lº
º
ſºſ~ -„” --*----{
|-ſ.{*••.# →5’!…ºffſ.
| 3·-.-· · ·:-）*
* 5. ||！ -· ~~- - -}.* ‘’’. »í
º.Ës.----•- -|-· ·:
№ º-*ºº-ºz. ）: -|-{---4
~^ ----·- · ·-！-
ſº-. --~--~--~~~ ~~- - ---------- - - - --- - --------- --------------~--~~~~ ~~~~——~~~~- -žė .' +
• •-, ! 3
■ĒĶĒĒĒĒĒĒĮĮĶĶĹĹĻĻĪTĒ
E8Sºt №ffËī£•-
----ĒN*（\'\'（\'{{','}}';85-
# E
| –|-
•[ ■}
! ±!
į§#
#~ſ =
！| 5
►ſE·
D! E
----№ſ =**i
►}}=:- · ，si
Laeſ -
№.| 5--
|×ſ =·
º.B :R.’|
~- 5#
№j-Sr ≡-
·-ſ E.----
-}ºl£-
|-}>ſ=~ ！
* .LaË
º �{·##
º Cae! ;-）
ſ =----D
* … *·?H--§ .
| 7-º ~ . . .• №º wº
•L 4，2）=~º E•
Häăágſg%#·|-}
Raesaeaeae， saesae ae%， *，·,≤）<-]∞C）∞C)± -- *）
-ÎÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪmſ§ . . . ： ·









º
| 0 H
R5
E5
MEDIAEW AL GEO GRAPHY
A N E S S A Y
IN ILLUSTRATION OF THE
HEREFORD MAPPA MUNDI
RY
THE REV. W. L. BEVAN, M.A.
VICAR OF my
AUTIOR OF THE ‘STUDENT'S MANUALS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY'
ANT)
THE REV. H. W. PHILLOTT, M.A.
I’IRAELECTOR OF IIISREFORD CATIIISDRAL AND RECTOR OF STANTON-ON-WYE
LONDON
E. STANFORD, CHARING CRoss
HEREFORD
E. K. JAKEMAN. JOSEPH JONES.
18 73
Printed by R. & R, CLARK, Edinburgh.
PR E FA C E.
— —
THE present Essay owes its existence to the recent publication
of a lithographed facsimile of the well-known Mappa Mundi
in Hereford Cathedral. The promoters of that work under-
took to supply the purchasers of it with an explanatory Com-
mentary, for the benefit of those who might lack either the
time or the taste for unravelling the mysteries of Mediaeval
Geography. Some delay has occurred in the fulfilment of
this engagement from the necessity of providing the authors
of the commentary with copies of the map for the preparation
of their work, but the subscribers will, it is hoped, be com-
pensated for the delay by its greater completeness. The
original design has been enlarged by the addition of an
Introduction which deals with the general principles of
Mediaeval Geography, and the various appliances at hand
for its study ; it is of a somewhat discursive character, and
intended rather to incite others to a further study of the
subject, than to supply them with a complete manual.
The authors of the Essay disclaim all pretension to special
qualifications for the task they have undertaken. They have
not, previously to this had occasion to direct their attention
to Mediaeval Geography, and they have laboured under some
disadvantage from the difficulty of obtaining access to rare
works connected with mediaeval literature. Doubtless there
are many scholars in this country who have made Mediaeval
aſ a ſi "gºº,
sº w ºkº" i.
PREFACE.
Geography their special study ; and the authors of this Essay
will be fully compensated for their labour iſ it should have
the effect of drawing attention to a somewhat neglected Sub-
ject, and of eliciting from some such persons as these a more
complete work than the present one.
The objects which the authors of the Essay have proposed
to themselves, have been not only to give a complete transcript
of the contents of the map, and to identify and explain (where
necessary) the meaning of the names and legends, but further
to ascertain the sources whence the cartographer drew his
materials, and thus to present the reader with a picture of the
literary appliances in vogue among geographers of the 13th
century. They cannot pretend that their researches have
been completely successful; some names have defied all
attempts at identification, and the originals of the legends are
in some instances still unascertained ; but these cases are
exceptional, and will not, it is to be hoped, produce an un-
favourable opinion as to the zeal of the authors. Should any
of their readers be able to supply the lacunae in the identifi-
cations of the names, it would be regarded as a favour if they
would communicate their views to either of the authors.
In transcribing the names and legends, it was decided,
after some deliberation, that it would be better to resolve the
abbreviations which were so commonly used in writing Latin
at the period of the map, but at the same time to retain the
peculiarities of Orthography, and in all cases to give the ipsis-
Sima verba of the cartographer. Wherever the sense of a
passage is impaired by his mistakes, corrections have been
introduced in brackets and with a different type. A table of
PREFACE.
the chief peculiarities in the orthography of the period has
been introduced at the end of the Introduction, page xlvii.
The authors regret that they have been unable to throw
much light on the history of the Pictorial Illustrations of the
map ; whether these are to be regarded as original designs, or
whether they are copies from earlier representations of the same
subjects, is a point on which they are not prepared in all cases
to offer an opinion ; at all events, they have not always suc-
ceeded in tracing back the designs to earlier documents. It
would also be an interesting subject (but One not altogether
within the scope of the present publication), to trace the
genealogy of similar illustrations in a downward direction, and
to see how far they may have been derived from a common
source. Those who possess the earlier editions of Mandeville's
Travels, will not fail to observe the strong family likeness in the
illustration of the Sciopodes, who shaded themselves from the
Sun's rays by interposing the ample expanse of their single foot,
as given in that work and in the Hereford map. The Nurem-
berg Chronicle (1493) contains (fol. 12) numerous illustrations
in common with our map, such as the Cynocephales, or dog-
headed race, the single-footed race, the men with the heads
between their shoulders, the Ambari (of the map) with their
feet turned backwards, the men with an orifice instead of a
mouth, the Pannotii with enormous ears, the men with huge
under-lip, the Satirii with cloven feet and goats' horns, the
Pigmies, and the horse-footed race. In Munster's Cosmo-
graphia Universalis (1574) these illustrations re-appear, with
the exception of the Ambari, together with illustrations of the
|Unicorn, the Giants, and the Phoenix,
PREFACE.
While the authors have jointly revised the whole of the
work, it may be explained that the Rev. H. W. Phillott has
contributed the chapters on Asia, II, III., and IV., with
portions of chapter V. (pp. 102-103, 108-110), and the notice
of the Bestiaries in the Introduction (p. xxxiii.); and that
the Rev. W. L. Bevan has written the remainder of the work,
comprising the Introduction, and chapters I, V., VI, VII.,
VIII, and IX.
The thanks of the collaborateurs engaged on the Hereford
Map (including under this head the Rev. F. T. Havergal and
Mr. Haddon, whose attention was more particularly directed
to the production of the facsimile), are due to many friends
who have kindly aided them with advice and assistance.
They desire to specify more particularly the Rev. S. Clark,
who has been prevented by a press of literary engagements
from taking a larger share in the work ; Dr. Bull, who has
given much practical advice; the Rev. T. T. Smith, who aided
in deciphering the names on the map with the microscope ;
Mr. Richard Sims, of the British Museum, for information on
literary topics; and Mr. W. H. Weale, of Bruges, for his
supervision of the engravers and printers during the progress
of the work there. In addition to these acknowledgments
of the whole body of the collaborateurs, the authors of the
Essay desire to express their special obligations to the Rev. F.
T. Havergal for his unwealicd attention to the points on which
they have sought his advice and assistance during the pre-
paration of their work.
Three photographic illustrations of the following objects
are introduced into the work —(1) The miniature “Psalter”
PREFACE.
map in the British Museum. (2) A portion of the original
Mappa Mundi, given for the purpose of testing the accuracy
of the facsimile. (3) The recently executed facsimile of the
Mappa Mundi, which may be found useful for reference,
particularly by those who have not at hand the facsimile
itself. The two last have been skilfully executed by Messrs.
Ladmore, photographers, Hereford ; and it may not be out of
place to mention that these artists have published copies of
the facsimile, of the following sizes and prices:—13 in. ×
11, at 8s. 6d. ; 11 in. × 9, at 6s. ; and 5% in. x 4%, at 2s.
A list is appended of the names of those who have kindly
Supported the undertaking by purchasing copies of the fac-
simile ; a few copies remain on hand, and may be procured
from the Rev. F. T. Havergal, The College, Hereford, &
November 1873.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
TO THE
FACSIMILE OF THE HEREFORD MAPPA MUNDI.
—4–
ANTHONY, Charles, Esq., Hereford.
Arkwright, J. H., Esq., Hampton Court, Herefordshire.
Aston, J. C., Esq., Withington, Hereford.
BAIN, Mr. J., 1 Haymarket, London.
Baker; Rev. Sir Henry, Bart, Monkland.
Baldwin, Alfred, Esq., Bewdley.
Beauchamp, Right Hon. Earl, Madresfield.
Beddoe, H. C., Esq., Hereford.
Benson, Rev. E. W., D.D., Lincoln.
Birchall, J. D., Esq., Bowden Hall, Gloucester.
Birmingham Free Library.
Blackburne, Rev. J., Leamington.
Bodenham, l'. L., Esq., Hereford.
Bothamley, Rev. H., Bath, 2 copies.
Bowell, W., Esq., Hereford.
Bristol Public Museum and Library.
Brooks, Cunliſle, Esq., M.P., Grosvenor Square, London.
Bull, H. G., Esq., M.D., Hereford.
CAMBRIDGE, St. John's College.
Capper, Rev. D., Lystone Court, Hereford.
Chadwick, E., Esq., Pudlestone Court, Herefordshire.
Chatfield, Rev. A. W., Much Marcle.
Clive, Rev. Archer, Whitfield, Herefordshire.
Clive, Mrs. George, Perrystone, Ross.
Clutton, Rev. J., Hereford.
Cooke, W. H., Esq., Q.C., Wimpole Street, London.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
Corbett, J., Esq., Stoke Manor, Bromsgrove.
Crane, Mrs. Henry, Oakhampton, Stourport.
Creed, R., Esq., Church Row, Hampstead.
DAVIES, Rev. James, Moorcourt, Kington.
Davies, Llewellyn, Esq., Wavertree, Liverpool.
Devonshire, His Grace the Duke of, Devonshire House, London.
Dixon, Rev. R., High School, Nottingham.
Dobson, Mrs. W., Oakwood, Bath.
EWING, W., Esq., Glasgow.
FEILDEN, Colonel, Dulas Court, Hereford.
Field, Cyrus, Esq., America.
Foley, Right Hon. Lady Emily, Stoke Edith Park, Hereford.
Freer, Mrs., St. James's, West Malvern, 2 copies.
GoDWIN, Mr. W., Lugwardine.
Gore, Mrs. Ormsby, Oswestry.
Guise, Sir W., Bart., Elmore Court, Gloucester.
HABERSHON, W. S., Esq., Bloomsbury Square, London.
Hadow, S. B., Esq., Great Malvern, 2 copies.
Harcourt, Lady Frances, Weobley (deceased).
IIarding, Lieutenant-Colonel, Barnstaple, Devon.
Herbert, Major-General the Right Hon. Sir P. E., M.P., K.C.B., Styche
Market Drayton.
Hereford, Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of.
Hereford, Hon. and Very Rev. the Dean of.
Hereford Cathedral, Custos and Vicars of
Hill, Rev. H. T., Felton.
Holliday, J. R., Esq., Birmingham.
Holt, H. F., Esq.
Hoskyns, C. W., Esq., M.P., Harewood, Ross.
Hutchinson, C. S., Esq., Longworth, Hereford.
2
JEBB, Rev. J., D.D., Hereford.
Jenkins, H. J., Esq., Holmer, Hereford.
Johnsom, Mrs., Eigne, IIereford.
Jones, Mr. Joseph, Hereford.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
KEY, Rev. H. Cooper, Stretton Sugwas.
Knight, J. B., Esq., Downton Castle, Ludlow.
Knowles, James, Esq., Clapham.
LADMORE and SON, Messrs., Hereford.
Lawrence, Rev. W. R., Ewyas Harold.
Lee, J. E., Esq., Carleon, Newport.
Lewis, Rev. Sir G. F., Bart., Harpton Court, Radnorshire.
Lincoln, Dean and Chapter of.
Lingen, Charles, Esq., Hereford.
Liverpool Free Public Library.
London, Society of Antiquaries.
Guildhall Library.
London Library.
Sion College Library.
Longmans and Co., Messrs., London,
Lucas, F., Esq., Trinity Place, London.
MANCHESTER, Chetham's Library.
— Public Free Library.
Martin, G. C., Esq., Hereford.
Martin, Major W., Brompton Crescent, London.
Murray, John, Esq., Albemarle Street, London.
NIBLETT, J. D., Esq., Gloucester, 2 copies.
Nichols, J. Gough, Esq., Holmwood Park, Dorking.
Nott, Mr. James, Great Malvern.
OUSELEY, Rev. Sir F. Gore, Bart., Tenbury.
Ouvry, F., Esq., Society of Antiquaries, London.
Oxford Union Society.
PALMER, Rev. P. H., Woolsthorpe, Grantham.
Partridge, Mrs. Otto, Easton Court, Tenbury.
Phayre, Sir A. P., C.B., K.C.S.I.
RANKINE, J., Esq., Bryngwyn, Hereford.
Reynolds, J. J., Esq., Hereford.
Reynolds, Miss, 21 Cobham Road, Bristol.
Rowell, J. W., Esq., Newton Abbot, Devon.
Russell, Mrs., Streatham Hill.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
SAYE and SELE, Right Hon. and Ven. LORD, Hereford.
Scott, Sir G. Gilbert, R.A., Spring Gardens, London.
Shaw, Giles, Esq., Winterdyne, Bewdley.
Slatter and Rose, Messrs., Oxford. p
Smith, Rev. C. L., Little Canfield, Chelmsford.
Smith, Rev. T. T., Thruxtone.
Smith, Wassar, Esq., Gloucester.
St. John, Rev. H. F., Leeds.
TEBBs, H. W., Esq., Westbury-on-Trym.
Temple, Rev. H., Leeds.
Tyssen, J. R., Esq., Brighton.
WAUx, W., Esq., Union Society, Oxford.
Venables, Rev. R. Lister, Lysdimam Hall, Builth
WALKER, J. S., Esq., Malvern Wells.
Ward, C., Esq., Clifton.
Wasborough, S., Esq., Clifton.
Wharton, Rev. J. C., Willesden, Middlesex.
Wilson, S., Esq., Hereford.
Wilton, Rev. T. C., Foy, Ross.
Wood, R. H., Esq., Crumpsall, Manchester.
Woodhouse, J. S., Esq., Holmer.
Wurtzburg, J. H., Esq., Leeds.
§ 1.
§ 2.
§ 3.
§ 4.
§ 5.
§ 6.
§ 7.
§ 8.
§ 9.
{
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
—4)—
INTRODUCTION.
Enumeration of treatises on mediaeval geography—Want of
a complete work on this subject - * tº- * *
The Latin and Arabian Schools of geography contrasted.
Origin of the divergence between them—Prejudicial eſſects
of Patristic authority on the Latin School—Influence of the
Arabian on the Latin School s wº º º tº
Peculiarities of mediaeval geography—Centrality of Jeru-
Salem sº * º * * ſº e- * *
Eſſect of the centrality of Jerusalem on the arrangement of
the map of the world º * * & gº gº
Extent of the habitable world as known to mediaeval geo-
graphers—Erroneous view as to the Caspian Sea—Belief in
the existence of other continents - wº gº e- tº-
Various forms of mediaoval maps—circular, quadrangular,
oval, ovoid, and the form indicated on the “Matthew Paris”
Imaps gºes tº tºm * gº * * º tºº.
The ocean and its chief gulfs as represented in mediaeval
maps * tº º tº - sº. e- tº sº
The orientation of mediaeval maps—The East generally at
the head of the map - wº sº * * * wº-
The Terrestrial Paradise—Belief in its continued existence
§ 10. Incompatibility of the mediaoval system with accurate carto-
§ 11.
graphy—The scientific subordinated to the historical and
romantic elements—Predilection for the marvellous—Con-
nection bétween this and false etymology tº tº gº
Materials with which mediaeval cartographers filled their
maps. (1.) Biblical—Leading events of the Old and New
Testaments—Belief in the contemporaneous existence of Gog
and Magog, (2) Classical—Gross ignorance and carelessness
of mediaoval cartographers—Views as to the course of the
PAGE
ix
xiii
xiv
XV
xvii
xix
XX
XX
xxi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Nile. (3.) Legendary—The Alexandrian Romance—St.
Brandan — Prester John. (4.) Contemporaneous—Almost
entirely confined to Europe, and even there very imperfect
xxiii-xxviii
§ 12. Brief notices of the leading authorities in vogue among
mediaeval geographers—Pliny, Pomponius Mela, Antonini
Itinerarium, Solinus, Orosius, Macrobius, Priscian, Marcianus
Capella, Isidorus, and AEthici Cosmographia — Notices of
Cosmas Indicopleustes and Geographus Ravennas xxviii-xxxii
§ 13. Brief notices of mediaeval authors and works bearing on
geography—Bede, Dicuil, Imago Mundi, Alexandrian RO-
mance, Roger Bacon, Gervase of Tilbury, Ralph Higden,
Paulus Diaconus, Rabanus Maurus, Adam of Bremen, and
Marino Sanuto—Bestiaria and Herbaria - * - XXXii
§ 14. Notes on mediaeval maps preserved in Great Britain—(1.)
Anglo-Saxon map of the 10th century, in the British Museum.
(2) Map of the 12th century at St. John's College, Oxford.
(3) The “Imago Mundi” map of the 12th century, at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge. (4.) The “Apocalypse” map
of the 12th century, in the British Museum. (5, 6.) The
“Matthew Paris” maps of the 13th century, at the British
Museum and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. (7.) The
“Psalter” map of the 13th century, at the British Museum.
(8.) Maps in Brunetto Lattini's Livre du Tresor at the Bodleian
Library, Oxford. (9-16) The “Higden" maps of the 14th
century, at the British Museum ; the Advocates' Library,
Edinburgh ; Corpus Christi College, Oxford; Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge ; and Winchester College. (17.) Map
of the 15th century at the College of Arms, London xxxiv-xlv
CHAPTER I.
General Characteristics of the Hereford Map—Life of its Author,
Bicardus de Bello—Date of the Composition—Sources from
which the Materials were drawn—History of the Map—Its
Literary History—Its Dimensions, and the Materials used in
drawing it—Description of the Illustrations surrounding the
Map—The Four Quarters of the World—The Table of the
Winds—The Inscription “Mors”—The Ocean—The General
Arrangement and chief Divisions of the Map - * - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
ASIA.
Boundaries—Terrestrial Paradise—The Dry Tree—India—Golden
Mountains—Pigmies—Avalorion par in Mundo—Palimbothra
—Mons Malleus—Taprobane and the Islands of the Indian
Ocean—Gangines—Monoculi—Ganges—Tile—Mons Tima-
vus—Animals attributed to India - -- - - -
CHAPTER III.
ASIA—Continued.
Bactria—Hunni—Scythia and Serica—Eoneae Insula)—Olchi—
Mons Molans—Gog and Magog—Sogdiana—Samarkand—
Islands of the Northern Ocean—Hyperboreans—Turks—
Scythotauri Scythao—Arimaspi–Albani—-Colchis—Caspian
Gates * * * - - - - - -
CHAPTER IV.
ASIA—Continued.
Asia Minor—Armenia—Media—Persia—Assyria
—Syria—Phoenicia—Palestine—Arabia
Mesopotamia
Nubia—Egypt -
CHAPTER W.
AFRICA,
Boundaries—Dimensions—Lybia, Cyrenensis—Pentapolis—Tri-
politana—Africa Propria—Numidia—Mauritania—Atlas and
Astrixis—The Western Nile–Ethiopians—Islands of the
Western and Southern Oceans - ~ * * * *
CHAPTER VI.
MEDITERRANTEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
Mediterranean Sea and its subdivisions—Gades and the Pillars of
Hercules—Balearic Isles—Sardinia, Corsica, and the adjacent
Isles—The Liparean Islands—Sicily—Crete and the adjacent
Isles—Isles of the Adriatic Sea—Cyclades—Mene and Cano-
pus—Rhodes, Euboea, Cyprus, etc. — Isles placed in the
Euxine Sea - * - --- - - -- - -
PAGE
66
9 ()
I Il
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
EUROPE.
PAG [E
General Description—Spain—Italy—Istria amd Liburnia—Greece
—Macedonia—Illyricum and Dardania—Thrace—Moesia—
Dacia—Bulgarii—Alani -. -* -. - - — 122
CHAPTER VIII.
EUROPE—Contîn^/ed.
Gallia— Germania—Rætia—Noricum—Pannomia — Hungari—
Sarmatæ—Sclavi—Dami—Noreya—Cymocephales— Gryphæ
—The Seven Sleepers—Islamds of Northerm Oceam - — 140
CHAPTER IX.
THE BRITISH ISLES.
Pritannia—Anglia— Wallia—Scotia—Hibernia — Man—Insula
Avium—Insula Arietum—Svillæ - -. - -* — 163
INDEX e-» s-a - - «w- - s a - •» — 175
INTRODUCTION.
—4–
§ 1. The primary object of the present publication is to Supply an
exposition of the famous “Mappa Mundi” of Hereford Cathedral,
which has been recently made available for geographical students
through the admirable facsimile of it published in 1872. But before
entering upon our subject it seems desirable, may, almost essential to
an intelligent comprehension of it, that we should furnish our readers
with a brief résumé of the distinctive principles of mediaeval carto-
graphy, so that they may at once be placed at the stand-point whence
such a map should be viewed. Preliminary matter of this kind
would have been superfluous if we could have referred the reader to
any publication in our own language devoted expressly to the subject ;
this, however, we are unable to do. Mediaeval geography has indeed
received some degree of attention in works which treat of the general
history of geography. We may specify, among others, the Introduc-
tion to Playfair's System of Geography, Hugh Murray's Encyclopædia of
Geography, Kerr's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. 18, and, more
particularly, Cooley's Maritime and Inland Discovery (Lardner's Cyclo-
paedia), the first volume of which contains some interesting references
to mediacval maps (see book iii, cap. 2). But it did not fall within
the scope of those works to deal exhaustively with mediaeval carto-
graphy; and an essay on this subject, by one fully competent to deal
with it, still remains a desideratum in our geographical literature. On
the Continent a considerable amount of attention has of late years
been given to the subject. Lelewel's Géographie du Moyen Age, and
Santarcm's Iſistoire de la Cosmographie et de la Cartographie, are most
valuable contributions to the history of mediæval geography; and the
magnificent Atlases of Jomard, Monumens de la Géographic, and San-
tarom, Atlas de Mappemondes et de Portulans, together with the more
unassuming Scrics of maps which accompanies Lelewel's cssays, supply
the students with facsimiles of the maps themselves. But these works,
particularly the costly Atlases of Jomard and Santarem, are probably
()
X INTRODUCTION.
known to few persons except professed geographers; nor can the
essays of Lelewel and Santarem be regarded as altogether meeting the
requirements of the case.” The present writer does not pretend to be
able to supply the deficiency : he simply draws attention to wants
which will probably be recognised by all who are interested in the
Subject.
§ 2. In the use of the term “Mediaeval,” in the following pages,
we must at the outset beg our readers to understand that we are not
dealing with the whole subject of geography in the Middle Ages, but
with one branch of it only—namely, the Latin or Ecclesiastical school
of geography. Contemporaneously with this there existed another
school of a very different character—the Arabian—which does not
further fall under our cognisance than as it influenced the Latin school
in the later centuries of the mediaeval period. The two schools present
a remarkable contrast, the Arabic being Scientific, speculative, progress-
ive ; while the Latin was traditional, stereotyped, full of unrealities
and anachronisms, and bound in the trammels of coclesiastical authority.
The divergence between these schools dates from a very cally period
of Christian literature. We need hardly remind our readers that,
before the close of the true classical age, geography had been placed
on a sound scientific basis by the successive investigations of Eratos-
thenes, Geminus, Marinus, and, above all, Ptolemy. The sphericity
of the earth, the possibility of calculating its size, the belieſ in the
existence of inhabited lands on the opposite side of the globe, the
observation of the relative positions of places on the earth's surface,
partly by means of astronomical observation and partly by measurements
of the intermediate distances, and the art of recording the results on
maps by the aid of limes of latitude and longitude—those were among
the valuable discoveries which the Greek geographers bequeathed to
posterity. Much, of course, remained to be dome, and the completion
of the work depended on the recognition of past discoveries, and an
adherence to the lines of investigation thus laid down. The Arabs
* Since writing the above, we have met with the following corroborative
remarks by M. Vivien de Samt-Martin in the L'Année Géographique for 1872, p.
417 –“ Mals quand mous donncra-ta-on, sous une forme à la fols concise et
appropriée aux études générales, une histoire complète de la cartographie de cotte
période, accompagnée de copies artistiquement réduites des principaux monu-
ments conservés dans mos collections : Cette Geuvre reviendrait de droit à un de
nos Savants qui a ſalt de cette étude en quelque sorte son domaine, et qui mieux
que personne est préparé à mettre en pleine lumière ce chapitre de l'histore géné-
rale de la Science. Tout le monde aura nommé M. d’Avezac,”
AIRAB AND LATIN SCHOOLS OF GEOGRAPHY. xi
adopted this course: they brought astronomy to bear on geography;
they established observatories; they measured an arc of a great circle
of the earth; they studied Ptolemy;” they applied themselves to
define with accuracy the positions of places on the earth's surface; they
recorded on their maps the discoveries of travellers; and thus geography
became in their hands a living science. With what ardour they followed
it up, may be judged from the simple fact that Abulfeda cites no fewer
than sixty authors, many of whom lived in the thirteenth century
(Daunou, L’État des Lettres, p. 205). It fared otherwise with geography
within the realm of the Christian Church. The Fathers imagined
that they had detected certain discrepancies between the discoveries of
science and the language of Holy Writ. The particular point on which
their suspicion fastened was the existence of the Antipodes. It was
assumed that no communication was possible, or had ever been possible,
between our own continent and other quarters of the globe. Even if
other continents existed, they were supposed to be cut off from our
own by an ocean rendered impassable from its lying under a tropical
zone of insupportable heat. On this assumption it was, of course,
impossible that a population could have been derived from the stock
of Adam ; and, consequently, the whole theory of its existence was
opposed to the language of Holy Writ, which throughout assumes
that God “hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on
all the face of the earth” (Acts xvii. 26). Lactantius, in the 4th
century, was carried by his zeal for the truth so far as to impugn the
theory as a physical impossibility, and to deny the sphericity of the
eartht (Institut. iii. 24). St. Augustine, while equally determined in
his rejection of the Antipodes, is more cautious in the statement of
his reasons: he argues that, even if the world be spherical, it does not
follow that there should be land on the opposite side of it ; and even
if there be land, it does not follow that it should be inhabited; nay,
* The work entitled Rasm, el Arsi, which served as the text-book for Arabian
geographers, was a translation of Ptolemy's geographical work made in the 9th
century. It appears to have differed in various particulars from the original
(Lelewel, ii. 20). - -
ºf “Ineptum credere esse homines quorum vestigia sint superiora quam capita
aut ibi quae apud nos jacent inversa pendere; fruges et arbores deorsum versus
crescere . . . . . . . hujus errorem philosophis ſuisse quod existimarent rotundum
esse mundum.” - -
: “Quod vero et Antipodas esse fabulantur, id est, homimes a contraria parte
terræ ubi sol oritur quando occidit nobis, adversa pedibus mostris calcare vestigia,
nulla ratione credendum est.’ - - -
xii INTRODUCTION.
inasmuch as none could cross from this side to that, it must needs be
uninhabited (De Civ. Dei, xvi. 9). The dictum of so illustrious a
doctor was conclusive. Other writers adopted similar views, and in
the 6th century an Egyptian monk, Cosmas, surnamed Indicopleustes,
Wrote a learned treatise for the express purpose of disproving the
Sphericity of the earth. The prejudicial effects of this line of treat-
ment did not stop here. Geography was henceforth ſorced into the mould
of a pseudo-Orthodoxy; and the language of the Bible, as interpreted by
the Fathers, became the test of truth in regard to cosmology: scientific
processes were discouraged, and all zest for discovery was quenchcd by
the announcement that there was little or nothing to discover : in short,
the ecclesiastical view impressed the stamp of ſimality on geographical
science, and both writers and map-makers fell into a narrow groove, to
which they adhered until they were forced out of it by the grand
discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. The tenacity with
which the patristic doctrine was maintained is well exhibited in the
treatment which Columbus experienced. His proposal to circumnavi-
gate the World was referred to a council of divines at Salamanca, who
pronounced it to be not only chimerical but even profane ; as being
contrary to Scripture and the opinions of the Fathers, particularly
Lactantius and Augustine (Irving's Liſe of Columbus, book ii, cap. 3).
Yet at that time a breach had been already made in the mediaeval
theory by the progress of maritime discovery : navigators had ponc-
trated into the torrid zone, and had reported it to be not impassable :
and thus the very groundwork of the difficulty which the Fathers had
experienced had been removed. It may be a matter of surprise that
the Arabian system should have co-existed side by side with the
Latin, and yet have exercised so little influence over it. The inhabit-
ants of Western Europe came in contact with the Arabians in Spain,
in the Holy Land during the period of the Crusades, and more parti-
cularly in Sicily, where one of the most illustrious of their geographers,
Ddrisi, lived and worked under the patronage of Toger, Count of Sicily,
in the middle of the 12th century. We do indeed meet with
occasional notices which show that the Arab system was not wholly
unknown. Our own enlightened countryman, Roger Bacon, had evi-
dently made himself acquainted with it. In his Opus Majus, completed
in 1267, he speaks of Arym, the most important point in the construc-
tion of an Arab map, and he shows himself acquainted with its position
on the earth's surface and its use in the study of geography (pp. 141,
146); he was also familiar with lines of latitude and longitude, and
CENTRALITY OF JEIRUSAILEM. xiii
particularly notes that the Latins had not yet adopted the system
(pp. 140, 141). With regard to this latter topic, he refers to the
Almagest of Ptolemy and the treatise of Alſragan, which was founded
on the Almagest (p. 140); and it may be conjectured that he was
incited to the study of these works by the use which Arab geographers
had made of them. The geographical work of Ptolemy had not yet
been rendered accessible to the general body of students by being
translated into Latin ; it may, nevertheless, have became known
through the Arabic version of it ; for there appear to have been a
fair number of scholars in Europe in the 13th century who were
acquainted with the Arabic language (Daunou, L'Etat, etc. p. 238).
Santarcm mannes the close of the 12th century as the period when
Arabian influence was first felt in the study of geography (iii. Intr. p.
18), and he gives an instance in which Arym or Aryne is noticed by a
Latin writer as far back as 1110 (iii. 311). The amount of influence
thus gained was not, however, sufficient to affect the Latin system.
That system was indecd entirely incompatible with scientific principles.
Nothing less than a revolution was required ; and this revolution was
effected partly by the revival of the study of Ptolemy, whose geography
was translated into Latin in 1405 (Lelewcl ii. 123), and partly by
the progress of maritime discovery.
§ 3. Foremost among the peculiarities of mediaeval geography we
must place the opinion that Jerusalem occupied the central point of
the habitable world. Whether the tenet was originally based on the
language of Scripture, or whether the language of Scripture was applied
in confirmation of a preconceived opinion, we are unable to decide.
At all cvents, it is not the only instance in which men have conferred
honour on their holy places by regarding them as occupying the central
boss or umbilic of the habitable world : it was thus that the Greeks
regarded their Delphi, * the Hindoos their Morou, the Persians their
Kangdiz, and the Arabs their Aryne (Lelewel, i. 34; Santarem, iii. 312).
It was not unnatural that the Jews, and still more the Christians,
should attribute the same property to Jerusalem, which for centuries
had been the focus of their aspirations, their anxieties, and their
most devoted exertions. Scripture secmed to sanction this feeling.
We find the following passages quoted for the purpose:–Ezek. v. 5,
“This is Jerusalem : I have set it in the midst of the nations round
about her.” (Cellarius Not. Orb. Amt. i. 11); Ps. lxxiv. 12, which
* {p,q}a)\os x0ovös, Pind, Pyth. vi. 3; cf. Soph, Oºd, Tyr, 480; AEsch. Choeph.
1034, *
xiv. INTRODUCTION.
in the Vulgate runs thus:—“Operatus est salutem in medio terra, ’’
(Gerv. Tilb. Ot. Imp. i. 10; Saewulf in Bohm's Early Travels, p. 38);
and again, Ezek. xxxviii. 12, where the Hebrew word tabſºr “the
midst of the land,” is rendered in the Vulgate “umbilicus terrae.”
(D. Kimchi, quoted by Cellarius, l.c.) The interpretation set on
these passages appears to have been based on St. Jerome's comment
on Ezek. v. 5, though his words go no further than to show that
Judaea was centrally placed in reference to the Surrounding countries,
Moses of Chorene, in the middle of the 5th century, is the earliest
geographer (as far as we have been able to ascertain) who asserts the
literal, or, as we may term it, the mathematical centrality of Jeru-
Salem (Geog. § 17). Isidere;—in 6th century, who was the leading
authority in mediaeval geography, speaks of Jerusalem as “umbilicus
regionis totius.” (Orig. xiv. 3, § 21), and the same expression is used
by Rabanus Maurus in the 9th century (De Univ. xii. 4). Marino
Samuto, in the 14th century, describes Jerusalem as “punctus cir-
cumferentiae,” and exaggerates the historical claims to centrality by
representing Judaea as having been the seat of each branch of the
human race, and the favoured scene of God's manifestation in the
works of creation and redemption in the past, and of final judgment in
the future (Sec. Fid. Cruc. iii. 1). Mediaeval cartographers gave effect
to these views by placing Jerusalem as nearly as possible in the centre
of the map ; and this remained the custom until the middle of the
15th century, when Fra Mauro was compelled to shift the centre
somewhat to the eastward, in order to find room for the enlargement
of Asia, consequent on the discoveries of Marco Polo and others.
§ 4. Assuming that Jerusalem occupied the central point of the
habitable world, and taking into regard its position on the western
verge of Asia and in the line of the Mediterranean, it followed—(1)
that Asia held one-half of the world; (2) that its length from east to
west must equal the length of Europe; and (3) that Europe and
Africa must be equal, or nearly equal, to each other, the Mediterranean
forming the line of division between them. The first of these points
is expressly asserted by geographical writers. “Orbem dimidium dua
tenent, Europa et Africa; alium vero dimidium Sola Asia,” says
Isidore (Orig. xiv. 2, § 3): ' and so we read in the Alexandrian
Romance composed in the 13th century – -
“At Asyghe also muchul is
So I'urope and Affryh, Y wis” (ll, 55-6).
The world was thus symmetrically divided into three parts, and this

I) IVISIONS OF THE WORLI), XV
arrangement is not only embodied in the general structure of mediaeval
maps, but it is cxpressly set forth in small sketch-maps consisting of
a circle divided into an upper and lower half, the latter being Sub-
divided by a semi-diameter at right angles to the former—the upper
half representing Asia, the two lower quadrants Europe and Africa.
Such maps assumed the form of a T inscribed in an O, and it appears
from some lines quoted by Col. Yule from Del Dati's poem La Sfera
(3d stanza), that it was usual to describe them by that title (Marco
Polo's Travels, i. 152). Such a sketch-map occurs in Brunetto Latini's
Livre du Tresor (Bodl. Lib., Oxford); other examples are represented
in Lelewel's Atlas, plates 6 and 7. In estimating the correctness of
these proportions in themselves, as well as the correctness with which
they are exhibited in maps, it must be remembered that Egypt was
assigned not to Africa but to Asia. The preponderating size of Asia
is accounted for by Gervase of Tilbury on scriptural grounds, inasmuch
as it was in his view the exclusive inheritance of Shem, the first-born
(Ot. Imp. ii. 2). The symmetrical division of the world was somewhat
marred in the cyes of geographers by the subdivision of the second
moiety, and it was a moot question whether Europe and Africa should
not be regarded as a single continent. Gervase brings Scripture to
bear on this point, and decides in favour of three divisions, on the
ground that Ham and Japhet had their separate domains as well as
Shem (Ot. Jimp. ii. 2). This view is occasionally exhibited in the
sketch-maps, which substitute the names Shem, Ham, and Japhet,
for Asia, Africa, and Europe.
§ 5. The habitable world was limited within a circle drawn from
Jerusalem as its centre, and with a radius cqualling the distance thence
to the Strait of Gibraltar. It was only at this latter point that the
limit of the Old World was really known. Here was
“The strait pass where IIercules ordain'd
The boundaries not to be o'crstepp'd by man,”
beyond which lay “the deep illimitable main,” “the unpeopled
world,” of which the learned as yet knew nothing (Dante, Inferno,
xxvi. 99, 106, 114 : Cary's transl.) Eastward the limit was fixed at
the mouth of the Ganges, which, in accordance with the view of
Orosius, was supposed to discharge itself into the Eastern Ocean. In
this direction, therefore, mediaeval geography, as it stood towards the
close of the 13th century, had not only not advanced beyond the point
at which Ptolemy loſt it, but had actually receded : nor was it until
xvi. INTRODUCTION,
a considerable interval after Marco Polo's adventurous journey that
his discoveries were recorded on maps. Southward, again, the habit-
able world was confined within narrow limits. Inasmuch as, according
to the accepted theory, the torrid Zone was occupied by an impass-
able ocean, the coast line of Africa and Asia could not be carried South
of the Tropic of Cancer.” In point of fact, it was supposed to sweep
round with an easy curve from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Indian
Ocean, and mediaeval geographers accepted the vicws of Solinus (56,
§ 6) and Juba (Plin. vi. 175) as to an easy maritime route connecting
the Atlantic with the Indian Ocean—a felicitous error perhaps, inas-
much as it encouraged the hopes of navigators that the shores of India
might be thus reached; whereas Ptolemy, by converting the Indian
Ocean into an inland sea, rendered such a step impossible. North-
wards, mediaeval geography had receded in Asia. The Caspian Sea
was again converted into an arm of the Northern Ocean—an error
which appears indeed in Pliny (vi. 36), Solinus (17, § 3), and Orosius
(i. 2), but which finds no place in the Greck geographers, with the
exception perhaps of Strabo (xi. p. 519). This sea remained the
northern limit of Asia in mediaeval geography until the middle of the
13th century, when its true character was revealed by Rubruquis.
Cartographers, nevertheless, adhered to the traditional belief for
another 150 years—the earliest map (as far as we know) which ex-
hibits it as an inland sea being that in the Borgia Museum (Santa-
rem, iii. 272). Yet Roger Bacon, living before the close of the 13th
century, was perfectly well acquainted with Rubruquis' discovery (Op.
Maj. p. 143). From the Caspian Sea the coast line of Asia sloped
round to the mouth of the Ganges, thus shutting out the vast expansc
of northern and castern Asia. In Europe geography had somewhat
advanced. Alſred the Great had incorporated with his translation of
Orosius an account of the travels of Ohthere and Wulfstan, and most
mediaeval maps indicate some acquaintance with Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark. Iceland and {le Faroe group also appear on the stage, side
* The significance of the ently referring to Malleus Mons in the Hereford map
scems to havo escaped the observation of the majority of mediaeval geographers.
That mountain must have lain, as Roger Bacon perceived (Op. Maj. p. 144),
under the equator : for the shadows ſell alternately north and south for periods of
six months (Solm. 52, § 13). Indeed, Roger bacon thought that inhabitants from
the neighbourhood of the Tropic of Capricorn had reached Europe, referring to
the embassy ſrom Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. His conclusion is borne out
by Pliny’s statement. (“umbras suas in nostrum coelum ; non un suum,” vi. 87),
but the statement itself is devoid of foundation.
FORM OF THE WORLD. xvii
by side with the “Ultima Thule” of classical geography. If we proceed
to inquire whether mediaeval geographers conceived that there were
other continents besides the one on which they themselves lived, the
answer must be given in the affirmative. The “Apocalypse” map in
the British Museum distinctly recognises the existence of land to the
south of the Indian Ocean—uninhabited, however, on account of its
proximity to the sum. The same feature is exhibited in a similar map
at Turin (Lelewel, Atlas, pl. 7), and again in a planisphere of the 14th
century (Santarem, iii. 102). But the belief in the existence of land
in that quarter did not carry the belief in the existence of inhabitants,
as the addition of the word “fabulose” to the notice of the Antipodes
in the Turin map clearly shows. The question as to the land was
deprived of the interest in the assumed absence of a population, and
hence, though the sphericity of the earth was an accepted belief,” little
speculation was raised as to the character of its surface on the oppo-
site side to our own quarter. Probably the majority acquiesced in
the view of Macrobius (In Somn. Scip. ii. 9), that there were four such
worlds as our own symmetrically distributed over the four quarters of
the globe. We have thus stated the limits of the habitable world as
known at the close of the 13th century. The discoveries of Carpini,
Rubruquis, and Marco Polo, filtered slowly into the maps of the 14th
#entury, and did not receive full justice until the middle of the 15th
entury, when they were exhibited in the celebrated map of Fra Mauro.
§ 6. The form of the habitable world, as depicted in mediaeval
maps, varied; but the prevailing usage was in favour of the circle, as
being more in consistency-with the centrality of Jerusalem. TOcca-
sionally the quadrangular shape was adopted, as in the map of Cosmas
Indicopleustes, the Anglo-Saxon map of the British Museum, the
Matthew Paris maps, and, with some modification, the “Apocalypse”
map in the British Museum. The selection of this form may have
been based on too literal an acceptation of those passages of Scripture
which speak of the “four corners” of the earth. At all events, it does
not happen to have been supported by any definite theory as to the
* “Corpus autem terra sphericum est,” says the inscription on the ‘Matthew
Paris' maps. “Hujus figura est in modulm pilae, rotunda ; sed ad instar ovi,
elementis distincta. Ovum quippe exterius testa undique ambitur, testa albu-
men, albumine vitellum vitello gutta pinguedinis includitur. Sic mundus undi-
que coelo ut testa circumdatur: coelo vero purus ather ut albumen, aetheri
turbidus ačr ut vitellum, ačri terra ut pinguedinis gutta includitur.” (Imago
Mundi, cap, 1 ; cf. Ot. Imp, i. 1, where the same comparison is used.)
xviii INTRODUCTION.
real shape of the world. Modifications of the circular—oval or ovoid
—were also used—the former in the case of the “Imago Mundi” map
at C. C. C., Cambridge, and some of the “Polychronicon" maps, which
we shall hereafter specify—the ovoid, in the form of a vesica piscis, in
three of the “Polychronicon" maps. Santarem (iii. pp. 82,83) thinks
that those forms were selected to represent certain theories of the
ancient Greek philosophers. We see no ground for this. The varia-
tion from the circular to the Oval may have been a mere matter of
convenience, and the modification of the Oval into the ovoid may have
arisen from the symbolism attached to the vesica piscis in Christian
art. At all events, if any decper reasons existed for the selection of
these forms, we should be inclined to refer them, not to the views of
Thales and Posidonius, but to the authority of Priscian's Peliegesis—a
work of great popularity in the middle ages—according to which the
world would resemble two comes umited at thcir bases.” Yet so little
attention was paid to this vicW, that the Anglo-Saxon map, which is
prefixed to a copy of the Perieſſesis, assumes a quadrangular shape.
The circular form, on the other hand, commended itself to carto-
graphers as harmonising best with the contrality of Jerusalem, and
perhaps also with the etymological meaning of “Orbis,” as noticed by
Isidore.t. We have to notice yet another form, theoretically more
correct than any of the above, which is noticed in the curious inscrip-
tion on the “Matthew Paris” maps. We are there told that the world
in its truest form resombles an extended military cloak (chlamys extensa).
The cluktmºſs consisted of a central Square with goats or wings added to
it, which gave it, when extended, a considerably greater width at the
bottom than at the top, rendering it (as the inscription proceeds to
say) almost triangular (triangularis fore), the difference between it and
a perfect triangle consisting (as we suppose) in the absence of the apex,
the triangle being (as it were) truncated. The comparison with the
“chlamys eatensa” is no doubt borrowed from Macrobius, who in turn
* “Si placct Europcs quoque me tibi dicere formam,
Haud taccam simills Libya est . . .
Ast ambas unani si terras esse putomus
Assimulent comum laterum compagibus aequis” (259-265).
“Ast Asia fines ambarum linea monstral
El formam, contra positarum in imagine coni’’ (614, 615).
+ “Orbis a rotunditate circuli dictus quia sicut rota est” (Orig. xiv. 2, § 1).
: “Demique Veteres on mcm habitabilem nostram extoniae chlamydi simule osso
dixerunt" (De Som. Scip. ii. 9), where Macrobius is commenting on Cicero's
description “angusta verticibus, lateribus latior” (De Republica, vi. 20).
THE OCEAN. xix
borrowed it from Strabo (ii. p. 113). The form intended closely
resembles that of the maps which illustrate the views of Strabo and
Ptolemy. We are told in the inscription that this form was exhibited
in a map which was deposited in the Court of Exchequer at West-
minster, and which was copied by Matthew Paris (“in ordine Matthaei
de Parisio”). Unfortunately neither of these maps survives.
§ 7. The ocean is depicted in mediaeval maps as a narrow band
encircling the earth, like the ocean “river” of Homeric geography. It
was thus that the cartographers gave effect to the representations of
Isidore and other writers.” Gervase of Tilbury states that this circular
arrangement was held to be indicated in the language of Gen. i. 9 –
“Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one
place, and let the dry land appear;t and the treatise called Imago
Mundi quotes to the same effect Ps. civ. 6:-“Who coveredst it with
the deep as with a garment,”—the Ocean being as it were only the rim
of the subjacent world of waters. We need not assume that mediaeval
writers adopted the Homeric theory as to the narrowness of the
ocean, though the maps appear to express it. The river-like aspect
which it assumes in their maps simply arises from the absence of all
motive for extending its width. The general opinion doubtless was
that the habitable world was, as Cicero ; expresses it, a “small island”
surrounded by a vast expanse of ocean (see Augustine, $ Ep. Cl. iii. 199,
ordo mova). In the middle ages the favourite legend of St. Brandan
must have contributed to enhance the estimate of its size. From the
ocean four inland scas are described as penetrating deeply into the
interior of the world—viz, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Per-
sian Gulſ, and the Caspian Sea, which last (as we have already
noticed) was held to be an ocean gulf. These four gulfs are con-
* “Undique enum Oceanus circumfluens ejus in circulo ambit fines” (Isidore,
Orig. xiv. 2, § 1). “Quod m circull modo [Oceanus] ambiat orben” (Rabanus
Maurus De Univ. xi. 3). “Molem terræ ambit Oceanus m modum circuli” (Hig-
den, Polychron. i. 9). “Haec in circutu Oceano, ut limbo cing tur, ut scribitur,
Abyssus sicut vestimentum amuctus ejus ” (Imago Mundi, i. 6).
ºf “Sunt qui dicunt terram ut centrum in medio circumferentiae omni parte
a qualiter ab extremutatibus distantem mari elrouncing atque concludi, secundum
illud tortlas diei, congregavit aquas sub firmamento in unum et apparunt arida ;
subsidit emum terra ut centrum ” (Ot. Imp. i. 13).
†: “Omnis cnlm terra qual colitur a nobis, parva quadam insula est,” etc.
(Rep. vi. 20).
§ “Sicut in universo on be terrarum, quae tanquan omnium quodammodo
maxima est insula, quia et ibsam cangit oceanus,”
XX INTRODUCTION.
spicuous objects in mediæval maps from the time of Cosmas down-
wards. The Baltic and the Bay of Biscay are also introduced into the
Hereford map, but as objects of minor importance.
§ 8. The orientation of mediaval maps is peculiar. While modern
map-drawers place the north at the head of the map, our predecessors
in the middle ages, with few exceptions,” placed the cast in that position.
Biblical considerations decided them in favour of this arrangement.
The primeval abode of man was in the cast: the Terrestrial Paradise
still remained there—an object of the deepest interest to the religious
sentiment of the middle ages. What more matural than that the
place of honour should be assigned to it in the map, particularly as
that accorded with the historical method which forms So prominent a
feature in mediaeval cartography : The map of the world was intended
to picture forth the fortunes of the human race, and Paradise, as form-
ing the starting-point in the stream of time, occupied the head of the
map. The cartographer was probably further influenced by the pro-
minence assigned to the east as one of the “gates of the sun,”f as
compared with the north, which could not be defined with the same
accuracy.
§ 9. The Terrestrial Paradise, to which we have referred in the
preceding paragraph, forms a constant feature in mediaeval maps, the
most notable exception being the Anglo-Saxon map in the British
|Museum, in which it is not entered. Not the slightest doubt was
entertained as to its being an existing contemporaneous fact. Higden
devotes a long chapter in his Polychronicon (i. 10) to the discussion of
various questions connected with the subject under the three heads of
An sil; Ubi sit; and Qualis swl. Mandeville (cap. xxx.) informs us
that he had not visited it himself on account of his unworthiness, but
he describes it at length on the information of trustworthy persons.
Gervase of Tilbury, in his Olia Imperialia, i. 10, also gives a description
of it. Those views were based on opinions entertained by the
* Santarem (ii. p. 65 of preface) notes three exceptions down to the close of
the 14th century : in two of these the west is placed at the head, and in the third
the south. To these we may add the map of Brunetto Latini, in which the south
is placed at the top. At a later period wo have the large map of Fra Mauro
similarly arranged. The interesting map of Pierre d'Ailly in 1410, on the other
hand, places the north at the top (Lelewel, Atlas, pl. 22).
ºf Isld. Orig. xiii. 1, § 7; AEllicus, cap. 18.
# Iºst ergo locus amoenissimus longo terræ marisque tractu a nostra halbitabili
regione segregatus ; sic excelsus ut, usque ad lunarem globum attingat unde et
aqua diluvii ad locum hung non pervencrunt,
TERRESTRIA! DARADISE XXi
Fathers (Augustine, Basil, and Ambrose) as to the continued existence
of Paradise; but the authority on which mediaeval cartographers
chiefly leant was Isidore, whose statement” as to the fiery wall is
portrayed in the IIereford map. Authorities were not wholly agreed
as to the position of Paradise, but the prevailing opinion was in favour
of the extreme cast. In a small sketch-map of Brunetto Latini it is
placed in the north ; and according to another theory it lay beyond
the torrid zone, and was thus inaccessible to man (Ot. Imp. i. 10).
The four rivers of Paradise were identified with the Euphrates, Tigris,
Nile, and Ganges of true geography; and the difficulty as to the
widely remote sources of these rivers was solved by assuming that the
rivers on leaving Paradise were submerged and reappeared at those
points. Cosmas, who placed Paradisc beyond the Ocean, adopted
the thcory that the rivers retained independent courses under the
sea. The belief in the Torrestrial Paradise and its rivers held its
ground until dissipated by the progress of discovery. Columbus him-
self was not free from the delusion, and when he encountered the
flood of the river Orinoco in the Gulf of Paria, he thought that
it could be none other than the fount of Paradise (Irving's Life of
Columbus, book X, cap. 4). For further particulars on this subject we
refer our readers to a note in the appendix to the work just quoted,
and also to Baring Gould's Curious Myths, pp. 250-266.
§ 10. The general arrangement of a mediaeval map, as described
in the foregoing paragraphs, was evidently inconsistent with geographi-
cal truth, inasmuch as it furnished the cartographer with no means of
ascertaining the true position of places on the map, or of correctly
delineating the directions of natural objects, such as scas, mountains,
and rivers. He was bound by conventional rules to a certain mode of
dealing with the space at his command, these rules being quite indo-
pendent of any foundation in geographical facts. We do not of course
mean to imply that there is any impropriety in drawing a circular map
of a hemisphere with Jerusalem for its centre, or, as it would be
technically expressed, “on the plane of the horizon" of Jerusalem.
The specific fault in the mediaeval map was that it made Jerusalem
the centre of the habitable world—that it consequently fixed the form
and the limits of that world—and that it forecd lands and seas into
* “Septus est undique romphaea ſlamma, id est, muro igneo accinctus, ita ut
cjus cum coelo pene Jungalur meendium ” (Oriſ. Xiv. 3, § 3). And so Gervase of
Tilbury, “Inadibilis hominibus qula Igneo muro usque ad coelum cinctus” (Ot,
Imp. ii. 3).
xxii INTRODUCTION.
spaces that were not adapted to their true form or size. The use of
parallels and meridians was absolutely incompatible with such a system
of map-drawing. Hence the “chaos of error and confusion ” which
characterises mcdiaeval maps. Hence the distortion of outlines, and
the gross displaccment of towns and countries. The radical defect in
the method vitiated the whole treatment of the subject, and compelled
map-makers to rely on precedent rather than on the data supplied by
reliable authoritics. Possibly, indeed, they did not aim at geographical
so much as at historical representation. A map was an “estoire” (to
borrow the expression used by the author of the Hereford map) i.e., an
illustrated * record, and its office was more to delineate objects of popular
interest than objects of scientific value. The taste of the age ran in
favour of the marvellous,t and the mappa mundi was to a considerable
extent addressed to the illustration of this department of literature.
Let any one compare the Hereford map with the Romance of King
Alexander, and he cannot fail to sce the close resemblance in the spirit,
and even in the special features, of the two documents. In short, a
mediaeval mappa mundi, to be duly appreciated, must to a great extent
be regarded as an illustrated romance. This predilection for the
marvellous is cxhibited in the natural history of a mediaeval map.
Our readers will hereafter observe how large a portion of the Hereford
map is occupied with descriptions of human monstrosities, mythical
animals, birds and beasts of strange aspect, famous lakes and wells,
and plants of noteworthy properties. If it be asked what gave rise to
these various fancies, we must attribute a certain proportion of them
to spurious etymology. The tales were cvolved out of the names and
their supposed meanings. Thus the legend of the men with four eyes
arose, as Pliny himself perceived, out of the name Nisytos (H. N. vi.
194). Thus, again, our Isle of Thanet rose to a world-wide celebrity
through the derivation of the name from the Greek word thanatos,
“death :” whence was evolved the story that its soil was fatal to
serpents (Isidore, Orig. xiv. 6, § 3; Solinus 22, § 8). Nor was the
* The modern French applies the expression “historicr” in the same sense,
“enjoliver de divers petits ornements.”—Littré's Dºct.
ºf Mr. Cooley aptly illustrates this point by quoting the regulations made by
William of Wickham for the students of New Coll., Oxford —“When in the winter,
on the occasion of any holiday, a ſire is lightcd for the fellows in the great hall,
the ſellows and scholars may, after their dinner or their supper, amuse themselves
m a suitable manner with singing or reciting poetry, or with the chronicles of
diſſerent kingdoms and the wonders of the world.”—Maritime and Imland Dis-
covery, Plc. lii. cap. 2.
CONTENTS OF MEDIAEVAL MAPS. xxiii
effect of spurious etymology confined to such matters as this : the
idea that the island Canaria was occupied by huge dogs originated in
etymological error; and we may draw attention to a peculiar feature
in the Hereford map connected with Cardia, a town on the Thracian
CherSonese, which is represented as occupying a heart-shaped peninsula,
the name being derived from the Greek kardia “heart” (Solin. 10,
§ 20).
§ 11. Passing on to the materials with which mediaeval maps were
usually filled, we may classify the entries under the following heads:—
(1) Biblical; (2) Classical ; (3) Legendary ; (4) Contemporaneous.
1. Biblical.—In addition to the representation of Paradise and its
four rivers, already noticed, the leading events of Old Testament history
were duly commemorated —the Ark resting on the mountains of
Ararat; the Tower of Babel; the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah ;
the sojourn in Egypt, of which the Pyramids were regarded as a
memorial, their ordinary designation being “Joseph's Barns;” the
passage of the Red Sca; the wanderings in the Desert; and the
partition of the Promised Land among the twelve tribes. The above
subjects supplied matter for pictorial representation. Due promi-
mence was also given to places associated with the events of the New
Testament—Bethlehem, Nazareth, Samaria, and, above all, Jerusalem.
The countries in which the Apostles preached are also occasionally
noticed. We have yet to notice a Biblical subject which took its place
in the legendary lore of the middle ages as an existing fact of most
serious import : we allude to the belief that the Gog and Magog of
prophecy were still existing, and only restrained from overwhelming
other nations by an immense barrier thrown up by Alexander the
Great, who thrust them back to the shores of the Northern Ocean, and
there by divine interposition closed them up in a peninsula, whence
in the latter days they should burst forth to carry desolation and rapino
throughout the faircst regions of Christendom. The anticipation of
this dread event overshadowed Western Europe in the 13th century to
such a degree, that even so enlightened a man as Roger Bacon recom-
mends the study of geography with a view to ascertain the time when,
and the quarter whence, the outbreak should come (Op. Maj. p. 142).
The words of Ezekiel xxxix. 2, coupled with Rev. xx. 8, supplied the
Scriptural basis for this theory. Æthicus (Hieronymus) was the
leading authority among the Latins for the details connected with the
interposition of Alexander the Great (caps. 32, 39). The same ideas
were, however, widely spread among the Orientals, as we may gather
xxiv. INTRODUCTION,
both from the notices in the Koran (xviii. 93; xxi. 96), and from the
letter reputed to have been sent by Prester John to the Emperor
Manuel Commenus (1143–1180), in which the incarcerated nations are
enumerated by name (Baring-Gould Curious Myths, p. 40). The
vividness of the belief is illustrated by the fact that an eastern Khalif,
living in the early part of the 9th century, sent out an expedition to
discover the ramparts of Gog and Magog ; the result of which is
recorded by the Arabian geographer Edrisi (D'Anville Hist. Acad. In-
script. xxvi. 210-220, Wharton, Hist. I'mgl. Poetry ; Dissert. 1, p. 14,
note c). From these circumstances, Gog and Magog, with the enclosing
rampart, became a stock subject among mediaeval cartographers.
2. Classical.—To this head we may refer the bulk of the names
which occur in mediaeval maps. The classical geography is not that
of Strabo or Ptolemy, but of Orosius, and the epitomists of Pliny,
such as Solinus and Capclla. The political divisions of Asia, Africa,
and Southern Europe, are almost exclusively those of ancient times.
The same may be said of the towns. Classical nomenclature extends
even into Gaul and the British Isles, side by side with more modern
desigmations. The mames of mountain-ranges and rivers are naturally
given in their classical garb, as Latin was still the language of litera-
ture. The spots of special fame in classical literature live again in
mediaeval maps. Troy and Carthage vie in importance with Rome
and Jerusalem. The Labyrinth of Crete, the Colossus of Rhodes, the
Pillars of Hercules, the Oracles of Delphi and Ammon, Calypso-
those are among the objects on which the attention fastened, apparently
as though they were still cxisting. With this predilection for classical
subjects, it is difficult to comprehend the astounding ignorance and
carelessness of mediaeval cartographers. The delineation of Greece
and the arrangement of its localities in the Hereford map are beyond
all conception. Delphi is confounded with Delos ; Thermopylae is an
inland range ; and Corinth stands wholly away from any symptom of
its isthmus ! So again in other quarters—Patmos is transported into
the Black Sea ; Gades is represented as a large island in the middle
of the Straits of Gibraltar; Calpe and Abyla change places, the former
being transported to Africa; the Syrtes are apparently placed inland;
the Pactolus flows into the Euxine, and so forth. In one important
particular the mediaeval cartographer may be absolved from blame in
respect to his croneous representation. In most maps the Western
Nile forms a conspicuous object. The idea to which these give
expression is, that the mysterious river rose in Western Africa, near
CONTENTS OF MEDIAEVAL MAPS. XXV
the ocean, and in a course broken by more than one subsidence,
traversed the whole breadth of the continent, finally emerging as the
Nile of Egypt. This is the view entertained by Orosius, i. 2, and
Solinus, 32, § 2, both of whom in this matter follow Pliny, v. 51-53,
in his report of Juba's explorations in Central Africa. It was not the
first time that such an opinion had been entertained. Herodotus
had heard of a great river in this quarter, which he surmised to be
the upper course of the Nile (ii. 33). The Latin geographers were
probably not aware that Ptolemy, and after him the Arabs, enter-
tained more correct views as to the sources of the Nile. Marino
Sanuto (1320) is the only one (as far as we know) of the Latin
cartographers, who distinguishes the Nile from the river of Central
Africa.
3. Legendary.—The legendary or mythical geography of the middle
ages was partly derived from classical sources, and was partly of con-
temporaneous origin. To the former head we may refer the monstrosi-
ties in human form which were supposed to tenant the remote regions
of the carth, particularly the interior of Africa, such as the men with
four eyes, the men with no proper mouths, the Sciapodes who used
their single foot as an umbrella, cte, etc. The belief in the existence
of such creatures was justified by St. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xvi. 8),
and was hence generally accepted in the Christian church. The geo-
graphical treatises of the middle ages, such as the Imago Mundi, give
descriptions of these deformities, borrowed from Solinus and Pliny, and
the Alexandrian Romance contributed largely to popularise the belief
by associating them with the achievements of Alexander the Great. To
this latter source we may attribute various other particulars of a later
date connected with the life of Alexander, such as the legend of the
Trees of the Sun and Moon, introduced into the “Psalter" map and
the Rudimentum Novitiorum map of the 14th century (Santarem, iii.
239); and the parallel legend of the Dry Tree, introduced into the
Hereford map, and into that of Bianco, 1436 (Santarem, iii. 380).
Passing on to the myths of purely mediaeval origin, we may notice
that in more than one instance they were productive of good, inas-
much as they furnished incitements to geographical discovery. This
was particularly the case with the beautiful legend of St. Brandan,
which we shall have occasion to notice in connection with the For-
tunatae Insulae in the Hereford map. Suffice it here to say that
St. Brandan was an Irish Monk of the 6th century, who undertook a
voyage in scarch of the terrestrial Paradise, and after many adven-
C
xxvi INTRODUCTION.
tures found an island that corresponded in beauty and fertility with
the pictures which the imagination drew of Paradise. The tale of
his voyage became very popular in the 12th and following centuries,
and no doubt was entertained as to the existence of such an island,
appearing occasionally as a bright phantom in the distant horizon, but
ever cluding the search of the mariner. Several expeditions were
Sent out by the Portuguese for the oxpress purpose of discovering its
position, and even so late as 1755 the name of the island is entered
On a chart to the westward of Ferro. Whether the fancied glimpses
of the island were the effect of pure imagination, or whether they
arose from the natural phenomenon called the Fata Morgana, it is im-
possible to decide. It may be surmiscd, however, that spurious
otymology may have been at the bottom of the delusion ; one of the
Fortunate Islands was known by the name Aprositus, and this, inter-
preted as a Greek word, would mean the “unapproachable.”” (For
further particulars we refer our readers to Irving's Columbus, Append.
No. xxv.) Just as the legend of St. Brandam led to maritime ex-
ploration in the Western Ocean, so did the mystery that gathered
round Prester John rouse an interest in respect to Contral Asia.
The first rumour of Prester John dates from the middle of the 12th
century, when he was mentioned by the Bishop of Gabala. It is now
tolerably well ascertained that the potentate referred to was the
founder of the Kara Khitai empire, whose official title of Gurkham
may have been so pronounced as to be mistakon for the Greek form
of the namo John. The Prester John of the later half of the 12th
century, of whom Rubruquis and Marco Polo speak, was another
Kerait chief, whose proper name was Ung Khan (Yule's Marco Polo,
i. 206, ff.). The cartographical motices of Prester John date from
the early part of the 14th century. In the larger “Tolychronicon"
map, his empire is placed in lower Scythia, within the limits of
Europe, but in the map of Marino Sanuto, in furthor India, which
accords better with the historical notices. By a strange freak its
locale was subscquently transferred from Central Asia to Abyssinia,
where it is duly placed in the Borgia map (circ. 1400), in Bianco's
(1436), and in Leardo's (1448); the map in the Pitti Palace at
Florence (1417) being the only one of this period which retains him
* To this part of the legend reference is made in the following passage from
the Olia, Imperud/ia, ii. 11 –“Cunctis gratissima sed paucis nota, qual aliquando
casu inventa, postea diu quaesita, non ost reperta, ideoque dicitur perdita. Ad
hane tradunt T3randinum, virun sanctum, Oceani exploratorem, tandem dovenisse.”
CONTENTS () F MEDIAEVAL MAPS. xxvii
in his old quarters (Santarcm, iii. 10, 195, 295, 333, 390, 436). We
have finally to notice the legend of the Seven Sleepers, which appears
in the Hereford map, and the legend of St. Patrick's Purgatory, which
appears in the larger “Polychronicon" map ; neither of these, how-
ever, excrciscd much influence on geographical study.
4. Contemporaneous.—From what has been already said, it may
be inferred that the amount of contemporaneous geography in
mcdiaeval maps comes within a small compass. In this respect,
cartography did not keep pace with the age. The various historical
annals, and even the geographical treatises, contrast favourably with
maps in regard to accuracy and range of knowledge. Taking the
Hereford map as a sample, we find in the whole of Asia only a
Solitary indication of advancement, in the use of the modern form
Samarcand for the ancient Maracanda. In Africa not a single new
name occurs. In the Mediterranean, the modern Palermo, instead of
the ancient Panormus, is the only noticeable feature. In Europe
there is naturally some advance. We meet with names unknown in
ancient geography— the Russians, Hungarians, Danes, Norway, the
territorial subdivisions of France and Germany, the names of German
towns on the Weser and the Elbe, and of places of coclesiastical or
political note, such as Compostella, in Spain, Mont St. Michel, in
France, Martinsberg (Sabarria), in Hungary, Gram, in the same
country, Augsburg, Prague, and others; together with a fair
sprinkling of names in the British Isles. But the omissions are
striking. There is nothing to indicate any acquaintance with the
commorcial routes of the Wenctians and Genoese ; nor yet with those
of the Hanse towns, which had novertheless attained to great power
in the middle of the 13th century ; mor, again, do we meet names
specifically attributable to the Crusaders. It is almost as difficult to
account for the inscrtion of some names as it is for the "omission of
others; and the general impression conveyed to our minds is one of
inaccuracy, carelessness, and ignorance. We have said that maps did
did not keep pace with treatises, and we might support this by a
comparison of the Hereford map with the somewhat earlier work of
Roger Bacon, in whose Opus Majus we find mention of Damietta,
Cairo (Kayr), the Volga (Ethilia), Bagdad (Baldac), Turkey (Turkia),
|Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, Prussia, Tartars, Cathay, Prester John
(pp. 151, 157, 168, 169, 170, 173), not to speak of many modern
names of ancient places. The discoveries of Rubruquis, which were
familiar to Bacon, are very imperfectly indicated in the maps of the
&
{
xxviii INTRODUCTION.
14th century. The true character of the Caspian Sea is first given
in Marino Sanuto's map (1320), and in the same map we have
notices of Cathay (China), and of the great Khan under the quaint
title of Magnus Calvis. Similar entries also occur in the Chronicom
map of the same date (Santarem iii. 151, 152). Bagdad first appears
(we believe) in the Borgia map, and Cairo in Leardo's map (Santarem
iii. 282, 388).
§ 12. A brief account of the sources whence mediaeval carto-
graphers drew their materials may not be unacceptable to our
readers. We are able to discover those sources, partly from the
statements of the cartographers themselves, and partly from the
ovidence furnished by the names and legends. A list of authorities
which Higden professes to have used in the composition of his Poly-
chronicom supplics some interesting information as to the literary
appliances of the 14th century for historical and geographical studies.
On the latter subject the authorities most in vogue were the follow-
ing, which we have arranged in chromological order —
PLINY, A.D. 23-79.-The Historia Naturalis of this author is the
mine whence perhaps two-thirds of mediaeval geography has been
either directly or indirectly derived. The original was not consulted
so much as the compilations of Solinus, Marcian Capella, and others.
We need give no description of a work so well known to scholars, and
which falls within the domain of classical rather than mediaeval
literature.
POMPONIUS MELA, a native of Spain, contemporancous with Pliny,
and the author of a treatise entitled De Situ Orbis, the carliest work
in Latin literature devoted cxclusively to geography. In this (i. 1.)
we find the first notice of the opinion, which aſterwards became so
provalent, as to an impassable Zolle intervening between our world and
the “alter orbis” of the Antichthons in the temporate zone of the
southern hemisphere.
ANTONINI ITINERARIUM. This work owes its designation to
Antoninus Caracalla, in whose reign (A.D. 198-217) it was originally
compiled, though it evidently underwent revisions down to the time of
Diocletian (292-305). Its value as a topographical description of the
Roman Empire is incalculable. The authorship has been attributed
to Julius Honorius, and others, but on no evidence. It may rather
be regarded as an official document, drawn up by various hands.
In the middle ages copies of the Itinerary were bound up with the
Cosmographia of Æthicus, under the title of “AEthicus cum Itinerariis
AUTHORITIES FOR MEDIAEVAL GEOGRAPHY. xxix
Suis.” There is an excellent critical edition of this work by Parthey
and Pinder (Berlin, 1848).
SoLINUs, the author of a work entitled Collectamea Rerum Memora-
bilium. Of his personal history nothing is known ; but he probably
lived about the middle of the third century after Christ. The title of
his work sufficiently bespeaks its contents. It is a description of the
most noteworthy places and objects in the world, compiled chiefly from
Pliny, but in part also from Mela, and methodically arranged in
geographical order. No work was more popular in the middle agcs.
Mommsen's edition (Berlin, 1864,) is serviceable for critical purposes.
OROSIUs, the author of a historical work cntitled Historwarum ad-
versus Paſſamos libri VII, but more commonly known as the Ormista,
which probably originated in the abbreviation, Or. m. ist., for Orosii
mundi historia. Orosius was a native of Spain, and flourished in the
early part of the fifth century. He was personally acquainted with
Augustine and Jerome, and he wrote his history in the interests of
Christianity, to disprove the assertion that the miseries under which
the world then suffered were peculiar to that age, and consequently the
result (as the Pagans alleged) of the Christian religion. He devotes
the second chapter of his first book to a geographical description of
the world. The popularity of the work in the middle ages is attested
by the fact that King Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. The
geographical chapter forms part of the Cosmographia A'thici, and was
widely studied. The Cambridge “Imago Mundi” map, and the Here-
ford map, illustrate his views, the latter expressly stating as much.
MACROBIUs, “the grammarian,” a writer of the early part of the
fifth century, one of whose works, entitled Commentarius ec Cicerome
in Sommºnum Scipionis, consists of a treatise on cosmology, which was
largely studied in the middle ages, and which contributed much to
establish the view that the torrid zone was impassable.
PRISCIAN, the famous grammarian, who flourished about the middle
of the 5th century, the author of a Latin translation of the Periegesis
of Dionysius, which was used as a geographical text-book for school-
boys in the middle ages. The date of Dionysius himself is uncertain,
some placing him in the first century after Christ, others as late as
the 4th century. The poem is written in hexameter verses, and
contains a description of the world as then known. Both the
original work and Priscian's translation will be found in Muller's
Geog. Gracci Min, vol. ii.
MARCIANUS CAPELLA, a native of Carthage, who flourished pro-
XXX INTRODUCTION.
bably towards the close of the 5th contury, the author of an encyclo-
paedic work in nine books, of which the sixth, nominally devoted to
geometry, contains an abstract of geography. The work was largely
used in the middle ages.
ISIDORUs, surnamed Hispalensis (i. e. of Seville), to distinguish
him from others of the same name, Bishop of Seville from 600 to his
death in 636—a man of vast erudition for the age in which he lived.
He left behind him a large number of Works, the most important of
which is an encyclopaedic compilation cntitled Originwm, sive Etymologi-
arwin libri XX, of which the fourteenth contains a description of the
world, with Sundry etymological motices.
AETHICI CoSMOGRAPMIA.—Two Wholly distinct works pass under
this title, and the questions connected with their origin and contents
have given rise to a large amount of erudite discussion, which has not
resulted in unanimity. One of these works has been long familiar to
the learned : it consists of two treatises, the first of which, cntitled
“I” ºpositio,” is identical with the Eocerpta Julii Honorii, while the
other, entitled Alia lolius orbis descriptio, is identical with the geo-
graphical chapter in the work of Orosius, to which we have already
referred. Julius Honorius, the orator, may be identifica with Julius
the Orator, of whom Cassiodorus makes mention in Div. Lect. c. 25, as
having Written a geographical work answering to the description of the
one before us. In this case he must have lived before the close of the
5th century after Christ. His manual describes the world according
to its quadriparlila combinemlia, the materials being arranged on the
principle of a fourfold division, corresponding to the four occans. It
consists of a dry list of names of scas, mountains, rivers, towns, &c.,
the rivers alone being described at any length. The second treatise
“Alia descriptio” adopts the mode of description according to its
tripartita continenlia, the three continents being made the basis of the
arrangement. Whether Æthicus was the true name of the compiler
of the Cosmographia, remains uncertain : nothing, at all events, is known
of his history. We pass on to the other work, entitled “Alhici
Istrici Cosmographia.” This professos to be a record of the travels of
a “philosopher” named AEthicus, a native of Istria, whose own work,
Written in the Greek language, is non-cxistent, but of which a
breviarium or abstract was made in Latin by one Hieronymus, who is
Cntitled a “presbyter.” One of the questions that has arison concerns
this abbreviator—whether he is to be identified with St. Jerome'. If
So, the treatise must at all events have been in existence at the end of
AUTHORITIES FOR MEDIAEVAL GEOGRAPHY. xxxi
the 4th century of our era. It has indeed been argued, from internal
evidence, that the travels took place towards the end of the 3rd century.
The identification of Hicronymus with St. Jerome is, however, open to
much doubt ; and there are those who regard the whole treatise as a
mediaeval compilation dating from the 8th century, to which period
existing manuscripts carry us back. To give even a résumé of the
arguments pro and com would carry us far beyond our limits. We
must refer those interested in the question to the elaborate disquisitions
of Pertz (De Cosm. Ethici., Berlin, 1853), Wuttke (Die Kosm, des Islrici
Aithicos, Leipzig, 1854), and D'Avezac (Mém. Acad. des Inscr., Paris,
1852), or to the more concise Epilogue on the subject in Lelewel's
Géographie, vol. iv. The treatise was much studied in the middle
ages, and is several times quoted by Roger Bacon in his Opus Majus.
The author of the Hereford map quotes AEthicus by name in regard to
the isle Sirtinice, and also borrows largely from him in his description
of the peoples of northern Asia.
In addition to the above we add, for the sake of completeness,
motices of two geographical writers whose works do not appear to have
been much known to mediaeval writers, viz., Cosmas, and the amony-
mous Tavenna geographer.
COSMAS, surnamed “Indico-pleustes,” from his fame as a navigator
of the seas connected with the Indian Ocean, was an Egyptian monk of
the Carly part of the 6th century. He composed a work entitled
Topographia Christiana, the object of which was to overthrow the re-
ceived opinion as to the spherical form of the carth, and to prove that
it was really a flat plain of rectangular shape, with a length from E. to
W. twice as great as its breadth from N. to S., and surrounded by the
ocean, beyond which lay the Terrestrial Paradise and the lands which
the antediluvian population had occupied. His work contains some
geographical information, amid a large amount of useless matter. The
treatise has been published by Montfaucon in his Collect. Nova Patrum,
vol. ii.
GEOGRAPHUS RAVENNAs. The writer described as the Ravenna
Geographer (his work being anonymous), was a so-called “philosopher ”
of the 7th century, residing at Ravenna. His manual contains lists
of names, with occasional notes interspersed, and With a general preface,
describing the circuit of the world according to the position of the sun
at each hour of the day and night. It is confusedly drawn up, and
abounds with errors both of geography and Orthography. His cosmo-
graphical views appear in part to have resembled those of Cosmas,
XXXii INTRODUCTION.
for he thought the ocean was bounded on its outer rim by lofty
mountains. He differed however from Cosmas in regard to the
position of the Torrestrial Paradise, which he believed to be in the
extreme east, beyond India, from which it was separated by a vast
descrt. There is a modern cdition of this work by Parthey and
Pinder (Berlin, 1860).
§ 13. The geographical treatiscs of the middle ages are little
else than rechauffes of the works enumerated in the foregoing Section.
Geography was treated as a branch of cosmology, and it is rarcly
that we meet with any work devoted expressly to descriptive geography.
The following authors and works may be citcd in connection with
the history of geography in our own country —
BEDA (672-735), whose cosmological views are expressed in the
treatiscs, De mundi calestis terrasque constitutione, and De elementis
Philosophia.
DICUIL, an Irish monk, in the Carly part of the 9th century, author
of a manual entitled De Mensura Orbis Terræ, chiefly compiled from
Pliny, but containing some contemporaneous information as to Syria,
Egypt, and Iceland.
IMAGO MUNDI, a treatise composed in the 12th century, and
generally attributed to Honorius of Autun, but also to Anselm of
Canterbury, with whose works it is printed (Cologne, 1573), and
again to Henry of Huntingdom. In the copy belonging to C. C. C.,
Cambridge, the authorship is claimed by one Henry, a canon of
Maintz. No work was more popular in the middle ages. A
rythmical version of it in French, by Gauticr of Metz (1245), was
largely used. The geographical information is comprised in caps. 8-20
of Book i.
The ALEXANDRIAN ROMANCE, a poem which cnjoyed great popu-
larity throughout Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries, based upon
the work of the pseudo-Callisthenes, which made its appearance
towards the close of the 4th century. The romance appears to have
assumed its present form in Persia, whence it was introduced into
Europe by means of a translation made by a Greek of Constantinople
in 1070. A Latin version is noticed by Giraldus Cambrensis.
About 1200 a French version appeared, of which there is a splendid
copy in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. The English version was made
from the French. It is given in Weber's Metrical Romances, vol. i.
RoGER BACON (1214-1292), a man far in advance of his age in
geography as in other matters. In his Opus Majus, he classcs
MEDIAEVAL GEOGRAPHICAL WIRITERS. xxxiii
geography under mathematics, and gives a tolerably full description of
the World, cytending from p. 134 to p. 177 of Jebb's edition (Venice,
1750).
CHERVASE of Tilbury, a monk of the 13th century, author of the
Olia Imperialia, a work addressed to Otho IV., Emperor of Ger-
many, with whom Gervase stood in such high favour that he was
appointed Marshal of the kingdom of Arles (Biog. Brit. Liter., ii. 285).
His work consists of three parts (Decisiones), of which the second con-
tains a geographical sketch in caps. 2-12, and 21-23. This Work
* º found in Leibnitzii Script. Rer. B uns. i. 881-1004 (Hanover,
1710).
RALPII HIGDEN (died 1363), a monk of Chester, author of the
Polychromicom, the first book of which (caps. 5-34) contains a tolerably
full description of the world.
We may further mention the following writers as illustrating in
Various ways the subjects of mediaeval geography :—
PAULUS DIACONUs, the latter part of the 8th century, who gives
a description of Italy in his work De Gestis Langobardorum, which
may be found in Muratori's Ital. Rer. Script. vol. i.
RABANUS MAURUS, 9th century, the author of an encyclopaedic
Work, De Universo, composed at Maintz, in 22 books, of which the
eleventh and two following bear upon geography.
ADAM OF BREMEN, 11th century, whose treatise De Situ Damiae
is our chief authority for the geography of northern Europe. It may
be found in Lindenborg's Script. Rer. Germ. Septentr. (Frankfurt,
1630).
MARINO SANUTO, 14th century, the author of the Secreta Fidelium
Crucis, to which is appended a brief geographical manual, illustrative
of his map. It may be found in Bongarsius's Gesta Dei per Francos
(Hanover, 1611).
The illustrated Natural History of mediaeval maps—a department
in which the Heroford map is particularly rich—was probably derived
from the BESTIARIA and HLRBARIA of that period. Several of these
works survive in our public libraries, and are interesting for their
spirited and frequently very exact delineations of animals and plants.
The descriptions are founded (as the references of the authors show)
on the treatisc of an unknown writer of great antiquity, cited under
the name of Physiologus, to whom reference is made by Chaucer
(Cant. Tales, 15,277). Whether this is a generic term for “natural-
xxxiv. INTRODUCTION.
ist,” or whether it indicatcs any particular person, is uncertain.
Some authorities are disposed to identify “Physiologus” with Chry-
sostom, others with Origen. Specimens of Bestiarics are published in
the splendid work of MM. Cahier and Martin, Mélanges d’Archéologie,
vol. ii. Bestiaries were occasionally composed in modern languages;
a French poem on this subject, by Philippe de Thoun, may be found
in Wright's Medioval Popular Science, and an English Bestiary in the
Early Text Society's series, 1872, edited by Mr. Morris.
§ 14. Our concluding section will be devoted to an enumeration
of the mediaeval Mappa Mundi existing in this country, together with
rough notes on their character and contents, designed partly to illus-
trate the bearing of these maps on the composition of the Hereford
map, and partly to assist persons in the inspection of the maps them-
selves. It will be seen that England is comparatively rich in art-
treasures of this nature ; she possesses certainly some of the most
interesting maps yet known, such as the Hereford map, the Anglo-
Saxon map, the Cambridge “Imago Mundi” map, the beautiful
miniature “Psalter” map, and the larger “Polychronicon" map.
We place them as nearly as possible in their chronological order.
1. Anglo-Saxon map of the 10th century, prefixed to a copy of Priscian's
Periegesis, in the Library of the British Museum. (Cotton MS.
Tib. B. v.)
This highly interesting map is 8, inclies long and 7 inches broad, and of
rectangular shape. Jerusalem stands considerably away ſrom the centre of the
map towards the south, in consequence of the Mediterranean Sea cxpanding in
that direction. In the E. Taprobane (Ceylon) occupies the place usually assigned
to the terrestrial Paradise, at the head of the map ; at the opposite point, in the
W., stand Gades and the T’illars of Hercules. The ocean is more varied in its
outline than is usual in mediæval maps ; it is for the most part coloured grey,
but the Eastern (Indian) Ocean with the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea are painted
red, in conſormity with the ancient name, Erythracum, Mare. The Nile is drawn
in three sections, the highest, named JDora, terminating un a submergence “hic
arenis mergilur,” the middle and longer section rising in a lake and having a
similar termination, and the lower section representing the Nile of Egypt, Names
are not, always a ſlixed to the objects delineated. This is particularly the case
with the mountam ranges and rivers of Europe, with regard to which it may be said
that the few names that do occur are (with the exception of Totmais fluv. and the
Montes Riphei) a source of perplexity, the others being Yparur, probably intended
for the Hypanis (Boug), Danubius ſluvius, which is assigned not to the Danube,
but to a river more in the position of the Hebrus, and 13&rcimbinacius assigned
to a river in Spain. The pictorial illustrations consist of a spirited picture of a lion
in the N. E. of Asia, with the legend IIvc abundant leomes ; Moms Aureus, the
MEDIAEVAL MAPS. XXXV
y
“golden mountain,” where the pigmies ſought with the cranes for the precious
metal ; the Ark (Arca Noe) resting on the mountains of Armenia ; the Pillars of
Hercules, and the following towns : In Asia—Babylon, Cesarea. Philippi, Vocuso,
civila's near the Black Sea, Tharso Cilicie (Tarsus), IIierusalem, a town near the
Nile with a name which reads like Certic, and Alexandria in Egypt, which was
included in Asia. In Africa—Cartago Magna, and another town unnamed. In
Europe—Roma, Salerna, Luna, Taca (? Luca), Padua (the name is also read
Pavia), Ravenna, Constantinopolis. In Britain—Lundona and Winloma and in
Ireland a town with an undecipherable name, probably Intended for Armagh.
The majority of the names entered can be readily recognised as belonging
either to Biblical or classical geography. The following points are worthy of notice
as characteristic of mediaeval geography — “Gog et Magoff,” to the west of the
Caspian Sea, which is represented as a gulſ of the Northern Ocean ; Turchi, ad-
jacent to Gog and Magog ; Gr/phorum gems ; JBulgari, between the Danube and
the Northern Ocean ; “Dacia ubi et Gothia" for Denmark, the name Daci being
commonly used for Dani; (2) Sclavi (the name is read Selacu); together with some
manies in Northern Europe which are peculiar to this map, viz.:-(?) Slesne (per-
haps intended for Saxony), Nerocorren (in the position of Norway), and Sud
bryllas (“South Britons”) for Brittany. Iceland is also introduced under the
name Island. Hungary is described as IIvºvivorum gems. We may further motice
the volcano in Africa, near the top of the map, “II ic dicitur esse anons semper &r-
dens; ” the Cinocephales, “dog-headed” men, in the S.W. of Africa (in the Hereford
map they are placed in Northern Europe); and Mons Hesperus, near the ocean.
Many of the inscriptions are diſlicult to decipher. For the assistance of those
who have the opportunity of referring to the original map, or to the copies of it
In the atlases of Jomard, Santarem, and Lelewel, or again to the description of it
by Santarem (ii. 47–76), we make the following suggestions—The inscription on
Taprobane should be read “habet X civºtates ; bus in anno messes (Santarem reads
“mense”) et fruges. The name near the Persian Gulf we suspect to be Eudemon
(i.e. Arabia Felix), as in the Hereford map, and not “Cademoci.” Mons Fasgo
probably means Pisgah. “Vocusa cºvitas,” near the Black Sea, reminds us of
“Decusa civitas” in the Imago Mundi and Hereford maps. For “Mocipia’’ we
read Isauria. The entries near the head of the map Mons Fartham, Bilon
fluvius, and Willwit we cannot explain ; the second applies to the Ganges, and may
be intended for “Pison; ” nor can we account for the entry “Pentapolis,” with
the adjacent “Certic,” near the Nile, mor yet for the name “Philefica” (perhaps
“Philistia’’) m the same quarter. The inscription in Africa, near Carthage, should
be read by the light of Isidore, Orig. xlv. 5, § 8:—“Zeugis regio Ipsa est et (vera)
Africa. . . . . Sed ulteriora bestlis et serpentibus plena,” though we can-
not make out the whole of these words on the map : Santarem reads “Fruges
regionis ipsas et Africanorum fores leo abrupt bellum serpentibus plena.” In the
same part of the map we suggest Musita, as in the Heref, rd map, as the name of
the river mear Carthage, southward of the middle Nile; “IIic oberrant Gangines
Althiopes,” as in Orosius, instead of “Hic aberrant IIesperides AEthiopes,” as m
Santarem ; and in the same quarter “Moms Climaw,” for his “Mons Demax,” in ac-
cordance with the statement of Oros. i. 2; and for “Calcarsum,” which Santarem
cannot identiſy, Calcarsus, the lake mentioned by Orosius as on the border of Asia
and Africa. We cannot decipher the unscription in the W. of Africa, near the ocean,
&
Y
2C
xxxvi INTRODUCTION.
but we suspect it refers to Atlas (not “Caules,” as Santarcm reads it), and that
it alludes to the legend told by Solimus, 24, § 10 “Silet per diem,” ctc. A little
higher up is an inscription taken from Orosius “Gentes Aulolum contingenics (or
perhaps “pervagantes”) usque ad Oceanum.” In Europe the name Wapersiba,
near the Euxine, is puzzling ; there is an undecipheralle inscription on Iceland,
and a name on Britain, “March pergus,” which we cannot explain.
2. A map of the 12th century in a MS. (No. XVII.) dated 1110,
in the Library of St. John's Coll., Oxford.
This is a circular map, with a diameter of about 6% inches. It is of a very
imperfect character, and exhibits wonderful mistakes ; but it has its peculiar
features, which entitle it to notice. It is constructed on the principle of the T
in the O (see p. xv.); and the centrality of Jerusalem is conspicuously displayed
by inscribing IIlerusalem in large letters on the horizontal lime of the T. But
the cartographer did not apparently regard the upright line as indicating the
division between Europe and Africa ; for he has drawn the name Europe on both
sides of the line, and has relegated Africa to the lower corner of the map. The
terrestrial Paradise does not appear. The entries of names are scanty, and these
mostly Biblical. The distribution of the human race among the sons of Noah is
indicated in the following inscriptions, the number 72 being substituted for the
70 of the Mosaic table, as in the Olia Imp. of Gervase of Tilbury, ii. 1:—“Quod
(? quo sc. Asia Major) sumt septuaginia due gente orle.” “De Sem, xxvii.” “De
Jaſell. xv.” “De Cham gemtes XXX.” Armenia, with Noah's ark, is transposed to
the south of Asia. Achaia (in the position of India), Caesarca, Ephesus, and
Athens, are noticed in connection with the labours of St. Andrew, St. Peter, St.
John, and St. Paul respectively. “Civitàs réfugii” is an entry peculiar to this
map. The only names that occur in Europe are Terra Macedonie, Campania,
Roma, Italia, Tuscia (Tuscany), Tibis (Tiberis) ſl., Mons Ethma, Sicilia, and
JCartago Magma, whether in mistake for Carthago Nova we cannot say. Con-
stantinopolis is placed in Asia. Brºlamnia, II ibernia, and Thule, appear in the far
north.
3. A map of the 12th century, in the Library of Corpus Christi Coll.,
Cambridge, in a MS. (No. LXVI.) containing the Imago Mundi,
and some historical tracts, by Henry, a Canon of Maintz.
This map has a special interest for us in consequence of the remarkable coin-
cidences between it and the Hereford map. The authorship of the work is
claimed in the prologue by Henry, a Canon of the Cathedral Church of Maintz,
who dedicates it to the Emperor Henry V., 1106-1125, the husband of Matilda,
daughter of Henry I. of England, and gives as the date of his work the year in
which the marriage of the Emperor took place,—1110. We are unable to discover
any clue as to who this Canon of Mantz may have been. There is no doubt,
however, that the MS. was written by an English hand, probably one of the Dur-
ham occlesiastics, and that it was owned by an English monastery, for at the head
of the map we read “liber Sancte Marie de Salleia"—the Latinised form of
Sawley, in Craven, Yorkshire (Dugdale, Monasticon, v. 510). From the character
of the handwriting the MS. would be assigned to the latlor part of the 12th
MEDIAEVAL MAPS. xxxvii
century, Say 1180. Whether the Canon of Maintz intended to claim the author-
Ship of the treatise “Imago Mundi,” or simply the general composition of the
Whole work (his words are “hunc librum edit”), is more than we are able to say.
It has been already mentioned that the Imago Mundi is assigned most commonly
to Honorius, but also to Anselm and Henry of Huntingdon.
The map is of oval ſorm, 9 inches long by 7% broad, the spandrels between
the curves and the angles of the page being occupied by figures of angels. The
execution of the map is very good—the outlines varied and firmly drawn, and the
Writing, though small, particularly meat and legible. The pictorial illustrations
are not numerous. The ocean ſorms a surrounding belt, with a very varied out-
line in the north of Europe and Asia ; and herein lies one of the most marked
coincidences between this and the Hereford map, particularly as regards the posi-
tion and the outline of the Baltic Sea, the Scandinavian peninsula, the country of
the Cimocephales, the peninsula of the Hyperboreans, the Caspian Sea, the penin-
sula of Gog and Magog, and the further coast-line to Paradise ; together with the
islands adjacent to these coasts, viz. Taraconta, Rapharrica, the two islands Biza,
and Crisolida (which are drawn, but not named), Abalcia, and Tylos. So again,
southward of Paradise, the position and outline of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea,
with the Island Ceylon between them. In short, the whole outline of the world,
including the British Isles and the adjacent portions of Europe, is precisely the
same in the two maps.
The Mediterranean Sea forms, as usual, the most conspicuous object in the
map. The peninsular form of Italy is more developed in this than in the Hereford
map ; but there is the same widening of the sea at its eastern extremity, the same
projecting horms to represent the angles of the Levant, the same elongation of the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Mare Cimmerium), and the same approximation
of it to the Northorn Ocean.
The Nile presents another object of comparison. The author of the Cambridge
map adopts the theory of the Western Nile, which we have already noticed in the
Anglo-Saxon map, and draws it in three sections,—a short one, springing from a
lake (Nilidis Lacus) near the Atlantic ; then a long stretch commencing with a
large lake (Lacus Maarimus), and running parallel to the Southern Ocean to a
second point of submergence (IIic mergilur); and, lastly, the Nile of Egypt, spring-
ing from a fount, Fialus ſons Nili, near the Red Sea, penetrating the Montes Nubiac,
and ſlowing in a S.W. direction to the Mediterranean. The exact correspondence
of the Hereford map in these respects, extending in some cases to the inscriptions,
e.g. “Fialus fons Nili,” is very noteworthy. But there is one feature which is,
as far as we know, strictly peculiar to these two maps, namely, the introduction
of the lake and river of Triton as an aſluent of the middle section of the Nile,
flowing in a S.W. direction from the neighbourhood to which the Arae Philemorum
are transported. There is in this respect a community of error in the two maps,
possibly due to the mistake in reference to the position of the Arae Plulenorum,
which ought to have been placed on the Mediterranean Sea, and which were not so
very far remote from a river of Triton flowing into that sea.
In the delineation of the mountain chain, the author of the Cambridge map
has followed Orosius in drawing a long chain of mountains in the interior of
Africa. These form a conspicuous feature in the Hereford map, and are there
named Euzăree Montes. These are followed, more E, by the Montes Ethiopic,
xxxviii INTRODUCTION.
Mount Atlas (Moms Athlas) is represented by a height near the Atlantic, and
further S. is Mons Hesperus, which formed the promontory Hesperium Cornu, or
Hesperuceras, on the Atlantic coast. We may further advert to the ſollowing
features —The range in the E. of Asia, answering to the Osco and Caucasus of
the Hereford map, the mountain-belt girding Bactria, the position of the Caspiae
Porta, and the line of mountains in Syria, including Lebanon, in all which the
two maps are in accordance.
The rivers of Asia form another peculiar feature. Proceeding eastward from
the Persian Gulf we meet with the Indus, the ITydaspes, the Acesimes, and the
Hypanis, the three last being in reality rivers of the Punjab, which ought to
join the Indus, but which are represented as quite independent of it. Then, on
the other side of Paradise, towards the N., comes the Ganges, ſlowing in a due
easterly direction, and them, in order, the Octogorra, the Acheron, the Oants, ſlow-
ing into the Caspian, and two rivers, not named, on the western side of that sea.
In these respects there is a close correspondence with the Hereford map, as also
in the mode of depicting the Jordan as made up of two streams, named Jor and
Dam; and again in the wonderful blunder of making the Pactolus run into the
Euxine. The Euphrates and Tigris are duly entered, together with a river join-
ing their upper courses, named the Coba, perhaps intended for the Chaboras or
Chebar.
The boundary between Asia and Africa is fixed at a range W. of the Nile,
where we read the inscription Terminus Asie et Aſrice. The range is named
Calabalhmus, which is thus transferred from the coast of Marmarica to the inte-
rior. The range is not named in the Hereford map, but it is represented, and
with a similar inscription, referring to the boundary of the continents. The limit
between Asia and Europe is not specified, and in this omission the Hereford map
is in accordance.
We further draw attention to these additional coincidences : In Asia—Enos, a
town just outside the gate of Paradise ; the Aatre; Montes, already noticed in the
Anglo-Saxon map ; Cotomare Portus, on the Indian Ocean; Mons Sephar, also on
the Indian Ocean, near the Persian Gulf ; the towns Rages, Nisa, Camite
(? Lamitas, as in Hereford map, “principes Persidis ''); Gog et Magog gems im-
munda; gens II/perboreſt, Sime morbo et discordia; Apterophon (the Pterophoron
of Solinus, xv. § 20), followed by an undecipherable inscription, in which the
word “Riſei’’ may be detected, in reference to its position “sub Riphaeis mon-
tibus,” as in the Hereford map ; hic habitant Griffe homimes megwissimi ; Cynoce-
phales, adjacent to the Northern Ocean ; Amazonia; Caspie I’orte; Rinocorura, on
the border of Egypt ; Mons Ardens, in the E. angle of Africa, as in the Anglo-
Saxon map; Montes Wibie, in the course of the Nile, which is represented as pass-
ing through the Porte Vibie, Meroë insula, depicted as a complete island between
1 wo arms of the Nile; Canopus, depicted as an island, and Meme, placed opposite
the mouth of the Nile, as described in Jinago Mundi ; the Trogodile, near the
Middle Nile; the river Lethom, in Cyrenaica, introduced in consequence of the
effects attributed to its waters of producing forgetfulness; Ippome Regius, the see
of St. Augustine; and Septem Montes (as in A. S. map), to which an undue im-
portance was attached by media:val geographers. In Europe—Gallacus and Damus,
tributaries of the Ebro, the former answering to the Gallego, the latter a pecu-
liar name, unknown in ancient geography ; Awa.ond ſº., in the position of the
MEDIAEWAL MAPS. xxxix
Somme, or perhaps of the Schelde, but the name is that of the Aisne, a tributary
of the Seine; Mare Venetum, the upper part of the Adriatic ; Cardia, introduced
on pseudo-etymological grounds, as exhibited in the Hereford map, its site being
shaped like a heart; Retia, Major and Minor, the classical divisions being R.
Prima and Secunda ; Sabarria, S. Martini (i.e. “Sabarria, the birthplace of St.
Martin’’); Dacia et Russia ; Sarmathas, in the position of Bohemia, or perhaps
Hungary; Simus Germanicus, (Baltic Sea); Saa.onia (Saxony); Terminus Dano-
7”/m el Saarovum, in the same position as in the Hereford map; and Noreya,
(Norway).
Islands,--Britannia and Hibernia, drawn, but not named, the latter elongated
towards Spain, in accordance with Orosius's description; the Orcades, also un-
named ; (?) Island (Iceland); Ganzmº, near Norway, a very peculiar name, for
which we cammot account ; in the Hereford map it is placed in Norway itself as a
mountain; Terracomta, Rapharrica, and Abalcia, three islands mentioned in
AEthicus; Tylos, near Paradise; and Tapbama (= Taprobane or Ceylon), near
the Persian Gulf. In the Mediterranean, Canopus and Mene, already noticed,
and Pathmos, placed by itself at the head of the arm of the sea near Syria, as
though to indicate the completeness of the banishment to which St. John was
condemned.
The following objects are pictorially figured ; and here, again, the coincidences
with the Hereford map are striking :—Im Africa, the basilisk, as a bird seated in
the angle between the Triton and the Nile ; Arae Philemorum as three artificial
altars in the interior of Africa, though they were really sandhills on the shore of
the Mediterranean ; the temple of Jupiter Ammon as a building of horse-shoe
form ; the Monasteries of St. Antonine in the Ethiopian desert, near the subsidence
of the middle Nile ; the Pyramids as a barm-like structure, in strict accordance
with their mediaeval designation, “Horrea. Josephi; ” and the pepper forest
(“Silva Piperis”), near the Red Sea. In Asia, the rampart closing the penmsula,
to which Gog and Magog were relegated, consisting of a wall and altars. In
Europe, the church of Santiago in Spam, and commected with it a roughly drawn
Pharos, evidently intended for the Peroma (El Padron) of the Hereford map.
We have a few indications of contemporaneous geography in this map, such as
Roem, as an abbreviated form of Rotomagum (Rouen), Partsiis, and Pictavis, in
France ; in Germany, Saaomia, Saacomes, Frisones, and Magomtia (Maintz), which,
oddly enough, is transported from the Rhine to the Mosclle ; in Scandinavia,
Noreya, , and Pisa in Italy.
The map is described by Santarem in an appendix to vol. iii. pp. 463-49S.
Some of his readings admit of emendation, probably from the circumstance that
he worked from a copy and not from the original. We suggest Tuscia for
“Fosca; ” Brullii, for “ Brucis;” S. Martini, for “Sojaram,” the words to be
attached to Sabarria, which by the way we identify with Martinsberg, rather than
with Stein-am-Anger, Mosella, for “Bassel; ” Crisoroas, for “Emsoruas ; ”
Cotomare, for “Concomare;” Sephar, for “Schig; ” Nisa, for “Usa ;” Camate,
for “Chayrce; ” Deserta, for “Slyota ;” Tedmus (= Cydnus), for “Ternus;”
Antiochia, for “Amia ; ” Ardens, for “Aroemi ; ” hic mergitur, for “hic nigritia;”
Perchemissa (? = Procommesus), for “Polsemilsei ; ” and Ganzmu, for
“Ganimur,”
N.
xl INTRODUCTION.
4. Map of the 12th century, in a M.S. in the British Museum (Add.
No. 11,695), containing a commentary on the Apocalypse.
This map was executed in Spain, and differs in many material points from the
other maps entered on our list. In the printed catalogue of the British Museum
it is stated that it exhibits the ideas of the Arabian geographers. In what
respects it does so we are unable to explaim : the style of illustration and the
general execution of the map are undoubtedly peculiar : but we do not perceive
in the geographical features anything that seems to us distinctively Arabian. The
map is of nearly rectangular form, the angles being rounded oſt: its length from
N. to S. is 18 inches ; and its breadth 15 inches. The east is placed at the
head. Jerusalem is considerably E. of the centre. Taradise, with the ſigures of
Adam and Eve, is drawn on a larger scale than usual. The Mediterraneam is
represented by an upright band, containing islands, and from its upper end an arm
projects at right angles to the northern Ocean, to form a division between Asia and
Europe. A second arm diverges from this, in its mid course, towards the W., thus
forming a kind of Island or pemmsula, in which stand the Inscriptions “Montes
Riſei,” and Golia unde Gotti. The Nile rises near Atlas, and ſlows Im a con-
tinuous stream to the Meditorranean, which it reaches by a sharp curve in its
lower course. The Mare Rubrum is distinguished from the Southern Ocean, and
is represented as a belt lying under the torrid zone, and forming a separation
between our world and that of the Antichthons, on which is Inscribed Desertum
terra vicina soli ab (ºrdore imcognitum mobis.
The map is described by Santarem (ii. 107-126.) The entries of names are
comparatively ſew, and belong almost exclusively to ancient geography. The
names of the mountains are in some cases peculiar, e.g. Moms Aquilo in N.E. Asia;
Mons Sauceramus in eastern Asia ; duo Alpes contrarii Sibi in Western Africa,
whether intended for the Pillars of Hercules, we cannot say : “Alpes" is clearly
used as a generic term for mountains, as in the case of Alpes Galliarum. With
the exception of the Nile, no rivers are entered : we doubt Santarem's reading of
a name in Spain as intended for “Fluvius Italicus : ” it looks more like lawrius.
The names Spania and Olisibona (Lisbon) are noticeable : so also the montion of
the Bosphorani (Bisſoriami), perhaps borrowed from the Ravenna geographer ;
Tantulos (the Isle of Thanet); and the notice of the Phoenix (hic abee ſemia) in
Arabia.
5, 6. Two maps of the middle of the 13th century, in MSS. of the
“Flores Historiarum ” of Matthew Paris; one of them in the
British Museum (MSS. Cotton, Nero, D. v.), the other in the
Library of Corpus Christi Coll., Cambridge.
These two maps are very similar to each other, but not (we believe) absolutely
identical. They are roughly drawn, of quadrangular shape, 14 inches long by 9%
broad, the same size as the leaf of the MS., the edge of which represents the line
of the ocean. The most interesting feature in these maps is the inscription, to
which we have already made reference (p. xviii.), in connection with the shape of
mediaeval maps, and which brings to light the circumstance that there was a map
S.
º
º
:
- *-
º *** - º
ºlº *...ſº -->
-- *** - * I ---
*... ºº
º º,
* * * * º, tº
§º
-
º
|

MEDIAEVAL MAPS. xli
publicly exhibited (as we may suppose) in the King's Exchequer at Westminster.
It further records the existence of three other maps, which have perished, viz. –
the map of Robert of Melkely, the map of Waltham Abbey, and the map of
Matthew Paris. The Latin of the inscription is somewhat obscure, but we hope
we are right in supposing that the map before us is not the one which is referred
to as “in ordine Matthael de Parisio.” The concluding sentences are founded, as
already stated, on a passage in Macrobius. The inscription runs thus :—“Sum-
matum ſacta est dispositio Mappa Mundi Magistri Rob. de Melkelela et Mappa
Mundi de Waltham. Mappa Mundi domini regis quod est in camera sua apud
Westmonasterium figuratur in ordine Matthei de Parislo. Verissimum autem
figuratur in eodem ordine quod est quasi clamus extensa. Talis est scena nostre
partis habitabilis secundum philosophos scillcet quarta pars terre qui est
triangularis ſere : corpus autem terre spericum est.”
In the delineation of physical features, the chief peculiarity is the broad arm
which projects westward from the Euxine Sea, and which seems intended for the
Danube. The Palus Maeotis is singularly represented by two lakes, entitled Meotis
Paludes inferiores, near the Northern Ocean, into which they discharge their
surplus waters by a river. Numerous rivers are entered in Europe, but the only
names that occur are Rodamus (Rhone), Danvubius, assigned to a river flowing into
the Atlantic, and Aple, probably intended for the Albis or Elbe. The various por-
tions of the Mediterranean are named, viz.:-Mare Tyrrhenum ; M. Adriaticwm,
assigned to what we should be disposed to regard as the Ionian Sea; M. Vene-
torum, at the head of the Adriatic; and M. Grecum (the AEgaean).
The maps contain numerous entries that savour of contemporaneous geography,
such as II ungaria Major and Hungaria Minor, Polonia (Poland), Austria, Saavonia,
Bavaria, Theutonia, Thuringia, Alemania, Francia, Flandria, Burgundia,
Brittammia (Britanny), Normannia, Brabantia and Braibe (duplicate entries for
Brabant), IIollandia twice over, Dacia (Denmark), and Suescia (Sweden), together
with the towns Colonia (Cologne), Janua (Genoa), Pisa, Venetia, Bomonio.
(Bologna), and Mediolanum (Milan). Two names in Northern Europe, one of
which, between Braibe and Hollandia, reads like Suen, the other between Bra-
bantia and Suescia, like Iplandia or Splandia, we cannot explaim.
We may further notice Gades IIerculis, written partly in Europe and partly
in Africa—Gades being here used as equivalent to Columnae ; Pontos insula ubi
Ovidius eacul, represented as an island in the Euxine, the true spot of the poet's
exile being Tomi in Moesia ; Arimaspi et Gryphes, in the extreme N., the former
being the one-eyed people commemorated by Herodotus, iv. 27, as contending
with the griſfins for gold ; Colchos, represented as an island in the Euxine ; Path-
mos, in a horn of the Mediterranean ; and Jerapolis (Hierapolis), with the notice
Hic predicavit Philippus Apostolus, that being the reputed place of his later
labours, and of his burial. The map is described by Santarem, 11, 254–272.
7. A map of the 13th century, in a Psalter in the Library of the
British Museum (MS. No. 6806).
This map is remarkable for its artistic execution. From the character of the
handwriting it may be assigned to the latter part of the 13th century. It is of a
circular form, with a diameter of about 3} inches. Its existence does not appear
xlii INTRODUCTION,
|
to have been known to the Continental geographers, as we find no notice of it
either in Santarem's or Jomard's works : for this reason it has been selected as
the frontispiece of tho present essay. The illustrations of the map deserve special
notice. Above the map there is a half figure of our Saviour, with two angels in
the act of incensing him ; below it are two dragons facing each other. On the
reverse of the page the Saviour again appears above the circle, and his feet are
represented below the circle, placed on the necks of the dragons, and crushing
them to the ground. A border surrounds the page, which, in point of design, is
almost identical with that of the Hereford map ; and another very remarkable
point of resomblance in the two maps is the introduction of a belt, of illustrations
in the southern part of Africa, depicting the peculiar races of that region, among
them the two figures of tho men with their cyes in their breasts and in their
shoulders. These figures should be examined by the aid of a magnifying glass.
The ocean is represented as a belt of equal breadth surrounding the earth.
In a concentric band outside the ocean the various winds are introduced ; each
being represented by a head, as in the Hereford map. The titles of the winds, from
Paradise round by the north, are—SubSolamus, Vultur, Aquilo, Septemirio, Circius,
Chorus, Zephyrus, Africamus (Africus), Libonothus, Auster vel Nothius, Euromo-
thus, and (?) Eurus (this last being illegible). The Mediterranean presents the
same general form as in the maps already described, with a considerable cxpansion
on the side of Asia, and the same two horns to represent the eastern projection
between Asia Minor and Egypt. The Euxine is brought, as usual, too close to
the Northern Ocean. The Adriatic is fairly represented. Paradise occupies the
post of honour at the oxtreme cast, and exhibits the peculiarity of five rivers
issuing from it, the author having ontored the Ganges as well as the Pison.
Within the inclosure of Paradise are the portraits of Adam and Eve, separated by
an object, which looks like a stem of a tree, the device on the summit being,
however, not suſliciently distinct to be identified. Call this be intended for the
Arbre Sec, as described in the legend quoted by Col. Yule (Marco Polo, ii. 397):—
“In the midst of Paradise he beheld a glorious fountain, from which ſlowed forth
four rivers . . . . and over the ſountain rose a Great Tree, with vast roots, but,
baro of bark and leaves.” Two belts form somewhat conspicuous objects on the
map, one in Northern Asia, inclosing the region about the Caspian, and probably
designed to signify the district where Gog and Magog wore conſincá ; the other in
Western Africa, which bears the inscription Terra Aremosa, ct sterilis, and is in-
tended for the dosert, which inclosed Mauritania and Numidia on the S.
The mountains and rivers introduced are as follows: In Asia—the Tigris,
which ſlows direct from Paradise to the Indian Ocean ; the Euphrates, which
cnters a chain of mountains W. of Paradise, apparently named M. Orcatotem, and,
cmerging thence, ſlows to the Persian Gulf ; Eral or Etal, a river rising in Armo-
nia, and ſlowing into the Northern Occan, probably intended for the Ethel or Volga;
Montes Riphei, on the border of Europe ; the Jordan, made up of the two branches
Jor and Dam, and ſlowing through the Stammum (= Stagnum) Gennosar (= Gen-
mesareth) Tiberiadis, into the Mare Mortuum j Mons Libanus ; and a river called
Himer, ſlowing into the AEgaean Sea. In Africa—the Nile (Nilus flumen), of
which the Egyptian Scotion alone, with its seven mouths, is given, perhaps be-
cause that part of the map in which its western section lay was occupied by the
illustrations already moticed ; a chain of mountains, the Montes Nible of the
MEDIAEVAL MAPS. xliii
Hereford map, crossing the upper Nile; two islands inclosed in the Nile, Meroe,
and that on which Babylonia was supposed to stand, as in the Hereford map ; and
Mons Atlas, near the Atlantic Ocean. In Europe—Mons Suevus, as in the Here-
ford map, where it stands near the Baltic ; the Danube (Danubius), with several aſlu-
ents ; the Rhine, drawn but not named ; and so also the Don, on the frontier of Asia.
The entries of names which belong more especially to the province of mediaeval
geography are as follows: In Asia—Arbor Solis and Arbor Lunae, the Trees of
the Sun and Moon, outside Paradise, towards the S. [This entry is deserving of
Special notice : the Héroford map notices the Tree of the Sun under the title
“Arbor balsami est arbor sicca,” the latter title being another name for the Tree
of the Sun ; but the Tree of the Moon is unmentioned. The two trees, with the
title Oraculum solis et lune, appear in a map of the 12th century. (Brit. Mus.
Add. MS., No. 10,049.) The trees again appear in the map of Lambertus, but
without the titles (Santarem, ii. p. 189). The larger map of Higden probably
indicates their existence by the inscription “Arbores consertl quibus locutus est
Alexander,” and the same entry occurs in the Borgia map (Santarem iii. 282).
There is an interesting note on this subject by Layard in the appendix to
Santarem's 3d. vol.] Ara: Liberi et colima! (! columnae) Herculis in the
position of the “Arae Alexandri” of the Hereford map, near the Indus, such
altars being attributed both to Bacchus and Alexander (Solin. 49, § 4); Pali-
bothra, a town of India, near Patna ; Albania Superior and Inferior, in N.E. of
Asia (compare the Albanorum Regio of the Anglo-Saxon map), the country being
introduced on account of the supposed origin of the name ; Amazones hºc mament,
in the same quarter; Cyropolis, otherwise called Cyreschata, a town on the Jax-
artes in Sogdiana, famous ſor the siege it sustained from Alexander the Great ; it
is placed near the Caspian Sea ; Theodosiopolis, a town m Armenia, noticed by
Procopius and the Ravenna geographer, but on what account entered in this map
we cannot divine; Moms eacelsus ubi diabolus statuit Dominum, the mountain on
which the devil tempted our Lord ; Puteus Josephi, the well in which Joseph was
placed by his brethren ; Calcidonia (Chalcedon), in Asia Minor ; and Are Alea’-
andri, near the border of Europe.
In Africa—Orrea. Josephi (the Pyramids), below which, and apparently con-
nected with it, is the puzzling Inscription Presult duo mament ; Monasterium
Sancti Petri, St. Peter being here substituted for St. Antonine ; Damiete (Dami-
etta), a town well known in connection with the Crusades; Taphnis, on the west-
ern arm of the Nile, the Vulgate form of Tahpanhes (Jer. xlıu. 7); Oliopolim,
probably Heliopolis ; Polutium (Pelusium); Mathabres, the Natabres of the Here-
ford map ; Zewgis, as in Hereford map, the mame being attributed to a town,
though properly belonging to a province. Islands off Africa—Gorgades, occupied
by Gorgons (Solin. 56, § 10), and (?) Tacoma.
In Europe—Galicia, as a province of Spain ; Equitamia (Aquitania); Nor-
manºvia ; Parisiis ; Achaïa, Constantinopolis : Hungaria ; Sclaveni Occidentales,
a very peculiar entry, the Slaves in question being placed near the Black Sea ;
and Colonia (Cologne). Islands off the coast of Europe—Britannia ; Wallia ;
IIibernia ; Norwegia (Norway), represented as an island; Jpborea (? IIyperborei,
who are always represented as in the extreme N. “beyond the north wind,” but
generally on the continent, and not on an island): In the Mediterranean—Calipso,
transferred from the coast of Italy to that of Palestime.
xliv INTRODUCTION.
The following names need no comment: In Asia—Armenia, IIyrcania, Asia
Minor, Winnis (Nineveh), Turris (Babel), Elam (= Persis) in Palestine, Jerusa-
lem, Torrens Cedron, Bethlehem, Acaron, Azolus, Cesarea, Belheida (? Bethsaida),
Antiochia (in Syria), and Lachis, near the last-mentioned town (? Lachish in
Southern Palestine) In Africa—Ethiopia, Egyptus, Memphis, Alexandria (a
second entry which looks like “p-leasandria,” may be a duplicate of the one
just mentioned, the p. meaning portus), Berenice, Getulia, Garama, the capital
of the Garamantes, Are Philemorum, Cartago, and Mauritamia. In Europe—His-
pania, G. Nerboma (Gallia Narbonensis), Lugdunensis, Roma, Macedonia, Grecia,
placed N. of Macedonia, Larissa, Dalmatia, Sarmatia, north of the Danube, and
Sitia (Scythia).
The following entries we are unable to identify: In Asia—Lazarom, or Jazarom,
to the l, hand of Paradise; Regio Coro in the same quarter; Nisapi, near Arbor
Lunae ; Peliopolis (; Persepolis) on Euphrates ; Corotaim, near the Lake of
Tiberias (in the position of Capernaum); Spartam, in Northern Asia, W. of
Hyrcania. In Africa—Saltabri, on the Nile, opposite to Babylonia. In Europe
—Unizonia (? Aragonia) in Spain; Symaria or Eyngaria (? Sabaria), apparently
on the Drave ; Ruscito, between Mons Suevus and the Black Sea ; Oleis, placed
between two affluents of the Danube ; Ala, a town on a branch of the Rhine ;
Saronia or Lutonia, a town N. of Cologne; a name on a peninsula of the Northern
Ocean, perhaps intended for Dacia (Denmark); Ar-wmi-phor (; Apterophom) am
island off the Amazonian country, in Asia ; and Abairai" (? Abalcia) opposite
Hyrcania.
At the back of the map there is a brief manual of geography, perhaps in-
tended as a key to the map, with the names of the provinces and some of the
towns. The contents of each continent occupy the same space as the continent
itself on the map, the upper half being devoted to Asia. As frequently happens, the
manual does not altogether accord with the map. We find in it, for instance, the
names Wasconia (Gascony), Pictavia, Newstria, Francia, Allemannia, Saaomia,
Gotia, Wadelia (? Vandalla) and Bulgaria, none of which appear in the map.
The name Spartam, which we have 'not been able to identify, is mentioned as a
city of Hyrcania, and the curious name Jazarom, or, as it reads in the manual,
Thazarom, is given as a city of India, together with Sagasta, which is also un-
lºnown to us.
8. Three maps of the 13th century (circ. 1280) in a copy of Brunetto
Lattini, Livre du Tresor, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. (MS.
Douce, No. 319.)
Two of these maps occur in the table of contents, and are small circular sketch-
maps, about two inches in diameter, one illustrating the cardinal points and divi-
sions of the world, with the Inscriptions Oriamt, Septembrion, Occident, Midi,
Aïssé la grant (Asia Major), Europe, and Aufrig , while the other illustrates the
position of tho terrestrial Paradise, which is represented as a quadrangular in-
closure beyond the ocean, on the north side of the world, with the inscriptions
Paradis Terrestre, Septembrion, Oriant, and Occident. The third map is in the
body of the work, circular, with a diameter of 7 inches, with the south at the
MEDIAEVAL MAPS. xly
head of the map. No names are entered on it. The Mediterranean Sea is depicted
With a remarkable degree of accuracy. The execution of the map is very good,
and the colours are very vivid.
9.–16. Maps of the 14th century, in copies of Higden's Polychronicon;
three in the British Museum (Old Royal Library MSS. 14, c. ix.
and xii.); and the others in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh,
and the Libraries of Corpus Christi Coll., Cambridge, Corpus
Christi Coll., Oxford, and Winchester Coll.
One of these maps stands out from the rest in regard both to size and amount
of geographical matter. It is contained in the first MS. above mentioned, and is
of oval form, with diameters of 1 foot 6 inches and 1 foot 1% inch ; it is described
at length by Santarem (iii. 1–60). Of the smaller maps, one is drawn on the back
of this larger one ; it is of oval form, 11 inches by 8% inches, and is also described
by Santarem (iii. 60–81). A second may be found in the other copy of the
Polychronicon (14, c. xii.); this is of an ovoid form, resembling the Vesvca Piscis,
about the same size as the other, and is described by Santarem (iii. 82–94). A
third, belonging to the Advocates' Library, is of oval form, and is somewhat
smaller than the one of similar shape in the British Museum. The examples at
C. C. C., Cambridge, and C. C. C., Oxford, are also oval, and the one at Winchester
College is ovoid.
The larger map resembles the Hereford map in respect to the number of legends
(according to Santarem, ii. Intr. p. llii, they amount to 90), introduced into it;
but the execution of the map is very inferior, and the writing is difficult to read,
at all cvents for a novice at such work. The entries of special interest are those
which refer to the Tartars, in connection with Scythia Inferior and Armenia ; Prester
John as king of the Tartars; Christianity in Abyssinia (gens Arabea, Ethiops);
the Saracens in Spain, and the legend of St. Patrick's Purgatory. A few fresh
names are introduced from contemporaneous geography—Hamaldia (Hainault),
Selandia (Zealand), Prussia, Franconia, Westphalia, and Thuringia. Norway
and Sweden are represented by islands (Norwegia and Suedia), as also Denmark
(Dacia), and, according to Santarem, Jutland, which he identifies with the Wittland
of tho map ; but (?) is not this rather the Witland of King Alfred's Orosius, or if
not Witland (which is placed E. of the Vistula, where Samland now stands),
Weonothland, which Forster identifies with Funen (Voyages in the North, p. 70)
In other respects the geography is as antiquated as ever. The Caspian Sea is
still represented as an arm of the Northern Ocean. The rivers of Paradise still
reappear as the Nile, the Ganges, etc. The Amazons, the one-eyed Cyclopes, and
all the other deformities, are commemorated. Isidore and Solimus still hold their
place as the leading authorities in geography. The inscriptions are for the most
part correctly transcribed by Santarem, but the one with regard to Wales, which
Santarem reads as “Wallia de religione quils Romanorum,” should rather be
Wallia de reliqui's Trojanorum, referring to the legend of Brutus.
The smaller maps contain, generally speaking, the same names as the larger
one, but the legends are omitted. The maps vary very much in character, but there
is a strong family likeness in them. None of them will compare in point of execu-
xlvi INTRODUCTION,
tion with the small “Psalter” map, or with the Cambridge, “Imago Mundi" map.
It is a peculiarity in them that the Mediterranean Sea is thrown considerably to
the S., Africa being thus contracted in width, and Jerusalem being misplaced re-
latively to the Mediterranean, in the endeavour to preserve its centrality. In the
Winchester map the physical features are not delineated at all. In the Edinburgh
map the line of the Mediterranean Sea is but slightly varied ; in the Oxford map,
on the other hand, it is throughout indented with bays. Rivers and mountains
are occasionally named, but their courses are not depicted.
17. A circular map of the 15th century, in a MS. entitled “ Pedi-
gree of the Saxon Kings,” in the Library (Arundel, 53) of the
College of Arms, London.
This map, though small (having a diameter of only about 4} inches), and of
little geographical interest, is peculiar for the large amount of pictorial illustra-
tions on its surface. It is subdivided in the usual manner, by a horizontal band
passing through the centre of the circle, and a perpendicular band dropped from
the centre to the lower curve of the circle. The only names entered are those of
the continents—Asia, Affrica, and Europa, the two last being transposed from
their proper positions. Asia is covered with edifices, situated on eminences rising
one above the other. Africa is represented as a land of forests and wild beasts,
among which we may distinguish stags, lions or tigers, and serpents. Europe
resembles Asia in being covered with buildings on eminences. Some of the
buildings in Asia have an ecclesiastical character, and in Europe there is an edifice
crowned with a dome. Below the map there is a picture of the Tower of Babel.
The above list (it must be observed) does not include other than
complete maps of the world. The list might be enlarged by maps of
separate countries, and again by itineraries; but these hardly come
within the scope of our inquiry. We may mention, however, two
maps, which together are well nigh tantamount to a map of the world,
and which occur in a MS. of the 12th century, being a copy of S.
Hieronymi De Hebraicis Quæstionibus, in the British Museum. (Add.
MS. 10,049.)
ORTHOGRAPHY OF HEREFORD MAP. xlvii
NOTE ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF THE HEREFORD
MAP.
The following deviations from the standard orthography of the
Latin language may be observed in the Latin MSS. of the thirteenth
century:-
c for qu, as cotidie for quotidie.
f for ph, as Fanesii for Phanesii.
y for i, as Ysidorus for Isidorus.
p for b, as optinuit for obtinuit.
ch for h, as michi for mihi.
e for ae, as insule for insulae.
Imp for m, as dampnum for damnuni.
th for t, as Athlas for Atlas.
ngn for gn, as rengnum for regnum.
The letters c and t are formed so exactly alike that it is impossible
to distinguish which is intended.
CHAPTIER I.
General Characteristics of the Hereford Map—Liſe of its Author, Ricardus de
Bello–Date of the Composition—Sources from which the Materials were
drawn—History of the Map—Its Literary History—Its Dimensions, and
the Materials used in drawing it—Description of the Illustrations sur-
rounding the Map—The Four Quarters of the World—The Table of the
Winds—The Inscription “Mors”—The Ocean—The General Arrangement
and chief Divisions of the Map.
THE HEREFORD MAP may be regarded as a pre-eminently
typical specimen of mediaeval cartography, inasmuch as it
combines in itself most of the features which have been
noticed in our prefatory remarks as characteristic of the
maps of that period. In respect of size, indeed, it stands
apart from its class, and is only surpassed by Fra Mauro's
celebrated map, which belongs to the middle of the 15th
century, and which we should be inclined to describe, not as
a true mediaeval map, but as belonging to the period of transi-
tion immediately preceding the grand discoveries of the
Portuguese. In point of execution, in the amount and the
elaborateness of the pictorial illustrations, and in the orna-
mentation of its framework, the Hereford Map far surpassed
anything that had preceded it. So also with regard to the
large amount of material—geographical features, and descrip-
tive legends—with which its surface is wellnigh covered.
We may also note that in all points which constituted the
orthodowy of geography in that age, the author proved him-
self a true son of the Church. The rejection of all that
savoured of scientific geography, the circumscribed area of
the habitable world, the centrality of Jerusalem, the terres-
A.
2 AUTHOR OF THE MAIP.
trial paradise, the orientation, the Servile adherence to anti-
quated geographical treatises, the anachronism of the whole
thing, and the sore lack of all critical and even grammatical
accuracy, these characteristics are displayed to the full in
the Hereford Map. Viewed in a strictly geographical aspect,
as a representation of the World at the time of its execution,
the map would not repay any one for the time spent in its
study. Viewed, on the other hand, as a literary monument,
on which is registered the position of learning towards the
close of the 13th century, the map will be found worthy of
examination.
The author of the map reveals his name in the Norman-
French” inscription at the leſt-hand lower angle of the map.
“ (ſu; ki crgt ºgtoire ont
(But agront out litromt du Utromt
3}rient a 3 begit cm brutt
HBr ºfficipart be #}aſtingham c be £affort cut pitc
35i lat frt t compaşşt
3%t intº cm cel It grit Dome.”
The general purport of these lines is well conveyed in the
following translation by the Rev. G. F. Townsend —
“May all who this faire historie,t
Shall either hear, or read, or sce,
Pray to Jesus Christ in Deity,
* Norman-French was at this period the language of the upper classes in
England. Higden, who died in 1363, complains that they were brought up
to the use of it from their very cradles, and obliged to use it in the schools in
construing Latin (Polychronicom, i. 59). Trevisa, the earliest translator of
the Polychromicon, adds a note, to the eſſect that in his day (1385) the custom
was changed, and that English had taken its place in the schools.
+ “Historie" is hardly an adequate rendering of “estoire,” which refers
rather to the pictorial illustrations, and is more closely represented by “story,”
in its old sense, e.g., “storied windows, ’’
IIFE OF DE BELLO. 3
Tichard of Haldingham and Lafford to pity,
That to him for aye be given
The joy and happiness of heaven.”
Lafford is the old form of Sleaford, a town in Lincolnshire,
and is still retained as the title of a prebendal stall in
Lincoln Cathedral. Haldingham represents the modern Hold-
ingham, a hamlet in the parish of Sleaford. By the aid of
contemporary documents we are enabled to identify the
“Richard de Haldingham e de Lafford ” of the map with one
“Ricardus * de Bello,” who held the prebend of Lafford for
several years previous to 1283. His name Supplies the
only indication (and that not a conclusive one) as to his
birthplace. The editor of Bishop Swinfield's Household Roll
connects the name with Battle, in Sussex (p. 20, note a)—a
derivation which receives a certain amount of confirmation
from the fact that he is designated in the Roll “Ticardus de
la Batayl,” as well as “Ricardus de Bello.” Archdeacon
Trollope, on the other hand, connects the name with Belleau,
a village near Alford in Lincolnshire, deeming his early con-
nection with Lincoln Cathedral to be in favour of this view.
The name “De Bello” is not altogether unknown to mediaeval
archaeologists. There was a famous architect of this name,
John de Bello, contemporary with our cartographer, who
erected five of the twelve crosses which marked the resting-
places of Queen Eleanor's body on its passage from Lincoln-
shire to London (Archaeologia, NNix. 182). The first historical
notice of Richard de Bello represents him as holding the post
of treasurer in Lincoln Cathedral (Harleian MSS., Brit. Mus.,
No. 6954, fo. 30 b). The date of this notice is uncertain,
but probably lies between 1250 and 1260. We find him
still retaining this post, which constituted him one of the
* It was by no means unusual in the 13th century for a person to pass by
more than one mame (Lower, Family Nomenclaturc, p. 34).
v. y
4 LIFE OF DE BELLO.
greater officers of the cathedral, in 1276 (Harleian MSS.
6950, fo. 118; Le Neve Fasti Eccles. Anglic., ii. 88). At
this latter period he was also prebendary of Lafford, and in
that capacity we find him presenting Henricus de Swinderby
to the vicarage of Lafford. The connection between the
parish of Lafford and Lincoln Cathedral was of early date,
the manor having been presented by William the Conqueror
to Remigius, the first Norman bishop of Lincoln. The pre-
bend of Lafford was also probably founded at the same period,
and was endowed with the great tithes of that portion of the
parish in which Holdingham is situated, and which were
exchanged in 1797 for 500 acres of land in the same
quarter. It was for this reason, probably, that the carto-
grapher styles himself as “de Haldingham ”
accorded to him in the contemporary ecclesiastical documents,
where he passes as “de Lafford,” simply. The vicarage of
Lafford was founded at the time when Richard de Bello was
prebendary ; and it was in the capacity of patron that he
presented Henry of Swinderby (Harl. MSS., 6950, fo. 95b ;
Trollope, Sleaford and the Wapenlakes of Flaacwell, etc., pp.
140, 141). Richard de Bello's connection with Lincoln
Cathedral appears to have terminated in 1283, when he
resigned his prebend (Le Neve, ii. 160). In 1289 we find
him in attendance on Bishop Swinfield of Hereford, and
evidently on familiar terms with him. Three notices of him
occur in Swinfield's Household Roll, the first of which records
the present to him of a haunch of venison at Bosbury near
a title nowhere
Ledbury, where the Bishop was then staying, and the other
two refer to payments made by the steward to his garcio or
menial servant (see entries in the Toll for Nov. 17, 1289,
and Dors. § 33, 35, pp. 20, 151, 158, of Camden Society's
edition). His connection with Hereford Cathedral did not
&
t
commence until 1305, when he was appointed to the pre-
DATE OF MAP. 5
bend of Norton (Le Neve, i. 518). In the interval he had
been successively appointed, in 1293, to the rectory of Stoke
Talmage in Oxfordshire (Harl. MSS. 6951, fo. 32), and in
1298 to the prebend of Grantham Australis in Sarum
Cathedral, from which he was collated within a few months
to another prebend in the same church (Harl. MSS. 6951,
ſo. 32, 32b). In 1312 he was promoted to the Arch-
deaconry of Berks, in the diocese of Sarum (Le Neve, ii.
633). In 1313 he was deputed, in conjunction with Adam
de Orleton, to represent Bishop Swinfield at a provincial
council held in the chapter-house of St. Paul's Cathedral,
London (Reg. Swinfield, f. 186b; see Roll, p. 151, Wote).
Nothing further is heard of him, and he probably died shortly
after. Evidently he was an ecclesiastic of considerable note,
and a man who had seen something of Society. It is Sup-
posed that the mounted figure at the right-hand lower corner
of the map is intended for the author himself, as he might
have been seen going out hunting, attended by a forester
fully equipped and holding one or more greyhounds in a
leash. Whether the words “4}agge abant” are addressed
by the rider to the forester, as the attitude of the former
seems to indicate, or whether they had a deeper significance
as a motto, we are unable to decide.
The map was probably drawn before the author resigned
his prebend at Lincoln. The mere circumstance that he
describes himself as “de Haldingham et Lafford ” implies
this. Had he drawn it at Hereford he would surely have
called himself “ de Norton ;” while in the interval between
his resignation of the one and his acceptance of the other
appointment, he would have signed himself as “Richard de
Bello.” The map itself furnishes some presumption in favour
of its having been drawn at Lincoln rather than at Hereford.
Let any one compare the pictorial illustrations of the two
6 IDATE OF MAI’.
places—Lincoln represented by a magnificent edifice, Sur-
mounting by successive stages the elevation on which its
Cathedral stands; Hereford by a meagre and unfinished out-
line—the contrast surely favours the presumption that he
would not have paid so poor a compliment to Hereford if he
had been living there at the time. Whether the notice of
Clee Hill, alone among the mountains of England, carries
any weight in the argument, we must leave to the judgment
of our readers. On the one hand, it may be said that the
fame of Clee Hill would not, in all probability, have reached
Lincoln in those days; on the other hand, it seems almost
inconceivable that a person living at Hereford would have
had the audacity to delineate Clee Hill as a mountain of
such imposing dimensions, and still less as containing the
sources of the Severn and the Dee. Our notion is, that the
mountain was introduced on purely cartographical grounds,
to fill up the interval between the Severn and Dee, and thus
to mark the boundary between England and Wales; having
done this, the author may have added the name subsequently
to his taking up his abode at Hereford. The character of the
handwriting ſurnishes a more reliable indication, and we be-
lieve that we are expressing the opinion of competent judges
when we say that the handwriting betokens the period
before rather than after the year 1300.
In fixing the date of the map at about 1275 we are
aware that we contravene the opinion of a distinguished
French Savant, who has placed it some ſorty years later.
M. D'Avezac, in an essay * devoted to this special point,
relies on historical arguments drawn from certain entries in
the map itself. He points, in the first place, to the inscrip-
tion, “ (Trrminuš jrancic ct 33 urgitmbic,” which, com-
* Sur la Mºppemonde Historiće, cle, , a paper read before the Geographical
Society of Paris in 1861.
DATE OF MAP. 7
mencing near Paris, stretches across the Saône and the Thone
to the line of the Alps, leaving Lugdunum (Lyons) on the left
hand, and Vienna (Vienne) on the right hand, each at Some
distance from the inscription. M. D'Avezac assumes that
the inscription is placed in special reference to these two
towns, and that it is intended to indicate a period when
Lyons had been attached to France, while Vienne still re-
mained outside its limits—thus bringing the date to not
earlier than 1313, and not later than 1349. We regret
that we cannot coincide in this conclusion, for the following
reasons:—(1) The general character of the map does not
favour the idea that its author was closely interested in
current events, or that he intended to give expression to
these on his map. (2) The inscription in question covers
so much ground that it is difficult to define the precise
locality to which it refers ; the probability, however, is, that
it refers to a hill on the course of the Saône, intended, perhaps,
for the Côte d'Or. (3.) But further, Lugdunum is strangely
misplaced in the map, and, if transferred to its right position,
would be on the same side of the inscription as Vienne.
(4.) Lastly, if the design of the cartographer had been as
M. D'Avezac assumes, we should have expected to find the
inscription so arranged as to bring Lyons on the same side
as France, and Vienne on the opposite side; the reverse,
however, is the case.
Having arrived at the period 1313–1349, M. D'Avezac
narrows the limit by a reference to the entry “jlambria,”
which he takes to indicate a political separation of Flanders
from France. Such a separation took place temporarily
between 1313 and 1320, and within these limits he selects
1314, that being the year signalised by the march of the King
of France against the Count of Flanders. The whole force,
however, of this argument turns upon the question, whether
8 AUTHORITIES CITED IN THE MAP,
the entry of Flandria implies political separation. It may
simply be a territorial designation; and when we find other
provincial names entered where no such separation was im-
plied—e.g. Campania (Champagne) and Auernia (Auvergne),
we hesitate to attribute an exceptional significance to
Flandria.
Though ourselves unconvinced by the very ingenious
argument which M. D'Avezac has adduced, we have deemed
it respectful both to himself and to our readers that his view
should be fully stated, together with our reasons for dissent-
ing from it. We are inclined to assign the map to about
the year 1275; and perhaps if M. D'Avezac had been
supplied with the information which is at our command
respecting the life of De Bello, he would have arrived at
the same conclusion.
The authorities whence De Bello drew his materials are
in some cases specified on the document itself. They are as
follows:—
1. Orosius, mentioned in the title of the map, “Descriptio
Orosii de Ormesta Mundi sicut interius ostenditur.”
2. Solinus, cited in the inscriptions referring to the
Ganges, the psittacus, and other objects.
3. Isidore, cited in the description of the monoceros.
4. Marcian Capella, cited in the inscription relating to
the hot region beyond the Snowy belt in Eastern Asia.
5. AEthicus, or Ethnicus, cited in reference to the isle
Sirtinice, in the Indian Ocean.
The above authors have been severally noticed in the
Introduction. Even if no express mention had been made
of them, there would have been no difficulty in identifying
them from the internal evidence of the map. We may
succinctly say that Orosius Supplied the materials as to the
outline of the world, the position of the Ganges, the course
SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 9
of the Nile, and the names of several of the mountain ranges
of Asia and Africa. Solinus supplied the information as to
the mºrabilia—the marvels and monstrosities of the remoter
parts of the world. From Isidore come the etymological
entries, the representation of the terrestrial paradise, and a
considerable amount of geographical matter as regards the
political divisions of Asia and Africa. Capella's influence is
lmore especially noticeable in respect to the islands of the
Mediterranean. AEthicus is the authority (as already noticed)
for the northern regions of the world, as also for the isle
Sirtinice, in the Southern Ocean.
In addition to these, there is internal evidence that the
author of the map applied directly to Pliny for the dimensions
of countries, where such are noticed. This is clear from
several passages, but particularly the one referring to the size
of Gaul, which is derived verbatim from Pliny, iv. 105.
AEthicus, the compiler of the Cosmographia, probably
supplied the information as to the Survey of the world com-
menced by Julius Caesar, and which forms the subject of
the illustration at the left-hand corner of the map.
Lastly, the influence of Antonini Ilinerarium can be
readily detected in regard to the topography of Northern
Africa.
To these eight works we can trace back the bulk of the
contents of the map. We are unable, indeed, to assert that
our cartographer referred in all cases to the Original works.
He may, of course, have borrowed them second-hand from
some of the manuals in vogue at that period. Nor do we
wish to imply that the above were the only original works
on which he relied ; he drew the legend as to the seven
sleepers from Paulus Diacomus, De Gestis Langobardorum ;
the description of Constantinople (apparently) from William
of Malmesbury, De Gestis Regum ; and various topics from
10 HISTORY OF MAP.
the Alexandrian Romance. He further made use, no
doubt, of previously existing maps. The remarkable coin-
cidences between his map and the “Imago Mundi” map
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, have been already
noticed in the Introduction. The coincidences with the
“Psalter” map are also noteworthy, though they refer not
so much to the contents as to the ornamentation of the
work. Lastly, we may assume that he had at hand a
Bestiarium and a Herbarium, whence to obtain the materials
for the Natural History.
The early history of the map is not known. It may be
assumed that its author brought it with him from Lincoln
about 1289, and either presented it during his lifetime, or
bequeathed it, to the Cathedral Church of Hereford. It is
supposed to have served at one time as an altar-piece in one
of the chapels, and at another time to have been suspended
in the south choir aisle near Bishop Mayow's monument,
where some old iron clasps seem suited to receive it. There
is also a tradition that during the Civil Wars it was secreted
under the wooden floor of Bishop Audley’s chantry. There
is no improbability in any of these statements, and the last
receives some confirmation from the construction of the floor
of the chantry, which was removed in 1860, and which
seemed to offer facilities for the Secretion of articles. The
earliest historical notice of the map with which we are
acquainted is by the herald Thomas Dingley, who (circ.
1682) records that he saw the map in the library : “Among
other curiosities in this library are a map of ye world drawn
on vellum by a monk.” (Dingley, Camd. Soc., p. clx.) From
the library it was removed in 1830 to the Treasury
Room, and thence, in 1863, to its old position near Bishop
Mayow's monument in the South choir aisle, where it may
now be seen. Considering its age, and the neglect with which
LITERARY HISTORY. 11
it has been treated in past centuries, it is wonderful that the
map should be in So good a state of preservation. The only
wilful damage done to it consists of a series of scratches over
the edifice which represents Paris, and which might have
been perpetrated by some over-patriotic Briton at a time
when feeling ran high against France. The removal of the
“two doors with guilded and painted letters and figures,”
which Dingley notices, occurred in comparatively modern
times, but under what circumstances is not known. These
doors are depicted in the title-page of Carter's Ancient
Architecture (1795); portions of the old hinges still remain.
In 1855 the map was sent up to the British Museum,
where it was most carefully cleaned and repaired under the
immediate superintendence of the late Sir F. Madden, Keeper
of the MSS. Since that period it has been treated with the
most reverential care. A sheet of plate-glass was placed over
it in 1863, and new folding-doors in 1868; nor has it sus-
tained the least damage from the frequent examinations it has
undergone in connection with the present undertaking.
The last topic of a preliminary character on which we
have to touch, is the literary history of the map. We shall
presently detail what has been done in our own country.
Meanwhile, let it suffice to say that down to the present
time no attempt has been made in this country either to
reproduce the entire map, or to give an adequate description
of its contents. It is with a feeling of deep humiliation
that we have to acknowledge ourselves forestalled in both
these departments by foreign geographers. The map itself
has been reproduced in its full dimensions by Jomard in his
magnificent mediaeval atlas (Monumens de la Géographie.
Paris, 1855); and a tolerably complete description of it is
given in the second volume of Santarem's Cosmographie et
Cartographie du Moyen-Age, pp. 288-434; Paris, 1850.
12 LITERARY HISTORY.
Valuable as these works are, they are not altogether satis-
factory. We believe that both Jomard and Santarem
laboured under the disadvantage of never having seen the
map itself. They worked from the copy made for the
Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris, which was itself not taken
directly from the map, but from the copy made for the London
Geographical Society. These copies are confessedly im-
perfect, and the imperfections affect the published works.
To this we must add that Jomard's fac-simile is broken up
into six sheets, so that it cannot be seen as a whole; that it
is not coloured; and, lastly, that his atlas is so bulky and
expensive as to be inaccessible to the majority of our readers.
Santarem's work is of great value as a general manual of
mediaeval cartography; but he frequently fails in his ex-
position of geographical details, apparently because he lacked
either the time or the patience for the needful research.
Nor does he appear to have always succeeded in identifying
the Sources whence the cartographers drew their materials.
To a certain extent the present commentary labours under
the same defects; but, at all events, we trust that we have
made a step in advance of our predecessors. Next to San-
tarem we must mention another continental Savant, Lelewel,
as having given a general description of the map and its
contents in his Géographie du Moyen Age, 4 vols., Brussels,
1852 (vol. iv. pp. 141, 161); this, however, is so meagre
as to require no further notice. M. D'Avezac's essay on the
date of the map has been already fully discussed (pp. 6-8).
We may complete our list of continental comments by
stating, on the authority of Santarem, ii. 295, that Laborde
gives a fac-simile of that portion of the map which contains
Palestine and Arabia in his Eaa'men Géographique de l'Eaode,
1841; and that Hommaire de Helle has a notice of the
map in his Steppes de la Mer Caspienſive, iii. 352, 1844. In
SIZE OF MAP. 13
our own country we have to notice (1) the description of the
British Isles, with a copy of that portion of the map which
relates to them, in Gough's British Topography, 1780; (2)
a fac-simile of the same portion of the map drawn by Mr. B.
Tucker, and accompanied with twelve pages of letterpress by
Mr. Saxe Bannister, dealing with the general subject of
mediaeval geography, the whole being entitled Brief Descrip-
tion of the Hereford Map, 1849; (3) an essay by Mr. T.
Wright (No. XIII. of his Essays on Archaeological Subjects,
1861), also dealing rather with the general subject of
mediaeval geography than with the Hereford Map in par-
ticular, though some description of it is given in pp. 15-17;
and, lastly, a more complete and particular account than any
of the above, by Mr. Havergal in his Fasti Herefordenses,
pp. 160-170. The copy of the map in the possession of
the Geographical Society was made in 1831 by Mr. T.
Ballard. A complete photograph was made in 1869, but
many portions of this are very indistinct.
The map is drawn on a remarkably fine sheet of vellum,
65 inches by 53, which must originally have been some-
what larger, inasmuch as its edges have evidently been
pared. The material is still in a thoroughly sound con-
dition, the chief defect being a series of Small holes in a line
at the base of the upper compartment, which probably arose
from the map having been at some period folded up at that
point. The vellum is stretched over a framework of oak,
square at the bottom and pointed at the top, the angle being
surmounted by a bold crocketed canopy, terminating in a large
finial, all carved in wood. The total height of the frame-
work is 8 feet, and its width 64 inches, the map itself
forming a circle with a diameter of 52 inches.
The materials used in drawing the map were — (1) A
deeply black ink for the outlines and the bulk of the inscrip-
14 INSCRIPTION ROUND THE MAD.
tions. (2) Vermilion colour for the capitals and Some of
the more important names. (3) Gold-leaſ for Some of the
largest letters. (4.) A deep mineral blue for the rivers.
(5.) And a vegetable colour, probably green, for the Seas,
and many of the lakes and fountains. This last has been
converted by age into a dark brown. The vermilion has
also occasionally disappeared.
An ornamental border ſollows the line of the ſramework,
the lower part consisting of a Zig-Zag pattern (similar to that
of the “Psalter’ Map), with a device of a floral character in
the interstices, and Star-shaped flowers at the angles; while
the upper part or pointed Summit represents the interlacing
tendrils of a vine or Some such plant.
Immediately inside the edging comes an inscription which
records the names of the commissioners—Theodotus, Xeno-
doxus, and Polyclitus—appointed by Julius Caesar (according
to the statement in the introductory part of the Cosmographia
of AEthicus) to survey the Roman world. The inscription
runs thus:– “%l 3, ulig (Trgart orbig trurarum mirtiri
crpit. § 32icoboxſ onutíš Uricn5 trimensus rst, 3.
(ſcubato 3rptcuttium ct Occitrng himcm3u8 est, 3.
1}oliclito merittama parg Dimensus rºt.” In the
received text of AEthicus no mention is made of the west, ;
but some of the MSS. assign this quarter to a ſourth com-
missioner, named Didymus. In the above inscription it
will be observed that this quarter is assigned to Theodotus, in
addition to the north. There is in reality no foundation what-
ever for the statement that Caesar underlook such a survey at
all. It should rather have been attributed to the Emperor
Augustus, who ordered such a survey in connection with the
census referred to in Luke ii. 1 (Tacit. Amºl. i. 11; Cassiodor.
War. iii. 52). Some of the results of this survey have pro-
bably been preserved to us in the numerous quotations which
ILLUSTRATIONS ROUND MAIP. 15
Pliny makes from the Commentaries of Vipsanius Agrippa.
Our cartographer having followed the Cosmographia in the
above inscription, combines, apparently without the Smallest
perception of any inconsistency, the more correct version
which attributes the work to Augustus, and which he proba-
bly found in Isidore (Orig. v. 36, § 4); he accordingly gives
a pictorial representation of the Emperor seated on his throne
and crowned with a tiara, delivering his written orders to the
three commissioners, whose names and portraits are duly
given —“Hitt in Grürm unincrgum ct be omni rjuğ
continentia refertt at 3rmatum, ct at igtamt confire
mambam butt Scriptſ, 5tgillum meum appūšut ’’-the
seal, in the form of a vesica, being duly represented, with
the inscription, “ —- $. §ugusti (Trgaris imperatoris,”
surrounding a central device of a hand holding a branch.
In support of this the words of St. Luke are quoted from the
Vulgate —“3.ucaş in cºbangriiſ . (Exitt cuirtum at
@ugusto (Trgart ut begtrürrrtur bunturrsus orbis.”
The figures and inscriptions just noticed occupy the
“spandril’ on the left-hand side of the map, where also is
ſound the Norman-French inscription already quoted (p. 2).
The corresponding spandril on the right-hand side is occupied
by the figures of a horseman and forester, which have also
been noticed (p. 5), together with the title of the map,
which runs thus:–
“HDrScriptio (BrUsit be Ormrsta [Ormesta] mumbi
5tcut interiuš 0.3trmuttur.”
The lower spandrils being thus occupied, the irregularly-
shaped space above the map is filled up with an elaborate
representation of the great Day of Judgment. In the centre
appears the figure of our Saviour, surrounded by the clouds
of glory, displaying the Stigmata on his uplifted hands, and
16 ILLUSTRATIONS ROUND MAP.
exclaiming, “ (ºccº tººtintſmittm mctim.” Angels adore
him amid the clouds, and at a lower level stand a pair drawn
on a larger scale, as though in the foreground, one holding
the crown of thorns, the other the nails. At his feet is a
group of four figures, the most prominent being the Virgin
Mary, who exposes her breasts, and exclaims to her son—
“Frici úcu ft3 mont pi; tıtutim; Ia qurlt chart preisteg :
(5 leg mamclfiträ NDnt Irit Dr Eirgin qucigtes;
(Buc; merci út tou: ší com ung memrå brigteg:
#e mot ſmt Scrui ſtant $aubert%3E me frigteg.”
In the forms of modern French this would run nearly
thus:–
“Voici, beau fils, mon pis dedans laquelle chair prites;
Et les mamelles dont lait de Virgin querites;
Ayez merci de tous, si comme vous même dàles,
Qui moi ont servi, quand Sauveresse me fites.”
The general sense of these lines is conveyed in the
following free translation, given in the Gentleman's Magazine,
No. Coxiv. 1863 :—
“Regard, my son, the ſlesh of which thou’rt made ;
Behold the breasts on which thou once wast laid :
On all who worship us pray pity take,
Who me revere, who me their Saviouress take.”
Behind the Virgin is a kneeling figure of a woman hold-
ing up a crown, apparently waiting the command to place
it on the Virgin's head. Two angels aid in the Virgin's
supplication.
On the right hand of the Saviour an angel proclaims
through a trumpet the invitation to the blessed :—
“3.cbe: = 3i bemure; a jute parturable.”
“Arise, and come to overlasting iov.”
2 8-) J y
QUARTERS OF THE WORLD. 17
which is responded to by a group of joyful saints, some
rising with alacrity from their graves, others, already risen,
advancing with Crowns on their heads; an angel grasps the
leader by the hand and aids him in the ascent. On the left
hand of the judge are the lost, on whom the sentence of
eternal punishment is passed by the mouth of an angel,
through a trumpet as before —
“3.cbc} = 3i allr; in – fu be emfer £5table.”
“Rise and depart to hell-fire prepared” [? “estable” =“6tabli”].
An avenging angel, with drawn sword, executes this sentence,
and demons drag away the victims to the jaws of hell, here
represented by the head of a fierce monster.
The letters ſā () iſ $ are disposed round the world at
its four angles, and are attached to the rim of the map by
figures which seem intended to represent loop-shaped liga-
tures. The design of the author was, no doubt, to impress
the mind of the beholder with a becoming sense of the
transitoriness of all the grand and interesting objects which
he has delineated—much in the spirit of the well-known
lines:–
“The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself;
Yea, all which it inherits, shall dissolve,
And
Leave not a rack behind.”
Two concentric bands or circles surround the planisphere,
the outer one containing the division into the four quarters
(Climata Mundi, Isid. Etym., xiii. 1), E., W., N., and S.;
and the inner one a table of the winds. The names of the
four quarters are inscribed in their proper positions —
(Bricm3, (Brtibrms, $rptcutrin, and ſiltribin. East and
l3
18 TABLE OF THE WINDS.
West—the two “gates of the sun,” as they were termed
(Isid. l.c.; AEthicus, i. 18)—are placed at Paradise and the
Strait of Gibraltar respectively. North and south, to which
alone the term “cardines” was assigned, as being the ends of
the axis on which the earth revolves (Isid. l.c.), are not
defined by any special objects; and this is worthy of remark,
inasmuch as the islands which are identified with the points
by AEthicus (i. 19, 21), namely, Rifarrica in the N. and
Syrtinice in the S., are introduced into the map at some
distance off from the cardinal points.
The Table of the Winds contains the twelve-ſold division
introduced by Timosthenes, the admiral of Ptolemy Phila-
delphus (B.C. 285-247), and subsequently adopted by the
Greeks and Romans, and by mediaeval geographers, who in
this matter were probably guided by the authority of Isidore.
The position and character of the several winds, together
with occasional explanations of their names, are given in the
legends which we append below. These are chiefly compiled
from the works of Isidore, the explanations of names being
taken from his Orig. xiii. 11, and the characters of the
winds from his treatise De Watura Rerum, § 37. The deri-
vations of the names Eurus and Vulturnus, and the descrip-
tion of Euro-nothus, come from some other quarter, which
we have been unable to identify. Isidore distinguished
four cardinal winds, Septentrio, Subsolanus, Notus, and
Favonius. The other eight are distributed as subordinate
winds among the four quadrants, just as in the map. The
four cardinal winds are personified by grotesque squatting
figures, and the subordinate winds by the heads of animals.
Perhaps we shall best represent the ideas of our cartographer
if we follow the order observed in the De Natura. Rerum,
grouping the winds as follows:–
TABLE OF THE WINDS. 19
I. SEPTENTRIO.
1. $ºptentrig a 3rptcm 3tellig momen accepit, qui
frigibus ct 3ictug cºt et facit arita frigora et
3iccat muſicò,
2. (Circius, qui ct (Iſraceag [Thrascias], facit muſic;
rt grantinum coagulationſ [coagulationes] bittuš
rt (Circiuš to quot in circulo jungitur cum
(Tijuro.
3. 3ſquilo, qui et 330reag birttur, gºlfbug ct girtuğ :
tion bißcutit muſicg, get [sed] aquaš Ātringit.
II, ORIENS.
1. $1tügolanuş, bentug (Bcciùrmti contrariuš : $ut-
3Glamug pictug ſuia gut 30lt dritut ; qui tt
@ppolítež [Apeliotes] utritur : qui ttmporalſ;
pluding latiş5imag facit.
2. CúIturmus [Vulturnus], qui tt (ſaltas [Caecias]
bicitur biggglutt cuncta atque urgittat : bictuš
ČíIturnus" quia flang in alto jailrt potrº-
tatem quasi ÖItur IVultur].
3. (gurus contrarius (Tijord : a sinistro Bolanšf turn
bictuš (Euruş to quo ſquod] morbo afficiati
bomints mergentſ in mortrm ct cytramant
[extremum] drichtent multituš irrigan.5,
III. MERIDIES.
1. §ušter contrariuš Šrptrmtriomi ; boratus at
bauricitnić aguig quarunt profusionſ trrram
* Isidore's explanation of the name Vulturnus is “quod alte tomat” (Orig.
xiii. 11, § 5).
+ () “flans; ” the reading in Isidore is “veniens.”
# Isidore's explanation is “quod ab coo ſlat.”
20 TABLE OF THE WINDS.
mumbat ; qui cat callibuſ, ct humibit?, fulmi-
meug, gentrang muſic; et plubtag : ct 30lbit
floreş.
2. (Burug-ſºutbug” flat a brxtrig @ugtri : callituğ
mimig, ct aqua [aquam] rv marmore fluºre facit
rt irrigat aquig omnia ct biggūlūit : contrariuſ;
(Tircin + bittuš motijuš to quot facit amictuš.t
3. §ugter-Øſtricuş, contrariuš Āquilomí, pictug ºt
%lugter-3 frituſ quot per §ffricant currit.
TV. OCCIDENS.
1. jubomiug bictug cºt to quot germina foſſcat ct
at maturitatem perturat : bit ct ºrphirug :
rigore [rigorem] birmić relaxat ; flore; pro-
bucit,
2. Africuş, qui et 3Liggiº [Lips] bititur ; memºrang
tempestate5 ct pluniaš latişāimaš facit 30mitug
tomitrutum et fulgurum miguà [add, “et fulminum”]
impulguš.
3. (Tijørug qui et àgreštíð (Argestesſ] ; flang in
oriente, mutilošuš, in ºffmbia geremuş into
bictuğ (Tijdrug egt quot omnium bentorum
§pirituáš comtſubat.
The ocean is depicted as surrounding the known world
5 y
* This wind is more usually called “Euroauster.” The name “Euromotus.”
appears as a v. l. in Isidore Nat. Rer.
+ “Amictus” was probably suggested by “humectus,” which appears in the
explanation which Aulus Gellius, ii. 22, gives of the Greek name vöros.
# The form “Agrestis " is reprobated by Isidore (Orig. xiii. 11, § 10) as a
vulgar error. It is, nevertheless, the received reading in the De Nat. Rer.
§ The reading in the Orig. is “circulum.” The explanation turns wholly
on the order in which the names occur—Chorus coming last in Isidore's de-
scription. This order is, of course, purely arbitrary; neither Pliny ii. 119,
120, nor Aulus Gellius, ii. 22, observe the same order.
THE OCEAN. 21
on all sides. It can hardly be assumed that our cartographer
intended to represent the true form or full dimensions of the
ocean. He may well have believed, as the majority of medi-
aeval cosmographers did, that it stretched far away to the
South, and formed an impassable barrier between the known
World and the uninhabited lands of other quarters of the
globe. But it was sufficient for his purpose to describe it
as a band of undefined width, girdling the earth-island on all
sides. The southern half of the ocean, from the Strait of
Gibraltar to the Terrestrial Paradise, has a fairly equable
breadth, the only interruption in the course of its outline
being the Arabian Sea, with its two well-known gulfs, the Red
Sea and the Persian Gulf, which are represented as forming
two forks very similar to those at the head of the Red Sea.
The Sea and its two gulfs are coloured red, in accordance with
the name (Erythraeum or Rubrum Mare) assigned to it in
ancient geography, and of which the two gulfs were consi-
dered as parts (Solin, 33, § 1 : 54, § 12). The names of
these seas are not inserted in the map. The isle of Tapro-
bane (Ceylon) forms a prominent object in this part of the
map. The northern moiety of the ocean is for the most part
of irregular outline. The section adjacent to Spain forms an
exception to this description, as it curves equally round from
the Strait of Gibraltar to the Šimus àquitanicus (Bay
of Biscay). Thence it protrudes considerably inland, so as
to allow room for the British Isles. The English Channel
and North Sea form a continuous line, and are unduly con-
tracted in point of width. An inlet between the rivers Ems
and Weser may possibly represent the Gulf of Dollart, which
was formed by an irruption of the sea in 1277. The $imit5
(5crmanicuş (Baltic Sea) follows, but without any attempt
to delineate its distinctive form ; then the Scandinavian
peninsula, divided into two portions by a projecting arm of
22 AIRRANGEMENT OF MAP.
the sea. Immediately to the eastward of this is another
peninsula occupied by the fabulous Cincocephales, and pro-
bably intended for a part of Russia. The northern coast of
Asia, which commences at this point, is drawn in accordance
with the peculiar views of mediaeval geographers. The
Caspian, ſºlate (Tü3pium, may be noticed as projecting in
a southerly direction from the Northern Ocean, and terminat-
ing in an easterly elongation, somewhat resembling a shoe.
Immediately eastward of it is the large peninsula in which
Alexander the Great was supposed to have shut up Gog and
Magog. Westward, between the Caspian and Scandinavia,
is a considerable peninsula, which is assigned as the abode
of the happy Hyperboreans. About midway between the
Caspian and Paradise the two promontories named Boreum
and Samara form the portals of a gulf of considerable size,
which has no representative in true geography. At the
extreme east the coast-line projects westward, so as to allow
room for the Terrestrial Paradise, which is here represented
as an island.
The general arrangement of the map is in accordance
with the accepted tenets of mediaeval geography. Jerusalem
forms the centre of the circle. The east is placed at the head,
the Terrestrial Paradise occupying the place of honour at the
“jamua. Solis.” The Strait of Gibraltar forms the correspond-
ing point in the west. The Mediterranean Sea, ſīlāre
{{lcutterramettm, stretches hence half-way up the map, and
at its upper end has a long northerly extension, which includes
the whole series of semi-inclosed seas between the main body
of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea—namely, the
AEgean, the Hellespont, the Propontis, and the Bosporus.
The easterly extension of the Mediterranean (the Levant) is
represented by two tapering arms or horns, between which
lie Syria and Palestine. The Mediterranean at its upper
IDIVISIONS OF THE WORLD. 23
extremity divides the world into moieties, and sub-divides
the lower moiety into unequal halves. We thus obtain a
natural division for the three continents—Asia occupying
the upper halſ, Europe and Africa the lower half, to the
left and right hand of the Mediterranean respectively. The
name 35ta is duly inscribed on its division, but (Europa
and Øſtfrica have been transposed, probably through care-
lessness, but possibly to convey the notion occasionally
expressed, that Aſrica was not a separate continent, but a
sub-division of Europe. (Oros. i. 2; Isid. Orig. xiv. 2, § 3;
Higden, i. 50.) At all events, our cartographer perfectly
well knew the true position of the two continents. At the
Strait of Gibraltar he has placed the inscriptions (ſerminuſ;
(Europe and (Terminuš Āſtrict in their right positions,
and he has marked the boundary between Africa and
Asia, (Terminuš Āšur ct @ſtrict, in the place usually
assigned to it in mediaeval geography—namely, to the
westward of Egypt, which was included in Asia. Certain
objects are introduced into the map for the express purpose
of defining the boundary between these two continents. The
chain of mountains which lies adjacent to the inscription
above given is no doubt intended for Catabathmus, inasmuch
as it is so named in the “Imago Mundi” map ; it is, of
course, grievously misplaced, inasmuch as its proper position
is on the coast of the Mediterranean. Orosius (i. 2) describes
the boundary as starting from Paraetonium, on the borders of
Egypt and Alexandria (“a finibus AEgypti urbisque Alexandriae
ubi Parethonium civitas sità est”), and then passing through
Catabathmos (“per loca quæ Catabathmon vocalit’); and this
confused statement goes far to justify the error of the map.
Orosius further specifies two boundary marks, both of which
are entered in the map, viz.: (Castră îltramuri ſãagni,
and 3Laruš (Talcarguș profumiliššimtuš. These objects
\
24 BOUNDARY OF EUROPE.
must be placed between Paractonium and Ammonium. From
Lake Calearsus the boundary-line was continued south to
the Ocean. The boundary between Europe and Asia is not
specified; probably because the name of the Don (Tanais),
which was deemed the boundary in ancient times, has been
Omitted, the cartographer having apparently misunderstood
the language of Orosius (i. 2), who says of the Tanais,
“Maeotides auget paludes,” and having assigned to the river
the name jubius ſºlcottbeg, with the addition of 43al-
1t-leg, in the lower course of the river. The “Arae Alex-
andri,” which are entered in the map somewhat E. of the
Fluvius Meotides, are associated by Orosius (l. c.) with the
course of the Tanais, and with the boundary. Following
the Order which mediaeval geographers adopted in their
descriptions of the world, we commence with the continent
of Asia.
CHAPTER II.
ASIA.
Boundaries—Terrestrial Paradise—The Dry Tree—India—Golden Mountains
—Pigmies—Avalerion par in Mwndo—Palimbothra—Mons Malleus—
Taprobane and the Islands of the Indian Ocean—Gangines—Monoculi—
Ganges—Tile—Mons Timavus—Animals attributed to India.
THE boundaries of Asia have been already sufficiently defined
in the preceding chapter; we shall therefore proceed at once
to a description of the various objects presented to our view
on that continent. The Terrestrial Paradise occupies, as was
usual in mediaeval maps, a conspicuous position at the head
of the map, or, in other words, at the extreme easterly point
of the habitable world. The views entertained on this sub-
ject in the middle ages have been noticed in the Introduction,
§ 9. In the Hereford map Paradise is represented as an
island of circular form, surrounded by a strong and lofty
wall, from the top of which flames burst forth (Isid. xiv. 3,
3). Within it are the four rivers, (Eufrateg, Øſtgrig,
3.3bigom, and (ſtom ; figures of Adam and Eve in the act
of eating the forbidden fruit; and a tower representing the
gates of the garden, 33arabiši porte. Immediately below
are figures, with the legend (Expulgin ºur ct (ºba; and
above them a tree with two branches, artidr halgami i
(i. e.) artiſt 3icca, This legend seems to be compounded
of more than one story.
1. With the metrical romance of Alexander, or at least
with the tradition on which it was founded, our author was
26 ASIA.
brobably acquainted. In this Alexander is represented as
Visiting a forest in India, in which grew trees of wondrous
size (cf. Virg, Georg. ii. 123), distilling balsam. I’arther on
was a mystic tree, which bore neither leaves nor ſhºwil, whereon
sat the Phoenix. Farther on still he meets with the trees of
the sun and moon, from one of which, as ſrom an oracle, he
learned his own destiny.
2. Marco Polo, in his travels of the 13th century, men-
tions a plain in Persia (near enough to India for legendary
purposes), in which grew the Tree of the Sun, Arbre Sol,
which “we Christians,” he says, “call the dry tree, Arbre Sec.”
3. Sir John Mandeville, in the 14th century, mentions
as iſ he had seen, though this is of little consequence, the
famous Oak, or rather terebinth, near Mamre, which is men-
tioned by Eusebius, and which S. Jerome says that he had
seen ; “the whiche,” says Mandeville, “men clepen the drye
Th’ee. And thei Saye that it hath been there sithe the be-
ginninge of the world, and was Sumtyme grene, and bare
leves, unto the tyme that oure Lord dyede on the cros, and
thanne it dryede, and so dyden alle the Trees that weren
thanne in the worlde.”
4. The Peutinger Table names a point in India where
“Alexander Tesponsum accepit usquequo Alexander.”
5. To these statements may be added the passage in
Ezek. XVii. 24, as suggesting the notion, however erroneous
in its development, of a perennial dry tree; perhaps also the
lmention by Josephus of balsalm trees at Engedi, near the
Dead Sea; and lastly, the Christian legend, that the wood of
the dry tree supplied the material ſor our Saviour's cross; “so
that,” to use the words of the Golden Legend, “the cross by
which we are saved came of the tree by which we were
damned,”—a legend to which is probably due the name of a
street in T’aris, Rue de l'Arbre Sec, not far from the Sainte
ASIA. 27
Chapelle, in which the wood of the true Cross was deposited
by King Louis IX., its founder.
Now, although our author could not have been acquainted
with Marco Polo’s explorations, and as he was prior in date
to Sir John Mandeville, the foregoing data will enable us
to understand something of the process of confusion by
which (a) the dry tree finds its place near Paradise, (b) on
the confines of India, (c) how it obtained its double name
and bifurcated form of arbor balsami and arbor Sicca. (Yule,
Marco Polo, i. 126; Weber, Metr. Rom. i.; Morley, Eng. Writers,
p. 681; Dunlop, Hist. of Fiction, ii. 111 ; Mandeville, p.
68, ed. Halliwell; Bordeaux Pilgrim, p. 282; Hieron. de Situ
et Wom. vol. ii. pp. 862, 890; Euseb. Vit. Comst. iii. 51;
Demonstr. Evang. v. 9, 7 ; Isid. xiv. 3, 2, xvii. 7, 38; Spruner,
Atlas, I’l. 28 ; Early Trav. pp. 7, 45; Golden Legend, by
Caxton, pp. 5, 67.)
The word Hºmbia, in gold letters, runs across the map
from N.E. to S.E. On the left (N) side, below Paradise, is
(Enog cipitag antiquigginta (Gen. iv. 17); on the right the
giants, (5iganteg (Gen. vi. 4). Below them comes jubius
uppamig, the HYPIIASIS, sometimes called HYPANIS, Sutledge
(Dionys. I’er. 1155; Solinus, 52, 7; Strabo, xv. 697, 698);
and parallel with it ſlithiuš pagma, a branch of the same
river, which runs in a N.E. direction, but whose name,
though inviting more than one etymology, affords no trust-
worthy clue to its identity. Above the Hypanis is pro-
munctoriumt aligartamtama, PROMONTORIUM CALIGARDAMNA,
which Orosius mentions as near the mouth of the Ganges,
and at the N.E. of the island Taprobane. It may per-
haps represent the promontory Calligicum of Ptolemy, but
is vastly out of its proper place. (Oros. i. 2; Tºtol. vii. 1,
11.) Then comes (Totomate portus, COTTONARA of Pliny
and Solinus, Colţiara of Ptolemy, now probably Cochin (Plin.
India.
28 ASIA.
India.
vi. 105; Sol. 54, 8; Ptol. vii. 1, 9; Dict, of Geoff. i. 698);
and portuğ pataluś, ifamil 3piraticig 5tclerituğ (portus
Tatalus inſamis piraticis sceleribus). This is clearly PATALE
of Pliny, PATALENE of Mela and Ptolemy, the triangular
district between Cutch and Kurrachee, credited by our author
with the ill ſame of pirates, whom Pliny and Solinus locate
at Zimaris, mentioned below. (Plin. vi. 184; Mela, iii. 7;
Solin. 54, 8; Ptol. vii. 1, 55, 59.)
Beyond PATALUs is the figure of an elephant with a
castle on his back, and adjoining it the legend ºnly in mittit
ettamt elephante; maximO3, quorum Nemteg chur egge
creditur, quitută întei (Indi) turribug impugitis in
tellig utumtur, which seems to be founded on Isidore.
(Plin. viii. 27; Isid. xii. 2, 14, 15.)
Returning to the joint mouth of the rivers #gpanis and
13āāma, we find a range of gilded mountains, surmounted by
two dragons, and the Words monttä attredg a Dracontfüug
cuštúbit (custoditos), founded, as it seems, on the words of
AEthicus, but derived from very early tradition. (Herod. iii.
116; ARsch. Prom. v. 806; Pl. vii. 10; Hieron. Ep. 125,
3; AEthic. 105.) Below them are the pigmei cubitalºg
honting; (Isid. xi. 3, 26), who stand upon monteg jmbic
(Indiae), according to the descriptions of Pliny and Solinus.
(Plin. vi. 70; Sol. 52, 15.)
Following the PASMA, we meet with 32itrag and 36tterfala,
NICEA and BUCEPHALA, two towns founded by Alexander near
the river Hydaspes, and beyond them Ørce #Iryanuri,
denoting the twelve altars set up by him to mark the ter-
mination of his expedition, and the commencement of his
unwilling return. (Arr. Eay. v.; Solin, 45, 10; 52, 7.) A
little farther is the figure of a bird, intended for a parrot,
with a descriptive legend from Solinus (52, $43):-$olimus.
jmūta mittit abrm 3pitatum [psittacum]: colore birtbi:
ASIA, 29
torque pumiced. The blunder in the name of the bird may India.
be due either to a marginal reading, s/ptacus, in Solinus
(See App. p. 245), or to the form which appears in AEthicus
(cap. 106), namely, psiptacus.
Teturning to the Montes Indiae, we find two rivers,
which subsequently coalesce, the Øſtegimeg (Chenab) and the
#ptašpeg (Jhelum). Both of them rise in mountains,
in a region described as 33 engnum (Trappig regime qui
[Regnum Cleophidis reginae, quae] #Itzambrum Bugrepit.
The queen here referred to is the same of whom we shall
hear again under the name of Cleopatra.
Between the two rivers is the figure of a crocodile or
alligator, with the word 3ſ accrtitä, which creature Arrian and
Pliny mention as abounding in the Indus. (Arr. Eaj). V. ;
Plin. vi., § 75.) Just beyond this we find mention of the
realm of Porus and Abisares, two Indian kings with whom
Alexander contended in the neighbourhood of the Hydaspes
(Arr. Eap. v.; Curt. viii. 12, 13, ix.1):-33rmgmum [Regnum]
3.3bori ct @tigariš qui becºrtaberumt cum magma ºiler-
āllūtū.
Parallel with the Hydaspes is the Indus (úmbus), having
two head-streams, one rising in mountains belonging to the
group already mentioned as ſºlunteg #mbic, and the other in a
range called ſºldmg $rpijar, which may perhaps be taken to
represent the “Mount of the East" of Gen. x. 30. Near the
Source of the former stream is a town, with a superscription
which seems to read as follows:–33amambo ampmi cirra
ğratušiam cititatem 3rrantiš inuptiguit, which should pro-
bably be thus mended, ETYMANDRO AMNI CIRCA ARACHOSIAM . . .
SEMIRAMIS IMPOSUIT. It is founded on the following passage
in Solimus:–ArachoSiam Erymantho amºvi impositam Semira-
mis condidit. The river adjoining this town is perhaps in-
tended for the Erymanthus, more commonly called Etymand-
30 ASIA.
India.
rus, for which a corrupt v. l. had "innando, corrupted in the
third degree, as above, into Yamando. Solinus means to Say
that Semiramis placed the town Arachosia in the midst of the
river Erymanthus or Etymandrus. Pliny, whom Solinus
follows, says that Semiramis founded Arachosia, and that
Some called it Cophen, and he mentions the Erymanthus as
flowing through the province of Arachosia. The Etymandrus
is probably the Helmund, which flows S.W. from the moun-
tains of Cabul into the lake Hamoon, and not into the Indus
as the map seems to express; but the river Cophen or
Cophes, the Cabul, flows into the Indus, running in a direction
from N.W. to S.E. How the town Arachosia came to be called
Cophen it is difficult to say. (Plin. vi. § 92; Solin. 54, 2;
Diet. of Geogr. i. 184)
At the source of the other head stream we have a
town which is said to have been destroyed by Cyrus, (Taşşica
cipitag quant (Tirus Urstruxit. The place intended is no
doubt CAPISSA, which Pliny says was destroyed by Cyrus.
It perhaps answers to Peshawur, but it is unlikely that this
point was reached by him. (Plin. vi. § 92; Solin. 54, 2;
Diet. Geoffr. i. 505.)
Between the Hydaspes and the Indus are figures of two
birds, probably intended for eagles, with an inscription,
Øſual criſm, pät in mumbo. This may perhaps be ſounded
on Pliny, who, in speaking of eagles, mentions one, the
melamaetos, or black eagle, which, though the smallest in size,
is pre-eminent in strength, and therefore called Valeria (from
valeo). It dwells in mountains; and further on he says that .
a pair of eagles, par aquilarltºn, require a large tract of
country to support them. But the notion of the antalerion,
as expressed in the map, is directly derived from the old
bestiary books, which tell us that the Alerion is a bird,
rather Small, yet larger than an eagle, and that in the whole
ASIA. 31
world there is only one pair. They live sixty years, and India.
then lay two eggs, on which they sit sixty days and nights.
When the shell is burst the parents fly to the Sea, accom-
panied by all other birds, and drown themselves therein.
The other birds then return and nurse the young ones till
they can fly. (Plin. x. § 6, 14; Cahier et Martin, Mélanges
d'Archéologie, vol. ii. p. 162.) The eagle, according to an
eastern tradition, is in the habit of flying so close to the Sun
as to become extremely hot, and to cool himself dives into
the sea, where he becomes renewed in youth and plumage.
This he does every ten years until his hundredth year, when
having dropped into the sea as usual, he dies. (Kimchi,
from Saadia, an Arabian writer on PS. ciii. and IS. xl; ap.
Bochart, iii. pp. 166, 169. See also Epiphanius, Physio-
logus, 6.)
In a triangular space, two of whose sides are mountains,
we have an inscription referring to the kingdom of
Cleopatra, queen of Mazagae, a town situate among
the Daedalian mountains, and whose interview with Alex-
ander is recorded by Curtius, Justin, and Orosius, from which
last author the statement of the map is probably derived :
}{mter HB chaling montes rengnum (TIropatre rrming que
@Itxambrum Sušrepit. Ptolemy mentions a town called
Daedala, between the Hydaspes and the Windhyan mountains,
and the name of the town has perhaps given rise to that of
the mountains. (Ptol. viii. i. 49 ; Curt. viii. 10, 19, 22;
Oros. iii. 19.)
Next comes a figure representing, as it seems, a female
soldier, and an inscription taken from Solinus (52, § 15):
łłambra gen5 ºnbir a frminig regitur. Adjacent to
this figure is a town set in a frame, with an inscription taken
in substance from Isidore (XV. 1, § 6) : —j}ltant [Nysam]
riuttatrm Birmigius pattr rumbibit; replems ram 3.
32 ASIA.
India.
militiuš jūminum. Beyond this comes a mountain, with
an inscription from Solinus (52, § 16), ſilong 3ſatis accre
merDÄ [Jovi Sacer Meros] bicitur in cujug ºpetu nutritum
3.iberum patrem ºnbi bettres afmant [adfirmant].
T'assing a nameless affluent of the Indus we come to
an angular range of mountains, enclosing an inscription
representing the substance of passages from Pliny and
Solinus, in close connection with the subject of the next
article, which it will be convenient to consider first. This
is a town on the Indus, with an inscription taken almost
verbatim from Solinus (52, § 12), 3}obtrota [Palimbothra)
cipitag quant inijabitant 43ragia gen5 ºnbir balibiggima
quorum rex 350 pebitum et cquitum ### ct clepijantorum
EH cotinic ſquotidie] an 8tipennium uncat. The town
here alluded to, Palimbothra, mentioned by Ptolemy as a
royal city, by Arrian and Strabo as the principal city of
India, and by the Alexandrian Romance as Polybote,
answers to the city of Patna, whose Sanscrit name was
PATALIPUTRA.
Between Palibothra and Mons Meros, a range of moun-
tains is depicted, representing Mons Malleus, with the follow-
ing inscription —(5cm3 (Torcina circa ſhalleum montent
babitant; cuiuš umbre at ſad] aquilomem cabunt burntr,
all attgttum £3tätt. Reference has been already made
to this mountain in the Introduction (p. xvi.) The legend
in the map is founded on Solinus, who says, ultra Paliboth-
Tam, mons Maleus, in quo umbrae hieme in Septemiriones,
aestate in austros cadunt, vicissitudime hac durante mensibus
senis. Pliny, speaking of a tribe called Suari, says, quorum
mons Maleus, and then describes the alternation of the
shadows. The reader will notice Pliny’s expression quorum
mons Maleus, with which the map agrees more closely than
with the text of Solinus. But what was the gems Corcina of
ASIA, 33
the map * The name can hardly be intended to denote the India.
Suari, still less the Prasian nation. The Peutinger Table,
however, names a town CORSANIA, not far from the mouth of
the Ganges, on which Palimbothra was situate, which may
perhaps have suggested a transfer of its name to that of a
people. But its equivalent is not known. (Ptol. vii. i.
73; Strabo, xv. p. 702; Plin. vi. § 68, 69; Solin. 52, 12,
13; Weber, Rom. vol. i. v. 4889.)
Beyond Palimbothra, on the sea coast, are ſāong $rphar,
Prepanum promunctorium (promontorium) and Žimarint
portuğ, all of them names connected with the Sea voyage be-
tween Egypt and India. SEPHAR, which was perhaps intended
by our author as a repetition or continuation of the “Mount of
the East ’’ mentioned above, had an equivalent in a town of
that name on the Arabian peninsula, described by Arrian,
Pliny, and Ptolemy, as a “metropolis.” DREPANUM, otherwise
called LEPTEACRA and the “Indian promontory,” was on the
W. shore of the Red Sea; and ZIMARIS, so called by Solinus,
but by Pliny MUZIRIS, was a commercial port on the coast of
India, now probably Mangalore, and was considered danger-
ous on account of the pirates. (Plin. vi. § 104, 175; Solin.
54, 8 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 14; vi. 7, 41; vii. 1, 8; Dict, of Bible,
iii. 1197; Dict. Geogr. ii. 380)
In the scarlet bifurcation, which represents the Red Sea,
Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean, we have a large triangu-
lar island, intended for Ceylon, with an inscription mainly
borrowed from Isidore, xiv. 6, § 12, to the effect that it has
two Summers, two winters, and two springs in each year, and
that the further part of the island abounds in elephants and
dragons. In this latter point our cartographer has somewhat
improved on Isidore, by converting his bestice into dragons.
The notice of the ten cities comes from Orosius, i. 2. With
regard to the form of the name Taphama, for Taprobane, we
C
Islands
in
Indian
Ocean.
34 ASIA,
Islands
in
Indian
Ocean.
may compare Tapbama in the map of Henry of Mayence.
The inscription runs thus:–QLapljana [Taprobane] ingula
ºntic gubjaceng at curum ex quo Occamug ſmbicuš
incipit: jùùct in ammo butag estates et Nuag itemſ; ct
big floribuš Germat. Ší ulterior parg elephantig et
tractmihttø plena ; haüct et 3: cititates. The wild
animals are duly displayed, with the title Bracomeg; as
also is the river, which Isidore describes as intersecting the
island.
Near Taphana are the islands (trigg, 3rgire, ©pjir,
and jrūmūţātā. Of these CHRYSE and ARGYRE are men-
tioned by Pliny as islands near the mouth of the Indus;
by Mela, CHRYSE as near the promontory Tamus, probably
Cape Negrais, in Burmah ; ARGYRE as near the mouth of the
Ganges. Ptolemy describes a silver region, ARGYRA, and a
“golden chersonese,” and also an island Iabadiou, whose
capital was Argyra. Perhaps, on the whole, Chryse may be
taken as representing Sumatra, and Argyre, Java, or the
Burmese territory. But both of these, together with OPHIR,
which Higden calls an island, represent collectively the gold
and silver region of the East, so often mentioned in Scrip-
ture, and whose position, little known to the people of the
West, is placed by the mediaeval geographer at a group of
islands, a position which seems to give a sort of certain
definiteness to what is in itself uncertain, jjrombišta stands
for APHRODISIA, al-Hiera, in the Persian Gulf. Between
Taphana and the next article is introduced an island called
(Tiprug, which seems to have found its way here from the
list of islands of the Eastern Ocean, given by Julius Hono-
rius, but for what reason is not apparent. It might probably
represent Sippara, a town mentioned by Ptolemy, on the W.
side of India, but this seems hardly probable. Lelewel
thinks it is intended for Capraria, one of the Fortunate
ASIA. 35
Islands; but as Capraria appears farther on, this does not Islands
seem likely. (Plin. vi. § 80, 111; Solin. 52, 17; 54, 13; I :
Ptol. vii. 1, 16; Isid. xiv. 3, 5; 6, 11; Jul. Honor. p. 10; .
Higden, 1, 11 ; Clark, Bible Atlas, p. 37, seq.)
Returning to the mainland of India, we find the Ganges India.
taking its rise in a range of mountains called (93rd, and
emptying itself into the ocean by two mouths forming a delta.
In a Space between these mountains and another range called
CAUCASUS is a tree with figures of long-robed, red-girdled
natives, busily employed in gathering the fruit, with the name
(rangine; above them. This name comes from AEthicus, and
is found in Ptolemy as GANGANI, though these lived near the
mouth of the river. The name is probably confused with the
Aganginae of Ptolemy, who dwelt in Lybia. They probably
represent the GANGARIDAE, a name which Isidore says denotes
their neighbourhood to the Ganges, whose name, again, comes
from GANGARUS, a king of India. Orosius informs us that
the Ganges rises in the mountain range called OSCOBAREs,
where grows the plant called LASER. The name OSCOBAREs,
which Isidore writes OSCOBRIGIS, probably represents the
Ovian Mountains of Ptolemy and Strabo, dividing Scythia
from Bactria, and though the Ganges does not rise in them,
their position, as well as those assigned to (Taucasus,
Paropamisus (mtDittrº; 33aropamitates), and Imaus (mong
Øſtmabug), is not unfairly represented in the Map. The
Caucasus here named is of course the Hindoo Koosh, or
Indian Caucasus. The name Caucasus was given, as Arrian
tells us, by the soldiers of Alexander's army, in compliment
to their leader, though unwittingly they underrated its value,
for the mountain range which they so called was really far
in advance of the true Caucasus between the Caspian and
Black Seas, and much more distant from his and their own
home. The tree, whose fruit the Gangines are so busily
36 * ASIA,
India.
gathering, cannot be the Laser, or Laserpitium, which is a
shrub only, and not a tree, but is no doubt intended to illus-
trate the inscription from Solinus, which is given below.
(Ptol. iv. 6, 23; vii. 2, 13; Oros. i. 2; AEthic. 57, 106;
Arr. Eap. iii. v.; Isid. ix. 2, 41; xvii. 9, 27; Plin. vi.
§ 65; xxii. § 101; Solin. 49, 6; 52, 8)
A little above the tree is (Taurugima, and on the other
side of the mountain Ølexambria ciuttag, two names for
the same town, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, in the
country of the Cadrusi, and due to a misunderstanding, as it
seems, by Solinus, of the passage in which Pliny mentions it.
Solinus calls it Cadrusium. (Plin. vi. § 92; Solin. 54, 2;
Dict. Geogr. i. 463.)
Near these towns is an inscription founded on a passage
in Solimus, descriptive of a peculiar people living near the
Sources of the Ganges, probably the Gangines already de-
scribed:—$olimuş: (Ramgig fontem qui acolumt; gold
bitunt Obore pomorum gilträtrium : qui gi frtorem
gengerint, 5tatim moriumtur. The story comes from
Megasthenes, who says that these people, whom he calls
&grouot, mouthless, live on the Smell of roast meat and the
scents of fruits and flowers, and are so much annoyed by
bad Smells, especially in camp, that they scarcely survive
them. It has been suggested that he mistook a Sanscrit
name resembling &crowo in sound, and invented the story to
explain the Word. Pliny, in his account of them, omits the
roast meat, but says that they carry the apples with them
on their journeys, for bad Smells easily deprive them of life,
graviore odore haud difficulter ea animari. Solinus and Sir J.
Mandeville improve upon this, and say that they die “anon.”
The stooping figure in the picture is doubtless inhaling his
daily food, but he is plainly doing so carefully, lest
“The quick effluvia, darting through his brain,”
ASIA. 37
he should India.
“Die of a rose in aromatic pain.”
(Megasth frag. 29; Plin. viii. § 25; Solin. 52, 29; Sir J.
Mand. p. 297; Lardner, Cycl. Geogr. i. p. 67.)
After passing the montºg paropamitate5 we encounter
a figure engaged in screening himself from the solar heat
with his own leg and foot. He has indeed but one leg, but
it is a leg of great and varied ability. Not only does it,
when “stuck stiffly out,” like Miss Kilmansegg’s “precious
leg,” serve as a natural parasol, but it is also an instrument
of rapid locomotion. Solinus derived the legend from Pliny,
and he from Ctesias, who wrote in the 5th century B.C., but
never saw India. The Monocoli, or Sciapodes, whom Pliny
describes, are mentioned by Scylax of Caryanda, who wrote
a little before the age of Alexander, and also by Megasthenes,
to whom they were described by the philosophers (Brahmins).
The inscription, borrowed substantially from Solinus, stands
thus:–ſłłonoculi [Monocoli): 5unt in 33mbia singulig
cruritius permici celeritate qui ubi Defenbi ge belint a
calore 3Gli3 plantaritm 3ttartim magnitutine otium-
trantitr, The reader will notice the change of monocol.
(one-legged) into monoculi (one-eyed). Sir John Mandeville
has described this marvel of creation, but places him in
Ethiopia, a country frequently confounded with India, as a
fruitful mother of marvels. He says, “In that contree
ben folk, that han but O foot : and thei gon so fast, that
it is marvaylle : and the foot is so large that it schade-
wethe alle the Body azen the Sonne, whanne thei wole
lye and reste hem.” Schwanbeck, the German editor of
Megasthenes, thinks that the Monocoli were described to
Megasthenes under their Sanscrit name écapádas, wov6.robe;
(one-footed), and that he, with a pardonable pun, changed the
38 ASIA.
India.
name into ÖxöToôeg (swift-footed). The original of the story
was probably some animal of the monkey tribe, developed by
natural Selection into the Monocolus man; or perhaps the
whole story is a perversion of the Indian use of umbrellas,
noticed by Arriam. (Megasth, frag. 29, pp. 67, 116; Ctesias,
p. 378, ed. Bach".; Aristoph. Paw. 1554; Plin. vii. § 23;
Solin. 52, 29 ; Isid. xi. 3, 23; Mandeville, Trav. p. 157;
Philolog. Mus, i. 245; Arr. Ind. p. 540.)
Beyond the Monocolos figure the Ganges divides itself
into two streams, forming an island or delta, within which is
an inscription made up from two passages in Solinus, who
says that the least breadth of the Ganges is eight miles, and
the greatest nineteen miles; that the river makes an island,
whose king can send out 4000 cavalry and 50,000, not
80,000, infantry soldiers. (Solin. 52, 7, 11):—$olimug :
mimima (Rangić latituto per ÉÉ paśuum, maxima per
# patct. Hºurm (ºrangeš ingulam facit cuius rex HHHF
milia militum [equitum] ct ſº prºbitum.
Opposite the N.W. mouth of the Ganges a second Mount
Caucasus appears, placed within an island called (ſile, fruitful
in all good things. The island which this denotes, TYLOs,
in the Persian Gulf, is placed by Solinus in India. The in-
scription is taken in substance from Solinus, in a passage
upon which follows closely an account of Mount Caucasus, to
which circumstance perhaps is due its position within the
island of TILE. (Solin. 52, 49, 50 ; Isid. xiv. 3, 5 ; Aug.
Civ. D. xxi. 5, 1.) North of the branch of the Ganges first
mentioned, is an inscription descriptive of the length of
India, the variety of the nations living within its limits, and
its natural products, as follows:–(Rangeš. Becirg gep-
tieg cºntema et 3L millia paš3ttum longituto fittie tempt,
teste §olimo. Item 5 cipitatum et libergißgimo [e],
gentº monstruggſ, bultu, ritu, et babitu bario, plug
ASIA. 39
quam trebi poššit. Gemmarum et metallorum afflu-
cutta cum pericult totiuš gem criš begtiarum ºf 32tpºrtz
tium qua: Omnia pottuš Izgemba guitt quam pingemba.
This is taken from several passages in Solinus, the dis-
tances from 54, 10; the 5000 cities from 52, 4 ; the variety
of races and dresses in substance from 52, 19; the personal
appearance of the natives from 52, 27; and the abundance
of precious stones from 52, 53–62.
Adjoining this, on the left, is a sort of triangular com-
partment, enclosed between ſilong (Taurağuş on one side
and ſilong (ſimabug on the other, divided by a river,
and ending in a mountain with the words, promunctorium
$âmara. It contains also the following—(1) An inscrip-
tion, Hºmbia que (quae) finem facit ; (2) A representa-
tion of foliage, with the words, 33allamut gilliağ piperraš
Habent; (3) A town called (Trištúag. These names and
descriptions seem to be founded on passages in Orosius and
Solinus. The former says that the Mons IMAUS, for which
a v. l. has TIMAVUS, is at the extreme E., where the Caucasus
terminates, and where the river CHRYSORRHOAS, and the pro-
montory SAMARA, are met by the Eastern Ocean. The pro-
montory Samara may perhaps represent Sumatra, called
Samara by Marco Polo, or a place in the silver Chersonese
called Sambra. The river may be the river called by Ptolemy
Oichardus, and by Orosius, Octachordis ; but respecting the
town CRISTOAS little can be offered in the way of suggestion
beyond a similarity in name to Chrysorrhoas, a river mentioned
by Orosius. The pepper woods are described by Solinus,
after Pliny, as frequent on the S. side of the Caucasus, and
are also mentioned by Cosmas Indico-Pleustes and Isidore,
but who the Pallandae may be it is difficult, if not impossible,
to say. Ptolemy mentions a tribe called Pulinda on the N.W.
side of India, a town called Palanda, and also a river, called
India.
40 ASIA.
India.
Palandes, in the Golden Chersonese; and it must be added
that the whole compartment has an appearance of being
intended to represent India beyond the Ganges, with the
exception that it is situate on the W. instead of the E. side
of that river. (Ptol. vi. 15, 2; vii. 1, 64; 2, 3, 5, 25;
Oros. 1, 2; Solin. 52, 50 ; Cosm. Indic. iii. p. 336, ed.
Montf. ; Isid. xvii. 8, 8.)
Before quitting India we have to notice some articles
relating to its zoology in other parts of the map. In the
part which adjoins Ethiopia we have—(1) An animal in-
tended for a rhinoceros, though putting forth a speed which
that animal does not usually possess. Above it is a Super-
scription, altered and abridged from Solimus:–$olimuş:
łm ºmnia mastitut 3&imOSctrog cut color buxrug : in
martbug cornu untum mucrºntem excitat quitm abbergus
elephantº preliatur ; per ſpar] ipšić in Iſmgitutine,
tºrtºtor critribuš, maturaliter album peteng, quam 3Dlam
intelligit ictituğ guig perútam. This description, founded
upon Pliny, and which agrees almost word for word with
Diodorus, who followed Agatharchides, is substantially
correct. The rubbing of the horn against rocks seems to
indicate the habit of the animal in wallowing on the ground
like a pig. His way of fighting with the elephant is correct
in itself, and agrees with the description of Strabo, though
there is no real foundation for the statement of habitual
enmity between the two animals. (Plin. viii. 71 ; Diod. Sic.
iii. 35; Strabo, xvi. p. 774; Solin. 30, 21.)
(2.) Below this comes a description of the MONOCEROS,
or unicorn, which Isidore identifies with the rhinoceros, but
which our author appears to have regarded as distinct. The
term unicorn, which, though not invariable as regards the
Species, may be applied justly to the most common sort of
Indian rhinoceros, has been transferred in our English Bible
ASIA. 41
to denote an animal of a totally different kind. Solinus,
following Pliny pretty closely, calls the monoceros atrocissi-
'mus . . . monstrum mugitu horrido, equino corpore, elephanti
pedibus, cauda Suilla, capite cervino, cornu è media fronte . . .
Splendore mirifico, ad magnitudinem, pedum quattuor . . . vivus
non venºit in hominum potestatem et interim' guidem potest
capi mon potest. (Plin. viii. § 76; Solin. 52, 39.) This
description is founded on that of Ctesias concerning the
Indian ass, but with an augmentation of the horn from two
to four feet. Aristotle also describes this animal as a unicorn,
with a horn in the centre of his forehead. The late J. C.
Bähr, editor of Ctesias, thought that he meant to describe a
rhinoceros, but the description by no means fully answers to
this opinion. The name rhinoceros Occurs first in Agathar-
chides, about 150 B.C., and Some of the animal’s habits
described in the preceding article were evidently unknown
both to Ctesias and Aristotle. The description of Agathar-
chides is followed by Diodorus, circ. A.D., who does not mention
the unicorn. Strabo, A.D. 20, briefly notices the unicorn as
a horned horse, said by Megasthenes to be found in India,
but he describes the rhinoceros from the description of
Artemidorus, confirmed by his own observation. Pliny and
Solinus, as we have seen, regard the two animals as distinct,
and both are described separately by Cosmas Indico-Pleustes
about 535 A.D. Figures of both, taken from MSS. either at
first or second hand, are given in Montfaucon's edition of
Cosmas. His rhinoceros has two horns, and he says that he
had seen the animal, both alive and dead, in Ethiopia
probably in Abyssinia. The monoceros he says that he had
not seen, but made his drawing from bronze statues in the
palace of the king of Ethiopia. He identifies it with the
animal mentioned in Numb. XXiii. 22, and PSS, XXii. 21,
xxix. 6. In all these passages the LXX. version, which
7.e.
India.
N
42 . ASIA.
India.
Cosmas quotes accurately, renders the Hebrew word by
amonoceros. In the first of them the Vulgate has rhinoceros,
and in the two last unicornis. With this exception Isidore
appears to be the earliest writer who regards the two animals
as identical, and also to be one of the first to introduce the
story of the maiden, unknown to Cosmas a century before,
which found so much favour in later times, and which
appears in the Bestiaries, with illustrations, in some of which
the deluded animal is represented as reposing in all confidence
in the lap of a lady, while the treacherous hunter, in full
armour, stabs him from behind. This is described in the
map in a legend borrowed from Isidore :—Égildrug int
litro &H ethimologiarum [Etymologiarum] capitulu HI.
$tcut agøtrunt qui maturaş animalium 3trip3rrunt.
#uit momuccruti Virgo purlla propomitur, quc genienti
gimum aperit: in quo ille Ummi ferocitate Deposita caput
[caput] pomit, gir quc gopuratuş, belut [velut] intermig
capitur, The monoceros is also described in the Alex-
andrian Romance—
“A best there is, of more los,
That is y-cleped monoceros.”
The figure of the monoceros, as given in Montfaucon from
Cosmas, is like that of an antelope, with a horn rising straight
upwards from his forehead. This resembles what used to be
regarded in Europe as the horns of unicorns, but which are
really tusks of the narwhal, monodon monoceros, a native of
arctic, and perhaps antarctic, but not tropical, seas; and it
is worthy of remark that Pietro della Valle, after mentioning
Pliny’s description of the monoceros, says that Captain
Woodcock, an arctic voyager, had told him that he had met
with unicorns near Greenland. Whether the original, from
which the horns of the statues which Cosmas saw were
ASIA. 43
imitated, was one of these tusks, cannot be ascertained, nor
what the animals were which Montfaucon says the Jesuit
missionaries in Abyssinia, who had reared them, re-
garded as unicorns. The whole story is perhaps a com-
posite one, and the narwhal's tooth has been fitted to the
head of Some goat-like animal, whose pair of horns, in a side-
long position, has appeared to a distant observer like a single
one. (Ctes. § 25; Agatharch, ap. Phot. Bibl. 250, p. 455;
Arist. Part. Anim., iii. 2, 7; Strabo, xv. p. 710; Cosm. Indic.
xi. p. 335, ed. Montſ. ; Isid. xii. 2, 12, 13; Geographia Uni-
versalis, p. 25; P. d. Vall. ii. 491; Weber, Rom. i. v. 65,
38; Brit. Mus. Bibl. Reg. xii. F. 13; Harl. MSS. 32.44;
Cahier et Martin, Mél. d’Arch. ii. 220 ; Yule, Marco Polo, ii.
234.)
(3.) In Egypt, on the borders of Arabia Petraea, there is
a pictorial representation of a fabulous animal called Eale,
with an inscription taken substantially from Solinus, as
follows:–$olimus : (Bale maštitur in 33mbia, rquino
corport, caula clephanti, migro colore, maxillag caprimag
preferenå (Sol. Maxillis aprugnis), cornua ultra cubitalem
longa, meſſur enim rigent, 3rd motentur ut 115uş ºrigit
preliambi, quorum cum und pugmat, alter trplicat. Some
of the verbal alterations in the above inscription proceed
from the Geographia Universalis, or from the Bestiaries;
but what animal possesses this convenient method of simul-
taneous defence and offence is perhaps not to be ascertained.
Pliny says it was as large as a hippopotamus. It may be
the beast called by Cosmas, who says he had eaten of its
flesh, Choerclaphus, whose teeth weighed 13 lbs. each. (Plin.
viii. 73; Solin. 52, 35 ; Geogr. Univ. p. 25; Bibl. Reg. Brit.
Mus, xii. F. 13; Cosmas, Indicopl. p. 336, ed. Montf)
(4.) To these we have to add a fabulous animal, the
MANTICHORA, with a human head and a leonine body, re-
India.
44 ASIA.
India, puted to be a native of India, but transposed in the map to
the north of Caucasus. This is described in a legend taken
from Solinus, as follows:–$glimit5 : ſtlanticora magtitur
in 3mbia, triplica tentium orbine, facir bominig, glaucis
oculiš, Samguined colore, corport Ironing, caula 3ror-
pigmiš, bûce giffilia. Solinus adds that it has a particular
relish for human flesh. The picture given by Ctesias, from
whom Pliny derived his description, is even more frightful
still, especially as to the tail. This is furnished, he says,
with at least three stings, which the creature is able to pro-
ject at an enemy like darts, and SO venomous as to cause
instant death. But he says nothing about the vow Sibila,
and its imitative powers. It must be allowed that our
cartographer, perhaps in compassion to his readers, has
diminished the terrors of the tail, which, though defiant in
attitude, appears nevertheless to be destitute of Scorpionic
sting. The writer of the Geographia Universalis adds that
his speed is swifter than a bird's flight, and that with his
shrill voice he is able to go up and down the Scale. (Ctes.
6; Plin. viii. 75; Solin. 52, 37; Geogr. Univ. p. 25.) Near
this animal is a nameless tree, which seems to be intended
to represent an Indian fig-tree, ſicus Indica (Plin. xii. 23).
CHAIPTER III.
ASIA—Continued.
Bactria–Hunni—Scythia and Serica—Eoneae Insulae—Olchi–Mons Molans—
Gog and Magog—Sogdiana—Samarkand–Islands of the Northern Ocean
—Hyperboreans—Turks—Scythotauri Scythae—Arimaspi–Albani—Col-
chis—Caspian Gates.
QUITTING India we proceed to the countries lying on the
the N. and N.W., and at the source of the Ganges we find
36 actria, enclosed between two branches of the Cau-
casus, the upper part of the river 36attritº, whose name
appears below, and the momteå ſºlemarmatt. Of these
the river Bactrus is said to have given its name to
the very ancient, but now much decayed town 33attrum,
Balkh. The mountains are called by Orosius MONS MEMAR-
MALI, and are said by him to divide the Hyrcanians from
the Parthians. They probably represent an outlying branch
of the Paropamisus, perhaps the range called by Ptolemy
the Sariphian mountains in Margiana; but the origin of the
name Memarmali does not appear. The Bactrian district is
chiefly occupied by the figure of a camel having two humps, as
a Bactrian camel Ought to have, with an inscription from
Isidore —13attria camclog baſict fortiššimt,3, numguam
peneg atteremtes. This is founded on Solinus, who says
that the Bactrian camels are distinguished from the Arabian
by having one hump only, whereas the Arabian have two,
a statement directly contrary to the fact, as well as to the
authority of Aristotle and Pliny. He is followed in his
IBactria.
mistake, in increased measure, by Isidore; but our author has ,
:
46 ASIA.
Bactria.
Hunni.
Scythia
and
Serica.
judiciously preferred to represent his camel with his proper
number of humps. (Arist. H. Anim. ii. 1, 24; Plin. vi.
§ 48; viii. § 67; Solin, 49, 1, 9; AEthic. § 109; Isid. xii.
i. 35; xiv. 3, 30; Ptol. vi. 10, 5; Harl, MSS. 3244)
Following the monttä (93rd, continued in mong (ſima-
bug, we find, in a space enclosed between these mountains and
a nameless river, which may perhaps represent the river Ottoro-
gorra of Orosius, a town called 32ttragafrig, and further on
@ctoricirug cipitag. None of these can be identified with
any certainty, though the Alexandrian Romance mentions
Nicosar, or Nygusar, “prince of Nynguen,” and Octiatus
“Darie's odame,” Darius's brother-in-law, and possibly our
cartographer may have thought it his duty to give local habi-
tations to these illustrious chiefs. (Weber, A. R. v.v. 2079,
p. 2081, 2273.) Just above is the inscription 39ttmi
$ttúr, the Huns, who are said to have proceeded from the
neighbourhood of the Caucasus. (Ptol. vi. 16, 8; Oros. i. 2
Amm. Marc. xxxi. 3; Isid. ix. 2, 66.)
We now come to the great region occupying the N.E.
and centre of Asia, inhabited by the Seres, and by various
races of Semi-mythical character, comprised under the general
name of Scythians,
Beginning at the E, we find a river, fluttug 360 reag,
emptying itself into the sea at a place called promunce
torium 330rcumt. These names denote the FLUMEN BOREUM,
and the PROMONTORIUM BOREUM of Orosius, both being rather
suggestive than indicative of the unknown northern Ocean,
which Æthicus mentions under the name oceanus borricus.
(Oros. i. 2; AEthic. § 31, 60.)
The river Boreas appears to rise in a range of mountains
without a name. In the space enclosed by the river, the
mountains, and the ocean, are three inscriptions. (1.) The
: first expresses the Sense of a passage in Pliny, followed by
ASIA. 47
Solinus, to the effect that a great part of Asia suffers from Scythia
extreme cold, and has consequently large tracts of desert “
land, and that the Scythians inhabit the country which SeriC3.
reaches from the north to the beginning of the warm and
genial east. The inscription stands thus:–49ic imitium
Orientić estigi, ubi immengag £332 mitieg ſtartiamug et
$glimit5 bicunt. Marcian Capella says that the Caspian Sea
pours itself into the Scythian Ocean in confinio Ortus aestivi;
and in another passage, that where the course of the Caspian
lies towards the Eastern Ocean, there are at the beginning
profundae nºves, and afterwards a great desert. (Plin. vi. §§
33, 34; Solin. 17. 1; Marc, Cap. § 665, 693) (2) The
second inscription, taken from Solimus, refers to a group of
islands, the inhabitants of which were reputed to live on
the eggs of sea birds —(£umcø insula3 ſui inhabitant
ommig (ovis) marimarum anium bipunt. (Plin. iv. § 95;
Mela, iii. 6; Solin. 19, 6.) (3) The third inscription records
that from this point, as far as the Maeotides paludes, the
country is called by the general name of Scythia:- %lb
bint ugque at ſilentitrº pallutes generalit [er] $ttijia
[Scythia] littitut. The islands of the Ooeones were situate,
according to Xenophon of Lampsacus, quoted by Pliny, in
the great northern sluggish sea, which Hecataeus called the
Amalchian, and the habits ascribed to their inhabitants no
doubt resemble in some degree those of some of the northern
sea islands; but it would be in vain to seek for any precise
equivalent to (50mg or Čumer ingule of the Map, which Eonee
appear just opposite the first of the foregoing inscriptions, insule.
(Plin. iv. § 95; Solin. 19, 6; Tacitus, Germ. 44, 46; Mela,
iii. 6)
In the same neighbourhood, viz., in the dark and frozen
ocean, lying round the shores of the unknown North, we find
other mythical islands, some of them inhabited by mythical
48 ASIA.
IEonee
insule.
Seres.
monsters, so long believed in by Europeans; (1) the island of
the horse-hoofed men :—$popobrº (hippopodes) equintº
prürg habent; (2) that of the 3.35ameşti (Fanesii), called
Auryalyn in the Alexandrian Romance, a bat-like race,
who, whenever they covered themselves at all, were wont to
use the membranes of their ears as wrappers —4:30amcgit
membranić attrium guarum teguntur; (3) the vast island
@Ibatía, distant three days' sail from the shore of Scythia :
—%Ilhatia ingula £3t immenša, at quam tribug mabie
gatur a liture $titijarig (Scytharum). All these are
mentioned by Pliny on the authority of Pytheas. The
last was called by him Basilia, by Pliny Baltia, and by
Solinus Abalcia. The Fanesii are called by Mela and Isidore
Panoti and Panotii, All-ears. The idea may have been
suggested by the manner in which the ladies of the Uzbek
Tartar race arrange their dress, so as to present an appear-
ance of this kind. (Plin. iv. § 95; Mela, iii. 6; Solin. 19.
6; Isid. xi. 3, 19, 24; S. Jer. Ep. 77, 8; Morley, p. 681.
Wood, Trav, to Source of Ocus, p. 144)
Returning to the mainland, below the mountains from which
proceeds the river Boreas, there is an inscription, #ic pošt
migrg longa begfrta, indicating the wide desert region near
the centre of Asia, to the N. and W. of China, which has
been mentioned above; and below this, Štre; primi bomini
(homines) pogt Negerta occurrunt a quitºuš Berica begti-
1menta mittumtur. The name Seres, Chinese, appears first
in Ctesias, though with little or no accuracy of knowledge
respecting them. Their silk is mentioned by Aristotle, but
the name of the people does not appear again till the time
of Virgil. (Ctes. fr. 22, p. 371; Virg, Georg. ii. 121; Plin.
vi. § 54; Mela, iii. 7; Isid, xiv. 3, 29; Yule, Marco Polo,
ii. 415.)
Below this comes the river 360cmaron, called by AEthi-
ASIA. 49
cus BEOMARON. It probably indicates one of the great Scythia.
northern rivers, but can hardly be identified with any one.
Not far from it is the city (Tijūdliggima, built by Magog,
Son of Japhet. An envious rent in the parchment has de-
stroyed the next word or two, but the inscription ends with
describing the nation referred to as the most cruel of all
the Scythian tribes —CHrúg chooliggime quam ſtificabit
ſłagog filius Itapúct all . . . . . athe crutcliffgime
genteg giftſarum. The city is said by AEthicus to have been
built on the heights of the Olchi, in the far north, surrounded
by the river Beomaron, between the Caspian Sea and the
Northern Ocean, and further, that he himself spent a year
there. The name Olchi perhaps represents the Colchi, with
whose name the regio Colica of Pliny is probably connected.
AEthicus says that it was besieged by Alexander for a long
time, and taken after some loss on his side. The capital of
the land of Magog is called in the Alexandrian Romance
Taracum, and its inhabitants are described as the most bar-
barous of human beings—
“. . . . that vile countreye
That is y-hote Taracum.”—5970.
It was taken by Alexander with great difficulty. The legend
of the Map appears to rest upon these two stories, which may
perhaps be regarded as representing the victories of Alex-
ander over the Scythians. (Art. Eap. iv.; AEthic. lxvi. § 60;
Plin. vi. § 15; Morley, p. 680; Weber, Mctr. Rom. i.)
Opposite the island Albatia is a mountain, ſºlong
ſºldlan3. This may be intended to denote the barrier
mountain (moles) which obstructed the way to Taracum, of
which we shall soon hear. (Morley, p. 681; Weber, i.
6160.) Or it may represent the mountain Chelion, on
which, after offering sacrifices, immolatis hostiis, Alexander
D
50 ASIA.
Scythia.
ſ
f
excogitated his plan of enclosure. Moms Molans would thus
be the Mount of Sacrifice.
“He took barounes mony on,
And bent to a hil cleputh Celion,
And ther, on Sarsynes wise,
Maden offering and sacrefyse.”
We come now to two inscriptions which express the
substance, and in some places the words, of several passages,
more or less consecutive, in AEthicus, describing the country
and the truculent race of Magog, and their incarceration by
Alexander. The first paints the horrors of the climate, and
its intolerable cold, caused by the piercing wind called bizo.
It further states that the country is occupied by a most
vile race, given to habits of extreme barbarity, who eat
human flesh and drink men's blood—the accursed race of
Cain; and how the Lord shut them up, through the agency
of Alexander; for an earthquake took place, and in the
king's sight mountains fell upon mountains all around them.
Where the mountains failed, he enclosed them with an im-
penetrable wall, which took him a year and four months to
build. Then comes a picture of the wall with four towers,
and a second inscription, to the effect that the enclosed race
are believed to be the same as the Anthropophagi of Solinus,
among whom he reckons the Essedones. They will hereafter
break out in the time of Antichrist, and carry persecution
throughout the world.
“No cometh they thennes ay
Till hit come to domesdaye.”
The text of these inscriptions stands thus:–09mmin
horribilia plug quam crºbi poteşt : frigug intoſ.ſtrattle :
Omni temport Gentuš accrrimuş a momtituş Juam incole
bižo Đurant. #it 30mt [sunt] bomine& truculenti mimig,
ASIA. 51
bumänig carmthug begtenteg, cruorem potamtrs, filii Scythia,
(Taini malebitti. #203 inclugit HBOminug per magnum
%lexanbrunt; mam terre motu facto in com3pectu prinz
tipić montº guper monttä in circuitu corum ceritſcrunt :
tthi montº Uceramt, ipge 203 muro ingolubili cinxit.
Higti incluší item cºst trebuntur qui a $oling flintro-
popjagi bitumtur, inter qugg rt (E33CDomes numeramtur :
nam temport 3ntichristi erupturi ct Ummi mumbo perge-
cutiſmem illaturi.
In this account the reader will perceive the confused
mixture of sacred, profane, and purely legendary history. '
Its sources are the Book of the Apocalypse, and the authen-
tic history of Alexander, as perverted by Eastern tradition.
The story of Alexander and the wall is mentioned by S.
Jerome. It appears in the Koran, but had long before
found its way into Western Europe, and the Alexandrian
Romance, so often mentioned, was its legitimate descendant.
The cannibal propensities ascribed to the Scythian race are
mentioned by Herodotus, and afterwards by Mela and Soli-
nus. The reader will also learn and appreciate the deriva-
tion of the word bi;0, the name for the cold N.E. wind so
acutely felt from time to time in Europe, and known in
French as the vent de bise, which our Map-maker, following
his authority AEthicus, assures us is derived from the speech
of the Mongolian race, so much dreaded in Europe in the
13th century. (Rev. xx. 2, 8, 9; Herod. iv. 106; Mela,
ii. 1; Solin. 15, 13; Isid. ix. 2, 132; AEthic. 38, 41; Sale,
Jºor. c. xviii. p. 247; Weber, vol. i. 6188; Morley, p. 681;
Diez, Lea. Etym. p. 54.)
Near the above inscription are the towns — $frtg
riºttag, the supposed capital of the Seric region mentioned
by Ptolemy, Julius Honorius, and Isidore, but what place
is intended by them is uncertain (Ptol. vi. 16, 8; Isid. xiv.
52 ASIA.
Sogdi-
ana, &c.
3, 9; AEthic. Cosmog. p. 12; Yule, Marco Polo, i. 203);
Čašpia cititag, whose equivalent may perhaps be ſound in
the town Heraclea, in the country of the Caspii, built by
Alexander, and afterwards called Achais (Plin. vi. § 48;
Solin. 48, 4); and 1981tta Uppitium $Oſſbianorum, a town
mentioned by Pliny, near which Alexander erected altars to
commemorate the terminus of his expedition, but whose site
is unknown. (Plin. vi. § 49; Solin. 49, 3; Ptol. vi. 12, 4)
Near it are the words $ngutami tt Darje genttä. The
latter, mentioned by Virgil as indom?!? Dahae, lay between
Sogdiana and the Caspian Sea, and were subdued by Alex-
ander. (Curt. viii. 3, 16; Oros, i. 2; Virg. ƺn. viii. 728.)
A little higher up we meet with the inscription 39ttrami
hit habitant. The people referred to, the Hyrcani, really
lived on the south shore of the Caspian Sea, and are in fact
so placed in the map by a duplicate entry of the name.
The cartographer has thought it right to associate them
with the sources as well as with the mouth of the Oxus :
ſor, just above, he has represented the Oxus issuing from a
lake, with the inscription (BYug fluijtug.
Above the Oxus is the city $amarcant, SAMARKAND, the
Maracanda of Arrian and Ptolemy. The form in which the
name appears indicates some information from the East inde-
pendent of the sources usually resorted to by our carto-
grapher, and is the same as is found in Marco Polo, though
it could not have been derived from him. (Apr. Eap, Al. iii.;
Ptol. vi. 11, 9; Yule, Marco Polo i. 170.) Just below is a
figure of a pelican's nest, with the pelican wounding his own
breast to feed the young ones, who are opening their mouths
to receive the blood. The words of the superscription, pro
pullig 3 timbſ, milji cor, express the story concerning the
pelican, which relates that the mother kills her young ones
either by kisses or, as S. Augustine says, by blows, and mourns
ASIA. 53
for them during three days, aſter which time the male bird Hyr-
wounds himselſ in the breast and revives the brood with the cania.
blood which issues therefrom. It is as old as the 4th century,
and appears in the works of S. Epiphanius and also of S.
Augustine, though he by no means requires us to accept the
story as certain. It is told also by Isidore, and its aptitude
for an ecclesiastical signification doubtless caused it to be
adopted in heraldry, under the device of the “pelican in
her piety.” (Ho/m. Lex.; S. Aug. in Ps. ci. (cii.) 6, vol. 4, p.
1299; Epiph, Thysiol. 8; Isid. xii. 7, 26; Harl. MSS. 32.44;
Cahier et Martin, ii. 136.) On the left of this is a figure of
a monster, with a bird’s beak and semi-human limbs, with the
Superscription (Ticomte gemtſº, a race whose name has been
applied as a description of their personal appearance. Their
proper country is Thrace, but they are mentioned by Pliny
and Solinus as placed by some between the north and India.
(Plin. vi. § 55; Solin. 51, 1)
The river Oxus, having been joined by the Bactrus, which
our cartographer has perhaps confounded with the Icarus
mentioned by Pliny as falling into the Oxus, enters the
Caspian Sea, (B3tta (Bºi fluntimiş. This sea, according to
Strabo and others, but not Ptolemy, was an inlet from the
great Northern Ocean. (Strab. xi. p. 507; Mela, i. 2; Plin.
vi. § 36, 52; Solin. 17, 3; Oros. i. 2: Ptol. vii. 5, 4.) A
second inscription, referring to the mouths of the Oxus, re-
cords that the Hyrcanians live at them, and describes their
character in accordance with Solinus —#}irrani Öxt fitte
mimig [ostia] battitt, ſyrus Silpíš aspra, frtà tigritus,
ropiusa immamibilä frtis. It is not known that the
Hyrcani ever held the mouths of the Oxus; but they held
the coast of the Caspian, not very far from the spot where
the Oxus once discharged itself into that sea, and not, as
now, into the Sea of Aral. In illustration of the abundance
54 ASIA.
Hyr- of tigers in Hyrcania, the cartographer gives a picture of
cania. that animal, with an inscription describing how the hunters
succeeded in getting away Safe with the cubs by placing a
mirror in the path of the pursuing tigress —(ſigrig tirştia
quum catulum guum captum percipit concito curgu
pergrquitur cum catulu fugiemtºm, at ille belocić cqui
curgu in fugant properamtā Āpeculum ti projicit ct
Ither cºalit. The speed of the tigress in her pursuit to
recover her lost cubs is described by Solinus, Pliny, and
Mela. The two last tell us how the hunter is obliged
sometimes to abandon one cub, in order to escape her fury,
and secure the rest; but they do not mention the expedient
of the mirror, which is described by S. Ambrose, and alluded
to by Claudian, and followed in the later Bestiaries. The
passage from S. Ambrose is as follows:—ubi vacuum raptoe
Sobolis cubile reperit, ilico vestigiis raptoris insistit . at
Žlle . . . equo vectus fugaci videns tamen velocitate ferae Sere
posse praeverti . . . . wbi Se contiguam viderit, Sphaeram de
vitro proficit, at illa imagine Swa luditur et Sobolem putat.
wevocat impetum colligere foetum desiderans. Claudian, speak-
ing of the Hyrcana mater pursuing the robber of her cubs,
SayS,
“Jam jamque hausura profundo
Ore virum, vitreae tardatur imagine formae.”
(Plin. viii. § 66 ; Mela. iii. 5; Solin. 17, 6 ; S. Am-
brose, Hea'aem. vi. 4; Claudian, Rapt. Pros. iii. 268;
Cahier et Martin, Mélanges d'Arch. ii. p. 140; Harl. MSS.
3.244.
At the junction of the Caspian Sea with the Northern
Ocean are two islands, 13t; c3 and (Trigeliba, which it is
difficult, iſ not impossible to identify. Whether the former
name represents in any way the BYCE PALUS at the head of
the Palus Maeotis, or the river Bizcs, Buces, or Bycas, mentioned
ASIA. 55
by Several authors, or whether it denotes the island of the
Crise-
cold north wind Bizo, it is impossible to say, but AEthicus lida.
Seems to place it somewhere near the Orkneys. The island
CRISELIDA, written by Æthicus Crisolida, seems to represent
the precious stones, calchirios pretiosos in modum. Crisolidi,
which he describes as abounding in the island Rifarrica, and
in the Scythian region in general. (AEthic. 22, 38, 39.)
Both Bizas and Criselida are mentioned in the Alexandrian
Romance, which speaks of
“. . . al the folk of Crisolidas,
A folk of Griffayn and Besas.”
Adjoining Criselida is an island entitled (ſtapljarica, with
an inscription running thus: $ilbarum habet copiant.
%irgijabitantium in ca in glutenbig (subvertendis) urūtūug
£3t: armorum jabet captamt. This is taken from the
description of the island RIFARRICA by AEthicus, who speaks
of an abundance of wood, and describes at length the won-
derful battering engines used by the inhabitants. The name
RIFARRICA, in the barbarous Latin of Æthicus, or of his tran-
Scriber, represents, no doubt, in general terms, the country of
the Riphaean Mountains, that little known and semi-mythical
region in which Mela said that the Tanais rises, and beyond
which, at the back of the north wind (ultra Aquilonem), dwell
the Hyperboreans, of whom we shall hear presently. This
region, altered by later writers to suit their own views of
mythical propriety, appears in the map, as in AEthicus, in
the form of islands, of which, after Rifarrica, comes Triphicia,
IRifarri-
C8,
with an inscription, to the effect that the natives carry on a
seafaring industry:-Que Iqui) in Cripticia insula
babitant mauticam imbuštviant rvertent. The name Tri-
phicia, or Tripicia, may possibly proceed from Taphrºts, or
Taphrae, the name of a place on the isthmus of Perecop,
56 ASIA,
Tri-
phicia.
mentioned by Pliny just before his account of the Riplayan
Mountains and the Hyperborean race. Aſ thicus Says it was
a little island in the ocean, from which Alexander obtained
bitumen for constructing his wall for enclosing the nations
of Gog; the only island, or indeed region, in the world, he
says, which furnishes that substance
“A clay they haveth, verrament,
Strong so yren, ston, or Syment.”
(AEthic. 36, 37, 41, 42; Plin. iv. § 87; Mela, ii. 1, iii. 5;
Marc. Cap. § 664; Isid, xiv. 8, 7, 8; Weber, M. R. I. v.
6176 ; Morley, p. 679.)
Following the coast of the Ocean, we come next to a
promontory, on which, as its inscription, abridged from Soli-
nus, says, the Hyperboreans dwell, happiest of human races;
for they live without quarrelling, and without sickness, as
long as they please. They who become weary of living,
as is sometimes the case, repair to a well-known rock, and
throw themselves into the sea, thinking this the best kind
of burial:—ºperborci ut bicit $nlimit5 gen5 cat brutig-
3inta; mant gine bigcornia ct cqritutine bibititt, quam
biu Jūlunt: quitºuš tenuit biörre, be rupt nota Št in
mart precipitant, illub optimum genuš 3rpulture artite
träntſä. The bliss and long life of the Hyperboreans are
described by Pindar and other early writers. Pindar, as
rendered by Cary, had sung of them thus:–
“Disease nor age approaches near
The sacred race; nor toil they ſear;
Nor furious battle; sheltered still
From Nemesis to work them ill.”
But the optional duration of their life, and their mode of
terminating it when they became weary of its length, was
introduced later, and, as it would seem, by a transfer of
ASIA. 57
a part of the account given by Herodotus of the Massa- Hyper-
gette (Herod. i. 216 ; Pind. Pyth. x. 46-69; Clem. Alex, borei.
Strom. i. 15 ; IPlin, iv. § 90; Mela, iii. 5; Solin. 16,
2) Enclosing this smiling corner of the world is a river
called (Tlitcrom, whose name may perhaps represent the
Cyrus, but which is probably beyond identification, unless
it be a corruption of a word for a barrier or boundary of
the happy region beyond it. Next comes the Island
{Hispar, with a nameless satellite close by ; the two, no
doubt, answering to the Meoparomitic Islands which Æthicus
is said to have visited, and to that wondrous Isle Meopante,
between Egypt and India, which is indeed not land but
water, into which Alexander descended; though it must be
said that Æthicus regards this as incredible. It is described
by the Alexandrian Romance:
“This yle is y-hote Meopante.”
The inhabitants of these islands, the Meoparonitae, were
pirates and great sailors, and in order to obtain their assist-
ance in his enterprise against the race of Magog, and pro-
cure the bitumen which their islands afford, Alexander is said
to have propitiated them with presents, and to have set up
altars, which are called by his name. Accordingly, next to
MIOPAR we find the Hºt3ttlâ ſtiltraffilig, of which Alexander
is said to have gained possession only by entreaties and
hostages:–3:ngula miirabilis (ſuant 3 Irvantry mum misi
per precrº rt Glsiors intrabit. On the shore, adjoining it,
are the Øſte §Iryambri. The foundation of this wild story
is perhaps to be sought in Arrian's account of Alexander's
siege to a strong fortress in Sogdiana, of which, after much
difficulty, he obtained possession, not by force, but by kind
treatment of the men sent to treat with him. Eastern
tradition speaks of a rock-fortress in Baettia which was
58 ASIA.
Terra-
COnta
and the
Turks.
besieged in vain by the great Iskander. The fortress men-
tioned by Arrian was in Sogdiana; but this difference is of
little importance in a legend. We come presently to the
Island Terraconta, in which our cartographer places the
Turks, describing them, in most uncomplimentary terms, as
belonging to the race of Gog and Magog, and addicted to
the most foul and revolting habits:—(ſerracom.ta ingulu
guam inhabitant (Turtiji tº 3tirpc (50g rt ſºlagog, geng
barbara ct immunba tubemum [juvenum] carmcø ct abor-
tiſſa mambucanteg, They are described in the Alexandrian
Tomance as
The people of . . . that vile countreye
That is y-hote Taracum.
The evil deeds with which the Turchi are here credited,
are perhaps due in some degree to the intense alarm spread
throughout Europe in the 13th century by the invasion of
the Mongols or Tartars, of the same original stock as them-
selves, but whom they had conquered. The Turkish races
extend over a vast range of country, under various names.
Many Turks served in the Mongolian army; a Turkish race
ruled in Asia Minor at the time that our Map was being
drawn; and the Turks were known as the dangerous neigh-
bours of the Greek Empire. Besides this, we know that
the Ugrian or Magyar conquerors of Hungary in the 10th
century, a race of the same Turanian stock as both Turks
and Mongols, were thought to belong to the family of Gog
and Magog, the great future persecutors of the Church.
And lastly, it may be worth mentioning that one of the
narrators of the atrocities of the Mongols, about 1243 A.D.,
was said to be an Englishman, whose tale is told by Matthew
Paris. The story of their city Taraconta, a word evidently
manufactured to suit the name of the people, its construc-
ASIA. 59
tion, and the debate which Alexander held with a view to
an attack upon the nation, as well as his inability to subdue
them from the inaccessible nature of their country, all this
is described by ZEthicus, and represents the popular belief
of the middle ages; but the poetical romance assures us
that the Taracontes were enclosed by Alexander in the same
wall as the rest of the children of Magog, and that there
they will remain until the coming of Antichrist. One word
only need be added on the word Meoparonitae. Their
name, derived from the myoparo, a light vessel used chiefly
for piratical purposes, indicates the piratical races of the
north, whose ravages on the coast of Gaul are mentioned by
Sidonius Apollinaris in the 5th century, and by Isidore in
the 7th. (Cic. 2 Verr. iii. 186; Arr. Eap. iv.; Curt. viii.
10-23; Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, vi. 312, 343; AEthic. §§
32, 26; Sidon. Apoll. viii. 6, p. 473; Isid. xix. 1-20;
Morley, p. 680; Matth. Paris, Hist. pp. 547, 610; Latham,
War. of Man, p. 61-75; Gibbon, c. lv. vol. vii. p. 89;
Weber, i. v. 5970, 6676, 6664.) Opposite the Island
Taraconta is a triangular space enclosed by the Tiphaean
Mountains, 33iphag jūontrº, with an inscription, telling us
that this region is called @pterophon, condemned to eternal
cold:—#}ct regio @pterophom bicitur : ctermis frigoritius
Dampmata [damnata] : 5ut 33ipijcis montibus. The
district here intended is the one described by Pliny and
Solinus as PTEROPIIOROS REGIO, a region of excessive
cold, and So called because of the feather-like snow-flakes,
which Herodotus calls feathers, and which are constantly
falling there. (Herod. iv. 7; Plin. iv. 88; Solin. 15, 20.)
In the Riphaean Mountains the river called jubiug
ſūrūtūrā takes its rise, and runs into the Euxine Sea,
through three lagoons, on which appears the word 49azlu-urg.
The river intended is probably the TANAIS (Don), and the
Terra-
conta.
60 ASIA.
Scythia.
description is taken from that of Orosius. (Oros. i. 2;
Solin, 40–1.) Adjoining this Snowy region are two figures,
one with a mace, the other with a sword, engaged in com-
bat, and an inscription, founded on Solinus, but agreeing also
in the main with Mela, as follows:–$citijarum gen5 in-
tertug babitantium : āśperior rituš: 3prtuš incolunt:
porula mom ut 535ttom:3 tº anticis, get be iminticorum
capitibus gument:3; amant prelia; OctišDrum crudrem
ex pulmcritius ipšić bitunt; numerſ centum iſomor
crescit, quarum ºxpertum [expertem] CŞār āput, c03 pro-
phanum cºt. (Solin. 15, 15; Mela, ii. 1) Next come the
$citotauri Šttije, SCYTHOTAURI SCYTHE, who, as Solinus
says, slay strangers as sacrificial victims —pro jū3tità
crbunit attemää. Mela calls them Tauri, and reminds us
of the story of Iphigenia. (Solin, 15, 14; Mela, ii. 1.) Then
an inscription, much corrupted, taken from Solinus, referring
to the Satarchae who dispensed with the use of money, and so
escaped all accusations of public avarice:—Catharum [Satar-
chael Šíthe, uglt auri argentique tampmato, in etermum
a puplica [publica] 32 aparicia Nampmaſſcrunt [vindica-
Verunt]. Our cartographer has grievously marred the sense
of the passage by writing dammaverunt instead of vindicave-
"unt, evidently by the mistake of copying the portion of the
word with which the second line of its inscription ends.
Mela adds some particulars indicating the intense cold of
the climate and the unsophisticated manner of the inhabit-
ants. (Solin. 15, 14; Mela, ii. 1) Nearly parallel with
the ſºlubius ſtizotints is another river, fluſius glis qui
rt 3|axatc.3. This represents the Jaxartes, called Laxates by
Solinus, but which, as Pliny and Solinus tell us, was called
Silis by the Scythians. It runs nearly parallel with the Oxus,
viz., from S.E. to N.W.; but the map has given it a contrary
direction, viz., from N. to S. (Plin, vi. § 49; Solin. 49, 5)
ASIA, 61
Above the Silis is a picture of two men engaged in the
Operation which inverts the banquet of Thyestes, and con-
sists in cutting up and devouring the bodies of their de-
ceased parents. The inscription says that they represent
the Essedones, whose custom it was to devour the corpses of
their defunct relations:—(£33ttomeg $ttiſt bic habitant,
quorum moğ egt parentum funera cantibuš progcqui et
compregatić amicorum crtitºuš corpora ip6.a Demttbug
Ianiart at peculum mixtig carmthug tapeg factre, pulz
thriuš a 32 quam a timeig jet abºumi trebentrã. This
account of the habit of the Essedones is given by Herodotus,
and is followed by Mela and Solinus, from whom our author
has borrowed it ; but these writers add that they set the
skulls in gold, and use them as drinking-cups, as was said
of the Scythians above. Instead of this our cartographer
appends a statement, apparently of his own invention, to the
effect that the Essedones thought their mode of disposing of
their friends preferable to allowing them to be devoured by
worms, a sense of the word timed which is found in Claudian.
(Herod. iv. 26 ; Mela, ii. 1; Solin, 15, 13 ; Claud. in
Eutrop. i. 114)
Immediately above the Essedones and their banquet is
a picture of three men, Arimaspi, engaged in combat with a
griffin, for emeralds, as we learn from the inscription : —
(Tarimagpi (Arimaspi) cum gruptig pro 3maraguig bi-
mitamt. A second inscription describes the griffins : —
(ºrigijeg, capitibus ct alig aquiſtaş (aquilas) corport Ironics
imitamtur : Uplantſ, floºrm portatiumt. The description of
the gryphons or griffins seems to come chiefly from Isidore,
and it answers in great measure to the accounts, more or
less credible in themselves, of the great bird called Tokh
or rukh, which was said to be able to take up an elephant
in its talons. So the Bestiaries. Physiologus says, it lives
Scythia.
62 ASIA.
Scythia. in India, and can carry off an ox in its talons for its young
ones. It may be said, further, that the people of Northern
Siberia believe in the existence of birds of enormous size;
regarding, as they do, Some of the fossil bones or horns of
animals which are so often found there as claws or bones of
birds. The story of the one-eyed race, the Arimaspians,
who fight with the gryphons that guard the gold of the
northern regions, is as old as Herodotus, who, however,
expressed strong doubt as to their having one eye only,
seeing, as he says, that people in general have two eyes.
The reader will notice that one at least of the men in the
picture has one eye, “a piercer,” no doubt, in the centre of
his ſorehead. But since the time of Herodotus, the prize
for which the Arimaspians contended underwent a change.
In Pliny it had become precious metals in general, and in
Solinus precious stones, among which emeralds were thought
to hold the third place in value. Our author, therefore,
judiciously adopts the latest conclusion, and decides upon
emeralds. (Herod. iii. 116; iv. 13, 27; Plin. vii. 10;
Mela, ii. 1; Solin. 15, 23 ; Isid. xiv. 3, 32; Yule, Marco
Polo ii. 349, 354; Cahier et Martin, ii. 226.) Above the
Arimaspians are the Hägbaští Šttiſt, the RHOBOSCI, a tribe
mentioned by Ptolemy as living east of the source of the
Volga, and by Orosius as having the altars of Alexander
within their boundaries. (Ptol. vi. 14, 9; Oros. i. 2.) Then
the Šauromate $itije (Plin. vi. § 38; Mela, i. 19 ; Solin.
15, 18), and in a triangular compartment above them the
@Iſlami, who are said to have grey eyes, and to see better
in the night than in the day —%lbani pupillam glaucant
batient ct plug motte bibent. Their peculiar eyesight is
described by Isidore, and their unclean and indecent habits
by AEthicus. They inhabited the country now called Georgia,
(Plin. vii. § 12; Solin, 15, 5; Æthic. 63, 65; Isid. ix. 2.
ASIA. 63
65.) On the other side of the mountains which enclose the
Albani is a stream called jubiuš Ārijen, ACHERON, running
into the Caspian Sea, and an inscription, jig (hic) fluttuš
infºrmalm (infernalium) E332 crºbitur, que ſquil flicità
[? fervens] mate (') ingrºbitur, curren3 at umbrúðið mom-
titlug, ct bic US grijemme patct ut bicitur. This is taken in
substance, and partly in words, from AEthicus, who describes
at length the mysterious and awful river and abyss, which,
he says, is the beginning of Gehenna, and resembles the Dead
Sea in its qualities. It is situate in the dim region beyond
the Caspian Sea and the Umerosi Montes, which are still farther
distant. This alarming description seems to be founded on
the modest remark of Pliny, that not far from the river
Sangarius, in Bithynia, i.e., on the opposite side of the
Euxine, is a harbour called Acone, famous for the plant
aconite, where there is an Acherusian cave, i.e., a cave
emitting noxious vapour. Mela, however, says more than
Pliny, viz., that there is a passage to the infernal regions
there, and that Cerberus was brought out from this cave
(by Hercules). Solinus seems to repeat a part of the state-
ment of Mela, that there is a passage to the infernal re-
gions. Asia Minor, and especially Bithynia, was, and is,
a well-known seat of volcanic disturbance; and perhaps
this so-called cave of Acheron has been mixed up in
hopeless confusion with the volcanic region of Central and
Western Asia. Sir John Mandeville seems to fix the site
near the Caspian gates, and so not far from the not extinct
volcano Demavend; for he says men call the city Cumania,
built at that place by Alexander, the gate of Hell. (Mela, i.
19; Plin. vi. § 4, 30; Solin. 43, 2; AEthic. 59; Isid, xiv.
9, 2; Humboldt, CoSm. i. 232; Somerville, Phys. Geog. i.
83, 258; Mandeville, Trav. p. 257.)
Beyond the river Acheron is a figure of a monster erect,
Scythia.
64 ASIA.
Scythia.
Colchis.
Caspian
Gates.
and holding his tail genteelly in his hand “as a gentleman
Switches his cane,” and the inscription tells us in dog-
Latin that the writer found here beasts like minotaurs, use-
ful in war –3?ic indemi firgtic ſºlingtauri gimilcº at
titlla utileš. This appears to be taken from AEthicus, whose
transcriber says of him that he said he had actually found,
though he, the transcriber, doubts it, young minotaurs in the
deserts, and had educated them and made them useful in
War; a story which reminds us of the Jesuit fathers and
their pet unicorns. (AEthic. 68.) Below this is the slip of
country allotted to the {Haggagett, and below them a some-
what larger one for the (Eumachi (HENIOCHI) $ftijc.
(Plin. vi. § 30; Mela, i. 19 ; Solin. 15, 19.)
Before we pass through the Caspian Gates into Central
Asia, we must notice the country of the Colchi, (Taſcotttm
probincia, and a picture of the Golden Fleece, Đclug
aureum, propter quot, 3a50m a 13 clo (Pelia) rege mig3ttg
£3t. The Colchian province is surrounded by a nameless
river, which may be the Phasis, which Æthicus calls Fasi-
don, but concerning which it is useless to conjecture. It is
perhaps worth noticing that Trevisa, in his translation of
Higden, calls Colchos an “ilond;” and Ralph of Chester an
“ile ;” a notion which seems to be adopted in the Map.
(Mela, i. 19 ; Solinus, 15, 17; Higden, i. 319.)
We come now to the CASPIAN Gates, with an inscription,
slightly varied from Solinus, to the effect that they are en-
tered by a road eight miles long, and so narrow as scarcely
to be passable by a carriage:–1}orter (Taşpic apertuntur
ittmere manufactſ longſ Ottº miliariiş; mam latitutbo pix
plaugtro CŞt permeabiliš. Pliny tells us that they are
properly called Caucasian, but that the name of gates (like
the modern “ports” in the Pyrenees) was given to open-
ings in the great mountain chains in Armenia and Cilicia,
ASIA. 65
as well as near the Caspian Sea. They are mentioned Caspian
by several authors, and are spoken of in the travels of ºates.
Rubruquis as the Iron Gates made by Alexander to ex-
clude the barbarians from Persia. Solinus and Marcian
Capella inform us that in Summer the entrance is rendered
dangerous by serpents, so that they are really accessible only
in winter. The pass is a very narrow and important one,
and there were gates, and a neighbouring fortress; but
Alexander had nothing to do with the fortification: this
idea was a Subsequent one. The mention of Serpents may
have arisen from the statement of Curtius, that serpents of
large size are found in the Caspian Sea. This seems to be
the real site of the mythical enclosure of the barbarous
nations by Alexander, when, according to Æthicus, he con-
structed brazen gates of vast size, and smeared them with
bitumen from the island Tripicia. (Curt. vi. 4, 16; Plin.
v. 99; vi. 30; Ptol. vi. 2, 7, 4; Solin. 47, 1 ; Orosius, 1,
2; AEthic. 40, 59, 60, 62; Trav. of Rubruquis, in Kerr,
Voy. i. 188.)
CHAIPTER IV.
ASIA—Comtinued.
Asia Minor—Armenia–Mcdia—Persia–Assyria—Mesopotamia — Syria–
Phoenicia—Palestine—Arabia—Nubia—Egypt.
THE portion of Asia which remains to be described com-
prises the countries most familiar to the student of classical
and biblical geography, lying between the AEgean Sea in the
W. and the Indus in the E., and extending into the valley
of the Nile to include Egypt and Nubia, which, in the
modern arrangement of the continents, are considered as
belonging to Africa.
The range of mountains in which the Caspian Gates are
placed is connected in the map by a western offset with
jłłong (ſaurug, which is represented as being in the north
of Asia Minor, adjacent to the easterly extremity of the
Euxine Sea. From this a range is continued in the direc-
tion of Syria, forming the division between Asia Minor and
Armenia, and intended for the mountains of Ararat. Two
lines emanate from the extremity of this, one of which is
nameless, while the other is called ſºlomtz; 13arcuatrag,
the PARACHOATRAS of classical geography, generally identified
with the range which runs N.W. and S.E. between Mesopo-
tamia and the Iranian highlands, but which was occasionally
regarded as a connecting link between Taurus and Caucasus,
as we learn from Orosius, i. 2. Parallel with this towards
the N. is the range called ſºlomtz; %icroceraumi, which is
continued towards the S.E. in the ſºlunteg 3riobar; ourg,
ASIA. 67
both of which, according to Orosius, are names for portions
of the great Caucasian chain. The ACROCERAUNII MONTES
represent the Ceraunian branch, described by Pliny and
others as adjacent to the Caspian Sea, and which probably
belong to the true Caucasus. The MONS ARIOBARZANES, de-
scribed by Orosius as dividing the Parthians from the Massa-
getae, denotes more or less definitely some part of the Indian
Caucasus, adjacent to or within the Aryan district, whose
name is represented by Ariobarzanes, possibly by confusion
with the name of the Persian Satrap who repulsed Alexander
at the Susian Pass, within or not very far from this region.
(Curt. v. 3, 17.)
Returning to the head of the Euxine, and the miſm 3 Asia
(Iſaurità, we find a triangular compartment, with a nondescript Minor.
figure, entitled 13turg, of which we can give no account.
Adjoining the Euxine, on the S., is 33afiagonia, and in
a compartment next to it (Tapatoria, with (Trºarra riºt-
tà3, representing MAZACA, afterwards called Caesarea ad
Argaeum. (Solimus, 45, 4 ; Mela, i. 13.) The boundary of
Cappadocia is carried on Southwards to a range of moun-
tains running N.E. and S.W., entitled, regardless of gram-
mar, ſtigmtes ºutgre, probably the MONS ARGAEUs of
Cappadocia, represented erroneously as running down to
the Mediterranean. (Solinus, 45, 4; Marc. Cap. vi. 690.)
Westward is the river 43actalug, rising in a mountain of
3|tuta t the Pactolus really flows into the Hermus, but is
made here to flow into the Euxine, having been joined by
the river 39clleg, the MELES, which Solinus calls the prin-
cipal river of Asia. The MELES is mentioned by Isidore as
near Smyrna, and he also mentions the Hylas as a river of
Asia Minor. (Solinus, 40, 15 ; Mela, i. 14; Isid. xiii. 21,
21; xiv. 3, 43.) Possibly the name Helles may also have
some reference to the large river Halys. The mistake as
.68 ASIA.
Asia
Minor.
to the Pactolus appears again in the map of Henry of
Mayence.
Beyond the mountains on the right (S) of Lydia is a
space enclosed between the river jrritug and the Augean
mountains, within which are the river (ſubmit5 , the city
of (Iſar:3ttà, and ſºlinittàta, which may perhaps mean
MYRIANDRUS, on the coast of Syria, near a nameless moun-
tain range, perhaps the promontorium Ammodes of Mela.
(Tinctitug 5imit5 seems to represent the bay of ISSUs,
ISSICUS SINUs, and 13tumium cibitää is undoubtedly Ico-
nium, though much out of its place. (Mela, i. 12, 13;
Marc. Cap. vi. 612; Solinus, 38, 2.; Oros. 1, 2.)
Below the mountains is a list of countries, 3 tragmía
(LYCAONIA), 4}crginia (PISIDIA), (ſtilitia, 33auria (ISAURIA),
and §§omía (IONIA): this list is taken perhaps from Isidore,
xiv. 3, 38. In this neighbourhood we meet with the fol-
lowing towns —%intinchct cipitag, probably Antioch in
Pisidia; (Ephesus, On a nameless river, perhaps the Cays-
ter; and on the shore of the Mediterranean a series of towns,
3} crgempangiuš, probably Perga of Pamphylia (Acts xiii.
13), @Italia, (ſelmº (TELMESSUs, Solinus, 40, 1), 3% istra
(LYSTRA, Acts xiv. 6), ſºlitrea (MYRA, Acts xxvii. 5),
13atera (Acts xxi. 1), and ſºlilttuš (Acts xx. 15)—all, per-
haps, intended to illustrate the travels of St. Paul. On
the other side of a nameless river, perhaps the Maeander,
is 43rtemma (Priene). (Solinus, 40, 8)
Then comes the river (fºrmug (Hermus), with two
sources, one of which is probably intended for the HYLLUS.
Near the Euxine is the figure of a lynx, who, we are in-
formed, can see through a stone wall, and who deposits a
black stone (3£imy pitct per murdà ct mtingit lapturm
migrum). This story, though scouted by Pliny, is related
by Solinus and Isidore, and repeated in the mediaeval Besti-
ASIA. 69
aries, as one too good to be lost; and the stone thus deposited
is said to be the ligurium, or Lyncurium, the ligure of Scrip-
ture, Ex. xxviii. 19. (Plin. xxxvii. 53; Solinus, 2, 38;
AElian, War. Hist. iv. 17; Isid. xii. 2, 20.)
Below the lynx is a boundary line, ending in a moun-
tain, with (Ralatia at the other (N) end; S. of this line
are two mountains, in one of which rises the river 3Licuš
(LYCUS), with (Éraclea (HERACLEA) near its mouth, on the
coast of the Euxine ; and in the other a river entitled
fluijtug ct larug ſūlāb, which must mean, under some dis-
guise or other, the river HYLAS. (Solimus, 42, 2; 43, 1.)
Between these rivers is the word lºumia, meaning pro-
bably BITHYNLA ; and on the shore of the HELLESPONT are
32icca, (Talcinomia (CHALCEDON), both in Bithynia, and
famous for Ecclesiastical Councils, and 3) icomtuta. On
the other (S) side of the river Mad is 33rugiag, Pºusa,
probably the town better known as Cius, and which is
mentioned by Solinus (42, § 2) in connection with the
river Hylas, on which it stood.
Above is ſigng libba, which perhaps means Mount
TMOLUS, mentioned by Solinus as Mons Lydia, Tºmolus, but
which is described in a v. l. of the passage as lyda et timolus.
Close by is jrigia infrrior, described by Isidore as minor.
(Isid. xiv. 3, 41; Solinus, 40, 10.) Next to Brusias comes
a town called $iticum 3 hit,03, which may perhaps mean
Asiaticum, though in defiance of grammar; then 3 a.m.5a-
cus, 39tlium (probably Ilium novum), and, lastly, QTroja
cipitag titllicošā,-all these, rightly or wrongly, on the shore
of the Hellespont. (Plin. v. 124; AEthic. p. 52; Orosius, i. 2.)
Teturning to Mons Taurus, beyond the Caspian Gates,
we find a picture of Noah's Ark, with the inscription girrija
320t 3:3:3it in mtDittituş Şārmenir. That the remains
of the Ark were visible after the subsidence of the Deluge
Asia
IMinor.
Y.
Helles-
pont.
Armenia.
70 ASIA.
Armenia.
Tigris.
was the general belief down to a late period. It is men-
tioned by Josephus, S. Jerome, and others. Marco Polo
speaks of the Ark as existing on the top of a high moun-
tain. Sir John Mandeville says “men may seen it a ferr
in cleer wedre,” but none of these writers assert that they
had seen it themselves, and AEthicus doubts the fact of
any remains existing. The words of the inscription are
taken from Isidore, with a little ungrammatical alteration.
(Joseph. Ant. i. 3, 6 ; Jer, de Situ, vol. iii. p. 126 (861);
Philostorg. iii. 8 ; Yule, Marc. P. i. 44, 49; Mandeville,
Trav. p. 148; Isid. xiv. 3, 35 ; AEthic. 105, pp. 54, 79.)
Beyond the Ark is %ircambeg 3uperior, which, no doubt,
stands for Armenia the Greater, according to the division
mentioned above by Isidore, but for the word Arcandes we
cannot account with certainty. The other division, %irmenia
inferior, appears on the other side of the mountains.
Within the compartment formed by the Acroceraunian
and Parcoatras mountains is (Tijiūtria, representing pro-
bably the Iberia of Orosius, with a thought also of the
Tibai'eni-no very distant neighbours. (Mela, iii. 5; ABthic.
70, p. 54.) Upon the range of Parcoatras is a city
3rmenia, which perhaps represents Artaxata.
At the point where a range of mountains, probably the
Elegos of Solinus, almost meets the Parcoatras, is the source
of the Tigris, (ſigrig fluſius ct lacus, which shortly falls
into a lake called in the map @retuša 3Lattig, though the
name Tigris is also applied to it in the above inscription.
This lake is no doubt the lake Wan, Aretisa of Solinus,
Arethusa of Pliny. (Plin. vi. 127; Solin. 37, 5, 6)
Following loosely the descriptions of these authors, the
Tigris seems to pass under or through a mountain, and to
disappear, and then emerging from it, to take the name of
(Tomtitug, a name which appears to proceed in a confused
ASIA. 71
way from the descriptions of Pliny and Solinus, who say
that from the point where the current becomes swifter
the river takes the name of Tigris, which means “an
arrow.” The words are unde concitatur, a celeritate Tigris
&ncipit vocari. (Plin. vi. 127; Solin. 37, 5.) It soon joins
another stream Springing from two heads in Mount Caucasus,
fluniuš Ārarm, and fluttuš ſºutbug. At some distance
from their junction is a stream which appears to connect
the Indus with the Tigris, bearing the name fluttuš
#ectarum. The river Arawn no doubt denotes the ARBIs,
for which name a v. l. ARARIM is given in Isidore. The
Arbis, or rather Arabis, is a river of Gedrosia. For Wuthus
and Hecdar no Satisfactory explanation suggests itself, unless
the former stands for the Aduma, a river of Susiana, and the
latter be thought to represent the Icarus, a river flowing into
the Oxus, for which a v. l. has Achrum, or one of the canals
connecting the Euphrates with the Tigris. (Plin. vi. 52,
120, 135; Xen. Anab. 1, 7; Isid. xiv. 3, 8) Below the
junction of the Hecdarum the river for some distance is
called (ſigrig, and finally (ºttàcità, probably a misnomer
for EULABUS, which joins the Tigris at a short distance from
its mouth. (Plin. vi. 137; Solin. 33, 4)
In the Space between Hecdarum and the fluvius Ararm
is a town entitled Häagră cipitaš ſtictorum, mentioned
probably from its occurrence in the book of Tobit. (Tob, i.
14; iv. 20; ix. 2.)
Beyond the river Hecdarum is an inscription—ſºrba,
3}crgina. Then the following—Ommig ſhirbia, parthia,
33rrätta, at Orientſ fluming ºnto, at Grcturmtr (Tigri, a
3rptºntrigné (Tauro (Tattragin, a meritic litutºro mari
longituting patrnt trruccirg £3 pass. p. (patent) latt-
tubint Tſū. This is taken, with some variations,
Tigris.
Media,
Bersia.
72 ASIA,
Media,
Persia.
from Pliny. The form Persida is found in Orosius and
Isidore. (Plin. vi. 137; Oros. i. 2; Isid, xiv. 3, 11.)
Below this we find an inscription, which is taken, with
some blunders, from Orosius, i. 2, to the effect that the
above countries are mountainous and rugged:—Cºmmcø bec
region c3 5itu terrarum montungſ (!) gibt aggerſ.
Beyond Media is PERSIDA, and near this the inscription
3}ergipolić caput, 3}rrºtti remgni a 33rrått, rege tom-
3tructa, with a figure of the city below. The inscription is
taken in substance from Isidore, xv. 1, 8. Then come the
river $uga and Šuša cipitaş. The name of the river is
taken from Isidore, xv. 1, 10, or from AEthicus; but as
there was no river of this name, the Choaspes is probably
meant. (Isid. xv. 1, 10; ABthic. p. 18.)
Next comes the inscription 3 amitz (Elamitae) principc3
4}crgíbig, from Isid. ix. 2, 3, and the river Dalina, which
perhaps represents the Dalierus of Solinus, which Pliny calls
Icarus, and Mandeville the Dalay; but this river flows not
into the Indus, but into the Oxus. Pliny and Ptolemy
mention a little river Daras, which flows into the Persian
Gulf. (Plin. vi. 52, 110; Ptol. vi. 8, 4; Solinus, 19, 4;
Mandeville, p. 21.1.)
Then come (Tarmamia regio, and Étugia oppinum
mobile. It is difficult to account for this latter name; the
only town of note in Carmania was Harmuza ; but this is
not noticed by any of the authorities whom our cartographer
usually consulted.
Close to the Persian Gulf is 3mbripolis, probably
ALEXANDROPOLIS, the town of Parthia mentioned by Pliny,
vi. 113, and as Alexandria by Solinus, 54, 2.
Between the two mouths of the (Bugtug (the EULEUS),
is (Tarax Uppitium piciºğimuş intimum, which no doubt
stands for Pliny’s description, Charaa, oppidum. Persici sinus
ASIA. 73
2nlimum. The town meant is Chaº'aw Spasinu, in Susiana, Media,
between the mouths of the Tigris and Eulacus. (Ptol. vi. 3, Persia.
2; Plin. vi. 124, 138.)
Returning to the source of the Tigris, we find on its left
bank cipitag #2 intuce, and higher up the inscription 49artijia
at Hºmbic finitiuſ; memºraliter bicitur uðſſue at ſºlegopuz
tamiam. $ont (sunt) in ca 3rarugia, Barthia, 335iria,
£ituta, 33rrgina. Šunt in carbiti. regma: a liture $titija.
rum uggur at marr rubrum ſº paşşuunt. This is
taken from Isidore, and founded on Pliny. (Plin. vi. 137;
Solin. 55, 1; Isid. xiv. 3, 8.)
Beyond this we have a town and the words #33tria
bicitur at 333itr filín $rm. gut bant region.cm primuş
incolitit, taken from Isidore, and founded on Gen. x. 11, 22;
and below this, between two converging lines, Øſtſiatycni
primi @giriorum, which expresses the meaning of Solinus,
46, 1 ; Plin. vi. 41 ; and Marcian Capella, vi. 691.
Below this are two streams, which join the Euphrates
shortly above Babylon. One of these, entitled jLubittg
Ölantiš, connects the Euphrates with the Tigris, and thus
Seems to represent one of the various canals which crossed
the plaim at this point ; but as to the name Wadus we can
offer no suggestion. The other stream is designated (Torarus,
which may possibly be intended for the scriptural Chebar, a
name for which there were various forms in classical geo-
graphy—Chaboras, Aborrhas, and Aburas. The Euphrates
itself, (Eufratrº flutius, is represented as rising in the
Acroceraunii Montes and flowing into the Persian Gulf.
In the space between the last river and the source of the Meso-
Tigris is ſtirşUpſtämtia, in which are $amūSaita ripitag, potamia.
SAMOSATA, which was not in Mesopotamia, though on the
Euphrates, and Daijaíš riºttaş, but what place is intended
by the latter is not certain ; perhaps Daras, a fortified town
74 ASIA.
Meso-
potamia.
of Mesopotamia, mentioned during the late wars between
the Greek Empire and the Persians. (Photius, Biblioth. 63,
65.) Between the Wadus and Corayus is jºigtli cipitaš,
NISIBIs, placed incorrectly on the Euphrates. The rivers
Abana and Pharpar, Øſſiana and jarfar, the two rivers so
well known in connection with the history of Naaman (2 Kings
v. 12), are made to fall into the Euphrates. Between the
Euphrates and Tigris comes (ſurríg 33abel, and a long in-
scription concerning Babylon, taken chiefly from Orosius,
which may be read thus:–33abilonia a ſºcmûrocł, nigante
fumbata; a 32ing et $framine reparata; campi planitie
umbique conspicua; matura Inci Ittiā3ima (laetissima, Oros);
castrorum facic menitºuš paritiuš per quantum bisposita.
{Hurorum latituto 3L cubitorum, città altitubo guater
tanta. §mbitus urbig 3,3}{### miliaria circumplecitur.
iſłłurug coctile late (coctili latere) atque interfugſ, bitumine
compactuš. jū33a extringttuš late pateng bice ampnig
(amnis) circumflutt, % fronte murdrum cente (centum)
porte erec (aereae). Hipòa autºm latitung in consumma-
time pinnarum utroque laterr habitaculiā cque (acque)
bigpo.gitig pictmag quabrigaš in metrid capit. (Oros. ii.
6; Isid. xv. 1, 4; Curt. v. 1, 24, 26; Solinus, 56, 1)
A little more to the right is terra 3Battlomír, with a
tower, the Tower of Babel (Gen. xi, 5, 9). Above the
words Euphrates fl., is a sort of battlemented frame, with
a head, and the inscription #}ur baſict et patria rt (Tallica.
The figure within the frame probably represents the Patriarch
Abraham, and there is a reference no doubt to Ur of the
Chaldees, but the grammatical structure of the sentence is
not apparent. Nearer to the Euphrates is the word (guiſe-
miſm i.e. Arabia the Happy, and upon the river a large town
called (Tartamug cipitag, which perhaps represents Carche-
mish, which is described by the Vulgate of 2 Chr. xxxv. 20,
ASIA. 75
as Charcemis juasta Euphraten. (Plin. vi. 138; Solinus, 33,
5 ; Oros. i. 2.) On the other side of the Euphrates we have
fl. 3|ak, running into that river; but what river is intended
is uncertain. Beyond this is a representation of the Pepper
forests, gilbag pipereag, which have been noticed before,
page 39, and which are placed by Higden in Arabia. Near
this is an inscription releating to Teman —Omniš bec
regio auštralig (Tijcman Uttitur, the S.E. portion of Arabia,
mentioned by Amm. Marcell, xxiii. 6; in Jer. xlix. 7; and
other passages of Scripture.
We now return to Armenia Inferior, just below the Ark,
and we find HDecuga, i.e. Dascusa, called in the Itinerary
Dacusa (Plin. v. 83, vi. 27; Oros. i. 2; Antonin. Itin.
209, 3); and ſºlſtima, which name probably represents
the city Melitene or Melitima, a town from which came the
name of the Roman legion, called the “thundering legion,”
mentioned by Euseb. v. 5. Pliny places it in Cappadocia, but
Ammianus Marc. in Armenia Minor, and calls it Melitina.
(Solinus, 45, 3; Amm. Marc. XX. 8; Bingham, Ant., vol. iii.
95.)
Below this is a mondescript creature called (ſigoloprs OT
Gägglopeg, with webbed feet, and a tail, holding in its hands
an article which may be said to be something between a
thyrsus and a parasol, which it is tenderly regarding with
uplifted gaze; but what creature is intended does not
appear.
Beyond this, to the right, is an animal with curling
horns, representing the mythical bomacus of Phrygia, with a
description taken almost verbatim from Solinus—in jrigia
maścitur animal qui Niritur hommatum. (Taput taurimum,
juba cquitta, cornua multiplici firru, profluºto citi brm-
trig fintium currit prr Intgitutinent trium jugºrum,
cujus arbor quirrit (quid quid) attigerit aburit. (Plin
Meso-
potamia.
Armenia.
Inferior.
76 ASIA.
Syria.
IPhoenicia.
viii. 40 ; Solinus, 40, 10.) In the picture the latter part
of the description is represented as in lively action.
Above this creature we find $tria, Šoltag, and @ppamma
cityitag. Of these names Sobas indicates the kingdom of
Zobah (Vulg. Soba, 1 Sam. xiv. 47; 2 Sam. viii. 3, x. 6);
and Appamna stands for Apamea in Syria (Solin. 40, 7;
Isid. xv. 1, 15.) Beyond is Contagrua (Solin. 37, 1; Isid.
xiv. 3. 17), a district of Syria.
Returning to the left, we find, next to the monster
Ugolopes, Øntiochia cipitaş, Antioch of Syria, placed upon
a river which in the Map is called fluttuš jermug. This
latter name is difficult to explain : Antioch really stood on
the Orontes, but the course assigned to the Fernus on the
Map places it rather in the position of the Pyramus. A
somewhat similar mistake occurs in the map of Henry of
Mayence, where it is named Tedmus. On the bank of this
river stands MONS CASIUS, with an inscription referring to
its height, which was much exaggerated by classical geo-
graphers —ſłlong (Ca33ittà Ng quo bitrfur glgättä 3Glíð
abbur quarta digilia mortig. (Plin v. 80; Solin. 36, 3.)
Just above this is 3:35pmírig probincia, PHOENICIA, and
near it ſºlomä 3ſ ſtantiš. In Phoenicia is 3Läſſbittant,
LAODICEA of Syria, on the Sea coast, not rightly in Phoenicia ;
@rchag, referred to in Gen. x. 17, and mentioned by Isid.
ix. 2, 24; Itin. 148; and Itin. Hieros. 583, 2 . (see also
Travels of Willibald, Early Trav. p. 14); then a nameless
town, which may be Aradus, mentioned by Isidore in the
same article as Archas; and then the following places: (Tri-
polić, 36eritug, and, very much out of its place, Øſcarott,
which last stands for Ekron (Josh. xv. 11), where the Vulg.
has Accaron. (Hieron. de Siſu, vol. ii. p. 869 (146); Bing-
ham, Amt. iii. pp. 70, 205.)
Just beyond Acaron comes in the mountain range of
ASIA. 77
3|túanttº, following which, upwards, we come by a bend to Syria.
jūom3 (5alaauth, MoUNT GILEAD, which is called in 1 Mac.
v. 9, 17, and elsewhere, Galaad and Galaaditis, on the east
side of the Jordan. Upon Mount Gilead, greatly out of its
place, is 3Damaštuš. From its extremity rises turren3
}{abotij, the brook JABBOK, or, as it stands in the Vulg.
Jeboe, running into the Jordan.
Just above this is 3 mome, denoting the territory of the
Ammonites, of which the Jabbok was the boundary. (Deut.
iii. 16); and near it a nondescript animal, entitled ſºlargſk
ticătia trangmittata. It has two webbed feet, and two with
toes or claws, a formation which justly entitles it to the
epithet transmulata ; but what creature is intended, whether
a chamaeleon, or the animal called by Pliny taramdrus and
by Solinus parandrus, which changes its colour at pleasure,
but which they say has horns, it is not easy to say. (Plin.
viii. 124, ix. 85 ; Solin. 30, 25.)
Near this is ſtigabitt and 33rtra riºttag #raút, the
city of Petra. (Plin. vi. 144; Bing. iii. 61.) Near this,
fluiſittà 3rmon ri cipitag, the town AROER, and river ARNON.
(Deut. iv. 48; Josh. xii. 2.) Then mtong $zir (Gen. xxxvi.
8), mom's jagga, Mount PISGAH (Deut. iii. 27, iv. 49), and,
on the other side of the Arnon, a female figure, very forlorn-
looking, with the words its or 3Loth mutata in prtrant
3alig (Gen. xix. 26), and mtong 3 tarmit, mount ABARIM
(Numb. xxvii. 12).
Returning to Mount Libanus, we find the double source
of the Jordan, fom 3 for, Jor, and fung Dam, as was an-
ciently believed to be the case. (Isid. xiii. 21, 18; see
Robinson, Bibl. Res. iii. 412.) The river expands itself into
the Sea of Galilee, marr (5alilrr, and after receiving the
brook Jabbok, ends in the Dead Sea, ſºlarc ſºlortuum,
having on its surface $0 Nom r, and (50m or r. In the
78 ASIA.
Syria.
Palestine.
region between the river and Mount Gilead is Trcapolis
regiſ a littent cipitatitutº bitta. The towns are repre-
sented, but no names given.
We now enter the Holy Land itselſ, and below the
source of the Jordan is an inscription a Dam usque an
33rträätte (ſū paššuum longitutine, which appears to
be taken from S. Jerome. (Hieron, ad Dard. Ep. 129, vol.
i. p. 1134 (972).) Then come (ſtgärta 3.3bilippi, (Tamta
(5alilee, and a boundary line running down to an angle
with the mountains. At the opening between this angle
and mtong (Tarntclug is (ſtrug, TYRE ; and in the tribe of
3Dam, Cholūmùtúa, PTOLEMAIs, Hope, JOPPA, and Diogº
polis, formerly LYDDA, one of the places visited by S. Paula.
(Hieron. Ep. 108, 8, and Ep. 129; Anton. Itán. 150,
3.) 3|ampmta follows: Pliny says that two places bear
this name. The Itinerary mentions Jamnia, and the Peu-
tinger Table both this and Joppa. Jamnia is mentioned in
1 Mac. x. 69. It answers to Jabneel. (Josh. xv. 11; Plin.
v. 68 ; Ptol. v. 16, 2; Ant. Itin. 150, 4.) Then come
@3calom cipitag, and @ctua, which perhaps answers to
Azotus. (Acts viii. 40.) Returning to the tribe of Dan,
we find next to it 33rr, and within its enclosure ſºldbirt,
famous in Maccabaean history. (1 Mac. ii. 1; Zuallardo,
Viagg. p. 248.) Next to this is the half tribe of Mamasseh,
bimibia tribuš ſtamāśāt, containing mtmä (ºffraim, placed
rightly enough. Between this and Asher are the names
Žaliuluit and §§33atar, and in the portion so named
ntottò (Iſator, with fl. totrºng (ſigott (Kishon) flowing
from it, a connection suggested by comparison of Judg. iv.
12 with v. 21, and not incorrect in fact. (Hieron. Ep. 108,
13, de situ, p. 887 (187); Judg. iv. 12, Vulg.)
Above Mount Tabor is NAZARET and ſºlabian. What
place is intended by the latter is not clear, but it may per-
ASIA. 79
haps be intended for the land of Madian, mentioned in Palestine.
Judith ii. 25, as a name belonging to Palestine, though de-
noting the region properly called Midian.
Returning to the boundary line of the tribe of Judah
we find terra fulja, with 13ctijcſ at the left (N) extremity
of it, and at the right (S) 36ethleem, pictorially depicted
So as to represent the birthplace of Our Lord, containing,
as it seems, a bed. To the right (S) of this is (Tuja, Gaza,
which is spelt Caza in a v. l. of the Itinerary (ſtin. 151,
2); and (5trara, which, from its situation, is probably
Gerar (Gen. xx. 1), called Gerara in 2 Chr. xiv. 13, where,
in later times, there was a famous monastery. It is men-
tioned by S. Jerome as the metropolis of Palestine, and is
here represented as within 33alāticutamt. (Hieron. de situ,
p. 898 (215).)
Above these, in a circular form, is the city of JERUSALEM, Jerusalem.
cipitag 3) crusalem, placed as the centre of the world (see
Introduction, p. xxii., and Isid. xiv. 3, 21), with m0m3 (ſal-
baric, and a figure of our Lord on the Cross, which bears
the “ title,” on which may be indistinctly read 32a3areth.
South of this is tallig 3,05aph, the valley of Jehoshaphat;
above it ſºlomä (Pliºcti, and above this again Šalem, Šilt,
and $abaa, the first of which is no doubt SHALEM, near
Sichem (Gen. xxxiii. 18), said by S. Jerome to be the place
of which Melchizedek was king; Sile is probably SHILOH,
and Sabaa probably stands for the Convent of St. Saba, not
far from the Dead Sea. (Hieron. Ep. 73, 7; 108, 13; Vit.
S. Hilar, 27; Fabri, Evagatorium ii. 147; Zuallardo, Viagg.
p. 275; Robinson, Res. i. 382.)
Above is mottº (ſari; or (Taltí, Mount GERIZIM, and
mong (śchal, Mount EBAL, which is given as Gebal by S.
Jerome. (Deut. xxvii. 4, 12; Hieron. de situ, vol. ii. p. 899
(219).
80 ASIA.
Jerusalem.
In a line with Sabaa is JERICHO, with the inscription,
tläſſttt at cipitatem 3rrico bucchat ſloggrg pupulug
(populum) #3racl. To this point a track may be seen,
reaching to a town in Egypt, hereafter to be mentioned,
which represents the path of the Israelites from that country.
Below Jericho is (Étrom cipitag, HEBRON, and on the
right (S) cipitaš Šaracema, either Kedar, of which S. Jerome
Speaks as being in the country of the Saracens, or Zorah, the
birthplace of Samson, called by S. Jerome Saraa. (Hieron.
Com. in Ezek. xxvii. 21; vol. v. p. 258 (318); in Jud. xiii.
vol. ix. pp. 378, 533; Joseph. Amt. v. 8, 12; Judg. xiii. 2;
xvi. 31.) Then fluttuš Āšpala : tût ferrum matat ct
pluma mergitur. This denotes the lake Asphaltitis, of
which Pliny and Solinus say that nothing will sink in it,
while Mela speaks of leaves sinking in it. (Plin. 5, 72;
Solinus, 30, 11; 35, 2; Mela, iii. 9; Isid. xiii. 19, 3; 13, 6.)
Opposite to the Valley of Jehoshaphat is ſilong (5clüge;
near it puttuš juramenti, “well of the oath,” and above it
36ergatºre cipitag, the former representing the famous well
of Beer-Sheba, the other the town which existed in S.
Jerome's time, and of which extensive ruins are still to be
seen. (Hieron. de situ, Vol. iii. pp. 915, 930 (258, 294);
Tristram, Topog. of Holy Land, p. 22.)
Below this is a bird entitled aſſig cirritutg. What bird
this is, or why it is placed in this region, does not appear.
The cinnamolgus, said by Pliny and Solinus to be an Arabian
bird, which feeds on cinnamon, may perhaps be conjectured.
(Plin. x. 97; Solinus, 33, 15; Isid. xii. 7, 23.)
Above Beersheba is 33amata city., probably Ramah,
called by Josephus Ramatha. (1 Sam. i. 1; Joseph. Amt. v.
10, 2; Early Trav. p. 5.) Then #}rräura city., probably
Elusa, in Idumea, which is the same as Shur. (Gen. xxv.
18 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7; Ptol. v. 16, 10.) Just above is ſigms
ASIA. 81
©rch, and below 33inocerura city. Et fluº., the river and
town of Rhinocorura. The river is called Sihor in Scrip-
ture, and also “river of Egypt.” The place is mentioned in
Josh. xiii. 2, and is now El-Arish, and the stream is Wady
el-Arish. It is made to rise in a mountain, and fall into the
Mediterranean. (Plin. v. 68; Ant. Itin. 151, 4 ; Hieron.
de situ, iii. 920, 933 (271, 298); Com. in Esai. xxvii. 12;
vol. iv. 312 (368).) On the south side or left bank of
the river, is an inscription #cc marig lingua bintuit
(Egiptum et #alestimam, which represents the account Of
Pliny, v. 68.
Passing beyond the Dead Sea, in the track of the Israel-
ites, we find a crowd of figures, with the superScription
3ſubct, and a sort of ribbon, on which might be supposed to
be inscribed their prayer to the idol before which they are
Rneeling. The idol represents no doubt the golden calf, but
has above it ſtaffum, which, in all probability, stands for
Mahomet, whose name, under the form Mawmet, became, by
a misrepresentation natural enough, but very incorrect, a
general name in mediaeval languages for an idol. (Nares,
Glossary, and Yule, Marco Polo, i. 174.)
Above this is ſilong $imag, and near it ſºlouşcă, with
one of the tables of the Law, inscribed, in mediaeval fashion,
with a cross: he is represented as in the act of receiving
the “tables of the covenant,” tabulf tºtamrmti, from the
hand of Jehovah. Above him come ſºlabian (Midian, Gen.
XXV. 2, 4), and $atia, a name probably due to Ps. lxxii. 10,
with which passage the mention of the Silva, piperea, men-
tioned above, is probably connected. Then ſigns (Taşşiu.3,
Mons CASIUS, properly on the border of Egypt, near the
Mediterranean ; and beyond it 3irabica Urgetta. (Plin. v.
65; Solinus, 33, 3 ; Mela, 1, 10.)
Passing to the right (S.E.) side of the Indian Ocean, we
F
Jerusalem.
Arabia.
82 ASIA.
Nubia.
Nubia and
Ethiopia.
find at the top ſºlong Ørbeng, the burning mountain, placed
by Pliny in Ethiopia, and called by the Greeks, he says,
Théon ochema, from which it is four days' voyage to the
western horn of Africa. (Plin. vi. 197; Mela, iii. 9.) Below
is oppíbum 32ibit (Nubia), which, perhaps, may represent
the town Tenupsis, mentioned by Pliny, vi. 192. Next to
this ſºlitici gem; 3)ibit (Ethiopc3 (Thristiami amitiggimi.
This represents the Ethiopians or Abyssinians, who had been
converted to Christianity in the 4th century through the
preaching of Frumentius. (Socr. Hist, i. 19 ; Soz. ii. 24;
Cosmas Indic. iii. p. 179; Athanas. Apol. ad ComSt. c. 31,
vol. i. p. 250.)
Near this is jiulug fom 3 ſºili, the unexplored lake,
which was the supposed source of the Nile, and below it the
inscription #2it lotuş bicitur ſºlogge it cºt aque Drtuš,
which perhaps refers to Ex. ii. 10, transferring the meaning
of the name Moses to the source of the river itself, from
which he was rescued. (Plin. v. 51, 55; Solinus, 32, 2, 11 ;
Mela, iii. 9.) Near this is a portal, with gates, in a range
of mountains, entitled monttä 32ttite. The mountains are
perhaps those mentioned by Pliny, as being near the Ocean,
and the portal perhaps denotes the position of the Cataract.
In the Peutinger Table the mountains are placed near a
marsh, per quam Wilus transit. (Plin. v. 51, 54, vi. 189,
194; Solinus, 32, 2.)
Taking the left bank of the Nile (S. and right hand in
the Map), we come to ſºlottagteria $ancti ºntottii in Utz
getto, with two churches, and a figure with the word ŻUžimää
above it. These are the famous monasteries of St. Antony,
described by Socrates and Sulpicius Severus, who says that
he visited them. An account of Zosimas is given by Eva-
grius. (Socr. H. E. iv. 23; Sulp. Sev. Dial. i. 19 ; Evagr.
iv. 7; Butler, Lives of Saints, i. 446.)
ASIA. 83
Near Zosimas and the Nile there is a picture of a Nubia and
creature with the head of a bird, but furnished with horns, Ethiopia.
hoofs for feet, and holding a club in its hands; and near
it the inscription $atirii, which are described by a Bestiary
as monstruosi, and by Isidore as beings well known to S.
Antony. (Mela, i. 4; Isid. xi. 3, 21 ; Harl. MSS. 3244.)
Below the Satyr is $ol, a star representing the sun, placed
here perhaps to mark the supposed point of the tropic of
Cancer (Plin. ii. 183; v. 56), and just below an interest-
ing creature shading itself from the sun, just now mentioned,
with its lip. Others, as we have seen, use their feet as
parasols; this person turns his somewhat exuberant under-
lip to good account in this service —(Keng labro pro-
mintenti unbe gibt faciem ghumbrang at 30lem. This
is taken, with much alteration but no improvement, from
Isidore. (Isid. xi. 3, 18.)
On the opposite side of the monteg (Ethiopic altise Egypt.
gime is a picture of the Sphinx, with an inscription forming
an hexameter verse:–$pijinx abig egt pemma, gerprits prūr,
frontº purlla, reminding us of Ausonius's description —
“Sphinx volucris pennis, pedibus fera, fronte puella.”
Auson. Idyll. xi. 40 ; Plin. vi. 184.
Between the Sphinx and the Nile there is a picture of a
centaur grasping what looks like a Serpent, with the super-
scription, jaunt gemi-catalli jūmints. Fauns and centaurs
were originally distinct mythological beings, but in later times
they came to be associated, and thus the term fawn is used here
for a centaur, which formerly it could not have been. The
word Semi-caballus appears to be formed on the same prin-
ciple, though in an inverse direction, as the classical words
semivir, Semibos, etc., but when it came into use we are unable
84 ASIA.
Egypt,
to say. Adjacent to the Sphinx, we have turrig Gel cititag
$ient; then $ience gemteg, and 13uttuš ĀGli3 multum
atmirabilis, the tower and celebrated well of Syene, in
which it was believed that the sun at the time of the Solstice
cast no shadow at mid-day. (Ezek. xxx. 6; Plin. ii. 183; V.
59; vi. 178; Strabo, ii. 133; xvii. 817; Solinus, 32, 16.)
Below this is a town, ſºabbaber cipitag braconibuſ; plema,
which may perhaps be NAPATA, a town in Egypt, or rather
perhaps of Ethiopia, which was the metropolis of Candace,
and at which S. Matthew is said to have suffered martyr-
dom. The dragons are perhaps only a feature characteristic
of the country in general. Pliny mentions a race, the
Candei, no very distant neighbours to the place now before
us, who made serpents their usual food. (Plin. vi. 169, 182;
Ptol. iv. 7, 19; Strabo, xvii. p. 820; Cave, Lives of Apostles,
i. 178.)
Returning to the district between the upper part of the
Nile, where it passes through the Nubian mountains and the
Red Sea, we find, on the shore of the latter, the following
towns —(ſtatijima portug ct cipitag, probably TACONA of
the Itinerary, spelt in a v. l. Cacona (Ant. Itin. 157, 1);
cityitag 33 crenice, the well-known port on the Red Sea
(Plin. v. 31, vi. 103; Solin. 54, 7; Isid. xiv. 5, 5);
3Laureum portug, which, as Santarem suggests, may repre-
sent the street or quarter of Alexandria called LAURA, whose
name was the origin of the name lawrae, given to monastic
cells in the East (Athenaeus, xii. 57, p. 541; Epiph.
haeres, 69; Evagr. H. E. i. 16; Bingham, Ant. ii. 246);
(5a; era cipitag, mentioned by S. Jerome; and 43rllicie,
which probably denotes the district of Pelusium. (Hieron.
de situ, p. 992, 226; Plin. v. 49; Solin. 33, 23.) Near
this is a breach in the Red Sea, marking the passage of the
Israelites:–Ürümşttuš filtorum #3racl per ſäare 13ub-
ASIA. 85
rum, and below this 335iaroti, (Pi—hahiroth) (Ex. xiv. 2;
Numb. xxxiii. 7), and @titudg. (Plin. v. 60; Solin. 32,
41; Ant. Itin. 158, 4.)
Near this is a picture of the Phoenix, with the inscrip-
tion —13 benix abiš: her quingetig (quingentis) bibit
ammig : CŞt autzm unica aſſig in Grüe. This description,
founded on Pliny and Solinus, seems to be taken from
Isidore. The golden ring round the neck is carefully re-
presented; the age is taken from the same authority, though
Pliny, who is sceptical on the whole matter, gives this
at 509 instead of 500 ; and his statement that the mar-
vellous bird migrated from Arabia to Egypt accounts for
its position in the Map. (Plin. x. 4; Solinus, 33, 11 ;
Isid. xii. 7, 22; Epiph. Physiol. c. 11; Cahier et Martin,
Mélanges d’Archéologie, ii. 182.)
Returning upwards we have (Tijrūaiba regio, dear to
mediaeval recollection for its monasteries in the early times;
and 13th Glomagna cipitag, on the Nile, which Strabo calls
the largest city in the Thebaid. (Strabo, xvii. 813; Plin. v.
61; Sulp. Sev. Dial. 130; Isid. xiv. 5, 5; Ant. Itin. 158,
3.) A little below this the Nile expands itself into two
branches, surrounding the island MEROE, ſtirror Hingula, on
which there is a representation of a crocodile, (Totabilug,
bestridden by a man, a picture which probably refers to Pliny
and Solinus describing the habits of the people of Tentyra,
or perhaps to the description of the cokadrille in the
Alexandrian Romance —
“He is strong, and of gret valour,
Brode feet he hath four.”
And again —
“IIe beareth at ones, there he is good,
& Ten men over the flood.”
Bgypt.
86 ASIA.
Egypt.
\
Thus does history reproduce itself, and the exploit of Mr.
Waterton in the 19th century is anticipated in the 13th.
(Plin. viii. 92; Solinus, 32, 27; Weber, Alex. Rom. i. 6597;
6608.) Two affluents are represented as joining the Nile
on its left bank, opposite the isle of Meroë, namely the
@gtahug and the #3tutiora. These are intended for the
ASTAPUS or Blue Nile, and the ASTABORAS or Tacazze, which
latter joins the Nile at Meroë, while the other lies higher
up. Both streams join the Nile (it is almost needless to
remark) on the right bank.
In the space between the main stream of the Nile and
the Red Sea is mong 33rlorum, which we are unable to
identify. Below this come ſlagbalum cipitag, MIGDOL,
(Etham cipitag, and $ocijoti, cipitag, SUCCOTH (Vulg.
Sochoth.) (Ex. xii. 37, xiii. 20, xiv. 2; Numb. xxxiii. 7;
Ant. Itin. 171, 3.)
Below this is a city with the Superscription #it come
gregatuš populuſ; ſigratl in Häämtºge: exiit tº (Eggpto
altera bit púðt paścija, reminding us of the journey from
Rameses (Vulg. Ramesse) to Succoth. (Ex. xii. 37.) Then
(Terra (Egipti.
Near this is another island in the Nile, with the word
imăula and 33abylonia c., the city of Cairo, said to have
been built by Sesostris, but, according to Josephus, by
Cambyses. (Diod. i. 56 ; Joseph. Amt. ii. 15, 1; Geographia
Univ. p. 27; Mandeville, Trav. p. 34.)
Near the “river of Egypt” we find Ørrca 303rphi, the
granaries of Joseph, as the Pyramids used to be called in the
Middle Ages, a notion which is said to have come from
Gregory of Nazianzus, but which existed also in Arabian
tradition. Sir John Mandeville is very precise upon the
point, he says —“Sum Men Seyn, that thei ben Sepultures
of grete Lordes, that beren Somtyme ; but that is not trewe :
ASIA. 87
for alle the comoun rymour and speche is of alle the peple
there, bothe fer and nere, that thei ben the Garneres of
Joseph.” (Dicuil, de Mensura Orbis, c. vi. 3.; Early Trav.
p. 24; Mandeville, Trav. p. 52; Sandys, Trav. p. 128;
Van Egmont, ii. 92.)
Below these is a figure of a winged creature, entitled
$ālāmāmūrā tracom benemoga. The noxious qualities of
the Salamandra are described by Pliny with great energy.
Except as regards wings, which the Salamander has not, it
is fairly represented as a scarlet newt or lizard. The red
colour is due, no doubt, to the notion which prevailed so
long of its being able to live in fire—nay, even to extinguish
it. (Plin. x. 188, xxix. 74; Isid. xii. 4, 36; MS. de natura
bestiarum, Harl. 3244.)
Near the Salamander, perhaps as an antidote in its
nature, and also an antithesis in its description, comes a
figure of a plant with a human head at its base, ſºlamuraz
gora, crba mirabiliter birtuoga. The virtues of mandra-
gora, especially against the bite of a serpent, are described
also at length by Pliny. The legends which grew up in
course of time respecting it are set forth at length in the
Herbaria of the Middle Ages. The human head at the root
arose, it has been suggested, from a fanciful likeness in the
root of the plant to a human figure, and in England partly
from the first syllable of the word “mandrake;” but of this
our cartographer was perhaps innocent. Mandragora is a
powerful narcotic, thought to be, at any rate in Shakspeare's
time, one of the most powerful of “all the drowsy syrups of
the world;” but its supposed human form invested it in the
Middle Ages with a sort of human life, so that when drawn
out of the ground it was believed to shriek, and the person
who committed this violence usually died or became insane.
To avoid this a dog was tied by a string to the root, and
Egypt.
88 ASIA.
IEgypt.
urged to drag it forth, so that the mischief might fall on him
and not on his master. The mandragora is placed in the
Map in Egypt, perhaps because of its mention by Pliny in
connection with some other Egyptian articles, and by Solinus
in connection with Numidia. (Plin. xxv. 147, 150; Solinus,
26, 8; Isid. xvii. 9, 30; Harl. MS. 5294; Nares, Glossary;
Browne, Vulg. Err. ii. 6; Wright, Pop. Science, p. 101.)
Below this is a river called fl. (Tijuáta, which repre-
sents the eastern or Pelusian arm of the Nile, though it is
difficult to account for the transformation of that name into
the form given in the map. Near this, at the head of the
Mediterranean, is ©gtrottºma C., the town OSTRACINE, at
which place Solinus says that Pompey was buried, though
Pliny says otherwise. It was an Episcopal see. (Plin. v.
68; Solinus, 34, 1 ; Ant. Itin. 152, 1 ; Bingham, iii. 201)
fürkºğuş cipitag comes next, but what place is intended
the writer has not succeeded in discovering ; and then
mong (Tlimax, whose position here, so much out of its
proper place, is due to Orosius. (Oros. i. 2.)
Between the river Chusta and the Nile a space is formed
denoting the Delta, within which is an inscription Hin Đor
triangulo it, egt Belta inferioriš (Egipti (TC3L cipitate5 (332
artim ugiborug attrøtante. It comes, with strange blunders
in the copying, from Marcian Capella, whose concluding
words are Artemidorus attestatur. The numbers are borrowed
from Pliny, v. 59; Marcian Capella, vi. 676; Solinus, 32, 1.
Within the area thus named are the following specimens of the
250 towns, 4}clagium, PELUSIUM ; $temag, perhaps denot-
ing the islands so called by Pliny ; 13agnuš, perhaps
BACATHUS, an Episcopal See, or BUBASTUS ; 13clipolić, pro-
bably PHILIPPOPOLIS in Arabia, also an Episcopal see :
ſHemphis; 3Iexambria, with a figure of the Pharos; 33art-
tonium ; (Iſafnug r., perhaps Tahpanhes (Jer, xliii. 8) ;
ASIA. 89
(ſafrtig, by S. Jerome called Taphnas, probably Tanes, which
comes next in S. Jerome's list; and (Tratulug, perhaps
Crialus. (Plin. v. 61, vi. 64, 169; Oros. i. 2; Ant. Itin. 72,
4, 161, 5 ; Hieron. de situ, p. 924; Bingham, iii. 59, 201.)
In the open space is % litme mong, which is perhaps a
blundering misnomer for the nomos menelaites of Marcian
Capella. Below this 39cremug, the Desert, probably with
reference to Ex. xvi. 1; and some foliage, with the words
$ttiſt palmte, which perhaps represents the Egyptian palm
mentioned by Solinus, and the place called Hiera Sycaminus
in the Itinerary. (Marcian Capella, vi. 676; Plin. v. 49;
Solinus, 32, 26; Ant. Itin. 162, 4)
Egypt.
Bound-
aries.
CHAPTER V.
AFRICA,
Boundaries—Dimensions—Lybia Cyrenensis—Pentapolis—Tripolitana—Africa
Propria—Numidia—Mauritania—Atlas and Astrixis—The Western Nile
—Ethiopians—Islands of the Western and Southern Oceans.
THE boundaries of Africa on the side of Asia have been
already (p. 23) stated to lie at the range across which the
cartographer has inscribed (Terminus 3.3ge et àffrict;
whence the line was continued (according to Orosius, i. 2)
through (Taştra àlexambri ſãagmi and 3|acuš (Talcarguà
profumbiššimu3. Trom this point the boundary becomes
Somewhat uncertain. Orosius states that after passing the
boundaries of the Avasitae, it crosses obliquely (in trans-
versum) through the deserts of Ethiopia to the Southern
Ocean. Solinus describes Ethiopians as living behind Egypt
towards the south (32 S 1), and his statement is illustrated
in the arrangement of our map, in which tribes of Ethiopians
are depicted as living between Egypt and the Ocean. In
other directions the continent was bounded by the Sea.”
The only portion of it known to our cartographer was the
region adjacent to the Mediterranean, and of this the know-
ledge as exhibited on the map belonged exclusively to
ancient geography. Very little interest attaches to the
* In the brief manual at the back of the “Psalter" Map, the boundaries
of Africa are thus described :—“Termini Aſrice. Ex parte Orientis, Nilus ; a
meridie, Zona torrida ; a septentrione, Mare Mediterraneum ; ab occidenie,
Mediterranei Maris reſluxio.” The concluding words refer to the theory of
ocean currents which prevailed in the Middle Ages, and which is exhibited in
a map contained in a copy of Prisclan in the British Museum, (MSS. Cotton.)
AFRICA. --- 91
names, and our chief business as commentators is to identify
them with their prototypes in the authorities whence the
Cartographer drew his materials.
The dimensions of the continent are given in an inscrip-
tion which is placed near the Nile to the following effect:-
3Longitubſ Øſtrict at (Ethiopico mari usque at @lex.
ambriam magnam per ſäcroem et $iemem becies gepticº
£5 paşâuum, longitung lat. terrieg 3epticº 30 miliaria.
The first of these estimates is borrowed, with some slight varia-
tion, from Pliny, vi. 209, where it is applied to the “latitudo
Asiae,” Meroë and Syene being regarded as belonging to
Asia rather than to Africa. The second estimate is bor-
rowed from Pliny, iv. 208, where it is applied, as in the map,
to the “ longitudo Africa’.” Our cartographer appears to have
felt some misgivings as to the propriety of describing the
length of Africa twice and with varying figures; and he
meditated correcting the second “ longitudo” by substituting
“latitudo,” but did not get farther than the first syllable.
The first province of Africa on the side of Egypt is named
3|thia (ſiremenšiš, which extended, according to Orosius
(i. 2), and Isidore (xiv. 5 §4), from the border of Egypt to
the Greater Syrtis, and thus included the Marmarica and the
Cyrenaica or Pentapolis of classical geography. Isidore,
indeed, seems to make some distinction between Lybia
Cyrenensis and Pentapolis, for he says (§ 5) “Est autem
Pentapolis Libyae Cyrenensi adjuncta et in ejus finibus de-
putata,” and it is evidently in reference to these words that
the map says 13cmtapulig regio infra 3Libicm (Tirtmengcm
Deputa [deputata], though it is not clear in what sense the
term “infra" should be taken, unless to indicate the highly
erroneous idea exhibited in the map that Pentapolis lay in-
land, and in that sense below Lybia, Cyrenensis. The words
with which the inscription just quoted terminates are an
IDinnerl-
sions.
Lybia,
Cyren-
ensis.
92 AFRICA.
Lybia
Cyren-
ensis.
Tripoli-
tana.
explanation of the name “I’entapolis” in accordance with
Isidore “a quinque urūtūuš Dicta.” The Syrtis Major is
noticed in an inscription borrowed from Pliny, v. 27, which
records the distance thence to the Syrtis Minor —$írt[3
{Hajgreg [the use of the plural number is in accordance
with Orosius] at bint ugſſue at ſºlingreg $irteg (ſſſ
paśuum. The promontory on the coast, named photomiş
promontoriumt, represents Ras Sem, the PIIYCUs of Pliny, v.
32, and the PHYCUNS of Solinus, 27, § 2. Of the towns
belonging to this region Paraetonium is transferred in the
map to Egypt. (Tireme, the capital of the Pentapolis, is
rightly placed on the line of the coast; but the other four
cities are transported to the interior, namely, 36erenice,
%lpollomía, 13tholomaita (with an agnomen (Teutria, per-
haps in reference to TEUCHIRA, which is used by Isidore in
lieu of Arsinoë), and Ørginge, together with a fifth, (Tuga,
as to which we can hazard no explanation, except that it
may have been introduced to complete the five cities in
this part of the map. In the same neighbourhood we find
the 3rce 335iltmorum, which formed the limit between
Cyrenaica and Tripolitana, on the shore of the Mediterranean
(Oros. i. 2). They are pictorially represented in the map
by altar-like structures. The probability is that the ara,
were nothing more than conspicuous sand-hills, which served
to mark the boundary, and that the legend respecting the
Philaeni and their patriotic self-devotion as recorded by
Sallust (Jug. 79), grew out of a mistaken view of the
significance of the term arae.
(Tripolitana adjoined Lybia, Cyrenensis on the W., and
occupied the stretch of coast between the greater and less
Syrtes. In classical geography this district was known as
Syrtica Regio; but this title was superseded in the third
century of the Christian era by the name Tripolitana, derived
AFRICA. 93
from the confederacy of three cities, 4 eptig ſūagma (which Tripoli-
is transplanted from the coast to the interior), $atirata,” tana.
and ©cra, more properly OEA, but named Ocea in Anton.
Itin. 62. The name Tripolitana survives in the modern
Tripoli, which has taken the place of Oea. A fourth town
is assigned in the map to this district, ſīlagomia bicta
$irtig, which may possibly be intended for the MACOMADI-
BUS SYRTIS of Ilin. 64. The river £rthom is transplanted
from Cyrenaica to Tripolitana, and is described as jubiug
infºrmalig bittuš propter obligiomem quam facit potam-
tibuš, in general conformity with the statement of Soli-
nus, 27, § 54. The notion of its waters causing loss of
memory was founded on the name, which, however, more
probably referred to the river losing itself, like our Mole, in
a subterraneous course. The lesser Syrtis is noticed, with
its distance from Carthage, as in Pliny, v. 26 —$frttg
minorcs . #int 113gue at (Tartaginem (JUOf Sumt paş-
guum. In the interior, to the S. of Tripolitana, the town
(5amara "(properly GARAMA) was the capital of the Gara-
mantes, a well-known people in the Oasis now called Fezzam :
the place still exists as Ghermah. Orosius also places the
Gaetuli and the Nothabres in this quarter, classing them
with the Garamantes as “barbari.” The map follows Orosius
in this matter, as shown in the entry #it barbari (5ctuli,
3}atabrºg ct (5aramantrå. The Gaetuli really lived farther
W.; and as to the Natabres or Nothabres we can say
nothing, except that they are noticed in a similar connection
by AEthicus, cap. 110 ; they appear in the “Psalter” map
under the form “Mathabres.”
* Either mediaeval geographers or their editors have bungled over these
names, Ocea Sabrata being given in the Imago Mundi, i. 17, as Occasia Berete,
and in the Otia, Imper. ii. 11, as Ouasa Beretc, the first syllable of Sabrata
being thus tacked on to Occa.
94 AFRICA.
Africa.
Propria.
Westward of Tripolitana follows, in classical geography,
the province of Africa Propria, occupying the angle formed
by the coast-line which points towards Sicily. No indication
of this strongly-marked feature appears on the map; but the
proximity of this part of Africa to Europe is notified in an
inscription drawn from Pliny, iii. 45:-Øffrica pigtat at
Italia minug (TGE pagguum. The promontory of C. Bon,
which approximates so closely to Sicily, is indicated on the
map by ſigns ſåercurii, placed opposite to Crete; while
its neighbour on the western side of the Bay of Carthage,
C. Farina, the ancient PROM. APOLLINIS, or, as the map has
it, 3}romunctorium 3 ppg|Ionig, is removed to a great dis-
tance from it. Altogether the ignorance displayed by the
cartographer in this part of his map is nothing less than
astounding. The province of Africa was divided into two
portions, the more southerly of which was named BYZACENA,
and the other ZEUGITANA. The former of these names is
spelt 33rumczma in the map, to which is appended a some-
what unmeaning explanation of the name, borrowed from
Isidore, xiv. 5, § 7:—3&rgin ex bugtug mobiliššimig oppi-
big birta egt it, egt 3 trumetig et 33i:;atium. The name
could not, of course, have been derived from Adrumetum ;
and as to Bizatium, no such town really existed. It was
necessary, however, to create the place which was to account
for the name of the province; and, accordingly, we find Such
a town inserted on the map, which, by a further mistake is
written 33 gºantium, as in copies of Isidore and Orosius, and
so was liable to be confounded (as Gervase of Tilbury inti-
mates, Ot. Imp. ii. 11) with the well-known city of that
name in Thrace. The other division of Africa Propria is
described in a legend concocted from Isidore and other
quarters, the first portion being identical with the words
just quoted in explanation of Byzacium, which, with singular
AFRICA. •r 95
carelessness, is repeated for Zeugis; the next portion, “Haec Africa
est vera Africa,” comes from Isidore, l.c. § 8; while the last Propria.
clause, from “fert,” appears to be founded on Pliny, v. 24,
though not verbally agreeing with it. The legend runs
thus:—zeugig regio : cy. Dudbug mobiliššimig oppíbig :
bec egt Ugra Affrica : habet cipitate5 famogiššimtaş,
%ltrumetum, (Tartaginem, Čícticam [Uticam], famſīšam
morte (Tatonig et aliağ multa3 cipitate; : fert fructum
cºntegimum ; per millaria ampliuš Čſ pagguum. The
towns of these two divisions are placed without much regard
to their relative positions. On the line of the coast we have
the following:—Catapag colonia, the TACAPAS [v. l. Caca-
pas] COLONIA of Anton. Itin. 59, the modern Cabes, in which
the substitution of the initial c for t is preserved; Zeugig, a
non-existent town, probably introduced in explanation of the
name of the province; (Tlippeaš, properly CLYPEA, but in
Itin. 55, 57, Clipea and Clipeis, a place also noticed by
Solinus, 27, § 8, and Capella, vi. 669; (Turumbi, CURUBIs,
or, as in Itin. 56, 57, CURUBI; 13utput, PUTPUT (Itin. 56,
58); $uffitiug, properly SUFES, a town in the interior, but
always given in the form SUFIBUS in the Itin. 47, al.; ºuritz
mettig, the capital of Byzacium, an important town, but
sorely misplaced, the cartographer having inverted the order
of the places, which should stand thus from E. to W., or,
more correctly, from S. to N., Adrumetum, Putput, and
Clypea; Cartago ſtagna, which is pictorially represented
by an edifice of imposing dimensions: the term “magma,”
accorded to it by Pliny, v. 24, applies of course to the later
Carthage, noticed by Solinus, 27, § 11, and Capella, vi.
669, and which survived in great splendour until the 7th
century of our era; Gittita, UTICA, already noticed in the
inscription on Zeugis, as famous for the death of Cato (Ca-
pella, vi. 669); and ºppus HBiart., HIPPo DIARRHYTUs, or
96 AFRICA.
Africa.
IPropria.
Gaºtulia.
H. ZARITUS, the former in Solinus, 27, § 7, the latter in Itin.
21, the agnomen being commonly explained as having reſer-
ence to the floods with which the town was visited (Plin. v.
23). In the interior —32ttomanitºuš municipium, un-
doubtedly the MACOMADIBUS MUNICIPIUM of Itin. 59, the
MACOMADES of Capella, vi. 670, and MACOMADEs of Pliny,
v. 25, a town of no importance, on the sea-coast; (ſugtrum,
more commonly THYSDRUS, but in Itin. 53, Tusdro, and v. l.
Tustro; $ºptimama, the SEPTIMINICIA of Itin. 48, 50, a
place of no importance, between Sufes and Thenae; and
$ttffrtula, a central station in the interior, frequently men-
tioned in the Itin. (46, al.)
Two rivers are introduced into the map as belonging to
this region. The one named 33ragala is intended for the
13agrătă3, near Carthage. [The form Bragada appears in
Some copies of Capella, vi. 669.] The other, which occupies
the true position of the Bagradas, is named ſºlugita or ſºlitz
gica, a name for which we can suggest no explanation, unless
it be a misreading of the name Amsiga, or Amsica as some
copies of Solinus have it, and which the cartographer has sup-
posed to be a different river from the Amsiga mentioned be-
low (p. 97). In the extreme S. we find an entry of the 3Latug
$alinarum, which Orosius notices as on the border of Tri-
politana, and which is probably identical with the Lacus
Saliciarum of the Anglo-Saxon map, and the Salinae of the
Peutinger Table, and of Dicuil, De Mons. Orbis, 7, § 7, which
exhibited the phenomenon of waxing and waning with the
monthly changes of the moon.
To the S. of Africa Propria, our cartographer places
Gaetulia, though he should have placed it further W., to the
S. of Mauritania. The first words of the legend relating to
this country, “mediteranea pars Affrice,” come from Isidore,
xiv. 5, § 8, and the remainder verbatim from Solinus, 27, § 12,
AFRICA. 97
who is referred to by name;-(5ctuleå muclitcramra parð
%iſtrict ; interna 3 ſtrict, ut $olimus trätatur: plurime
guillem begtic get [sed] principalitry Icomes tement.
Figures of a 3LCD part, and a lion, 3.20, are designed to show
the multiplicity of Wild beasts in this region.
jºttmibia is correctly placed between Aſrica Propria and
Mauritania, the boundary on the side of the latter being the
river AMPSAGA, Wad el Kobin', as stated in an inscription
which records the combined lengths of this and the adjacent
province of Africa, according to I’liny, v. 25 —3.0mgitting
%iſtrict et ſºumibit at 3 mgiga fluming usque at (Tri-
polim iſ, ct iſ ºf paššuttm. The name @ntgiga is also
affixed to the river, that form of the name appearing in
Solinus, 26, § 1. The towns of this province noticed are
HIPPO REGIUS, famous as the see of St. Augustine, who is
represented by a canopied figure with the inscription Hippour
regnum rt cività3 gamcti fluguštini rpiscopi, the form
HIPPONE * being the one always used in the Itin. 6, 42,
44; 3Bušširābā or RUSICADE, which served as the harbour
of Cirta (ſtin. 5, 19); %lgur (Tibilitant, a place noted for
its hot baths (ſtin. 42; August. Ep. 112, vol. ii. 427), and
probably identical with the present Hammam-el-Berda ; and
Čirtà, probably a mistake for Cirta, the capital of Numidia,
which is frequently mentioned in the Itin., as well as by
Solinus, 26, § 1.
Gaetulia.
INumidia.
{Hattritamia constitutes the remaining division of Mauri-
Northern Africa in ancient geography. It was originally
sub-divided into two provinces, (ºrgarirmgis and Uſingi-
taita, but about A.D. 400 a portion of the former was made
into a distinct province, with the name of $itifrusis, and
this, being noticed by Orosius, i. 2, finds a place on the
* So “Imago Mundi,” i. 19:-“In hac (Sc. Numidia) est civitas Hyppone
in qua ſuit Augustimus episcopus.”
G
tania.
98 AFRICA.
Mauri-
tania.
map. A large river, named ſºlalua, otherwise known by
the names MULUCIA and MOLOCIIATH, and now as Muluwi,
divides Caesariensis and Tingitana. The large affluent
assigned to it on the map, under the name Šalum, repre-
sents the Rio Salado, on the banks of which was a Roman
station named AD SALUM FLUMEN (Itin. 13). The towns in-
troduced into the map are as follows:—On the sea coast,
ºfficuliš, the IGILGILI of Itin. 18, 39, 40; $albig, as in
Itin. 5, 39, for SALDIE ; 33rušutuğ, probably a mistake for
RUSAZIS, the next station to Saldis in Itin. 17; HRugome,
RUSGUNIAE, for which a v. l. in Itin. 16 gives Rugoniae;
ºnnium (ſipaśā, a puzzling designation, the latter word
representing TIPASA of Itin. 15, the former possibly a mis-
taken form of Tomnium, which appears in the same route of
the ſtºn. ; (Tirtemma, CARTENNA (Itin. 14); (Raja municia
pium, probably the QUIZA MUNICIPIUM of Itin. 13, which is
near Cartenna; Šamacolig, for which we can find no repre-
sentative in true geography; 38ttgathem, more correctly
RUSADDER (Itin. 11), near a promontory of the same name,
otherwise called Metagonites, Rás-el-Ham'sbah, but in the map
ſłlong $abbi, which appears in Itin. 11 as a v. l. for Rusaddi;
{Homº (Tammar, a station at the promontory of Cannar, C.
Quilates, mentioned in Itin. 11; 3.1x tol., the Lix colonia,
of Itin. 7, and of mythological ſame, as the scene of Hercules's
victory over Antaeus (Solin. 24, § 3; Capella, vi. 667),
much misplaced in the map, inasmuch as it really lay on
the shore of the Atlantic; ſūting $igga, probably intended
for the SIGA MUNICIPIUM of Itin. 12, the true position of which
was eastward of Rusadder [can the moms be a mistake for
the abbreviated form of municipium ?]; and lastly, (ºtugium,
ICOSIUM (very much misplaced, inasmuch as Algier's occupies
its site), a place associated with the myth of Hercules, whose
companions were said to have built it (Solin, 25, § 17). On
AFRICA. 99
the shore of the Atlantic the cartographer introduces ſºlong
Mauri-
(Talpel, CALPE or Gibraltar, having transposed the respective tamia.
positions of Abyla and Calpe. In the interior, $itipiji
metropolis, the capital of M. Sitifensis, frequently men-
tioned in the Itin, but without the adjunct “metropolis”;
(Tegarca, the capital of Caesariensis, a well-known town; a
figure of a town below the title Mauritania Tingitana, doubt-
less intended for its capital TINGIS, though the name is
omitted; and lastly, Oppidum, on the $rptem ſłłontrº,
intended for the station AD SEPTEM FRATRES in Itin. 9, and
Geog. Raven. iii. 11, at or near Ceuta, the “Septem Fratres"
being a range of heights near Abyla, whose name (mentioned
by Isidore, xiv. 5, § 12), proved attractive to mediaeval
geographers, as shown in the Anglo-Saxon map.
The sandy wastes of Central Africa are separated from the
cultivable region by a mountain belt which rises near the
Atlantic, and stretches eastward to the neighbourhood of C.
Bom and the Lesser Syrtis. The general name for this belt,
both in ancient and modern geography, is ATLAS. In Orosius
the dividing range is named ASTRIXIS, and Atlas is described
as a mountain bounding Mauritania Tingitana on the W.,
and hence closely adjacent to the Atlantic. Astrixis is said
to lie south of Mauritania Caesariensis and Sitifensis, and
also of Numidia; the line is continued in a range, called by
Orosius, i. 2, MONTES EUZARE/E. The map gives expression to
these views. Atlas is depicted as an isolated mountain on
the shores of the Atlantic, and in connection with this moun-
tain the following description of the phenomena attributed to
it, which may be traced back through Solinus, 24, § 10, and
Pliny, v. 7, to Hanno, Periplus, $ 14, the sole foundation for
the story being the attempt of the natives to frighten navi-
gators from the shore by lighting fires and making strange
noises at night (see an annotation in Müller's Goog. Grace.
Atlas and
Astrixis.
1 () () AFRICA.
Atlas and
Astrixis.
INile.
Min. i. 11) –ſłlong ºutblang rxcrlgus mimig ; per bient
3ilrt; mortibuš apparent tui luminaria ; aubiumtur time
mittiș cimbalorum ; tıjuris ct @rgipants iti batchantibuš.
The tale is repeated by Higden (Polychrom, i. 21). Of
Astrixis it is said, in the words of Orosius, i. 2, § 31 —
jīlūlū āştrixis bibibit minum [vivam] triram ct arcmag
jaccmträ usque at Orramum, in quitºuš ſtirrrant (5ame
gimrå (Ethiopcs. Isidore repeats the former part of this
statement in nearly the same words (xiv. 5, § 11). AEthicus
mentions Astrixis incidently, as one of the loſtiest mountains
in the world (c. 21). We are not acquainted with the origin
of the name. Wuttke, in his Prolegomena to AEthicus, p.
Xi, regards it as a corruption of an Indian name—Asia-giri,
“the mountain of the setting sun.” From Astrixis the range
is continued eastward in the ſūqmtrs (Bujarre. Another
mountain is placed on the shores of the Atlantic, ſºldmä
39:3ptrug, mentioned by Orosius, i. 2, and representing
the HESPERUCERAs of Solinus, 56, § 10, Pliny, vi. 199, and
Hanno's Periplus, $14;-the modern C. Verde. The presence
of deserts in the neighbourhood of Astrixis is indicated by
an inscription (Iſlantità [? Atlantical Urgfrtú, with which
we may compare the expression of Solinus, 24, § 7 “Atlan-
ticas Solitudimes.”
The most remarkable feature in this portion of the map is
the broad blue band which traverses nearly the whole length of
the continent in a line parallel to the Southern Ocean. This
band represents the upper course of the Nile as described
by Orosius, i. 2, Solimus, 32, § 2, and Pliny, v. 51. It was
supposed to rise in close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, near
Mons Hesperus. In that region it was known to the natives
under the names Nucliul and Dara. Both these names
appear on the map, but for independent streams; the jºurbul
as flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, and the 3Data as flowing
AFRICA. 101
in the line of the Nile, but distinct from it, to intimate the
submergence, which is expressly noticed in the Anglo-Saxon
map (Introd. p. xxxiv.) The name “Dara" may possibly
have originated in the DARADUs, Rio de Ouro, on the W.
coast of Africa; “Nuchul” is probably connected with
“Nile ”; it appears again in the “Jerome’ Map (Brit. Mus,
Add. MS. No. 10,049), and is here assigned to the Western
Nile; see also Geog. Raven. iii. 1. A large lake represents
the reappearance of the Nile, which thence flows in a con-
tinuous course to the border of Egypt, there to undergo a
Second submergence, as notified in the “Imago Mundi” map.
Its final course in Egypt has already been described under
the head of Asia. In its mid-course the Nile receives an
affluent from the N., the name of which, being abbreviated,
is difficult to decipher; by the aid of the “Imago Mundi’
map, however, we are enabled to read the inscription as
3|actig ct flument (Iſtitut. There can be little doubt that
this refers to the lake Tritonitis and the river Triton, which
falls into the lesser Syrtis, and which has been transported
to the interior along with the cities of the Pentapolis and
the Arab Philenorum; though it should not be overlooked that,
according to Pliny, v. 54, the name Triton was sometimes
affixed to the Nile. The omission of all notice of the name
Nigris, to which Solinus gives full prominence, is worthy of
observation. In the delineation of the Nile our cartographer
is in close agreement with the Anglo-Saxon and the “Imago
Mundi” maps.
Between this river and the ocean are figures of various
monstrous creatures, described by Pliny, Solinus, and Mela.
First come a people without ears and with twisted feet —
(5cm3 gint attritius, 3 milari birti Qutb aburrsis plantis.
They are called by Pliny Sambri, and by Solimus Psamban’.
The account of these Writers that these people have no quad-
Nile.
Ethiopia.
102 AFRICA,
Bthiopia.
rupeds possessed of ears, not even elephants, with whatever
credence this statement may be received, is farther improved
by our author, or the authority from whom his account is
derived, for he makes the people themselves be earless.
Next comes a race with one leg and one eye only. The
former is of extra size, and is terminated by a foot with a
preternatural number of toes. Its versatility of use is pro-
bably intended to make up for its singularity, for it serves
the purpose of an umbrella. With the latter he seems to be
ogling some person or persons unknown, making “mops and
mowes” with a grace truly artistic. This “delicate monster”
dwells in Ethiopia, as Isidore informs us, and his race is
called, in the Latin of our author, not of Isidore, Štinopetrº,
qui unicruri mire gtricvrš (celeres) plantiš Göumbrantur:
turm 30mt (Sunt) mºmtituli. They appear to be a sort of
supplement to our former acquaintances the Sciapodes, if,
indeed, they are not identical with them. (Plin. vii. 23;
Solinus, 52, 29 ; Isid. xi. 3, 23.)
Next come the men whose mouths are closed so fast that
they are forced to imbibe their food through a reed, (5cm3
Gre contſretſ, calantſ, ciliatur (Solin. 30, 13; Mela, iii. 9;
Isid. xi. 3, 18); and then one of the race of both sexes:—
(Rcng utcrque gexuš immaturalrå multimobiş mobiş, of
whom the less said the better. (Isid, xi. 3, 11.)
Next come a race whose mode of progression is peculiar,
being eſſected by creeping on all fours instead of walking —
#imantoponeg : fluxig nigſbuš crurum repunt pattuš
qual ſquam] incºlunt; et perſtnut uáum lapgu potius
Urgtimant [Quam] a grºšštt [ingressu]. This passage is
taken from Solinus. We may remark that the head-dress
of the individual resembles the modern Prussian military
helmet. (Plin. v. 46; Solinus, 31, 4) Next come the
Psylli, who were credited with the custom of testing the
AFRICA. 103
chastity of their wives by the exposure of their new born Ethiopia.
infants to serpents. The process is exhibited on the map,
the mother anxiously watching her offspring in the embrace
of the writhing serpents. The inscription is founded on
Solinus, 27, § 42 —43billi [Psylli) pubicitiami uxorum
probant objectu mobiter natorum gºrgentibuš; near which
is ſºlomä attem3 3crpentibuš plema.
Below the Psylli come the Blemyae, with mouth and
eyes placed in their breasts —13 emer D3 ct ocult,3 ballent
int pectorſ, words which are taken from Isidore, who took
them from Solinus. The Blemyes or Blemyae were a wild
race of Ethiopia, who frequently invaded Egypt. They were
probably in the habit of hanging down their heads, especially
when taken captive, and so became credited with the de-
formity ascribed to them by Roman writers. (Plin. v. 45;
Solinus, 31, 4 ; Mela, i. 8 ; Isid. xi. 3, 17.)
Next to the Blemyae is a veritable specimen of the “men
whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders” —#5tt U3 ct
oculog jalicut in humcriš, who are classed by Isidore with
the Blemyae (Isid. xi. 3, 17); and next below them, holding
in his hand what looks like an elongated croquet mallet, one
of the maritime Ethiopians, who have four eyes a-piece, not
in fact, as Pliny is careful to inform us, but in metaphor,
because their sight is so keen —ſtatutint [Maritimi]
(Ethiopc3 quí quattrituš Oculoš jailent (Plin. vi. 194;
Solinus, 30, 6). And, lastly, a pair of men, with the in-
scription —&ammines (Ethiopc3 : anticitia cunt rig mom
£3t. These people are probably connected, at any rate in
name, with the Gangines of page 35. The title inscribed
above them represents the description given by Pliny,
Solinus, and Mela, of the GAMPHASANTES, but is most
like the one found in Marcian Capella, Isidore ascribes
the unsocial quality given in the Map to the GARAMANTES,
104 AFRICA.
Ethiopia.
and founds it upon the phrase of Virgil, Ecl. viii. 44.
(Plin. V. 45; Solinus, 31, 5; Mela, i. 8; Marcian Capella,
vi. 674; Isid. ix. 2, 125.)
The (Trocoöttct or Troglodytes [The copies of Solinus
generally spell the name TROGODYTAE, omitting the ll, are
twice mentioned in the map ; firstly to the E. of the river
Thiton, where notice is taken of a remarkable spring in their
country, which acted as an ordeal for theft, its waters pro-
ducing blindness in case of guilt —#ic foms aput (Uroco-
bitaş furtā recitate argueng ; and, secondly, westward of
the Triton, where they are pictorially represented as living
in caves, eating Serpents, and capturing wild animals by
jumping on their backs, in accordance with the following
legend:—Crocobite ; mirr 3rclerts : 3pcrit accolunt : Ber-
pentrº count : ferns 3altituš apprehenbunt. With re-
gard to the spring, Isidore (xiii. 13, § 9) commemorates a
remarkable well in the country of the Troglodytes, but of
totally different qualities from the one noticed in the map.
The other legend is founded on Solinus, 31, § 3, and 56, § 9;
but the cartographer has substituted Saltibus for the “cursi-
bus” or “cursu pedum ” of the author. Though there is
much that is mythical in these statements, the existence of
a Troglodyte population in the interior of Africa is a well-
ascertained fact, known as far back as the time of Herodotus
(iv. 183). They are the modern Tibboos, who occupy the
Tibest range, to the S. of Fezzan, and who are still remark-
able for their agility (Lyon, Travels in North Africa, p.
227).
Detween the two entries of the Troglodytes, and just at
the junction of the Triton with the Nile, a figure like a bird
is depicted, with the SuperScription —13 agilişcuš : 3rmipe-
Dalíg : rāt albig linicíg muculatuš. This description is
apparently founded on the description of Solinus, 27, § 51,
AFRICA. 105
“ad Semipedem longitudinis, alba quasi mitrula lineatus
caput,” who in this agrees with Pliny, viii, 78. But both
these writers describe the basilisk as a serpent, differing,
however, from other serpents in regard to its mode of loco-
motion, and the position of its body when moving. Its
presence was held to be poisonous to all nature—to animals,
vegetables, and even the soil itself. In the Middle Ages
it was usually depicted as a lizard-like creature, with a
Crown on its head, and with several pairs of legs: it may be
seen so represented in the works of Aldrovandus and Gre-
Vinus. Occasionally, however, it was depicted in a manner
very similar to that in our map, namely as a bird. So it
appears in a Bestiary belonging to St. John's Coll., Oxford;
and so again in the Cambridge “Imago Mundi” map (see
Inty, p. xxxix.). A full description of the animal in this
form is given by Callier and Martin (Mél. d’Archéol. ii. 213),
together with a representation of it as a bird, taken from
an old Bestiary. It is described as the serpent of Paradise,
born of the egg of a cock seven years old. It has the head
and neck of a fowl, and the lower parts of a serpent : it kills
birds with the glance of its eye, and trees by its touch : it
is the king of all serpents. In the Middle Ages the ashes
of the basilisk were used in the transmutation of copper into
Spanish gold (Theophilus, Divers. Art. Sched, cap. 47, and
note, p. 275).”
Westward of the Troglodytes comes the figure of a lion,
already noticed, and then a representation of some large ants
digging up gold dust with their feet, and jealously guarding
it against all comers. The legend which tells us this is
founded on Solinus, 30, § 23:—39 it grantºrs formirr
attreamt Strirant [servant] arritaš. It is not known
whence Solinus drew his statement, which is evidently only
* Compare ſurther, Harl. MSS. 4751.
Ethiopia.
106 AFRICA.
Ethiopia. another version of the story of the griffins, as told by Hero-
dotus (iv. 13, 27).
The remaining figure represents the one-eyed king of a
race of Ethiopians who lived on the flesh of panthers and
lions, whence they derived their specific title. The legend
is borrowed from Solinus, 30, § 6, and reads thus:–3 grid-
phagi (Ethiopc3 : 3Glag panterarum ct Icomum carneg
count : babentº regent cujuš in fromte [oculus] unug rgt.
These people are the “Agoſagy” of the Romance of King
Alexander (ll, 6350–57), of whom it is said—
“Another folk woneth in the west half,
That cteth never kow no kalſ,
Bote of panteris and lyouns,
And that they nymeth as venesons.”
Islands of A Zone of islands fringes the continent of Africa from
wºn N. Atlas eastward. The first of these bears the inscription
8, p p p
sºmera jortunatt Hingul: ; 3rx 5unt: insult $ancti 33rambami,
Under the title of “Fortunatae Insulae" the ancient geo-
graphers included the Madeira and Camany groups, the
delightful climate of which seemed the realization of the
myth of Elysium—the abode of the blessed. The same
association of ideas led our cartographer to fix upon them as
the scene of St. Brandan's discovery, described in the old
legend as the “fayrest countree cestwarde that ony man
myght se, and was So clere and bryght that it was an
hevenly syght to beholde; and all the trees were charged
with rype fruyte and herbes full of flowres; in whiche londe
they walked XL dayes; but they could se none ende of that
londe; and there was alwaye daye and never nyght ; and
the londe attemperate ne to hotte ne to colde.” St. Brandan
is reputed to have flourished in the middle of the sixth
century, the date of his burial in Clonfert Abbey being
Oceans.
AFRICA. 10'7
placed at 576. The legend of his voyage first assumed a Islands of
definite form towards the close of the 11th century, when Western
the Latin prose narrative was probably composed. This ºarn
was followed by metrical versions in Latin and Anglo- oceans.
Norman, as early as Henry I.'s reign, and by an English
metrical version about the period of the map. The posi-
tion of the island was originally fixed westward of the
Canaries, from the highest points of which people fancied
that they descried a lofty island in fine weather, though
Somehow they had always failed to reach it. In 1526,
1570, and again in 1605, expeditions were sent out from
the Canaries with the express purpose of discovering this
mysterious island, the existence of which was attested by
what was deemed to be unimpeachable testimony. In 1721
the search was renewed, and so late as 1755 the island appears
on a chart published by Gautier, in 29° N. lat., and about 5°
W. of Ferro (Viera, Hist. Isl. Can. i. 28, quoted in Irving's
Life of Columbus, ii. 876-881). The legend has been pub-
lished by the Percy Society. Of the individual isles which
constituted the group of the Fortunatae Insulae we have
3) untonia, Madeira ; (Iſijcott, possibly Teneriffe, the proper
name of the peak of which is Teyde (Santarem, ii. 433), in
which case that island is twice mentioned; (Tapraria,
Gomera ; £jimaría, probably a mistake for NIVARIA,
Teneriffe ; ſūcmûriſmä, Ferro, whose proper ancient name
was OMBRION, for which “Membriona” occurs as a v. l. in
some copies of Capella, vi. 702, and “Embriona” in a copy
of Solinus, 56, § 17; and (Tamaría, Gran-Canaria, which
was assumed to be derived from “canis,” and hence the
addition plena magniš canthug (Solinus, 56, § 17).
Further E. we come to an island with the title #115ttle
39e3ptribunt, which Solinus (56, § 13) describes as
lying some forty days' voyage out from Hesperuceras;
108 AFRICA.
Islands of probably the Cape Verde group is meant. Isidore (xiv. 5, §
Western
and
Southern
Oceans.
10) asserts that these islands were so named from a town
Hesperis in Mauritania. (5altlocità follows, ttiſt 3trpentrö
met bipunt met magruntur : this is said by Solinus (29, § 8)
of Gauloë (v. 1. “Gauloenis"), the Gaulos of Pliny, v. 42,
an island in the Mediterranean ; the name that should have
been entered in this position is “Gorgades Insulae" (Solin. 56,
§ 10). The next two islands are introduced as being stages
on the route between Gades and India, as described by
Solimus (56, § 7) after Pliny, vi. 175 –3 Damunt ingula,
and $rrità, with an inscription on the latter reſerring to the
distance between them —$ccma ingula : bint tisſue at
@Danum insulam (ſū paşşuum.
The two next islands may be considered in connection with
each other. The larger one has the inscription, {{mtgttlu Ştrtiz
mice uti rttituğ imbrmit tirştiqlag abilišištúš arulrig plemag
Uclub ştrix. Above this is a mountain, with the words, muting
attøtrºmſtijlt5. Deſore we attempt to explain these inscrip-
tions, it will be well to proceed to the next entry, an island
with the words, hit 3irrmſ haüumbaitt, The two islands, with
their inscriptions, appear to be inserted in accordance with
the following passage from ZEthicus —InSolam Sylhynicem
incun'rºl et illic invenil besliolas pessianas, ignolas, cydrositas
plends aculeis volul isłria, el syrematºm multitudiºvem. And,
farther on, montem, Juabet Austromol/lium in ea insola, whose
astonishing height, and the extensive view from its summit,
he describes at great length, and also the sounds which pro-
ceed from it. As to the inscription itselſ, it is perhaps as
easy to explain adºbSistas as cydroSilas, for which, as v. ll, are
substituted ſedrositas and cidracistas, words as unintelligible
as those which are ſound both in the text and in the map.
Stria, no doubt stands for Hyslºw, not an owl, but a porcu-
pine ; but perhaps the transcriber Was more familiar with
60 I ‘WOIXIIV
UtøAld Stoquulu oun unlaw soolju ‘Ulull out) Jo SS00Xo uſ Kūbold
Uğuou] so(IU 00 GI ‘pouonuout "STU ooutºsºp ou L 'old'ſs
-Soduſ SIU, potopuo, Tuoll out, Tutin ppus ou.A. osotin O1 UIOITIS
-Oddo tú ‘oſqušIAUUI suA Sopu-O Ol uppu I (UIOJ Oouthsil) oLOUAA
9tſ) quul pottſunuputu OUAA ‘uquſ Jo Khutou]nt outſ. On Tuoddt, OUAA
‘Smutſos put KUIL (UOIJ Kljoyulo (IoMU) SI SITIL llllll:31131tt
1Injuſt my gumb JSSJ JJſ Juquſſºlunt gum tumn] pygung
[opuſ il JISſ utmºspit Tixºnºſ) attrimău) allpit.JJS
Qp Juſt msſ lumsguſt D 3)]]Jqumb DJinliumut
*Ulſt Jupitol(If p Jyttuſſia) plmält) mſa11ultſ—: pouns
-Uout Sun juroq Jo pollſtupu Oottulsip out, osmuood ‘olduff, Abu
SI 1suoo oſot A out, Tuul Iuoſo SI q. ooutou ºut, puu Sollut Off
Jo ooutºsºp tº SI tºll.JJ.S. putuls on Ol Unuedo.[CI (IOU Tut]
‘SOIUI 00 GI UIntrudo,ICI UO.J. Tutulsip SI q. Tutt, 100]]o out) 01
UOIndItosuſ (IU UTIAA ‘mſ|Jylphſ butus ouſ, Soutoo suT
(#9 ‘I TA TOld 8%
‘Og TIOS : gz I Ś IIIA uſ[,] : gz ‘Iz Ś IIIx d ſold opt[1]7)
‘ĀhūIUlloo Jo Ootºop Kuu (In A pogºnuapi od outlºo ‘toAOAOUI
‘otubu ou I, AoA UI utoquo;[ Jo puts out, put[ OAUTI KUUI
où Qulū Sotnooſttoo ‘UOppo SIU ‘ONInnu M put ‘UOIKo0 UUUU)
‘AA IoTIlúm] put (SI optiuoſo A U odſtosop O') popuolu Kºuopſ Ao
Snoſuſ).IZ qud "UUUISL to buſs to] toulous ſtu Ü ‘UZAIUUZI, Soulſ)
-ouTOS poſ[80 St uOLKoſ) Jo SNuods solsholdſ-OompUI sutuso.)
but, ‘SmpUI out, Jo Unmout ou? Ibou “potsyu,t/S poſſuo UAO) u
Suonuoul Kitto(Old Kūs on ‘old ISSOduſ Sdult tod. “Inoſſºp SI 11
‘SnII.LONOILSſ. V KCI (Uſulumotu quTIA put ‘ooººt!/.(S. KCl populo)
-U SI put[s] quil A hugſ pubs on bludos tº uo Utoun soould
KISnoſoſplaſ IOUInnu tmo (Idnouſ, ‘Osſu pumoſu plmous Suous
‘pum000 p.mous Sottſdno (Od OXIII ... SOInquoto onlil Tuol [1sod,
*O osotº otou A quin 5uisitdins not sº I uſdojun'ſ up snuſos
U.Ieuſ] noS
pub
U.Ieqse A 97!!!!?!!! I SIICO pub ‘XII's Sutſ “7 a tº III otoppsI ‘ottſdno.IOd
‘coſtſ V put unpu I III puno) SI qi qutſ, SKuS Kull.J ſpulºup
Jo SpublisI oup, Jo quinooot! spil UI St KIIuſoodso to]]ul oth Uetſ, loultoſ out,
11 () AFRICA.
Islands of by Pliny and Solinus, but the distance which they give
Western between MALICIIU and SCENA is only 225 miles. The name
º MALICIIU, or MALCIU, as Pliny gives it, belonged, according
oceans, to Ptolemy, to two islands in the Red Sea, opposite Ethiopia.
Pliny speaks not of an island, but of a place, called SCENEOS,
and says that from this place to the island ADANU was a
distance of 150 miles. T'Lolemy represents all these islands
as within the Ted Sea, but makes two islands of ADANU,
(Ptol. vi. 7, 44; Plin. vi. § 175, 176; Solin. 56, 6, 8)
CTIATP TETR VI.
MEDITERRANTEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
Mediterrancan Sea and its subdivisions—Gades and the Pillars of IIercules—
Balcaric Isles
Sardinia, Corsica, and the adjacent Isles—The Liparean
Islands—Sicily—Crete and the adjacent Isles—Isles of the Adriatic Sea
Cyclades—Mene and Canopus—Thodes, Euboea, Cyprus, cic. —Isles placed
in the Euxine Sea.
THE Mediterranean Sea holds much the same position in
mediaeval that it did in classical geography, as the Mare
Magnum, the “Great Sea” of the habitable world. Its form
is very imperſectly delineated in the Hereford map, as, in-
deed, in most mediaeval maps. From the Strait of Gibraltar
(which is unduly widened, to allow room for the isle of
Gades) it expands equably on the sides both of Africa and
Europe to the peninsula of Italy, a very slight allowance
being made for the Gulfs of Lyons and Genoa. Italy pro-
jects eastward rather than Southward, and Sicily is brought
opposite to Rome. The Adriatic is depicted with very
moderate accuracy. Eastward of this the sea is reduced
to the width of a strait ; and the broad basin between
Egypt and Asia Minor is represented only by two project-
ing arms, which answer to the angles of the sea in Cilicia
and in the south of Palestine. The AEgaean, Hellespont,
and Propontis, are made of nearly equal breadth ; and the
Thracian Bosporus is only accidentally narrowed by the posi-
* AEthicus describes its merits in the following turgid language :—“Mare
magno plantationem et germen ac virgultum et piscinam regalem ac medullam
intersecantom triſarie geminatam orbis planition esse. Oceano relicto in sig-
nis et portentis el ultra quam credi potest autumat Mare Magnum sorbiti-
unculam vol cloacam abyssi magni' (cap. 73).
1 12 MEDITERRAN EAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
Gades.
tion assigned to Cardia. These seas are unduly lengthened,
the consequence being that the Euxine is thrown too far
north. The shape of this latter sea is very incorrectly given,
its length being much exaggerated. Both the Mediterranean
and the Euxine are studded with islands to such a degree
that we suspect our cartographer to have believed that the
Sea was expressly made for the islands, and that “nature
abhorred a vacuum ” of unoccupied expanse.
The name ſºlarſ: ſtltuitcramettm is placed opposite to
Italy, and several of the semi-inclosed seas are noticed.
One of the titles is peculiar, viz, ſºlate 3LCſmum, which
occurs between Crete and Italy. Santarem (ii. 416) Sug-
gests that M. IONIUM is meant ; but we think it possible
that it refers to the Mare Leonis, our “Gºulſ of Iyons,” popu-
larly so called, but properly “Gulf of the Lion,” as by the
French, “Golfe du Lion :” this title, as applied to the ancient
Sinus Gallicus, is as old, at all events, as the 14th century.
(Ménage, Dict. Etym. s. v. “Lion.”) The title Øſtriaticitg
$ímug is duly entered. The AEgaean Sea is designated
(ºgra. Then we have pellespontus, Dardanelles ; 1303–
farug (Tractug, Strait of Constantinople; 33ropontinić
ſºlate:Sea of Marmara, placed in the Euxine; (Tinterištunt
ſłłure, doubtless intended for the Cimmerian Bosporus,
Strait of Yenikale (the title occurs in the “Imago Mundi”
map); and, lastly, (Buximum ſºlate. The Omission of the
names Sinus Gallicus, Tyrrhenum Mare, and, possibly, Ionium
Mare, is the more noticeable, inasmuch as they appear in
Isidore, xiii. 16.
Entering the Mediterranean from the Atlantic by the
Strait of Gibraltar, we first meet with an island surmounted
by two columns, with the superscription (5ancº 49erculis,
and with the further inscription on the island itself—(Talpeg
et à binma (5abeg #}rrtulig eggſ crtbuntur. The name
MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS, 113
“Gades,” which properly applies to the town of Cadiz, situ-
ated on a small island closely adjacent to the mainland, is
here evidently considered as equivalent to “columnae.” So
in Hispania: Chrorographia we read “Hercules fortissimas
turres construxit quas Gades appellavit.” (Hispania Illus-
trata, i. 9.) Higden (i. 30) explains this peculiar meaning
of Gades on the ground that the pillars took their name
from the island. The form “Abinna” for “Abyla” is found
in Solin. 23, § 13:—“Calpe et Abinna montibus quos
dicunt columnas Herculis.” But along with this recognition
of the natural “Pillars of Hercules” there was the idea that
the hero had placed some artificial structures at the town of
Gades. Of these Orosius speaks, i. 2,-‘Apud Gades in-
Sulas Herculis columnae visuntur;” and So Higden, i. 20,-
“Gades ubi et Hercules posuit columnas mirabiles et memo-
rabiles.”
Gades.
Passing on, we come to the Balearic Isles, on one of Baleares.
which (intended for Majorca) we read, lêalrarr; insult
bute 5unt it rst ſºlatorga rt ſºlinorga, a statement bor-
rowed from Orosius, i. 2. Another island contains an im-
perfect inscription, evidently taken from Isid. xiv. 6, § 44,
—ſtlingrga in big primum insults inurmtr 3Unt fumbe,
referring to the well-known skill of the inhabitants in the
use of the sling, to which the name Baleares (from 8%xxo)
was popularly attributed. A third member of the group,
EBUSUS or Ivica, is described in exact conformity with
Isidore, xiv. 6, § 43,-(Bü03 rujus trrrant Scrprimtrs fugi-
unt, reſerring to the belief that serpents were never found
On it.
We next come to $ºrtinia, which is drawn in the
shape of a foot, in accordance with the general resemblance
noticed by the ancients, as expressed in the names Sandalio-
tis and Ichnusa. The inscription runs thus:–Šarūimía
H
114 MEDITERRANTEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
Sardinia,
Corsica,
etc.
Liparea?
Insulae.
(śrect $ambaliſteg birtù a gimilitubint pebig humami
at Oriente patri GTATTERFE paşşuum, at occinemte
QTYYXT, a merinic CºE, a septemtriome Cº.
These dimensions do not agree exactly with those given by
Pliny, iii. 84, or by Isidore, xiv. 6, § 40. The reference to
the name Sandaliotis is borrowed from Capella, vi. 645.
Adjacent to Sardinia is (ſurgica, with the description,-
multig promunctoriig angulogă, referring to its numerous
promontories, borrowed from Isidore, xiv. 6, § 42, and with
the dimensions,—longitutine (ſāſ paşäuum, latitutine
£, as in Pliny, iii. 80. Above Corsica lies ſºletug, the
METISA of Pliny, iii. 79, and the METINA of Capella, vi. 643,
an island at the mouth of the Rhone. On the other side of
Sardinia, between it and the African coast, in a part of the
sea where no islands really exist, the map exhibits two
parallel rows, one containing (Taul, probably intended for
GAULOS or Gozo (Mela, ii. 7); #2tlaca, which we cannot
identify; (Tolubraria, Formentara, one of the Balearic
group (Solin. 23, § 11); (Ébigga, perhaps intended for
Enusis (Capella, vi. 645), off the S.W. coast of Sardinia; De-
gipca, no doubt intended for Hypaea, one of the Stoechades
(Capella, vi. 643); (Eta 130mportiana, evidently POMPONI-
ANA, one of the Stoechades or Hyères group, off the coast of
France (Capella, vi. 643): And in the second row—#}{lta,
possibly MELITA or Malta ; jicaria, adjacent to the S.E.
angle of Sardinia (Capella, vi. 645); 13|amagia, a small
island off the E. coast of Corsica (Capella, vi. 644); $tipa,
mentioned by Capella, vi. 644, probably in consequence of
a misreading of Pliny iii. 80; and $toptemcø, possibly a
mistake for STOECHADES.
To the E. of Corsica, above Metus, we see 3Lipara, the
chief member of the AEolian group, of which it is said,
(Églie ingulze modem żomt. In respect to the number the
MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 115
author follows Isidore, while Solinus and Capella state Seven.
Some of the lesser isles of this group are placed on the map,
viz. (ſcragia (THERASIA); %Cocotra (LEUCOTIEA); $fungile
(STRONGYLE), Stromboli; 39tera, Vulcano; (Egigua (ERI-
CUSA); and Hºngula 3DiDimce (DIDYME)—the two first
being placed near Sardinia, the next three between Sicily
and Africa, and the last between Sicily and Italy. We
have also to notice a second jitaria, of which we know
nothing; jettuša, PHOENICUSA (Capella, vi. 648); (5alata,
mentioned by Capella, vi. 645, as near Sardinia; Štripſ beg,
perhaps intended for the OSTEODEs of Mela, ii. 7; and ještia,
probably a defective form of HEPHESTIAS (Isid. xiv. 6, § 37).
Sicily (the name is accidentally omitted) is easily recog-
nised by its triangular form, to which it owed its ancient
name of Triquetra. It is placed in that part of the sea
which lies between Rome and Carthage. An inscription,
apparently drawn from Capella, vi. 646, gives its dimen-
sions as follows:–3, 3}rlord in 13atijmum [Pachynum]
Grºß, igtut, [inde] at £fficum [Lilybaeum] Gº, in be
at 33rlorum ºf. Mount AEtna (Cºtijna) is placed
in the centre of the isle, with flames issuing from its sum-
mit. A river named (Tamza is represented as rising on it,
and flowing eastward to the Sea, in the position of the Asines.
Possibly the name arises out of some confusion with that
of the town CATANA (called in the map Canna), which really
lay at the foot of AEtna. The promontories are represented
as mountains, with the names 33rlorum, 3Liùrum [Lily-
baum], and 1.3athmum. The form “Libeum ” appears in
a copy of Solinus, 5, § 2. The most observable point in
the names of the towns is the modern form Palermo, or
at least a close approximation to it, 33alerita, instead of
the ancient PANORMUS. Higden (Polychron. i. 30) uses a
similar form, which had been introduced into England by
Liparea
Insulae.
Sicily. -
*~ –- -
116 MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
the Crusaders. A similar instance of a change of the n
into l occurs in RUSCINo, which has become Roussillon.
With regard to the other towns there is nothing to notice.
They are $tracusa, #2it.ca (probably HYBLA, which appears
in Antonine, Itin. 89), £itia (Lilybaeum—for the form
compare the name of the promontory), ſlºgama, (Tammā
(CATANA), and @grigent (AGRIGENTUM). Between Sicily
and Italy are placed $billa" (SCILLA) and (ſtartöbig, the
rock and the whirlpool, whose fancied proximity was the
source of anxiety to ancient navigators. Both are repre-
sented as monsters, Charybdis as a coiled figure, with a
grotesque head protuding from the open end, and Scilla as
a head, with Open jaws, displaying rocks instead of teeth.
The latter is similarly depicted in the “Imago Mundi” map.
A fish, resembling an eel, is depicted near this. On the
opposite side of Sicily, off prom. Pachynum, the isle (Tap-
guà really represents the peninsula of THAPSUS, close to
Syracuse, which Isidore (xiv. 6, § 35) describes as an island
10 stades from the mainland.
(Treta’ is a very conspicuous object on the map, with
the Labyrinth depicted in a number of concentric circles.
Its dimensions are given in accordance with Pliny, iv. 58,
and Capella, vi. 659 —jingula jet in longitutine Jºãº,
in latitutine ài. The celebrated Mt. Ida (jba) is duly
depicted, and the Labyrinth has an inscription relative to its
reputed construction by Daedalus:–3||aborintuğ it rāt
Domuſ; 3Beltli [Daedali]. Whether our cartographer be-
lieved that the Labyrinth was a contemporaneous fact we
do not pretend to say, but such a belieſ survived to the
16th century, as may be seen from the Ephemerid. Sanctæ
Sicily.
Crete.
* The idea that Scylla was in the midst of the sea prevailed extensively in
the Middle Ages. Thus Gervase of Tilbury describes Scylla and Charybdis as
equally “marinae voragines.”—Ot. Imp. ii. 12.
MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 117
Terrae, in Pez's Thesaurus, Part ii. p. 467. Of the Cretan
towns we have (50rtina, (ſtudma (CYDONIA), and a third,
with a name imperfectly written, which reads as ſtirimta,
and may be intended for MYRINA (Plin. iv. 59), though we
can assign no reason why so unimportant a place should be
noticed. Between Crete and the coast of Africa, we have
ſºlarinia, for which we can find no authority; ſūrmix,
probably MENINX, commemorated by ancient geographers as
the abode of the Lotophagi [see below ſtienta]; HDíomrūtā
Hingula, transplanted here from the coast of Apulia, and
famous in antiquity for a species of sea-fowl, which were
Supposed to be the metamorphosed companions of Diomede
(Solin. 2, § 45); and ſileios, one of the Cyclades in the
AEgean Sea. Above Crete, to the right hand, is the isle
of Calipp.gg (CALYPSUs), properly speaking near prom.
Lacinium, on the coast of Italy, but placed in its present
position in accordance with Orosius, i. 2. It was identified
with the Homeric Ogygia (Plin. iii. 96). Between Crete
and Italy we observe two fish, one unnamed and resembling
a tunny, the other entitled ſºlilrg ſºlarig, and evidently
intended for a sword-fish, a sword being represented as
attached to its gill. Above these is an island, shaped like
a vessel, “$copulug at mtDNumt mabis,” in reference to
Prom. Phalacrium on Corcyra, which bore some resemblance
to a vessel, and was supposed to be the ship of Ulysses
metamorphosed (Solin, 11, § 2; Capella, vi. 658). The
rock appears to be figured in the “Imago Mundi” map.
Near it is the island (Taria, possibly intended for Icaria,
though far removed from the true position of that island.
Diverging from the open sea to the area which represents
the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, we notice żałinthus, Zante >
(ſtaššíopia, an island noticed in conjunction with Zacynthus
by Orosius, i. 2, and intended for Corcyra, which had a pro-
Crete.
Isles
of the
Adriatic
Sea.
118 MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
Isles
Of the
Adriatic
Sea.
Cyclades.
montory and a town Cassiope ; compare Antonine, ſtºn.
521, where, for “Insula Cassiope insula Goreiro,” it has been
proposed to read “Insula Cassiope sive Corcira” (Parthey
and Pinder's ed.); see also Geog. Raven. v. 22; Isid. xiv.
4, § 14—" Habet [Achaia] ab occasu Cephaloniam et Cassio-
pam insulas,” and AEthicus, caps. 86, 101. Marino Sanuto
places the Cassiopae Insulae (he implies the existence of a
group) to the W. of Achaia; they could thus answer to the
Ionian Islands (Gesta Dei, p. 286). Subsequently he men-
tions these islands by their modern names, as well as Corfu.
Higher up the gulf come (Trpijalenta, CEPHALENIA : (Tritlic,
for which we can suggest no identification; Éſemicia,
Venice, the insular character of which is indicated with
considerable exaggeration in the map ; and the Liburnian
Islands, seven in number, occupied (it is stated) by
Venetians —inguler 3 tºurnice EHF guag #jcmetici intz
habitant. These line the coast of Dalmatia, and were no
doubt under the dominion of Venice at the period of the
map.
Returning to the Mediterranean we find the group of
the CYCLADES represented by a large circular island Sur-
rounded by a fringe of islets, in accordance with the received
explanation of the name Cyclades. The inscription records
that the number of the group is 53, as given in AEthicus,
cap. 94, and that the group has a length of 700 miles from
N. to S., and of 200 from E. to W., which numbers are
taken from Pliny, iv. 71, but really include the Sporades
as well as the Cyclades:–“ HD clog ingula in metto (Ticine
borum situ; ; 5unt autem (Titlalºg 3.HH. 3 Septem-
triome in merittent TDCTCſ, aſ oriente in occagum (TCI
miliaria jaúcut.” To the right hand of Delos there is a
figure of a mermaid with a mirror in her right hand.
Further to the right hand is a name which reads like
MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 119
Čítaria, perhaps Icaria is intended, which gave name
to the Icarium Mare, though tradition attributed the names
both of the sea and of the island to Icarus, the Son of Dae-
dalus (Solin. 21, § 30). Off the coast of Egypt is {Hzma,
which is said to be so called from a freedman Menus, who
was buried there —a ſūcmo liberto in ca 3&pultſ : the
name is identical with that which Solinus (27, § 40) uses
for MENINX, but we are unable to account for the reference
to the freedman Menus; the name “Mena” also appears in the
“Imago Mundi” map. Opposite the mouth of the Nile is
an island named (Tattopuš, with a description of it as a
great mercantile emporium : —#ngula Nitiššima Omni
genere mercium replen3 Grüem terrarum. Canopus was,
properly speaking, a town at the Canopic mouth of the
Nile, and the notion of its being an island proper, as shown
in the map, is derived from the words of Solinus, 31, § 1,
“dictum a Canopo Menelai gubernatore sepulto in ea insula
quae ostium Nili facit.” Compare Pliny, v. 128, where it is
described as “insularum ante Asiam prima,” in reference to
the boundary between Asia and Africa. It is represented as
an island in the “Imago Mundi” map, and in the “Jerome"
map in the British Museum (MS. 10,049). The town had
sunk into utter decay at the commencement of the Christian
era, and its reputation for wealth should properly have been
attributed to Alexandria. Canopus retained its importance
among geographers as marking the boundary between Africa
and Asia. [Solinus, l.c.] The name of the adjacent island,
(ſuctura, is unknown to us.
Turning north we meet with (Tarpataş , CARPATHUS
Skarpanto, umbe [a] ſºlate Carpatum piritur (Isid, xiv. 6,
§ 24); then in order, j)rutoma, which we cannot identify;
j}ax03; 3) com, probably IOS, which may have been known
to our cartographer by its modern designation Nio (= sy"Ig);
Cyclades.
Rhodes,
etc.
120 MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
IRhodes,
etc.
\
3RdNO3 ingula frtmtunt [? Phoenicum] columpma bittgātma,
Jöhodes, with its Colossus, which is duly depicted,—though
it had fallen down within 56 years of its erection, circ. B.C.
224, the memory of the Colossus was riſe in the Middle
Ages, so much so that Stewulf and Mandeville regarded the
Rhodians as the Colossians to whom St. Paul wrote his
Epistle (Early Travels, pp. 33, 140, Bohm); “Gºutigen in-
§ula 39 claut [Helladi] prºximia,” a notice which calls for
no remark beyond the use of the term “Hellas” for Attica;
#,CŞū03; Cipruš, of which the dimensions are given, “im
longitutint (ſ3.33.3 miliarium, in latitutine (Tx3 milia
aritint ’’ (varying from Plin. v. 129, in regard to length,
which the latter gives as 162 miles), with its two chief
towns $alantiš and 3}apijū3, the latter famous as the Seat
of the worship of Venus; (ſemtü03, placed in the long arm
which represents the eastern side of the AEgean Sea and the
northern half of the Levant, its position being decided by the
proximity of Troy; 3}utaria, apparently to be sought for
off the coast of Pamphylia, but we know nothing to answer
to it ; 3. Empilgä, LEMNOS, over which an animal of dubious
character is figured, possibly intended to account for the
adjacent name Egea, though it bears but little resemblance
to a she-goat (Plin, iv. 51; Isidore, xiii. 16, § 5); a sharp-
nosed fish is also depicted in this part of the Sea; (Thong,
placed in the part of the sea which represents the “Helles-
pontus;” whether COs or CHIOS is intended we do not
venture to decide, either being equally remote from the
y
IHellespont.
Lastly, in the Euxine we have to notice (Tanggpatº,
opposite the mouth of the Danube; Qſìjū303, transplanted
from the AEgaean Sea; 33atijmū3, which Higden (i. 8), on
the authority of Isidore (though in this he appears to be
mistaken), also transplants from the AEgaean to the Euxine,
MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 121
(compare in this matter the map in the MS. of St. Jerome, Rhodes.
British Museum, No. 10,049); 3 chillca, a small island off etc.
the mouth of the Danube, reputed to be the spot to which
Thetis transported the body of Achilles, with a temple
which no bird approached (Solin. 19, § 1; Plin. iv. 93);
%illopectra, probably ALOPECIA, an island in the Palus
Maeotis, at the mouth of the Tanais; (Larambig, properly
speaking a promontory on the coast of Asia Minor, and SO
described by Solinus, 44, § 1 ; lastly, 3}rmaggrgea, probably
PIIANAGORIA, on the Cimmerian Bosporus, between the
branches of the river Anticites, hence described as on an
island by Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 8, and others.
CHAPTER VII.
EUROPE.
General Description—Spain—Italy—Istria and Liburnia—Greece—Macedonia
—Illyricum and Dardania–Thrace—Moesia—Dacia—Bulgaria-—Alania.
THE boundary of Europe on the side of Asia has already been
noticed in Chap. I. (p. 24). The form of the continent, as
given on the map, is at first sight hardly recognisable. The
peninsular character of Spain and Italy is impaired by the
omission of the intervening seas. The distinctive form of
the AEgaean Sea being absent, we miss, in consequence, the
peninsula occupied by Thrace. The undue prolongation of
the AEgaean and the Hellespont throws the Euxine too far
north, and contracts the breadth of the continent between
the Euxine and the Northern Ocean. The Danube is thus
necessarily thrown too far north, and the proportions between
the north and the south of the continent are thereby impaired.
In other quarters we may note the conventional mode
employed in the delineation of the Baltic Sea (Šimuş
(5ermanicus) and the Bay of Biscay (3 guitamicus $imus),
—the outline of the Seas being in each case left imperfect
in order that the name might be introduced. An attempt
has apparently been made to represent the sinuosities of
the Baltic Sea ; but its size is understated, unless we include
in it the sea which in the map intervenes between Norway
and the mainland. The North Sea is crowded out in con-
sequence of the space assigned to the British Isles. The
angle now occupied by Holland is unnoticed. The British
Isles protrude Southwards nearly to Spain, and the opposite
EUROPE. 123
coast of France is carried down in a parallel line, so that
the angle formed by Brittany disappears. The Bay of
Biscay is very much curtailed of its proper dimensions, and
consequently the north coast of Spain disappears, while
the western coast sweeps round with a gradual curve to the
Strait of Gibraltar.
With regard to the physical geography, we have to
notice among mountain-chains the Pyrenees and the Alps,
the positions of which are correctly represented in reference
to the neighbouring countries. The Carpathians are also
entered, but it is clear that the cartographer had a very
inadequate notion of their true position, or of their relation
to the general mountain-system of the continent. The
Balkan is omitted; the Apennines and the mountains of
Greece are very imperfectly represented. In respect to
rivers, we may make the general observation that almost all
the large rivers of the continent are noticed, with the excep-
tion of those in Northern Russia. The omission of the
Tagus in Spain, is noticeable. In some cases, as the Rhine
and the rivers of France, the affluents are also introduced.
The Danube is adequately represented, with its affluents
as far as Hungary, beyond which point the entries are
erroneous. The interpolation of two imaginary rivers, the
Coruus and Arfaxat, between the Dnieper and the Don, is
farther noticeable.
The length of Europe on its southern side is given in an
inscription borrowed, though somewhat incorrectly, from
Pliny, vi. 206, 207 —3.0mgituto (Europe at Ustin ſhird-
tiššić [Maeotidel 113gue at Öabitanum prium bircrto
curgu territº quattr ºf [ºf] paşşuum, Gämi-
Uträuä autºm circuitus per simuş Şugs inter ſºluntum
[Maeotidem] litum cºntità quinquagirº 3rptirs mona-
gimta ntilia 5unt pāşşltunt. [The cartographer has
'[[CIOSIſlGI fº, I
'soup [uossuſo ouſ] put ‘ſipp AI XIſold oſquTV on Jo dn optºut
“uttupump) (A\ott KIoannuluduloo trouT) outull oil) to Ao poloptimiq Sull loudulāoquo
lmo quill outnsst touTull pluow of A ‘oſquqolduſ Suloos spuJ, "tºoltuſ) (IAO)
oul Jo quill u0,1] powo,IIoq SI outbu ou'l Qulū Slsośāns (96%, ’II) utotºut's a
où Jo (IoISSIUO otlī, ‘pup?ppm) ou Tuoso.Idol KIQISSOd. Kutu
‘SmIUnoſ ouſ put sloog ou" (100A100 s: "Tyll J101) OUIL '07/7(?/ſ
‘gll.Jatt, lºſſ oth put ovnoq “gullſ (IÉ otl, tºaºn//wpwº)
'guanºt Otú 0.1QT ‘ā3ſ,1{ſ: oul unſaw hoout oA UInsuruod
out, Jo StoAIt quotº out) JO "UOIUV Jo Stoo on Soddo ouſ,
tuOIJ 11 01 poſtojSTIUU) si (g I § ‘gz ‘Sn(IIIOS UI Sū ‘VNNIIV
to] ‘muſt ulto) oun topum) VTATV Jo otubu ou jujStoAO aſqu
-NUUUUIOI tº Kd Tuq : po) bouTIop SI ‘.0/0.10%) ‘IJTWO Jo quitou
UAOUDI [[OAA ou.I. KUS 01 01(IU[In OTU 0A uſuds put Intº)
trooAqoq onlol poluon Dolj SOUI alſº SpubutuiOO UIoIUAA IIAO)
oul ‘puoſduvaſ ‘OTT.IINOJ On Stojot SIU[] lotſlotAA qud : oãuut
on Jo uomiod tº on buiſsop on popuonuſ AIAuoteddu si 1101ſt
a ſt outbu tonnol-pot 10ajitoduſ (IV. M. put ºf trutſ toūnut S
put: N 5UTITITUnt 'otul ăuoi U UIO) sootto.UK.I on I, "SOI KIAuomb
-osuoo sl to]oultuuſo Tunstutiod ouſ put ‘polyptuto otu Satoſ'ſ ſo
ſmº) out, put ſºposºg ſo ſºngſ ouſ, Jo SUOISmith0ld 5ttlito Attoo ot.I.
"poluoso.Idols!UI ÁIIOUA Out, Sops out, Jo SUOI’llodold pub stroſ,
–09 Up ouſ, inq : z I SOIO UniM 00uup.[000U (UI ‘tuto Utluğuluſ tº U
Sotumsst SIUL "UInsuTuod USITTuds out, ‘ĀTottſut ‘UOIJV On 1Sottott
quiod out 10 quottº U00 out, Jo Ko Ans Uno oottoutuoo o M.
'otuus OUT IOI
Smtopſtuolt V JO quTI) SI put[ſ] otºl sonſsonus out) jumpulouſ
qnq ‘STUIod outtus ouſ UtooAqoq ‘ūdditiv Jo quuq sp. pUIOoos
otſ) : AOZW Jo U0S OUT on tulſutdIE) Jo quitºs out, UTO.)
ooutºsºp 100.Up out) juſtnsuout ‘sniq KIO.I. Jo Tutſ, sl stion
-upmotto osotin Jo SU) on I, ‘ltimmggeſt printi piu).jpupil
[SIQ sojoſ A] [[xxx 3.jpmbitmb 33,111.jJ Jºnilº'ſ mºſt
attilſ) [6 g O‘OI Jo publisuſ 06 lºg I quinotuu on 5upſettſ
snuſ, ‘HIHEſſ: 1) Jo puoistſ ºf [[{{TÉ.) puol AIttoudde
“BTUgdst H
EUROPE. 125
TAGUS, which name occurs in Italy, has been already adverted
to. On the other hand, two aſſluents are assigned to the
Ebro, for which we can find no authority—the 3Danuš,
which also appears in the “Imago Mundi’ map, and the
ſłlorimit5, which may possibly refer to the Sierra Morena,
the ancient M. MARIANUs. The political divisions noticed
are 39tgpania (ſtitcrior, “Hither Spain,” the eastern of the
two provinces into which the IRomans originally divided the
country; and 39tspania #nferior, which is here substituted
for the HISPANIA ULTERIOR of the Romans. To these we
have to add, as an apparently provincial designation, jatje
or jaite, placed E. of the upper Ebro, a name which we
cannot explain, unless it refers to the unimportant town of
JACCA in those parts. The kingdom of 3ragoma is trans-
ferred to the N. of the Pyrenees, between the river 3ſtray:
(probably the ATAX or Ande) and the Mediterranean. There
is a certain degree of historical truth in this arrangement,
inasmuch as Roussillon, at the date of the map, belonged to
Aragon. The name (Tompostu', Compostella, appears as a
district name, in consequence of its great importance as a
place of pilgrimage in those days. The towns are very
imperfectly given
a circumstance which may partly be
accounted for by the presence of Mohammedans in the
southern " part of the peninsula. Conspicuous among the
objects of topographical interest is the QIrmplum Šalurti
3|acobi, Santiago de Compostella, containing the shrine of the
Apostle James, whose name and title “Jacomo Apostolo”
were abbreviated into “Compostella.” This was one of the
most frequented places of pilgrimage of that day. Connected
* So little did English geographers know of Spain, that Higden (Polychrom.
i. 29) describes the Saracens as occupying the castern rather than the southern
provinces of Spain; and a statement to this eſtect is entered on the larger
Higden map in the British Museum.
Hispania.
126 EUROPE.
with it was the port of El-Padron, where the Apostle's body
came to land, and whence it was transferred to Santiago.
This place is designated by a Pharos, elaborately drawn, with
the name 13troma,” with which we may compare the form
Lo Peyron in the map of Andreas Benincasa, 1476; and
Paron in the Registrum Ptolemaei, 1486. In the same part
of the peninsula we may identify 33ragaria with BRACARA
AUGUSTA, Braga, one of the five original metropolitan sees
of Spain. We may further notice (Iſoletum, Toledo, the
seat of the primacy from the 7th century; (Terracoma,
Tarragona, another of the original metropolitan sees; (ſota
túša (the modern designation is observable), probably
noticed for its celebrity in the Moorish wars; and
(Turtuba, Cordova, which succeeded Carthagena as a metro-
politan see. 33agella is probably intended for Seville,
another of the original metropolitan sees, though the form
corresponds neither with the ancient (Hispalis) or the modern
name of that town. With regard to the other names we
can offer no suggestion as to ſºlutbuacia ; we should expect
to meet with EMERITA AUGUSTA, Merida, as being one of
the five original metropolitan Sees, but we cannot twist the
name into the form Murduacia ; perhaps the name may have
something to do with Murcia, though we doubt it : still less
can we accept Santarem's identification of it with Munda.
36tturrica may possibly be a confusion with the name of
the province BAETIGA, which appears in the form Betiria in
Higden's map, or it may be a reference to BAETURIA, which
was a subdivision of Baetica. (5alencia answers in position
to Valentia, which may have attained notoriety as having
been recovered from the Mohammedans in 1238; and
#Izrma may possibly be ILERDA, Lerida. Three places are
Hispania.
* Santarem (ii. 298) explains the name as = “per omnia (pour tous),” and
identifies the Pharos with that of Brigantia.
EUROPE. 127
delineated but not named—one on a height between the
rivers Baetis and Calcnia, the others to the E. of the Ebro.
The omission of Cartagena and Lisbon is noticeable. The
name (5aleg occurs on an island in the Strait of Gibraltar;
but the cartographer did not identify it with the modern
Cadiz, or indeed regard it as the name of a town at all.
In natural history we have a picture of the Genet, named
(5cmcig, the fur of which was much prized in the Middle
Ages.
The peninsula of Italy is represented in the map by a
broad protuberance between the Mediterranean Sea and the
Adriatic. The line of the Alps is delineated with compara-
tive accuracy, as extending in a curve between the two seas
from the neighbourhood of Marseilles to the sources of the
Timavus. The Apennines are delineated, though not named,”
as lying between Genua and Beneventum. Of special heights
we meet with Öargamug, Gargamo, which forms a marked
promontory on the Adriatic coast, and ſtion3 flirijagii,
which we believe to be intended for Monte Cassimo, the site
of the famous Benedictine monastery, though it is difficult
to account for the change of the name into that of the well-
known Bishop of Reims. We can only say that it is hardly
more incorrect than the form Mons Cassiae, which Hoveden
uses for the same spot (Chron. ii. 54).
The entries of rivers are numerous. The course of the
3}abuğ (Po) is drawn with tolerable correctness, with its
affluents the (Ticinuš, Ticino, and the Mincio (not named),
which flows from 3Lätuš 36emaru 3, L. of Guarda, the only one
of the Italian lakes noticed ; near its mouth the name Padus
again occurs, with the addition of its poetical name Eridanus:—
3}abuš qui et (Britanuš (Solin. 2, § 25). The Øſarug,
* An imperfect red-letter name near Bononia may perhaps apply to this
range : the letters read as a pºp 5.
Bispania.
Italia.
128 EUROPE.
Taro, which is, properly speaking, an aſſluent of the Po on
its right bank, is represented in the map as flowing into the
Mediterranean near Genoa. Eastward of the T'o we must
identify the Øingú with the ATIIESIS or Adige, from the cir-
cumstance of Verona being placed on its banks; we are
unable to account for the form of the name. The Øſtmaðug,
Tºmao, at the head of the Adriatic, owes its celebrity and the
abnormal size assigned to it on the map to the circumstance
of its welling up suddenly with a full stream from several
Springs, so that, though only a mile long, it is broad and
deep enough to bear vessels (cf. Virg. Æh. i. 245). On the
coast of the Adriatic we notice the 13tgcaria (probably the
|PISAURUS) and the Ømfituğ (intended for AURIDUS); and
on the western coast of the peninsula the ſºletauruś, not
the river of historical celebrity, but an unimportant stream
which Capella (§ 648) notices as lying opposite the AEolian
Isles; the †ler, without doubt the SILARUS or SILER (Lucan,
Phars. ii. 426), Sele, to which the Šarrut3 is assigned as a
tributary, though in reality it reaches the Gulf of Naples by
an independent course; the VULTURNUS, not named, but to
be identified as such by the position of Capua; the (Iſthtrig,
to which by some inexplicable confusion the (Tagttg is
assigned as an aſluent in the position of the CLANIS ; the
£ateg, which we cannot identify, in Etruria; and the Øſtma
36|amca, doubtless the Armo, though we are unable to
account for the addition of “Blanca” to its name; * and
lastly, a river unnamed between Luca and Luna.
The names of the political divisions belong for the most
part to ancient geography : under this head we may specify
@Ipc3 (50ttice, more correctly ALPES COTTLE, a province in
Italia.
* Is it possible that the author was aſſected by his familiarity with the
name Acquablanca, by which a Bishop and a Dean of IIereford were known
in the 13th century
EUROPE. 129
the division of Constantine, occupying the place of the older
Liguria (Paulus Diaconus, ii. 16); jūminia (properly
speaking the eastern portion of Gallia Cispadana, though
transposed in the map to Transpadana), a province in Con-
stantine's division, so named after the Via Flaminia, which
traversed that part of Italy; 3.pulia, (Talabria, 33rittii,
3.ucanía, and (Tampania, names which call for no remark;
and (ſugtin, which took the place of ETRURIA in Constantine's
division, and was adopted by mediaeval geographers partly on
account of the supposed derivation of the name from the Latin
thus, “frankincense” (Isid. xiv. 4, § 20; Paul. Diac. ii. 20).
13tgcinità, near the Adriatic,is probably intended for PICENUM.
Of later designations we may specially notice that of Lom-
bardy, 3.0mgobarbia, to which are added the somewhat
obscure words her ct ligría, probably referring to the name
LIGURIA, which in Constantine's division was transferred to
Gallia Transpadana, and thus coincided with Lombardy. A
district name, Éjalta, appears between the upper Tiber and
Vulturnus: the only explanation that we can offer is that it
is intended for the province Valeria, which Paulus Diaconus
(H. L. ii. 20) describes as lying between Umbria, Campania,
and Picenum. The name Øſtria, near the upper Tiber, in
the position of Umbria, is yet more intractable : the classical
ADRIA was a town near the Adriatic. A red-letter name N.
of the Vulturnus, which may be read as (ſºrrig or Qſcrutt
defies identification.
The names of the towns are for the most part drawn
from ancient authorities, and especially from Antonine's
Itinerary. The name most clearly referable to a post-
classical age is 33apia, which appears to have been sub-
stituted for TICINUM towards the close of the Lombard period.
Taulus Diaconus already (H. L. ii. 15), uses the modern
name:—“Ticinus quae alio nomine Papia appellatur.” We
I
Italia.
130 EUROPE.
may further conceive that Šalerma and jittentia are men-
tioned in reference to their mediaeval, rather than their
ancient importance; and again, (ſubºrtina, if this can be
identified with Todi. The towns are grievously misplaced,
and it would be endless to rectify in our survey all the mis-
takes that have been made, TOME naturally occupies a
conspicuous place in the map, being represented by a grand
edifice, and its position in the World being set forth in a
leonine verse: *
“33ama caput mumbi truct orbiš frtma rotumni.”
Turning to the N. of Italy we notice ſtitutoſamunt (Milan);
$Jeroma, which still retains its ancient name; 3riminum
(Rimini), which should have been placed on the sea coast ;
3|autic, originally LAUS POMPEIA, but as early as the time
of Antonine's Itinerary changed into the form as it appears
on the map, and which is followed in the modern Lodi ;
330monia, Bologna, the seat of a university, which was
largely frequented by English students about 1200; }}la-
crmtia, Piacenza, Ejercellig, properly WERCELLE, but
Vercellis occurs in some copies of Antonine's Itinerary (344,
347); (Ehurcha, properly EPOREDIA, now Ivrea ; %ugusta,
no doubt AUGUSTA PRAETORIA, Aosta, on the route to the St.
Bernard passes; and 43apia, Pavia, which is placed close to
the Alps. The towns of Venetia are noticed under the head
of Histria, in which country they are included in the map.
On the coast line, commencing at the head of the Adriatic, we
have 33abcmma; 3rtcoma; (Talabria, for which, as a town,
we can find no authority (the province of that name is else-
where entered); 33rumligium, Brindisi; jūrūntum, HY-
DRUNTUM, O/ram to ; (Iſarentum, Taranto ; 3Lºugaš, an entry
* M. D'Avezac in his Essay (Sur La Mappemonde, p. 13) says that this line
Italia.
is borrowed from the Olia Imperialiſt of Gervase of Tilbury. We cannot veriſy
the reference, as the printed work is taken from an imperſect MS.
EUROPE. 131
erroneously borrowed from Antonine's Itinerary, 489, where
“littoraria Leucas” is mentioned in reference to the pro-
montory now called Capo di Leuca (there was a town
named LEUCA near the promontory, but it is not noticed
by any of the authorities known to our cartographer);
Cotonia, intended for CROTONA; 3&com, or 33 cit, an im-
perfect name, probably representing RHEGIUM, which, in Anto-
nine's Itinérary, assumes usually the form Regio, and in one
case Reio ; $onfertta, intended for CONSENTIA, Cosenza, the
capital of the Bruttii; (5agan, possibly a mistake for CAU-
LON, which is mentioned by Mela (ii. 4) in connection with
Consentia; Šalerma, the ancient SALERNUM, a place of great
ſame in the Middle Ages for its school of medicine, as well
as for its commerce; 32 capulić, Naples; 13utcolig, Pozzuoli ;
(Đ3tta (Tiberis, the port of Rome, situated at the period of
the map on the left arm of the river, at Ostia ; 3.uma, in
Tuscany, a town never of any importance, and at the date of
the map in a state of utter decay, probably introduced in
accordance with Antonine's Itinerary; 311tra, Lucca, a more
important place in mediaeval than in classical times; and
Örnita, Genoa. In the interior—13iga, previously to 1406
one of the chief maritime cities of Italy; (ſubtrtina, per-
haps TUDER, Todi, which might have been described as
“Tudertina civitas,” a considerable place in the Middle
Ages; 13trugium, Perugia ; jLorrmtia, Florence, a place
almost unknown in the classical period, which rose to power
in the 11th century of our era; 33raur, probably intended for
TEATE; 3Benchentum, the capital of the Lombard duchy in
this part of the peninsula, and also well known in classical
literature, possibly also noticed in accordance with Solinus, 2,
§ 23, who says that the umbilicus of Italy was in its territory;
(Tapua, which at the period of the map existed on the site
of the earlier Casilinum, the classical Capua having been
Italia.
132 EUIROPE.
Italia.
BIistria,
Cum Li-
burnia.
destroyed A.D. 840; and 320|a, frequently noticed in the
Roman annals, but of little importance aſter its destruction
by Genseric, A.D. 455.
The province of Histria does not appear to have been
regarded by our cartographer as belonging to Italy. It is
coupled with Liburnia, 32istria cum 3Liburnia, and is
placed decidedly E. of the Adriatic, its true position being
between the Gulfs of Triesle and Quarnero at the head of
the Adriatic. Nor are we aware that Liburnia at any
period formed a recognised political division, though the
term occurs to designate the country of the Liburni, between
the rivers Arsia and Titius, in the province of Dalmatia.
A series of towns is represented as lining the Adriatic in
Liburnia, and the river Timavus in Histria. The towns
assigned to Histria really belonged to Venetia. They are—
@guiltpa, at the head of the Adriatic, in classical times the
capital of Venetia, at a later period one of the chief cities of
the Roman Empire until its destruction by Attila in 452,
thenceſorward a place of ecclesiastical importance; (Tonttur-
Uía, gilticium, meaning, no doubt, ALTINUM, and 13tuta-
lytunt, Padua–three towns which are placed on the leſt
bank of the Timavus, in the order of Antonine's Iline,'am!/ ;
they really lay westward of Aquileia, on the road to central
Italy. In Liburnia we meet with ºurcpola and HD climum,
which Santarem compares with ORTOPULA and DELMINIUM
respectively : we should be rather inclined to see in Adre-
pola a mistaken reference to the “A Pola” (v. l. de Apola)
of Antonine's ſtine,'ary, 496 : with regard to the name Del-
minium, our cartographer doubtless met with it in Some
copies of Isidore, xiv. 4, § 8, where the received text has
Delmi, converted in “Imago Mundi’ into Dalam (i. 18):
we cannot otherwise account for the introduction of Del-
minium. The remaining towns are—HDuracium, the classi-
EUROPE. 133
cal DyKRACIIIUM, Durazzo; and Øluloma, the classical AULON, Libur-
Valoma, near the border of Epirus. nia.
We have already had occasion to notice the gross igno- Greece.
rance which our cartographer displays as to the geography
of the classical land of Greece (Introd. p. xxiv.) It is the
more surprising from the circumstance that Greece had been
re-opened to Western Europe by the Crusaders, and had in-
deed been the seat of a Latin kingdom in the 13th century.
It should in fairness be stated that this ignorance is not
altogether peculiar to our cartographer: Higden's description
(Polychron. i. 23) is equally rematrkable; and even Isidore's
statements, on which Higden relied, are open to exception.
The outline of the peninsula, as represented on the map, is
hardly recognisable : Peloponnesus appears as a rounded
protuberance, with the title Jingula; the Saronic Gulf is
shown with the title Şimit5 ; but the Corinthian Gulf is
apparently transferred far away to the north, though there is
no name by which it can be identified.
Of the ſamous mountains of Greece we notice (Olímpus,
placed on the border of Thrace, in conformity with Isidore,
xiv. 8, § 9, who places it between Macedonia and Thrace;
(933a, removed to the interior; 3Liporus (can this refer some-
how to Othrys ); (ºlicum, HELICON; 33armašuš , and jiu-
bug, which probably represents PINDUS. The range of
CEta, which formed the famous pass of Thermopylae is trans-
ported to the interior, where it is named QIrrmopilt. Of
the rivers we may notice—the 13tncus or PENEUs; the
Hjermegåus, rising in Helicon, but erroneously depicted as
flowing into the AEgaean; and the #2imaru.5, on the western
coast, perhaps intended for the INACIUS. (Solin. 7, § 10;
AEthic, cap. 86.) The two nameless rivers near Tarnassus
may possibly be the two whose waters were credited with
the property of dyeing the Wool of sheep, in the one case
134 EUROPE.
Greece.
black, in the other white. (Isidore, xiii. 13, § 5; Higden, i.
23.)
The name Graecia does not appear on the map ; and it
is doubtful whether any general designation is assigned to
the country, though fraga may be intended to serve such
a purpose, ACIIAIA being used in the Middle Ages in a wider
Sense than as a provincial name. Of the provinces we have
(Tijeć3alia, ſpirus, EPIRUS, and 39club, meaning Attica,
which is termed Hellas by Isidore (xiv. 4, § 10), Helladia
by Higden (i. 23), and Elledas by AEthicus (cap. 78).
The towns are in many cases difficult to identify : we
recognise àtijenac, Corinthug, 3Laris, LARISSA, (Eleusia,
ELEUSIS, and 1.3atrag, which last name may have become
familiar from the place having been the chief naval station
of the French knights in the Crusades. DELPHI is no doubt
intended under the mistaken title of HBelog Draculum
@poloniš, the oracular deity himself, or his representative,
being depicted by an ill-favoured profile of a human head.
Turning to the other names, we think that (Tircra, on one
side of Parnassus, may be intended for CIRRIIA, the port of
Delphi; and 32iga, on the other side of the mountain, may
possibly be NYSA, on Mount Helicon. Ørgo, near Patras,
we presume to be ARGOS, transferred from the eastern to the
western coast of Peloponnesus. 3/2u5tree, farther down
the coast, is intended for LEUCTRA (for which a v. l. in Solinus,
7, § 7, gives Leustrae), a town of Laconia, which Solinus
apparently regarded as the scene of the great battle in B.C.
371 between the Thebans and Spartans; while $rigema
may be either Sicyonia or SCIOESSA, noticed by Solinus as
near Patras. Whether the town 39clīābā is introduced in
order to account for the name of the province, on the prin-
ciple that all district names were derived from those of the
towns, we cannot Say; nor, again, whether (Tijclea, on the
EUROPE. 13.5
eastern coast, represents THEBAE. As to the names 3}artija-
bug, Crampnum, and (ſubalum, on the western coast, we
can offer no suggestion whatever.
The general position assigned to ſºlaccuſinia in the
map is tolerably correct, but it is difficult to understand
how far the cartographer distinguished between it and
Thessaly, which is placed N. of the Peneus, and apparently
in the midst of Macedonia. We shall assume that this last
was an oversight, and that the sea-coast towns were intended
to belong to Macedonia. In this division we have the
famous mountain ATIIOS, depicted with its proper conical
form, but named @thlag or ATLAS, the name being confused
with that of the famous range in Africa. None of the rivers
are given; an abbreviated red-letter inscription, timince
3imit5, near the Peneus, is probably intended for the Sinus
Thermaicus, into which that river falls. Of the towns we
have (Tijeggalomita, Saloniki, misplaced in the interior;
{Haculca, a name entirely unknown in true geography;
%pollonia, between Thessalonica and Amphipolis, men-
tioned in the Acts, xvii. 1, and the Itineraries; %imfipolis,
AMPHIPOLIS; and 335ilippi,
Northward of Macedonia we find the provinces of
{Iliricuš and HBarbania, the former transposed from the
coast of the Adriatic to the interior, the latter a portion of
Moesia, answering to the Southern part of Servia, which
was constituted a province under the praefecture of Illyricum
in Constantine's division.
The name (ſtucía, placed near Cardia, is no doubt
intended ſor THRACIA, which survived as the designation of
this region down to the period of the map, as may be seen
by a reference to Higden's Polychronicon, i. 23. The most
conspicuous object in the outline of this country is the large
heart-shaped peninsula on which Cardia stands, and which
Mace-
donia.
Thracia.
136 EUROPE.
is so drawn in accordance with the fanciful derivation of
the name Cardia from the Greek xogóío, “heart,” as given by
Solinus, 10, § 20. A river is represented as flowing into
the sea somewhere between Philippi and the Thracian Cher-
sonese; it is formed of two branches, one of which is named
(Eleg and the other (apparently) $tt, immediately after
which comes a red-letter name which reads like tuallt;
the river is in the position of the Strymon, rather than of
any other stream. Of the towns We may give precedence
to (Tomştantinopolić, placed on a projecting point of land,
with the following legend :—Cºntgtantinopolis cititag
angitºto untique mari niši at tută partt unica #
paş3ttum circumplettitut. In the introductory chapter,
page 9, we referred this statement to the Gesta Regum of
William of Malmesbury (iv. § 353), whom Higden quotes
(Polychrom. i. 23); but we find a prior statement in Arculf's
Travels (circ. A.D. 700), which appears to be the original
whence Malmesbury borrowed, to the effect that Constan-
tinople is “bounded on all sides, except the north, by the
sea; the circuit of the walls, which are angular, according to
the line of the sea, is about twelve miles.” (Bohn's Early
Th'avels, p. 11.) The other towns noticed are $zgtog; (ſtallie
polis; (ſtartia; #eraclea (the Perinthus of the classical
period, but named Heraclea in Antonine's Itinerary, 323);
and (Tracianopolić, TRAJANOPOLIS, which is transported
from the seaside to the interior. The above names need no
comment; the remaining name, $ºrtug, is unknown to us.
#leggia,” or, as it should be spelt, MCESIA, was a Roman
province in the position of modern Bulgaria, extending along
the right bank of the lower Danube to the Black Sea. It
is not clear what extent our cartographer intended to assign
Thracia.
Moesia.
* The form of the name Messia originated in the fanciſul derivation “
messium proventu.”—(Imago Mundi, i. 18.)
EUROPE. 137
to it, for he has apparently carried Thrace up to the Danube.
Few objects present themselves to our notice. A mountain,
13angcuš, and a river, the ſiegter, circling round it and
flowing to the Danube, are transposed to this quarter from
the shores of the AEgaean, the cartographer evidently having
in his eye the words of Pliny, iv. 40 “Mestum amnem ima
Pangaei montis ambientem.” Two towns lie near the lower
Danube, viz. –1}amigug, and 33ampolić (? a shortened form
of Hadrianopolis); there was an unimportant town of the
former name, but it is not noticed by the authorities whence
our cartographer chiefly drew his materials.
Northward of Moesia and of the Danube lies Dacia,
which in ancient geography extended from the Thiess to the
Pruth, thus including Wallachia, the greater part of Moldavia,
and part of Hungary. To the title “Dacia" there are added
in the map the words “39cc ct 33 ugia.” It is difficult to
account for this entry; we rather surmise that it was added
for the purpose of avoiding the confusion that prevailed in
mediaeval geography between Dacia proper, and Dacia as the
name of Denmark. In the Anglo-Saxon map for instance,
we meet with “Dacia ubi et Gothia" for Denmark, and
exactly the same in Marino Sanuto Gesta Dei, p. 286. These
entries appear to be made in accordance with the statement
of Orosius, who, in describing the boundaries of Europe,
mentions “Dacia ubi est Gothia,” as being between Alania
and Germany (i. 2); and so again Isidore (xiv. 4, § 3). On
the other hand, in the “Imago Mundi” map, we have the
entry “Dacia et Russia,” which nearly accords with the
entry in our map, the intent being to specify the southern
or proper Dacia. We do not indeed understand that Russia
in the 13th century corresponded in any degree with ancient
Dacia; but Roger Bacon appears to have thought so, for he
describes a portion of Russia as lying W. of Albania in a
line with Hungary and Poland (Op. Maj. p. 169).
Moesia.
Dacia.
138 EUROPE.
IBulgarii.
Alani.
Eastward of Dacia come the 13ulgarii, between the
rivers &lamug and Dataper. The former of these rivers
is introduced in accordance with the mistaken statement
of Isidore, ix. 2, § 94; the latter is the Dniepr, the classical
BORYSTHENES, which name was superseded by that of DANA-
PRIS, about the 4th century after Christ. The Bulgarians are
thus represented as occupying that part of Russia which lies
W. of the Dniepr. The entry of their name is noticeable as
one that belongs to mediaeval geography proper, the Bul-
garians having first come into notice in the 5th century of
the Christian era. Their earliest seat was on the course of
the Volga, whence they made violent inroads upon the
Roman provinces, and at length settled on the plains
between the Carpathians and the Balkan, and finally (about
the middle of the 10th century) were confined to the country
now named Bulgaria, to the S. of the Danube. The position
assigned to them on the map is therefore an anachronism.
The geographical statements as to their position are very
vague and conflicting. King Alfred, in his Orosius, places
them between Carinthia and Greece, a wilderness intervening
between them and the first named country (Bohm’s ed., p.
247). In the Anglo-Saxon map they appear between the
Danube and the Northern Ocean, which would be partly
correct at that period. Higden (i. 22) places them S. of
the Danube, but at the same time makes Bulgaria a part of
Hungary, and carries it westward to Gallia Belgica. Roger
Bacon places them S. of the Danube (Op. Maj. p. 169).
Eastward of the Bulgarii come the @Iani Šitile [SCYTILE],
between the Danaper and a river named (ſprittig. We have
been unable to discover the authority for this latter name,
as no river of such dimensions exists between the Dniepr
and the Dom, and the only names that we know in this
quarter bearing the slightest resemblance to Coruus are
EUROPE. 139
Gerrus and Coretus, the former a river of uncertain identifi-
cation, and the latter a bay of the Palus Maeotis; but these
are mentioned by Pliny (iv. 85) alone of the authorities
usually consulted by our cartographer. As to the Alani,
they are placed in this position in accordance with the
statements of Isidore (xiv. 4, § 3) and Orosius (i. 2). There
is independent evidence that a branch of the Alani, whom
Toger Bacon accurately designates the Alani Occidentales
(Op. Maj. p. 169), occupied this region in the first four
centuries of the Christian era, and mediaeval writers down
to Higden (Polychrom. i. 22) retained them in that position.
The other branch, or Eastern Alani, lived in the eastern
Caucasus, and are probably represented there at the present
day (Smith, Dict, of Ancient Geog., S. v. Alani).
Next to the Coruus comes the river 3rfaxat, which we
are again unable to identify. No tribe is placed between
these two rivers in Southern Europe, but the vacant space
is filled with the figure of an Ostrich and an inscription
which describes it as having the head of a goose, the body
of a crane, and the feet of a calf, and as being in the habit
of eating iron —“ (93tricittà, Caput angerig, corpitä ſyruis,
peneg bituli, fertum comebit.” The form of the name
“ostricius” is observable, inasmuch as it furnishes an indica-
tion that our cartographer did not depend upon classical
authorities for his natural history, otherwise he would have
used the word “struthio’’ or “struthio-camelus; ” it is
needless to add that the Ostrich is unknown in the region
to which it is assigned. We may compare with this the
statement in AEthicus, that the Ostrich was to be found on
the mountains of Armenia (cap. 105).
Alani.
INorthern
Europe.
Gallia.
CIHAPTER VIII.
EUROPE—Continued.
Raetia—Noricum—Pannonia–Hungari—Sarmatae—Sclavi
Gallia–Germania
—Dani—Norcya—Cynocephales—Gryphae—The Seven Sleepers—Islands
of the Northern Ocean,
IN our examination of Southern Europe as depicted on the
Hereford map, we have met with but few indications of con-
temporaneous geography. Turning northwards, such indi-
cations increase in number and interest, particularly in
connection with Southern France, Northern Germany, and
Great Britain. But even in those countries with which our
Cartographer had good opportunities of making himself
acquainted, it is surprising how defective was his knowledge,
and how grossly erroneous many of his statements. Occa-
Sionally indeed the names introduced are wholly beyond
identification, and in many other instances the commentator
has to draw largely on the forbearance of his readers in
respect to the explanations offered.
We commence with the Gallic region, including under
that title all that lay between the Rhine and the Pyrenees.
The cartographer does not indeed introduce GALLIA as a
general title for this region, but he gives the various sub-
divisions of ancient Gaul, and we are therefore justified in
assuming that he followed the precedent of ancient geo-
graphy in this matter, just as Higden has done in his
Polychronicon, i. 25. The only statement referring to Gaul
in its entirety is one describing its dimensions, borrowed,
with sundry blunders, from Pliny, iv. 105 —%l 33 citſ,
EUROPE. 141
flufftſ ugſſue at 13trencum et at occanſ; tışqut at montº
(Tchentiam et juga [Jura] qui termartiſmemäem ſquibus
Narbonensem] (5alliam exclubit longitutine (ſºft
(CCCXX) pagguum, latitutine (ſº ºccumbum
@grippam regem. The addition of the word regem can
only be explained by the assumption that our cartographer
identified Vipsanius Agrippa with the King Agrippa of the
New Testament. We need hardly say that these concluding
words form no part of Pliny’s text: to make the sentence
intelligible, the reader must assume that Agrippa is the
Subject of the verb excludit, the meaning being that Agrippa
had excluded Gallia Narbonensis from his estimate.
Of the mountain chains which belong wholly or in part
to France, the Alps are elaborately delineated on the side of
Italy, and the Pyrenees on the side of Spain. Neither of
these names appears on the map, if we except the notice of
the latter in the passage just quoted from Pliny; but the
strange name 33rturban Grunt is assigned to a special height
of the Pyrenees, near the source of the Garonne. The
Covenmes and Jura are noticed in the inscription from Pliny,
but are not depicted on the map. The Côte d'Or may possibly
be indicated by the mountain on the left bank of the Saône,
in connection with the boundary between France and Bur-
gundy (see page 7). Two other special heights are entered,
(Tſarug ſºlong and ſtion3 ſºlirijatl, but these belong to
the topography, rather than to the physical geography of the
country.
The rivers are described with tolerable accuracy, but
several of the names are peculiar. Commencing at the N.
we have the Rhine (not named) with its chief tributaries
the ſūdgella and ſinge, Meuse, on its left bank, together with
three other names which we cannot altogether account for,
namely, the #Ira, the Ill, on which Strasburg stands, the
Gallia.
142 EUROPE.
5
Gallia, mediaeval form of which appears to have been “Ellus’
(Graesse Orbis Latinus, p. 82), or, according to Ménage
(Dict. Etym. i. 45) “Alsa; ” the @Irúr, properly the name
of the Saône, but here evidently intended for the Aar, the
“Arola” or “Arula” of mediaeval writers (Graesse, p. 19),
though “Arar” is after all the more exact equivalent in
point of sound; and the (But, which is apparently intended
for the upper Rhine, but why so named we cannot divine.
The Delta of the IRhine is marked by three diverging arms.
Proceeding westward, we encounter the river ?uxomtu, in
the district of Flanders; the name resembles AXONA, the
ancient name for the Aisne, but it is difficult to account ſor
the transference of that river to a locality where we should
expect to meet with the Somme (the ancient Samara, as might
be inferred from the name Samarobriva ſor Amiens, though
the Ravenna geographer (iv. 26) gives it as Syemena); our
cartographer appears in this matter to have followed
the “Imago Mundi’ map, which inserts here the name
Oxona. The $ºcitànà, Seine, is depicted with too long a
course, reaching nearly to Lyons; its aſluents are the (Tuna,
which we take to be the ICAUNA or Yonne ; the ſºlaritú or
Maº'ne, which thus appears under its modern rather than its
ancient name MATRONA ; and the Cºuga, Oise, the mediaeval
ESIA or CESIA (Graesse, page 85). The 3-igerig, Loire,
comes next, with its tributary the ſūtūamia, correctly
MEDUANA, Mayenne, with the $arta, Santhe, neither of
which latter names appears in ancient geography; the pas-
sage in which the name Meduana occurs (Lucan, i. 438)
being held to be spurious. Then comes the (5crumba,
Garonme, the classical GARUMNA, but the form “Garunda. "
appears as early as the close of the 4th century (Symmach.
ad Auson. 9, page 85), and is still, with a slight modification
—Gºonde, applied to the estuary of the Garonne; its
EUROPE. 143
aſſluent, the Dordogne, is noticed in the map under an
abbreviated form, which we read as HBurbania, closely
resembling the mediaeval “Dordonia” (Graesse, p. 76); it
will be observed that the Dordogne is transferred from the N.
to the S. bank of the Garonne. The Adour, on which stands
Dayonne, is entered on the map, but not named. On the
Mediterranean coast we meet with the Øſtray, the ATAx or
Awde ; and the 3RdNamug, Jęhome, with its tributaries the
Saône (not named), and the (ſligara, probably intended
for ISARA, Isère, but placed in the position of the Durance,
inasmuch as Embrun is marked on its course. An expansion
On the course of the Rhone, above Lausaune, doubtless repre-
sents the Lake of Geneva.
The political divisions of the Gallic region are given
with tolerable fulness. Taking them in their historical order
we have firstly Caesar's three divisions :—%Iquitamia , (5allia
(Teltica, and (5allia 33rlgica, the two former being trans-
posed in position. These divisions applied to Gaul exclusive
of the original groſſincia (Provence) of the Romans, which
was afterwards constituted GALLIA NARBONENSIS, and which
is indicated in the map by the territorial title j} artigma, as
in the earlier map of Guidonis, circ. 1200 (Santarem, ii. 216).
We may next notice a title, which is not easily explained,
viz. –(5allia ĐĐ populorum, between the lower Garonne
and the Pyrenees: it seems to be intended either for GALLIA
NOVEMPOPULANA, one of the sub-divisions of Aquitania, intro-
duced in the 4th century after Christ, or for SEPTIMANIA, a
division in the same part of Gaul in the 6th and 7th centuries,
consisting of the seven dioceses included under the Metro-
politan jurisdiction of Narbonne, which were held by the
Visigoths from 418 to 759. The remaining divisions belong
to contemporaneous geography; the most observable of the
entries is that which notices the boundary between France
Gallia.
144 EUROPE.
Gallia, and Burgundy, Úſtrminuts jrancic ct littrºttmbie, on which
M. D'Avezac lays so much stress as tending to fix the date
of the map (see chap. I. pp. 6, 7). We have already pointed
out the difficulty of defining the precise position of the
boundary, and have suggested that it was intended to apply
to the Côte d'Or, which is transferred in the map from the
right to the left bank of the Saône; even thus the statement
would be incorrect, as Burgundy extended westward across
the Côte d'Or to the right bank of the Loire ; in short, the
indication seems to be so vague that we derive little infor-
mation from it beyond the fact of the rivalry which existed
between these two important States at the period of the map.
The other political divisions from N. to S. are as follows:—
#}olumbia, Holland, at this period under its own Counts,
erroneously placed in the angle between the most westerly
arm of the Rhine and the North Sea; 16tatantia, Brabant,
(Tampania, Champagne; jLambria, Flanders; 320rmannia,
Normandy, correctly represented as lying on both sides of
the Seine; (5a5.comía, Gascomy; %igititamia , already noticed
as an ancient designation, but also a term of contemporaneous
geography, Aquilaine being constantly employed at this
period in lieu of the more modern Guienne ; 3. Jernia,
Auvergne ; and 33robincia, Provence. Comparing this list
with that of Higden, we note the absence of Picardia;
Britannia Minor (Brittany), the more remarkable, inasmuch
as this was one of the great fiefs of the French crown ;
Pictavia (Poitou); and Andegavia (Anjou).
The towns themselves do not ſor the most part call for
special notice, but we may point to an interesting group in
Gascony, which is evidently introduced with a view to con-
temporaneous history, viz. –FronSac, Libourne, and Bourg,
places which figure in the history of the Edwardian wars. We
may also remark on the numerous names of dubious import,
EUROPE. 145
some of which we are wholly unable to identify. Paris, Gallia.
13arígiug cipitag, occupies a very conspicuous place on the
map, proportioned to its political importance as the capital of
France. Above Paris, on the Marne, we notice @utišiū-
Ugrum, Aua'erre, and 3|atimatug, in the position of Meaua,
the Latin name of which, however, was Iatinum ; and near
the upper Seine 3 ugustutumum, Autum. Below Paris,
on the Seine, 330tomagum, Rouen, the “metropolis” of
Normandy, as Higden styles it. Between the Seine and
the upper Meuse, lºcmig, Rheims, the ancient REMI or
DUROCORTORUM,” an archiepiscopal see; $ucgia, Soissons, the
AUGUSTA SUESSONUM, or simply SUESSONAE, of Anton. Itin.
362, 379 ; ſūqm3 3//autumi, Laon, correctly depicted as on
an isolated hill, which is crowned with a noble cathedral;
(5:30rtia, near the head of the Meuse, probably intended
for Gisors, the mediaeval Gisortium (Graesse, Or. Lat. p. 100),
a place of great military importance so long as Normandy was
held by the English, with a strong fortress partly built by
our Henry II. ; and j}Gumum or 32Gbitum, a corrupt read-
ing of Novion UM, the mediaeval name for Noyon (Graesse, p.
148). Between the river Seine and the so-called Auxonta,
are two figures of towns, one of which is designated $ºrtleg
Ol' $ctrics; it stands in the position of Amiens, but we
know of no name at all resembling it. On the sea coast, be-
tween the Auxonta and the Rhine, (Tinteratum, for CAMERA-
CUM, Cambrai; (ſurnacum, Tournay; and 330monia, the
later Latin name for Boulogne (see Amm, Marcell.., xx. 9;
Zosimus, vi. 2), the earlier Gesoriacum. On the course of
* The presence of double names for the Gallic towns, such as Remi and
Durocortorum, Aureliani and Genabum, etc. etc., is due to the circumstance
that the towns assumed, subsequently to the 4th century, the names of the
tribes to which they belonged. These tribal names are the prototypes of the
modern names, with a few exceptions, such as Augustodunum, Autun, and
Borbetomagus, Worms,
IX
146 EUROPE.
Gallia.
the Meuse, 3Ltolytum, one of several mediaeval names for
Liège (Graesse, p. 122); %iguiggranum, Aia-la-Chapelle,
a place not unknown to the Romans, though the name does
not appear in any Latin writer; with regard to the word
“Granum,” conflicting, and as far as we can judge, unsatis-
factory, explanations are offered (see Daniel, Geographie, iii.
899); the town rose to eminence under Charlemagne; and
$Jeroma, evidently a mistake, but whether intended for
VEROMANDUI, St. Quentin, or for PERONA, Peronme, we cannot
say. On the Rhine, ſittig, Metz, and @grippina (Colomía,
the full Toman name for Cologne, from which the name
Agrippina has dropped out. On the Moselle, (Tambaſſ, pro-
babably intended for GANDAVUM, Ghent; (ſāormatia, Worms;
#Hagantia, Maintz; jūtentia, for CONFLUENTIA (Graesse, p.
63), Coblemtz; and Eſercuttmum, Verdun. On the Ilra, a
town evidently intended for Strasburg, the mediaeval STRATIS-
BURGUM (Geog. Rav. iv. 26), but the latter syllable alone can
be read—HBurj. At the junction of the Arar and Rhine,
łłąśćl, with its modern German name, more familiar to us
in its French form Básle. e
Returning to the Seine we notice between it and the Loire,
on the sea coast, ſºldmä jūichael, Mont St. Michel, the site
of a famous monastery, founded in 709, and much visited by
pilgrims in the Middle Ages, notably by St. Louis in 1254,
and further celebrated for its library; 3)amurtig, properly
NAMNET/E or NAMNETES, Nantes; and in the interior, Ømbre
gaſſig , Angers; a partly obliterated name, which is evidently
intended for (Tengmanti, Le Mans; and (Tarnotum, CAR-
NUTUM, Chartres. On the Loire, Øſttreltamunt, Orléans;
32tumig, probably a mistake for NIVERNIS, Nevers (see Ant.
Ilin. 367, v. l.); #jenbum, a name which we can hardly
do otherwise than identify with Vendôme, the mediaeval
Vendocinum, but we know no reason why this place should
EUROPE. 147
be noticed; and on the other bank of the river, (Iſuruttig,
Tours. Between the Loire and the Garonne, 33 crginia,
possibly Quercy, a name frequently mentioned in Froissart's
Chronicles (e. g. cap. 232), but of which the proper Latin
name was “Cadurcinus Pagus;” $ºntungia, Saintes, though
the name approximates rather to that of the district.” Saintogne,
both names being variations of Santones; 13tttaſſig, Poitiers;
and (B3ta, possibly intended for Auch, the mediaeval name
of which was AUSCI. On the Garonne, 3Limogema, either
Limoges (the ancient LEMOVICES), or else Limaſ/ne, the title of
the plain of Auvergne, to which it answers sufficiently well
in position but not in form, the Latimised name of Limagne
being “Alimania’’ (Graesse, p. 9); 3 permis, probably Cler-
mont, which was known as ARVERNA before it assumed its
later title of (Tlarità ſtilon15, which is assigned in the map
to a hill between the sources of the Garonne and the Loire,
and from which, through the intermediate form Claromontium,
comes the modern Clermont; the double entry f which this
identification involves occurs elsewhere in the map ; QTulosa,
Toulouse; and 35urtegala, Bordeaua, which is represented
in a style proportioned to its importance. On the Dordogne,
3|agüurma, Libourne, one of the Bastide towns of Aquitaine,
and in the 13th and 14th centuries a formidable rival of
Bordeaux; jrom Sacca , From Sac, a suburb of Libourne, on the
opposite side of the Dordogne, possessed in that day of a
castle which Monstrelet pronounces to be “the strongest in
all Guienne, and the key to Guienne and the Bordelois”
(Chron. iii. 37); and 35urgijtmare, Bourg, a port at the
junction of the Dordogne and Garonne, which appears
* It will be observed that there is only one pictorial representation for both
Sentungia and Pictavis, probably therefore the former is intended for a district,
though not written in the red ink,
t Compare Remesburgh and Ratispoma, pp. 153, 154.
Gallia.
148 EUROPE.
Gallia.
to have been frequented by the English, if we may judge
from a notice of it by Langtoft —
“Thei aryved alle o weye at Burgh sur la Mare.”
(Chron. ii. p. 262, Hearne's edition). On the Adour, 33agoma,
Bayonne. On the line of the Pyrenees, Ø gurgia, probably
Bigomºre, which in the Not. Gall, is styled Aquensis Vicus,
though its earlier name was Aquae Convenarum; a second name,
3}alentia, assigned to the same place, possibly represents
Palum (Pau), which has been confused with Palencia in
Spain. On the Atrax or Aude, 3} artiſma, Narbonne, the
NARBO MARTIUS of the classical age. On the coast, between
the Aude and the Rhone, Øſtelag cipitag, Arles, at the period
of the map the capital of a kingdom which was held by the
house of Anjou as a fief of the German Empire.
Eastward of the Rhone, ſºlaggilia, Marseilles. On the
Rhone, 3Ltdma, placed in the position of Avenio, Avignon,
and probably intended for that place, which is not otherwise
named, though we can offer no explanation of the name;
Tjirna, Vienne; (5cmiga and 3LOgamma, Lausanne, which
is mentioned in Antonine's Itin. 348, as the station “Lacus
Lausonius.” On the Durance, (Tap tle (with a mark
of abbreviation), probably CABELLIO, Cavaillon, entered in
conformity with Antonine's Itin. 343; and (förtbunum,
Embrun, noticed in Itin. 342. On the Saône, 3Lug-
bunum, Lyons; and (Tahilla for Cabillonum, Châlon-
sur-Saône. On the line of the Alps, Šaldburum, Soleure,
probably introduced from Antonine's ſtºn. 353.
An island off the coast of France, entitled (Blerint,
is no doubt Oléron, a name associated with a well-known
code of maritime laws in that day (Macpherson, Ammals of
Commerce, i. 358). A representation of a bull or buffalo is
introduced in the south of France, with the title 16ttglogga.
It is difficult to explain this, inasmuch as “buglossa’ is the
EUROPE. 149
name of a plant, the burrage, so called from its resemblance
to an ox's tongue. Does the pictorial representation purpose
to expound the etymology of the word 2 or did the carto-
grapher really fancy buglossa to be the name of an animal?
Crossing the Rhine from Gallia we enter upon a region
which, as far as its topography is concerned, lies almost
wholly outside the range of classical geography, and for
which our cartographer was obliged to fall back upon con-
temporaneous authorities and his own personal knowledge.
The entries of towns, few as they are, have on this account
considerable interest, but we are still perplexed with the
vagueness and inaccuracy which pervade this, no less than
other parts of the map.
It is difficult to define the area which the author of the
map assigned to Germania. While geographers generally,
from the time of Pliny (iv. 81), have regarded the Vistula
as its limit on the side of Russia, our map extends the
country beyond that river to an imaginary range of moun-
tains abutting on the shore of the Baltic. As to its southern
the authority of Isidore (xiv. 4, § 4) is accepted by
gden (i. 26) in favour of the Danube, though the latter
writer appends a statement to the effect that Germany
extends to the Alps, near the head of the Adriatic. West-
ward, the Rhine formed the recognised boundary, though
Lorraine is included by Higden among the divisions of
Germany. The twofold division into Upper and Lower
Germany is noticed on the map, but the position of the
upper division is misplaced in deference to the authority of
Isidore (l. c.) who says “Superior juxta Septentrionalem
oceanum.” Accordingly, on the border of the sea, beyond
the Vistula, we read a dog-latin inscription, which tells us,
with a considerable measure of truth, that Upper Germany
was held by a Slavonian population —(5crmania guperior
Gallia.
Germania.
| 50 EUROPE.
Germania. Qui at illog $claſſorum gentitruš. The other division
is identified with Saxony, and is placed between the Elbe
and Weser:—CŞermania inferior ; her ct $axUntia; and
in this respect our cartographer has deviated from Isidore,
who places Lower Germany about the Rhine. (Compare
Higden, l. c.)
A mountain range, entitled ſilong $1truttg , is repre-
sented as lying between the Baltic and the Carpathians.
The treatise Imago Mundi mentions a mountain of a similar
name, but places it in Swabia. The “Psalter” map places
it in the same position as the Hereford map. Whether the
name, as so placed, contains a reminiscence of the Mare
Suevicum as a title of the Ballic, or of the Mons Sevo of
Pliny, iv. 96, and Solinus, 20, § 1, of which the latter says
“initium Germaniae facit,” we cannot undertake to say.
Sevo is supposed to reſer to Kiolen, in Norway. The Suevus
Mons of mediaeval geography means the Carpathians (Schardii,
Script. Rey. Germ. i. 7, 8).
The chieſ rivers of Germany are duly entered on the
map, namely, the ſºldin, Main, on the right bank of the
Rhine; the Cºntiša, Ems, flowing into the North Sea; and
then, in succession, the Öligara, Weser; the 3 Ibama, Elbe ;
the (Tibera, probably intended for the Ode" (the mediaeval
Vidua, Viadus, or, in Adam of Bremen, Odora), though the
notice of it as the boundary between the Danes and
Saxons would incline us rather to identify it with the Eider
(the mediaeval Egdora or Agidora); and the jjigtula, Vistula.
Turning to the Danube, we find the sources of that river
correctly placed in reference to the Thine, with the state-
ment 39tt gurgit fong Danubii; whether there is in this
any special reference to the reputed Source of the Danube
at DonauSchönſſen, we cannot say. Of the affluents of the
Danube on its left bank, in Germany, two are entered on the
EUROPE. 151.
map, the 13 cm and the Úſaut), representing in all probability
the Regen, and the Waag. -
The political divisions of Germany are as follows:–
$axonia, which our cartographer identifies generally with
Lower Germany in the inscription already quoted, and
further, defines its eastern or (?) northern limit in the state-
ment that the “Cidera” divides the Saxons from the Danes;
the jrigomeg, the Frisii of Tacitus (for the form Frisones
compare Paulus Diaconus, G. L. vi. 37), a people closely
connected with the Saxons in the 4th and 5th centuries of
our era, and hence regarded as belonging to the same stock,
as implied in the words appended to the name, qui inter
Šaxomcø beputamtur ; their district adjoined the North
Sea, but in the map they are transported to the interior ;
(Iſuringia, correctly placed eastward of the Weser; Bohemia,
mentioned in connection with Prague, 33raga metropolić
360cmarigrum, and again in another quarter in connection
with the name Sala, Šala 130Emir, which is by no means
easy to explain. The river Saale can hardly be intended,
inasmuch as the name is printed in red letters; nor can we
state the meaning of the broad red lines disposed in geo-
metrical patterns, which the cartographer bas introduced in
close connexion with the Elbe. In addition to the inscrip-
tion above quoted, which applies to the most westerly of
these lines, the word (Bara appears in an upper compart-
ment, and an undecipherable word in the adjacent compart-
ment. Is it possible that our cartographer had heard of the
Symmetrical arrangement of the mountain chains surrounding
the Bohemian plateau, and that he has sought to indicate
this in an exaggerated manner ? Even so, the name “Sala”
remains unexplained. Lastly, we have to notice the Štlant,
mentioned in connexion with Germania Superior; these, though
placed on the shores of the Baltic, must include the Slavonian
Germania.
152 EUROPE.
Germania.
population of Upper Germany properly placed (Bohemia
and Moravia), the “Sclavia Minor” of Higden, i. 22, of
which he says “extenditur a Wandalis et Bohemis usque ad
Saxones.” The titles Westphalia and Franconia are omitted,
while Suavia is assigned as a duplicate name for Prague.
The towns of Northern Germany are, with one exception,
placed on the Weser; we readily identify the following four —
łBremta, Bremen, at that period the most important ecclesi-
astical city of Northern Germany, having become since 1223
the sole seat of the Archi-episcopate, which it had previously
held alternately with Hamburg, and which, down to the
middle of the 12th century, had held jurisdiction over
Scandinavia, as well as over Northern Germany; Bremen is
described by Æneas Silvius as “vetus metropolis et Danorum
gentis in Christo mater” (Schardii, Rer. Germ. i. 455).
jarbilt, Verden, the seat of a bishopric, founded in 786
by Charlemagne; (Bluelingburgh, Oldenburg, one of the
leading commercial cities of Northern Europe in the 9th and
10th centuries; and 31ſtigtab, Halberstadt, another of the
sees founded by Charlemagne. The name of a fifth town on
the Weser, which reads as (Tamber, is probably intended
for Hamburg, which, previously to 1223, was on an equal
footing with Bremen in ecclesiastical rank. On the Elbe,
the name ſhagategburg occurs, nearly in the position of
Hamburg; it is doubtless intended for Magdeburg, the seat
of an archbishopric from 967. In central Germany one
town only is noticed, 33raga metropolig 33Gemarigrum,
Prague, one of the chief cities of Europe in the 13th and
14th centuries, “Maxima et pulcherrima urbs nec Hetrusca
Florentia minor nec difformior” (AEneas Silvius, apud Germ.
Illustr. i. 455); at the date of the map it was the seat of the
most brilliant court in Europe, and is described by Karl IV.
in 1348, as “hortus deliciarum in quo reges deliciantur”
EUROPE. 153
(Daniel, Geog. iii. 672). A second title, $tuabia, is given to Germania.
this Same town, probably a mistaken reference to the district
name Swabia. The natural history of Germany is strangely
illustrated by a figure of a scorpion, $Corpio, introduced
into a vacant space near the Main.
The countries lying S. of the Danube are described Raetia.
according to their ancient divisions. The Roman province
of RAETIA occupied the region between the Danube and the
Alps, from the source of that river to the confluence of the
Inn. About the time of Constantine it was divided into
two portions, Prima and Secunda, the latter being the most
northerly of the two. In the map we find the two divi-
sions entitled 33rcia ſºlinor and 33ccia ſūajor, lying re-
spectively W. and E. of the river 3 trij. The designation
of the latter river by its modern title, instead of the ancient
Licus, is observable. The terms Major and Minor again
appear in the “Imago Mundi” map, but we are not aware
that there is any authority for their use. The towns
entered in this district are Øittgusta, Augsburgh, rightly
placed on the Lech, the seat of a bishopric founded as far
back as 590; and 33atigpona, Ratisbon, the ancient Regi-
num, which should have been placed on the Danube. The
form “Ratispona ’’ occurs in the treatise Imago Mundi, i. 18.
NORICUM adjoined Raetia, lower down the course of the Noricum.
Danube. It is so placed on the map; but instead of being
carried E. of the Inn, the title #20ricuš in (Ittſ 36aidarii
appears W. of that river, and the boundary between it and
Taetia is placed at a river in the position of the Isar, but
called (Tamta, a name for which we can in no way account.
The Inn, and its tributary the Salza, are described as the
ºne and the Šalie, which closely approximate to their
modern designations; and the position of the Salza is cor-
rectly given. The @Integſ, Enns, also belonged to this pro-
j, 54 EUROPE.
Noricum. Vince. The statement that Noricum was occupied by the
Baiorii or Bavarians is probably borrowed from the Imago
Mundi, where we read, “Noricus quae et Bavaria, in qua
est civitas Ratispoma" (i. 18). This would not be true if
Noricum had been properly placed, for the Bavarians have
always had their chief settlements W. of the Inn, whereas
Noricum (as already stated) lay E. of that river, and rather
answers to portions of Austria. It was only about the time
of Charlemagne that Bavaria lay as much E. as W. of the
Inn (Spruner's Hand Atlas, No. 17). The error is to a cer-
tain extent rectified in the map by the removal of Noricum
to the W. of the Inn. The only towns assigned to this
region are ‘lāzmeştıurgh, which we take to be a duplicate
entry of Ratisbon, under its German designation Regensburg
(compare the river name 33rm, for Regen); and Šal;cturgi,
an archi-episcopal see from the time of Charlemagne, and
hence better known by its German name than as the Latin
Juvavia. .
Pannonia. Eastward of the Ameso we meet with the entry §§aitº
nomia Hinferior, for the district thence to the river Save,
P. Superior is not noticed at all. The Roman province of
Pannonia occupied the space enclosed N. and E. by the
Danube where it makes its great Southerly bend, and S. by
the Save. The lower division, P. Inferior, lay in the angle,
and along the Southerly reach of the Danube; the upper
division was W. of this, higher up the course of the river.
Both belonged to the kingdom of Hungary, the bulk of
which was situated on the other side of the Danube. The
rivers $anuş, Save, and HBrabuš, Drave, belong mainly to
this region ; in the map the Drave is erroneously described
as an affluent of the Save. - -
The towns are as follows:–-$affaria Şancti ſãartini,
which was situated at the foot of the Martinsberg (the
EUROPE. 1 5.5
Sacer Mons Pannoniae), the birthplace of St. Martin. It
was destroyed by the Mongols in 1242. On the summit of
the hill is the most famous monastery of Hungary, founded
in 996, and finally rebuilt in 1225 (Patterson's Magyars, i.
225). The same entry occurs in the “Imago Mundi” map.
jatma, on the Danube, probably intended for Vienna, the
ancient Windobona, and Faviana. 43a; act, probably Pesth, a
town founded by Germans, and described as being in the
early part of the 13th century, “Magna et ditissima Teu-
tonica villa " (Patterson's Magyars, i. 39). (5tama, Gran,
the chief ecclesiastical city of Hungary from the 12th cen-
tury to the present day. The use of the modern instead of
the ancient name, Strigonium, is observable. The town is
transferred in the map from the south to the north bank of
the Danube. On the Drave, 3}ctanium, Pettau, a Roman
station of importance ; %ſtatiſma, probably intended for
Arrabona, near Raab, on the Danube, mentioned in Anto-
nine's ſtºn. 246 ; $trimum, probably Sirmium, which stood
on the Save, the chief city of Pannonia under the later
Roman empire ; and a fourth town, with an undecipherable
name, commencing with (Tarit, in the angle between the
Save and Drave. On the Save, Štícia, Sissek, a Roman
station of importance.
Eastward of Germany the position of Hungary can be
identified by the river (Tife, Theiss, and the 33 uprg $ate
matjarum, the Carpathiams, though the name “Sarmatici
Montes,” as used by Ptolemy (ii. 11, §6), applies more par-
ticularly to the western members of the Carpathian system.
The title “Rupes Sarmatarum ” is borrowed from Solinus, 20,
§ 2. The name Hungaria is not applied to this region in
the map, and the 39 ungari are relegated to a position in
N. E. Russia. Probably our cartographer agreed with Hig-
den in treating PANNONIA as the equivalent for Hungary,
Pannonia.
Hungari.
156 EUROPE.
Hungari.
Sarmatae.
Sclavi.
and also in regarding the original seat of the Hungarians
as having been “in farther Scythia, beyond the Maeotic
marshes” (Polychrom. i. 22), the Hungari being identified by
Higden with the Huns on etymological grounds. We need
hardly say that there is no foundation whatever for this identi-
fication : the name “Ungarn” is supposed to be a German
equivalent for “Magyar" (Patterson's Magyars, i. 11). The
northerly position assigned to the Hungarians on the map
is not without a measure of truth, as their original quarters
in Europe appear to have been near the Ural mountains
(Brace's Ethnology, p. 87); but we suspect that our carto-
grapher had no further object than to express the view cur-
rent in the Middle Ages, that the Magyars were closely akin
to the accursed race of Gog and Magog, whom Alexander
the Great had shut up near the Northern Ocean. The
dread with which the eruption of the incarcerated tribes
was anticipated in the Middle Ages was no doubt very much
quickened by the entrance of the Magyars into Europe in
the 9th century (Introduction, xxiii.).
To the N. E. of the Rupes Sarmatharum we find the
$ürmtate, placed here in accordance with ancient geo-
graphy, which gave the title of Sarmatia to all that lay
eastward of the Vistula and the Carpathians. A figure of
a bear, (Hršuš, is appropriately introduced into this region.
The $Claſſi are placed eastwards of the Sarmatae. We
have already had mention of the Slavonian population in
the “Germania Superior” of the map, which is placed E. of
the Vistula. The more easterly Sclavi must refer to the
Slavonian element in Russia. Higden distinguishes in a
confused kind of way between two Sclavias, the greater one of
which included the Sarmatae, part of Dalmatia, and part of
Moesia; while the lesser division was in Upper Germany
(Polychrom. i. 22). There is a substratum of truth in this
EUROPE. 157
statement, inasmuch as modern ethnologists recognise a two- Sclavi.
fold division of the Slavonian family,–the Eastern, com-
prising the Russian, Bulgarian, and Illyrian branches; and
the Western, comprising the Polish, Bohemian, and Wendian
branches (Brace's Ethnology, p. 81). The Slaves are un-
known in ancient geography, their first appearance in his-
tory being in the 6th century of our era.
The extreme north of Europe is very imperfectly repre- Dani.
sented on the map. There is nothing to indicate the Jutish
peninsula, and the cluster of islands which formed in that
day, as in this, the home of the Danes. The people are
mentioned in the inscription relating to the river Cidera,
(Terminug HDamdrum et $axomum, and if that river is
intended to serve for the Eider as well as for the Oder, the
boundary would accord with that assigned to the Dames by
Adam of Bremen (De Situ Dania, cap. 208). The most
observable point in connection with this notice is, that our
cartographer calls the Danes by their proper name, whereas
mediaeval writers generally called them Daci : so, for in-
stance, Higden, who endeavours to account for the name in
that form “Daci quasi Dagi, quia de Gothorum genere pro-
creati” (Polychron. i. 31).
The Baltic Sea is associated with the legend of the Seven Sinus Ger-
Sleepers, in accordance with the version given by Paulus manicus.
Diaconus * (De Gest. Lang. i. 4):—$inuš (5crmamitug in
quo ºrptem biri jācert ferumtur : intertum eşār quanto
temport, 3rd quantum ex babitu cogn03ritur 330mami
fuíšâr trebuntur. Higden (i. 24) records the tale, at
Somewhat greater length, from the same authority, as fol-
lows:—“On the very shore of the ocean a cave is seen
under a lofty rock, where seven men have long rested in
* “Septem viri (incertum ex quo tempore) longo sopiti sopore quiescunt.
Hic denique quantum ad habitum spectat Romani esse cernuntur.”
158 EUROPE.
Sinus Ger- sleep, with their bodies and dress So unchanged that they
manicus.
INorway.
are held in great veneration even by ignorant barbarians.
From their dress they are Supposed to be Romans, and
when a man attempted, in a spirit of avarice, to strip one
of them of his clothes, his arms immediately withered. Per-
chance God preserves them uninjured with this intent that
barbarous nations may be at Some time converted through
their means.” We cite Higden at length in order to show
the serious light in which the tale was accepted in the
Middle Ages, namely, as a standing miracle for the conver-
sion of unbelievers; and in this view it is not a matter of
surprise that the scene should be changed as circumstances
required, or rather perhaps that the miracle of Ephesus
should repeat itself in various parts of the world. The
legend forms one of the series of Curious Myths of the
Middle Ages, discussed by Mr. Baring-Gould (pp. 93-112).
The Scandinavian peninsula is duly depicted as a penin-
sula, but at a considerable distance eastward of the Baltic.
It is divided into two compartments by a projecting arm of
the sea, perhaps with the idea of distinguishing between Nor-
way and Sweden. Norway alone is named, under the form
j) Gregà, which again occurs in the “Imago Mundi” map,
and which accords closely with the indigenous name Norrige.
A second red-letter name is entered, which also occurs in
the “Imago Mundi” map, (5amímir ; its meaning we cannot
divine. The figure of a hermit with his staff occupies the
more northerly of the two compartments; the inscription
$uper eggag currit, which we venture to translate “He
runs over the archipelagoes,” may refer to the advance of
Christianity throughout the Scandinavian region, on which
subject Adam of Bremen gives numerous particulars; the
term “archipelago” is commonly supposed to he derived
from “Alºgeum pelagos,” but we confess that we are not
EUROPE. 159
aware of any authority for the word “egea" in this sense. Norway.
In the other compartment is a figure of an ape Squatting,
with the title $intín. The only explanation we can offer
for So strange a mistake as to the habitat of the monkey
tribe is, that Æthicus represents the Turchi, who are located
in a neighbouring part of the map, as living on the flesh of
apes and other foul animals (cap. 32). Perhaps, however,
there may be a further reference to the Pigmies, who were
supposed to tenant the extreme north, and whom T'aulus
Jovius describes in his letter to Clement VII. as resembling
apes (Notes on I&ussia, ii. 239).
In a second peninsula eastward of Noreya, shut off from Cynoce-
the mainland by a chain of mountains, there appear two phales.
squatting figures, with the inscription {n hot tractit 5unt
(Tinoccpijalrg. The belief in the existence of a dog-headed
race of men was widely current in the Middle Ages; it may
have been originally founded on the statements of Ctesias
and Megasthenes, as handed down by Pliny, vii. 23, and
Solinus, 52, § 27. The locality, however, which these
Writers assign as the abode of the Cynocephales was the
mountainous regions of India, and there is little reason to
doubt that the creatures described by them were a species
of ape; St. Augustine discusses the question whether the
Cynocephales belonged to the human race or not (De Civ.
Dei, Xvi. 8), giving his opinion in favour of the negative.
The question mooted by St. Augustine was revived about the
middle of the 9th century in reference to another race of
Cynocephales living in Northern Europe; and there still
exist fragments of a correspondence on this point between
Rimbert, the successor of Anskar in the see of Dremen, and
Ratranum, a monk of Corbey. We first hear of the northern
Cynocephales, or Cananaei, as they were otherwise called, in
the 8th century, Paulus Diaconus mentioning them as in
160 EUROPE.
Cynoce-
phales.
that quarter (De Gest. Long. i. 11), and again AEthicus, who
specifies the isle Munitia as their abode (cap. 28). Adam
of Bremen (cap. 228) says that they lived about the shores
of the Baltic, that they were the male offspring of the
Amazons, and had their heads between their shoulders.”
The “Imago Mundi” map places them in the same quarter
as the Hereford map. Teferring to these people, Rimbert
maintained that they belonged to the human race, and cited
in support of his view the fact that on the roll of martyrs
stood the name of Christoforus, a Cynocephalite, who died in
284 (Acta Sanctorum, 25 Julii). Wuttke suggests that the
notion originated in the use of hoods made out of the skins
of animals, such as are worn by the Lapps and Finns
(Aithikos. Pref., p. 19); Santarem, that it refers to the
custom of driving dogs (iii, Pref., p. 22); but we think it
more probable that the idea is due to some peculiarity of
language, which might be likened to the barking of dogs
(“cum verbis latrant in voce.” Adam of Bremen). However
this may have been, there can be no doubt that mediaeval
* The popular view as to these hybrid creatures is conveyed in the follow-
ing passage from the “Romaunce of Kyng Alisaunder’’:-
“Another folk there is biside
Houndynges men clepeth them wide.
From the brest to the grounde
Men hy ben, abouen houndes
Berking of houndes hy habbe.
Her hondem withouten gabbe
Ben y-shuldred as an fysshe
And clawed after hound, i-wisse.”
“Another folk is bysyde this
That beon y-cleped cenophalis.
Non of heom never swynkith
As eche of other mylk drynkith.
No schule they ete elles, y avowe
So longe so they libbe mowe.”
(ll, 4962-9, 61318-23.)
EUROPE. 16.1
Writers seriously believed in the existence of the Cynoce-
phales in the neighbourhood of the Baltic, probably in
Finland. Ratramm's letter, which refers to the statements
of Rimbert, is printed in Dumont's Histoire Critique, vi. 188.
(Wuttke, Pref. p. 21; Lelewel, iv. 11, note.)
Adjacent to the Cynocephales we observe a man leading
a horse, over the back of which is thrown the skin of a man
to serve as a saddle. The custom thus illustrated of con-
Verting the skins of slaughtered enemies into trappings for
horses, was attributed by Solimus, 15, § 3, to the Geloni;
but by an oversight, which we cannot account for, our
cartographer has transferred the credit of this barbarous
custom to the Gryphae or Grifones —#2ic habitant Örište
[Griffe] iſomimes meſſuiçãimi : mam inter crtcra facillora
rtiant be cutthug hogtium gunrunt trgumenta 3iti et
cquig guig factunt. The first clause of this legend accords
with the one in the “Imago Mundi” map—“Hic habitant
Griffe homines nequam.” The Anglo-Saxon map places the
“Gryphorum gens” in the same locality. The belief in the
existence of these human Gryphae is founded on the authority
of AEthicus (cap. 31), who places them in the extreme north,
in the position of the Ural Mountains. Their country is
described as abounding in wild animals and minerals but
deficient in agricultural products, and the people as skilled
in the working of metals. These statements serve to con-
nect the mediaeval Gryphae with the myth of the gold-guarding
griffins of Herodotus (iii. 111, iv. 27).
In the Northern Ocean, adjacent to Scandinavia, a group
of islands is introduced, consisting of-(1) The Orkneys,
(Đrtabeg ingulrt 3:3:3:HHH! ; the number thirty-four being in
accordance with Orosius, i. 2, who says that only fourteen of
them were inhabited; the real number being fifty-six, of which
about halſ are now inhabited. The Orkneys were subject to
L
Cynoce-
phales.
Gryphae.
Orcades
In Sulee.
162 EUROPE.
Orcades
Insulee.
Norway down to 1468. (2) The Faroes, jarcic, which were
discovered by the Normans in 861, and were constituted a
diocese in the province of Bremen. (3) Iceland, #3|amb,
colonised by the Norwegians in the latter part of the 9th cen-
tury, and down to 1264 the Seat of an independent State,
with a literature of its own, the fame of which had spread to
the universities of western Europe. It was connected eccle-
siastically with the province of Bremen until 1151, when it
was transferred to that of Dromtheim. (4.) Thule, (ſiltima
Øſtle, as in Solinus, 22, § 9. Whether our cartographer
attached any definite idea to the title we cannot say; if
he did, it could hardly refer to any other group than the
Shetlands. Dicuil records the visit of some ecclesiastics to
Thule, in terms which are more applicable to Iceland than
to any other place (De Mons. Orb. 7, § 2).
CHAPTER IX.
THE BRITISH ISLES.
Britannia—Anglia—Wallia—Scotia—Hibernia—Man—Insula Avium—Insula
Arietum—Svillae. &
OUR concluding Chapter will be devoted to that portion of
the map which excites the keenest interest in the majority
of our readers—the British Isles. If justification were
needed for the order we have followed, we might cite the
authority of old Higden, who, in his geographical descrip-
tion, reserves Britain for the last, coming to it “tanquam
ad speciem specialissimam ” “as un to a specialite most
specialle” (Polychrom. i. 3). It might fairly be anticipated
that in this part of the map we should at length be rid of
all antiquated authorities, and meet with a sound piece of
contemporaneous geography, free of all mistakes and imper-
fections. The sequel will prove that even here our carto-
grapher does not wholly shake off his allegiance to Orosius,
as witness his notice of the Velab,” and Lucent in Ireland——
that he does not steer clear of gross mistakes, as witness in
particular his transfer of Caen (Cadam) to Devonshire—and
that the geographical details are faulty to a remarkable
degree. In one respect we must in charity suppose that his
mode of expression was not intended to be literally accepted.
He could hardly have supposed that the river Tweed ran
from sea to Sea, or that there was a channel connecting the
Bristol and English Channels in the neighbourhood of
Glastonbury, or yet that the Severn and Dee had their
sources in Clee Hill. It may have been understood that
Britan-
nicae In-
Sulae.
164 THE BRITISH ISLES.
IBritan-
nicae In-
Sulae.
these were conventional modes of showing the boundaries
between the natural divisions of the country. The same
feature may be noticed in the map of the pseudo Richard
of Cirencester (De Situ Bºit), and it has been surmised that
Bertram borrowed the peculiarity from the Hereford map.
The British Isles are drawn on a scale out of all pro-
portion to the other parts of the map, the effect of this being
that the relative positions of places on the opposite sides of
the English Channel and the North Sea are incorrectly given,
and that the seas themselves are much curtailed of their fair
proportions. The Southern point of Ireland approximates to
Spain, and in this our cartographer may have designed to
illustrate the views of Pliny, iv. 102, and Orosius, i. 2,
though the latter allows a spatiosum intervallum between the
two. The English Channel and North Sea are represented
by a narrow channel of equable breadth; Winchester is
brought opposite to Nantes; the mouth of the Thames to
that of the Seine; Lincoln to Cambrai; and Aberdeen to the
mouth of the Ems. The outline of England is grievously
marred by the omission of the protrusion S. of the Wash, as
well as by the very slight difference in direction between
the eastern and the Southern coasts. The shape of Wales is
roughly delineated, but the fact that Conway and St. Davids
are brought close together detracts from our estimate of this
quarter of the map. The general form assigned to Britain
very much accords with the description of Giraldus Cam-
brensis, as quoted by Higden, i. 40 —“Oblonga est et
amplior in medio quam in extremis.”
The islands are distinguished by their ancient names as
33ritammta Hingula and #ibernia; and the sub-divisions of
the former as Ānglia, Čtallia, and $totia; to which we
may perhaps add (on the authority of Gervase of Tilbury,
Ot. Imp. ii. 10), (TÜrmittia.
THE BRITISH ISLES. 1.65
Commencing with a review of the physical geography of Anglia.
Pngland, we find that the only hill noticed is the one in
which the Severn and Dee are represented as having their
Sources, and which is named ſºlong (TIeſe, no doubt in
reference to Clee Hill, which forms a conspicuous object in
the south of Shropshire. We have already (page 6) offered
the only explanation, and that a doubtful one, for the dis-
tinction accorded to this really unimportant hill.” The
rivers are given with tolerable accuracy, but the forms of
the names are in some cases peculiar. The name Avon, for
instance, is given as (ºne, in respect to the Hampshire and
Northamptonshire rivers, the former rather in the position of
the Itchen, and the latter now known as the Nem, though the
name Avon was applied to it down to the time of Drayton's
Polyolbion. We may compare with this form the names
Aune and Ehen, which are regarded as variations of Avon.
It will be observed that the branches of the Humber are
depicted with a degree of accuracy which implies personal
acquaintance with that part of the country. Commencing
from the S. we meet with the (ſamor, the (Exc, the (ſºme,
Avon, the $turi, Stour of Kent, the ſūrūz, Medway, the
(Tamiše, Thames, the (Tolme of Colchester, the (Ente, Nen,
the Čift, Witham, the 39 umber (with the (Irritta, the
HButt, the Gâge, Ouse, and three other branches not named,
One representing the Derwent, and the two others the Widd
and the Swale), the (Iſin, Tyne, and the QTICUſ, Tweed, the
addition of a final vowel appearing in the forms Tuidi and
Thuede (Higden, i. 48). On the W. coast the HBC, Dee, the
Šabrina, Severn, with the Öſte, Wye, and the 3 gen, Avon.
The Great Ouse is the most serious omission in the list of
rivers.
* According to Gough (British Topog. i. 65) a similar entry occurs in
Matthew of Paris's map in the Library of C. C. C. Cambridge, and here again
no other hill is named,
166 THE BRITISH ISLES.
Anglia.
The channel which isolates the Isle of Thanet is clearly
marked, and the island is apparently designated (ſemttbeg.
A fictitious interest attached to this island from the idea that
the name was derived from the Greek word 0%vorog “death,”
and that it was so called because its soil, wherever carried,
proved fatal to serpents. It is first noticed on this account
by Solinus, 22, § 8, but without any reference to the
etymology of the name. Isidore (xiv. 6, § 3), quoting the
words of Solinus, adds “Dicta Thanatos a morte serpentum.”
The treatise Imago Mundº gives the name as Athanatis,
evidently from a misreading of Solinus, whose words “at
Tamatus,” are in some MSS. combined into “attanitis; ” and
it mentions this island apparently as being as noteworthy
as Britannia, Anglia, and Hibernia. Bede, and after him
Higden, i. 44, repeat the tale of Solinus. The island is
noticed in the “Apocalypse” map, under the name Tantutos.
(Introduction, p. xl.)
Three sub-divisions of Anglia are noticed, viz.:-(ſure
mitäta, Cornwall, which may, however, as already stated,
have been regarded as distinct from Anglia; 3.integrga,
frequently used by the old chroniclers for Lincolnshire (e. g.
Higden, i. 47, Lyndisia), though the title is now restricted
to a portion of that county;” and 320 rijumta, Northumber-
land.
In the Selection of towns the cartographer has been
guided by ecclesiastical rather than commercial considera-
tions. Not only are most of the episcopal towns noticed, but
even some monasteries, while various important places of
trade, such as Bristol, Yarmouth, Lynn, Grimsby, and Scar-
borough, which were of sufficient importance to send repre-
sentatives to the parliament held at Acton Burnell in
* The same root, “Lind,” lies at the bottom of Lincoln = Lindi colonia,
and Jindsey = Lind's eye or island.
THE BRITISH ISLES. 167
1283,” are omitted from the list. We may also notice the Anglia.
Omission of the episcopal cities Chichester, Norwich (then an
important place), and Sarum. The omission of these three
towns is the more noticeable, inasmuch as they are mentioned
in a stanza of Latin verses which appears to have been
much in vogue in the 12th and 13th centuries, as supplying
a list of the episcopal towns at the former period. They
are quoted by Henry of Huntingdon (circ. 1140), as
follows:—
Testes Londiniae ratibus, Wintonia Baccho,
Hereforda grege, Wirecestria fruge redundans,
Batha lacu, Salesbira feris, Cantuaria pisce,
Eboracum silvis, Excestria clara metallis,
Norvicium Dacis, Hibernis Cestria, Gallis
Cicestrum, Norwageniis Dumelma propinquams.
Testis Lincoliae gens infinita decore,
Testis Ely formosa situ, Roucestria visu. t
* Only twenty towns besides London were invited to send representatives
to Acton Burnell, and these twenty “ may consequently be supposed to have
been at that time the most considerable in England” (Hallam, Middle Ages,
iii. 46, note). Of the episcopal towns the list includes Norwich, but excludes
Chichester, Ely, Bath, Sarum, Durham, and Rochester. Of the non-episcopal
towns on the list, the map mentions Nottingham, Northampton, Colcliester,
and Shrewsbury. We are not aware of any data by which to calculate the
populations of the towns at the date of the map ; but about a century later,
in 1377, a capitation tax was levied on the laity, and from the returns of this
tax it has been ascertained that the towns stood in the following order in point
of population, exclusive of Chester and Durham, which, as being in palatine
counties, are not included:—London, York, Bristol, Plymouth, Coventry, Nor-
wich, Lincoln, Salisbury, Lynne, Colchester, Beverley, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Canterbury, St. Edmund's Bury, Oxford, Gloucester, Leicester, Shrewsbury,
Yarmouth, Hereford, Ely, Cambridge, Exeter, Worcester, Kingston-upon-
Hull, Ipswich, Northampton, Nottingham, Winchester, Stamford, Newark,
Wells, Ludlow, Southamptom, Derby, Lichfield, Chichester, Boston, Carlisle,
Rochester, Bath, Dartmouth (Macpherson, Amīvals of Commerce, i. 583).
ºf These lines are thus rendered by Robert of Gloucester in his Chronicle
(p. 6 of Hearne's edit. 1724) —
In ye contre of Canterbury mest plente of ſysch ys,
And most chase a boute Salesburi of Wylde bestes y wys.
168 THE BRITISH ISLES.
Anglia.
Carlisle is not mentioned in the above list, inasmuch as
the see was not founded until 1133, probably after the lines
were composed. The addition of this completes the seven-
teen sees as enumerated by Robert of Gloucester. The right
of Chester to a place on the list is very questionable. Peter,
the first Norman Dishop, transferred the see from Lichfield
to Chester in 1075, but his successor re-transferred it to
Coventry about 1090, and from that time Chester ceased to
be an episcopal See, though the Bishops occasionally styled
themselves Bishops of Chester. Wells had lost even the
title of an episcopal town from the time when John de
Villula (1088–1124) transferred the see to Bath, until the
adoption of the duplicate title “Bath and Wells,” about
1140.
Returning to the map we find the following places
noticed: — 3.0m bomia, London, which is represented by à
castellated structure of fair proportions. (9xeful, Oxford, in
the 13th century the seat of a university second in fame only
to that of Paris (Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 525). (Toltegtria,
Colchester, already noticed as one of the towns represented at
Acton Burnell, 320rijantort, Worthampton, another of the
same class of towns. (Blu, represented as on an island in
the Nen, which thus does service (we presume) for the fens
of the eastern counties. 31.1mcolm, with its cathedral duly
At London schippes mest, and wyn at Wyncestre.
At Herford schep and orſ, and fruyt at Wincestre.
Metel, as led and tyn, in ye contre of Excestre.
Euerwik of fairest wode, Lyncolne of fayrest men,
Ely of fairest place, of fairest sighte Roucestre.
Euene agein Fraunce stode ye contre of Chichestre,
Norwiche agein Denemarc, Chestre ageyn Irlond,
Duram ageyn Norwei, as ich understonde.
Thre wondres ther beth in Englond, none more y not
That water of Bathe ys that on, that everys yliche hot. Etc.
THE BRITISH ISLES. 169
depicted on an elevation rising from the left bank of the
river Witham. $notingham, the original form of Notting-
ham , this form had fallen into disuse by the 13th century,
as far as we have been able to judge, so that its appearance
on the map is peculiar; the town was one of those repre-
sented at Acton Burnell. (Efloratum, York. 36tulatum,
Beverley, famed for the shrine of “St. John of Beverley; ”
the peculiar form of the name in the map arises, we suspect,
from the omission of a mark of abbreviation over the third
letter, the insertion of which would convert the name into
Beverlacum. #irrijam, a priory of no great fame, founded
1121 by Walter L’Espec, situated on the Derwent, six miles
below Malton, in the east Riding of Yorkshire; we can
suggest no reason why it should have been selected for
notice by our cartographer. (Tagtſ (= (ſtagtello) 32000,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, a place of military importance in the
wars with Scotland : it is pictorially represented by a castle.
(Tarlua, Carlisle; the form of the name is peculiar; * the
Roman name was Luguvallum or Lugubalum, which has
been condensed into the second syllable of the name Carlisle,
the first being the Cymric prefix indicative of a Roman
station. HBurem, Durham, with its cathedral church appro-
priately placed on a hill. (Tc3tria, Chester, noticed perhaps
on the score of its ecclesiastical associations, referred to above
(page 168), but still better entitled to be entered for its com-
mercial importance, which led to its being represented at
Acton Burnell. §tuticăbiri, Shrewsbury, one of the towns
represented at Acton Burnell, owing much of its importance
to its position in reference to the Welsh border. Öirregt,
Worcester, an episcopal see #fort, Hereford, mentioned
on the same ground; attention has been already (page 6)
drawn to the very meagre outline of the cathedral, ÖItarum,
* The copies of Higden give the forms Caerliell, Caerlie, Carliel (i. 48).
Anglia.
170 THE BRITISH ISLES.
Anglia. evidently intended for Gloucester, though the name is peculiar;
the earliest Latin form is Clevum (Anton. Itin. 485), or
Glebon (Geog. Raven. 31); it was ſamed for its abbey, and
was otherwise important as a fortress and as a place of Com-
IY) Gl’Ce. 13athe, an episcopal see (as already stated) at the
period of the map. (5Irºtonia, Glastonbury, the seat of the
most famous monastery in Britain, and the reputed burial-
place of King Arthur, a circumstance which must have
attracted much interest to it about the period of the map,
in consequence of Edward I.'s visit (in 1276) to view the
remains. (ºrcătria, Eacter, an episcopal see, and the
capital then, as now, of the South-west. (Tübum, Caen, which
has been, by a strange blunder, transferred from the southern
to the northern side of the channel; “Cadam ” is one of
several intermediate forms between the Latin Cadomum (or
the vernacular name which that represents, perhaps Cadom),
and the modern Caen, the only explanation that we can offer
for the mistake in its position is, that the two great religious
foundations in that town, the Abbaye awa, Dames and the
Abbaye awa; Hommes, were endowed with valuable estates in
England, and that the name of Caen was more than usually
familiar to the ears of Englishmen (see Britton's letterpress
to Pugin’s Normandy, 4to, 1828). [ſãimtoma, Winchesler,
which still retained a considerable amount of the importance
it possessed under the early Norman kings. HDohu or
HBobia, no doubt intended for Dover ; the place is called
Dubris in the Itinerary (473), but this title was exchanged
in the Middle Ages for forms more nearly approximating to
the modern one ; the place is pictorially represented by a
castle on the coast-line, the distinctive feature which led to
the insertion of the name in the map. (Tamturia, Canter-
bury (the earlier name, Durovernum, was Superseded about
the middle of the 12th century by Cantuaria, both forms
THE BRITISH ISLES. 171
being used by William of Malmesbury); Canterbury was
not only an ecclesiastical metropolis but a place of general
importance. 3&ducestria, Rochester (the Durobrivae of the
Itinerary, and the Roſa of William of Malmesbury, which
we presume to be a modification of the radical part of the
Latin name “brivae"), an episcopal see, but not otherwise of
much importance.
In Wallia, the mountainous character of the surface is
represented by a chain of heights on the western coast, and
by the lofty Summit of Šmatoetom, Snowdon : the name
occurs in Peter Langtoft's Chron. (ii. 240, Hearne's ed.) as a
district name, answering to our Snowdonia. Three towns
only are named (Tarmarpan, (ſummru, and $t. TBabi; the
latter the most famous of the Welsh sees, and the two
former military stations in the wars between Edward I. and
the Welsh, and the sites of two most famous castles founded
by him.
In Scotia the Grampians are described under the name
{Huntti), which is (we believe) still current as the indi-
genous name of the district ; in point of Sound the name
strictly accords with that of the British (Cymric) word
Mynydd “mountain,” but whether this or a Gaelic synonym
lies at the root of the name we do not pretend to say. The
name 3Louthiam, Lothian, occurs as a provincial title; the
form Loudonia occurs in the Buik of the Chronicles, ii. 423.
The towns noticed are lºcrºit, an important fortress in the
period of the Scottish wars; 330kršburg, Rowburgh, another
border fortress of importance; $t. ğmur, St. Andrews, an
episcopal See, and a place of great Sanctity, as the reputed
depository of the bones of St. Andrew (Higden, i. 37);
(ÉNemburgh, at this period rising to the position of the
chief town, though not as yet constituted the capital;
(Tipitag $. 3) ob’, Perth, under its old designation of St.
Anglia.
Wallia.
Scotia.
172 THE BRITISH ISLES.
Hibernia.
Johnestoun (Buik of the Chronicles, iii. 101, 297, 1818), the
capital of Scotland before Edinburgh; and Øſtertent, Aberdeen,
which in those days ranked next to Perth and Edinburgh.
In Hibernia, mountains are introduced along the N. E.
coast. The isolated hill placed near Kildare we take to be
the “ Hul of Kylar,” whence, according to the legend, the
stones for the erection of Stonehenge were conveyed by
Merlin's orders (Robert of Gloucester's Chºon., Hearne's ed.
i. p. 145). Two rivers are named, the Štheme, Shannon,
noticed by Orosius, i. 2, under the name Scana, and the
łBambſ, which is represented as running across the island
from sea to sea; probably the Bann is intended, but Gough
thinks it to be the Boyne. The intention of the carto-
grapher in drawing the river right across the island may
possibly have been to mark the boundary of Ulster, Gäldegtr,
the only one of the provinces which he has noticed. The
tribes of the fjelabri and 3 ticemi, on opposite sides of the
Shannon, are introduced in accordance with Orosius, i. 2.
The towns are (Tclbara cipitag gancte 33rigine, Kildare, the
city of St. Bridget; 3rijmata cipitag $. 43atricti, Armagh,
the city of St. Patrick, a famous seat of learning in the
Middle Ages; 36tricttr, Bangor, another ecclesiastical town
of note, now visited only for its interesting ruins; and
HBiºclim, Dublin, (the same form is used by Howeden, iv.
29, and a similar one, Develyn, by Peter Langtoſt).
A few smaller islands are placed in the seas surrounding
the British Isles, viz.:-ſłlam : ſingula @ptum ; and Jingula
%trictum, which we take to be introduced in illustration of
the legend of St. Brandan (see above, under Fortunatae Insulae,
page 106); the Insula Arietum being the “Ylonde of Shepe.”
where “every shepe was as grete as an ox,” and “there is never
colde Wether but ever sommer; ” and the Insula Avium, the
“Ylonde of Byrdes,” on which was “a fayre tree full of bowes,
THE BRITISH ISLES. 173
and on every bough sate a fayre byrde, and they sate so
thycke on the tree that unneth ony lefe of the tree myght
be seen; ” these birds told St. Brandan that they were fallen
angels, but not for any serious offence (Percy Society's
Legend of St. Bramdam). Another explanation may be
offered for the name Insula, Arietum, namely Ramsey, off
the coast of Pembroke, but this would leave Insula Avium
unaccounted for, and moreover the position of Ramsey does
not suit. An island, depicted but not named, at the mouth
of the Tweed, may be intended for Holy Island or Lindisſan'n,
noticed by Higden (Polychrom. i. 44). Two islands off the
south coast, named #}rcrlū and Eimentium, are unknown
to us; the pseudo Richard of Cirencester gives Herculea as
the Latin for Latindy, but on what authority we know not ;
this, if well founded, may furnish an explanation of Heccla:
the only other suggestion we can offer is that the name is
in some way a mistake for Vecta, Isle of Wight. With
regard to Winencium, it may have originated in the con-
fusion of the entry referring to Ushant in the Itinerary,
509, where the names Uxantis Sina have in some copies
been combined in a single word of strange aspect. Finally,
we have to notice a $ºilla off the southern point of
Ireland, and a second Špilla off the northern point of
Scotland. The term Scylla was applied by mediaeval writers
apparently to a dangerous eddy or whirlpool, as well as to a
rock. So Howeden, iii. 67 —“Silla semper evomit et in
altun jactat undas,” and so again Higden, i, 44 —“Vorago
naves attrahens instar Scyllae seu Charybdis.” Paulus
Diaconus (De Gest. Langob. i. 4) speaks of two voragines as
lying between Britain and Spain, and to each he applies the
title of umbilicus maris. The southern Svilla in the map
may possibly have some reference to the Seilly Isles.
Insula.
Arietum.
'68 I “IJI “luxuj.IV
'01 ‘‘’I ‘usuloly
'Sº I ‘sulo.IV
‘Z6 ‘ulatou ol III.I. ool V
‘88, “ilpuuxoUW 09,IV
19 “IUpuuxoſ V oIV
‘ZS ‘’s IN “suop.IV
'91 ‘Sulſo.IV
'01 “sopUIUOIV
'69 “OON tºo.IV
‘gz, ‘boops lod IV
‘II “[I ‘U.UUIV
‘g; I “IJI ‘UUUW
‘gº, I ‘utto:5uly
'g/ ‘62, ‘eſsnout W
‘gg I ‘buoqu IV
‘IS ‘û].toSoCI tºoſqul V
‘zz I ‘FZ “S ‘snoput]]nby
'##I ‘g; I ‘upuupuby
'9; I ‘Umuelâsınby
'6I ‘oſinby
‘zgI ‘u Kolluby
‘SFI ‘eſson DV
16 ‘outh IIIqJJ, onby
'67, I ‘upludV
'69 “uoudo.[0]d W
‘F6 “IJ ‘SIUOILoddy
'6I ‘sonſ (odd V
w '91 ‘utſutuddy
'gg I ‘('pool. IN) uſuo Ilody
‘Z6 “(UOlAO) uſuolod W
‘Ig ‘ūuudodo.tºul V
‘ZS ‘ûlonsulto IN ſuſtto]ul V
'91 ‘(‘IAS) uſuaoſ]u V
'89 (‘pisºd) uſuooglu W.
'#9I ‘uſläu V
'gg I ‘‘II ‘OSouw
'gg I ‘‘II ‘ou V
‘Z/ ‘silodºlpu V
'9FI ‘spat:30puV
'09L “uttoou V
16 ‘‘II ‘ujisu.V.
11 ‘outoutury
‘ggſ ‘silodgūIV
'83, I ‘‘II ‘supg|UIV
‘IOI ‘Ilºqu V
‘gg I ‘tungoſºl V
‘SZI ‘oonjok) sod IV
‘IZI “I ‘Boloodoſi V.
'68 ‘‘SIN “oulſ (V
'12, ‘‘Id ‘bubulepiušIIV
99 (‘pit I) by Upuuxol V
’98 “(3,1) eſtpuuxoſV.
‘zg|I “pulsdIV
'85 “I “upluq.IV
‘Z9 ‘ſubqLV
'09L “Il ‘uuuqLV
‘88.I ‘‘UI ‘sutlu IV
‘88.I ‘IUUUUW
'9FI ‘upuoſo) buydd IaşV
'90 I ‘ûuūdorušV
'91 I ‘outoğı,15W
‘Oz ‘silso.15W
‘Oz, ‘Suoſ (JV
'bos ‘06 “boſqJV
‘g6 ‘sulounip W.
‘ZII ‘’S “Suoſºſ (pV
'62, I ‘bſ.(pV
‘Zg I ‘ulodolpV
‘g/ ‘tuoquipV
'80ſ “I ‘unuupw
'81 ‘unlow
'99 “S]IN “lunulooo..to V
‘IZI “I ‘volutioW
‘gg ‘‘II ‘uouſov
'6% ‘‘II ‘souſsooW
'91 ‘ūOluoV
'67, ‘ūInušo, situsſolv
ZII ‘‘SIN ‘UUIUIQV
'69 (‘SAIN) sopp (V
'g.8 “(31) sopygy
‘Z/I ‘otto],104W
11. “STN ‘mulºqvº
ºf 1. “II ‘VNVAW
‘SnuIS = S : UInſ(OTULOUIO.I.L = ‘Id Soluto IN = 'STIN : SUOWI = 'SWI
: 0.101W = IN : Smog I = TI : *[nsuT = I : SmIAmRI = TI—SNOILVIATIggy
—4–
'IOINſ).IN WOICIWIN (TSIO'HGTH(IH
QIII,I, NO
SJLOGIſ’81O CINW SGIOWTCI HO SQIWWN (IHL IO
|X (H (I N I
176
INDEX.
Argire, I., 34.
Argo, 134.
Arhmata, 172.
Arietum, I., 172.
Ariminum, 130.
Ariobarzanes, Ms., 66.
Armenia, 70.
Arna Blanca, Fl., 128.
Arnon, Fl., 77.
Aroer, 77.
Arsinoe, 92.
Ascalom, 78.
Asia, 23.
Aspala, Fl., 128.
Assiria, 73.
Astabus, Fl., 86.
Astobora, Fl., 86.
Astrixis, Ms., 100,
Atalia, 68.
Athene, 134.
Athlas, Ms., 135,
Atrax, Fl., 143.
Augee, Mts. , 67.
Augusta (Ital.), 130.
Augusta (Raet.), 153.
Augustudunum, 145.
Aulona, 133.
Aurei, Mts., 28.
Aurelianum, 146.
Auster, 19.
Auster-Africus, 20.
Authlans, Ms., 100.
Autisiodorum, 145.
Auxonta, Fl., 142.
Avalerion, 30.
Avon, Fl., 165.
Avernia, 144.
Avernis, 147.
Avium, I., 172.
BABEL TURRIs, 74.
Babylonia, 74.
Babylonia (Eg.), 86.
Bactria, 45.
Bactrum, 45.
Bactrus, Fl., 45.
Baioarii, 153.
Baleares, l., 113.
Balsami Arbor, 25.
Bande, Fl., 172.
Basella, 126.
Basiliscus, 104.
Basmus, 88.
Bathe, 170.
Bayona, 148.
Becia Major, 153.
Belgica, 143.
Benacus, L., 127.
Bencur, 172.
Beneventum, 131.
Berenice (Cyren.), 92.
Berenice (Eg.), 84.
Beritus, 76.
Bersabee, 80.
Berwic, 171.
Bethel, 79.
Bethleem, 79.
Beulacum, 169.
Bina, Ms., 124.
Biturrica, 126.
Bizatium, 94.
Dizes, I., 54.
Bizo, 51.
Blenhee, 103.
Boemarii, 151.
Boemaron, Fl., 48.
Boemia, 151.
Boetis, Fl., 124.
Bomacus, 75.
Bonomia (Gall.), 145.
Bononia (Ital.), 130.
Boreas, 19.
Boreas, Fl., 46.
Boreum, Pr., 46.
Bosforus Tracius, 112.
Brabantia, 144.
Braga, 152.
Bragala, Fl., 96.
Bragaria, 126.
Brandanus, 106.
Broma, 152.
Britannia, I., 164,
Bruncena, 94.
Brundisium, 130.
Brusutus, 98.
Bruttii, 129.
Bucephala, 28.
Buglossa, 148.
Bulgarii, 138.
Bumia, 69.
Burdegala, 147.
Burghimare, 147.
Burgundia, 144.
Burh, 146.
Byzantium, 94.
CABILLA, 148.
Cadan, 170.
Cadrusima, 36.
Caimi filii, 51.
Jalabria, 129, 130.
Calcidonia, 69.
Calcmia, Fl., 124.
Caldea, 74.
Calcarsus, L., 90.
Caleas, 19.
Calippso, I., 117.
Callipolis, 136.
Calpel, Ms., 99.
Calvarie, Ms., 79.
Cama, Fl., 153.
Camder, 152.
Camelus, 45.
Campania (Gall.), 144.
Campania (Ital.), 129.
Cana, 78.
Canaria, I., 107.
Candab, 146.
Canea, Fl., 115.
Camma, 116.
Cannar, Ms., 98.
Canopus, I., 119.
Canospatos, I., 120.
Canturia, 170.
Capadocia, 67.
Capharica, I., 55.
Capile, 148.
Capraria, I., 107.
Capua, 131. .
Carambis, I., 121.
Carax, 72.
Carcanus, 74.
Cardia, 136.
Caria, I., 117.
INDEX.
177
Caribdis, 116.
Carimaspi, 61.
Cariz, Ms., 79.
-Carlua, 169.
Carmania, 72.
Carmelum, Ms., 78.
Carn, 155.
Carnarvan, 171.
Carnotum, 146.
Carpathas, I., 119.
Carpatum, M., 119.
Cartago, 95.
Caspia, 52.
Caspie Portee, 64.
Caspium, M., 21
Cassica, 30.
Cassiopia, I., 117.
Cassius, Ms. (Eg.), 81.
Cassius, Ms. (Syr.), 76.
Castello Novo, 169.
Castra. Alexandri, 23.
Catana, 116.
Catapas, 95.
Catharum, 60.
Cathinna, 84.
Caucasus, Ms., 35.
Caul, I., 114.
Cebentia, Ms., 141.
Celdara, 172.
Celtica, 143.
Cenomani, 146.
Cephalenta, I., 118.
Cesarea (Cappad.), 67.
Cesarea (Maurit.), 99.
Cesarea. Philippi, 78.
Cesariensis, 97.
Cestria, 169.
Choolissima, 49.
Choos, I., 120.
Chusta, Fl., 88.
Ciclades, I., 118.
Cicone, 53.
Cidera, Fl.; 150.
Cidona, 117.
Cilicia, 68.
Cimeracum, 145.
Cimerisum, M., 112.
Cincinnus, S., 68.
Cinocephales, 159.
Ciprus, I., 120.
Circius, 19.
Cirene, 92.
Ciremensis, 91.
Cirenus, 80.
Cirera, 134.
Cirtenna, 98.
Cison, Fl., 78.
Cleopatre regnum, 30.
Cleoe, Ms., 6, 165.
Climax, Ms., 88.
Clippeas, 95.
Cliteron, Fl., 57.
Cocadilus, 85.
Colcestria, 168.
Colchis, 64.
Colne, Fl., 1835.
Colubraria, l., 114.
Comagena, 70.
Compostella, 125.
Concitus, Fl., 70.
Concordia, 132.
Constantinopolis, 136.
Coratus, Fl., 73.
Corcina, 32.
Corduba, 126.
Cornubia, 166.
Corsica, I., 114.
Coruus, Fl., 138.
Colomare, 27.
Cotonia, 131.
Crampnum, 135.
Craphidis regnum, 29.
Cratulus, 89.
Creta, I., Iló.
Crise, I., 34.
Criselida, I., 54.
Cristoas, 39.
Cuna, Fl., 142.
Cunwey, 171.
Curumbi, 95.
Cuya, 92.
Cuza, 79,
Cydnus, Fl., 68.
DACHE, 52.
Dacia, 137.
M
Dahais, 73.
Dalida, Fl., 72.
Damascus, 77.
Dan, 78.
Dan, Fl., 77.
Danaper, Fl., 138.
Dani, 157.
Danubii fons, 150.
Danus, Fl., 125.
Dara, Fl., 100.
Dardania, 135.
Decapolis, 78.
De, Fl., 165.
Decusa, 75.
Dedalii, Mts., 31.
Delinum, 132.
Delos, I., 118.
Delos (Delphi), 134.
Delta, 88.
Desipea, I., 114.
Didyme, I., 115.
Diomedis, I., 117.
Diospolis, 78.
Divelin, 172.
Dobu, 170.
Don, Fl., 165.
Dorius, Fl., 124.
Dracones, 34.
Dravus, Fl., 154.
Drepanum, Pr., 33.
Duracium, 132.
Durdania, Fl., 143.
Durem, 169.
EALE, 43.
Ebal, Ms., 79.
Eboracum, 169.
Ebos, I., 113.
Ebredunum, 148.
Ebron, 80.
Ebureda, 130.
Ecusium, 98.
Edenburgh, 171.
Edissa, In, 114.
Eifraim, Ms., 78.
Egea, 112.
Egiptus, 86.
Eles, Fl., 136.
8/. I
'X(HOINI
'gg I ‘ulusu I
'88, “S] IN “oppu I
'82, ‘uppu I
"If I ‘‘II “U.III
'gg I ‘Snoj.IIIII
• ‘93.I “BULIoII
'#g I ‘u Kuo I
‘gåI ‘UInduo I, Iqoob I
‘Aſ “[I ‘III.00 VI
'99 “ſoloquod KH
‘69 “unſiſ H
'6% “IJI ‘sodSupKH
'# 1. ‘In H
‘9; ‘Iuun H
‘ggſ ‘III:3um] I
‘gſ) I ‘‘II ‘IOCIUIn H
'##I “unpublo H
‘Zg I ‘UI,[]SIH
'gzI “eſtiºds; H
‘gg ‘Zg ‘IIIbolyH
‘ZOI ‘sopodoluutuſ H
'#II “I ‘UTIIH
‘g II “I ‘bioſ H
ºf ZI “II ‘sm.10(IIH
'#9I ‘‘I “BRL100TH
'9LI ‘t:00PH
'69I ‘ploy H.
‘00I “SIN “sm.Iodsor]
'ZOI ‘‘I ‘umpſ,[odsoH
'08 “binslo H
'68 ‘Smutoto II
‘ZII ‘Sopºć) SITuolo H
'96 I ‘ū0100,10H
‘ZII ‘smºuodsolloH
‘A9 ‘‘II “Soſſo H
‘jºgI ‘upuſſo H
‘I/ ‘‘II ‘ūIndupoo II
'g/I ‘‘I ‘V’ſoo'ſ H
‘I9I ‘01SJ,US)
'IQ ‘oud II+)
‘ggſ ‘bublk)
"...II ‘ūtūlū0%)
11. “IOutok)
‘89 ‘āok)
'0/I ‘uſuolsoH)
'69.I ‘tum.It’919
‘gº’, ‘‘ſſ ‘UOIA)
1z ‘son’ttušiš)
'86 ‘IIll)0})
16 “BOIn 100
‘g FI “Gyllosok)
'Zip I ‘‘I'll “uplintoğ)
‘AgI ‘IZ “S “Suoyue (IL100
'6; I ‘UTIIbuIlok)
'6/ ‘Biºlogy
‘Ig| ‘Umuop
'8; I ‘BATuog
'1% I ‘sſouð9
'08 “SIN “ooq[0%)
‘gg ‘so outlou.2%)
'6/ ‘‘SW ‘IU(109
'#8 Լlozek)
‘Ig|I ‘utztº)
'86 ‘uturdjoſumſ Uzuł)
'6/ ‘uzuł)
'80T “I “BUIOOIntº)
'## I ‘bjūoosep
1z I ‘‘SIN “Smuuättº)
‘gó ‘soluttutºlº)
'89 I ‘ITUIZUUU%)
'80 I
‘00I “sodoluJI ‘Souljutº)
‘gg “soul ºut:0
‘88. “IJI ‘sojutº)
‘gó ‘G.Teutu%)
'gī; I
‘Umlo[ndod IIA UTIIup
‘If I ‘eſſ|u})
‘1/ ‘‘IN ‘oolſ.It'É)
‘92, I ‘uſ outd[tº)
'69 “uſ’] tºº)
‘g II ‘‘I ‘uquTu%)
'1/ ‘‘SIN “Uºmbuſº)
‘z II ‘SICIVO
‘I FI “Uootsuo.II
'#g “I ‘uſsipuoll
Ig I ‘Souosi, I
'69 “uſ’dſ, I
‘FF I ‘upou'ul I
’90I “I ‘oluttuq toºl
"G0I '90/Ullo, I
‘9; I ‘GI]ttoll II
191 ‘ūſīuo,IOIJI
'#f I ‘ult publl
'67, I ‘UIUIU[Ibid]
'09 I “II ‘ūInºSIAI
'gg I ‘‘SIN ‘Smpuſ I
‘g II ºf II “I “glºboſ, I
‘Z8 “T ‘SmIUII
‘g II ‘‘I “eſsal
'9/. “IJI ‘Suu.[6]
'GII “I ‘ūSnotto I
'06, ‘Slugu.0Atºll
‘g.8 ‘ſumu I
‘gg I “BUIQ'u'll
'1/ ‘‘SIN “ºstºl
'# / ‘‘II ‘It’].IUCI
‘Z9I ‘‘I ‘oſo.It I
"Zg I ‘NIQIYIVI
'Zip I ‘‘II ‘USAI
‘gg I ‘‘II ‘ox'I
‘O/I ‘ūſīqsoox'ſ
'00I “S][W ‘ooltzu'ſ
‘g II “IN ‘unuſ\nºl
'I', ‘‘II ‘smoSmI
'07, ‘Snu10N-Smunºſ
'ſ I ‘sm,InSI
'gz ‘ūdotuſ
'#9 ‘ſtooum"I
‘gz, ‘‘II ‘SO4·0.I]n't
ºf 1. ‘ûoutoplığl
'0ZI “I ‘ū000 mºſ
‘g II ‘‘SIN “butu'll
‘los ‘IOI “sodopuſ)''I
'99 “ultrúGI
‘F II “I ‘ºutpuoduodſ tººl
I9 “[g ‘souoposs I
‘g II ‘‘I ‘ulasſsſſ
'99 “IJI ‘Smuull
1z I “II ‘smuupplºi
'69 “uoIQUISL
'89 ‘snsolidſ
‘1} “I ‘ootto"I
ºf II “I ‘oſſo'ſ
'1% ‘Soulſ
‘g.9 I ‘II ‘OUIST
'09 I ‘‘II “BSIU[[
'89 I ‘AIGI
‘gg I ‘‘SIN ‘uooſtºl
‘I g I ‘uſsuolº[
'X(HOINI
6/ I
‘If I ‘‘II ‘uilosoſ.W.
"If I ‘‘II ‘USOIN
'Z/ ‘‘IN ‘UlunqLOIN
'gz. I ‘‘II ‘SmulloIN
"Zg ‘IIlloolio IN
"Of ‘sotooollo]\
‘ZS ‘uſtonsuuo IN
'6f “sſW ‘sut IoIN
'09L ‘‘II ‘UOIN
"Z1 ‘O11([uo IN
'S9 ‘ū0.UUIN
19 “I ‘SIIIqb.IIIN
19 “I ‘ludoſ IN
‘S9 “upºlluſ IN
‘F9 ‘ilmulouſ IN
‘g II “I ‘ûlouſ IN
‘SITEIN SOIIIN
'9; I ‘‘IN “ſoulſon IN
'# II ‘‘I ‘smºoIN
'9FI ‘sºlo IN
‘g/ ‘pluſ 10WI
13I ‘‘II ‘[0]SOIN
'99 I ‘pissoſ.W.
‘9LI “bugssoſ.W.
'gl: ‘UIUIt]odoso IN
"Zg ‘‘SIN “solo IN
‘QS “I ‘ootoW
'II “Soſpitol\
'#6 ‘‘SIN ‘II,Ino.101N
'69 “fa ‘‘[I ‘Sopſ],00IN
‘III “I ‘XIuoſ\
'6II ‘‘I “etIOIN
‘88 ‘SIUduo IN
10I “I “etto.1QUIoIN
'gF ‘‘SyſN ‘netu.IbuIoIN
‘l II ‘‘I ‘solo IN
"/9 “IJI ‘SOIOIN
‘88 ‘Snsoxioſ
‘g II ‘IN ‘UInout,L101ſpoſ.
‘It “eſpoRI
‘gg I ‘‘II ‘opoRI
'gī I “II “BIUItpoſ\
‘16 ‘bſut 11.Intº IN
‘8; I uſusst. W.
ºf 9 to 1938SSUIN
‘// ‘BIOSIUIN
‘z; I ‘‘II ‘uti.lt. IN
'gol “sodopuſ'ſ luſui.It IN
"/ II ‘‘I ‘upuſ,Uuſ\
‘g; ‘tºtoopnutſ\
18 “blošutput. IN
‘8/ ‘ossbut, IN
‘z/I “I ‘ut IN
'86 “IJI ‘unlu IN
‘zg ‘‘SIN “smolluſ\I
‘60I “I ‘utſoſ (UIN
‘g II “I 'uo.[O]uTN
‘IS ‘ūIlluſt:IN
'9FI “upluoju IN
'gg ‘spºl.KS uſuoju IN
'8q ‘6; ‘āošu IN
’98 “unſtºpäuſ
‘gg [ ‘ū’īlūqsopujūIN
'69 “I q9 II ‘SmpuLN
‘IS ‘8/ ‘ūtript, IN
‘gg|I ‘ûollmot IN
‘gg I ‘VINOCIGIOVIN
19 “uppATI
'Ig I ‘uum"I
'SFI ‘utnump5urſ
‘Z/I ‘ſuoom"I
'6&I “ºutsolarſ
'IgE “eonſ I
'III “utºpuſluorſ
'1/ ‘IOxn U10T
'8FI ‘buuusorſ
'67, I ‘up.UUUIošuo I
‘89I ‘uſuopu OT
'86 ‘XIT
gg I ‘‘SIN “sm.IQAIT
'89 “B.I]syſI
'08; ‘sisdy"I
'#II “I ‘Utudy I
'89 ‘XIIIT
'99 I ‘u Kosopuſ"I
'89 I ‘ūIOouſ I
'If I ‘cuadoutſ]
'6&I “entify I
‘gſ I ‘‘II ‘SIIaşı"I
'69 “SIN “UppyrI
'69 “[I ‘snopſ[
'89 “uſuogoſT
'8II ‘‘I ‘ootu.InqſſI
"Zgſ ‘gu.Inq"I
'I6 ‘SISuðuo.IIO t, ſq I
‘9 II “BICIII
‘g II ‘UImod!"I
'91 “SIN “smuuq I
'#gſ ‘oo,Ulsuloſſ
'Og I ‘SejnorI
'gó ‘‘II ‘uouſ]or I
‘OZI “I ‘soºtsorſ
'gó ‘bušu IN sindor I
16 ‘pludoorſ
‘z II “IN ‘ūIlluoorſ
‘8;I “uttoorſ
'9; I ‘unſpoor I
‘g II ‘‘I ‘blooooºl
‘16 ‘oorſ
‘OZI ‘‘I ‘soutuorſ
‘ggſ “II ‘ū00T
'#I ‘upu.Inq Kurſ
'09 “[I ‘soluxurſ
'#8 ‘UImollur I
'gī I “STN ‘ſumputſ
'08I ‘aputºrſ
'gif I ‘Snquuſ)t, I
'SzI ‘‘II ‘soºtyT
'#g I ‘skitºrſ
'91 ‘uppoſpouſſ
'69 ‘snousduvurſ
‘Z/ ‘opulerſ
‘g/ ‘‘II ‘XIUT
'62, ‘snº.1909"I
'9LI ‘Sſ),LNITIOCIVT
'69.I ‘UIbuIOUXI
'If I ‘VNISRIGIYI
'10I “I ‘eſuounſ
"If I ‘‘SIN ‘c3nſ
‘IS ‘ſopmſ'
‘61. ‘SIIIb A. (Idêsoſ
‘6/ ‘UIoIt'Suloſ'
'08 ‘ookloſ
'8/ ‘VINJINVſ.
'6/ ‘upu I
'16 ‘ouddd I
'#g I ‘smugd I
‘1/ ‘‘II ‘IOI
‘8/ ‘odo I
180
INDEX,
Moyses, 81.
Mrima, 117.
Munoth, 171.
Murduacia, 126.
Musita, I'l., 96.
NADDABER, 84.
Nametis, 146.
Narbona, 143, 148.
Natabres, 93.
Naxos, I., 119.
Nazaret, 78.
Neapolis, 131.
Neon, I., II9.
Neumis, 146.
Neutoma, I., 119.
Nibei, 82.
Nibie, Mts., 82.
Nicasii, M., 127.
Nicea, 28.
Nicomadibus, 96.
Nicomedia, 69.
Nilaca, I., 114.
Nilus, Fl., 100.
Nimacus, Fl., 133.
Ninevec, 73.
Nisa, 134.
Nisibi, 74.
Nola, 132.
Noreya, 158.
Norhamton, 168.
Norhumba, 166.
Noricus, 153.
Normannia, 144.
Novitum, 145.
Nua, 31.
Nucaria, I., 120,
Nucasafris, 46.
Nuchul, Fl., 100.
Numidia, 97.
Nuthus, Fl., 71.
OCCIDENs, 17.
Ocea, 93.
Octocirirus, 46.
Oldelinburgh, 152.
Olerim, I., 148.
Olimpus, Ms., 133.
Oliveti, Ms., 79.
Ophir, I., 34.
Orcades, I., 161.
Oreb, Ms., 91.
Oriens, 17.
Orrea. Josephi, 86.
Osca, 147.
Osco, Ms., 35.
Ossa, Ms., 133.
Ostia, 131.
Ostricius, 139.
Ostrochema, 88.
Ou, Fl., 142.
Oxeford, 168.
Oxus, Fl., 52.
PACTALUs, Fl., 67.
Padus, Fl., 127.
Paſlagonia, 67.
Palentia, 148.
Palerna, 115.
Talestina, 79.
Pallande, 39.
Panda, 52.
Pandca, 31.
Pangcus, Ms., 137.
Panisus, 137.
Pannonia, 154.
Paphos, 120.
Papia, 129, 130.
Paradisi porte, 25.
Parcoatras, Ms., 66.
Parotonium, 88.
T'arisius, 145.
Tarnassus, Ms., 133.
Paropamitates, Ms., 35.
Parthadus, 134.
Parthia, 71.
Pasma, l’l., 27.
Patalus, 28.
Patara, 68.
Patavium, 132.
T'athmos, I., 120.
Pathmum, 115.
Patras, 134.
Pazaei, 155.
Pelasium, 88.
Pelicanus, 52.
Pelipolis, 88.
Pellicie, 84.
Pelorum, Ms., 115,
Penagoregea, I., 121.
Pentapolis, 91.
Pergenpaulius, 68.
Perona, 126.
Persepolis, 72.
Persida, 71.
Persidia, 68.
Detavium, 155.
Petra, 77.
Phancsii, 48.
Phenicis, Prov, , 76.
Phenix, 85.
Phiaroth, 85.
Philonorum Arce, 92.
Philippi, 135.
Philli, 103.
Phison, Fl., 25.
Phori Regnum, 29.
Phytonis, Pr., 92.
Tictavis, 147.
Pigmei, 28.
Pines, 67.
Pineus, Fl., 133.
Pipercas silvas, 55.
Pireneus, Ms., 141.
Piscaria, Fl., 128.
Piscinus, 129.
Placentia, 130.
Planasia, I., 114.
Pobbrota, 32.
Pomponiana, I., 114.
Trasii, 32.
Prienna, 68.
Propontis, 112.
Provincia, 143, 144.
Prusias, 69.
Ptholomaida, 92.
Ptholomayda, 85.
Pudpud, 95.
I'uleolis, 131.
RAGES, 71.
Rahmata, 80.
Ramoscs, 86.
Bampolis, 137,
INDEX.
181
Ramandus, Fl., 29.
Ratispona, 153.
Ravenna, 130.
Rcaue, 131.
Recia Minor, 153.
Recordanorum, Ms., 141.
Rem, Fl., 151.
Remesburgh, 154.
Romis, 145.
Reon, 131.
Rinocerura, 81.
Rinosceros, 40.
Riphei, Mis., 59.
Robasci, 62.
Rodamus, Fl., 143.
Rodos, I., 120.
Rokesburg, 171.
Roma, 130.
Rotomagum, 145.
Roucestria, 171.
Rugone, 98.
Rusaddon, 98.
Rusia, 147.
Russicada, 97.
SABAA, 79.
Sabaria, 154.
Sabrata, 93.
Sabrina, Fl., 165.
Saddi, Ms., 98.
Sala, 151.
Salamandra, 87.
Salamis, 120.
Saldis, 98.
Salem, 79.
Salerma, 131.
Salinarum, L., 96.
Salodurum, 148.
Salum, Fl., 98.
Salzo, Fl., 153.
Salzeburgh, 154.
Samara, Pr., 39.
Samarcan, 52.
Samosaka, 73.
Samacolis, 98.
S. Andr, 171.
S. Davi, 171.
S. Joh', 171.
Sandaliotes, I., 114.
Saracena, 80.
Sardinia, I., 113.
Sarmate, 156.
Sarmatharum Rupes, 155.
Sarmus, Fl., 128.
Sarta, Fl., 142.
Satirii, 82.
Sauromate, 62.
Savus, Fl., 154.
Saxones, 151.
Saxonia, 150, 151.
Scena, I., 108.
Schene, Fl., 172.
Scicia, 155.
Scinopodes, 102.
Sciocna, 134.
Scitotauri, 60.
Sclavi, 151, 156.
Scobesbiri, 169.
Scopulus navis, 117.
Scorpio, 153.
Scotia, 164.
Secuana, Fl., 142.
Sentungia, 147.
Sephar, Ms., 29, 33.
Septem Montes, 99.
Septentrio, 17, 19.
Septimana, 96.
Sorcles, 145.
Scres, 48, 51.
Sertos, 136.
Sestos, 136.
Siene, 84. ,
Sigga, Ms., 98.
Sile, 79.
Simia, 159.
Sinay, Ms., 81.
Sinus, 133.
Siracusa, 116.
Siria, 76.
Sirimum, 155.
Sirtes Majores, 92.
Sirtes Minores, 93.
Sirtinice, I., 108.
Sithe, 60.
Sithe palme, 89.
Siticum Abidos, 69.
Sitifensis, 97.
Sitiphi, 99.
Snawedon, 171.
Snotingham, 169.
Sobas, 76.
Sochoth, 86.
Sodom, 77.
Sogdiani, 52.
Sol, 83.
Sonfenta, 131.
Sphinx, 83.
Spitacus, 28.
Spopodes, 48.
Stenas, 88.
Stipa, I., 114.
Stitualli, 136.
Stongile, I., 115.
Stopcomes, I., 114.
Stripodcs, I., 115.
Sturi, Fl., 165.
Suavia, 153.
Subsolamus, 19.
Suesia, 145.
Suevus, Ms., 150.
Suſſetula, 96.
Suſſibus, 95.
Svilla, 116, 173.
TABOR, Ms., 78.
Tabule Testamenti, 81.
Tafnis, 89.
Tafnus, 88.
Tagus, Fl., 128.
Tamise, Fl., 165.
Tamor, Fl., 165.
Tapliana, I., 34.
Tapsus, I., 116.
Tarentum, 130.
Tarsus, 68.
Tarus, Fl., 127.
Taurus, Ms., 66.
Telmes, 68.
Temcdos, I., 120.
Tenedes, I., 166.
Terasia, I., 115.
Termopile, 133.
Terracona, 126.
Terraconta, I., 58.
182
INDEX.
Terris, 129.
Thasos, I., 120.
Thebaida, 85.
Thelea, 134.
Theman, 75.
Theode, I., 107.
Thessalonica, 135.
Thiberia, 70.
Tholomaida, 78.
Tiberis, Fl., 128.
Ticinus, Fl., 127.
Tigolopes, 75.
Tigris, 53.
Tigris, Fl., 25, 70.
Tile, I., 38.
Tile, Ultima, 162.
Timavus, Fl., 35.
Tin, Fl., 165.
Tingitana, 97.
Tipassa, 98.
Tirus, 78.
Tize, Fl., 155.
Tlantica. Deserta, 100.
Tlede, Fl., 165.
Tnninee, S., 135.
Toletum, 126.
Tolosa, 147.
Tornacum, 145.
Tortosa, 126.
Traceas, 19.
Tracianopolis, 136.
Trenta, Fl., 165.
Triphicia, I., 55.
Tripolis, 76.
Tripolitana, 92.
Trocodite, 104.
Troja, 69.
Trucia, 135.
Tubalum, 135.
Tudertina, 131.
Turchi, 58.
Turingia, 151.
Turonis, 147.
Tuscia, 129.
Tustrum, 96.
UCARIA, I., 119.
Uctica, 95.
Ugolopes, 75.
|Ulvestr, 172.
Umbrosi, Mts. , 63.
Ursus, 156.
Use, Fl., 165.
VALIA, 129.
Velabri, 172.
Velus aureum, 64.
Wendum, 146.
Venicia, I., 118.
Vercellis, 130.
Weredunum, 146.
Verona (Gall.), 146.
Verona (Ital.), 130.
TVinaria, I., 107.
Winencium, I., 173.
WADUs, Fl., 73. -
Wallia, 164,
Viº YY O.
}
|- \ !-l §
"PIIT, ENI).
JAN 3
Triton, L. et Fl., 101,
1918
Wauth, Fl., 151.
Wid, Fl., 165.
Wie, Fl., 165.
Wintona, 170.
Wircestr, 169.
Wisara, Fl. (Gall.), 143.
Wisara, Fl. (Germ.), 150.
Wlturmus, 19.
Wormacia, 146.
YATHE, 125.
Yoonium, 68.
Yousia, 72.
Yda, Ms., 116.
Ydrontum, 130.
Ygicolis, 98.
Ygnium, 98.
Yler, Fl., 128.
Ylis, Fl., 60.
Yndus, Fl., 29.
Yne, Fl., 153.
Yonia, 68.
Yppanis, Fl., 27.
Yppus Diart., 95.
Ysauria, 68.
Ysland, 162.
Yssacar, 78.
ZABULON, 78.
Zacintus, I., 117.
Zephirus, 20.
Zeugis, 95.
Zimarinn, 33.
Zosimas, 82.
Printed by R & R. CI ARK, Edinburg/
JUN 7 1933
t
f
i
i
:
||||||||
3
*
ºn tº a ks.
.. sº ... "
tº tº wº












* * * * * * * * * * *
a ºr a
* } " , ; ; ; ; ; * : **** †
* * * * * * * * *** * * * : y -j-.
* * * * * * *
> # .
* * * *
* : ºr,
º º
* * *{f : * : º
. . . . º.º.º.
, , aſ . 3
*** * * * as ºf a
vº - s sº
3 : 3 & º: º
Fº
* * :
aſ tº . .
*F ºf * * * * *
tº ſº as sº - e.
* * * * * *- : * : *
sº z-
sº sº we’ s
* * * *
ſº º, 3
tº sº." ſº
{º
* * *
* , , , ; , , . . . .
tº sº , , , º, ºr tº ºr § 3.
. . . . . . . . ºf wº sº. . . . . . . . .
* * * * * * : * : **I.
sº
-- 3.
* : * * * * * * .
sº
| * : * : * *
* * * * * * * * * *
tº . .
t
ſº
ºn tº sº
* I s sº
&
º
* * * *
º
*Tº
: A
* * * * * * * *
y tº
sy ... º.º. : * * * * *
; : - a . . .
* * * g : & . . . . . . . " - " " ' "
... asterºi... . . . . . . . . . .”.”
º, ; ; ; sº tº
gº a s ~
• * * * * * * * * * * * *
º “, ºr “... . . . ---
allºs ºn , , º º sº tº & sº
Hºs # * * * : .
: º 'º * * *
º e - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wer
*** {{** * : *
; * * * * * * †, , ; ; is º . . .' *
- s ºr * * * * : * * * * * * * * * *
d . . . . . . . . . . . .” - " ":
º # * * * * *
A ſº
&
* .
& . . . ; * * * * ---
a ºf a s º & P. & " " ' "
tº 8 as a tº
* * *
tº sº * * * * * : * . * * * * * *
3: ; ; ; ;
& .
* * * * * * * *
tº º §
. . . . * * * *
is a gº
s . . * * * : )
ra. - tº a s”. “ º
..., sº …, sº ºr *- : * *
gº tº tºw ºf wºº
Tº . . . . . . . tº
* * . . ; ; * *
ſº is . . .
... ', " ...ºr pº “..."
s. r. , , ºsſº tº ſº tº ºt
. . . ; ºr *...**
º
# * * * * º
tº wa r.s ºr
r a ºf sº -
is . . . . . . "
* : * * * :
& " 4 ºf “
% tº * *
* ... º. i . . . . . .
* * *gºs º tº
. . . . .
. . . . sº ºf * * *
*... -: , a º tº
*Tº r * *
. . . . . * * * *
se: , , § " : * * * *
º * . . egº. 4 º' " "
§º
tºº sº sº - F : * *
ºsºvºrºº’ſ
ºº: Hº!
'', .W., º º t
tº
a sº
º
º
* “** * * * ~ * , , , ,
sº ºz ºr . .
* * * * * * * *
sº
* 5
* * * * * * *
*** tº tº
sº : ; , ; a ſt
º' w & .
* * * * * * * * * * * : *
, , ºr 2- . As
gº sº 3 ~ * * * * * *
4', a . . . …º ºva; *...tº tº... .
d s : * ~g
º , , , , ††
sº ſ
* : * r * , * * tº . - - - sº-º-º * * * *
Jº J.T
º, arº A.
iº - -
ºl
º º * { 2 *
º * : * : * : * , ;- º tº
“ . . . . . ºr rº tº a --& -- -
& º r * - - - º tº sº ºf
{º ; : * * * * * * * *
. . . . . . . . . .
sº a tº a . . tº
& ºr rººs st; ; ;
* * * : * * * * *
* : * ~ * . . . . .
* * * * . . sº-
- -, * * * *
* * * * : , ; ºr * * *
º- rººts -º-
* : * * * * § sº : * : *
ºf s is a
tº a 4 -
**, * * * * *
a a -
Fº º
* * g tº wº gº tº a ºr , º
* * * * * : *-* *** * * * * *
** *** * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * : . . . . . . . g . . . .s
- ~ ** * * *
* * **, * * * * * gº i ;
* † * : J &
a sº sº e ºr sº s.
* * : * * * * * * *
sº I ſº as . .
* *
Tº “we
* f * * * *
º tº 5
* *
-*, tº
* * * *
& * * * : *** *
º * *** * * * tº - . .' * -a < r , , , , , , ;
tº w x .ſº * * * * * * -
* † :
* * * as , * tº ºr
* * º
sººn e is
× ~
ſ
E. : :
º
sº
º
* * * *
a a sº sº
* * * * * º “-º-”
& * * * * * * *
E. e -: * ~
-º- ºr , sº º
- tº . .
ſºs
* : *s
* *
* * * *, *… <
& - * * *
** * * * * * * * * * *
* - s =
3 : *
ſº g
*** -
* * **t, *:
** rººt
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
&
*** * * * * * : ºn-
ºrs.
* : * * *
a ſº -> wº. .
*** *** - , º
* * * * * * *
• { * * º º * * : * * “ . . . . . .
º tº * tº º 'º.g. , . sº
* * , , ..."
* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * ºn º:
*** * * * * * ºr vas
5 §
ſº tº
rºº tº
A as
tº s &
º- 4 & * ...tº *
C. : * ~ *
" * ~ *
* *- : * ,
* * * > .
: º, .
* , , , , , , rº
w - # * : * : * ~
:* - at iſ . . . . . . . . ;
a sº ... a . . . . .
º Đ -
* * * * * : * * * ... , d * : * * * * *
** * * * : * > . . º-º:
‘. . . . ;
* * * * *, *.
; : . . s.
º - . . 33
| * : , , . * ... * * * ... *
* * * * *s ºr * … . . ; sº, as . . . . -
** *** * * * * * * § º º * . . . * * * : - ye -
* * * * * * * : *. ... , E] º
* : . .
a a
§ - B
* , = , s = -
* * * * . . . .sº
*** * * * , , , , ,
* * * . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * Nº a 9 º' p is tº * * *º tº - ºr, sº , , ,
* * * * : . . . . . ºf wart a tº
ſº ºn
{
s & J C.
• rº { {}
: A ºr gº * *
ºn º, ø tº
- ſº
4 tº
* . . . . . . . . . . . . tº
~ s &
** tº * * * * *. -
e º sº. 4 -º ºr º:
tº º” “º tº cº- º
*
º
* . L. "
ºr (), a
* .
* * * * : y :
ºr ºr cº-
A 2 ºr § -
s ºf R & zº
* tº fly ºr
* * * * :
tº ºf . *
º
* . . . . * * * * * * *
sº tº ſº; tº tº --
* * * * * * * * * *
tº gº ºf
it sº tº
ºr
... " * * ~ * - gº . . . . ;
. & # * : * * * * * * * * ſº sº . . . . .
, - * ~ * 3 * ~ * -
gº ºf - * * * * : * * * * * * * *
g is tº 3-5 * *
s & sº , sº . ~ * * * * -
* * * * > . . . . . . .
º
, . . . . . . . . g . * * * *
sº ºr sº. 4 ºr "
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e. a s
- ~ i e º 'º a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s - i. e. e. * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * º: r
º º º
& -
st . . . . . ºr . .
* * *
" * * * * * * * * : *t
sº. . . . . . . . .
... "...” “...
* r *
* * * *
º
* † * * * *.
* * * * , , * : * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * .
tº Tº º *... ºes
tº ºf ,
• * * *
º
...”
, ſº º
# * * gº ºn e s :º .
º
" ... . .
- ſº
* } "
* - i.
- P - : * *
ºr , e.
* * *******
* : * : * 'tº
* *
º Aº º
º'º
< * * ***...** **
* tº # 4
; : ; ; ; sº - º , º ºsº
ºff
* * * * * * tº
º º 'º
* * * * * * * *
tº w "
º, ſº
ſº
º - r * * * *
sº tº . * * *
º “ * * *
& a 3 tº
tº ºr ºf
• *, *, **
: * * * . .
* , s: , sº • *
* . . . . . . . . . . . . * *
… a . . . . . . . . . was nº ºf
: º º a , i. . . . . * * * *
tº º
§ 3 º 'º -
gº
$ 3.
iſ º –
* * * : *
º
sº a 2 - . ~ 5 º'
. . . . [..
~
º
ſº
*.
º
[.. tº
tº º
[.
º
º