B 398969 ARTES 1837 SCIENTIA VERITAS LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN RANA TCEBOR SI QUÆRIS PENINSULAM·AMⱭNAM CIRCUMSPICE GNEN: UBRAKY TX. 531 W676 1917 FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION WILEY From "Science," New York: Seldom has a more timely book appeared than this, follow- ing so closely as it does the beginning of the enforcement of the new national pure-food law. For some time prior to the pas- sage of this law public interest throughout the country had become vitally awakened to the importance of the pure-food issue. Amid a large mass of confusing and often exaggerated newspaper articles dealing with the subject, it is a comfort to find a book covering the field so completely, so sanely and withal in so interesting a way. While the manual, by the author's statement, is not especially designed for the expert chemist, and chemical terms are carefully explained for the benefit of the public, yet the food analyst will need the book on his shelves for reference. From the chemist's standpoint, the many tables and results showing the composition of the various food products are especially useful for comparison. In many cases also are given some of the latter and more improved tests for adulteration, which in some instances have not hitherto been so readily available. The book treats systematically and quite exhaustively of all the principal food products, dealing in turn with their manu- facture, properties and composition, forms of adulteration and dietetic value, and including much information of a general nature concerning them. Beginning with the animal foods, it thus covers meats and the various meat preparations, fish, milk and its products and oleomargarine. Then follow the vegetable foods, cereals, vegetables proper, condiments, fruits, sugar, syrup, confectionery, honey, and finally infants' and invalids' foods. * * Though destined for a wide variety of readers, the book is apparently designed first of all for the benefit of the public, at a time when the public wants particularly to know about its food; and written as it is from a strictly scientific standpoint, yet in a popular way, by one who from long experience knows so thoroughly his subject, it will be widely read and to great advantage by the people as consumers. Not only does the author cover the ground directly sug- gested by the title, but in a general and useful way gives throughout much information about food values and the use of food for bodily nourishment. The colored plates illustrating the appearance of cuts of healthy beef, for example, will be found especially helpful to the householder. To the food manufacturer and dealer the book is almost indispensable, since it describes very plainly the methods of preparation and standards of purity, the effects of storage, and, in addition, gives much good and sound advice regarding what might be termed controversial forms of adulteration, such as chemical preservatives and artificial coloring, called controversial because their use with restricted labels has to some extent been legalized under some of the state laws, and because they have for years formed the subject of much differ- ence of opinion among experts in food litigation. * FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION ORIGIN, MANUFACTURE, AND COMPOSITION OF FOOD PRODUCTS; INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS; DETECTION OF COMMON ADULTERATIONS BY HARVEY W. WILEY, M.D., PH.D. WITH ELEVEN COLORED PLATES AND EIGHTY-SEVEN OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS Third Edition PHILADELPHIA P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO. 1012 WALNUT STREET COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY P. BLAKISTON'S SON & Co. PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. In presenting the Third Edition of Foods and Their Adulteration the author desires to express his satisfaction that the book has had so large and so continuous a sale. It is, therefore, important that the whole body of the book be brought up to date to include the many new food products which have been introduced since the First and Second Editions were published. Also important principles in the use of foods have been dis- covered since the book first went to press, and these should also be in- corporated. The re-writing of the book to include all the new articles of diet is necessarily postponed for the present. The Third Edition, there- fore, will contain simply the new matters relating to the new principles that have been discovered in the use of foods. These are important dis- coveries both in relation to food economy and, especially, in relation to health and vigor. The original standards, established by authority of Congress in the Department of Agriculture, have been very greatly changed during the last five years, so that the condition of the standards is now somewhat chaotic. Until some order and arrangement be introduced into the standards, so that they may be regarded as practically per- manent, it has been thought best to omit the original standards and not to try to incorporate the new ones until they have been completed and established. Little or no benefit has come from the making over of the standards. It has been, in the opinion of the author, a work of super- errogation, the changes not being worth the trouble and labor which they have required. Also the propriety of replacing standards specific- ally authorized by Congress by new ones not specifically authorized is a matter of considerable legal importance. For these reasons the space occupied by these standards in previous editions has been given to more important subjects. WASHINGTON, D. C. HARVEY W. WILEY V PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The text of the body of this work has been carefully revised and the statistical matter brought up to date. Many of the paragraphs have been entirely re-written, but in general the text and the sequence of the articles remain as in the first edition. Two new parts of importance have been added to the volume, taking the place of the regulations for inspection and the rules and regulations for the enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act, which are now of such wide distribution as to need no place in this work. The space so saved by the exclusion of these appendices has been given to an expansion of the article on infants' and invalids' foods and to a new part devoted to simple tests for ordinary adulterations which may be prac- ticed with some degree of success in the household. In the section devoted to infants' and invalids' foods an attempt has been made to describe in a practical way the preparation and care of foods of this class, accentuating meanwhile the supreme importance of the natural supply of milk for infants under the age of one year, or where this is denied the substitution of wholesome, fresh cow's milk, modified to resemble, as nearly as possible, the natural sustenance of the infant. The composition of some of the principal substitutes for the natural foods of infants has been given with a note of warning as to the danger of the employment of even the best of these foods to the exclusion of nature's natural food supply. This article has been written with no spirit of antagonism towards the prepared foods for infants, but only to bring promptly before the mind of the lay reader, as pointedly as possible, the supreme importance of using the natural food even when an artificial preparation resembles it as nearly as can be. The article on invalids' foods has been written in the light of recent medical studies, which show that wholesome food is not only the best prophylactic but also in many cases, especially of chronic diseases, the best remedy at the service of the physician. Proper nutrition is extremely effective in preventing some forms of disease, and proper feeding, based on scientific principles, the most effective remedy. In the treatment of this subject care has been taken to avoid the danger into which so many writers fall of uttering dicta regarding nutrition which A vii viii PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. are founded rather on misinformation than on the solid basis of truth. While the science of scientific feeding, as a remedy of disease, is still in its infancy it is hoped that the present contribution may do much to enlighten the mind of the lay public on a question of such great importance as the treatment of disease in the home. With the household tests for simple adulterations an intelligent house- wife with a little practice may be able to inform herself of the most com- monly occurring adulterations. Especially is this true if there be supplied, at the same time, a series of samples of the genuine products which may be submitted to the proposed tests. In this case the difference in reaction obtained between the genuine and adulterated articles becomes the more evident. All the appendices have been removed from the revised edition saving the standards of purity of food products adopted by the Secretary of Agri- culture, in harmony with the provisions made by Congress. HARVEY W. WILEY. WASHINGTON, D. C. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION. Proper Ration, 3; Social Function of Food, 5; Definition and Composition of Foods, 6; Classification of Foods, 7; Explanation of Chemical Terms, 8. PART I.-MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS.. Definition, 11; Edible Animals, 11; Classification of Meat Foods, 12; Prepar- ation of Animals, 12; Inspection, 13; Tuberculosis, 13; Consumers' Rights, 14; Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses, 14; Names of Parts, 15-20; De- livery of Fresh Meat, 21; Storage, 23; Disposition of Fragments, 23; Detec- tion of Different Kinds of Meat, 24; Dried and Pickled Meat, 25; Composi- tion of Pig's Flesh, 26-33; Preserved Meats, 34-38; Argument of Small Quantities, 38-40; Preparation for Canning, 41; Parboiling, 41; Sterilization, 42; Special Studies of Canning, 43-48; Relation of Canned to Fresh Beef, 48; Canned Ham and Bacon, 48-50; Canned Tongue, 50; Fat as a Test for Adulteration, 51; Potted Meats, 51-56; Canned Poultry, 56; Canned Horse- meat, 57; Canned Cured Meats, 59-60; Magnitude of Industry, 61; Gen- eral Observations, 62; Lard, 63-77; Soups, 77-78; Beef Extract, 79, 80; Beef Juice, 82; Soluble Meats, 83; Preparations of Blood, 83; Beef-tea, 84; Dried and Powdered Meats, 85; Active Principles in Meat Extracts, 86; Re- lation between Juice and Nutritive Value, 87; Nitrogenous Bases, 88-90; Gelatine, 90-92; Terrestrial Animal Oils, 93. PART II.-POULTRY AND EGGS AND GAME BIRDS. Application of Name, 94; Domesticated Fowls, 95-116; Chicken, 95-104; Duck, 104; Goose, 105; Pigeon, 107; Turkey, 107; Forced Fattening, 109; Slaughtering and Preparing for Market, 111; Poisonous Principles in Eggs, 116; Parasites in Eggs, 116. PART III.-FISH FOODS... • Classification, 117; Edible Portion, 119; Principal Constituents, 119; Ale- wives, 121; Anchovy, 122; Black Bass, 122; Bluefish, 122; Carp, 123; Catfish, 123; Codfish, 124; Eels, 126; Flounder, 127; Graylings, 128; Had- dock, 128; Hake, 128; Halibut, 128; Herring, 129; Horse Mackerel, 130; Hog-fish, 130; Mackerel, 131; Menhaden, 132; Mullet, 132; Muskal- lunge, 133; Pickerel or Pike, 133; Pompano, 134; Red Snapper, 134; Rock Bass, 135; Salmon, 135-138; Sardines, 139-140; Scup, 141; Shad, 141-142; Sheepshead, 143; Smelt, 144; Spanish Mackerel, 144; Sturgeon, 144; Caviar, 145; Striped Bass, 146; Sole, 146; Tautog, 147; Tilefish, 147; Trout, 147-148; Turbot, 149; Weakfish, 149; Whitefish, 150; Fluorids in Fish, 151; Marketing, 151; Cold Storage, 151; Canning, Drying, and Adul- teration, 152; Value as Food, 153; Shellfish, 153; Clams, 153; Lobster, 155; Crabs, 155; Crawfish, 156; Shrimp, 157; Aquatic Reptiles, 157; Turtle, 157; Terrapin, 158; Mussel, 158; Oysters, 158-164; Animal Oils, 165; Marine Animal Oils, 165-166. PART IV.-MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. I-10 II-94 95-116 117-166 ..169-216 Milk, Limitation of Name, 169; Composition, 169; Method of Production, 169-174; Cream, 175; Curd Test for Purity, 176-178; Whey and Kou- miss, 179; Buttermilk and Bonnyclabber, 181; Butter, 182-187; Oleomar- garine, 187-189; Cheese, 190; Kinds, 191; Adulteration and Misbranding, 192; Coloring, 193; Cottage Cheese, 195; American Cheese Manufacture, ix X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 196-200; Grading Cheese, 200; Cream Cheese, 201; Foreign Types, 201- 202; Sage Cheese, 203; English Cheese, 203-205; French Cheese, 206-208; Limburger, 208; Edam, 210; Bacterial Activity, 211; Chemical Changes in Ripening, 212-214; Digestibility, 214; Effect of Cold Storage, 215; Prepara- tions of Casein, 215. PART V.-CEREAL FOODS.. Barley, 217-218; Buckwheat, 219-221; Indian Corn (Maize), 222–232; Oats, 232-236; Rice, 236; Rye, 237-239; Wheat, 239-242; Wheat Flour, 243-245; Gluten, 245-247; Bleaching, 247; Adulterations, 248; Standard Age and Substitutes, 248; Bread, 249; Yeast, 250; Ferments, 250; Chemical Aerating Agents, 251; Baking Powders, 251-254; Composition of Bread, 254- 255; Comparative Nutritive Properties, 256-257; Biscuit, 258; Sugar Lost in Fermentation, 259; Texture of Loaves, 259; Macaroni, 260-264; Cakes, 265-267; Breakfast Foods, 267–271. PART VI. VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. Succulent Vegetables, 273; Artichoke, 274; Asparagus, 275; Bean, 275- 276; Beets, 277; Brussels Sprouts, 278; Cabbage, 278; Carrot, 279; Cauli- flower, 279; Celery, 280; Chicory, 280; Cranberry, 281; Cress, 281; Cucum- bers, 281; Egg-plant, Garlic, and Gourds, 282; Horseradish, Jerusalem Arti- choke, and Kale, 282; Leek, Lettuce, Melons, and Cantaloupe, 284-286; Okra and Onion, 286; Parsnip, 287; Peas, 287; Potatoes, 288-298; Potato Starch, 296-299; Rhubarb, 299; Squash, 299; Sweet Potato, 299–304; Turnip, 304; Yam, 304; Canned Vegetables, 305-315; Ketchup, 316; Use of Refuse in Ketchup, 317; Starches as Foods, 317-321; Condiments, 321-326; Fruits, 326-329; Apples, 330-335; Cherries, 336; Grapes, 337-338; Peaches, 339-341; Plums, 341; Quince, 342; Small Fruits, 342-343; Tropi- cal and Subtropical Fruits, 343-348; Citrus Fruits, 348-369; Composition of Pineapple, 363-364; Ash of Tropical Fruits, 367; Sugar and Acid in Fruit, 369; Canned Fruits, 370-372; Fruit Sirups, 373-374; Jams, Jellies, and Preserves, 375-381; Manufacture of Jellies, 381-382; Compound Jams and Jellies, 383; Preserves, 384; Fruit Butter, 385; Brandied Fruit, 386; Importance of Preserving Industry, 386–388. PART VII.-VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS... Definition, 389; Chemical Characteristics, 390; Drying and Non-drying Oils, 391; Physical Characters, 392-393; Edible Vegetable Oils, 394-413; Cot- tonseed Oil, 397-401; Olive Oil, 402-405; Peanut Oil, 406; Rape Oil, 407; Sesame Oil, 408; Sunflower Oil, 409; Cacao-butter, 410; Coconut Oil, 411; Palm Oil, 412; Nuts, 413-428; Acorn, 414; Beechnuts, Brazil-nut, 415; Butternut, Chestnut, 416; Chinese Nut, 417; Coconut, Filbert, 418; Hazel- nut, Hickory-nut, 419; Peanuts, 420-424; Pecan, 424-425; Pistachio, 426; Walnut, 426-428. PART VIII.-FUNGI AS FOODS.. Mushrooms, Production, 429-430; Varieties, 430; Food Value, 430; Distinc- tion between Edible and Poisonous, 433-439; Types of Edible Mush- rooms, 440; Horse Mushroom, 441; Shaggy Mushroom, 443; Fairy Ring Mushroom, 443; Puff-ball, 444; Cepe, 445; Fly Amanita, 446; Poisoning by Mushrooms, 448; Canned Mushrooms, 449; Truffles, 450-453; Food Value of Fungi, 454. PART IX.-SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY.. Sugar, Origin of Sugar, 455; Beet Sugar, 456-465; Cane Sugar, 466; Maple Sugar, 467-468; Sugar Refining, 468-470; Sugar Production, 471; Adultera- tion of Sugar, 471; Sugar as Food, 472; Sirup, Maple, 472-473; Cane, 475; Sorghum, 476; Molasses, 477-478; Mixed Sirups, 479; Adulteration of Sirups, 480; Confectionery, 482; Materials, 482; Manufacture, 483; Crystal- lized Fruits and Flowers, 483; Food Value of Candy, 483; Adulteration of Confections, 483-486; Honey, Definition, Historical, 486; Preparation of Honey, 487; Beehives, 488; Distribution of Honey Industry, 489; Comb PAGE .217-273 •273-388 -389-428 .429-454 -455-494 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Honey, 489; Extracted Honey, 490; Properties of Honey, 491-492; Adulter- ation of Honey, 493–494. MISCELLANEOUS.. Mince Meat, 494; Pie Fillers, 496. PART X.-INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS.. Infants' Foods, 497-549; Good Nutrition, Feeding Immature Infants, 498; Frequency of Feeding, 499; Percentage Feeding, 500; Calorific Value, 501; Weaning, 542; Early and Late Feeding, 503-506; Mothers' Milk, 506–509; Comparative Composition of Milk, 509-513; Opinions Respecting Infants' Foods, 513-521; Modified Milk, 521-531; Preservation of Milk, 531-537; Pasteurization and Sterilization, 537-546; Milk Supply for Large Cities, 546- 549; Invalids' Foods, 549-592; Care of Foods, 549-551; Classes and Tolera- tion, 557; Cause of Disease, 553; Sour Milk and Longevity, 554-557; Pre- servation of Fruit Juices, 557-558; Foods as Drugs, 558-559; Meat Prepa- rations, 560-564; Analyses of Meat Products, 565, 567; Diet in Diabetes, 567-576; Diet in Nephritis, 577; Diet in Obesity, 577-580; Diet in Tuber- culosis, 580-589; Analysis of Infants' and Invalids' Foods, 590-592. PART XI. SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS.. Xi PAGE •494-496 -497-592 -593-611 General Classes of Adulteration, 593; Some Forms of Food Adulteration, 593- 594; Chemical and Condimental Preservatives, and Colors, 594-595; Ma- terials and Reagents, 596; Tests for Boric and Benzoic Acids, Saccharin and Salicylic Acid, 597-598; Detection of Artificial Coloring, 598-600; Detection of Common Adulterants, 600-602; Examination of Foods for Adulterants, 602-608; Butter and Oleomargarine, 608-610; Watered Milk, 610–611. PART XII.-ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS.. .613-628 Signification of Terms, 613; Kinds of Typical Foods, 613; Classification of Foods in Regard to their Final Reaction after Digestion, 613-614; Im- portance of an Alkaline Residue in Digestion, 614-615; Construction of a Bill of Fare, 615-616; How do Naturally Acid Foods Become Alkaline in Digestion, 616-617; General Principles of Nutrition, 617-618; The Uni- versal Diet, 618; Basis of Classification 618. PART XIII.-VITAMINS.. Course of Scurvy, 629; Other Related Diseases, 629; Beri Beri, 629-630; Natural (Unpolished) Rice, 630; Vitamins, 630; What Foods Contain Vitamins, 630-631; Things Hurtful to Vitamins, 631; Effect of Canning, 631; Mixing with Alkalies, 631-632; Practical Application of the Vitamin Theory, 632; Waste of Vitamins, 632-633; Experiments with Fowls, 633; Economic Importance of Knowledge, 633; Conservation of Health, 6.3. 629-633 INDEX. 635 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. COLORED PLATES. Beef Tenderloin,. Beef Sirloin,.. FIG. Beef Ribs-Regular Cut,.. Beef Ribs-Spencer Cut, Sirloin Butts,... Beef Rib,. Beef Loin,.. Drying Figs: Smyrna, Smyrna Section, Adriatic, Adriatic Section,. Olives: Mission, Sevillano,. Jordan Almond,.. Peanut (Arichide), 1. Cuts of Beef,. 2. Commercial Cuts of Beef, 3. Diagram of Cuts of Veal,. PAGE. Facing 15 "6 15 15 "C 15 "C 15 " 15 "" 15 349 (c 402 << • 414 420 4. Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton, 5. Diagram of Cuts of Pork,. 6. Commercial Cuts of Pork,. • · 7. Graphic Chart Representing the Comparative Influences of Foods and Preserva- tives,.. 8. Lard Crystals,. 9. Beef Fat Crystals,. 10. Kettle for Rendering Lard, II. Apparatus for Test of Adulteration of Lard,. 12. Chicken House, Rhode Island Experiment Station,. 13. Cow Stables, Mapletown Farm, Sumner, Washington, 14. Apparatus for Cooling Milk,. 15. Improvised Wisconsin Curd Test,. 16. Milk; Broken Curd in Whey; Matted Curd,. 17. Curd from a Good Milk, 18. Curd from a Tainted Milk,. 19. Curd from Foul Milk,. 20. Power Churn, Ready for Use,. 21. Power Churn, Open,.. 22. Barley Starch, 23. Buckwheat Starch,. 24. Section of Raw Popcorn,. 25. Section of Popcorn in First Stage of Popping, Showing Partially Expanded Starch Grains and Ruptured Cell Walls, 26. Section of Fully Popped Popcorn, .. 27. Indian Corn Starch,... 28. Starch Grains of Indian Corn, under Polarized Light,.. 29. Oat Starch,.. 30. Rice Starch,. 31. Rye Starch,. 32. Wheat Starch,. 33. Wheat Starch under Polarized Light,. 34. Kedzie's Farinometer Showing the Parts, 35. Kedzie's Farinometer in Use, 16 HHHH 17 18 19 19 20 39 855 67 67 72 74 96 170 172 177 177 178 178 178 н 183 184 218 222 224 225 226 229 230 235 237 238 242 243 246 247 xiii Xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 36. Comparative Appearance of Breads of Different Kinds,. 37. A Field of Durum Wheat,.. 38. Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats (Heads and Grains), 39. Potato Starch,. 40. Potato Starch under Polarized Light, 41. Rasping Cylinder for Making Starch,. 42. Shaking Table for Separating the Starch from the Pulped Potato, 43. The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for Work,.. • • PAGE. 259 261 262 291 291 297 297 298 44. View of Indian Corn Canning Factory, Showing Accumulation of Husks and Cobs, 308 45. Maranta (Arrowroot) Starch,. 46. A Cassava Field in Georgia, 47. Cassava Starch,………. 48. Scuppernong Grape Vine, Roanoke Island,. 49. Vineyard Near Fresno, California,. 50. Avocado Tree,.. 51. Fig Tree Thirty Feet High Near Yuba, California,. 52. Jamaica Mango Tree,. 53. An Edge of a California Orange Grove,. 4. The Original Seedless Orange Tree,.. 55. A Group of the Washington Navel Orange on the Tree, 56. Covered Pineapple,. 57. Removing the Oil Cakes from a Cottonseed Press,. 58. Pecan Tree, 30 Years Old, Morgan City, Lȧ.,. in Size,... • 61. Common Mushroom, Agaricus campestris,. 63. Shaggy Mushroom, Coprinus comatus,.. 59. Five Forms of Choice, Thin-shelled Pecans. Also Wild Nut Showing Difference 60. Full Grown Pecan Tree,. 62. Edible Mushrooms (Agaricus arvensis Schaeff.) 64. Fairy Ring Formed by Marasmius oreades, an Edible Mushroom, 65. Puff-ball, Lycoperdon cyathiforme, Top View,.. 66. Amanita (Full Grown),.. 67. Fly Amanita Buttons (Amanita muscaria),.. 68. Correct Position of a Mature Beet in the Soil,. 69. Map Showing Temperature Zone in Which the Sugar Beet Attains Its Greatest Perfection,... 70. A Field of Beets Ready for Harvesting,.. 71. Beets Ready for Transportation to Factory,. 72. Diffusion Battery,... 74. Vacuum Strike Pan,. 75. Sugar Cane Field Ready for Harvest,. 73. Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus, 76. Cane Field Partly Harvested,... 77. Tapping the Maple Trees,... 78. Transporting the Sap to the Sugar House,. 79. Boiling the Maple Sap,. 81. Mill and Evaporating Apparatus for Sirup Making in Georgia,.. 83. Swarm of Bees on Bough of Tree,.... 80. Small Primitive Mill for Extracting Juice from Sugar Cane for Sirup Making, 82. Relative Length of Canes Used for Sirup Making,. 84. Artificial Bee Hives under Shade of Grape Vine,. 85. A Frame Containing 24 Boxes of Honey,. 86. Showing Box of Honey Partially Capped, 87. Straus Home Pasteurizer Apparatus,.. • 318 319 321 338 339 346 350 356 358 359 360 361 400 422 423 425 440 44I 442 444 445 446 447 458 459 400 461 462 463 464 465 466 468 468 469 473 474 475 487 488 489 490 541 INTRODUCTION. THE growing importance to manufacturers, dealers, and consumers of a knowledge of food products has led to the preparation of the following manual. Unfortunately, many misleading statements respecting the composition of foods, their nutritive value, and their relation to health and digestion have been published and received with more or less credence by the public. Claims of superior excellence, which are entirely baseless, are constantly made for certain food products in order to call the attention of the public more directly to their value and, unfortunately, at times to mislead the public with respect to their true worth. It is not uncommon to see foods advertised as of exceptional quality, either as a whole or for certain purposes. Many of the preparations of this kind are of undoubted excellence, but fail to reach the superior standard or perform the particular function which is attributed to them. Particularly has it been noticed that foods are offered for specific purposes or the nourishment of certain parts of the body, especially of the brain and nerves. We are all familiar with the advertisements of foods to feed the brain, or feed the nerves, or feed the skin. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the absurdity of claims of this kind. One part of the body cannot be nourished if the other parts are neglected, and the true principle of nutrition requires a uniform and equal development and nourishment of all the tissues. It is true that many of the tissues have predominant constituents. For instance in the bones are found large quantities of phosphate of calcium and in the muscles nitrogenous tissues dominate. In the brain and nerves there are considerable quantities of organic phosphorus. All of these bodies, however, are contained in normal food properly balanced. It would be contrary to the principles of physiology to attempt to feed the bones by consuming a large excess of phosphorus in the food or the muscles by confining the food to a purely nitrogenous component. Such attempts, instead of nourishing the tissues indicated, will so unbalance the rations as to disarrange the whole metabolic process, and thus injure and weaken the very tissues they are designed to support. It seems, therefore, advisable to prepare a manual which may be used in conjunction with works on dietetics and on physiology and hygiene and yet of a character not especially designed for the expert. 2 I 2 INTRODUCTION. The American public is now so well educated that any average citizen is fully capable of understanding scientific problems if presented to him in a non-technical garb. It is, therefore, not difficult to see that the great army of manufacturers and dealers in food products, as well as the still greater army of consumers, are able to receive and to utilize information concerning food products which is of common interest to all. A dissemination of knowledge of this kind will guide the manufacturer in his legitimate business and protect the public against deceptions such as those mentioned above. In the evolution of society, economy and efficiency indicate that specializa- tions should be made as completely as possible. For this reason it is advisable that foods of a certain character be manufactured and prepared for consump- tion on a large scale, so that due economy and purity may be secured. On the other hand there are many other kinds of foods which, by reason of their properties, cannot be prepared on a large scale but must be produced near or at the place of consumption. Milk is a type of this class of foods. It is alto- gether probable, therefore, that the consumption of manufactured foods will not decrease but increase even more rapidly than the number of our population. In order that the people may be able to judge of the quality and character of products of this kind, information readily available appears to be highly desirable. In the other case of the utilization of raw materials, it is equally important that the people of this country understand their nature and their functions in the digestive process. The great nutritive value of our food is found in the cereals, the meats, the fruits, and vegetables which we consume. A descrip- tion of foods of this class, the places of their growth, the conditions under which they are matured and marketed, the problems which relate to their storage and transportation, their composition in respect of nutrition and digestibility, the dangers which may accrue from their decay, and the adultera- tions or sophistications to which they may be subjected are matters of the greatest public importance. A treatise of this kind in order to be of its full value for which it is intended must be concise, expressed in simple language, in a form easily consulted, and yet be of a character which will be reliable and which will give full informa- tion on the subject. It is a common habit of speech to divide foods into two great classes, namely, foods and beverages. This is not a scientific division, but is one which has been so well established by custom as to render it advisable to divide this work into two portions, one devoted to food in the sense just used and the other to beverages. The first volume of this work devoted to foods will treat of those bodies commonly known under the term "foods, "—namely, cereals, meats of all kinds, milk, vegetables, nuts, and fruits. The second volume A PROPER RATION. 3 will embrace the study of beverages, namely, natural and artificial mineral waters, soda waters, soft drinks, coffee, tea, cocoa, wines, cider, beer and other fermented beverages, distilled beverages of all kinds, and mixtures or compounds thereof. In connection with the description of the origin of foods and their general characteristics will be given a statement of their chemical composition, especi- ally in relation to nutritive properties. The principal adulterations or sophis- tications to which the food products are obnoxious will be briefly described, and where simple methods of detecting adulterations are known, of a character to be applied without special chemical knowledge or skill, they will be given. An attempt is thus made to lay before those interested, in as compact a form as possible, the chief points connected with the production of food, its manipulation, and its use for the nourishment of the body. It is not the intention of this manual to enter at all into the subject of cooking or the physiology of foods and nutrition. That is a distinct and separate part of this problem and has already been treated in many manuals. In this connection, however, attention may be called to the great importance of proper cooking in the use of food. Raw materials of the best character, prepared and trans- ported in the most approved manner, may be so injured in the kitchen in the process of cooking as to be rendered both unpalatable and difficult of digestion. On the contrary, food materials of an inferior quality, provided they contain no injurious substances, may be so treated by the skilled cook as to be both palatable and nutritious. The desirability of the dissemination of correct principles of cooking is no less than that of giving information respecting the materials on which the art of cookery is exercised. It may be added that the art of cookery at the present time should not be confined to the mere technical manipulation, the application of heat and of condimental substances, but should also have some reference to the actual process of nutrition. Foods should be prepared in the kitchen, not only of a palatable character and properly spiced but also selected in such a manner as to safeguard one of the chief purposes of food, namely, the proper nutrition of the body and the avoidance of any injury to digestion. It is commonly admitted that many, perhaps most, of the diseases of the digestive tract to which the American people are so subject arise from the consumption of rations improperly balanced, poorly prepared, or used in great excess. To the intelligent and scientific cook the information con- tained in this manual will especially appeal. A PROPER RATION. The study of the science of nutrition has revealed the character of nourish- ment necessary to build the tissues and restore their waste. The term "food" 4 INTRODUCTION. in its broadest signification includes all those substances which when taken into the body build tissues, restore waste, furnish heat and energy, and pro- vide appropriate condiments. The building of tissues is especially an import- ant function during the early life of animals as it is through this building of tissues that growth takes place. The restoration of waste of tissues assumes special importance during that period of life when the weight of the body is supposed to be reasonably constant. At this time the waste of tissue in the natural processes is restored by the assimilation of new material in the same proportion. If the assimilation of new material goes on at a greater rate than the waste of old material it manifests itself during the period of expected equilibrium in the deposition of adipose tissue and a consequent abnormal increase in weight. In the after period of life the process of waste is naturally more vigorous than that of assimilation, and the tendency is manifested, which is wholly in harmony with the laws of Nature, to gradually diminish the weight of the body, and this continues to the extreme emaciation of old age. It is evident, therefore, that the food consumed should be adapted to these changing periods. The growing animal needs a larger quantity of food in proportion to its actual weight than the animal which is in a state of equi- librium, that is, of mature age, and the animal which is entering upon the period of old age needs a less quantity of food in proportion to its weight than in either of the other periods of life. Thus, the rations of infants and children should be generous, the rations of mature man sufficient, and the rations of old age limited. The food should also contain the various elements which enter into nutri- tion in the proper quantity. The nitrogenous constituents in food, when subjected to the ordinary process of digestion, yield a certain quantity of heat and energy but their more important function is to nourish the nitrog- enous elements of the body, of which the muscles, hair, skin, and finger- nails are types. The mineral constituents of food, especially phosphorus and lime, have a general utility in promoting the metabolic functions, especially in the movement of the fluids of the body through the cells walls, and at the same time are actual nourishing materials, entering particularly into the com- position of the bones and teeth. The fats and oils which are present in the foods have the capacity of pro- ducing large quantities of heat and energy during their combustion in the body, and thus serve as a source of animal heat and muscular activity. The starches and sugars which are the most abundant elements of our food, although they have a heat-forming power of less than one-half that of fats, are largely utilized in the production of heat and energy and in the for- mation of animal fat. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD. 5 To secure a proper and complete nutrition of the body it is desirable that all these elements should be so adjusted as to provide for complete nourish- ment without having any one of them in great excess. It is evident that an excess of any one or more of these nutrient materials must necessarily impose on the organs of the body an additional work in securing their proper elimi- nation. This tends to overburden the excretory organs and to cause a pre- mature breakdown thereof. This giving away of the organs may not come for many years, not, perhaps, until advanced life, but when it comes it neces- sarily shortens the period of human existence. The term “balanced ration” means the adjustment of nutrients in the food in such a way as to secure complete and perfect nutrition without load- ing the body with an excess of any one element. This is also an important point on the score of economy. A large percentage of all the earnings of man is expended for food products, and hence these products should be used in a manner to secure the best results possible. If, by a practice of scientific nutrition, 10 percent of the value of foods could be saved it would create a fund which, could it be utilized, would minister in the highest degree to the comfort and welfare of the human family and form an abundant pension for old age. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD. In the above paragraphs attention has been directed particularly to the nutritive and economic properties of food. It must not be considered that mere nutrition is the sole object of foods, especially for man. It is the first object to be conserved in the feeding of domesticated animals, but is only one of the objects to be kept in view in the feeding of man. Man is a social animal and, from the earliest period of his history, food has exercised a most important function in his social life. Hence in the study of food and of its uses a failure to consider this factor would be regrettable. For this reason it is justifiable in the feeding of man to expend upon the mere social features of the meal a sum which often is equal to or greater than that expended for the mere purpose of nutrition. This part of the subject, however, belongs especially to the kitchen and dining room, and, therefore, will not be dis- cussed at greater length at the present time. It is believed that a more careful study of the food he consumes will benefit man in many ways. It will lead to a wider public interest in the problem of the purity of food and the magnitude of the crime committed against man- kind in the debasement, adulteration, and sophistication of food articles. This study will impart to the social function of food an additional charm, in that the origin and character of the material consumed will be known and the properties which they possess for nourishing the body understood. This will enable man, as a social animal, to so conduct himself at table as 6 INTRODUCTION. to secure the greatest possible pleasure and social benefit therefrom and at the same time avoid any injury which ignorance might permit and invite. It may appear that the inartistic treatment of a subject of this kind, as indicated in the following pages, is not one which is calculated to excite any sympathetic interest or appeal to the natural desire for literary and artistic expression. Yet the importance of the subject is so great as to warrant the experiment of presenting the matter in this form rather than in any more elaborate and connected way. DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF FOODS. Food, in its general sense, is that which nourishes the body without regard to its physical state, that is, it may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. More particularly defined, food is that material taken into the body in the ordinary process of eating which contains the elements necessary for the growth of tissues, for the repair of the destruction to which the tissues are subjected during the ordinary vital processes and for furnishing heat and energy necessary to life. Incident to the utilization of these elements there is consumed, also, a considerable quantity of matter inextricably mingled with food in a natural way, which takes no direct part in nutrition and yet which is useful, as a mass, in promoting the digestive processes. These bodies are certain indi- gestible cellular tissues which are present in foods, mineral matter, and other materials which are naturally found in food products. Included in this broad definition, therefore, are many substances which are usually not thought of in the sense of food; among these are water and air. Air, however, would probably be excluded because it is not introduced into the stomach, that is, not in quantities which have any significance in the vital processes. Water, on the contrary, is one of the most indispensable constituents of food and is also used in considerable quantities as a beverage. The water, itself, is indispensable to nutrition and is also one of those bodies mentioned above which are necessary to secure the proper conduct of the digestive processes. By means of the oxygen in the air the combustion of food in the various parts of the body is secured, and thus animal heat and energy developed. In this respect the combustion of a food product is similar in every way to the burning of coal in the production of heat and motion. The same calorific laws which govern the steam-engine are applicable, in all their rigidity, to the animal engine. The quantity of heat produced by the combustion of a certain amount of fat or sugar is definitely measured in a calorimeter and is found to correspond exactly to the quantity of heat produced by the ordinary combustion of such bodies. The term "food," therefore, in this respect, would include the oxygen of the air without which the development of animal heat and energy would be impossible. It also includes those bodies of a CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS. 7 liquid character which are classed as beverages rather than as foods. All of these bodies have nutritive properties, although their chief value is condi- mental and social. That large class of food products which are known as condiments are properly termed food, since they not only possess nutritive properties but through their condimental character promote digestion and by making the food more palatable secure to a higher degree the excellence of its social function. It is now possible to condense into a distinct expression the definition of food in the following language: Food in a general sense embraces those substances taken into the body which build tissues, restore waste, and fur- nish heat and energy. CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS. Foods may be considered under different classifications. First, as to gen- eral appearance and use three classes may be made,-foods, beverages and condiments. As types of the first division of these foods may be mentioned cereals and their preparations, meat and its preparations (except meat ex- tracts), fish, fowl, and game. Beverages are those liquid food products which are more valued for taste and flavor than for actual nutritive value. As types of beverages may be mentioned wines, beers, distilled spirits and liquors of all characters, tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, etc. Under wines, in this sense, may be included the fermented beverages made of fruit juices, such as cider, perry, etc. Types of condiments are salt, pepper, spices, vinegar, etc. Milk, although a liquid substance, is hardly to be considered a beverage, and on account of its high nutritive properties may be classed, together with its preparations, under the first head. Foods may also be classified as nitrogenous, starchy, oily, and condimental. Nitrogenous foods are those in which the proportion of their material con- taining nitrogen is large. Lean meat may be regarded as a type of nitrogenous food, since it consists almost exclusively of tissues known as protein and con- tains nitrogen and sulfur as essential ingredients. The white of an egg is also a typical nitrogenous food and, to a less extent, the yolk. Among vege- tables, peas and beans are typical foods containing large percentages of nitrogenous matter. The gluten of wheat is also a typical nitrogenous food and the zein of Indian corn, corresponding to gluten, is a nitrogenous material. Practically all the vegetables used as foods contain more or less protein in their constituents. Among the cereals oats has the largest quantity and rice the smallest of this valuable food material. Of oily foods the fat of animals, including butter, is a typical representative. All meats, fish, fowl, and game contain more or less fat. Of vegetables and fruits there are many 8 INTRODUCTION. which contain large quantities of fat, such as nuts, oily seeds, etc. All vege- tables contain more or less fat, although the succulent vegetables usually contain but little thereof. Of starchy foods there are no types in animal food, the quantity of carbohydrate material therein being extremely limited. The lobster and horse-flesh contain perhaps a little more than 1 percent of carbohydrate food, but most meats contain much less than that. Sugar and starch are typical carbohydrate foods. The cereal grains are composed largely of starchy foods, and so are certain tubers, such as the potato, cassava, etc. Of the common cereals rice contains more starch than any other and oats the least. Sugars are intimately related to starch and are included under the term starchy food or carbohydrate food. The carbohydrate matter in the flesh mentioned above, namely gly- cogen, is of the nature of a sugar. Among the typical sugar foods are beets, melons, and fruits, some of which contain large percentages of sugar. All fruits contain greater or less quantities of sugar, and that is true, also, of all vege- tables. Of the plants which produce the sugar of commerce there may be mentioned the sugar-cane, the sugar-beet, the maple, and palm trees. The principal sources of the sugar of commerce are the sugar-cane and the sugar-beet. Of the condimental foods may be mentioned spices, including pepper, mustard, cinnamon, allspice, and other foods of this class. Common salt occupies a unique position in food products. It is the only mineral substance which has any value as a condiment in human food. But it also has a more important function than its condimental character, namely, it furnishes the supply of hydrochloric acid without which digestion in the stomach could not take place. For this reason common salt must be regarded as an essential food product as well as a condiment. EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS. Inasmuch as this manual is not solely intended for expert chemists and physiologists but also for the general public, a simple explanation of the use of the terms used in analytical data and tables is advisable. Under the term moisture is included all the water which is present in a free state, that is, not combined in any way with the ingredients of the material, and other substances volatile at the temperature of drying. The water is de- termined by drying to a constant weight at the temperature of boiling water or slightly above. In bodies which are easily oxidized this drying takes place in a vacuum or in an inert gas like hydrogen or carbon dioxid. Protein. Under this term are included all the nitrogenous compounds. in a food product which contain in their composition sulfur, nitrogen, car- EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS. 9 bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, forming that class of tissues represented by the gluten in wheat, the white of an egg, muscular and tendinous fibers, etc. Ether Extract.—Under this term is included the fats and oils, the term fat being applied to animal fat and the term oil to vegetable products. These bodies are all soluble in ether and therefore are grouped together under the term “ether extract." There are some fats both in animal and vegetable substances insoluble in ether, but they exist in minute quantities and there- fore are not separated from the extracts, but the whole matter is given together and represents practically the fats and oils in food. There are also minute quantities of bodies not fats in foods soluble in ether, and these are included in the ether extract. These Ash.-The term ash is applied to the residue left after the burning of food products in the air at a low temperature until the carbon has disappeared. Ash is rather an indefinite term and is applied to that residual material of a mineral nature composed of sand or silica and the carbonates or oxids of alkaline earth or alkalies. The ash also contains the principal part of phosphorus present in food products and usually a small proportion of sulfur. bodies in the ash exist as phosphoric and sulfuric acids or their salts. Fiber. The term fiber is applied to those carbohydrate products in food which are insoluble in solutions of dilute acid and dilute alkalies at the boiling temperature. Inasmuch as these separated bodies are not wholly pure cellu- lose they are often designated as crude fiber. Starch and Sugar.-The terms starch and sugar are applied to the car- bohydrates in a food product of a starchy or saccharine nature, together with the other carbohydrates present which are soluble in dilute acids and alkalies. Calories. The term calorie is used to denote the amount of heat-forming material contained in one unit weight of a food product. The number given represents the number of degrees of temperature produced in a unit mass of water by the heat formed in burning the unit weight of food. The unit weights employed are usually as follows: Of the food product, one gram (15. grains); unit weight of water to be heated, one kilogram (2.2 pounds); unit increment of temperature, 1º C. (1.8° F.). The expression 4000 calories there- fore means that if one gram of food substance in a dry state be burned the heat produced will raise one gram of water through a temperature of 4000°C., or the unit of water (one kilogram) through a temperature of 4° C. For convenience the calories are usually expressed as small calories, namely 4000, instead of large calories, namely 4. In this manual the expression in terms of small calories, that is, the temperature increase of one kilogram of water produced by burning one gram of substance, multiplied by 1000, will be uniformly employed. FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION. PART I. MEATS. One great division of human food is meat. Technically, perhaps, the edible flesh of every animal used for human food might be described as meat. In this manual, however, preference is given to the common meaning of the term. The flesh of animals is by common consent divided into three principal classes, namely, the flesh of terrestrial mammals, or animals not provided with wings; second, aerial animals, or animals provided with wings, and, third, aquatic animals. A very common classification of these three kinds of food is flesh, fowl, and fish. There are animals, the flesh of which is eaten by many, which are not exactly included in this classification; for instance, animals of an amphibious nature, living partly on land and partly on sea. Also many of the animals classed as aerial live chiefly upon the earth; al- though having wings they do not use them, such as domesticated fowls. This classification, however, is sufficiently exact for the practical purposes of a food manual and, therefore, under the head of meat is included the edible flesh of mammals living on the land. Animals Whose Flesh is Edible.-Probably the only complete classifica- tion of this kind would be to include every animal living on the face of the earth since, perhaps, the flesh of every animal living has been more or less eaten by man. In a civilized community, however, except in times of disaster and dire necessity, certain classes of animals only furnish the principal meat food. Nearly all the meat food consumed in the United States is derived from cattle, sheep, and swine. Goat flesh is eaten only to a limited extent and horse meat scarcely at all, and the only other meats of importance are those of II 12 MEATS. wild animals. The principal wild animals used for food are the deer, bear, rabbit, and squirrel. Many other wild animals, however, are eaten and in some cases highly prized. In this manual only the principal meat foods both of domesticated and wild animals will be mentioned. Classification of Meat Food as Respects Age.-The edible flesh of domesticated animals as well as of wild animals is eaten both in the young and full-grown state. Common names, however, designate these different classes. For instance, veal in the growing and beef for the full-grown animal, lamb for the young and mutton for the full-grown sheep, pig in the younger and pork in the full-grown swine, etc. There is no legal limit of age for such a distinction, but as long as the animal is not fully grown it may be classified under the name representing the young animal. There is a common under- standing, however, that in the case of veal and lamb the animal must be under one year of age and usually not under two nor more than eight months of age. A classification of this kind is so indefinite, however, that no strict definition can be given other than that founded on the general principles above outlined. Preparation of Animals. The proper sanitary conditions attending the fattening of animals intended for slaughter are of great importance to the consumer. It is a common understanding that animals intended for slaughter should be plump and healthy. Poor animals, either those which are meager from lack of food or from disease, are to be rigidly excluded from the slaughter pen. Animals intended for slaughter should be fattened under sanitary conditions with plenty of fresh water and fresh air as well as good food. The stalls in which they are fattened should be clean and well ventilated, and the sanitary conditions surrounding them should be such as to exclude contagious and epidemic diseases and provide the most favorable environment for growth and preparation for the market. It is evident that all these conditions are to be secured by proper inspection of the animals while preparing for the market. The time will, doubtless, soon arrive in this country when the supervision of the preparation of animals for the market, the sanitary conditions under which they live, and the general environment which surrounds them shall be subjects of local, municipal, and state inspection. Since the power of the general government cannot extend to states and municipalities, these corporate bodies should take uniform and scientific action concerning all these matters. National and state conventions of municipal and state sanitary authorities should decide upon uniform sys- tems of inspection and sanitation to which all state and municipal authorities must agree, so that a uniform and effective method of inspection and sanitation will be secured throughout the country. When animals are transported before slaughter from one state to another the national government is then entitled to inspect and certify respecting t TUBERCULOSIS. 13 condition of the animal thus to be transported from state to state. By thus combining municipal, state, and national inspection the rights of the consu- mer may be conserved, and this is the only means by which they can be kept inviolate. It is assumed, therefore, that the animal which has been brought for slaughter has been fattened under proper sanitary conditions, has not been exposed to epidemic or contagious diseases, and outwardly is not afflicted with any disease of its own. Such a healthy animal may then be certified as fattened for slaughter. Inspection after Slaughter.-The inspection after slaughter is of the utmost importance, not even second to that of the proper inspection during fattening and before slaughter. The veterinarian, skilled in his science, can tell by the inspection of the vital organs of the slaughtered animal whether it is affected with any organic disease. Among cattle the most frequent organic diseases are lumpy jaw and tuberculosis. In the case of swine one of the most common of diseases is trichinosis. In the latter case an inspection of the vital organs of the animal is not sufficient. The muscles of the swine, first and most commonly affected by trichinosis, must be examined micro- scopically in order to eliminate the possibility of the flesh of such animals going into commerce untagged or unnoticed. If the flesh of the swine impregnated with trichinosis be thoroughly cooked practically all of the danger to man is eliminated. The consumer, however, should not be subjected to the chance of imperfect cooking. A swine affected with trichinosis should either be refused admission into consumption or should be so tagged that the consumer should know the danger to which he is exposed in order to take the necessary precaution to safeguard his health. Tuberculosis.-There is a difference of opinion among veterinary and hygienic experts respecting the disposition which is to be made of carcasses affected with tuberculosis. It is claimed by some that if the tuberculosis is local, that is, does not extend beyond the lungs, there is no reason why the flesh of the animal should be refused to the consumer. The basis of this contention is founded upon the opinion of some of the most eminent veterina- rians that bovine tuberculosis and human tuberculosis are entirely distinct diseases and cannot be transmitted either from the cow to man or vice versâ. It is not the province of this manual to decide this controversy, although it is only right that the consumer should be given the benefit of the doubt. Therefore, if the carcass of an animal affected with local tuberculosis is to be passed into consumption it should be plainly marked as the flesh of a tuber- culosed animal,—not only the carcass as a whole, but every piece thereof that is introduced into consumption directly or after canning or mincing. The consumer is thus left free to choose for himself whether to eat such meat or not. There is a universal agreement among hygienists and veterinarians 14 MEATS. that where tuberculosis is generalized, that is, has affected practically all the organs of the body, the carcasses should be condemned. No one will take exceptions to this ruling, though it does not appear very plain to the ordinary consumer why a little tuberculosis is not a bad thing if a great deal of it is a very bad thing. There is an unfortunate tendency in many quarters to neglect minute effects and only pay attention to mass action. This does no seem to be a reasonable or desirable method of procedure. The Right of the Consumer.-In all these cases of post mortem inspection it is the right of the consumer to be informed respecting the condition of the animal admitted to slaughter. Only the undoubtedly sound and healthy carcass should be given a free certificate. The badly diseased carcass should be condemned and refused admission to consumption. If the partially diseased carcass is to be consumed, it should be done under such a system of tagging as will absolutely protect any consumer against the use of the partially diseased carcass without his knowledge. Summary. The general conclusion reached is that the consumer has the right to protection in the character of food which comes upon his table, This protection begins at the time the animals are being fed for slaughter. It continues during the time the animals are slaughtered and afterwards in the preparation of their carcasses for consumption. It does not end until the meat is delivered to the consumer properly certified as being sound and wholesome and warranted to be free from deleterious coloring matter and preservatives. The consumers of this country can have this protection if they demand it. They outnumber the makers of meat products to such an overwhelming extent as to be able to secure proper legislation, because the manufacturers themselves, as consumers, are equally interested with others in this most important point, and should themselves receive for their families the same protection that the consumer who has nothing to do with the preparation of meat products is entitled to. Since the above paragraph was written the Congress has provided for a complete inspection of meats as outlined therein. A Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses. It is not the purpose of this manual to enter into any discussion of the technique of slaughter and prepa- ration of animals whose meat is intended to be eaten. It is believed that in this country the mechanism of this process is very near perfection, and espe- cially so in the larger establishments where the highest skill is employed. In small slaughtering establishments and in farm slaughter there are found many points of technique which should be greatly improved. The principal thing to be considered is, first, a sudden and in so far as possible a painless death of the animal; second, the immediate withdrawal of the blood of the slaughtered animal if slaughtered otherwise than by opening the principal artery; third, the removal of the intestines and hair or hide of the animal; fourth, immediate NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFERENT PIECES OF EDIBLE ANIMALS. IS cooling at a moderately low temperature until the animal heat is entirely radiated; fifth, the cutting of the carcass into the usual form for consumption and the removal and utilization of the débris for food or other purposes; sixth, the delivery of the meat, if to be eaten in a fresh state, in a condition secured from contamination and decay until it is in the hands of the consumer; seventh, the curing of the meat in a proper manner by salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke, and the delivery thereof in an uncontaminated form to the consumer. It is not established that any further manipulation than that above out- lined is desirable or necessary. The use of any kind of dye or coloring matter directly or indirectly, of any so-called preservative substance other than those of a condimental nature already mentioned, or any further manipulation save that to secure low temperature and freedom from infection is not useful, pecessary, nor desirable. The sooner the manufacturer of these products understands the rights of the consumer in this respect and recognizes the fundamental verity of the above postulates the better it will be for all parties. When these conditions are met all of the many and just objections which have been made to the meats of this country will pass away and they will assume in the markets of the world that position to which their natural merits, when not interfered with by maltreating during curing, entitle them. Names Applied to the Different Pieces of Edible Animals.—In the preparation of animals for the market experience has shown that they are best cut in certain pieces of a shape determined by the race of the animal itself and to these pieces or cuts certain definite names have been applied. The method of making these cuts is not the same in all parts of this country or in various parts of different countries. The most common cuts used in the United States are illustrated in the accompanying figures, under the names which are attached thereto. The analyses here reported apply to cuts as indicated by the following dia- grams. These show the positions of the different cuts, both in the live animal and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets. The lines of division between the different cuts will vary slightly, according to the usage of the local market, even where the general method of cutting is as here indicated. The names of the same cuts likewise vary in different parts of the country. The Cuts of Beef.-The general method of cutting up a side of beef is illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side. The neck piece is frequently cut so as to include more of the chuck than is represented by the diagram. The shoulder clod is usually cut without bone, while the shoulder (not indicated in diagram) would include more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the fore shank. Shoulder steak is cut from the chuck. In many localities the plate is made to include all the parts of the fore quarter designated on the diagrams 16 MEATS. as brisket, cross ribs, plate, and navel, and different portions of the plate, as thus cut, are spoken of as the "brisket end of plate" and "navel end of plate." This part of the animal is largely used for corning. The ribs are frequently divided into first, second, and third cuts, the latter lying nearest the chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former. The chuck is sometimes subdivided in a similar manner, the third cut of the chuck being nearest the neck. The names applied to different portions of the loin vary considerably in different localities. The part nearest the ribs is frequently called "small end of loin" or "short steak." The other end of the loin is called "hip sirloin" or "sirloin." Between the short and the sirloin is a portion quite generally called the "tenderloin," for the reason that the real tenderloin, the very tender B 3RD CUT NECK 2NOCUT NECK IST CUT NECK sam[ nv04n0quÇ 2WO CUT CHUCK RIBS ST CUT CHUCK RIBS 3RDCUT RIBS 2ND CUT RIBS IST CUT RIBS SMALL END SIRLOIN HIP SIRLOIN SOCKET dwny CROSS SHIN RIBS BRISKET PLATE NAVEL TOP OF SIRLOIN FLANK 1ST CUT ROUND 2ND CUT ROUND LEG BRISKET SHOULDER CLOD FIG. 1.-CUTS OF BEEF.-(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.) གཅིར་ལ་དག་ strip of meat lying inside the loin, is found most fully developed in this cut. Porterhouse steak is a term most frequently applied to either the short steak or the tenderloin. It is not uncommon to find the flank cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is called "flank steak." The larger part of the flank is, however, very fre- quently corned, as is also the case with the rump. In some markets the rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which is then sold as "rump steak." The portion of the round on the outside of the leg is regarded as more tender than that on the inside, and is frequently preferred to the latter. As the leg lies upon the butcher's table this outside of the round is usually on the upper, or top, side, and is therefore called "top round." Occasionally the plate is called the "rattle." Natural Appearance of Cuts of Healthy Beef Beef is the most important of any of the meat of flesh foods. To be able to judge of its fresh- ness and freedom from disease is of great practical value. The following colored plates show the appearance of some of the principal cuts of beef in the proper condition for cooking. By comparing the appearance of the meat bought in all markets with these plates it is possible to form a sound judgment of their suitability for consumption. These seven Plates are reproduced by courtesy of Armour & Co.. Chicago BEEF TENDERLOIN BEEF SIRLOIN BEEF RIBS-REGULAR CUTS BEEF RIB-SPENCER CUT SIRLOIN BUTTS BEEF RIB BEEF LOIN 200000 000000 0000 NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFERENT PIECES OF EDIBLE ANIMALS. 17 In Fig. 2 is shown a side of beef with the various cuts indicated as used for commercial designation. 1234 4. Loin 3. Rump 2. Round 1. Shank 5. Rib 7. Plate 6. Flank 8. Chuck Rib Rolls cut from No. 5. and Strips cut from No. 4. Tenderloins, Sirloin Butts 2 10. Neck 9. Clod లు 8 5 4 9 7 6 FIG. 2.- COMMERCIAL Cuts of Beef.-(Courtesy of Armour & Co.) In Fig. 5 (page 20) is shown the interior view of a hog carcass with cuts indicated as known to the trade. 3 18 MEATS. The Cuts of Veal.-The method of cutting up a side of veal differs con- siderably from that employed with beef. This is illustrated by Fig. 3, which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side. The chuck is much smaller in proportion, and frequently no distinction is made between the chuck and the neck. The chuck is often cut so as to include a good deal of the portion here designated as shoulder, following more nearly the method adopted for subdividing beef. The shoulder of veal as here indicated includes, besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in beef, the larger part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal. The under part of the fore quarter, corresponding to the plate in the beef, is cften designated as breast in the veal. The part of the veal corresponding to the rump of beef is here included with the loin, but is often cut to form part of NECK CHUCK SHOULDER FORE SHANK RIBS LOIN LEG BREAST FLANK ་ HIND SHANK 111 162 ་་ Wn FIG. 3.-DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF VEAL.-(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.) the leg. "knuckles." The Cuts of Lamb and Mutton.-Fig. 4 shows the relative position of the cuts in a dressed side of mutton or lamb and in a live animal. The cuts in a side of lamb and mutton number but six, three in each quarter. The chuck includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder blades, beyond which comes the loin. The flank is made to include all the under side of the animal. Some butchers, however, make a larger number of cuts in the fore quarter, includ- ing a portion of the cuts marked "loin" and "chuck" in Fig. 4, to make a cut designated as "rib," and a portion of the "flank" and "shoulder" to make a In many localities the fore and hind shanks of veal are called the NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFERENT PIECES OF EDIBLE ANIMALS. 19 cut designated as "brisket." The term "chops" is ordinarily used to des- ignate portions of either the loin, ribs, chuck, or shoulder, which are either cut or chopped" by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or broiling. The chuck and ribs are sometimes called the "rack." (( Neck Chuck Loin Leg Shoulder Flank fm. FIG. 4.-DIAGRAM OF CUTS of Lamb and MUTTON.-(Nutrilion Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.) The Cuts of Pork.-The method of cutting up a side of pork differs con- siderably from that employed with other meats. A large portion of the carcass of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat. This furnishes the cuts which are used for "salt pork" and bacon. Fig. 5 illustrates a common method of Head Shoulder Back Middle Cut Belly Ham FIG. 5.-Diagram of Cuts of PORK.-(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.) cutting up pork, showing the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in the dressed side. The cut designated as "back cut" is almost clear fat and is used for salting and pickling. The "middle cut" is the portion quite generally used for bacon and for "lean ends" salt pork. The belly is salted or pickled, or may be made into sausages. 26 MEATS, 1- HIND FOOT 2- HAM 3- RIB BELLY 4- FAT BACK 5- PORK LOIN 6- CALA HAM BUTT 7- CALIFORNIA HAM 2- FORE FOOT 1 9- NECK 3- 7- 8- 9- 2 -4 5 -6 FIG. 6.-COMMERCIAL CUTS OF PORK.-(Courtesy of Armour & Co.) ROAST BEEF AND BEEFSTEAK. 21 Beneath the "back cut" are the ribs and loin, from which are obtained "spareribs," "chops," and roasting pieces, not designated in the figure. The hams and shoulders are more frequently cured, but are also sold fresh as pork "steak." The tenderloin proper is a comparatively lean and very small strip of meat lying under the bones of the loin and usually weighing a fraction of a pound. Some fat is usually trimmed off from the hams and shoulders which is called "ham and shoulder fat" and is often used for sau- sages, etc. What is called "leaf lard," at least in some localities, comes from the inside of the back. It is the kidney fat. As stated above, cuts as shown in the diagrams herewith correspond to those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond, but do not attempt to show the different methods of cutting followed in markets in different parts of the United States. Delivery of Fresh Meat to Consumers.-Perhaps the most important aid to the manufacturer, as well as a protection to the consumer, which modern science has offered to the public is the possibility of delivering fresh meats to consumers at a low temperature. A well equipped abattoir is provided with apparatus by means of which a constantly low temperature may be maintained in the room where the fresh meat is kept after the preparation described above. When the meats are to be distributed over long distances refrigerator cars or boats are provided where low temperature may be maintained. Roast Beef. The parts of the beef which are used for roasting are shown in the diagram, comprising a considerable portion of the hind quarter of the beef and part of the ribs. The roast is perhaps the most important of the parts of the beef for edible purposes. The average composition of the edible part of roast beef (before cooking) is given below: Water,. Solids,... Nitrogen,. Phosphoric acid,.. Sulfur,. 60.14 percent 39.86 4.47 .54 .26 Fat,.. Ash,.. Protein,... ..10.48 1.30 • .27.95 Beefsteak. The most important parts of the beef next to the roast are the parts used for steak. Beefsteaks have different names, such as tenderloin and sirloin, and when the latter two are joined together by the bone the whole is called porterhouse. There are also round steaks and rump steaks which are less highly prized portions of the meat, but in nutritive value are probably quite as valuable as the others mentioned. The average composition of the edible part of a large number of samples of beefsteak is given in the following table:* * Means of numerous analyses in Bureau of Chemistry. 22 MEATS. Water,.. Solids,. Nitrogen,. Phosphoric acid, • ❤ Sulfur,. Fat,. .63.95 percent -36.05 66 (6 4.54 "C ⚫59 .27 66 5.93 1.48 .28.37 e Ash,. Protein,.. It is seen that the roast beef contains less water, less protein, and decidedly more fat than the steak. Roast Lamb. The parts of the lamb which are used for roasting are usually the hind quarters, although all of the parts are roasted at times. The average composition of a number of samples of lamb roast is given in the fol- lowing table:* Water,. Solids,.. .58.56 percent Nitrogen,. Phosphoric acid,. Sulfur,. Fat, Ash,... Protein,. .41.44 "" 4.91 .61 .28 9.12 << • 1.30 (c .30.71 Lamb chops or mutton chops are the short ribs with attached flesh of lamb or young sheep. They are considered to be the most desirable part of the young sheep or lamb for edible purposes. The average composition of the edible portion of a number of samples of lamb chops is given in the following table: Water,... Solids,. Nitrogen,. .63.98 percent .36.02 Phosphoric acid,……. Sulfur,. Fat, Ash,.. Protein,. ANALYSES OF MEAT EXTRACTS, JUICES, AND POWDERS. (From Bulletin No. 114, Bureau of Chemistry.) SOLID MEAT EXTRACTS. NAME. Mois- TURE. MAT- TER. MIN- ERAL SALT. TOTAL PHOS- PHORIC ACID. OR- GANIC PHOS- PHORIC ACID- ITY AS LACTIC ACID. ACID. ETHER TOTAL TOTAL Ex- PRO- MEAT TRACT. TEids.* Bases. ୫ % %% % કો % % १९ te % ૨ Beef, "Rex" Brand Beef Ex- tract, • Liebig's Extract of Meat, Armour's Extract of Extract of Beef Premier (Libby, McNeill, and Libby), tract, Beef Extract, Coin Spe- 26.50 24.06 8.54 2.29 0.35 6.01 1.30 22.12 21.14 21.03 3.11 2.40 .61 8.13 .94 30.50 II. II 11.92 21.66 20.46 5.47 4.55 .49 8.42 .50 27.5I 9.52 • • 21.86 30.92 18.32 2.53 .24 5.15 .53 14.93 9.98 Swift & Co's Beef Ex- cial (Hammond Co.), . 20.16 27.28 13.51 2.89 12.39 31.68 13.25 3.19 .18 4.15 .43 15.38 10.70 .21 6.44 .43 15.01 13.14 FLUID MEAT EXTRACTS. Armour's Concentrated Fluid Beef Extract, . . 57.75 17.23 8.27 2.32 0.26 3.II 0.09 6.76 5.18 John Wyeth & Bro.'s Beef Juice, 58.84 16.21 6.71 3.27 .04 3.92 .23 6.45 5.99 Valentine's Meat Juice Co's Meat Juice, 57.64 10.26 1.77 3.4I .45 4.53 .50 5.63 6.05 Vigoral (Armour & Co.), 49.94 15.91 7.02 3.29 .46 4.76 .04 10.75 6.30 "Rex" Fluid Beef Ex- tract (Cudahy Co.), . 55.99 16.99 8.48 2.48 ·38 4.92 .05 7.00 8.21 Cibils Co's Fluid Extract of Beef, • 64.63 16.13 11.38 .95 .14 2.43 .06 10.25 4.24 The Mosquera - Julia Food Co's Fluid Beef Jelly, • 68.97 13.85 10.05 .80 .18 2.20 .09 8.13 3.06 * Sum of protein, proteoses, and peptones. 566 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. NAME OF PREPARATION. PREPARATION of Juice. MEAT JUICES PREPARED IN LABORATORY. (From Bulletin No. 14, Bureau of Chemistry.) WATER IN JUICE. MINERAL MATTER. INSOLUBLE PROTEID. % % % % % % % Round beef, cold pressed,. Chuck beef, cold pressed,. 85.76 1.53 1.00 8.56 86.85 1.86 0.38 1.00 1.03 1.81 6.13 .44 .69 .90 Juice extracted from beef chuck by cold pressure,. Juice extracted from sirloin steak by cold pressure,. Round beef pressed at 60° C.,... Chuck beef pressed at 60° C.,. . . . Juice from beef chuck at 60° C.,.... Juice pressed from sirloin steak and water,.. 90.65 1.36 4.25 .25 .c6 1.34 91.90 I.29 •75 | 2.56 .44 1.31 .84 89.56 1.27 3.06 2.63 .56 91.10 1.40 3.38 1.25 1.13 .81 96.13 •46 2.13 Trace None .44 96.58 .43 2.13 Trace None .28 Juice extracted from beef chuck by cold pressure after six hours at 60° to 100° C.,.... 98.11 .39 Trace .75 .25 MISCELLANEOUS PREPARATIONS (MEAT EXTRACTS, JUICES, AND POWDERS). (From Bulletin No. 114, Bureau of Chemistry.) CLASS I. Water. MINERAL MATTER. % % % % % % Bouillon Capsules,.. 14.75 39.75 5.80 22.19 2.06 6.93 Bovril, Seasoned,. 43.39 16.09❘ 3.87 22.06 7.56 6.02 Beef Jelly, Mosquera Extract of Beef, 27.82 17.31 7.53 28.63 1.19 9.24 Essence of Beef,. 90.93 I.34 .88 5.07 .19 1.34 CLASS II. Predigested Beef,……... 91.69 .18 .96 1.19 .06 .69 Soluble Beef,.. 30.15 14.55 5.46 37.76 3.19 6.68 Bovox Essence of Beef,. 65.77 17.29 2.91 16.57 Johnson's Fluid Beef,. American Brand Extract of Beef,. Bovinine Concentrated Beef,.. .19 2.78 47.22 9.80 4.86 31.75 7.56 3.87 27.54 34.73 5.91 26.69 1.81 3.59 Essence of Mutton,.. Liquid Food (extract of beef, mutton, and fruits),.. 86.09 80.40 1.55 I.22 14.14 3.38 .28 82.03 2.25 1.62 12.00 .69 1.78 .65 1.21 10.69 1.94 .25 *The sum of insoluble and coagulable proteids, proteoses, and peptones. ACIDITY AS LACTIC ACID. TOTAL PROTEIDS.* INSOLUBLE AND COAG- ULABLE Proteids. TOTAL MEAt Bases. Coagulable Proteid. PROTEOSES. PEPTONES. AMIDO BODIES. Maggi's Bouillon,... Peptonized Beef, Rose,.. . Beef Extract and Vegetable Tablets,. Leube-Rosenthal's Beef Solution,... Malted Meat Extract of Beef, Beef Peptonoids,. NAME OF PREPARATION. UNCLASSIFIED. NAME OF PREPARATION. NATURE OF THE DISEASE. 567 MISCELLANEOUS PREPARATIONS (MEAT EXTRACTS, JUICES, ANd Powders).—(Continued.) CLASS III. CLASS IV. WATER. MINERAL Matter. ACIDITY AS LACTIC ACID. TOTAL PROTEIDS.* Insoluble and CoaG- ULABLE Proteids. % % % % % % 56.56 21.94 4.IO 2.13 .13 5.83 45.13 3.52 2.08 22.20 1.38 9.89 22.29 23.66 4.76 18.87 10.56 3.15 72.68 3.91 2.54 16.13 9.88 I.34 8.61 7.87 .84 9.82 7.69 1.40 5.72 5.63 .35 23.32 20.19 I.22 % до % % ୪୧ % Carnine Co., Lefranco, Paris, France; Imported by Fougera & Co., Agts., New York,... 24.80 .86 .09 .33 47.50 14.2 WATER. MINERAL MATTER. SALT. DIET IN DIABETES. Nature of the Disease.-There is one disease of quite common occurrence concerning which there is practically a unanimity of opinion among medical men respecting the character of the diet which should be observed by the pa- tient, namely, diabetes. In this disease the metabolism of the system is so changed that the urine contains a greater or less quantity of sugar. The sugar which is found in the urine is not the ordinary one, but is dextrose, the prod- uct which arises from the complete inversion of starch by means of an acid. Dextrose also constitutes half of the product produced by inverting cane sugar with an acid or a ferment. Occasionally levulose, a sugar identical with dextrose chemically, but different as to structure (turning the plane of *The sum of insoluble and coagulable proteids, proteoses, and peptones. PHOSPHORIC ACID. Cane SugaR. GLYCERIN. TOTAL MEAT BASES. 568 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. polarized light to the left instead of the right), is found in the urine instead of dextrose. Diabetes is regarded by most diagnosticians as peculiarly a disease of disordered metabolism, more so even than rheumatism or gout. The pres- ence of sugar in the urine is in itself a matter of consequence, inasmuch as it implies a disturbed metabolism, since normal urine does not usually contain even a trace of sugar. Hence the presence of any amount of this substance indicates a very serious disorder of nutrition or disease of the kidneys. In other words, the body has lost the power of oxidizing sugar. Inasmuch as the sugar secreted is dextrose, it has been thought by physicians generally that to control the food in such a way as to diminish the quantity of material capable of forming dextrose would be a rational treatment. A moment's thought will show that the exclusion of food containing dextrose or dextrose- forming material may not at all be a remedy for the disease, although it may offer a probable way of controlling to some extent the principal symptoms by very considerably diminishing the quantity of sugar excreted. Sources of Sugar.-Von Noorden has noted that sometimes beer-drinking produces sugar in urine, but he was not sure whether it was maltose or grape sugar. He has also noted that there is often an approximately proportional relation between glycosuria on the one hand and decomposition of protein on the other. That sugar can be formed from protein is shown by the following experiment: (a) Three days' diet with much meat and no carbohydrates gave 48.2, 56.7, 57.1 grams of sugar in the urine. (b) Three days with vegetables gave 30.2, 11.9, 2.1 grams. (c) Five days of vegetables with 300 grams of meat per day gave 7.8, 22.8, 33.5, 36.7, 48.3 grams sugar. (d) Two days' diet of vegetables alone gave 8.1 grams and a trace of sugar. Proteins may yield from 40 to 50 percent of their own weight of glucose. Those which are made up of amino acids, e. g., casein, are the ones to pro- duce sugar in the body. The transformation into sugar occurs when the organ- ism is in need of carbohydrates. Feeding alanin to a diabetic patient caused a large percentage of sugar to appear in urine. Feeding with casein is accom- panied with the most marked degree of glycosuria, legumes (peas, lentils, beans) standing next in this particular, while egg-albumen and the protein of cereals have the least power of producing glycosuria. In severe cases of diabetes it is suggested to forbid casein and limit the amount of meat to be eaten. There are even a few cases of diabetes in which more sugar is excreted than can be accounted for by the decomposition of carbohydrates and meat, and therefore it is thought probable that the sugar comes from the fat. Since by far the larger part of man's food is of carbo- hydrate nature, it is difficult to entirely eliminate that class of foods from the diet The greater the intensity of diabetic disturbance, the greater the amount GLUTEN FLOUR AND GLUTEN BREAD. 569 of carbohydrate that is excreted unused in the urine. Nevertheless nearly all authorities agree that it is advisable in the treatment of diabetes to exclude, in so far as possible, starch and sugar from the diet. Duering has proposed a "rice" cure. The theory of using this very rich carbohydrate is based on the principle that to limit the diet of carbohydrates to one particular kind is of as much importance as to exclude carbohydrates completely. This idea, however, has not been generally accepted. In Lusk's "Science of Nutrition" it is stated that sugar must arise from either protein or fat. Pflüger claims that fat metabolism is the principal source of sugar in diabetes. It has also been shown that protein breaks up into amino acids in the intestines, and that such acids when ingested are equivalent in metabolism to protein itself, and may be converted into dextrose. Cause of Diabetes.-It is not to be inferred that the use of foods con- taining starch and sugar, from which dextrose is usually formed, is in any sense the cause of the disease. This cannot be the case, because were it so, every individual would suffer from this trouble, since starch and sugar con- stitute the principal weight of the dry foods of man. Furthermore, Von Noorden shows that whole races, e. g., those in northern climes and also numer- ous groups of animals, which use hardly any carbohydrates for food, excrete sugar in their urine. These people and animals subsist almost entirely on animal food, and yet sugar is being continually produced and conducted to the tissues. Nevertheless, the common treatment of diabetes is generally accompanied by the administration of a diet in which starch and sugar are excluded as completely as possible. The principal starchy foods are well known, namely, rice, potatoes, and the cereals. The non-starchy foods are represented principally by meat or plant products in which the nitrogenous element is largely developed, such as certain parts of wheat, peas, and beans. But even the wheats which are richest in gluten contain always much larger quantities of starch than they do of nitrogenous elements. If patients crave a sweetened food, ievulose may be used, or even saccharin, which, as has been already stated, is not food at all. Gluten Flour and Gluten Bread.-To increase the quantity of gluten in bread and diminish the amount of starch, for use of diabetic patients, a gluten flour is manufactured, which is produced by washing or removing in some way from ordinary flour a very considerable percentage of its starch. In this way the percentage of the nitrogenous matter is increased, and for practical dietetic purposes in the treatment of diabetes should not be less than 35 or 40 percent. Standard for Gluten Flour.-The standard for gluten flour has been fixed by the Secretary of Agriculture as follows: "Gluten flour is the clean, sound product made from flour by the removal of starch and contains not less than five and six tenths (5.6) percent of nitrogen and not more than ten (10) percent of moisture.” 570 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. Many advertisements have been published of gluten flour and gluten bread which are extremely false and misleading. The examination of many samples of so-called gluten flour has shown that the quantity of gluten therein con- tained was no greater than that of an ordinary rich glutinous wheat. It is evident that the buyer is wholly misled in such cases, and if a gluten bread is really advantageous to a diabetic patient, the benefits expected would certainly not be realized. Examples of the composition of real gluten flour and so- called gluten flour which is nothing more than good rich wheat flour are given in the following tables: PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF TRUE AND OF SO-CALLED GLUTEN FLOURS. GLUTEN AND DIABETIC FLOUR. NAME. FIBER. CARBOHY- DRATES. Fuel ValuE PER LB. Calo ries. Gum gluten (Hoyt's),……... Educator standard gluten flour,. Gluten flour, 40 percent, Self-raising gluten flour, 40 percent, Pure gluten flour,*. 20 per cent. gluten flour,. Pure gluten flour, glutosac, Gluten food,.. Protosac,.. Washed gluten flour,. Glutosac,.. Diabetic biscuit flour,. · Plasmon meal,……… Aleuronat,.. Roborat,.... Wheat protein,. Energin from rice,. Vegetable gluten,. Casoid flour,.. Sanitas nut meal, Soy bean meal,. Almond meal,... Gluten flour,. Gluten flour,. Diabetic flour,……. Jireh diabetic flour,. Special diabetic food,.. Gluten flour,. Gluten flour,. • • • *11.2 0.96 31.8 *11.3 .95 26.4 S*10.5 0.51 40.25 † 7.8 1.2 41.I † 8.8 1.3 38.7 † 7.2.6 78.8 † 8.9 1.1 21.0 † 8.0 1.1 35.2 *IO.I .2285.4 *10.6 .66 36.6 * 6.2 .80 62.40 *10.1 1.14 34.06 † 7.9 2.04 75.25 t10.9 7.61 78.65 S ‡ 8.5´ .89 86.1 10.9 .70 73.65 19.5 1.39 82.2 18.6 1.10 84.I 19.1 1.03 83.7 * 7.9 .65 61.37 *10.0 2.46 85.56 1.55 .33 54.15 1.67.37 59.38 1.18 0.15 47.42 I.I 47.9 } 1732 1.3 50.1 1695 .9 12.6 2078 .7 68.2 1692 .60 55.0 1705 .56 .03 3.69 .86 .25 51.03 .91.16 29.51 1.57 .97 52.13 8.96 2.72 .5I .24 3.67 1.40 4.54 .27 5.89 OO 4.00 14.55 } 3.00 4.80 .67 1.55 .32 28.23 .50 *3.0 2.1729.00 51.66 2.01 12.13 * 7.8 4.4 39.87 19.06 3.85 25.09 *8.5 6.4 50.62 15.63 2.86 15.90 *12.7 .43 11.37 † 9.2 1.90 15.5 TIO.7 .46 12.0 * 9.3 1.30 14.3 *12.0 1.93 14.25 $13.0 .55 13.3 || 8.6 1.29 16.4 1877 1576 2.6 .90 .25 74.38 70.8 1714 1663 .46 .25 76.45 2.211.03 71.95 2.96 1.37 67.47 1.05 3.15 72.11 70.60 It is evident from the analytical data that the last seven products are only common wheat flours. * Rep't Conn. Agr. Exp't Station, 1906. † Fetteroff, Examination of Some of the Diabetic Foods of Commerce. König, page 535. || Blyth, Foods and their Analysis. § Bull. 13, Part IX, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dep't Agr. A DIET FREE FROM STARCH AND SUGAR NOT PRACTICABLE. 571 Gluten Bread.-The separation of starch from flour and the making of bread from the residue was first introduced by Bouchardat in 1841. Many cook books give recipes for making bread from flour of this kind. The gluten flour may be prepared in the home, and it is, as a rule, much safer to prepare it in this way than to buy it on the market, because it can be used in the moist state as soon as made. The starch can be washed from wheat flour by a simple process of kneading, using pure cold water for a wash. After the dough is made it is worked with the fingers, or with proper machinery, and water added from time to time, thus washing out the starch. It is better to do the kneading in a vessel the bottom of which consists of a fine gauze which will permit the particles of starch to pass through but will retain the gluten. The washing may be continued until the wash water ceases to be white and prac- tically all the starch is removed. The residual dough can then be baked into bread. Usually, however, gluten flour is not entirely free from starch, and perhaps it is not advisable, for the reason which has already been stated, namely, that starch is a normal constituent of the food and its complete with- drawal produces an abnormal state of nutrition which may do more damage than a small amount of starch. There is a simple test for the presence of starch in a gluten flour known as the iodin reaction, and due to the fact that a solution of iodin mixed with a starch produces a deep blue color. This is an extremely delicate test, however, so that a very small amount of starch might appear to be very large when tested with this reaction alone. Instead of using the gluten obtained from wheat flour, other albuminous substitutes have been proposed, such as the soy bean, almonds, cocoanuts, and Iceland moss. Experience has shown, however, that patients soon tire of bread made from gluten flour or any of its substitutes. Many physicians have therefore given up its use altogether, prescribing a standard diet free from carbohydrates, and allowing a small amount of good ordinary bread, which is much more palatable and of which the patient does not tire. It is usually advised that the bread be well toasted. Some physicians, instead of prescribing the white bread, use the various forms of Graham bread or brown bread, made from either the whole grain or that from which only a portion of the bran has been removed. Impracticability of Securing a Diet Entirely Free from Starch and Sugar. It would be practically impossible to secure for man a diet entirely free from starch and sugar. Even lean meats contain sometimes as much as 1 percent of a sugar-producing substance, and the best of the glu- ten flours and gluten breads contain very notable quantities of starch. Soy beans, when ripe, are supposed to contain no starch, and would prove a val- uable food for diabetics if sugar were not formed from their protein. Most of the nuts are also very low in carbohydrates, as shown in the following table: 572 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF NUTS.* CARBOHYDRATES. FUEL VALUE KIND OF NUT. Water. PROTEIN. FAT. ASH. STARCH PER AND FIBER. SUGAR. POUND. Calories. Butternut,. 4.5 27.9 61.2 3.4 3.0 3370 Brazil nut,. 4.7 17.4 65.0 5.7 3.9 3.3 3120 Pecan,. 3.4 12.I 70.7 8.5 3.7 1.6 3300 Hickory,. 3.7 15.4 67.4 II.4 2.I 3345 Filbert,. 5.4 16.5 64.0 11.7 2.4 3100 Cocoanut, 13.0 6.6 56.2 13.7 8.9 1.6 2805 Almonds,. 4.9 21.4 54.4 13.8 3.0 2.5 2895 Pistachio,... 4.2 22.6 54.5 15.6 3.I 3250 Walnut,. 3.4 18.2 60.7 13.7 2.3 1.7 .3075 Chestnut, 43.4 6.4 6.0 41.3 1.5 I.4 1140 The chestnut contains considerable amounts of starch, and is therefore not adapted for this purpose. Peas and beans also contain large quantities of starchy matter, and various vegetables, which contain little starch, are found to carry a considerable percentage of sugar. It is impracticable, therefore, and perhaps undesirable, to secure a diet for diabetic subjects which is entirely devoid of sugar and starch, for it is the total carbohydrates which must be considered and not wholly the starch. Moreover, an extraordinary change in the character of the diet, which would be represented by a nonsugar-non- starch ration, would probably be of more injury to the digestive system by far, even of a diabetic patient, than a ration containing a normal amount of these substances. For this reason it is not only impracticable, but also unde- sirable, to secure a ration which is devoid of the sugars and starches. Professor Osborne, of Yale Medical School, says: "I have not a doubt that many a patient with diabetes mellitus has been hurried to his grave by rigid starch-free diets. I also believe that the fact that most so-called starch-free gluten foods contain starch has allowed many a diabetic to live months longer than a starch-free diet would have allowed. An absolute withdrawal of car- bohydrates from the food of patients having true diabetes mellitus will always increase the acetone and diacetic acid, and often the ammonia and ß-oxy- butyric acid, and toxic acidemia and coma become imminent. Hence, it is unjustifiable, sugar having become discovered in the urine, to withdraw the starches absolutely or too rapidly from the diet.” Test Diet for Determining Toleration of Carbohydrates.-In Osler's "Practice of Medicine" † attention is called to the fact that in the case of a diabetic patient the first duty of the physician is to ascertain the capacity for tolerating carbohydrates, meaning thereby particularly sugar and starch. This should be determined by placing the subject for at least five days on a diet * Jaffa, Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 28 and 332, U. S. Department of Agriculture. † Reprinted from Osler's The Principles and Practice of Medicine, copyright, 1909, by D. Appleton & Co. TEST DIET FOR DETERMINING TOLERATION OF CARBOHYDRATES. 573 from which starch and sugar are rigidly excluded, that is, a diet consisting exclusively of protein and fat. The quantity of food given, in case it can be tolerated, should be a generous one, that is, approximately 40 calories for each kilogram of body-weight. A diet based on the recommendations of Von Noorden which would secure the desired result is as follows: Breakfast: 7.30 A.M. 150 grams of beefsteak or mutton-chops without bone; two boiled or poached eggs; 200 c.c. of tea or coffee. Lunch: 12:30 P.M. 200 grams cold roast-beef, mutton, or chicken; 60 grams celery, fresh cucumbers, or tomatoes, with 5 c.c. vinegar, 10 C.C. oil, pepper and salt to taste; 20 c.c. whisky (if desired); 400 c.c. of water or Apollinaris water; 60 c.c. coffee. Dinner: 6 P.M. 200 c.c. clear bouillon; 200 grams roast beef; 60 grams lettuce with 10 c.c. vinegar; 20 c.c. olive oil, or three tablespoonfuls of some well-cooked green vegetable, as spinach; three sardines à l'huile; 20 c.c. cognac or whisky (if desired), with 400 c.c. Apollinaris water. Supper: 9 P.M. Two eggs, raw or cooked; 400 c.c. Apollinaris or Seltzer water. It is further advised that "with the four meals at least 15 grams of butter should be used in making the gravies and with the eggs. No milk or sugar is permitted with the tea or coffee, but saccharin may be used to sweeten them. The time of taking lunch and dinner, of course, may be reversed. This daily diet should provide a person of 60 kilos (132 pounds) with a little over the req- uisite 2400 calories for an individual of that weight. One precaution must be emphasized here. If the patient has been eating freely of starches, these must be cut down slowly for two or three days before he is placed on the standard diet. Any sudden and radical change from one diet to another is liable to induce coma. As it has been found that a dog must fast five days before the glycogen of his liver has been all used up, it is well to keep the dia- betic on the above diet for at least five days; by so doing it practically elimi- nates the possibility that any sugar excretion at the end of that time is de- rived from the stored-up glycogen of the liver." Inasmuch as a diet entirely free of starch and sugar is not a normal diet, and hence should only be used in case of necessity, it is advisable to find out how much carbohydrate a diabetic patient can tolerate without unduly increasing the quantity of sugar in the urine. For this purpose, after the treatment above mentioned, small quantities of bread, preferably bread made from white flour, may be used. A well baked loaf of white bread contains approximately 55 percent of starch. Only 25 grams should be given for the first few days, and if the sugar does not reappear in the urine, or is not increased in quantity, another 25 grams may be added, and so on until the symptoms of glycosuria develop. The degree of tolerance, therefore, may be expressed in the form of a formula as follows: Tolerance equals standard diet plus x grams of starch, 574 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. x representing the number of grams of starch the patient can take as deter- mined experimentally, without sugar appearing in the urine. Dietaries Recommended by Von Noorden.-Von Noorden, one of the most eminent authorities on diabetes, in his work entitled "Disorders of Meta- bolism and Nutrition, "* divides foods intended for diabetic patients into two classes: (1) Those food products which are practically free from carbo- hydrates, and which should form the base of the daily diet. (2) Certain ac- cessory articles of diet which include substances containing more or less car- bohydrates. The use of these accessory articles is based on the fact that it is necessary not only to prescribe a diet which has some specific relation to the disturbance, but which will also conserve, or tend to conserve, the general health. As carbohydrates are such an important part of a normal diet, it is not a safe plan to continue too long a diet from which they are entirely excluded. Standard Test Diet.-The standard test diet is prescribed by Von Noorden as follows: Breakfast: 200 grams coffee or tea with one to two tablespoonfuls of thick cream. 100 grams of hot or cold meat (weighed after cooking). Butter. Two eggs, with bacon. 50 grams of white bread. Lunch: Two eggs cooked as desired, but without flour, or any other hors d'œuvre free from flour. Meat (boiled or roasted), fish, venison, or fowl, according to taste, about 200 to 250 grams altogether (weighed when cooked). Vegetables, such as spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, or asparagus; prepared with broth, butter, or other fat, eggs or thick sour cream, but without any flour. 20 to 25 grams creamy cheese (such as Camembert, Brie, etc.); plenty of butter. Two glasses of light white or red wine, if desired. One small cup of coffee, with one to two table- spoonfuls of thick cream. 50 grams of white bread. Dinner: Clear meat soup, with egg or green vegetable in it. One to two meat dishes, as at lunch. Vegetable dishes, as at lunch. Salad of lettuce, cucumber, or tomatoes. Wine. No bread. Drinks during the day (exclusive of wine), one to two bottles of aërated water. This test diet is intended to reduce the sugar excretion to a minimum and is preliminary to a more generous diet in which bread is included if the sugar excretion is not too greatly increased Oatmeal as a Diabetic Food.-Von Noorden has recommended as a food for diabetic patients in certain cases oatmeal, or rather a gruel made from oatmeal. The use of this substance was the result of an accidental obser- vation. A number of patients, in addition to diabetes, were suffering with severe disturbances of the stomach and the lower intestine. For this trouble they were confined to a diet consisting exclusively of oatmeal gruel. The observations in these cases showed that the amount of sugar in the urine was diminished during the continuance of this diet. The oatmeal, of course, is not used alone; as prescribed by Von Noorden, it consists in the daily admin- istration of from 200 to 250 grams of oatmeal, best given in the form of gruel, * Published by E. B. Treat & Co., New York. USE OF THE SOY BEAN. 575 every two hours. In addition to this, 200 to 300 grams of butter are prescribed, and about 100 grams of a vegetable proteid, or for this a few eggs may be sub- stituted. No other food is allowed except black coffee or tea, lemon juice, good old wine, or a little brandy or whisky. This diet has not been found entirely satisfactory by many other authorities, nor does Von Noorden urge it for all cases. The oatmeal, of course, contains considerable quantities of starch, but it is starch of an entirely different kind from that of wheat or rye, the usual bread diet of civilized nations. The inference is that the starch of the oatmeal does not act so injuriously as that of wheat or rye. Von Noorden makes the follow- ing statement in regard to the oatmeal diet: "Unfortunately, however, there are only relatively few cases in which the result is quite so surprisingly bene- ficial; in many others it is incomplete, although still satisfactory; in others, again, no result at all is obtained." The best results were found in very severe cases when there was a large excess of sugar in the urine. On the other hand, the treatment was almost always a failure where only a slight amount of sugar was found in the urine. Other starchy foods which have been recommended are the potato and rice, each having its protagonist among reputable authorities, based upon the sup- position that both the potato starch and the rice starch are far less injurious than rye starch or the wheat starch found in ordinary breads. Water and Other Beverages. It is the general consensus of opinion that it is injurious to restrict the quantity of water which a diabetic patient is al- lowed to use. The fact that the drinking of a considerable amount of water increases the volume of the urine is perhaps a favorable, rather than an un- favorable, symptom. Thirst is a very common symptom in diabetes, and it should be allayed by plenty of pure water. Many physicians recommend mineral, or bottled, waters. An occasional change from a pure spring-water to a bottled water may be advisable, but on account of the cost, which is often a matter of importance, it may be said that pure spring-water, as fresh as can be had, will serve all purposes. Lemonade may also be used, but if a sweet taste is craved it must be produced by the addition of saccharin and not by sugar. It is better by far to ignore the craving for sweets than to gratify it with such a questionable substance as so-called "saccharin." Osler recommends the use of whisky, brandy, and rum on the ground that it aids in the digestion of fat and tends to make up for the loss in heat-units resulting from the cutting off of carbohydrates. Use of the Soy Bean.-Dr. Julius Friedenwald and Dr. Ruhräh, in the Proceedings of the One Hundred and Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Medical and Chirurgical Faculty of Maryland, held at Baltimore on April 26, 1910, recommend the soy bean also as a diet in diabetes. Eight cases of diabetes were treated with this food, and the conclusions which were reached were as follows: 1. The soy bean is a valuable addition to the dietary of the diabetic on ac- count of its palatability and the numerous ways in which it can be prepared. 576 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. 2. The soy bean in some ways causes a reduction in percentage and total quantity of sugar passed in diabetic subjects on the usual dietary restrictions. The following recipes for broths and muffins made from the soy bean are of interest in this connection: Broths.-Add from 1 to 8 ounces of the flour to one quart of beef, mutton, veal, or chicken broth and boil for fifteen minutes, adding water to make up for loss by evaporation; or, boil the same quantity of the soy flour for one- half hour with one quart of water, to which has been added a piece of ham, bacon, or salt pork to give flavor. Each ounce of the flour will add to the broth about 13 grams of protein and 120 calories, or, in percentages, add 1.4 percent protein, 0.60 percent fat, and 0.30 percent carbohydrates. A broth made with 6 ounces of the soy flour to the quart would be half as rich in protein and fat as steak. Muffins.—To make muffins from the soy flour, take 1 teacupfuls of the soy flour, teacupful of wheat flour, ½ teaspoonful of salt, 2 eggs, 1 teacupful of sweet milk, 2 rounded teaspoonfuls of baking powder, and 1 tablespoon- fuls of melted but not hot butter. Beat well together, adding the melted butter last, and bake in gem pans in a hot oven. This will make about 12 muffins, which will contain about 150 grams of protein and which will yield about 1800 calories, of which the carbohydrates produce but 280. Foreign Diabetic Foods.-Tatterolf has collected a number of foreign diabetic foods, the composition of which is shown in the subjoined table. COMPOSITION OF FOREIGN DIABETIC FOODS. MATERIAL. WATER. ASH. ETHER EXTRACT (FAT). PROTEIN (NITROGEN X 6.25). CLUDING FIBER (BY DIFFERENCE). CARBOHYDRATES IN- FUEL VALUE PER POUND (Calcu- LATED). Casoid flour,.. Casoid dinner rolls,. Casoid biscuit, No. 1 (plain), % 29 % % 60 1.61 82.50 % Calories. 10.25 2.50 3.14 1661 6.95 1.84 11.08 78.00 2.13 1918 2.53 16.78 64.75 8.74 2075 7.20 Casoid biscuit, No. 2,.. Casoid biscuit, No. 3,.. Casoid rusks, Casoid lunch biscuit,. 7.48 3.59 25.51 57.81 5.61 2256 7.90 4.95 25.02 54.31 7.82 22 II 5.42 4.47 32.33 36.98 20.80 2439 4.20 Prolactic biscuit, Kalari biscuit,. Kalari batons,. 6.34 3.77 44.87 25.53 3.95 27.51 42.9T 21.63 2771 19.29 2317 Almond biscuit (plain), Almond short breads,. Ginger biscuit + saccharin (trace), Cocoanut biscuit + saccharin (trace), Gluten bread (French),.. · 6.31 3.70 31.43 56.88 1.68 8.13 4.40 33.70 52.88 0.89 3.66 3.20 28.02 28.34 4.20 3.51 52.11 19.54 20.64 2946 2.45 3.69 58.62 17.06 18.18 3129 2.63 3.13 61.28 16.61 16.35 7.78 1.29 2400 2422 36.78 2394 3199 2.36 35.94 52.63 1747 Conalbin-Mehl No. 1 (diabetic flour), 9.42 0.52 0.39 10.88 78.79 1684 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON DIET IN OBESITY. 577 The casoid preparations, it is claimed, are made from milk, vegetable albu- min, and eggs. They contain only small quantities of carbohydrates. Many of the products, it is seen from the table, contain such large quantities of carbo- hydrates as to render them, theoretically at least, undesirable for diabetic patients. DIET IN NEPHRITIS. Importance of Diet.-The various forms of inflammation of the kid- ney are designated by the general term nephritis. The diet in the case of nephritis is almost as important as in the case of diabetes. Von Noorden is particularly insistent that foods which tend to produce increasing quantities of hippuric acid in the urine should be excluded in all cases of nephritis. He says: Hippuric acid, as is well known, is generated from benzoic acid and glycocol by a synthetic process in the kidneys themselves. In nephritis, particularly in the more acute forms, this synthesis is rendered more difficult, so that a proportionately large part of the benzoic acid that is ingested, or that is formed. within the body and enters the blood, leaves the kidneys unchanged, or in the form of a salt. The other component, glycocol, under these circumstances is also in small part excreted unchanged. The greater proportion that under normal circumstances would have been converted into hippuric acid, is con- verted into urea, and is excreted as such. While it is not known that the ex- cretion of benzoic acid is a particularly difficult task when the kidneys are diseased, or that benzoic acid can directly damage the kidneys, we should nevertheless, from the standpoint of protective therapy, prevent the entrance of benzoic acid into the blood-stream circulating through the diseased kidneys, for when we overload the blood with benzoic acid we impose a task on the sick kidneys that they are not capable of performing. We can easily avoid this irritation and this stimulation of the organ if we regulate the diet in such a manner that as little benzoic acid as possible circulates in the blood. From this point of view green vegetables, fruit containing kernels, and cranberries that contain large quantities of benzoic esters, should not be permitted in acute inflammation of the kidneys. In such fruit as pears and apples, and in many berries (particularly raspberries and grapes), on the other hand, we find traces only of benzoic acid; those fruits, therefore, and syrups made from them, constitute an excellent addition to the diet of nephritic cases, for they are borne very well, they stimulate digestive processes, and offer some variety. DIET IN OBESITY. General Discussion.—It should be understood that obesity is not a disease or a disturbance of the digestive system. It is rather a disturbance of the gen- eral metabolism in which the fats formed from the food consumed are not properly oxidized or burned in the tissues, but are deposited as such. The disease which causes obesity may, however, originate in the over-stimulation. of the digestive organs through excessive eating. In many instances this 38 578 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. over-stimulation does not result in the taking on of an undue amount of fat, while in others the fat-forming habit develops as any other disease would develop in similar circumstances. A diet which is properly consumed and expended by one individual, and which would keep that person in a lean condition, would in another produce the opposite effect, namely, obesity, which tendency may be transmitted by heredity, and might be characterized as an inborn error of metabolism. The capacity of the body to utilize food materials in its economy differs in each individual, depending on numerous factors (worry, excitement, climate, occupation, habits, etc.). When food is supplied in excess of this capacity, it is stored in the body chiefly as fat. The literature on patent and secret remedies is full of so-called cures for excessive fat. I do not believe that any of these claims are founded on a scien- tific basis. If the patient loses in weight under the influence of these drugs, it is due to a disturbance of the digestion caused by the action of the drug. Hare's Dietary.-Hare, in his work on "Practical Therapeutics,”* recom- mends the following dietary in cases of obesity: The food of the patient suffering from obesity is to be cut down gradually, and the character of it arranged so that, though its bulk be great, its nutritive properties are small. Beef and other meats are concentrated foods containing much nourishment in a small bulk, while lettuce, spinach, cabbage, and nearly all vegetables, except roots or tubers, contain a large amount of fiber useless to the body. By the use of a carefully arranged vegetable diet in obesity we cut down the actual amount of food absorbed, and by its bulk keep the stomach so busy at sifting the nutritious from the non-nutritious materials that hunger is not felt, because another meal-time is reached almost before the food of the first is assimilated. We find, therefore, that the diet for the reduction of cor- pulence should consist chiefly of bulky vegetables, but not too exclusively of any one article or set of articles. Heretofore it has been thought that pro- teids (meats, eggs, etc.) should be used to take the place of all hydrocarbons, or carbohydrates (fats, starches, and sugars), but this is not physiologically correct, as both forms of food are always needed for health, and it has been found that proteids may be converted into fats in the body. The following bill of fare will be found of service in the treatment of obesity. Breakfast: One or two cups of coffee or tea, without milk or sugar, but sweetened with a fraction of a grain of saccharin. Three ounces of toasted or ordinary white bread or 6 ounces of bran bread. Enough butter may be used to make the bread palatable-not more than one ounce. Sliced raw tomatoes with vinegar or cooked tomatoes without any sugar or fats. This diet may be varied by the use of salted or fresh fish either at breakfast or at dinner. This fish must not be rich like salmon or sword-fish, but rather like perch or other small fish. Noon meal (dinner): One soup-plate of bouillon, consommé, Julienne, or other thin soup, or Mosquera's beef-jelly, followed by one piece of the white meat of any form of fowl or a small bird. Sometimes a small piece, the size of one's hand, of rare beef or mutton, but no fat, may be allowed, and this * Published by Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia. QUANTITY OF FOOD. 579 should be accompanied by string-beans, celery (stewed or raw), spinach, kale, cabbage, beans, asparagus, leeks, and young onions. Following this, lettuce with vinegar and a little olive oil (to make a French dressing), a cup of black coffee or one of tea, and a little acid fruit, such as sour grapes, tamarinds, and sour oranges or lemons, may be taken, and followed by a cigar or cigarette. Supper should consist of one or two soft-boiled eggs, which may also be poached, but not fried, a few ounces of bran bread, some salad and fruit, and perhaps a glass or two of light, dry (not sweet) wine, if the patient is accustomed to its use. Before going to bed, to avoid discomfort from a sensation of hunger during the night, the patient may take a meal of panada, or he may soak Graham or bran crackers or biscuits in water and flavor the mass with salt and pepper. The reduction of diet is generally best accomplished slowly, and should be accompanied by measures devoted to the utilization of the fat present for the support of the body. Thus the patient should not be too heavily clad, either day or night, should resort to exercise, daily becoming more severe, and should not drink freely of water, unless sweating is established sufficiently freely to prevent the accumulation of liquid in vessels and tissues." Fats in the Diet for Obesity.-The fats of the food are more readily oxidized and are a more immediate source of energy than carbohydrates and proteins, both of which are sources of fats in the body. I believe, in spite of this capacity for utilizing energy which is readily supplied by fats, that it would be harder to retard the development of corpulency if the diet contained a great amount of this constituent. Therefore, fats as well as carbohydrates should be excluded as far as possible from the diet in cases of obesity. Effect of Sugars and Starches.—It is generally held among physiologists that the sugars and starches are more disposed to produce corpulency than the fats, and lean meats, and vegetables poor in sugar and starch. In selecting a diet to correct overweight, it is advisable to exclude therefrom all bodies which are excessively rich in starch and sugar. It is manifestly impossible and un- desirable, under ordinary circumstances, to secure a diet in which neither sugar nor starch is found; but it is possible to so modify a diet that it may contain less starch and sugar, and be richer in nitrogenous matters, such as are represented by peas, beans, lean meats, etc. Quantity of Food.-Having so modified the diet the next step is to limit it to the smallest quantity that will preserve health. The best remedy for obesity is hunger, but the use of this remedy requires great force of will and strength of character, so that it is not easy to secure volunteers for this kind of treatment. If the patient is really in earnest about reducing his weight, and every one who is overweight should be, there is no method which can be recom- mended, not injurious to health, that is so effective as the limitation of the diet. Having chosen a diet poor in starch and sugar, it should be limited to a small number of calories per day, not exceeding, for the average man, 2000 to 2500. 580 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. Utility of Exercise.-A very efficient method of aiding in the reduction of weight, as noted in Hare's dietary, is by judicious exercise. It has been urged as an objection to exercise that this itself increases the desire for food. Of this there is no question, but we are assuming in this instance that the patient has will power enough to limit his food to the small quantities men- tioned. If this be the case, the conjunction of proper exercise with a limited diet will hasten the cure. I have nothing to say here respecting the character of the exercise, except that it should be such as to bring into action as many muscles of the body as possible, but not be too violent nor too long continued. Exercise increases the katabolic activities of the body; in other words, it implies the consumption of a greater amount of heat and energy. This heat and energy must either come from the food itself, or from the tissues of the body. The object of the exercise, conjoined with the limited diet, is to oxidize and thus remove the excessive quantities of tissue. Gradual Loss of Weight.-Attention should be called, of course, to the danger of extreme depletion. The limitation of the diet and the vigor of the exercise should not be carried to such an extreme as to actually induce the perils of starvation. In all cases it is better to lose flesh slowly than suddenly. A gradual loss of overweight will leave the body still in excellent condition, with all the organs gradually becoming accustomed to the diminishing weight. The result will be that when the normal weight is finally reached, all the organs of the body will be in a healthy state, the appetite will be under control, and the patient will be able to maintain the condition of equilibrium. This will assist in preventing a recurrence of the deposition of fat, which otherwise will readily take place if the diet be again increased and the exercise dimin- ished. The normal weight for a man six feet high may be assumed as 190 to 200 pounds, and the body will be more effective for both mental and physi- cal work if it is not saddled with a handicap of excessive fat. The most im- portant point, aside from the general directions given, is to avoid the antifat nostrums and the theories of unscientific enthusiasts. We are already a nation largely addicted to the taking of drugs, and the amazing virtues of remedies for all physical and mental ills are heralded by one's friends and by adver- tisements ad finitum. As before stated, these remedies rarely, if ever, are efficacious in reducing weight and they may be harmful. DIET IN TUBERCULOSIS. Nature of the Disease and Importance of Diet,-Tuberculosis is a disease which in its most common form attacks the tissues of the lungs, but there is scarcely any part of the body, not even the bones, that is exempt from its ravages. Modern investigations have placed it among the infectious dis- eases, the specific cause of the disease being the tubercular bacillus, which DIFFERING OPINIONS AS TO CHARACTER AND AMOUNT OF FOOD. 581 is introduced into the system through either the lungs or the digestive organs. The vigorous and well-nourished body is able to withstand an infection of this kind and to destroy the infecting germ before it succeeds in effecting lodg- ment. If, on the contrary, the infecting organism is introduced into a system of low vitality and small resistance, it finds an easy lodgment and develops rapidly. In all cases of tuberculosis one of the first symptoms, after the disease has become established, is the progressive loss of weight, due to disturbed metabolism or inability to digest or assimilate food products. Accompanying the loss of weight there is nearly always a distinct rise of temperature amounting to as much as 2 degrees during the day, in the early stages of the disease, and returning to normal by morning. Hence the "hectic flush" often observed in the case of consumptives. The daily rise of temperature is an important index as regards both diagnosis and treatment. Exercise is strictly controlled in certain sanitoria. Sometimes when the patient is first admitted he is put to bed or compelled to sit absolutely quiet the whole time. Later he is allowed a prescribed number of turns on the porch, and the amount of exercise is gradually increased or decreased, and the diet modified as the indices of improvement, namely, weight and temperature, change for better or worse. It has for many years been one of the most important studies of the medical fraternity to establish a system of diet in tuberculosis which would add addi- tional power to the system for overcoming, through its own efforts, the ravages of the disease, localizing the infection to particular tissues, and preventing its spread. While it is probably impossible to effect a complete cure of tuber- culosis unless treatment is begun in its earliest stages, it is undoubtedly possible to check its advance and so nourish and support the system as to prolong life for an indefinite period. Among the sanitary aids which are employed for this purpose living in the open air and a proper diet are the most important. Differing Opinions as to Character and Amount of Food.-The greatest difference of opinion is found among the medical fraternity in regard to the diet to be recommended. In some instances a strictly vegetable diet has been prescribed, and in others an exclusive meat diet. Milk, and also milk and eggs, have been highly recommended. Formerly, alcohol was supposed to be a means of limiting or restricting the disease, but this view is no longer held by most competent authorities on the subject. A deficiency of lime in the food has also been mentioned as a possible factor in causing tuber- culosis. Lately a theory of treatment has gained much vogue which is based on the overfeeding idea. The principle involved is that if the appetite alone be con- sulted, the patient will not eat a sufficient amount of nourishing food to secure the desired result. As long, therefore, as the digestive organs remain capable 582 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. of discharging their functions, the utilization of the extra energy of these organs has been applied to a restoration of a state of health in the diseased organs. Very good results have been secured in many cases by overfeeding, that is, by forced feeding, so to speak, the patient being required to swallow more food than his appetite demands. Naturally, the foods selected for this purpose are those which are most digestible and best suited to secure the end in view. Milk, eggs, bread, fruit juices, sour milk, fermented milk, meats of healthy animals, butter and other edible fats, including oils, have all been recommended to a greater or less extent. / Forced Feeding in Normal Individuals. It is of interest to compare the effects of forced feeding on individuals in normal health with those of similar methods in cases of impaired metabolism, a condition which usually attends tuberculosis. English scientists connected with the Brompton Hos- pital have made a study of the effects of forced feeding on normal individuals, and the following results are recorded by Bardswell, Goodbody, and Chapman, in the "Journal of Physiology" for 1902: 1. A marked increase in the amount of nitrogen excreted. 2. A diminution in the absorption of fat. 3. No diminution in the absorption of nitrogen. 4. A rapid and large gain in weight, which was in every case associated with marked impairment of general health. The chief symptoms resulting from the overfeeding were loss of appetite, nausea, dyspepsia, drowsiness, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea. 5. The weight gained was rapidly lost on return to ordinary feeding. Results of Experiments on Tubercular Patients. Many investiga- tions have been made in England respecting the effect of diet on tubercu- losis, both as a means of amelioration and arrest. Important studies have been carried out at the Brompton Hospital of diets of different types and magni- tudes. The typical diets employed are shown in the following tabular state- ment: ORDINARY DIET. = Protein; F. = Fat; C. H. Carbohydrates.) (Per Day. P. Milk (pints),. Cooked meat, 02.. Cooked bacon, (4 - Butter, << Bread, Sugar Cooked vegetables,.. Rice pudding,.... Nutritive value (approximately): F. P. C. H. Cals. 115 121 240 2590 I I 8 I 33H H∞ H45 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON TUBERCULAR PATIENTS. MODERATELY LARGE DIET.. Milk (pints), Bread, .02.. Cooked meat,. Cooked vegetables,.. Butter, Cooked egg, Cooked bacon,. Sugar, Rice pudding,. Grapes, Nutritive value (approximately): P. F. C. H. Cals. 160 179 271 3442 Milk (pints),... Cooked chicken,. Cooked bacon, Eggs, Butter, Bread, • Sugar VERY LARGE DIET. 02. • Rice pudding,.. Cooked vegetables,.. Fruit (grapes and figs),.. Somatose, Lactose, (( Nutritive value (approximately): P. F. C. H. Cals. 271 231 390 5026 4 6 7 4 583 I 1.5 211 25+ 4 1 5 6 8 54 2 2 2 H 3000 3H 2 II I The conclusions which were drawn from the experiments in the Brompton Hospital are as follows: 1. The patients made very satisfactory progress both clinically and experi- mentally when the ordinary diets first prescribed to them were somewhat in- creased; in short, when treated with moderately large diets. 2. These comparatively large diets were especially well borne by patients much below their weights. They did not give such satisfactory results in patients up to weight and with arrested disease. The patients made much less satisfactory all-around progress on the very large diets than on the diets of considerably smaller nutritive value. 3. Weight was gained in nearly every case, in some to a very large extent and very rapidly, but this gain of body-weight was not associated with any more satisfactory progress in the tubercular lesion than was obtained with the smaller diets; on the other hand, general health suffered considerably, as in- dicated by failure of appetite, marked digestive and intestinal derangements, and in one case vomiting. 4. In spite of the fact that the clinical conditions of the patients observed were widely different, and that the digestive system in at least two of the pa- tients was obviously impaired, the digestion and absorption of both nitrogen and fat were uniformly good. This was so even in the case of patients with high fever. The absorption of fats was excellent, although very large quan- 584 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. tities were sometimes given; e. g., with an intake of 231.3 grams, 96.4 percent was absorbed. 5. It was noticeable that the patients complained least of digestive discom- fort on the diets that gave the best results experimentally. 6. With regard to the nitrogen: When the amount of proteid in the diet was much increased, it resulted in: (a) An increased excretion of nitrogen out of all proportion to the increased amount retained in the body. (b) A diminution in the percentage of nitrogen excreted as urea, and con- sequently an increase in the percentage amount excreted in a less oxidized form, indicating diminished nitrogen elaboration. (c) Diminution in the percentage of nitrogen absorbed. (d) An increase in the amount of aromatic sulphates excreted, indicating increased intestinal putrefaction. Economy of Feeding. It is evident that if cheaper foods are found to be just as nutritious and just as efficacious in cases of tuberculosis and other diseases, it is highly important, for the sake of the poor, that the prescribed diet should cost as little as possible. In view of the fact that meat is the most expensive article of diet, studies have been made of meat-free diets and meat- rich diets, both as to efficiency and as therapeutic agents, and also as regards comparative merit of nutrition. The general results of these investigations show that there is much to be said on both sides. The weight of medical opinion, however, inclines to the opinion that a diet reasonably rich in meat is to be generally preferred. In such matters the same instructions should govern as those relating to the removal of the patient to a different locality. As is well known, one of the most frequent remedial agents suggested to the patient is a change of climate, and also, incidentally, a change of surroundings, of friends, and of physicians. Such advice may be valuable to those who are able to follow it, but in very many cases it is utterly impossible, for financial reasons, for the patient to be removed to a different locality. Often very good results are obtained by changing one's habits of life, sleeping out of doors, etc., without leaving one's home. In the same way, when the patient can afford it, the best possible diet, irrespective of its cost, should be provided. But if this is not practicable, the very best diet within reach of his means should be se- cured, and a practically meat-free diet may yield very satisfactory results at much less cost. Advantages and Disadvantages of a Meat-free Diet.-Comparative statistics have been compiled by English scientists on the economy of different methods of feeding in cases of tuberculosis, and the advantages and disad- vantages of each. The advantages of a meat-free diet observed by the English authorities are as follows: "The great advantage of a meat-free diet is its small cost. For example: The meat-free diet taken by patient 1, which had a nutritive value ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A MEAT-FREE DIET. 585 or proteid 175, fat 146, carbohydrate 550, cost 27.5 cents a day. If all the pro- teid given in the form of pulse in this diet had been replaced by proteid in the shape of meat, the cost of the diet would have been increased to 42.5 cents a day, an extra cost of 55 percent." The same authorities have studied particularly the disadvantages of a meat-free diet, and their conclusions are as follows: There are certain serious disadvantages in an entirely meat-free diet. In the first place, a diet such as we used, namely, one in which the proteid is given chiefly in the form of pulse, is, of necessity, of a bulky character. The large bulk of these meat-free diets, as compared with a diet containing a similar amount of proteid from animal sources, is due to the fact that although uncooked meat and pulses have approximately the same proteid value, meat, in the process of cooking, loses water, whereas the pulses, by the time they are fit for eating, have taken up water to the extent of twice their own weight. For example, a sirloin contains in its uncooked condition roughly 20 percent of proteid, but when cooked, owing to the loss of water, its proteid value rises. to 28 percent. On the other hand, the average percentage composition of pulses, as regards proteid, is about 23 percent in the uncooked condition, but after the absorption of water during cooking, the percentage composition only amounts to a little over 8. To secure any given amount of proteid, a bulk of vegetable food is required some four times as great as would be necessary if animal food were used. This fact is a great practical obstacle to the more general use of vegetable proteid in dietaries for consumptives. It is sometimes found a difficult matter to get patients with normal appetites and digestions to take a sufficiently large diet when the pulses are relied upon as the source of proteid. This difficulty experienced in the case of patients with good appetites, etc., becomes a matter of impossibility when dealing with patients with marked anorexia. Another disadvantage of these meat-free diets is the difficulty of making them sufficiently appetizing. To make a diet of pulses really palatable re- quires considerable skill in cooking, a skill which the average working-class housewife does not possess. Unless handled and varied with considerable care, a diet made up largely of pulses is somewhat insipid, and lacks the flavor and variety of the ordinary meat diet. Further, prejudice and custom, espe- cially amongst the lower classes, are opposed to the adoption of a largely vege- table diet, but the feeling in favor of a meat diet is perhaps not so strong as it used to be. Another objection to the use of a large quantity of pulses in a diet is the rela- tively low proportion of it which is absorbed in the alimentary canal as com- pared with the proportion of meat which is absorbed. We were unfortunately unable to ascertain the exact amounts of the pulses absorbed in the case of our patients, but such evidence as we possess, viz., the gain in weight, which was rapid, the fact that the amount of nitrogen in the urine did not decrease compared with its excretion on an ordinary mixed diet, and the excellent clinical results obtained, indicate that at all events intestinal absorption was quite satisfactory. Metabolic observations of a somewhat limited nature showed that in the case of patients with normal alimentary canals, these large meat-free diets 586 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. did not give rise to any intestinal troubles; for instance, regular observation showed that at no time was there increased intestinal putrefaction. To summarize, then, the results of our observations show that- 1. Vegetable proteid, as the main source of the daily intake of proteid in a diet for the tuberculous, is thoroughly satisfactory so long as a sufficient amount of it is taken. 2. The clinical results obtained, when treating consumptives upon meat-free diets of an adequate nutritive value, are often quite as good as the results that are obtained when ordinary meat diets of similar nutritive value are used. 3. Owing to the bulky nature of a meat-free diet, its use is restricted to patients with normal, or approximately normal, appetites and digestions, and is unsuitable for the treatment of those with marked impairment of the ali- mentary tract. 4. The use of vegetable proteid in the place of all the meat usually prescribed in an ordinary meat diet effects an economy of some 33 percent. 5. When economy is an object, the necessary proteid in a dietary should be given at least in part in the form of vegetable proteid. In the case of individuals with normal appetites and digestions, the meat of an ordinary mixed diet can be altogether replaced by pulses, but such an entirely meat-free diet is, on several grounds, not entirely satisfactory, and should not be used unless very strict economy is essential. Views of the Illinois State Board of Health.-The following sugges- tions made by the Illinois State Board of Health concerning diet in tuberculosis illustrate the consensus of medical opinion on this subject at the present time: There is no question but that the consumptive needs an abundance of prop- erly cooked, wholesome, digestible food, at suitable intervals. But consump- tives are often advised to eat more than they should and to eat at too frequent intervals, and consumptives are too often "stuffed" with food. It is difficult to say how much a consumptive should eat, or how often he should be fed. Proper advice cannot well be given in an individual case without due regard to the patient's digestive powers, and the adequacy of his kidneys. Many a patient who is losing weight on seven meals a day, will gain if the number be reduced to three or four. Food should not be given to a consumptive, or to any one for that matter, while undigested food remains in the stomach. The diet must be varied, and it must be borne in mind that a diet suitable for one consumptive may prove decidedly unsuitable for another. Individual tastes must be consulted. It is essential, however, that the patient be "made" to like certain articles of food to which he has formed a dislike, or concerning which he has formed wrong notions,—milk and eggs, for instance,—but too much should not be attempted at once. Many patients dislike milk, which is an absolute necessity in the dietetic treatment of consumption. They say that it makes them bilious and consti- pated. Milk does not constipate, except possibly in small "doses." In large quantities, i. e., one to three quarts a day, milk is a laxative, and as such is much appreciated by persons who have a tendency to constipation. Patients will better appreciate the necessity for milk-drinking if it is ex- plained to them that one glass of good milk contains as much nutritive material VIEWS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE BOARD OF HEALTH. 587 as two eggs, three ounces of lean meat, sixteen ounces of oysters, one ounce of cocoa or cheese, or two ounces of bread. If a patient will eat three good meals a day-rare beef or mutton is excellent for a consumptive—and drink a few glasses of milk, say three, between meals, there need be no great anxiety as to the sufficiency of the diet. But solid food cannot be given with safety when the temperature goes above 101° F. And many patients will not eat three good meals. So to those and others in the advanced stages of the disease who are losing weight rapidly, easily assimilated food must be given at more frequent intervals. Here milk and eggs will be found indispensable, alone, or as an adjunct to other food. But while milk and eggs have helped many consumptives to health, neither of these nor any other articles of diet can be taken alone, for any continued period. The diet must be varied. Sample Dietary.-The following dietary, subject, of course, to changes to suit the individual case, will give some idea of the food to be allowed a con- sumptive whose digestion is good: 7:00 A. M. Fruit, cereal, toast and butter. Two raw or soft boiled eggs, one or two glasses of milk. I0:00 A. M. Two glasses of milk, crackers, bread and butter or toast. 12:30 P. M. Soup, rare roast beef, or lamb or mutton, or turkey, or steak, or chicken, sweetbreads, one or two vegetables, like potatoes, beets, peas, beans, corn, spinach, cauliflower, asparagus, turnips. Bread and butter and choco- late, coffee or cocoa. A lettuce salad, with olive oil, if the patient likes it. Baked or stewed apples, bread pudding, rice, custard, junket, or the like. Almonds, walnuts, or pecans, form a valuable addition to the consumptive's diet. 4:00 P. M. Two glasses of milk, with one or two eggs. Bread and butter. 7:00 P. M. One or two glasses of milk. Two eggs. Bread and butter with jelly or jam. Meat may be given with the last meal, especially if the mid-day meal was light. Meat should never be cooked twice. General Rules in Regard to Eating.-Food should be eaten slowly, and be well chewed. The consumptive must not "bolt” his meals. Milk should be drunk slowly. It will be still better if it be sipped. The common way of drinking milk, in great swallows, one after another, is the principal cause of its being indigestible. The addition of a pinch of salt often makes the milk more palatable. Eggs should be served in a variety of ways: raw, light boiled, poached, shirred, baked or light fried. But they are best when taken raw. If the pa- tient gets a dislike to the taste of eggs, he should swallow them whole. This can easily be done by breaking the eggs in a glass, and covering them with milk or a little light wine and "tossing it off." Butter is very fattening, and it is well for consumptive patients to partake freely of bread and butter, provided always that it does not upset the digestion. If the patient is run down, fats should be given him. Butter and cream are excellent. So are fatty fish, eels, salmon, and sardines, also vegetables pre- pared with a great deal of fats. Give plenty of vegetables. Horseradish, vinegar, mustard, lemon juice, etc., tend to stimulate the appe- Sometimes the digestive system becomes clogged, and the patient shows tite. 588 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. a disgust for food. Here it would be well to cut out eggs and milk for a week, and consult a physician, who may prescribe a laxative and a tonic. To properly digest this number of meals, the patient must remain out of doors the greater part of the time. Dr. Alfred L. Loomis gives the following good general rules to follow in relation to eating: 1. Food should be taken at least six times in the twenty-four hours; light repasts between meals and on retiring. 2. Never eat when suffering from bodily or mental fatigue or nervous excitement. 3. Take a nap, or at least lie down, for twenty minutes before the mid-day and evening meals. 4. Take only a small amount of fluid with the meals. 5. The starches and sugars should be avoided, as also all indigestible ar- ticles of diet. 6. As far as possible, each meal should consist of articles requiring about the same time to digest. 7. Eat only as much as can be easily and fully digested in the time allowed. 8. As long as possible systematic exercise should be taken to favor assimi- lation and excretion; when this is impossible massage or passive exercise should be undergone. 9. The food must be nicely prepared and daintily served; made inviting in every, way. Dietary for Those Having Large Appetites.-Dr. Albert P. Francine, in his recently published work on "Pulmonary Tuberculosis," suggests the following as a full dietary suitable for patients with large appetites and good digestion. Naturally small eaters could not follow this without modifica- tion, and here is emphasized the necessity for individualization: 7 A. M. One pint of milk and two raw eggs, taken in bed. 8:30 A. M. Breakfast. Fresh fruit, cereal, bacon, salmon, herring, or tender steak, chop or chicken; dry toast, wheat bread or corn bread; a pint of milk or cup of coffee, chocolate or cocoa. IO A. M. One pint of milk and one raw egg. 12:30-1 P. M. Lunch (heaviest meal), preceded by half hour's rest. Thick soups-puree of vegetables, especially the albuminous legumen; a roast and vegetables; bread with plenty of fresh butter; simple desserts with sugar. 4 P. M. One pint of milk and one raw egg. 6 P. M. Supper, preceded by half-hour's rest. Light, simple meal, cold meats, light salads, tongue, sardines, etc. Pint of milk, or cup of weak tea, or cocoa. 9 P. M. One pint of milk and two raw eggs. 9:30-10 P. M. Patient goes to bed. The patient will do better if he can have his meals at a table where others are eating and enjoying their food. But a consumptive should not be allowed NO UNIVERSAL DIET. 589 to sit at a table with others, unless his hands and face have been carefully washed, and unless he is able to suppress his cough while at the table. Pleasant surroundings, a cheerful dining-room, an inviting table with a clean cloth and napkins, palatable, well-cooked food attractively served, are all essentials in the dietetic treatment of consumption. "Life is not to live, but to be well." Use of Alcohol.-A few words in conclusion as to the use of alcohol (malt, beer, whisky, and the like) in consumption. Alcohol is now very seldom used in the treatment of consumption. It is wrong; it is foolish to imagine that alcohol has any specific action against consumption. Ordinarily the con- sumptive needs no alcohol. Usually he is better off without it. But there may be cases where the use of alcohol is permissible. The physician is the best judge. Alcohol should never be taken by a consumptive except on the advice of the family physician. While many competent physicians would take exception to some of these directions and physiologists object to some of the principles of nutrition set. forth, the statement as a whole well represents the results of experience. The supreme importance of the necessity of considering each patient separately in regard to his diet is well brought out. No Universal Diet.-From a careful review of all the material which has been collected, it may be said that there is no definite system of diet which can be prescribed in all cases. In every instance the peculiar conditions and environment of the patient must be studied, and if a generous diet is decided upon, it must be selected with a view to exciting the least possible disgust or repugnance on the part of the patient. To this end the various nourishing foods just mentioned, and many others of like character, may be tried carefully for the purpose of seeing which is tolerated in the largest quantity by the patient. This having been determined, the overfeeding may be continued as long as there are no distinctly unfavorable symptoms developed. The very moment, however, that the digestive organs become so overloaded that they themselves become diseased by reason of the overfeeding, it is impossible to understand how its continuance could result in any benefit to the patient. This is another of the numerous cases in which it is apparent that general theories of diet cannot be rigidly applied in all cases in actual practice. That the patient should be nourished goes without saying, and to the greatest possible extent, but each case must be studied carefully by a competent physician in order to determine the character and quality of the diet best suited to the condition and idiosyncrasies of the patient. 590 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. ANALYSIS OF INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. (Compiled from Various Sources.) CARBO- HYDRATES. Name of FOOD. Water. PRO- TEIN. FAT. ASH. KEMARKS. Solu- ble. Starch. % % % % Albany Food, . 8.60 • 9.50 2.10 79.40 0.40 Much unchanged starch. Allenbury No. 1 Food, 1.82 • 10.70 16.79 65.51 Ι.ΙΟ 4.08 5.70 9.70 14.00 66.85 3.75 83.30 1.56 2.30 7.20 0.60 Allenbury No. 2 Food, 2.24 10.23 14.94 67.54 1.24 3.81 3.90 9.20 12.30 72.10 3.50 Ready for use. No. 1 Food. A malted meal plus Allenbury No. 3 Food, 3.00 10.33 1.05 22.21 62.91 0.60 Partly malted wheaten 6.50 9.20 1.00 82.80 0.50 flour. American-Swiss Food, 5.68 10.54 5.81 45.35 30.00 1.21 Much cane sugar. Anglo-Swiss Food, • • 6.50 10.26 4.91 46.43 29.48 2.02 Bananina, · 9.50 4.10 0.40 84.00 2.07 Benger's Food, II.29 10.43 I.10 9.90 66.30 0.96 Carnrick's Soluble Food, 5.17 16.69 5.53 28.11 41.50 3.00 Chapman's Whole Flour, 8.40 9.40 2.00 79.30 0.90 Cheltine Infant's Food, . 7.20 16.20 3.92 71.00 1.83 • Cheltine Maltose Food, . Coomb's Malted Food, Cremalto, 4.60 5.30 0.27 87.60 | 2.25 Fully malted • 7.90 12.10 2.80 76.80 0.40 22.26 6.40 20.26 44.67 1.79 Diastased Farina, • 8.30 7.60 1.30 81.70 1.10 Fairchild's Milk Powder, 5.54 1.19 0.05 92.00 J.22 Falona, • 7.00 8.40 3.50 79.9 1.20 Frame Food, • • • 7.62 13.69 0.44 22.33 54.96 0.96 Franco-Swiss Food, • 4.43 13.00 3.70 46.09 30.86 Horlick's Malted Milk, 2.54 15.40 8.87 69.21 0.18 3.80 (ready for use) Chit- tenden, 92.40 1.15 0.60 5.38 • 0.29 Horlick's Malted Food,. 9.70 10.43 0.34 76.83 2.20 Hovis Babies' Food, · 3.70 7.70 0.20 86.60 1.82 • Hovis No. 2 Food, 2.40 5.70 0.10 90.10 1.70 Imperial Granum, 11.50 10.91 0.64 5.73 70.22 1.00 I. and I. Food, • 5.50 10.30 2.30 80.50 1.40 John Bull No. 1 Food, • 3.98 21.00 11.87 54.29 5.32 John Bull No. 2 Food, Kufeke's Infant Food, Lahmann's Vegetable Milk, Loeflund's Cream Emul- 1.68 11.06 0.68 • 37.65 43.30 1.74 trose, 1.32; dextrin, 8.37 13.24 1.69 23.71 50.76 2.23 5.38; lactose, 7.65. Made in Germany. 24.40 7.50 24.60 41.80 1.50 sion, • 24.32 8.23 15.32 49.43 2.60 Maltico Food, • 2.36 16.07 11.80 65.89 3.88 1.63 15.19 17.19 63.00 2.99 Manhu Infant Food, 8.80 • 8.70 5.60 75 90 1.00 Mellin's Food, 12.37 6.13 10.07 7.81 0.18 68.18 3.75 0.29 75.65 6.93 3.17 6.30 7.90 Milo Food, • 3.81 14.34 trace 5.50 82.00 3.80 58.93 15.39 2.03 Moseley's Food, 10.84 14.78 1.84 21.76 49.06 1.72 Muffler's Food,.. 4.76 15.19 5.10 72.42 2.43 5.63 14.34 5.80 27.41 44.43 2.39 Neave's Food, 5.03 13.20 1.70 4.71 74.27 1.09 Made from nuts and can be added to milk. A thick brown paste made from milk and malted wheat ex- tract. Composed of milk and malted cereals, no starch. Desiccated milk and malted cereals, much starch. It is a desiccated malt extract from wheat and barley Desiccated milk with maltose and dextrins 27.36, and cane sugar 25 percent. Complete conversion during mixing. Desiccated milk, pow- dered white of egg, wheat flour and lac- tose. Practically all starch. I.42 Much cane sugar. A banana flour. Much digested in pre- paring. Much unchanged starch. A whole meal flour. Contains much starch. Much unaltered starch. Cream and malt. Carbohydrates said to be made soluble in preparation. Practically milk sugar. Cereals and a fat-con- taining bean. Not so rich in minerals as claimed to be. Much cane sugar. Desiccated milk, 50.0; wheat flour, 26.25; barley malt, .23.00; and sod. bicarb., 0.75. Almost completely malted. Fully malted. Starch 7.5 per cent. Mainly starch. Maltose, 21.32; iactose, 29.42; dextrin, 3.55. Maltose, 23.31; dex- ANALYSIS OF INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. ANALYSIS OF INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS.-(Continued.) 591 CARBO- HYDRATES. Name of FOOD. WATER. PRO- TEIN. FAT. ASH. Remarks. Solu- ble. Starch. % % % % % Nichol's Food of Health, 11.90 7.70 1.70 76.90 1.75 Nutroa Food, • • 6.80 • 15.90 10.30 66.00 1.00 Opmus Food, . Ovaltine, . 10.90 9.10 1.00 78.60 0.40 3.30 12.01 1.98 Phosphatine, Fallières, • 5.85 2.35 I.92 76.70 2.57 56.68 31.98 3.44 I.22 Mainly starch. Cereals plus peanut flour; hence the fat. A granulated wheat flour. A Swiss product. Calcium phosphate, cane sugar and starch of potato, rice, arrowroot, sago, co- coa. Mainly starch. Ground oats, without husk. Ridge's Food, 9.23 9.24 0.63 5.19 Robinson's Groats, 10.40 II.30 1.60 77.96 75.00 0.60 1.70 Robinson's Patent Bar- ley, 10.10 5.13 0.97 4.II Savory & Moore's Food. 77.76 1.93 5.34 10.79 1.06 27.81 54.09 0.91 Ground pearl barley. Wheat flour and malt; 8.34 9.63 0.40 44.83 36.36 Scott's Oat Flour, • 5.80 9.70 5.00 78.20 1.30 Theinhart's Hygiama, · 4.75 21.22 10.05 49.10 II.33 3.55 Triticumina Food, • 8.60 12.50 2.20 75.7 1.00 Virol,. 11.66 6.43 19.72 61.61 0.58 24.04 4.16 10.75 59.25 1.80 Well's & Richardson's Food,. 7.76 11.85 1.64 39.00 36.43 2.61 Partly malted. much grape and cane sugar. A fine oat flour. The fat is partly cocoa butter. Mainly starch. The first analysis is the one given by the makers. tains much cane sugar and no milk. Con- Wheat Flour, 9.02 7.47 Ι.ΟΙ Wheat Flour, baked, 7.78 0.41 Worth's Perfect Food,* 2.40 Dried Human Milk,†. II.IO 12.2 2.00 26.4 5.66 76.07 14.29 67.60 83.50 52.4 " 0.50 2.I The standard of com- position to which artificial substitutes should conform. SUGAR. Aylesbury Dairy Co.'s Humanized Milks, No. 1,t 89.43 1.3 4.0 4.7 0.49 Aylesbury Dairy Co.'s Humanized Milks, No. 2,† • 88.3 2.2 3.6 5.2 0.57 :: Paget's Perfected Milk Food,† 88.04 Gaertner's Fettmilch, f 1.08 3.83 6.82 0.23 Condensed Whole Milk 1.5 3.2 6.0 0.35 (sweetened). • 24.06 9.36 11.28 52.28 2.13 Condensed Skim Milk, 29.23 10.73 .64 55.69 2.63 Wells, Richardson & Co. Lactated Food,? 6.95 9.56 0.42 29.65 51.38 1.04 Charles Martin's Car- dinal Food,? 8.18 10.50 0.35 Eskay's Albumenized 8.35 71.76 0.86 Food.? 1.70 7.25 4.95 58.65 26.47 0.98 Lacto-Globulin,2 9.85 71.44 0.65 11.65 8.36 Wampole's Milk Food,? 3.35 14.18 7.10 71.30 2.64 Wemalta.? 8.85 12.31 1.35 29.70 0.78 Triangle Food,? 7.35 12.25 1.70 3.75 74.25 0.70 English Milk Food, Malted, • • 5.75 8.38 0.70 Baby's Own,? 6.55 9.63 1.05 30.30 53.95 22.80 59.39 0.58 0.92 Requires addition of varying amounts of milk. Christie's Food,? 3.70 Wyeth's Prepared Food,? • 6.50 3.05 35.65 50.10 1.00 • 3.00 14.69 1.30 68.30 7.21 3.50 *This and all preceding analyses are from A System of Diet and Dietetics, by G. A. Sutherland. + From Food and the Principles of Dietetics, by Robert Hutchison. From Bulletin No. 185, Inland Revenue Department, Ottawa, Canada. 592 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. NAME OF FOOD. MEDICINAL FOODS. From The Journal of the American Medical Association for May 11, 1907.) WATER. GLYCERIN AND UNDE- TERMINED MATTER. ASH. % · % % % % % Carpanutrine,.. 61.00 28.45 0.93 4.28 5.34 15.5 Carpanutrine,. 65.60 21.29 1.09 6.24 5.78 17.3 Liquid Peptones, 84.82 3.63 1.00 4.50 6.05 22.0 Liquid Peptones with Creosote, 77.60 4.34 0.75 3.84 13.47 22.0 Liquid Peptonoids,. 83.34 0.23 0.93 4.93 10.57 17.5 Liquid Peptonoids.. 81.02 2.02 0.90 4.53 11.53 17.8 Predigested Beef,. 89.67 3.40 0.18 2.38 4.37 19.7 Predigested Beef,. 88.30 4.37 0.19 2.59 4.55 19.0 Nutrient Wine of Beef Peptone,. 68.73 14.97 0.23 0.64 15.43 21.5 } Nutrient Wine of Beef Peptone,. 69.90 13.70 0.40 0.43 15.57 20.9 Nutritive Liquid Peptone,. 83.39 1.02 0.84 1.86 12.89 23.0 Nutritive Liquid Peptone, · · 82.90 1.95 0.80 1.16 13.19 21.8 Panopepton,. 78.00 2.60 1.10 6.38 11.92 18.5 Panopepton,. 77.60 4.86 1.16 6.33 10.05 20.9 Peptonic Elixir, 81.24 3.21 1.55 2.54 II.46 18.8 Tonic Beef S. & D.,.. 79.72 12.91 1.61 3.40 2.36 14.9 Tonic Beef S. & D.,. 80.33 12.63 1.54 3.28 2.22 16.1 Liquid Peptone,... 96.33 .44 0.87 1.81 0.55 14.0 Cow's Milk (3.8 percent fat), 87.00 0.07 3.50 4.80 PROTEIN. CARBOHYDRATES. ALCOHOL BY VOLUME. PART XI. SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. GENERAL CLASSES OF ADULTERATION. Simple Tests. Many forms of adulteration are easily determined by simple tests that anyone, without the training of the professional chemist, may practice, using the ordinary apparatus found in the household and reagents which are constantly at hand or may be readily obtained at the drug-store. This subject has been treated in Bulletin No. 100 of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by W. D. Bigelow and Burton J. Howard, from both the chemical and microscopical points of view. Whenever these simple tests are applied, the operator should have at hand samples of the same articles of known purity, and apply the tests also to them. The results will serve as a guide in interpreting the reactions obtained on the article under in- spection. SOME FORMS OF FOOD ADULTERATION. Gross Physical Adulterations.-Very often certain of the grosser adul- terations of foods, as well as others whose detection is somewhat more difficult, may be detected by persons who are not trained in either chemistry or mi- croscopy. If the adulteration is such that it is apparent to the eye, as, for in- stance, the admixture of two or more substances in sufficiently large particles to be identified, the detection is simply a question of ordinary inspection. The admixture of artificial coffee grains resembling generally in color and shape the natural coffee grains is a case of this kind, yet the distinctions are not always so great that the untrained eye, even by careful attention, can easily distinguish them. Many other mixtures of this kind are, or have been, on the market, and are generally capable of easy detection. When the state of subdivision is finer, it is still not beyond the power of the untrained eye to dis- tinguish the difference, if an ordinary magnifying glass, which almost everyone may get, is used. Thus coarsely ground shells and fruit stones mixed with peppers and spices may be detected with a considerable degree of accuracy, 39 593 594 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. by simple magnification. If, however, the detection of the adulteration de- pends on special and obscure structural relations, then even the magnifying glass or microscope will not reveal to the unpracticed eye the sophistication which has taken place. Nevertheless, some adulterated goods have certain physical traits, which, while not wholly convincing, may be at least sufficiently marked to arouse suspicion. It is advisable, therefore, that every person pur- chasing food make a careful study of its appearance; the neatness with which it has been put up; the cleanliness of the wrappers; the character of the gen- eral surroundings; the physical condition of the food itself; and the label which it bears. In fact, all accessories accompanying the food product are subjects for careful and patient investigation. Chemical vs. Condimental Preservatives.-There are certain preserva- tives that respond to simple tests, which, while not absolutely final in the hands of a layman, at least may give grounds for a reasonable doubt as to the purity of the goods in question. Certain condimental substances commonly exercise preservative effects to a limited extent, although they are not classified in the list of chemical pre- servatives. Among these may be mentioned the ordinary substances used to give flavor and character to food products, both fresh and preserved, such as salt, sugar, vinegar, spices of all kinds, essential oils, brandy, and smoke. These substances are recognized by physiologists and experts as having valu- able qualities which render their use in food wholly legitimate. They tend es- pecially to act upon the nerves of taste and smell, and thus to excite through these nerves the activity of the organs of the body that secrete the digestive ferments, without which the digestion and absorption of the food are impossible. While these substances if taken in very large quantities may be capable of exerting a deleterious influence, as may any food for that matter, they belong to an entirely different class from those preservatives which have neither taste nor smell and which cannot possibly be of any value in the process of digestion. The argument is frequently made that a chemical preservative which has neither taste nor smell is no more harmful than one of the condimental preservatives, such as common salt, and, therefore, if common salt be permitted, which is known sometimes to have injurious effects when used in excessive quantities, the chemical preservative should be ad- mitted, provided it is not used in large quantities. The argument is not logical, and has no weight whatever when analyzed in the proper way. Artificial Colors.-Another form of adulteration which may be detected sometimes without much difficulty is the use of artificial colors. The presence of these is excused by some writers on the ground that they come to the aid of digestion through the optic nerve, just as taste comes to its aid through the gustatory and odor through the olfactory nerve. There is some reasonable ground for this statement. It is true that the foods appeal to us very strongly by 1 OBSOLETE ADULTERATIONS. 595 their color, provided the color is a natural one. When, however, it is known that the color which is seen in the food is of artificial production, it loses its esthetic appeal as well as its exciting effect upon the digestive organs. Its value, therefore, depends wholly on deception. The effect which is produced on the mind by a known artificial color in foods is rather one of disgust than of pleasure. Especially is this true since the vegetable colors, which are the only ones natural in foods, have been so largely supplanted by the artificial colors produced by chemical means. It follows, I think, without contention, that if we admit artificial colors at all in foods they should be of vegetable origin. The question of the propriety of admitting them has both a legal and an ethical aspect. The coloring of foods is illegal if it conceals inferiority or is in any way deceptive. The coloring of foods is contrary to the esthetic instinct if it is glaring, assertive, and intense. Usually in attempts to imitate a natural color in foods by artificial tints, Herod is out-Heroded, and the final tint is usually much more intense than that which nature paints. The general effect, there- fore, of artificial colors is to affront the artistic nature of the consumer, and thus any possible benefit which could have come from the use of the tint is dis- counted. The only case in which it is tolerable to use artificial colors is in those compounded foods which of themselves have no natural color and which may be made, by tinting with a harmless color especially of vegetable origin, to appeal to the eye of the consumer. There are, however, very few foods of this kind, and I am strongly of the opinion that the eye would be better pleased in the majority of cases if all artificial colors were excluded from foods. There could not possibly any harm come to the consumer, and a great deal of good would be accomplished. To the real connoisseur there is nothing more re- pellent than to sit down to foods gorgeously and inartistically tinted and be expected to eat them with relish and enthusiasm. These three forms of adulteration, namely, mixing, preserving, and coloring, are the most common forms, with perhaps the exception of the extraction of some valuable ingredient, or the addition of a neutral or inactive substance to dilute the strength of the natural product. Obsolete Adulterations.-There are many forms of adulteration which are believed to exist, and which perhaps did exist once, that have not been practiced in this country, to any extent, for many years. In this category may be mentioned the old fable of the addition of sand to sugar, of gypsum and terra alba to flour, and of alum to bread. Flour has been adulterated in other ways, however. As stated in connection with diabetes, a great deal of so-called gluten flour is only ordinary flour with an exceptionally high con- tent of crude protein. There has also been a large amount of adulteration by mixing two or more flours and calling the product by the name of the more expensive constituent, as, for instance, buckwheat made partially of rye or oat flour or both. • 596 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. This brief summary of the common forms of adulteration is not intended by any means to exhibit the whole range of adulterated products, but to serve only as an introduction to some of the simple methods of detection. MATERIALS AND REAGENTS. Definitions. The term "reagent" is applied to a chemical or an agent of some kind, by means of which definite chemical changes are produced which are more or less easy of observation. Some of the materials used in making simple tests, such as will be described, are as follows: 1. Turmeric Paper.-This is an ordinary white filter-paper made of pure fiber which has been cut into strips, dipped in a tincture of turmeric, and dried. It has the characteristic color of the turmeric itself. 2. Alum.—There are several alums which may be used for chemical pur- poses. The ordinary iron, potassium or ammonium alum may be used for all simple tests. 3. Hydrochloric Acid.-This is a substance which is usually called "muri- atic acid," and can be obtained at any drug-store. All tests in which hydro- chloric acid is used should be conducted in glass or stoneware, as this acid will attack many metals, such as iron, tin, zinc, etc. It does not, however, attack silver or gold. Care must be exercised not to spill any of the acid over the skin or clothing, as it will burn both. 4. Iodin. The ordinary tincture of iodin of the drug-store is used. 5. Potassium Permanganate.-These bright colored crystals, which give a purple red solution, can be obtained at any drug-store. Dissolve about one part of the crystals in 99 parts of water. 6. Alcohol.-Pure alcohol, whether distilled from grain or other sources, can be used. 7. Chloroform.-The ordinary reagent used for producing anesthesia is em- ployed. 8. Boric Acid or Borax.-This is a very common chemical, kept in almost every house. 9. Ammonia Water.-This is the very common reagent kept for cleaning purposes, especially for removing grease spots. 10. Halphen Reagent.-This is a reagent by means of which cottonseed oil can be detected. In this case it would be advisable to have the reagent pre- pared by the druggist according to the following formula: Dissolve one-third of a teaspoonful of finely divided sulphur in from three to four ounces of carbon bisulphid and mix the sclution with an equal volume of fusel oil (amyl-alcohol). This reagent must be used with as much care as gasoline, as it is very inflam- mable. SACCHARIN. 597 TESTS FOR DETECTING CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES. Boric Acid.-Boric acid or borax may be easily detected when present in such commodities as sausage, butter, or milk, in which it was often used before the enactment of the Food and Drugs Act. If the boric acid is in meat, a small sample should be rubbed thoroughly with a little water, which dis- solves a large part of the preservative, and the liquid filtered to remove the solid matter. In the case of butter a teaspoonful is placed in a cup with double the quantity of hot water, which will melt the butter. After melting, the con- tents of the cup are well stirred with a teaspoon and set aside in a cool place until the butter solidifies. The butter will be attached to the spoon and can be lifted out, the remaining liquid being strained through a white cotton cloth or filter-paper. It is not necessary that all the liquid should pass through, but only a sufficient quantity to get the test. In the case of milk, two or three tablespoonfuls are mixed with twice that quantity of a solution of a teaspoonful of alum in a pint of water, shaken vigorously, and filtered. Applying the Test.-About a tablespoonful of the liquid, obtained by treating the sample as just described, is placed in a dish with five drops of hydrochloric acid. A strip of turmeric paper is dipped into the liquid and afterward re- moved and held in a warm place, but not warm enough to char the paper, until dry. In the case of the presence of boric acid or borax, the turmeric paper assumes a bright cherry-red color on drying. If now a drop of ammonia is added, the red color changes to dark green or greenish-black. This test will be found satisfactory even in the hands of a beginner. Benzoic Acid.-Among the substances most frequently preserved with benzoic acid may be mentioned tomato catsup as well as mincemeat, certain fruit juices, etc. In acid media, such as catsup, the benzoate of soda is decom- posed and free benzoic acid is produced. If any considerable quantity of benzoate of soda has been used in tomato catsup, it can be detected by setting aside in an ordinary dish in a warm place, as, for instance, near a radiator, covering to keep out the dust, and allowing to stand for a few days, so that the evaporation goes on very slowly. As the concentration takes place beautiful lamellar crystals of benzoic acid are formed. These sometimes grow up from the magma to the height of a half inch or even more. If the content of benzoic acid is very small, it may be extracted by acidifying and shaking with chlo- roform and then be set aside in a cool place to evaporate. The chloroform should be subjected to only a gentle temperature, so that the evaporation may be slow. The characteristic appearance of the lamellar crystals as before in- dicates the presence of benzoic acid. Saccharin.-Saccharin is a very sweet substance prepared from coal-tar and has been used largely for sweetening purposes instead of sugar. One part of saccharin is said to have as much sweetening power as 400 to 500 parts of 598 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. sugar. Saccharin has some preservative power also, but is never used solely for this purpose, the preserving influence being only incidental. In the detec- tion of saccharin the substance containing it, which is usually a liquid, is shaken with chloroform, which settles to the bottom and is removed by means of a medicine-dropper. The saccharin enters into solution in the chloroform, while sugar, if present, does not. The chloroform solution is then evaporated by heating gently, and if saccharin has been present the residue has a dis- tinctly sweet taste. This method is not applicable to substances whose chloro- form layer contains a flavor that would mask the sweet taste of the saccharin, as, for instance, ginger ale. Salicylic Acid.—Salicylic acid at the present time is scarcely used at all in this country in preserving foods. It was formerly found in the same class of foods which are now preserved by benzoic acid. The detection of salicylic acid is a very simple matter. Solid and semi-solid foods, such as jelly, should be mixed with sufficient water to make a thin liquid. In the case of food containing insoluble material, such as jams, after macerating for some time the liquid portion may be separated by straining through a piece of white cotton cloth. A gentle heat may be used, if desirable, during the macerating process. Two or three ounces of the liquid obtained as described are placed in a narrow bottle holding about 5 ounces with about a quarter of a teaspoonful of cream of tartar, or, better, if at hand, a few drops of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid). The mixture is well shaken for two or three minutes and again filtered into a second bottle. To this filtered liquid three or four tablespoonfuls of chloroform are added and the contents mixed by a vigorous rotary motion. After well mixing, the contents of the bottle may be poured into an ordinary glass tumbler and allowed to stand until the chloroform settles to the bottom, it being heavier than water. Shaking should be avoided as much as possible, since it causes an emulsion of the chloroform with the water which is difficult to break up. The chloroform layer contains the salicylic acid, if any is pres- ent, and should be removed from the aqueous liquid by means of an ordinary dropping tube, or a glass tube with a small opening and a bulb, into which the chloroform can be sucked. This chloroform mixture is placed in a small tube with a little water and a small fragment, not much larger than a pinhead, of iron alum. The contents of the tube are thoroughly shaken and again allowed to stand until the chloroform settles to the bottom. If salicylic acid is present, the upper portion of the liquor will assume a purple or purplish color. DETECTION OF ARTIFICIAL COLORING. Copper. The presence of copper in foods is very easily detected. It is usually employed only for the purpose of producing an intense green color in goods which are naturally green, such as green beans, peas, etc. In this case, TURMERIC. 599 add a drop or two of hydrochloric acid, mix thoroughly, and place a bright steel knife-blade in the solution. If copper salts are present, copper, easily recognized by its reddish color, will be deposited upon the knife-blade. If it is not desired to coat a knife-blade, a bright iron or steel nail will serve the same purpose. Caramel.-Caramel is often used to color freshly made distilled liquors. so as to give them the appearance of great age. It is also employed to simulate the natural colors in flavoring extracts, such as vanilla, and in fact is very com- monly used whenever it is desired to produce a red or brownish-red color in food products in general, both solid and liquid. Caramel is produced by heating sugar to a high temperature until it is partially decomposed. In this condition sugar to a great extent loses its sweet taste and its solubility in water. To detect caramel two test-tubes or small bottles or phials of equal size and shape are employed, and two or three tablespoonfuls of the suspected sample are placed in at least two of these bottles. To one is added a teaspoonful of fuller's earth, which can be secured at any drug-store. The mixture is thor- oughly shaken for two or three minutes and filtered through filter-paper, the first portion of the filtered liquid being returned to the filter-paper and the sample finally replaced in the original test-tube or bottle. The filtered liquid is compared with the untreated sample, and if the former has lost a good part of its color, it may be taken for granted that the color of the original article was largely due to caramel, since this body is removed to a large extent by the fuller's earth. This test is a little more difficult than those which have preceded it, and, of course, would not be conclusive in the case of bodies which contain natural caramel; in other words, such as are prepared in any way with sugar which is subjected during the process of manufacture to a high temperature capable of converting a portion of the sugar into caramel. For instance, in the drying of malt the heat is often such as to partially char the malt, and the products. made from this malt, such as malt vinegar, might show the presence of caramel when it had not been added thereto. Again, in the roasting of coffee a consid- erable quantity of caramel is produced by the action of heat on the sugar which the coffee bean contains. Hence, the presence of caramel in roasted coffee would not be evidence that it had been added as an adulterant, or otherwise. Turmeric.-Turmeric is often used to give a yellow color to such prepara- tions as mustard, especially if the mustard has been adulterated with flour or other white substances. In this case it has been quite a common practice to restore the color of the mixture to the normal yellow color of the mustard meal itself, and turmeric is one of the most common of the coloring-matters used for that purpose. In the detection of turmeric, a teaspoonful of the sus- pected sample is thoroughly stirred with a small quantity of alcohol and the 600 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. mixture is allowed to stand for fifteen minutes, or until there is a distinct separation-the turbid or solid matter settling and leaving a practically clear liquid above it. This alcoholic solution is then poured into a clean glass or bottle. About one-third of a tablespoonful of the liquid thus prepared is used for the experiment and is placed in a clean dish and mixed with four or five drops of a concentrated solution of boric acid or borax and about ten drops of hydrochloric acid, by stirring well with a splinter of wood. A wedge-shaped strip of filter-paper, about two or three inches long, one inch wide at the upper end, and one-fourth inch at the lower end, is then suspended in the liquid so that the narrow end is immersed in the solution, and is allowed to stand for two or three hours. If, while the paper is suspended in the liquid, air is allowed to circulate around the mixture, it is better. If turmeric is present, a cherry-red color forms on the filter-paper a short distance below the upper limit to which the liquid is absorbed by the paper, and at times an inch or more above the surface of the liquid itself. A drop of ammonia changes this red color to a dark green, as in the case of the test for borax just described. In fact, the test for turmeric, as is seen, is exactly the same as the test for borax, the only differ- ence being in the unknown substance to be determined. DETECTION OF SOME COMMON ADULTERANTS. Cottonseed Oil.-Cottonseed oil has been one of the most common adul- terants for olive oil, but the ease with which it is detectable and the rigidity of State and national laws have reduced this fraud very greatly. Nevertheless, cases are occasionally found where admixtures of cottonseed oil with olive oil have been made. It will be useful, therefore, to give a simple and yet reliable test for the presence of cottonseed oil, which will detect even minute additions of this adulterant to olive oil. The test which is employed is known as the "Halphen test," from the name of its discoverer. The danger attending the use of the Halphen reagent has already been described. The test is applied as follows: Two or three tablespoonfuls of the Halphen reagent are mixed in a bot- tle or glass vessel with an equal volume of the suspected sample of oil and heated, with precautions to avoid the burning of the reagent, in a vessel of boiling salt solution, prepared by dissolving one tablespoonful of salt in a pint of boiling water, the boiling continuing for from ten to fifteen minutes. At the end of this time, if even a small percentage of cottonseed oil is present, the mixture will be of a distinct reddish color, and if the sample consists largely or entirely of cottonseed oil, the color will be deep red. Glucose.-Glucose is very commonly used as a substitute for sugar in the making of jams, jellies, preserves, and confectioner's goods. The method of detecting glucose in jellies, jams, etc., is as follows: INVERT-SUGAR IN HONEY. бог Place a teaspoonful of the jelly in a glass or bottle with two or three table- spoonfuls of water; set the vessel in hot water in order to hasten the solution. In the case of a jam or marmalade, after adding the water the solution is filtered to separate the insoluble matter, and is then allowed to cool. An equal volume, or a little more, of strong alcohol is added. If the sample is a pure fruit product, the addition of alcohol causes no precipitation, except that a very slight amount of proteid bodies may be thrown down. If glucose has been employed in the manufacture of the article, however, a dense white pre- cipitate (dextrin) separates and after a time settles to the bottom of the liquid. Glucose in molasses, sirups, honies, etc., may be more certainly detected by the coloration produced by iodin. The starch from which glucose is made gives a blue coloration with iodin. As the starch disappears the blue color fades, and when glucose is reached the color changes to a red tint, due to the presence of erythrodextrin in the mixture. The suspected sample is dissolved in water and treated with a small quantity of iodin solution. If glucose be present the color produced is red or violet according to the nature of the glucose present and its quantity. A blank test with honey, sirup, or molasses known to contain no glucose should be made for comparative purposes. Often the substance to be examined has a red color of its own and in this case proceed as follows: Place a small quantity of the substance in a small glass, dilute with a little water in the case of a molasses, but with a sirup this is not necessary, and pre- cipitate with 95 percent alcohol, shaking all the time or until no more precipita- tion occurs. Allow to settle, then decant the clear liquid, take up the residue with the smallest quantity of water that will dissolve it, and heat, if necessary, to complete the solution. Cool, and reprecipitate with 95 percent alcohol. Decant, dissolve the gum again, using the smallest quantity of water prac- ticable and heating if necessary. Cool, add a drop of hydrochloric acid to render the brown coloring substances soluble in alcohol, then precipitate all the gums with strong alcohol. Allow the gums to settle, then decant. Wash with strong alcohol, and dissolve in a small quantity of water; if still colored repeat the hydrochloric acid treatment or filter the liquid through animal charcoal. This should give a clear water-white solution, to which, in a test tube, add an iodin solution. To another test tube of the same size and containing the same quantity of water add the same amount of iodin solution. Note the two colors produced. If glucose is present the water solution of gums will be a dark red while the plain water solution varies in color from yellow to a light reddish- yellow, according to the strength of the iodin. Invert-sugar in Honey.-Since honey is composed almost entirely of invert-sugar, the practice of adulterating it with this substance has come into use, but happily not very generally. Invert-sugar in honey may be detected by a very simple test. The reagent used is anilin acetate prepared by shaking 602 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. equal parts of anilin and water and adding enough strong acetic acid to clear the mixture. The reagent is prepared fresh for each day. To a small quan- tity of strong honey solution add a less quantity of the reagent by allowing it to flow down the sides of the vessel so as to form a layer on top of the honey. Turn the vessel gently so as to mix the two solutions on the plane of contact. The formation of a red color at the surfaces of contact of the two solutions in- dicates the presence of invert-sugar. If honey be strongly heated for some time it will give the same reaction, but such treatment will spoil its flavor. This coloration is due to the formation of minute quantities of furfurol when sugar is heated. The test should be compared with a genuine honey. Starch in Jellies.-Starch is sometimes used in cheap jellies as a thickener. A teaspoonful of the jelly is dissolved in a teacup, adding enough water to half fill it, and the contents are heated to boiling. While boiling, a solution of potassium permanganate is added, drop by drop, stirring constantly with a teaspoon, until the solution is almost colorless. The mixture is allowed to cool, and to hasten the cooling the vessel may be placed in cold water. It is then tested with a drop of the tincture of iodin. If the jam or jelly contains any starch, a blue color will be produced. Starch may be a natural constit- uent of some fruits, as apples, and hence the blue color produced may not be a positive proof of the addition of starch. Starch in Spices and Condiments.-The test for added starch in condi- ments is rendered the more difficult because most of the condimental sub- stances, that is, the several peppers, etc., contain starch of their own. The only way to distinguish in this case is by means of the microscope, and this can only be used with success in the hands of a skilled observer. There are spices, however, which contain no starch, such as cloves, mustard, and cayenne pepper, and in these products added starch can be readily detected by means of the iodin test already described. To conduct the manipulation a half tea- spoonful of the spice is stirred into half a cupful of boiling water and the boiling continued for two or three minutes, by means of which any starch which may be present is reduced to a state which is more or less soluble. cooling, artificially or otherwise, if the color is dark the mixture should be diluted with water, thus reducing the color so that the characteristic blue tint of the reaction may be seen. The test is made as already described, by dropping a small portion of the iodin mixture into the boiled and cooled spice and watching the effect. The appearance of a pronounced blue color is a positive indication that starch has been added. After EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN FOODS FOR ADULTERATIONS. Coffee. A number of simple tests for the presence of adulterants in ground coffee may be given. If the coffee is not ground, a careful inspection of the COFFEE. 603 beans will disclose the number of imperfect, split, or defective beans, or the presence of grit, gravel, dirt, or foreign bodies of any kind. By picking out these imperfect and foreign bodies, and weighing them, the relative amount of adulterants present is determined, or it may be estimated with a good deal of accuracy simply by inspection. This method will also detect any artificial beans, if they are present. The price of coffee has been so low, however, for a number of years that it has not been profitable to manufacture imitation coffee beans of any kind. When the coffee is ground, however, the presence of adulterants, such as chicory, is more difficult to ascertain. The difference between the genuine ground coffee and the adulterated article may, however, be sometimes detected by simple inspection without the aid of the microscope. This is particularly true if the product be coarsely ground or crushed, but the difficulty of this kind of inspection increases with the fineness of the grinding. Ground coffee has a uniform appearance, whereas if beans, peas, cereals, chicory, etc., have been added, the heterogeneous character of the mixture is more or less evident. By the use of the magnifying glass the adulteration is still more apparent. It is even possible, with a sharp-pointed instrument such as a penknife, to pick out the particles which are not coffee. Chicory particles especially are easily detected, as they are dark looking, gummy, and not granular in character. They stand out in strong contrast to the particles of coffee and also to the other adulterants which have been mentioned. Chicory particles have a bitter and somewhat astringent taste, which is easily distin- guished by those who are familiar with it. The real coffee particles have a distinct appearance. They usually have a dull surface, whereas some of the coffee substitutes, such as peas and beans, often present a polished surface. Test in Water.—After the gross inspection has been made by the eye or with the aid of the magnifying glass, a portion of the ground coffee may be placed in a glass or other vessel partly filled with water, and the mixture well shaken. The vessel is then set aside for a moment and its appearance observed. Pure coffee contains a large quantity of oil, and for this reason the greater number of the particles will float in water. Nearly all of the coffee substitutes, however, are heavier than water, and will sink to the bottom, carrying with them, of course, some of the particles of the real coffee. In this way a very fair idea of the purity of the coffee is obtained. It may be certain, in testing ground coffee in this way, that if there is a very large deposit the coffee is adulterated. Color Test for Chicory.-Chicory mixed with ground coffee can be detected by a water test, usually with considerable ease. The suspected sample is dropped, a few particles at a time, into a glass of water, and, being slightly heavier than water, they sink, leaving behind them a brownish streak. This test, however, must be made with some care, as it is apt to lead to errors in the hands of persons who are not well acquainted with the characteristic colorings of chicory. It is advisable to get some pure chicory and pure coffee and experi- 604 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. ment with each separately, and then with the mixtures of known proportions of each, to train the eye to observe the various phenomena. When this is done, the test becomes very useful. Test for Cereals, etc.-Coffee is distinguished from the cereals and legu- minous seeds which are usually substituted for it by the fact that it contains no starch, while the cereals and legumes, such as peas and beans, contain very large quantities. Even when the coffee and its substitutes are roasted, there may be enough starch present to respond to the test, which is extremely simple. The method given above for the detection of starch in spices and condi- ments is used to detect cereals in coffee. If the sample contain much starch, the dilution before testing should be carried to a greater degree. Care must be taken to add only a drop of the tincture of iodin at first; but if no blue color is developed, more may be used. Canned Goods.-Canned goods in the United States are very rarely adul terated, either with coloring-matter or with any added substances such as preservatives. The only examination, therefore, of canned goods that may be made with profit, is of the condition of the can, to see if it has been properly sealed, or to determine whether the contents of the can have acted on the tin. For this purpose the can should be cut open and the inner surface of the tin examined. If it appears to be corroded and is covered with figures of various kinds, the contents of the can may have dissolved quantities of the tin which may be deemed injurious, but this deduction is not always correct. More important yet is the examination of the can to see if it has been per- fectly sterilized as well as sealed. This is especially true of cans which con- tain lobster, fish, and similar products. There is no kind of food in which de- cay is more dangerous, as it is attended often with the development of ptomains, which are powerful poisons. If the can is found to bear the trace of only partial sterilization, or of imperfect sealing, as determined by appear- ance, taste or smell, it should be at once rejected. Especial attention should be paid to the behavior of a can when a small hole is made in it preparatory to opening. If an escape of gas is noticed, the contents of the can should be rejected. Rusty, old, and soiled cans should be looked upon with suspicion. There is no simple way of determining the quan- tity of tin or lead in canned foods. The presence of these bodies may be avoided by using a can lacquered on the inside or one made of glass. In general, the canned goods on the market are in excellent condition. Any pos- sible danger may be avoided by the careful examination of cans and their contents before they are offered for consumption. Eggs. It is highly important that eggs be examined for the grosser forms of decomposition. By a cultivated taste, perfectly fresh eggs may be distin- guished from eggs which have been properly kept in cold storage for some time. But where marked changes have gone on in the egg substances, due FLAVORING EXTRACTS (VANILLA AND LEMON). 605 to storage, either with or without refrigeration, there are certain other char- acteristics developed which can be easily determined. The most important of these tests is what is known as "candling." This consists in holding the egg between the eye and a proper light and observing the illumina- tion 'within the shell. The room should always be darkened. If dark spots are found in the egg, it is certain that it is not perfectly fresh, since a fresh egg presents a homogeneous, translucent, and attractive appearance. More- over, there is found in the larger end of a fresh egg, between the shell and the lining membrane, a small air cell which is distinctly transparent. In an egg which is not perfectly fresh this space, unless the egg is stored with the large end up, becomes filled with egg substance and presents the same appearance as the rest of the egg. Eggs which have been stored a long time and not properly turned tend to show the yolk on the underside, often adhering to the shell itself, and this is always an indication that the egg has been stored and kept still at the same time. The best of all tests, however, is to open the egg and examine its general appearance, its mobility, and its odor and taste, and by these means determine whether or not it is fresh or stored. Eggs which have been stored some time show a tendency in the white and yolk to run together, and whenever this phenomenon is noticed, it may be certain that the egg, if the hen has been properly fed, is not a fresh one, although no perceptible odor of decay may be developed. The Salt Solution Test.-Perfectly fresh eggs will just sink in a 10 percent salt solution at 70° F. This test is quickly applied and will distinguish the really fresh egg from one which is even a few days old. It is possible also to apply the sinking and floating test on a large scale. Salt water tanks of any size are easily constructed into which hundreds of dozens of eggs may be placed at once, thus effecting a speedy separation of sinkers and floaters, and at a minimum expense. There are some instances where a fresh egg will not sink in these circumstances, but such cases are not numerous enough to be of any importance. It is claimed, however, that this treatment impairs the keep- ing quality of the eggs when placed in cold storage. Flavoring Extracts (Vanilla and Lemon).-Vanilla extract is one of the most common of the flavoring materials employed in the home. In the past few years it has also been one of the products most frequently adulterated, and many imitations or substitutes for vanilla extract have been sold under the name of the extract itself, as vanilla flavor, etc. The true product is made by extracting vanilla beans with alcohol, and the flavoring matter consists of an alcoholic solution of vanillin, which is the chief flavoring ingredient of the vanilla bean, together with other constituents of the bean soluble in alcohol which are classed principally under the head of resins. These resins, although present in a very small amount, and having only a slight flavor in themselves, are yet able to affect very materially the flavor of the product. 606 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. Common Adulterants.-One of the most common adulterations of vanilla is an extract made from the tonka bean, which in some respects resembles that of the vanilla bean, but is much cheaper and is far inferior in flavoring proper- ties. It has a marked penetrating, almost pungent odor, in sharp contrast to the flavor of the vanilla extract. By having at hand a little vanilla extract of known purity, and a genuine tonka extract, anyone can very readily dis- criminate between them by their odor and taste. Artificial Vanillin.—Another adulterant of vanilla extract is artificial vanil- lin, a synthetic product. Extracts made of this substance contain no resins, which is one of the means of determining whether or not the vanillin used is an artificial preparation. Extracts made from artificial vanillin are de- cidedly inferior in all valuable qualities to the true vanilla extract and are generally colored so as to imitate the natural product. Caramel is the usual coloring-matter employed, and its presence can be detected by shaking and observing the color of the resulting foam after a moment's standing. The foam of pure extracts is colorless. If caramel is present, a color persists at the points of contact till the last bubble has disappeared. Examination of the Resin.—If pure vanilla extract slightly acidified with acetic acid be evaporated to about one-third its volume, the resins, which were before in solution, are separated and settle to the bottom of the vessel. On the other hand, artificial extracts remain clear under the same treatment. In the examination of vanilla extract the character of these resins is studied. For this purpose a dish containing about an ounce of the extract is placed over a teakettle or other vessel of boiling water until the liquid evaporates to about one-third or less of its volume. The alcohol having been by this time all driven off, the resins become insoluble and separate. Water is added to bring the liquid back approximately to its original volume. This separates the resins, which will be thrown out as a brown flocculent precipitate. A few drops of hydrochloric acid are added, the liquid is stirred, and the insoluble matter allowed to settle. It is then filtered, and the resin on the filter-paper is washed with water and afterward dissolved in a little alcohol. To one portion of this solution is added a small particle of ferric alum, and to another portion a few drops of hydrochloric acid. If the resin is that of the vanilla bean, neither ferric alum nor hydrochloric acid will produce more than a slight change in color. With resins from most other sources, however, one or both of these substances causes a distinct color change. Lemon Extract.-Lemon extract is a flavoring material made by dissolving oil of lemon in strong alcohol. If oil of lemon is poured into dilute alcohol, large quantities of its constituents are separated, but they are held in solution if the alcoholic strength of the extract does not fall below 80 percent. Alcohol is, therefore, one of the most valuable constituents of lemon extract, for without it the product would be precipitated and unusable. Owing to the fact that FLOUR. 607 lemon extract is a 5 percent solution of oil of lemon in strong alcohol, the sample may be examined by simply diluting with water. A teaspoonful of the extract is placed in the bottom of a glass tumbler and two or three teaspoon- fuls of water added. If the sample is real lemon extract, the lemon oil will be thrown out of solution by reason of its insolubility in the alcohol after its dilu- tion with water. The first result is a marked turbidity, and later the separation of the oil of lemon on the top of the aqueous fluid takes place. If the sample remains perfectly clear after the addition of water, no marked turbidity being produced, it is undoubtedly a very low-grade product, and contains little, if any, of the real oil of lemon. Flour. Within the last decade a process for artificially bleaching flour has been quite widely introduced. A bleached flour is of a dead white color, and the loaf of bread baked therefrom is usually a dingy white, and not a faint amber as would be expected from a natural flour. The bleaching process results in the addition of small amounts of nitrogen peroxid and renders the oil present nearly colorless instead of yellow. On these two facts the following tests are based. Method I (for Nitrites), Solutions.—(1) Dissolve 0.5 gram (7.7 grains) of sulphanilic acid in 150 c.c. (5 oz.) of dilute acetic acid (about 20 percent). Keep well stoppered. (2) Dissolve 0.2 gram (3.1 grains) of alpha-naphthyl- amin hydrochlorid in 20 c.c. (0.7 oz.) of strong acetic acid (glacial), and add 130 c.c. (4.4 oz.) of dilute acetic acid (20 percent). Keep well stoppered. Mix 1 and 2 for use. These reagents should be prepared by a pharmacist. The mixed reagent keeps for several weeks. Preliminary test: The water to be used should first be tested for nitrites by adding to a 4-ounce bottle of water about one teaspoonful of the mixed re- agent. If after shaking and allowing to stand for about twenty minutes the solution remains colorless or is a very faint pink color, the water is suitable for making the following test. Distilled water is best for this purpose if ob- tainable. Determination: Place a heaping teaspoonful of the flour to be exam- ined in a wide-mouth, glass-stoppered, 4-ounce bottle. Nearly fill with water and add about a teaspoonful of the solution. Stopper the bottle and shake vigorously for a few minutes; then allow to settle for from fifteen to twenty minutes. Under these conditions bleached flour will impart to the liquid a color ranging from a light pink to a deep red, depending on the degree of bleaching; unbleached flour should give no more color than the water alone. If a flour that is known to be unbleached can be obtained, it is well to make the test on this at the same time, for purposes of comparison. Method II (for Color of Oil).—Place 2 heaping teaspoonfuls (20 grams) of the flour in a wide-mouth, glass-stoppered, 4-ounce bottle, nearly fill the bottle 608 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. with gasoline, shake, and allow to settle. If the flour is unbleached, the gaso- line will become distinctly yellow; if bleached, it will remain nearly colorless. It is well to conduct this test also with a known unbleached flour for compari- This experiment must not be made in a room where there is any kind of fire, flame or spark. son. Vinegar.-Vinegar has been subjected to many kinds of substitution, imi- tation, and adulteration. The term vinegar in this country is, by common consent, and also by the statutes of several of the States and by the regulations of the United States Department of Agriculture, applied to cider vinegar. In France the principal vinegar employed is made from wine, while in England it is usually made from malt. The tests applied in this country, therefore, are to determine whether the product is made from cider or not. Vinegar made from wine has a distinct wine odor; on the other hand, cider vinegar has the peculiar odor of the apple. If the vinegar is evaporated slowly almost to dryness, the characteristic odor of the malt, or wine, or cider vinegar can be very readily detected in the warm residue. The residue from cider vinegar will smell something like baked apples, and that from wine like grapes. If the vinegar, however, is made from what is known as distilled vinegar, the color of the residue will be very dark, almost black, and the odor will be entirely distinct from that of the other vinegars mentioned. The test may be continued further by heating the dish until the residue commences to burn. In this test the residue from cider vinegar will have the odor of scorched apples, while distilled vinegar, which has been colored with caramel, will have the odor of burnt sugar. Unfortunately, however, the low-grade vinegars often have a small amount of concentrated apple juice added to them, and this, of course, obscures these physical tests to a certain extent. They will, however, enable a person unskilled in chemistry to distinguish perfectly between cider vinegar, malt vinegar, wine vinegar, and distilled vinegar made by the acetification of dilute alcohol. How to Distinguish Genuine Butter from Renovated.-The boiling test.-An important means employed in distinguishing between genuine and renovated butter is the boiling test. This test distinguishes between genuine butter on the one hand and oleomargarine and renovated butter on the other; and, fortunately, it is so simple of execution that it can be employed in any kitchen almost as well as in the laboratory, and requires no special skill on the part of the operator. It consists merely in boiling briskly a small portion of the sample and observing its behavior the while. The test may be conducted as follows: Using as the source of heat an ordinary kerosene lamp, turned low and with chimney off, melt the sample to be tested (a piece the size of a small chestnut) in an ordinary tablespoon, has- tening the process by stirring with a splinter of wood (for example, a match). Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a boil as possible, and after the TEST FOR OLEOMARGARINE. 609 boiling has begun, stir the contents of the spoon thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges, two or three times at intervals during the boiling-always shortly before the boiling ceases. In the laboratory a test tube, a spoon, or sometimes a small tin dish, is used in making this test. A gas flame, if available, can be used perhaps more conveniently than a kerosene lamp. Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering (more or less) like a mixture of grease and water when boiled, and produce no foam, or but very little. Renovated butter produces usually a very small amount. Genuine butter boils usually with less noise, and produces an abundance of foam. The difference in regard to foam is very marked, as a rule. Rarely, a butter is found which yields an uncertain result; such a butter should receive the attention of the grocer. To Distinguish Oleomargarine from Renovated and Genuine Butters. -Utensils required.—The utensils required in the test to distinguish oleo- margarine from renovated and genuine butters are as follows: (1) A one-half pint tin "measuring cup," common in kitchen use, marked at the half and quarters; or a plain one-half pint tin measure, ordinary narrow form; or an ordinary small tin cup, 24 inches in diameter and 2 inches in height, holding about one gill and a half. (2) A common kitchen pan, about 9 inches in diameter at the base. (3) A small rod of wood, of the thickness of a match and of convenient length for stirring. (4) A clock or watch. The process. The process for distinguishing oleomargarine from reno- vated and genuine butters is as follows: Use sweet skimmed milk, obtained by setting fresh milk in a cool place for twelve to twenty-four hours and removing cream as fully as possible. Half fill with this milk the half-pint cup or measure, or two-thirds fill the smaller cup mentioned, measuring accurately the gill of milk when possible; heat nearly to boiling, add a slightly rounded teaspoonful of the butter or butter substitute, stir with the wooden rod, and continue heating until the milk "boils up," remove at once from the heat and place in the pan (arranged while milk and fat are heating) containing pieces of ice with a very little ice water, the ice to be mostly in pieces of the size of one to two hen's eggs (not smaller, as small fragments melt too rapidly) and sufficient in quantity to cover two-thirds of the bottom of the pan; the water to be in quantity sufficient, when the cup is first placed in the pan, to reach on the outside of the cup to only one-fourth the height of the milk within; any water in excess of that amount must be removed. This refers to the condition at the beginning of the cooling; later, as the ice melts, the water will rise to a higher level. Stir the contents of the cup rather 40 610 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. rapidly, with a rotary and a cross-wise motion in turn, continuously throughout the test, except during the moment of time required for each stirring of the ice and water in the pan, which must be done thoroughly once every minute by the clock. This is done by moving the cup about, in a circle, following the edge of the pan. Proceed in this manner for ten minutes, unless before that time the fat has gathered or has allowed itself to be easily gathered, in a lump or a soft mass, soon hardening. If it so gathers, the sample is oleomargarine; if not, it is either genuine or renovated butter. The boiling test enables one to distinguish in the great majority of cases be- tween genuine butter on the one hand and oleomargarine and renovated butter on the other; the Waterhouse test, household adaptation as just given, enables one to distinguish between the two last named; and so, by the use of the two tests, one can determine in nearly every instance which of the three he has in hand. There are many persons who are able to recognize oleomargarine, almost without fail, by taste and smell alone. To those not possessed of this power the boiling test, which is performed with almost no trouble, will serve every needful purpose. In every instance it is advisable to try the tests on samples of known origin in order to be more certain of the results when samples of unknown origin are used. Watered Milk.-Nearly all natural water contains a trace of nitric acid as nitrates, and this fact has led to the following test: Nitrates in milk may be detected as follows: The serum of the milk is prepared by adding 2 parts of 25 percent acetic acid to 100 parts of milk and heating for twenty minutes at a temperature of 160°. If desired, alum may be employed in place of acetic acid. When the milk is evidently coagulated, the beaker is placed in ice water until thoroughly cooled and the clear serum is then separated from the curd by filtering. A few drops of the serum are placed in a white porcelain dish or saucer and 1 or 2 drops of strong sulfuric acid (at least 80 percent) containing 0.1 gram diphenylamin per 100 c.c. is added. The pres- ence of nitrates is indicated by the formation within a minute or two of a deep blue color. If the sulfuric acid is placed in the milk serum without mixing, it will settle through the serum to the bottom and a blue ring will be apparent at the edge of the rim of sulfuric acid. The test is an exceedingly delicate one and blank tests must be made with the reagents employed in order to be sure a trace of nitrate is not obtained with them. Milk known to be free from ni- trates should also be employed as a means of testing the reagents. It is our experience that milk giving this diphenylamin reaction for nitrates has always been watered. At the same time, the test has been objected to on the ground that dung dropping from the cow into the bucket during the opera- tion of milking was likely to introduce nitrates into the milk. Gelatin in Ice Cream.-The method for the detection of gelatin in ice GELATIN IN ICE CREAM. 611 cream is as follows: Fifty parts of the ice cream are treated with 25 parts of water and brought to the boiling point to dissolve any thickener that may be present and not in complete solution. Ten parts of this preparation are treated as follows: Prepare an acid solution of mercuric nitrate by dissolving mercury in twice its weight of nitric acid of 1.42 specific gravity, and diluting this solution to 25 times its bulk with water. To 10 parts of the milk or cream to be examined, add an equal volume of the acid mercuric nitrate solution, shake the mixture, add 20 parts of water, shake again, allow to stand five minutes, and filter. If much gelatin is present the filtrate will be opalescent and can not be obtained quite clear. To a portion of the filtrate contained in a test tube, add an equal volume of a saturated aqueous solution of picric acid. A yellow precipitate will be produced in presence of any considerable amount of gelatin, while smaller amounts will be indicated by a cloudiness. In the ab- sence of gelatin the filtrate obtained will remain perfectly clear. PART XII. ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. Signification of Terms.-The terms "acid" and "alkaline," applied to foods, have two significations. First, in the ordinary meaning of the word, they represent foods which have an acid or alkaline reaction. All natural foods are either acid, alkaline or neutral to the common tests. The usual method of testing is by litmus paper, a bibulous paper impregnated with the coloring matter of lichens. Litmus paper is of two kinds, a blue and a red. Blue litmus paper will turn red in the presence of an acid. The red litmus paper will turn blue in the presence of an alkali. Thus, having two sets of litmus papers, which can be furnished by any dealer in chem- icals, we may easily determine the reaction of our foods. Kinds of Typical Foods. In the classification of natural foods there are certain general distinctions which are quite familiar. Fruits are quite universally acid, some of them slightly acid and others decidedly so. The acids which are most abundant in fruits are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is characteristic of the so-called citrous fruits-oranges and lemons. Malic acid is characteristic of apples, peaches, pears, prunes, plums, et cetera; and tartaric acid of grapes. Succulent vegetables are uniformly acid in their reaction, but not nearly so markedly as the fruits. There are some succulent vegetables, such as beets, which are more likely to be alkaline than acid. Cereal foods are usually neutral to the acid or alkaline test. In their natural state they are too dry to give any test at all. Meats and milk are uniformly nearly neutral in their fresh state. Milk on standing rapidly develops, under the influence of a ferment, an acid reaction. The acid in milk is chiefly lactic, though citric acid exists in combination with the minerals of milk in a natural state. To sum- marize, we may say that fruits and succulent vegetables are generally acid, meats and milk are neutral or slightly alkaline and cereals are generally neutral. Classification of Foods in Regard to Their Final Reaction After Diges- tion.-Second from a dietetic point of view foods are classed in respect of reaction which the residues give, that is, the mineral substances which they contain after digestion. This classification is quite different, as a rule, from the natural classification above mentioned. The effects of food on the reaction of the body in general is not by any means the same as the reac- tions of the foods themselves. The human body, which may be regarded as typical of living bodies, has a peculiar relation to acids and alkalies. 613 614 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. The contents of the stomach are uniformly acid. This acidity is due chiefly to a mineral acid, hydrochloric, which, when combined with soda, forms common salt. The hydrochloric acid which is found in a free state in the stomach is derived chiefly from the common salt which is present in our foods or added thereto for condimental purposes. The presence of hydrochloric acid in the stomach is necessary to the digestion of proteins, the preliminary digestion of which takes place in the stomach. In general the other parts of the body are either neutral or alkaline. Alkalinity is particularly necessary in the blood, lymph and other tissues of the body. Just as the functions of the stomach cannot take place without acid, so the functions of the blood cannot take place without alkali. Those foods which, upon digestion, leave a mineral residue which is acid in reaction are called acidic foods. Those foods which, upon digestion, leave an ash or mineral substance which is alkaline are called alkaline foods. It so happens that in general acidic and alkaline in the above sense are found in foods which are alkaline and acidic in the first sense. In other words the foods which are naturally acid, such as fruits and vege- tables, on digestion leave a mineral residue which is alkaline in its char- acter, and in general those foods which are neutral or alkaline in character in a natural state leave a mineral residue which is acidic in character. This fact is best illustrated by cereals and meats. Lean meats, which are usually alkaline in a natural state, on digestion leave a residue which is acid. This is due particularly to the phosphorus and the sulphur which lean meats contain. During digestion they are oxidized largely into phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid. As soon as the alkaline bodies in the meat, such as lime, soda, potash and iron, are neutralized any excess of phosphoric and sulphuric acids produces an acid reaction. In the case of cereals the same condition obtains. Cereals are particularly rich in phosphorus and the protein of the cereals contains the usual amount of sulphur. On digestion phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid are produced. As soon as the alkaline or basic substances in cereals are neutralized any excess of phosphoric and sulphuric acid produces acidity. In the case of milk, although it contains both phosphoric acid and sulphur, it has so large a proportion of mineral substances, namely, lime, potash and iron, that the final residue is alkaline, because there is an excess of the alkaline bodies in milk. Importance of an Alkaline Residue in Digestion.-Because of the fact that the great mass of the body is alkaline, and especially the blood, the importance of securing an alkaline residue on digestion of our foods is fundamental. If the blood should lose its alkalinity it would be unable to carry oxygen to the tissues. If the tissues should become acid they of course would draw upon the blood for a part of its alkalinity. The final CONSTRUCTION OF A BILL OF FARE 615 result would be a diseased condition of the body which is known in medi- cine as acidosis. In a condition of acidosis the proper functions of the body are impossible of performance, and sickness, abnormality of the tissues and anemia supervene. Not only is it important to have food free of adulteration and debasement, but it is also equally important to so balance it in our rations as to avoid the condition leading to acidosis. Construction of a Bill of Fare. In the building of a bill of fare it is no longer sufficient to keep´in view only the number of calories which a given portion of a bill of fare will produce. While it is important that the heat-producing power of the food is sufficient for all the activities of the body, it is still more important that the foods should be so combined as to leave the final residue, on combustion in the body, basic in character. The common practice, which is based on sound scientific principles, illus- trates this point. It is almost a universal custom to furnish potatoes. with roast beef and other similar meats. This is not merely by reason of taste or flavor, but is conditioned by rigid scientific principles of nutrition. Calorie for calorie, the acidic character of the meat consumed (roast beef) is just about balanced by the basic character of the potatoes consumed. Thus if we have in the bill of fare enough meat to furnish three hundred calories, we should have enough potatoes or similar vegetable to furnish the same amount of heat and energy. In making bills of fare there should be kept in view the general principle that all cereals and all lean meats leave an excess of acid on digestion and that all fruits and all vegetables leave a an excess of base on digestion. Even rhubarb, which is one of the most acid foods which we eat, gives a basic residue on digestion, and even beans, which contain more protein than almost any other vegetable sub- stance, leave a slightly basic residue on digestion. It is well to have in mind some of the articles which produce large quantities of acid and base. Lean meat of all kinds is distinctly acidic. The more fat there is in meat, the less acid any given weight of it will be. Some kinds of fish are particularly acidic, more so, even, than beef. Fowls are also very acidic in character, especially when they are not very fat. Cod is one of the fish products which produces an excessive amount of acid. Eggs, also, are quite acidic in character, being quite equal in that respect, if not superior, to lean meat of the same calorific value. Oysters are decidedly acidic in their digestion residues being about three or four times as acidic in character as ordinary lean meat and standing at the head of acid-forming foods. Among the low acid-forming meat foods may be mentioned the goose, lamb and mutton. These meats have only about one-third to one-half of the acidic properties of beef and fish, and one-tenth of the acidic prop- erties of oysters for equal calorie portions. Cereals are less acid by far 616 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODs. than red meats, having only about from one-fourth to one-half as large an acid-forming content. Rice is somewhat less acidic in character than wheat, but a little more acid in character than corn meal. Among the base-forming substances spinach holds first place. It has long been known that spinach is a wholesome food product. It is recom- mended even for infants and young children if properly prepared. It does not have a high food value but it does have a high dietetic value, as it tends more than any other one substance commonly eaten to prevent acidosis and correct an acid condition when once established. Among other vegetables of high basic value may be mentioned beets, cabbage, carrots, fresh cucumbers, dried figs, lettuce, onions, parsnips, pineapple, rhubarb and tomatoes. Milk has a basic value a little less, calorie for calorie, than the acid value of cereals. Therefore the free drinking of milk with cereals is important. Melons are quite basic in their character and therefore have value as a corrective food in addition to the calories which they contain. As a rule nuts are almost neutral in their final reac- tion. This is due principally to the large quantities of protein which they contain. Nuts may be substituted for meats with advantage, as they are nearly neutral while meats are highly acidic. Nuts also are more closely allied to meats chemically than any other vegetable products, as they are composed chiefly of protein and oil. For this reason nuts should not be eaten when meats are served at a meal, but should be reserved for the meatless meals of the day. How Do Naturally Acid Foods Become Alkaline on Digestion?—It is difficult to explain to a layman why foods which are naturally acid be- come alkaline on digestion. For instance, the orange and apple are de- cidedly acid in their reactions. These acids are combined with basic substances, principally potash and lime in fruits. During digestion the organic acids, such as citric and malic, are oxidized to carbonic acid. The carbonic acid combines with the potash, regarding that as the typical base, to form a carbonate or acid carbonate. A carbonate is strongly alkaline in reaction. The common baking soda, or bicarbonate of soda, is a slightly alkaline but nearly neutral body. Both the potash and the soda in our foods, if they are largely fruits and vegetables, are found in the resi- due of digestion, and it is due to these carbonates and bicarbonates that the alkalinity of the blood and the other tissues is maintained. Thus the fruits, the vegetables and the milk of our dietary result in the formation of carbonates and bicarbonates of the alkalies in the blood and tissues. The phosphoric acid which is produced during digestion, or which may be naturally present in our foods, combines chiefly with lime, for the nutrition of the bones, the teeth and the other tissues of the body in which phosphate of lime occurs. If, however, the amount of phosphoric acid is GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION. 617 in excess of any base which may be formed it becomes free phosphoric acid and combines with any base with which it may come in contact. Fortunately in the well-balanced diet there is quite a sufficiency of basic material not only to form the carbonates and bicarbonates so necessary to our health, but also to neutralize both the phosphoric acid and the sul- phuric acid due to metabolism. Hence phosphates and sulphates are constantly excreted from the body, mostly in the urine. General Principles of Nutrition.-From the above facts it is easy to draw the conclusion that if we are fed cereals alone the end result will be a tendency to acidosis, because the acids produced from the digestion of the cereals are greater in quantity than is necessary to neutralize the bases which the cereals contain. For a like reason a diet composed almost or quite exclusively of meat would soon lead to injurious results, because the acids formed from the digestion of the meat would be greater than the bases which the meat contained. For the same reason, though not to such an extent, a diet consisting of fruits alone, or of succulent vegetables alone, would tend to produce too great a degree of alkalinity in the body and to that extent interfere with the necessary functions of the acid bodies, all of which are highly important. · The sulphur or sulphuric acid which is formed during digestion is necessary to build up the protein tissues of the body. Phosphates are necessary for the bones, teeth, and tissues of the body in general, and hydrochloric acid is essential to the proper functioning of the stomach. The scientific diet, therefore, is one in which all these elements are prop- erly incorporated and in such a way that the end result is a slight alka- linity in the total reaction of the digestive residues. Nature fortunately assumes the task of selecting from this general residue the acid elements necessary to stomach digestion and the alkaline elements necessary to the functioning of the blood and lymph. Fortunately our natural taste, when we have access to various kinds of foods, leads us to select those foods which give the slightly alkaline reaction to the sum of the digestive residues. For this reason man, when left to choice, eats cereals, milk, meats, including eggs, fish and fowl, fruits, nuts and vegetables, and usually in the proportion which secures good dietetic results. By reason of the above facts it is easy to see that the so-called cults in foods which lead us to eat only one kind of food are not based upon sound dietetic principles. There is only one of the cults of this kind which can lay claim to real consideration. That is the vegetarian theory. The vegetarian theory, however, fails completely when we consider the whole course of life of the human animal. If new-born infants were fed accord- ing to the vegetarian theory not one of them would reach maturity. They would all die. Man, in his infancy, is purely an animal-eating ani- 618 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. mal, milk being an animal food. The saving clause in the vegetarian theory is due to the fact that milk and eggs are usually not excluded there- from. It is not fair to infer, however, that because the human animal during his first year must have only animal food he should subsequently not eat largely of vegetable substances, including cereals, fruits, nuts, and other commonly called vegetables. The development of the masticatory system and the study of comparative anatomy show that man is an om- nivorous animal. It is interesting in this connection to call attention to the fact that purely vegetarian animals, such as the bovine, and purely flesh-eating animals, such as the leonine, all in the beginning eat the same diet, namely, milk. The Universal Diet.-There is only one food which may be called the universal food, suitable to all living Mammalia, and that is milk. Milk is the only perfect food. Milk is the only one substance on which growth and health may be secured. Milk, therefore, is an article of diet which is not appreciated as it should be by most people. When grown persons become enfeebled and their digestive organs become weakened often a diet of milk serves to restore health and vigor. As a mono-diet milk is the only perfect example. Basis of Classification.-The basis of classification of foods in regard to their acidic or basic residues on digestion cannot be predicated alone upon the quantity of mineral substances, that is, of ash, which they con- tain. The classification is based upon the reaction of the ash. The burning of the foods under precautions to preserve all of their mineral substances furnishes a basis of classification. If these mineral residues react strongly alkaline we may regard the food from which they come as an alkaline food in the dietary sense. If, on the other hand, their reac- tion shows the presence of acid they may be classed as acidic foods from the dietary point of view. If the reaction is neutral they belong neither to one class nor the other. This classification does not in any way show the comparative value of foods for nutritive purposes, but only their value as useful in balancing the diet to secure health and vigor. In the follow- ing tables are given lists of foods which are acidic or basic in regard to their dietary residues. TABLES OF ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY AND FUEL VALUE OF FOODS. After having acquired a knowledge of foods, their composition and chief adulterations, it is important to know how to utilize them for the nutrition of man. In this chapter I shall not undertake to write a trea- tise on nutrition but to give only certain tabular matter which will guide the reader in properly selecting and balancing a diet both as respects TROPICAL MEAL. 619 acidity and alkalinity of its digestive residues and the ability it has of furnishing the heat and energy of the body. In selecting a diet, it is important first of all to see that sufficient heat and energy making materials are secured. The tabular matter in this chapter exclusive of that relating to the acidity and alkalinity of the residues is taken from my book on nutrition, entitled "Not by Bread Alone," published by the Hearst's International Library Company, New York City, to whose courtesy I owe the privilege of reproducing the matter herein. TO CONSTRUCT A RATION OF ANY GIVEN NUMBER OF CALORIES. For a basic ration it is convenient to select one representing 1.000 Calories, one meal for the average active man, so adjusted that one-sixth of the heat units is derived from protein and five-sixths from carbohy- drates and fats. The typical meal does not include soups, coffee, tea, or dessert, since these items are mostly stimulants, or, in the case of sweets, unbalanced food adjuvants which, on the whole, were better omitted. Let us choose a meal consisting of bread, butter, milk, meat, and potatoes. By consult- ing the tables the following data (whole numbers) are obtained: Bread.... Roast beef. Milk... Butter. Potatoes. • • • Total.... TYPICAL MEAL OUNCES. CALORIES 3 200 • • • • • • · • • 3 250 16 300 0.5 ΙΟΟ 6 150 28.5 1,000 In all cases the quantities refer to the edible portion. From the percentage of protein in these food products and the quanti- ties used in the ration it is found that the 1.5 ounces of protein in the meal furnished 160 Calories and the carbohydrates and fats 840 Calories. This ration, therefore, has a nutritive ratio of 5. Assuming that the mineral content of the ration which is not included in these calcula- tions is of the right kind and amount, three meals of the above pro- portions furnish an ideal ration of the average man at moderate work for one day. INDEX FOR CONVENIENCE IN USING TABLES Among a multitude of data arranged by groups of like kinds the particular article of diet will be hard to find. The food products, which include most of the kinds commonly consumed, are arranged alphabetically in the following table index. 620 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. NAME. MEATS. Percent carbohydrate. Calories per kilo. Calories per pound. Grams per 100 calories. Ounces per 100 calories. Calf's Liver.... E. P. A. P. 73.0 19.0 5.3 1,265 Ham, smoked, lean.. E. P. A. P. 11.5 53.5 19.8 20.8 47.2 17.5 18.5 Ham, smoked, me- me- E. P. dium fat. • A. P. 13.6 40.3. 16.3 38.8 34.8 14.2 33.4 575 79.1 2.82 2,739 1,245| 36.5 1.30 2,431 1,105 41.I 1.47 4,2681,940 23.4 0.83 3,685 1,675 27.1 0.97 E. P. Ham, smoked, fat... A. P. 27.9 14.8 52.3 3.4 25.2 12.4 53.7 5,467 2,485 18.3 0.65 5,489 2,495 18.2 0.65 Ham, smoked, all E. P. analyses... A. P. 39.8 16.5 38.8 12.2 35.8 14.5 33.2 4,279 1,945 23.3 0.83 3,674 1,670 27.2 0.97 Ham, smoked, boiled. {P: JE. P. • · • • • • + A. P. 51.3 20.2 22.4 2,904 1,320 34.4 1.23 E. P. Ham, boneless, raw. . A. P. 50.1 14.9 28.5 3.3 48.5 14.3 27.5 3,256 1,480 30.7 1.09 3,135 1,425 31.9 1.14 E. P. Kidneys, Mutton... A. P. 78.7 16.5 3.2 Lamb, side, without tallow... E. P. A. P. 19.3 58.2 17.6 23. I 47.0 14.1 18.7 968 440 103.3 3.7 2,860 1,300 34.9 1.25 2,321 1,055 43.1 1.54 E. P. Lamb, leg, hind, fat.. 54.6 18.3 27.4 A. P 13.4 47.3 15.8 23.7 Lamb, leg, free from E. P. · all visible fat...... A. P. 72.3 25.3 Lamb, leg, hind, all analyses... E. P. A. P. E. P. Mutton, hind leg, lean A. P. Mutton, hind leg, fat. E. P. A. P. 12.4 • Mutton, hind leg, all E. P. analyses.. A. P. 17.7 E. P. Ox tail, canned.. 55.0 17.3 27.I 48.2 15.2 23.8 63.218.7 17.5 51.9 15.4 14.5 67.9 26.3 58.6 18.6 22.6 13.8 50.3 16.0 19.7 67.4 19.8 12.4 16.8 56.1 16.5 10.3 3,289 1,495 30.4 1.09 2,849 1,295 35.1 1.25 I 585 77.7 2.7 2,860 1,300 34.9 1.25 2,486 1,130 40.2 I.43 1,958 890 51.I I.9 1,628 740 61.4 2.91 3,223 1,465 31.01.II 2,838 1,290 35.2 1.26 2.7 1,287 2,387 1,085 41.9 1.5 1,980 900 50.5 1.8 6.3 1,661 755 60.22.20 • A. P. 29.7 47.7 18.5 4.5 1,177 535 85.03.03 Pork, Tenderloin. . • {E. P. A. P. 66.5 18.9 13.0 1,980 900 50.5 1.8 Sausage, average Pork { E. P. A. P. • 39.8 13.0 44.2 1.1 4,675 2,125 21.4 0.76 * E. P.: Edible portion. A. P.: As purchased. NAME. VEGETABLES, FRESH. MEATS. (Continued.) 621 Percent. refuse. Percent water. Percent protein. Percent fat. carbohydrate. Percent Calories per kilo. Calories per pound. Grams per 100 calories. Ounces per 100 calories.- Sweetbreads, beef... S E. P. A. P. • • • • 70.9 16.8 12.1 E. P. Tongue, Beef (Ox)…….. A. P. 26.5 51.8 14.1 FOWLS AND SEA FOOD. 70.8 18.9 9.2 6.7 1,815 825 55. 1 825 55.1 1.97 1,628 740 61.4 2.2 I, 199 545 83.5 2.98 Turkey.. Crab meat.... Crabs, hardshell, whole. Lobsters, whole..... • • E. P. 79.2 16.4 A. P. 61.7 30.7 5.9 Chickens, Broilers....{ E. P. A. P. 74.8 21.5 2.5 41.6 43.7 12.8 I.4 I,III 505 90.0 3.2 649 295 154.1 5.5 Eggs, Hens'.... Fowls.. { E. P. 73.7 13.4 IO.5 A. P. 11.2 65.5 11.9 9.3 E. P. 63.7 19.3 16.3 A. P. 25.9 47.1 31.7 12.3 E. P. 55.5 21.1 22.9 A. P. 22.7 42.4 16.1 18.4 ƒ E. P. A. P. 2.0 • • 2,992 1,360 33.4 1.2 2,365 1,075 42.3 1.5 • 1,584 1,397 720 63.12.3 635 71.6 2.55 2,299 1,045 43.5 1.55 1,705 775 58.72.08 • • 77.1 16.6 I.2 913 415 109.5 3.91 S E. P. A. P. 52.4 36.7 7.9 0.9 0.6 429 195 233.1 8.3 1.8 0.4 0.7 858 0.2 308 390 116.5 4.1 140 324.7 11.59 Oysters in shell... E. P. • 86.9 A. P. 81.4 16.1 I.2 6.2 I. 2 3.7 517 235 193.4 6.9 0.2 0.7 99 45 1010.1 36. I Oysters, bulk.... E. P. A. P. 88.3 6.0 I.3 3.3 506 230 197.6 7.06 Scallops... E. P. A. P. 80.3 14.8 O. I 3.4 759 345 131.8 4.71 • VEGETABLES, Fresh. E. P. Artichokes. • • A. P. 79.5 2.6 0.2 16.7 803 365 124.5 4.45 E. P. · • · • Asparagus.. A. P. 94.0 1.8 0.2 3.3 231 105 432.9 15.4 E. P. 87.5 1.6 O. I 9.7 473 215 211.4 7.5 Beets.. A. P. 20.0 70.0 1.3 O.I 7.7 374 170 267.4 9.55 Beets, cooked... E. P. 88.6 2.3 O. I 7.4 407 185 245.7 8.8 A. P. Beans, String.. LA E. P. A. P. 89.2 2.3 2.30.3 7.4 429 195 233.1 8.3 7.0 83.0 2.1 0.3 6.9 396 180 252.5 9.02 622 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. NAME. VEGETABLES, FRESH.-(Continued.) Percent refuse. Percent water. Percent protein. Percent fat. carbohydrate. Percent Calories per kilo. Calories per pound. Grams per 100 calories. Ounces per 100 calories. E. P. Cabbage.. 91.5 1.6 0.3 5.6 319 A. P. 15.0 77.7 I.4 0.2 4.8 275 E. P. 88.2 I. I 0.4 9.3 462 Carrots.... A. P. 20.0 70.6 0.9 0.2 7.4 352 145313.411.2 125363.612.98 210216.4 7.7 160284.110.14 い ​Cauliflower. JE. P. • • • A. P. 92.3 1.8 0.5 4.1 308 140 324.711.59 E. P. 94.5 I. I O.I 3.3 187 85 534.7 19.I Celery.... A. P. 20.0 75.6 0.9 O. I 2. 2.6 154 70649.323.19 E. P. 75.4 3.I I.1 19.7 1,034 470 96.7 3.4 Corn, green. A. P. 61.0 29.4 I. 2 0.4 7.7 396 180252.5 9.02 Cucumbers.. E. P. A. P. 15.0 81.1 0.8 195.4 0.2 3.I 176 80568.220.3 0.7 0.2 2.6 154 70649.323.19 E. P. • Eggplant.. 92.9 I.2 0.3 5. I 286 130349.712.48 A. P. E. P. 91.8 I.2 0.5 5.8 Leeks... A. P. 15.0 78.0 Ι.Ο 0.4 5.0 ∞ 0 330 286 E. P. 194.7 I. 2 Lettuce.. 0.3 2.9 A. P. 15.0 80.5 I.O O. 2 2.5 96 198 165 & ∞ E. P. 87.6 1.6 0.3 9.9 495 Onions. A. P. 10.0 78.9 1.4 0.3 8.9 45I 150303.010.82 130349.7 12.48 90505.118.03 75606.121.64 225 202.0 7.21 205 221.7 7.92 E. P. 83.0 1.6 0.5 13.5 660 Parsnips... A. P. 20.0 66.4 I.3 0.4 10.8 528 300151.5 5.41 240189.4 6.76 E. P. Peas, Green... 74.6 7.0 A. P. 45.0 40.8 3.6 ao 0.5 16.9 1,023 465 97.7 3.49 0.2 9.8 561 255178.2 6. .3 E. P. 78.3 2.2 O. I 18.4 847 385118.1 4.22 Potatoes.. • A. P. 20.0 62.6 I. 1.8 O. I 14.7 682 310146.6 5.2 Potatoes, Sweet. Pumpkin.... E. P. • • • 69.0 1.8 E. P. A. P. 20.0 55.2 A. P. 5.00 46.5 I.4 0.7 27.4 27.4 1,254 0.6 21.9 1,012 570 79.7 2.85 46098.8 3.53 93. I I.O 0.5 00 O.I -H O. I 5.2 264 120378.813.53 2.6 132 60757.6 27.05 E. P. 91.8 1.3 O. I 5.8 Radishes... A. P. 30.0 64.3 0.9 O. I 4.0 ∞ o 297 135336.712.02 209 95478.5 17.08 E. P. 94.4 0.6 0.7 3.6 231 105 432.915.5 Rhubarb.. • A. P. 40.0 56.6 0.4 0.4 2.2 143 65699.3 24.98 2 NAME. VEGETABLES, CANNED. VEGETABLES, FRESH.-(Continued.) Percent refuse. Percent water. Percent protein. Percent fat. carbohydrate. Percent Calories per kilo. Calories per pound. Grams per 100 calories. Ounces per 100 calories. Spinach..... Squash... · E. P. A. P. JE. P. 92.3 88.3 2.I 0.3 3.2 242 I.4 0.5 9.0 473 A. P. 50.0 44.2 0.7 0.2 4.5 231 110413.2 14.7 10413.214.7 215 211.4 7.55 105432.915.4 (E. P. • Tomatoes.. A. P. 94.3 0.9 0.4 3.9 231 105432.9 14.5 E. P. • 89.6 I.3 0.2 8.1 407 185 245.7 8.8 Turnips.. A. P. 30.0 62.7 0.9 O.I 5.7 275 125363.6 12.98 VEGETABLES, Canned. Asparagus.. / E. P. • A. P. 94.4 1.5 O. I 2.8 187 85534.819.I Beans, baked.. E. P. A. P. 68.9 6.9 • 2.5 19.6 1,320 600 75.8 2.71 Beans, Lima. E. P. • ► • • • • • • · A. P. 79.5 4.0 0.3 14.6 792 360126.3 4.5 E. P. Beans, String. • • A. P. 93.7 I. I 0.1 3.8 209 95478.417.I Beans, Wax.... E. P. A. P. 94.6 I.O O. I 3.I 176 80'568.220.3 Beans, Haricots, Verts, E. P. • • • • 2.5 154 70649.323.2 • average. • • Beans, Haricots, A. P. 95.2 I. I O. I E. P. Flageolets, average.. A. P. 81.6 4.6 O. I 12.5 704 320142.0 5.07 Corn.. • JE. P. • A. P. 76.1 2.8 1.2 19.0 1,000 455 100.0 3.6 E. P. Horseradish.... A. P. Horseradish, E. P. • • · • evaporated.... A. P. 4.3 II.O 86.4 I.4 0.2 IO.5 506 230197.6 7.06 0.8 77.7 3,707 1,685 27.0 0.96 • • Macédoine, mixed E. P. vegetables.. A. P. • 93. I 1.4 4.5 242 • • 110413.2 14.8 Peas, Green... E. P. • • A. P. 85.3 255178.2 6.3 * In articles which are all edible A. P. and E. P. are synonymous terms. 3.6 0.2 9.8 561 623 624 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. VEGETABLES, CANNED.-(Continued.) NAME. E. P. Okra.. • A. P. 94.4 0.7 O. I 3.6 187 85534.8 19.1 JE. P. Pumpkin.. Tomatoes.. A. P. 91.6 0.8 0.2 6.7 330 150303.010.8 E. P. • A P. 94.0 I.2 0.2 4.0 231 105432.915.4 FRUITS, FRESH. • Apples... E. P. 84.6 0.4 A. P. 25.0 63.3 0.5 14.2 628 290 156.7 5.6 0.3 0.3 10.8 484 220206.6 7.4 E. P. Apricots.. 85.0 I. I • A. P. 6.0 79.9 Ι.Ο но 13.4 594 270168.3 6.01 12.6 561 255178.2 6.4 Bananas. Blackberries.... Cherries.. Cranberries.. Grapes.... JE. P. • 75.3 1.3 0.6 22.0 1,012 460 98.8 3.53 A. P. 35.0 48.9 0.8 0.4 14.3 660 300151.5 5.41 E. P. • • • A. P. 86.3 1.3 1.0 10.9 594 270168.3 6.01 E. P. A. P. 5.0 76.8 80.9 Ι.Ο 0.9 0.8 16.7 803 0.8 15.9 759 365124.5 4.45 345131.7 4.7 • E. P. JE. P. A. P. 88.9 0.4 77.4 I.3 A. P. 25.0 58.0 I.O • • • • • 0.6 9.9 473 215211.4 7.5 1.6 19.2 990 1.2 14.4 737 450 101.0 3.61 Lemons.. E. P 89.3 1.0 0.7 8.5 A. P. 30.0 62.5 0.7 0.5 5.9 45I 319 E. P. Oranges.. 86.9 0.8 0.2 11.6 528 A. P. 27.0 63.4 0.6 O. I 8.5 374 335135.7 4.8 205221.7 7.92 145 313.511.2 240189.4 6.76 170 267.4 9.5 I E. P. 89.4 0.7 O. I o. 9.4 418 190239.2 8.54 Peaches. A. P. 18.0 73.3 0.5 O. I 7.7 341 155 293.210.5 E. P. 84.4 0.6 Pears.. A. P. 10.0 76.0 0.5 14.I 0.5 0.4 12.7 649 295154.1 5.5 572 260174.8 6.2 JE. P. 78.4 I.O 20. I 869 395115.1 4.II Plums. • A. P. 5.0 74.5 0.9 19.1 814 370122.8 4.4 E. P. 79.6 0.9 18.9 814 370122.8 4.39 Prunes.. • • • · A. P. 5.8 75.6 0.7 17.4 737 335135.7 4.8 NAME. GROCERIES. FRUITS, FRESH.—(Continued.) Percent refuse. Percent water. Percent protein. Percent fat. carbohydrate. Percent Calories per kilo. Calories per pound. Grams per 100 calories. Ounces per 100 calories. Raspberries, red...... J E. P. A. P. 85.8 I.O 12.6 561 • 255178.2 6.4 Raspberries, black……... E. P. A. P. 84.1 1.7 1.0 12.6 682 310146.6 5.2 E. P. Strawberries. • 90.4 I.O 0.6 7.4 · • A. P. 5.0 85.9 0.9 0.6 7.0 33 88 396 180252.5 9.02 385 175259.7 9.3 Watermelons. S E. P. 92.4 0.4 0.2 A. P. 59.4 37.5 0.2 O.I 21 6.7 308 2.7 132 140324.6 11.6 60757.627.05 Preserved FRUITS. Apples, sauce.. .. A. P. 61.1 I 0.2 0.8 37.2 1,606 73062.3 2.22 Apricots.. A. P. 81.4 0.9 17.3 748 340 133.7 4.7 Blueberries. A. P. 85.6 0.6 0.6 12.8 605 275165.3 5.9 Cherries.... .A. P. Figs, stewed.... ..A. P. 77.2 1.1 O. I 21. I 913 56.5 1.2 0.3 40.9 1,727 415109.5 3.9 78557.9 2.07 Marmalade, I A. P. 14.5 0.6 0.1 84.5 3,487 1,585 28.7 I.02 Orange Peaches. A. P. 88. I 0.7 O. I 10.8 484 220206.6 7.4 Pears.. .. A. P. 81.1 0.3 0.3 18.0 781 355128.0 4.5 Pineapple..... Prunes, sauce. A. P. 61.8 0.4 0.7 36.4 1,573 715 63.6 2.27 • .A. P. 76.6 0.5 O. I 22.3 946 430 105.7 3.7 Strawberries, stewed. . . . A. P. • • • 74.8 0.7 24.0 1,012 460 98.8 3.5 Barley, Pearl....... . . . A. P. Biscuit, graham crackers.A. P. Biscuit meal, cracker meal... Groceries, BREAD, ETC. II.5 8.5 5.4 10.0 9.4 73.8 9.2 10.9 6.0 72.9 3,982 1,810 25.1 0.9 I 1.1 77.8 3,630 1,650 27.6 1.0 | 4,301 1,955 23, 2 0.83 A. P. • Biscuit, saltines.. .A. P. • 5.6 10.6 12.7 68.5 4,411 2,005 22.7 0.81 Biscuit, oyster.. A. P. 4.8 11.3 10.5 70.5 4,323 1,965|23.1 0.83 625 40 626 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. NAME. GROCERIES.-(Continued.) . Biscuit, soda crackers... A. P. Bread, white all analyses.A. P. 5.9 9.8 9.8 9.1 73.1 73.14,235 4,235 1,925 23.6 0.84 1,92523.6 50.84 • 35.3 9.2 1.3 53.1 2,673 1,21537.4 I.34 Bread, Graham.. .A. P. • 35.7 8.9 1.8 52.12,662 1,21037.6 I.34 Bread, brown... A. P. 43.6 5.4 1.8 47.I 2,310 1,050 43.3 I.54 Butter. .A. P. II.O 1.0 85.0 7,931 3,605 12.6 0.45 Cake, all analyses, except fruit }..A. P. 19.9 6.3 9.0 63.3 3,685 1,675 27.1 0.97 Cheese, full cream. . . . . . A. P. 34.2 25.9 33.7 2.4 4,290 1,950 23.3 0.83 Chestnuts, dried..... Chestnuts, fresh...... Cocoa.... Coconut, prepared . . . . . .A. P. Cornmeal, granular. . . . .A. P. E. P. 5.9 10.7 A. P. 24.0 4.5 8.1 ( E. P. 45.0 6.2 5.4 42.I A. P. 16.0 37.8 5.2 4.5 35.4 A. P. 4.6 21.6 28.9 37.7 3.5 6.3 57.4 12.5 7.0 74.2 4,125 1,875 24.2 0.87 5.3 56.4 3,135 1,425 31.9 I.14 2,475 1,12540.4 I.44 2,079 94548. I 1.7 5,104 2,320 19.6 0.7 6,875 3,125 14.5 0.52 Corn starch..... A. P. 9.2 1.9 75.4 3,641 1,655 27.5 0.98 90.0 3,685 1,675 27.1 0.97 Cream, 25 percent butter fat . .A. P. 63.0 6.0 25.0 6.0 2,805 1,27535.7 1.27 Cream, 36 percent butter fat Currants, dried.. Figs, dried... Flour, wheat, all analyses Flour, buckwheat. Gelatine... } .A. P. 54.0 • A. P. A. P. 17.2 2.4 4.0 36.0 1.7 74.2 18.8 4.3 0.3 74.2 6.0 3,748 1,704 26.7 0.95 3,289 1,495 30.4 3,245 1,475 30.8 I. I I. I } A. P. II.4 10.6 1.1 76.3 3,663 1,66527.3 0.97 A. P. • · 13.6 6.4 1.2 77.9 3,564 1,620 28.1 I.O A. P. 13.6 91.4 O. I 3,751 1,705 26.7 0.95 Honey. ..A. P. 18.2 0.4 81.2 3,344 1,520 29.9 91 1.07 • Ice cream.. Lard, unrefined, average. A. P. A. P. 64.0 6.0 14.0 16.0 2,182 99245.8 1.64 • 4.8 2.2 94.0 8,822 4,010 11.3 T 0.41 NAME. GROCERIES. GROCERIES.-(Continued.) 627 Lard, refined...... . . .A. P. • • 100.0 9,284 4,220 10.8 0.38 Lobster, canned. ..A. P. • 77.8 18.1 1.I 0.5 858 390 116.6 4.16 Macaroni..... A. P. 10.3 13.4 0.9 74.1 3,663 1,665 27.3 0.98 Milk, whole... A. P. 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 715 325139.9 4.99 Mincemeat, commercial. A. P. 27.7 6.7 1.4 60.2 2,871 1,305 34.8 1.24 Mincemeat, home-made..A. P. 54.4 4.8 6.7 32.12,134 970 46.9 .67 Molasses, cane. A. P. 25. I 2.4 69.3 2,838 1,290 359.2 1.26 • Oatmeal.... A. P. 7.3 16.1 7.2 67.5 4,092 1,860 24.4 0.87 E. P. 58.0 Olives, green. A. P. 27.0 42.3 1.1 27.6 11.6 0.8 20.2 8.5 3,080 1,400 32.4 1.16 2,255 1,025 44.3 1.58 Pickles, mixed.... A. P. 93.8 Rice. .. A. P. 12.3 I. I 0.4 4.0 242 110413.2 14.4 8.0 0.3 79.0 3,586 1,630 27.9 0.99 Rolls, all analyses…. . . . . A. P. 29.2 8.9 4.1 56.7 3,069 1,395 32.6 1. 1.16 Sardines, canned.... {A. P. JE. P. A. P. Shredded wheat, A. P. all analyses... Soup, Consommé...... A. P. 96.0 2.5 0.4 121 55826.429.51 Soup, Mock Turtle…. . . . . A. P. 89.8 5.2 0.9 2.8 407 185 245.7 8.8 Soup, Tomato.. A. P. 90.0 I 1.8 1.1 I. I 5.6 407 185 245.7 8.8 Starch, Corn.... A. P. 8.0 0.2 52.3 23.0 |19.7 5.0 53.6 23.7 12.1 5.0 53.6 9.6 12.1 1.8 75.2 3,740 1,700 26.7 0.95 2,772 1,260 36.1 1.3 2.༠9༠ 950 47.8 1. 71 Sugar, granulated. . . . . . . A. P. Syrup, Maple... Vermicelli.... . . A. P. A. P. II.O 10.9 0.2 90.0 3,626 1,638 27.6 0.97 100.0 4,092 1,860 24.4 0.87 71.4 2,926 1,330 34.2 1.22 2.0 72.0 3,575 1,625 28.0 1.0 628 ACID AND ALKALINE FOODS. TABLES SHOWING RELATIVE NEUTRALITY, ALKALINITY AND ACIDITY OF DIGESTED COMMON FOOD PRODUCTS. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. MINIMUM ALKALINITY. Apples Cranberries Mushrooms Onions Fresh peas Pears Pumpkins Radishes Watermelon MEDIUM ALKALINITY. Apricots Bananas Fresh string beans MAXIMUM ALKALINITY. Dried beans Beets Carrots Cucumbers Dates Cabbage Cauliflower Celery Olives Grape juice Pineapples Lemons and lemon juice Prunes Lettuce Raisins Canteloupes Oranges and orange juice Peaches Plums Potatoes Sweet potatoes Tomatoes Turnips MEATS, ANIMAL OILS AND FATS AND OTHER PRODUCTS, INCLUDING ACID. All lean meats of every de- - scription, including fish, fowl and game Cheese Eggs, both white and yolks FISH, FOWL AND GAME. ALKALINE.. Milks of all kinds Cream Butter milk Sour milk and artificially soured milk including kumyss Artificially soured milk con- taining alcohol Junket Milk soured with Bulgarian Bacillus NEUTRAL. All animal fats and oils Butter VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES WHICH PRODUCE ACIDITY. All cereal products and their preparations. ACID. Peanuts and peanut butter Walnuts * NUTS.* ALKALINE. Almonds Chestnuts Coconuts NEUTRAL. Brazil nuts Butter nuts Hickory nuts Pecans Pine nuts Pistachio nuts Probably all nuts are slightly acid in their end reaction. The acidity, however, is extremely small. Nuts have been entered as neutral where no definite statements are made that they are acid. The neutrality of nuts is found in the fact that they con- tain considerable mineral substances and very large quantities of fat. The slight acid- ity comes from the sulphur in the protein. PART XIII. VITAMINS. Cause of Scurvy.-It has long been known that certain kinds of foods, such as those carried in former times on board ship where long voyages were, contemplated, produce a kind of disease which in general has been called "scurvy." For instance, a diet of bread made from white flour, preserved meats, and the absence of fruits and fresh vegetables, is certain in the course of two or three months to induce a disease of this kind. If a supply of fresh vegetables or fruits can be secured the effects of the disease are counteracted and the patients recover. If access to such. foods cannot be had, however, the disease often progresses to a fatal issue. The foods which produce scurvy are called scorbutic foods, and those which tend to relieve this disease are called anti-scorbutic foods. Although hundreds of years have elapsed since we have historic references to this disease the real nature of it was not discovered until only a few years ago and the nature of the anti-scorbutic elements, though fairly well understood generally, has not been definitely ascertained even at the present time. Other Related Diseases.-The development of medical science in the last few years has established a number of diseases related more or less intimately to scurvy in that they are truly dietetic diseases. It is meant by that that they are due to some radical fault in alimentation. These diseases are known as beri-beri, pellagra, and certain forms of neuritis. Beri-beri.—The introduction of polished rice into the countries where rice was the principal food for the inhabitants was followed by the develop- ment of a disease which was particularly prevalent in Japan and other rice-eating countries and which was called by the Japanese "beri-beri." The nature of this disease was for a long time unknown. Its ravages became threatening to the people of Japan and other rice-eating countries and the mortality was extremely high. It was discovered (this by acci- dent) that when rice bran was administered to a patient ill of beri-beri recovery took place. This led the Japanese physicians and dietitians to investigate more thoroughly the conditions surrounding the development of the disease and also to administer to patients suffering from beri-beri a broth made of rice bran. It was found that this broth was a specific and not only stopped the ravages of disease but also supplied the condi- 629 630 VITAMINS. tions for the recovery of the sick. It was only an easy step from these observations to discover that the polishing of the rice was the cause of this trouble. Natural (Unpolished) Rice.-Natural rice is the principal food of hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of the earth, especially those living in what we call the Orient, in Japan, China and adjacent countries. Evidently the bran of rice contains some vital or life-giving principle which the body of the rice does not contain. One of the early workers in this problem assumed that the vital principle was a nitrogenous body represented by the chemical term "amin." He therefore gave to it the name of "life amin," that is, "vitamin." Subsequent investigations seem to show that this principle of naming the product is erroneous, that it is more likely a phosphatic than a nitrogenous element, or it may be a com- bination of both. Nevertheless the term "vitamin" has come into general use, and will probably be retained even if the result of the investigation. should finally establish the fact that it is a misnomer. Vitamins. We mean by the term "vitamin" the sum of those elements in foods very minute in quantity and yet necessary to nutrition. A re- markable discovery has been made that if a synthetic food be given to an animal, containing all the elements necessary to nourish the animal and in the proper proportions, namely, minerals, proteins, fats and carbohy- drates, the animal will cease to grow and will gradually sicken and die. If, now, to this perfect chemical diet a vitamin be added, in proper pro- portions, the animal will thrive and live. It has thus been discovered that food, in order to be effective, must contain sufficient vitamins to supply the conditions of digestion and assimilation. There are two distinct forms of vitamins, viz., those soluble in water and those soluble in fats and oils. What Foods Contain Vitamins?-Investigations which have been made indicate that a vitamin is a vegetable product. It occurs in animal foods, especially in the animal secretion, milk, and probably in other portions of animal foods and is derived from the foods which the animals eat. In the milk it seems to adhere particularly to the butter fat, the protein and sugar of the milk apparently not containing any notable portion of the vitamin element. In cereals, in so far as investigations have extended, the vitamin is found particularly in the bran, that is, the outside covering, and in the germ. That is particularly true of rice, and it is probably true of all the other cereals. Vitamins also are abundant in green plants, especially in cabbage, lettuce, asparagus and other vegetable substances, including particularly potatoes. The distribution of the vitamins in plants other than cereals has not been definitely determined, but it is safe to assume that in the leaves as well as in the seeds and tubers the vitamins MIXING WITH ALKALIES. 631 are most abundant. In the potato it is apparently true that the vitamins are contained largely in the skins, but undoubtedly permeate the mass of the potato. In meats vitamins are not very abundant, and doubtless. whatever amount may be present is due to absorption from the vitamins of the foods which have been eaten. The vitamins are practically absent in polished rice, white flour and refined commercial corn meal, leading to the confirmation of the theory that they exist almost exclusively in the · outer coverings of the grains and in the germ. Vitamins are particularly abundant in yeast, from which it may be separated by means of a hydrated silicate (Lloyd's reagent). Things Hurtful to Vitamins. In so far as investigations have been re- ported the two most hurtful things in regard to the vitamins are high temperatures and free alkalies. While high temperatures are harmful to vitamins, if there be an abundance of water present the vitamins are not dangerously impaired by the ordinary processes of cooking. In baking, the external crusts will probably have their vitamins pretty thoroughly destroyed, but the interior of the baked body will still be active in this respect. If baking could be conducted at a lower temperature and for a longer time the vitamins would doubtless be more fully protected. For this reason it appears that cooking in a fireless cooker would be less injurious to the vitamins than cooking in an oven or over a fire. Effect of Canning.-The effect of canning vegetables and fruits upon their vitamin content has not been worked out. Presumably, however, the same principles would hold good as have just been enunciated. The heating of the vegetables or fruits in order to sterilize them will probably injure to a certain extent their vitamin content, but as there is an abun- dance of water present in this process there is no reason to believe that the vitamin content is seriously impaired. No definite statement can be made respecting this, however, as it has not been determined experimentally yet just what the damage is, if any. Mixing with Alkalies.-The mixing of foods with alkaline bodies is very destructive of their vitamin content. Fortunately this is rarely done in the way of cooking. Sometimes alkalies are added to green vegetables in the process of cooking to fix and accentuate their green color. This process, while improving the appearance, is not warranted in view of the fact of the injurious effect of alkalies upon the vitamin content. Better, by far, to cook green vegetables and have them fade somewhat in the process and still remain acid than to render them alkaline and have the green color more perfectly maintained. As a result of investigations which have already been made, the practice of eating our fruits and vege- tables in the raw state seems to have received a considerable degree of support. There is some danger in eating fruits and vegetables raw, of 632 VITAMINS. course, due to contamination in growing and handling. There is but little doubt of the fact, however, that when eaten raw they are more potent in so far as their vitamin content is concerned than when cooked. Thus, if fruits and vegetables be thoroughly cleaned, they may be eaten raw with benefit. Particularly is this true if it should turn out on further investiga- tions that the vitamin content of fruits and potatoes is largely centered in their skins, as is the case with rice and other cereals. The habit of throwing away the skins of fruits and vegetables is not only wasteful, but may be really detrimental to health in case these conclusions should be warranted by the final results of the investigations. These conclusions, however, do not indicate that cooking is always detrimental. There are many vegetables which are practically inedible raw, among these one of the most valuable of all, the potato. In view of what has been said above in regard to the limited effect of heat in cooking where abundant mois- ture is supplied, it is safe to conclude that in the proper cooking of vege- tables, although their vitamin content may be somewhat diminished, it is not dangerously decreased. Thus those vegetables and fruits which are improved by cooking are not to be excluded from our diet by reason of any slight decrease of vitamin potency. Practical Applications of the Vitamin Theory. It is evident that use- ful lessons respecting the value of foods have been taught by the progress which has been made in the study of vitamins. The whole line of dietary diseases, beginning with scurvy and ending with pellagra, is doubtless largely due to deficiency in the vitamins in our foods. Well-to-do people even, who have abundant choice of their foods, fail to select those which have the proper vitamin and mineral content. Fortunately these two conditions usually go together. Any mechanical process which diminishes the vitamin content of our food also diminishes its mineral content, be- cause the vitamins seem to prefer those portions of our foods which con- tain the largest quantity of mineral, as, for instance, the bran of cereals and the skins of fruits and vegetables. Thus the demineralizing of foods is also the devitaminizing of foods. Hence we learn to associate the ideas of the vitamin and mineral content, and very properly so. Waste of Vitamins.-The most striking illustration of the waste of vita- min and mineral utility is found in the common method of milling our cereals and in the peeling of our fruits and vegetables. Both cereals and pota- toes are matters of great national and personal interest. In round num- bers if may be said that 70 percent of the weight of wheat and other milled cereals appears in the food product, namely, the flour or meal made there- from, and 30 percent of the wheat and other milled cereals are rejected for human food. This 30 percent contains practically the minerals and vitamins of cereals. Hence the parts of the cereals which are now gen- CONSERVATION OF HEALTH. 633 erally consumed are scorbutic in character, that is, they tend to produce those diseases of which scurvy is a type. Experiments With Fowls.-Carefully conducted experiments show that white flour and commercial corn meal will not support growth in young animals, such as fowls. On the other hand, feeding the young fowls exclusively on these refined products develops, within about 20 days, a species of neuritis which in about 35 days ends fatally. This happens. whether they are fed polished rice, white flour, or commercial corn meal. Thus it appears that not only do we throw away 30 percent of our cereal foods, but unfortunately nearly all of their vital principles. The residue which we eat would speedily make an end of us were it not for the fact that we are able, by accident, to get other foods containing vitamins and minerals, sufficient perhaps to nourish us in a poor and incomplete way. Economic Importance of Knowledge. The economic importance of knowledge of these conditions can only be estimated, but possibly in a reasonably accurate manner. The illustration may be couched in a con- crete form. Apparently the people of the United States consume for domestic purposes, mostly for food but partly for seed, six hundred mil- lion bushels of wheat a year. It is evident from the above statement that as far as food at least is concerned four hundred million bushels of wheat, if eaten in the whole state, that is, the whole ground grain, all made into flour, would give the same bulk of nourishment as the six hundred million bushels now used. In addition, however, it would give a food of much higher nutritional value, because the mineral and vitamin content would be preserved. It is true that the protein content of the whole wheat flour is not quite as digestible as the protein of the fine white flour. On the whole, however, the total amount of assimilable protein is far greater in the whole wheat product. It is not extravagant, therefore, to say that nearly one-third of the expense of living, in so far as the cost of cereals is concerned, would be saved if cereals were eaten in their whole, natural condition with proper grinding and cooking. It is not meant by this that they should not be made into bread, but simply that the whole cereals should be made into bread. Conservation of Health.—A far greater benefit than the conservation of one-third of our cereals would be effected, however, namely, the health of our people would be immensely benefited. If our cereals were eaten whole the naturally laxative (not cathartic) effects which they produce would tend to eliminate that most pernicious condition which so commonly pre- vails throughout this country, the condition of constipation. It is acknowledged now by most authorities that constipation tends to the development of poisonous substances in the colon, especially by producing what is known as auto-intoxication, a common cause of premature old age and death. INDEX. A Acid and alkaline foods, 613 signification of terms, 613 food's become alkaline, 616 in fruits, 369 Acidity of nuts, 628 Acorn, 413 oil, 396 Adulteration, frequency, 57 simple tests, 593 Adulterations, gross physical, 593 obsolete, 595 Aerating agents, 251 Alcohol in confectionery, 485 in mother's diet, 508 industrial, 297, 481 Alewife, 121 Alkalies, mixing foods with, 631 Alkaline foods, 613 residue in digestion, 614 Alkalinity of fruits, 628 of nuts, 628 Allspice, 322 Almond oil, 396 Almonds, 414 Alum residues, character, 253 Amido bodies, 89 Amids, nutritive value, 567 Anchovy, 122 Animals, preparation as food, 12 Anise, 323 Anona, 343 preserves, 344 Appendix, food standards, 501 food and drugs act, 533 Applebutter, 385 Apples, 330 acidity, 330 adulterations, 330 composition, 331, 332 dietetic value, 332 dried, 335 evaporated, 335 length of harvest, 333 pectose content, 333 picking and care, 333 preparation for drying, 334 storage, 334 tannin content, 334 Apples, varieties, 330 Arrowroot, 317 Bermuda, 318 Madagascar, 319 South African, 320 Artichoke, 274 composition, 275 Jerusalem, 274 Artificial colors, 594 Ash, 9 of tropical fruits, 368 Asparagus, 275 Atropin, 448 Avocado, 344 B Bacillus Bulgaricus, 554-555 advertising claims, 556 Bacon, canned, 48 composition of canned, 48, 49 Bacterial characteristics of milk, 538 Baking powders, 251 alum, 252 cream of tartar, 252 phosphate, 252 residues, 253 Bananas, 345 composition, 347 Barley, 217 acreage and yield, 217 composition, 217 protein, 218 starch, 218 Bay leaf, 323 Bean, 275 butter, 276 green, 276 kidney, 276 lima, 276 string, 276 Beans, adulteration of canned, 308 canned, 307, 312 composition of canned, 307 Bechi test, 66 Beechnuts, 415. Beef, adulteration of potted, 52 commercial cuts, 17 composition of canning, 43 potted, 53 635 636 INDEX. Beef, extract, 79 names, 80 nitrogenous bodies, 79 nutritive properties, 80 fat crystals, 67 juice, 81 Butter, adulterated, 186 affected by food, 186 coloring, 185 melting point, 186 pure and renovated, 608 renovated, 186 salting, 183 standard, 186 composition, 81 preservatives, 81 trade-names, 82 treatment, 182 potted, 52 Buttermilk, 181 tea, 84 Butternut, 416 composition, 85 C Beefsteak, 21 Bees, swarming, 488 Beet sugar, 456 historical, 457 manufacture, 461-464 Beets, 277 Benzoic acid, simple test, 557 Beri-beri, 553, 629 Berkshire pig, analytical data, 29, 30 percentages of parts, 31, 32 Beverages in diabetes, 575 Bill of fare, 615 Biscuits, composition, 258 Black bass, 122 strap, 481 Blackberries, 342 Bleached flour, detection, 607 gasoline test, 607 Blood preparations, 83 Bluefish, 122 Bondon cheese, 208 Bonnyclabber, 181 Borax, simple test, 597 Boric acid, simple test, 597 Bottle-feeding, dangers, 501 Brandied fruit, 385 Brazil-nut, 415 Bread, 249 comparative nutritive properties, 256 composition, 254, 255 quantity of ash, 256 of sugar, 256 typical, 255 varieties, 249 Breakfast foods, 267 classification, 268 composition, 268 value, 271 Brie, manufacture, 207 Brook trout, 149 Brown grease, 71 Brussels sprouts, 278 Buckwheat, 219 acreage, 219 adulterations, 221 cakes, 220 composition, 219 milling, 219 starch, 221 Butcher's lard, 70 Butter, 182-187 Cabbage, 278 Cacao butter, 410 composition, 181 Cainito, 366 Cakes, 265 adulteration, 266 composition, 266 Calories, 9 Calorific value, computation, 501 Camembert, manufacture, 206 Candy, food value, 483 Cane sirup, 475 composition, 476 geographical distribution, 475 sugar, manufacture, 465, 466 Canna edulis, 318 Canned corn, adulteration, 228 souring and swelling, 312 goods, examination, 607 Canning, effect of, 631 industries, importance, 386-388 liquid, composition, 47 principles, 306 without parboiling, 47 Cans, character, 311 Cantaloupe, 284 Capers, 323 Capons, 103 Caramel, simple test, 599 Caraway, 323 Carbohydrates, digestion by infants, 518 Carcasses, preparation of, 14 Carp, 123 Carrot, 279 Casein, preparations, 215 Caseinogen, 530 Cashew, 348 Cassia, 323 buds, 323 Catfish, 123 Cat's milk, 513 Cauliflower, 279 Caviar, 145 Celery, 280 seed, 323 Cepe, 445 Cereal, addition to infants' foods, 517 Cereals, detection in coffee, 604 Certified milk, 547 inadequacy, 547 Ceylon oil, 411 Cheddar cheese, manufacture, 204 Cheese, 190-216 adulteration and misbranding, 192 American, 197 artificial coloring, 192 bacterial activity, 211 Cheddar, 203 INDEX. chemical changes during ripening, 212- 214 Cheshire, 203 comparative composition, 199 cottage, 195 cream, 201 curing, 200 digestibility, 214 effect of cold storage, 215 filled, 194 French varieties, 206 goats' milk, 192 historical, 190 kinds, 191 manufacture, 196, 197 of foreign types, 201 preservatives, 194 # principal English kinds, 203 quality of American, 200 raw materials, 194 sage, 203 salting, 199 Stilton, 203 Chemical composition, index of value, 525 leavening agents, 254 preservatives in milk, 532 preservation, 37 terms, explanation, 8 versus condimental preservatives, 594 Cherries, 336 canned, 370 maraschino, 371 varieties, 337 composition, 417 Chicken, 95 Chestnut, 416 adulteration, 103 of potted, 102 composition of white meat, 10I preserved, 102 Chickens, artificial feeding, 99 drawn and undrawn, 100 fresh killed, 99 preparation for food, 96 preparing for market, 99 Chicks, influence of temperature, 97 market, 98 Chicory, 280 color test, 603 detection, 603 roasted, 280 Chinese nut, 417 Cinnamon, 323 Citrus fruits, 348 Clams, 153 canned, 156 chowder, 79 soup, 79 Cloves, 323 Coconut butter, 411 oil, 411 Cod, common, 124 composition, 125 ·liver oil, adulteration, 166 salted and dried, 125 Codfish, 124 balls, 126 Coffee, adulteration, 602 Cold storage, effect on meats, 35 of milk, 532 Coloring, artificial, 380 matter, 55 indirect, 55 Colors, artificial, 594 Colza oil, 407 Comb honey, 489 637 Commercial formulas for infants' foods, 525 Condensed milk, 533 composition, 534 difficulties of manufacture, 535 solids, 535 Condimental substance, curing, 35, 36 Condiments, 322 Confectionery, 482 alcohol forbidden, 486 manufacture, 482 materials, 482 mineral colors, 485 wholesomeness, 484 Confections, adulteration, 483 Conger eel, 127 Consumer, rights of, 14 Cooking, 3 Copper, in peas, 313 simple test, 598 tests, 314, 598 Copra oil, 411 Coriander, 324 Corn bread, 232 canned, 227 meal, 230 adulteration, 232 pudding, 257 Cottonseed oil, 397 Bechi test, 66 detection, 600 extraction with petroleum, 401 Halphen test, 65 magnitude of industry, 397 manufacture, 397, 398 refining, 399, 400 Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, 559 Cow's milk, 513 Crabs, 155 canned, 156 638 INDEX. Cramming machine, 111 Cranberry, 281 Crawfish, 156 Cream, 175 standards, 176 Creatin, 90 Cress, 281 Cucumber, 281 Cumin seed, 324 Curd, cutting, 198 forming, 197 gathering, 199 heating, 198 milling, 199 separating, 199 Cured meats, canned, 59 Cuts of beef, 15 D Death rate, influence of milk, 548 Deviled meats, potted, 52 Dewberry, 342 Diabetes, cause, 569 nature, 567 test diet, 572-573 Diabetic flours, composition, 570 foods, foreign, 576 composition, 576 Diet at weaning, 502 during second year 503 in diabetes, 567 in nephritis, 577 in obesity, 577, 578 universal, 618 Dietaries for generous appetites, 588 Dill, 324 Dogs' milk, 513 Dried meats, 85 Drying milk, 536 Duck, 104 composition, 108 varieties, 105 Aylesbury, 105 Cayuga, 105 crested white, 105 East Indian, 105 gray, 105 Pekin, 105 Rover, 105 white call, 105 white Muscovy, 105 Dust, protection of food, 550 E Edam cheese, 210 Edible oils, uses, 395 parts, names, 15 Eels, 126 Egg plant, 282 substitutes, 115 Eggs, 112 Eggs, broken, 115 candling, 605 cold storage, 114 composition, 113 detection of, stale, 604 dried, 115 parasites, 116 poisonous principles, 116 preservation, 113 salt solution test, 605 Emmenthaler cheese, manufacture, 207 Entire wheat flour, 244 Enzyme action, effect of low temperature, 23 Ether extract, 9 Evaporated milk, 534 Extracts, miscellaneous, 562 classification, 562–563 F Fat babies, 498 identification of meats, 25 in milk, variability, 500 products, inedible, 70 test for adulteration, 51 variation in mothers' milk, 507 Fats, diet in obesity, 577 Feeding, frequency, 499 infants, quantity, 499 Fennel, 324 Ferments, spontaneous, 250 Fiber, 9 Figs, 349 caprification, 350 composition, 349 Smyrna, 349 Filberts, 418 Fish, average composition, 151 canning, 152 classification, 117, 118 by composition, 120, 121 cold storage, 151 drying and salting, 152 edible portion, 119 eggs, composition, 146 food value, 153 marketing, 151 oils, 165 principal constituents, 119 products, adulteration 152 Flavoring extracts, 326 adulteration, 605 Flavors, artificial, 380 Flesh, edible, II Flies, contamination, 550 Flounder, summer, 127 Flour, 242 adulterations, 247 age, 248 bleaching, 247, 607 commercial value, 244 composition, 245 Flour, special names, 243 standards, 248 substitutes, 248 varieties, 242 Fluorids in fish, 151 Foods, acid and alkaline, 613, 628 become alkaline, 616 basis of classification, 618 care in the home, 549 cause of disease, 553 classification, 2, 7, 613 composition, 6 condimental, 8 containing vitamins, 630 INDEX. contamination by domesticated ani- mals, 550 by flies and mosquitoes, 550 fuel value, 618 mixing with alkalies, 631 ordinary natural, 552 protection from dust, 550 reaction after digestion, 613 social functions, 5 toleration, 551 typical kinds, 613 Fowls, experiments, 633 slaughtering, III Fresh meat, adulteration of canned, 57 delivery to consumers, 21 preservation, 23 Fruit, brandied, 385 butter, 385 definition, 326 juices, preservatives, 557 selection, 375 sirups, 373 adulterations, 374 composition, 373 imitation, 374 Fruits, acid content, 369 adulteration of canned, 372 alkalinity of, 628 canned, 370, 625 characteristics, 327 composition of ash, 376 crystallized, 483 fresh, 624 nutritive uses, 328 sugar contents, 369 Fuel value of foods, 618 Fungi, food value, 454 Garlic, 282 Geese, feeding, 106 Gelatine, 90 G addition to meat extracts, 563 adulteration, 91 detection in ice cream, 610-611 preparation, 90 raw materials, 90, 91 Gelatinoids, nutritive value, 564 Gervais cheese, 208 Ginger, 324 Glucose, 479 detection, 600 harmful constituents, 485 used in honey, 493 Gluten, 241 bread, 569 preparation, 571 flour, 244, 569 composition, 570 standard, 569 separation, 245 testing, 246, 247 Goats' milk content of fat, 510-511 value, 510 Goggle-eye, 135 Goose, 105 composition, 108 varieties, 106 Gooseberry, 342 Gorgonzola cheese, 211 Gourds, 282 Graham flour, 243 Grape fruit, 351 composition, 351 Grapes, 337 composition, 338 Graylings, 128 Green turtle, 157 soup, 79 Groceries, fuel value, 625 Gruel for infants, 505, 506 Gruyère cheese, 210 Guava, 352 composition, 352 preserves, 352 Hake, 128 Halibut, 128 Halphen test, 65 H 639 Ham and bacon, adulteration of canned, 50 canned, 48 composition of canned, 48 Hazelnut, 419 oil, 401 Health, conservation, 633 Herring, 129 Hicaco, 352 Hickory-nut, 419 Hippuric acid, avoidance, 577 Hogfish, 130 Hogs' milk, 513 Home pasteurization, 540 Straus method, 541 Honey, adulteration, 493 ash, 492 cane sugar adulterant, 494 comb, 489 dextrose and levulose, 492 640 INDEX. Honey, distribution of industry, 489 extracted, 490 glucose, 493 historical, 486 hives, 488 invert sugar content, 494, 601 polarization, 491 preparation, 487 properties, 491 strained, 491 sucrose content, 492 water content, 491 Horse mackerel, 130 meat, canned, 57 composition, 58 detection, 58 Horse-radish, 283 Huckleberry, 342 Ice chest, care, 550 T Illinois State Board of Health, diet in tu- berculosis, 586-587 Immature infants, feeding, 498 Incubator, 96, 97 Indian corn, 222 acreage and yield, 222 adulteration of canned, 310 canned, 308 comparative digestibility, 257 composition of canned, 309 extent of canning industry, 309 starch, 229 varieties, 223 Infant feeding, after second year, 504 commercial literature, 520 nutrition, fundamental principles, 521 Infants' and invalids' foods, 497 foods, 497 analyses, 526, 590, 591 calories, 500 classes, 551 commercial formulas, 525 composition, 499, 500 multiplicity, 513 solid, 498 standard, 514 substitutes, 518 Inspection, 13 Intestines of hogs, disposition, 69 Introduction, I Invalids' foods, 497, 498, 549 analyses, 590-591 Invert sugar, detection, 601 Jams, 375, 376 J adulteration, 378, 379 composition, 377, 378 compound, 383 Jellies, 375, 379 Jellies, adulteration, 380 coloring, 380 composition, 380, 381 compound, 383 manufacture, 381 preservatives, 382 Jerusalem artichoke, 274 Kale, 283 K Kedzie, farinometer, 246 Kephir, 179 Ketchup, colors, 317 refuse material, 317 tomato, 316 Kettle-rendered lard, 68 Kidney bean, 276 Kitchen sanitation, 551 Koumiss, 179 Kumquat, 353 Lake herring, 130 Lamb chops, 22 L commercial cuts, 19 Lard, 63 adulteration, 65 chemical properties, 75 color reaction, 73 commercial classification, 68 composition, 64 crystals, 67 detection of adulterations, 65 leaf, 64 melting point, 73 names of kinds, 64 oil, 94 adulteration, 94 properties, 94 parts of fat 'used for making, 63 physical properties, 73 properties, 75 of adulterated, 76 rendering, 71, 72 rise of temperature, 73, 74 steam, 64 stearin, 71 summary, 76, 77 Leaf lard, 68 Leek, 284 Lemon extract, 606 test of purity, 607 Lemons, 353 Lethal dose, 39, 40 Lettuce, 284 Limburger cheese, 208 composition, 209 Lime, 354 juice, adulteration, 354 Loaves, size, 259 texture, 259 Lobster, 155 canned, 156 Longevity, influence of sour milk, 554 Loomis rules for eating, 588 Macaroni, 260 M composition, 260, 263 domestic, 260 manufacture, 263 Mace. 324 Mackerel, 131 Maize, 222, 223 composition, 223 early varieties, 227 flour, 230, 231 proteins, 227 variation, 227 Malted foods, 516 Mamey colorado, 354 de Santo Domingo, 355 Mango, 356 Maple sirup, 472 ash, 473 composition, 473 sugar, 467, 469 Maranon, 348 Mares' milk, 513 Marjoram, 325 Marmalade, 382 Meal, typical, 619 Meat broth, composition of ash, 86 chemical detection, 24 composition of fresh and canned, 46 detection of different kinds, 24 disposition of fragments, 23 dried, 25 extract, active principles, 86 adulteration, 86 kinds of preparations, 88, 89 nitrogenous bases, 88 INDEX. relation of price and nutritive value, 87 extracts, 560 analyses, 565 preparation, 561 solid, 561 substitutes, 561 food classification, 12 free diet, advantages over disadvant- ages, 584-585 industry, magnitude, 61 juice, composition of ash, 86 juices, 560 analyses, 564 microscopic appearance, 24 odor and taste, 24 powders, analyses, 565, 566 preparation for canning 40-41 Meats, II adulterations of comminuted, 54 deviled, 54 641 Meats, adulteration of, miscellaneous, 54 mixed, 54 potted, 54 effects of cold storage, 35 fuel value, 620 methods of preservation, 34, 35 pickled, 26 potted, 51 summary of data, 92, 93 Medicinal foods, analyses, 592 value, 558 Melons, 284 composition, 285, 286 Menhaden, 132 Metchnikoff, sour milk diet, 554 Milk, 169 adaptation to young of each animal, 512 content of fat, 174 bacterial characteristics, 538 count, 499, 539 calorific value, 501 certified, 171, 547 character of environment, 170 chromogenic bacteria, 539 comparative analyses, 510 composition, 175 composition in relation to growth, 512– 513 computation of calorific value, 501 curd test, 176 detection of watered, 610 influence on death rate, 548 medium for bacterial growth, 538 modified, 499 organisms, 539 pasteurization, 537, 540, 542, 544 pasteurized, 173 powder, keeping qualities, 536 preparation, 171 preservation, 532 storage, 532 superheating, 545 supply, control, 545-546 control in large cities, 546 variation in composition, 509 Mince meat, 494 adulteration, 495 pressed, 495 Mixed flour, 244 foods, time of beginning, 502 Mock turtle soup, 79 Modification of milk, difficulties, 524 Modified milk, addition of alkalies, 523 addition of milk sugar, 523 of substitutes, 523 composition, 497 directions for use, 528 distribution, 527 formulas, 527 general considerations, 521 preparation in London Hospital, 529 reasons, 522 sample prescriptions, 531 642 INDEX. Modified milk, Straus laboratory formu- las, 528 Modifiers of milk, bacterial infection, 524 Molasses, 477 cane, 478 first, second, and third, 478 refinery, 479 sugar-house, 479 Mosquitoes, contamination, 550 Mothers' and cows' milk, comparison of composition, 530 milk, 506 comparison, 530 composition of mineral matter, 511- 512 importance, 508 worry and excitement, 509 variation in composition, 507 Mulberry, 343 Mullet, 132 Muscarine, 447 Mushroom, cepe 445 common, 440 fairy ring, 443 fly amanita, 446 horse, 441 poisoning, 448 treatment, 448 shaggy, 442, 443 Mushrooms, adulteration, 449 canned, 449 composition, 432 condition of growth, 431 cultivation in France, 431 edible types, 440 food value, 454 historical, 429 mycelium, 430 pieces and stems, 449 poisonous and edible, 433, 434 removal of poison, 448 signs of edible and poisonous, 435–439 soil, 430 spawn, 430 spores, 430 varieties, 440 Muskallunge, 133 Muskmelon, 284 Mussel, 158 Mustard, 325 Mutton, commercial cuts, 19 N Napoleon, decree relating to beet sugar, 457 Natural foods, 552 Neat's foot oil, 94 Nephritis, diet, 577 Neutral lard, 68 Neutrality of food products, 628 Nitrogenous bases, 88 Noodles, 270 Normal dose, 39, 40 Nutmeg, 325 Nutrition, disorder by illness, 551 general principles, 617 of the child, 498 Nuts, acidity, 628 as a diet, 428 composition, 572 neutrality, 628 Oatmeal, adulteration, 235 diet in diabetes, 574 Oats, 232 acreage and yield, 233 composition, 234 products, 234 protein, 234 ratio of kernel to hull, 233 starch, 236 Obesity, diet, 577 exercise, 580 gradual loss of weight, 580, quantity of food, 579 Odors, absorption, 549 Oil, cod liver, 166 salmon, 166 sardine, 166 Oils and fats, acidity, alkalinity and neutrality, 628 chemical characteristics, 389 390 crystalline characteristics, 391 melting point, 392 physical characteristics, 392 refractive index, 392 Reichert-Meissl number, 393 saponification value, 393 specific gravity, 393 vegetable, 389 animal, 165 distribution, 391 drying, 391 terrestrial animal, 93 Okra, 286 Oleomargarine, 187 adulteration, 189 boiling test, 609, 610 composition, 190 detection, 609 manufacture, 189 materials, 188 production, 190 Olive oil, 402 adulteration, 402, 403 color, 403 constituents, 404 manufacture, 405 Olive-kernel oil, 405 Onion, 286 Oranges, 357, 358 seedless, 359 Osborne, danger of starch-free diets, 572 Overfeeding, danger, 552 Oyster, age, 159 cultivation, 159 floating, 162, 163 living, 160 proportion of shell, 161 season, 160 size, 159 soup, 78 Oysters, 158-161 adulteration, 164 average composition, 164 Palm oil, 412 Paprika, 325 Parboiling, 41 effect, 43-45 P Parmesan cheese, 210 Parsnips, 287 Pasteurization, commercial, 544 directions, 542 in Boston, 544 method, 537 results, 540 INDEX. Pasteurized milk, rapid growth of or- ganisms, 544 wholesomeness, 540 Patés, composition, 54 Peach preserves, 385 Peaches, 339 canned, 371 cling, 341 composition, 341 free, 341 use, 341 varieties, 340 Peanolia, 421 Peanut butter, 412 oil, 406 Renard's test, 406 starch, 322 Peanuts, 420 localities where grown, 422 Peas, 287 adulteration of canned, 313 canned, 312 composition of canned, 313 Pecan-nut, 424 Pectose, 330 Pepper, 325 black, 325 cayenne, 325 red, 325 white, 325 Percentage feeding, 500 Permanganate of potash, 448 Pickerel, 132 Pie fillers, 496 adulteration, 496 Pieces of edible animals, names, 17 Pigeon, domesticated, 107 Pigs, composition, 26, 27 general conclusions, 33 weight of parts, 26 Pig's-foot grease, 71 Pike, 132 Pineapple, 360 adulteration, 361 Bahama, 363 canned, 362 composition, 363, 364 Florida, 364 Porto Rican, 364 Singapore, 365 Pine-nuts, 424 Pistachio, 426 Plantain meal, 319 Plums, 341 varieties, 342 Polished rice, cause of disease, 554 Pomelo, 351 Pompono, 134 Pont L'Evêque cheese, 208 Popcorn, 225, 227 Pork, commercial cuts, 19, 20 important meat product, 33 Port du Salut cheese, 207 Porterhouse steak, 16 Potato starch as food, 322 manufacture, 296 Potatoes, 288 acreage, 289 ash, 294 composition, 290, 292, 293 effect of manure, 295 for alcohol, 296 German, 293 price, 289 starch, 291 sugar content, 290 sweet, 299 used in spirit manufacture, 297 white, 294 yield, 289 Potted tongue, 56 adulteration, 56 Poultry, application of name, 95 canned, 56 cold storage, 100 forced fattening, 109 importance of animal food, 108 increase in weight, 110 Predigested milk, objections, 520 643 Prepared infants' foods not generally recommended, 514, 515, 516 professional opinions, 513 Preservatives, chemical vs. condimental, 594 fruit juices, 557 in meats, 55 kinds used, 37 Preserved meats, 34 standard, 57 Preserves, 375, 384 644 INDEX. Proprietary foods, recommendation, 557 Proteids, nutritive value, 564 Protein, infant digestion, 504 Puff-balls, 444 Q Quince, 342 R Radish, 298 Rape oil, 407 adulterations, 408 manufacture, 408 Raspberry, 343 Ration, balanced, 5 construction, 619 definition, 4 Reagents, used in simple tests, 590 Red snapper, 134 Redeye, 135 Renovated butter, detection, 608-609 Reptiles, aquatic, 157 Rhubarb, 299 Samples, preparation for analysis, 28 Sapodilla, 365 Sapota, 365 Sardines, 139 adulteration, 140, 141 California, 139 European, 139 French fisheries, 140 packed in oil, 140 Sausage, adulteration of canned, 60 canned, 59 composition, 59 Savory, 326 Scup, 141 Scuppernong grape vine, 337 Scurvy, 553, 629 Semolina, 263 Sesamé oil, 408 adulteration, 409 Baudouin's test, 409 plant, 409 Shad, 141 roe, 143 Rice, 236 acreage and yield, 236 natural, 630 starch, 236 Roast beef, 21 lamb, 22 Rochester, death rate of children, 548-549 Rock bass, 135 Rolls, 264 Romaine lettuce, 284 composition, 265 Roquefort cheese, 211 Round of beef, composition, 505 Rye, 237 acreage and yield, 237 bread, 239 composition, 238 flour, adulteration, 239 protein, 238 S Saccharin in canned corn, 311 in tomatoes, 314, 316 simple test, 597 Saffron, 326 Sage, 326 Sago, 320 Salicylic acid, simple test, 598 Salmon, 135-138 Atlantic coast, 137 blueback, 137 canned, 137 Chinook, 136 Pacific, 136 Sebago, 138 sockeye, 137 Salt rising, 251 composition, 143 Sheepshead, 143 Shrimps, 156 canned, 157 Sirup, cane, 475 maple, 472 sorghum, 476 Sirups, adulteration, 480 general observations, 481 mixed, 479 Skimmed milk, 176 Small quantities, argument, 38, 39 Smelt, 144 Sole, 146 Soluble meats, 82, 83 composition, 83 Sorghum sirup, 476 Soups, 77 composition, 78 preparation of stock, 77 Sour milk and longevity, 554 Sour-sop, 343 Soy bean as infant food, 504 flour, composition, 505 value in diabetes, 575-576 Spaghetti, 270 Spanish mackerel, 144 Squash, 299 Star-apple, 366 Starch, 9 detection in jellies, 602 in spices and condiments, 602 .free diet, danger, 572 impracticable, 571 in sausages, 55 Starches, adulteration, 322 as foods, 317 in obesity, 579 Starchy foods, 517 for infants' foods, 503 Steam lard, 68 Sterilization, 42 method, 537 INDEX. Sterilizing meats, general observations, 62 Stilton cheese, manufacture, 205 Storage, length, 22 Straus, views on pasteurization, 542-543 Strawberry, 343 Striped bass, 146 Sturgeon, 144 Substitutes for human milk, 516 for infants' foods, 518 relative nutritive properties, 519 adulteration, 471 Sugar, 9 as food, 472 application of name, 455 beets, cultivation, 458 geographic area 459 yield, 460 cane, growth, 465 corn, 226 lost in fermentation, 259 origin, 455 refining, 469, 470 source in diabetes, 568 world production, 471 Sugars in obesity, 579 Sulfurous acid, 334 Sunflower oil, 409 Superheating milk, 545 Sweet basil, 326 corn, 226 adulterations, 228 potatoes, 299, 300 acreage and yield, 303 average composition, 303 changes during storage, 302 composition, 301, 302 cultivation, 300 yield, 301 Sweetened condensed milk, 534-535 Sweet-sop, 344 Tamarind, 366 composition, 367 Tannin, 334 Tapioca, 320 adulteration, 321 Tautog, 147 T Terrapin, 157 Tetanus germs, 91, 92 Thyme, 326 Tilefish, 147 Tinning, 42 Toadstools, 434 Tomatoes, adulteration of canned, 315 canned, 314 composition of canned, 315 Tongue, adulteration of canned, 50 canned, 50 645 Tonka bean, adulterant of vanilla, 606 Treacle, 481 Tropical fruits, ash, 367 Trout, 147 Truffles, 450 adulteration, 453 cultivation, 451 geographic distribution, 451 harvesting, 451, 452 properties, 453 varieties, 451 Tuberculosis, 13 amount of food, 581 diet, 580 economy of feeding, 584 experiments in diet, 582-583 forced feeding, 582 nature, 580 no universal diet, 589 Turbot, 149 Turkey, 107 adulteration of potted, 102 composition, 108 Turmeric, simple test, 599 Turnip, 304 U Unsweetened condensed milk, 534 V Vanilla, resins, 605-606 Vanillin, artificial, 606 Veal, commercial cuts, 18 Vegetable, definition, 272 oils, edible, 393 Vegetables, alkalinity of, 628 canned, 305, 623 fuel value, 621 succulent, 274 value, 273 Vegetarianism, 93 Vinegar, adulteration and detection, 608 Vitamin theory, 632 Vitamins, 629, 630 foods containing, 630 things hurtful to, 631 waste of, 632 Von Noorden, dietaries for diabetics, 574 Wall-eyed pike, 134 Walnuts, 426 English, 427 white, 427 W Water, in diabetes, 577 Watermelon, 284, 285 Weakfish, 149 Weaning, diet, 502 Weighing infants, importance, 499 Weight, relative, of canned and fresh meat, 48 646 INDEX. Westminister Hospital, principle of modi- fication, 531 Infants' Hospital, milk, 529 Wheat, 239 acreage and yield, 240 comparative digestibility, 257 composition, 240 products, 242 White grease, 70 Whitefish, 150 X Xanthin bases, 90 Y standards, 241 starch, 241 Whey, 179 composition, 179 proteins, 530 Yam, 304 Yeast, 250 extracts, 561-562 Yellow grease. 71 FEB 18 1921 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DATE DUE DEC 10 1991 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 01466 7938