it is divided;
of the walls of a city, and the division of the space within
the walls. The directions for the construction of sacred
buildings, their proportions and symmetry, will follow
and be explained: but I think they will be out of place,
unless I previously give an account of the materials and
workmanship used in their erection, together with an in-
vestigation of their several properties and application in
different cases. Even this I must preface with an in-
quiry into the origin and various species of the earliest
36
buildings, and their gradual advance to perfection. In
this I shall follow the steps of Nature herself, and those
who have written on the progress from Savage to civil-
ized life, and the inventions consequent on the latter
state of society. Thus guided, I will proceed.
LIB, II, CAP, I,
37
CHAPTER. I.
OF THE ORIGIN OF BUILDING.
MANKIND originally brought forth like the beasts of the
field, in woods, dens, and groves, passed their lives in
a savage manner, eating the simple food which nature af.
forded. A tempest, on a certain occasion, having ex-
ceedingly agitated the trees in a particular spot, the fric-
tion between some of the branches caused them to take
fire; this so alarmed those in the neighbourhood of the
accident, that they betook themselves to flight. Return-
ing to the spot after the tempest had subsided, and find-
ing the warmth which had thus been created extremely
comfortable, they added fuel to the fire excited, in order
to preserve the heat, and then went forth to invite others,
by signs and gestures, to come and witness the discovery.
In the concourse that thus took place, they testified their
different opinions and expressions by different inflexions
of the voice. From daily association words succeeded to
these indefinite modes of speech; and these becoming by
degrees the signs of certain objects, they began to join
them together, and conversation became general. Thus
the discovery of fire gave rise to the first assembly of
mankind, to their first deliberations, and to their union
in a state of society. For association with each other
they were more fitted by nature than other animals, from
their erect posture, which also gave them the advantage
of continually viewing the stars and firmament, no less
than from their being able to grasp and lift an object, and
38
turn it about with their hands and fingers. In the as-
sembly, therefore, which thus brought them first together,
they were led to the consideration of sheltering themselves
from the seasons, some by making arbours with the
boughs of trees, some by excavating caves in the moun-
tains, and others in imitation of the nests and habitations
of swallows, by making dwellings of twigs interwoven
and covered with mud or clay. From observation of and
improvement on each others’ expedients for sheltering
themselves, they soon began to provide a better species
of huts. It was thus that men, who are by nature of an
imitative and docile turn of mind, and proud of their own
inventions, gaining daily experience also by what had been
previously executed, vied with each other in their pro-
gress towards perfection in building. The first attempt
was the mere erection of a few spars united together with
twigs and covered with mud. Others built their walls of
dried lumps of turf, connected these walls together by
means of timbers laid across horizontally, and covered the
erections with reeds and boughs, for the purpose of shel-
tering themselves from the inclemency of the seasons.
Finding, however, that flat coverings of this sort would
not effectually shelter them in the winter season, they
made their roofs of two inclined planes meeting each
other in a ridge at the summit, the whole of which they
covered with clay, and thus carried off the rain. We are
certain that buildings were thus originally constructed,
from the present practice of uncivilized nations, whose
buildings are of spaps and thatch, as may be seen in
Gaul, in Spain, in Portugal, and in Aquitaine. The
woods of the Colchi, in Pontus, furnish such abun-
dance of timber, that they build in the following manner.
LIB, II, CAP, I,
39
Two trees are laid level on the earth, right and left, at
such distance from each other as will suit the length of
the trees which are to cross and connect them. On the
extreme ends of these two trees are laid two other trees
transversely: the space which the house will inclose is
thus marked out. The four sides being thus set out,
towers are raised, whose walls consist of trees laid hori-
zontally but kept perpendicularly over each other, the
alternate layers yoking the angles. The level interstices
which the thickness of the trees alternately leave, is filled
in with chips and mud. On a similar principle they form
their roofs, except that gradually reducing the length of
the trees which traverse from angle to angle, they assume
a pyramidal form. They are covered with boughs and
smeared over with clay; and thus after a rude fashion
of vaulting, their quadrilateral roofs are formed. The
Phrygians, who inhabit a champain country destitute of
timber, choose natural hillocks, which they pierce and
hollow out for their accommodation, as well as the nature
of the soil will permit. These dwellings they cover with
roofs constructed of logs bound together, covered with
reeds and straw, and coated with a large quantity of
earth. This species of covering protects the hut from the
extreme heat of the summer, as well as from the piercing
cold of the winter. The weeds which grow in the vi-
cinity of pools are used in other parts of the covering of
huts. Each nation, in short, has its own way of build-
ing, according to the materials afforded and the habits of
the country. At Marseilles the roofs are covered with
straw and earth mixed up together, instead of tiles. At
Athens, even to this day, the Areopagus, an example of
remote antiquity, is covered with clay; and the house of
40
Romulus in the capitol, by its thatched roof, clearly ma-
nifests the simple manners and habits of the ancients.
It is from such specimens we are enabled to form just
ideas of the early method of building. Daily practice
made the original builders more skilful, and experience
increased their confidence; those who took more delight
in the science making it their exclusive profession. Thus
man, who, in addition to the senses which other ani-
mals enjoy in common with him, is gifted by nature with
such powers of thought and understanding, that no sub-
ject is too difficult for his apprehension, and the brute
creation are subject to him from his superiority of in-
tellect, proceeded by degrees to a knowledge of the other
arts and sciences, and passed from a savage state of life
to one of civilization. From the courage which his
gradual success naturally excited, and his engagement
in those various speculations with which the arts are
connected, his ideas expanded; and from building huts
he soon proceeded to the erection of houses constructed
with brick walls or with stones, whose roofs were of tim-
ber covered with tiles. Thus by experience and obser-
vation the knowledge of certain proportions was attained,
which in the beginning were fluctuating and uncertain;
and advantage being taken of the bounty of nature, in
her supply of timber and other building materials, the
rising art was so cultivated that by the help of other arts
mere necessity was lost sight of; and by attending to the
comforts and luxuries of civilized society, it was carried
to the highest degree of perfection. I shall now, to the
best of my ability, proceed to treat of those materials
which are used in building, their quality, and use. Lest
any one object that the order of my treatise on the matters
LIB, II, CAP, I,
4, 1
in question be not well arranged, and that this book
should have had precedence of the last, I think it proper
to state, that in writing a Dissertation on Architecture I
considered myself bound, in the first place, to set forth
those branches of learning and science with which it is
connected, to explain its origin and different species, and
to enumerate the qualifications which an architect should
possess. Hence, having first adverted to those principles
on which the art depends, I shall now proceed to an ex-
planation of the nature and use of the different materials
employed in the practice of it. This work not being in-
tended for a treatise on the origin of architecture; that
origin, and the degrees by which it passed to its present
state of perfection, is only incidentally mentioned. This
book is consequently in its proper place. I shall now
proceed to treat, in an intelligible manner, of the mate-
rials which are appropriate for building, how they are
formed by nature, and of the analysis of their component
parts. For there is no material nor body of any sort what-
ever which is not composed of various elementary par-
ticles; and if their primary composition be not duly under-
stood, no law of physics will explain their nature to our
satisfaction.
42
CHAPTER II.
OF THE ORIGIN OF ALL THINGS ACCORDING TO THE
- OPINIONS OF PHILOSOPHERS.
THALEs thought that water was the first principle of all
things. Heraclitus, the Ephesian, who, on account of
the obscurity of his writings, was called rºorewog by the
Greeks, maintained a similar doctrine in respect of fire.
Democritus, and his follower Epicurus, held similar opi-
nions with regard to atoms; by which term is understood
such bodies as are incapable of being cut asunder, or, as
some say, of further division. To water and fire the phi-
losophy of the Pythagoreans added air and earth. Hence
Democritus,though loosely expressing himself, seems to
have meant the same thing, when he calls the elements
indivisible bodies; for when he considers them incapable
of corruption or alteration, and of eternal duration and
infinite solidity, his hypothesis makes the particles not
yet so connected as to form a body. Since, therefore, all
bodies consist of and spring from these elements, and in
the great variety of bodies the quantity of each element
entering into their composition is different, I think it right
to investigate the nature of their variety, and explain how
it affects the quality of each in the materials used for
building, so that those about to build may avoid mistakes,
and be, moreover, enabled to make a proper choice of
such materials as they may want.
LIB, II, CAP, III,
CHAPTER III.
OF BRICKS.
I SHALL first treat of bricks, and the earth of which they
ought to be made. Gravelly, pebbly, and sandy clay are
unfit for that purpose; for if made of either of these
sorts of earth, they are not only too ponderous, but walls
built of them, when exposed to the rain, moulder away,
and are soon decomposed, and the straw, also, with which
they are mixed, will not sufficiently bind the earth toge-
ther, because of its rough quality. They should be made
of earth of a red or white chalky, or a strong sandy na-
ture. These sorts of earth are ductile and cohesive,
and not being heavy, bricks made of them are more
easily handled in carrying up the work. The proper
seasons for brick-making are the spring and autumn,
because they then dry more equably. Those made in
the summer solstice are defective, because the heat of the
sun soon imparts to their external surfaces an appearance
of sufficient dryness, whilst the internal parts of them are
in a very different state; hence, when thoroughly dry,
they shrink and break those parts which were dry in the
first instance; and thus broken, their strength is gone.
Those are best that have been made at least two years;
for in a period less than that they will not dry thoroughly.
When plastering is laid and set hard on bricks which are
not perfectly dry, the bricks, which will naturally shrink,
and consequently occupy a less space than the plaster-
ing, will thus leave the latter to stand of itself. From its
4. 4.
being extremely thin, and not capable of supporting it-
self, it soon breaks to pieces; and in its failure sometimes
involves even that of the wall. It is not, therefore, with-
out reason that the inhabitants of Utica allow no bricks
to be used in their buildings which are not at least five
years old, and also approved by a magistrate. There are
three sorts of bricks; the first is that which the Greeks call
Didoron (31%gov), being the sort we use; that is, one foot
long, and half a foot wide. The two other sorts are used
in Grecian buildings; one is called Pentadoron, the other
Tetradoron. By the word Doron the Greeks mean a
palm, because the word 36eoy signifies a gift which can
be borne in the palm of the hand. That sort, therefore,
which is five palms each way is called Pentadoron; that
of four palms, Tetradoron. The former of these two
sorts is used in public buildings, the latter in private.
Each sort has half bricks made to suit it; so that when
a wall is executed, the course on one of the faces of the
wall shews sides of whole bricks, the other face of half
bricks; and being worked to the line on each face, the
bricks on each bed bond alternately over the course
below. Besides the pleasant varied appearance which
this method gives, it affords additional strength, by the
middle of a brick, on a rising course, falling over the
vertical joints of the course thereunder. The bricks of
Calentum in Spain, Marseilles in France, and Pitane in
Asia, are, when wrought and dried, specifically lighter
than water, and hence swim thereon. This must arise
from the porosity of the earth whereof they are made;
the air contained in the pores, to which the water cannot
penetrate, giving them a buoyant property. Earth of
LIB, II, CAP, III.
45
this sort being, therefore, of such a light and thin qua-
lity, and impervious to water, be a lump thereof of
whatever size, it swims naturally like pumice-stone.
Bricks of this sort are of great use for building purposes;
for they are neither heavy nor liable to be injured by the
rain. - -
46
CHAPTER IV.
OF SAND.
IN buildings of rubble work it is of the first importance
that the sand be fit for mixing with the lime, and unal-
loyed with earth. The different sorts are these ; black,
white, deep red, and bright red. The best of each of
these sorts is that which, when rubbed between the
fingers, yields a grating sound. That, also, which is
earthy, and does not possess the roughness above named,
is fit for the purpose, if it merely leave a stain or any par-
ticles of earth on a white garment, which can easily be
brushed away. If there be no sand-pits where it can be
dug, river sand or sifted gravel must be used. Even sea
sand may be had recourse to, but it dries very slowly; and
walls wherein it is used must not be much loaded, unless
carried up in small portions at a time. It is not, however,
fit for those walls that are to receive vaulting. In plas-
tered walls, built with sea sand, the salt which exudes de-
stroys the plaster; but plaster readily adheres to and
dries on walls built with new pit sand, and vaulting may
safely spring from them. If sand have been dug a long
time, and exposed to the sun, the moon, and the rain, it
loses its binding quality, and becomes earthy; neither
when used does it bind the rubble stones together so
as to prevent them sliding on their beds and falling out:
nor is it fit to be used in walls where great weights
are to be supported. Though pit sand is excellent for
mortar, it is unfit for plastering; for being of a rich
LIB, II, CAP, IW,
47
quality, when added to the lime and straw, its great
strength does not suffer it to dry without cracks. The
poorness of the river sand, when tempered with beaters,
makes the plastering as hard as cement. . . / -º
'n't
48
CHAPTER v.
OF LIME.
HAVING treated of the different sorts of sand, we proceed
to an explanation of the nature of lime, which is burnt
either from white stone or flint. That which is of a
close and hard texture is better for building walls; as that
which is more porous is better for plastering. When
slaked for making mortar, if pit sand be used, three parts
of sand are mixed with one of lime. If river or sea sand
be made use of two parts of sand are given to one of
lime, which will be found a proper proportion. If to
river or sea sand, potsherds ground and passed through a
sieve, in the proportion of one third part, be added, the
mortar will be better for use. The cause of the mass be-
coming solid when sand and water are added to the lime,
appears to be, that stones, like other bodies, are a com-
pound of elements: those which contain large quantities
of air being soft, those which have a great proportion of
water being tough, of earth, hard, of fire, brittle. For
stones which, when burnt, would make excellent lime,
if pounded and mixed with sand, without burning, would
neither bind the work together, nor set hard; but
having passed through the kiln, and having lost the
property of their former tenacity by the action of in-
tense heat, their adhesiveness being exhausted, the pores
are left open and inactive. The moisture and air which
were in the body of the stone, having, therefore, been
extracted and exhausted, the heat being partially re-
tained, when the substance is immersed in water before
LIB, II, CAP, W,
49
the heat can be dissipated, it acquires strength by the
water rushing into all its pores, effervesces, and at last
the heat is excluded. Hence, limestone, previous to its
burning, is much heavier than it is after having passed
through the kiln : for, though equal in bulk, it is known,
by the abstraction of the moisture it previously contained,
to lose one-third of its weight by the process. The
pores of limestone, being thus opened, it more easily takes
up the sand mixed with it, and adheres thereto; and
hence, in drying, binds the stones together, by which
sound work is obtained. *
II
C H A PTER VI.
OF POZZOLAN.A.
THERE is a species of sand which, naturally, possesses
extraordinary qualities. It is found about Baiae and the
territory in the neighbourhood of Mount Vesuvius; if
mixed with lime and rubble, it hardens as well under
water as in ordinary buildings. This seems to arise from
the hotness of the earth under these mountains, and the
abundance of springs under their bases, which are heated
either with sulphur, bitumen, or alum, and indicate very
intense fire. The inward fire and heat of the flame which
escapes and burns through the chinks, makes this earth
light; the sand-stone (tophus), therefore, which is gathered
in the neighbourhood, is dry and free from moisture.
Since, then, three circumstances of a similar nature,
arising from the intensity of the fire, combine in one
mixture, as soon as moisture supervenes, they cohere and
quickly harden through dampness; so that neither the
waves nor the force of the water can disunite them.
That these lands are affected with heat, as surmised, is
evident, because in the mountains of Cumae and at
Baiae, sweating places are excavated, in which the hot
vapour rising upwards from the intensity of the fire,
strikes through the earth, and so escapes in these places
that they are singularly beneficial for the purpose. It is
moreover said that in former times fires under Vesuvius
existed in abundance, and thence evolved flames about
the fields. Thus that which we call sponge-stone, or
Pompeian pumice-stone, burnt from another species of
LIB, II. CAP, WI.
51
stone, appears to be acted on by fire so as to possess a
quality of this sort. The species of sponge-stone, how-
ever, thence obtained, is not found except in the neigh-
bourhood of Ætna and the hills of Mysia, which the
Greeks call 22rozezzvyºvo, and places of such descrip-
tion. If, therefore, in these places hot springs and heated
vapours are found in the cavities of the mountains, and
the spots are recorded by the antients to have been sub-
ject to fires issuing out of the lands, it seems certain that
the moisture is extracted from the sand-stone and earth in
their neighbourhood, by the strength of the fire, as from
lime-stone in a kiln. Dissimilar and unequal actions
being thus concentrated towards the same end, the great
want of moisture quickly supplied by water binds and
strongly cements them, and also imparts a rapid solidity,
by means of the heat common to both the bodies. It is
needless to enquire why, as there are many hot springs in
Tuscany, we do not there find a powder, which, for the
same reason, would harden under water: should I be
thereon questioned, I would thus explain the circum-
stance. All lands do not possess similar qualities; nor
is stone universally found. Some lands are earthy, others
gravelly, others gritty, others sandy: in short, the quality
of land, in different parts of the earth, varies as much
as even the climate itself. For instance; on the side of
the Apennines towards Tuscany, sand-pits are found
in abundance; whereas, on the other side of the Apen-
nines, facing the Adriatic, none are discoverable: So also
in Achaia, Asia, and universally on the other side of the
sea, such things are not known. It does not therefore
follow, that in all places abounding with hot springs all
other circumstances should be similar. Nature has not
52
made all things to suit the convenience of man, but dif-
ferently and fortuitously. Hence, in places where the
mountains are not earthy, but of stone, the force of the
fire escaping through the chinks burns that which is soft
and tender, whilst that which is hard is left. Thus the
earth of Campania, when burnt, becomes a powder; that
of Tuscany a coal. Both of these are of great use in
building, one species being very serviceable in land
works, the other in works under water. In Tuscany,
however, the quality of the material is softer than sand-
stone, but harder than earth; and from its entire subjec-
tion to the action of the sub-existing fire, it becomes that
sort of sand which is called carbunculus.
LIB, II, CAP, VII,
53
CHAPTER VII.
OF STONE QUARRIES.
I HAVE described the different species of lime and sand, and
their qualities. Stone quarries, from which square and
rubble stones are procured and prepared for the purposes
of building, will now be considered. The qualities of
these differ very much. Some stone is soft; the red, for
instance, found in the neighbourhood of Rome, in the
countries of the Pallienses, Fidenates, and Albanaº. Some
moderately so, as the Tiburtine, Amiternine, Soractine,
and those of that sort. Others are hard, even as flints.
There are many other species, as the red and black sand-
stone (tophus) of Campania, and the white sort of Um-
bria, Picenum, and Venice, which is cut with a saw like
wood. The soft species have this advantage, that when
recently taken from the quarry they are easily worked,
and answer well under cover; but when used in open and
exposed situations, and subjected to the action of the frost
and rain, they soon become friable, and moulder away.
They are also much affected by the salt near the sea-shore,
and are not capable of preserving their strength when ex-
posed to great heat. The Tiburtine stones, and those
of a similar nature, resist great weights no less than the
action of the weather, but are easily injured by fire. The
instant they are exposed to that they are ruined, from
their possessing so small a quantity of moisture; their
earthy particles, also, are few, and the quantity of air and
fire in them considerable. Hence, from the small por-
tion of earth and water which they contain, the fire easily
54
acts upon them, and, occupying the interstices, drives
out the air with accumulated violence, and communicates
its own hot quality to them. There are many quarries
on the borders of the Tarquinienses, called the Anician
quarries, in colour much resembling the Alban stone.
They are worked in most abundance in the neighbour-
hood of the Volscinian Lake, and in the prefecture of
Statonia. This stone has numberless good qualities;
neither frost nor fire affects it. It is hard and durable,
from its containing but little air and fire, but a moderate
quantity of moisture, and much earth. Close in tex-
ture, it is not injured by the weather nor by heat. The
monuments about Ferentinum, which are built of this
stone, prove its durability; among these may be observed
large statues well executed, bas-reliefs on a smaller scale,
and acanthus leaves and flowers elegantly carved, which,
though long since wrought, appear as fresh as though
they were but recently finished. From the stones of
the above quarries the metal founders make their casting
moulds, for which they are well calculated. If this
stone were to be had near Rome, it would be used in
all works about the city, to which it is indeed worthy
to be applied. But as necessity, on account of proxi-
mity to the quarries, obliges us to use the red sort of
stone, that of the Pallienses and other species in the
immediate vicinity of the city, in order to find that which
is least defective, let it be selected as follows. Two years
before the commencement of the building, the stones
should be extracted from the quarries in the summer sea-
son; by no means in the winter; and they should then
be exposed to the vicissitudes and action of the weather.
Those which, after two years’ exposure, are injured by
LIB, II, CAP, VII,
55
the weather, may be used in the foundations; but those
which continue sound after this ordeal, will endure in
the parts above ground. These rules apply equally to
squared as to rubble or unsquared stone work. "
66
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WALLS.
THE different species of walls are, the RETICULATUM (net-
like), a method now in general use, and the INCERTUM (un-
certain), which is the antient mode. The reticulatum is
the most beautiful, but is very liable to split, from the
beds of the stones being unstable, and its deficiency in re-
spect of bond. The incertum, on the contrary, course over
course, and the whole bonded together, does not present
so beautiful an appearance, though stronger than the reti-
culatum. Both species should be built of the smallest sized
stones, that the walls, by sucking up, and attaching them-
selves to, the mortar, may last the longer. For as the stones
are of a soft and porous nature, they absorb, in drying, the
moisture of the mortar, and this, if used plentifully,
will consequently exercise a greater cementing power;
because from their containing a larger portion of moisture,
the wall will not, of course, dry so soon as otherwise; and
as soon as the moisture is absorbed by the pores of the
stone from the mortar, the lime, losing its power, leaves
the sand, so that the stones no longer adhere to it, and in
a short time the work becomes unsound. We may see
this in several monuments about the city, which have
been built of marble or of stones squared externally; that
is, on the face, but filled up with rubble run with mortar.
Time, in these, has taken up the moisture of the mortar,
and destroyed its efficacy, by the porosity of the surface
on which it acted. All cohesion is thus ruined, and the
walls fall to decay. He who is desirous that this may
LIB, II, CAP. VIII,
37
not happen to his work, should build his two face walls
two feet thick either of red stone or of brick or common
flint, binding them together with iron cramps run with
lead, and duly preserving the middle space or cavity.
The materials, in this case, not being thrown in at ran-
dom, but the work well brought up on the beds, the up-
right joints properly arranged, and the face walls, more-
over, regularly tied together, they are not liable to bulge,
nor be otherwise disfigured. In these respects one can-
not refrain from admiring the walls of the Greeks. They
make no use of soft stone in their buildings: when,
however, they do not employ squared stone, they use
either flint or hard stone; and, as though building with
brick, they cross or break the upright joints, and thus
produce the most durable work. There are two sorts of
this species of work; one called Isodomum, the other
PSEUDIsodom UM. The first is so called, because in it
all the courses are of an equal height; the latter received
its name from the unequal heights of the courses. Both
these methods make sound work: first, because the
stones are hard and solid, and therefore unable to absorb
the moisture of the mortar, which is thus preserved to the
longest period; secondly, because the beds being smooth
and level, the mortar does not escape; and the wall
moreover, bonded throughout its whole thickness, be-
comes eternal. There is still another method, which is
called pºtaszroy (EMPLECTUM), in use even among our
country workmen. In this species the faces are wrought.
The other stones are, without working, deposited in the
cavity between the two faces, and bedded in mortar as
the wall is carried up. But the workmen, for the sake
of despatch, carry up these casing walls, and then tumble
I
58
in the rubble between them ; so that there are thus three
distinct thicknesses; namely, the two sides or facings,
and the filling in. The Greeks, however, pursue a dif.
ferent course, laying the stones flat, and breaking the
vertical joints; neither do they fill in the middle at ran-
dom, but, by means of bond stones, make the wall solid,
and of one thickness or piece. They moreover cross the
wall, from one face to the other, with bond stones of a
single piece, which they call 31&révol, (DIATONI) tending
greatly to strengthen the work. He, therefore, who is de-
sirous of producing a lasting structure, is enabled, by what
I have laid down, to choose the sort of wall that will suit
his purpose. Those walls which are built of soft and
smooth-looking stone, will not last long. Hence, when va-
luations are made of external walls, we must not put them
at their original cost; but having found, from the regis-
ter, the number of lettings they have gone through, we
must deduct for every year of their age an eightieth part
of such cost, and set down the remainder or balance as
their value, inasmuch as they are not calculated to last
more than eighty years. This is not the practice in the
case of brick walls, which, whilst they stand upright, are
always valued at their first cost. Hence, in some states,
not only public and private buildings, but even royal
structures, are built of brick. We may instance that
part of the wall at Athens towards Mounts Hymettus
and Pentelicus, the temples of Jupiter and Hercules, in
which the cells are of brick, whilst the columns and their
entablatures are of stone, in Italy the antient and exqui-
sitely wrought wall of Arezzo, and at Tralles a palace for
the Attalic kings, which is the official residence of the
priest. Some pictures painted on brick walls at Sparta,
LIB, IL CAP. VIII.
59
after being cut out, were packed up in wooden cases
and transported to the Comitium to grace the AEdileship
of Varro and Murena. In the house of Croesus, which
the Sardians call Gerusia, established for the repose and
comfort of the citizens in their old age, as also in the
house of Mausolus, a very powerful king of Halicarnas-
sus, though all the ornaments are of Proconnesian mar-
ble, the walls are of brick, are remarkably sound at the
present day, and the plastering with which they are co-
vered is so polished that they sparkle like glass. The
prince who caused them to be thus built was not, how-
ever, restrained by economy; for, as king of Caria, he
must have been exceedingly rich. Neither could it be
urged that it was from want of skill and taste in archi-
tecture, that he did so. Born at Mylasa, and perceiv-
ing that Halicarnassus was a situation fortified by nature,
and a place well adapted for commerce, with a commo-
dious harbour, he fixed his residence there. The site of
the city bears a resemblance to a theatre, as to general
form. In the lowest part of it, near the harbour, a forum
was built : up the hill, about the middle of the curve, was
a large square in the centre of which stood the mauso-
leum, a work of such grandeur that it was accounted
one of the seven wonders of the world. In the centre,
on the summit of the hill, was the temple of Mars, with
its colossal statue, which is called &zé6xidog, sculptured
by the eminent hand of Leocharis. Some, however, at-
tribute this statue to Leocharis; others to Timotheus.
On the right, at the extreme point of the curve, was the
temple of Venus and Mercury, close to the fountain of
Salmacis. It is a vulgar error, that those who happen to
drink thereat are affected with love-sickness. As, how-
60
ever, this error is general, it will not be amiss to correct
the impression. It is not only impossible that the water
should have the effect of rendering men effeminate and
unchaste; but, on the contrary, that alluded to is clear as
crystal, and of the finest flavour. The origin of the
story, by which it gained the reputation of the above
quality, is as follows. When Melas and Arevanias
brought to the place a colony from Argos and Troezene,
they drove out the barbarous Carians and Lelegae.
These, betaking themselves to the mountains in bodies,
committed great depredations, and laid waste the neigh-
bourhood. Some time afterwards, one of the colonists,
for the sake of the profit likely to arise from it, established
close to the fountain, on account of the excellence
of its water, a store where he kept all sorts of merchan-
dize; and thus it became a place of great resort of the
barbarians who were drawn thither. Coming, at first, in
small, and at last in large, numbers, the barbarians by de-
grees shook off their savage and uncivilized habits, and
changed them, without coercion, for those of the Greeks.
The fame, therefore, of this fountain, was acquired, not by
the effeminacy which it is reputed to impart, but by its
being the means through which the minds of the barbari-
answere civilized. I must now, however, proceed to finish
my description of the city. On the right summit we have
described the temple of Venus and the above named
fountain to have been placed : on the left stood the royal
palace, which was planned by Mausolus himself. This
commanded, on the right, a view of the forum and har-
bour, and of the whole circuit of the walls: on the left, it
overlooked a secret harbour, hidden by the mountains,
into which no one could pry, so as to be aware of what
LIB, II, CAP. VIII,
61
was transacting therein. In short, from his palace, the
king, without any person being aware of it, could give
the necessary orders to his soldiers and sailors. After
the death of Mausolus, the Rhodians, indignant at his
wife, who succeeded to the government, governing
the whole of Caria, fitted out a fleet, for the purpose of
seizing the kingdom. When the news reached Artemisia,
she commanded her fleet to lie still in the secret harbour;
and having concealed the sailors and mustered the ma-
rines, ordered the rest of the citizens to the walls. When
the well appointed squadron of the Rhodians should enter
the large harbour, she gave orders that those stationed on
the walls should greet them, and promise to deliver up the
town. The Rhodians, leaving their ships, penetrated into
the town; at which period Artemisia, by the sudden open-
ing of acanal, brought her fleet round, through theopen sea,
into the large harbour; whence the Rhodian fleet, abandon-
ed by its sailors and marines, was easily carried out to sea.
The Rhodians, having now no place of shelter, were sur-
rounded in the forum and slain. Artemisia then embarking
her own sailors and marines on board of the Rhodian fleet,
set sail for Rhodes. The inhabitants of that city seeing
their vessels return decorated with laurels, thought their
fellow citizens were returning victorious, and received
their enemies. Artemisia having thus taken Rhodes,
and slain the principal persons of the city, raised therein
a trophy of her victory. It consisted of two brazen sta-
tues, one of which represented the state of Rhodes, the
other was a statue of herself imposing a mark of infamy
on the city. As it was contrary to the precepts of the
religion of the Rhodians to remove a trophy, they en-
circled the latter with a building, and covered it after
62
the custom of the Greeks, giving it the name &32tov. If
therefore, kings of such great power did not despise brick
buildings, those who, from their great revenue and spoils
in war, can afford the expence not only of squared and
rough stone, but even of marble buildings, must not
despise brick structures when well executed. I shall
now explain why this species of walls is not permitted in
the city of Rome, and also why such walls ought not to
be permitted. The public laws forbid a greater thick-
ness than one foot and a half to be given to walls that
abut on a public way, and the other walls, to prevent
loss of room, are not built thicker. Now brick walls,
unless of the thickness of two or three bricks, at all
events of at least one foot and a half, are not fit to carry
more than one floor, so that from the great population of
the city innumerable houses would be required. Since,
therefore, the area it occupies would not in such case con-
tain the number to be accommodated, it became abso-
lutely necessary to gain in height that which could not be
obtained on the plan. Thus by means of stone piers or
walls of burnt bricks or unsquared stones, which were
tied together by the timbers of the several floors, they
obtained in the upper story excellent dining rooms. The
Roman people by thus multiplying the number of stories
in their houses are commodiously lodged. Having ex-
plained why, on account of the narrowness of the streets
in Rome, walls of brick are not allowed in the city, I shall
now give instructions for their use out of the city when
required, to the end that they may be durable. On the
top of a wall immediately under the roof, there should be a
course of burnt bricks, about one foot and a half in height,
and projecting over the walls like the corona of a cornice;
LIB, II. CAP, VIII,
63
thus the injury to be guarded against in such a wall, will be
prevented; for if any tiles should be accidentally broken
or dislodged by the wind, so as to afford a passage for the
rain, the burnt brick, a protection to it, will secure the
wall itself from damage, and the projection will cause the
dropping of the water to fall beyond the face of the wall
and thus preserve it. To judge of such burnt bricks as
are fit for the purpose is not at first an easy matter; the
only way of ascertaining their goodness is to try them
through a summer and winter, and, if they bear out
through these undamaged, they may be used. Those
which are not made of good clay are soon injured by the
frost and rain; hence if unfit to be used in roofs they will
be more unfit in walls. Walls built of old tiles are conse-
quently very lasting. As to wattled walls, would they had
never been invented, for though convenient and expedi-
tiously made, they are conducive to great calamity from
their acting almost like torches in case of fire. It is much
better, therefore, in the first instance, to be at the expense
of burnt bricks, than from parsimony to be in perpetual
risk. Walls moreover, of this sort, that are covered with
plaster are always full of cracks, arising from the crossing
of the laths; for when the plastering is laid on wet, it swells
the wood, which contracts as the work dries, breaking the
plastering. But if expedition, or want of funds, drives
us to the use of this sort of work, or as an expedient to
bring work to a square form, let it be executed as follows.
The surface of the foundation whereon it is to stand must
be somewhat raised from the ground or pavement.
Should it ever be placed below them it will rot, settle, and
bend forward, whereby the face of the plastering will be
injured. I have already treated on walls, and generally
64
on the mode of preparing and selecting the materials for
them. I shall now proceed to the use of timber in fram-
ing, and to a description of its several sorts, as also of the
mode of fitting timbers together, so that they may be as
durable as their nature will permit.
LIB, II, CAP, IX,
65
CHAPTER IX.
OF TIMIBER.
TIMBER should be felled from the beginning of the Au-
tumn up to that time when the west wind begins to blow;
never in the Spring, because at that period the trees are
as it were pregnant, and communicate their natural
strength to the yearly leaves and fruits they shoot forth.
Being empty and swelled out, they become, by their
great porosity, useless and feeble, just as we see females
after conception in indifferent health till the period of
their bringing forth. Hence slaves about to be sold
are not warranted sound if they be pregnant; for the
foetus which goes on increasing in size within the body,
derives nourishment from all the food which the parent
consumes, and as the time of delivery approaches, the
more unwell is the party by whom it is borne : as soon
as the foetus is brought forth, that which was before
allotted for the nourishment of another being, once more
free by the separation of the foetus, returns to reinvigo-
rate the body by the juices flowing to the large and empty
vessels, and to enable it to regain its former natural
strength and solidity. So, in the Autumn, the fruits
being ripened and the leaves dry, the roots draw the
moisture from the earth, and the trees are by those means
recovered and restored to their pristine solidity. Up to
the time above-mentioned the force of the wintry air
compresses and consolidates the timber, and if it be then
felled the period will be seasonable. In felling, the pro-
per way is to cut through at once to the middle of the
K
66
trunk of the tree, and then leave it for some time, that the
juices may drain off; thus the useless liquor contained
in the tree, running away through its external rings, all
tendency to decay is removed, and it is preserved sound.
After the tree has dried and the draining has ceased, it may
be cut down and considered quite fit for use. That this
should be the method pursued, will appear from the na-
ture of shrubs. These, at the proper season, when pierced
at the bottom, discharge from the heart through the holes
made in them all the redundant and pernicious juices,
and thus drying acquire strength and durability. On
the contrary, when those juices do not escape, they con-
geal and render the tree defective and good for nothing.
If, therefore, this process of draining them whilst in their
growing state does not destroy their vigour, so much the
more if the same rules are observed when they are about
to be felled, will they last for a longer period when con-
verted into timber for buildings. The qualities of trees
vary exceedingly, and are very dissimilar, as those of the
oak, the elm, the poplar, the cypress, the fir, and others
chiefly used in buildings. The oak, for instance, is useful
where the fir would be improper; and so with respect to
the cypress and the elm. Nor do the others differ less
widely, each, from the different nature of its elements,
being differently suited to similar applications in build-
ing. First, the fir, containing a considerable quantity of
air and fire, and very little water and earth, being con-
stituted of such light elements, is not heavy: hence
bound together by its natural hardness it does not easily
bend, but keeps its shape in framing. The objection
to fir is, that it contains so much heat as to generate
and nourish the worm which is very destructive to it.
LIB, II, CAP. IX,
67
It is moreover very inflammable, because its open
pores are so quickly penetrated by fire, that it yields a
great flame. The lower part of the fir which is close
to the earth, receiving by its proximity to the roots, a
large portion of moisture, is previous to felling straight
and free from knots; the upper part, throwing out
by the strength of the fire it contains, a great many
branches through the knots, when cut off at the height of
twenty feet and rough squared, is, from its hardness,
called Fusterna. The lower part, when cut down, is sawed
into four quarters, and after the outer rings of the tree
are rejected, is well adapted to joinery works, and is
called Sapinea. The oak, however, containing among
its other elements a great portion of earth, and but a
small quantity of water, air, and fire, when used under
ground is of great durability, for its pores being close and
compact, the wet does not penetrate it; in short its anti-
pathy to water is so great that it twists and splits very
much the work in which it is used. The holm oak
(esculus), whose elements are in very equal proportions,
is of great use in buildings; it will not however stand the
damp which quickly penetrates its pores, and its air and
fire being driven off, it soon rots. The green oak (cerrus),
the cork tree, and the beech soon rot, because they con-
tain equal quantities of water, fire, and earth, which are by
no means capable of balancing the great quantity of air
they contain. The white and black poplar, the willow, the
lime tree (tilia), the withy (vitex), are of great service
in particular works on account of their hardness. They
contain but a small portion of earth, a moderate propor-
tion of water, but abound with fire and air. Though not
hard on account of the earth in them, they are very white,
68
and excellently adapted for carving. The alder, which
grows on the banks of rivers, and is to appearance an al-
most useless wood, possesses nevertheless most excellent
qualities, inasmuch as it contains much air and fire, not a
great deal of earth, and less water. Its freeness from
water makes it almost eternal in marshy foundations used
for piling under buildings, because, in these situations,
it receives that moisture which it does not possess na-
turally. It bears immense weights and does not decay.
Thus we see that timber which above ground soon
decays, lasts an amazing time in a damp soil. This is
most evident at Ravenna, a city, the foundations of
whose buildings, both public and private, are all built
upon piles. The elm tree and the ash contain much
water and but little air and fire, with a moderate por-
tion of earth. They are therefore pliant, and being
so full of water, and from want of stiffness, soon bend
under a superimcumbent weight. When, however,
from proper keeping after being felled, or from being
well dried while standing to discharge their natural
moisture, they become much harder, and in framings are,
from their pliability, capable of forming sound work.
The maple tree, which contains but little fire and earth,
and a considerable portion of air and water, is not easily
broken, and is, moreover, easily wrought. The Greeks,
therefore, who made yokes for oxen (called by them ºvy&)
of this timber, call the tree ºvyeto. The cypress and
pine are also singular in their nature; for though they
contain equal portions of the other elements, yet, from
their large proportion of water, they are apt to bend in
use ; they last, however, a long time, free from decay;
the reason whereof is, that they contain a bitter juice,
LIB, II, CAP. IX,
69
whose acrid properties prevent the rot, and are not less
efficacious in destroying the worm. Buildings, in which
these sorts of timber are used, last an amazing number of
years. The cedar and juniper trees possess the same
qualities as the two last named ; but as the cypress and
pine yield a resin, so the cedar tree yields an oil called
cedrium, with which, whatsoever is rubbed, as books, for
instance, will be preserved from the worm as well as the
rot. The leaves of this tree resemble those of the cy-
press, and its fibres are very straight. The statue of the
goddess, as also the ceiled roof in the temple of Diana at
Ephesus, are made of it; and it is used in many other
celebrated temples, on account of its great durability.
These trees grow chiefly in the island of Crete, in Africa,
and in some parts of Syria. The larch, which is only
known in the districts on the banks of the Po and the
shores of the Adriatic, on account of the extreme bit-
terness of its juices, is not subject to rot and attack of
the worm, neither will it take fire or burn of itself, but
can only be consumed with other wood, as stone is burnt
for lime in a furnace; nor even then does it emit flame
nor yield charcoal, but, after a long time, gradually con-
sumes away, from the circumstance of its containing very
little fire and air. It is, on the contrary, full of water
and earth ; and being free from pores, by which the fire
could penetrate, it repels its power, so that it is not
quickly hurt thereby. Its weight is so great, that it will
not float in water, when transported to any place, and is
either conveyed in vessels, or floated on fir rafts. This
property of the wood was discovered under the following
circumstances. Julius Caesar, being with his army near
the Alps, ordered the towns to supply him with provi-
70
sions. Among them was a fortress called Larignum,
whose inhabitants, trusting to their fortifications, refused
to obey the mandate. Caesar ordered his forces to the
spot immediately. In front of the gate of this fortress
stood a tower built of this species of timber, of consider-
able height, and constructed after the manner of a funeral
pile, with beams alternately crossing each other at their
extremities, so that the besieged might, from its top, an-
noy the besiegers with darts and stones. It appearing
that the persons on the tower had no other arms than
darts, which, from their weight, could not be hurled any
great distance from the walls, orders were given to con-
vey bundles of fire-wood and torches to the tower, which
were quickly executed by the soldiers. As soon as the
flames, reaching almost to the heavens, began to en-
compass the tower, every one expected to see its demoli-
tion. But as soon as the fire was extinct, the tower ap-
peared still unhurt; and Caesar, wondering at the cause
of it, ordered it to be blockaded out of arrow’s flight,
and thus carried the town, which was delivered up to him
by its trembling inhabitants. They were then asked
where they obtained this sort of wood, which would not
burn. They shewed him the trees, which are in great
abundance in those parts. Thus, as the fortress was
called Larignum, so the wood, whereof the tower was
built, is called larigna (larch). It is brought down the
Po to Ravenna, for the use of the municipalities of Fano,
Pesaro, Ancona, and the other cities in that district. If
there were a possibility of transporting it to Rome, it would
be very useful in the buildings there; if not generally, at
least it would be excellent for the plates under the eaves of
those houses in Rome which are insulated, as they would be
LIB, II. CAT, X,
71
thus secured from catching fire, since they would neither
ignite nor consume, nor burn into charcoal. The leaves
of these trees are similar to those of the pine-tree; the
fibres of them straight, and not harder to work in joinery
than the pine-tree. The wood contains a liquid resin, of
the colour of Attic honey, which is a good remedy in
cases of phthisis. I have now treated of the different
sorts of timber, and of their natural properties, as well as
of the proportion of the elements in each. It only re-
mains to enquire, why that species of fir, which is known
in Rome by the name of Supernas, is not so good
as that which is called Infernas, whose durability in
buildings is so great. I shall therefore explain how their
good and bad qualities arise from the situations in which
they grow, that they may be clearly understood.
72
CHAPTER X.
OF THE FIRS CALLED SUPERNAS AND INFERNAS,
AND OF THE APENNINES.
THE Apennines begin from the Tyrrhene Sea, extending
to the Alps on one side, and the borders of Tuscany on
the other; and their summits spreading in the shape of a
bow, almost touch the shores of the Adriatic in the cen-
tre of their range, which ends near the Straits of Sicily.
The hither side of them towards Tuscany and Campania,
is in point of climate extremely mild, being continually
warmed by the sun’s rays. The further side, which lies to-
wards the upper sea, is exposed to the north, and is enclosed
by thick and gloomy shadow. The trees, therefore,
which grow in that part being nourished by continual
moisture, not only grow to a great size, but their fibres
being too much saturated with it, swell out considerably.
When hewn, therefore, and squared, and deprived of
their natural vegetation, they change in drying the hard-
ness of the grain, and become weak and apt to decay, on
account of the openness of their pores. They are, there-
fore, of little durability in buildings. On the contrary,
those which grow on the side opposite to the sun, not
being so porous, harden in drying, because the sun draws
the moisture from trees no less than from the earth.
Hence, those which grow in open sunny places, are more
solid, on account of the closeness of their pores, and
when squared for use, are exceedingly lasting. The fir,
which goes by the name of Infernas, brought from the
warm open parts, is therefore preferable to the sort called
LIB, II, CAP, \,
73
Supernas, which comes from a closely and thickly wooded
country. To the best of my ability I have treated on the
materials necessary for building, and their natural tem-
peraments in respect of the different proportions of the
elements which they contain, as well as on their good and
bad qualities, in order that those who build may be well
informed thereon. Those who follow my directions, and
choose a proper material for the purpose whereto it is ap-
plied, will do right. Having thus considered the prepa-
rations to be made, we shall proceed, in the following
books, to the consideration of buildings themselves, and
first, to that of the temples of the immortal gods, and
their symmetry and proportions as the importance of the
subject requires, which will form the subject of the fol-
lowing book.
PRAEF. LIB, III,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
MARCU'S VITRUVIUS POLLIO.
BOOK THE THIRD.
Aºf HEN s
ERF, C T H E U M
AcRoPolis
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INTRODUCTION.
THE Delphic Apollo, by the answer of his priestess, de-
clared Socrates the wisest of men. Of him it is said he
sagaciously observed that it had been well if men’s
breasts were open, and, as it were, with windows in them,
so that every one might be acquainted with their senti-
ments. Would to God they had been so formed. We
might then not only find out the virtues and vices of per-
sons with facility, but, being also enabled to obtain ocular







76
knowledge of the science they profess, we might judge
of their skill with certainty; whereby those who are
really clever and learned would be held in proper esteem.
But as nature has not formed us after this fashion, the ta-
lents of many men lie concealed within them, and this
renders it so difficult to lay down an accurate theory of
any art. However an artist may promise to exert his ta-
lents, if he have not either plenty of money, or a good
connexion from his situation in life; or if he be not
gifted with a good address or considerable eloquence, his
study and application will go but little way to persuade
persons that he is a competent artist. We find a corro-
boration of this by reference to the ancient Sculptors and
Painters, among whom, those who obtained the greatest
fame and applause are still living in the remembrance of
posterity; such, for instance, as Myron, Polycletus, Phi-
dias, Lysippus, and others who obtained celebrity in their
art. This arose from their being employed by great
cities, by kings, or by wealthy citizens. Now others, who,
not less studious of their art, nor less endued with great
genius and skill, did not enjoy equal fame, because
employed by persons of lower rank and of slenderer
means, and not from their unskilfulness, seem to have
been deserted by fortune; such were Hellas the Athenian,
Chion of Corinth, Myagrus the Phocaean, Pharax the
Ephesian, Bedas of Byzantium, and many more; among
the Painters, Aristomenes of Thasos, Polycles of Adra-
myttium, Nicomachus, and others, who were wanting nei-
ther in industry, study of their art, nor talent. But their
poverty, the waywardness of fortune, or their ill success
in competition with others, prevented their advancement.
Nor can we wonder that from the ignorance of the public
PRAEF, LIB, III,
77
in respect of art many skilful artists remain in obscu-
rity; but it is scandalous that friendship and connexion
should lead men, for their sake, to give partial and un-
true opinions. If, as Socrates would have had it, every
one’s feelings, opinions, and information in science could
be opéâ to view, neither favor nor ambition would prevail,
but those, who by study and great learning acquire the
greatest knowledge, would be eagerly sought after.
Matters are not however in this state as they ought to
be, the ignorant rather than the learned being successful,
and as it is never worth while to dispute with an ignorant
man, I propose to shew in these precepts the excellence
of the science I profess. In the first book, O Emperor,
I laid before you an explanation of the art, its requisites,
and the learning an architect should possess, and I
added the reasons why he should possess them. I also
divided it into different branches and defined them : then,
because chiefest and most necessary, I have explained
the proper method of setting out the walls of a city, and
obtaining a healthy site for it, and have exhibited in dia-
grams, the winds, and quarters whence they blow. I have
shewn the best methods of laying out the streets and
lanes, and thus completed the first book. In the second
book I have analysed the nature and qualities of the ma-
terials used in building, and adverted to the purposes to
which they are best adapted. In this third book I shall
speak of the sacred temples of the immortal gods, and
explain them particularly.
78
CHAPTER I. .
OF THE DESIGN AND SYMMETRY OF TEMPLES.
THE design of Temples depends on symmetry, the rules
of which Architects should be most careful to observe.
Symmetry arises from proportion, which the Greeks call
&voxoyſz. Proportion is a due adjustment of the size
of the different parts to each other and to the whole; on
this proper adjustment symmetry depends. Hence no
building can be said to be well designed which wants
symmetry and proportion. In truth they are as neces-
sary to the beauty of a building as to that of a well
formed human figure, which nature has so fashioned, that
in the face, from the chin to the top of the forehead,
or to the roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the height
of the whole body. From the chin to the crown of the
head is an eighth part of the whole height, and from the
nape of the neck to the crown of the head the same.
From the upper part of the breast to the roots of the
hair a sixth ; to the crown of the head a fourth. A third
part of the height of the face is equal to that from the
chin to the under side of the nostrils, and thence to the
middle of the eyebrows the same; from the last to the
roots of the hair, where the forehead ends, the remaining
third part. The length of the foot is a sixth part of the
height of the body. The fore-arm a fourth part. The
width of the breast a fourth part. Similarly have the
other members their due proportions, by attention to
which the ancient Painters and Sculptors obtained so much
reputation. Just so the parts of Temples should corre-
LIT, III. (AT, I,
79
spond with each other, and with the whole. The navel
is naturally placed in the centre of the human body, and,
if in a man lying with his face upward, and his hands and
feet extended, from his navel as the centre, a circle be
described, it will touch his fingers and toes. It is not
alone by a circle, that the human body is thus circum-
scribed, as may be seen by placing it within a square. For
measuring from the feet to the crown of the head, and
then across the arms fully extended, we find the latter
measure equal to the former ; so that lines at right an-
gles to each other, enclosing the figure, will form a
square. If Nature, therefore, has made the human body
so that the different members of it are measures of the
whole, so the ancients have, with great propriety, deter-
mined that in all perfect works, each part should be some
aliquot part of the whole; and since they direct, that this
be observed in all works, it must be most strictly attend-
ed to in temples of the gods, wherein the faults as well as
the beauties remain to the end of time. It is worthy of
remark, that the measures necessarily used in all buildings
and other works, are derived from the members of the
human body, as the digit, the palm, the foot, the cubit,
and that these form a perfect number, called by the
Greek réxalog. The ancients considered ten a perfect
number, because the fingers are ten in number, and the
palm is derived from them, and from the palm is derived
the foot. Plato, therefore, called ten a perfect number,
Nature having formed the hands with ten fingers, and also
because it is composed of units called gováðs; in Greek,
which also advancing beyond ten, as to eleven, twelve,
&c. cannot be perfect until, another ten are included,
units being the parts whereof such numbers are composed.
80
The mathematicians, on the other hand, contend for the
perfection of the number six, because, according to their
reasoning, its divisors equal its number: for a sixth part
is one, a third two, a half three, two-thirds four, which
they call 3igogo; ; the fifth in order, which they call
reprápoleos, five, and then the perfect number six. When
it advances beyond that, a sixth being added, which is
called £azrog, we have the number seven. Eight are
formed by adding a third, called triens, and by the Greeks,
&rírgºrog. Nine are formed by the addition of a half, and
thence called sesquialteral; by the Greeks #916xio; ; if
we add the two aliquot parts of it, which form ten, it is
called bes alterus, or in Greek áriëſgogog. The number
eleven, being compounded of the original number, and
the fifth in order is called ězizévr&pougog. The number
twelve, being the sum of the two simple numbers, is called
Birazoſov. Moreover, as the foot is the sixth part of a man's
height, they contend, that this number, namely six, the
number of feet in height, is perfect: the cubit, also, being
six palms, consequently consists of twenty-four digits.
Hence the states of Greece appear to have divided the
drachma, like the cubit, that is into six parts, which were
small equal sized pieces of brass, similar to the asses, which
they called oboli; and, in imitation of the twenty-four
digits, they divided the obolus into four parts, which some
call dichalca, others trichalca. Our ancestors, however,
were better pleased with the number ten, and hence made
the denarius to consist of ten brass asses, and the money
to this day retains the name of denarius. The sester-
tius, a fourth part of a denarius, was so called, because
composed of two asses, and the half of another. Thus
finding the numbers six and ten perfect, they added them
LIP, III. (AP, I,
81
together, and formed sixteen, a still more perfect num-
ber. The foot measure gave rise to this, for subtracting
two palms from the cubit, four remain, which is the
length of a foot; and as each palm contains four digits,
the foot will consequently contain sixteen, so the dena-
rius was made to contain an equal number of asses. If it
therefore appear, that numbers had their origin from the
human body, and proportion is the result of a due adjust-
ment of the different parts to each other, and to the
whole, they are especially to be commended, who, in
designing temples to the gods, so arrange the parts
that the whole may harmonize in their proportions and
symmetry. The principles of temples are distinguished
by their different forms. First, that known by the appella-
tion IN ANTIs, which the Greeks call woog #y Togo.or&gt;
then the PROSTYLos, PERIPTERos, PSEUDoDIPTEROS, DIPTE-
Ros, HYPETHRos. Their difference is as follows. A tem-
ple is called IN ANTIS, when it has antae or pilasters in
front of the walls which enclose the cell, with two columns
between the antae, and crowned with a pediment, propor-
tioned as we shall hereafter direct. There is an exam-
ple of this species of temple, in that of the three dedi-
cated to Fortune, near the Porta Collina. The PRosTYLos
temple is similar, except that it has columns instead of
antae in front, which are placed opposite to antae at the
angles of the cell, and support the entablature, which re-
turns on each side as in those in antis. An example of
the prostylos exists in the temple of Jupiter and Faunus,
in the island of the Tyber. The AMPHIPROSTYLos is si-
milar to the prostylos, but with this addition, that the
columns and pediment in the front are repeated in the
rear of the temple. The PERIPTERos has six columns
M
82
in the front and rear, and eleven on the flanks, count-
ing in the two columns at the angles, and these eleven
are so placed that their distance from the wall is equal
to an intercolumniation, or space between the columns
all round, and thus is formed a walk around the cell of
the temple, such as may be seen in the portico of the thea-
tre of Metellus, in that of Jupiter Stator, by Hermodus,
and in the temple of Honour and Virtue without a Pos-
TICUM designed by Mutius, near the trophy of Marius.
The PSEUDoDIPTERos is constructed with eight columns
in front and rear, and with fifteen on the sides, including
those at the angles. The walls of the cell are opposite
to the four middle columns of the front and of the rear.
Hence from the walls to the front of the lower part of
the columns, there will be an interval equal to two inter-
columniations and the thickness of a column all round.
No example of such a temple is to be found in Rome,
but of this sort was the temple of Diana, in Magnesia,
built by Hermogenes of Alabanda, and that of Apollo,
by Menesthes. The DIPTERos is octastylos like the former,
and with a pronaos and posticum, but all round the cell
are two ranks of columns. Such are the Doric temple
of Quirinus, and the temple of Diana at Ephesus, built
by Ctesiphon. The HYPETHRos is decastylos, in the pro-
naos and posticum. In other respects it is similar to the
dipteros, except that in the inside it has two stories of
columns all round, at some distance from the walls, after
the manner of the peristylia of porticos. The middle
of the interior part of the temple is open to the sky, and
it is entered by two doors, one in front and the other in
the rear. Of this sort there is no example at Rome,
there is, however, an octastyle specimen of it at Athens,
the temple of Jupiter Olympius. -
LIT, III. C.P. II.
83
CHAPTER II.
OF THE FIVE SPECIES OF TEMPLES.
THERE are five species of temples, whose names are, PYc-
NoSTYLos, that is, thick set with columns: SYSTYLOs,
in which the columns are not so close : DIASTYLos, where
they are still wider apart: AR.EosTYLos, when placed
more distant from each other than in fact they ought to
be : EUstylos, when the intercolumniation, or space be-
tween the columns, is of the best proportion. PYCNOSTY-
Los, is that arrangement wherein the columns are only
once and a half their thickness apart, as in the tem-
ple of the god Julius, in that of Venus in the forum of
Caesar, and in other similar buildings. SYSTYLOS, is the
distribution of columns with an intercolumniation of two
diameters: the distance between their plinths is then
equal to their front faces. Examples of it are to be seen
in the temple of Fortuna Equestris, near the stone theatre,
and in other places. This, no less than the former
arrangement, is faulty; because matrons, ascending the
steps to supplicate the deity, cannot pass the intercolum-
niations arm in arm, but are obliged to enter after each
other; the doors are also hidden, by the closeness of
the columns, and the statues are too much in shadow.
The passages moreover round the temple are inconvenient
for walking. DIASTYLos has intercolumniations of three
diameters, as in the temple of Apollo and Diana. The
inconvenience of this species is, that the epistylia or
architraves over the columns frequently fail, from their
bearings being too long. In the ARIEosTYLos the archi-
84
traves are of wood, and not of stone or marble; the
different species of temples of this sort are clumsy, heavy
roofed, low and wide, and their pediments are usually or-
namented with statues of clay or brass, gilt in the Tuscan
fashion. Of this species is the temple of Ceres, near the
Circus Maximus, that of Hercules, erected by Pompey,
and that of Jupiter Capitolinus. We now proceed to the
EUSTYLos, which is preferable, as well in respect of conve-
nience, as of beauty and strength. Its intercolumnia-
tions are of two diameters and a quarter. The centre in-
tercolumniation, in front and in the posticum, is three
diameters. It has not only a beautiful effect, but is con-
venient, from the unobstructed passage it affords to the
door of the temple, and the great room allowed for walk-
ing round the cell. The rule for designing it is as follows.
The extent of the front being given, it is, if tetrastylos, to
be divided into eleven parts and a half, not including the
projections of the base and plinth at each end: if hexa-
stylos, into eighteen parts: if octastylos, into twenty-
four parts and a half. One of either of these parts, ac-
cording to the case, whether tetrastylos, hexastylos, or
octastylos, will be a measure equal to the diameter of
one of the columns. Each intercolumniation, except the
middle one, front and rear, will be equal to two of these
measures and one quarter, and the middle intercolum-
niation three. The heights of the columns will be eight
parts and a half. Thus the intercolumniations and the
heights of the columns will have proper proportions.
There is no example of eustylos in Rome; but there
is one at Teos in Asia, which is octastylos, and dedicated
to Bacchus. Its proportions were discovered by Hermo-
genes, who was also the inventor of the octastylos or
LIB, III, CAP, II,
85
pseudodipteral formation. It was he who first omitted
the inner ranges of columns in the dipteros, which, being
in number thirty-eight, afforded the opportunity of avoid-
ing considerable expense. By it a great space was obtained
for walking all round the cell, and the effect of the tem-
ple was not injured because the omission of the columns
was not perceptible; neither was the grandeur of the work
destroyed. The pteromata, or wings, and the disposition
of columns about a temple, were contrived for the pur-
pose of increasing the effect, by the varied appearance of
the returning columns, as seen through the front inter-
columniations, and also for providing plenty of room for
the numbers frequently detained by rain, so that they
might walk about, under shelter, round the cell. I have
been thus particular on the pseudodipteros, because it dis-
plays the skill and ingenuity with which Hermogenes de-
signed those his works; which cannot but be acknow-
ledged as the sources whence his successors have derived
their best principles. In araeostyle temples the diameter
of the columns must be an eighth part of their height.
In diastylos, the height of the columns is to be divided
into eight parts and a half; one of which is to be taken
for the diameter of the column. In systylos, let the
height be divided into nine parts and a half; one of those
parts will be the diameter of a column. In pycnostylos,
one-tenth part of the height is the diameter of the co-
lumns. In the eustylos, as well as in the diastylos, the
height of the columns is divided into eight parts and a,
half; one of which is to be taken for the thickness of the
column. These, then, are the rules for the several inter-
columniations. For, as the distances between the columns
increase, so must the shafts of the columns increase in
86
thickness. If, for instance, in the araeostylos, they were a
ninth or a tenth part of the height, they would appear too
delicate and slender; because the air interposed between
the columns destroys and apparently diminishes, their
thickness. On the other hand, if, in the pycnostylos, their
thickness or diameter were an eighth part of the height,
the effect would be heavy and unpleasant, on account of
the frequent repetition of the columns, and the smallness
of the intercolumniations. The arrangement is there-
fore indicated by the species adopted. Columns at the
angles, on account of the unobstructed play of air round
them, should be one-fiftieth part of a diameter thicker
than the rest, that they may have a more graceful effect.
The deception which the eye undergoes should be allowed
for in execution. The diminution of columns taken at
the hypotrachelium, is to be so ordered, that for columns
of fifteen feet and under, it should be one-sixth of the
lower diameter. From fifteen to twenty feet in height,
the lower diameter is to be divided into six parts and a
half; and five parts and a half are to be assigned for the
upper thickness of the column. When columns are from
twenty to thirty feet high, the lower diameter of the
shaft must be divided into seven parts, six of which are
given to the upper diameter. From thirty to forty feet
high, the lower diameter is divided into seven parts and
a half, and six and a half given to the top. From forty
to fifty feet, the lower diameter of the shaft is to be di-
vided into eight parts, seven of which must be given to
the thickness under the hypotrachelium. If the propor-
tion for greater heights be required, the thickness at top
must be found after the preceding method; always re-
membering, that as the upper parts of columns are more
LIB, III, CAP, II,
87
distant from the eye, they deceive it when viewed from
below, and that we must, therefore, actually add what
they apparently lose. The eye is constantly seeking
after beauty; and if we do not endeavour to gratify it by
proper proportions and an increase of size, where neces-
sary, and thus remedy the defect of vision, a work will
always be clumsy and disagreeable. Of the swelling
which is made in the middle of columns, which the Greeks
call wroots, so that it may be pleasing and appropriate, I
shall speak at the end of the book.
88
CHAPTER III.
OF FOUNDATIONS: AND OF COLUMNS AND THEIR
ORNAMENTS.
IF solid ground can be come to, the foundations should
go down to it and into it, according to the magnitude
of the work, and the substruction should be built up as
solid as possible. Above the ground of the foundation,
the wall should be one-half thicker than the columns it is
to receive, so that the lower parts which carry the greatest
weight, may be stronger than the upper part, which is call-
ed the stereobata: nor must the mouldings of the bases of
the columns project beyond the solid. Thus, also, should
be regulated the thickness of all walls above ground. The
intervals between the foundations brought up under
the columns, should be either rammed down hard, or
arched, so as to prevent the foundation piers from Swerv-
ing. If solid ground cannot be come to, and the ground
be loose or marshy, the place must be excavated, cleared,
and either alder, olive, or oak piles, previously charred,
must be driven with a machine, as close to each other as
possible, and the intervals, between the piles, filled with
ashes. The heaviest foundations may be laid on such a
base. When they are brought up level, the stylobatae
(plinths) are placed thereon, according to the arrange-
ment used, and above described for the pycnostylos, sys-
tylos, diastylos or eustylos, as the case may be. In the
araeostylos it is only necessary to preserve, in a peripteral
building, twice the number of intercolumniations on the
flanks that there are in front, so that the length may be
LIB, III, CAP, III,
89
twice the breadth. Those who use twice the number of
columns for the length, appear to err, because they thus
make one intercolumniation more than should be used.
The number of steps in front should always be odd, since,
in that case, the rightfoot, which begins the ascent, will be
that which first alights on the landing of the temple. The
thickness of the steps should not, I think, be more than ten
inches, nor less than nine, which will give an easy ascent.
The treads not less than one foot and a half, nor more
than two feet; and if the steps are to go all round the
temple, they are to be formed in the same manner. But
if there is to be a podium on three sides of the temple,
the plinths, bases of the columns, columns, coronae, and
cymatium, may accord with the stylobata, under the
bases of the columns. The stylobata should be so ad-
justed, that, by means of small steps or stools, it may be
highest in the middle. For if it be set out level, it will
have the appearance of having sunk in the centre. The
mode of adjusting the steps (scamilli impares), in a pro-
per manner, will be shewn at the end of the book. The
scamilli being prepared and set, the bases of the columns
may be laid, their height being equal to the semidiame-
ter of the column including the plinth, and their projec-
tion, which the Greeks call zºoga, one quarter of the
diameter of the column. Thus the height and breadth,
added together, will amount to one diameter and a half.
If the attic base be used, it must be so subdivided that the
upper part be one-third of the thickness of the column,
and that the remainder be assigned for the height of the
plinth. Excluding the plinth, divide the height into four
parts, one of which is to be given to the upper torus;
then divide the remaining three parts into two equal
N
*
|
90
parts, one will be the height of the lower torus, and the
other the height of the scotia, with its fillets, which the
Greeks call reáxixog (trochilus). If Ionic, they are to be set
out so that the base may each way be equal to the thick-
ness and three eighths of the column. Its height and that
of the plinth the same as the attic base. The plinth
is the same height as in that of the attic base, the re-
mainder, which was equal to one-third part of the co-
lumn’s diameter, must be divided into seven parts, three
of which are given to the upper torus; the remaining four
parts are to be equally divided into two, one of which is
given to the upper cavetto, with its astragals and listel,
the other to the lower cavetto, which will have the ap-
pearance of being larger, from its being next to the
plinth. The astragals must be an eighth part of the sco-
tia, and the whole base on each side is to project three
sixteenths of a diameter. The bases being thus com-
pleted, we are to raise the columns on them. Those of
the pronaos and posticum are to be set up with their axes
perpendicular, the angular ones excepted, which, as well
as those on the flanks, right and left, are to be so placed
that their interior faces towards the cell be perpendicu-
lar. The exterior faces will diminish upwards, as above-
mentioned. Thus the diminution will give a pleasing
effect to the temple. The shafts of the columns being
fixed, the proportions of the capitals are thus adjusted: if
pillowed, as in the Ionic, they must be so formed that the
length and breadth of the abacus be equal to the diameter
of the lower part of the column and one eighteenth more,
and the height of the whole, including the volutes, half a
diameter. The face of the volutes is to recede within
the extreme projection of the abacus one thirty-ninth part
LIB, III, CAP, III,
91
of the width of the abacus. Having set out these points
on the listel of the abacus at the four angles, let fall ver-
tical lines. These are called catheti. The whole height
of the capital is now to be divided into nine parts and a
half, whereof one part and a half is the height of the
abacus, and the remaining eight are for the eye of the
volute. Within the line dropt from the angle of the aba-
cus, at the distance of one and a half of the parts last
found, let fall another vertical line, and so divide it that
four parts and a half being left under the abacus, the
point which divides them from the remaining three and a
half, may be the centre of the eye of the volute; from
which, with a radius equal to one half of one of the parts, if
a circle be described, it will be the size of the eye of the vo-
lute. Through its centre let an horizontal line be drawn,
and beginning from the upper part of the vertical dia-
meter of the eye as a centre, let a quadrant be described
whose upper part shall touch the under side of the aba-
cus; then changing the centre, with a radius less than
the last by half the width of the diameter of the eye, pro-
ceed with other quadrants, so that the last will fall into
the eye itself, which happen in the vertical line, at a
point perpendicularly under that of setting out. The
heights of the parts of the capital are to be so regulated
that three of the nine parts and a half, into which it was
divided, lie below the level of the astragal on the top of
the shaft. The remaining parts are for the cymatium,
abacus, and channel. The projection of the cymatium
beyond the abacus is not to be greater than the size of
the diameter of the eye. The bands of the pillows pro-
ject beyond the abacus, according to the following rule.
Place one point of the compasses in the centre of the
92
eye, and let the other extend to the top of the cymatium,
then describing a semicircle, its extreme part will equal the
projection of the band of the pillow. The centres, from
which the volute is described, should not be more distant
from each other than the thickness of the eye, nor the
channels sunk more than a twelfth part of their width.
The foregoing are the proportions for the capitals of co-
lumns which do not exceed fifteen feet in height: when
they exceed that, they must be otherwise proportioned,
though upon similar principles, always observing that the
square of the abacus is to be a ninth part more than the di-
ameter of the column, so that, inasmuch as its diminution
is less as its height is greater, the capital which crowns it
may also be augmented in height and projection. The me-
thod of describing volutes, in order that they may be
properly turned and proportioned, will be given at
the end of the book. The capitals being completed, and
set on the tops of the shafts, not level throughout the
range of columns, but so arranged with a gauge as to fol-
low the inclination which the small steps on the stylobata
produce, which must be added to them on the cen-
tral part of the top of the abacus, that the regularity
of the epistylia may be preserved: we may now con-
sider the proportion of these epistylia, or architraves.
When the columns are at least twelve and not more than
fifteen feet high, the architrave must be half a diameter
in height. When they are from fifteen to twenty feet in
height, the height of the column is to be divided into
thirteen parts, and one of them taken for the height of the
architrave. So from twenty to twenty-five feet, let the
height be divided into twelve parts and a half, and one
part be taken for the height of the architrave. Thus, in
LIB, III. CAP, IHI.
93
proportion to the height of the column, is the architrave
to be proportioned; always remembering, that the higher
the eye has to reach, the greater is the difficulty it has in
piercing the density of the air, its power being diminished
as the height increases; of which the resultis, a confusion
of the image. Hence, to preserve a sensible proportion
of parts, if in high situations, or of colossal dimensions,
we must modify them accordingly, so that they may ap-
pear of the size intended. The under side of the archi-
trave is to be as wide as the upper diameter of the co-
lumn, at the part under the capital; its upper part equal
in width to the lower diameter of the column. Its cyma-
tium is to be one seventh part of the whole height, and
its projection the same. After the cymatium is taken
out, the remainder is to be divided into twelve parts,
three of which are to be given to the lower fascia, four to
the next, and five to the upper one. The Zophorus, or
frieze, is placed over the epistylium, than which it must
be one fourth less in height; but if sculptured, it must
be one fourth part higher, that the effect of the carving
may not be injured. Its cymatium is to be a seventh part
of its height, the projection equal to the height. Above
the frieze is placed the dentil-band, whose height must be
equal to that of the middle fascia of the architrave, its pro-
jection equal to its height. The cutting thereof, which
the Greeks call ºrožň (metoche), is to be so executed that
the width of each dentil may be half its height, and the
space between them two-thirds of the width of a dentil.
The cymatium is to be one sixth part of its height. The
corona, with its cymatium, but without the sima is to
be the same height as the middle fascia of the archi-
trave. The projection of the corona and dentils, together
94
is to be equal to the height from the frieze to the top of
the cymatium of the corona. It may, indeed, be generally
observed, that projections are more beautiful when they
are equal to the height of the member. The height of
the tympanum, which crowns the whole work, is to be
equal to one ninth part of the extent of the corona, mea-
sured from one extremity of its cymatium to the other,
and set up in the centre. Its face is to stand perpendicu-
larly over the architrave and the hypotrachelia of the co-
lumns. The coronae over the tympanum are to be equal
to that below, without the simae. Above the coronae are
set the simae, which the Greeks call Tiraşſösc, whose
height must be one-eighth more than that of the corona.
The height of the acroteria is to be equal to that of the
middle of the tympanum ; the central ones one eighth part
higher than those at the angles. All members over the
capitals of columns, such as architraves, friezes, coronae,
tympana, crowning members (fastigia), and acroteria,
should not be vertical, but inclined forwards, each a
twelfth part of its height; and for this reason, that when
two lines are produced from the eye, one to the upper
part of a member, and the other to its lower part, the
upper line or visual ray will be longer than the lower
one, and if really vertical, the member will appear to
lean backwards; but if the members are set out as above
directed, they will have the appearance of being perpen-
dicular. The number of flutes in a column is twenty-
four. They are to be hollowed, so that a square kept
passing round their surface, and at the same time kept
close against the arrises of the fillets, will touch some
point in their circumference and the arrises themselves
throughout its motion. The additional thickness of the
LIB, III, CAP, III,
95
flutes and fillets in the middle of the column, arising from
the entasis or swelling, will be proportional to the swell-
ing. On the simae of the coronae on the sides of tem-
ples, lions’ heads should be carved; and they are to be
so disposed that one may come over each column, and the
others at equal distances from each other, and answering
to the middle of each tile. Those which are placed over
the columns are to be bored through, so as to carry off
the rain-water collected in the gutter. But the interme-
diate ones must be solid, so that the water from the tiles,
which is collected in the gutter, may not be carried off in
the intercolumniations, and fall on those passing. Those
over the columns will appear to vomit forth streams of
water from their mouths. In this book I have done my
utmost to describe the proportions of Ionic temples: in
that following I shall explain the proportions of Doric
and Corinthian temples.
PRAEF. LIB, IW,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
MARCUS VITRU VIUS POLLIO.
BOOK THE FOURTH.
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INTRODUCTION.
FINDING, O Emperor, that many persons have left us
precepts in Architecture, and volumes of comment-
aries thereon, not systematically arranged, but mere
general principles, little more indeed than scattered
hints, I considered it a worthy and useful task, first, to
give a general view of the whole subject, and then to
dilate in each book on the detail. Thus, Caesar, I treated
in the first book on the duties of an architect, and the
O













98
sciences in which he should be skilled. In the second, I
taught the knowledge of the different materials used in
building. The third contained instructions on the ar-
rangement of sacred buildings, their different forms and
species, and the distributions appropriate to each sort;
confining myself, however, to the use of the Ionic order,
which, of the three, from the great delicacy of its pro-
portions, requires the most attention in its use. I shall
now, in this book, point out the difference and properties
of the Doric and Corinthian Orders.
LIB, IV, CAT, I,
09
CHAPTER I.
OF THE ORIGIN OF THE THREE SORTS OF COLUMNS,
AND OF THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.
THE Corinthian Column is, except in its capital, of the
same proportion as the Ionic: but the additional height
of its capital makes it taller and more graceful; the
Ionic capital being but one third of the diameter of the
shaft in height, whilst that of the Corinthian is equal to
the thickness of the shaft. Thus, the two thirds of the
thickness of the shaft, which are added to its height, give
it, in that respect, a more pleasing effect. The other
members which are placed on the Columns, are borrowed
either from the Doric or Ionic proportions: inasmuch
as the Corinthian itself has no regular settled rules for
its cornice, and other ornaments, but is regulated by
analogy, either from the mutuli in the cornice, or the
guttae in the architrave, or epistylium in the Doric order;
or it is set out according to the laws of the Ionic, with a
sculptured frieze, dentils and a cornice. Thus, from the
two orders, by the interposition of a capital, a third order
arises. The three sorts of columns, different in form, have
received the appellations of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian,
of which the first is of the greatest antiquity. For Dorus,
the son of Hellen, and the Nymph Orseis, reigned over
the whole of Achaia and Peloponnesus, and built at
Argos, an ancient city, on a spot sacred to Juno, a tem- -
ple, which happened to be of this order. After this,
many temples similar to it, sprung up in the other parts
of Achaia, though the proportions which should be pre-
100
served in it, were not as yet settled. But afterwards when
the Athenians, by the advice of the Delphic oracle in a
general assembly of the different states of Greece, sent over
into Asia thirteen colonies at once, and appointed a go-
vernor or leader to each, reserving the chief command for
Ion, the son of Xuthus and Creüsa, whom the Delphic
Apollo had acknowledged as son; that person led them over
into Asia, and occupied the borders of Caria, and there built
the great cities of Ephesus, Miletus, Myus (which was long
since destroyed by inundation, and its sacred rites and
suffrages transferred by the Ionians to the inhabitants of
Miletus), Priene, Samos, Teos, Colophon, Chios, Ery-
thrae, Phocaea, Clazomenae, Lebedos, and Melite. The
last, as a punishment of the arrogance of its citizens, was
detached from the other states in a war levied pursuant
to the directions of a general council; and in its place,
as a mark of favor towards king Attalus, and Arsinoë,
the city of Smyrna was admitted into the number of
Ionian states, which received the appellation of Ionian
from their leader Ion, after the Carians and Lelegaº had
been driven out. In this country, allotting different spots
for sacred purposes, they began to erect temples, the first
of which was dedicated to Apollo Panionios, and re-
sembled that which they had seen in Achaia, and they
gave it the name of Doric, because they had first seen
that species in the cities of Doria. As they wished to
erect this temple with columns, and had not a knowledge
of the proper proportions of them, nor knew the way in
which they ought to be constructed, so as at the same
time to be both fit to carry the superincumbent weight,
and to produce a beautiful effect, they measured a man’s
foot, and finding its length the sixth part of his height,
LIB, IV, CAP, I,
101
they gave the column a similar proportion, that is, they
made its height, including the capital, six times the
thickness of the shaft, measured at the base. Thus the
Doric order obtained its proportion, its strength, and its
beauty, from the human figure. With a similar feeling
they afterwards built the temple of Diana. But in
that, seeking a new proportion, they used the female
figure as the standard: and for the purpose of pro-
ducing a more lofty effect, they first made it eight times
its thickness in height. Under it they placed a base,
after the manner of a shoe to the foot; they also added
volutes to its capital, like graceful curling hair hanging
on each side, and the front they ornamented with cy-
matia and festoons in the place of hair. On the shafts
they sunk channels, which bear a resemblance to the
folds of a matronal garment. Thus two orders were in-
vented, one of a masculine character, without ornament,
the other bearing a character which resembled the de-
licacy, ornament, and proportion of a female. The suc-
cessors of these people, improving in taste, and preferring
a more slender proportion, assigned seven diameters to
the height of the Doric column, and eight and a half to
the Ionic. That species, of which the Ionians were the
inventors, has received the appellation of Ionic. The
third species, which is called Corinthian, resembles in its
character, the graceful elegant appearance of a virgin, in
whom, from her tender age, the limbs are of a more de-
licate form, and whose ornaments should be unob-
trusive. The invention of the capital of this, order is
said to be founded on the following occurrence. A Co-
rinthian virgin, of marriageable age, fell a victim to a
violent disorder. After her interment, her nurse, col-
102
lecting in a basket those articles to which she had shewn
a partiality when alive, carried them to her tomb, and
placed a tile on the basket for the longer preservation of
its contents. The basket was accidentally placed on the
root of an acanthus plant, which, pressed by the weight,
shot forth, towards spring, its stems and large foliage,
and in the course of its growth reached the angles of the
tile, and thus formed volutes at the extremities. Calli-
machus, who, for his great ingenuity and taste was called
by the Athenians Catatechnos, happening at this time to
pass by the tomb, observed the basket, and the delicacy e
of the foliage which surrounded it. Pleased with the
form and novelty of the combination, he constructed
from the hint thus afforded, columns of this species in the
country about Corinth, and arranged its proportions, de-
termining their proper measures by perfect rules. The
method of setting out the capital is as follows. Its height,
including the abacus, is to be equal to the diameter of
the lower part of the column. The width of the abacus
is obtained by making its diagonal from opposite angles,
equal to twice its height. It will thus have a proper
front on each face. The faces of the four sides of the
abacus are to be curved inwards from its extreme angles,
equal to one ninth of its extent. The thickness of the
lower part of the capital must be equal to the diameter of
the top of the shaft, exclusive of the apothesis and astra-
gal. The height of the abacus is a seventh of the height
of the whole capital; the remainder is to be divided into
three parts, one of which is to be given to the lower leaf,
the middle leaf will occupy the space of the next third
part, the stalks or caulicoli will be the same height as the
last named, out of which the leaves spring for the recep-
LIB, IV, CAP, [.
103
tion of the abacus. Large volutes are generated from
these, which branch out towards the angles. The smaller
volutes spread out towards the flowers, which are intro-
duced in the centre of each abacus. Flowers whose
diameters are equal to the height of the abacus, are to be
placed in the central part of each its faces. By attention
to these rules the Corinthian capital will be properly
proportioned. . . Other sorts of capitals are however
placed on these columns, which, differing in proportion,
and standing on a different sort of shaft, cannot be re-
ferred to any other class; but their origin, though the
detail be changed, is traced to, and deduced from the
Corinthian, the Ionic, and the Doric, their only differ-
ences arising from a variation of the arrangement of the
sculpture on them. -
104
CHAPTER II. -
OF THE ORNAMENTS OF COLUMNS.
THE origin and invention of the different species of co-
lumns, having been discussed, it is now necessary to say
something on the subject of their ornaments, how they
originated, and upon what principles and for what pur-
poses they were invented. In all buildings the timber
framed work, which has various names, crowns them.
The timbers vary as much in their uses as in their names.
Those are called bressummers (trabes) which are placed
over columns, pilasters (parastatae), and antae. In the
framing of floors, beams (tigna) and boards (axes) are
used. If the span of a roof be large, a ridge piece (co-
lumen) is laid on the top of the king post (columna,
whence is derived the word column), and a tye beam
(transtrum) and struts (capreoli) will be necessary. If
the roof be of moderate span, the ridge piece (columen),
and rafters (cantherii), of sufficient projection at their
feet to throw the water off the walls, will answer the pur-
pose. On the rafters are laid purlines (templa), and
again on these, to receive the tiles, are placed common
rafters (asseres), which must be of sufficient length to
cover the walls and protect them. Thus each piece has
its proper place, origin, and purpose. Hence, following the
arrangement of timber framing, workmen have imi-
tated, both in stone and marble, the disposition of tim-
bers in sacred edifices, thinking such a distribution ought
to be attended to ; because some antient artificers, having
laid the beams so that they ran over from the inner face
LIB, IV, CAP, II,
105
of the walls, and projected beyond their external face,
filled up the spaces between the beams, and ornamented
the cornices and upper parts with wood-work elegantly
wrought. They then cut off the ends of the beams that
projected over the external face of the wall, flush with its
face; the appearance whereof being unpleasing, they
fixed, on the end of each beam so cut, indented tablets,
similar to the triglyphs now in use, and painted them
with a waxen composition of a blue colour, so that the
ends of the beams in question might not be unpleasant
to the eye. Thus the ends of the timbers covered with
tablets, indented as just mentioned, gave rise to the tri-
glyph and metopa in the Doric order. Others, in subse-
quent works, suffered the rafters’ feet above each tri-
glyph, to run over, and hollowed out the projecting infe-
rior surface. Thus, from the arrangement of beams, arose
the invention of triglyphs; and, from the projection of
the rafters, the use of mutuli under the corona. On
which latter account it is observable, that in works of
stone and marble the carving of the mutuli is inclined, in
imitation of the feet of rafters, whose slope is necessary
to carry off the water. Hence we have the imitation of
the earliest works to account for the Doric triglyph and
mutulus, and not, as some have erroneously said, from
the circumstance of triglyphs being introduced as win-
dows; which could not be the case, inasmuch as they
are placed on external angles, and immediately over co-
lumns, in both which situations windows would be ab-
surd, in the highest degree, for the tye at the angles of
buildings would be entirely destroyed, if occupied by
windows; and therefore the dentils of the Ionic orders
might as properly be seen to occupy the places of win-
P
106
dows, if the spaces occupied by triglyphs have an origin
of such a nature. The intervals, moreover, between dem-
tils, as well as those between triglyphs, are called meto-
pae. Besides, the Greeks, by the word āral, signify
the beds of the beams, which we call cava columbaria :
thus the space between two beams obtained the name of a
metopa. As in works of the Doric order triglyphs and
mutuli were first used, so in Ionic works the use of dentils
was first introduced; for as the mutuli bear a resemblance
to the projecting feet of the principal rafters, so, in the
Ionic order, the dentils imitate the projection of the com-
mon rafters. Hence the Greeks never placed dentils be-
low the mutuli, because the feet of common rafters cannot
be below those of principal rafters. For a design must be
anomalous, when that which ought to be above the prin-
cipal rafters is placed below them. The antients, there-
fore, neither approved nor used mutuli nor dentils in the
cornices of their pediments, but coronae simply; because
neither principal nor common rafters tail on the front of
a pediment, neither can they project beyond it, their di-
rection being towards the eaves. Their opinion, there-
fore, evidently was, that a distribution would not be
correct in a copy which could not exist in the proto-
type. For the perfection of all works depends on their
fitness to answer the end proposed, and on principles re-
sulting from a consideration of Nature herself, and
they approved those only which, by strict analogy, were
borne out by the appearance of utility. Their principles
were thus established, and they have left us the symme-
try and proportion of each order. Following their steps,
I have already spoken of the Ionic and Corinthian orders:
I shall now proceed to give a succinct account of the
Doric order, and its most approved proportion.
LIB, IV, CAP, III,
107
CHAPTER III.
OF THE DORIC PROPORTIONS.
SoME antient architects have asserted that sacred build-
ings ought not to be constructed of the Doric order, be-
cause false and incongruous arrangements arise in the
use of it. Such were the opinions of Tarchesius, Pitheus,
and Hermogenes. The latter, indeed, after having pre-
pared a large quantity of marble for a Doric temple,
changed his mind, and, with the materials collected,
made it of the Ionic order, in honour of Bacchus. It is
not because this order wants beauty, antiquity (genus),
or dignity of form, but because its detail is shackled and
inconvenient, from the arrangement of the triglyphs, and
the formation of the sofite of the corona (lacunaria). It
is necessary that the triglyphs stand centrally over the
columns, and that the metopae which are between the
triglyphs should be as broad as high. Over the columns,
at the angles of the building, the triglyphs are set at
the extremity of the frieze, and not over the centre of the
columns. In this case the metopae adjoining the angular
triglyphs are not square, but wider than the others by
half the width of the triglyph. Those who resolve to
make the metopae equal, contract the extreme interco-
lumniation half a triglyph’s width. It is, however, a
false method, either to lengthen the metopae or to con-
tract the intercolumniations; and the antients, on this
account, appear to have avoided the use of the Doric order
| 08
in their sacred buildings. I will, however, proceed to ex-
plain the method of using it, as instructed therein by my
masters; so that if any one desire it, he will here find the
proportions detailed, and so amended, that he may, with-
out a defect, be able to design a sacred building of the
Doric order. The front of a Doric temple, when columns
are to be used, must, if tetrastylos, be divided into twenty-
eight parts; if hexastylos, into forty-four parts; one of
which parts is called a module, by the Greeks #13&rng:
from the module so found the distribution of all the parts
is regulated. The thickness of the columns is to be
equal to two modules, their height equal to fourteen.
The height of the capital one module, its breadth one
module and a sixth. Let the height of the capital be di-
vided into three parts; then one of those parts is to be
assigned for the abacus and its cymatium, another for the
echinus, with its fillets; the third for the hypotrachelium.
The diminution of the column is to be as directed for the
Ionic order in the third book. The architrave or episty-
lium, with its taenia and guttae, is to be one module in
height; the taenia is the seventh part of a module; the
length of the guttae under the taenia plumb with the tri-
glyphs, and including the fillet, the sixth part of a module.
The width of the soffit of the architrave is to correspond
with the thickness of the column at the hypotrachelium.
Over the architrave triglyphs are placed, with metopae
one module and a half high, and one module wide on the
face. They are to be distributed so, that as well over the
columns at the angles, as over the intermediate columns,
they may stand above the two central quarters of the
columns. Two are to be placed in each intercolumnia-
LIB, IV, CAP, III.
109
tion, except in the central one of the pronaos and posti-
cum, in which three are to be set; because, by mak-
ing the middle intercolumniations wider, a freer pas-
Sage will be given to those who approach the statues of
the gods. The width of a triglyph is divided into six
parts, of which five are left in the middle, and of the
two halves of the remaining part, one is placed on
the right and the other on the left extremity. In the
centre a flat surface is left, called the femur (thigh), by
the Greeks ºngog, on each side of which channels are
cut, whose faces form a right angle; and on the right
and left of these are other femora; and, lastly, at
the angles are the two half channels. The triglyphs
being thus arranged, the metopae, which are the spaces
between the triglyphs, are to be as long as they are high.
On the extreme angles are semi-metopae half a module
wide. In this way all the defects in the metopae, inter-
columniations, and lacunaria, will be remedied. The ca-
pitals of the triglyphs are to be made the sixth part of a
module. Over the capitals of the triglyphs the corona is
to be laid, whose projection is one half and a sixth part
of a module, with a Doric cymatium over it, and an-
other above it, so that, with the cymatia, the corona is
one half of a module high. In the soffit of the corona,
perpendicularly over the triglyphs and centres of the
metopae, are arranged guttae and sinkings. The former,
so as to have six guttae appearing in front, and three on
the return : the remaining spaces, which occur from the in-
creased width of the metopae beyond that of the triglyphs,
are left plain or sculptured with representations of thun-
derbolts, and near the edge of the corona a channel is cut,
110
called a scotia. The remaining parts, the tympana, simae,
and coronae, are to be executed similar to those described
for Ionic buildings. The above is the method used in
diastyle works. If the work be systyle, with a monotri-
glyph : the front of the building, when tetrastylos, is to
be divided into twenty-three parts; when hexastylos, into
thirty-five : of these, one part is taken for a module; ac-
cording to which, as above directed, the work is to be set
out. Thus, over the epistylia are two metopae and one tri-
glyph, and in the angles a space will be left equal to half
a triglyph. The middle part, under the pediment, will be
equal to the space of three triglyphs and three metopae,
in order that the central intercolumniation may give
room to those approaching the temple, and present a
more dignified view of the statue of the god. Over the
capitals of the triglyphs a corona is to be placed, with
a Doric cymatium below, as above described, and another
above. The corona, also, together with the cymatia, is
to be half a module high. The soffit of the corona, per-
pendicularly over the triglyphs and centres of the meto-
pae, is to have guttae and sinkings, and the other parts as
directed for the diastyle. It is necessary that the co-
lumns should be wrought in twenty faces, which, if plane,
will have twenty angles; but if channelled, they are
to be so formed, that a square being described, whose
side is equal to that of the channel or flute, if, in the
middle of the square, the point of a pair of compasses
be placed, and a segment of a circle be drawn, touch-
ing the angles of the square, such segment will deter-
mine their sinking. Thus is the Doric column properly
chamfered. In respect of the additional thickness in
LIB, IV, CAT, III,
1 11
the middle thereof, as mentioned in the third book,
respecting Ionic columns, reference must be made to
that place. As the external symmetry of Corinthian,
Doric, and Ionic edifices has been explained, it is neces-
sary to give directions for the interior arrangements of
the cell and pronaos.
112
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE INTERIOR OF THE CELL AND THE ARRANGE-
MENT OF THE PRONAOS.
THE length of a temple must be twice its width. The
cell itself is to be in length one fourth part more than
the breadth, including the wall in which the doors are
placed. The remaining three parts run forward to the
antae of the walls of the pronaos, which antae are to be
of the same thickness as the columns. If the temple be
broader than twenty feet, two columns are interposed
between the two antae, to separate the pteroma from the
pronaos. The three intercolumniations between the antae
and the columns may be enclosed with fence work, either
of marble or of wood, so, however, that they have doors
in them for access to the pronaos. If the width be greater
than forty feet, columns opposite to those which are be-
tween the antae, are placed towards the inner part, of the
same height as those in front, but their thickness is to be
diminished as follows. If those in front are an eighth
part of their height in thickness, these are to be one
ninth ; and if the former are a ninth, or a tenth, the lat-
ter are to be proportionally diminished. For where the
air does not play round them, the diminution thus made
will not be perceived; lest, however, they should appear
slenderer, when the flutes of the external columns be twen-
ty-four in number, these may have twenty-eight, or even
thirty-two. Thus, what is taken from the absolute mass
of the shaft, will be imperceptibly aided by the number
of the flutes, and though of different thicknesses, they
LIR. I. CAP, IW.
113
will have the appearance of being equal. This arises
from the eye embracing a greater number of surfaces,
and thence producing on the mind the effect of a larger
body. For if two columns, equally thick, one of them with-
out flutes, and the other fluted, are measured round with
lines, and the line is passed over the flutes and their fillets,
though the columns are of equal thickness, the lines which
girt them will not be equal, for that which passes over
the fillets and flutes will of course be the longest. This
being the case, it is not improper in confined and enclos-
ed situations to make the columns of slenderer propor-
tions, when we have the regulation of the flutes to assist
us. The thickness of the walls of the cell must depend
on the magnitude of the work, taking care, however, that
the antae are the same thickness as the columns. If
built in the ordinary way, they are to be of small stones,
very carefully laid, but if of square stone or marble,
the pieces should be chiefly small and of equal size,
because then, the upper stones coming over the middle
of the joint below them, bind the work together and give
it strength; fillets of lime used in pointing the joints and
beds give the work an agreeable appearance.
114
CHAPTER V.
OF THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF TEMPLES.
If there be nothing to prevent it, and the use of the edi-
fice allow it, the temples of the immortal gods should
have such an aspect, that the statue in the cell may have
its face towards the west, so that those who enter to sacri-
fice, or to make offerings, may have their faces to the east
as well as to the statue in the temple. Thus suppliants,
and those performing their vows, seem to have the temple,
the east, and the deity, as it were, looking on them at the
same moment. Hence all altars of the gods should be
placed towards the east. But if the nature of the place
do not permit this, the temple is to be turned as much as
possible, so that the greater part of the city may be seen
from it. Moreover, if temples be built on the banks of
a river, as those in Egypt on the Nile, they should face
the river. So, also, if temples of the gods be erected on
the road side, they should be placed in such a manner
that those passing by may look towards them, and make
their obeisance.
LIB, IV. CAP. VI.
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE PROPORTIONS OF THE DOORS OF TEMPLES,
THE following are the rules for door-ways of temples,
and for their dressings (antepagmenta). First the spe-
cies is to be considered: this is Doric, Ionic, or Attic.
The Doric is constructed with these proportions. The
top of the cornice, which is above the upper dress-
ing, is to be level with the top of the capitals in the pro-
naos. The aperture of the door is determined as follows.
The height from the pavement to the lacunaria is to be
divided into three parts and a half, of which two consti-
tute the height of the doors. The height thus obtained
is to be divided into twelve parts, of which five and a
half are given to the width of the bottom part of the door.
This is diminished towards the top, equal to one-third of
the dressing, if the height be not more than sixteen feet.
From sixteen feet to twenty-five the upper part of the
opening is contracted one fourth part of the dressing.
From twenty-five to thirty feet the upper part is con-
tracted one-eighth of the dressing. Those that are
higher should have their sides vertical. The thickness of
the dressings in front is to be equal to one-twelfth of the
height of the door, and they are to diminish towards the
top a fourteenth part of their width. The height of the
architrave is to be equal to the upper part of the dress-
ing. The cymatium is to be a sixth part of the dressing;
its projection equal to its thickness. The cymatium is to be
sculptured in the Lesbian form, with an astragal. Above
the cymatium of the architrave of the dressing (super-
116
cilium), the frieze (hyperthyrum), is placed, and it is to
have a Doric cymatium, with a Lesbian astragal, in low
relief. Over this the corona is placed, unornamented,
and with a cymatium. Its projection is to equal the
height of the supercilium placed over the architrave of
the dressing. On the right and left, projectures are
made ; and the cymatia of the dressings are connected
by a mitre. If the doors are Ionic, their height is to be
regulated as in those that are Doric. Their width is
found by dividing the height into two parts and a half,
and taking one and a half for the width below. The di-
minution is to be as in the Doric door-way. The width of
the dressings is to be a fourteenth part of the height of the
aperture; the cymatium a sixth part of their width; the
remainder, deducting the cymatium, is to be divided into
twelve parts, three of which are given to the first fascia,
with the astragal, four to the second, and five to the third.
The fasciae, with the astragal, run quite round the dress-
ings. The upper members of the door-way are the same
as those of the Doric. The trusses (ancones), or prothy-
rides, wich are carved on the right and left, reach to the
bottom of the level of the architrave, exclusive of the
leaf. Their width on the face is one-third of the dressing,
and at the bottom one fourth part less. The wooden doors
are to be so put together, that the hinge styles (scapicar-
dinales) may be one-twelfth of the height of the aperture.
The pannels (tympana) between the styles are to be three
out of twelve parts in width. The arrangement of the
rails is to be such, that when the height is divided into five
parts, two are given to the upper and three to the lower
rail. In the centre the middle rails (medii impages) are
placed; the others are disposed above and below. The
LIB, IV, CAP, WI,
117
width of the rail is to be one-third of the pannel, and its
cymatium a sixth part of the rail itself. The width of the
inner styles is one half of the rail, and the raising (replum)
four sixths of the rail. The styles nearest the dressings
are made one half of the rail. If the doors are folding, the
height remains the same, but the width is to be increased.
If in four folds, the height is to be increased. The Attic
doors are made of the same proportion as the Doric, ex-
cept that, in the dressings, the fasciae return within the
cymatium; and these are proportioned so, that exclusive
of the cymatium, they are to be two sevenths. These
doors are not to be inlaid (cerostrata), nor in two folds,
but single folded, and to open outwards. I have ex-
plained, to the best of my power, the proportions used in
setting out Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian temples, accord-
ing to the approved methods. I shall now treat of the
arrangement of Tuscan temples, and how they ought to
be built.
118
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE TUSCAN PROPORTIONS: OF CIRCULAR TEM-
PLES, AND OTHER SPECIES.
THE length of the site of the temple intended, must be
divided into six parts, wherefrom subtracting one part,
the width thereof is obtained. The length is then di-
vided into two parts, of which the furthest is assigned to
the cell, that next the front to the reception of the
columns. The above width is to be divided into ten
parts, of which, three to the right and three to the left
are for the smaller cells, or for the alae, if such are re-
quired: the remaining four are to be given to the central
part. The space before the cells in the pronaos, is to
have its columns so arranged, that those at the angles are
to correspond with the antae of the external walls: the
two central ones, opposite the walls, between the antae
and the middle of the temple, are to be so disposed, that
between the antae and the above columns, and in that
direction, others may be placed. Their thickness below
is to be one seventh of their height: their height one
third of the width of the temple, and their thickness at
top is to be one fourth less than their thickness at bottom.
Their bases are to be half a diameter in height. The
plinths, which are to be circular, are half the height of
the base, with a torus and fillet on them as high as the
plinth. The height of the capital is to be half a diame-
ter. The width of the abacus is equal to the lower diame-
ter of the column. The height of the capital must be
divided into three parts, of which one is assigned to the
LIB, IV, CAP, VII.
119
plinth or abacus, another to the echinus, the third to the
hypotrachelium, with its apophyge. Over the columns
coupled beams are laid of such height as the magnitude
of the work may require. Their width must be equal to
that of the hypotrachelium at the top of the column, and
they are to be so coupled together with dovetailed dowels
as to leave a space of two inches between them. For if
they are laid touching each other, and the air does not play
round them, they heat and soon rot. Above the beams and
walls the mutuli project one fourth the height of the co-
lumn. In front of these members are fixed, and over them
the tympanum of the pediment, either of masonry or tim-
ber. Above the pediment the ridge-piece (columen),
rafters (cantherii), and purlines (templa), are distributed
so that the water may drip therefrom on three sides. Cir-
cular temples are also constructed, of which some are
MONOPTERAL, having columns without a cell; others are
called PERIPTERAL. Those without a cell have a raised
floor (tribunal), and an ascent thereto equal to one third
of their diameter. On the pedestals (stylobatae) columns
are raised, whose height is equal to the diameter which
the pedestal occupies, and their thickness, including the
bases and capitals, one tenth part of their height. The
height of the architrave is half a diameter; the frieze and
members over it are to be proportioned according to the
directions to that effect which have been given in the third
book. But if the building be peripteral, two steps, and
then the pedestals are built thereunder ; the wall of the
cell is raised at a distance from the pedestals of about
one fifth of the whole diameter, and in the middle is
left an opening for the door. The clear diameter of
the cell within the walls, is to be equal to the height of
120
the columns above the pedestals. The columns round
the cell are proportioned as above directed. In the cen-
tre of the roof, the height of it is equal to half the diame-
ter of the work, exclusive of the flower. The flower
without the pyramid is to equal in dimensions the capi-
tals of the columns. The other parts are to be similar in
proportions and symmetry to those already described.
Other species of temples are also erected, regulated on
the same principles, but with a different arrangement
of parts, such as the temple of Castor in the Circus
Flaminius, and of Beardless Jupiter (Vejovis), between
the two groves. As also, though more ingeniously con-
trived, that of Diana Aricina, with columns on each
flank of the pronaos. The first temples built similar to
that of Castor in the Circus, were those of Minerva
on the Acropolis of Athens, and of Pallas at Sunium in
Attica, the proportions of which are similar. The
length of the cells is double their breadth, and in other
respects, those symmetries which are used in the fronts
are preserved on the sides. Others, with an arrange-
ment of columns similar to that observed in Tuscan tem-
ples, transfer it to Corinthian and Ionic designs; for in
some examples, instead of the antae which run out from the
pronaos, two columns are substituted, and thus Tuscan
and Greek principles are mixed. Others removing the
walls of the cell, and placing them between the interco-
lumniations of the pteroma, give more space to the cell
by their removal, and by preserving in other respects the
same proportions and symmetry, seem to have invent-
ed another species which may be called PSEUDoPERIP-
TERAL. These different sorts of temples are dependent
on the sacrifices performed in them ; for temples to the
LIB, IW, CAP. VII.
121
gods are not all to be constructed in the same manner,
the worship and sacred rites of each being different. I
have, according to the rules taught to me, explained the
different principles on which temples are constructed, the
different orders and symmetry of their detail, wherein
and how they respectively differ; and this I have writ-
ten to the best of my ability. I shall now describe
the altars of the immortal gods, and their situation as
adapted to sacrifices.
122
CHAPTER VIII.
OF ALTARS TO THE GODS.
THE aspect of altars should be to the east, and they
should always be lower than the statues in the temple,
so that the supplicants and those that sacrifice, in looking
towards the deity, may stand more or less inclined, as the
reverence to be shewn may proportionably require. Hence
altars are thus contrived ; the heights of those of Jupiter
and the celestial gods are to be as high as they may con-
veniently be ; those of Vesta, the Earth, and the Sea are
made lower. On these principles, altars in the middle
of temples are fitly proportioned. In this book the me-
thod of designing temples is given; in the following,
rules will be given for the arrangements to be observed
in public buildings.
PRAEF. LIB, W.
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INTRODUCTION.
THOSE, O Emperor, who at great length have explained
their inventions and doctrines, have thereby given to
their writings an extended and singular reputation.
Would that such were the case with my labours, so that
amplification might bring reputation with it. That, how-
ever, I believe is not probable, since a treatise on Archi-
tecture is not like History or Poetry. History interests
the reader by the various novelties which occur in it;










124,
Poetry, on the other hand, by its metre, the feet of its
verses, the elegant arrangement of the words, the dia-
logue introduced into it, and the distinct pronunciation of
the lines, delighting the sense of the hearer, leads him to
the close of the subject without fatigue. This cannot be
accomplished in Architectural works, because the terms,
which are unavoidably technical, necessarily throw an
obscurity over the subject. These terms, moreover,
are not of themselves intelligible, nor in common use;
hence if the precepts which are delivered by authors
extend to any length, and are otherwise explained
than in few and perspicuous expressions, the mind of the
reader is bewildered by the quantity and frequent re-
currence of them. These reasons induce me to be brief
in the explanation of unknown terms, and of the
symmetry of the parts of a work, because the matter
may thereby be more easily committed to and retained
by the memory. I am moreover inclined to be con-
cise when I reflect on the constant occupation of the
citizens in public and private affairs, so that in their
few leisure moments they may read and understand as
much as possible. Pythagoras and his followers wrote
the precepts of their doctrines in cubical arrangement,
the cube containing two hundred and sixteen verses, of
which they thought that not more than three should be
allotted to any one precept. A cube is a solid, with six
equal square faces, which, however it falls, remains
steady and immoveable till removed by force : such are
the dice which are thrown on a table by gamesters. From
this circumstance they seem to have adopted the cube,
since like the cube, this number of verses makes a more
lasting impression on the memory. The Greek comic
PRAEE, LIB, W.
195
poets have also divided the action of their stories, by the
interposition of the chorus to ease the principle actors, so
that a cubical proportion is observed. Since the ancients
therefore used these methods, founded on the observance
of natural effects, seeing that the subject I treat of will
be new and obscure to many, I thought it would be pre-
ferable to divide it into small portions, that it might more
easily strike the understanding of the reader. The sub-
jects also are so arranged, that those of the same nature
are classed together. Thus, O Caesar, I explained the
proportions of temples in the third and fourth books;
in this I intend to describe the arrangement of public
buildings; and that of the forum first, because therein
public no less than private affairs are regulated by the
magistrates.
126
CHAPTER I.
OF THE FORUM AND BASFLICA.
THE Greeks make their forum square, with a spacious and
double portico, ornamenting it with columns placed at
narrow intervals, and stone or marble epistylia, and form-
ing walks above on the timber framed work. In the
cities of Italy, however, this practice is not followed, be-
cause the antient custom prevails of exhibiting the shows
of gladiators in the forum. Hence, for the convenience of
the spectators, the intercolumniations must be wider; and
the bankers’ shops are situated in the surrounding porticos
with apartments on the floors over them, which are con-
structed for the use of the parties, and as a depôt of
the public revenue. The size of the forum is to be pro-
portioned to the population of the place, so that it be
not too small to contain the numbers it should hold,
nor have the appearance of being too large, from a want
of numbers to occupy it. The width is obtained by as-
signing to it two-thirds of its length, which gives it an
oblong form, and makes it convenient for the purpose of
the shows. The upper columns are to be made one-
fourth less than those below ; and that because the latter
being loaded with a weight, ought to be the stronger: be-
cause, also, we should follow the practice of nature, which,
in straight growing trees, like the fir, cypress, and pine,
makes the thickness at the root greater than it is at top,
and preserves a gradual diminution throughout their height.
Thus, following the example of nature, it is rightly ordered
that bodies which are uppermost should be less than
LIB, W. CAP, I,
127
those below, both in respect of height and thickness. The
basilica should be situated adjoining the forum, on
the warmest side, so that the merchants may assemble
there in winter, without being inconvenienced by the cold.
Its width must not be less than a third part, nor more than
half its length, unless the nature of the site prevent it,
and impose a different proportion; if, however, that be
longer than necessary, a chalcidicum is placed at the
extremity, as in the Julian basilica on the Aquiline.
The columns of basilicae are to be of a height equal
to the breadth of the portico, and the width of the
portico one-third of the space in the middle. The upper
columns, as herein above described, are to be less than
those below. The parapet between the upper columns
should be made one-fourth less than those columns, so
that those walking on the floor of the basilica may not be
seen by the merchants. The proportions of the archi-
trave, frieze, and cornice may be learnt from what has
been said on columns in the third book. Basilicae,
similar to that which I designed and carried into execu-
tion in the Julian colony of Fano, will not be deficient
either in dignity or beauty. The proportions and symme-
try of this are as follow. The middle vault, between the
columns, is one hundred and twenty feet long, and sixty
feet wide. The portico round it, between the walls and
columns, is twenty feet wide. The height of the columns,
including the capitals, is fifty feet, their thickness five
feet, and they have pilasters behind them twenty feet
high, two feet and a half wide, and one and a half
thick, supporting beams which carry the floor of the
portico. Above these, other pilasters are placed,
eighteen feet high, two feet wide, and one foot thick,
128 .
which also receive timbers for carrying the rafters of the
portico, whose roof is lower than the vault. The spaces
remaining between the beams, over the pilasters and
the columns, are left open for light in the intercolumnia-
tions. The columns in the direction of the breadth of
the vault are four in number, including those on the an-
gles right and left; lengthwise, in which direction it joins
the forum, the number is eight, including those at the
angles; on the opposite side, including all the angular
columns, there are six columns, because the two central
ones on that side are omitted, so that the view of the pro-
naos of the temple of Augustus may not be obstructed:
this is placed in the middle of the side wall of the ba-
silica, facing the centre of the forum and the temple of
Jupiter. The tribunal is in the shape of a segment of a
circle; the front dimension of which is forty-six feet,
that of its depth fifteen feet; and is so contrived, that the
merchants who are in the basilica may not interfere with
those who have business before the magistrates. Over the
columns round the building architraves are placed.
These are triple, each of them two feet in size, and are fas-
tened together. At the third column, on the inside, they
return to the antae of the pronaos, and are carried on to
meet the segment on the right and left. Over the archi-
traves, upright with the capitals, piers are built three feet
high and four feet square, on which are laid beams well
wrought, joined together in two thicknesses of two feet
each, and thereon the beams and rafters are placed over
the columns, antae, and walls of the pronaos, carrying
one continued ridge along the basilica, and another from
the centre thereof, over the pronaos of the temple. Thus
the two-fold direction of the roof gives an agreeable
LIB. W. CAP, I,
effect outside, and to the lofty vault within. Thus the
omission of the cornices and parapets, and the upper
range of columns, saves considerable labour, and greatly
diminishes the cost of the work; and the columns in one
height brought up to the architrave of the arch, give an
appearance of magnificence and dignity to the building.
|
l
t
* 180 -
CHAPTER II.
OF THE TREASURY, PRISON, AND CURIA.
THE treasury, prison, and curia are to adjoin the forum,
to which their dimensions are to be proportionate. First
of the curia, which must be suitable to the importance of
the community or state. If square, its height is to be once
and a half its width; but if oblong, the length and width
must be added together, and one half of their sum assigned
for the height up to the lacunaria. The walls, moreover,
at half their height, are to have cornices run round them
of wood or plaster. For if such be not provided, the
voices of the disputants meeting with no check in their
ascent, will not be intelligible to the audience. But
when the walls are encircled round with cornices, the
voice, being thereby impeded, will reach the ear before.
its ascent and dissipation in the air.
LIB. W. CAP, III,
131
CHAPTER III.
OF THE THEATRE, AND OF ITS HEALTHY SITUATION.
WHEN the forum is placed, a spot as healthy as possible
is to be chosen for the theatre, for the exhibition of games
on the festival days of the immortal gods, according to
the instructions given in the first book respecting the
healthy disposition of the walls of a city. For the spec-
tators, with their wives and children, delighted with the
entertainment, sit out the whole of the games, and the
pores of their bodies being opened by the pleasure they
enjoy, are easily affected by the air, which, if it blows
from marshy or other noisome places, infuses its bad
qualities into the system. These evils are avoided by
the careful choice of a situation for the theatre, taking
especial precaution that it be not exposed to the South ;
for when the sun fills the cavity of the theatre, the air
confined in that compass being incapable of circulating,
by its stoppage therein, is heated, and burns up, extracts,
and diminishes the moisture of the body. On these ac-
counts, those places where bad air abounds are to be
avoided, and wholesome spots to be chosen. The con-
struction of the foundations will be more easily managed,
if the work be on a hill; but if we are compelled to lay
them on a plain, or in a marshy spot, the piling and
foundations must be conducted as described for the
foundations of temples in the third book. On the
foundations, steps (gradationes) are raised, of stone
and marble. The number of passages (praecinctiones)
must be regulated by the height of the theatre, and are
132
not to be higher than their width, because if made higher,
they will reflect and obstruct the voice in its passage
upwards, so that it will not reach the upper seats above
the passages (praecinctiones), and the last syllables of
words will escape. In short, the building should be so
contrived, that a line drawn from the first to the last step
should touch the front angle of the tops of all the seats;
in which case the voice meets with no impediment. The
entrances (aditus) should be numerous and spacious;
those above ought to be unconnected with those below, in
a continued line wherever they are, and without turnings;
so that when the people are dismissed from the shows, they
may not press on one another, but have separate outlets
free from obstruction in all parts. A place which deadens
the sound must be carefully avoided ; but, on the con-
trary, one should be selected in which it traverses freely.
This will be effected, if a place is chosen wherein there is
no impediment to sound. The voice arises from flowing
breath, sensible to the hearing through its percussion
on the air. It is propelled by an infinite number of
circles similar to those generated in standing water when
a stone is cast therein, which, increasing as they recede
from the centre, extend to a great distance, if the narrow-
ness of the place or some obstruction do not prevent their
spreading to the extremity; for when impeded by obstruc-
tions, the first recoil affects all that follow. In the same
manner the voice spreads in a circular direction. But,
whereas the circles in water only spread horizontally, the
voice, on the contrary, extends vertically as well as hori-
zontally. Wherefore, as is the case with the motion of wa-
ter, so with the voice, if no obstacle disturb the first undu-
lation, not only the second and following one, but all of
LIB, W, CAP, III,
133
them will, without reverberation, reach the ears of those at
bottom and those at top. On this account the antient
architects, following nature as their guide, and reflecting
on the properties of the voice, regulated the true ascent of
steps in a theatre, and contrived, by musical proportions
and mathematical rules, whatever its effect might be on
the stage (scena), to make it fall on the ears of the
audience in a clear and agreeable manner. Since in
brazen or horn wind instruments, by a regulation of the
genus, their tones are rendered as clear as those of
stringed instruments, so by the application of the laws
of harmony, the antients discovered a method of in-
creasing the power of the voice in a theatre.
134
CHAPTER IV.
OF HARMONY.
HARMONY is an obscure and difficult musical science, but
most difficult to those who are not acquainted with the
Greek language; because it is necessary to use many
Greek words to which there are none corresponding in
Latin. I will therefore explain, to the best of my abi-
lity, the doctrine of Aristoxenus, and annex his diagram,
and will so designate the place of each tone, that a per-
son who studiously applies himself to the subject may
very readily understand it. The inflexion of the voice
is two-fold; first, when it is monotonous, second, when
it proceeds by intervals. The first is not limited by ca-
dences at the close, nor in any other place; no percep-
tible difference of tone being discoverable between its
beginning and its ending, the time between each sound
is however distinctly marked, as in speaking, when we
pronounce the words, sol, lux, flos, nox. Herein the ear
does not perceive any difference of tone between the be-
ginning and the ending, by the voice rising higher or de-
scending lower; neither, that from a high pitch it becomes
lower, nor the contrary. But when the voice moves by in-
tervals, it is differently inflected, being sometimes at a high
pitch, and sometimes at a low one, and resting at different
times on different tones; by doing which with quickness
and facility, it appears unfixed. Thus in singing, the variety
of inflexion produces an air. In short, by the use of dif.
ferent intervals, the tones are so marked and determined,
LIB. W. CAP, IV,
135
that we perceive the pitch at which it begins, and that at
which it finishes, though the intermediate tones are not
heard. There are three sorts of modulation, the en-
harmonic (&égovío), the chromatic (X.6%gº), and the
diatonic (31&rovog), so called by the Greeks. The
enharmonic is so constructed by art, as to be full of
majesty and pathos. The chromatic by the skilful con-
trivance and closeness of its intervals has more sweetness.
The diatonic, whose intervals are more simple, is most
natural. The disposition of the tetrachords, in these
genera, are dissimilar. The enharmonic tetrachord con-
sists of two dieses, and two whole tones; a diesis being
the fourth part of a tone, and two of them consequently
equal to a semitone. In the chromatic tetrachord, there
are two consecutive semitones, and the third interval con-
tains three semitones. The diatonic tetrachord has two
consecutive tones, and an interval of a semitone. Thus
in each genus, the whole tetrachord is equal to two
whole tones and a semitone. But the intervals in each
genus, differ when considered separately. For mature
has made the divisions of tones, semitones, and tetra-
chords, and has established those proportions of the in-
tervals, by which workmen are guided in making and as-
signing their just proportions to instruments. Each genus
consists of eighteen sounds, which the Greeks call ©967) ot
(phthongi). Of these, eight sounds in each of the
genera, vary neither in sound nor situation. The re-
maining ten in each are not common to the other two
genera. Those which do not vary, contain between
them the variable sounds, and are the limits of the tetra-
chords in all the genera. Their names are as follow :
proslambanomenos, hypaté hypatón, hypaté mesón, mesé,
136
neté synēmmenón, paramesé, neté diezeugmenón, neté
hyperbolaeón. The variable, which lie between those
that are not variable, change their places according to the
genus. Their names are parhypaté hypatón, lichanos
hypatón, parhypaté mesón, lichanos mesón, trité synēm-
menón, paraneté synēmmenón, trité diezeugmenón, pa-
raneté diezeugmenón, trité hyperbolaeón, paraneté hyper-
bolaeón. Those sounds which shift their places, change also
their nature, and are at different intervals, as, for instance,
the interval between hypaté and parhypaté, which in the
enharmonic genus is only a diesis or quarter tone, is in
the chromatic genus a semitone. So the lichanos is only
a semitone distant from the hypaté in the enharmonic
genus ; whereas in the chromatic it is two semitones dis-
tant, and in the diatonic three semitones. Thus the ten
sounds, by their situation in the different genera, make
three different sorts of melody. There are five tetrachords.
The Greeks call the lowest ºzorov (hypaton); the second,
which is in the middle, ºrov (meson). The third, which
is joined to the two preceding, is called ovyngºvoy
(synēmmenon). The fourth, which is disjoined, called
Biaćavyºvoy (diezeugmenon). The fifth, which is the
highest, the Greeks call wºrseſ?6xxlow (hyperbolaeon).
The natural consonances, which the Greeks call ovº-
©ovío (symphoniae), are six in number ; diatessarón
(fourth), diapente (fifth), diapasón (octave), diapasón
with diatessarón (eleventh), diapasón with diapente
(twelfth), and disdiapasón (fifteenth). These names are
given them from the number of tones which the voice
passes through in going to them, counting that on which
the voice begins as one ; thus, moving through them to
the fourth sound is called diatessarón; to the fifth, dia-
LIB. W. CAP, IV,
137
pente, to the eighth diapasón, to the eleventh diapasón
with diatessarón, to the twelfth diapasón with diapente,
to the fifteenth disdiapasón. For between two intervals,
either in a melody sung by a voice, or played on a
stringed instrument, neither with the third, sixth nor
seventh can there be consonances, but only, as above
shewn, with the diatessarón and diapente up to the dis-
diapasón do natural consonances arise, and those are pro-
duced by an union of those sounds which the Greeks call
£367,701 (phthongi).
138
CHAPTER V.
OF THE WASES USED IN THE THEATRE.
ON the foregoing principles, the brazen vases are to be
made with mathematical proportions, depending on the
size of the theatre. They are formed so, as, when struck,
to have sounds, whose intervals are a fourth, fifth, and so
on consecutively to a fifteenth. Then, between the
seats of the theatre, cavities having been prepared, they
are disposed therein in musical order, but so as not to
touch the wall in any part, but to have a clear space
round them and over their top : they are fixed in an in-
verted position, and on the side towards the scene are
supported by wedges not less than half a foot high : and
openings are left towards the cavities on the lower beds
of the steps, each two feet long, and a half a foot wide.
The following is the rule for determining the situations
of these vases. If the theatre be of moderate size they
must be ranged round at half its height. Thirteen cavi-
ties are prepared at twelve equal distances from each
other, so that those tones above-named, producing neté
hyperbolaeón, are to be placed in the cavities at the ex-
treme ends; second, from the ends, the vessels are to be
of the pitch of neté diezeugmenón, bearing an interval of
one fourth from the last mentioned. The third netë pa-
ramesón, an interval of another fourth. The fourth, netë
synemmenón, another fourth. The fifth, mesé, a fourth.
The sixth, hypaté mesón, a fourth : in the centre of the
range, hypaté hypatón, a fourth. By the adoption of
this plan, the voice which issues from the scene, expand-
LIB, W, CAP, W,
139
ing as from a centre, and striking against the cavity of
each vase, will sound with increased clearness and har-
mony, from its unison with one or other of them. If,
however, the theatre be on a larger scale, the height is to
be divided into four parts, so that three ranges of cavities
may be provided, one for harmonic, the second for chroma-
tic, and the third for diatonic vases. That nearest the bot-
tom is for the harmonic genus as above described, for a
lesser theatre. In the middle range on the extremities,
vases producing the chromatic hyperbolaeon are placed: in
the second cavities the chromatic diezeugmenon, a fourth
from the last : in the third, at another interval of a fourth,
the chromatic synēmmenon : in the fourth, the chromatic
meson, another fourth : in the fifth, the chromatic hy-
paton, another fourth : in the sixth, the paramesé, which
is a fifth to the chromatic hyperbolaeon, and a fourth to
the chromatic meson. In the centre none are to be
placed, because no other sound in the chromatic genus
can be in consonance therewith. In the upper division
and range of the cavities, the vases on the extremities are
constructed to produce the tones of the diatonic hyperbo-
lacon: in the next cavities, those of the diatonic diezeugme-
non, a fourth: in the third, of the diatonic synēmmenon, a
fourth : in the fourth, of the diatonic meson, a fourth: in
the fifth, of the diatonic hypaton, a fourth : in the sixth,
proslambanomenos, a fourth : in the centre, mesé, be-
tween which and proslambanomenos is an octave, and a
fifth between it and the diatonic hypaton. He who is de-
sirous of more fully understanding these matters, must refer
to the musical diagram at the end of the book, which is
that left to us by Aristoxenes, who with much intelligence
and labour, formed a general scale of the tones. Hence,
140
he who carefully attends to these rules, to the nature of
the voice, and to the taste of the audience, will easily learn
the method of designing theatres with the greatest per-
fection. Some one may perchance urge, that many
theatres are yearly built in Rome, without any regard
to these matters. But let him not be herein mistaken,
inasmuch as all public theatres which are constructed
of wood, have many floors, which are necessarily con-
ductors of sound. This circumstance may be illus-
trated, by consideration of the practice of those that sing
to the harp, who when they wish to produce a loud ef-
fect, turn themselves to the doors of the scene, by the
aid of which their voice is thrown out. But when thea-
tres are constructed of solid materials, that is of rubble,
squared stones or marble, which are not conductors of
sound, it is necessary to build them according to the
rules in question. If it be asked what theatre in Rome
can be referred to as an example of their utility, we can-
not produce one, but such may be seen in some of
the provinces of Italy, and many in the Grecian States.
We moreover know that L. Mummius on the destruction
of the theatre at Corinth, brought to Rome some of its
brazen vases, and dedicated them as spoils at the temple
of Luna. Many clever architects who have built theatres
in small cities, from the want of other, have made use of
earthen vessels, yielding the proper tones, and have
introduced them with considerable advantage.
LIB. W. CAP, WI.
141
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE SHAPE OF THE THEATRE.
THE form of a theatre is to be adjusted so, that from the
centre of the dimension allotted to the base of the pe-
rimeter a circle is to be described, in which are in-
scribed four equilateral triangles, at equal distances from
each other, whose points are to touch the circumference of
the circle. This is the method also practised by astrolo-
gers in describing the twelve celestial signs, according to
the musical division of the constellations. Of these tri-
angles, the side of that which is nearest the scene will de-
termine the face thereof in that part where it cuts the
circumference of the circle. Then through the centre a
line is drawn parallel to it, which will separate the pul-
pitum of the proscenium from the orchestra. Thus the
pulpitum will be more spacious than that of the Greeks,
and be the better, on account of our actors remaining
chiefly on the scena. In the orchestra, seats are as-
signed to the senators, and the height of its pulpitum
must not exceed five feet, so that those who sit in the or-
chestra may be enabled to see all the motions of the
actors. The portions between the staircases (cunei) of the
theatre are so divided that the angles of the triangles,
which touch the circumference, point to the directions of
the ascents and steps between the cunei, on the first prae-
cinction or story. Above these the steps are placed al-
ternately, and form the upper cunei in the middle of
those below. The angles thus pointing to staircases will
be seven in number, the remaining five will mark certain
142
points on the scene. That in the middle, for instance,
will mark the situation of the royal doors, those on the
right and left, the doors of guests, and those at the ex-
tremities, the points at which the road turns off. The
seats (gradus) on which the spectators sit are not to
be less than twenty inches in height, nor more than twen-
ty-two. Their width must not be more than two feet and
a half, nor less than two feet.
LIB. W. CAP, WII,
143
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE PORTICO AND OTHER PARTS OF THE
THEATRE.
THE roof of the portico, which is on the last step, should
be on a level with the top of the scene; by which ar-
rangement the voice will extend and be distinct to
those on the upper seats and roof. For if it be not
equally high, where that height is deficient, the voice,
first striking thereon, will be stopped. One sixth part of
the diameter of the orchestra is taken between the lowest
steps, and level with that dimension the lower seats are
disposed. A continuation of this line on the scene marks
the height of the entrances: for thus proportioned, they
will be of sufficient altitude. The length of the scene
must be double the diameter of the orchestra. The
height of the podium, or pedestal, with its cornice and
base, from the level of the pulpitum, is a twelfth part of
the diameter of the orchestra. The columns on the po-
dium, with their capitals and bases, are to be one-fourth
of its diameter high. The architraves and cornices of
those columns one-fifth of their height. The upper pe-
destal, including the base and cornice, half the height
of the lower pedestal. The columns on this pedestal one-
fourth less in height than the lower columns. The ar-
chitrave and its cornice a fifth of the columns. If there
is to be a third order, the upper pedestal is to be half the
height of that under the middle order, and the architrave
and cornice a fifth of the columns. It is not, however,
possible to produce the same effect in every theatre by
144
the same proportions; but it behoves the architect to
consider the proportions which symmetry requires, and
those adapted to the nature of the place or the size of
the work. Some things there are which their use re-
quires of the same size in a large as in a small theatre;
such as the steps, praecinctions, parapets, passages, stairs,
pulpita, tribunals, and others which occur; in all which,
the necessity of suiting them to their use, makes it im-
possible to form them symmetrically. So, also, if the
materials are not provided in sufficient quantity, such as
marble, wood, and the like, the diminution of or addition
to the dimensions, so that it be not too much, and made
with judgment, may be permitted: and this will be easily
managed by an architect who is a man of experience,
and who possesses ingenuity and talent. The parts of
the scene are to be so distributed, that the middle door
may be decorated as one of a royal palace; those on the
right and left, as the doors of the guests. Near these
are the spaces destined to receive the decorations; which
places the Greeks call reguázrol, from the turning trian-
gular machines. Each of these machines has three species
of decoration, which, when the subject changes, or on
the appearance of a god, are moved round with sudden
claps of thunder, and alter the appearance of the decora-
tion. Near these places the turnings run out, which give
entrance to the scene from the forum and from the
country. t
LIB, W. CAP. VIII,
145
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE THREE SORTS OF SCENES, AND OF THE
THEATRES OF THE GREEKS.
THERE are three sorts of scenes, the Tragic, the Comic,
and the Satyric. The decorations of these are different
from each other. The tragic scenes are ornamented with
columns, pediments, statues, and other royal decorations.
The comic scene represents private buildings and gal-
leries, with windows similar to those in ordinary dwellings.
The satyric scene is ornamented with trees, caves, hills,
and other rural objects in imitation of nature. In the
theatres of the Greeks the design is not made on the same
principles as those above mentioned. First, as to the gene-
ral outline of the plan : whereas, in the Latin theatre, the
points of four triangles touch the circumference, in
the theatres of the Greeks the angles of three squares are
substituted, and the side of that square which is nearest
to the place of the scene, at the points where it touches
the circumference of the circle, is the boundary of the
proscenium. A line drawn parallel to this at the extremity
of the circle, will give the front of the scene. Through
the centre of the orchestra, opposite to the proscenium,
another parallel line is drawn touching the circumference
on the right and left, then one foot of the compasses being
fixed on the right hand point, with a radius equal to the
distance from the left point, describe a circle on the right
hand side of the proscenium, and placing the foot of the
compasses on the left hand point, with the distance of the
right hand interval, describe another circle on the left side
U
146
of the proscenium. Thus describing it from three cen-
tres, the Greeks have a larger orchestra, and their scene is
further recessed. The pulpitum, which they call Aoyalov,
is less in width: wherefore, among them, the tragic and
comic performers act upon the scene; the rest going
through their parts in the orchestra. Hence the performers
are distinguished by the names of Scenici and Thymelici.
The height of the pulpitum is not less than ten feet, nor
more than twelve. The directions of the stairs, between
the cunei and seats, are opposite to the angles of the
squares on the first praecinction. Above it the other
stairs fall in the middle between the lower ones, and so on
according to the number of praecinctions. When these
matters are arranged with great care and skill, particular
attention must be bestowed on the choice of a place where
the voice falls smoothly, and reaches the ear distinctly
without an echo. Some places are naturally unfavourable
to the diffusion of the voice. Such are the dissonant,
which in Greek are called zoºrnx.09vrag; the circumsonant,
which the Greeks call reginx.00wreg; the resonant, which
they call &vrnxoov reg; and the consonant, which they call
ovvexotyTeg. The dissonant places are those in which the
voice, rising first upwards, is obstructed by some hard
bodies above, and, in its return downwards, checks the
ascent of its following sounds. The circumsonant are
those where the voice, wandering round, is at last
retained in the centre, where it is dissipated, and, the
final syllables being lost, the meaning of words is not dis-
tinguished. The resonant are those in which the voice,
striking against some hard body, is echoed in the last
syllables so that they appear doubled. Lastly, the con-
sonant are those in which the voice, aided by something
LID. W.C.P.VIII.
147
below, falls on the ear with great distinctness of words.
Hence, if due care be taken in the choice of the situation,
the effect of the voice will be improved, and the utility of
the theatre increased. The differences of the figures
consist in this, that those formed by means of squares are
used by the Greeks, and those formed by means of
triangles by the Latins. He who attends to these
precepts will be enabled to erect a theatre in a perfect
Iſla, Illſler.
148
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE PORTICOS AND PASSAGES BEHIND THE
SCENES,
BEHIND the scenes porticos are to be built; to which, in
case of sudden showers, the people may retreat from the
theatre, and also sufficiently capacious for the rehearsals
of the chorus: such are the porticos of Pompey, of
Eumenes at Athens, and of the temple of Bacchus;
and on the left passing from the theatre, is the Odeum,
which, in Athens, Pericles ornamented with stone
columns, and with the masts and yards of ships, from the
Persian spoils. This was destroyed by fire in the Mi-
thridatic war, and restored by king Ariobarzanes. At
Smyrna was the Strategeum : at Tralles were porticos on
each side over the stadium, as in the scenes of theatres.
In short, in all cities which possess skilful architects,
porticos and walks are placed about the theatre, which
ought to be constructed double, with their exterior
columns of the Doric order, whose architraves, and
cornices are to be wrought after the Doric method.
Their width is to be thus proportioned: the height of
the exterior columns is equal to the distance from the
lower part of the shaft of the exterior columns to that of
those in the middle, and from them to the walls which
surround the walks of the portico is an equal distance.
The middle range of columns is one fifth part higher than
the exterior range; and is of the Ionic or Corinthian
order. The proportions and symmetry of these columns
LIB, W. CAP, IX,
149
are not to be guided by the rules delivered for those
of sacred buildings. For the style used in the temples
of the gods should be dignified ; whereas, in porticos
and similar works, it may be of a lighter character.
If, therefore, the columns be of the Doric order, their
height, including the capitals, is to be divided into fifteen
parts, of which one is taken as a module. By this all the
work is set out, making the thickness of the lower part of
the column equal to two modules. The intercolumniation
is of five modules and a half. The height of a column, ex-
clusive of the capital, fourteen modules; the height of the
capital one module, the width of it two modules and a
sixth. The proportions of the rest of the work are to be the
same as those described for sacred buildings in the fourth
book. If Ionic columns be used, the shaft, exclusive of
the base and capital, is to be divided into eight parts and
a half, of which one is assigned to the thickness of the
column. The base, with its plinth, is half a module
high ; and the formation of the capital is to be as shewn
in the third book. If Corinthian, the shaft and base are
to be the same as the Ionic ; but the capital is to be pro-
portioned as directed in the fourth book; and the addition
on the pedestal is made by means of the scamilli impares,
mentioned in the third book. The architraves, coronae,
and all the other parts, are set out in proportion to the
columns as explained in the foregoing books. The cen-
tral space between the porticos should be ornamented
with verdure, inasmuch as hypaethral walks are very
healthy; first, in respect of the eyes, because the air from
green plants being light and volatile, insinuates itself
into the body when in motion, clears the sight, and,
removing the gross humours from the eyes, leaves the vi-
15O
sion clear and distinct. Moreover, when the body is
heated by the exercise of walking, the air, extracting its
humours, diminishes corpulency, dissipating that which is
superabundant in the body. That this is the case, may be
proved by observing, that from fountains in covered
places, or those which are under ground, no moist va-
pours rise; whilst in open places exposed to the air, when
the rising sun darts his rays upon the earth, he raises the
vapours from humid and marshy places, and, gathering
them into masses, carries them into the air. If, there-
fore, in open places, the noxious humours of bodies are
carried off by the air, as they are from the earth by
means of clouds, there can be no doubt of the necessity
of making spacious and pleasant walks open to the air in
every city. That they may always be dry and free from
mud, the following method must be adopted. They
must be dug out and drained to the lowest possible level;
and on the right and left sewers must be constructed;
and in the walls thereof, towards the walk, drains are
laid, with an inclination to the sewer. When this is
done, the place is filled in with coals; over which the
walks are strewed with gravel, and levelled. Thus, from
the natural porosity of the coals, and the inclination of
the drains towards the sewer, the quantity of water is
carried off, and the passages remain dry and unaffected
by the moisture. In these places the antients also made
depôts for the reception of things necessary for the use
of the city. For in case of the city being under block-
ade, all things are more easily provided than wood. Salt
is with facility laid in beforehand; corn, from the public
or private stores, is soon collected; and the want of that
is remedied by the use of garden herbs, flesh, or pulse.
LIB, W. CAP, IX,
151
Water is obtained either by digging new wells, or by col-
lecting it from the roofs of buildings; but wood, which
is absolutely necessary for cooking the food, is provided
with difficulty and trouble; and that which is slowly
procured is quickly consumed. In such times these
walks are opened, and an allowance distributed to the
tribes, according to their numbers. Thus they are
conducive to two good purposes; to health in time of
peace, and to preservation in time of war. If walks are
provided after these directions not only behind the scene
of the theatre, but also adjoining the temples of all the
gods, they will be of great utility in every city. As they
have been sufficiently explained, the method of arrang-
ing the different parts of baths will now follow.
CHAPTER X.
OF THE ARRANGEMENT AND PARTS OF BATHs.
FIRST, as warm a spot as possible is to be selected, that
is to say, one sheltered from the north and north-east. The
hot and tepid baths are to receive their light from the winter
west; but, if the nature of the place prevent that, at all
events from the south, because the hours of bathing are
principally from noon to evening. Care must be taken
that the warm baths of the women and men adjoin, and
have the same aspect; in which case the same furnace and
vessels will serve both. The caldrons over the furnaces
are to be three in number, one for hot water, another
for tepid water, and a third for cold water : and they
must be so arranged, that the hot water which runs out
of the heated vessel, may be replaced by an equal quantity
from the tepid vessel, which in like manner is supplied
from the cold vessel, and that the arched cavities in which
they stand may be heated by one fire. The floors of the
hot baths are to be made as follows. First, the bottom is
paved with tiles of a foot and a half inclining towards
the furnace, so that if a ball be thrown into it, it will not
remain therein, but roll back to the mouth of the furnace;
thus the flame will better spread under the floor. Upon
this, piers of eight inch bricks are raised, at such a dis-
tance from each other, that tiles of two feet may form
their covering. The piers are to be two feet in height,
and are to be laid in clay mixed with hair, on which the
above-mentioned two feet tiles are placed, which carry
LIB, W. CAP, X,
153
the pavement. The ceilings, if of masonry, will be pre-
ferable; if, however, they are of timber, they should be
plastered on the under side, which must be done as fol-
lows. Iron rods, or arcs, are prepared and suspended by
iron hooks to the floor as close as possible. These rods
or arcs are at such distances from each other, that tiles,
without knees, may rest on and be borne by every two
ranges, and thus the whole vaulting depending on the
iron may be perfected. The upper parts of the joints
are stopped with clay and hair. The under side towards
the pavement is first plastered with pounded tiles and
lime, and then finished with stucco or fine plastering. If
the vaulting of hot baths is made double it will be better,
because the moisture of the steam cannot then affect the
timber, but will be condensed between the two arches.
The size of baths must depend on the number of persons
who frequent them. Their proportions are as follow : their
width is to be two thirds of their length, exclusive of the
space round the bathing vessel (schola labri) and the
gutter round it (alveus). The bathing vessel (labrum)
should be lighted from above, so that the bye standers
may not cast any shadow thereon, and thereby obstruct
the light. The schola labri ought to be spacious, so that
those who are waiting for their turn may be properly ac-
commodated. The width of the alveus between the wall
of the labrum and the parapet must not be less than six
feet, so that it may be commodious after the reduction of
two feet, which are allotted to the lower step and the
cushion. The laconicum and Sudatories are to adjoin
the tepid apartment, and their height to the spring-
ing of the curve of the hemisphere is to be equal to
their width. An opening is left in the middle of the
X
154
dome from which a brazen shield is suspended by chains,
capable of being so lowered and raised as to regulate the
temperature. It should be circular, that the intensity
of the flame and heat may be equally diffused from the
centre throughout.
LIB, W. CAP, XI,
155
CHAPTER XI.
OF THE PALAESTRA.
Though not used by the people of Italy, it seems proper
that I should explain the form of the palaestra, and de-
scribe the mode in which it was constructed by the Greeks.
The square or oblong peristylia of palaestrae, have a walk
round them which the Greeks call 8tovXog, two stadia in
circuit: three of the sides are single porticos : the fourth,
which is that on the south side, is to be double, so that
when showers fall in windy weather, the drops may not
drive into the inner part of it. In the three porticos are
large recesses (exedrae) with seats therein, whereon the phi-
losophers, rhetoricians, and others who delight in study,
may sit and dispute. In the double portico the following
provision is to be made: the ephebeum is to be in the
middle, which is in truth nothing more than a large exedra
with seats, and longer by one third than its width, on
the right is the coriceum, immediately adjoining which
is the conisterium, near which, in the angle of the por-
tico, is the cold bath, which the Greeks call ×ovrećy. On
the left of the ephebeum is the elaeothesium, adjoining that
is the frigidarium, whence a passage leads to the propig-
neum in the angle of the portico. Near, but more in-
ward, on the side of the frigidarium, is placed the vaulted
Sudatory, whose length is double its width; on one side
of this is the laconicum, constructed as before described:
on the other side is the hot bath. The peristylia of the
palaestra are to be carefully set out as above mentioned.
Exteriorly three porticos are constructed, one through
156
which those who come out of the palaestra pass; and sta-
dial ones on the right and left, of which, that towards
the north is double, and of considerable width. The
other is single, and so formed that as well on the side next
the wall, as on that where the columns stand, there are
margins for paths of not less than ten feet, the centre
part is sunk one foot and a half from the path, to which
there is an ascent of two steps ; the sunken part is not
to be less than twelve feet in width. Thus, those who
in their clothing walk round the paths, will not be in-
commoded by the anointed wrestlers who are practising.
This species of portico is called xystus (āvarog) by the
Greeks; for the wrestlers exercise in covered stadia in
the winter time. Xysti ought, between the two porticos,
to have groves or plantations, with walks between the
trees and seat of cemented work. On the sides of the
Xystus and double portico are open walks which the
Greeks call regiºgápotoag, but with us they are termed
Xysti, on which the athletae exercise themselves, when the
weather is fine, in the winter. Behind the xystus the
stadium is set out, of such dimensions that a great num-
ber of people may commodiously behold the contending
wrestlers. I have now given rules for the proper distri-
bution of such buildings as are within the walls.
LIR. W. CAP. XII.
157
CHAPTER XII.
OF HARBOURS AND OTHER BUILDINGS IN WATER.
I MUST not omit to speak of the formation of harbours,
but explain in what manner ships are secured therein in
stormy weather. If they are naturally well situated, and
have rocks or long promontories jutting out, which from
the shape of the place, form curves or angles, they are of
the greatest utility; because, in that case, nothing more
is necessary than to construct porticos and arsenals
round them, or passages to the markets; and then erect
a tower on each side, wherefrom chains may be suspended
across by means of machinery. But, if the place be not
thus fitted by nature, nor secure for ships in stormy wea-
ther, and there be no river there to prevent it, but on
one side there is a proper shore, then on the other side,
by means of building or heaps of stones, a projection is
run out, and in this the enclosures of harbours are form-
ed. Building in the sea is thus executed. That powder
is procured, which is found in the country between
Cumae and the promontory of Minerva, and is mixed
with the water in the proportion of two parts thereof to
one of lime. Then, in the place selected, dams are form-
ed in the water, of oaken piles tied together with chain
pieces, which are driven firmly into the bottom. Between
the ranges of piles, below the level of the water, the bed
is dug out and levelled, and the work carried up with
stones and mortar, compounded as above directed, till
... the wall fills the vacant space of the dam. If, however,
T58
from the violence of the waves and open sea the dams
cannot be kept together, then on the edge of the main
land, a foundation for a wall is constructed of the greatest
possible strength ; this foundation is laid horizontally,
throughout rather less than half its length; the remainder,
which is towards the shore, is made to overhang. Then,
on the side towards the water, and on the flanks round
the foundation, margins, projecting a foot and a half, are
brought up to the level already mentioned. The over-
hanging part is filled up underneath with sand, brought
up level with the foundation. On the level bed thus
prepared, as large a pier as possible is built, which must
remain for at least two months to set. The margin which
incloses the sand is then removed, and the sand being
washed away by the action of the waves causes the fall
of the mass into the sea, and by a repetition of this expe-
dient the work may be carried forward into the sea.
When the place does not afford the powder named, the
following method is to be adopted. Double dams are
constructed, well connected with planks and chain pieces,
and the cavity between them is filled up with clay and
marsh weeds well rammed down. When rammed down
and Squeezed as close as possible, the water is emptied
out with screw pumps or water wheels, and the place is
emptied and dried, and the foundations excavated. If
the bottom be of loose texture, it must be dug out till a
solid bottom is come to, wider than the wall about to be
erected, and the wall is then built of stone, lime, and
sand. But if the bottom be very soft, alder, olive, or oak
piles, previously charred, must be driven, and the inter-
vals between them filled with coals, as directed above for
the foundations of theatres and walls. The wall is then
LIB. W. CAT, XII,
159
raised with squared stones, the joints of which are to be
as long as possible, in order that the middle stones may
be well tied in. The inside of the wall is then filled with
rubble or masonry; and on this, even a tower might be
erected. When this is completed, the arsenals are to be
constructed chiefly with a northern aspect; for if they
are to the south, the heat will generate and nourish the
rot, the worm, the ship worm, and other noxious insects;
and timber should be sparingly used in these buildings on
account of fire. No rule can be given for the size, but
they must be suited to receive the largest ships, so that,
if drawn ashore, there may be plenty of room for them.
In this book, as far as it has occurred to me, I have
treated of the public buildings necessary for the use of a
city: in that following, I shall treat of the convenience
and symmetry of private houses.
PRAEF. LIB, WI,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
M A R C U S VITR U W IUS PO LLIO.
BOOK THE SIXTH. - - -
* * : Arrº. “ , ” .
*-
S—º-
-
**
INTRODUCTION.
ARISTIPPUs, the Socratic philosopher, shipwrecked on
the coast of Rhodes, perceiving some geometrical dia-
grams thereon, is reported to have exclaimed to his
companions, “Be of good courage, I see marks of
civilization:” and straightway making for the city of
Rhodes, he arrived at the Gymnasium ; where, dis-
puting on philosophical subjects, he obtained such ho-
nours, that he not only provided for himself, but fur-
Y

162
nished clothing and food to his companions. When his
companions had completed their arrangements for return-
ing home, and asked what message he wished to send to
his friends, he desired them to say: that the posses-
sions and provision to be made for children should be
those which can be preserved in case of shipwreck; in-
asmuch as those things are the real supports of life which
the chances of fortune, the changes of public affairs,
and the devastation of war, cannot injure. Thus, also,
Theophrastus, following up the sentiment that the
learned ought to be more honoured than the rich,
says, “ that the learned man is the only person who is
not a stranger in foreign countries, nor friendless when
he has lost his relations; but that in every state he is a
citizen, and that he can look upon a change of fortune
without fear. But he who thinks himself secured by the
aid of wealth, and not of learning, treads on slippery
ground, and leads an unstable and insecure life.” Epi-
curus also says, that fortune is of little assistance to the
wise, since all that is of consequence or necessary may be
obtained by the exercise of the mind and understanding.
The poets, not less than the philosophers, have argued in
this way; and those who formerly wrote the Greek co-
medies delivered the same sentiments in verse; as Eu-
chrates, Chionides, Aristophanes, and, above all, Alexis,
who said, that the Athenians deserved particular commen-
dation, since, inasmuch as the laws of all the Greeks
make it imperative on children to support their parents,
those of the Athenians are only obligatory on those chil-
dren who have been instructed, by the care of their pa-
rents, in some art. Such as possess the gifts of for-
tune are easily deprived of them : but when learning is
PRAEF, LIB, WI,
168
once fixed in the mind, no age removes it, nor is its
stability affected during the whole course of life. I there-
fore feel myself under infinite obligations, and am grate-
ful to my parents, who, adopting the practice of the
Athenians, took care that I should be taught an art, and
one of such a nature that it cannot be practised without
learning and a general knowledge of the sciences. Since,
then, by my parents’ care, and by the instruction of mas-
ters, I had the means afforded me of acquiring know-
ledge, and was naturally delighted with literary and phi-
losophical subjects, I laid up those stores in my mind,
from the use of which I enjoy the advantage of wanting
no more, and the value of riches consists in having no-
thing to wish for. But some thinking, perhaps, lightly of
these things, suppose those only are wise who have plenty
of money. Hence, many, aiming at that end alone, have,
by the aid of their assurance, acquired notoriety from their
riches. But I, Caesar, have not sought to amass wealth
by the practice of my art, having been rather contented
with a small fortune and reputation, than desirous of
abundance accompanied by a want of reputation. It is
true that I have acquired but little; yet I still hope, by
this publication, to become known to posterity. Neither
is it wonderful that I am known but to a few. Other
architects canvass, and go about soliciting employment,
but my preceptors instilled into me a sense of the pro-
priety of being requested, and not of requesting, to be
entrusted, inasmuch the ingenuous man will blush and
feel shame in asking a favour; for the givers of a favour
and not the receivers, are courted. What must he sus-
pect who is solicited by another to be entrusted with
the expenditure of his money, but that it is done for
164
|
l
sº
the sake of gain and emolument. Hence the antients
entrusted their works to those architects only who were
of good family and well brought up; thinking it better
to trust the modest, than the bold and arrogant, man.
These artists only instructed their own children or rela-
tions, having regard to their integrity, so that property
might be safely committed to their charge. When,
therefore, I see this noble science in the hands of the un-
learned and unskilful, of men not only ignorant of archi-
tecture, but of every thing relative to buildings, I can-
not blame proprietors, who, relying on their own intel-
ligence, are their own architects; since, if the business
is to be conducted by the unskilful, there is at least
more satisfaction in laying out money at one’s own plea-
sure, rather than at that of another person. No one
thinks of practising at home any art (as that of a shoe-
maker or fuller, for instance, or others yet easier) ex-
cept that of an architect; and that because many who
profess the art are not really skilled in it, but are falsely
|called architects. These things have induced me to
compose a treatise on architecture and its principles,
under an idea that it would be acceptable to all per-
sons. As in the fifth book I treated on the construc-
tion of public works, I shall in this explain the arrange-
ment and symmetry of private buildings.
LIB, WI. CAT, I,
165
CHAPTER I.
OF THE SITUATION OF BUILDINGS ACCORDING TO
THE NATURE OF DIFFERENT PLACES.
<de
THESE are properly designed, when due regardishad to the
country and climate in which they are erected. For the
method of building which is suited to Egypt would be very
improper in Spain, and that in use in Pontus would be ab-
surd at Rome: so in other parts of the world a style suit-
able to one climate, would be very unsuitable to another;
for one part of the world is under the sun’s course, an-
other is distant from it, and another, between the two, is
temperate. Since, therefore, from the position of the hea-
ven in respect of the earth, from the inclination of the
zodiac and from the sun’s course, the earth varies in tem-
perature in different parts, so the form of buildings must
be varied according to the temperature of the place, and
the various aspects of the heavens. In the north, build-
ings should be arched, enclosed as much as possible, and
not exposed, and it seems proper that they should face
the warmer aspects. Those under the sun’s course in
southern countries where the heat is oppressive, should be
exposed and turned towards the north and east. Thus the
injury which nature would effect, is evaded by means of
art. So, in other parts, due allowance is to be made, having
regard to their position, in respect of the heavens. This,
however, is determined by consideration of the nature of
the place and observations made on the limbs and bodies
of the inhabitants. For where the sun acts with moderate
heat, it keeps the body at a temperate warmth, where
166
it is hot from the proximity of the sun, all moisture is
dried up : lastly, in cold countries which are distant from
the south, the moisture is not drawn out by the heat,
but the dewy air, insinuating its dampness into the sys-
tem, increases the size of the body, and makes the voice
more grave. This is the reason why the people of the
north are so large in stature, so light in complexion, and
have straight red hair, blue eyes, and are full of blood,
for they are thus formed by the abundance of the
moisture, and the coldness of their country. Those who
live near the equator, and are exactly under the sun’s
course, are, owing to its power, low in stature, of dark
complexion, with curling hair, black eyes, weak legs, de-
ficient in quantity of blood. And this deficiency of blood
makes them timid when opposed in battle, but they bear
excessive heat and fevers without fear, because their
limbs are nourished by heat. Those, however, born in
northern countries are timid and weak when attacked by
fever, but from their sanguineous habit of body more
courageous in battle. The pitch of the voice is various,
and of different qualities in different nations. For the
eastern and western boundaries round the level of the
earth, where the upper is divided from the under part of
the world, and the earth appears to be balanced by na-
ture, are designated by a circle which mathematicians
call the horizon; keeping this circumstance in mind,
from the edge on the northern extremity, let a line be
drawn to that above the southern axis, and therefrom
another in an oblique direction up to the pole near the
northern stars, and we shall immediately perceive the
principle of the triangular instrument called by the Greeks
gapſ30zn. Thus the people who live in the region near
LIB, WI. CAP, I,
167
the lower point, that is in the southern part towards the
equator, from the small elevation of the pole have shrill
and high toned voices similar to those on the instrument
near the angle; next come those whose tone of voice is
of lower pitch, such as the people in the central parts
of Greece. Thus, proceeding by degrees from the
middle to the northern extremity, the voice of the in-
habitants gradually becomes of lower pitch. Herein we
may perceive how the system of the world is harmoni-
cally arranged, by the obliquity of the zodiac from the
appropriate temperature of the sun. Hence those who are
in the middle, between the equator and the pole, are
gifted with a middle pitch of voice, similar to the tones
in the central part of the musical diagram. Advancing
to the northern nations, where the pole is more elevated,
the people, from an increased quantity of moisture, na-
turally possess lower toned voices, similar to the hypaté
and proslambanomenos. And finally, those nations ex-
tending from the middle regions to the south have shrill
and acute voices similar to the tones of paranetê and
neté. That the tone of the voice is rendered deeper by
the damp nature of a place, and higher by its being of a
hot nature, may be proved by the following experiment.
Let two vases be selected, both equally baked in a furnace,
of equal weight, and yielding the same tone, and one of
them be immersed in water and then taken out : let
both of them be then struck, and a great difference will
be perceived in the tones they yield, as well as an inequa-
lity in their weight. Thus it is with the human body;
for although all men are born of the same form, and
under the same heaven, yet some from the warmth of
the climate are shrill in voice, and others from a super-
168
abundance of moisture have a low tone of voice. So
moreover, from the clearness of the atmosphere, aided
also by the intense heat, the southern nations are more
ready and quick in expedients: but the northern na-
tions, oppressed by a gross atmosphere, and cooled by
the moisture of the air, are of duller intellect. That this
is so, may be proved from the nature of serpents, which
in the hot season, when the cold is dispelled by the heat,
move with great activity, but in the rainy and winter
seasons, from the coldness of the air, they become torpid.
Hence it is not surprising that man’s intellect should be
sharpened by heat and blunted by a cold atmosphere.
Though, however, the southern nations are quick in un-
derstanding, and sagacious in council, yet in point of
valour they are inferior, for the sun absorbs their animal
spirits. Those, on the contrary, who are natives of cold
climates are more courageous in war, and fearlessly at-
tack their enemies, though, rushing on without consider-
ation or judgment, their attacks are repulsed and their
designs frustrated. Since, then, nature herself has pro-
vided throughout the world, that all nations should differ
according to the variation of the climate, she has also been
pleased that in the middle of the earth, and of all nations,
the Roman people should be seated; on this account
the people of Italy excel in both qualities, strength of
body and vigour of mind. For as the planet Jupiter
moves through a temperate region between the fiery
Mars and icy Saturn, so Italy enjoys a temperate and
unequalled climate between the north on one side, and
the south on the other. Hence it is, that by strata-
gem she is enabled to repress the attacks of the bar-
barians, and by her strength to overcome the subtilty of
LIB, WI. CAP, I.
169
southern nations. Divine providence has so ordered it
that the metropolis of the Roman people is placed in an
excellent and temperate climate, whereby they have be-
come the masters of the world. Since, then, it is climate
which causes the variety in different countries, and the
dispositions of the inhabitants, their stature and qualities
are naturally dissimilar, there can be no doubt that the
arrangement of buildings should be suitable to the quali-
ties of the nations and people, as nature herself wisely and
clearly indicates. To the best of my power I have made
general observations on the properties of places as de-
pendent upon nature, and I have given explanations for
adapting buildings to the wants of different nations ac-
cording to the sun’s course and the inclination of, the
pole. I shall now, therefore, briefly explain the sym-
metry, as well of the whole, as of the detail of private
dwellings.
170
CHAPTER II.
OF THE PROPORTIONS OF PRIVATE BUILDINGS TO
SUIT THE NATURE OF THEIR SITES.
NoTHING requires the architect’s care more than the due
proportions of buildings. When the proportions are ad-
justed, and the dimensions found by calculation, then it
is the part of a skilful man to consider the nature of the
place, the purpose of the building, and the beauty of it;
and either by diminutions or additions to find expedients,
by means of which the appearance may not be injured by
the additions to, or diminutions of, the established propor-
tions that may be necessary. For an object under the eye
will appear very different from the same object placed above
it; in an inclosed space, very different from the same in
an open space. In all these matters it requires great judg-
ment to adopt the proper means, since the eye does not
always form to itself the true image of an object, and the
mind is often deceived by the false impression. Thus in
painted scenery, though the surface is a perfect plane, the
columns seem to advance forward, the projections of the
mutuli are represented, and figures seem to stand out.
The oars of ships, also, though the parts immersed in the
water are really straight, have the appearance of being
broken ; those parts only appearing straight which are
above the level of the water. This arises from the part
immersed in the water reflecting its image in an undulat-
ing state up to the surface of the water, through a trans-
parent medium, which, being there agitated, gives the
oar a broken appearance. But whether the sight
LIB, WI, CAP, II,
171
arises from the impression which images make on the
eye, or by an effusion of visual rays from the eye, as na-
turalists contend, it is certain that, in some way or other,
the eye is often deceived. Since, then, some images are
falsely conveyed, and others appear different from what
they really are, I think it beyond doubt, that, according
to nature and the circumstances of the place, diminutions
or additions should be made, so that no defect may be ap-
parent. To do this, however, is the result of genius, not
the result of learning. The proportion of the symmetries
is, therefore, to be first settled, so that thereon the ne-
cessary changes may be made with certainty. Then the
length and breadth of the plan of the work is to be set
out, and the parts thereof; after which, the proportions
are adjusted as propriety requires, so that the pleasing
arrangement may not be disturbed. The method of
effecting this I am now about to describe, and shall
begin with the court (cavaedium).
172
CHAPTER III.
OF COURTS (CAVAEDIA).
THERE are five species of courts; which receive their
names from their forms. The Tuscan, Corinthian, the
Tetrastylón (with four columns), the Displuviatum (open
at top), and the Testudinatum (roofed). The Tuscan
cavaedia are those in which the beams across the breadth
of the court have trimmers (interpensivae) to them, and
valleys (colliquiae) from the internal angles of the walls to
the angles formed by the junctions of the beams and
trimmers. Thus the rain falls into the middle of the
court from the eaves of the rafters. In the Corinthian ca-
vacdium, the beams and uncovered middle of the court
(compluvium) are as in the foregoing; but the beams
around are detached from the walls, and rest on columns.
The tetrastyle are those wherein columns are placed un-
der the beams at the angles, which give strength and
support to the beams; for thus they are not so liable to
sag with their own weight, nor are they loaded by the
trimmers. The displuviatum is that in which the water
is carried off above the gutter plates (deliquiae), which
support the body of the roof. These are useful for
winter apartments, because the compluvium being up-
right, the light of the triclinia is not obstructed. But
they are constantly in want of repair; for the pipes
which receive the water from the eaves being against the
walls, and not capable of taking, at once, the water
which should be carried off, it overflows from the check
LIB, WI, CAP, III,
178
it meets, and injures the wood-work and walls in this
sort of buildings. The roofed court is used when the
span is not great, and large dwelling-rooms are made in
the floor over it.
174
CHAPTER IV.
OF COURTS (ATRIA), WINGS OR AISLES (ALAE), THE
TABLINUM AND THE PERISTYLIUM.
THE length and breadth of courts (atria) are regulated in
three ways. The first is, when the length is divided into
five parts, and three of them are given to the width. The
second, when it is divided into three parts, and two are
given to the width. The third is, when a square being
described whose side is equal to the width, a diagonal
line is drawn therein, the length of which is to be equal
to the length of the atrium. Their height, to the under-
side of the beams, is to be one-fourth less than the
length; the remaining fourth is assigned for the propor-
tion of the lacunaria and roof above the beams. The
width of the alae, on the right and left, when the atrium
is from thirty to forty feet long, is to be one third part
thereof. From forty to fifty feet, the length must be di-
vided into three parts and a half; of these, one is given
to the alae: but when the length is from fifty to sixty
feet, a fourth part thereof is given to the alae. From
sixty to eighty feet, the length is divided into four parts
and a half, of which one part is the width of the alae.
From eighty feet to one hundred, the length is divided
into five parts, and one of them is the true width of the
alae. The lintel beams (trabes liminares) are placed at a
height which will make the breadths and heights equal.
The muniment-room (tablinum), if the width of the atrium
be twenty feet, is to be two thirds thereof. If from thirty
to forty feet wide, one half is assigned to the tablinum.
LIB, WI. CAP, IW.
175
From forty to sixty feet, the width is divided into five parts,
and two given to the tablinum. The proportions of small
atria cannot be the same as those of large ones; for if the
proportions of the smaller be used in the greater, the
tablinum, as well as the alae, would be inconvenient: and
if those of the larger be used in the smaller, their parts
would be large and clumsy. I therefore thought it right
to describe, with precision, their respective proportions,
so that they might be both commodious and beautiful.
The height of the tablinum to the beam is one eighth
part more than the breadth. The lacunaria are carried
up one-third of the width higher. The passages (fauces)
towards courts which are on a smaller scale, are to be
one-third less than the width of the tablinum ; but if
larger, they are to be one half. The statues, with their
ornaments, are to be placed at a height equal to the width
of the alae. The proportions of the height and width of
doors, if Doric, are to be formed in that method: if Ionic,
according to the Ionic mode, agreeably to the rules given
for doors in the fourth book. The width of the unco-
vered part of the atrium (impluvii lumen) is not to be
less than a fourth nor more than one-third of the width
of the same; its length will be in proportion to that of
the atrium. The cloister (peristylium) is transversely
one third part longer than across. The columns are
to be as high as the width of the portico; and the in-
tercolumniations of the peristylia are not to be less
than three nor more than four diameters of the columns.
But if the columns of a peristylium are of the Doric order,
modules are taken, and the triglyphs arranged thereby,
as described in the fourth book.
176
CHAPTER V.
OF TRICLINIA, CECI, EXEDRAE, PINACOTHECAE AND
THEIR DIMENSIONS.
THE length of a triclinium is to be double its breadth.
The height of all oblong rooms is thus regulated: add
their length and breadth together, of which take one
half, and it will give the dimension of the height. If,
however, exedrae or occi are square, their height is
equal to once and a half their width. Pinacothecae (pic-
ture rooms), as well as exedrae, should be of large di-
mensions. The Corinthian tetrastyle and Egyptian Ceci
(halls) are to be proportioned similarly to the triclinia,
as above described ; but inasmuch as columns are used in
them, they are built of larger dimensions. There is this
difference between the Corinthian and Egyptian oecus.
The former has a single order of columns, standing either
on a podium or on the ground, and over it architraves
and cornices, either of wood or plaster, and a semicircu-
lar ceiling above the cornice. In the Egyptian oecus,
over the lower columns is an architrave, from which
to the surrounding wall is a boarded and paved floor, so as
to form a passage round it in the open air. Then per-
pendicularly over the architrave of the lower columns,
columns one fourth smaller are placed. Above their ar-
chitraves and cornices they are decorated with ceilings,
and windows are placed between the upper columns. Thus
they have the appearance of basilicae, rather than of Co-
rinthian triclinia.
LID. VI. GAP. VI.
177
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE GRECIAN OECI.
CECI are sometimes constructed differently from those of
Italy; the Greeks call these zvčíznyol. They face the
north, with a prospect towards the gardens, and have doors
in the middle. They are of such length and breadth that
two tables (triclinia) with their accessories may stand in
them opposite to each other. The windows, as well on
the right as on the left, are to open like doors, so that
the verdure may be seen through them whilst the guests
recline on the couches. The height of them is equal to
once and a half the width. In these apartments, con-
venience must regulate the proportions. If the windows
are not obscured by high walls adjoining, they may be
easily contrived. But if any impediment occur, either
through nearness of adjoining buildings or other obstruc-
tion, some ingenuity and skill will be requisite to diminish
or increase their established proportions, so as to produce
a pleasing effect not apparently different therefrom.
178
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE PROPER ASPECTS OF DIFFERENT SORTS OF
BUILDINGS.
I SHALL now describe how the different sorts of build-
ings are placed as regards their aspects. Winter tri-
clinia and baths are to face the winter west, because the
afternoon light is wanted in them ; and not less so because
the setting sun casts its rays upon them, and by its heat
warms the aspect towards the evening hours. Bed cham-
bers and libraries should be towards the east, for their pur-
poses require the morning light: in libraries the books
are in this aspect preserved from decay; those that are
towards the south and west are injured by the worm and
by the damp, which the moist winds generate and nou-
rish, and spreading the damp, make the books mouldy.
Spring and autumn triclinia should be towards the east,
for then, if the windows be closed till the sun has
passed the meridian, they are cool at the time they are
wanted for use. Summer triclinia should be towards the
north, because that aspect, unlike others, is not heated du-
ring the summer solstice, but, on account of being turned
away from the course of the sun, is always cool, and
affords health and refreshment. Pinacothecae should have
the same aspect, as well as rooms for embroidering and
painting, that the colours used therein, by the equability
of the light, may preserve their brilliancy.
LIB VI CAP. VIII,
179
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE FORMS OF HOUSES SUITED TO DIFFERENT
RANKS OF PERSONS.
THE aspects proper for each part being appropriated, we
must determine the situation of the private rooms for the
master of the house, and those which are for general use,
and for the guests. Into those which are private no one
enters, except invited; such are bed chambers, triclinia,
baths, and others of a similar nature. The common rooms,
on the contrary, are those entered by any one, even un-
asked. Such are the vestibule, the cavaedium, the peri-
stylia, and those which are for similar uses. Hence, for a
person of middling condition in life, magnificent vestibules
are not necessary, nor tablina, nor atria, because persons
of that description are those who seek favours which are
granted by the higher ranks. Those, however, who have
to lay up stores that are the produce of the country, should
have stalls and shops in their vestibules: under their houses
they should have vaults (cryptae), granaries (horrea), store
rooms (apothecae), and other apartments, suited rather to
preserve such produce, than to exhibit a magnificent ap-
pearance. The houses of bankers and receivers of the re-
venue may be more commodious and elegant, and well se-
cured from the attacks of thieves. For advocates, and men
of literature, houses ought to be still handsomer and more
spacious, to allow the reception of persons on consultations.
But for nobles, who in bearing honours, and discharging
the duties of the magistracy, must have much intercourse
with the citizens, princely vestibules must be provided,
18O
lofty atria, and spacious peristylia, groves, and extensive
walks, finished in a magnificent style. In addition to
these, libraries, pinacothecae, and basilicae, of similar form
to those which are made for the public use, are to be
provided; for in the houses of the noble, the affairs of the
public, and the decision and judgment of private causes
are often determined. If, therefore, houses are erected,
thus adapted to the different classes of society, as di-
rected in the first book under the head of propriety,
there will be nothing to reprehend, for they will be
suitable to their destination. These rules are no less
applicable to country than to town dwellings, except
that in town the atria must be close to the gates, where-
as, in the country villa, the peristylium is near the en-
trance, then the atrium, with paved porticos round it
looking towards the palaestra and walk. I have thus
briefly described the proportions of town residences as I
promised. I shall now proceed to those of houses in the
country, so that they may afford the requisite accommo-
dation.
LIP, WI. CAP, IX,
181
*
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE PROPORTIONS OF HOUSES IN THE COUNTRY.
FIRST of all the salubrity of the situation must be ex-
amined, according to the rules given in the first book for
the position of a city, and the site may be then deter-
mined. Their size should be dependent on the extent of
the land attached to them, and its produce. The courts
and their dimensions will be determined by the number
of cattle, and the yokes of oxen employed. The kitchen
is to be placed in the warmest part of the court; adjoin-
ing to this are placed the stalls for oxen, with the mangers
at the same time towards the fire and towards the east, for
oxen with their faces to the light and fire do not be-
come rough-coated. Hence it is that husbandmen,
who are altogether ignorant of the nature of aspects,
think that oxen should look towards no other region than
that of the east. The width of the stalls should not be less
than ten feet, nor more than fifteen ; lengthwise, each
yoke is to be at least seven feet. The baths should be
contiguous to the kitchen, for they will be then service-
able also for agricultural purposes. The press-room
should also be near the kitchen, for the convenience of
expressing the oil from the olive ; and near that the
cellar, lighted from the north, for if it have any opening
through which the heat of the sun can penetrate, the
wine affected by the heat becomes vapid. The oil room
is to be lighted from the southern and warmer parts of
the heaven, that the oil may not be congealed, but be
preserved liquid by means of a gentle heat. Its size must
182
be proportioned to the quantity of fruit yielded on the
estate, and the number of vessels, which, if of twenty
amphorae (cullearia), are about four feet diameter. The
press, if worked by levers instead of screws, should
occupy an apartment not less than forty feet long, so
as to allow room for the revolution of the levers. Its
width must not be less than sixteen feet, which will give
ample room to turn and expedite the work. If two presses
are employed, the width must be twenty-four feet. The
sheep and goat houses are to be constructed so that not
less than an area of four feet and a half, nor more than
six feet, be allotted to each animal. The granaries are
raised, and must be towards the north or east, so that the
grain may not heat, but be preserved by the coolness
of air; if towards other aspects, the weevil, and other
insects injurious to corn, will be generated. The stable,
especially in the villa, should be in the warmest place,
and not with an aspect towards the fire, for if horses are
stalled near a fire, their coats soon become rough. Hence
those stalls are excellent which are away from the kitchen
in the open space towards the east; for when the weather
is clear in the winter season, the cattle brought thither in
the morning to feed, may be then rubbed down. The
barn, hay-room, meal-room, and mill, may be without the
boundaries of the villa, which will be thereby ren-
dered more secure from fire. If villas are required to be
erected of more magnificence than ordinary, they must be
formed according to the proportions laid down for town
houses above described, but with the precautions neces-
sary to prevent the purposes of a country house being
interfered with. Care should be taken that all build-
ings are well lighted: in those of the country this point
LIP. VI. CAT IX.
183
is easily accomplished, because the wall of a neighbour
is not likely to interfere with the light. But in the
city the height of party walls, or the narrowness of
the situation may obscure the light. In this case we
should proceed as follows. In that direction from which
the light is to be received, let a line be drawn from the
top of the obstructing wall, to that part where the light
is to be introduced, and if, looking upwards along that
line, a large space of open sky be seen, the light may be
obtained from that quarter without fear of obstruction
thereof; but if there be any impediment from beams,
lintels, or floors, upper lights must be opened, and the
light thus introduced. In short, it may be taken as a
general rule, that where the sky is seen, in such part
apertures are to be left for windows, so that the building
may be light. Necessary as light may be in triclinia and
other apartments, not less is it so in passages, ascents,
and staircases, in which persons carrying loads frequently
meet each other. I have explained to the best of my
ability the arrangement used in our buildings, so that
it may be clearly known by builders, and in order that
the Greek arrangement may be also understood, I shall
now briefly explain it.
184
CHAPTER X.
OF THE ARRANGEMENT AND PARTS OF GRECIAN
- HOUSES.
THE Greeks using no atrium, and not building as we do,
make a passage, of no great breadth, from the entrance
gate, on one side whereof the stable is placed, and on the
other the porter’s rooms, which immediately adjoin the
inner gates. The space between the two gates, is, by the
Greeks, called Sugagãoy. From this you enter into the
peristylium, which has a portico on three sides. On that
side facing the south are two antae, at a considerable dis-
tance apart, which carry beams, and the recess behind
them is equal to one-third less than their distance from
each other. This part is called agorrèg (prostas) by
some, and by others Togo.or&g (parastas). Interior to
this the great oecus is placed, in which the mistress of the
family sits with the spinsters. On the right and left of
the prostas are the bed-chambers, of which one is called
the thalamus, the other the antithalamus. Round the
porticos are the triclinia for common use, the bed cham-
bers, and other apartments for the family. This part
of the building receives the name of Gynaecomitis. Ad-
joining this is a larger house, with a more spacious
peristylium, in which there are four porticos equal in
height, though that towards the south may have higher
columns. If a peristylium have one portico higher than
the rest, it is called a Rhodian portico. These houses
have magnificent vestibules, elegant gates, and the por-
ticos of the peristylia are decorated with stucco and
LIF, WI. CAP, X.
185
plastering, and with inlaid ceilings. In the porticos to
the north the cyziceni, triclinia, and pinacothecae, are
situated. The libraries are on the east side, the exedrae on
the west, and to the south are square oeci, of such am-
ple dimensions that there is room therein for four tricli-
nia and the attendants on them, as well as for the games.
These Oeci are used only for entertainments given to men;
for it is not the practice with women to recline on a couch
at dinner. The peristylium, and this part of the house, is
called Andronitis, because the men employ themselves
therein without interruption from the women. On the
right and left, moreover, are small sets of apartments,
each having its own door, triclinium, and bed-chamber, so
that on the arrival of guests they need not enter the peri-
stylium, but are received in rooms (hospitalia) appro-
priated to their occupation. For when the Greeks were
more refined, and possessed greater wealth, they provided
a separate table with triclinia and bed-chambers for their
guests. On the day of their arrival they were invited
to dinner, and were afterwards supplied with poultry,
eggs, herbs, fruits, and other produce of the country.
Hence the painters gave the name of Xenia to those pic-
tures which represent the presents made to guests. Mas-
ters of families therefore, living in these apartments, were
quite, as it were, at home, being at liberty to do as they
pleased therein. Between the peristylium and the lodging
rooms are passages, which are called Mesaulae, from
their situation between two aulae (halls). By us these
are called Andrones. But it is remarkable that this ap-
pellation seems to suit neither the Greek nor Latin terms.
For the Greeks call the Oeci, in which male guests are
entertained, &vögøvåg, because the women do not enter
B B
186
them. There are other discrepancies similar to this, as
the xystus, prothyrum, telamones, and others of that
sort: ávrrog, in Greek means a portico of large dimen-
sions, in which athletae exercise in the winter season:
we, on the contrary, call by the name of xysti those open
walks which the Greeks call regiºgápotºag. The vesti-
bule in front of a house, by the gates, is called prothyrum
by the Greeks; we, however, give the name of prothyrum
to that which the Greeks call 31&dugoy (diathyrum). We
call telamones those figures placed for the support of
mutuli or cornices, but on what account is not found
in history. The Greeks, however, call them &rAoyrs;
(atlantes). Atlas, according to history, is represented in
the act of sustaining the universe, because he is said to
have been the first person who explained to mankind the
sun's course, that of the moon, the rising and setting of
the stars, and the celestial motions, by the power of his
mind and the acuteness of his understanding. Hence it
is, that, by painters and sculptors, he is, for his exertions,
represented as bearing the world: and his daughters,
the Atlantides, whom we call Vergiliae, and the Greeks,
TIAguáðag, were honoured by being placed among the
constellations. I mention these things, not to induce
persons to change the names at this period, but that
they may be known to philologists. I have explained
the different arrangement of buildings after the prac-
tice of the Italians, as well as that of the Greeks, by
giving the proportions and divisions of each; and, as we
have already laid down the principles of beauty and pro-
priety, we shall now consider the subject of strength, by
which a building may be without defects, and durable.
LIB, WI. CAP, XI,
187
CHAPTER XI.
f
OF THE STRENGTH OF BUILDINGS.
IN those buildings which are raised from the level of
the ground, if the foundations are laid according to the
rules given in the preceding books for the construction
of walls and theatres, they will be very durable; but if
under-ground apartments (hypogea) and vaults are to be
built, their foundations must be thicker than the walls of
the upper part of the edifice, which, as well as the pilas-
ters and columns, must stand vertically over the middle
of the foundations below, so that they may be on the
solid part. For if the weight of the walls or the columns
have a false bearing, they cannot last long. It is, more-
over, a good practice to place posts under the lintels,
between the piers and pilasters; for when lintels and
beams are loaded, they sag in the middle, and cause frac-
tures in the work above: but when posts are introduced
and wedged up under them, the beams are prevented from
sagging and being injured. Care also should be taken
to discharge the weight of walls by arches consisting
of wedges concentrically arranged; for if these are turn-
ed over beams or lintels, the beam, being relieved from
the weight, will not sag; and when afterwards it is de-
cayed through age, it may be easily replaced, without
the necessity of shores. So in buildings, which are
constructed on piers and arches, consisting of wedges
whose joints are concentric, the outer piers should be
188
wider than the others, that they may have more power
to resist the action of the wedges, which, loaded with
the weight of the superincumbent wall, press towards
the centre, and have a tendency to thrust out the
abutments. But if the outer piers be of large dimensions,
by restraining the power. of the wedges they will give
stability to the work. Having paid due attention to these
points, care must next be taken, and particularly is it to
be observed, that the work be carried up perpendicularly
and without inclination in any part. The greatest at-
tention must be bestowed on the lower parts of the
walls, which are often damaged by the earth lying
against them. This is not always of the same weight
as in summer; for in the winter season, imbibing a great
quantity of water from the rain, it increases in weight
and bulk, and breaks and extrudes the walls. To re-
medy this evil, the thickness of the wall must be pro-
portioned to the weight of earth against it, and, in
front, counterforts (anterides) or buttresses (erismae)
are carried up with the wall, at a distance from each other
equal to the height of the foundations, and of the same
width as the foundations. Their projection at bottom
is equal in thickness to the wall, and diminishing as
they rise, their projection at top is equal to the thick-
mess of the work: adjoining the inside of the wall, to-
wards the mass of ground, teeth similar to those of a
saw are constructed, each of which projects from the wall
a distance equal to the height of the foundations, and
their thickness is to be equal to that of the foundation
wall. An extent equal to the height of the foundations
is taken at the outer angles, and marked by points on
189
!
each side ; and through these a diagonal is drawn, on
which a wall is carried up, and from the middle of this
another is attached to the angle of the wall. The teeth
and diagonal walls being thus constructed, will discharge
the weight of earth from the wall, by distributing its
pressure over a large surface. Thus I have described
the precautions to be taken at the beginning of a build-
ing, to prevent defects. The same importance does not
attach to the roof, with its beams and rafters, because
if these at any time are found defective, they may be
easily changed. I have also explained how those parts
which are not built solid are to be strengthened. The
quality of the materials it is not in the power of the ar-
chitect to control: for the same species of materials are
not found in every place; and it depends on the em-
ployer whether the building shall be of brick, of rough
stone, or of squared stone. The merit of every work
is considered under three heads; the excellence of the
workmanship, and the magnificence and design thereof.
When a work is conducted as magnificently as pos-
sible, its cost is admired; when well built, the skill of the
workman is praised; when beautifully, the merit belongs
to the architect, on account of the proportion and sym-
metry which enter into the design. These will ever be ap-
parent when he submits to listen to the opinions even of
workmen, and ignorant persons. For other men, as well as
architects, can distinguish the good from the bad; but
between the ignorant man and the architect there is this
difference, that the first can form no judgment till he
sees the thing itself; whereas the architect, having
a perfect idea in his mind, can perceive the beauty,
190
convenience, and propriety of his design, before it is
begun. I have laid down as clearly as I could the rules
necessary for the construction of private buildings: in
the following book I shall treat of the method of finish-
ing them, so that they may be elegant and durable.
PRAEF. LIB, Wil,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
MARCU S VIT R U WIU S POLLIO.
BOOK THE SEVENTH.
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INTRODUCTION.
/
THE antients by means of writing established the wise
and useful practice of handing down to posterity their
sentiments on different subjects, so that not only
those might not be lost, but that by their works con-
tinually increasing, a gradual advancement might be made
to the highest point of learning. Our obligations to them
therefore are great and many, from their not having sul-
lenly kept their knowledge to themselves, but on the



192
contrary, having recorded their opinions on every sub-
ject. Had they omitted to do this, we should not have
known what happened in Troy, nor the sentiments of
Thales, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Xenophanes, and other
physiologists respecting the nature of things; nor the
system of ethics laid down by Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
Zeno, Epicurus, and other philosophers. Of the actions
of Croesus, Alexander, Darius, and other kings, and the
principles on which they acted, we should have been un-
informed, unless the antients had handed them down to
posterity in their writings. As we are indebted to these,
so we are on the contrary bound to censure those, who,
borrowing from others, publish as their own that of which
they are not the authors; not less are they censurable,
who, distorting the meaning of an author, glory in their
perversion of it; indeed they deserve punishment for
their dishonest conduct. It is said that this practice was
strictly punished by the antients; I do not therefore think
it foreign to the purpose to relate from history the result
of some examples made by them. The Attalic kings,
stimulated by their great love for philology, having
established an excellent public library at Pergamus,
Ptolemy, actuated by zeal and great desire for the fur-
therance of learning, collected with no less care, a simi-
lar one for the same purpose at Alexandria, about the
same period. When by dint of great labour he had com-
pleted it, he was not satisfied, unless, like the seed of the
earth, it was to go on increasing. He therefore insti-
tuted games to the Muses and Apollo, and in imitation of
those in which wrestlers contended, he decreed rewards
and honors to the victorious in literature. These being
established, when the time of the games arrived, learned
PRAEF, LIB, WII,
193
judges were to be selected for the decisions. The king
having chosen six, and not readily finding a seventh,
applied to those persons who had the care of the library,
to ascertain whether they knew any one fit for the pur-
pose. They told him that there was a certain man named
Aristophanes, who with great labour and application was
day after day reading through the books in the library. At
the celebration of the games, Aristophanes was summoned
and took his seat among those allotted for the judges. The
first that contended were the poets, who recited their
compositions, and the people unanimously signified to the
judges the piece which they preferred. When the judges
were required to decide, six of them agreed to award the
first prize to him who had most pleased the multitude,
and the second prize to some other candidate. The
opinion of Aristophanes being required, he observed that
the best poet had pleased the people the least. The king
and the whole multitude expressed their great indigna-
tion at this opinion, but he rose and besought that they
would allow him to speak. Silence being obtained, he
told them that one only of the competitors was a poet,
that the others had recited other men's compositions, and
that the judges ought not to decide upon thefts but upon
compositions. The people were astonished, and the king
in doubt; but Aristophanes relying on his memory, quoted
a vast number of books on certain shelves in the library,
and comparing them with what had been recited, made
the writers confess that they had stolen from them. The
king then ordered them to be proceeded against for the
theft, and after their condemnation dismissed them with
ignominy. Aristophanes, however, was honoured with
great rewards, and appointed librarian. Some time af.
C C
194
terwards Zoilus of Macedonia, who assumed the cogno-
men of Homeromastix, came to Alexandria, and recited
before the king his compositions in derogation of the
Iliad and Odyssey. When Ptolemy perceived that the
father of poetry and all philology, whose works are in
esteem throughout all nations, was, because out of the
reach of reply, abused by this man, he was enraged and
did not deign to answer him. Zoilus, however, remain-
ing some time longer in the country, oppressed with po-
verty, besought the king to bestow something on him.
The king is said to have answered, that Homer, who
had been dead more than a thousand years, had been the
means during that period of affording a livelihood to thou-
sands; that he, therefore, who boasted that he possessed
greater talent, ought to be able to support, not only him-
self, but many other persons. Having been condemned
as a parricide, his death is variously related. Some have
written that he was crucified by Philadelphus, some that
he was stoned at Chios, others that he was burnt alive
at Smyrna. Whichever of these circumstances occurred
he richly deserved it, for that person does not seem to
have merited a better fate, who reflects on those that are
beyond the reach of hearing and explaining what is said
of their writings. I, therefore, O Caesar, do not publish
this work, merely prefixing my name to a treatise which
of right belongs to others, nor think of acquiring repu-
tation by finding fault with the works of any one. On
the contrary, I own myself under the highest obligations
to all those authors, who by their great ingenuity have
at various times on different subjects, furnished us with
copious materials; from which, as from a fountain, con-
verting them to our own use, we are enabled to write
PRAEF, LIB, WII,
195
more fully and expediently, and, trusting to whom we are
prepared to strike out something new. Thus adhering
to the principles which I found in those of their works
adapted to my purpose, I have endeavoured to advance
further. Agatharcus, at the time when Æschylus taught
at Athens the rules of tragic poetry, was the first who
contrived scenery, upon which subject he left a treatise.
This led Democritus and Anaxagoras, who wrote there-
on, to explain how the points of sight and distance
ought to guide the lines, as in nature, to a centre; so
that by means of pictorial deception, the real appearances
of buildings appear on the scene, which, painted on
a flat vertical surface, seem, nevertheless, to advance and
recede. Silenus afterwards produced a treatise on the
symmetry of Doric buildings; Theodorus, on the Doric
temple of Júpiter in Samos; Ctesiphon and Metagenes,
on that of the Ionic order in the temple of Diana at
Ephesus. Phileos wrote a volume on the Ionic temple
of Minerva at Priene, and Ictinus and Carpion on the
Doric temple of Minerva at Athens, on the Acropolis;
Theodorus Phoceus on the vaulted temple at Delphi;
Philo on the symmetry of temples, and on the arsenal at
the Piraeus; Hermogenes on the Ionic pseudodipteral
temple at Magnesia, and the monopteral one of Father
Bacchus at Teos. Argelius wrote on the proportions
of buildings of the Corinthian order, and on the Ionic
temple of Æsculapius at Tralles, which he is said to
have built; Satyrus and Phyteus, who were extremely
fortunate, on the Mausoleum, to which some contributed
their exertions whose talents have been admired in all
ages, and who have gained lasting reputation. Each
front was assigned to a separate artist, to ornament
196
and try his skill thereon. Those employed were Leochares,
Bryaxes, Scopas, and Praxiteles; some say that Timotheus
was employed. The great art displayed by these men,
caused this work to be ranked among the seven wonders.
Besides these, many of less celebrity have written pre-
cepts on proportions, as Nexaris, Theocydes, Demophilos,
Pollis, Leonides, Silanion, Melampus, Sarnacus, and Eu-
phranor. Many on mechanics, as Cliades, Archytas, Ar-
chimedes, Ctesibius, Nymphodorus, Philo Byzantius, Di-
philus, Democles, Charidas, Polyidus, Phyros, Agesistra-
tus. From the commentaries of these, what I thought use-
ful I have thrown together, and that the more especially
because I observe that on this branch the Greeks have
published much, and our own countrymen very little.
Fussitius, however, and he was the first, produced an ex-
cellent work on the subject. Terentius Varro, in his work
on the mine sciences, includes one on architecture. Pub-
lius Septimius wrote two. Besides these, I do not recol-
lect any one that up to this time has written, though we
have formerly produced great architects, and such as were
well qualified to have written with elegance. In fact the
foundations of the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens
were prepared by Antistates, Callaeschrus, Antimachides
and Porinus, architects employed by Pisistratus, after
whose death, on account of the troubles which affected the
republic, the work was abandoned. About two hundred
years afterwards, king Antiochus, having agreed to sup-
ply the money for the work, a Roman citizen, named
Cossutius, designed with great skill and taste the cell,
the dipteral arrangement of the columns, the cornices,
and other ornaments. This work is not only universally
esteemed, but is accounted one of the rarest specimens of
PRAEF, LIB, Wil,
197
magnificence. For in four places only are the temples
embellished with work in marble, and from that circum-
stance the places are very celebrated, and their excellence
and admirable contrivance is pleasing to the gods them-
selves. The first is the temple of Diana at Ephesus, of
the Ionic order, built by Ctesiphon of Gnosus, and his
son Metagenes, afterwards completed by Demetrius, a
priest of Diana, and Paeonius, the Ephesian. The second is
the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, also of the Ionic order,
built by the above-named Paeonius, and Daphnis, the
Milesian. The third is the Doric temple of Ceres and
Proserpine, at Eleusis, the cell of which was built by Ic-
tinus, of extraordinary dimensions, for the greater conve-
nience of the sacrifices, and without an exterior colon-
nade. This structure, when Demetrius Phalereus go-
verned Athens, was turned by Philus into a prostyle tem-
ple, with columns in front, and by thus enlarging the
vestibule, he not only provided accommodation for the
noviciates, but gave great dignity to its appearance.
Lastly, in Athens it is said that Cossutius was the archi-
tect of the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which was of
large dimensions, and of the Corinthian order and pro-
portions, as above mentioned. From the pen of this man
no treatise is extant; nor is it from him alone that such
would have been less desirable, than from Caius Mu-
tius, who with great science, and according to the just
rules of art, completed the cell, columns, and entabla-
ture of the temples of Honour and Virtue, near the tro-
phy of Marius, a work, which, had it been of marble, and
thereby endowed with the splendour and richness which
the material must have added, would have been reckoned
among the first and most excellent examples. It there-
198
fore appears that our country can boast of as great archi-
tects as Greece herself, many of them even within
our own times, but since few have left behind them
any treatises, I thought it improper to omit any thing,
and to treat of the different branches in different books.
In the sixth book I have given rules for building private
houses; in this, the seventh, I shall describe their finish-
ing, and how that is to be rendered both beautiful and
durable.
LIB, WII, CAP, I,
199
CHAPTER I.
OF PAVEMENTS.
I shall begin with pavements, which are the princi-
pal of the finishings, and should be executed with the
greatest care and attention to their solidity. If the
pavement be made on the ground itself, the soil must
be examined, to ascertain that it is solid throughout,
then over it is to be spread and levelled a layer of
rubbish. But if the whole or any part of the earth be
loose, it is to be made solid with a rammer. In timber
floors care must be taken that no wall be built under
them, so as to touch the under side of the floors; but
that a space be rather left between them and the floors.
For if they be made solid, the timber of the floors drying
and settling, whilst the wall remains in its place, will
cause fissures in the pavement to the right and left. Care
must also be taken that holm timber be not used with
oak ; for as soon as oak becomes damp, it warps, and
causes cracks in the pavement. If, however, holm is not
to be had, and on that account it be absolutely necessary
to use oak, it should be cut very thin, by which means
its power will be diminished, and it will be more easily
fastened with the nails. Then through the edges of
the boards two nails are to be driven into every joist,
so that no part of the edges may warp. I do not mention
the chestnut, beech, or the farnus, because neither of
them are durable. The floor being prepared, fern, if at
hand, and if not, straw, is to be spread over it, so that
the timber may not be injured by the lime. On this is
200
placed a layer of stones, each of which is not to be less
than will fill a man’s hand. These being spread, the
pavement is laid thereon. If the rubbish be new, let
three parts of it be mixed with one of lime; but if from
old materials, the proportion is five parts to two of lime.
It is then laid on, and brought to a solid consistence with
wooden beaters and the repeated blows of a number of
men, till its thickness is about three quarters of a foot.
Over this is spread the upper layer, composed of three
parts of potsherds to one of lime, of a thickness not less
than six inches. Over the upper layer the pavement
is laid to rule and level, whether composed of slabs or
of tesserae. When laid with their proper inclination, they
are to be rubbed off, so that, if in slabs, there may be
no rising edges of the ovals, triangles, squares, or hexa-
gons, but that the union of the different joints may be
perfectly smooth. If the pavement be composed of tes-
serae, the edges of them should be completely smoothed
off, or the work cannot be said to be well finished. So,
also, the Tiburtine tiles, peaked at the points, should be
laid with care, that there may be neither hollows on them,
nor ridges, but that they be flat, and rubbed to a regular
surface. After the rubbing and polishing, marble dust is
strewed over it, and over that a coat of lime and sand.
Pavements are, however, more fit to be used in the open
air, inasmuch as timbers expanding in a moist atmosphere,
and contracting in a dry one, or sagging in the middle,
cause defects in the pavement by their settlements.
Moreover, frosts and ice soon ruin them. But as they
are sometimes required, they must be made as follows.
Over the first flooring, boards, others crossing them,
must be laid, fastened with nails; thus giving a double
LIB, WHI, (AP, I,
201
covering to the beams. The pavement is composed of
two parts of fresh rubbish, one of potsherds, and two
of lime. After the first layer of rubbish on the floor,
this composition is spread over it, and pounded into
a mass not less than a foot thick. The upper layer being
then spread, as above directed, the pavement, consisting
of tesserae, each about two inches thick, is laid, with an
inclination of two inches to ten feet: if thus executed,
and afterwards properly rubbed, it will not be liable
to defects. In order that the mortar at the joints may
not suffer by the frost, at the approach of winter every
year it should be saturated with the dregs of oil, which
will prevent the frost affecting it. If extraordinary
care be required, the pavement is covered with tiles
two feet square, properly jointed, having small chan-
nels, of the size of an inch, cut on each edge. These
are filled with lime tempered with oil, the edges being
rubbed and pressed together. Thus the lime in the
channels growing hard, suffers neither water nor any thing
else to penetrate. After this preparation the upper layer
is spread and beaten with sticks. Over this either large
tesserae or angle tiles are laid at the inclination above di-
rected, and work so executed will not be easily injured.
CHAPTER II.
OF TEMPERING LIME FOR STUCCO.
HAVING given the necessary directions in respect of pave-
ment, we shall explain the method of stuccoing. This
requires that the lime should be of the best quality, and
tempered a long time before it is wanted for use; so that
if any of it be not burnt enough, the length of time em-
ployed in slaking it may bring the whole mass to the
same consistence. If the lime be not thoroughly slaked,
but used fresh, it will when spread throw out blisters,
from the crude particles it contains, which, in execu-
tion, break and destroy the smoothness of the stucco.
When the slaking is properly conducted, and care taken
in the preparation of the materials, a hatchet is used, si-
milar to that with which timber is hewn, and the lime is
to be chopped with it, as it lies in the heap. If the
hatchet strikes upon lumps, the lime is not sufficiently
slaked, and when the iron of the instrument is drawn out
dry and clean, it shews that the lime is poor and weak;
but if, when extracted, the iron exhibits a glutinous sub-
stance adhering to it, that not only indicates the richness
and thorough slaking of the lime, but also shews that it
has been well tempered. The scaffolding being then pre-
pared, the compartments of the rooms are executed, CX-
cept the ceilings be straight.
LIB, WII, CAP, III,
2O3
CHAPTER III.
OF STUCCO work.
WHEN arched ceilings are introduced, they must be exe-
cuted as follows. Parallel ribs are set up, not more than
two feet apart: those of cypress are preferable, because
fir is soon injured by the rot and age. These ribs being
got out to the shape of the curve, they are fixed to the
ties of the flooring or roof, as the case may require, with
iron nails. The ties should be of wood not liable to in-
jury from rot, nor age nor damp, such as box, juniper,
olive, heart of oak, cypress, and the like, common oak al-
ways excepted, which, from its liability to warp, causes
cracks in the work whereon it is employed. The ribs
having been fixed, Greek reeds, previously bruised, are
tied to them, in the required form, with cords made of
the Spanish broom. On the upper side of the arch a
composition of lime and sand is to be laid, so that if any
water fall from the floor above or from the roof, it may
not penetrate. If there be no supply of Greek reeds, the
common slender marsh-reeds may be substituted, tied to-
gether with string in bundles of appropriate length, but
of equal thickness, taking care that the distance from
one ligature to another be not more than two feet.
These are bound with cord to the ribs, as above di-
rected, and made fast with wooden pins. All the remain-
ing work is to be performed as above described. The
arches being prepared and interwoven with the reeds, a
coat is to be laid on the underside. The sand is after-
wards introduced on it, and it is then polished with
204,
chalk or marble. After polishing, the cornices are to be
run along the springing: they are to be as slender and
light as possible; for, when large, they settle by their
own weight, and are incapable of sustaining themselves.
But little plaster should be used in them, and the stuff
should be of uniform quality, such as marble-dust; for
the former, by setting quickly, does not allow the work
to dry of one consistence. The practice of the antients,
in arched ceilings, is also to be avoided; for their cor-
nices are dangerous, from their great projection and con-
sequent weight. Some cornices are of plain, others of
carved, work. In small private rooms, or where fire or
many lights are used, they should be plain, to allow
of being more easily cleaned; in summer rooms, and
exedras, where the smoke is in such small quantity that
it can do no injury, carved cornices may be used; for
white works, from the delicacy of their colour, are always
soiled, not only with the smoke of the house itself, but
also with that of the neighbouring buildings. The cor-
nices being completed, the first coat of the walls is to be
laid on as roughly as possible, and, while drying, the sand
coat thereon ; setting it out, in the direction of the length,
by the rule and square; in that of the height, perpen-
dicularly ; and in respect of the angles perfectly square;
inasmuch as plastering, thus finished, will be proper for
the reception of paintings. When the work has dried, a
second and afterwards a third coat is laid on. The sounder
the sand coat is, the more durable will the work be. When,
besides the first coat, three sand coats at least have been
laid, the coat of marble-dust follows; and this is to be so
prepared, that when used, it does not stick to the trowel,
but easily comes away from the iron. Whilst the stucco
LIB, WII, (AP, III.
205
is drying, another thin coat is to be laid on ; this is to be
well worked and rubbed, and then still another, finer
than the last. Thus, with three sand coats, and the
same number of marble-dust coats, the walls will be ren-
dered solid, and not liable to cracks or other defects.
When the work is well beaten, and the under coats made
solid, and afterwards well smoothed by the hardness and
whiteness of the marble-powder, it throws out the colours
mixed therein with great brilliancy. Colours, when used
with care on damp stucco, do not fade, but are very du-
rable; because the lime being deprived of its moisture
in the kiln, and having become porous and dry, readily
imbibes whatever is placed on it. From their different
natures the various particles unite in the mixture, and,
wherever applied, grow solid; and when dry, the whole
seems composed of one body of the same quality. Stucco,
therefore, when well executed, does not either become
dirty, or lose its colour when washed, unless it has been
carelessly done, or the colour laid on after the work
was dry: if however executed as above directed, it will be
strong, brilliant, and of great durability. When only one
coat of sand and one of marble-dust are used, it is easily
broken, from its thinness; and is not, on that account,
capable of acquiring a brilliant appearance. As a
silver mirror, made from a thin plate, reflects the image
confusedly and weakly, whilst from a thick solid plate
it takes a high polish, and reflects the image brilliantly
and strongly; so plastering, when thin in substance,
not only cracks, but soon decays. On the contrary,
that which is well covered with plaster and stucco,
and closely laid on, when well polished, not only shines,
but reflects to the spectators the images falling on it.
206
The plasterers of the Greeks thus not only make their
work hard, by adhering to the above directions, but,
when the plaster is mixed, cause it to be beaten with
wooden staves by a great number of men, and use it after
this preparation. Hence, some persons, cutting slabs of
plaster from the antient walls, use them for tables;
and the pieces of plaster so cut out for tables and mir-
rors, are, of themselves, very beautiful in appearance. If
stucco be used on timber partitions, which are necessarily
constructed with spaces between the upright and cross
pieces, and thence, when smeared with clay, liable to
swell with the damp, and when dry to shrink, and cause
cracks, the following expedient should be used. After
the partition has been covered with the clay, reeds, by the
side of each other, are to be nailed thereon with bossed
nails; and clay having been laid over these, and another
layer of reeds nailed on the former, but crossed in their
direction, so that one set is nailed upright, and the other
horizontally; then, as above described, the sand and mar-
ble coats and finishing are to be followed up. The dou-
ble row of reeds thus crossed on walls prevents all cracks
and fissures.
LIB, VII. CAP, IV,
207
CHAPTER IV.
OF STUCCO WORK IN DAMP PLACES.
I HAVE explained how plastering is executed in dry situa-
tions; now I shall give directions for it, that it may be
durable in those that are damp. First, in apartments
on the ground-floor; a height of three feet from the pave-
ment is to have its first coat of potsherds, instead of sand,
so that this part of the plastering may not be injured by
the damp. But if a wall is liable to continual moisture,
another thin wall should be carried up inside it, as far
within as the case will admit; and between the two walls
a cavity is to be left lower than the level of the floor of
the apartment, with openings for air. At the upper
part, also, openings must be left; for if the damp do
not evaporate through these holes above and below, it
will extend to the new work. The wall is then to be
plastered with the potsherd mortar, made smooth, and
then polished with the last coat. If, however, there
be not space for another wall, channels should never-
theless be made, and holes therefrom to the open air.
Then tiles of the size of two feet are placed on one
side, over the side of the channel, and, on the other
side, piers are built, of eight inch bricks, on which the
angles of two tiles may lie, that they may not be more
distant than one palm from each other. Over them other
tiles, with returning edges, are fixed upright, from the
bottom to the top of the wall; and the inner surfaces of
2O8
these are to be carefully pitched over, that they may resist
the moisture; they are, moreover, to have air-holes
at bottom, and at top above the vault. They are
then to be whited over with lime and water, that the
first coat may adhere to them; for, from the dryness
they acquire in burning, they would neither take that
coat nor sustain it, but for the lime thus interposed,
which joins and unites them. The first coat being laid on,
the coat of pounded potsherds is spread, and the remainder
is finished according to the rules above given. The or-
naments for polished stuccos ought to be used with a re-
gard to propriety, suitable to the nature of the place, and
should be varied in their composition. In winter tri-
clinia, neither large pictures nor delicate ornaments in
the cornice, under the vault, are to be introduced, be-
cause they are soon injured by the smoke of the fire, and
of the quantity of lights used therein. In these, above
the podium, polished pannels of a black colour are intro-
duced, with yellow or red margins round them. The
method of finishing plain as well as enriched ceilings hav-
ing been described, it will not be amiss, in case any one
should wish to know it, to explain the construction of
the pavements used in the Grecian winter rooms; which
is not only economical but useful. The floor of the tri-
clinium is excavated to the depth of about two feet; and
after the bottom is well rammed, a pavement of rub-
bish or potsherds is spread over it, with a declivity
towards the holes of the drain. A composition of pounded
coals, lime, sand, and ashes, is mixed up and spread
thereover, half a foot in thickness, perfectly smooth and
level. The surface being then rubbed with stone, it has
LIB, VII. CAP, IW,
209
the appearance of a black pavement. Thus, at their
banquets, the liquor that is spilt, and the expectoration
which falls on it, immediately dry up; and the persons who
wait on the guests, though barefooted, do not suffer from
cold on this sort of pavement.
210
CHAPTER V.
of THE USE OF PAINTING IN BUILDINGS.
IN the other rooms, namely, those for vernal, autumnal
and summer use : in atria also, and peristylia, certain
kinds of pictures were used by the ancients. Paint-
ing represents subjects which exist or may exist, such
as men, houses, ships, and other things, the forms and
precise figures of which are transferred to their re-
presentations. Hence those of the ancients who first
used polished coats of plastering, originally imitated the
variety and arrangement of inlaid marbles. Afterwards
the variety was extended to the cornices, and the yel-
low and red frames of pannels, from which they pro-
ceeded to the representations of buildings, columns, and
the projections of roofs. In spacious apartments, such as
exedrae, on account of their extent, they decorated
the walls with scenery, after the tragic, comic or sa-
tyric mode; and galleries from their extended length, they
decorated with varied landscapes, the representations of
particular spots. In these they also painted ports, pro-
montories, the coasts of the sea, rivers, fountains, straits,
groves, mountains, cattle, shepherds, and sometimes
figures representing gods, and stories, such as the Trojan
battles, or the wanderings of Ulysses over different coun-
tries, and other subjects, founded on real history. But
those which were used by the ancients are now taste-
lessly laid aside: inasmuch as monsters are painted in the
present day rather than objects whose prototype are to be
LIB, WH. C. P. W.
211
observed in nature. For columns reeds are substituted; for
pediments the stalks, leaves, and tendrils of plants; cande-
labra are made to support the representations of small
buildings, from whose summits many stalks appear to
spring with absurd figures thereon. Not less so are those
stalks with figures rising from them, some with human
heads, and others with the heads of beasts ; because
similar forms never did, do, nor can exist in nature.
These new fashions have so much prevailed, that for
want of competent judges, true art is little esteemed.
How is it possible for a reed to support a roof, or a
candelabrum to bear a house with the ornaments on
its roof, or a small and pliant stalk to carry a sitting
figure; or, that half figures and flowers at the same
time should spring out of roots and stalks 2 And yet the
public, so far from discouraging these falsehoods, are de-
lighted with them, not for a moment considering whether
such things could exist. Hence the minds of the multi-
tude, misled by improper judges, do not discern that
which is founded on reason and the rules of propriety.
No pictures should be tolerated but those established on
the basis of truth; and although admirably painted,
they should be immediately discarded, if they trans-
gress the rules of propriety and perspicuity as respects
the subject. At Tralles, a town of Lydia, when Apatu-
rius of Alabanda had painted an elegant scene for the
little theatre which they call #2xxnatorrhºtov, in which, in-
stead of columns, he introduced statues and centaurs to
support the epistylium, the circular end of the dome,
and angles of the pediments, and ornamented the
cornice with lions’ heads, all which are appropriate as
ornaments of the roofing and eaves of edifices; he painted
212
above them, in the episcenium, a repetition of the domes,
porticos, half pediments, and other parts of roofs and their
ornaments. Upon the exhibition of this scene, which on
accountofits richness gave great satisfaction, everyone was
ready to applaud, when Licinius, the mathematician, ad-
vanced, and thus addressed them: “The Alabandines are
sufficiently informed in civil matters, but are without judg-
ment on subjects of less moment; for the statues in their
Gymnasium are all in the attitude of pleading causes,
whilst those in the forum are holding the discus, or in
the attitude of running, or playing with balls, so that the
impropriety of the attitudes of the figures in such places
disgraces the city. Let us therefore, be careful by our
treatment of the scene of Apaturius, not to deserve the
appellation of Alabandines or Abderites; for who among
you would place columns or pediments on the tiles which
cover the roofs of your houses 2 These things stand on
the floors, not on the tiles. If, then, approbation is con-
ferred on representations in painting which cannot exist
in fact, we of this city shall be like those who for a simi-
lar error are accounted illiterate.” Apaturius dared not
reply, but took down and altered the scene, so as to make
it consistent with truth, and then it was approved. O that
the gods would restore Licinius to life, that he might
correct the folly, and fashionable inconsistency in our
stucco work. It is not foreign to my purpose to show
how inconsistency overcomes truth. The ancients labour-
ed to accomplish and render pleasing by dint of art,
that which in the present day is obtained by means of
strong and gaudy colouring, and for the effect which was
formerly obtained only by the skill of the artist, a pro-
digal expense is now substituted. Who in former times
t;
LIB, Wil, CAP, W.
218
used minium otherwise than as a medicine? In the pre-
sent age, however, walls are every where covered with it.
To this may be added the use of chrysocolla, purple,
and azure decorations, which, without the aid of real art,
produce a splendid effect. These are so costly, that un-
less otherwise stated in agreements, they are to be, by
law, charged to the account of the employer. To my ut-
most I have described the means for avoiding defective
plastering, and as lime has previously been sufficiently
treated of, it now remains to treat of marble.
214
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE PREPARATION OF MARBLE FOR PLASTERING.
MARBLE is not alike in all countries. In some places it
contains pellucid particles, similar to those of salt, which,
when bruised and ground, impart great solidity to plas-
tering and cornices. When these are not to be obtained,
the chips (assulae), as they are denominated, which the
workers in marble throw off in working, may be substi-
tuted after being pounded and sifted. They are to be
separated into three sorts, of which that which contains
the larger particles, is, as we have above directed, to be
laid on with the sand and lime: then follows the second
coat, and afterwards, the third which is finer in texture.
After this preparation, and a careful polishing of the
work, the colours which it is to receive are to be consi-
dered, so .that they may be brilliant. Their variety and
the method of preparing them will be found in the fol-
lowing pages.
LIB, VII, (AP, VII,
215
CHAPTER VII.
OF NATURAL COLOURS.
SoME are found in certain places in a native state, and
thence dug up, whilst others are composed of different
substances, ground and mixed together, so as to answer
the same purpose. First we shall explain the nature
of that which is found native, called by the Greeks
3x62. This, as in Italy, is discovered in many places, but
the best is the Attic sort, which cannot now be procured,
for in working the silver mines at Athens, if by chance
they fell upon a vein of ochre, they followed it up just
as they would one of silver. Hence the ancients used
abundance of ochre in their finishings. Red ochre is
also found in many places, but the best only in a few,
as at Sinope, in Pontus; in Egypt; in the Balearic
Islands, near the coast of Spain; also in Lemnos, the
revenue of which island the senate and people of Rome
granted to the Athenians. The Paraetonion takes its name
from the place where it is dug up. The Melinon on a si-
milar account is so called, from its abundance in Melos, one
of the Cyclades. Green chalk is also found in many places;
but the best comes from Smyrna, and is called by the Greeks
Şāobóriov, because Theodotus was the owner of the land in
which it was first discovered. Orpiment, which is called
&égévizo, in Greek, is obtained from Pontus. Red lead
is also obtained from many places, but the best comes
from Pontus, near the river Hypanis. In other spots as
216
in the country between the borders of Magnesia and Ephe-
sus, it is procured from the earth in such a state as to
want neither grinding nor sifting, but quite as fine as
that which is ground and pounded by hand.
LIB, VII. CAP. VIII
CHAPTER VIII.
OF VERMILION AND QUICKSILVER.
I SHALL now speak of vermilion. This is said to have
been first found in the Cilbian fields of the Ephesians,
and the manner of procuring and preparing it is very curi-
ous. A clod of earth is selected, which, before it is manu-
factured into vermilion, is called Anthrax, wherein are
veins resembling iron, but of a red colour, and having a
red dust round them. When dug up, it is beaten with iron
bars till a great number of drops of quicksilver exude from
it; these are immediately collected by the excavators. The
clods, when collected in the laboratory, on account of their
great dampness, are thrown into a furnace to dry; and
the fumes that rise from them through the action of the
fire fall condensed on the floor of the furnace, and
are found to be quicksilver. But as, from the small-
ness of the drops which thus remain, they cannot be ga-
thered up, they are swept into a vessel of water, in which
they run together and re-unite. These, when they fill a
vessel of the capacity of four sextarii, weigh one hundred
pounds. If quicksilver be placed in a vessel, and a
stone of a hundred pounds weight be placed on it, it will
swim at the top, and will, notwithstanding its weight, be
incapable of pressing the liquid so as to break or separate
it. If this be taken out, and only a single scruple of gold
be put in, that will not swim, but immediately descend to
the bottom. This is a proof that the gravity of a body
does not depend on its weight, but on its nature. Quick-
silver is used for many purposes; without it, neither
F F
218
silver nor brass can be properly gilt. When gold is
embroidered on a garment which is worn out and no
longer fit for use, the cloth is burnt over the fire in
earthen pots ; the ashes are thrown into water, and
quicksilver added to them: this collects all the particles
of gold, and unites with them. The water is then poured
off, and the residuum placed in a cloth: which, when
squeezed with the hands, suffers the liquid quicksilver to
pass through the pores of the cloth, but retains the gold
in a mass within it.
219
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE PREPARATION OF VERMILION.
I Now return to the preparation of vermilion. When the
clods are dry, they are pounded and reduced to powder
with iron beaters, and then, by means of repeated wash-
ings and dryings, the colour is produced. When this is
effected, the vermilion, deprived of the quicksilver, loses
its natural tenacity, and becomes soft and disconnected;
and used in the last coat of the plastering of rooms, keeps
its colour without fading. But in open places, such as
peristylia or exedrae, and similar situations whereto the
rays of the sun and moon penetrate, the brilliancy of the
colour is destroyed by contact with them, and it becomes
black. Thus, as it has happened to many others, Fabe-
rius, the scribe, wishing to have his house on the Aven-
tine elegantly finished, coloured the walls of the peristy-
lia with vermilion. In the course of thirty days they
turned to a disagreeable uneven colour; on which ac-
count he was obliged to agree with the contractors to lay
on other colours. Those who are particular in this re-
spect, and are desirous that the vermilion should retain
its colour, should, when the wall is coloured and dry, rub
it with a hard brush charged with Punic wax melted and
tempered with oil : then, with live coals in an iron pan,
the wall should be thoroughly heated, so as to melt the
wax and make it lie even, and then rubbed with a candle
and clean cloth, as they do marble statues. This prac-
tice is called xoVaig by the Greeks. The coat of Punic
wax prevents the effect of the moon's as well as that of
220
the sun’s rays thereon which injure and destroy the
colours in work of this nature. The laboratories which
were formerly carried on at the mines in Ephesus are now
transferred to Rome, on account of mines of the same sort
having been discovered in some parts of Spain, whence
the clods are brought and worked by manufacturers at
Rome. These laboratories are situated between the tem-
ples of Flora and Quirinus. Vermilion is occasionally
adulterated with lime. The following is a method by
which its goodness may be proved. Let the vermilion
be placed on an iron plate over the fire, and remain
till the plate is red hot: when the heat has changed the
colour, and it appears black, let the plate be removed
from the fire. If, when cooled, it returns to its original
colour, it may be considered pure. But if it remain of
a black colour, it is quite clear that it has been adul-
terated. I have written all that I remember respecting
vermilion. Chrysocolla comes from Macedonia, and is
found in the vicinity of copper mines. Minium and
indigo, by their names, indicate the places from whence
they are obtained.
LIB, VII, CAP, X.
221
CHAPTER X.
OF ARTIFICIAL COLOURS. OF BLACK.
I HAVE now to speak of those bodies which, from par-
ticular treatment, change their qualities, and acquire the
properties of colours; and first, of black, which is much
employed in different works, in order that it may be
known how it is prepared for use. An apartment is built
similar to a laconicum, plastered with marble stucco, and
polished. In front of it is built a furnace, which com-
municates with the laconicum ; the mouth of this is to
be very carefully closed, for the purpose of preventing
the escape of the flame. Resin is then placed in the fur-
nace, whose smoke, when the material is set on fire, passes
by means of communications into the laconicum, and
therein adheres to the walls and the arched ceiling. It
is then collected, and some part of it is tempered with
gum, to make ink for transcribers; the remainder is used
by stuccoers in colouring walls, being previously mixed
with size. But if this cannot be procured, in order to
prevent delay, the following expedient may be adopted.
Pine branches or chips must be burnt, and, when
thoroughly charred, pounded in a mortar with size. Thus
the plasterer will procure an agreeable black colour. A
black colour, not less pleasing, is made by drying and
burning lees of wine in a furnace, and grinding the result
with size. Indeed, this makes a very agreeable black.
The better the wine whose lees are used, the better will
be the black colour; which will, in such case, approach
the colour of indigo.
222
CHAPTER XI.
OF BLUE, AND OF BURNT YELLOW.
BLUE was first manufactured at Alexandria, and after-
wards by Westorius at Puzzuoli. The method of making
it, and the nature of the ingredients, merit our attention.
Sand is ground with flowers of sulphur, till the mixture
is as fine as flour, to which coarse filings of Cyprian
copper are added, so as to make a paste when moistened
with water; this is rolled into balls with the hand, and
dried. The balls are then put into an earthen vessel, and
that is placed in a furnace. Thus the copper and sand
heating together by the intensity of the fire, impart to
each other their different qualities, and thereby acquire
their blue colour. Burnt yellow, which is much used
in stuccos, is thus made. A lump of good yellow earth
is heated red hot; it is then quenched in vinegar, by
which it acquires a purple colour.
LHB, WII, CAP, XII,
923
CHAPTER XII.
OF WHITE LEAD, VERDIGREASE, AND RED LEAD.
IT will be proper to explain in what manner white lead
is made, and also verdigrease, which we call aeruca.
The Rhodians place, in the bottoms of large vessels, a
layer of twigs, over which they pour vinegar, and on the
twigs they lay masses of lead. The vessels are covered,
to prevent evaporation; and when, after a certain time,
they are opened, the masses are found changed into white
lead. In the same way they make verdigrease, which is
called aeruca, by means of plates of copper. The white
lead is roasted in a furnace, and, by the action of the
fire, becomes red lead. This invention was the result of
observation in the case of an accidental fire; and, by the
process, a much better material is obtained than that
which is procured from mines.
224
CHAPTER XIII.
OF PURPLE.
I SHALL now speak of purple, which, above all other co-
lours, has a delightful effect, not less from its rarity than
from its excellence. It is procured from the marine
shell which yields the scarlet dye, and possesses qualities
not less extraordinary than those of any other body what-
ever. It does not in all places where it is found possess
the same quality of colour; but varies in that respect
according to the sun’s course. Thus, that which is ob-
tained in Pontus and in Galatia, from the nearness of
those countries to the north, is brown; in those between
the south and the west, it is pale; that which is found in
the equinoctial regions, east and west, is of a violet hue;
lastly, that which comes from southern countries possesses
a red quality: the red sort is also found in the island of
Rhodes, and other places near the equator. After the
shells are gathered they are broken into small pieces with
iron bars; from the blows of which, the purple dye oozes
out like tears, and is drained into mortars and ground. It is
called ostrum, because extracted from marine shells.
Inasmuch as this colour, from its saltness, soon dries, it
is prepared for use with honey.
LIB, VII, CAP, XIV
CHAPTER XIV.
OF FACTITIOUS COLOURS.
PURPLE colours are also made by tinging chalk with
madder-root and hysginum. Divers colours are also
made from flowers. Thus, when dyers are desirous of
imitating the Attic ochre, they put dry violets into a
vessel, and boil them. When so prepared, they pour
the contents of the vessel on to a cloth, and, squeezing
it with their hands, receive in a mortar the water thus
coloured by the violet, and then, mixing Eretrian earth
with it, and grinding it, the colour of Attic ochre is
produced. In the same way an excellent purple is ob-
tained by preparing vaccinium, and mixing it with
milk. So also, those who cannot afford the use of chry-
socolla, mix blue with the herb weld, and thus obtain a
brilliant green. These are called factitious colours.
On account of the dearness of indigo, Selinusian chalk,
or that used for making rings, is mixed with glass, which
the Greeks call 62×og; and thus they imitate indigo.
In this book I have explained, as they have occurred
to me, the methods of making colours for painting, so
that they may be durable and appropriate. Thus, in
seven books, are methodically laid down all the rules
that relate to the perfection and convenience of build-
ings. In the following book I shall treat of water, how
it is to be found and conveyed to any place; as also how
to ascertain its salubrity, and fitness for the purposes to
which it is to be applied.
PRAEF. LIB, WIII,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
M A R C U S VIT R U V IU S PO LLIO.
BOOK THE EIGHTH.
INTRODUCTION.
THALES, the Milesian, one of the seven wise men, taught
that water was the original cause of all things. Heraclitus
maintained the same of fire: the priests of the magi, of
water and fire. Euripides, a disciple of Anaxagoras, called
by the Athenians the dramatic philosopher, attributed it
to air and earth; and contended that the latter, impreg-
nated by the seed contained in the rain falling from the
heavens, had generated mankind and all the animals on

228
the earth; and that all these, when destroyed by time, re-
turned to their origin. Thus, such as spring from the air,
also return into air, and not being capable of decay, are
only changed by their dissolution, returning to that ele-
ment whereof they first consisted. But Pythagoras, Empe-
docles, Epicharmus, and other physiologists, and philoso-
phers, maintained that there were four elements, air, fire,
water, and earth; and that their mixture, according to the
difference of the species, forms a natural mould of different
qualities. We must recollect, that not only from these
elements, are all things generated, but that they can
neither be nourished, nor grow without their assistance.
Thus bodies cannot live without abundance of air; that
is, without its being furnished for inspiration and respira-
tion in considerable quantity. So, also, if a body do
not possess a due proportion of heat, it can neither be en-
dued with animal spirits nor a strong constitution, nor
will the hardness of its food be duly attenuated: and if
the members of the body are not nourished by the fruits
of the earth, they will waste, because deprived of the
mixture of that element with them. Lastly, animals de-
prived of moisture, from want of water dry up, and are
bloodless and parched. Divine Providence has made
those things neither scarce nor dear which are neces-
sary for mankind, as are pearls, gold, silver, and the
like, which are neither necessary for the body nor nature;
but has diffused abundantly, throughout the world, those
things, without which the life of mortals would be un-
certain. Thus, if a body be deficient in spirit, the
deficiency is supplied by the air. The power of the
sun, and the discovery of fire, are always ready to
assist us, and render life more certain. The fruits of
PRAEE, LIB, VIII,
229
the earth also, furnishing nourishment even to excess,
feed and support animals continually. Water is of in-
finite utility to us, not only as affording drink, but for
a great number of purposes in life; and it is furnished
to us gratuitously. Hence the priests of the Egyptian
worship teach, that all things are composed of water; and
when they cover the vase of water, which is borne to the
temple with the most solemn reverence, kneeling on the
earth, with their hands raised to heaven, they return
thanks to divine goodness for its creation.
Q30
CHAPTER I.
OF THE METHOD OF FINDING WATER.
As it is the opinion of physiologists, philosophers and
priests that all things proceed from water, I thought
it necessary, as in the preceding seven books rules
are laid down for buildings, to describe in this the
method of finding water, its different properties, accord-
ing to the varied nature of places, how it ought to be
conducted, and in what manner it should be judged of;
inasmuch as it is of infinite importance, for the purposes of
life, for pleasure, and for our daily use. This will be easily
accomplished if the springs are open and flowing above
ground. If that be not the case, their sources under
ground are to be traced and examined. In order to
discover these, before sunrise one must lie down pros-
trate in the spot where he seeks to find it, and with
his chin placed on the ground and fixed, look around
the place; for the chin being fixed, the eye cannot
range upwards farther than it ought, and is confined to
the level of the place. Then, where the vapours are seen
curling together and rising into the air, there dig, because
these appearances are not discovered in dry places. We
should also consider the nature of the place when we
search for water. In clay, the vein of water is small,
the supply little, and not of the best flavour; and if in
low places, it will be muddy and ill tasted. In black
earth, only tricklings and small drops are found, which,
collected from the winter rain, subside in compact
hard places, and are of very excellent flavour. In
LIB, Viiſ, CAP, I,
281
gravel, the veins are small and variable, but they are ex-
ceeding well flavoured. In the strong, common and red
Sands, the supply is to be depended on with more cer-
tainty, and is of good taste. In red stone, abundance
and that of good quality may be obtained, if it do not
filter away and escape through the pores. At the feet of
mountains, and about flinty rocks the supply is copious
and abundant; it is there cold and more wholesome. In
champaign countries, the springs are salt, gross, tepid,
and unpleasant, except those, which percolating from the
mountains beneath the surface, issue forth in the plains,
where, especially when shadowed by trees, they are as
delicious as those of the mountains themselves. Besides
the above signs for ascertaining in what places water
may be found, are the following: when a place abounds
with the slender bulrush, the wild willow, the alder,
the withy, reeds, ivy, and other plants of a similar sort,
which neither spring up nor flourish without moisture.
For these plants usually grow about lakes, which, being
lower than the other parts of a country, receive both the
rain water and that of the district, through the winter,
and, from their size, preserve the moisture for a longer
period. On these, however, we must not rely. But in
those districts and lands, no lakes being near, where the
plants in question grow spontaneously, there we may
search. In places where these signs do not appear,
the following plan must be adopted. Tig a hole three
feet square, and at least five feet deep, and in it, about
sunset, place a brazen or leaden basin, or larger vessel,
if one be at hand. It must be rubbed over with oil inside
and inverted, and the upper part of the excavation is to
be covered with reeds or leaves; on these the earth is to
232
be thrown. On the following day let it be opened, and
if the inside of the vase be covered with damp and drops
of water, water will be there found. If the vase placed
in the pit be of unburnt clay, having been covered as
above directed, when uncovered it will be damp, and per-
haps destroyed by the moisture. A fleece of wool being
placed in the same pit, if, on the following day, water can
be expressed from it, the existence of water in the place
is indicated, and that in abundance. Also, if a trimmed
lamp full of oil be lighted, and placed in the covered pit,
and on the following day it be not exhausted, but still
retain unconsumed some of the wick and oil, and present
a humid appearance, it shows that water will be found
there, inasmuch as heat invariably draws the moisture
towards it. Moreover, if in such place a fire be made on
the ground, and the ground, when heated, throw out
cloudy vapours, water will be found in it. These expe-
riments having been made, and the requisite indications
being manifest, a well is to be sunk on the spot; and if the
head of the spring be found, many other wells are to be
dug round about it, and, by means of under-cuttings,
connected with it so as to concentrate them. The spring-
heads, however, are chiefly to be sought in mountains
and northern districts, because, in those situations, they
are generally sweeter, more wholesome, and more copious,
on account of their being sheltered from the rays of the
sun, of the trees and shrubs in those places being in greater
abundance, and of the sun’s rays coming obliquely on
them, so that the moisture is not carried off. Valleys in
the midst of mountains receive a very large proportion of
rain, and from the closeness of their woods, as well from
the shade which the trees afford, added to the snow,
LIB, VIII, CAP, I.
233
which so long remains on them, allow it to percolate
through their strata, and thus arrive at the foot of the
mountain, when, issuing forth, it becomes the source of
a river. On the contrary, in a champaign country, much
water will not probably be found; or if it should, it will
not be wholesome, because the great power of the sun,
unobstructed by shade, attracts and carries off all hu-
midity from the plains; and were even the water to ap-
pear, the air would attract and dissipate the lightest,
subtlest, and wholesomest parts, and leave the heaviest,
most unpleasant, and most unwholesome in the spring.
‘H H
“234,
CHAPTER II.
OF RAIN WATER.
WATER collected from showers possesses wholesome qua-
lities, because it consists of the lightest and most subtle
particles of all springs, which, cleansed by the action of
the air, and loosened by the tempests, descend upon the
earth: and the reason why showers do not fall so often
upon plains as they do on mountains or their vicinity is,
because the vapours ascending from the earth at Sunrise,
to whatever part of the heavens they incline, drive the
air before them, and, being in motion, receive an impetus
from the air which rushes after them. The air rushing
on, and driving in every direction the vapour before it,
creates gales, and blasts, and eddies of wind. Hence the
winds, wherever they travel, extract from springs, rivers,
marshes, and from the sea, when heated by the Sun, con-
densed vapours, which rise and form clouds. These,
borne up by the winds when they come against the sides
of mountains, from the shock they sustain, as well as from
storms, swell, and, becoming heavy, break and disperse
themselves on the earth. The vapours, clouds, and ex-
halations which rise from the earth, seem to depend
on its retention of intense heat, great winds, cold moist-
ure, and its large proportion of water. Thus when,
from the coolness of the night, assisted by the darkness,
winds arise, and clouds are formed from damp places, the
sun, at its rising, striking on the earth with great power,
LIR, WHH, CAP, II,
235
and thereby heating the air, raises the vapours and the dew
at the same time. A corroboration of this may be seen in
a hot bath; for it is absurd to suppose that there can be
a spring above its ceiling; and yet that, when warmed by
the heated air from the furnace, attracts the moisture
from the pavement, whence it is carried up to the vault-
ing of the ceiling, where it hangs. For hot vapours
always ascend, and at first, from their lightness, do not
fall down, but as soon as condensed, their gravity pre-
vents buoyancy, and they drop on the heads of the
bathers. In the same manner the atmospheric air, when
warmed by the sun, raises the moisture from all places,
and gathers it to the clouds : for the earth acted upon
by heat, drives out its moisture, as heat drives out
perspiration from the human body. This is manifest
from the winds, among which, those that blow from the
coldest quarters, as the north, and the north-east, bring
dry and pure air, but the south and other winds, which
blow from the direction of the sun’s course, are very
damp, and always bring showers with them, because they
reach us heated by the torrid regions, and imbibing va-
pours from the countries they pass over, transport them to
the northern quarters. That this is the case, is evident
from an inspection of the sources of rivers, as marked in
geographical charts; as also from the descriptions of them,
wherein we find that the largest, and greatest number are
from the north. First, in India, the Ganges and Indus
spring from Mount Caucasus: in Syria, the Tigris and Eu-
phrates: in Asia, and especially in Pontus, the Borys-
thenes, Hypanis and Tanais : in Colchis, the Phasis: in
France, the Rhone: in Belgium, the Rhine: southward of
236
the Alps, the Timavus and Po: in Italy, the Tiber: in
Maurusia, which we call Mauritiania, the river Dyris, from
Mount Atlas, which, rising in a northern region, pro-
ceeds westward to the lake Heptabolus, where, changing
its name, it is called the Niger, and thence from the lake
Heptabolus, flowing under barren mountains, it passes
in a southern direction, and falls into the Marsh Coloe,
which encircles Meroe, a kingdom of the southern Ethio-
pians. From this marsh turning round near the rivers
Astasoba, Astabora, and many others, it passes through
mountains to the Cataract, and falling down towards
the north it passes between Elephantis and Syene and
the Thebaic Fields in Egypt, where it receives the ap-
pellation of the Nile. That the source of the Nile is
in Mauritania, is certain, because on the other side of
the Mount Atlas are other springs whose course is towards
the western ocean, in which are found the ichneumon,
the crocodile, and other animals and fishes of a similar
nature, the hippopotamus excepted. Since, therefore,
all the large known rivers in the world seem to flow
from the north, and towards the land of Africa, be-
cause those are in the southern regions under the sun’s
course, where there is little moisture, and but few springs
and rivers, it follows that those sources which are in the
north and north-east, are much better than others, unless
they run over a sulphureous, aluminous, or bituminous
soil, for their quality is thereby changed, and whether
hot or cold, their water is then of bad smell and taste.
It is not that water, by its nature, is hot, but when
cold, it is heated by running over a hot soil, and issues
warm from the earth through the different pores: it does
LIB, WI. I. CAP, II,
237
not, however, long remain in that state, but soon becomes
cold; whereas, if it were naturally hot, it would not so
soon grow cool; for it does not lose its taste, smell, and
colour, which, from the purity of its nature, remain un-
changed and discoloured.
238
CHAPTER III.
OF THE NATURE OF VARIOUS WATERS.
There are some hot springs from which water of an excel-
lent flavour is procured, so pleasant to the taste, that it is
inferior neither to that of the fountains of the Camaenae nor.
of the Martian aqueduct. These are naturally so, on the
following account. When fire is generated under ground,
and the soil is heated all round, either from abundance of
alum, bitumen, or sulphur, the hot vapour ascends to the
upper parts, and, if there are therein springs of Sweet
water affected by its spreading through the pores, they
grow hot, without injury to the flavour. There are
also cold springs whose smell and taste are bad. These
arise in the lower subterranean places, then pass through
hot districts, and afterwards continuing their course for a
considerable distance, are cold when they rise to the
surface, and of a vitiated taste, smell, and colour. Such is
the river Albula, in the Tiburtine way: such are the cold
fountains in the lands of Ardea, both of a similar smell,
which is like sulphur: such, also, are found in other places.
But these, though cold, seem, nevertheless, to boil: for,
falling from a high place on to a heated soil, and acted
on by the meeting of the water and fire, they rush to-
gether with great violence and noise; and, apparently
inflated by the violence of the compressed air, they issue
boiling from the spring. Among them, however, those
whose course is not open, but obstructed by stones or other
impediments, are, by the force of the air through the nar-
row pores driven up to the tops of hills. Hence, those
LIB, VIII. CAP. III,
239
who think they have found springs at such a height as
the tops of hills, are mistaken when they dig their wells.
For as a brazen vase, not filled to the brim, but about
two-thirds full of water, with a cover thereon, when
subjected to the great heat of a fire communicates that
heat to the water, this, from its natural porosity, re-
ceiving the heat and swelling out, not only fills the
vase, but, raising the cover by the force of the steam,
increases and boils over. If the cover be taken away,
the steam passes off to the open air, and the water sub-
sides. In the same manner, when springs are forced
through narrow channels, the pressure of the air drives
the bubbles of the water to the top; but as soon as they
come into wide open channels, the pores of the liquid
having vent, it subsides and returns to its natural level.
All hot springs are, therefore, medicinal; because boil-
ing in the soils through which they pass, they acquire
many virtues. Thus sulphureous waters restore, by their
heat, those suffering under nervous complaints, by warm-
ing and extracting the vitious humours of the body.
If any member of the body, either from paralysis or other
malady, become useless, aluminous waters warm it, and
introducing, through the open pores, the opposing power
of heat, restore it, and thus it immediately regains its
former strength. Bituminous waters, taken inwardly,
act as purgatives, and are excellent for the cure of in-
ward complaints. There is a species of cold nitrous
spring like that at Pinna a city of the Vestini, at Cuti-
lium, and other similar places, which, when taken, purges,
and, in its passage through the bowels, diminishes schro-
phulous tumours. In those places where gold, silver, iron,
brass, lead, and other similar substances, are excavated,
240
very copious springs are found. These, however, are
very pernicious. Indeed they produce effects contrary
to those of the hot springs which emit sulphur, alum, and
bitumen: for when taken inwardly, passing through the
intestines, they affect the nerves and joints, and produce
hard swellings on them. Hence the nerves are con-
tracted by the swelling, in the direction of their length,
and thus induce the cramp or the gout, because the
vessels become saturated with hard gross cold particles.
But there is a species of water, which, when not clear,
has a foam, like a flower, swimming on its surface,
of a colour similar to that of purple glass. It is known
at Athens more particularly, and, from the places and
springs in which it is found, it is conducted to the
city and to the Piraeus; but, on account of the cause
above-mentioned, no one drinks it, though it is in use
for washing and other purposes. They, therefore, to
avoid its ill effects, drink the well water. The Troe-
zenians are not able to escape this evil; for they
have no other sort of water, except that of Cybdelus.
Hence, in their city, all, or at least the greatest part,
of the inhabitants are affected with diseases in the
feet. At Tarsus, a city of Cilicia, there is a river whose
name is Cydnus, in which, if gouty persons steep their
feet, they receive relief from it. There are, moreover,
many other sorts of water, which have particular proper-
ties, as the Himera, in Sicily, which, when it departs from
its source, is divided into two branches. That branch
which flows towards AFtna, passing through a country
of sweet humidity, is exceedingly soft ; the other,
its course being through land where salt is dug, has a
salt taste. At Paraetonium, also, and on the road to the
LIB, VIII. CAP. III.
241
temple of Ammon, and at Casium in AEgypt, there are
marshy lakes containing so much salt, that it congeals
on them. In many other places the springs, rivers and
lakes, which run near salt-pits, are therefrom rendered
salt. Others, running over veins of fat earth, issue
forth impregnated with oil: as at Soloe, a city of Cilicia,
a river called Liparis, in which those that swim or wash,
are, as it were, anointed by the water. In Ethiopia,
also, there is a lake which anoints those that swim there-
in ; and in India there is another, which, when the sky
is clear, emits a great quantity of oil. At Carthage there
is a spring, on the surface of which swims an oil of the
smell of cedar dust, with which they anoint cattle. In
the island of Zacynthus, and about Dyrrachium and
Apollonia, are springs which throw up a great quantity
of pitch with the water. The vast lake at Babylon,
called the Asphaltic pool, contains floating bitumen, with
which, and with bricks of baked earth, Semiramis built
the wall round Babylon. At Joppa, also, in Syria,
and in Numidian Arabia, are lakes of immense size,
yielding large masses of bitumen, which are taken away
by the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. This is not,
however, surprising; for in that spot there are many
quarries of hard bitumen: hence, when the water bursts
out from this bituminous earth, it carries it therewith ;
and having come forth, the bitumen is separated from it
and deposited. In Cappadocia, on the road between Ma-
Zaca and Tuana, there is a considerable lake, in which,
if a piece of reed or any other substance be cast, and
taken out on the following day, it will be found to have
been turned into stone; but the part out of water will not
have changed its quality. In the same manner, at Hiera-
I I
242
polis, in Phrygia, a large head of hot water boils up,
and is conducted by ditches round the gardens and vine-
yards. At the end of a year the ditches become incrust-
ed with stone; and hence, making yearly cuts to the right
and left, they carry off the incrustations, and use them
for building field walls. This circumstance, as it appears
to me, would naturally happen, if, in these spots, and in
the land about, there be a juice or moisture whose nature
is similar to that of rennet. For then, when this coagu-
lating power issues forth from the earth, through the
springs, congelation takes place by the heat of the sun and
air, as is seen in salt-pits. Some springs are exceedingly
bitter, from the bitterness of the juices of the earth; as the
river Hypanis in Pontus, which, for the first forty miles
from its source, is of very sweet flavour; but at a
spot one hundred and sixty miles from its mouth, a
very small spring falls into it, after which the whole
body of the river becomes bitter; and this because the
water flows through that sort of earth and veins from
whence red lead is procured. These different flavours
are dependent on the quality of the earth, as in the
case of fruits. For if the roots of trees, of vines, or of
other plants, did not produce fruit according to the qua-
lity of the earth and the nature of the moisture, the
same sort of fruit would, in all places and countries,
possess the same flavour. Whereas we see, that, in the
island of Lesbos the Protyran wine is made, in Maeonia
the korºzákºvºvirn (Catakecaumenitan), in Lydia the Me-
litan, in Sicily the Mamertine, in Campania the Falernian,
at Terracina and Fundi the Caecuban; and in many other
places a vast variety of sorts, of different qualities; which
could not be the case, but that the moisture of the earth,
LIB, WHP, CAP, III,
243
penetrating the roots with the particular flavour it pos.
sesses, nourishes the tree, and, rising to the top of it,
imparts to the fruit the flavour of the place and species.
For if the soil and its moisture did not vary, not only
would the reeds and rushes of Syria and Arabia be odo-
riferous, and the shrubs yield pepper, frankincense, and
myrrh ; nor would the laser grow only in Cyrene, but in
all countries and in all places would the same sort of
plants grow. For the varieties that are found in dif.
ferent situations and countries arise from the different
climates, and the power of the sun, sometimes at a less
and at other times at a greater distance; the effects of
which are perceived, not only on the moisture of the
earth, but on cattle and flocks. And these circum-
stances could not occur, if in every country the qua-
lity of the land did not depend on the sun’s power.
In Boeotia on the rivers Cephisus and Melas, in Lu-
cania on the Crathis, in Troy on the Xanthus, and on
the springs and rivers of the Clazomenians, Erythraeans,
and Laodiceans, the cattle, about the time of bearing,
at the proper season of the year, are daily driven to
drink; and though themselves of a white colour, in
some places they bring forth young of a brown colour, in
others of dark brown, and in others of a black colour.
Thus the property of a beverage, when it enters the body,
communicates thereto its quality, of whatever sort that
may be. Hence in the plains of Troy, on the banks
of its river, from the flocks and cattle being yellow, the
Trojans are said to have called the river Xanthus. Some
sorts of water are mortal in their effects: these receive
their quality from the poisonous moisture of the lands
through which they flow. Such is said to be the Nep-
244
tunian spring at Terracina, of which those who thought-
lessly drank, lost their lives; hence the antients are
said to have stopped it up ; and in the country of the
Cychri, in Thrace, there is a lake, of which not only
those who drink, but those who bathe therein die. In
Thessaly, also, flows a spring which no cattle will
drink, nor even approach: near it a shrub grows, which
bears a purple flower. So, in Macedonia, where Euri-
pides is interred, from the right and left of his tomb two
streams unite : on one of them travellers usually halt to
refresh themselves, on account of the excellence of the
water: no one, however, approaches the stream on the
other side of the monument, because its effects are said
to be mortal. In Arcadia, also, the Nonacrian region
contains extremely cold water, which drops from the
mountains and rocks. It is called water of the Styx
(Xrvyog ūbag) ; which neither silver, brass, nor iron ves-
sels will hold, because it bursts and destroys them. No-
thing preserves or contains it but the hoof of a mule : in-
deed it is said to have been conveyed, by Iolaus the son of
Antipater, to the province where Alexander was, and to
have been the cause of his death. In the Cottian Alps
is a water which those who taste instantly die. In the
Faliscan territory, on the Via Campana, and in the
Cornetan division is a grove wherein a spring rises,
containing bones of snakes, lizards, and other reptiles.
There are other springs whose water is acid, as are
those of the Lyncestis, and in Italy, of the Velinus and
of the Campana near Theanum, and in many other
places, which, when drank, have the effect of dissolving
the stone which forms in the bladder. This seems
to arise from an acrid and acid moisture being un-
LIB. VIII. CAP. III.
245
der the earth, from which the waters acquire their
acridity; and when introduced into the system, dissolve
that with which they come in contact whether generated
by deposition or concretion. That acids will have this
effect, is clear, from the experiment on an egg, whose
shell, when kept therein for some time, will be softened
and dissolve. Lead, also, which is very flexible and
heavy, if placed in a vessel and covered with acid, and
there left open, will be dissolved, and become white
lead. In the same way brass which is more solid by
nature, if treated in the same way, will dissolve, and
become verdigrease; and even pearls and flint-stones,
which neither iron nor fire can destroy, when sub-
mitted to its action, are dissolved and dissipated by
an acid. With these facts before our eyes, we may fair-
ly argue, that calculous disorders may be cured by acids,
on account of their acridity. Some springs appear to
be mixed with wine; as that in Paphlagonia, which,
when taken, inebriate as wine. At AEqui, in Italy,
and in the territory of the Medulli on the Alps, there
is a species of water, the use of which produces swell-
ings of the neck. In Arcadia, at the well-known city
of Clitorium, is a cave flowing with water, of which
those who drink become abstemious. At the spring is
an epigram inscribed on stone, in Greek verses, to the
following effect: that it is not fit for bathing, and also
that it is injurious to the vine, because, near the spot,
Melampus cured the daughters of Proetus of their mad-
ness, and restored them to reason. The epigram is as
follows:
Rustic, by Clitor's stream who takest thy way,
Should thirst oppress thee in the noon of day
246
Drink at this fount, and in the holy keep
Of guardian Naiads place thy goats and sheep.
But dip not thou thy hand, if wine inflame,
Lest e'en the vapour chill thy fever'd frame;
Fly thou my sober spring. Melampus here
Cleansed the mad Proetides, what time the seer
Arcadia's rugged hills from Argos sought,
With purifying power my stream was fraught.
There is also in the island of Chios, a fountain, of which
those who imprudently drink become foolish ; and there-
over is inscribed an epigram to the following purport;
that though the water of the fountain might be pleasant
to the taste, yet he who drank of it would lose his senses.
The lines are thus: **
Sweet drops of cooling draught the spring supplies,
But whoso drinks, his reason petrifies.
At Susa, the capital of Persia, there is a fountain, at which
those who drink lose their teeth. On this also is writ-
ten an epigram, stating that the water was excellent
for washing, but that if drank it caused the teeth to
fall out of their sockets. The verses are as follow :
A dreaded spring you see,
Yet if their hands, good stranger,
Folks choose to wash, they’re free
To do so without danger;
But if from your long lip,
Or only from its tip
Into your hollow venter,
This liquor pure should enter,
Your tools for munching meat
Straight on the ground will tumble,
And leave their empty seat
For toothless jaws to mumble.
LIB, VIII, CAP, IV,
247
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE QUALITIES OF WATERS IN CERTAIN PLACES.
THE quality of the water, in some places, is such, that it
gives the people of the country an excellent voice for sing-
ing, as at Tarsus, Magnesia, and other countries. In
Africa there is a city called Zama, which king Juba sur-
rounded with double walls, and built a palace there; about
twenty miles from which, is the town of Ismuc, whose
territory is of vast extent. Though Africa is the nursing
mother of wild animals, and especially of serpents, in that
territory none breed, and if any are brought there they
immediately die; and if earth from this place be removed
to another, it has the same effect. This sort of earth is
also found in the Balearic Isles, where, as I have heard, it
has even a more extraordinary quality. C. Julius, the
son of Masinissa, to whom the town and territory be-
longed, fought under Caesar the elder. Lodging in my
house, our daily intercourse led us to discuss subjects
of philology. On an occasion, talking on the power
of water and its virtues, he assured me that in the above
territory there were springs of the same sort, and that
persons born there had excellent voices for singing; and
that on this account persons went to the transmarine
market to buy male and female slaves, whom they cou-
pled for the purpose of procuring progeny, not only of
excellent voice, but of great beauty. Thus has nature
exhibited variety in every thing, except the human body,
which in every instance consists of earth; but therein are
248
many sorts of fluids, as blood, milk, perspiration, urine,
and tears. Wherefore, if in so small a portion of earth
such variety exists, it is not surprising, that in the whole
world an infinite variety of liquids are found, through the
veins of which a spring of water passing, becomes impreg-
nated with their quality before arriving at its head.
Hence so many fountains of different sorts, arising, as
well from the diversity of their situations, as from the
quality of the countries, and the properties of the soils.
Of some of these things I have been an eye-witness; of
others I have read in Greek books, whose authors are
Theophrastus, Timaeus, Posidonius, Hegesias, Herodotus,
Aristides, and Metrodorus, who, with the greatest care
and accuracy have described how the properties of
places and the virtues of different waters, depend on the
various climates of the earth. From these I have borrowed
and copied into this book all that I thought necessary re-
specting the varieties of water, whereby, from the di-
rections given, persons can more readily choose springs
from which they may conduct water to cities and states,
inasmuch as nothing is more necessary than water. For
such is the nature of all animals, that if they do not receive
a supply of grain, they can subsist on fruits, flesh, or fish,
or something of those sorts; but without water, neither
the body of an animal, nor even food itself can be raised,
preserved, nor provided. The utmost diligence and la-
bour, therefore, should be used in choosing springs, on
which the health of mankind depends.
Lj]}, WIFI, CAP. W.
249
CHAPTER V.
OF THE MEANS OF JUDGING OF WATER.
THE trial and proof of water are made as follows. If it be
of an open and running stream, before we lay it on, the
shape of the limbs of the inhabitants of the neighbour-
hood should be looked to and considered. If they are
strongly formed, of fresh colour, with sound legs, and with-
out blear eyes, the supply is of good quality. Also, if dig-
ging to a fresh spring, a drop of it be thrown into a Co-
rinthian vessel made of good brass, and leave no stain
thereon, it will be found excellent. Equally good that
water will be, which, after boiling in a cauldron, leaves no
sediment of sand or clay on the bottom. So if vegetables
are quickly cooked over the fire in a vessel full of this
water, it shews that the water is good and wholesome.
Moreover, if the water itself, when in the spring is limpid
and transparent, and the places over which it runs do not
generate moss, nor reeds, nor other filth be near it, every
thing about it having a clean appearance, it will be ma-
nifest by these signs, that such water is light and exceed-
ingly wholesome.
950
CHAPTER VI.
OF LEVELLING, AND THE INSTRUMENTS USED FOR
THAT PURPOSE.
I shall now describe, how water is to be conveyed to
houses and cities, for which purpose levelling is necessary.
This is performed either with the dioptra, the level (libra
aquaria), or the chorobates. The latter instrument is
however the best, inasmuch as the dioptra and level are
often found to be incorrect. The chorobates is a rod
about twenty feet in length, having two legs at its extre-
mities of equal length and dimensions, and fastened to
the ends of the rod at right angles with it; between the
rod and the legs are cross pieces fastened with tenons,
whereon vertical lines are correctly marked, through
which correspondent plumb lines hang down from the
rod. When the rod is set, these will coincide with the
lines marked, and shew that the instrument stands level.
But if the wind obstructs the operation, and the lines are
put in motion, so that one cannot judge by them, let a
channel be cut on the top of the rod, five feet long, one
inch wide, and half an inch high, and let water be poured
into it; if the water touch each extremity of the channel
equally, it is known to be level. When the chorobates
is thus adjusted level, the declivity may be ascertained.
Perhaps some one who may have read the works of Ar-
chimedes will say that a true level cannot be obtained by
means of water, because that author says, that water is
not level, but takes the form of a spheroid, whose centre
is the same as that of the earth. Whether the water have
LIB, VIII, CAP, WI.
251
a plane or spheroidal surface, the two ends of the channel
on the rod right and left, when the rod is level, will never-
theless sustain an equal height of water. If it be inclined
towards one side, that end which is highest will not suffer
the water to reach to the edge of the channel on the rule.
Hence it follows, that though water poured in may have
a swelling and curve in the middle, yet its extremities to
the right and left will be level. The figure of the choro-
bates will be given at the end of the book. If there be
much fall, the water will be easily conducted, but if there
be intervals of uneven ground, use must be made of sub-
structions.
252
CHAPTER VII.
OF CONDUCTING WATER.
WATER is conducted in three ways, either in streams by
means of channels built to convey it, in leaden pipes or
in earthen tubes, according to the following rules. If in
channels, the structure must be as solid as possible, and
the bed of the channel must have a fall of not less than
half a foot to a length of one hundred. These channels
are arched over at top, that the sun may strike on the
water as little as possible. When they are brought home
to the walls of the city a reservoir (castellum) is built, with
a triple cistern attached to it to receive the water. In the
reservoir are three pipes of equal sizes, and so connected
that when the water overflows at the extremities, it is dis-
charged into the middle one, in which are placed pipes
for the supply of the pools and fountains, in the second
those for the supply of the baths, thus affording a yearly
revenue to the people; in the third, those for the supply
of private houses. This is to be so managed that the water
for public use may never be deficient, for that cannot be
diverted if the mains from the heads are rightly con-
structed. I have made this division in order that the
rent which is collected from private individuals who are
supplied with water, may be applied by the collectors
to the maintenance of the aqueduct. If hills intervene
between the city walls and the spring head, tunnels
under ground must be made preserving the fall above as-
signed; if the ground cut through be sandstone or stone,
the channel may be cut therein, but if the soil be earth or
IIB, \ {{{, CAP, VII
A
253
gravel, side walls must be built, and an arch turned
over, and through this the water may be conducted. The
distance between the shafts over the tunnelled part is to
be one hundred and twenty feet. If the water is to be
brought in leaden pipes, a reservoir is first made near the
spring, from whence to the reservoir in the city, pipes
are laid proportioned to the quantity of water. The
pipes must be made in lengths of not less than ten feet :
hence if they be one hundred inches wide (centenariae),
each length will weigh twelve hundred pounds; if eighty
inchés (octogenariae), nine hundred and sixty pounds; if
fifty inches (quinquagenariae), six hundred pounds; if
forty inches (quadragenariae), four hundred and eighty
pounds; if thirty inches (tricenariae), three hundred and
sixty pounds; if twenty inches (vicenariae), two hundred
and forty pounds; if fifteen inches (quinumdenum), one
hundred and eighty pounds; if ten inches (denum), one
hundred and twenty pounds; if eight inches (octonum),
ninety-six pounds: if five inches (quinariae), sixty pounds.
It is to be observed that the pipes take the names of their
sizes from the quantity of inches in width of the sheets,
before they are bent round: thus, if the sheet be fifty
inches wide, before bending into a pipe, it is called a fifty
inch pipe; and so of the rest. An aqueduct which is
made of lead, should be thus constructed ; if there be a
proper fall from the spring head to the city, and hills high
enough to cause an impediment do not intervene, the low
intervals must be brought to a level by means of substruc-
tions preserving the fall directed for channel aqueducts,
or by means of a circuitous course, provided it be not too
much about; but if there be long valleys, let it be laid ac-
cording to the slope of the hill, and when it arrives at
254,
the bottom, let it be carried level by means of a low
substruction as great a distance as possible; this is the
part called the venter, by the Greeks zoºxſo, ; when it
arrives at the opposite acclivity, the water therein being
but slightly swelled on account of the length of the venter,
it may be directed upwards. If the venter were not made
use of in valleys, nor the level substruction, but instead
of that the aqueduct were brought to an elbow, the
water would burst and destroy the joints of the pipes.
Over the venter long stand pipes should be placed, by
means of which, the violence of the air may escape. Thus,
those who have to conduct water through leaden pipes,
may by these rules, excellently regulate its descent, its cir-
cuit, the venter, and the compression of the air. It will
moreover be expedient, when the level of the fall from the
spring is obtained, to build reservoirs at distances of
twenty thousand feet from each other, because if damage
be done to any part, it will not then be necessary to take
the whole work to pieces, and the defective places will be
more easily found. These reservoirs, however, are not to
be made on a descent, nor on the venter, nor on a rise, nor,
generally speaking, in valleys, but only on plains. But if
the water must be conveyed more economically, the fol-
lowing means may be adopted. Thick earthen tubes are to
be provided, not less than two inches in thickness, and
tongued at one end, so that they may fit into one an-
other. The joints are then to be coated with a mixture
of quick lime and oil, and in the elbows made by the
level part of the venter, instead of the pipe, must be placed
a block of red stone, which is to be perforated, so that
the last length of inclined pipe, as well as the first length
of the level part may be received into it. Then, on the
LIB, VIII, CAP, VII
255
opposite side, where the acclivity begins, the block of red
stone receives the last length of the venter, and the first
length of the rising pipe. Thus adjusting the direction of
the tubes, both in the descents and acclivities, the work
will never be dislodged. For a great rush of air is gene-
rated in an aqueduct, strong enough to break even stones,
unless the water is softly and sparingly let down from the
head, and unless in elbows or bending joints it be restrained
by means of ligatures, or a weight of ballast. In other
respects it is similar to one with leaden pipes. When
the water is first let down from the head, ashes are
put in which will stop those joints not sufficiently coated.
Earthen pipes have these advantages, first as to the work;
next, that if damaged any one can repair it. Water
conducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome
than that through lead; indeed that conveyed in lead
must be injurious, because from it white lead is obtained,
and this is said to be injurious to the human system.
Hence, if what is generated from it is pernicious, there
can be no doubt that itself cannot be a wholesome body.
This may be verified by observing the workers in lead,
who are of a pallid colour; for in casting lead, the fumes
from it fixing on the different members, and daily burning
them, destroy the vigour of the blood; water should there-
fore on no account be conducted in leaden pipes if we are
desirous that it should be wholesome. That the flavour of
that conveyed in earthen pipes is better, is shewn at our
daily meals, for all those whose tables are furnished with
silver vessels, nevertheless use those made of earth, from the
purity of the flavour being preserved in them. If there be
no springs from which water can be obtained, it is necessary
to dig wells, on which every care is to be bestowed, and the
256
utmost ingenuity and discretion used in the examination of
the natural indications of the circumstances thereabout, in-
asmuch as the different sorts of soil which are met with,
are many and various. That, like every other body, is
composed of four elements; first of earth itself; water,
whence are the springs; heat, whence sulphur, alum, and bi-
tumen are generated; and air, whence arise great vapours,
which, piercing through the pores to the opening of wells,
strike upon the excavators and suffocate them by their
natural influence, so that those who do not immediately
escape lose their lives. To avoid this the following method
may be adopted; a lighted lamp must be lowered; if it
continue to burn, a man may safely descend, but if the
strength of the vapour extinguish it, then to the right
and left of the well let air holes be dug, so that as it were
through nostrils, the vapour may pass off. When this is
done and we come to water, the well must be lined
with a wall, but in such a manner as not to shut out the
springs. If the soil be hard, and there be no veins of
water found at the bottom, we must then have recourse
to cisterns made of cement, in which water is collected
from roofs and other high places. The cement is thus
compounded; in the first place, the purest and roughest
sand that can be had is to be procured ; then work must
be of broken flint whereon no single piece is to weigh
more than a pound, the lime must be very strong, and in
making it into mortar, five parts of sand are to be added
to two of lime, the flint work is combined with the mortar,
and of it the walls in the excavation are brought up from
the bottom, and shaped by wooden bars covered with
iron. The walls being shaped, the earth in the middle
is to be thrown out as low as the foot of the walls, and
LIB, WJII. CAP, VII
257
when levelled, the bottom is to be covered with the same
materials to the requisite thickness. If these receptacles
are made in two or three divisions, so that the water may
be passed from one to another, it will be more whole-
some for use ; for the mud in it will be thus allowed
to subside, and the water will be clearer, preserve its
flavor, and be free from smell; otherwise it will be ne-
cessary to use salt for purifying it. In this book I have
explained to my utmost ability the virtues and varieties
of waters, their use and conveyance, and how their good-
ness may be ascertained; in the following book I intend
to describe the principles of gnomonics and the rules of
dialling.
L L
PRAEF, LIB, IX,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
MARCUS VITRU VIUS POLLIO.
BOOK THE NINTH.
INTRODUCTION.
THE ancestors of the Greeks held the celebrated wrest-
lers who were victors in the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian
and Nemean games in such esteem, that, decorated
with the palm and crown, they were not only publicly
thanked, but were also, in their triumphant return to
their respective homes, borne to their cities and coun-
tries in four horse chariots, and were allowed pensions
for life from the public revenue. When I consider

260
these circumstances, I cannot help thinking it strange that
similar honours, or even greater, are not decreed to those
authors who are of lasting service to mankind. Such
certainly ought to be the case; for the wrestler, by
training, merely hardens his own body for the conflict; a
writer, however, not only cultivates his own mind, but af.
fords every one else the same opportunity, by laying down
precepts for acquiring knowledge, and exciting the talents
of his reader. What does it signify to mankind, that Milo
of Crotona, and others of this class, should have been in-
vincible, except that whilst living they were ennobled
by their fellow countrymen? On the other hand the
doctrines of Pythagoras, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle,
and other sages, the result of their daily application, and
undeviating industry, still continue to yield, not only to
their own country, but to all nations, fresh and luscious
fruit, and they, who from an early age are satiated there-
with, acquire the knowledge of true science, civilize
mankind, and introduce laws and justice, without which
no state can long exist. Since, therefore, individuals as
well as the public are so indebted to these writers for
the benefits they enjoy, I think them not only entitled
to the honour of palms and crowns, but even to be num-
bered among the gods. . I shall produce in illustration,
some of their discoveries as examples, out of many, which
are of utility to mankind, on the exhibition whereof it
must be granted without hesitation that we are bound to
render them our homage. The first I shall produce will
be one of Plato, which will be found of the greatest im-
portance, as demonstrated by him.
LIB, IX, CAP, I,
261
CHAPTER I.
OF THE METHOD OF DOUBLING THE AREA OF A
SQUARE.
IF there be an area or field, whose form is a square, and
it is required to set out another field whose form is also
to be a square, but double in area, as this cannot be ac-
complished by any numbers or multiplication, it may be
found exactly by drawing lines for the purpose, and the
demonstration is as follows. A square plot of ground ten
feet long by ten feet wide, contains an hundred feet; if
we have to double this, that is, to set out a plot also
square, which shall contain two hundred feet, we must
find the length of a side of this square, so that its area
may be double, that is two hundred feet. By numbers
this cannot be done ; for if the sides are made fourteen
feet, these multiplied into each other give one hundred
and ninety-six feet; if fifteen feet, they give a product of
two hundred and twenty-five. Since, therefore, we can-
not find them by the aid of numbers, in the square of ten
feet a diagonal is to be drawn from angle to angle, so that
the square may thereby be divided into two equal tri-
angles of fifty feet area each. On this diagonal another
square being described, it will be found, that whereas in
the first square there were two triangles, each containing
fifty feet, so in the larger square formed on the diagonal
there will be four triangles of equal size and number of
feet to those in the larger square. In this way Plato
shewed and demonstrated the method of doubling the
square, as the figure appended explains.
262
CHAPTER II.
OF THE METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING A RIGHT
ANGLED TRIANGLE.
PYTHAGORAS demonstrated the method of forming a right
angle without the aid of the instruments of artificers: and
that which they scarcely, even with great trouble, ex-
actly obtain, may be performed by his rules with great
facility. Let three rods be procured, one three feet,
one four feet, and the other five feet long; and let them
be so joined as to touch each other at their extremities;
they will then form a triangle, one of whose angles will be
a right angle. For if, on the length of each of the rods,
squares be described, that whose length is three feet will
have an area of nine feet; that of four, of sixteen feet; and
that of five, of twenty-five feet: so that the number of feet
contained in the two areas of the square of three and four
feet added together, are equal to those contained in the
square, whose side is five feet. When Pythagoras disco-
vered this property, convinced that the Muses had as-
sisted him in the discovery, he evinced his gratitude to
them by sacrifice. This proposition is serviceable on
many occasions, particularly in measuring, no less than
in setting out the staircases of buildings, so that each
step may have its proper height. For if the height from
the pavement to the floor above be divided into three
parts, five of those parts will be the exact length of the
inclined line which regulates the blocks of which the
steps are formed. Four parts, each equal to one of the
LIB, TN, CAP II,
263
three into which the height from the pavement to the
floor was divided, are set off from the perpendicular, for
the position of the first or lower step. Thus the arrange-
ment and ease of the flight of stairs will be obtained, as
the figure will shew.
264
CHAPTER III.
OF THE METHOD OF DETECTING SILVER WHEN
MIXED WITH GOLD.
THOUGH Archimedes discovered many curious matters
which evince great intelligence, that which I am about
to mention is the most extraordinary. Hiero, when he ob-
tained the regal power in Syracuse, having, on the fortu-
nate turn of his affairs, decreed a votive crown of gold to
be placed in a certain temple to the immortal gods, com-
manded it to be made of great value, and assigned an ap-
propriate weight of gold to the manufacturer. He, in due
time, presented the work to the king, beautifully wrought,
and the weight appeared to correspond with that of the
gold which had been assigned for it. But a report having
been circulated, that some of the gold had been abstract-
ed, and that the deficiency thus caused had been supplied
with silver, Hiero was indignant at the fraud, and, unac-
quainted with the method by which the theft might be
detected, requested Archimedes would undertake to give
it his attention. Charged with this commission, he by
chance went to a bath, and being in the vessel, per-
ceived that, as his body became immersed, the water
ran out of the vessel. Whence, catching at the me-
thod to be adopted for the solution of the proposition,
he immediately followed it up, leapt out of the vessel
in joy, and, returning home naked, cried out with a
loud voice that he had found that of which he was in
search, for he continued exclaiming, in Greek, stenzo,
(I have found it out). After this, he is said to have taken
Ljiš, IX, CAP, H,
265
two masses, each of a weight equal to that of the crown,
one of them of gold and the other of silver. Having pre-
pared them, he filled a large vase with water up to the
brim, wherein he placed the mass of silver, which caused as
much water to run out as was equal to the bulk thereof.
The mass being then taken out, he poured in by measure
as much water as was required to fill the vase once more
to the brim. By these means he found what quantity of
water was equal to a certain weight of silver. He then
placed the mass of gold in the vessel, and, on taking it
out, found that the water which ran over was lessened, be-
cause, as the magnitude of the gold mass was smaller than
that containing the same weight of silver. After again fill-
ing the vase by measure, he put the crown itself in, and
discovered that more water ran over then than with the
mass of gold that was equal to it in weight; and thus, from
the superfluous quantity of water carried over the brim by
the immersion of the crown, more than that displaced by
the mass, he found, by calculation, the quantity of silver
mixed with the gold, and made manifest the fraud of the
manufacturer. Let us now consider the discoveries of
Archytas the Tarentine, and Eratosthenes of Cyrene,
who, by the aid of mathematics, invented many things
useful to mankind; and though for other inventions they
are remembered with respect, yet they are chiefly celebrat-
ed for their solution of the following problem. Each of
these, by a different method, endeavoured to discover the
way of satisfying the response of Apollo of Delos, which
required an altar to be made similar to his, but to contain
double the number of cube feet, on the accomplishment
of which, the island was to be freed from the anger of the
gods. Archytas obtained a solution of the problem by
M. M.
266
the semicylinder, and Eratosthenes by means of a propor-
tional instrument. The pleasures derivable from scien-
tific investigations, and the delight which inventions
afford when we consider their effects, are such that I
cannot help admiring the works of Democritus, on the
nature of things, and his commentary, entitled Xalgorówn-
roy, wherein he sealed with a ring, on red wax, the ac-
count of those experiments he had tried. The disco-
veries, therefore, of these men are always at hand, not
only to correct the morals of mankind, but also to be of
perpetual advantage to them. But the glory of the
wrestler and his body soon decay, so that neither whilst
in vigour, nor afterwards by his instructions, is he of
that service to society which the learned are by publi-
cation of their sentiments. Since honours are not awarded
for propriety of conduct, nor for the excellent precepts
delivered by authors, their minds soaring higher, are raised
to heaven in the estimation of posterity, they derive immor-
tality from their works, and even leave their portraits to
succeeding ages. For, those who are fond of literature,
cannot help figuring to themselves the likeness of the poet
Ennius, as they do that of any of the gods. So also those
who are pleased with the verses of Accius,think they have
himself, not less than the force of his expressions, always
before them. Many even in after ages will fancy them-
selves contending with Lucretius on the nature of things,
as with Cicero on the art of rhetoric. Many of our poste-
rity will think that they are in discourse with Varro when
they read his work on the Latin language : nor will there
be wanting a number of philologers, who, consulting in
various cases the Greek philosophers, will imagine that they
are actually talking with them. In short, the opinions of
LIH IN CAT III.
267
learned men who have flourished in all periods, though ab-
sent in body, have greater weight in our councils and dis-
cussions than were they even present. Hence, O Caesar,
relying on these authorities, and using their judgment and
opinions, I have written these books; the first seven relat-
ed to buildings, the eighth to the conduct of water, and
in this I propose treating on the rules of dialling, as de-
ducible from the shadow produced by the rays of the sun
from a gnomon, and I shall explain in what proportions
it is lengthened and shortened.
268
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE UNIVERSE AND THE PLANETS.
IT is clearly by a divine and surprising arrangement,
that the equinoctial gnomons are of different lengths in
Athens, Alexandria, Rome, Piacenza, and in other parts
of the earth. Hence the construction of dials varies ac-
cording to the places in which they are to be erected;
for from the size of the equinoctial shadow, are formed
analemmata, by means of which the shadows of gnomons
are adjusted to the situation of the place and the lines
which mark the hours. By an analemma is meant a rule
deduced from the sun’s course, and founded on observa-
tion of the increase of the shadow from the winter solstice,
by means of which, with mechanical operations and the use
of compasses, we arrive at an accurate knowledge of the
true shape of the world. By the world is meant the whole
system of nature together with the firmament and its stars.
This continually turns round, the earth and sea on the
extreme points of its axis, for in those points the natural
power is so contrived that they must be considered as
centres, one above the earth and sea at the extremity of
the heavens by the north stars, the other opposite and
below the earth towards the south ; moreover in these
central points as round the centres of wheels, which
the Greeks call Tóxot, the heavens perpetually revolve.
Thus the earth and sea occupy the central space. Hence
from the construction, the polar centre is raised above the
earth in the northern part, whilst that in the southern
part, which is underneath, is hidden from our view by the
269
earth, and through the middle obliquely and inclined to the
south, is a large band comprising the twelve signs, which,
by the varied combination of the stars being divided into
twelve equal parts, contains that number of representations
of figures. These are luminous, and with the firmament
and the other stars and constellations, make their circuit
round the earth and sea; all these, visible as well as in-
visible, have their fixed seasons, six of the signs turning
above the earth, the remaining six below it; which latter
are hidden by the earth. Six of them, however, are al-
ways above the earth; for the portion of the last sign,
which by the revolution is depressed below the earth and
hidden by it, is on the opposite side equal to that of a
fresh sign emerging from darkness by the force of the
moving power; since it is the same power and motion
which cause the rising and setting at the same moment.
As these signs are twelve in number, each occupies a
twelfth part of the heaven, and they move continually
from east to west: and through them in a contrary course,
the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun itself, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn, as if ascending, pass through the heavens from
west to east in different orbits. The moon making her
circuit in twenty-eight days and about one hour, and thus
returning to the sign from which she departed, completes
the lunar month. The sun, in the course of a month,
passes through the space of one sign which is a twelfth
part of the heavens; hence in twelve months going through
the twelve signs, when he has returned to that sign from
which he set out, the period of a year is completed :
but that circle which the moon passes through thirteen
times in twelve months, the sun passes through only once
in the same time. The planets Mercury and Venus near-
270
est the rays of the sun, move round the sun as a centre,
and appear sometimes retrograde and sometimes progres-
sive, seeming occasionally, from the nature of their cir-
cuit, stationary in the signs. This may be observed in
the planet Venus, which when it follows the sun, and ap-
pears in the heavens with great lustre after his setting,
is called the evening star; at other times preceding him
in the morning before sunrise, it is called the morning star.
Wherefore these planets at times appear as if they remained
many days in one sign, whilst at other times they pass ra-
pidly from one to another; but though they do not remain
an equal number of days in each sign, the longer they are
delayed in one the quicker they pass through the succeed-
ing one, and thus perform their appointed course: in this
manner it happens that being delayed in some of the signs,
when they escape from the retention, they quickly pass
through the rest of their orbit. Mercury revolves in
the heavens in such a manner, that passing through the
several signs in three hundred and sixty days, he re-
turns to that sign from which he set out, remaining
about thirty days in each sign. The planet Venus,
as soon as she escapes from the influence of the
sun’s rays, runs through the space of one sign in forty
days; and what she loses by stopping a long time in
one sign, she makes up by her quick passage through
others. She completes her circuit through the heavens in
four hundred and eighty-five days; by which time she
has returned to the sign from whence she set out. Mars,
on about the six hundred and eighty-third day, completes
the circuit of the signs, and returns to his place; and if,
in any sign, he move with a greater velocity, his stationary
state in others equalizes the motion, so as to bring him
LIB, IX, CAP, IV,
271
round in the proper number of days. Jupiter moving
also in contrary rotation, but with less velocity, takes
three hundred and sixty days to pass through one sign;
thus lengthening the duration of his circuit to eleven
years and three hundred and twenty-three days before he
returns to the sign in which he was seen twelve years
before his setting out. Lastly, Saturn, remaining thirty-
one months and some days in each sign, returns to his
point of departure at the end of twenty-nine years, and
about one hundred and sixty days, or nearly thirty years.
Hence, the nearer he is to the extremity of the universe,
the larger does his circuit appear, as well as the slower
his motion. All those which make their circuit above
that of the sun, especially when they are in trine aspect,
do not advance, but, on the contrary, are retrograde, and
seem to stop till the sun passes from the trinal sign into an-
other. Some are of opinion, that this happens on account
of their great distance from the sun, on which account
their paths not being sufficiently lighted, they are re-
tarded by the darkness. But I am not of that opinion,
since the brightness of the sun is perceptible, evident and
unobscured throughout the system, just as it appears to us,
as well when the planets are retrograde as when they are
stationary. If, then, our vision extends to such a distance,
how can we imagine it possible to obscure the glorious
splendour of the planets? It appears more probable, that
it is the heat which draws and attracts all things to-
wards itself: we, in fact, see the heat raise the fruits of
the earth to a considerable height, and the spray of waters
from fountains ascend to the clouds by the rainbow : in
the same manner the excessive power of the sun spread-
ing his rays in a triangular form, attracts the planets
272
which follow him, and, as it were, stops and restrains
those which precede him, preventing them from leaving
him, and, indeed, forcing them to return to him, and to
remain in the other trinal sign. One may perhaps ask,
whence it happens that the sun, by its heat, causes a
detention in the fifth sign from itself, rather than in the
second or third, which are nearer. This may be thus
explained. Its rays diverge through the heavens in lines
which form a triangle whose sides are equal. Those
sides fall exactly in the fifth sign. For if the rays fell
circularly throughout the system, and were not bounded
by a triangular figure, the nearer places would be abso-
lutely burnt. This seems to have struck the Greek poet,
Euripides; for he observes, that those places more dis-
tant from the Sun are more intensely heated than those
temperate ones that are nearer to him : hence, in the
tragedy of Phaëthon, he says, Kozía Té, Tóppo, T& 3%).7%
sizzº èze. (The distant places burn, those that are
near are temperate.) If, therefore, experience, reason,
and the testimony of an antient poet, prove it, I do not
see how it can be otherwise than I have above shewn.
Jupiter performs his circuit between those of Mars and
Saturn : thus it is greater than that of Mars, but less
than that of Saturn. In short, all the planets, the more
distant they are from the extremity of the heaven, and the
nearer their orbit is to the earth, seem to move swifter;
for those which have a smaller orbit, often pass those
above them. Thus, on a wheel similar to those in use
among potters, if seven ants be placed in as many chan-
nels round the centre, which are necessarily greater in pro-
portion to their distance therefrom, and the ants are forced
to make their circuits in these channels, whilst the wheel
273
moves round in an opposite direction, they will assuredly
complete their circuit, notwithstanding the contrary mo-
tion of the wheel; and, moreover, that nearest the
centre will perform his journey sooner than he who
is travelling in the outer channel of the wheel, who,
though he move with equal velocity, yet, from the
greater extent of his circuit, will require a longer
time for its completion. It is even so with the pla-
nets, which, each in its particular orbit, revolve in a
direction contrary to the motion of the heavens, although,
in their diurnal motion, they are carried backwards by
its rotation. The reason why some planets are tempe-
rate, some hot, and others cold, appears to be this; that
all fire has a flame, whose tendency is upward. Hence
the sun warms, by his rays, the air above him, wherein
Mars moves, and that planet is therefore heated thereby.
Saturn, on the contrary, who is near the extremity of the
universe, and comes in contact with the frozen regions of
the heavens, is exceedingly cold. Jupiter, however,
whose orbit lies between those of the two just mentioned,
is tempered by the cold and heat, and has an agreeable
and moderate temperature. Of the band comprising the
twelve signs, of the seven planets, and their contrary
motions and orbits, also of the manner and time in which
they pass from one sign into another, and complete their
circuits, I have set forth all that I have learnt from au-
thors. I will now speak of the moon’s increase and
wane, as taught by the antients. Berosus, who travelled
into Asia from the state or country of the Chaldeans,
teaching his doctrines, maintained that the moon was a
ball, half whereof was luminous, and the remaining half
of a blue colour; and that when, in its course, it ap-
N N
274
proached the sun; attracted by the rays and the force of
the heat, it turned its bright side in that direction, from
the sympathy existing between light and light; whence,
when the sun is above it, the lower part, which is not lu-
minous, is not visible, from the similarity of its colour to
the air. When thus perpendicular to the sun’s rays, all
the light is confined to its upper surface, and it is then
called the new moon. When it passes towards the east,
the sun begins to have less effect upon it, and a thin line
on the edge of its bright side emits its splendour towards
the earth. This is on the second day: and thus, from
day to day, advancing in its circuit, the third and fourth
days are numbered: but, on the seventh day, when the
sun is in the west, the moon is in the middle, between
the east and the west; and being distant from the Sun
half the space of the heavens, the luminous half side will
be towards the earth. Lastly; when the sun and the moon
are the whole distance of the heavens from each other,
and the former, passing towards the west, shines full on
the moon behind it in the east, being the fourteenth day,
it is then at the greatest distance from its rays, and the
complete circle of the whole orb emits its light. In the
remaining days it gradually decreases till the completion
of the lunar month, and then returns to re-pass under
the sun; its monthly rays being determined by the num-
ber of days. I shall now subjoin what Aristarchus, the
Samian mathematician, learnedly wrote on this subject,
though of a different nature. He asserted, that the moon
possesses no light of its own, but is similar to a speculum,
which receives its splendour from the sun’s rays. Of
the planets, the moon makes the smallest circuit, and is
nearest to the earth; whence, on the first day of its
LIB, IX, CAP, IV,
275
monthly course, hiding itself under the sun, it is invisi-
ble; and when thus in conjunction with the sun, it is
called the new moon. The following day, which is called
the second, removing a little from the sun, it receives a
small portion of light on its disc. When it is three days
distant from him, it has increased, and become more
illuminated; thus daily elongating from him, on the se-
venth day, being half the heavens distant from the west-
era sun, one half of it shines, namely, that half which is
lighted by the sun. On the fourteenth day, being diame-
trically opposite to the sun, and the whole of the heavens
distant from him, it becomes full, and rises as the sun
sets; and its distance being the whole extent of the hea-
vens, it is exactly opposite to, and its whole orb receives,
the light of the sun. On the seventeenth day, when the
sun rises, it inclines towards the west; on the twenty-
first day, when the sun rises, the moon is about mid-hea-
ven, and the side next the sun is enlightened, whilst the
other is in shadow. Thus advancing every day, about
the twenty-eighth day it again returns under the rays of
the sun, and completes its monthly rotation. I will now
explain how the sun, in his passage through a sign every
month, causes the days and hours to increase and dimi-
nish.
276
CHAPTER V. .
OF THE SUN'S COURSE THROUGH THE TWELVE SIGNS.
WHEN the sun has entered the sign of Aries, and run
through about an eighth part of it, it is the vernal equi-
nox. When he has arrived at the tail of Taurus and
the Pleiades, for which the fore part of the Bull is con-
spicuous, he has advanced in the heavens more than half
his course towards the north. From Taurus, he enters
into Gemini, at the time when the Pleiades rise, and
being more over the earth increases the length of the
days. From Gemini entering into Cancer, which occupies
the smallest space in the heavens, and coming to the
eighth division of it he determines the solstice, and mov-
ing forward arrives at the head and breast of Leo, which
are parts properly within the division assigned to Cancer.
From the breast of Leo and the boundaries of Cancer,
the sun moving through the other parts of Leo, has by
that time diminished the length of the day, as well as of his
circuit, and resumes the equal motion he had when in
Gemini. Hence from Leo passing to Virgo and pro-
ceeding to the indented part of her garment, he con-
tracts his circuit, which is now equal to that which it
had in Taurus. Proceeding then from Virgo through the
indentation which includes the beginning of Libra, in
the eighth part of that sign, the autumnal equinox is com-
pleted ; the circuit being then equal to that in the sign
Aries. When the sun enters into Scorpio at the set-
ting of the Pleiades, he diminishes, in passing to the
Southern parts, the length of the days; and from Scorpio
LIB, IX, CAP, W,
277
passing to a point near the thighs of Sagittarius, he makes
a shorter diurnal circuit. Then beginning from the thighs
of Sagittarius, which are in Capricornus, at the eighth
part of the latter he makes the shortest course in the
heavens. This time from the shortness of the days, is
called Bruma (winter) and the days Brumales. From
Capricornus passing into Aquarius, the length of the days
is increased to that of those when he was in Sagittarius.
From Aquarius he passes into Pisces at the time that the
west wind blows; and his course is equal to that he
made in Scorpio. Thus the sun travelling through these
signs at stated times, increases and diminishes the du-
ration of the days and hours. I shall now treat of the
other constellations on the right and left of the zodiac, as
well those on the south as on the north side of the
heavens. - -
278
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS.
THE Great Bear, which the Greeks call &gzzog, and also
#xtºn, has his keeper behind him. Not far distant is the
constellation of the Virgin, on whose right shoulder is a
very brilliant star, called by us Provindemia Major, and by
the Greeks agorgöyerog, which shines with extraordinary
lustre and colour. Opposite to it is another star, between
the knees of the Keeper of the Bear, which bears the
name of Arcturus. Opposite the head of the Bear, across
the feet of the Twins, is Auriga (the charioteer) standing
on the point of the horns of the Bull, and on one side,
above the left horn towards the feet of Auriga, there is a
star called the hand of Auriga; on the other side the
Goat’s Kids and the Goat over the left shoulder. Above
both the Bull and the Ram stands Perseus, which on
the right extends under the bottom of the Pleiades, on
the left towards the head of the Ram; his right hand rests
on the head of Cassiopeia, the left holding the Gorgon’s
head by its top over the Bull, and laying it at the feet of
Andromeda. Above Andromeda are the Fishes, one un-
der her belly, and the other above the back of the Horse;
the brilliant star in the belly of the Horse is also in the
head of Andromeda. The right hand of Andromeda is
placed on the figure of Cassiopeia, the left upon the north
eastern fish. Aquarius stands on the head of the horse;
the ears of the horse turn towards the knees of Aqua-
rius, and the middle star of Aquarius is also common to
Capricornus. Above on high is the Eagle and the Dol-
LIB, IX, CAP. VI.
279
phin, and near them Sagitta. On the side is the Swan,
the right wing of which is turned towards the hand and
sceptre of Cepheus, the left leans on Cassiopeia, and un-
der the tail of Avis the feet of the horse are hidden.
Above Sagittarius, Scorpio, and Libra, comes the Serpent,
the point of whose snout touches the Crown; in the mid-
dle of the Serpent is Ophiuchus, who holds the Serpent in
his hands, and with his left foot treads on the head of the
Scorpion. Near the middle of the head of Ophiuchus is
the head of the Kneeler; their heads are easily distin-
guished from being marked with luminous stars. The
foot of the Kneeler is placed on the temple of the Ser-
pent, which is entwined between the two northern bears,
called Septentriones. The Dolphin is a short distance
from them. Opposite the bill of the Swan is the Lyre.
The Crown lies between the shoulders of the Keeper and
the Kneeler. In the northern circle are two Bears, with
their shoulders and breasts in opposite directions; of
these the Less is called zvyoroúgo, and the Larger fixiºn
by the Greeks. Their heads are turned downwards, and
each of their tails is towards the other’s head, for both
their tails are raised, and that which is called the pole-
star, is that near the tail of the Little Bear. Between
these tails, as we have before stated, extends the Serpent,
who turns round the head of that nearest to him,
whence he takes a folding direction round the head of the
smaller bear, and then spreading under his feet, and
rising up, returns and folds from the head of the Less
to the Greater Bear, with his snout opposite and shew-
ing the right temple of his head. The feet of Ce-
pheus are also on the tail of the Small Bear; towards
which part more above our heads, are the stars which
280
form the equilateral triangle above Aries. There are
many stars common to the Lesser Bear and Cepheus. I
have enumerated the constellations which are in the
heavens to the right of the east between the zodiac and
the north. I shall now describe those which are distri-
buted on the southern side to the left of the east.
LIB, JN, CAP. VII,
281
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS.
FIRST, under Capricornus is the southern Fish looking to-
wards the tail of the Whale. Between it and Sagittarius
is a vacant space. The Altar is under the sting of
Scorpio. The fore parts of the Centaur are near Libra
and Scorpio, and he holds in his hand that constella-
tion which astronomers call the Beast. Near Virgo,
Leo, and Cancer, the Snake stretches through a range
of stars, and with its foldings encircles the region of
Cancer, raising its snout towards Leo and on the middle
of its body supporting the cup ; its tail extends towards
the hand of Virgo, and upon that is the Crow ; the
stars on its back are all equally luminous. Under its
belly, at the tail, is the Centaur. Near the cup and
Leo is the ship Argo, whose prow is hidden, but the
mast and parts about the steerage are clearly seen. The
Ship and its poop touch the tip of the Dog’s tail. The
smaller Dog is behind the Twins at the head of the
Snake, and the larger follows the smaller Dog. Orion
lies transversely under, pressed on by the hoof of the
Bull, holding a shield in his left hand and with the club in
his right hand raised towards Gemini; near his feet is
the Dog at a short distance following the Hare. Below
Aries and Pisces is the Whale, from whose top to the
two Fishes a small train of stars, which the Greeks call
"Egºn?6wn, regularly extends, and this ligature of the
Fishes twisting considerably inwards, at one part touches
the top of the Whale. A river of stars, in the shape
() O
282
of the river Po, begins from the left foot of Orion. The
water that runs from Aquarius takes its course between
the head of the southern Fish and the tail of the Whale.
I have explained the constellations displayed and formed
in the heavens by nature with a divine intelligence,
according to the system of the philosopher Democritus,
confining myself to those whose rising and setting are
visible. Some, however, such as the two Bears turning
round the pole, never set nor pass under the earth.
So also, the constellations about the south pole, which
from the obliquity of the heavens is under the earth, are
always hidden, and their revolution never brings them
above the horizon. Whence the interposition of the earth
prevents a knowledge of their forms. The constella-
tion Canopus proves this, which is unknown in these coun-
tries, though well known to merchants who have travelled
to the extremity of Egypt and other boundaries of the
earth. I have described the true circuit of the heavens
about the earth, the arrangement of the twelve signs, also
that of the northern and southern constellations, because
therefrom, from the opposite course of the sum through the
signs, and from the shadows of gnomons at the equinoxes,
are formed the diagrams of analemmata. The rest which
relates to astrology, and the effects produced upon human
life by the twelve signs, the five planets, the sun and the
moon, must be left to the discussions of the Chaldeans,
whose profession it is to cast nativities, and by means of
the configurations of the stars to explain the past and the
future. The talent, the ingenuity, and reputation of
those who come from the country of the Chaldeans, is
manifest from the discoveries they have left us in writing.
Berosus was the first of them. He settled in the island
LIB, Y. CAP. VII,
283
and state of Cos, and there established a school. After-
wards came Antipater and Achinapolus, which latter not
only gave rules for predicting a man’s fate by a know-
ledge of the time of his birth, but even by that of the
moment wherein he was conceived. In respect of natural
philosophy Thales the Milesian, Anaxagoras of Clazo-
menae, Pythagoras the Samian, Xenophanes of Colophon,
Democritus the Abderite, have published systems which
explain the mode in which Nature is regulated, and how
every effect is produced. Eudoxus, Endaemon, Callippus,
Melo, Philip, Hipparchus, Aratus, and others, following
in the steps of the preceding, found, by the use of instru-
ments, the rising and setting of the stars and the changes
of the seasons, and left treatises thereon for the use of
posterity. Their learning will be admired by mankind,
because, added to the above, they appear as if by divine
inspiration to have foretold the weather at particular sea-
sons of the year. For a knowledge of these matters re-
ference must therefore be made to their labours and
investigation.
284
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DIALS BY THE
* ANALEMMA.
FROM the doctrines of the philosophers above mentioned,
are extracted the principles of dialling, and the explana-
tion of the increase and decrease of the days in the differ-
ent months. The sun at the times of the equinoxes, that
is when he is in Aries or Libra, casts a shadow in the
latitude of Rome equal to eight ninths of the length of the
gnomon. At Athens the length of the shadow is three
fourths of that of the gnomon. At Rhodes five sevenths;
at Tarentum nine elevenths; at Alexandria three fifths;
and thus at all other places the shadow of the gnomon at
the equinoxes naturally differs. Hence in whatever place
a dial is to be erected, we must first obtain the equinoc-
tial shadow. If, as at Rome, the shadow be eight ninths
of the gnomon, let a line be drawn on a plane surface, in
the center whereof is raised a perpendicular thereto;
this is called the gnomon, and from the line on the
plane in the direction of the gnomon, let nine equal parts
be measured. Let the end of the ninth part A, be con-
sidered as a centre, and extending the compasses from
that centre to the extremity B of the said line, let a circle
be described. This is called the meridian. Then of
those nine parts between the plane and the point of the
gnomon, let eight be allotted to the line on the plane,
whose extremity is marked C. This will be the equi-
noctial shadow of the gnomon. From the point C through
the centre A let a line be drawn, and it will be a ray of
Liß, IX, CAP, VIII,
285
the sun at the equinoxes. Then extend the compasses
from the centre to the line on the plane, and mark on
the left an equidistant point E, and on the right another,
lettered I, and join them by a line through the centre,
which will divide the circle into two semicircles. This
line by mathematicians is called the horizon. A fifteenth
part of the whole circumference is to be then taken, and
placing the point of the compasses in that point of the
circumference F, where the equinoctial ray is cut, mark
with it to the right and left the points G and H. From
these, through the centre, draw lines to the plane where
the letters T and R are placed, thus one ray of the sun
is obtained for the winter, and the other for the summer.
Opposite the point E, will be found the point I, in which
a line drawn through the centre, cuts the circumference;
and opposite to G and H the points K and L, and oppo-
site to C, F, and A, will be the point N. Diameters are
then to be drawn from G to L, and from H to K. The
lower one will determine the summer, and the upper the
winter portion. These diameters are to be equally di-
vided in the middle at the points M and O, and the
points being thus marked, through them and the cen-
tre A a line must be drawn to the circumference, where
the letters P and Q are placed. This line will be per-
pendicular to the equinoctial ray, and is called in mathe-
matical disquisitions, the Axon. From the last obtained
points as centres (M and O) extending the compasses
to the extremity of the diameter, two semicircles are to
be described, one of which will be for summer, the other
for winter. In respect of those points where the two
parallels cut that line which is called the horizon; on the
right hand is placed the letter S, and on the left the letter V,
286
and at the extremity of the semicircle, lettered G, a line
parallel to the Axon is drawn to the extremity on the
left, lettered H. This parallel line is called Lacotomus.
Finally, let the point of the compasses be placed in that
point where this line is cut by the equinoctial ray, and
letter the point X, and let the other point be extended to
that where the summer ray cuts the circumference, and be
lettered H. Then with a distance equal to that from
the summer interval on the equinoctial point, as a centre,
describe the circle of the months, which is called Mana-
cus. Thus will the analemma be completed. Having
proceeded with the diagram and its formation, the hour
lines may be projected on the analemma according to
the place, either by winter lines, or summer lines, or
equinoctial lines, or lines of the months, and as many
varieties and species of dials as can be desired, may
be constructed by this ingenious method. In all the
figures and diagrams the effect will be the same, that is
to say, the equinoctial as well as the solstitial days, will
always be divided into twelve equal parts. These mat-
ters, however, I pass over, not from indolence, but to
avoid prolixity. I will merely add, by whom the different
species and figures of dials were invented; for I have
not been able to invent a new sort, neither will I pass off
the inventions of others as my own. I shall therefore
mention those of which I have any information, and by
whom they were invented.
III. R.C.P. IX.
287
CHAPTER IX.
OF VARIOUS DIALS, AND THEIR INVENTORS.
BERosus the Chaldean, was the inventor of the semi-
circle, hollowed in a square, and inclined according to
the climate. Aristarchus the Samian, of the Scaphe or
Hemisphere, as also of the discus on a plane. The
Arachne was the invention of Eudoxus the astrologer,
though some attribute it to Apollonius. The Plinthium or
Lacunar, an example of which is to be seen in the Circus
Flaminius, was invented by Scopas the Syracusan. The
sort called IIgo; +& irrogoſºvo, by Parmenio. That
called IIgo; Tây 2xſpoo, by Theodosius and Andrias. The
Pelicinon by Patrocles. The Cone by Dionysodorus. The
Quiver by Apollonius. The persons above mentioned not
only invented other sorts; but the inventions of others
have come down to us, such as the Gonarche, the Engo-
natos, and the Antiboreus. Many also have left instructions
for constructing the portable pendulous dial. When any
one understands the formation of the analemma, he will
be enabled, by reference to their writings, to suit them to
any place. By the same writers have been discovered
the method of making water dials. Ctesibius Alexandri-
nus was the first who found out the properties of the
wind, and of pneumatic power, the origin of which in-
ventions is worthy of being known. Ctesibius, whose
father was a barber, was born at Alexandria. Endowed
with extraordinary talent and industry, he acquired great
reputation by his taste for his mechanical contrivances.
288
Wishing to suspend a mirror in his father’s shop, in such
a way that it might be easily raised and lowered by means
of a concealed cord, he used the following expedient.
Fixing a wooden tube under the beam, he attached
pulleys to it upon which the cord passed and made an
angle in descending into the wood which he had
hollowed out: there he placed small tubes, within which
a leaden ball attached to the cord was made to descend.
It happened that the weight, in passing through the
narrow parts of the tube, pressed on the inclosed air,
and violently driving out at its mouth the quantity of air
compressed in the tubes, produced by obstruction and
contact a distinct sound. Ctesibius having thus observed
that by the compression and concussion of the air, sounds
might be produced, he made use of the discovery in his
application of it to hydraulic machines, to those automata
which act by the power of inclosed water, to lever and turn-
ing engines, and to many other entertaining devices, but
principally to water dials. First he made a perforation in
a piece of gold or a smooth gem, because these materials
are not liable to be worn by the action of the water, nor
to collect filth, by which the passage of the water might
be obstructed : the water flowing through the hole
equably, raises an inverted bowl, called by the workmen
phellos, or the tympanum, with which are connected a
rule and revolving drum wheels with perfectly equal
teeth, which teeth, acting on one another, produce revo-
lutions and measured motion. There are other rules and
other wheels, toothed in a similar manner, which acted
upon by the same force in their revolutions, produce
different species of motion, by which figures are made to
move, cones are turned round, stones or oviform bodies
LIB, IX. CAP. IX.
289
are ejected, trumpets sounded, and similar conceits ef.
fected. On these also, either on columns or pillars, the
hours are marked, to which a figure, holding a wand
and rising from the lower part, points throughout the day,
the increase and decrease whereof is daily and monthly
adjusted, by adding or taking away certain wedges. To
regulate the flow of the water, stoppers are thus formed.
Two cones are prepared, one convex, the other concave,
and rounded so as to fit exactly into each other. A
rod, by elongating these, or bringing them together,
increases or diminishes the flow of water into the vessel.
In this manner, and according to the principles of this
machine, water-dials for winter are constructed. If the
addition or removal of the wedges should not be attended
by a correspondent increase or decrease in the days, for
the wedges are frequently imperfect, it is to be thus re-
medied. Let the hours from the analemma be placed on
the column transversely, and let the lines of the months
be also marked thereon. The column is to turn round,
so that, in its continual revolution, the wand of the
figure, as it rises, points to the hours, and, according to
the respective months, makes the hours long or short.
Other kinds of winter-dials are made, which are called
Anaporica. They are constructed as follows. With the
aid of the analemma the hours are marked by brazen
rods on their face, beginning from the centre, whereon
circles are drawn, shewing the limits of the months. Be-
hind these rods a wheel is placed, on which are measured
and painted the heavens and the zodiac with the figures
of the twelve celestial signs, by drawing lines from the
centre, which mark the greater and smaller spaces of each
sign. On the back part of the middle of the wheel is
P P
290
fixed a revolving axis, round which a pliable brass chain is
coiled, at one of whose ends a phellos or tympanum hangs,
which is raised by the water, and at the other end a coun-
terpoise of sand equal to the weight of the phellos. Thus
as the phellos ascends by the action of the water, the coun-
terpoise of sand descends and turns the axis, as does that
the wheel, whose rotation causes at times the greater part
of the circle of the zodiac to be in motion, and at other
times the smaller; thus adjusting the hours to the seasons.
Moreover in the sign of each month are as many holes as
there are days in it, and the index which in dials is gene-
rally a representation of the sun, shews the spaces of the
hours; and whilst passing from one hole to another, it
completes the period of the month. Wherefore, as the sun
passing through the signs, lengthens and shortens the
days and hours, so the index of the dial, entering by the
points opposite the centre round which the wheel turns,
by its daily motions, sometimes in greater, at other times
in less periods, will pass through the limits of the months
and days. The management of the water, and its equa-
ble flow, is thus regulated. Inside, behind the face of
the dial, a cistern is placed, into which the water is con-
veyed by a pipe. In its bottom is a hole, at whose
side is fixed a brazen tympanum, with a hole in it,
through which the water in the cistern may pass into it.
Within this is inclosed a lesser tympanum attached to
the greater, with male and female joints rounded, so that
the lesser tympanum turning within the greater, simi-
lar to a stopple, fits closely, though it moves easily.
Moreover, on the lip of the greater tympanum are three
hundred and sixty-five points, at equal distances. On
the circumference of the smaller tympanum a tongue is
LIB, IX, CAP. IX,
- 291
fixed, whose tip points to the marks. In this smaller
tympanum a proportionable hole is made, through which
the water passes into the tympanum, and serves the
work. On the lip of the large tympanum, which is
fixed, are the figures of the celestial signs; above, is the
figure of Cancer, and opposite to it, below, that of Ca-
pricornus. On the right of the spectator is Libra, on his
left Aries. All the other signs are arranged in the
spaces between these, as they are seen in the heavens.
Thus, when the sun is in the portion of the circle occu-
pied by Capricornus, the tongue stands in that part of the
larger tympanum where Capricornus is placed, touching a
different point every day: and as it then vertically bears
the great weight of the running water, this passes with
great velocity through the hole into the vase, which, re-
ceiving it, and being soon filled, diminishes and contracts
the lengths of the days and hours. When, by the diur-
nal revolution of the lesser tympanum, the tongue enters
Aquarius, all the holes fall perpendicular, and the flow of
the water being thus lessened, it runs off more slowly;
whence the vase receiving the water with less velocity,
the length of the hours is increased. Thus, going
gradually through the points of Aquarius and Pisces,
as soon as the hole of the small tympanum touches the
eighth part of Aries, the water flows more gently, and
produces the equinoctial hours. From Aries, through
the spaces of Taurus and Gemini, advancing to the upper
points where the Crab is placed, the hole or tympanum
touching it at its eighth division, and arriving at the sum-
mit, the power is lessened; and hence running more slowly,
its stay is lengthened, and the solstitial hours are thereby
formed. When it descends from Cancer, and passes
292
through Leo and Virgo, returning to the point of the
eighth part of Libra, its stay is shortened by degrees, and
the hours diminished, till, arriving at the same point of
Libra, it again indicates the equinoctial hours. The hole
being lowered through the space of Scorpio and Sagit-
tarius, in its revolution it returns to the eighth division of
Capricornus, and, by the velocity of the water, the winter
hours are produced. To the best of my ability I have
explained the construction and proportions of dials, so
that they may be easily set up. It now remains for me
to speak of machines, and the principles which govern
them. These will be found in the following book, and
will complete this Treatise on Architecture.
PRAET, LIB, X,
THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
M A R C U S VIT R U WI US PO LLIO.
BOOK THE TENTH.
INTRODUCTION.
IN the magnificent and spacious Grecian city of Ephesus
an antient law was made by the ancestors of the inhabit-
ants, hard indeed in its nature, but nevertheless equitable.
When an architect was entrusted with the execution of
a public work, an estimate thereof being lodged in the
hands of a magistrate, his property was held, as security,
until the work was finished. If, when finished, the expense
did not exceed the estimate, he was complimented with

294
decrees and honours. So when the excess did not amount
to more than a fourth part of the original estimate, it was
defrayed by the public, and no punishment was inflicted.
But when more than one-fourth of the estimate was ex-
ceeded, he was required to pay the excess out of his own
pocket. Would to God that such a law existed among
the Roman people, not only in respect of their public,
but also of their private buildings, for then the unskilful
could not commit their depredations with impunity, and
those who were the most skilful in the intricacies of the
art would follow the profession. Proprietors would not be
led into an extravagant expenditure so as to cause ruin;
architects themselves, from the dread of punishment,
would be more careful in their calculations, and the pro-
prietor would complete his building for that sum, or a little
more, which he could afford to expend. Those who can
conveniently expend a given sum on any work, with the
pleasing expectation of seeing it completed would cheer-
fully add one-fourth more; but when they find themselves
burdened with the addition of half or even more than
half of the expense originally contemplated, losing their
spirits, and sacrificing what has already been laid out,
they incline to desist from its completion. Nor is this an
evil which occurs in buildings alone, but also in the shows
of gladiators in the Forum, and in the scenes of plays
exhibited by the magistrates, in which neither delay nor
hindrance is admitted, since there is a necessity for their
being completed by a certain time. Thus the seats for
viewing the shows, the machinery for drawing the Vela,
and the contrivances for shifting the scenes, must all be
prepared by a given day, that the people may not be
disappointed. And in the preparation of all these much
PRAEF, LIT. X.
295
readiness and profound thought must be exercised, be-
cause they cannot be executed without machinery, and
the application of varied and extensive studies. Since,
therefore, this is the case, it does not seem foreign to our
purpose, carefully and diligently to explain those princi-
ples on which a work should be formed previous to com-
mencing it. But as neither the law nor custom compels
the adoption of such a practice, and the praetors and aediles
are bound every year to provide the machinery for the
sports, it appeared to me, O Emperor, highly expedient,
as in the foregoing books I have treated on buildings, to
explain in this which closes the treatise, the principles
upon which such machines are constructed.
296
CHAPTER I.
OF MACHINES AND ENGINES.
A MACHINE is a combination of materials capable of
moving great weights. It derives its power from
that circular application of motion which the Greeks
call zvºuxh zīvno ic. The first species is for scaling (scan-
soria), which the Greeks call &zgoſłczrizog. The second,
wherein the wind is the moving power, is, by the Greeks,
called ryevºortzog. The third sort of machine is for
draft, and they call it 3&vovorog. The scaling machine
is constructed for the purpose of ascending, without
danger, to view works of considerable altitude, and is
formed of long pieces of timber connected together by
transverse pieces. The pneumatic machine is for the
purpose of imitating the sounds of stringed and wind in-
struments, by means of a rush of air organically intro-
duced. Machines of draft are constructed for the pur-
pose of removing or raising great weights. The scaling
machine is one more of boldness than art, being a com-
bination of longitudinal timbers connected together by
cross pieces, the splicings well lashed together, and the
whole supported by shores or props. But the machine
which, by the action of wind, produces very pleas-
ing effects, requires great ingenuity in its construction.
The machines for draft perform much greater and more
important operations, in their application to different pur-
poses, and, when skilfully managed, are of great utility.
Of these some act mechanically, others organically. The
difference between machines and organs is this, that the
LIB, X. (Ap, I.
297
former are composed of many subordinate parts, or pro-
pelled by a great power, as balistae for instance, and
wine-presses; whereas, the latter, by an ingenious ap-
plication of the moving power, can be set in motion by
a single person, as in turning the axis of the scorpion
or anisocycli. Thus organs, as well as machines, are
extremely useful and necessary, inasmuch as, without
them, no works could be carried into execution. The
laws of mechanics are founded on those of nature, and
are illustrated by studying the master-movements of the
universe itself. For if we consider the sun, moon and
the five planets, we shall perceive, that if they were not
duly poised in their orbits, we should neither have light
on the earth, nor heat to mature its fruits. Our ances-
tors reasoned so on these motions, that they adopted na-
ture as their model ; and, led to an imitation of the
divine institutions, invented machines necessary for the
purposes of life. That these might be suitable to their
different purposes, some were constructed with wheels,
and were called machines ; others were denominated
organs. Those which were found most useful were gra-
dually improved, by repeated experiments, by art, and
by the laws which they instituted. Let us, for an in-
stant, reflect on an invention, necessarily of an early
period, that of clothing; wherein, by the organic ar-
rangement of the loom, the connexion of the warp to
the woof not only defends our bodies by the covering it
affords, but is likewise an ornament to them. Again ;
how should we be supplied with food, but for the yokes
and ploughs to which oxen and other animals are har-
messed? Without the aid of wheels and axles, of presses
and levers, we could enjoy neither the comforts of good
Q Q
298
oil, nor of the fruit of the vine. Without the aid of carts
and waggons on land, and ships on the sea, we should
be unable to transport any of our commodities. How
necessary also, is the use of scales and weights in our
dealings, to protect us from fraud. Not less so are in-
numerable different machines, which it is unnecessary here
to discuss, since they are so well known from our daily
use of them, such as wheels generally, the blacksmith’s
bellows, chariots, calèches, lathes, and other things which
our habits constantly require. We will, therefore, pro-
ceed to explain, in the first place, those which are more
rarely wanted.
LIB, X, CAP, II,
299
CHAPTER II.
OF MACHINES OF DRAUGHT.
WE will begin by describing those engines which are
chiefly used in the erection of sacred buildings, and other
public works. They are made as follows: three pieces
of timber are prepared suitable to the greatness of the
weights to be lifted, connected at the top by a pin, but
spreading extensively at their feet. These are raised by
means of ropes made fast to the top, and when raised, are
thereby kept steady. To the top is then made fast a
block, by some called rechamus. In this block are two
pulleys, turning on axles; over the upper pulley passes
the leading rope, which, let fall and drawn through un-
der the lower pulley of the bottom block is returned
thence over the lower pulley of the upper block: the
rope again descends to the lower block, and its end is
made fast to the eye of it. We refer the other end of the
rope to the description of the lower part of the machine.
On the back faces of the pieces of timber, where they
diverge, are fixed socket-pieces (chelonia), for the gud-
geons of the axles to work, so that they may revolve freely.
The axles at the ends near the gudgeons, are pierced
with two holes, so adjusted as to fit and receive the
levers. Iron shears are then made fast to the under part
of the lower block, whose teeth are received in holes
cut in the piece of stone, for the purpose. The loose
3OO
end of the rope being now attached to the axle, and
that turned round by means of the levers, the rope, in
winding round the axle, raises the weight to its height
and place in the work.
LIB, \, CAP, JII.
301
CHAPTER III.
OF ANOTHER SORT OF MACHINE OF DRAUGHT.
A BLOCK containing three pulleys is denominated Tri-
spastos; when the lower system has two pulleys, and
the upper one three, Pentaspastos. A machine for rais.
ing heavier weights requires longer and stouter beams,
and the pins for joining them at top, as well as the axle
below, must be increased in proportion. Having pre-
mised this, the raising ropes lying loose, are first dis-
tributed ; then to the shoulders of the machine are made
fast the guys, which, if there be no place to which they
can be otherwise firmly fixed, must be attached to sloping
piles driven into the ground, and steadied by ramming
the ground about them. A block is to be now slung to
the head of the machine, round which ropes must be car-
ried to another block which has been previously fastened
to a stake, and, passing over its pulley, must be returned
to that on the top of the machine, round which the rope
passes and descends to the axle at bottom, to which
it is lashed. The axle is now turned round by means
of the levers, and the machine is put in motion with-
out danger. Thus the ropes being disposed around, and
the guys firmly fastened to the stakes, a machine is sta-
tioned for use. The pulleys and leading ropes are ap-
plied as described in the foregoing chapter.
SO2
CHAPTER IV.
OF A SIMILAR MACHINE, OF GREATER POWER.
IF exceedingly large weights are to be raised, they must
not be trusted to a mere axle; but the axle being retained
by the gudgeons, a large drum should be fixed on it,
which some call a drum-wheel (tympanum): the Greeks
name it &ºpſgåvaig, or regiºgožog. In these machines the
blocks are constructed differently from those already de-
scribed. Having, at top and bottom, two ranks of pulleys,
the rope passes through a hole in the lower block, so that
each end of the rope is equal in length when extended.
It is there bound and made fast to the lower block, and
both parts of the ropes so retained, that neither of them
may swerve either to the right or the left. The ends
of the rope are then returned to the outside of the upper
block, and carried over its lower pulleys; whence they
descend to the lower block, and passing round its pulleys
on the inner side, are carried up right and left over the
tops of the higher pulleys of the upper block; whence
descending on the outer sides, they are secured to the
axle on the right and left of the drum-wheel, about
which another rope is now wound, and carried to the
capstan. On the turning of the capstan, the drum-wheel
and axle, and consequently the ropes fastened to it, are
set in action, and raise the weights gently and without
danger. But if a larger drum-wheel be affixed, either in
the middle or on one of the sides, of such dimensions
that men may walk therein, a more effectual power is ob-
tained than the capstan will afford.
LIB, X. CAP. V.
303
CHAPTER V.
OF ANOTHER MACHINE OF DRAUGHT.
THERE is another species of machine, ingenious in respect
of its contrivance, and of ready application in practice;
but it should not be used except by experienced persons.
A pole or log of timber is raised, and kept in its situation
by means of four guy ropes in opposite directions. Under
the place where the guy ropes at top are made fast to the
pole, two cheeks are fixed, above which the block is tied
with ropes. Under the block, a piece of timber about
two feet long, six inches wide, and four inches thick, is
placed. The blocks have three ranks of pulleys latitudi-
nally, so that it is necessary to conduct three leading ropes
from the upper part of the machine; these are brought
down to the lower block, and are passed through its up-
per pulleys from the side next the pole. They then are
carried to the upper block, passing from the outer sides
of the lower pulleys to the inner sides of the lower pul-
leys of the upper block. Descending once more to the
inferior block, they pass round the second rank of pul-
leys from the inner to the outer side, and are then re-
turned to the second rank of pulleys in the higher block,
over which they pass and return to the lowest, whence
they are again carried upwards, and passing round the
uppermost pulley, return to the lower part of the ma-
chine. A third block is fixed near the bottom of the
pole, whose Greek name is révoy, but with us it is called
Artemo. This block, which is made fast to the pole at a
small distance from the ground, has three pulleys through
304
which the ropes are passed, for the men to work them.
Thus, three sets of men, working without the interven-
tion of a capstan, quickly raise the weight to its required
height. This species of machine is called Polyspaston,
because the facility and dispatch in working it, is obtain-
ed by means of many pulleys. One convenience in using
a single pole is, that the situation of the weight in rela-
tion to the pole, whether before it or to the right or left
of it, is of no consequence. All the machines above de-
scribed, are not only adapted to the purposes mentioned,
but are also useful in loading and unloading ships, some
upright, others horizontal, with a rotatory motion. On
the ground, however, without the aid of the poles, ships
are drawn on shore by the mere application of blocks and
ropes. -
LIB, X, CAP, WI.
305
CHAPTER VI.
OF CTESIPHON'S CONTRIVANCE FOR REMOVING
GREAT WHEIGHTS.
IT will be useful to explain the ingenious contrivance
of Ctesiphon. When he removed from the quarry the
shafts of the columns which he had prepared for the
temple of Diana at Ephesus, not thinking it prudent to
trust them on carriages, lest their weight should sink the
wheels in the soft roads over which they would have to
pass, he devised the following scheme. He made a frame
of four pieces of timber, two of which were equal in
length to the shafts of the columns, and were held toge-
ther by the two transverse pieces. In each end of the
shaft he inserted iron pivots, whose ends were dove-
tailed thereinto, and run with lead. The pivots worked
in gudgeons fastened to the timber frame, whereto were
attached oaken shafts. The pivots having a free revolu-
tion in the gudgeons, when the oxen were attached and
drew the frame, the shafts rolled round, and might have
been conveyed to any distance. The shafts having been
thus transported, the entablatures were to be removed,
when Metagenes the son of Ctesiphon, applied the prin-
ciple upon which the shafts had been conveyed to the re-
moval of those also. He constructed wheels about twelve
feet diameter, and fixed the ends of the blocks of stone
whereof the entablature was composed into them ; pivots
and gudgeons were then prepared to receive them in the
manner just described, so that when the oxen drew the
machine, the pivots turning in the gudgeons, caused the
R. R.
306
wheels to revolve, and thus the blocks, being enclosed
like axles in the wheels, were brought to the work with-
out delay, as were the shafts of the columns. An ex-
ample of this species of machine may be seen in the
rolling stone used for smoothing the walks in palaestræ.
But the method would not have been practicable for any
considerable distance. From the quarries to the temple
is a length of not more than eight thousand feet, and the
interval is a plain without any declivity. Within our own
times, when the base of the colossal statue of Apollo in
the temple of that god, was decayed through age, to
prevent the fall and destruction of it, a contract for a
base from the same quarry was made with Paeonius. It
was twelve feet long, eight feet wide, and six feet high.
Paeonius, driven to an expedient, did not use the same as
Metagenes did, but constructed a machine for the pur-
pose, by a different application of the same principle.
He made two wheels about fifteen feet diameter, and
fitted the ends of the stone into these wheels. To con-
nect the two wheels he framed into them, round their
circumference, small pieces of two inches square not more
than one foot apart, each extending from one wheel to
the other, and thus enclosing the stone. Round these
bars a rope was coiled, to which the traces of the oxen
were made fast, and as it was drawn out, the stone rolled
on by means of the wheels, but the machine by its con-
stantly swerving from a direct straightforward path, stood
in need of constant rectification, so that Paeonius was at
last without money for the completion of his contract,
LIB, X. CAP. VII.
307
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE QUARRY WHENCE STONE
WAS PROCURED FOR THE TEMPLE OF DIANA AT
EPHESUS. -
I must digress a little, and relate how the quarries of
Ephesus were discovered. A shepherd, of the name of
Pixodarus, dwelt in these parts at the period in which the
Ephesians had decreed a temple to Diana, to be built of
marble from Paros, Proconnesus, or Thasos. Pixodarus
on a certain occasion tending his flock at this place, saw
two rams fighting. In their attacks, missing each
other, one fell, and glancing against the rock with
his horns, broke off a splinter, which appeared to him
so delicately white, that he left his flock and instantly ran
with it into Ephesus, where marble was then in much de-
mand. The Ephesians forthwith decreed him honours,
and changed his name to Evangelus. Even to this day
the chief magistrate of the city proceeds every month to
the spot, and sacrifices to him; the omission of which
ceremony would, on the magistrate’s part, be attended
with penal consequences to him.
308
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS.
I HAVE briefly explained the principles of machines of
draught, in which, as the powers and nature of the mo-
tion are different, so they generate two effects, one di-
rect, which the Greeks call evdaio, the other circular,
which they call zvºxorh; but it must be confessed, that
rectilinear without circular motion, and, on the other hand,
circular without rectilinear motion can neither without
the other be of much assistance in raising weights. I will
proceed to the explanation of this. The pulleys revolve
on axles which go across the blocks, and are acted upon
by straight ropes which coil round the axle of the wind-
lass when that is put in motion by the levers, thus causing
the weight to ascend. The pivots of the windlass axle
are received into, or play in the gudgeons of the cheeks,
and the levers being inserted in the holes provided for
them in the axle, are moved in a circular direction, and
thus cause the ascent of the weight. Thus also, an
iron lever being applied to a weight which many hands
could not remove; if a fulcrum, which the Greeks call
wropo6%xtov, be placed under it, and the tongue of the
lever be under the weight, one man’s strength at the
end will raise the weight. This is accounted for by
the fore part of the lever being under the weight, and
at a shorter distance from the fulcrum or centre of
motion; whilst the longest part, which is from the cen-
tre of motion to the head being brought into circular mo-
tion, the application of few hands to it will raise a great
LIB, X, CAP, WIII.
309
weight. So if the tongue of the lever be placed under
the weight, and instead of the end being pressed down-
ward it be lifted up, the tongue then having the ground
for a fulcrum, will act on that as in the first instance it
did on the weight, and the tongue will press against the
side thereof as it did on the fulcrum : though by this
means the weight will not be so easily raised, yet it may
be thus moved. If the tongue of the lever lying on the
fulcrum be placed too far under the weight, and the end
be too near the centre of pressure, it will be without
effect; so, as hath been already mentioned, will it be,
unless the distance from the fulcrum to the end of the
lever be greater than from the fulcrum to the tongue
thereof. Any one will perceive the application of this prin-
ciple in the instruments called steelyards (staterae); for
when the handle of suspension, on which as a centre the
beam turns, is placed nearer the end from which the
scale hangs, and, on the other side of the centre, the
weight be shifted to the different divisions on the beam, the
further it is from the centre, the greater will be the load
in the scale which it is capable of raising, and that through
the equilibration of the beam. Thus, a small weight,
which, placed near the centre, would have but a feeble
effect, may in a moment acquire power, and raise with
ease a very heavy load. Thus also the steersman of a
merchant ship, holding the tiller which the Greeks call
ofo.% with only one hand, by the situation of the centre
moves it in a moment as the nature of the case requires,
and turns the ship though ever so deeply laden. The
sails also, if only half mast high, will cause the vessel to
sail slower than when the yards are hoisted up to the top
of the mast, because not then being near the foot of
31O
the mast, which is as it were the centre, but at a distance
therefrom, they are acted on by the wind with greater
force. For as, if the fulcrum be placed under the middle
of a lever, it is but with difficulty that the weight is
moved, and that only when the power is applied at the
extremity of the lever, so when the sails are no higher
than the middle of the mast, they have less effect on the
motion of the vessel : when, however, raised to the top
of the mast, the impulse they receive from an equal wind
higher up, causes a quicker motion in the ship. For the
same reason the oars, which are made fast with rope to the
thowls, when plunged into the water and drawn back by
the hand, impel the vessel with great force, and cause the
prow thereof to cleave the waves, if their blades are at a
considerable distance from the centre, which is the thowl.
Also, when loads of great weight are carried by porters
in gangs of four or six, the levers are so adjusted in the
middle that each porter may be loaded with a proper pro-
portion of the burden. The middle parts of the levers
for four persons over which the tackle passes, are pro-
vided with pins to prevent it sliding out of its place, for
if it shift from the centre, the weight will press more on
the shoulders of him to whom it is nearest, just as in the
steelyard the weight is shifted towards the end of the
beam. Thus also oxen have an equal draft when the piece
which suspends the pole hangs exactly from the middle
of the yoke. But when oxen are not equally strong,
the method of apportioning to each his due labour is by
shifting the suspending piece so that one side of the yoke
shall be longer than the other, and thus relieve the weak-
er animal. It is the same in the porters’ levers as in
yokes, when the suspending tackle is not in the centre,
LIB, X, CAP, Wijſ,
311
and one arm of the lever is longer than the other, namely
that towards which the tackle has shifted; for in this
case if the lever turn upon the points to which the tackle
has slid, which now becomes its centre, the longer arm
will describe a portion of a larger circle, and the shorter
a smaller circle. Now as small wheels revolve with more
difficulty than larger ones, so levers and yokes press most
on the side which is the least distance from the fulcrum,
and on the contrary they ease those who bear that
arm which is at the greatest distance from the fulcrum.
Inasmuch as all these machines regulate either rectilinear
or circular motion by means of the centre or fulcrum,
so also waggons, chariots, drumwheels, wheels of car-
riages, screws, Scorpions, balistae, presses, and other in-
struments, for the same reasons produce their effects by
means of rectilinear and circular motions.
819
CHAPTER IX.
OF ENGINES FOR RAISING WATER ; AND FIRST OF
THE TYMPANUM. -
I shall now explain the machines for raising water, and
their various sorts. And first the tympanum, which,
though it raise not the water to a great height, yet lifts
a large quantity in a small period of time. An axis is
prepared in the lathe, or at least made circular by hand,
hooped with iron at the ends; round the middle whereof
the tympanum, formed of planks fitted together, is ad-
justed. This axis rests on posts also cased with iron
where the axis touches them. In the hollow part of the
tympanum are distributed eight diagonal pieces, going
from the axis to the circumference of the tympanum,
which are equidistant. The horizontal face of the wheel
or tympanum is close boarded, with apertures therein
half a foot in size to admit the water. On the axis also
channels are cut for each bay. This machine, when
moored like a ship, is turned round by men walking in
a wheel attached to it, and, by receiving the water in the
apertures which are in front of the wheel, brings it up
through the channels on the axle into a trough, whence
it is conducted in abundance to water gardens, and di-
lute salt in pits. If it be necessary to raise the water to
a higher level, it must be differently adjusted. The wheel,
in that case, applied to the axis must be of such diameter
that it shall correspond with the requisite height. Round
the circumference of the wheel buckets, made tight with
pitch and wax, are fixed; thus when the wheel is made to
LIB, X. CAP. IX,
3.13
revolve by means of the persons treading in it, the buck-
ets being carried to the top full of water, as they return
downwards, discharge the water they bring up into a
conduit. But if water is to be supplied to still higher
places, a double chain of iron is made to revolve on the
axis of the wheel, long enough to reach to the lower
level; this is furnished with brazen buckets, each hold-
ing about a gallon. Then by turning the wheel, the
chain also turns on the axis, and brings the buckets to
the top thereof, on passing which they are inverted, and
pour into the conduits the water they have raised.
S S
314,
CHAPTER X.
OF ANOTHER SORT OF TYMPANUMI, AND OF WATER-
MILLS.
WHEELs on rivers are constructed upon the same princi-
ples as those just described. Round their circumference
are fixed paddles, which, when acted upon by the force
of the current, drive the wheel round, receive the water
in the buckets, and carry it to the top with the aid of
treading; thus by the mere impulse of the stream supply-
ing what is required. Water mills are turned on the same
principle, and are in all respects similar, except that at
one end of the axis they are provided with a drum-wheel,
toothed and framed fast to the said axis ; this being
placed vertically on the edge turns round with the wheel.
Corresponding with the drum-wheel a larger horizontal
toothed wheel is placed, working on an axis whose up-
per head is in the form of a dovetail, and is inserted
into the mill-stone. Thus the teeth of the drum-wheel
which is made fast to the axis acting on the teeth of the
horizontal wheel, produce the revolution of the mill-stones,
and in the engine a suspended hopper supplying them
with grain, in the same revolution the flour is produced.
LIB, X, CAP, XI.
3
|
Ö
CHAPTER XI.
OF THE WATER SCREW.
THERE is a machine, on the principle of the screw, which
raises water with considerable power, but not so high as
the wheel. It is contrived as follows. A beam is pro-
cured whose thickness, in inches, is equal to its length in
feet; this is rounded. Its ends, circular, are then di-
vided by compasses, on their circumference, into four or
eight parts, by diameters drawn thereon. These lines
must be so drawn, that when the beam is placed in an
horizontal direction, they may respectively and horizon-
tally correspond with each other. The whole length of
the beam must be divided into spaces equal to one eighth
part of the circumference thereof. Thus the circular
and longitudinal divisions will be equal, and the latter in-
tersecting lines drawn from one end to the other, will be
marked by points. These lines being accurately drawn,
a small flexible ruler of willow or withy, smeared with
liquid pitch, is attached at the first point of intersection,
and made to pass obliquely through the remaining inter-
sections of the longitudinal and circular divisions; whence
progressing and winding through each point of intersec-
tion it arrives and stops in the same line from which
it started, receding from the first to the eighth point, to
which it was at first attached. In this manner, as it pro-
gresses through the eight points of the circumference, so
it proceeds to the eighth point lengthwise. Thus, also,
fastening similar rules obliquely through the circum-
316
ferential and longitudinal intersections, they will form
eight channels round the shaft, in the form of a screw.
To these rules or slips others are attached, also smeared
with liquid pitch, and to these still others, till the thick-
ness of the whole be equal to one eighth part of the
length. On the slips or rules planks are fastened all
round, saturated with pitch, and bound with iron hoops,
that the water may not injure them. The ends of the
shaft are also strengthened with iron nails and hoops, and
have iron pivots inserted into them. On the right and
left of the screw are beams, with a cross piece at top and
bottom, each of which is provided with an iron gudgeon,
for the pivots of the shaft to turn in, and then, by the
treading of men, the screw is made to revolve. The in-
clination at which the screw is to be worked, is equal to
that of the right angled triangle of Pythagoras: that is,
if the length be divided into five parts, three of these
will give the height that the head is to be raised; thus
four parts will be the perpendicular to the lower mouth.
The method of constructing it may be seen in the dia.
gram at the end of the book. I have now described, as
accurately as possible, the engines which are made of
wood, for raising water, the manner of constructing them,
and the powers that are applied to put them in motion,
together with the great advantages to be derived from
the use of them.
LIB, X. CAP, XII.
317
CHAPTER XII.
OF THE MACHINE OF CTESIBIUS FOR RAISING
WATER TO A CONSIDERABLE HEIGHT.
IT is now necessary to explain the machine of Ctesibius,
which raises water to a height. It is made of brass, and
at the bottom are two buckets near each other, having
pipes annexed in the shape of a fork, which meet at a
basin in the middle. In the basin are valves nicely
fitted to the apertures of the pipes, which, closing the
holes, prevent the return of the liquid which has been
forced into the basin by the pressure of the air. Above
the basin is a cover like an inverted funnel, fitted and
fastened to it with a rivet, that the force of the water
may not blow it off. On this a pipe, called a trumpet,
is fixed upright. Below the lower orifices of the pipes
the buckets are furnished with valves over the holes
in their bottoms. Pistons made round and smooth,
and well oiled, are now fastened to the buckets, and
worked from above with bars and levers, which, by their
alternate action, frequently repeated, press the air in
the pipes, and the water being prevented from returning
by the closing of the valves, is forced and conducted
into the basin through the mouths of the pipes; whence
the force of the air, which presses it against the cover,
drives it upwards through the pipe: thus water on a
lower level may be raised to a reservoir, for the supply
of fountains, Nor is this the only machine which Ctesi-
bius has invented. There are many others, of different
sorts, which prove that liquids, in a state of pressure
3.18
from the air, produce many natural effects, as those
which imitate the voices of singing birds, and the engi-
bita, which move figures that seem to drink, and perform
other actions pleasing to the senses of sight and hearing.
From these inventions I have selected those which are
most pleasing and necessary, and described them in my
treatise on dialling: in this place I confine myself to
those which act by the impulse of water. The others,
which are more for pleasure than utility, may be seen by
the curious in the writings of Ctesibius.
LIB, X, CAP, XIII,
319
CHAPTER XIII.
OF WATER, ENGINES.
I CANNOT here omit a brief explanation, as clearly as I
can give it, of the principles on which hydraulic organs
are constructed. A base of framed wood-work is pre-
pared, on which is placed a brazen box. On the base,
right and left, uprights are fixed, with cross pieces like
those of a ladder, to keep them together; between which
are enclosed brass barrels with moveable bottoms, per-
fectly round, having iron rods fixed in their centres, and
covered with leather and woollen, attached by pins to the
levers. There are also, on the upper surface, holes about
three inches diameter, in which, near the pin-joint, are
brazen dolphins with chains hanging from their mouths,
which sustain the valves that descend below the holes
of the bafrels. Within the box, where the water is de-
posited, there is a species of inverted funnel, under which
two collars, about three inches high, answer the purpose
of keeping it level, and preserving the assigned distance
between the lips of the wind-chest and the bottom of the
box. On the neck a chest, framed together, sustains
the head of the instrument, which in Greek is called
zovoy Pºovatzog (canon musicus); upon which, lengthwise,
are channels, four in number, if the instrument be tetra-
chordal, six if hexachordal, and eight if octochordal.
In each channel are fixed stops, that are connected
with iron finger-boards; on pressing down which, the
communication between the chest and the channels is
opened. Along the channels is a range of holes cor-
320
responding with others on an upper table, called Tivº
in Greek. Between this table and the canon, rules are
interposed, with corresponding holes well oiled, so that
they may be easily pushed and return ; they are called
pleuritides, and are for the purpose of stopping and open-
ing the holes along the channels, which they do by pass-
ing backwards and forwards. These rules have iron
jacks attached to them, and being united to the keys,
when those are touched they move the rules. Over the
table there are holes through which the wind passes into
the pipes. Rings are fixed in the rules, for the reception
of the feet of the organ-pipes. From the barrels run
pipes joined to the neck of the wind-chest, which com-
municate with the holes in the chest, in which pipes are
closely fitted valves; these, when the chest is supplied
with wind, serve to close their orifices, and prevent its
escape. Thus, when the levers are raised, the piston-
rods are depressed to the bottom of the barrel, and the
dolphins turning on their pivots, suffer the valves at-
tached to them to descend, thus filling with air the cavi-
ties of the barrels. Lastly; the pistons in the barrels
being alternately raised and depressed with a quick mo-
tion, cause the valves to stop the upper holes: the air,
therefore, which is pent, escapes into the pipes, through
which it passes into the wind-chest, and thence, by its
neck, to the box. By the quick motion of the levers still
compressing the air, it finds its way through the aper-
tures of the stops, and fills the channels with wind.
Hence, when the keys are touched by hand, they propel
and repel the rules, alternately stopping and opening the
holes, and producing a varied melody founded upon the
rules of music. I have done my utmost to give a clear
LIB, X, CAP, XIII,
321
explanation of a complex machine. This has been no
easy task, nor, perhaps, shall I be understood, except by
those who are experienced in matters of this nature.
Such, however, as comprehend but a little of what I
have written, would, if they saw the instrument, be com-
pelled to acknowledge the skill exhibited in its contriv-
'a Il Ce.
T T
322
CHAPTER XIV.
OF MEASURING A JOURNEY.
LET us now consider an invention by no means useless,
and delivered to us by the antients as of ingenuity,
by means of which, when on a journey by land or sea,
one may ascertain the distance travelled. It is as fol-
lows. The wheels of the chariot must be four feet dia-
meter; so that, marking a certain point thereon, whence
it begins its revolution on the ground, when it has com-
pleted that revolution, it will have gone on the road over a
space equal to twelve feet and a half. This being adjust-
ed on the inner side of the nave of the wheel, let a drum-
wheel be securely fixed, having one small tooth project-
ing beyond the face of its circumference; and in the body
of the chariot let a small box be fastened, with a drum-
wheel placed to revolve perpendicularly, and fastened to
an axle. The latter wheel is to be equally divided, on its
edge, into four hundred teeth, corresponding with the
teeth of the lower drum-wheel: besides the above, the
upper drum-wheel has on its side one tooth projecting out
before the others. Above, in another enclosure, is a third
horizontal wheel toothed similarly, and so that the teeth
correspond with that tooth which is fixed to the side of the
second wheel. In the third wheel just described are as
many holes as are equal to the number of miles in an usual
day’s journey. It does not, however, signify, if they
be more or less. In all the holes let small balls be placed,
and in the box or lining let a hole be made, having a
channel, through which each ball may fall into the box
LIB, X. CAP, XIV,
323
of the chariot, and the brazen vessel placed under it.
Thus, as the wheel proceeds, it acts on the first drum-
wheel, the tooth of which, in every revolution, striking
the tooth of the upper wheel, causes it to move on ; so
that when the lower wheel has revolved four hundred
times, the upper wheel has revolved only once, and its
tooth, which is on the side, will have acted on only one
tooth of the horizontal wheel. Now as in four hundred
revolutions of the lower wheel, the upper wheel will only
have turned round once, the length of the journey will
be five thousand feet, or one thousand paces. Thus, by
the dropping of the balls, and the noise they make, we
know every mile passed over; and each day one may
ascertain, by the number of balls collected in the bottom,
the number of miles in the day’s journey. In navigation,
with very little change in the machinery, the same thing
may be done. An axis is fixed across the vessel, whose
ends project beyond the sides, to which are attached
wheels four feet diameter, with paddles to them touch-
ing the water. That part of the axis within the ves-
sel has a wheel with a single tooth standing out beyond
its face; at which place a box is fixed with a wheel in-
side it having four hundred teeth, equal and correspond-
ent to the tooth of the first wheel fixed on the axis. On
the side of this, also, projecting from its face, is another
tooth. Above, in another box, is enclosed another hori-
zontal wheel, also toothed, to correspond with the tooth
that is fastened to the side of the vertical wheel, and
which, in every revolution, working in the teeth of the
horizontal wheel, and striking one each time, causes it to
turn round. In this horizontal wheel holes are made,
wherein the round balls are placed; and in the box of the
324,
wheel is a hole with a channel to it, through which the
ball descending without obstruction, falls into the brazen
vase, and makes it ring. Thus, when the vessel is on
its way, whether impelled by oars or by the wind, the
paddles of the wheels, driving back the water which
comes against them with violence, cause the wheels to
revolve, whereby the axle is also turned round, and
consequently with it the drum-wheel, whose tooth, in
every revolution, acts on the tooth in the second wheel,
and produces moderate revolutions thereof. Wherefore,
when the wheels are carried round by the paddles four
hundred times, the horizontal wheel will only have
made one revolution, by the striking of that tooth on the
side of the vertical wheel, and thus, in the turning
caused by the horizontal wheel every time it brings a
ball to the hole it falls through the channel. In this
way, by sound and number, the number of miles navi-
gated will be ascertained. It appears to me, that I have
completed the description in such a manner that it will be
easy to comprehend the structure of the machine, which
will afford both utility and amusement in times of peace
and safety.
LIB, X. CAP, XV,
CHAPTER XV.
OF CATAPULTAE AND SCORPIONS.
I SHALL now proceed to an explanation of those instru-
ments which have been invented for defence from danger,
and for the purposes of self-preservation ; I mean the
construction of scorpions, catapultae, and balistae, and their
proportions. And first of catapultae and scorpions. Their
proportions depend on the length of the arrow which the
instrument is to throw, a ninth part of whose length is
assigned for the sizes of the holes in the capitals through
which the cords are stretched, that retain the arms of
the catapultae. The height and width of the holes in the
capital are thus fashioned. The plates (tabulae) which are
at the top and bottom of the capital, and which are called
parallels (paralleli) are equal in thickness to one hole, in
width to one and three quarters, and at their extremities
to one hole and a half. The side posts (parastatae) right
and left, exclusive of the tenons four holes high and five
thick, the tenons three quarters of a hole. From the
hole to the middle post also three quarters of a hole, the
width of the middle post one hole and a quarter, its thick-
ness one hole. The space wherein the arrow is placed in
the middle of the post, the fourth part of a hole. The
four angle pieces which appear on the sides and front,
are strengthened with iron hoops fastened with copper
or iron nails. The length of the channel which is called
orgå in Greek, is nineteen holes. That of the slips
(regulae) which lie on the right and left of the channel,
and which some persons call bucculae, is also nineteen
326
holes, their height and width half a hole. Two other
slips are fixed for attaching the windlass, three holes long
and half a hole wide. The thickness of a slip is called
Camillum, or according to others the dove-tailed box, and
is of the dimension of one hole, its height half a hole.
The length of the windlass is eight holes and an eighth.
The roller nine holes wide. The length of the epitoxis
is three quarters of a hole, and its thickness one quarter.
The chelo or manucla is three holes long, its length and
thickness three quarters of a hole. The length of the
bottom of the channel sixteen holes, its width and thick-
ness each three quarters of a hole. The small column
(columella) with its base near the ground eight holes, the
breadth of the plinth in which the small column is fixed
three quarters of a hole, its thickness three twelfths.
The length of the small column up to the tenon twelve
holes; three quarters of a hole wide, and five-sixths of a
hole thick. The three braces are nine holes long, half a
hole wide, and a sixth of a hole thick; the length of the
tenon one hole. The length of the head of the small co-
lumn is one hole and three quarters. The width of the
fore-piece (antefixa) is three eighths of a hole, its thick-
ness one hole. The smaller back column, which in Greek
is called &yríð2012, is eight holes long, one hole and a
half wide, and three twelfths of a hole thick. The base
(subjectio) is twelve holes, and its breadth and thickness
the same as that of the smaller column. The chelonium
or pillow as it is called, over the smaller column, two
holes and a half; also two holes and a half high, and
one hole and three quarters wide. The mortices (car-
chesia) in the axles are two holes and a half; their thick-
ness also two holes and a half, and their width one hole
LIB, X, CAP, XV,
327
and a half. The length of the transverse pieces with the
tenons is ten holes, their width one hole and a half, their
thickness ten holes. The length of the arm is seven
holes, its thickness at bottom three twelfths, and at top
half a hole. The curve part eight holes. All these pro-
portions are appropriate ; some, however, add to them,
and some diminish them ; for if the capitals are higher
than the width, in which case they are called anatona, the
arms are shortened: so that the tone being weakened by
the height of the capital, the shortness of the arm may
make the stroke more powerful. If the height of the
capital be less, in which case it is called catatonum, the
arms must be longer, that they may be the more easily
drawn to, on account of the greater purchase ; for as a
lever four feet long raises a weight by the assistance of
four men, if it be eight feet long, two men will raise
the weight; in like manner arms that are longer are
more easily drawn to than those that are shorter.
828
CHAPTER XVI.
OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BALISTA.
I HAVE explained the structure of catapultae, their parts
and proportions. The constructions of balistae are va-
rious and different, though contrived to produce simi-
lar effects. Some of these are worked by windlasses,
others by systems of pulleys, others by capstans, and
others by wheels: no balista, however, is made without
regard to the weight of the stones it is intended to throw.
Hence the rules will only be understood by those who are
acquainted with arithmetical numbers and their powers.
For instance, holes are made in the capitals, and through
them are brought the cords, made either of woman’s hair,
or of gut, which are proportioned to the weight of the
stone that the balista is to throw, as in the catapultae
the proportions are derived from the length of the arrow.
But that those who are not masters of geometry and arith-
metic, may be prepared against delay on the occasions of
war, I shall here state the results of my own experience
as well as what I have learnt from masters, and shall ex-
plain them, by reducing the Greek measures to their cor-
respondent terms in our own.
LIT, N. CAT, XVII.
32%)
CHAPTER XVII.
OF THE PROPORTIONS OF THE BALISTA.
A BALISTA capable of throwing a stone of two pounds
should have the hole (foramen) in the capital five digits
wide; for a stone of four pounds, six digits; for a stone of
six pounds, seven digits; for a stone of ten pounds, eight
digits; for a stone of twenty pounds, ten digits; for a stone
of forty pounds, twelve digits and nine sixteenths; for a
stone of sixty pounds, thirteen digits and one eighth; for
one of eighty pounds, fifteen digits; for one of one hundred
and twenty pounds, one foot and a half and a digit and a
half; for one of a hundred and sixty pounds, two feet; for
one of a hundred and eighty pounds, two feet and five
digits; for one of two hundred pounds, two feet and six
digits; for one of two hundred and ten pounds, two feet
and seven digits: and lastly, for one of two hundred and
fifty pounds, eleven feet and a half. Having thus deter-
mined the size of the hole, which in Greek is called ragſ-
renzoc, a sight hole (scutula) is described two holes and a
quarter in length, and two holes and one sixth wide. Let
the line described be bisected, and when so bisected, let
the figure be obliquely turned till its length be equal to
one sixth part, and its width on which it turns that of the
fourth part of a hole. In the part where the curvature is,
at which the points of the angles project, and the holes
are turned, the contractions of the breadth return in-
wardly, a sixth part. The hole must be as much longer
as the epizygis is thick. When it has been described, the
extremity is to be so divided that it may have a gentle
U U
330
curvature. Its thickness must be nine sixteenths of a hole.
The stocks are made equal to two holes and a quarter, the
width to one hole and three quarters, the thickness, ex-
clusive of that part which is inserted into the hole, one
hole and a half; the width at the extremity, one hole and
a sixteenth ; the length of the side posts, five holes and
mine sixteenths; the curvature one half of a hole, the
thickness four ninths; in the middle the breadth is in-
creased as it was near the hole above described; its
breadth and thickness are each five holes; its height one
quarter of a hole. The length of the slip on the table is
eight holes, and it is to be half a hole wide and thick. The
length of the tenon two holes and a sixth, and its thick-
ness one hole: the curvature of the slip is to be one six-
teenth and five quarters of a sixteenth ; the breadth and
thickness of the exterior slip the same; its length will be
found by the turning, and the width of the side post and
its curvature one sixteenth : the upper are equal to the
lower slips, that is one sixteenth: the transverse pieces of
the table two thirds and one sixteenth of a hole : the
length of shaft of the small ladder (climacis) thirteen
holes, its thickness three sixteenths: the breadth of the
middle interval is a quarter of a hole, its thickness five
thirty-seconds of a hole: the length of the upper part of
the climacis near the arms, where it is joined to the table,
is to be divided into five parts; of these, two are given
to that part which the Greeks call Zºos (the chest), the
width one sixteenth, the thickness one quarter, the
length three holes and an eighth, the projecting part of
the chest half a hole. The pteregoma (or wing), one
twelfth of a hole and one sicilicus. The large axis, which
is called the cross front, is three holes; the width of the
LIB, X, CAP, XVII,
331
interior slips, one sixteenth of a hole; its thickness five
forty-eighths of a hole: the cheek of the chest serves to
cover the dove-tail, and is a quarter of a hole: the shaft
of the climacis five sixths of a hole and twelve holes and a
quarter thick : the thickness of the square piece which
reaches to the climacis is five twelfths, at its ends one six-
teenth : the diameter of the round axis must be equal to
the chélos, but near its turning points three sixteenths
less. The length of the spur is one twelfth and three
quarters; its width at bottom one sixteenth, and its
width at top a quarter and one sixteenth. The base,
which is called #ax&go., is a ninth of a hole long; the
piece in front of the base (antibasis) four holes and one
ninth; the width and thickness of each are to be the ninth
of a hole. The half column is a quarter of a hole high,
and its width and thickness half a hole; as to its height,
that need not be proportioned to the hole, but made, how-
ever, of such size as may be fit for the pturpose. Of the
arm the length will be six holes, its thickness at bottom
half a hole; at the bottom one twelfth of a hole. I have
now given those proportions of the catapultae and balistas,
which I consider most useful; I shall not, however, omit
to describe, as well as I can by writing, the manner of
preparing them with cords twisted of guts and hair.
332
CHAPTER XVIII.
OF THE PRE PARATION OF THE BALISTAE AND
CATAPULTAE.
BEAMs of considerable length must be procured, upon
which are fixed cheeks in which the axles are retained;
in the middle of those beams holes are made, into which are
received the capitals of the catapultae, well tightened with
wedges, so that the strain will not move them. Then
brazen stocks are fixed for the reception of the capitals,
in which are the small iron pins which the Greeks call
#To Yſbag. The ends of the ropes pass through the holes
of the capitals, and brought through on the other side,
they are then passed round the axle of the windlass, which
is turned by the aid of levers, till the ropes, both drawn
tight, give the same tone when struck by the hand. Then
they are confined at the holes with wedges, to prevent
their slipping. Being passed through to the other side,
they are in a similar way tightened by the levers and
axles till the tones are similar. Thus by the use of the
wedges, catapultae are adjusted, according to the effect
of musical tones on the ear. º
LIB, X. CAP. XIX.
333
CHAPTER XIX.
OF MACHINES FOR ATTACK.
I HAVE said as much as I could on these matters; it now
remains for me to treat of those things relating to attacks,
namely, of those machines with which generals take
and defend cities. The first engine for attack was the
ram, whose origin is said to have been as follows. The
Carthaginians encamped in order to besiege Cadiz, and
having first got possession of one of the towers, they en-
deavoured to demolish it, but having no machines fit for
the purpose, they took a beam, and suspending it in their
hands, repeatedly battered the top of the wall with the
end of it, and having first thrown down the upper courses,
by degrees they destroyed the whole fortress. After that,
a certain workman of Tyre, of the name of Pephasmenos,
turning his attention to the subject, fixed up a pole and
suspended a cross piece therefrom after the method of a
steelyard, and thus swinging it backwards and forwards,
levelled with heavy blows the walls of Cadiz. Cetras the
Chalcedonian, was the first who added a base to it of tim-
ber moveable on wheels, and covered it with a roof on up-
right and cross pieces: on this he suspended the ram, co-
vering it with bulls' hides, so that those who were employed
therein in battering the walls might be secure from dan-
ger. And inasmuch as the machine moved but slowly,
they called it the tortoise of the ram. Such was the
origin of this species of machines. But afterwards,
when Philip, the son of Amintas, besieged Byzantium,
Polydus the Thessalian used it in many and simple forms,
334.
and by him were instructed Diades and Chaereas, who
fought under Alexander. Diades has shewn in his writ-
ings that he was the inventor of ambulatory towers, which
he caused to be carried from one place to another by
the army, in pieces, as also of the auger and the scaling
machine, by which one may step on to a wall; as also the
grappling hook, which some call the crane (grus). He
also used a ram on wheels, of which he has left a descrip-
tion in writing. He says that no tower should be built
less than sixty cubits high, rior than seventeen wide, and
that its diminution at top should be one fifth of the width
of the base: that the upright pieces of the tower should
be one foot and three quarters at bottom, and half a foot
at top : that it should contain ten floors, with windows on
each side. That the greatest tower that is constructed may
be one hundred and twenty cubits high, and twenty-three
and a half wide, diminishing at the top one fifth of its
base ; the upright piece one foot at bottom, and half a
foot at top. The large tower is made with twenty floors,
and to each floor there is a parapet of three cubits, co-
vered with raw hides to protect it from the arrows. The
construction of the tortoise ram is similar : it was thirty
cubits wide, and, exclusive of the roof, sixteen high. The
height of the roof from the eaves to the ridge, seven cu-
bits. On the top thereof in the centre rose a small tower,
not less than twelve cubits wide : it was raised with four
stories, on the upper of which the scorpions and catapul-
tae were placed, and in those below was kept a large store
of water, to extinguish the flames in case it should be
fired. In it was placed the machine for the ram, which
the Greeks call ×gtobózn, wherein was the round smooth
roller on which the ram worked backwards and forwards
LIB, \, CAT, XIX.
335
by means of ropes, and produced great effect. This,
like the tower, was covered with raw hides. He de-
scribes the auger (terebra) thus: the machine is made
like a tortoise, as in those for the reception of the cata-
pultae and balistae, and in the middle thereof is a chan-
nel on the pilasters fifty cubits long, one high, and across
it an axle. In front, on the right and left, are two pul-
leys, by means of which is moved a beam with an iron
point at its end, which works in the channel. Under the
channel are rollers, which give it an easier and stronger
motion. Above the beam an arch is turned to cover the
channel, and receive the raw hides with which the ma-
chine is covered. I do not describe the grappling ma-
chine, because I consider it of very little use. I perceive
that he only promises to explain, which however he does
not do, the construction of the ladder called #713&égo.
by the Greeks, and the other marine machines for
boarding ships. Having described the construction of
the machines as Diades directs, I shall now explain it in
a way that I think will be useful, and as taught me by
my masters.
336
CHAPTER XX.
OF THE TORTOISE FOR FILLING DITCHES.
THE tortoise contrived for filling up ditches, which also
affords an access to the walls, is thus made. A base,
called by the Greeks #62%go, is prepared twenty-five
feet square, with four cross pieces. These are tied
in by two other pieces, one twelfth high, and one half
wide, distant from each other about a foot and a half,
and under each of their intervals are placed the naves
of wheels, called in Greek &go.36Tobag, within which
the axles of the wheels turn in iron hoops. The naves
are so made that they have holes in their heads, in which
the handspikes being received, are made to turn them.
The naves thus revolving, it may be moved forward
or backward, to the right or left, or diagonally, as
wanted. Above the base are placed two beams, pro-
jecting six feet on each side; round the projections of
which two other beams are fixed in front, seven feet
long, and their width and thickness as described for
the base. Upon this frame which is to be morticed, posts
are placed, nine feet high, exclusive of their tenons,
one foot and a palm square, and a foot and a half dis-
tant from each other. These are tied in at top by means
of morticed beams. Above these beams are braces, with
tenons, the end of one being let into the next to the
height of nine feet, and over the braces is a square piece
of timber, by which they are connected. They also are
kept together by side pieces, and are covered with planks
of palm, in preference to other wood: if those are not to
Lily, \, CAP. XX,
337
be procured, by other wood of a strong nature, pine and
ash, however, excepted; for they are weak and easily ig-
nited. About the planking are placed gratings, made of
slender twigs recently cut, and closely interwoven; and
then the whole machine is covered with raw hides, as
fresh as can be procured, doubled and stuffed with sea-
weed or straw steeped in vinegar, in order that it may re-
sist the strokes of the balistaº and the attacks of fire.
S$8
CHAPTER XXI.
OF OTHER SORTS OF TORTOISES.
THERE is another species of tortoise, which is just the same
as that above described, except in respect of the braces.
This has a parapet and battlements of boarding, and
above, an inclined pent-house round it, tied in at top with
planks and hides firmly fastened. Over these is a layer
of clay with hair, of such thickness as to prevent the
machine taking fire. These machines may be made with
eight wheels, if need be, and if the nature of the place
require it. The tortoises made for undermining, called
by the Greeks evyag, are similar to those already de-
scribed; but their fronts are formed on a triangular
plan, so that the weapons from the wall may not fall di-
rect on the faces, but gliding off from them, the exca-
vators within may be secure from danger. It does
not appear to me foreign to our purpose to explain the
proportions and constructions of the tortoise made by
Agetor the Byzantine. Its base was sixty feet long, its
width eighteen. The upright pieces which rose above
the framing, were four in number; they were in two
lengths, joined, each thirty-six feet high, one foot and
one palm in thickness, and in width one foot and a half.
The base had eight wheels, on which it was moved; their
height was six feet and three quarters, their thickness
three feet, composed of three pieces of wood dove-tailed
together, and tied with plates of cold wrought iron.
These turned on naves, or hamaxopodes, as they are
called. Above the surface of the cross pieces which
LIB, \, CAT, XXI,
339
were on the base, upright posts were erected, eighteen
feet and a quarter high, three quarters wide, and three-
twelfths thick, and one and three quarters apart. Above
them were beams all round, which tied the machine to-
gether, they were one foot and a quarter wide, and three
quarters thick. Over these the braces were placed, and
were twelve feet high. Above the braces was a beam
which united the framing. They had also side pieces
fixed transversely, on which a floor, running round them,
covered the parts below. There was also a middle floor
above the small beams, where the scorpions and ca-
tapultae were placed. Two upright pieces were also
raised, joined together, thirty-five feet long, a foot and a
half thick, and two feet wide, united at their heads, dove-
tailed into a cross beam, and by another in the middle,
morticed between two shafts and tied with iron hooping,
above which were alternate beams between the uprights
and the cross piece, firmly held in by the cheeks and
angle pieces. Into the framing were fixed two round
and smooth axles, to which were fastened the ropes
that held the ram. Over the heads of those who worked
the ram was a pent-house, formed after the manner of
a turret, where two soldiers could stand secure from
danger, and give directions for annoying the enemy.
The ram was one hundred and six feet long, a foot and a
palm wide at the butt, a foot thick, tapering towards the
head to a foot in width, and five-eighths in thickness.
It was furnished with a hard iron beak like those
fixed on galleys, from which went out four iron prongs
about fifteen feet long, to fix it to the beam. More-
over, distributed between the foot and the head of the
beam, four stout ropes were stretched eight inches
340
thick, made fast like those which retain the mast of a
ship between the poop and the prow. To these were
slung others diagonally, which suspended the ram at the
distance of a palm and a foot from each other. The
whole of the ram was covered with raw hides. At the
further end of the ropes, towards the head, were four iron
chains, also covered with raw hides, and it had a projec-
tion from each floor, framed with much skill, which was
kept in its place by means of large stretched ropes, the
roughness of which preventing the feet from slipping,
made it easy to get thence on to the wall. The machine
could be moved in six directions, straight forward, to the
right and left, and from its extent it could be used on the
ascending and descending slope of a hill. It could, more-
over, be so raised as to throw down a wall one hundred
feet in height: so, also, when moved to the right and
left, it reached not less than one hundred feet. It was
worked by one hundred men, and its weight was four
thousand talents, or four hundred and eighty thousand
pounds.
LIB, X. CAP, XXII,
341
CHAPTER XXII.
OF MACHINES FOR, DEFENCE.
I HAVE explained what I thought most requisite respect-
ing scorpions, catapultae, balistae, no less than tortoises
and towers, who invented them, and in what manner
they ought to be made. It did not seem necessary to
write on ladders, cranes, and other things of simpler
construction; these the soldiers of themselves easily
make. Neither are they useful in all places, nor of the
same proportions, inasmuch as the defences and fortifi-
cations of different cities are not similar: for machines
constructed to assault the bold and impetuous, should
be differently contrived to those for attacking the crafty,
and still dissimilar, where the parties are timid. Whoever,
therefore, attends to these precepts, will be able to select
from the variety mentioned, and design safely, without
further aid, such new schemes as the nature of the places
and other circumstances may require. For the defence
of a place or army, one cannot give precepts in writing,
since the machines which the enemy prepares may not
be in consonance with our rules; whence oftentimes
their contrivances are foiled by some ready ingenious
plan, without the assistance of machines, as was the
case with the Rhodians. Diognetus was a Rhodian
architect, who, to his honour, on account of his great
skill, had an annual fixed salary. At that period, an
architect of Aradus, whose name was Callias, came to
Rhodes, obtained an audience, and exhibited a model of
a wall, whereon was a revolving crane, by means whereof
342
he could suspend an Helepolis near the spot, and swing it
within the walls. The wondering Rhodians, when they
saw it, took away the salary from Diognetus, and con-
ferred it on Callias. Immediately after this, king Deme-
trius, who, from his resolution, was sirnamed Poliorcetes,
prepared to wage war against the Rhodians, and brought
in his train Epimachus, a celebrated architect of Athens.
This person prepared an helepolis of prodigious expense
and of ingenious and laborious construction, whose height
was one hundred and twenty-five feet, and its width sixty
feet: he secured it, moreover, with hair-cloths and raw
hides, so that it might securely withstand the shock of a
stone of three hundred and sixty pounds weight, thrown
from a balista. The whole machine weighed three hun-
dred and sixty thousand pounds. Callias being now re-
quested by the Rhodians to prepare his machine against
the helepolis, and to swing it within the wall, as he had pro-
mised, confessed he was unable. For the same principles
do not answer in all cases. In some machines the prin-
ciples are of equal effect on a large and on a small scale;
others cannot be judged of by models. Some there are
whose effects in models seem to approach the truth, but
vanish when executed on a larger scale, as we have
just seen. With an auger, a hole of half an inch, of an
inch, or even an inch and a half, may be easily bored;
but by the same instrument it would be impossible to
bore one of a palm in diameter; and no one would think
of attempting in this way to bore one of half a foot, or
larger. Thus that which may be effected on a small or
a moderately large scale, cannot be executed beyond cer-
tain limits of size. When the Rhodians perceived their
error, and how shamefully they had wronged Diognetus;
LIB. A. CAP, XXII,
843
when, also, they perceived the enemy was determined to
invest them, and the machine approaching to assault the
city, fearing the miseries of slavery and the sacking of
the city, they humbled themselves before Diognetus, and
requested his aid in behalf of his country. He at first
refused to listen to their entreaties; but when afterwards
the comely virgins and youths, accompanied by the
priests, came to solicit his aid, he consented, on condition
that if he succeeded in taking the machine, it should be
his own property. This being agreed to, he ordered a
hole to be made in that part of the wall opposite to the
machine, and gave general as well as particular notices
to the inhabitants, to throw on the other side of the hole,
through channels made for the purpose, all the water,
filth, and mud, that could be procured. These being,
during the night, discharged through the hole in great
abundance, on the following day, when the helepolis was
advanced towards the wall, it sunk in the quagmire thus
created: and Demetrius, finding himself overreached by
the sagacity of Diognetus, drew off his army. The Rho-
dians, freed from war by the ingenuity of Diognetus,
gave him thanks publicly, and loaded him with honours
and ornaments of distinction. Diognetus afterwards re-
moved the helepolis within the walls, placed it in a pub-
lic situation, and inscribed it thus: “DIOGNETUS PRE-
SENTED THIS To THE PEOPLE OUT OF THE SPOILS OF WAR.”
Hence, in defensive operations, ingenuity is of more
avail than machines. A similar circumstance occurred
at Chios, where the enemy had got ready Sambucas on
board their ships; the Chians, during the night, threw
into the sea, at the foot of their wall, earth, sand, and
stones; so that when the enemy, on the following day,
344
endeavoured to approach it, the ships got aground on
the heaps thus created under water, without being able
to approach the wall or to recede; in which situation
they were assailed with lighted missiles, and burnt.
When, also, the city of Apollonia was besieged, and the
enemy was in hopes, by undermining, to penetrate into
the fortress unperceived; the spies communicated this
intelligence to the Apollonians, who were dismayed, and,
through fear, knew not how to act, because they were
not aware at what time, nor in what precise spot, the
enemy would make his appearance. Trypho, of Alexan-
dria, who was the architect to the city, made several exca- .
vations within the wall, and, digging through, advanced
an arrow’s flight beyond the walls. In these excavations
he suspended brazen vessels. In one of them, near the
place where the enemy was forming his mine, the brazen
vessels began to ring, from the blows of the mining tools
which were working. From this he found the direction in
which they were endeavouring to penetrate, and then pre-
pared vessels of boiling water and pitch, human dung, and
heated sand, for the purpose of pouring on their heads.
In the night he bored a great many holes, through which
he suddenly poured the mixture, and destroyed those of
the enemy that were engaged in this operation. Similarly
when Marseilles was besieged, and the enemy had made
more than thirty mines; the Marseillois suspecting it,
lowered the depth of the ditch which encompassed the
wall, so that the apertures of all the mines were disco-
vered. In those places, however, where there is not a
ditch, they excavate a large space within the walls, of
great length and breadth, opposite to the direction of
the mine, which they fill with water from wells and from
LIB. A. CAP, XXII.
345
the sea; so that when the mouths of the mine open to
the city, the water rushes in with great violence, and
throws down the struts, overwhelming all those within it
with the quantity of water introduced, and the falling
in of the mine. When a rampart composed of the
trunks of trees is raised opposite to a wall, it may be con-
sumed by discharging red hot iron bars against it from
the balistae. When, also, a tortoise is brought up to bat-
ter a wall with a ram, a rope with a noose in it may be
lowered to lay hold of the ram, which being then raised
by means of a wheel and axle above, keeps the head sus-
pended, so that it cannot be worked against the wall :
lastly, with burning arrows, and with discharges from the
balistae, the whole machine may be destroyed. Thus all
these cities are saved and preserve their freedom, not by
machines, but by expedients which are suggested through
the ready ingenuity of their architects. I have, in this
book, to the best of my ability, described the construc-
tion of those machines most useful in peace and war.
In the preceding nine I treated of the other branches
of Architecture, so that the whole subject is contained
in ten books, -
P L A T E S
ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE ARCHITECTURE
Or
MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO.
J}Y
JOSEPH G WILT.
PLATE I.
350
PLATE I.
Fig. 1. Is a diagram of the winds, as enumerated in
Chap. III. Book I.
2 and 3. Are representations of the antient bricks,
whereof Fig. 2. is that of the pentadoron and
its half brick, and Fig. 3. that of the tetrado-
ron and its half brick. See Chap. III. Book
II.
4. Represents the different sorts of brick and stone
walling, mentioned by the author in the third
and eighth Chapters of the second Book.
The reticulated work (reticulatum opus).
The uncertain (incertum opus).
The work called isodomum.
The work called pseudisodomum.
The work called arxazroy (emplectum).
The 8torówo or bond stones.
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PLATE II.
352
PLATE II.
Fig. 1. The plan of a city, so set out as to afford
shelter from the noxious winds. See Chap.
VI. Book I.
2 and 3. Plan and elevation of a part of the walls.
See Chap. V. Book I., and Chap. II. Book
VI.
4. Method of determining the meridian line. See
Chap. VI. Book I.
ºf 2.
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PLATE III.
354;
PLATE III.
Fig. 1. Is the plan of a Temple in antis. a a are the
antae. If in front of them, the columns b b b b
be placed, it then becomes a prostyle tem-
ple. .
A. is the cell.
B. the pronaos.
C. the door.
See Chapters I. and II. Book III.
Fig. 2. Represents the plan of an amphiprostyle Tem-
ple, or one having columns in the rear as
well as in the front.
A. the cell.
B. the pronaos.
C. the posticus.
D, the door.
a a, antae.
See Chapters I. and II. Book III.
Fig. 3. The elevation of a diastyle tetrastylos Temple:
that is, having intercolumniations of three
diameters, with four columns in front. See
Chapters I. and II. Book III. This elevation
will answer to the plans above described, ob-
serving, however, that antae must be substi-
tuted for the external columns, to make it
correspond with the plan of Fig. 1.
See Chapters I. and II. Book III.
---
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PLATE IV.
356
PLATE IV.
Fig. 1. Is the plan of a pseudoperipteral Temple, as
described in Chapter VII. Book IV.
A. the cell.
- B. the pronaos.
Fig. 2. Is the elevation of an hexastyle Temple with
a systyle intercolumniation, and monotry-
glyphal, that is having only one triglyph in
the frieze over an intercolumniation. This
will suit the plan exhibited in Fig. 1.
See Chapter III. Book IV.
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PLATE v.
358
PLATE V.
Fig. 1. The plan of a peripteral temple. The wings, or
passages C. between the walls of the cells and
the columns in flank, are the origin of the
name it bears. This temple is hexastyle, or
with six columnsin front, having eustyle inter-
columniations, that is of two diameters and a
quarter.
A. the cell.
B. the pronaos.
2. Elevation to double size of the plan above de-
scribed, of the Ionic order.
a a a acroteria.
See Chapters I. II. and III., Book III.

PLATE WI.
360
PLATE VI.
Fig. 1. Is the plan of a dipteral temple, so called from
the double passages between the columns on
the flanks lettered AAAA. See Chap. I. and
II., Book III.
2. Plan of a pseudodipteral or false dipteral temple.
This presents in front and rear the appear-
ance of a dipteral temple, but the passages
AAAA of the former figure are herein re-
duced to a single passage B, one range of
columns being omitted. See Chapters I. and
II., Book III.
3. Is an elevation which answers to either of the
abovementioned plans: the arrangement of
the intercolumniations is systyle and the
number of columns makes it octastylos. See
Chapters I. and II., Book III.
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PLATE VII.
362
Fig. 1.
PLATE VII.
Is the plan of an hypaethral or open temple;
the part A is the hypaethral, or uncovered
part.
Is half of an elevation answering to the above-
mentioned plan. The arrangement of the
intercolumniations is picnostyle, and the
number (ten) of the columns makes it
decastylos.
Is a half section of the temple through the
centre transversely.
See Chapters I. and II., Book III.
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PLATE VIII.
364
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
PLATE VIII.
The Doric Order. Chapter III. Book IV.
A.A. The Column, with twenty flutes.
B. The Capital.
C. The Architrave, or Epistylium.
D. The Frieze.
E. The Cornice.
F. A Metopa.
G. A Triglyph.
H. Capital of a Triglyph.
The Ionic Order. Chapter III. Book III.
A.A. The Column.
B. The Base.
C. The Capital.
D. The Architrave.
. The Frieze.
E
F. The Cornice.
G
. Lower Fascia.
H. Middle Fascia.
I. Upper Fascia.
K. Side elevation of Capital.
L.L. Dentels.
M. Capital to a larger scale.
Corinthian Order. Chapter I. Book IV.
The plan of the Corinthian Capital.
The Elevation of the same.
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PLATE IX.
866
PLATE IX.
Fig. 1. and 2. Exhibit the parts of a Roof in section
and elevation as described in Chapter II.
Book IV.
a a. Beams (Trabes).
b b. Ridge piece (Columen).
c. King post (Columna).
d d d. Tye beam (Transtrum).
e. Strut (Capreolus).
f f. Rafters (Cantherii).
g g g g. Purlines (Templa).
h h. Common Rafters (Asseres).
The above letters refer to both Figures 1. and
2. On the right hand part of the latter Fi-
gure the tiles are shewn.
Fig. 8. and 4. Are Doors with their ornaments (Ante-
pagmenta). Chapter VI. Book IV.
Fig. 5. The Tuscan Order. See Chapter VII. Book
IV.
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PLATE X.
368
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. 4.
Fig.
Fig.
PLATE X.
Is a plan of a Tuscan Temple. Chapter VII.
Book IV. The side A shews it in antis, the
side B shews it prostylos.
C. is the larger, and DD. the smaller cells.
Represents the elevation of the preceding Fi-
gure. The arrangement of the intercolumnia-
tions is Araeostylos.
Is a plan of a Monopteral Temple, see Chapter
VII. Book IV. -
An elevation of the preceding Figure.
A. The Stylobata or Pedestal.
B. The Flower (Flos).
C. The Dome (Tholus).
Plan of half a Peripteral round temple.
A. The Cell.
An elevation of the preceding Figure.
B. The Stylobata.
C. The Tholus.
D. The Flower.
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INDEX.
ABAcus, Page 102. 118, 91.
ABATON, 62. -
ABDERITEs, 212.
ABUTMENTs, 188.
AcANTHUs, in the Corinthian capital, 102.
Accius the poet, 266.
AcHAIA, 51. 100.
AKPOBATIKox, 296.
ACIDs, wonderful mature of 244, et seq.
AcRoTERIA, 94.—Represented, 358.
ACTORS, comic and tragic, 145.
ADJUSTMENT, 78.
ADRIATIc Sea, 51. 69, 70.
AEoLIPILE, 24.
AEQUI, in Italy, 245.
AEscHYLUs, 195.
AEsculapius, 13. 195.
AETHIoPs of the south, 236.—Lake of AEthiopia, 241.
AETNA, 51. 56.
AFRICA, prolific of wild beasts, 247—African plains, 236.
AFRICUs, 25.
AGATHARCHUS, 195.
AGESISTRATUS, 196.
AGETOR, of Byzantium, 338.
AISLEs, or wings, of courts, 174.
ALABANDINES, 212.
ALBANAE, stone quarries of, 53.
ALBULA, river, 238.
370 INDEX.
ALDER, 231.
ALEXANDER, 33, et seq. 192. 244, 334.
ALExANDRIA, 35. 192, 194. 222, 268. 284.
ALExIs, the comedian, 162.
ALPs, 69.72. 236. 244. et seq.
ALTANUs, 27.
ALTARs of the Gods, how to be placed, 114, 122.
ALTINUM, 20. - *
AMALGAMATION, 217, 218.
‘AMA=oſio.AEx, 336.
AMITERNINE stone quarries, 53.
AMMON, 240.
AMPHIPRosTYLos, 81.—Plan of an amphiprostyle temple, 354.
'AMºbiPETXIz, a machine, 302.
AMPHITHEATRE, 31.
AMPHoRAE (cullearia), 182. -
ANALEMMA, 268; on the construction of dials by the, 284; form-
ation of the, 287.
ANAPORICUM, a winter dial, 289.
ANATONA, capitals, 327.
ANAXAGoRAs CLAzoMENIUs, 192, 195. 276, 227. 283.
ANCONA, 70.
ANCONEs (trusses), or prothyrides, 116.
ANDRIAs, 287.
ANDRONEs, 185.
ANDRONICUs CYRRHESTEs, 25.
ANGLE-TILEs, 201.
ANGLEs, 81; of a portico, 155.
ANICIAN stone quarries, 54.
ANIsocycLON, an engine, 297.
ANTAE in buildings, 81. 184, 187; represented, 354.
‘ANTHXornTEX, places that resound, 146.
ANTERIDEs, counter-forts, 188.
ANTHRAx, 217.
ANTIBASIs, 326. 331.
ANTIBOREUs, a dial, 287.
INDEX. 371
ANTIMACHIDEs, an Athenian architect, 196.
ANTIOCHUs, king, 196.
ANTIPATER, 244, 283.
ANTISTATEs, 196.
ANTITHALAMUs, 184,
APOLLONIA, 241. 344.
APOLLONIANs, 344.
ApolloNIUs, 9, 287.
APULIA, 20.
AQUEDUCT, 252.
AQUILEIA, 20.
AQUITAINE, 38.
APATURIUs of Alabanda, 211. et seq.
APELLEs, the painter, 8. -
APENNINF MoUNTAINs, 51.—Described, 72. .
APOLLO, colossal, of Ephesus, 306.—Of Delos, 265.—Of Delphi,
100,—Games dedicated to Apollo and the Muses, by Ptole-
my, at Alexandria, 192.—Temple of, at Miletus, 197.
APOPHYGIs, a contraction of thickness, 119.
APOTHESIs, 102.
ARABIA, Numidian, 241. 243.
ARACHNE, a dial, 287,
ARADUs, 341.
ARAEosTYLos, 83.86. 368.
ARATUS, 283.
ARCADIA, 244.
ARCHED CHANNELs, 252.
ARCHES, 187. - -
ARCHIMEDEs, 6.9. 196. 265. -
ARCHITECTURE, defined, 3.−On what it depends, 11.-Of its dif.
ferent branches, 15.
ARCHITRAve, 115. 143.
ARCHYTAs, 9, 196. 265–Arcs or rods, iron (uncini ferrei), 153.
ARDEA, fountains of 238.
AREA, 24, 31, 56. 78.88. 261.
AREA, of a city, disposition and situation of buildings within it, 24,
372 INDEX,
AREoPAGUs, 39.
AREVANIAs, 60.
AREzzo, 58.
ARGELIUs, 195.
ARGos, 60.99. 246.
ARICINIAN Wood, 120.
A RIOBARZANES, 148.
ARISTARCHUs, of Samos, 8.9. 274. 287.
ARISTIDEs, 248.
ARISTIPPUs, the Socratic philosopher, 161.
ARISToMENEs of THAsos, the painter, 76.
ARISToPHANES, the comic poet, 162.-The grammarian, 193.
AR1stotle, 192. 260.
ARISToxENEs, the musician, 8, 134. 139.
ARMs of CATAPULTs, 6.325.
ARRANGEMENT, 11–In Doric proportions, 109.
ARRISEs, of Fillets, 94.
ARSENAL, 157. 195.
ARSINoe, 100.
ARTEMISIA, 61. et seq.
ARTEMo, 303.
ARTIST, or workman, 189.
ARTs, relative to attacks, 333. 21.
Ascent, 88. 119. 141.
ASIA, 44, 51.
ASPHALTIC Pool, 241.
"AXIIAHNOx, herb, 19.
As TABORA, river, 236.
Ast AsobA, river, ib.
ASTRAGAL, 90. 116.
ASTROLogERs, 141. 283.
ASTRONOMY, 7.
ATHos, Mount, 34.
ATHENIANs, 100. 162.
ATHENs, 25. 39, 58. 82. 120, 148, 197, 215. 240. 268. 284.
"ATAANTEx, 186. -
INDEX, 373
ATLAs, 236.
ATOMs, 42.
ATTACK, machines for, 333.
ATTALUs, 100.—Attalic Kings, 58. 192.
Attic, honey, 71; attic work, to &rtinoupyès, 90. 115, 117.
AUGER (terebra), 334, 335.
AUGUSTUs, temple of, 128.
M. AURELIUs, 2.
AURIGA, a celestial sign, 278.
Ampion, 28.
AUSTER, 25.
AUTOMATA, 288.
AvLNTINE, Mount, 219.
Axis, 104. 290. 303. 268. 165. 92. 306.
Axl E, 308. -
AxI.Es, 297.
Axon, 285.
BABYLoN, walls of, 23. 241.
BAccHus, temples of, 13. 31.84. 107. 148. 195.
BALE, 50.—Baian Mountains, ib.
BALEARIC IsLEs, 215. 247.
BALISTA, 328, 329. 332. 6.
BANA'rxox, a machine for draught, 296.
BANDs, of pillows, 91.
BANKERs' shops, 126. et seq.
BARs (fusi), 306.
BARs and levers, 317.
BASE (lysis), 143.
BASE (subjectio), of the catapult, 326.
BASEs, of columns, 88. 105.
BASILICA, 126. # 3
BASIN, 231,
374 INDEX.
BASIN (catinum), 317.
BASIs, base, 101. 306. 319. 336.
BATHs, their arrangement and parts, 152, 181.
BEAR, Great and Little, constellations, 279.
BEAMs (trabes), 104; lintel beams, 174; well-wrought beams, 128.
333.336. 338; small beams, 339; see representation, 366.
BEAMs (tigma), 104. 296. 299. 333.338.
BEATER (bacillus), 47.
BEATERs, 200. 256.
BEAUTY, in building, how produced, 15.
BED-CHAMBERs, 184.
BEDAs, of Byzantium, statuary, 76.
BEDs, of beams (columbaria), 103; of beams and rafters, 106. 113.
56; of stones, 56. .
BERosus, the Chaldean, 273. 282. 287.
BITUMEN, 23. 50. 241.
BLACK (atramentum), 221. 208.
BLACK, colour (coracinus), 243.
BLock (trochlea), 299.
BLocks, of stome, 306.
BLUE, colour, 222.
BLUE-EYED PEoPLE, 166.
Body, of the roof, 172. 1 - ?
Bogotia, 243. º ' ' ' '
Bond (coagmentum), 44, 56. 113, 188.
BondsTones, 3iarávo, 58; represented, 350.
Boryst HENEs, 235.
BossED nails (clavi muscarii), 206.
Box, 319; small, 322; dove-tailed, 326; of the drum-wheel, 322.
BRACEs, capreoli, 326, 324. -
BRACEs, in the tortoise, 336.
BRAss, Corinthian, 249. -
BRAss BARRELs, with moveable bottoms, 319.
BRAss CoIN, 80. - - e
BRAss FoundERs, 54.
BREssum MERs (trabes), 104.
INDEX. 375
BRICK, eight inch (bessalis), 152.
BRICK, walls, 58; burnt-bricks in buildings, walls, &c. 63. 200.
BRICRs, 43; of baked earth, 241; representations of antient bricks,
350.
BRYAxBs, 196.
BUccul, E, in catapults, 325.
BucKETs, 312. 317. 319.
BUILDERs, who the earliest, 40.
BUILDING, 15; origin and progress of, 37; of walls, 21. 56.88.
178. 187; in water, 157.
BUILDINGs: on their situation according to the nature of different
places, 165; of the proportions of private buildings, to suit
the nature of their sites, 170; aspects proper for the differ-
ent sorts of buildings, 178; forms of houses suited to the
different ranks of persons, ib.; proportions of houses in the
country, 181; arrangement and parts of Grecian houses,
184; on the strength of buildings, 187.
BULRUSH, 231.
BURNT BRICK, course of, on a wall, 63.
BYzANTIUM, 333.
CADIz, 333.
C.ECUBAN WINE, 242.
CAIUs JULIUS, son of Masinissa, 247.
CAIUS MUTIUs, 197.
CALDRON, in baths, 152. 233.
CALECHEs (cisia), 298.
CALENTUM, 44.
CALLESCHRUS, an Athenian architect, 196.
CALLIAs, an architect of Rhodes, 341, et seq.
CALLIMACHUs, an architect named Catatechnos, 102.
CALLIPPUS, an astrologer, 283.
CAMILLUM, 326. -
CAMCENAE, 238.
376 * INDEX,
CAMPANIA, 52, et seq. 72. 242. 244.
CANDELABRA in houses, 211.
CANoN in hydraulics, navò, aouzinºs, 319.
CANopus, constellation, 282. *
CAPITAL, of a column, 91. 108; Corinthian, 101, et seq. ; Ionic,
99; in machines, 329. 14; Catatomum, 327.
CAPITOL, 40. 84.
CAPPADocIA, 241.
CAPst AN, 302.
CARBUNCULUs, a kind of sand, 16.52. 231.
CARch EBI, or tracheli, in the catapult, 326.
CARDINALEs scAPI, 116.
CARIA, 59, 60. 100.
CARIANs, 59. 100.
CARPIon, 195. -
CARTHAGE, 241.
CARTHAGINIANs, 333.
CARYA, 4.
CARYATIDEs, ib.
CASIUM, 241.
CASTOR, temple of, 120.
CATAPULT, on the, 325. 328, 329. 332, 6.
CATARActs of the Nile, 236.
CATATONUM, capital, 327.
CATHETI, vertical lines, Káðsto; Ygaugh, 91.
CAUCASUs, Mount, 235.
CAULIcoli (stalks), in capitals, 102.211.
CAURUs, wind, 25.
CAUSIs, a mode of painting, 219.
CAvLTTo, upper and lower, 90.
CAVITIES, in a theatre, 138.
CEILINGs, 202. 176. -
CELL, in temples, 81, et seq. 112, et seq. 118, et seq.
CELLAR, wine, 16. 181; oil, ib. *
CEMENT, 14, 23.46. 51.56; of flint, 256; marble, 214.
CENTRE, 195. 11. 79. 285, 308. -
INDEX. - 377
CEPHISUs, river, 243.
CEREs, temples of, 32.84, 197.
CERosTRATA (doors inlaid), 117.
CETRAs, of Chalcedon, 333.
CHEREAs, 334.
CHALCIDICA, 127.
CHALDEANs, 273. 282.
CHALK, 220; Eretrian, ib.; Selinusian, 225; green, 315.
CHAMBERs (cubicula), 178. 13.
CHANNEL, atgić, 325. 99. 107.201. 207. 253. 335; in Ionic co-
lumns, 91; in the catapult, 326.
CHANNELs (columbaria), 312.
CHARIDAs, 196.
CHARIoT-Body, 322.
CHEEK, of the chest, in the balista, 331.
CHEERs (chelonia), 303. 308. 320.
CHELo, or manucla, 326.
CHELONIUM, or pillow, 326. 299, et seq. 303.
XHAOx, in the balista, 330.
CHEST, 319. 330.
CHION, a Corinthian statuary, 76.
CHIONIDEs, the comic poet, 162.
CHIos, 100. 194, 343; fountain of 246.
CHIPs, of marble (assulae), 214.
CHOICE, of salubrious places, 16; of places for the common use of
the city, 31.
CHoRoPATEs, in levelling, 250.
CHORUs, in theatres, 148.
xpo MA, 135. -
CHROMATIC modulation, 135, 136.
CHRYSocoLLA, 213. 220.
CICERo, 266.
CILBIAN Fields, of the Ephesians, 217.
CILICIA, 240, et Seq,
CIRCLE, 26.
3 C
878 INDEX.
CIRCULAR application of motion, kvuxinh wivnals, 296; circular walk,
3iavaos, 155. 172. 21.
CIRCUMSTANCE (statio, Separta wh;), adds to the beauty of a work,
12; of the Greeks, 62.
CIRCUs, Flaminius, 120; Maximus, 84.
CISTERN, 252.
CITY, choice of situation for a, 16; foundations of walls and
towers, 21; distribution and situation of buildings within the
walls, 24; choice of situations for public buildings, 31 ;
plans relative to these subjects, 352.
CLAzom ENAE, 100; fields of the Clazomenians, 243.
CLEOMBROTUs, 5.
CLIADEs, 196.
CLIMACIS in the balista, 331.
CLIMATE, dial of Berosus adapted to, 287.
CLITORIUM, fountain of 245.
CLOD, or mass, of lime, marble, &c. 202. 214, 216. 37.
CN. CoſtNELIUs, 2.
CoAT in stucco, 204.
CoATING, 203.
CoATs of Punic wax, 215; of lime or sand, 200.
CoELIA, notato, in aqueducts, 254. -
CoELUs, temple of, 12.
CoLoRIs, 235; buildings of the Colchi, 38.
CoLD BATH, lutrum, 155.
CoLLARs, in water engines, 319.
CoLLINA PORTA, 81.
CoLLIQUIE (valleys), 172.
CoLoR, marsh, 236.
CoLoRNY, Julian, of Fano, 127.
CoLophon, 100.
CoLossIcoTERos, Koxoacinétegos, 93. 302.
CoLossus of Halicarnassus, 59.
CoLou Rs, in stucco, 205; natural, 215; vermilion and quicksilver,
217; preparation of vermilion, 219; artificial, 221; black,
INDEX, 379
ib.; blue, and burnt yellow, 222; white lead, verdigrease,
and red lead, 223; purple, 224; factitious, 225.
CoLUMELLA (small column), of the catapult, 326.
CoLUMEN (ridge-piece), 104. See Plate, 366.
CoLUMNs, 88; origin of the three sorts of, 99; Corinthian, ib.
104; Doric proportions, 107; Tuscan, 118; Ionic, 88. 78.
83; their ornaments, how adapted to the sight, 94.
CoMIC Ports, Greek, 125. 162.
CoMPAss (amussium), 26.
CoMPLU v.IUM, 172. -
CoMPREsston, in hydraulics, 255.288. 317. 7. 112.
CoNCAMERATIo (vaulting), 46. 153, 187.
CoNE, a dial, 287.
CoNISTERIUM, in the Palaestra, 155.
CoNsistENCY, 13. .
CoNSONANCEs, natural, ava powicz, 136.
CoNSTELLATIONs, northern, 278; southerm, 281.
CoPPER, Cyprian, 222.
CoRD, of the Spanish broom, 202.
Coric EUM, in the Palaestra, 155. -
CoRINTHIAN VIRGIN, 101; columns, 99; occi, 176; theatres, 140;
vessel, 249; order, 99; plate relative to, 364,
CoRNETAN DIVISION, in the Faliscan territory, 244.
CoRNICEs, 115. 129. 204.
CoRoNA, 62.94. et seq. 110. et seq. 115.
CoRUs, wind, 26.
Cos, isle and city, 283.
CossuTIUs, a Roman architect, 196. et seq.
CoTTIAN ALPs, 244.
CountERForts, anterides, 331, 188.
CounterPois E, 290. 264.
Count RY, house in the, 180, 181.
Coupling, of beams, 118.
Courts (cavaedia), 172; distributed into five species, ib.
Counts (atria), 174.
CourTs (cortes), in country houses, 181.
380 INDEX.
Coven, in the machine of Ctesibius, 306.
CRANE, revolving (carchesia), 304, 341.
CRANE, or grappling-hook, (grus) 334.
CRATHIs, river, 242.
CRETE, isle of 19, 69.
CREUsA, 100.
CRIoDocIIE, a machine, ngioºxn, 334.
CRocodiLEs, 236.
CROESUs, 192; house of, 59.
CRoss-FRONT, 330.
CRoss-PIECEs, 206. 296. 250, 333. 336.
CRossING, of laths, 63.
CRowNING members (fastigia), 94.
CRYPTs, in temples, 179.
CTEs.IBIUs, 6. 196. 287. et seq. 318; his machine, 317.
CTEs.IPHON, of Gnosus, 82. 195. 197; machine of Ctesiphon, 305.
CUBIT, the fourth part of the height of the body, 78.
CULLEARIA, 182.
- Cuwe, 157; Cuman Mountains, 50.
CURIAE, 130.
CUTILIUM, 239.
CYBDELUs, 240.
CYCHRI, in Thrace, 244.
CYCLADEs, 215.
CYDNUs, a river of Cilicia, 240.
CYMATIUM, 89. 108. 99.
CYNosuKA, ºvyovoſeo, 279.
CYRENE, 243.
CYZICENI, Oeci, 177; triclinia, 185.
D.
DAMs, 157. -
DAPHNIs, of Miletus, architect, 197.
DARIUs, 192. -
DECASTYLos, 82; represented, 362.
INDEX, 381
DEcoRATION, in theatres, 143; on polished stucco, 208.
DEFENCE, machines for, 341.
DEFENCEs (munitio), of a city, 21. 70.341.
DELPHI, 195; Delphic Apollo, 75. 100.
DEMETRIUs PHALEREUs, 197.
DEMETRIUS Polio Roe TEs, 342, 343.
DEMocles, 196.
DEMocr1TUs, of Abdera, 42. 192, 195. 260. 266. 282, et seq.
DEMoPHILUs, 196.
DENTILLED, cornice, 13.
DENTILs, 13. 106.93.
DIADEs, 334, 335.
DIAGoNAL, line, 102. 261, 173.
DIAGRAM, 134.
DIAGRAMs, 161.
DIALLING, a part of architecture, 15; on the construction of dials,
268. 276. 284; of various dials and their inventors, 287.
DIAMETER, 143. 322. 285. _- + ºr
DIANA, temples of, 13.82. 101. 120. 195. 197. 305. 307; image of,
in cedar, 69.
DIAPAsoN, 136.
DIAPENTE, 136.
DIASTYLos, 83, 85, 86; elevation of a diastyle tetrastylos temple,
# *
, tº 3. * *.
..}.}**
- ---------
354.
DIATEssa Ron, 136.
AIA®exix, arrangement, 11.
AIAerPON, 186.
DIATONIC, modulation, 135.
AIATONOI, or bond-stones, 58; representation of, 350.
AIATAOx, 155.
DIDoRo N, 3:33pov, a kind of brick, 44.
DIESIs, in music, 132. 135.
DIEZEUGMENON, 3ieśvyuávov, 136.
DIGIT, a measure, 80.
DIMENSION (quantitas), 11.
DIMINUTION of columns, 86. 115.
382 INDEX.
AIMoiPox (two thirds), 80.
DINocRATEs, architect of Alexander the Great, 33.
DIoGNETUs, of Rhodes, architect, 341, et seq.
DIoMEDEs, founder of Salpiae, 20.
Dionysodomus, 287.
DIoPTRA, 250.
AIIIHXAIKH, in ships, 12.
DIPHILUs, the architect, 196.
AIIIAAXION, 80.
DIPLINTHIUs (two bricks), 62.
DIPTERos, 82; dipteral arrangement, 196; plan of a dipteral
temple, 360. -
DIRECTION, by rule and square, 203.
D1scus, on a plane, 287.
DISDIAPAsóN, 136.
DIsoftDERs, obstimate, in exposed situations, 24.
DISPLUv1ATUM, 172.
DIssonANT places, warnxoëvres, 146.
DISTANCE, of planets from the sum, 264.
DISTRIBUTION, 11. 13. 107. 56. 210.
DISTRIBUTION and situation of buildings within the walls, 24.
DIVISIONs, of a city, 27.
DoIPHIN, in hydraulics, 319.
DoME (tholus), 211. See Plate, 368.
Doors, of temples, 115; of two folds (bifora), 117.
Doorways, of temples, 115. 174. , ,
DoRIC proportion and column, 99. 11. 107. Plate relative to, 364.
DoRoN, 3380V, a palm, 44.
DoRUs, king of Achaia and Peloponnesus, 99.
Dov E-TAIL, 119. 331; dove-tailed box, 326.
Dow ELs, dove-tailed, 119. 305. 314.
DRAUGHT, machines of 299. 15, 16, 21. (See MACHINEs.)
DRESSING (antepagmentum), 115, et seq. 118.
DRUM-wheel, 302. 314, 322; toothed, 288. 312,
DYRIs, river, 236. -
DYRRHAchium, 241.
index. 383
E.
EARTH, circuit of, 27; proportion of, in various trees, 67; altars'
to the, 122; pressure of, in foundations, 188.
EAves, 70. 172. 118. 211. 334. -
'HXELA, 6. 138.
EcHINUs, in capitals of columns, 108. 119.
LconoMY, 13.
'EKKAHx1AxTHPION, a theatre, 211.
'EKoopa, projection, 89. 170.
EGYPT, 35, et seq. 114, 165. 215. 236. 241. 282.
EGYPTIAN OEci, 176, et seq.; priests, 229.
EIGHT PARTs, division into, 315.
ELEOTHESIUM, 155.
ELBow (geniculus), in aqueducts, 254.
ELEPHANTIs, 236.
ELEUSIs, temple of Ceres at, 197.
‘EAIKH, 279.
ELPHIAs, of Rhodes, 20.
EMBATEs, module, 12. 108.
EMBRo1DERING, rooms for, 178.
EMPEDocLEs, 228.
'EMIIAEKTON, a method of building, 57; representation of, 354.
IENCARP1, 101.
ENDs of ropes (ansae rudentis), 332.
ENGIBATA, 318. §yyigato, vel áyyú8&ta.
ENGINEs, distinguished from machines, 296; for drawing water,
- 312. 314, 315; water engines, 319.
ENGoNATos, a dial, 287. º:
BNHARMONIC modulation, 135.
ENNIUs the poet, 266.
ENTABLATURES, 305.
ENTASIs, a swelling in the middle of columns, Évraorus, 87.
EPAGoN, Tayov &préuay, 303. -
384 INDEX,
EPHEBEUM, 155.
'Ed'EKTox, 80. it (,
Ephesus, 100. 195, 197,217. 305, 307; law of the Ephesians on
building, 293; mines in, 220.
'EIIIBAepA, ladder of the Greeks, 334.
EPICHARMUs, 228.
EPICURUs, 42. 162. 192.
'EIIIAIMoIPOx, 80.
EPIGRAMs, Greek, three, inscribed on fountains, 245, 246.
EPIMACHUs, the Athenian architect, 342.
'EIIIIIENTAMoIPox, 80.
EPIscENIUM, 212.
'EIII.xxi.AEx, 332.
EPISTYLIUM, 13.81. 83. 108. 126. 128.
'EIIITIOIAEx, simae, in the coronae, 94.
EPIToxis, 326.
'EIIITPITox, 80.
EPIzYGIs, 329.
EQUILIBRATION, 309.
ERATosTHENEs, of Cyrene, 9, 27, et seq. 265. et seq.
ERISMAE, anterides, to Éptiago, 188.
‘EPMHAONH, constellation, 281.
ERYTHRE, 100; Erythraean fields, 243.
'ExxAPA, basis of the balista, 331. 336.
EUCRATEs, the comic poet, 162.
EUDAEMON, the astrologer, 283.
EUDoxUs, 283. 287.
EUPHRANor, 196.
EUPHRATEs, 235.
EURIPIDEs, disciple of Anaxagoras, a dramatic philosopher, 227;
- his tomb, 244; extract from his Phäethon, 272.
EuroNotus, 27.
EURUs, 25.
EUSTYLos, 84.
BUTHEIA, 308.
Ev ANGELUs, 307.
INDEX, 385
Evapor ATION, 223.
ExEDRA, 155, 176, 185. 210. 219.
F.
FABERIUs, the scribe, 219.
FACE, of walls, 44. 56.
FACE-WALLs, 57.
FACINGs (crustae), 58; of marble, 210; facings cut from walls, 206.
FACTITIous colours, 224. -
FALERNIAN WINE, 242.
FALISGAN TERRITORY, ib.
FANo, 70. 127.
FASCIAE, 93, et seq.; in doors, 116.
FASTIGIA, in buildings, 94, 151, 104. 119; in pavements, 201.
FAUNUs, temples of, 81.
FELLING of timber, 65.
FEMALE Joint, 290.
FEMUR, in triglyphs, ungos, 109.
FENCE-work, 112.
FERENTIUM., 54.
FIBULA, 22.
FIDENATEs, stone quarries of the, 53.
FILLETs, 90.
FILLETs of lime, 113.
FILLING, of ditches, 336.
FILLING-IN, 58.
FIR, 66; infernas and Supermas, 71.
FIRE, discovery of, 37.
FITNEss, ordinatio, Táčig, 11.
FLAMINIAN CIRCUs, 120. 287.
FLINT-STONEs, quarries of, 53.
FLoor, 339.
FLoor ING, 199, 200. 127.
FLoors, 334.
FLORA, temples of, 12, 220.
g
386 INDEX,
FLowers, 102. 118. 211; see plate, 368; flowers of sulphur, 222,
FLUTEs, in columns, 88. 107. 112.99.
FLUTINGs, 110.
Fold ING-Doo Rs, 141. 116.
Foot, 78.
For E-ARM, the fourth part of the height of the body, 78.
For E-PIECE (antefixa), 326.
FoETUNA EQUESTRIs, temple of, 83; temples to the three Fortunes,
81.
ForUM, 126.
ForUM, of CESAR, 83.
Found ATION-wALL, in a harbour, 158.
Found ATIONs, 21.88, 187. 131, 247. 250. 252.
Four. Folds, doors of, 117.
FRAMEs, or margins of pannels, 208. 210.
FRAMING (coagmentatio), 68.
(commissura), ib.
(compactio), 338.
(contignatio), 66. 104.
FRANCE, 235.
FRIGIDARIUM, 155.
FULCRUM (hypomochlium), 308.
FUNDI, a town of Campania, 242.
FURNAcE, in baths, 152; mouth, ib. 221.
FUSSITIUs, the first of the Latins who wrote on architecture, 196.
FUSTERNA, upper part of the fir, 67.
G.
GALATIA, 224.
GALLERIES, 127, 145.
GANGEs, 235.
GATEs, 72. 180. 184, 152.
GAUL, 20. 38.
GEOMETRY, 4,
GERUSIA, 59.
INDEXe 387
GLADIATORs, shows of, 126.
GLAss, 225.
GNOMON, anizºpas, 26. 284.
GNoSUs, 19. 197.
GoLD, method of detecting silver in, 264.
GoNARCHE, a dial, 287.
GoRTYNA, 19.
GRANARIES, 179. 181.
GRAPPLING Hook, 334; machine, 335.
GRAvel, 231. 43.
GREEKs, buildings of the, 184 et seq.; winter apartments, 208;
theatres, 145 et seq.; their ancestors, 259; comic poets,
J25.
GUDGEoNs, 299. 305.
GUT-RoPEs, 6.
GUTTE, under triglyphs, their distribution, 109, 110.
GUTTER (alveus), in baths, 153.
GUTTER-PLATEs (deliquiae), 172.
Guy, 301.
GYMNASIUM, 155.
GYNEconITIs, 184.
HALF BRICKs, 44.
HALICARNASSUs, 59.
HAMAxopod Es, 338.
HAND-SPIKES, 6.
HANDLE (amsa), in machines, 309.
HARBours, structure of, 157.
HARMony, 134. 167. Häk: ; * *
HARPERs, citharoedi, 140.
HATCHET (ascia), for lime, 202.
HEALTH, temple of, 13.
HEALTHY SITUATIONs, choice of, 16.
HEAPs of STONES (aggeres), in harbours, 157.
388 INDEX.
HEAVY-Roof ED TEMPLEs, 84.
HEGESIAs, 248. -
HELEPolis, 342.
HELICEs (volutes), 103.
HELLAs, of Athens, the statuary, 76.
HELLEN, father of Dorus, 99.
HEMISPHERE, 287. 153.
HEMITRIGLYPH, 110.
HEPTABOLUs, lake, 236.
HERACLITUs, of Ephesus, anotewog, 42. 227.
HERCULEs, temples of, 12. 31, 58. 84.
HERMoGENEs, of Alabanda, an architect, 82.85. 107. 195.
HERodoTUs, 248.
HETRURIAN HARUSPICEs, 31.
HEXACHORD, hydraulic, 319.
HEXAGONS, in pavements, 200.
HEXASTYLE, 84; elevation of an hexastyle temple, with a systyle
intercolumniation, 356; hexastyle with eustyle intercolum-
niations, 358.
HIERAPOLIS, 241.
HIERo, 264.
HILLocks, 39.
HIMERA, river, 240.
HINGE-STYLEs, in doors, 116.
HIPPARCHUs, 283.
HIPPocRATEs, the physician, 8.
HIPPopotAMUs, 236.
HoMER, 194.
HoMEROMASTIx, ib.
HoMoToNA, 6.
HoNou R AND WIRTUE, temples of, 82, 197.
Hoops, iron, 325.
HoPPER, in water-mills, 314.
Hospit ALIA, in Grecian houses, 185; in theatres, 144.
HostILIUs, M. 20. -
Houſt–LINEs, projection of, 286.
INDEX. 889
/fºrce" . . . . . /
Hous E QF Romulus, 40.
HUMER1, of the pronaos, 118.
HYDRAULIc machines, 319.
HYMETTUs, mount, 58. - * ..."
HYPETHRos (vač;), 82; Hypaethral walks, 149. {12.—Plan of an
Hypaethral temple, 362. *...*.
HYPANIs, river, 215. 235. 242.
HYPATE, 136.
HYPER Bol/EoN, 136.
HYPERTHY RUM, 116.
HYPoGEA, under-ground apartments, 187.
HYPoMoCHLIUM, 308.
HYPoTRACHELION, 86.94, 108. 119.
ICHNEUMon, 236.
ICHNOGRAPHY, 11.
IcTINUs, architect, 195. 197.
IDEA, ièéal, 11.
IMPLUVIUM, court, 175.
INCERTUM OPUs, a method of building, 56; representation of 350.
INCLINATION, 188.
INCREASE, of days, 284.
INDEX (bulla), in dials, 290.
INDIA, 235.
INDIGo, 220.
INDUs, river, 235.
INLAID Dooms (cerostrata), 117. .
INTER columniATIONs, 83. 107.
INTERSCALMIA, in ships, 12.
INTERSECTION, wetox), 93.
* (decussatio), 26.
INTERTIGNIUM, space, 106.
IOLAUs, 244. -
390 ... INDEX,
f }. 3.54. -
| *
Ion, whence Ionians, 100. } o º § 1 - ? :
Ionic proportion, Ionic work,+04: 106; plate relative to, 364.
IRON cramps (ansae), 57. &
instruments, 202. 217. 346.
ISIs, temple of, 31.
ISMUc, town of 247.
IsopoMUM, work so called in walling, 57; representation of, 350.
ISTHMIAN games, 259.
ITALY, 51. 126, 140; commendation of, 168.
Ivy, 231.
JACK (choragium), 320.
Jorn ERs’ Work, 67. 112. 129. 171.
Joints, masculine and feminine, 290.
Joist (axis), 199.
Joppa, 241.
Joup NEYs, contrivance for measuring, 322.
JUBA, king, 247.
JULIAN colony, of Fano, 127.
basilica on the Aquiline, 127.
JULIUs, the god, temple of 83.
JUNo, temples of, 13. 31. 99.
JUPITER, temples of, 12. 31. 58. 81. 128. 196; altar of, 122; planet,
271. &
R.
KATAKEKATMENoi, hills, in Mysia, 51. Catakecaumenitan wine, 242.
KATHXornTEx, 146.
KEYs, in water-engines, 320.
KING-Post, 104. See plate, 366.
KITCHEN, in country-houses, 181, .
KPIOAOKH, 334,
KTKAIKH KINHxix, 296.
INDEXe 391.
RTKAn TH, 308.
krNOxotpa, 279.
LABor ATORY, 217. 220.
LACEDMEMON, 58.
LAconicum, in baths, 221. 153.
LAcoToMUs, line, 286.
LACUNAR, a dial, 287.
LACUNARIA, 107.
LADDER, for scaling walls, called #71330ga, 335.
LANDSCAPEs, on walls, 210.
LAODICEANs, fields of the, 243.
LARIGNUM, castle of, 70.
LATHs, crossing of, 63.
LAw, 7; Roman law on building, 62; law of the Ephesians, 293;
law of the Athenians, on the maintenance of parents by chil-
dren if instructed by them in the arts, 162.
LAYER, of rubbish, 199. -
LEAD, red, 215. 223; white, 223.
LEADING-RoPE, 300, 301.
LEBEDos, 100.
LELEGE, 60. 100.
LEMNos, 215.
LEoch AREs, the statuary, 59. 196.
LEoNIDEs, 196; his precepts on the symmetries, ib.
LEsBos, isle of 24, 242.
LEvEL, 26.
LEvel of water, 239. 143. 207.
LEVELLING, and the instruments used for that purpose, 250, 308.
LEveR, 308. 182; for pounding rubble, 200. 256.
LEVER (phalanx), 311.
LIBRARIES, 178; of Alexandria and Pergamos, 192.
LICHANos, in music, 136.
LICINIUS, the mathematician, 212.
392 INDEX.
LIME, 48. 199. 202. 207. 210.
LINEs, from the points of sight and distance, 195.
LINTEL-BEAMs, 174.
LIPARIs, a river of Cilicia, 241.
Aor EION, in theatres, 146.
Aorox 'oritikox, 9.
Loos E GRound, in foundations, 89, 199.
AOTTPON, cold bath, 155.
LovE-SICKNEss, 60.
LUCANIA, 243.
LUCRETIUS, 266.
LYDIA, 211. 242.
I.YNCESTIs, fountain of 244.
LYSIPPUs the statuary, 76.
M.
MACEDONIA, 33. 194, 223. 244.
MACHINERy, 294,
MACHINEs, 145. 296; of draught, 299. 301, 302; the polyspas.
ton, 303; Ctesiphon's contrivance, 305; principles of me-
chanics, 308; engines for raising water, 312. 314, 315; ma-
chines of Ctesibius, 317; for measuring a journey, 322. 328;
for war, 325. 340.
M.EoNIA, 242.
MAGI, 227.
MAGNESIA, 82, 195. 216, 247.
MALE-Joint, 290.
MAMERTINE wiNE, 242.
MANACUs, circle, 286.
MANUCLA, in the catapult, 326.
MARBLE, on the preparation of, for plastering, 214.
MARCELLUs, portico of 82.
MARIUs, trophy of, 197.
MARs, temples of, 12. 31.59; planet, 270.
MARSEILLEs, 39.44, 344. - -
INDEX.
93
MARSH-weeDs, 158.
MARTIAN aqueduct, 238.
MASINIss A, 247.
MATHEMATIcs, 80. 133. 165. 286.
MAURUSIA, Mauritania, 236.
Mausoleum; 60.195.
MAUsolus, 59, 60.
MAZACA, a town of Cappadocia, 241.
MECHANICs, 15. 287; principles of, 308.
MEDULLI, 245.
MELAMPUs, 196. 245.
MELAs, 60; river, 243.
MELITAN wine, 242.
MELITE, 100. -
MELo, the astrologer, 283.
MELos, isle of, 215.
MENESTHEs, 82.
MERCURY, temples of, 31, 59; planet, 270.
MERoe, 236.
MHPox (femur), in triglyphs, 109.
MESAULE, 185.
MESE, in music, 136.
METAGENES, son of Ctesiphon, 194, 197. 305.
METAL-Foun DER, 54.
METELLUs, portico of 82.
METoxH, 93.
METoPAE, 106, 169, 110. *
METRoDoRUs, 248.
MILETUs, 100. 197.
MILL, 182.
MILLSTONE, 314.
MILo, of Crotona, 260.
MINE (in sieges), 344; mines of metals, 215.
MINERVA, temples of, 8, 12. 31. 120, 195; promontory, 157.
MIRROR, 205.
MIssiLEs, 344, 345.
394 INDEX,
MITHRIDATIc war, 148.
MoDULATION, 149; in music, 136.
MoDULE, 11. 108. 149. } -
MONAAEx, 79.
MonoPTERAL temples, 119, 195. See Plate, 368.
MonotRIGLYPH, 110.
MonumENTs, 54.59.
Moon, temples of the, 12. 140.
MoRTICE (carchesium), 326.
MoRTISED beams, 336.
MUMMIUs, L. the overthrower of Corinth, 140.
MURENA, aedileship of 59.
MUSICAL proportion (canonica ratio), 133. 6.
MUTIUs, C. architect, 82. 197.
MUTULI, 186.
MUTULUs, 99. 104. 107. 118.
MYAGRUs, the Phocaean statuary, 76.
MYLASA, town of, 59.
MYRoN, sculptor, 8.76.
MYTILENE, town of, 24.
MYUs, 100.
NAILs, bossed, 206.
NAox, Év Tagaatáal, 81.
NARRow PAss, 27.
NATIONs, southern, weak, but acute; northern, strong, but obtuse,
168, et seq.
NAVEs, of wheels, 322. 336.
NAVES, or hamaxopodes, 338.
NEMAEAN games, 259.
NEPTUNUs PANIONIUs, temple of, 100.
NETE, in music, 136.
NEXARIs, 196; his precepts on the symmetries, ib,
NICHOMACHUs, painter, 76. --
NIGER, river, 236.
INDEX. 395
NILE, 35. 114; source of 236.
NoNACRIAN region, in Arcadia, 244.
NUMISIUs, P. architect, 2.
NYMPIIoDoRUs, 196.
OAKEN piles, 157.
'OxPA, 215.
Oct AGONAL tower, 25.
Oct Ast YLos, 82. 84.
Octochor D, in hydraulics, 319.
OCTOGENARIAE, pipes, 253.
ODEUM, 148. -
OEC1, halls, 176; Grecian, 177. 185.
OECI CyziceNI, 177.
OECUs, in Grecian houses, 184.
'OIA=, a tiller, 309.
OIL-CELLAR, 181.
OLIVE-wooD, charred, advantage of, in walls, 22.
OLYMPIC games, 259.
OLYMPIus Jupiter, 82. 197. 5
'OIIAI, beds of beams, 106. -
OPENINGs, for air, 205; or mouths of channels, 207, 315; of a
furnace, 221.
OPTICs, 4.
ORACLEs, on Socrates, 75; on colonies of the Greeks to be settled
in Asia, 100.
ORCHESTRA, 141. 143.
ORDERs, of architecture, 88.99. 107.118; representation of 364.
368.
ORNAMENTs, of columns, 104. 191; of epistylia, 126, 143; of
doors, 115.
ORPIMENT, 215.
ORSEIs, NYMPH, mother of Dorus, 100.
ORTHog RAPHY, 11.
396 INDEX.
or rrez, tortoises, 338.
OstruM, purple, 224.
Ov.ALs, in pavement, 200.
Over HANGING, 158. 188.
PACEs, one thousand, 323.
PADDLEs, in water-mills, 314.
P.EoNIUs, of Ephesus, architect, 197. 306.
PAINTERs, celebrated, 76.
PAINTING in buildings, on the use of, 2142
PAINTING Rooms, 178.
PALESTRA, 155. 180.
PALLIENSEs, stone-quarries of the, 53, et seq.
PALM, 44. 79.
PANIonius NEPTUNUs, temple of 100.
PAPHLAGONIA, fountain of 245.
PARAETONIUM, a town of Egypt, 240.
PARALLELs, in catapults, 325.—Parallel-line, 141. 286.
PARAMESE, in music, 136.
PARANETE, in music, ib.
PARAPET, 127. 152. 144, 334.
IIAPAXTAx, in temples, 184; in the catapult, 325.
PARASTATAE, 325. 128.
PARHYPATE, in music, 136.
PARMENIo, 287.
PARos, 307.
PASSAGE (xystus), of theatres, 150. 156.
PASSAGEs (fauces), to courts, 175.
PATRocLEs, 287.
PAUSANIAs, 5.
PAvement, 199. 207.
PEAKED, tiles, 200.
PEARLs, soluble in acids, 245.
PEDESTAL, 143.
* }
§ to 6
- k
INDEX. 397
PELECINoN, a dial, 287.
PELOPoNNESUs, 4.99.
PENTADORON, 44; a kind of brick; of five palms; representation
of, 350.
IIENTAMoIPOx, 80.
PENTASPASTos, block of five pulleys, 301.
PENTELICUs, mount, 58. -
PENTHous E, 338.
PEPHASMENUs, a Tyrian artificer, 333.
PER GAMUs, 192.
IIEPIAKTOI, 144.
PERICLEs, odeum of, 148.
IIEPIAPOMIAEx, 186; Xysti, 156.
IIEPIHXornTEx, 146.
PERIMETRos, 141.
PERIPTERos, 81. 119.-Plan of a peripteral temple, 358. 368.
PERISTYLIUM, 184. 155; Doric, 175; Rhodian, 184; in private
houses, 175.
IIEPITPHTox, sight-hole in the balista, 329, 12.
IIEPITPOxox, 302.
PERPENDICULAR, 94. 250. 57. 274.
PERPENDICULAR-LINE, in dialling, 284.
PERSIAN, portico, 5.
PERSPECTIVE, 195.
PESARo, 70.
PHARAx, of Ephesus, a statuary, 76.
PHASIs, 235.
PHELLos, in a dial, 290.
PHIDIAs, the statuary, 76.
PHILEos, 195.
PHILIP, son of Amyntas, 333.
PHILIP, the astrologer, 283.
PHILO of Byzantium, 196, et seq.
PHILOLAUs of Tarentum, 9.
PHILUs, 197.
PHoc.EA, 100.
398 INDEx.
PHRYGIA, 242.
PHRYGIANs, 39.
ºpeorror, 135. 137.
PHYRos, 196.
PHYSICIANs, 19.
PHYSICs, 41.
ºpºrxIOAOTIA, 6.
PHYTEUs, 195.
PIACENZA, 268.
PICENUM, 53.
PICTUREs, cut from walls, 58, 59.
PICTUREs, large, 208. 210.
PIERs, in buildings, 188. 152, et seq. 126, 155
PIERs, in harbours, 158.
PILE, driving, 88. 301.
PILING, 68.
PILLARs, for marking time, 289.
PILLow, in a capital, 90; in the catapult, 326.
PILLow ED (Ionic) capital, 90. 103.13.
PIN (fibula), 299. 301. 317.
PINAcot HECA, 176. 13.
IIINAE, 320.
PINNA, 239.
PINNING, of beams, 301.
PIPEs (fistulae), in hydraulics, 238. 252, 172, 317.
PIPEs (tubuli), 238. 253.
PIRAEUs, harbour, 195. 240.
PISISTRATUs, 196.
PISTON-Rods (ancomes), 320.
PIsTons, 317.
PITANE, a city of Asia, 44.
PIvors (chodaces), 305.
PIxoDAURUs, called Evangelus for having discovered a quarry of
marble, 307. * -
PLACEs, salubrious, choice of 16; places for the common use of a
city, 31.
INDEX. - 399
PLAN of a city, should be polygonal, 21.
PIANETs, 268. º
PLANKING, 337. - ****
PLASTER-work, 46. 156. 256, et seq.
PLASTERING (tectorium opus), 43. 59. 153. 212; preparation of
marble for, 214.
PLASTERING (albarium opus), 130. 153.
PLATO, 79. 192. 260, et seq.
PLEURITIDEs, rules in hydraulics, 320.
PLINTHIUM, a dial, 287. -
PLINTHs, 56.83. 88; in the column, 89, 108.84, 90. 118.
PNEUMATIC machine, 296.
PNEUMATIcos, 296.-Pneumatics, 287.
Po, river, 69, 70. 236.
Podium, in a theatre, 143; around a temple, 89. 208.
Pole, poles in a gnomon, 268. -
Poles, 166. 291.
Polish ING, of pavements, 200. •
Polish ING, of plastering, 202. 205. 207. 215. 219.
Pollis, 196; his precepts on symmetry, ib,
PolycIEs of Adramyttium, the painter, 76.
PolycLETUs, the sculptor, ib.
PolyGo NAL towers, 21.
PolyIDUs, 196; of Thessaly, temp. Philip of Macedon, 333.
Polyspaston, a machine, 304.
PoWTINE marshes, 20.
PoWTUs, 38. 165. 215. 224, 235. 242.
Pores, 231. 256.
PoſtINUs, an Athenian architect, 196.
|PortABLE dials, 287.
Port ER's rooms, 184.
PoRTIco, of Eumenes, 148; of Pompey, ib.; double portico, 155;
portico on three sides, 184; portico behind the scenes, 148;
in baths, 155. 157.
Portug AL, 38.
PosLDoNIUs, 248.
400 INDEX.
IIoxoTHz, dimension, 11. T-
PostIcuM, rear of the temple, 8]. 88. 90.
Posts, 187. º,
Pot HEREUs, 19.
PotsHERDs, coat of, 207.
PozzoLANA, 50, et seq. .
PRECINCTIONEs, passages, in theatres, 131.
PRAxITELEs, 196.
PREss, 182. 311.
PREss-Roomſ, 181.
PREssur E, in mechanics, 309.
PRIENE, a city of Asia, 8, 100. 195.
PRINCIPLEs, growsia, to be considered in the choice of situations,
17. 42.
PRIson, on the, 130.
PROETUs, daughters of, 245.
PRocon NESIAN marble, 59. 307.
PROJECTION, 89. 63; in machines, 346; of roofs, 104.
PROJECTIONs (crepidines), 84. 115. 157.
PROJECTURE, 116.
PROMONToRIES, 157.
PRoMonToAY, of Minerva, ib.
PRONAos, 78.90. 107. 112. 118. 126.
PROPIGNEUM, 155.
PRoPortion, 15. 78. 164. . .
PRoPortionAL instrument, of Eratosthemes, 266.
PROPs, 296.
PRosceniuM, 141.
PRosERPINE, temple of, 12. 197.
PRosLAMBANOMENos, in music, 135.
PRosPANCLIMA, 760; Tāv kaiaa., a dial, 287.
PRosTAHIStortoum ENA, 790; t& igrogotaeva, a dial, 287.
IIPOXTAx, 184.
PRosTYLos, 81.
PROTHYRIDEs (trusses), 116.
PROTHY RUM, 186.
INDEX, 401
PROTYRAN wine, 242.
PSEUDIsodom UM, work so called in walling, 57; representation of,
350.
PSEUDoDIPTE Ros, 81. 85.
PSEUDoPERIPTERAL temple, 120; plans of, 356. 360,
PTEREGoMA (wing), 330.
PTERoma, Trégoſzcz, 85. 112. 120.
PToI.EMY, king, 192, 194.
PULLEY, 287, passim, 299. 302, 303. 308.
PULPITUM, Aoysiov, in a theatre, 141, 146.
PUMICE-STONE, Pompeian, 50.
PURLINEs (templa), 104. See Plate, 366.
PURPLE, 224; colours, how prepared, 225.
PUZZUol.1, 222,
Pycnosty Los, 85, et seq.; represented, 362.
PYTHAGoRAs, of Samos, 124. 228. 260. 262. 283. 316.
PYTHAGoREANs, discipline of the, 42.
PYTHIAN games, 259.
PyTHIUs, of Prieme, architect, 8, et seq., 107.
Q.
QUADRAGENARIA, pipes, 253.
QUADRANT, 91. 105.
QUARTILE, 9.
QUICKSILVER, 217.
QUINARIA, pipes of five digits, 253.
QUINQUAGENARIA, pipes, ib.
QUIRINUs, temple of, 82. 220.
QUIvER, a dial, 287.
R.
RAFTERs (cantherii), 104. 128. See Plate, 366.
RAFTERs (asseres), 104. See Plate, 366.
RAILs in doors, 116. *
402 * INDEX.
RAIN water, 234. . (. . . " ºn 5 o
RAMMER, for loose earth, 199. 208.
RAMPARTs, construction of, 23.
RAvRNNA, 20. 68. 70.
RECEPTAcLE of waters, 253.
RECEss of a wall, 118.
RECEssion of objects in painting, 195.
RECHAMUs, 299.
RED lead, 215. 223.
REEDs, indicate water, 231; Grecian reeds, 203.
REFLECTION from polished walls, 205.
RESERVoIR, 253. 290. 317.
REsoNANT places, 146.
RETICULATED work, in walling, 56; represented, 350,
REveRBERATION, 133.
RHINE, 235.
RHoDEs, 61. 161. 224, 284, 341.
RHODIAN portico, 184.
RHoDIANs, 223. 341, et seq.; their flect, 61.
RHoNE, 235.
RIBs (asseres), 203.
RIDGE-PIECE, columen, 104.
RIGHT angled triangle, 256; method of constructing, 262.
RIGHT line, 4.
RIVERs, the greatest, flow from the north, 235.
RoADS leading to gates, 21.
Rod, iron, (arcus ferreus), 153.
Ro1.LER, or cylinder, 306. 334.
RoME, praise of, 62, ct seq., 168.
Romulus, house of, 40.
Roofs, 104. 118; parts of a roof, represented in section and eleva-
tion, 366.
Rooms, 202. 205. 207. 176. 182.
RoPEs, in machines of draught, 301.
RULE, 108; by rule and square, 204.
RULEs, in hydraulics, 320.
INDEX, 403
SAGGING, 187.
SALAPIA, town of 20.
SALMACIS, fountain of, 59.
xAMBTKH, 166. 343.
SAMos, 100. 195.
SAND, 46. 48. 85. 203; strong, common, and red, 231 ; counter-
poise of, 290. 264.
SAND-CoAT, in stucco, 204.
SAND-PIT, 46. 50.
SAND-ston E, 50. 53.
SAPINEA, 47.
SARDIANs, 59.
SARNAcus, 196.
SATURN, planet, 271.
SATYRUs, 195.
SAwING into four quarters, 67,
ScALE, 261. 267.
SCALE-BEAM, 309.
ScALING machine, 334.
ScAMILLI (impares), 89. 149.
ScANson 1A, 296.
ScAPHE, a dial, 287.
ScARLET-DYE, 224.
ScLNE. See THEATRE.
ScFNE painting, 145.
ScLNog RAPHY, 11.
SchEMATA, 28.
ScHol.A, in a bath, 153.
ScoPAs, 196. 287.
Scorpion, a machine, 325, 296. 308. 6, 22.
Scot1A, in columns, 90. 110.
Screw (cochlea), 180.
ScREW-PREss, 182.
404 INDEX,
Screw-PUMP (cochlea), 159.
Sculpture, 8.88; of the cymatium, 115.
Scutul.A, sight-hole, 329.
SEA, superior and inferior, 72.
altar of the, 122.
SEAsoNs, changes of the, 283.
SEMICANALICULI in triglyphs, 109,
SEMICIRCULAR dial, 287.
SEMICYLINDER, 266.
SEMIRAMIs, 241.
SEMIMEToP.E, 109.
SEMITONE, 135.
SEPTENTRIo, 25.
SEPTIMIUs, P. 196.
SERAPIs, temple of, 31.
SEsquTALTERUM, 80.
SESTERTIUM, 80.
SETTLING of timber, 199.
SEwAGE, 7. 150.
SEwBRs, 150.
SHAFT, of a column, 83; of the climacis in the balista, 330; in
staircases, 262; of the water-screw, 316.
SHAFTs (scapi), in machines, 305.
SHEEPCOTEs, 182.
SHIELD (clypeus), in the Laconicum, 154.
SICILICUs, 326. 331.
SICILY, 240. 242.
SIDE-PIECEs, 337.
SIDE-Posts (parastatae), 325.
> SIGHT-Hole, in the balista, 329. *… 4:... v., v. f. 2 * *
SIGNs, of the zodiac, Sun's course through, 276.
SILANION, 196.
SILENUs, 195.
SILVER, method of detecting, when mixed with gold, 264.
SILVER-MINEs of Athens, 215.
SIM.E (epitithides), in the coronae, 94.
INDEX. 405
SINGING birds, in hydraulics, 307.
SINKINGs, in the soffit of the corona, 110.
SINoPE, 215.
SIX, deemed a perfect number, 80.
x KIAQHPAX, 26, 284.
SLABS, in pavement, 200.
SMYRNA, 194, 215; city of, 100. 148.
SocKET-PIECEs, chelonia, 299.
SocEATEs, 75. 77. 192.
SoFFIT, of the corona, 110.
SoLoR, a town of Sicily, 241.
SoRACTE, stone quarries of, 53.
Sound work (catenatio), 68.
SPACE between two veins of earth, or timber, &c. 51, 54. 70.
SPAIN, 38. 165. 215. 220.
SPARTA, 58.
SPECTACULA, in theatres, the places for the beholders, 141. 131.
SPHEROIDAL surface, 251.
SPRINGs, 240; supply of water from, 252.
SPUR, 331.
SQUARE (ancomes normae), prothyrides, 261; stone, 56. 112. 53;
rule and square, 204; method of doubling the area of the
square, 261.
SQUARE, quadratum, 107.
STADIA, covered, 156.
STAIRCASEs, in a theatre, 141; method of setting out the steps, 262.
STALKs (caulicoli), in capitals, 102. 211.
STALKs, of plants, represented on walls, 211.
STAND-PIPEs (columnaria), in aqueducts, 254,
STARs, rising and setting of, 283,
STATONIA, prefecture of, 54.
STATUAR1Es, distinguished, 76.
STEELYARD (statera), 309, 333.
STEPs, 89. 131; lower, of staircases, 263.
STEREOBATA, stylobata, 88.
STocks, brazen, 332.
406 INDEX.
xToixEIA, 17.
Stone-quaRRIEs, 53; discovered at Ephesus, 307.
STOPPLEs, 290. 319.
STORE-Rooms, apothecae, 179.
STRATEGEUM, 148.
STRAw, its use, 43. 337.
STREETs, 24.
STRENGTH, in building, whence arising, 15.
STRING, 203.
XTPIs, of the catapult, 325.
STRUTs (capreoli), 104. 129. See Plate, 366.
STUcco, 202, 203. 206, 207. 214, 221.
STYLoBATA, 88. See Plate, 368.
STYx, water of 244.
SUDATORIES, in baths, 153. 51.
SUMMER-Rooms, 204. 210. *. - -
SUN, temple of the, 12; course of the sun through the twelve signs,
276.
SUNIUM, 120.
SUNK, in the centre (alveolatus), 89.
SUSA, 246. -
SweLLING, in the middle of columns (entasis), 87.89. 149.
SYENE, 236. {..~.”
SYMMETRY, 11, 15. 78. 164, 81. 170. . . .
XTMºon1A1, consonances, 136. y
xtNHXornTEX, consonant places, 146.
SYRAcus E, 264.
SyFIA, 69.235. 241. 243.
SYSTYLos, 83, 85.
TABLE, in the balista, 330.
TABLINUM, 174.
TACNIA, in the epistylium, 108.
TANAIs; 235.
TARCHESIUs, architect, 107.
INDEX, 407
TARENTUM, 284.
TARSUs, a city of Cilicia, 240.247.
TARQUINIANs, 54.
TA=12, fitness, 11.
TEETH, of the saw, 26; of sheers, 299; of the wall, 188; of the
drum-wheel, 314; denticuli, 288.
TELAMONEs, 186.
TEAEIox, 79.
TEMPERING of lime, 202.
TEMPLEs, 99, et seq. 115. 118, 8; of Apollo, 31.82; at Miletus,
197; of Diana, 83; of Æsculapius, 13; of Augustus, 128;
of Castor, in the Circus Flaminius, 120; of Ceres, 32.84;
of Proserpina at Eleusis, 197; of Coelus, 12; of Diana, 13.
101; of Diana Aricina, 120; of Ephesus, 82. 195. 197. 305.
307; of Magnesia, 82; of Faunus, 81; of Flora, 12. 220;
of Fortune, 81 ; of Fortuna Equestris, 83; of Hercules, 12.
31. 58. 84; of Honour and Virtue, 82. 197; of Jupiter, 12.
31. 56.81. 128; Capitolinus, 84; Tonans, 12; Olympius at
Athens, 82. 196, et seq.; Stator, 82; in the island of the
Tiber, 81; of Isis and Serapis, 31; of the god Julius, 83;
of Juno, 13. 31; at Argos, 99; at Samos, 195; of Bacchus,
13. 31. 107. 148; Teos, 80. 195; of the Moon, 12. 140; of
Mars, 12. 31 ; of Mercury, 31; of Minerva, 13. 31; at
Athens, 120. 195; Prieme, 8, 195; Sunium, 120; of Nep-
tume Panionius, 100; of the Nymphs of the Fountains, 12;
of Proserpime, 12; of Quirinus, 82; of Health, 13; of Se-
rapis, 31; of the Sun, 12; Vejovis between two Groves, 120;
of Venus, 12.31; in the forum of Caesar, 83; of Vulcan, 31;
sacred to different gods, 12. 31, et seq.; five species of, 83, et
seq. 122; on their design and symmetry, 78; their different
aspects, 114; the proportions of their doors, 115; plans of,
354. 356. 358. 360. 362.
TEN (decussis), 80.
TEN inches (dextans), 89.
TENoNs, 336.
TEos, 84, 100. 195.
408 INDEX,
TEPID water, in baths, 152.
TEREBRA, 335.
TERRACINA, 242, et seq.
TEssERA, in pavement, 200.
TESTUDINATUM cavaedium, 172.
TETRAcHoRD, in music, 136; in hydraulics, 319.
TETRADoRoN, four palms, 44; representation of, 354.
TETRASTYLos, 172, 176; tetrastylum cavedium, 172; elevation
of a diastyle tetrastylos temple, 354.
THALAMUs, 184.
THALEs, the Milesian, 42. 192. 227. 283.
THAsos, 307.
THEANUM, 244.
THEATRE, 131; vases used in, 138; its shape, 141; of its por-
tico and other parts, 143; of the three sorts of scenes, and -
of the theatres of the Greeks, 145; of the porticos and pas-
sages behind the scenes, 148.
THE BAIs, Plains of, 236.
OEMATHXMox. See CIRCUMSTANCE.
THEocydes, 196.
THEoDoRUs, the Phocaean, 195.
THEoDosius, 287.
THEoDoTUs, 215.
THEoPHRASTUs, 162. 248.
THESSALY, 244.
THOLUs, dome, 211. See Plate, 368.
THowLs, in ships, 310.
THRAcE, 244. -
THREE-BRICK wall, triplinthius paries, 62.
THREE FoRTUNEs, 81.
THUNDER BOLTs, in sculpture, 109.
erpopeion, 184.
TIBER, river, 236.
island of the, 81. 236.
TIBURTINE tiles, 200.
TIBURTINE-WAY, 238; stone quarries, 53.
INDEXe 4.09
TIE-BEAM, 104. 128. See Plate, 366.
TIES (catenae), 203.
of charred olive wood, 21.
TIGRIs, 235.
TILEs, 207. 63.95; Tiburtime, 200.
two feet square, 201,
with returning edges, 207.
TILLER, olaš, 309.
TIMEUs, 248.
TIMAvus, 236. - -
TIMBER, 65; fir, 72; in what buildings to be sparingly used,
159; framed work, 104; settling of timber, 199; what
kinds of wood bend or sag, 68, et seq., 187.
partitions, 206.
TIMOTHEUs, statuary, 59, 196.
ToNGUED-TUBEs, 254.
ToRToISE, for filling ditches, 336; other kinds of tortoises, 338.
335.
ToRUs, in columns, 90. - . . . . cº-º- º ºvv^*&
ToweR, 21. 24, 65. * * * * * * - -
Town-houses, 180.
TRALLEs, 58. 148, 195. 211.
TRANSTRUM, 104. See Plate, 366.
TRANsvers E PIECEs, 326.
TRAVERSE, 39.
TREADs, of steps, 89.
TREASURY, where to be situated, 129, 130.
TRIANGLE, right angled, of Pythagoras, 262. 316.
TRIBUNAL, in temples, 118, 128; in theatres, 144.
TRICENARIA, pipes, 253.
TRICLINIUM, 176, 177, 178. 184.
TRIENs, 80. - -
TRIGLYPH, 107. 105.13.
TRIMMERs (interpensiva), in Tuscan cavaedia, 172.
TRINE, 9.
TRIsPAstos, block of three pulleys, 301.
410 - INDEX,
TRITE, in music, 136.
TRochILUs, axotia, 90.
TRojaN plains, 243; Trojan battles, 210.
TRoj ANs, 243.
TRow EL, 204.
TRoy, 20, 191. 243.
TRUMPET, in the machine of Ctesibius, 317.
TRUNK, of a column, 89; in stylobata, 101.
TRUsses (prothyrides), 116.
TRYPHo, of Alexandria, architect of the Apollonians, 244.
TUANA, 241.
TUNNELs, for water-conduits, 252. -
TURNINGs, 132; in theatres, 142. 144; in aqueducts, 249; in
harbours, 157. //7
TuscAN proportions of temples, 118, et seq. See Plates, 366.
368. Tuscan cavaedium, 172,
TuscANY, 51, et seq., 72.
TYMPANUM, 94, 290. 312, 314.
TYRE, 333.
TYRRHENE sea, 72.
U.
ºr AAox, 225.
ULYssEs, wanderings of, 210.
UMBRIA, 53. .
UNBURNT bricks, walls of, 62.
UNIFoRMITY, in architecture, 12.
UNION, 200.
UNIVERSE AND PLANETs, 268.
“rn EPBOAAION, 136. r
UPPER layer, in pavements, 200.
UPRIGHT joints (orthostatae), 57. 335.
UPRIGHTs (arrectarii), 206. 333, 339.
UTICENSEs, 44.
UTILITY, in building, whence arising, 15,
INDEX. 411
V.
VACCINIUM, purple colour prepared from, 225.
WALVEs (cymbala), 319.
(axes), 317.
WARRo, Ter., 59. 196. 266.
VASEs, used in the theatre, 138.
VAULT, 128; 129. ^ -
VAULTED roofs, of towers, 39. *
Vaulted temple, 120, 195. 211. ' ' ' ' ' ..., , , , …,
VAULTING (concamératio), 46.153, 187. 42.9% A *
WAULTs (cryptae), 179.
VEJovis, temples of 120. ... t-z ‘’
VELINUs, 244.
VENICE, 53.
VENTER, xoixia, in aqueducts, 254.
VENUs, temples of, 12. 31.59; planet, 270.
VERMILION, 217; preparation, 219.
VEssEL, Corinthian, 249 ; brazen vessels in theatres, 138.
WESTA, altar of, 122.
WESTIBULE, 179, 184. 197.
VESTORIUs taught the preparation of a blue colour at Puteoli, 217.
VESUv1Us, Mount, 50.
VICENARIAE, pipes, 253.
VILLA, 181.
VIRTUE AND HoNour, temples of, 82. 197,
VolscINIAN LAKE, 54.
VoluTEs, 92.99. 103. 105,
WULCAN, temple of, 31.
W.
WAGGON, 298.
WALLs, 21.
WALLs (incumbae), 188.
412 INDEX,
WALLs (maenia), 81, 35,247. -
WALLs (parietes), 56. 199. 203. 88. 21. 181. 3; brick, 56; middle
(medii), 130; of burnt brick, 62–Different sorts of brick
and stone walling, represented, 350. 230. 252.
WATER, on the method of finding, 230.-On rain-water, 234.—On
- hot springs, and on the nature of various fountains, rivers
and lakes, 238—On qualities of waters in certain places, 247.
—On the means of judging of water, 249.-On levelling, and
on instruments for that purpose, 250.—On the conducting of
water, 252.—Water reverenced by Egyptian priests, 229.
WATER-DIALs, for winter, 289.
WATER-ENGINEs, 319.
WATER-MILLs, 314.
WATER-screw, 315. 311.
WATTLED walls, 63.
WEDGES, with concentric joints, 187—Use of wedges, 332.
WEEv1L, 182.
WELLs, on the digging of, 255.
WHITE-LEAD, 225.
WIND-CHEST, 320.
WINDLAss, 6.
WINDows, 105. 177.
WINDs, 26; diagram of 350.
WINE-CELLAR, 181.
WINEs, various kinds of 242.
WINGs. See Aisles.
WINTER-Rooms, 208.
WITHY (vitex), 67.
WonDERs, of the world, 196.
WooDEN pins, 203.
WoRK (buildings), kinds of, 57; in plaster, 152; stucco, 202, 203.
207. 214; in sand, 11; foundations, 88; ornamental, 207.
214; carpenters', 104; plasterers, 152; joiners, 104. 112.
130, 172. 184.65; marble, 203; plaster, 203. 152. 214.56;
reticulatum, 56; signinum, 46. 155. 252; decorative, 145.
WoRSHIPPERs, in temples, face the east, 114.
INDEX, 413
WRESTLERs, 259. 266.
X.
XANTHUs, 242, et seq.
XENOPHANES, Colophonius, 192.283.
XUTHUs, 100.
XYSTUs, £varès, 156, 184.
Y.
YELLow, method of making burnt yellow, 222.
YokE, 311.
ZAcynthus, 241.
ZAMA, town of, 247.
ZENo, 192.
ZoDIAc, 2.76.
Zoilus, the Macedoniam, called Homeromastix, 194, et seq.
ZoPHoRus, or frieze, 93.99.
THE END.
G. Woodſall, Angel Court, Skimmer Street, London.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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