A 1,006,496

ARTES
LIBRARY
1817
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
PLURIBUS
UNUM
THEBOR
SI-QUERIS-PENINSULAM-AMŒNAMI
CIRCUMSPICE
THI
THE GIFT OF
Prof.Martha Vicinus

64

1
:
THE
COTTON MANUFACTURE
OF
GREAT BRITAIN
INVESTIGATED AND ILLUSTRATED.
WITH AN INTRODUCTORY VIEW OF ITS COMPARATIVE STATE IN
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
BY THE LATE
ANDREW URE, M.D., F.R.S.
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
A SUPPLEMENT,
COMPLETING THE STATISTICAL AND MANUFACTURING
INFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.
By P. L. SIMMONDS, F.S.S.,
AUTHOR OF "THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM," &C.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY ORIGINAL FICURES.
VOL. I.
LONDON:
H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
1861.
TS
1565
.97
475
1861
GH/STACKS
GIFT
PROF. MARTHA VICINIUS
8-20-87
PREFACE.
DR. URE'S History of the Cotton Manufacture of Great
Britain has always been regarded as a standard work, and,
for the period it describes, undoubtedly deserves its repu-
tation.
But the position of the Cotton Industry of Great Bri-
tain, and of the countries with which she carries on her
commercial transactions, is very different now to what it
was when Dr. Ure wrote. The increase of population, the
progress of colonization, the improvements in machinery,
the spread of wealth consequent upon the gold discove-
ries and other causes, and the facilities of transport by
means of railroads and steam navigation, have effected
more in the last quarter of a century, especially for the
commerce of Great Britain, than has been realized in any
previous period; and this prosperity has been fully shared
iv
PREFACE.
by our Cotton Manufactures, as will be seen in the following
table.

COMPARATIVE TABLE.
Population of Great Britain
""
of Manchester..
Cotton Production U. States, bales
Cotton imported into Great Britain, lbs
Cotton worked up in ditto.
Cotton Manufactures exported, de-
clared value
Cotton Manufactures consumed in the
United Kingdom, estimated
1835.
1860.
17,564,138
27,435,325
170,000
1,254,328
450,000
4,675,770
363,702,963 1,390,938,752
333,043,464 | 1,105,965,000
£22,128,304
£52,013,482
£29,504,405
£69,350,976
Capital embarked in Cotton Industry
in England
£35,000,000
£100,000,000
Spindles at work in United Kingdom
No. of Persons employed in Cotton
Factories in ditto
Aggregate Value of the gross Imports
of the United Kingdom
Aggregate Value of Exports of Bri-
tish Produce and Manufactures. £47,372,270 | £135,892,817
9,350,000
33,000,000
216,858
500,000
£48,911,542
£214,000,000
Revenue of the United Kingdom
£51,347,320
£71,967,494
The progress shown here has, no doubt, been materially
accelerated by the removal of all duties on the raw material,
which, until 1845, had been 2s. 11d. per cwt. on foreign,
and 4d. on British cotton.
A Continuation of Dr. Ure's work being manifestly a
desideratum, the task of supplying it was confided to me,
and I will state, in a few words, what has been performed;
premising that the original work has intentionally been left
intact.
The list of patents for improvements in cotton and ma-
chinery, and in the processes of spinning, preparing, wind-
ing, &c., has been brought down from 1836 to Febry., 1861.
PREFACE.
To have given details respecting these and the vast im-
provements which have been made in mills and machinery
would have exceeded our prescribed limit; and such details
become the less necessary here, as they may readily be found
in works expressly devoted to machinery, engineering, and
constructive operations. The mere enumeration of new
patents occupies thirty-six closely-printed pages; and as
these have not been collected before, (the Patent Office not
yet having published any abridgment of the specifications
regarding cotton spinning), this list will doubtless be found
of value to many.
The tables of exports of cotton manufactures have been
also brought down to the end of last year; they mark
the fluctuation and progress of our foreign trade, and have
hitherto only been accessible in complete sets of the official
returns.
An Appendix of supplementary information gives a
condensed account of the advance of the cotton trade of
Great Britain to its present magnitude, furnishes many
useful tables of imports, prices, stock, and sources of sup-
ply, and brings under review each producing and manufac-
turing country.
I have consulted and made free use of all the recent
Consular and Embassy Reports from foreign countries, Par-
liamentary returns and Blue Books, the Lectures deli-
vered before the Society of Arts, the Cotton Supply Reports,
and many other sources of information, so as to bring into
vi
PREFACE.
one summary everything likely to be useful to the culti-
vator, importer, or manufacturer.
Taken in connection with its companion volume, "Ure's
Philosophy of Manufactures," which I have also completed
to the present time, this work will now, it is believed,
present a better idea of the rise, progress, and condition
of the Textile Industries of Great Britain, and of the posi-
tion of those of foreign countries, than is afforded in any
other condensed form.
MARCH, 1861.
P. L. SIMMONDS.
CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION
BOOK I.
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE IN ITS
HANDICRAFT STATE.
BOOK II.
NATURAL HISTORY AND HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
CHAPTER I.
Natural History .
CHAPTER II.
PAGE
111
1
79
. 119
Of the Cultivation of Cotton Husbandry; and the Cotton Wool
Trade
BOOK III.
•
150
ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STATE OF THE MANUFACTURE
OF COTTON BY MECHANICAL POWER.
Early History of the Factory System.
CHAPTER I.
CHAPTER II.
General View and Analysis of a Cotton Factory .
List of PATENTS for Improvements in Cotton Spinning from 1800
to 1836.
•
Continuation of the same from 1836 to Feb. 1861.
NOTES.
. 208
300
•
317
320*-352*
353
APPENDIX.
Exportations of Cotton Manufactures and Cotton from the United
Kingdom 1827 to 1856
For continuation of these Tables, see the second volume.
Tables of Cotton Mills, Operatives, Earnings, &c. extracted from
the Returns to the Lancashire Forms of Inquiry by Mr.
Stanway
360
390
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. I.
Hindoo Weaver at his Loom.
Bowing of Cotton as practised in India and China
Sea Island Cotton Plant
Short Staple or Green Seed Cotton
Bourbon Cotton
Microscopic Representation of Sea Island Cotton and Religious
f
Cotton
Microscopic Representation of Surat and Smyrna Cotton
Section of Roller-gin
Section of Whitney's Saw-gin
Plan of Saw and Brush Cylinders of ditto.
The Jersey Spinning Wheel
A Hindoo Woman Spinning
Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny
The Saxony or Leipsic Flax Wheel
Spindle with Flyer and Bobbin
Arkwright's Spinning Machine
Water-twist Frame
Slubbing Billy .
Mr. Orrell's Cotton Mill, Stockport
Ground Plan of ditto, at end of volume.
PAGE
. 102
108
. 122
125
131
•
136
139
145
182
•
184
226
227
231
234
235
255
. 276
283
303
Vertical Sections of ditto, at end of volume.
Power Loom Factory of Thomas Robinson, Esq. Stockport, at end
of volume.
AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION.
IN presenting this long-promised treatise on the most im-
portant and intricate branch of manufactures to the public,
I gratefully acknowledge their liberal reception of its pre-
cursor volume, and the kind manner in which influential
journals of opposite political creeds were pleased to speak of
its merits. It was obvious, however, that an inquiry into the
factory system of Great Britain must necessarily touch too
many delicate topics for an honest expositor to avoid giving
offence to certain interests and prepossessions. The contrast
which I had delineated, from ocular inspection, between the
comfortable activity of our manufacturing operatives, and the
listless penury of our agricultural labourers, as well as the
hopes I had expressed, since so happily justified, of the im-
provement among the latter to be looked for from a better
administration of the Poor Laws, could be little palatable to
that portion of the periodical press which had vituperated
the proprietors of cotton mills, and denounced that legisla-
tive Act.
The most vehement maligner of this measure, which pro-
mises ere long to heal the heart-sore of English industry, is
well known to be the gentleman employed to criticise the
works on manufactures for the 'Edinburgh Review.'* He
could not be expected therefore to regard my volume with a
favourable eye, or to give a fair report either of its tenor or
contents. But no one could have supposed that a periodical
which had earned so high a character, under the auspices of
Mr. Horner, Lord Brougham, and Lord Jeffrey, by its able
advocacy of public economy, should suddenly become the
* See the Note at the end of this Introduction.
VOL. I.
B
X
INTRODUCTION.
eulogist of taxes, describe them, with the servile minions
of William Pitt, as needful incentives to national industry,
and defame a work in which its own liberal principles of
trade were conscientiously, though temperately developed.
*
The title of that book was so worded as to leave no am-
biguity, it is believed, in any candid mind, as to its scope.
The phrase Factory System has been long current in our
parliamentary debates, newspaper commentaries, and popular
harangues. It has been moreover settled and circumscribed
three years ago by our Legislature in the 'Factories Regulation
Act,' which restricts the term Factory to such cotton, wool, flax,
and silk mills as are moved by steam or water-power.
establishments alone are placed under the superintendence
of four gentlemen, named by the Government, Factory In-
spectors. From the following cavil, the critic might excite a
suspicion, that he had newly alighted, a wondering novice,
from some lunar railway, entirely ignorant of the language,
laws, and usages of this realm.
These
"The title of Dr. Ure's book is eminently calculated to
mislead. By a factory he means a cotton mill, a flax
mill, a woollen mill, or some such establishment in which
people are employed to attend to machines continuously im-
pelled by a central power. “Few branches of industry, ex-
cept such as are conversant merely with spinning and weaving,
can be carried on in what Dr. Ure calls factories; and he
expressly excludes from them iron-works, dye-works, brewer-
ies, distilleries, &c.Ӡ
A fine farrago I should have made of that post-octavo
volume, had I introduced into it all these heterogeneous in-
gredients. By excluding from it the things which law and
custom had excluded from its title,-Factory System,-I
secured unity of design, and a manageable variety of topics.
Had the slightest obscurity been left in the title-page, the
first sentence of the book would have cleared it away. "Manu-
facture is a word which, in the vicissitude of language, has
come to signify the reverse of its intrinsic meaning, for it
now denotes every extensive product of art which is made by
*The Philosophy of Manufactures; or, an Exposition of the Scien-
tific, Moral, and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of Great
Britain.'
† Edinburgh Review' for July, 1835, p. 454.
INTRODUCTION.
xi
machinery, with little or no aid of the human hand; so that
the most perfect manufacture is that which dispenses entirely
with manual labour." In fact, cotton, wool, flax, and silk
mills, the four subdivisions of the factory system, as defined
by law, afford by far the finest models of the automatic arts,
and form a peculiar group replete with objects eminently
interesting in a scientific, moral, and commercial point of
view. "And as the philosophy of the fine arts, poetry, paint-
ing, and music, may be best studied in their individual master-
pieces, so,” said I, "may the philosophy of manufactures in
these its noblest creations." If the critic looked at all into
my book, he could not have missed seeing these explicit
definitions in its first and second pages, when, even supposing
him to have been an unfledged tyro, he was left without the
shadow of a reason, or the slightest pretence, for declaring
its contents to be irrelevant to its title.
In the first chapter of that work, the general functions of
machines are discussed, and several valuable facts are detailed
respecting mill architecture, communicated to me by one of
the most eminent engineers of the age. The influence of im-
provements in machinery, upon manufactures and trade,
are investigated at some length, as well as the effect of patents
in keeping up new inventions at a monopoly price, so as to
retard their general introduction, and prevent those abrupt
transitions from hand labour to automatic work which would
be apt to throw operatives for a time out of employment. As
to the details of machine-making, they belong to a treatise
upon mechanics, and would be strangely misplaced in one
upon the philosophy of manufactures. Had I entered more
largely into the subject of machinery, to suit the reviewer's
caprice, I should have been obliged to sacrifice inquiries
much more appropriate to the title of the work and the wants
of society.
:
The second chapter of the first Book of that volume, en-
titled Topography and Statistics of the Factory System,' is
dedicated to the solution of the problem why manufactures
flourish more in one district than another. Here the influence
of cheap fuel, an abundant population, commodious seaports,
streams of pure water, inland navigation, the energy of capi-
talists, a ready supply of the raw material, are severally spe-
cified as elements of our factory greatness.
xii
INTRODUCTION.
Even the first page of the preface contains a summary of
the circumstances upon which the manufacturing superiority
of this country over the other European States depends. It
is there said, "Great Britain may certainly continue to up-
hold her envied supremacy, sustained by her coal, iron,
capital, and skill, if, acting on the Baconian axiom, 'know-
ledge is power,' she shall diligently promote moral and intel-
lectual culture among her productive population." Yet the
critic, under his anonymous mask, is so wantonly reckless of
truth as to say, "If any one were to inquire why the factory
system had not been carried to the same extent in France or
Austria as in England, he will get no answer from Dr. Ure.”
But his most flagrant misrepresentation is accusing my
book of being "singularly defective on the influence of manu-
factures on the health and happiness of the individuals en-
gaged in them." Now I defy even a purblind man to
glance over its leaves in the most casual way without per-
ceiving that fully one-third of them is occupied with a
methodical exposition of the moral economy of the factory
system, distributed into three distinct chapters, entitled, 1,
Comforts of Factory Operatives; 2, Health of Factory In-
mates; 3, State of Religion and Knowledge in the Factories,
-subjects occupying no fewer than 152 pages successively
headed with these titles. Nor is there a single topic alluded
to by the reviewer in his pretence to supply my deficiencies,
which is not deliberately discussed, with copious proofs
and illustrations, many of them original, in that very work
which he set himself rashly to revile, in despite of candour
and consistency.†
In attempting to vindicate the factories from many mis-
representations, I have never shut my eyes to special abuses
of any kind, nor have I tried to varnish them over in my nar-
ratives. When the reviewer charges me with saying that the
statements as to the pernicious influence of factory labour
have been proved to be wholly destitute of foundation, he him-
* Edinburgh Review' for July, 1835, p. 455.
† The book was only a few days out when the reviewer's poisoned
dart came hissing after it, to cut short its career—imbelle telum. The
second edition is already several months on sale. A translation of the
work has appeared under the patronage of the French Government,
with high commendations; it has come forth also in a German dress.
INTRODUCTION.
xiii
self is the only person who says what is wholly so, for I was
most solicitous to discriminate between the comfortableness
of a factory when administered by a humane and religious
proprietor, and by one of a careless or corrupt disposition;
and I have reason to believe that my general strictures on
this delicate point, as they were prompted solely by regard
to my fellow-creatures, have already tended to introduce
ameliorations into certain establishments.
In reference to the health of our factory inmates, nothing
has come to my knowledge since the publication of the Philo-
sophy of Manufactures which should make me retract my
opinion, that employment in a cotton-mill may be, and gene-
rally is, as salubrious as any other which the children of
labour can obtain in the present state of the world. I should
wish, however, to see warm-baths attached to every cotton-
factory. They could be supplied without trouble or expense
with the pure hot water discharged from the steam pipes
which traverse the apartments. A set of such baths for males,
and another for females, at opposite sides or ends of the
building, each kept in order by a superannuated man and
woman, who would receive a trifle from each bather for their
attendance, would conduce greatly to the cleanliness, health,
and comfort of the operatives. "When the perspiration,'
says an eminent physiologist, "is brought to the surface of
the skin and confined there, either by injudicious clothing or-
want of cleanliness, there is much reason to suppose that its
residual parts are again absorbed, and act on the system as.a
poison of greater or less power, according to its quantity and
degree of concentration, thereby producing fever, inflamma-
tion, and even death itself; for it is established by observa-
tion that concentrated animal effluvia form a very energetic
poison.
'If one-tenth of the persevering attention and labour,
bestowed to so much purpose in rubbing down and currying
the skins of horses, were bestowed by the human race in
keeping themselves in good condition, and a little attention
were paid to diet and clothing, colds, nervous diseases, and
stomach complaints would cease to form so large an item in
the catalogue of human miseries. Man studies the nature of
other animals, and adapts his conduct to their constitution—
himself alone he continues ignorant of and neglects; he con-
Xiv
INTRODUCTION.
siders himself as a being of a superior order, and not subject
to the laws of organization which regulate the functions of
the inferior animals; but this conclusion is the result of
ignorance and pride, and not a just inference from the pre-
mises on which it is ostensibly founded."
39*
Mr. Rickman, the able editor of the Parliamentary Popu-
lation Returns, in an interesting communication published in
the 'Medical Gazette' of December 19, 1835, shows that the
average mortality of females between ten and twenty years of
age, in the four non-factory counties, Bedford, Bucks, North-
ampton, and Rutland, is annually one in 133; but in Lan-
cashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire, the two chief
factory counties, only one in 172 for the first, and one in 177
for the second. He then observes, "I never yet could dis-
cover any fact which was likely to place the health of the
manufacturing population below that of other occupations,
nor have I ever met with any alleged fact to that effect which
stood the test of strict examination; so that in the conflict
of opinion, I was bound to adhere to equality of health in
the grades of female life (from ten to fourteen, and from
fifteen to nineteen years) which chiefly constitute our manu-
facturing population. Moreover, I was the less prepared to
discover disadvantage to young females in the counties of
Bedford and Bucks than elsewhere, because in my youth I
had traversed those counties oftener than once in pedestrian
excursions, and was then much struck by the happy appear-
ance of young girls and other females sitting at cottage doors
or with open windows, busied in lace-making, especially as
constant shelter from bad weather had preserved their beauty,
so as to equal that of highly educated females.
"It is impossible to investigate retrospectively whether in
earlier times, in the days of Queen Elizabeth for example,
the sedentary occupation of the spinster (which included all
unmarried females, and is still their legal designation) had
the same deleterious effect as in the four selected counties;
if so, females are positively benefited, not injured, by the intro-
duction of machinery, as well-meaning philanthropists too
readily suppose; for I cannot imagine or believe that regular
hours of labour, plenty of fuel, good clothing, and the many
* Principles of Physiology,' by Andrew Combe, M.D., pp. 67, 101.
INTRODUCTION.
XV
other comforts which spring from high wages, are injurious
to the health of any human being. We all know but too
well from the incessant clamours of hand-loom weavers, that
there are many industrious men who, during a series of years,
have carried on a domestic manufacture in small rooms,
crowded by looms and weaving apparatus, breathing air
loaded with dust, their hours of labour extending into the
night, payment for such weaving very moderate, preferring
all these inconveniences to factory labour, because they
cannot endure stated hours and the regular behaviour in-
dispensable in every factory; nor do they send their children
thither, because they are retained at home to prepare hand-
loom work.
"The female mortality of the above four non-factory
counties cxceeds that of their males between the ages of ten
and twenty in the ratio of 100 to 68, and female life in
Westmoreland has the same unhappy bias. In Lancashire
and the North Riding of Yorkshire the scale is rather
in favour of females, female deaths to male deaths being in
the former as 100 to 104, and in the latter nearly equal.
The professor of political economy blames me for not
expatiating on the benefits which our taxation has conferred
on our manufactures. "An increase of taxation," says he,
"is one of the most prominent causes of an increase of
wages, and, independent of this direct influence on the
manufacturer, is precisely similar to an increase of wages."
What confusion of ideas! What contradiction of terms!
So that because the manufacturers by direct influence first
suffer from taxation as they would do from increase of wages,
and have besides to pay their workmen increased wages from
that "most prominent cause," taxation, they should congratu-
late themselves on being stimulated by such agreeable incen-
tives to industry, while the torpid manufacturers of the United
States, who are now supplanting us in many foreign markets,
are unfortunately destitute of these double-strong cordials.
Nor was political economy overlooked in treating the
philosophy of manufactures, as the critic would insinuate.
Through every division of the book there flows a stream of
that useful science, drawn from its purest fountains ;* not,
* The speeches of Mr. Huskisson, inter alios.
xvi
INTRODUCTION.
indeed, from those noxious pools where absenteeism, pau-
perism, and taxation are set off with the flowers of sophistry.
Nurtured in the severe studies of physical science during a
laborious life, I have been careful to search for truth, un-
biassed by motives of place-hunting or political partisanship,
happy if I can be of some little use to mankind in my day
and generation.
In what light our manufacturing classes view taxation the
following details will show.
The repeal of certain additional duties imposed by Mr.
Pitt in 1784 upon printed calicoes, was celebrated as a jubilee
in Lancashire; and when the two gentlemen delegates to
London, who had been particularly active in the application
to Government, returned to Manchester, they were honoured
with a triumphal reception, being met by a procession of
all classes of people, which extended to Stockport, a distance
of no less than seven miles-the most joyous and brilliant
exhibition ever seen in that emporium of industry. The
inhabitants of Manchester and Bolton combined to present
handsome silver cups to these gentlemen, with suitable in-
scriptions.
Their ground of rejoicing was soon, however, taken away
by the wants of the Exchequer, drained by the culpable ex-
penditure of the American war, and heavy duties were im-
posed, which continued to cripple and annoy the elegant art
of calico printing till 1831, when they were repealed; since
which period, the business has more than doubled in extent.
This repeal is one of the most judicious acts of modern.
legislation. It enables the consumer to get the article from
30 to 40 per cent. cheaper, and females of the lower ranks.
to clothe themselves in handsome comfortable dresses, such
as their superiors previously wore. The taxed goods, which
in 1795 were sold for 2s. 3d. a yard, now cost no more than
Sd. A respectable dress may in fact be had at present for
half a crown. The suppression of the tax has been further
beneficial to the honest manufacturers, by extinguishing the
contraband trade, which had been carried on to an extent
equally injurious to them and to the revenue. Another
advantage of the repeal was, freeing a business, involving so
much taste, skill, and science from the insolent and venal
espionage of poorly paid excisemen, who were easily bribed.
INTRODUCTION.
xvii
to steal secret processes which had cost great toil and expense
to the proprietor, and sell them to jealous rivals.
Nor is it a matter of slight moment for a manufacturer to
have the distribution of his own time and operations. He is
now suffered to print his goods at any hour of the day in
which he receives an order, instead of being obliged, as he
formerly was, to wait for the arrival of the officer to measure
and stamp the cloth, before he dared begin to pack it in bales
for the market. Under the critic's stimulus of taxation, ad-
venturers often bought printed calicoes on credit, and forth-
with sent them abroad to raise a capital by the drawback, for
carrying on a nefarious system of trading far beyond their
legitimate means. Such goods were of course hurried off to
foreign markets for which they were neither wanted nor
suited, and caused disastrous competition, by their forced
sales, against the responsible merchant.
Had not our cotton manufacturers been cramped by taxa-
tion, they would long ago have acquired such a surpassing
power as to have bid defiance to foreign rivalry. Goods
would have been profitably produced by our admirable
automatic machinery, guided by a comfortable and well-
informed race of artisans, at such moderate rates as would
have rendered all attempts at competition utterly hope-
less; whereas they have been kept up by taxation of every
kind, and by the discontents, conspiracies, and strikes among
the operatives, mainly caused by taxes on the necessaries and
conveniences of life, at such a pitch, as to encourage nation
after nation to enter the field against us, and to take pos-
session successively of many of our oldest and most valuable
markets.
The paralysis of our factories during a strike is the im-
mediate cause of the erection of rival factories in other coun-
tries. The foreign market gets bare, prices rise, and draw
capitalists into the empty channels. The discontented and
idle workmen migrate to France, Belgium, and America, and
sow the seeds of opposition. Every strike in Great Britain
has been the era of new factory creations abroad. The
Unions ship off their members to maintain a maximum rate of
wages. During the disastrous strike in Lancashire and
Lanarkshire of 1829, many of our spinners who were pre-
vented from working, went to France, Belgium, and the
xviii
INTRODUCTION.
United States, and introduced improved and profitable
methods previously unknown in those countries; all tending
to subvert our cotton supremacy.
The mill-owners naturally try to indemnify themselves for
the diminution of profits arising from taxation, by a propor-
tional increase of their business. The excess of goods
thereby created leads to a corresponding fall in their price,
as well as in the wages of their production. The artisans
who could barely maintain their families by the ordinary
hours of labour before, are now urged to extraordinary exer-
tions so as to make up by the quantity of work for its smaller
remuneration. Such circumstances derange the natural
order of production, and call forth certain articles out of
proportion to the real demand of the market or the wants of
the consumer. All objects are not alike necessary, and
several are not susceptible of any sudden increase of sale.
Before the consumption of corn is reduced one-half, that of
butcher's meat will be reduced to one-fourth, and that of tea
and sugar to nothing.
Goods suffer an undue depreciation when they are pro-
duced during a stagnation of trade, because the manufacturers
are unwilling to dismiss good workmen who could not be
readily replaced at the period of its revival, and they often
also continue to employ them from feelings of humanity
towards their families. These circumstances, which taxa-
tion at home, and fiscal restrictions abroad, always aggravate,
if they do not create, by recurring at certain periods, dis-
locate the universal frame of industry and commerce. To
panic-struck minds the mischief often appears irretrievable.
The stagnation, fortunately, seldom lasts long, because the
accumulated pressure never fails to force open new outlets of
trade, or to widen the pre-existing channels, with the effect
of not merely restoring the equilibrium between demand and
supply, but of giving a fresh impulse to production. It is
surprising how small a surplus of commodities is capable of
inducing a great depreciation in their value. Addison re-
marked in the 'Spectator,' that when the corn crops of Eng-
land exceeded the average amount by only one-tenth, the
price of grain fell one-half. Such a fluctuation from so
trivial a cause, however, could occur only in a confined
market. The wider and more numerous the channels of
INTRODUCTION.
xix
circulation, the more steady will be the level of international
commerce.
'
" we
Having shown with sufficient evidence the deleterious, in-
fluence of taxes in general, few words will be required to ex-
pose the fallacy of their vindication, or rather of the panegyric
pronounced upon them in a late number of the Edinburgh
Review,' in a strain becoming the most venal parasite of
absolutism. "On the contrary," says the Reviewer,
believe that taxation, though in a few instances it may
have been injurious, has hitherto, in this country at least,
operated as an incentive to industry; and that the stimu-
lus it has given has powerfully contributed to impel us
forward."*
The lash of the negro driver was in like manner an in-
centive to industry, a stimulus loudly lauded in its day,
and declared to be the primum mobile of colonial prosperity.
To what is the extreme depression of our agricultural
interests now due, in the judgment of all candid inquirers,
but to the pressure of taxes upon landlords and tenants?
They regard the enormous demands of the Exchequer, which
exhaust the energies of the rural classes in these rich islands,
with equal abhorrence from the foresight of their conse-
quences, and the retrospect of their origin-wars, wasteful
of blood and treasure beyond all ancient or modern prece-
dent, carried on by a system of rapine and fraud not merely
against the existing race of men, but involving the interests.
of our latest posterity. In former times the evils of mis-
government were ere long repaired after the disturber of
the world's peace was laid low; but by the chicane of
modern finance, rulers may not merely sacrifice, as of old,
the happiness of their contemporaries to their mad ambition,
but may mortgage the well-being of innumerable generations
yet unborn. Such is the deplorable legacy of debt be-
queathed to Britain by her sanguinary contests with the
Americans and French-people with whom, as kinsmen and
neighbours, she might, under wise statesmen, have lived always
in a state of peace, if not of amity. The taxes hourly levied
to pay the interest of the debts contracted in the immolation
of myriads of innocent human victims, cannot be contem
* Edinburgh Review' for July, 1835, p. 463..
XX
INTRODUCTION.
plated by the philosopher or philanthropist without shame
and disgust, for they are the memorials of misrule and of out-
raged humanity.
As capitalists have the power of shifting the burden of
taxation from their own shoulders upon those of the labour-
ing classes, in the race of competition now run by rival
manufacturers, taxes may, no doubt, be admitted to act as a
spur to exertion ;-but upon whom does the painful part of
this exertion fall? Upon the operatives, to be sure. Their
comforts are successively curtailed by taxation, while those
of their employers are affected slightly, if at all. The taxes
levied on the provisions consumed by a landed or factory
proprietor are of very secondary consideration to either of
them in the amount of family expenses, but they form a
considerable item in the labourer's annual outlay, and deprive
him of at least one-third of the necessaries and conveniences
of life. Could he obtain three pounds of bread, butcher's
meat, butter, cheese, sugar, and coffee, or tea, where he gets at
present only two pounds, in how superior a state of comfort
would his family live! Were their employers in like
manner relieved from the heavy fiscal exactions, their annual
gains would be proportionately greater, they could afford to
give a higher reward to labour than they actually do, without
abridging their style of living, or abating the yearly savings
added to their stock in trade.
The vast development of the manufacturing system of
Great Britain, through the skilful application of capital to
its resources of coal and iron, has fortunately counteracted,
or masked in a great measure, the mischiefs of excessive
taxation; had that system been unclogged with national debt,
it would certainly have enabled the people of these islands to
live more comfortably than any other on the face of the
globe.
From the paragraph formerly quoted, the Reviewer evi-
dently has more at heart the profits of the proprietors than
the comforts of the people; whence he appears to take a very
partial and erroneous view of the proper object of manufac-
tures. "But an increase of taxation," says he, "is one of
the most prominent causes of an increase of wages; and,
independent of this, its direct influence on the manufacturer
is precisely similar to an increase of wages. Whether he has
INTRODUCTION.
xxi
to pay an additional sum to his workpeople, or to the tax-
gatherer, is, as respects himself, not very material. In
either case he will endeavour to meet the increased burden,
without allowing it to diminish his capital or profits; and
will thus be led to contrive and economize in a way and to
a degree he would not otherwise have thought of.'
""*
An increase of taxation being thus declared to be tanta-
mount to an increase of wages, the master will naturally
relieve himself in the only direction under his control, or
which he can force to give way; namely, at the expense of
his dependent workmen-for the tax-gatherer is inexorable.
Economical improvements of machinery are too slow and
uncertain to meet the exigency of competition with a
country like the United States, which has few or no taxes
to pay, and where effective wages are on that account pro-
portionately lower. In fact, taxation affords not only a
legitimate argument and ground to the manufacturer for
reducing the wages of his workmen, but is too often used as
a pretext or apology for an extent of reduction, through
policy or fear, much beyond the necessities of commercial
competition. As the masters have, in ordinary times, the
power of accommodating the rate of wages to the general
interests of their trade, they will infallibly meet the increased
burden of taxation by their diminution, "without allowing it
to diminish their capital or profits." Such solecisms and
anti-popular dogmas as the above, are strangely out of place
in a periodical so long celebrated for the soundness and libe-
rality of its lucubrations.
Taxation acts thus as a two-edged sword against the
people; it lowers the remuneration of their labour, and raises
the cost of their living. The inevitable result of the manu-
facturers exonerating themselves by tossing off the fiscal
load from their own shoulders upon those of their operatives,
is a universal feeling of distrust between the employers and
employed, which exists in no other country upon the face of the
earth. This civil warfare between parties whose interests are
one and indivisible, is entirely due to the conviction which
the workmen not unjustly entertain, that their comforts are
offered up as a sacrifice to the necessities of the Exchequer.
* ·Edinburgh Review' for July, 1835, p. 462.
xxii
INTRODUCTION.
Hence the destruction of those amiable charities of social
life which Providence designed in ordaining the gradation
of ranks; hence contempt of legislators, and violation of laws.
akin to anarchy, among the less favoured classes in both the
agricultural and manufacturing districts of the empire.
Far be it from me to give the slightest countenance to any
deeds of violence done under the pretext of obtaining a redress
of grievances. Trades' unions have on so many occasions been
actuated by prejudice and passion, and have so often abused
their powers by controlling the freedom of labour, as to have
lost all that salutary influence which wisely-regulated friendly
societies among workmen would have exercised upon the
upper ranks. It is, moreover, a well-established fact, that
those artisans who are the worst paid seldom combine, and
never with any force; but only those who enjoy the best wages,
such as cotton-spinners, engineering mechanics, founders,
colliers, carpenters, tailors, &c. The daily pay of the
former is indeed too scanty to allow of the formation of a
heavy stock-purse to pamper a stipendiary committee of
demagogues; and they are also too much dispersed and too
heterogeneous to combine. Strikes have besides commonly
defeated their own ends; for, instead of raising wages, and
subjugating capitalists, they seldom fail to lower the onc, and
emancipate the other.
In the following sentence the reviewer evinces a surpris-
ing ignorance of our manufactures, and ascribes their ad-
vancement to the two most formidable evils against which they
have had to contend-namely, taxation-wages, and unions.
"Could we suppose that from the era of the discovery of
the spinning-frame and the steam-engine, down to the
present day, wages had remained stationary, and strikes and
combinations among the workmen been unknown, we believe
we shall not be accused of exaggerating when we state that,
under such circumstances, manufactures would not have
made half the progress they have done."
The author of the able Memoir upon the Causes of Manu-
facturing Distress, crowned in May, 1832, by the Société
Industrielle of Mulhausen, says, "Taxes hinder exportation
by raising the cost of fabrication; it is the tradesmen of the
nation least taxed who will always carry off the business
from their competitors, from which we may judge what a
INTRODUCTION.
xxiii
brilliant career awaits the commerce of the United States-
that favoured land, free from public debt, and nearly free
from fiscal exactions. Switzerland, our next-door neighbour,
prospers from the same cause.'
If we take into our estimate all the operatives employed
upon cotton, non-factory as well as factory, we shall find
that their wages have fallen very considerably, relatively to
their work, and the comforts which it will command. Even
factory wages, as in Mr. Thomas Ashton's mills at Hyde,
which may be regarded as a fair type of the general mean
wages in cotton-mills, have not advanced in the space of
many years, during which the most remarkable improvements
have taken place in the machinery and processes of manu-
facture.
The encroachment of foreign competition upon the cotton
trade of the United Kingdom has become so rapid of late as
to excite alarm for its supremacy under our heavy taxation
in any mind not besotted by national pride. The continent
of Europe, and the United States of America, for some time
after the peace of 1814, possessed factories upon so small
a scale, that they could not be regarded as our rivals in the
business of the world; but now they work up nearly 750,000
bales of cotton wool, which is about three-fourths of our
consumption, and have become formidable competitors to us
in many markets heretofore exclusively our own.
Ever since the ministry of Colbert it has been the pride
of the French government to foster the manufacturing system.
A considerable manufacture of cotton cloth was commenced
about eighty years ago in the Vivarais, the yarn for which
was chiefly imported from the Levant, just as the cotton-
wicks for the London' candle-makers still are. The first
spinning machine in France on the factory construction
was a mule introduced thither from England in the year
1787 by Monsieur de Calonne, Minister of State. This
machine, and others made in imitation of it, were set to
work at Rouen, Paris, St. Quentin, Lille, Amiens, and also
at Montpellier, which was the ancient seat of the household
cotton trade.
Soon after this period an attempt was made to spin water-
twist at Louviers. Some slight hostility was evinced towards
this new system of power-spinning, but, as household cotton-
xxiv
INTRODUCTION.
spinning had not been carried on beforehand to any extent,
the people were soon conciliated in favour of the new manu-
facture by the good wages it procured.
The following table shows the progress of the French
cotton manufacture during nine years after it was fairly
established:-
6,726,000
I1,008,000
COTTON WOOL CONSUMED.
lbs.
1798
•
18,000,000
I 799
10,290,000
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
15,120,000
15,780,000
I 7,200,000
18,412,000
21,734,000
In the last of these years the cotton was manufactured
into the following articles; about 1,000,000 lbs. into velvets;
about 925,000 lbs. into nankeens, nankinets, crapes, and
other small stuffs; about 1,155,000 lbs. into dimities, and
about 14,880,000 lbs. into fustians, calicoes, coverlets,
siamoises, muslins, &c. In the same year the French im-
ported (per contraband) from England 2,000,000 pieces of
nankeens, 1,000,000 pieces of cloth for printing, and about
300,000 pieces of other descriptions of cotton goods, such
as muslins, cambrics, dimities, &c., valued at £300,000
sterling.
It was only in the larger spinning factories, of which,
prior to the year 1817, there were few in France, that the
power of water or steam was employed, and in the greatest
part even of these the application of power was confined
to the machinery for the preparation, or the carding and
roving processes. Since then the factory system of France
has received an immense development. Mulhausen and
Rouen may be considered its principal head-quarters, though
the districts of St. Quentin and Lille also display extraordinary
activity in its prosecution. Normandy and Picardy are peopled
with weavers, who carry on the business on their own ac-
count at home, and send the goods for sale to the halls
at Rouen, Abbeville, &c. The finest fabrics are made
round St. Quentin and Cambray. The articles made in
INTRODUCTION.
XXV
the districts dependent on Mulhausen and Rouen are cali-
coes coarse and fine, velvets, coloured goods of all de-
scriptions, of superior beauty, from their skill in the chemistry
of dyeing. At Tarare the finest book muslins are woven
with yarn at one time smuggled from England, but now
imported under the new tariff of 30 per cent. on yarns above
No. 140 =
165 English. Fine cotton stockings are made
at Nismes, and fancy goods of many sorts, woven with silk
warp and cotton weft. Lyons boasts the most tasteful articles
in the cotton trade, and cotton mixed with silk, but charges
a very high price for them. Madras handkerchiefs, in
imitation of the Indian so called, constitute the cotton manu-
facture of Montpellier. The calico-printers of Alsace for-
merly drew their whole supplies of cloth from Paris, Rouen,
and St. Quentin, but they now spin and weave goods not
merely adequate to their own wants, but have a surplus for
sale in the plain state.
It is in their coloured goods and sewed muslins that the
French compete most successfully with the English manu-
facturers. They conduct their dyeing works on strictly
scientific principles. The 'Bulletin de la Société Industrielle
de Mulhausen,' a periodical work, of which seven volumes
have been published, affords a strong evidence in favour of
their progress in this department of the arts; we cannot equal
their madder-pinks and lilacs, nor their permanent greens,
Power-loom goods have not been produced to any great
extent in France, on account of the high price of fuel and
machinery on the one hand, and of the low price of hand-
labour on the other. There are not more than 5,000 looms
of this description at work.
The following Table will give an idea of the progressive
advance of the cotton trade in France for several years:
COTTON WOOL IMPORTED FOR CONSUMPTION.
Bales
•
Bales
1822.
1823. 1824. 1825.
1826.
1827.
279,693
1832.
215,199 172,312 243,958 216,460 281,001
1829. 1830.
1831.
1828.
239,723 264,760 254,000 243,168 272,463
* Alfred Binyon and William Nield, in Second Factory Commission
Report' of 1833.
VOL. I.
Ο
xxvi
INTRODUCTION.
Table of the number of bags and bales of cotton wool
imported into Havre-de-Grâce in the following years :—
1831.
97,492
1832.
160,222
1833.
171,439
1834.
166,295
1835.
190,972
In 1827 reports were presented to the French government,
by the several chambers of commerce and manufactories in
France, concerning the causes of the distress which pre-
vailed in that year. They stated that the protection given
to their manufactures had produced an excessive stock of
goods beyond the wants of the home consumption, and had
caused other countries to refuse admission to the exportable
surplus, though, indeed, it was that protection which had
pampered them into a monopoly price beyond the level of
the European market. This over-production operated dis-
advantageously on the French manufacturers till 1831, when
the continued low prices had so augmented the home con-
sumption, and favoured exportation of the remainder to the
value of 54,000,000 francs, that the factories began again to
be briskly employed, as they have been progressively since.
The cotton manufacture began at a very early period in
Switzerland, for it produced, according to the annalists of
that country, muslins towards the conclusion of the seven-
teenth century. It must have remained long dwarfish; for
till Arkwright's era it attracted no notice from other nations.
The first Swiss cotton-mill was erected at St. Gall in 1798.
Till the year 1817, however, nine-tenths of the yarn which
they used in weaving was spun on the one-thread wheel.
The weaver supplied himself usually with the yarn, and sold
the cloth at the most convenient weekly market, or exchanged
it with dealers for yarn. Latterly, general manufacturers
have sprung up, who provide yarn to the weaver, and pay
him a stipulated price for weaving it into cloth, which they
dispose of in various ways.
This state reminds us of the infancy of the trade in
England, and while wages are high, relative to the means of
subsistence, the operative may be comfortable and indepen-
dent in his cottage mode of life; but when, from competition
in the market, the wages become relatively low, the weaver
can no longer afford to waste his time in hunting after yarn,
and travelling with his small stock of goods to the market,
INTRODUCTION.
xxvii
and he sinks into penury, or a precarious dependence on
petty dealers. In such circumstances the condition of the
work-people at the great factories of Hyde in England, or
Catrine in Scotland, is more enviable than that of the cotton
peasantry of Switzerland, so extravagantly admired by some
writers. The former are sustained in a steady state of
comfort in good times and bad times by great capitalists,
while the latter are seriously affected by every commercial
vicissitude, and suffer occasionally the most painful privations.
Switzerland, being situated on the confines of European
states which impose high duties on the importation of cotton
fabrics, has derived great profits from the contraband trade.
She has pursued the policy, therefore, of receiving goods.
freely, in order that her people may get them cheap, and be
able to smuggle them with advantage into the territories of
her neighbours. Nor has she neglected to avail herself of
the natural facilities for impelling machinery offered by her
mountain streams and waterfalls. New spinning-mills have
been progressively erected from year to year in the town and
canton of Zurich, in the cantons of St. Gall and Appenzel,
in Argovia, Thuringia, St. Blaye, near Basle, and Geneva.
In some places, particularly at Zurich, water-power has been
sold at so high a rate as 200l. for each horse-power. Cotton
wool to the amount of 56,000 bales was worked up by the
Swiss manufacturers in 1832, though the cost of transmitting
it from Trieste is id. per pound, and from Havre 1ld.
Upwards of 9,000 persons are now employed in the spinning
operations, besides about 20,000 in weaving, dyeing, and
calico-printing. The wages are very low ;-to spinners from
8s. to 10s. a week; to stretchers (men), 4s. to 6s.; to carders
(men), 5s.; to drawers and slabbers (girls), 38. Eighty
hours are the weekly period of work in the mills. Weavers
earn from 48. to 4s. 6d. a week, and 2s. a piece for calicoes.
Mechanical looms, even with cheap water-power, could not
there stand in competition against such low-priced hand-
weaving.
The cotton goods resemble closely the English in their
style. The fine tweels and the finer prints have successfully
competed with those of Great Britain in the markets of the
Mediterranean, and latterly in South America. Before the
year 1822 water-twist and mule yarn, with cotton fabrics of
xxviii
INTRODUCTION.
every description, were sent from this country to Switzerland;
but now all the yarns up to No. 60 are spun by the Swiss
themselves; fustians are the only article still supplied from
England. The following statement of the comparative cost
of spinning 40's twist was furnished by Messrs. Samuel Greg
and Co., of Manchester, to the factory commission.
Processes.
Switzerland.
d.
Manchester.
d.
Preparation, &c.
Spinning
⚫713
I⚫855
•664
1.236
Reeling and Bundling
• 755
*513
Contingent expenses.
Interest of capital
I'071
I'041
⚫812
I'012
5 206
4'466
Thus the only advantage in England is the lower rate of
interest upon fixed capital, arising from more work being
done by the same machinery. We must add to that advan-
tage the saving on carriage of the raw and manufactured
articles. All the children in the Swiss mills are able to read
and write; they attend the Sunday schools, and other religious
institutions. The modern mill-work is generally preferred
to weaving and printing, in consequence of the regularity and
constancy of employment. The condition of the people has
been improved by the mills, in taking them from agriculture,
weaving, and begging. The quantity of yarn turned off per
spindle is from fourteen to sixteen hanks of No. 40's per
week. All the machinery used is made either in the country
itself or in France. The freight from England to Switzer-
land is about 208. per 100 pounds' weight.
Cotton manufactures are becoming objects of interest to
many of the German states. Several spinning-mills have
been erected in the Austrian dominions, especially in the
neighbourhood of Vienna, which are driven by water-power,
and produce yarn of the lower numbers up to Co's. Their
fine goods are woven with yarn smuggled in from Great
Britain, though its entry is not prohibited, like the coarser,
but is permitted under a high duty. To facilitate this con-
traband trade, small mills have been planted at Reichenberg
and other spots on the Bohemian frontiers, which enable
their owners to bundle up the English yarn in their own
INTRODUCTION.
xxix
fashion, and dispose of it as such to the Austrian weavers.
It is said that 100,000 weavers are employed in the neigh-
bourhood of Vienna alone; and many at Prague, and in
general throughout Bohemia, Moravia, and at Gratz, in
Styria. A few factories have been erected in the Tyrol, to
take advantage of the abundance of water-power, as well as
the low rate of wages, and the protecting duties against foreign
yarn. The goods manufactured with these yarns are of a
stout quality, and well made. Nankeens are in much demand.
After many unsuccessful previous attempts, at length, in
1799, Messrs. Barnard and Brothers, aided by an English
mechanic, erected at Schemnitz the first spinning-mill of
Saxony. Many rival factories were soon thereafter mounted,
but they all proved unprofitable from the fall in the price of
English goods and their own imperfections. The Berlin
decree, in 1805, which obstructed the introduction of English
manufactures, revived the spinning trade of Germany, and
restored it in two years to a prosperous state. After the
defeat of Napoleon, in 1813, it once more gave way to the
competition of England. Since the year 1818, however, the
cotton-mills of Saxony have resumed considerable activity,
and produce low-numbered yarns from Smyrna wool, to be
woven into thicksets, velvets, and coloured pocket-handker-
chiefs. All the finer mule yarns, and nearly the whole of the
water-twist, are imported from Great Britain. The yarn,
whether of domestic or foreign produce, is sold to the
weavers dispersed through the country villages, by whom it
is woven. The cloth is sold by them at the market towns.
The imports of English cotton-twist in the excise district
of Zittau, in Upper Lusatia, amounted in 1832 to 76,648
cwts. against 52,421 in the preceding year. In the other
departments of excise the importation may be estimated at
30,000 cwts.; so that the total import of British twist is from
10,000,000 to 14,000,000 lbs. into that small province,
containing a population of only 220,000 individuals. The
yarn spun round Zittau amounts to from 5,000,000 to
6,000,000 lbs. annually.
The cotton manufactures of Prussia and the Rhenish
provinces are extending rapidly, not only by weaving British
yarns, but by spinning also. The number of operatives now
employed in spinning by power is estimated at from 6,000 to
XXX
INTRODUCTION.
7,000. In 1830 no less than 35,000 bales of cotton wool
were worked up. With the exception of Mr. Brugelman's
mill at Cromford, near Dusseldorf, where the daily hours of
work are only thirteen, the factory time is fourteen hours,
beginning at six, closing at nine, and allowing one hour for
meals.
The average wages are—
Men
Women
•
Children under 14
under 12
The price of provisions is-
•
•
S. d.
9
3042 H
I
100 o
o per week.
O
5
6
for 7 lbs. of bread;
4d.
21d. to 3d.
for i lb. of beef;
38.
for 100 lbs. of potatoes.
There are several spinning-mills in the Grand Duchy of
Baden, all of which are moved by water-power: the largest
is in the Black Forest; it is called St. Blaise, and employs
600 work-people, four-fifths of whom are children. “The
working hours are fourteen a day, or eighty-four a week.
No child is admitted unless bonâ fide twelve years of age.
The weekly wages are 8s. 4d. for adults, and for children,
after one year's employment, 4s. 3d. An able labourer earns
in summer 5s. 6d. to 6s., and in winter 5s. The best beef
never exceeds 1d. per lb., and is generally lower, which,
with the corresponding low price of other articles of food,
enables the operatives to live quite comfortably on their
wages.
I
The chief cotton manufacture of Prussia, which is yearly
on the increase, is the weaving and dyeing of British yarns,
supplied mostly through Elberfeldt. Some of the goods
thus made have been sent back to England for shipment to
the East Indies. The quantity of English yarn imported
into Prussia in 1831 for the above manufacture was
15,600,000 lbs.
Hitherto the attempts to establish the cotton-factory
system in Russia have not been very successful. But Russia
consumes a very great quantity of British yarns; to the
INTRODUCTION.
xxxi
amount, in 1832, of 19,000,000 lbs., and last year of
21,478,499.
There were eleven spinning-mills two years ago in
Lombardy, but they are supposed to be used chiefly as masks
for the contraband trade in British cotton yarns. About
12,000 bales of cotton wool are annually consumed in these
factories. Though the wages are lower than in Switzerland,
a good spinner can earn 8s. a week, while a good labourer in
Lombardy can earn hardly 58. A great deal of British yarn
is introduced into the Milanese, which is manufactured into
stockings and other fabrics. The yarns of the country are
woven into heavy tweels and common calicoes. All other
descriptions of goods are imported at a high duty, or
smuggled from Switzerland, England, and France.
There are only four spinning-mills in the Sardinian do-
minions, with a considerable number of hand-mules. Goods
are pretty extensively woven of cotton and linen mixed. The
wages are lower here than in Switzerland. See 'The Table
of Exports,' in the Appendix.
We have seen, in vol. i. book i., that cotton wool has been.
long grown in the Neapolitan territories, and that a handi-
craft cotton manufacture has been long carried on. There
are several cotton-mills in different parts of Calabria. In
the new mill of Messrs. Zublin and Vonwiller, at Salerno,
there are about 7,200 spindles. The machinery is good, on
the newest principle, and includes the tube-roving frame.
The wages are,—for spinners, 6s. per week; carders, 48. 3d.;
rovers, 38. 2d.; and piecers, 2s. Ed. The cotton worked up
in this mill is principally grown in the adjoining fields, and
costs about 6d. or 7d. a pound. The land on which it grows
is let at the very high rent of £2 108. per acre. The im-
portation of English yarn into the kingdom of Naples may
be estimated at about 2,000,000 of lbs. Weavers earn from
28. to 2s. 6d. a week. Under a liberal government, Naples,
with its waterfalls and cheap labour, might soon become an
important manufacturing country.
The following remarks from a broker's price-current at
Antwerp, in 1833, show the general advance of Continental
competition :-
"All the accounts we receive from the manufacturing
districts continue to represent the cotton factories to he
xxxii
INTRODUCTION.
proceeding under a progressive state of improvement. The
results of their operations last year having opened the eyes
of the proprietors to their previous error in neglecting the
home market in favour of the delusive prospects held out to
them by the monopoly offered to them in India, they are now
applying increased attention to this branch, the beneficial
consequences of which are rapidly manifesting themselves in
the diminution of the imports of British goods.
The first cotton-mill of the United States of America dates
from the year 1791, when one was erected in Rhode Island.
A second was erected in 1795 at the same place, after which
no more was done till 1803, when a third was mounted in
Massachusetts, followed there by a fourth in 1804. During
the three succeeding years ten more mills were erected in
Rhode Island, and one in Connecticut, making altogether
fifteen mills, containing about 8,000 spindles, and producing
about 300,000 lbs. of yarn a year. By a return made to the
government in 1810 it appears that 87 additional mills had
been erected by the end of the year 1809, of which 62 were
then in operation; 14 of them being horse-mills, and 48
water-mills, containing altogether 31,000 spindles. Twenty-
five mills besides were expected to be placed in activity in
the course of the year 1810, when the total number of spindles
would be 80,000.
The capital required to carry on the manufacture in the
best manner is considered to be at the rate of 100 dollars for
cach spindle; but in general not more than 60 dollars had
been expended. The yarn spun annually for each spindle is
about 36 lbs., corresponding to 45 lbs. of cotton wool, and it
sells for about 1 dollar 12 cents per lb. Forty persons are
employed for 800 spindles, of whom 35 are women and
children, and five are men; this is at the rate of one person
for every 20 spindles.
A report made to the House of Representatives, in 1816,
states “that the quantity of cotton wool manufactured in the
year 1815 was 90,000 bales, nearly equivalent to the con-
sumption of France at that period; that the quantity used in
1810 had been only 10,000 bales; in 1805, 1,000; and in
* Mr. Birley in 'Factory Commission Report,' Part I., Manchester,
f. 117.
INTRODUCTION.
xxxiii
i
1800, 500 bales. The following general statement is officially
made in the same report :-
Capital engaged in 1816
Males employed, of 17 years and upwards.
Women and female children
Boys under 17 years of age
Cotton manufacture, 90,000 bales, or
•
40,000,000 dollars.
10,000
66,000
24,000
27,000,000 lbs.
Cotton cloth of various descriptions manu- } 81,000,000 yards.
Cost
factured
•
24,000,000 dollars.
New tariff laws were passed, one after another, in 1824,
1828, and 1832, in each of which the duty upon cotton goods
imported was declared to be 25 per cent. ad valorem, rating
the coarser fabrics as in the act of 1816.
Under such exclusive protection the cotton trade marched
with an accelerated pace. Power-loom factories were esta-
blished; while the most improved processes in spinning and
weaving were eagerly sought after and adopted. The manu-
facture has accordingly expanded greatly in the New Eng-
land States, as well as in those of New York and Rhode
Island, but is little known in the rest of the union.
From the reports of the Secretary to the Treasury, made
to the House of Representatives on the 31st September, 1830
and 1831, it appears that the States exported the following
quantities of goods :-
1830.
1831.
Dollars.
Dollars.
Printed and coloured cottons, value
White
61,800
96,931
ditto
•
964,196
947,932
Nankeens.
1,093
2,397
Twist yarn and thread
All other cotton manufactures
•
24,744
17,221
266,350
61,832
1,318,183 1,126,313
More than one-third of these exports were sent to Mexico,
and the rest to the New States of South America, and in par-
ticular to Chili. A report of the Committee of Congress,
appointed, in the spring of 1832, to inquire into the pro-
gress of the spinning and manufacturing of cotton in the
United States, has furnished the following statement for the
year 1831:—
Xxxiv
INTRODUCTION.
In 12 States there were—
Mills
Spindles
Looms
•
The weight of cotton worked up was.
Deduct 2 oz. for waste per lb.
..
Total weight of yarn spun was.
Amount of ditto per week
Averaging 16 oz. per spindle.
The number of male workers was.
""
female ditto
795
1,246,503
33,506
77,557,316 lbs.
9,694,664
67,862,652
1,305,05 I
18,539
38,927
57,466
Total employed in the cotton manufacture
The sum paid for wages in that year was 10,294,444 dollars, or
£2,144,780.
The sum paid per week was therefore £42,895, being no
less than 14s. 11d. for each of the work-people enumerated.
The capital employed was 44,914,984 dollars; the number
of yards of cloth manufactured was 230,461,990, and the
number of pounds of cotton was equal to what was consumed
in Great Britain little more than twenty years ago.
It is difficult to reconcile the above statement of the
average wages with the evidence of Mr. Kempton, a cotton
manufacturer in the United States, who has been acquainted
with the manner of conducting manufactories in most of
them, and who employs in his own establishment 400 work-
people. He says, "A person ten years old would get 38, a
week; a person twelve years old, 4s. a week; fourteen years,
5s.; sixteen, 6s.; eighteen, 8s.; those more advanced in years
would earn 108. The smaller children in the carding-room
(between nine and twelve years) are those who earn 38.;
those attending the drawing-frames earn from 5s. to Es.;
those who attend the roving-frames earn Ss. a week; girls
attending the throstle-frames earn from 5s. to 8s. ; machine-
makers earn about 58. a day; mule spinners earn about 58. a
day; overlookers earn from 5s. to 6s. a day; assistant over-
seers earn from 3s. to 4s. a day.
"No. 16 water-twist, made entirely of good cotton, sells in
INTRODUCTION.
XXXV
the United States at 10d. per pound; in England, No. 16
yarn, made from a mixture of waste twists and a small
quantity of Uplands, sells at 11d. per pound."
He gives the following statement of the comparative cost
of weaving in the United States and in England:
Interest on dressing machine
Interest on 12 power-looms
United States.
£2 II
8 6
England.
£1 12
4 IO
12 IO
Cost per annum of one horse-power
•
3 IO
Cost of dressing 3,756 pieces
23 9
46 18
Cost of weaving
125 4
156 10
£163 0
£222 0
American, 10d. per piece; English, 18. 24d.
"Water-power exists in America in great abundance, at a
very low rent, even in the best situations; whereas in Great
Britain the power is mostly steam, or, if water, it is at a very
high rent." Mr. Kempton expresses his conviction that the
effect of a compulsory limitation of the working-hours in
Great Britain to ten instead of twelve would enable the
manufacturers of the United States to undersell the British,
not only in markets abroad, but in their own home markets.*
The following important Table [see page xxxvi.] was
furnished by Mr. William Greg to the Factory Commissioners
in May, 1833.
A very large proportion of the cotton wool absorbed by
the manufacture of America is made into domestic or other
heavy fabrics, in which her advantages with respect to raw
material tell with the greatest effect. Domestics comprehend
a most important and extensive class of cloths used by the
great mass of society for shirts, sheets, linings, and many
other domestic purposes. Supposing one-half of the power-
looms in Great Britain to be employed in lighter fabrics, the
remaining half, or about 60,000 must be engaged in the
same heavy fabrics as the American looms, which, from the
above estimate, must be considerably upwards of 45,000; but,
in fact, the power-looms of the United States employed upon
heavy cloths, cannot be much fewer than those occupied with
* Factory Commission Report,' Part I. Evidence by Central Board,
pp. 23, 24.
ȚAXXX
INTRODUCTION.

Rates of Wages in the Cotton Factories in the different Countries of Europe, and in America.
Authority.
Country.
Quantity of
raw Cotton
consumed
Hours
worked
Wages per Week.
Age
in
1831.
per
Week.
Drawers,
Average
Wages.
of
Admis-
Carders. Rovers, Spinners. Piecers. | Reelers. | Wcavers.
sion.
&c.
Burns, C. G.
K. Finlay
England
America
Ditto
234,000,000 69
3/0—10/04/6—8/025/0-33/06/0—8/0
77,000,000
78
P. Ewart
Burns
France
Melly, and
A. Escher
74,000,000 72-84
:
9/0—12/07/0—12/0
9
14/11
6/8
20/0-28/07/0—9/0
19/0-12/0 10/0
13/0-16/0
17/0-8/0
5/8
:
:
Melly
Prussia
:
7,000,000
72-90
A. Escher.
Melly, and
Myself
A. Escher
Melly, and
Myself
Switzerland
19,000,000
78-84
5/0
2/6—3/0 | 8/0-10/0 2/6
응​:
6/0
4/5
ΙΟ
Austria
4/0
Tyrol
12,000,000
72-803/6-4/62/0-2/6 9/0-10/01/10-2/0 3/9
3/9
४
∞ ∞
8
P. Ewart
Saxony
5,000,000
72
4/6—5/3|2/0—3/0
4/6—5/3 2/0—3/06/0—7/6 1/0—1/33/0—3/6|
3/6
7
St. Blaise
Melly
84
Baden
Wages are 8/6 for grown persons, and 4/3 for children
5/1
Melly
Bonn
Prussia
•
94
Men, 5/6; women, 3/0; and children, 1/6
2/6
INTRODUCTION.
xxxvii
similar goods in Great Britain. It is upon this most im-
portant class of fabrics that the tax on cotton wool, the ex-
pense of freight, and other burdens peculiar to this country,
from which America is exempt, press most severely.
1. The manufacturers of the United States have the raw
material of these heavy domestics much cheaper than those
of Great Britain. Without insisting upon the advantages
possessed by America as the grower of her own cotton for
securing the tenure of her cotton trade, and the dependence
of this country for her supply on foreign countries, which
political contingencies may compromise or destroy, we shall
merely advert here to the savings of the American manu-
facturer in freight and insurance. From New Orleans and
Mobile to England the freight of cotton wool is d. per pound,
with 5 per cent. primage, and from the Atlantic States from
to of 1d.; from New Orleans to Boston the whole charges
are no more than of a cent; hence the savings to the manu-
facturer in New England in freight and insurance are no less
than d. per pound, which upon cotton worth 7d. is equal
to 7 per cent. upon its prime cost.
2. The American manufacturer saves likewise the average
profits paid by the British to the class of middlemen between
the sellers of cotton wool in the States and the spinners in
Britain, commonly called the "cotton importers." It is
through this order of merchants, who form the principal
holders of the stocks of cotton wool in the Liverpool and
Glasgow markets, that the spinners of the United Kingdom
are supplied. A commission of 3 per cent. upon the invoice
amount of the purchase is in this way paid. Besides the
charge thus entering into the importer's own cost upon the
cotton he is entitled to obtain a certain profit. Supposing
him to carry on his business at the moderate profit of 5 per
cent., this, along with the charges upon his commercial
establishments abroad and at home, must be paid by the
British spinner, forming permanently an extra ingredient of
the cost of his material from which the American spinner is
free.
3. The duty of five-sixteenths of a penny per pound, upon
all cotton wool imported into the United Kingdom from
foreign states, operates as a premium to the manufacturers
of all other countries not similarly taxed; the difference,
xxxviii
INTRODUCTION.
equivalent to about 4 per cent. upon cotton wool at 7d. per
pound, operates against the British spinner in his competition
not only with the American, but with the spinners of all
other countries who receive either cotton wool duty free, or
get a drawback on exportation equivalent to the duty paid;
even when our spinners purchase their cotton wool through
an agent in the States, and thereby save the importer's profit,
the amount of charges in freight, duty, insurance, &c., varies
from 11 to 14 per cent. more than is paid by the American
manufacturer. If we add to this charge 5 per cent. for the
importer's profit, paid in common cases, the sum may be
estimated at fully 16 per cent.
In fine and ornamental fabrics, which contain little weight
of cotton wool, and whose value is made up chiefly of the
wages of labour, an extra cost of material, even to the above
extent, would be comparatively of little consequence, but it is
a most serious impost on the domestic cloths, in which
American competition principally lies. Mr. William Graham,
jun., of Glasgow, stated in his evidence to the Committee of
the House of Commons on Manufactures,
“that taking a
piece of our staple articles in domestics, that cost us twenty
shillings, I reckon that we use about twenty pounds of raw
cotton; therefore that would be about twenty-two pence upon
what would cost us twenty shillings."
4. The flour used in the processes of weaving and bleach-
ing forms an item in the cost of cotton goods of much more
consequence than even at first sight might be supposed; the
quantity of flour used upon each piece of cloth is proportioned
to the weight of cotton which it contains, so that the extra
British cost arising from this source is greatest in those
heavy fabrics in which foreign competition is most formidable,
and in which the tax on cotton wool, and other causes of its
enhancement, are most severely felt. Mr. Graham says that
he has paid in duty on flour from £500 to £700 annually, on
an average of several years.
5. The abundance of water-power, and its cheapness as
compared to that of steam, are advantages of some conse-
quence, especially in heavy fabrics. It is also one of which
the most formidable rivals of the British manufacturers in
these goods have availed themselves. The coarse yarns of
Switzerland and Germany, which have superseded the yarns
INTRODUCTION.
xxxix
formerly sent to them from Great Britain, as also the heavy
fabrics of the United States, which oppose those of Great
Britain in many third markets, are all manufactured by water-
power. See Mr. Kempton's statement above.
6. While combinations among the operatives of the cotton
manufactures of America and the continent of Europe are
unknown or ineffective, they have long existed among those
of this country in a form completely organized and powerful,
with the effect not only of raising the prices of labour, but
also of imposing a variety of restrictions upon our manu-
facturers in the management of their factories, much to their
inconvenience, and proportionally to the benefit of their
foreign rivals.
7. The money prices of provisions have been much higher
in Great Britain than in the manufacturing countries of the
continent of Europe and America. Without referring here
to the influence of this circumstance upon the price of labour,
and supposing, for the present, the wages paid by the British
manufacturer and his foreign rivals to be the same, still this
state of things would not prove that the foreign manufacturers
could derive no future advantage from the low-priced pro-
visions of their workmen. In the event of that more serious
struggle, which in the natural progress of competition is
likely to take place, the cheapness of the means of subsistence,
by conferring a higher condition upon the foreign workmen,
leaves more room for a reduction of wages. Mr. Kirkman
Finlay, a great authority in these matters, says, “I think the
difference would be this, that, if the amount of wages paid in
Great Britain were absolutely necessary for the comfortable
subsistence of the workmen, it would be quite clear that,
whatever pressure there might be, those wages could not be
permanently reduced; but, if the money wages paid in America
are sufficient to get a great deal more than the absolute necessaries
and comforts of life, then, if there is a pressure upon its manu-
facturers, they can so reduce the wages as to meet that difficulty,
and by that means undersell the manufacturers here.”*
8. The heavy taxation, local as well as general, borne by
all producers of commodities in Great Britain, must operate
in favour of their rivals. High-priced provisions and labour
'Report on Commerce, Manufactures, and Shipping.'
x1
INTRODUCTION.
are not the only media through which taxation increases the
burdens of the British manufacturer. This cause operates
still more directly by imposts upon almost every department
of his business,-taxes on his postages, on his clerks, on his
bills, promissory notes, and policies of insurance, on his
advertisements, on the money which he borrows and pays,
and on the transference of the landed property which he
buys or sells. The duties on fire and sea insurances levied
yearly on the cotton manufacturers of Great Britain have
been estimated as follow:
1. Annual duty of 38. per £roo, paid for fire insurances
on £20,000,000 sterling, invested in mills, ware-
houses, &c.
•
2. Duty for sea-insurances of 2s. 6d. under, and 58.
above 308. premium per £100 (being an average
of 38. 9d.) of duty on £20,000,000 (the exports of
cotton in 1835) ·
Total insurance taxes.
£
30,000
37,500
£67,500
9. Since combinations among workmen, high priced pro-
visions, and heavy taxation, keep up the price of labour, and
the absence of these three evils have just the opposite effect,
the cost of spinning and weaving must be perpetually
enhanced in Great Britain, compared to its amount in foreign
countries. The Table of Mr. Greg, page xxviii, shows the
advantage of the Swiss over the British spinner in 40's yarns
to be in the preparation processes upwards of 7 per cent., in
the spinning process upwards of 50 per cent., in reeling and
bundling upwards of 47 per cent., and in contingent expenses
nearly 3 per cent., upon the cost of these different items as
compared in the two countries; whilst Manchester has only
243 per cent. of advantage in interest of capital &c. upon a
similar comparison; the difference in the cost of the yarn
being 16 per cent. in favour of Switzerland.
The heavy cloths, in which the competition of America
has been principally felt, are woven with coarse yarns from
Nos. 10 to 20. It appears from the schedule of the prices of
spinning in the factories of the United States, compared with
the prices paid for the same work in Glasgow annexed to Mr.
Kirkman Finlay's letter to Lord Ashley in 1833, that the
prices of spinning these numbers of yarn were, for a given
INTRODUCTION.
xli
quantity, 4s. in the United States, and 48. 11d. in Glasgow,
being 22 per cent. in favour of America. The prices of
carding the same numbers were in the United States, 6s. 73d.
per week, and in Glasgow 78. 1d. per week, being 7 per
cent. in favour of America.
In the operation of dressing the warp of heavy goods, the
American has an advantage of 50 per cent. in price, and in
weaving of 25 per cent.; being, upon the two taken together,
an advantage of 36 per cent. The total charges of dressing
and weaving, are—
In England, per piece
In America
""
Is. 2ld.
103d.
Or, 36 per cent. of the charges per piece in favour of the
United States.
10. While the wages paid by the foreign manufacturer are
less, the labour performed in return for them is longer con-
tinued. By the Factory Regulation Act, the British manu-
facturer is subjected to a variety of restrictions with respect
to the number of hours during which he is entitled to work
his factory, and the description of persons whom he may law-
fully employ, while in all these points the manufacturers of
America and of the continent of Europe are perfectly unre-
strained. Of this freedom they do not fail to avail themselves.
The per centage of additional time thus gained by the manu-
facturers of these countries, in comparison with those of
England, is, on the average, in America and France, 13 per
cent.; in the Tyrol, 10 per cent.; in Prussia and Switzerland,
17 per cent.: the mean of the whole being no less than 14
per cent. gained on time. A piece of domestics containing
15 lbs. of yarn, and costing 228., when spun and woven in a
factory working 12 hours per day, would cost only £1 18. 7åd.
in a factory working 13 hours; being a saving of 41d. per
piece, constituting 7 per cent. on the fixed charges of spin-
ning, and 6 per cent. on the charges of weaving.
I
The superior skill and dexterity of British operatives have
been assumed as constituting one of our chief advantages.
Their experience must no doubt be more extended, in pro-
portion as the range and variety of British fabrics are greater
than those of any other country; but, in such goods as the
foreigners carry into neutral markets, the superiority of the
British operatives is a point by no means decided. Manu-
VOL. I.
D
xiii
INTRODUCTION.
facturers of the United States, and of some parts of the Con-
tinent, claim for those employed by them at least an equality
within the sphere of their own production, and to which their
competition with the fabrics of Great Britain is necessarily
limited. The late remarkable ingenuity of the American
artisans, in their mechanical improvements, gives no counte-
nance to the notion of their inferiority.
The impolicy of the import tax on cotton wool is so glaring
as hardly to require illustration. A tax on the raw materials
of such manufactures as are principally consumed within the
United Kingdom, would be comparatively harmless; but since
two-thirds at least of British cotton goods are exported, a tax
upon their raw material operates as a bounty upon the cot-
ton manufactures of other nations. Where duties have been
imposed on importation, as in the case of sugars, wines, spirits,
&c., a corresponding drawback on their exportation has been
always allowed: yet cotton, as if undeserving of fiscal justice,
has been ever since the year 1798 persecuted with a series of
imposts, in twelve successive rates, all tending to turn the
balance in favour of our foreign rivals in that trade. No
government except our own, possessing any pretensions to
the title of enlightened, lays a tax upon the import of cotton
wool, which is not countervailed by an equivalent drawback
on exportation. The peculiar pressure of the competition in
America is upon those coarse yarns, and heavy cloths, for the
production of which it possesses the advantages of an indi-
genous raw material, unencumbered with taxation, and pro-
cured at the minimum cost of carriage. The spinning also of
the continent of Europe has been hitherto directed principally
to the coarse numbers of yarn which are worked up into heavy
fabrics, and with the effect of depriving this country of almost
all the European customers whom she not long ago supplied.
The very existence of this country depends on retaining
an ascendancy in the cotton manufacture, as the principal
means of enabling her to sustain the enormous burden of
taxation accumulated by the war-funding system. Were
Great Britain as free from taxes as the states of America or
the continent of Europe, she might surrender to them a share
of her cotton trade without suffering any national misfortune,
but she has nothing to spare, without involving her people in
distress, and her public credit in jeopardy.
INTRODUCTION.
xliii
In 1833, the total consumption in Great Bri-
tain of foreign and colonial cotton wool was
Off, 11 per cent. for colonial
•
lbs.
293,682,976
32,305,126
261,377,850
Duty on above, at of a penny
Duty on colonial, at 4d. per cwt..
•
Duty on total consumption
£
S. d.
о
340,335 15
4,807 6
•
345,143
I O
The average loss by waste upon cotton wool in spinning
being about 123 per cent., the manufacturer drawing back
duty would be a loser to that extent, unless a correspondent
allowance were made upon the exported weight.
The following facts place in a strong point of view the en-
croachments of the American cotton manufacture upon the
British in foreign neutral markets.*
The Chinese Commercial Guide, which is a collection of
details respecting foreign trade in China, published by John
Robert Morrison, at Canton, states that, during the year 1834,
the importation from America of cotton long cloths amounted
to 134,100 pieces, and of cotton domestics to 32,743 ; while of
cotton goods the whole importation in British vessels con-
sisted of 75,922 pieces. It further appears, from Bell's
'Comparative View of the Commerce of Bengal during 1833-4
and 1834-5,' that during the latter year the imports of Ame-
rican piece goods were nearly the double of the imports of
the preceding year-viz., 24,745 pieces for 1834-5, from
12,800, in 1833-4.
Mr. William Gemmell, of Glasgow, who was for several
years in the habit of supplying Chili with cotton domestics,
has latterly been obliged to abandon the trade, after an un-
successful competition with the manufacturers of the United
States, although he combines in his own works the operations
both of spinning and weaving, so as to ship his goods at the
lowest possible cost in this country, and although he has the
advantage of selling them by his partners abroad.†
* See an able pamphlet on 'The Impolicy of the Tax on Cotton
Wool,' by Alexander Graham, Esq., published by the Associated
Cotton Spinners at Glasgow, in 1836.
† See his affidavit in Graham's Impolicy of the Tax on Cotton Wool.'
xliv
INTRODUCTION.
Mr. George Wilson, of Rio de Janeiro, writes, "We fear
that we shall be under the necessity of re-shipping to Rio all
the domestics that we brought down with us, as the market
of Port Allegré is completely overdrawn by the Americans in
this article.*
Of the Manilla market, Mr. W. P. Paton reports 35,240
pieces of 36 inches wide, and 7,000 pieces of 28 inches wide
gray of American manufacture; while of British manufacture,
for the same period, there were only 1,832 pieces.
Mr. Gibson, Aux Cayes, writes in 1834, "that in unbleached
domestics, a class of goods of great importance, the Ameri-
cans were cutting out the British."
Mr. John Heugh, of Malta, states, "that the Americans had
in a great measure driven the British article (cotton domes-
tics) from the market."
Mr. Atkinson, of Smyrna, writes, "Domestics are a very
current article of consumption, but almost 20,000 pieces have
lately arrived principally from America."
A mercantile house at the Cape of Good Hope, about twelve
months ago, sent patterns of American domestics, as sold at
certain quoted prices, to their correspondent at Glasgow,
requesting that supplies might be forwarded from this
country, provided they could be afforded at the same rates as
the American goods. As it was found on inquiry that
British domestics could not be shipped at these prices with-
out a loss, the firm could not procure the supplies of goods
thus requested.†
In a statistical table, which was published in a late 'Lowell
Mercury,' that manufacturing town is said to contain nine
incorporated companies, possessing a capital of 6,530,000 dol-
lars, under whose management there are 22 mills. These mills
are mounted with 100,380 spindles and 3,554 looms. They
employ 4,775 females and 1,415 males, and manufacture
702,000 yards of cloth per week, consume 229,700 lbs. of cot-
ton wool per week, and 400,000 lbs. of sheep's wool per annum;
they burn annually 7,250 tons of anthracite coal and 4,100
cords of wood; use 37,950 gallons of oil, 10,500 of which are
olive oil. These companies manufacture 36,500,000 yards of
* See his affidavit in Graham's 'Impolicy of the Tax on Cotton Wool.
† See affidavits of the above statements in Graham's 'Impolicy,' &c.
INTRODUCTION.
xlv
cotton cloth per annum, in doing which they use 11,424,400
lbs. of cotton wool, or 32,604 bales, each pound of cotton
making 3 yards of cloth. The average wages of females
in all the mills, clear of board, is 2 dollars per week, and
that of males, boarding themselves, is 1.25 dollar per day.
This manufacturing town, now so great, was only 10 years
ago a complete wilderness-not a tree was then cut down for
the purpose of building the place.
The Prussian commercial league at present includes nearly
the whole of Germany. The states that have actually joined
in it are Saxony, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse Cassel,
Hesse Darmstadt, Nassau, Frankfort on the Maine, and two
or three other minor states. Holland and Belgium, Meck-
lenburgh, Brunswick, and Switzerland, will also be obliged
eventually, for their own protection, to give in their adhesion.
In short, Austria being excluded on the one side, and
France on the other, it seems likely that the league will
comprise, in a few years, the whole of the countries now men-
tioned, together with the Hanse Towns. The real object of
the league is the encouragement of the manufactures of Saxony
and Germany, with a view to the exclusion of England alto-
gether. If the union be not disturbed by political convul-
sions, the United Kingdom may be effectually shut out at no
remote period, unless by repealing our corn laws, and the
duties on cotton wool, we shall be enabled to cheapen labour,
and undersell the manufacturers of Germany. The mean
price of wheat of the first qualities at Hamburg, Amster-
dam, Antwerp, and Stettin was on the 18th January, 1836,
£1 8s. Id. per quarter, while it was in London, £2 4s. 6d.
per quarter; being 58 per cent. higher here than in the
four above-mentioned places. The mean price of wheat at
New York and Philadelphia for several years back may be
taken at an average of £1 18s. 6d. per quarter, being about 38
per cent. below the British average of the ten years prior to
31st December, 1832. The extra cost of flour in Britain
during these years, compared to that in the United States,
will of course be in the same proportion.
In the weaving of heavy fabrics of average breadth, made
of yarns from No. 16's to No. 24's, each power-loom requires
about 250 lbs. of flour per annum, while in the lighter yarns
from Nos. 40's to 50's, each power-loom requires 156 lbs.
xlvi
INTRODUCTION.
Now, supposing the one half (say 50,000) power-looms to be
employed in heavy, and the other half in light fabrics, and
the hand-looms estimated at only 250,000, to consume on an
average eighty-three pounds each, the whole flour used
annually by the British cotton looms will be 146,607 bags
of 280 lbs., which, at £1 158. per bag (the lowest average
price of the monthly rates of the year 1834), will amount
to the sum of £256,652. If to this we add one-third more,
on account of the flour used in making up the bleached goods,
and take the cost of the whole above that of flour on the Con-
tinent, corresponding to the comparative average prices of
wheat there, during ten years prior to 1832, at 50 per cent.,
we shall find the British manufacturer's whole extra cost
annually, in flour used in his business, above the cost of the
same quantity on the Continent, to be £171,041. Thus,
50,000 power-looms, on heavy fabrics
50,000 ditto on light ditto
250,000 hand-looms, on heavy and light do., at 83 lbs.
lbs.
•
at 250 lbs.
12,500,000
•
at 156 lbs.
7,800,000
20,750,000
41,050,000
£256,562
85,521
342,803
41,050,000 lbs. at 35s. per 280 lbs.
Add one-third for bleached goods
Fifty per cent. extra cost on that sum is £171,041.
Observations made by the Author in a Tour through the Cotton
Factories of France and Belgium, in the Autumn of 1835.
During the years 1825, 1826, and 1827, the number of
cotton factories increased with such rapidity in France, under
its pampering system of home monopoly and export bounties,
as to raise their supply of goods far beyond the demand, at
least, relatively to the prices of production. The conse-
quences were a rapid and unparalleled fall in their value.
Credit was withdrawn by the capitalists from the manu-
facturers at the moment of their utmost need; many mills
were shut up;
and the cotton trade suffered losses which it has
but lately been able to repair.
Towards the end of 1829, indeed, the equilibrium being
INTRODUCTION.
xlvii
well-nigh restored between supply and consumption, manu-
facturers began to resume their former activity; but this
gleam of prosperity was soon clouded by warlike alarms,
political disorders, and the cholera, all of which, unfortunately,
came in the train of the revolution of 1830. It was not till
the spring of 1833 that confidence and comfort became the
lot of the French cotton trade.
These crises, have not, however, been unfruitful of good.
They have compelled cotton-mill proprietors to improve their
establishments, to spin better yarn, and at a cheaper rate; in-
troducing everywhere most remarkable ameliorations into
the whole system of the cotton industry, becoming the spirit
and intelligence of a mighty people.
The yarns which have been during the last two years ex-
ported into Switzerland, from Alsace, in considerable quanti-
ties, have stood their ground against English yarns in all the
ordinary degrees of fineness. At Tarare also the fine yarns from
the Mulhausen market fetch the same prices as the English. In
this case, however, the French spinner has the duty on our
yarns as an additional profit over the English spinner. Tho
principal part of these improvements is due to the perfection
of the modern machinery constructed in the workshops of
Alsace, in consequence of which the spinning-frames go far
more rapidly, and turn off far more work, than they formerly
did. I have scen a machine in Alsace which cards, draws,
and roves cotton waste, for low numbers of yarn, with an
economy of labour and time truly marvellous, and unequalled,
I believe, in any part of Great Britain.
This was in the factory of MM. Schlumberger and Bourcart,
at Guebwiller, one of the most magnificent valleys of the
Vosges, where water and steam work with gigantic rivalry.
The bobbin-and-fly frames of 200 spindles each, constructed
and mounted in M. Schlumberger's factory arc, I believe, the
most productive machines of the kind in existence. The spin-
ning motion is communicated by leather straps, running upon
the edges of horizontal discs fixed to the spindles, in a very
ingenious manner, so as to give a smooth motion without the
possibility of slipping.
The castings of iron and brass, as well as the machines
made from them, seem to be as perfect at Guebwiller as in the
best workshops in Manchester. The fluted drawing-rollers
xlviii
INTRODUCTION.
A
are peculiarly beautiful, and, as well as the spindles, fetch a
higher price all over France than those imported from Eng-
land.
M. Schlumberger's mules have 396 spindles, and spin
everything from No. 20 up to No. 230 English. On count-
ing the time of a stretch of both 130's and 150's E., I found
them to be exactly 52 seconds each, the length being 56
inches E. Hardly any of the threads broke, affording the best
proof of the goodness of the preparation, the excellence of
the mule, and the skill of the spinner. One spinner with
three piecers works a pair of mules.
This establishment contains 54,coo mule-spindles, which
are employed as follows:-
27,000 for spinning from 47's to 82's E.
24,000
118 to 200 E.
3,000
35
to 47 E.
600 for waste from
5 to
6
In one of his mills there are 94 double cards, in another
190 single ones: 1,200 operatives are employed in them
both.
Messrs. Dollfus, Mieg, and Co., at Doernock, near Mul-
hausen, have 500 operatives employed in their factory,
in which they spin 30's F. warp = 35'4's E., and 40's F., weft.
= 47°2's E.
There are 150 cards, of which the one-half are finishers,
and the other breakers; 44 of them have drums 36 inches F.
in diameter; and 105 have drums 18 inches.
There are four successive drawing-frames.
The bobbin-and-fly frames have 120 spindles each. They
are constructed by MM. André Koechlin and Co.
The
spindles revolve by means of a snail working in bevel wheels,
with oblique teeth. Rovings vary from Nos. 10 to 20's F.
(=118's to 23.6's E.). From 15 to 16 kilos. (31 to 35
pounds E.) are turned off in 12 hours' work, of No. 10 F.
Most of the mules have 240 spindles; a few have 360
spindles. Each pair is worked by a man and two girls. The
stretch of 56 inches F. (60's E.) for No. 90's F. (106'2's E.) is
performed very uniformly (by the second's watch) in 54″. ´ A
stretch of 36's E. is spun in 25″ by one spinner, and one
piecer for the pair of mules.
INTRODUCTION.
xlix
There are 107 mules in the factory.
50 cards are arranged in one superb gallery, about 14 feet
in height. The card-ends do not fall into tin-cans, as in
England, but each of them is conducted down to a covered
conduit on the floor, mounted with a friction-roller opposite
to the centre of each card. The tender fleece descends
vertically from the delivery-roller, makes a rectangular turn
as it enters the square opening in the lid of the conduit,
glides along the friction-pulleys in company with the 49
other ribands, all in contact, which are sustained by a hori-
zontal travelling apron. They advance without pressure or
extension, and finally turn up at the end of the gallery to be
wound upon a large bobbin. Whenever one bobbin is filled,
the attendant turns round the swing frame in which it plays,
and thereby puts its companion empty bobbin immediately
in its place. The economy of labour by this arrangement is
not the sole advantage. The card-ends are much more
uniform in texture than those subjected to handling and
breaking in the tin-cans (pots F.). Nothing can be more
striking than to see 50 powerful carding engines, thus
pouring forth their fleecy fillets in a spontaneous, never-
ceasing stream, with only one attendant to swing round their
receiving reels alternately. The mechanism is called Couloir
à cardes, that is, card-end ducts, consisting of an endless
travelling band, running along a range of horizontal guide-
pulleys.
Before giving any further details illustrative of the very
advanced state of other cotton manufactories in France, I
shall lay before my readers an abstract of Dr. Bowring's
evidence before the Silk Committee of 1832, on this subject,
which, in flattering the pride of the English people, has
served to blind them as to the risk of foreign rivalship. Dr.
Bowring had derived his information avowedly at second
hand, and apparently from some of the visionary non-practical
cotton spinners in the neighbourhood of Paris, who plunged
into a complex mechanical art while utterly unversed in its
mysteries. The Doctor's abstract principles are sound, but
their application seems to me crroneous, from his estimating
too meanly the intellectual and physical resources of the
French nation.
"While, according to the best calculation, 7,000,000 of
1
INTRODUCTION.
spindles are employed in England to manufacture more than
240,000,000 lbs. of cotton, in France, according to the return
of the commission which reported on the cotton trade,
3,200,000 spindles are employed to manufacture 66,000,000
lbs.; so that where the protected French manufacturer
produces only 66,000,000 lbs., the unprotected English
manufacturer would, with the same number of spindles, pro-
duce nearly 110,000,000 lbs. ; or if the English manufacturer
produced at the same rate as the French, instead of
240,000,000 lbs. he would produce only 144,000,000 lbs.
In England it is estimated, according to the Parliamentary
Returns, that 700,000 persons are engaged in the different
branches of the cotton manufacture, and they produce nearly
four times the quantity which is rendered in France by
550,000 persons, according to the returns of the French
commission: that protection has thus led to the waste of
more than two-thirds of the whole amount of labour employed
on the protected articles. The French cotton manufacturers
have had the benefit of this prohibitory system ever since the
peace, and, according to the statement made by their com-
mission, it costs the country 47,000,000 fr. per annum
beyond the sum at which the same articles might be imported
from England; this is the result of eighteen years' protec-
tion, yet the testimony of the French manufacturers is that
the very existence of their business is rendered doubtful from
year to year."-Report of Silk Committee,' p. 586, 22nd
June, 1832.
"I think that in almost all the articles of taste and fashion
the French possess a superiority of between 30 and 40 per
cent.; I think the English have a greater superiority than
this in those manufactures, such as cotton, where mechanical
aptitude is brought to bear."-P. 593. "I have had evidence
enough to satisfy me, in the peculiar position in which I was
placed, that at the present moment the importation of cotton-
twist (by smuggling) is from 15,000,000 fr. to 20,000,000 fr.
I can also speak, from my own personal knowledge, of the
large clandestine importation of cotton-twist from Switzerland
into France."-P. 593.
"At this moment, of the capital invested in the production
of cotton-twist, I think I may state the great proportion is
absolutely lost, and the loss of the rest is inevitable. I have
INTRODUCTION.
li
had occasion to examine the operation of the system upon a
very wide scale, and I state, as a general result, on the details
of which I should be able to give evidence to satisfy honour-
able members, that this protective experiment has cost the
French nation since the peace £200,000,000 sterling; and
their prohibitory experiment has wholly failed in accomplish-
ing any one object for which it was intended. Wherever
there are unfavourable circumstances, such as are now con-
nected with the cotton-twist trade in France, they cannot
successfully be subdued by protection. I am satisfied that
no industry can or will succeed that is not of natural growth;
that all attempts to force industry have been fatal and ruin-
ous to the nations that have made the attempt.
"If I had expected that the general state of manufactures
in France would have been gone into, I would have brought
some information which would show that the situation of the
cotton manufacture is discouraging in the extreme; the
expressions of distress which have emanated thence are
stronger than have ever been heard even in this country. I
have now found among my papers an address to the King,
presented in the present year from Mulhausen, the seat of
one of the largest manufactures in France, the first sentence
of which is, 'Our looms are wholly abandoned, and our
labourers without food.' The whole number of looms in the
district du Nord was stated by Chaptal at 10,000: now, as
evidence of the prosperity of that district, I will mention
that in March last the cotton manufactory of Rouval-les-
Doullens, established only four years ago by a well-known
individual (who came to England and visited our most
improved establishments), at a cost of 1,400,000 fr., was sold
for 308,000 fr.; there was a sacrifice therefore of between
70 and 80 per cent. of the whole invested capital.*
Q. "If this trade was so distressed in March last, how do
you account for an article in the 'Journal du Commerce,' which
says—' that our manufactures and those of Torcoing are in a
satisfactory state, because the manufacturers of Roubaix, who
employ them, sell their woven goods easily: within the last
eight months the manufacturers of woollen yarn cannot supply
the demands which are addressed to them; their profits are
*Similar sacrifices were made two or three years ago in England
upon some considerable iron works, now in the most prosperous state.
lii
INTRODUCTION.
enormous, also the number of looms has been trebled in two
months; all labourers who wish to labour, can find labour at
125 to 150 cents per day."-A. "It is impossible for me
to account for the introduction of a particular article into a
foreign newspaper."-P. 631. "I am intimately acquainted
at this moment with the proprietor of one of the largest
factories in France for the production of cotton-twist, and he
assures me that he considers seven-eighths of capital invested
as irretrievably lost."
Q. "With what countries were we in competition when it
(our cotton trade) was rising ?"—A. "We were in competi-
tion with France."
Q. "Do you mean during the war?"-A. "Yes; there
was great production of cottons there."
Q. "Do they find their way into this country now ?".
A. "
Yes, wherever there is a peculiar beauty; and, notwith-
standing the disadvantages under which the French labour,
they bring some cotton articles of fashion into this market.
Koechlin, of Mulhausen, a large manufacturer of cottons, has,
I know, been a considerable exporter for this market."
In
Q. "Is it not the fact, that as soon as any inventions took
place in the cotton manufacture in this country, they were
carried to France, and manufactories established upon the
same principle?"-A. "Yes, but not immediately.*
France a great change has taken place in opinion; this
prohibitory system has been tried in all its bearings; its
consequences are beginning to be felt; the people are
gradually setting right their miscalculations, and the Govern-
ment is beginning to feel its way."
In opposition to this last statement everything which I saw
and heard during my recent tour in France, warrants me to
say, that the people and the Government are more than ever
enamoured of their prohibitive system.
How adverse the prevailing spirit in France is to freedom.
of trade, appears in a very striking light from the Avant-
propos prefixed to the translation of my 'Philosophy of
Manufactures,' lately published in Paris under the patronage
of the Ministre de l'Intérieur.
*There are forcign agents in Manchester who send over to the Con-
tinent, drawings and descriptions of every new machine of any import
ance.
INTRODUCTION.
liii
"If we compare the exportations of France and England
in the products of the four textile manufactures of cotton,
wool, flax, and silk, we shall obtain an exact indication of
the superiority of our neighbours, and the result cannot fail
to attract the meditations of our manufacturers towards the
work of Dr. Ure, in which they will see the causes of these
advantages, and the means of procuring them. We have not
ventured to modify the opinions of the author, notwithstand-
ing the difference which we have remarked between his
theories in political economy, and the ideas received in
France. Even the painful sentiments which we have ex-
perienced as Frenchmen, in reading certain passages of the
'Philosophy of Manufactures,' has not prevented us from
maintaining a strict neutrality. In fact, as the work was
written with the best intentions, it should be published in
France just as it appeared in England, in order that the
whole of it may be properly judged, and that the system may
be fairly unfolded before the eyes of the reader."
Among the beautiful valleys of the Vosges mountains,
which bound the plain of Alsace to the west, that of St.
Amarin is not the least remarkable. At its mouth is the
ancient but small city of Thann, famous for its cathedral
spire, of the same style and age as that of Strasbourg, as well
as for its scenes of useful industry. Higher in the expanded
bosom of the valley is the vast establishment of Wesserling,
the most picturesque, peaceful, and well ordered manufactory
which I have ever seen. It bursts upon the traveller's sight
like a vision of fairy land. The pine-topped and craggy
mountains that tower on either side, the sunny slopes covered
with clustering vines, the river here tumbling in a cascade
and there spreading into a little lake, give life and brightness
to the sloping lawns of the middle space, while the huge
ruins of ancient castles, hung upon the cliffs, in contrast with
the elegant mansions of the proprietors, embosomed in a
grove of venerable oaks below, unite to make Wesserling an
object of universal admiration. Wherever we turn our eyes,
the greatest activity reigns; the meadows, the corn-fields,
even the factories present the most agreeable variety of
pictures.
Messrs. Gros, Devillier, Roman, and Co., the rich pro-
prietors, of whom the first and the last-named reside with
liv
INTRODUCTION.
their families always on the spot, devote much of their atten-
tion to the amelioration of their work-people, to the exercise´
of a noble hospitality towards visitors, and to the cultivation,
ornamental as well as productive, of the country. The works
of Wesserling consist of cotton-mills, power and hand-weaving
of calicoes and muslins, bleaching grounds, and print works.
The calico printing was commenced so far back as the
year 1760.
The spinning mills, the loom-shops, the bleach-field, and
cylinder press-rooms, date from the year 1802.
The establishment is placed at a distance of two leagues
from all towns, and in the central point of nine villages,
containing a population of from 12,000 to 14,000 souls.
There is no other manufacture within a league of it.
Feelings of philanthropy presided at the origin of Wesser-
ling. The first founders had for one of their objects to give
comfortable employment to the natives of the valley; and
they have been rewarded by an invincible attachment on the
part of their work-people. Most of them are proprietors of
a house and a little land, which their families cultivate, and
the whole of them have rights to the use of the pasture-
common. Their chief agriculture is that of the potato and
of meadow-grounds, and they all possess cattle. They are
Roman Catholics, while their masters are Protestants of the
Genevese church; but both live in the mutual charities of
religion.
The language of the country is still German, as of old, and
the temperament of the people is a little phlegmatic, but
docile; their intelligence may be developed with a little
pains, especially that of the female sex.
The proprietors founded, 16 years ago, a savings' bank for
the operatives, which pays interest at 5 per cent.; and
they study to persuade the youths, at their outset in life, to
become depositors. Its success increases from day to day.
The work-people have besides benefit societies, managed by
themselves; but as the state of wages and employment seldom
varies, they do not suffer from the vicissitudes of trade.
A skilful medical man is attached to the establishment,
who furnishes, gratuitously, the requisite medicines and
attendance to the workers and their families.
Each of the villages round about has one or two well-
INTRODUCTION.
conducted schools; and at Wesserling itself there is an
upper school, erected by the public authorities, as the model
seminary of the canton. It is calculated to form the judg-
ment and morals of its pupils.
The partners of this great firm, ten, I believe, in number,
have a paternal regard to their dependents, and enjoy, as I
have said, their filial affection in return; so that the work-
men of Wesserling are moral and faithful to a degree rarely
equalled in any body of either manufacturing or agricultural
labourers.
"It is to be desired," says the benevolent M. Roman,
"that a law should be passed in France, like that of
England, to regulate the daily hours of labour, as well as
the ages of children employed in factories, and to provide
for their education." In the absence of such legislation,
the heads of this establishment have instituted rules which
determine a regular course of promotion in the factory, for
the encouragement of zeal, dexterity, and good behaviour.
Statistics of the Spinning Mill.
Its moving power is an overshot water-wheel made on the
ventilating plan, by Mr. Fairbairn of Manchester, possessing
a force of to horses. In summer, when the supply of water
becomes scanty, it is aided by two steam-engines, together of
52 horses' power, constructed upon Woulfe's principle, by
Aitken and Steel, with three cylinders, and working at a
pressure of 3 atmospheres. They consume only 6 lbs.
avoirdupois of coal for each horse-power per hour, which is
about one half of what is generally consumed by the Lan-
cashire and Lanarkshire steam-engines. The mill contains
24,000 mule-spindles, and has recently been placed in con-
nexion, when necessary, with a second water-wheel, built
upon the spot by an able Welsh engineer settled lower in the
valley. The quantity of yarn spun annually is 528,000 lbs.
avoirdupois, or about 17,600 bags, into Nos. from 30's to 45's
métriques (35°4's to 53'1's English). All the yarn is manu-
factured into calicoes and muslins by the company.
The mules are mounted with from 180 to 240 spindles
each, and are worked by young women from 16 years and
upwards. No girls are admitted under 13 years of age.
Ivi
INTRODUCTION.
The number of spinsters was about 260 at the period of my
visit, but they were to be increased ere now to 320, when the
new mill would be finished. Each mule is worked by a
young woman and a girl piecer. Every spindle produces
upon an average 293 lbs. avoirdupois of yarn in 300 days of
the above counts. Louisiana cotton-wool is used for warp,
and Upland Georgia for weft. The hours of labours are 144
per day; and the wages are 1 fr. 50 c., about 18. 21 d., to the
spinner (who is however paid by weight), and 90 centimes,
about 8 d., to the piecer. The workmen in the preparation
rooms earn is. 24d. a day; grown-up girls from 9d. to 10d.;
younger girls from 5d. to 6d. Mechanics, carpenters, &c.,
earn from 18. 3d. to 28. 10d. a day, according to their power
and skill.
The Weaving Department.
At Wesserling itself there are 150 power-looms, which
weave very beautiful goods, not only plain and tweeled cali-
coes, but also striped muslins for the elegant prints, which
render this establishment celebrated all over the world.
There are besides 1,650 hand-looms, distributed through 70
workshops, belonging to the firm, and dispersed among the
nine villages above noticed. One hundred looms are scattered
in private houses among the mountains; they weave alto-
gether about 70,000 pieces, 33 aunes (42 yards) long, 34
inches E. wide; but some are broader and others narrower.
The finest yarns worked up into the best muslins are pro-
cured from the manufactories of Guebwiller and Munster.
The looms and dressing machines altogether occupy about
2,000 persons, who are mostly young men and women 16
years of age and upwards. The daily wages are as follows:-
Winders, 60 to 110 centimes,
Warpers, I fr. to 1 fr. 50 c.
Ι
Dressers, 2 fr. to 2.75 c.
Hand-loom weavers, 80 c. to 120 c.
Power-loom weavers, I fr. to 175 fr.
Muslin hand-loom weavers, I fr. to 1.50 fr.
from 5d. to 1old.
9 d. to Is. 24d.
IS. 7d. to 28. 2 d.
7 d. to 11 d.
9žd. to Is. 5d.
91d. to Is. 2 d.
Total 1748 work-people employed in the weaving factory department.
The details of the bleach-works and print-works do not
INTRODUCTION.
lvii
belong to the present volumes. I shall content myself with
stating the total number of operatives :—
In spinning
Weaving
Bleaching
320
1,748 besides those who work in their own houses.
38
Calico printing 1,070
Total operatives 3,176
I can assure my readers that entire confidence may be
reposed in the preceding statistics, most liberally communi-
cated to me by M. Roman himself. The mechanical power
employed at Wesserling is as follows:-
One hydraulic wheel for spinning
One
One
One
60 horses' power.
for power-weaving, &c. 34
for washing, pumping, &c. 20
for the Calender, &c. IO
One turbine (new horizontal water-wheel) for
calico-printing machine
One hydraulic wheel, turning shop
One
One
""
·
at St. Amarin, power weaving
bleaching
Two steam-engines, for spinning
One
One
One
7
2
30
15
40
40
and dressing warp
madder dyeing 12
power weaving 30
Total horses' power 300
""
I
The power-looms worked very steadily at the rate of 96 to
100 pecks a minute; and as they go 14 hours a day instead of
113, as in England, they will turn off more than an English
power-loom, making 120 pecks a minute. For 11: 14:
100: 126. Thus the English loom would need to make
125 pecks a minute to do the daily work of a loom at Wes-
serling. One young woman tends two looms, as in our
factories.
In the several power-weaving establishments which I
visited in France and Belgium, I always found that potato-
starch was greatly preferred to the best flour for making the
VOL. I.
E
lviii
INTRODUCTION.
dressing-paste. The following recipe was obligingly given
me by M. Philip Gros at Wesserling.
In 275 lbs., or 274 gallons of water, heated to 154° Fah-
renheit, in a copper, dissolve one pound nine ounces of blue
vitriol (sulphate of copper), mix thoroughly 33 lbs. of potato-
starch with 5 gallons of water at 90° Fahr. in a pail, and
pour this mixture into the copper boiler (not iron), and let the
whole boil for half an hour, stirring all the time with a wooden
ruler. The sulphate of copper prevents moulding and fer-
mentation. It should be employed fresh, and made from day
to day. The semiputrid paste used in some of the Scotch
and English loom-sheds is an abomination. The most skilful
manufacturers on the Continent have carefully proved the
decided superiority of potato-starch over flour-paste for their
power-looms. They consider it cheaper and better. A
pound of it may be made in Lancashire for twopence, and
it will go much further than a pound of flour.
In the year 1834 there were 540,000 mule-spindles at work
in the department of the Haut-Rhin (Alsace), which con-
sumed annually about 15,600,000 lbs. E. of cotton-wool;
being nearly 52,000 bales of cotton, chiefly American and
Egyptian; and produced 13,200,000 lbs. of yarn of many
.different numbers.
•
•
The raw material may be valued at 18,000,000 fr.
The yarns at.
35,000,000
Difference
17,000,000
Of the cost of manufacture, one half may be reckoned
wages of labour, and the other half general factory expenses.
The number of operatives of both sexes employed in the
mills of that department is about 18,000, old and young.
M. Nicolas Koechlin, one of the Députés of the Haut-
Rhin, a cotton manufacturer, and President of the Chamber
of Commerce of Mulhausen, in his examination before the
Enquête Commerciale of the French ministry in 1834, as
well as in his Replique to certain observations made upon
that evidence, published in 1835, gives the following state-
ment of the cotton trade of the world :--
INTRODUCTION.
lix
"The manufacture of cotton-wool amounts in,-
Great Britain, to
France
Kilogrammes.*
150,000,000
United States
China, being one half the crop of India.
Switzerland, Saxony, Prussia, and Belgium
40,000,000
18,000,000
15,000,000
17,000,000
Total 240,000,000
"The consumption of cotton in France is nearly one-
fourth of that of the United Kingdom, and as we spin in
France, for reasons to be afterwards specified, a little more
per spindle than they do in England, we must have about
3,500,000 spindles, producing annually 34,000,000 kilo-
grammes of yarns of every sort; 105,000,000 fr. (£4,200,000
sterling, nearly) may represent the reduced actual value of
the machines and the factories, calculated at the rate of 30
francs per spindle. Formerly well-mounted mills, like those
of Alsace, cost from 50 to 55 francs per spindle, whilst
at present they may be erected, with the most improved
machinery, at the average price of from 40 to 43 francs per
mule spindle.
"In regard to the quality of our yarns, I think that for
the numbers which constitute nine-tenths of the consumption,
we have nothing to envy in the English. Alsace exported,
during the late commercial crisis, a considerable quantity of
yarns to Switzerland, and it was able to stand well in the
market against those from England. Several of our leading
mill-owners paid a visit to the English factories in the course of
last summer (1833), and they have assured me that they saw
nothing particularly interesting, and that, except in the higher
numbers, Alsace was not a whit behind hand. It is, besides,
of little consequence to France to spin the finest numbers, as
there are but a few establishments for the purpose in England,
and they produce enough for the wants of the whole world.
Most of these fine spinning-mills have existed for many
years; their sunk capital is long since realized, and hence
they could easily destroy the competition of any new factory.
* One thousand kilogrammes is very nearly one ton English; and
50 kilogrammes, therefore, very nearly 112 lbs.
lx
INTRODUCTION.
"Our 3,500,000 spindles produce annually, as I have
said, 34,000,000 kilogrammes of yarn, worth upon
170,000,000 fr.
an average.
And consume 37,000,000 kilogrammes of
cotton-wool, worth
"Leaving for the cost of labour, fuel, re-
88,000,000
82,000,000
pairs, interest of money and profits
"The number of workpeople employed in our cotton-mills
may be estimated at from 80,000 to 90,000. Their average
daily wages are 1 fr. 30 c. (1s. 24d.) per individual.
"In comparing our cotton industry with the English, I may
observe that during the war, and for want of intercourse with
our neighbours, the construction of our machines was infi-
nitely inferior to theirs. I was personally struck with this
difference when I made a tour in England in 1810, by means of
a foreign passport; I was the better qualified to judge, as our
own firm then undertook to fit up factories for spinning, and
furnished in fact the first machinery to M. Nicolas Schlum-
berger. But at the present day, in his establishment, as in
the others of Alsace, traces of the old machines are hardly to be
found. Many proprietors have renewed them three several
times. MM. Schlumberger and Co. have erected their mill
for spinning the fine numbers in a style of perfection which
has many a time astonished even the English spinners.
"In England, in consequence of the competition among
the numerous machine-makers, and the low price of the iron
and coal, the machines are much cheaper than in France. A.
mule costs in Alsace ten francs per spindle,—in England it
may be had for six; but luckily for us the greater expense of
building among our neighbours makes a compensation of about
25 per cent. in our favour on the edifice itself. Upon the
whole, the cost of erection may be reckoned one-third less
in England than in France, a disadvantage which our govern-
ment should study to compensate by a reduction of duty on
the importation of machines, by improving the means of in-
ternal intercourse, and especially by facilitating the transport
of coals. Most of the mills in Alsace are moved by water-
power; those which depend upon steam-power place from
four to five per cent. of the price of their yarns to that ac-
count. At Manchester the fuel forms not more than one per
cent, of the cost of spinning.
INTRODUCTION.
lxi
"Yet the English do not economize their fuel as we do.
They employ five kilogrammes of coal (11 lbs.) per kilo-
gramme of yarn, of Nos. 30 to 40, whilst we consume not
more than four kilogrammes for the same weight of yarn.
"From a calculation, taken from one of the most con-
siderable cotton-mills in Manchester, it appears that a
spinner conducting two mules containing together 620
spindles, produces no more than 125 kilogrammes of yarn
in the week (280 lbs. English) Nos. 36 to 38 English, or one
kilogramme for five spindles per week. Our spinners in
Alsace are at least equally productive. It must be remarked,
indeed, that the hours of labour in the English mills are
limited by law to 11 hours per diem, whilst they extend
pretty generally in Alsace to from 13 to 14 hours, without
reckoning the meal-times.
ΙΙ
"The following are the mean weekly wages at Mulhausen,
Manchester, and Zurich; there are mills, however, in the
valleys of the Vosges where the wages are one-third lower
than at Mulhausen :—
"Nicolas Koechlin and brothers pay-the spinner, 14 fr.;
the piecer, 5 fr. ; the card-tenter, 6 fr.; the labourer, 9 fr.
"Mr. H. at Manchester, pays-his spinners, 38 fr. each on
an average; the piecers, 10 fr.; the card-tenters, 12 fr.; the
labourers, 20 fr.
'Mr. E. at Zurich, pays-the spinners, 12 fr.; the piecers,
3 fr.; the card-tenters, 5 fr. ; the labourers, 8 fr.
"These three establishments spin chiefly from Nos. 30 to
35"/m (35'4's to 41.2's English).
"At Mulhausen the expense of spinning one half a kilo-
gramme of the said yarns is as follows:-wages, 31 centimes;
power, heating, and lighting, 11 c.; interest of sunk capital
and sinking fund (from 10 to 15 per cent.), 17 c.; gencral
expenses, repairs, &c., 13 c. Total 72 c.
"At Manchester-wages, 52 c.; power, &c., 3 c.; interest,
&c., 11 c.; general expenses, &c., 10 c.
Total 76 c.
"At Zurich--wages, 10 C.; water-power, o; interest, &c.,
15 c; general expenses, &c., 15 c. Total 60 c.
"The following is a statement of the cost of spinning
half a kilogramme of weft from Nos. 42 to 47.2 English :-
"Wages 17 c.; interest, &c., 11 c.; general expenses, &c.,
19 c. Total 47 c.
Ixii
INTRODUCTION.
"One of the principal spinners of Alsace gave me the
following statement for last year:—
"A mule of 396 spindles produced daily 18 kilogrammes
of No. 30/m warp (No. 35'4's English), which at the then
current price of 5 fr. 20 c. per kilogramme, amounted in value.
fr. 60 c.
to 93
"In spinning these 18 kilogrammes, 20 kilogrammes of
Louisiana cotton wool were consumed at the price of 2 fr.
Coc. per kilogramme
"Cost of spinning per mule (every thing
included).
52 fr.
20 fr.
Total
72 fr.
•
21 fr. 60 c.
Hence the daily profit on this mule of
396 spindles was
"this spinner reckoned no more than 56 c. for the cost of
spinning his half-kilogramme of yarn.
"It results from these calculations," says M. N. Koechlin,
"that Switzerland has a slight advantage over us, especially
wherever our mills are driven by steam-power; that France,
everything being taken into account, has an advantage over
England; an advantage which will increase in proportion. as
the duties on the raw materials and on the iron shall be
reduced, and that the privileges of the ports which give the
English at present an advantage in the purchase of cotton
wool, shall be suffered to pass away with the prohibitive
system. Our house at Locrrack in the grand duchy of Baden,
received a few weeks since some yarns from England, which
came to very nearly the same price as the Swiss.
"The import duty on the cotton wool in France increases:
the cost of the yarns from Nos. 30 to 40/m (35'4's to 47°2's
English) by about 5 per cent., and that of the coarser yarns
by about 10 per cent. The actual duty on the cotton wool
of the United States is 20 fr. per 100 kilogrammes, or about
8s. 2d. per 110 lbs. English; nearly 9d. upon 10 pounds,
that is, nine-tenths of a penny per pound,-but there is a
fully equivalent drawback on the exportation of the manufac-
tured cottons.
In regard to the weaving department, if we assume
for a basis the manufactures of Alsace, it would follow:
INTRODUCTION.
lxiii
that the 34,000,000 kilogrammes of French yarns, would.
require, to convert them into cloth, 270,000 looms, employ-
ing 325,000 operatives, at the average daily wages for each
of 75 centimes (7d. English). The following is a statement
which I received the other day from Switzerland, where
weaving has always kept its ground against English competi-
tion. This statement is calculated for a cut of 50 aunes,
which is afterwards divided into two picces, three-quarters
wide, and 75 portees (porters) :-
Cotton yarn, at the market price.
Cost of weaving
Repairs and interest
Warping and dressing
•
29 fr. 55 c.
7 20
60
O
75
39 18
"The aune (ell) therefore costs in Switzerland 78 centimes
of a quality equal to what is now sold in Alsace at 90 c.;
including the extraordinary profit at present on yarns. Thus
between the cost price in Switzerland, and the sale price in
Alsace, just now when business is very brisk, there is a
difference of only 15 per cent. It appears that the cost of
manufacturing calicoes in Alsace is 22 c. the ell, in Man-
chester (power-loom cloth) 24 c., and in Switzerland 19 c.
"The bulk of the Alsace fabrics is a calico intended for
printing, which is exported to the Swiss printers only in
certain cases; viz., when the yarns are cheaper in Alsace than
in Switzerland, from an occasional glut in our markets. The
qualities for printing which suit the consumption of France,
suit neither the English nor the foreign markets in general;
so that the French surplus can find no other good vent.
This circumstance, however, will, on the other hand, pre-
vent the surplus stocks of England, manufactured for different
markets than those of France, from inundating our country."
The subject of printed calicocs, extensively considered by
M. Koechlin, does not fall within the scope of the present
publication.
Great misapprehensions prevail concerning the physical
and moral condition of the factory operatives abroad, espe-
cially in the fertile region of Alsace. They have been.
lxiv
INTRODUCTION.
represented as being mostly Protestants, and in very comfort-
able circumstances.* There can be no greater mistake.
Indeed the most remarkable proof which can be adduced how
greatly Protestantism is propitious to enlightened industry,
is the fact, that among the great multitude of factory pro-
prietors in Alsace there is but one Catholic, though the
country is covered with popish shrines, and the working
classes are devotees of the Romish communion.
The Société Industrielle of Mulhausen, distinguished for
the science and patriotism of its members, when recently
called upon by the Minister of Instruction, to give him an
account of the state of the operatives of that district, wrote as
follows:- They are allowed a quarter of an hour for break-
fast, and an hour for dinner : working for the most part from
five in the morning till eight at night. Each family sleeps
generally together in one room, which is a cellar or a garret
of the smallest possible dimensions. Their furniture is
wretched, often only 'un grabat pitoyable pour toute la fa-
mille.' They are very ill-clothed, often need the aid of the
Société de bienfaisance; and are very dirty, especially those
in the spinning mills. 'Dans les ateliers on entend souvent
les propos les plus scandaleux, que les enfants saisissent
avec avidité, et repètent avec une satisfaction révoltante.
Beaucoup des ouvriers vivent en concubinage. Ils appellent
ces sortes d'unions mariages à la Parisienne, et en ont fait un
verbe allemand, parisiren.'
"If Sunday be a day of rest and tranquil pleasure to
those who work in a moderate manner through the week,
it is, on the contrary, a day of debauchery and orgies to
those who, having been kept at labour beyond all reason-
able bounds, take that occasion to riot in their liberty.
Hence it is not uncommon here to see drunkards of from 12 to
15 years of age. Their degree of instruction is very slender.
All their physical, and in consequence all their intellectual
faculties are exhausted with toil. This grievous evil can be
removed only by a law like that enforced in England during
the last two years. Certain enlightened proprietors have
*The French (in Alsace) "appeared a very comfortable set of
people." See Edwin Rose's Evidence before the Factory Commission,
First Report,' D. 1, 121, and Mr. Cowell's comments upon it in the Sup-
plementary Report,' p. 119.
INTRODUCTION.
lxv
established at their own expense schools within their mills,
at Mulhausen, and especially M. Nægely.
“The cruel conduct of parents in sending their children
at an almost infantine age to the factory, seldom fails to
entail fearful retribution; for whenever the children begin to
discover the mercenary bargain of which they have been
made the victims, they take the first opportunity of renounc-
ing the filial engagement, and of abandoning their parents.
And this alienation (désaffection) in the family, aggravated
often by the brutality and ignorance of its head, is one of the
main causes of the misery which prevails among multitudes
of the workpeople.
"The operative spinners of Mulhausen are generally pale,
and subject to chronic catarrhs which degenerate often into
phthisis. The piecers and card-tenters sometimes lose the
first joints of their fingers. The weavers are often seized
with chronic rheumatism."
It is to be hoped that the French Ministry and Legislature
will no longer lend a deaf ear to these powerful appeals of
their most enlightened manufacturers in favour of humanity;
nor allow the world to suppose, that like their late master
Napoleon, they are willing to sacrifice the well-being of
their people to international pride and rivalry,-a patriotism
meanly spurious.
Cour de Lorraine, in Mulhausen-Factory of Jean Koechlin
and Co.
No. 32's Fr. = 38's English; warp, a stretch of five feet
English in 28". 300 spindles in each mule, two pairs being
worked by one spinner, one piecer, and one creeler or
scavenger: three halfpence are paid for spinning one pound
of cotton into such yarn, 20 lbs. of yarn are turned off daily
by each mule. But of No. 28's Fr. =33's E. from 22 to 23
lbs. are turned off in the day.
Each floor is 120 feet long, 40 wide, and 11 high, and
contains 12 mules. There are three floors in that mill.
40 cards, 22 fine and 18 coarse.
3 bobbin-and-fly frames, containing 88 spindles each.
5 do.
3 do.
3 drawing frames of 8 heads each.
50 do.
42 do.
lxvi
INTRODUCTION.
Time of work from five in the morning till eight at night;
out of which 15 hours, 1 hour is allowed for meals, leaving
for employment 13.
The workman who superintends the batting and spreading-
machine is paid 50 sous a day. Piecers earn from 10 to 12
francs in 15 days, or from four to five shillings a week.
Creelers, or scavengers, from 5 to 6 francs in 15 days.
Card-tenters, 20 sous a day.
Bobbin-and-fly tenters, 30 sous a day.
Manager of the factory, 100 Louis per annum.
The factory of M. Nægely at Mulhausen is a modern
structure in comparison with that in the Cour de Lorraine.
It forms a great quadrangle of masonry, with a spacious
court in the middle. There are 80,000 spindles mounted in
mules, bearing from 300 to 396 each, one half of them being
of the latter number. I counted three stretches in 76", each
56 inches long, of warps, No. 35's English counts. His new
mules were to go still quicker, though this is very good
work. Breakages very few. There is, in fact, no handsomer
or better going factory for these numbers of yarn than M.
Nægely's at Mulhausen. A pair of mules of 396 spindles
is worked by one spinner, two piecers, and one crecler or
scavenger. The spinner receives two francs upon an
average for 13 hours' work; the piecer one franc, and the
crecler (bobineur) eight sous, (something less than eight
halfpence). Only 800 operatives were employed at that
time in the mill; but a great many more would be engaged,
when the new part, just built, was filled with machinery.
Thirty hundredweight of cotton yarn was then spun daily
with his existing 37,000 spindles; and seven hundred-
weight of cotton-wool was put through each breaker finisher-
card in a day of 134 hours.
The cost of bringing the cotton-wool from Havre over-land
to Mulhausen, and all the district round, is 5 sous per lb.,
which includes also the duty on importation.
Of the order maintained in the cotton manufactories of
Mulhausen, the following Public Regulations of M. Charles
Nægely s mill afford evidence:
Article 1. Every operative who enters the establishment
may quit it within 15 days, and his master las in that time
the power of dismissal; after which he and the operative
INTRODUCTION.
lxvii
must each on his part give a month's notice. This notice of
discharge or quitting must be given in the counting-house on
the pay-Saturday, before the time of receiving pay; it will be
inscribed in a register with the date; those operatives, however,
who are dismissed by the master for ill behaviour or mis-
management lose that benefit, and may be discharged upon
the instant.
2. The hours of employment will be stated in a printed
bill. If any derangement of the steam-engine, or the prepa-
ration machines, or any other circumstance, should call for
night-work, each operative is bound to give it; provided it
do not exceed one night in the week without his consent.
3. The ringing of the bell will announce the entrance of
the workpeople, a quarter of an hour after it ceases, the jani-
tor will shut the gate and make a report to the counting-house
of those who are too late. The sick are required to give
previous intimation, in order to avoid a fine. The bell-
ringing will in like manner announce when the operatives
are to quit the mill.
4. Every operative who comes too late, or who stays at
home without leave, will be fined in double the value of his
absent time; the minimum of this fine will be one-third of a
day's wages.
5. There is no suspension of employment but on the Sun-
days and legitimate festivals; absence on every other occa-
sion will be considered as misconduct, and punished according
to the preceding article; an appeal being always open, how-
ever, to the Concile des Prud'hommes.
6. No operative can quit the mill during the working hours,
unless he shows the janitor a permission to do so; and if
the janitor neglects his duty in this respect, he will pay a
fine of 50 centimes, and the operative will be punished for
misconduct.
7. If an operative is inquired for, the janitor will call him,
and make the visitor wait at the door. It is strictly pro-
hibited to admit, without permission, any one not employed
in the mill; and operatives who shall introduce any per-
son, under any pretext whatever, will incur a fine of fifteen
days' work.
8. The overlooker or the workman charged with repairs,
each in his own department, is alone empowered to remedy
Ixviii
INTRODUCTION.
what is wrong; they will be called upon for this purpose by
the operative; but he himself must not pretend to make the
slighest repair, under the penalty of a fine of two days' work,
and the damages which may proceed from his interference.
9. All the operatives, without exception, employed in the
workshops of the mill are personally responsible for the
preservation of the tools and other objects intrusted to them;
such of these objects as cannot be found when wanted will be
replaced at their expense.
10. No operative is to remain in the mill during meal-time ;
he must enter only into the apartment assigned him, and if
by any accident the moving power is stopped, the operatives.
are strictly forbidden to run into the other rooms; they must,
on the contrary, remain close by their machines. Every dis-
obedience of this order will be punished with a fine of half a
day's work.
11. A bell will be rung daily, at an appointed hour, to
warn the operatives to clean their spinning machines, which
they must attend to under a penalty of 25 centimes; and
after every general cleaning, which will take place once a
week, an inspection will be made, and those operatives who
have ill cleaned their machines, will be fined in one day's
work, or more according to circumstances.
12. Every operative who gives in bad work will be fined
in proportion to its defects; as also every one who returns
his waste stuff ill sorted. The breakages committed in the
workshops will be paid for by all the workmen of that shop,
unless they point out the individual in fault. This order
comprehends also the passages, staircases, and dining-room.
13. The rate of wages, and the remuneration paid to
operatives working by the piece, as well as the minimum of
the amount of work to be done, are to be settled according to
circumstances, and will be intimated in bills. Each opera-
tive is held bound to conform to them, as well as to the regu-
lations hung up in each room.
14. It is strictly forbidden to smoke within the precincts
of the factory, under a penalty of a day's work.
15. The operatives who come to work in a state of drunken-
ness, or who disturb the peace, will pay a fine equal in value
to two days' work, besides the correctional punishment autho-
rized by the laws.
INTRODUCTION.
lxxx
16. It is forbidden to make or deposit any nuisance in the
court-yard. The lieux d'aisance must be kept clean; and
whoever defiles them will pay 50 centimes to the porter in
charge of them.
17. The janitor is ordered to inspect every operative on
going out of the mill; every person must conform to this mea
sure, often indispensable, as well for the interests of the pro-
prietors, as of honest workpeople themselves.
18. To prevent the risk of fire, no workman is allowed to
extinguish his lamp without an order. The lanterns of the
workpeople will be in general furnished with a candle, and
kindled by the porter, under the penalty of a day's labour.
19. It is strictly forbidden to enter, or leave the mill,
unless by the door leading to the high-way, or to go out by the
windows of the ground floor under a penalty of six francs.
20. Spinners cannot change their piecers or creelers with-
out the consent of the overlooker, under the penalty of half a
day's labour.
21. The operative who will make known at the counting-
house a breach of trust committed by another operative, will
be recompensed, and his name will be concealed.
22. Every act of disobedience on the part of the work-
people against their master, or against the persons invested
with his authority, will be punished, according to circum-
stances, with from one day's to five days' labour; and the
violator will be held responsible for whatever mischief may
occur.
23. The operative detected in throwing cotton or waste
into the water-closets, or any other place, will be fined in
five days' work.
24. The workpeople are forbidden to touch the heating or
lighting apparatus, the water stop-cocks, and conduits in the
apartments, as well as the moving power, under the penalty
of a day's work, and paying for the damage they may occasion.
25. In return for the protection and paternal cares which
all employed in the establishment may expect from their chief,
they promise him attachment and fidelity as well as the dis-
closure of everything contrary to order, or to his interest,
which may come to their knowledge.
26. The present Regulations will be suspended in all the
apartments, and if any one of them be defaced or torn, the
lxx
INTRODUCTION.
',
persons in that apartment will pay a fine of five francs, should
not the person in fault be pointed out.
The above Règlement de Police is printed in two columns;
the one French, the other German.
I passed some agreeable days at Rouen, visiting under the
hospitable auspices of M. Barbet, Maire and Député, the
objects most interesting among its cotton manufactures, but I
need not occupy my readers' time with the details, which
would be nearly a repetition of what has been already laid
before them. Should any one entertain doubts concerning
the excellence of the engineering and machine-factories of
France, he may have them very readily dissipated by calling
on Messrs. Barker, Rowdcliffe, Sudds, and Atkins, at Rouen,
who can show him as perfect tools as any which exist in
England. They will see one of Fox's best planing machines,
value £9co, Sharp and Robert's key-groove cutting-tool, and
many others of equal beauty and productive power. These
gentlemen prefer the coal of Mons to that of Newcastle at
the same price; the former being more dense and durable in
the furnace.
The cotton manufacture round Lille, and in the whole of
the departments of the North of France, is also in a state of
signal prosperity.*
Political events have within these few years operated
very injuriously against the cotton industry of Belgium;
hemmed in by prohibitive France on the one side, by hos-
tile Holland on the other; exposed to the Prussian League
on the northern land frontier, and the formidable competi-
tion of Great Britain by sea. The cotton-spinners of Ghent
merit more sympathy than they seem to receive from the
actual government, which dislikes them on account of their
very natural attachment to their late king, who aided them
with capital, and laid open to their enterprises the richest
islands of the Indian Archipelago. Belgium enjoys, however,
excellent facilities for manufacturing cottons, in the cheapness.
of her fuel, iron, and labour, as well as in her central situa-
tion, her admirable means of internal transport by roads and
canals, and her commodious harbours of Antwerp and Ostend.
Some of the factories which I visited at Ghent are most
*No fewer than 60 new cotton-mills were in course of erection last
year in France.
INTRODUCTION.
lxxi
creditable to their proprictors. I know of no power-loom
shed in Great Britain so magnificent, so well lighted, and so
well aired, as that of M. Claes-Decocq, in that city. Here
600 looms are distributed in two lofty glass galleries, each
275 feet long and 50 feet wide, more like a royal conservatory
of plants than a weaving factory. The looms are of the best
construction, they make 110 shots in the minute, and as they
work 14 hours a day, except on Mondays, when they work only
9 hours, it is easy to see that in productive power they sur-
pass most of the power-looms of England.
The dressing-machines, 32 in number, turn off each per
week from 40 to 50 cuts, of 100 Flanders aunes, equal to
764 yards English. The dressers receive in wages 20 French
francs (168.) weekly for the above-stated hours of employ-
ment. The whole of these machines are moved by a steam-
engine of 40 horses' power, on the system of Woulfe, working
at a pressure of 3 atmospheres, and consuming hourly, about
seven pounds of coals per horse-power. The establishment,
including the purchase of ground, cost altogether Sco,oco fr.
or £32,000 very nearly.
1
2
M. Claes-Decocq has a spinning-mill at a small distance
from his weaving factory, where I was not a little surprised
to see mules making four stretches of number 32 yarns
regularly every minute. Each mule carries 240 spindles,
and is worked by one spinner, one piecer, and one crecler;
the wages of the three is 18 francs (somewhat less than 158.)
a week; of which 10d. English are daily paid by the spinner
to his two assistants, leaving about gs. 6d. a week to himself.
One spinner was pointed out to me who had turned off 115
kilogrammes (241 lbs. avoird.) of yarn No. 30 in the course
of the preceding week; but he worked 14 hours instead of
the average 13, and was reckoned a superior hand. The
waste was only eight per cent. in Upland Georgia cotton wocl,
indicating very careful and cleanly manipulation in the whole
process.
There are excellent machine factories in Ghent, one of
which, belonging to Mr. Bell an English mechanical engineer,
has lately produced an improved bobbin-and-fly frame, which
turns off 350 kilogrammes of rovings (770 lbs. English),
being about 26 per cent. more than had been previously
produced.
lxxii
INTRODUCTION.
I visited several other cotton factories in that city, and
observed them to be all actuated by a zealous spirit of emu-
lation against their French and English competitors. They
complain, and probably not without reason, that from the
moderate import duties into Belgium, the refuse articles of
the English and French trade of the preceding season are
not unfrequently poured into the Brussels market at very low
prices, and from the caprice of public taste preferred to the
home-made articles of more recent date. It is well known
that many of our great manufacturers can afford to make a
sacrifice upon the remainder of their printed goods at the end
of the season, in consequence of the profits which they have
realized at its commencement.
The cotton manufacture of Belgium receives its raw mate-
rial nearly free from import duty for it pays only 4 d. on 112
lbs., whereas that of the United Kingdom pays 70d. The mean
price of wheat in Brussels, per English quarter, is about 348.
Good beef costs at Ghent 4d. per pound English; refined
sugar 7d., coffee 4d., tobacco 92d.
The following comparative table of wages is given by the
merchants of Brussels in their Mémoire sur la Fabrication et le
Commerce des Tissus de Coton en Belgique. Dec. 1834.
Daily wages in Ghent,
Spinners fr. 22.50 to 3.00
Mulhausen,
Rouen,
Manchester.
Weavers
Printers
•
I.25
1.50
2.00 to 3.00 2.50 to 3.50
1.25 2.00
6.25
1°50 I 75
2.90
I 25
2.00 1.25
3.50 3.00
6.00
5:00
I.00
•
1.50
0.75 I'00
1.25
I 25
1.50 1.50
2.00 125
0.75 0.6
2.CO
2.00 to 3.00
1.50
of calico
Labourers
Women
Children 0'35 0.75 0.25
1.60 3.00
I CO 0°50 1.50
The import duty on 100 kilogrammes of white cotton
goods into Belgium is 60 florins (108 fr. 84 c. French, about
218. 9d. per cwt. English); and 80 florins (145 fr. 12 c.
French) on importing 100 kilogrammes of printed calicoes.
Upon the heavy white goods for common wear, the actual
duty amounts in some cases to from 30 to 50 per cent. ad
valorem. This law is favourable only to the importation of
the finer and lighter qualities of cotton goods. Cotton
yarns, Nos. 30 to 40, are, according to the writers of the
above memoir, somewhat cheaper in Belgium than in Man-
chester, and considerably cheaper than the protected yarns o
INTRODUCTION.
lxxiii
Mulhausen and Rouen. The same holds true of the cloths
woven with these yarns.
Concluding Remarks.
One of my principal aims in writing this treatise, and the
Philosophy of Manufactures, has been to make our legisla-
tors and other influential citizens, familiar with those factory
arrangements, operations, and machines, which constitute the
main sinews of our national strength, so that they might
learn to enact such wise and equal laws as would at once
maintain the revenues of the state, and ease the burdens of the
people. An experience of many years in teaching the principles
of the mechanical and chemical arts to pupils of every grade
of education has, I trust, enabled me to present the objects of
research in as intelligible a manner as their complexity would
permit. In the present, as in my preceding work, I have
used the utmost diligence to collect the best information
upon every subject, and have had the good fortune to procure
the assistance of several skilful manufacturers, and mechani-
cians, in surmounting various difficulties which I encountered
in the explanation of the diversified and intricate series of
operations of our cotton manufactures.
The chef-d'œuvres of mechanism, like those of music,
poetry, and painting, can be ill appreciated by persons un-
acquainted with their respective principles, or who have not
qualified themselves by special study to compare their results
with the difficulties conquered, and to trace out the scientific
resources put in requisition. The ordinary education and
amusements of life, indeed, may in some measure cultivate a
taste for the fine arts, and may lead individuals to contem-
plate with real or pretended pleasure even their more homely
productions; but they afford no adequate preparation for
scanning the devices of ingenious machines. Few fine gen-
tlemen, however much they may have been distinguished by
academical honours, have any accurate conception even of
the mechanical and physical mysteries shrouded within
their watch-case; and fewer still can recognize the beauty,
wisdom, and beneficence embodied in those factory machines
which now bear up their country through all the financial
embarrassments which have been created by its classical
VOL. I.
F
Lxxiv
INTRODUCTION.
statesmen, making it triumph over an invidious world, which,
more justly afraid of its peaceful industry than of its military
prowess, holds Watt and Arkwright in higher reverence than
all its proud patricians.
From this neglect of the practical sciences in the education
and studies of English gentlemen, it happens daily, that
undue encouragement is given to empirical projectors, that
false judgments are formed concerning "enterprises of great
pith and moment," that the most absurd questions are put to
witnesses by the members of parliamentary committees, that
the most irrelevant or inconsistent answers are recorded in
their reports, and that the criticisms of many of our periodi-
cal writers on works of a scientific cast are preposterous in
the extreme, praise being lavished on the gossip compiler
because he exacts no intellectual effort from the common run
of readers, but withheld from the experimental inquirer and
discoverer of new facts, whose researches tend to raise the
standard of public thought, and to enlighten the paths of
national industry. Thus they do double injustice; by un-
deserved obtrusion of frivolous books on the public eye, and
by casting as far as they can, a transient shade over others of
solid merit. The evil, indeed, is of no long duration, for
substantial knowledge will outlast vague verbiage; but it
betrays an unsound state of mind, in a country so dependent
as this is upon the application of science to the arts of life-
to disparage or undervalué it, because it lies above the
routine of novel reading, and may cost a little pains to com-
prehend. Many an Aristarchus in literature would be sorely
puzzled to understand the simplest implements of modern
manufacture; for if the mind be not opened in youth by such
studies, it becomes impervious to them when its faculties lose
their pliancy with advancing years. They should, therefore,
form an essential part in the education of all classes of
society; of the noble and rich, as well as the humble artisan.
Academical philosophers have been long wont to regard
the polished instruments of their minute researches in pneu-
matics, optics, and astronomy, as the most exquisite specimens
of mechanical skill, and to consider the larger machines sub-
servient to commercial industry as of a far less refined and
elegant description. Yet a dispassionate judge of mechanism,
who should now compare the most exquisite apparatus of the
INTRODUCTION.
lxxv
London or Parisian philosopher, with that of the Manchester
tool-maker or spinner, would arrive at an opposite conclusion;
for there is certainly no instrument made for the purpose of
pure science which can compete in truth of adjustment, deli-
cacy of finish, or elaborateness of design, with the planing
machines, the bobbin-and-fly frames, the bobbin-net machine,
or the self-acting mule-jenny. The spirit of factory inven-
tion has, in mechanism at least, given to the Lancashire mind
and fingers a decided superiority over the nicest handicraft
artisan of the metropolis, and has changed their old con-
temptuous term of country-work, into one of genuine eulo-
gium. The tiny bobbin and carriage* of the bobbin-net lace
frame would puzzle a London workman to make with due
delicacy of form and mobility of adjustment in the course of
many hours, and would thereby, at least, involve an expense
of a crown ; but it is made with the precision of a mathematical
instrument by the factory operative, in the course of a few
minutes, and at a cost of only threepence.
The student, therefore, who is solicitous to learn the re-
sources of mechanics, must not stop short at the frivolous and
inoperative models, so extravagantly bepraised in schools and
colleges, but investigate the admirable engines of the cotton
trade. Here he will find a series of organs, instinct with
intellectual purpose, conspiring to form fabrics inimitable by
the most dexterous hand, and working for years with unde-
viating promptitude. In complexity, as well as perfection of
organization, the factory machines surpass all others just as
the human body does a zoophyte.
Our fine spinning-mills are, as Mr. Tuffnell justly observed,
the triumph of art, and the glory of England,† they need fear
no competition, nor are they, in fact, objects of foreign rivalry.
The delicacy of their machinery, the difficulty of keeping it
in order, the dexterity of their hands, and the limited and
fluctuating demand for their products, are well known to
other nations. Of the perfection at which the art of spinning
has now arrived in Manchester, a wonderful specimen was a
few days ago given me by Thomas Houldsworth, Esq., M.P. :—
yarn spun in his magnificent factory for the French weavers,
of which a single pound contains 450 hanks of 840 yards each,
* See Plate IX.
† Supplement to Factory Commission Report.
lxxvi
INTRODUCTION.
the whole, therefore, extending 215 miles in length, or nearly
the distance between London and Paris. The Sea-island
cotton wool, from which the yarn is made, is of exquisite
quality; consisting of regular cylindric filaments, about one
three-thousandth of an inch in diameter, as measured in the
micrometer microscope.* The thread itself is only one
three-hundredth of an inch thick, being much finer than a
human hair. The tissues made of it will surpass the far-famed
robes of Dacca, styled in Oriental hyperbole-the woven
wind.
May I be permitted to conclude with the general observa-
tion, that there is no greater act of injustice, none more detri-
mental to society, than to withhold or withdraw the meed of
renown from the real benefactors of our race.
'Quique sui memores alios fecêre merendo."— Virgil.
A desire to possess the esteem and gratitude of our fellow-
creatures, though not the highest, is yet one of the most legi-
timate motives of meritorious exertion; one which should
never be wantonly repressed by giving currency to either con-
temporary or posthumous calumny against a useful citizen.
Under a conviction of the moral importance of this maxim, I
have taken considerable pains to investigate anew the early
inventions of our factory system, and to award the share of
commendation justly due to their respective authors. My
researches have been altogether dispassionate, influenced by
neither local nor party bias, but solely by the love of truth
and fair dealing. They have led me to conclude that the
genius of Sir R. Arkwright has been most unduly depreciated
in some modern publications, and that it deserves to hold, as
formerly, a pre-eminent place in the temple of English
fame. No one ever denied him the praise of sagacity and
prudence in completing his new system of industry, which
has made the world tributary to England, upholding its ener-
gies amidst wars unparalleled in expenditure. Would a man
of his sound discretion, in claiming parliamentary protection
for his patent, against a partial decision of a court of law, have
appealed by name to prior inventions, as he did in his case
to the patent of Paul, if he had stolen from that source, as his
* See Vol. i. p. 139, fig. y.
INTRODUCTION.
lxxvii
modern detractors insinuate, or, indeed, if there had been any
true similarity between them? In such circumstances his
very appeal for redress would have insured his condemnation.
It is therefore obvious that if Arkwright had perchance
looked into the original specification of Paul, which is not
likely, for it was so completely buried in oblivion, that his
antagonist lawyers, in the course of their elaborate investi-
gations during two Chancery suits, never alluded to it, he
must have seen its impracticable structure, and essential dif-
ference from his own operative machine, as I have demon-
strated at page 243 et seq. of the present volume.
lxxviii
+
NOTE TO PAGE IX, OF THE INTRODUCTION.
But for the regenerating functions of the Poor-Laws Amendment Act,
the manufacturing industry of England, and especially its most fruitful
field, the cotton trade, would have soon fallen under the same blight as
the agricultural had done, and have eventually shrunk under the freely
expanding growth of rival nations. That master-piece of human legis-
lation, framed, it is said, in a great measure, by our all-accomplished
jurist, N. W. Senior, Esq., Professor of Political Economy in Oxford,
was passed with most triumphant majorities in both Houses of Parlia-
ment. There was but one economist in Europe, of any note, who did
not hail it with delight as the harbinger of a brighter day to the morals,
agriculture, and manufactures of England. His furious tirades and
false predictions may be seen in the London Courier, of May 5, 7, 10,
12, 13, 14, 16, 19, and 24, 1834. They are instructive, but do not come
within the scope of the present work.
THE
COTTON MANUFACTURE.
BOOK I.
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE IN ITS
HANDICRAFT STATE.
THE object of this work is to describe cotton in its various
forms, from the development of its filaments in the seed-vessel
of the plant, through their several mechanical combinations,
till they compose a web of exquisite beauty. I shall first,
however, present a view of the history of the manufacture of
cotton from its long but graceful pupilage in the plains of
Hindostan, till its recent growth into a gigantic manhood
under the fostering genius of Great Britain.
The wool-bearing shrub, called Gossypium by botanists,
would be universally regarded as a miracle of vegetation, did
not familiarity shamefully blunt the moral feelings of man-
kind. This singular class of plants has been largely dis-
tributed all over the torrid zone, a conspicuous gift of
Providence to its inhabitants, destined to afford them, in its
fleecy pods, a spontaneous and inexhaustible supply of the
clothing material best adapted to screen their swarthy bodies
from the scorching sunbeam, and to favour the cooling in-
fluence of the breeze, as well as cutaneous exhalation. While
the tropical heats change the soft wool of the sheep into a
harsh, scanty hair, unfit for clothing purposes, they cherish
and ripen the vegetable wool, with its slenderer and more
porous fibres, admirably suited to Southern, as the grosser
and warmer animal fibres are to Northern India. No sooner
does the cotton plant arrive at maturity, than its swollen
capsules burst, with an elastic force, in three or five gaping
80
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
segments, in order, as it were, to display to the most careless
eye their white fleecy treasure, and to invite the hand of the
observer to pluck it from the seeds, and to work it up into a
light and beautiful robe. Thus held forth from the extremity
of every bough, by its resemblance to sheep's wool it could
not fail to attract the notice of the first tribes which migrated
southwards, after the primitive dispersion of the human family
on the plain of Shinar; and would naturally lead them to
employ it for making raiment--an art undoubtedly known to
the sons of Noah. Accordingly the earliest accounts given
by historians and travellers of the intertropical nations show
them to have been acquainted with the fabrication of cotton
cloth. Of all textile materials, cotton is the most easy to
twist into a fine thread, a process which may be performed
upon the plucked filaments with the fingers and thumbs alone.
How readily these threads may be converted into a web, the
simple weaving machine of the Hindoo sufficiently attests.
It would appear that the older Egyptians were unac-
quainted with cotton, for no traces of its peculiar fibres can
be found among the swaddling bands so profusely rolled.
round the ancient mummies, nor are there any paintings of
the cotton shrub upon the tombs of Thebes, where accurate
representations of flax occur in its different states of growth
and manufacture. Linen was, in fact, the clothing staple of
that industrious people; held in such esteem as to be used
as a raiment by royalty, and diligently imitated by the neigh-
bouring nations. The Jews first, and afterwards the Greeks
and Romans, learned to manufacture linen from the Egyptians.
If we consider how near to Syria and Egypt are the regions
where the cotton shrub was indigenous, we may feel surprise
that it should have remained so long unknown or neglected
by nations to whom it would have furnished a far cheaper
and more comfortable article of dress than the flax plant.
Indeed the insulation of the cotton manufacture in India, for
so many centuries after a considerable intercourse with the
East had been established by the conquests of the Greeks and
the Romans, is one of the most singular phenomena in the
history of man, and shows how little inquisitive these highly-
celebrated people were concerning the arts conducive to per-
sonal comfort.
War was, in reality, the staple trade, the sole factory
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
81
system of the ancient world, so all-engrossing indeed in the
Roman Empire, as to leave its citizens hardly any choice
of a reputable handicraft of a purely pacific description.
Nothing remained to the philanthropist, born to live by
manual toil, but to select such a calling as, though necessa-
rily connected with the universal business, would however
tend to assuage its miseries. This was, in particular, the
case with the trade of making tents to shelter the sick and
harassed soldiery. As it could procure a decent livelihood
to a skilful hand in every district, and needed but a few port-
able tools, it was peculiarly suited to those artisan mission-
aries who travelled from region to region to regenerate the
moral condition of mankind. Accordingly the Apostle Paul
was a tent-maker, and indefatigable in his trade. He com-
bined in his example and writings the best prudential lessons
for the present life with the sublimest doctrines of the life
to come. The principles of industry never had indeed so
cogent an expositor as St. Paul. He commanded that if any
would not work, neither should he eat, and he acted up to
his own injunctions; for he ministered with his hands not
only to his own necessities, but to them that were with him,
showing how that, so labouring, they ought to support the
weak, and remember the words of the Lord Jesus, how he
said, "It is more blessed to give than to receive." How
would modern industry thrive were it administered in con-
formity with this noble precept of the inspired economist;
"Owe no man anything but to love one another !"
Generally speaking, the interests of the bulk of mankind
were entirely sacrificed in the ancient military governments
to the pride and luxury of a small number of chiefs, who,
under the names of centurions, tribunes, consuls, archons,
satraps, and kings, monopolized the means of enjoyment, and
despised the mechanic arts.
In several of the ancient states of Greece, says Adam
Smith, foreign trade was altogether prohibited; and in many
others the employments of artificers and manufacturers were
considered as hurtful to the strength and agility of the human
body, as rendering it incapable of those habits which their
military and gymnastic exercises endeavoured to form in it,
and as thereby disqualifying it, more or less, for undergoing
the fatigues, and encountering the dangers, of war. Such
82
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
occupations were considered fit only for slaves, and the free
citizens of the state were prohibited from exercising them.
Even in those states where no such prohibition took place, as
in Rome and Athens, the great body of the people were, in
effect, excluded from all the trades which are now commonly
exercised by the lower sort of the inhabitants of towns. Such
trades were at Athens and Rome all occupied by the slaves of
the rich, who exercised them for the benefit of their masters;
whose wealth, power, and protection, made it almost im-
possible for a poor man to find a market for his work, when
it came into competition with that of the slaves of the rich.
Slaves, however, are very seldom inventive; and all the most
important improvements, either in machinery, or in the ar-
rangement and distribution of work, which facilitate and
abridge labour, have been the discoveries of freemen. Should
a slave propose any improvement of this kind, his master
would be very apt to consider the proposal as the suggestion
of laziness, and of a desire to save his own labour at the
master's expense. The poor slave, instead of a reward, would
probably meet with much abuse,-perhaps with some punish-
ment. The finer sort of manufactures among the Greeks and
Romans were excessively dear. The price of linens and wool-
lens was extravagant, compared to our standards. Hence their
dress was little varied, as the costumes of the antique statues
show; and it was made very loose, so as to last for a long
time.
The ancient geometers, best qualified by their genius to
improve the productive arts, held them far too cheap to
bestow any thought upon them. The wonderful mechanical
resources displayed by Archimedes, in defending Syracuse
against the assaults of the Romans, proved him to have been
eminently endowed with the constructive faculty, so capable,
when rightly applied, of aiding the weakness of man in pro-
viding for his innumerable wants in food, clothing, and
household accommodation. But according to his admirer,
Plutarch, he disdained all such palpable problems, consider-
ing every art that ministers to common uses as mean and
sordid, and placing his whole delight in those intellectual
speculations which, without any reference to the necessities
of life, have an intrinsic excellence resulting from abstract
truth and demonstration. Plato was no less hostile to ex-
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
83
perimental researches. He inveighed even against Archytas
and Eudoxus, the most eminent practical engineers of an-
tiquity, for realizing their theorems in models of machines;
thus, as he alleged, debasing geometry by transferring it
from incorporeal to material objects which require manual
labour, and appertain to servile trades beneath the notice of
freemen.
How different is the spirit of modern philosophy since it
was first directed into the path of utility by Galileo, Bacon,
Pascal, and Newton! It places its chief delight and honour
in investigating the relations of number, figure, and all ma-
terial substances, in order to apply the resulting discoveries
to assuage the evils and to multiply the enjoyments of social
life. In its modern familiarity with the sublimest of specu-
lations, that of the equilibrium and movements of the celestial
bodies, mechanical science does not, however, disdain to study
the most humble machine of manufacturing industry; and,
indeed, may hold many of them up to the admiration of the
transcendentalist, as the happiest achievements of the human
mind. Should any one ask where; let him enter a cotton-
factory, and look around.
Herodotus, who wrote upwards of four centuries before the
reign of Augustus, notices distinctly the cotton fabrics of
India; and says that a species of plant in that country bears
a fruit full of a wool superior to that of the sheep, with
which the natives make cloth for their garments. The
general use of cotton as an article of dress indicates that it
was no novelty in his time, but that it had been established
at a very early date, as we have already suggested. This
statement of the father of history is confirmed by Arrian, in
the account which he gives of the voyage of Alexander's
Admiral, Nearchus, who, in sailing down the Indus, and
along the coasts of Persia to the Tigris, had occasion to
observe that the clothing of the Hindoos was a sort of linen
made from a stuff which grew upon trees. He calls the
cotton shrub tala, and says that the Indians' garments hung
down to the middle of their legs, and that they covered their
heads with turbans of cotton cloth. On the authority of the
same great navigator, Strabo speaks of the printed cotton
robes, or calicoes, with much commendation for the variety
of their beautiful hues. This writer, who was contemporary
84
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
with our Saviour, alludes to the cultivation of the cotton
shrub, and the fabrication of cotton cloth in the Persian pro-
vince of Susiana.
About half a century later Pliny presents us with a more
detailed description of the cotton-plant:-" In Upper Egypt,
on the side of Arabia, grows the shrub called by some gossy-
pium, and by others xylon, from which cloths called xylina
are woven. The plant is small, and produces a fruit, like a
walnut, which contains a woolly down, that may be spun into
yarn. This cloth merits a preference over all others for its
whiteness and softness; and is made into beautiful robes,
which the priests of Egypt delight to wear.
When we call to mind the extensive traffic which the lux-
urious tastes of Rome occasioned with the Eastern world,
we must feel surprised that such scanty notices exist among
Roman writers of the beautiful cotton robes of India. Their
trade with that remote region was said to have drained the
empire every year of more than four hundred thousand
pounds; and on this business, one hundred and twenty ships
sailed annually from the Arabian Gulf, stretching out boldly
from Oceles, at its mouth, across the great ocean to the
coast of Malabar. They returned with the eastern monsoons,
bringing back the spices and other rich merchandise of the
continent and the islands, from the general mart, Musiris, to
which the Indian vessels carried them for sale.
The seriæ vestes, or semitransparent robes, with which the
Roman ladies took so much pleasure in veiling their beauties
in the decline of the empire, were most probably fine Indian
muslins imported into Italy through the territory of the
Seres--the Bochyra of modern times. It is known that a
considerable traffic was then carried on through Alexandria,
between Rome and the East, for the productions of India, the
chief mart of which was Malabar. Virgil alludes very beau-
tifully to the cotton plant in the following lines in the second
Georgic:-
Quid nemora Ethiopum, moili canentia lana ?
Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres?"
"Shall I sing of the groves of Ethiopia, hoary with soft
wool; and how the Seres comb out the delicate fleece from
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
85
among the leaves ?" can surely apply to nothing but a shrub-
bery of cotton plants.*
Dr. Vincent, however, in his learned commentary on Arrian,
suggests, that the word serica, in the ancient writers, refers to
silk; but Salmasius considers it, and in my opinion more
justly, as alluding to cotton.
The word cotonea, which occurs several times in Pliny's
Natural History, means clearly the quince-apple. In his
23rd book, c. vi., 54, we find boiled quinces prescribed as the
preferable mode of using this apple-cotonea coctu suaviora.
The cydonia mala is another synonyme for quinces.
In the passage quoted in the foot-note, Pliny likens the
capsule of the cotton-plant to the quince-apple in size, and
adds, that it bursts on being perfectly ripe, and displays its
woolly pile, from which a precious kind of linen raiment is
made. These wool-bearing trees are called gossympinoi.
Hence the Linnæan name, Gossypium.† The Tylos of Pliny
where these trees were found, is, according to Vincent, an
island in the Persian Gulf.‡
Instead of gossympinoi, Herodotus and Theophrastus use the
simple expression, wool-bearing trees-dendra eriophera.
Of the Egyptian cotton shrub Pliny gives so very explicit
a description as to render it surprising that no trace of cotton
cloth has been found among the mummy bandages hitherto
unrolled in England.§ Such robes were, perhaps, too valuable
to be buried with the dead body, and might be kept as heir-
looms from generation to generation.
The Periplus Maris Erythrei' was probably written at,
* See Note A, at the end of the volume.
† Tylos insula in eodem sinu est, repleta silvis . . . Ejusdem insulæ
excelsiore suggestu lanigeræ arbores, alio modo quam Serum. His
foliis infecunda; qui ni minora essent vitium poterant videri. Ferunt
cotonei mali amplitudine cucurbitas, quæ maturitate ruptas ostendunt
lanuginis pilas, ex quibus vestes pretioso linteo faciunt. Arbores vocunt
gossympinos. C. Plinius, Nat. Hist., lib. xii., c. x.
Voyage of Nearchus, p. 321.
Superior pars Ægypti in Arabiam vergens gignit fruticem, quem
aliqui gossypium vocant, plures xylon, et ideo lina inde facta xylina.
Parvus est similemque barbatæ nucis defert fructum, cujus ex interiore
bombyce lanugo netur. Nec ulla sunt eis candore mollitiave pre-
ferenda. Vestes inde sacerdotibus Ægypti gratissimæ. Plin., lib. xix.,
c. i. No juster eulogium could be written on the cotton-plant and
cotton goods by a modern naturalist. See the Translation, p. 84.
86
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
or a little before, the time of Pliny, the naturalist,—not
by the celebrated historian of Alexander, but by another
Arrian, most likely an Egyptian Greek, who went on a mer-
cantile expedition, about the beginning of the second century,
down the Red Sea, and along the whole extent of the Indian
coasts, and who has left a record of his voyage, under the
above title. He tells us that the Arabian trading vessels
brought Indian cottons to a port in the Red Sea, called Aduli;
and that Barygaza, the Baroche of modern geographers, near the
north-west coast of India, was a mart of cotton goods of many
kinds; whence common cottons, calicoes, and muslins, plain
and flowered, of Indian manufacture, were exported to various
countries. It appears, moreover, that Masalia was at that
time famous, as the same place has continued to be ever since,
under its native name of Masulipatam, for cotton fabrics. The
Bengal muslins were then celebrated under the title of Gan-
gitiki, bestowed on them by the Greeks, because they were
made near the banks of the Ganges.
The stationary condition in which the arts of India have
remained since the earliest times is remarkably exemplified
in the case of Baroche, a town in the Guzerat, which has been
described by Forbes, in nearly the same terms as by the
ancient author of the 'Periplus.' The cotton trade of Baroche
is very considerable, and the manufactures of this valuable
plant, from the finest muslin to the coarsest sail-cloth, employ
thousands of men, women, and children, in the metropolis and
the adjacent villages. The cotton cleaners and spinners
generally reside in the suburbs, or poorahs, of Baroche,
which are very extensive. The weavers' houses are mostly
near the shade of tamarind and mango trees, under which, at
sunrise, they fix their looms, and weave a variety of cotton
cloth with very fine baftas and muslins. Surat is more famous
for its coloured chintzes and piece-goods. The Baroche
muslins are inferior to those of Bengal and Madras, nor do
the painted chintzes of Guzerat equal those of the Coro-
mandel coast.
In the downfall of the Roman empire arts and commerce
perished. At this dark period there are merely a few inci-
dental notices of the cotton manufacture in the East. Omar,
the successor of Mahomet, is described as "preaching in a tat-
tered cotton gown, torn in twelve places ;" and Ali, his fellow-
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
87
fanatic, who became caliph after him, "went on the day of
his inauguration to the mosque, dressed in a thin cotton gown,
tied round him with a girdle, and a coarse turban on his
head." We may hence infer that cotton cloth was a common
material of dress in Arabia at the time of the Hegira, and
had probably been so for many generations, as the soil was
too arid for the production of flax, and the climate too hot
for favouring the growth of a soft fleece upon the sheep.
There is little doubt that the Mahometans carried along
with their conquests into the western world the arts of grow-
ing and working cotton; and introduced also into India
certain modifications of the ancient practices of that country,
in spite of the unchangeableness due to the distinction of
castes. The first step in the cotton manufacture is the sepa-
ration of the downy fibres from the seeds, which was origin-
ally effected no doubt by the fingers alone, but for a very
long period it has been done in Hindostan by a pair of rude
rollers. The second step is the thorough opening up of these
fibres, by the elastic stroke of a bow-string. It deserves
special notice that the bow-string operation, though now a
constant part of the Indian process, is never executed by
Hindoos, but by Mahometans, proving it to be an innovation
of their Mussulman conquerors. The hard twisted warp for
certain fabrics is also spun by Mahometans-spinning the
softer and more delicate yarns being the province of the
Hindoo women, and constituting almost the sole occupation
by which they can earn the trifle needed for the supply of
their wants. The cause of the early perfection which the
muslin manufacture attained in India must be sought for in
the exquisitely-fine organization of the natives of that region.
Their temperament realizes every feature of that described
under the title nervous by modern physiologists.
A marked excess of sensibility in the ordinary transactions
of life; delicate fibres, a soft and fine skin, pliant limbs and
fingers, a pathetic look; a feeling of anxiety attendant upon
the play of the organs; lively sensations occasioned by very
slight causes; are the symptoms of this temperament: they
all predominate in the Hindoo constitution; and so qualified
it for the delicate textile manufacture of cotton, that they kept,
as it were, a monopoly of it for several thousand years.
The next authentic account of the cotton manufacture of
88
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
the East is given us by Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century.
In the vicinity of Mosul, now the capital of the Turkish
pachalik, upon the western bank of the Tigris, opposite the
ancient Nineveh, "there are places," says this great traveller,
"named Mus and Mareddin, where cotton is produced in
vast abundance, of which they prepare the cloths called boc-
casini, and many other fabrics." From Mosul the Italian
words mussolo* and musselino are derived, whence mousseline
and muslin, in French and English. Ives states, in his Jour-
ney, that "this city's manufacture (or trade) is mussolen, a
cotton cloth, which they make very strong, and pretty fine,
and sell for the European and other markets." It was there-
fore a species of calico, so named from the city Calicut, in
the East Indies. In 'Menagio's Origini della Lingua Italiana
we find, under the word Mussolo, the following explanation:
“Al Mussoli is a region in Mesopotamia, in which are woven
webs of cotton, of exceeding beauty, which are called Mussoli
among the Syrian and Venetian merchants, from the name of
this region." It is probable that Marco Polo occasionally
confounded the silk with the cotton manufacture. The boc-
casini mentioned above was most likely a species of fine
white and soft cotton cloth, as it is called, in the Italian
translation of ‘Ramusio,' boccasini di bambagio, or of cotton.
Cotton, says Marco Polo, grows abundantly in Persia, and
also in Guzzerat; in which latter place it is produced from a
tree about six yards high, which bears twenty years; but the
cotton taken from trees of that age is not adapted for spinning,
but only for quilting. Such, on the contrary, as is taken
from trees of twelve years old, is suitable for muslins, and
other manufactures of extraordinary fineness. In Cambaia,
also, there is abundance of cotton cloth as well as of cotton in
the wool; and a great quantity of indigo is manufactured.‡
At the city of Kue-lin-fu (Kien-ning-fu, in the province of
Fo-kien), says Marco Polo, cottons are also woven of coloured
* Sorta di tela bambagina, cosi detta dal nome del paese dove per
lo più ella si fabbrica.
† Al Mussoli est regio in Mesopotamia, in qua texantur telæ, ex
bombyce valde pulchræ, quæ apud Syros et apud mercatores Venetos
appelantur Mussoli, ex hoc regionis nomine.
''
‡"Qui," says Barbosa, "si lavorano assai tele e panni di gotton
bianchi, sottili e grossi e di varie sorte tessuti et dipinti." Here we
see the antiquity of the printed calico manufacture.
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
89
threads, which are carried for sale to every part of the pro-
vince of Manji: probably this cotton was not dyed on pur-
pose, but was the native orange-coloured cotton, called Nam-
king by Van Branam.
In Murphili (the Masuli-patam of modern geographers),
says Marco, they manufacture the finest cottons that are to be
with in any part of India. It has been, in fact, always cele-
brated for its chintzes. Of the kingdom of Malabar, he says,
"Here the finest and most beautiful cottons are manufactured
that can be found in any part of the world." Hamilton has
confirmed this statement in speaking of Raja-pore, a place
near Gheria, observing, that "the country thereabouts pro-
duced the finest muslins and betillas in India," p. 243. It
appears from the former authority that at that period various
kinds of cotton goods were manufactured in the island of
Socotra, then inhabited by a Christianized people, subject to
a patriarch, residing at Badhdad. Astley, in his collection
of old voyages, says: "Next day," speaking of a voyage
performed in 1608, "standing off to sea, they met with a
Guzerat ship, laden with cotton, calicoes, and pentathoes
(chintzes), bound for Aden." Marco Polo was a Venetian,
who travelled in the thirteenth century, from the year 1260
downwards, was confidentially employed in the service of the
Tartar conqueror of China, and returned in the year 1 295, after
having visited a great many countries of Asia. His credibility
is undoubted. The manuscript was first circulated in 1298,
at Genoa, where he was confined as a prisoner of war, having
been taken in a naval action with the Genoese fleet, against
which he had fought bravely as captain of a Venetian ship,
but was ill supported by his countrymen.
It is probable that in the time of Marco Polo the cotton
manufacture was just beginning to be introduced into China,
for, in noticing the productions of many other parts of that
empire, in which he held a high official rank, and enjoyed
perfect freedom of observation, he makes no mention of
cotton goods.
We know from other sources that the Emperor Ou-ti, of
the small dynasty of Leang, who ascended the throne in the
year 502 of the Christian era, had a robe of cotton. Towards
the end of the seventh century the cotton shrub began to be
cultivated in the gardens of the capital of China. The whole

VOL. I.
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>
90
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
town is full of cotton flowers, says a Chinese poet of that time,
in verses written upon the summer season. It was, however,
only for the sake of the flowers that the plant was then culti-
vated. This fact will appear extraordinary, if we bear in mind
that the court held in high estimation the cotton garments
which were presented to their king by foreign ambassadors.
Nothing shows in a more striking manner how blind the clever-
est nations sometimes are to their best interests, and how much
in all ages a peculiar genius and an ardent zeal are required
to rouse the multitude from their indifference about new
things; to make them see clearly what is before their
eyes, and to give them energy to turn their labour and
dexterity to account. We can hardly reconcile such back-
wardness with the supposed keenness of the Chinese tempera-
ment. It was not till the eleventh century that the herba-
ceous cotton plant passed from the parterres and gardens of
China into the fields, and this only in a few districts of
Kiang-Nan. As to the cotton-tree, it was known only in their
books, till the dynasty of the Mongul Tartars, called Yuen,
in the country, who conquered it about 1280, and reigned
thereafter eighty-eight years. The emperors of that dynasty
took every possible pains to extend and render fashionable
the culture of cotton plants of every kind; and, in fact, im-
posed on several great provinces an annual tribute of cotton.
But this business was looked upon with an evil eye by the
aborigines, and was much disliked, as interfering with corn-
crops, with their forest trees, and with the silk manufacture,
so long cultivated among them. The nation felt itself
aggrieved by the new comers, and zealously tried to rouse
the old proprietors to maintain the established usages of the
people. But, eventually, these prejudices were overcome by
the care and liberality of the government. All the provinces
betook themselves diligently to the cultivation of cotton; and
at present every nine persons out of ten are dressed in cotton
cloth. The dynasty of Ming, the immediate predecessor of the
reigning family, had the honour of effecting a revolution so
conducive to national comfort.
In consequence of a dearth of provisions in China, about
sixty years ago, an imperial mandate was issued to convert
to the cultivation of corn a considerable portion of land then
appropriated to the cotton plant; since which time the
*
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
91
Chinese have been accustomed to import large quantities of
cotton wool. Sir George Staunton found all the lower orders
of the Chinese, of both sexes, dressed in cottons, and the
upper orders in silks.
Spain, which had received the cotton manufacture along
with its Mahometan masters, continued for many centuries to
cultivate it with much success. The cotton plant still grows
wild in many parts of the Peninsula. De Marlès asserts that
the Moors, who were mingled with the Arabs at the Spanish
conquest, brought with them the husbandry of rice and cotton,
as well as that of the mulberry-tree and the sugar-cane.
From the narratives of subsequent Saracenic historians it
would appear that the cotton manufacture was prosecuted to
a very considerable extent by the Spaniards during the
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. Barcelona
was famous in particular for its cotton sailcloth, of which
it supplied great quantities to the squadrons stationed off its
harbour. The term fustaneros, from which our word fustian
comes, was first given in Spain to the weavers of cotton
goods of a stout make, as the Spanish word imports sub-
stantial. Cotton paper seems also to have been first made by
the Spanish Arabs; a paper was afterwards manufactured by
them from linen rags at Valencia, which was much admired
by the literary men of the time. The religious antipathy,
however, which existed between the Moors and the Christians,
prevented the propagation of these Oriental arts westward, so
that, when the Saracens were expelled from Spain, the manu-
factures of this country relapsed into a barbarous state.
The following interesting account of the cotton husbandry
of Spain under the Moors is given by M. Lasteyrie in his
treatise on the cotton plant.
Eben el Awam, who lived in the twelfth century, and who
farmed a small property near Seville, in a delightful situation,
which we have gone over and examined with a lively interest,
has described not only the mode of cultivating cotton employed
in Spain, but also the methods followed in a great portion of
the countries which were at that period under the dominion
of the Moors or Saracens. This Arabian writer has copied a
part of his work from the ancient Egyptian, Greek, Persian,
and Arabian authors, whose pages have since become the
prey of time and human barbarism. This monument of
92
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
ancient agriculture is the more valuable, as we do not find
in the Greek and Roman writers any traces of the husbandry
of the cotton plant, whence we may conclude that it was not
established in Greece, Italy, Sicily, and Malta, and the other
coasts of the Mediterranean, till the Mahometans, on the
conquest of these regions, brought the arts of the Eastern
world with them.
The Arabs, with less taste in the fine arts and in literature
than the Greeks and Romans, appear to have surpassed the
former, and to have at least equalled the latter, in agriculture.
The precepts of Eben el Awam upon cotton plantations are
contained in the twenty-second chapter of his Book of Agri-
culture. He says it is sown in Arabia Petrea, Egypt, at
Ascalon and Bassora, on sandy grounds subject to irrigations;
that in Sicily, as well as on the coasts of Spain, it is raised
upon the inferior soils, which are found sufficiently good for
it, and that the roots are transplanted, as is done with
pot-herbs in a garden. They are set at eight palms' distance
from each other, because in those countries the shrubs rise to
the height of the fig-tree, which is usually from fifteen to
twenty feet, and it endures for several years. It is treated in
the same manner as the vine, and it yields every year a good
crop by means of ploughings and irrigation. He says that
the inhabitants of Syria are wont to prepare a year before-
hand the land intended for cotton, enriching it with plenty
of dung, and freeing it from weeds. They then irrigate it,
and as soon as it is drained they make holes an inch and a
half deep, and a palm and a half asunder. Into each hole
they put two or three seeds, which they cover with a little
soil; and whenever the plant has risen a palm from the
ground, they repeat the irrigation, which is, indeed, done as
often as is thought requisite; and in general, according to
another Arabian authority, every fifteen days till the beginning
of the month of August, the period when the capsules form.
Then all further watering must be avoided, in order to favour
the formation of the cotton fibres. If the vegetation be too
active, the bottom of the plant must be beat with a stick.
M. Lasteyrie properly finds fault with this practice, and
suggests that it would have been better to prune off the
extremities of the too-luxuriant branches. Thus, adds the
Arabian, the juices do not run to waste; but are, on the
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
93
contrary, concentrated on the fruit, so as to improve its
quality. The harvest occurs in the month of September,
when the capsules begin to open, and when the down is just
seen peeping out of them. They ought to be plucked in the
morning, when still damp with the dew of night, and de-
posited in a spot sheltered from the sunbeam, in order to
preserve them in a somewhat damp state, when the cotton
must be removed from the seeds by the fingers. The wool is
afterwards exposed to the sun till it is thought to be dry, and
then packed up for use. Aben Hajaij, another Arabian
writer, says that the cotton plant can be cultivated with
advantage only in islands and on level plains.
Documents exist in Biscelia, dated in 1050, which prove
that the priests of San Adveno were authorized to let their
church lands for the growth of cotton plants; and there is
other evidence of the existence at the same time of the cotton
husbandry in Sicily. In Calabria the plant was biennial, and
produced the best crop the second year.
*
In 'Ramusio's Viaggi,' or collection of voyages, a copy of
the original edition of which, printed early in the sixteenth
century, exists in the library of the British Museum, there
are several notices showing that the cotton manufacture was
very extensively established, before that period, all over the
southern shores of the Mediterranean. At Fez the natives
raised a large quantity of cotton, and the townspeople were
very generally weavers of cotton cloth, of a truly exquisite
and beautiful texture.†
Hunain, a small African city on the Mediterranean, fre-
quented in the fifteenth century by the Venetians, is spoken
of with high commendation in Ramusio's volume, on account
of its eminence in this manufacture. "The inhabitants were
a noble civilized race of men, and almost all engaged in the
production of cotton or cotton cloth.”‡
* Atti del Real Instituto d'Incorraggiamento alle scienze naturali di
Napoli, Tomo II., 1818. This curious notice was politely brought
before me by the librarian of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris.
† Si raccoglie gran quantità di bambagio, et gli habitatori della città
sono per lo più tessitori di tele bambagine, molto sottili nel vero et
molto belle.-Giovanno Lioni Africano Descrittione della Africa.
Gli habitatori furono nobili et civili et quasi tutti lavoraron bain-
bagio o tele.
94
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
Of Amon, a place five days' journey from Damascus, it
is said that a very great quantity of cotton was grown at it.
According to Odoardo Barbosa, of Lisbon, who made a
voyage to southern Africa in 1516, the Caffres then wore
cotton dresses, drappi di bambagio, denoting a high state of
civilization for that race of people. At Cefala, he says, the
Moors grow a large quantity of fine cotton, and weave it into
cloth, which they use in the white state, from their being
unable to dye it, on account of the want of colouring stuffs.
From Macpherson's 'Annals' it appears that cotton cloth,
woven on the coast of Guinea, was imported into London
from the Bight of Benin-in the year 1590; a fact corro-
borative of the above testimony.
The modern travellers who have explored the interior of
Africa concur in showing that the cotton plant is indigenous
to that continent, and that the wool is spun and woven into
cloth, which is used for raiment by the inhabitants of every
class and every region. From the beauty of the dye, and the
designs observed on some of their cotton dresses, it may be
justly inferred to be a manufacture of very ancient standing.
The state of the New World relative to cotton is very
remarkable. When the Mexicans were first invaded by their
European conquerors, they had no sheep's wool, nor common
silk, nor linen, nor hemp, but they supplied the want of wool
with cotton, that of silk with feathers, and with the hair of
the rabbit or hare. Of cotton they made large webs, and as
delicate and fine as those of Holland, which were therefore
highly esteemed on their importation into Europe. A few
years after the conquest, a sacerdotal habit of the Mexicans
was brought to Rome, which, as Boturini affirms, was uncom-
monly admired on account of its fineness and beauty. The
Mexicans wove cloths with different figures and colours,
representing various animals and flowers. We have seen
some beautiful mantles of this kind, says Clavigero, which
are still preserved by some lords. With cotton also they
interwove the finest hair of the bellies of rabbits and hares,
after having spun and dyed the thread; of these they made
the most beautiful clothes, and, in particular, winter waist-
coats for their grandees. A few days after Cortes arrived in
Mexico he despatched to the Emperor Charles V., in July,
1519, among other rich presents, a variety of cotton mantles,
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
95
some all white, others checkered with white and black, or red,
green, yellow, and blue; on the outside rough, like a shaggy
cloth, and on the inside without either colour or nap. A
number of under-waistcoats, handkerchiefs, counterpanes,
tapestries, and carpets of cotton, were sent to Europe. All
these articles were, according to Gomara, more valuable for
the workmanship than the materials. The colours, he says, of
the cotton were extremely fine, and those of the feathers natural.
Their works of cast metal are not to be comprehended by our
goldsmiths.
The Mexican men used to wear two or three mantles, and
the women three or four vests, and as many gowns, putting
the longest undermost, so that a part of each of them
might be seen. The lords wore in winter waistcoats of
cotton, interwoven with soft feathers or the hair of the rabbit.
The upper ranks in general used counterpanes of cotton and
feathers.*
* Clavigero, Book VIII. Among the mummy cloths brought from
the ancient tombs at Arica, in Peru, by Lord Colchester, in 1831, and
now deposited at the British Museum, three different textile fabrics
may be distinguished.
1. A white flimsy web, like the coarsest calico at present used for
linings in this country.
2. A coarse plaid stuff, woven in red and brown stripes.
3. A yellow fringe-looking stuff. The threads of the last two fabrics
are pretty thick; those of the first are much finer.
No. 1. is a cotton cloth, of which the fibres, viewed in the microscope,
are remarkably tortuous, like a corkscrew, and very regular in
size and form. They resemble the fibres of the Gossypium
hirsutum, probably the primitive cotton plant of South America.
No. 2 is a sort of worsted stuff, made of the wool of the Vicugna.
Its filaments seem to be more minutely indented along the line
of the edges than those even of the long-stapled sheep's wool of
England, as figured at p. 91 of the Phil. of Manufactures.
No. 3 is a texture of the same fleece as No. 2, dyed of an orange
yellow, having a few filaments of cotton, carded or mixed in and
spun along with it. This mixture is very distinguishable in the
microscope.
The application of this instrument to examine animal and vegetable
filaments is of ancient date. It was very successfully employed by
Ledermüller upwards of seventy years ago, and was illustrated by many
fine engraved representations of the serrated structure of the hair of
the sea-calf and other fibrous matters. The celebrated Monge thought
he saw in the serrations of wool, and similar hairy substances, the
cause of that curious interlacement and condensation which they un-
dergo in the process of felting, used in the manufacture of stuff hats.
96
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
We have thus seen that from a very remote period the
natives of the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and America,
He promulgated his theory of this operation at considerable length,
upwards of forty years ago, in the sixth volume of the Annales de
Chimie,' whereby he made the serrated structure of wool familiar to
every philosopher of Europe, since his memoir was translated into all
its civilized languages, and particularly into our popular scientific
journals at the time.*
Subsequent researches have shown that Monge's theory requires cer-
tain modifications. Though the woolly filaments which constitute the
hair and fur of many animals be provided with asperities ("scales like
those of fish, or imbricated zones, like the horns of animals," are the
characteristic phrases employed by Monge), yet they are not suscepti-
ble of felting, he thought, if they were straight, because the kneading
motions of the operator's hands would make them merely move pro-
gressively forwards, and cause no interlacement. This defect in the
straight filaments he supposed to be removed by secretage, or the appli-
cation of a solution of nitrate of mercury to the tips of the fur on the
skin, which caused these to curl. M. Malard, M. Guichardière, and
M. Robiquet, have controverted this theory, by showing that straight
hairs, such as those of warren-rabbits, felt very well without secretage;
while those of the hare and the castor, which are not straighter,
require that preliminary process before they will felt. Again, certain
straight-fibred sheep-wools, like those of the beauce, may be readily
felted alone, whilst the Spanish wools, which are naturally curled,
cannot be used for making hat-felt. Though the rectilinear form of
the fibres be not the sole obstacle to felting, as Monge imagined, yet he
undoubtedly was right in regarding the scales or asperities on their
surfaces as co-operative towards felting, while they are not its only
The hairs of the seal, which present in the microscope a great
many asperities or notches, arranged like the teeth of a saw, are not
susceptible of being felted. "All the hairy filaments," says M. Robiquet,
"viewed in the microscope, present very distinct scales, disposed
symmetrically; but affecting sometimes one figure and sometimes
another." He considers the flexibility of the fibres towards their tips
to be another condition no less essential than the serrations to their
felting property. Secretage communicates this flexibility, he thinks, by
corroding off the natural varnish upon the tips of the hairs. "It is
well known, in fact, that wools and hairs, subjected to the action of
alkaline leys, readily form a felt; and that this tendency often presents
a great obstacle to the working them up.'t Hence, adds he, it is not
cause.
*Nicholson's Journal, and Repertory of Arts.
+ M. Robiquet, Membre de l'Institut, in the article Feutrage (Felting), published in
the Dictionnaire Technologique for 1825. His description is remarkable clear-"Tous
les poils, vus au microscope, présentent des écailles bien distinctes et disposées symmé-
triquement; mais affectant tantôt une figure et tantôt une autre," p. 527. The article
from which this sentence is quoted is particularly interesting. A condensed notice of it
is inserted at the bottom of page 92 and top of page 94 of my Philosophy of Manu-
factures.'
C
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
97
were well acquainted with the cotton plant, and worked up
the woolly down of its pods into useful and ornamental
articles of clothing. The Europeans alone continued desti-
tute of this admirable industry for many thousand years
after it had been possessed by nations whom, from their less
warlike polity, or less ferocious disposition, they looked
down upon as inferior races, or regarded even as barbarians.
The Portuguese, after their discovery of the passage to
India by the Cape of Good Hope, made large importations
of cotton-stuffs and muslins into Europe, but did not at-
tempt to establish any manufacture of the kind in their
own country. When the Dutch, however, some time there-
after, succeeded in depriving the Portuguese of a part of their
eastern colonies, they not only extended the traffic in cotton
goods, but, towards the latter end of the sixteenth century,
began to fabricate them at home. Long prior to this period,
a manufacture of indigenous cotton had existed in the
southern parts of Italy, where the plant had been cultivated
since the eleventh century, particularly along the shores of
the gulf of Taranto. From a remote era, ladies of condition
in that district occupied themselves in spinning cotton
and knitting the yarn into stockings, articles of dress which
were greatly admired, and fetched the prodigious price of
a guinea the pair. The muslin of the same region was like-
wise in vogue till towards the conclusion of the last
century, when it came to be superseded by the large importa-
tions from India, and the superior fabrics of England. In
that part of Italy, the soil is said to be so favourable to the
culture of cotton, that an English acre will produce, in good
seasons, ten cwt. of seed-cotton, which will yield 2 cwt. of
astonishing that wools naturally curled are not fit for felting, because
the inflexion should be merely successive, and should increase only in
proportion as the felting goes on; otherwise the progressive motion of
the fibres cannot take place.
M. Robiquet informs me, in a polite note, dated December last, that
he made the observations on the structure of hairy filaments which are
inserted in his article Feutrage, in conjunction with M. Lebaillif, who
was very skilful in the use of the microscope, and that the most curious
species which he saw was that of the otter. The wools which I ex-
amined in my achromatic microscope, were sent to me, with a note,
dated the 29th of January, 1834, by Messrs. Loughnan and Hughes, of
Basinghall-street, through James Cook, Esq., of Mincing-lane.
98
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
cotton wool. A considerable quantity of this product was at
one period exported in the raw state.*
The earliest notice of cotton, as an article of English trade,
is to be found in Hakluyt's Collection of Voyages. It is
copied from a little book entitled, 'The Process of English
Policy.' "Genoa," says the author, "resorts to England in
her huge ships, called carracks, bringing many commodities,
as silk, paper, wool, oil, cotton," &c. This work was printed
towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century. Before
that period, England was probably supplied directly from
the Levant with the small quantity of cotton then wanted,
chiefly for candle-wicks. The Genoese lost their monopoly
of the carrying trade in 1511, from which time till 1534,
says Hakluyt, divers tall ships of London and Bristol had
an unusual trade to Sicily, Candia, and Chios, and some-
times to Cyprus, Tripoli, and Baruth, in Syria. They
imported thither sundry sorts of woollen cloths, calf-skins,
&c.; and imported from thence silks, camblets, rhubarb,
malmsey, muscadel, and other wines; oils, cotton wool,
Turkey-carpets, galls, and India spices. The merchants of
Antwerp soon thereafter engrossed the Levant trade, to the
exclusion of the English. But after the sacking of that
city, the English resumed the Mediterranean commerce, and
carried it on with great activity; importing, in return, cotton
among other articles, according to the statement of Mr.
Mann. It appears from Wheeler, who wrote in 1601, that
cotton was brought to England by the Atwerpians from
Sicily, the Levant, and sometimes from Lisbon, along with
many other precious articles, which the Portuguese imported
in those times from India. The merchants of Antwerp
obtained cotton goods from Italy before this time, for
Guicciardini enumerates fustians and dimities among the
valuable articles of import from Milan into the mart of the
Netherlands. The people of the Low Countries soon took
up this manufacture themselves, and in the subsequent emi-
grations of the Protestants from that country, during their
religious persecution by the court of Spain, they brought it
into England, and established it in the towns of Bolton and
* Travels of Charles Ulysses in 1787, published in London in 1795,
P. 116.
On the trade of India.
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
99
Manchester. The fustians were valued by Guicciardini at
600,000 crowns, but they were probably a mixed stuff. The
consequences of the cruelties exercised by the Duke of
Alba are thus powerfully described by M. l'Abbé J. J. de
Smet, in his 'Histoire de Belge.' "The news of the arrival
of the Spanish general caused the workshops to be every-
where deserted. Carrying with them their industry, thou-
sands quitted their country, or enrolled themselves under
the insurgent standard. Holland, France, but especially
England, offered them an asylum; the provident Elizabeth
did not confine her views merely to the relief of her
religious partisans, but sought to transfer into her kingdom
those prosperous trades of the Low Countries which the
adjoining states had looked upon with invidious eyes.
She succeeded beyond her most sanguine hopes, and thus
eventually procured, with the aid of Belgian exiles, manu-
facturing pre-eminence to her country."
C
Lewis Roberts, who published in 1641 a little treatise
on trade, called the Treasure of Traffic,' says, "The town
of Manchester buys the linen yarn of the Irish in great
quantity, and, weaving it, returns the same again in linen into
Ireland to sell. Neither does her industry rest here, for they
buy cotton wool in London, that comes from Cyprus and
Smyrna, and work the same into fustians, vermillions, and
dimities, which they return to London, where they are sold;
and from thence not seldom are sent into such foreign parts
where the first materials may be more easily had for that
manufacture." This fact of returning the manufactured
article from England to the native country of the raw
material, which attracted the attention of Roberts in one case,
has become in our times a general feature of British trade.
C
It would, however, appear, that long before the date of
the Treasure of Traffic,' cotton fabrics must have been com-
monly wrought in this island, for we find a sumptuary Scotch
law, enacted by King James in 1621, directing "that servants
shall have no silk on their cloths, except buttons and garters,
and shall wear only cloth, fustians, and canvas of Scotch
manufacture." It is possible indeed that the name fustian,
from its Spanish import of substance, may be here given
to some kind of substantial mixed stuff, different from the
cotton fustian of Guicciardini.
100
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
Considerable obscurity is occasioned by the different
meanings attached to the word cotton in English works
about a century and a half or two centuries ago. It seems
to have been corruptly used for coating, and denoted a species
of woollen stuffs made for that purpose. Thus Leland,
in his Itinerary, written so far back as Henry VIII., says,
that "
Bolton-upon-Moor market standeth most by cottons;
divers villages in the moors about Bolton do make cottons."
The sense of this passage is cleared up by the terms of an
act subsequently passed, in 1552, under Edward VI., for
regulating the manufacture of woollen cloth, in which it is
stated, "that all the cottons, called Manchester, Lancashire,
and Cheshire cottons, full wrought to the sale, shall be in length
twenty-two yards, and contain in breadth three-quarters of
a yard in the water, and shall weigh thirty pounds in the
piece at the least." Camden also may be quoted to prove the
woollen texture of the cottons of those days; for he says
"that Manchester excels the towns immediately around it,
in handsomeness, populousness, woollen manufactures, market-
place, church and college, but did much more excel them in
the last age, as well by the glory of its woollen cloths,
which they call Manchester cottons, as by the privilege of
sanctuary, which the authority of parliament, under Henry
VIII., transferred to Chester." From an act passed in the
reign of Elizabeth, in 1566, we find that a certain quality
of goods at Shrewsbury bore the name of "Welsh cottons,
frizes, and plains;" language applicable only to woollen.
fabrics. Nay, at the present day a strange solecism remains
in the language of Cumberland, where a peculiar woollen
article of the coarsest kind still retains its ancient name of
Kendal cottons, which it had five hundred years ago, when
no such thing as genuine cotton was known in the king-
dom.
">
But India continued to be so greatly ahead of Europe in
the arts of spinning and weaving cotton during more than a cen-
tury after Roberts's publication, as to give to the different Com-
panies trading to the East a monopoly in the supply of cotton
goods. The activity of this trade with England alone may
be inferred from the following declamation of the celebrated
Daniel Defoe in favour of our native manufactures:
"We saw our persons of quality," says Daniel Defoe,
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
101
“dressed in Indian carpets, which, but a few years before,
their chambermaids would have thought too ordinary for
them; the chintzes were advanced from lying on their floors
to their backs, from the foot-cloth to the petticoat, and even
the queen herself at that time was pleased to appear in
China and Japan, I mean China silks and calico; nor was
this all, but it crept into our houses, our closets, and bed-
chambers; curtains, cushions, chairs, and, at last, beds them-
selves were nothing but calicoes or Indian stuffs, and, in
short, almost everything that used to be made of wool or silk,
relating either to the dress of the women or the furniture of
our houses, was supplied by the Indian trade. What re-
mained, then, for our people to do, but to stand still and
look on, see the bread taken out of their mouths, and the
East India trade carry away the whole employment of their
people? What had the masters to do but to dismiss their
journeymen, and take no more apprentices? What had the
journeymen to do but to sit still, grow poor, run away, and
starve ? Let any man but look into the cargoes exported and
imported between 1697 and 1699, and he will find the
account so surprising that a man hardly dare put it in print,
there being exported in bullion only, besides goods, and by
the companies, besides private trade, 7,157,372 ounces of
plate, and the cargo home amounted in the hands of the
retailers to above £7,000,000 sterling; that several single
ships brought home 200,000 pieces of goods at a time,
directly interfering with our home manufactures, and, besides
the humour of the times, being on many accounts to be sold
beyond all proportion cheaper than anything could be made
here."
"Let no man wonder," he adds, "the Parliament, as
soon as they were made sensible of this, came readily into
the prohibition."
"The several goods brought from India are made, five
parts in six, under our price, and being imported and sold
at an extravagant advantage, were yet capable of underselling
the cheapest thing we could set about."*
The following description of Hindoo industry will account
for this great production:-Women of all castes prepare
the cotton thread for the weaver, spinning the thread on a
* Defoe's Weekly Review, January and February, 1708.
102
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
piece of wire, or a very thin rod of polished iron with a ball
of clay at one end; this they turn round with the left hand,
and supply the cotton with the right; the thread is then
wound upon a stick or pole, and sold to the merchants
or weavers; for the coarser thread the women make use of a
wheel very similar to that of the English spinster, though

Fig. 1.-Hindoo Weaver at his Loom.
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
103
upon a smaller construction. The mother of a family in
some instances will procure as much as from 78. to 10S.
a month by spinning cotton. The tanties or weavers are
in six divisions, which have no intercourse with each other,
so as to visit or intermarry. They lay the frame of their
loom on the ground, and sitting with their feet hanging down
in a hole cut in the earth, they carry on their work.-See
fig. 1.
The coarse cloths worn by the natives are made in almost
every village. At the Dhaku factory, some years ago, cloths
to the value of 80 lacks of rupees were brought by the
Company in one year; at Shantee-pooru the purchases in
some years amount to 12 or 15 lacks; at Maldu to nearly the
same sum, and at other places to 6 or 12 lacks; I give these
amounts from bare report. Muslins are there made which
sell at 100 rupees a piece. Persons with whom I have con-
versed on this subject say, that at two places in Bengal,
Sonar-ga and Vicknum-pooru, muslins are made by a few
families so exceedingly fine, that four months are required to
weave one piece, which sells at 400 or 500 rupees. When
this muslin is laid on the grass, and the dew has fallen upon it,
it is no longer discernible. The wool, or rather hair, which
grows upon the Bengal sheep is so short and coarse that a
warm garment can scarcely be manufactured from it.*
Of the exquisite degree of perfection, says the eloquent
historian of British India, to which the Hindoos have carried
the productions of the loom, it would be idle to offer any
description, as there are few objects with which the inhabit-
ants of Europe are better acquainted; no modern nation can
vie in the delicacy and fineness of its cotton textures with
Hindostan. It is observed, at the same time, by intelligent
travellers, that this is the only art which the original inhabit-
ants of that country have carried to any considerable degree
of perfection. To the skill of the Hindoo in this art several
causes contributed; his climate and soil conspired to furnish
him with an abundance of the raw materials, and its fabric is
a sedentary employment, in harmony with the dislike of loco-
motion generated by the atmospheric temperature. It requires
patience, of which he has an inexhaustible fund; it requires
* A View of the History, &c. of the Hindoos, by William Ward, of
Serampore. 3rd Edition, 1820, vol. iii. pp. 125-7.
104
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
little bodily exertion, of which he is always exceedingly
sparing; and the finer the tissue the more slender the force
which he is called upon to apply; the weak and delicate frame
of the Hindoo, moreover, is accompanied with an acuteness
of external sense, particularly of touch, which is altogether
unrivalled, and the flexibility of his fingers is equally remark-
able; the hand of the Hindoo, therefore, constitutes an organ
adapted to the finest operations of the loom, in a degree
which is almost or altogether peculiar to himself.
A people, says Orme, born under a sun too sultry to admit
the exercises and fatigues necessary to form a robust nation,
will, naturally, from the weakness of their bodies (especially
if they have few wants) endeavour to obtain their scanty
livelihood by the easiest labours; it is from hence, perhaps,
that the manufactures of cloth are so multiplied in Hindo-
stan; spinning and weaving are the slighest tasks that a man
can be set to, and the numbers that do nothing else in this
country are exceeding.
The following more minute picture of the manufacture of
India as it has existed probably from primeval times, may
prove interesting to some readers; I have extracted it from
the second volume of a manuscript account of Behar and
Patna, by Dr. F. Buchanan, preserved in the library of the
East India Company.
"A great deal of the cotton is freed from the seed by the
women who spin it, and a part of this is also beaten by the
same persons, but the Dhuniyas, who make a profession of
cleaning and beating cotton, separate the seed from some, and
beat the greater part. Perhaps one-third of them have stock
enough to enable them to buy a little cotton, which they clean
and then retail; the remainder work entirely for hire. A
man and his wife can make from three to four rupees a
month. In country places they are very often paid in grain.
At Arwal they are allowed 1 ser of grain for beating one
ser of cotton; and in one day a man beats four sērs (45 s. w.
equal to about 4 lbs., and of course receives 6 lbs. of grain.
Those who have a little capital may make 4 or 5 rupees a
month.
"In every division I procured an estimate of the propor-
tion of women who spin cotton, of the average quantity of
cotton that cach spins, and of the value of the thread. Such
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE,
105
estimates are liable to numerous objections; but it is pro-
bable when a number of them are taken, that the errors of the
one will be nearly corrected by those of the others, so that
the average will be not far from the truth. Allowing that the
women of an age fit to spin are one-fifth of the population,
the estimates that I procured will give for the whole thus
employed 330,426 spinners. Now by far the greater part of
these spin only a few hours in the afternoon; and, upon the
average estimate, the whole value of the thread that each
spins in the year is worth nearly 7R. 2A. 8P., giving for the
total annual value 2,367,277 rupees; and by a similar average
calculation, the raw material, at the retail price, will amount
to 1,286,272 rupees, leaving a profit of 1,081,005 rupees for
the spinners, or 3 rupees for each. But there are many
women who spin assiduously, and who have no interruptions
from children or family, and these make much more, espe-
cially where the thread is fine; there being no sort of com-
parison between the reward allowed for such, and that given
to those who spin coarse thread. As the demand, therefore,
for fine goods has been for some years constantly diminish-
ing, the women have suffered very much. Another calcu-
lation agrees so well with the above that I have little doubt
of the general accuracy of both. An estimate was made in
each of the divisions of the number of looms employed, of
the quantity and value of thread required annually for each,
if employed in working at the usual rate, and the most usual
kind of goods, and the following is the result:
Cotton thread required for cotton cloths
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
for mixed cloths
for tape, carpets, tent ropes, &c.
for sewing-thread, &c. .
Rupees.
2,229,979
101,762
37,125
2,000
2,370,866
"Some thread is both exported and imported. Taking
the amount at the statements which I received, the excess of
that imported will be worth 30,500 rupees, which would reduce
the demand on the thread of this district to about 2,340,356
rupees in place of 2,367,277 rupees, which I have allowed
to be spun; but, at Bhagalpur, it was said that 1,450 rupees
worth of thread was there imported from Patna; and at Pura-
VOL, 1.
H
106
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
niya there is imported to the value of 12,000 rupees, of which
a half comes probably from the same town, while the mer-
chants here only allowed an export of 3,420 rupees.
"The whole thread is spun on the small wheel common in
India, and the implements for cleaning and beating the cot-
ton are not different from those that are usual. No rank is
considered here as degraded by spinning.
"The cotton weavers are numerous. Those of Phatuha
are employed in weaving cotton diaper, (khēs,) which the
natives use as a dress; but the great demand is for Euro-
peans, who use the manufacture for table linen. By far the
greater proportion of the cotton weavers is employed in
making coarse cloths for country use, but a good many make
finer goods for exportation. The amount of thread required
is 1,771,379 rupees, and the value of the cloth 2,438,621
rupees, leaving a profit of 667,242 rupees, or 28½ rupees
for
each loom. It may be supposed that the finer qualities of
goods taken for exportation would diminish the value of raw
material, and increase the total value of the commodity, but
that would not appear to be the case. Although the quan-
tity of thread is no doubt less, yet as the reward for spin-
ning the fine is much higher than that for spinning the
coarse, the actual value is perhaps a little higher than I have
stated, and may reduce the average profit to 28 rupees
a year for each loom. Each man on becoming bound (asami)
to the Company receives 2 rupees, and engages not to work
for any person until he has made as much as the Company
requires; no other advance has ever been made by the com-
mercial residents. The agent orders each man to make a
certain number of pieces of such or such goods, and he is paid
for each on delivery according to the price stated in the tables.
This shows clearly that the system of advance is totally un-
necessary; but it is here pursued by all the native dealers,
as keeping the workmen in a state of dependence little better,
if so good, as slavery.
"The loom is of the imperfect structure usual in India;
and where starch is used to facilitate the working, it is made
from the root called kandri. It must be observed that all
the Indian weavers who work for common sale, make the woof
of one end of the cloth coarser than that of the other, and
attempt to sell it to the unwary by the fine end, although
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
107
every one almost who deals with them is perfectly aware of
the circumstance, and although in the course of his life any
weaver may not ever have an opportunity of gaining by this
means. The same desire of illicit gain induces him almost
universally to make the pieces somewhat shorter than the
regular length.*
*
"The coarser goods intended for market sale are always
sold as they come from the loom, but those intended for pri-
vate sale are all bleached, and many of them undergo opera-
tions by different classes of tradesmen. It must be observed
that in this district the weavers were bound to act as porters
for conveying the goods of travellers; and when any person
of rank or authority calls upon the zemindar for such, the
weavers are still required to perform this office. On some
estates they are, on this account, allowed an exemption from
ground-rent for their houses; on others they are taxed at a
higher than usual rate.
"At Behar, a class of artists called parchahkush is em-
ployed to put all the threads in the bleached cloth at equal
distances. The cloth made there being very thin, the opera-
tion of bleaching brings the threads into clusters, leaving
many parts almost in holes. These workmen place all the
threads at equal distances with a wooden comb. In some
other places a needle is used. Many fine pieces of cloth
are ornamented at the ends with the flattened gold and silver
wire called bad-la, which, as the natives use the pieces entire,
looks very showy. It is not woven into the cloth, but put in
with a needle.
"In each piece of the muslins of Behar, the pieces of
which are 2 cubits wide, the workmen who perform this
operation stitch from 5 to 7 bands of this bad-la, each con-
sisting of 350 wires. The workmen receive 4 anas for the
100; and a man can daily put in from 50 to 70. Allow that
he puts in 60, and works 26 days a month, he will receive
about 4 rupees (31%); and 32,000 cubits of the wire costing
I rupee, he has about 37 rupees a month for profit.
6
"The Chhapagars put gold and silver flowers on fine mus-
* <<
Stamp-masters might be employed as a check; but the powers
requisite to be vested in such persons could not, I doubt, be given to
any persons to be found here, without producing greater abuses than
those which stamp-masters could remedy.'
108
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
lin by a very simple process. They stamp the cloth in the
form wished with common glue, and then apply gold and
silver leaf, which adheres to the glue, but rubs off where
that has not been applied. Of course this cloth cannot be
washed, but is very showy, and used only on high occasions.
"All the blanket weavers are shepherds."

Autóhiшid":
Fig. 2.-Bowing of Cotton, as practised in India and China.
The Hindoo bow for cleaning cotton is made of bamboo,
and is fastened by strings to the wall of the room, at about
five feet from the floor. To the middle of this bow a cord is
tied, to which a second bow is attached of a larger size,
strung with thick cat-gut. This second bow hangs about
two feet above the ground. The man sits down, lays hold
of it with the left hand, and holds a strong ebony club in his
right. Thus equipped, he strikes the string of the bow with
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
109
his club, so as to make it toss a flock of the foul cotton,
spread upon the floor round about him, up into the air with
great violence, and thus discharge its impurities.
I have already remarked, that the Mahometans spin the
hard twisted warps; the softer woofs are spun by the Hindoo
women, and are almost the only occupation by which they
can earn the trifle requisite for the supply of their humble
wants. They are indefatigable at their distaff, are at work
before daylight, buy their weekly stock of cotton at the
village market, and sell their weekly stock of yarn to their
weaving neighbours. When the demand for Indian goods
was considerable, it was delightful to contemplate the lively
scene, for every man, woman, and child cheerfully plied their
respective tasks in the open air. The universality of this
trade in the Indian villages has been justly ascribed to the
people being disqualified for robust exercise and severe
exertions by the enervating influence of the climate. From
the weakness of their bodies, therefore, they endeavour to
satisfy their slender wants by the easiest industry.
In the northern parts of the kingdom of the Moguls,
where the men have more bodily strength, they weave hair
or the coarser cloth; whereas on the coast of Coromandel
and in the province of Bengal, it is rare to find a village
the least retired from the public road, where every man,
woman, and child is not employed in making a piece of
cotton cloth.
There are many districts in Asia and its islands equally
propitious to the growth of cotton as Bengal, where the sun
is as sultry and the people as unwarlike; yet this elegant
branch of industry has hardly an existence among them. A
more just cause for its exceeding prevalence in southern Hin-
dostan is the peculiar delicacy of tact of the natives of that
region, for as much as they are deficient in mere muscular
strength, so much are they endowed with exquisite sensibility
and pliancy in every organ and limb. The hand of an
Indian cook-maid is more delicately formed than that of an
European beauty. An English workman could scarcely
manage to work a piece of canvas with the simple loom
with which the Gentoo weaves his gossamer muslin. His
calling receives encouragement from public estimation.
A weaver is there no ignoble caste, upon which patrician
110
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
Hindoos can look down with disdain. He takes next rank to
the scribe, and above all other mechanics. Were he to con-
descend to the performance of any drudgery out of the line
of his business, he would lose his caste. This distribution
of labour is of very ancient date. Every peculiar kind
of cloth is the production of a peculiar district, in which it
has been fabricated from generation to generation by cer-
tain races of men, each continuing to practise with minute
precision the process of his predecessor. Thus it was their
fine physical organization, guided by hereditary industry and
experience, which, as we have already stated, gave to Hindo-
stan the monopoly of the cotton trade for at least three
thousand years.
Of this extraordinary delicacy of tact, Orme gives the follow-
ing example in describing the silk manufactures of Bengal.
"The women wind off the raw silk from the pod of the
worm; a single pod of raw silk is divided into twenty
different degrees of fineness; and so exquisite is the feeling
of these women, that while the thread is running through their
fingers so swiftly that their eye can be of no assistance, they
will break it off exactly as the assortments change, at once,
from the first to the twentieth, from the nineteenth to the
second."
Concerning the fineness of Indian fabrics, many surprising
stories are told. The Emperor Aurungzebe, who flourished
at the commencement of the last century, on perceiving his
daughter arrayed in a semi-transparent tissue, reproached
her with its indecency; she defended herself by assuring
him, that her robe was wrapped nine times round her body.
Tavernier relates, that a Persian ambassador, on his return
from India, presented his king with a cocoa-nut, which con-
tained a muslin turban, thirty yards long, and which when
expanded in the air could hardly be felt. Some of their
broad webs of muslin may be drawn through a wedding-
ring.
The quantity of cotton goods manufactured in India
must have been exceedingly great, though no accurate
statistical accounts of them are given. Within the Madras
presidency not very long ago, there were eleven active factories
or emporia of cotton goods, which produced to the value
of a million sterling. But this sunshine of Hindoo trade
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
111
has been for many years in a declining state, and can never be
expected to revive under the competition of goods produced
by British machinery. From the year 1821, when the first
notable importation of English cotton twist into India took
place, the speedy decline of its cotton manufactures might be
predicted. Since then the throstle and mule jenny, the
two great arms of the Manchester Briareus, have been
making frightful havoc among Asiatic industry, depriving
its myriads of spinners of their only resource,-dexterity at
the distaff. Thus mankind, by the avariciously directed arts
of peace, may come to prey on one another with as fatal an influ-
ence as by the arts of war. Prior to the above period, how-
ever, the muslin and long-cloth of Great Britain had, in no
small degree, supplanted the perkals and calicoes of Hindo-
stan in the markets of the world. This fact will appear
astonishing, if we compare merely the price of labour in
India and England. The retees or the weavers' elderly
wives, who are the most dexterous of hand-spinners, earn
only three farthings a day in producing the finest yarn,
worth at one time from £3 to £4 sterling a pound, which is
more than thirty times the price of the raw material;
whereas the Manchester spinner with his machine can
afford to make his fine yarn for one half the cost of its
labour in India. Reckoning the mean price of fine cotton-
wool in Great Britain at 2s. 6d., and in India at 5d., the
cost of our labour and materials united would be considerably
less than one half. Thus for example, the fine yarn of 250
hanks to a pound, costs, by Mr. Kennedy's statement, 358.
per pound in England, of which 48. are allowed for material
and waste, and 318. for labour; and a pound of similarly
fine yarn costs in India 84s., of which only 8d. can be
charged for material and waste, leaving 838. 4d. for the
cost of spinning, which at the rate of even 2d. wages per
day, is equivalent to 500 days, or to a period of nearly
one year and a half of constant occupation! Such is the
marvellous superiority of the iron fingers of Arkwright.
and Crompton over the limber and dexterous hands of the
Hindoos. In this estimate, a spindle, whether moved by
hand or power, is supposed to spin half a bank of yarn
daily; equal to nearly one quarter of a mile in length.
The Indian yarn of the finest quality, such as exists.
112
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
100 0
1
1500
in the celebrated Dacca muslin, transparent as the woven wind,
is very irregularly twisted, and appears in the microscope
like an ill-made hair-rope bristling with loose strands. The
fibres obviously belong to ill-cultivated gossypium herbaceum,
and are mostly riband shaped. The transparency of the web
arises from the transparency retained by these riband filaments
in their separate state; for if they were twisted more closely
they would form a nearly opaque yarn, like the British. The
filaments vary in diameter from 1 to 10 of an inch, and
are therefore much coarser than those of Sea-Island cotton.
Some of the yarns in the web consist of six filaments, others
of seven, eight, and more; so that they possess little uni-
formity. A piece of fine British book-muslin, viewed by
the same magnifying power, presents a very different aspect.
The yarns are regular cords, most equably twisted, without
any bristling ends; and consist of cylindric filaments, very
faintly translucent. On viewing the fine Indian yarn, it is
easy to comprehend how the looseness of its cohesion should
require the web to be woven upon some occasions under
water, in order to give it support, as the anatomist develops
filmy textures while afloat in the same medium.
The cotton when spun is delivered to the winders, who
are frequently the younger wives or girls. The winding
machine consists of three parallel bars of wood laid flat on
the ground, and kept in their places by a cross piece.
From the upper surface of the bars, pegs stand up, round
which the yarn is wound from the bobbins in a horizontal
direction. The coarser yarn is used for the chain or warp
of the web, the finer for the woof. The former is prepared for
the weaver by boiling in hot water, and then plunging it into
cold; but the woof, being usually less coherent, is strengthened
by the gluten of cow-dung; for it is first soaked in water
mixed with a little of that substance, then wrung out, laid
in a covered vessel for some days to become uniform, and
lastly dried in the sun.
The next process is the warping. The machine used
for this purpose consists of a straight range of bamboo
sticks about three feet long, stuck on end in the ground, two
feet apart. Young persons are taught to run nimbly with
the bobbins in their hands along that range, interlacing the
yarn round each stick upon alternate sides, and applying
Σ
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
113
it uniformly by means of a guide composed of a bamboo
having a ring fastened to its point. When the warping is
finished, additional sticks are inserted between the others to
keep the yarns in their position; after which the whole is
rolled up with the bamboos, immersed in a tank of water
for a short time, and trodden with the feet to insure its
thorough saturation. It is next taken out, dried, remounted
by fixing the bamboo sticks once more in the ground, and
carefully examined by the weaver to see what threads are
broken that he may mend them. The sticks being now
withdrawn, the warp is laid along trestles about a yard high,
placed at regular distances, and is rubbed over with rice
water of a mucilaginous nature, kept till it has become
sour. This corresponds to the weaver's dressing in Europe.
The chain of yarn must now be carefully arranged, first
with the fingers and then with a whisk of slender twigs, in
order to place the threads truly parallel, as well as to smooth
and clean them. Lastly a mucilage of boiled rice is spread
over the warp to stiffen it, and when dry it is softened by
rubbing it with oil. It is now ready for the loom.
This process was deemed so important as to be regulated
by ancient statute. "Let a weaver who has received ten
patas of cotton thread give them back increased to eleven by
the rice water, and the like used in weaving; he who does
otherwise shall pay a fine of twelve panas."-(Institutes of
Hindoo Law, chap. viii. sec. 397, by Sir William Jones.)
The tanty, or Hindoo weaver, digs first a hole in the
earth for his legs, so as to be conveniently seated on the
ground. He then drives two strong bamboo stakes into the earth
at a distance apart proportional to the breadth of his web,
and near enough to a wall or a tree for fixing the stakes to
it by slender bamboos. The Engraving (see fig. 1, page 102)
represents the primitive oriental loom. It consists merely
of two roller beams resting on two pairs of stakes driven
into the ground, and two sticks which cross the chain or
warp, and which are supported at each end, the one of
them by two cords tied to the palm tree, under whose shade
the loom is placed, and the other of them by two cords
fastened to the foot of the weaver. These enable him to
part the alternate yarns, for the purpose of traversing
the warp with the woof. A very rude stick or wooden bar
114
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
serves the weaver for a shuttle, which answers also the
purpose of a batten for driving home each woof yarn against
its predecessor, so as to. give the cloth the proper close-
ness of texture. The loops beneath the geer, into which he
inserts his great toes, serve him for treddles, and with his
long shuttle he both draws the weft through the warp, and
closes it up. With such awkward mechanism as this, are
woven those muslins of aërial fineness, transparent and
delicate as the gossamer web. The reed is indeed like our
our own, and is the only thing made with the appearance of
mechanical skill.
The destruction of the Mahometan dynasty in Hindostan
gave a deadly blow to the manufactures of Dacca, the beauti-
ful fabrics of which were bought principally for the court
dresses of the emperor and his omrahs. The perkals, so
called from a Tamul word signifying superfine, were made in
the Carnatic of a silky cotton grown in the plain of Arcot.
The district of Condover furnishes the showy handkerchiefs
of Masulipatam. Chintzes are produced chiefly in the
Calcutta and Benares districts, and in the Masulipatam
district of the Circars.
From the division of labour between Mahometan and
Hindoo workpeople, we have already shown that the cotton
trade of India has not continued stationary since the in-
stitution of castes, but received certain modifications along
with the Arabian dynasty. Mr. Richards indeed stated in
the parliamentary discussion of 1814, upon the renewal of
the East India Company's charter, that the distinction of
castes, which assigns to the son of a Hindoo the trade of his
father, is now maintained chiefly by the pressure of fiscal
exactions, and the abject poverty of the people. In Calcutta
and Bombay the Hindoo population have emancipated them-
selves very much from their ancient trammels, and have
displayed equal energy and intelligence in commercial trans-
actions. The time is probably not far distant when the
benefits of knowledge and the blessings of religion will be
largely imparted to that gentle race, and enable them to take
a more important share in the arts of civilized life. Hitherto
the cotton trade has done no more for their dignity and
comfort than the manufactures did for the slaves of the
Roman grandees. Both laboured for hard taskmasters in a
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
115
huckster-like way, and received the scantiest livelihood in
return. No motive was presented to their minds to improve
their respective processes, and to multiply their productive
powers; for the fruit of any such improvements would not
have been reaped by them. What a contrast in this point of
view is afforded by the arts of Great Britain and those of
India! None of the Oriental rajahs, however favoured with
opulence and tranquillity, ever appear to have proposed the
introduction of better implements, or the association of
scattered workpeople into a manufactory.
However re-
putable the profession of the Tanty in the scale of castes, it
seems never to have been lucrative enough to procure for
him or his descendants sufficient capital for the commercial
part of his business.
While the East India Company made their remittances to
Europe in cotton goods, they were obliged to advance,
through their residents at the different stations, not only the
cotton wool, but the funds requisite to support the workman
and his family during the progress of the manufacture.
Under this officer, as chief, a corps of European servants
was placed, who watched over and directed the native clerks
and peons, or immediate superintendents of the weavers; the
resident sent forth his proposals for certain quantities of
goods to the native merchants, who treated in their turn
with the workpeople. As soon as the terms were agreed upon,
the resident advanced the funds to the contractors, who dis-
tributed them at his discretion, and became responsible for
the delivery of the manufactures at the Company's stores,
according to stipulation. The Company's resident never
interfered with the contractors in their details, unless com-
plaints were made of fraud, delay, or the interference of
contractors acting in other interests; in this case peons were
despatched to intimidate, and if necessary to coerce, the
weaver. When the weavers had no engagement for the
Company, the resident had the privilege of employing them
on his own account; he became hereby a person of great
importance to the people, and was regarded by them as the
chief source of their subsistence, and the main-spring of
their industry; hence, although the native brokers who acted
as contractors for the Portuguese and other traders, did offer
a higher price for the goods than the British resident had
116
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
fixed, the weavers, however strongly tempted to evade his
orders or to smuggle away their cloth, never durst openly
dispute his commands.
They were taught to consider the commercial resident as a
man of authority, and not as a mere merchant: he dwelt in
a palace, and was surrounded by all the pomp and circum-
stance of high station, the moral effect of which is well known
to all who have been in India. Correct, too, and honourable
as he himself may have been, the details of his duties mainly
devolved on sircars and other subordinate employés spread
over the district, with much real and more assumed power,
and more or less corrupt from the inadequacy of their
salaries in comparison with their means of extortion and
tyranny. Some light is thrown on the compulsory tendency
of the Company's commercial system by the 8th paragraph of
the Board's letter, dated 27th April, 1827, which is as
follows: "It will therefore be your duty to explain these
matters fully to the peons and rearers of cocoons employed
under your factory, so as to prepare their minds to submit
without murmuring to the prices you may deem it necessary
under these orders to determine on granting them for the silk
and cocoons produced during the several bunds of the year,
impressing it at the same time upon them, as a matter of
absolute necessity, that they will seek in vain to elude the opera-
tion of the system now about to be established, by carrying their
cocoons away from their own factory in order to deliver them
into a neighbouring factory for the sake of obtaining increased
prices, because by so doing they will inevitably meet with dis-
appointment." *
Such unlimited influence over a simple people in a remote
district no doubt led to frequent acts of injustice. Various
laws and regulations were enacted to protect the weavers
against oppression, but it is believed with little effect, for the
sovereign power which ought to have administered impartial
laws was, in fact, the avaricious and needy trader, whose
interest it was to be unjust. Now that the India Company
has ceased to be traders, they will have no motive to harass
the Tantys through the medium of resident contractors, but
will leave them at full liberty to bring their industry to the
* Mr. Brucken-Appendix to Report on E. I. C. Affairs, p. 521.
THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
117
best market. In such circumstances the Indian artisan will
find his condition vastly improved; he will be persuaded to
employ his dexterity under more liberal auspices, and will be
furnished with better implements to sustain the competition
against European rivalry. A style of goods may thus be
produced surpassing in beauty anything ever manufactured
for the court of the Grand Mogul. It is not probable that
the Hindoo will submit to the irksome confinement of a
factory, but with a better cotton yarn and better loom he
may be able to fabricate his peculiar light muslins at so
cheap a rate as to make head in some measure against the
overwhelming rescurces of Europe. The late attempt to
erect a cotton factory at Calcutta seems to have been in-
judicious, and failed; a second company have indeed re-
sumed the scheme, but they can hope for little more success;
they had, some time since, nearly 700 persons employed in
their spinning-mill at the rate of 78. each in the month; but
they found these native workmen incapable of sticking to
their task more than a few hours at a time, and they require,
therefore, two or more relays of hands in a day. Such
individuals can never become proficient spinners, nor even at
the low rate of wages can they furnish yarn fit to cope in the
market with the production of Lancashire; it is only by
giving every encouragement to their exquisitely fine faculties
and endowments that they can be expected to become profit-
able scrvants to an enterprising manufacturer. Instead of
being under the necessity, as at present, of taking down their
loom every evening and erecting it every morning, or stop-
ping their labours every rainy day, they should be provided
with covered galleries, open at the sides, as warping and
weaving shops, in which the work could go on uninter-
ruptedly upon the plan of alternate labour, to which they
have been long familiar; they should also be provided with
the means of better cotton-husbandry by the introduction of
a better cotton-seed, a better system of agriculture, and a
better gin for cleaning the wool. Thus seconded in a kindly
spirit, the Hindoo artisan might once more delight the
luxurious with webs of incomparable elegance, at such a
price as would ensure for them an extensive and ready sale.
Yarn continues to be spun and muslins to be manufactured
at Dacca, to which European ingenuity can afford no parallel ;
118 ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE.
such, indeed, as has led a competent judge to say it is
beyond his conception how this yarn, greatly finer than the
highest number made in England, can be spun by the distaff
and spindle, or woven afterwards by ANY machinery.
It is in spinning the more tenacious warp-yarn that
machinery has the greatest advantage over the hand, and
accordingly it was that description called twist which first
made its way from this country into India. In 1815 the
small quantity of eight pounds was sent out on trial, and in
the same year the importation of British white and printed
cotton goods into India amounted to nearly 800,000 yards,
the whole of which was probably purchased by our country-
men; but in 1830 the quantity of British cloth imported
into India had increased to 45,000,000 yards, indicating a
prodigious extension of sale all over the Peninsula, even
among the natives, to the exclusion of their own fabrics,
which could not be afforded at so moderate a price. In the
preceding year, 1829, no less than 3,185,639 pounds of
cotton twist had been introduced into India. From the
extent of these importations some idea may be formed of the
vast field for the cotton trade which exists in Southern Asia.
The Tantys must have taken very readily to the weaving of
British warp, for in 1824 only 121,000 pounds were intro-
duced for their looms, while five years thereafter they con-
sumed twenty-five times the quantity. This rapid extension
of commercial intercourse from England to India was owing
entirely to the spirit of private merchants; the Company
were as remiss in this respect as they have always been in
ameliorating the culture of cotton.
The average price of the twist imported into India in 1829
was 18. 34d. per pound. In the year 1834, 4,267,653 pounds
of cotton twist and yarn were imported from Great Britain
into the East India Company's territories and Ceylon, of
which the total declared value was £315,583, being at the
rate of 18. 54d. per pound. The greatest importation, how-
ever, took place in 1831, when it amounted to 6,624,823
pounds in weight, and to £467,861 in value. In 1834 about
40,000,000 yards of cotton cloth were imported into India.
For a view of the quantities of cotton twist and yarn
imported into other countries in these years, see the Statis-
tical Table in the Appendix at the end.
119
BOOK II.
NATURAL HISTORY AND HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
CHAPTER I.
Natural History.
700
2500
THE filamentous down which invests the seeds of the gossy-
pium, a plant of the natural order malvaceæ or mallows, is
the substance called in English commerce cotton-wool, and
in French coton en laine, from its resemblance to the fibrous
fleece of the sheep. It is usually white, of various shades of
purity; but it is sometimes cream-coloured, and at others
iron-yellow or tawny. The filaments, when viewed in a
good achromatic microscope, appear to be for the most part
riband-formed or flattened cylinders, with a thickened list at
either edge, and veins of embroidery running along the
middle. They vary in length from half an inch to one inch
and three-quarters; and in breadth from too of an
inch, tapering always to a fine point at their ends. These
variations in length and breadth belong to plants of different
growths and countries, the filaments being pretty uniform in
the average product of each particular crop. The lustre of
cotton, as seen in the microscope is pearly, whereas that of
flax is vitreous. Whether a cylinder or a riband, the cotton
fibre is seldom or never straight like that of flax, but is either
twisted right and left or coiled like a corkscrew Those of
the best Sea Island, the most valuable species of cotton, very
commonly appear to be beautiful spiral springs, singularly
adapted to the spinning process, readily entwining with, and
sliding over, each other, during the formation of a thread,
with an easy elastic force. There are no feathery margins,
as some writers have described.
The word cotton may be traced most clearly to the lan-
guage of Arabia, a country where the plant is indigenous,

120
NATURAL HISTORY AND
where it was probably applied to clothing purposes in the in-
fancy of the human race, and whence, undoubtedly, it was
brought into Western Europe at the era of the Mahometan
conquest. The texile down is called in Arabia gotn or gootn,
which signifies also soft; a word evidently identical with
the Spanish godon, or algodon, formed like alkali and alko-
hol of the prefix article al, and the noun. Skinner's deri-
vation from cydonium, the quince, from its near resemblance
to the down which adheres to that kind of apple is unworthy
of criticism. Cotonea and cydonea are two words equally
applied by Pliny to the quince. The following names have
been given to cotton in different languages :-
Greek
Latin
Italian
Georgian
India
French
German
•
•
Dutch
Danish
Swedish
•
Spanish
Portuguese
Russian
Mcngul
Chinese
•
•
Bombyx, Xylon.
Gossypium, Bombax.
Cotone, Bombagia.
Bomby, Bamba.
Kopa, whence the English term cop for a pirn
of cotton yarn.
Cotonnier for the plant; Coton for the wool.
Kattunwölle, Baumwölle.
Kétoen, Boomwol.
Bomold.
Bomull.
Algodon.
Algodno, Algodeiro.
Bomaga, Chloptscha taja.
Kobung.
Cay-Haung, Hoa-Mien.
Gossypium or cotton constitutes a perfectly natural family
of plants, in which the specific differences are remarkably
slight. Since the filamentous down, which invests the seeds,
differs exceedingly in quality and value in different varieties.
of the plant, corresponding botanical distinctions have been
sought after with great assiduity, but hitherto with very little
success. Indeed, M. Decandolle, one of the most eminent
botanists of the age, confesses that the family gossypium stands
much in need of more minute investigation. The botanical
characters have been taken from the leaves, the stipules, the
glands, the spots, the colour, the hairs on the stem, and the
durability of the plant. The leaves are subject to great
variations in the form of their subdivisions or lobes, not
merely in the same species, but in the same individual shrub,
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
121
On one stem may be found two or three very different forms
of foliage, resulting from soil, climate, and cultivation. Glands
have been noted as distinctive of peculiar species, but they
may be found in all the gossypiums; nay, on the same shrub,
some leaves may be observed having only one gland, and
others with two or even three glands. The stipules are gene-
rally uniform in shape and direction. The colour, the spots,
and the hairiness of the stems or branches, are too variable
to form subjects of specific distinction. Nor is the dura-
bility of the plant constant in the same species. The shrub
cultivated as an annual at Malta, under the incorrect title of
gossypium herbaceum, may under certain circumstances last
for several years. Thus the cotton growers at Motril, in Spain,
raised many of their cotton plantations from Maltese seeds,
and yet they found the shrubs live for six or even ten years.
This change of the longevity of the plant is partly due to
husbandry and partly to climate. It may also be remarked
that all the lands which bear cotton in Spain are situated near
the sea-coast, and that they produce perennial plants, but no
annual ones. There they will thrive for eight or ten years,
provided they encounter no accidental frost. In the second
year they attain to the height of seven feet and a half, if
they are not pruned across the stem. If thus cut they will send
out lateral shoots three feet long. Cavanilles gave the name
Gossypium Peruvianum to a variety which he saw in the
province of Valencia, but there is not a cotton plantation in
Spain where he might not have observed several different shrubs
equally well marked with that fancied species. From the
intermixture of seeds such a confusion has arisen in the de-
scriptions of the gossypium, that modern botanists have hardly
been able to refer any particular cotton wool to a particular
species of plant, or to refer the plants now growing to those
described by authors two centuries ago.
Linnæus reckons five species only of the gossypium; La-
mark eight; Rohr enumerates thirty-four kinds, to which,
however, proper specific characters are not assigned, and some
writers have spoken of forty species. It belongs, in the Lin-
næan system, to the class Monadelphia and order Polyandria,
though placed by Cavanilles, the author of an elaborate mono-
graph upon it, in the order Pentandria. The following is the
description of Decandolle, which I have translated from his
VOL. I.
I
122
NATURAL HISTORY AND
admirable Prodromus, the best modern authority upon the
arrangement of botanical species.
Gossypium, or Cotton Plant.
Calyx cup-shaped, obtusely five-toothed; inclosed in a
three-cleft exterior calyx; the leaflets united at their base, of a
heart-shape, and toothed; stigmas three to five; capsule three
to five-celled, and many seeded; seeds bearing a downy wool.

Fig. 3.-Sea Island, or Long-Staple Black-seeded Cotton, of Georgia.
[From a drawing sent me by Mr. Seabrook.]
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
123
N.B. All the species are uncertain, being founded on
precarious characters. In enumerating the species recog-
nized by botanists, Decandolle intimates that the genus is
greatly in want of an accurate monography drawn up from the
life.
1. G. HERBACEUM (Linn. Sp. 975).-Leaves five-lobed with
one gland beneath; lobes round with a point; the outer calyx
serrated; stem smooth; annual, biennial, or perennial, ac-
cording to situation and circumstance: petals yellow, with
their bases spotted with purple.
2. G. INDICUM.-Leaves obtuse, three to five-lobed; no
glands beneath the outer calyx; slightly notched at the point;
stem hairy; annual, or biennial; in the East Indies; flowers
yellow with purple claws.
3. G. MICRANTHUM.-Leaves obtuse, five-lobed, very
smooth; one gland beneath; outer calyx many cleft, longer
than the petals; stem smooth and dotted; in Persia and
Ispahan.
4. G. ARBOREUM.-Leaves palmate, five-lobed, lobes ob-
tusely lanceolate, pointed with a short bristle; one gland
beneath; outer calyx pretty entire; perennial in the sandy
soils of India.
5. G. VITIFOLIUM.-Lower leaves palmate, five-lobed; upper
ones three-lobed; one gland beneath; outer calyx fringed;
inner calyx three glands at the base; stem smooth and dotted;
in the East Indies.
6. G. HIRSUTUM.-Upper leaves undivided and heart-
shaped; lower three to five-lobed, with one gland beneath;
the small branches and the petioles hairy; outer calyx three-
toothed at the apex; in South America; flowers yellow;
perennial.
7. G. EGLANDULOSUM.-Leaves five-lobed, without glands ;
three of the lobes oblong acuminated; stem woolly; outer
calyx three to four-toothed at the apex.
8. G. RELIGIOSUM.-Upper leaves, three-lobed; lower five-
lobed, one gland beneath; branches and petioles with black
dots; outer calyx with three leaflets fringed downy; the wool
of the seeds of a pale saffron colour; in the East Indies.
9. G. LATIFOLIUM.-Leaves acute, lowest undivided, the
rest three-lobed; one gland beneath.
10. G. BARBADENSE.-Upper leaves three-lobed; lower
124
NATURAL HISTORY AND
five-lobed, three glands beneath; stem smooth; seeds free;
in Barbadoes.
11. G. PERUVIANUM.-Leaves five-lobed; three glands;
lower leaves undivided; outer calyx fringed; three glands at
the base; in Peru; flowers yellow with purple claws.
12. G. PURPURASCENS.-Leaves three-lobed, downy be-
neath; ovato-lanceolate acute; outer calyx fringed; branches
somewhat downy at the end; capsule three-valved; in South
America.
13.-G. RACEMOSUM.-Very smooth, leaves subcordate
three-lobed acuminate; flowers at the ends of the branches
somewhat spreading; outer calyx fringed; capsule three-
valved; in Porto-Rico.
Species to be examined:
G. Obtusifolium.
G. Acuminatum.
G. Glandulosum.*
The following details are from other botanists:-
1. Gossypium Herbaceum.—This is the species most gene-
rally cultivated in Europe, as in Sicily, in Calabria, and in
the province of Bari. It should be called fruticosum, shrubby,
because its stem is woody and not herbaceous. It rises
commonly to the height of a foot or a foot and a half. It
exists native at Aleppo, in Upper Egypt, Arabia, and in Sene-
gal. It is distinguished from the other species of gossypium
by having the five lobes of its leaves rounded, and terminated
with a sharp point. Its capsule is three or five-celled; each
cell contains about five seeds of an ash colour. The stems,
which increase in hardness and size with the heat of the cli-
mate, are somewhat reddish, near their lower part velvety, or
hairy towards the top, and variegated with black points. The
branches are short; the leaves green, soft, pretty large, and
divided into five short lobes. The axillary peduncles to-
wards the extremity of the boughs end in a large beautiful
yellow flower; the three leaflets of the flower-cup are large,
and deeply toothed on their edges.
This species is properly an annual, and requires from seven
to eight months from its germination to the complete matura-
tion of its capsules. To this species may be referred the
* Decandolle: Prodromus.,
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
125

Fig. 4. Short Staple, or Green Seed Cotton. [From a drawing sent me by Mr. Spalding.
cottons of Cyprus, the islands of the Grecian Archipelago,
Macedonia, Natolia, Syria, and the coasts of the Caspian Sea.
But Olivier says, that this cotton plant lasts fifteen or twenty
years at Santorino and other places in the Levant, and that
it is cut down every year close to the ground, as the caper
plants are in the South of France.
Cattle are fed in Sicily with the cotton seeds, but, unless
the fibres of the wool be thoroughly separated, the animals be-
come diseased in consequence of pellets formed in their
stomachs, some of which amount to a pound in weight.
126
NATURAL HISTORY AND
Lambs often die of this malady, called by the natives mal di
pallotta, the ball disease.
It appears that this species of cotton was also cultivated in
the South of France nearly three centuries ago. In a dis-
course addressed to Charles IX. at his visit in 1566 to
Hyeres, the orator takes occasion to boast of the oranges,
palms, and cotton plants, which were raised in the fields
round that town. The same fact is attested by the bishop of
Senez in a curious work on agriculture published in 1605,
in which he enumerates sugar-canes, cinnamon, and cotton,
as productions of Provence. Bauhin, the botanist, likewise
states that the cotton plant was grown in France, having been
introduced from Italy. It is curious to remark how entirely
this species of agriculture fell into disuse, and was forgotten.
are
2. Gossypium Barbadense. This species is supposed to
be a native of the American continent. It is a shrub
five or six feet high. Its stems and its branches
smooth, and the leaves have a polished surface. The lower
leaves have five lobes, the upper ones three. These are
entire, acute, and have three glands on their back surfaces.
The flowers, which are very large, have a deep yellow colour.
The capsule is also large, and produces a large body of
cotton. The seeds are black. When triturated with water
they afford a milky emulsion which is used medicinally at
Cayenne. This is the species in most general cultivation in
the West India islands.
3. Gossypium Indicum.-This species forms a shrub from
ten to twelve feet high, having its branches covered with a
down, somewhat woolly towards their tops. The leaves are
of a moderate size, have three short oval lobes without
glands, and are frequently variegated beneath with small
black spots. The petioles and veins are velvety; the flowers
are large with short peduncles; the petals are yellowish,
and marked at their base with a brown-purple spot. The
capsules are oval, sharp-pointed, three-celled, and open with
three or four valves. They contain blackish seeds, wrapped
up in very white cotton wool. This plant grows spontane-
ously in moist situations in the East Indies, and is also
cultivated in that quarter of the globe. Some remarks of
Linnæus on the Gossypium Herbaceum belong more properly
to this species, which rises sometimes to the height of
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
127
fifteen feet, and is on other occasions only three feet
high.
;
4. Gossypium Arboreum.-This species is the tree-cotton
it rises sometimes, in favourable situations, to the height
of fifteen or twenty feet. It is a native of India, Egypt, and
Arabia. It is well characterized by its brownish-red flowers,
by the hairiness or bristliness of its upper branches, by its
palmate leaves with fine lance-shaped, digitate lobes, and by
a gland on the posterior veins. The peduncles are short,
solitary, one-flowered; the leaflets of the outer calyx are
entire, or three-toothed; the capsules are ovate, sharp-pointed,
have three or four valves, as many seeds in each cell, and
are enveloped in an abundant cotton wool, white and excel-
lent. It is reckoned the finest of the Indian varieties of
cotton, particularly on account of its flexibility and white-
ness.
It
5. Gossypium Vitifolium.-The vine-leaved species.
grows in the Isle of France, in the Celebes, in India, and
was at one time much cultivated in St. Domingo. Its branches
are nearly free from down, but they are studded like the
leaf-stalks with tuberculous points; the leaves are large,
palmate, and cut down into fine lobes. The flowers are
large, yellowish, and spotted with purple at their base. In
St. Domingo this species was triennial, and had black seeds
when it was grown in a propitious soil near the sea shore.
It attained to the height of twelve or fourteen feet. When
the plant grows in a soil unfavourable for its perfect develop-
ment, the seeds are greenish, the cotton staple is coarser,
and is difficult to separate from the seeds. The seeds are
egg-shaped, and are from six to eight in each cell. Capsule
three-celled.
This species differs from the next in the number of glands
on its leaves and calyx. The vitifolium has six glands on
its calyx, and only one on its leaf. Its leaf-lobes divaricate
more than those of the Peruvianum.
6. Gossypium Peruvianum.-The cotton plant of Peru is a
shrub three feet high. Its leaves are large, heart-shaped,
downy, and furnished with three glands. The lower leaves
are entire, oval, acute; the upper leaves have five acuminated
lobes. The inner surface of the flower-cup is besprinkled
with blackish points. The corolla is large, yellow, somewhat
128
NATURAL HISTORY AND
velvety, and reddish-coloured at the base; the capsules are
ovate, acuminated, and three-valved. The seeds are blackish,
and wrapped in a long-stapled, white wool. There are three
glands in the calyx. The capsule is three-celled, and con-
tains in each cell many seeds.
7. Gossypium Hirsutum.-This species was discovered in
the hot regions of America. Its stem rises to the height
of two or three feet, and then divaricates into boughs, which
bristle with hairs. The leaves are also hairy on their in-
ferior surfaces, and are three or five-lobed. The upper
leaves are entire and heart-shaped; the petioles are velvety.
The flowers near the extremities of the boughs are large, and
somewhat dingy in colour. The capsules are ovate, four-
celled, nearly as large as an apple, and yield a very fine silky
cotton wool, much esteemed in commerce. The seeds are
greenish.
8. Gossypium Tricuspidalum.-The three-pointed cotton
plant. This is an Indian shrub, three or four feet in height,
with spreading branches, somewhat velvety towards their
summits, and covered, as well as the petioles, with small
black dots. The flowers are white, with sometimes a sulphur
tinge, or a rose or purple hue, on the edges. The capsules
are short, acuminated, and contain a soft white cotton which
adheres very firmly to the seeds.
9. Gossypium Micranthum.-The small-flowered cotton
plant. Its stems are reddish, about a foot and a half high,
smooth, and besprinkled with blackish dots, which are also
found on the petioles and peduncles. The leaves have five
very obtuse lobes, and a gland above their base. The outer
calyx has three deep divisions, fringed, and longer than the
corolla; the inner calyx is shorter, and five-toothed. The
petals are yellow, oval, acute, marked with purple at their
base, and a little velvety above. This plant is a native of
Persia. It was cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris
under the name of Gossypium Purpurascens, and was brought
thither from the Antilles.
10. Gossypium Religiosum.-The cotton of the Nuns. In
this species it is extremely difficult to pick the wool from the
see ds, the filaments being so short, and so closely condensed,
as to be inseparable by rollers. Hence the nuns at Tranque-
bar were employed to pick the wool from the capsules. One
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
123
pound of Tranquebar cotton employs a woman thirty hours
to separate; and a pound of Cambaye cotton, twenty-six
hours. Three quarters of an ounce of cleaned cotton is
the total product of a shrub three feet high. This plant is
a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and has been cultivated
in the Jardin des Plantes under the name of the White
Cotton of Rome. This species is distinguished from the
others by the protrusion of its long style before the expan-
sion of the flower, and by the spotless whiteness of its blos-
soms, which changes into red. "The yellow Cotton Plant of
Siam, grown in the Jardin des Plantes, resembled the Reli-
giosum in everything except the colour of its wool, which
was nankeen.
Roxburgh gives the following descriptions:-
Gossypium Herbaceum (Roxburgh).-Bi-triennial, young
parts hairy; leaves hairy, palmate, with sublanceolate acute
lobes; leaflets of the exterior calyx dentate; capsules ovate,
pointed; seeds distinct, clothed with firmly adhering white
down under the long white wool; kootn of the Arabians,
karri-kapass of the Bengalese. "This," says Dr. Roxburgh,
"and its varieties are by far the most universally cultivated
by the natives of India.'
Trunk short, nearly straight, woody, often lasting three
or even four years; bark ash-coloured or brown, and by age
becomes cracked in various directions; branches numerous,
with their tender extremities well clothed with long, soft,
diverging hairs, and marked with numerous rust-coloured
dots; general height, when cultivated on a middling soil,
about three feet, though in a rich garden loam they rise to
eight or even ten feet; leaves alternate petioled, hairy on
both sides, palmate; lobes from three to five, in young plants
lanceolate, in old almost ovate; size very various; colour
pale green; glands; in large luxuriant leaves there is gene-
rally a single one near the base of each of the three middle
or large nerves; but Dr. R. does not think they can ever be
so much depended on as to form a part of the specific charac-
ter in this or any other of the species. Petioles hairy, nearly
as long as the leaves; stipules obliquely linear, lanceolate;
peduncles solitary, short, hairy opposite to the leaves, or on
one side of them; flowers solitary, large, pale yellow, with the
130
NATURAL HISTORY AND
bottom of the bell of a dark crimson colour; calyx exterior,
leaflets sometimes nearly entire, sometimes acutely dentate,
or even gashed, hairy, with a gland on the base of each;
inner obscurely five-toothed; corol large, campanulate; stamens
numerous; stigma clavate, three or four-ribbed, and spiral;
capsule ovate, pointed, three or four-celled; seeds a few in
cach cell, distinct, clothed with much firmly-adhering
whitish-grey down under the long white wool or cotton.
Of this species there are an infinite number of varieties
from soil, situation, method of culture, &c. I shall make a
few remarks on as many of these as I have been able to rear
under my own eye.
I. Dacca cotton. This sort may be reckoned the first
variety, or deviation from the common herbaceum, in general
cultivation over Bengal and Coromandel; it is reared about
Dacca in Bengal, and furnishes that exceeding fine cotton
wool employed in manufacturing the very delicate muslins of
that country. It differs from the common in the following
rospects:-1, in the plant being more erect, with fewer
branches, and the lobes of the leaves more pointed; 2, in the
whole plant being tinged of a reddish colour, even the petioles
and nerves of the leaves, and being less pubescent; 3, in
having the peduncles, which support the flowers, longer,
and the exterior margins of the petals tinged with red; 4,
in the staple of the cotton being longer, much finer, and
softer.
These are the most obvious disagreements, but whether
they will prove permanent Dr. R. could not say.
II. The Berar cotton, with which the fine Madras long-
cloth is made. It differs from the above two sorts; 1, in
growing to a greater size, in living longer, in having smoother
and straighter branches; 2, in having the leaflets of the ex-
terior calyx more deeply divided, and the wool of a firmer
and more durable quality.
III. China cotton.-Its wool is reckoned 25 per cent.
better than that of Surat. It differs from the former sorts;
1, in being infinitely smaller, with but very few short weak
branches; 2, in being annual; 3, in having the leaflets of the
exterior calyx entire or nearly so.
Gossypium rubicundum (Roxburgh)-is found in the gardens.
of the curious over most parts of India, where it is in flower
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
131
great part of the year. Dr. Roxburgh does not believe
it to be ever cultivated for its wool.
Gossypium Barbadense (Roxburgh).- Shrubby; leaves
smooth, with five acute short broad lobes; leaflets of the
exterior calyx deeply laciniate; colour of the corolla uni-
formly yellow; capsules oblong, pointed; seeds distinct,
black, and without any other pubescence than the long white
cotton wool.

Fig. 5.-Gossypium Barbadenses.
Copied from a drawing by Dr. Roxburgh, in the Library of the East India House
Bourbon cotton is the name this species is known by
amongst the English in the East Indies. It does not
132
NATURAL HISTORY AND
appear to be a native of India, but was introduced from the
Island of Bourbon some twenty years ago; at what period
it was brought from the West Indies into that island is
uncertain; it succeeds better in the more elevated, drier, and
less fertile soil of Coromandel than in Bengal, where the
plant grows to a greater size, but yields less cotton. Stem
short, ligneous; in a good soil grows to a foot or more in
circumference; branches numerous, spreading in every direc-
tion; well grown plants rise to from eight to twelve feet,
and spread nearly as much; bark of the woody parts ash-
coloured.
Such is a description of the species of gossypium, derived
from the best sources of information.
M. Rohr, who made an extensive tour through the West
Indies to establish distinctive characters between the differ-
ent cotton plants subservient to the commercial supply of
cotton wool, attempted to introduce a new arrangement of
the species of gossypium founded on the appearances of the
seeds. I shall give a brief outline of his scheme for the
sake of certain practical points which he ascertained, though,
viewed in a systematic light, it is altogether nugatory.
M. Rohr distributes the cotton plants grown in the West
Indies into four groups :-1, the rough black seeded; 2, the
dull-brown seeded, with smooth veiny surfaces; 3, seeds
covered with short hairs, through which the colour of the
coats may be seen, but the veins can hardly be perceived;
4, seeds more closely covered with thick hairs. Each of
these grand divisions is subdivided by M. Rohr into several
species, which he has denoted by vulgar or trivial names,
quite independent of those assigned by the botanists; his
characters can therefore be of little use on account of their
vagueness, as also of the seeds changing their appearance
with the soil and climate in which they are produced.
GROUP I.—Cotton with rough black Seeds.
To this group M. Rohr refers, 1. The wild or withy-wood
cotton of our colonies. It rises nine feet high, and spreads
out from six to eight feet. Each tree produces at the utmost
only one quarter-ounce of cleaned cotton.
2. The green-
tufted cotton, from the green colour of the down on the
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
133
unripe capsules. The fine cotton of Martinique belongs to
this group. The shrub is three feet high, and yields a crop
of two ounces and a half, which is gathered successively
during seven months, beginning in November.
3. The
sorrel-green cotton plant, and the sorrel-red, both cultivated
near Spanish Town, afford, the former four ounces, and the
latter seven and a half ounces of cotton-wool.
4. One of
this group has seeds with a barbed point. The shrub is
seven feet high, and yields three ounces of cotton.
5. The
cotton plant, having barb-hooked seeds, such as the red
shanks of St. Thomas and Santa Cruz. It is six feet high,
and yields five ounces in a favourable season. 6. The jahr-
rund, or year-round cotton plant, so named because it affords
a succession of ripe capsules at every season. • It grows in
Jamaica and St. Domingo, as also in Montserrat, where it is
called the loaf cotton, because it carries a tuft round the
point of the seed. It is a productive and durable species.
It grows to the height of six feet, and yields seven ounces of
an average crop. These are properly coarse year-rounds
the fine year-round belongs to Porto-Rico. 7. There is a
cotton-plant with large flocks, called in St. Thomas Old Bess.
It grows to the height of eight feet, and yields four ounces.
of wool; but its delicacy has thrown it into discredit. 8.
The Guiana cotton. The seeds adhere to each other in the
cells, and assume the form of a long thin pyramid. Its
wool is white and long stapled. It has a variety of names,
as Cayenne, Surinam, Demerara, Berbice, and Essequibo.
It yields two crops every year, amounting together, in favour-
able weather, to a pound and a half; but, in rainy seasons,
to only half a pound. In Jamaica it is called kidney and
link cotton. Each plant occupies a space of ten or twelve
feet when grown in a good soil. 9. Brazil cotton. The
seeds of this kind strongly adhere to one another, so as to
form a broad short pyramid. It is an excellent cotton shrub.
GROUP II. Brown-black seeded Cotton-trees, smooth and veined.
1. Indian cotton. It produces twice a year, and affords a
very white cotton, which may stand long in the pods without
being coloured by the rains. Its wool is finer than any of
the preceding cottons, and may be easily cleaned. It occurs
134
NATURAL HISTORY AND
at St. Martha and Carthagena, in shrubs eight feet high,
spreading to the extent of ten feet, and yields eight ounces.
2. The Siam cotton, with brown smooth seeds; the coton
lisse of Martin, as also the white and red or nankeen Siam,
belong to this head. These shrubs attain the height of
twelve feet the second year and afford one crop annually,
which is gathered from February to April. The capsules
fall off as they ripen, and those which adhere open no more
than half. The red yields only three or four ounces, and is
not worth the cultivating; the white, however, yields double
that quantity.
GROUP III. Thinly-haired Seeds.
The cotton shrub of Curaçoa.-The wool when well
cleaned is very white and beautiful, and must be plucked
from the seeds by hand. It is too costly for European com-
merce, and is therefore manufactured on the spot into fine
stockings. Each shrub, as usually grown, yields only an
ounce and two drams of wool; but when it is planted at
wider intervals each shrub yields seven ounces and two drams.
The capsules go on ripening in succession from February to
June, and the harvest is therefore very troublesome. The
crowned-cotton of St. Domingo resembles the Indian in
quality, and yields two annual crops.
GROUP IV. Thickly-haired Seeds.
Cotton of the Nuns.-Gossypium Religiosum.-The seed of
this species is small, nearly globular, covered with a greyish-
white down and some hairs, of which those round the point
are much longer than the seed, and diverging, but few in
number. Two varieties of this cotton are known; that of
Tranquebar, with the lobes of the leaves pointed; and that
of Cambaye, with the lobes rounded. Neither of them pro-
duces more than three quarters of an ounce of wool. The
filaments are very short, condensed closely round the seed;
not to be removed, therefore, by rollers, and very difficult to
separate even by the fingers. A pound of Tranquebar cotton
takes a woman thirty hours to detach; and a pound of Cam-
baye cotton twenty-six hours. Such irksome and unprofit-
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
135
able labours were, therefore, devolved upon the nuns, whence
the name Cotonnier des Nonnes was derived, as we have already
said.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF COTTON FILAMENTS.
some
The specimens were kindly furnished to me partly by
Messrs. Trueman and Cook, the eminent brokers in Lon-
don, and partly by Henry Houldsworth, Esq., of Manchester.
Sea-island.—Turnbull, 1833. Price 28. 2d. per lb. This is
one of the finest cottons; raised from good select
seed. Average diameter of an inch; many
much smaller; distinct spiral character;
rather flimsy ribands; long staple, about 1 inch.
H. Seabrook, 1833. A healthy good quality of
cotton. Price 28. 1d. Filaments less than go'ōō
of an inch broad; very spiry and uniform flattened
cylinders; almost no flimsy ribands, nor warts.
Eaton's, 1833. Short and coarse Sea-island; but
healthy. Price 18. 3d. per lb. Very uniform
spiry filaments; no ribands; diameter of flattened
cylinders of an inch.
90
E. 1833. Pretty fine but not very strong; 18. 7d.
per lb. Flattened cylinders of about, mixed
with a great many flimsy ribands, some of them
irregularly contorted; a few warts.
Wilson, 1829. Grown from select seed, and was of
superior quality, but has deteriorated, apparently
by keeping. Price 4s. 6d. in 1829. Fine uniform
filaments rather less than in diameter; spiry;
seems crimped transversely with irregular bendings;
the effect probably of age.
1
00
Burden's Growth, from select seed sent over in 1826,
and kept in a small quantity and in a dry place
ever since. Its quality was superexcellent for
making the highest numbered yarn, when first
received in this country, both as to fineness and
strength. It cost 5s. per lb. It has evidently
deteriorated by keeping; filaments about zoo in
diameter; very equable, with few or no ribands;
several spongy warts, called nips by the cotton-spin-
ners, which adhere to the sides of the filaments; these
136
NATURAL HISTORY AND

Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 6.—Sea-island Cotton, of which muslin and bobbinet lace are made.
Fig. 7.-Religious Cotton, threads of which are worn by the Brahmins round their
necks.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
137
are frequent on the finest Sea-island cottons ;
crimped transversely by the effect of age, and apt
to break at these points of shrinkage.
•
C. 6. 1826. Not so good as the preceding. Cost 58.
per lb. Extremely fine filaments, measure only
J of an inch; considerably warty, with the
appearance of shrivelling, and irregular contortions
from age; spiry character.
1
3000
A. A. 1832. Not so good for fine yarn as Wilson's.
Cost 28. 5d. Diameter of filaments from
2000
to
zoo with a few much smaller; pretty uniform and
tortuous; few ribands; nippy or warty.
The above specimens were furnished by Mr. Houldsworth.
The following were from Mr. Cook:
Georgia Sea-island.-Filaments generally cylindrical, with
occasional spires, like a screw; a few of riband-
shape; diameter from to of an inch; a
very uniform cotton.
Georgia Upland.-Some thin ribands; but the general cha-
racter of the filaments is spiry cylindric, like the
Sea-island, but less uniform in diameter, and about
one half its length; a few very fine filaments of
perhaps of an inch diameter.
1
6000
1
500
1000
1500
Maranham.-Cylindrico-spiral, but the fibres vary in dia-
meter from u to so; a few ribands To0O
broad.
Demerara. Very spiry flattened cylinders from about 1
to go, a few much smaller; hardly any ribands.
Surinam.-Fibres pretty cylindrical of about diameter;
many of them screw-shaped, and a few very small
but on the whole this is a very regular wool.
Pernambuco.-Cylindrico-spiral filaments from 300 to 2000;
1
1000
500
1
1500
1
;
a few twisted ribands of broad; several warty
excrescences on the sides of the filaments.
Bahia. Thin cylindrico-spiral filaments, mixed with several
ribands spirally twisted; diameter about ; no
perfect cylinders.
00
New Orleans.--Cylindrical fibres with many spires, about
To, mixed with several far finer threads.
VOL. I.
K
138
NATURAL HISTORY AND
1300
Para. Regular ribands, mostly thin and about To broad;
few fibres of cylindric form; no regular screws,
but a few ribands coiled in open spires.
Carthagena.-Mixture of ribands and flattened cylinders, the
former about broad, the latter diameter;
1
1000
a few spires; wool very unequal.
00
Grenada.-Mixture of cylinders and ribands of about 5ʊʊ;
several spires, and a few very slender filaments;
a fine cotton, but not very equable.
1
1
1000
St. Domingo.-Chiefly narrow twisted ribands from to
To broad, with a few flattened cylinders; and
some spiry fibres.
1
σ
Earsden Egyptian.-Uniform spiro-cylindrical filaments, from
1350 to zoo; few thin ribands, all translucid.
Smyrna.-Ribands from to ; a few cylindrical
20007
900
Τ 1300
U
fibres, but hardly any spires; some of the ribands
irregular and very filmy, with embroidery veins.
Bourbon.—Fibres less cylindrical than the Surinam; many
of them only in diameter, mixed with ribands
2 00
1500
from Tour to T'57 broad; filaments uniformly fine,
but not very spiry.
1
500
1
000
Lady Flora Madras.-Very unequable wool; flimsy_ribands
mixed with several cylinders slightly spiral; a few
warty excrescences; diameters from to õ•
Mount Stuart Elphinstone Surat, good.-Many ribands Too
broad, mixed with cylinders, from to zʊʊʊi
very little spiry appearance.
Esther Surats, good, fair.-Many ribands from 0 to To
broad, and flimsy in texture; hardly any cylinders.
Royal George Surats, middling.-Flimsy contorted riband
from to a broad; hardly any cylinders; a
1
6 0 0
few warts.
1
1200
U
1
Easor Bengal.-Groups of irregular flimsy ribands, with a
few small flattened cylinders, from 1 to 1300•
1
The fibres terminate usually in very fine points, abruptly
tapered. To these points the mechanical irritation of cotton,
when applied to ulcerated surfaces, may probably be ascribed;
and possibly in some measure to the exceedingly fine edges
of the ribands. Flax or lint consists of smooth cylinders,
and is therefore free from the irritating quality. The en-
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
139

Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 8.-Surat Cotton.
Fig. 9.-Smyrna Cotton, shown upon the micrometer lines, in glass, 1000 of an inch
apart.
140
NATURAL HISTORY AND
tanglement of cotton filaments, to which their superior spin-
ning properties are owing, may be ascribed chiefly to their
spiral structure, and elasticity; so that when one is pulled
out, it draws forth many others. If, during this extrication
of the filaments, a twisting motion be communicated to them,
they will form a cohesive thread. The finer, the more
uniform, the more cylindrico-spiral, the longer and more
elastic the filaments are, the more capable they will be of
forming fine yarn. When they are short, and consist of
rather broad and flimsy ribands, they will be ill adapted to
machine spinning, though still susceptible of being spun by
the tact of delicate fingers. We can thus understand how
the Hindoo women manage to spin fine yarn from the Dacca
cotton, which is the growth of an unequable wool consisting
of flimsy ribands, like most of the India cottons.
The most intelligent manufacturers at Dacca, says Rox-
burgh, think that the great difference between the Dacca
muslin and that of other places, lies in the spinning, and
allow little for the influence of the soil, or the variety of the
gossypium herbaceum, which is cultivated at Dacca.
There can be no doubt that the cotton filaments are hollow
cylinders, prior to the dry state of maturation, they then
become flattened and tortuous, in a greater or less degree.
The more nearly cylindrical they remain, the stronger and
more pliant to the spindle will they be found. On these
accounts, as well as from their greater length, the filaments
of the Sea-island, Egyptian, Guiana, and Brazilian cottons
hold a higher value in the market, than the Upland Georgian,
or the East Indian. In examining a sample of cotton wool,
the spinner draws it out slowly between the fore-fingers and
thumbs of his two hands, and observes how the filaments
successively escape from pressure. He then draws out the
staple in the other direction, and thus alternately from hand
to hand. In this manner he judges of the length, smoothness,
fineness, and strength of the cotton. Of the strength, however,
a better judgment may be formed in the yarn, by seeing
what weight will break it.
One sort of cotton is seldom worked up alone in our
cotton-mills, but two or three different kinds are frequently
imxed together. Thus the cheap and short stapled cottons
of India must be willowed and carded along with some of the
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
141
American cottons, to make them work to the best advantage.
Much of the success and profit of the cotton spinner depends
on the skilful blending of dissimilar cottons, whereby one
kind is made to conceal or supply the defects of another.
The relative value of different cottons is exactly repre-
sented in the table of prices current, published by the
brokers. Thus at Liverpool, on the 1st December, 1835,
the best cottons of each name were sold at the following
prices per pound, duty paid :-
Sca-island
S. d.
8. d.
2 6
I
6
to
Demerara and Berbice
O
9
I
о
Pernambuco
•
O IO
I
1 1/
Egyptian
•
Ο ΙΙ
I
23/
New Orleans
7/
I
о
Bahia.
Upland Georgia
West Indian
•
Ο ΙΟ
Surat
Madras
Bengal
•
O II
9
8
''
8
6/12/
This order of price and value has remained, with slight
exceptions, nearly uniform for the last twenty-five years. In
this period, however, several improvements have been made
in the mode of cultivation and cleaning, especially in the
interior of Georgia and Carolina; and yet their cotton stands
beneath others, in the growth of which probably less skill is
applied. It is hence manifest that a good deal depends on
the soil and climate. One point is clearly fixed; the supe-
riority of cotton grown near the sca to that grown inland,
the soil and climate being similar. This fact leads to the
conclusion that the saline matters near the shore, so remark-
able in the Sea-island plantations, must supply a food pro-
pitious to the growth of good cotton. How far this inference
is well founded will appear from a consideration of the
chemical constituents of cotton.
In the year 1825, a dispute having arisen between some
eminent calico-printers concerning the validity of an in-
genious patent, I was employed to analyze certain kinds
of coloured cotton goods, and to compare the results with the
analysis of clean cotton wool. Having procured a fine
carded fleece, from a spinner who used chiefly the Sea-island
142
NATURAL HISTORY AND
•
cotton, 2,000 grains of it were slowly burned in a silver
basin; the residuum being thoroughly incinerated at a red
heat, to consume every particle of charcoal, formed a light
grey ash. The weight of this ash, upon an average of six
similar experiments, was nineteen grains, being nearly one
per cent. of the cotton wool.-See Journal of Science for
January, 1826.
One hundred parts of these ashes yielded :
1. Matter soluble in water, sixty-four parts, consisting of—
Carbonate of potash
Muriate of potash
Sulphate of potash
2. Matter indissoluble in water—
Phosphate of lime.
Carbonate of lime
Phosphate of magnesia
Peroxide of iron
•
Alumina a trace, and loss
44.8
9.9
9°3
9.0
10.6
8.4
3.0
5.0
100
The results of the preceding analysis seem to throw con-
siderable light on the predilection of the cotton plant for the
neighbourhood of the sea, which supplies plentifully the
saline substances requisite to the perfect development and
constitution of its woolly fruit. It may hence be inferred
that the compost or manure best fitted for cotton plantations
should contain neutro-saline matter with alkaline, calcareous,
and magnesian bases. The presence of magnesia deserves
notice, as it indicates marine food. Here, as in many other
examples, the vegetative powers of the roots seem to elimi-
nate potash from the stone detritus of the soil, which replaces
the soda in the sea salts. For otherwise we should have
found salts with a basis of soda, instead of potash salts in the
ashes of the cotton.
The following are the commercial characters of the dif-
ferent kinds of cotton wool imported into our market.
* An Examination of the Differences in Chemical Composition
between Cotton Wool, Cotton Cloth, and Turkey Red Calicoes, by
Andrew Ure, M.D., F.R.S.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
143
1. American Cottons.
Georgia Sea-island. This is raised on the sea coast of
Georgia and the small islands which form the neighbouring
Archipelago. Though not decidedly yellow, it has some-
what of a dull butter tint, which distinguishes it from
white cotton. It is remarkable for its long staple, the
filaments being three times longer than those of the Indian
cotton wool. It has a silky softness. It is sometimes
dirty, but the well cleaned and the best is preferred to
every other quality for spinning fine yarn; and indeed it
is indispensable for the finest. The reason of this supe-
riority appears to be the cylindrico-spiral form, and equa-
bility of its filaments, which facilitates their torsion into
a uniform thread.
Georgia Upland.—This cotton grows in the interior of the
country, as its name denotes, and though far inferior to the
preceding, it is a valuable wool for coarse yarns. It is
white, occasionally dirty, of a short unequal staple, light
and weak. It was long called Bowed, because it was
originally cleared from its seeds by the blows of a bow-
string, a most fatiguing operation, which Whitney's saw-
gin has superseded.
Tenessee. Resembles the last sort, but is generally cleaner
and better.
New Orleans.-Like the last two, but somewhat superior.
Pernambuco. Has a fine long staple, clean and uniform. It
is much used by the hosiers.
Maranham.—This is not quite of so good a staple as the
last, nor so well cleaned; it holds the same rank as
Demerara cotton.
Bahia.-Slightly superior to Maranham.
Surinam.-A long stapled cotton, a faint yellow tinge, but a
clean cotton; in request for hosiery.
Demerara. This is a fine white glossy wool, generally very
well cleaned, and picked before packing. It spins into a
clean stout yarn, and has now risen to a level at least with
the Pernambuco.
Berbice.-Like Demerara.
Egypt. This cotton has been much improved in the course
of some years, by the enlightened policy of the l'asha.
144
NATURAL HISTORY AND
He imported seeds from Cyprus, Smyrna, Brazil, Georgia,
and other countries, and has produced a cotton which
occasionally comes near the Sea-island. It is seldom
well cleaned.
West Indian.—In the Bahamas a tolerably good cotton has
been grown from the Bourbon seed, though much inferior
to the Bourbon itself. The staple is fine and silky, but
the cotton is not well cleaned.
Barbadoes. This is of middling quality; staple rather short,
but silky and strong. It contains too much of the seed
husk.
East India Cottons.
Bourbon.-This is the most uniform of the Oriental sorts.
It is clean, and has a fine silky staple. It ranks next in
value to Sea-island, but is not now imported into our
markets.
Surat. This cotton has an exceedingly short fibre, is dirty,
being often mixed with leaves and sand.
Madras and Bengal.-These are much the same as the pre-
ceding sort. Some of the Madras cotton has been raised
from Bourbon seed, but, from inferiority of soil and cul-
ture, it is little better than the common Indian cotton,
which is the product of the gossypium herbaceum. These
cottons can be spun into fine yarn only by the delicate
fingers of the Hindoo female.
1.
The following summary of the botanical species of cotton
will probably accord best with commercial distinctions.
gossypium herbaceum, the herbaceous cotton plant; two to
three feet high, of one summer's growth, with round capsules,
about the size of a walnut, opening with three valves, and
containing seeds of the size of peas. In Europe it is culti-
vated in Macedonia, Malta, Sicily, and Calabria; it grows
also in the Levant and the East Indies. 2. The second spe-
cies is likewise for the most part an annual, though it may
occasionally last two years; it is the hairy cotton plant,
gossypium hirsutum, which sometimes grows to the height of a
man, with egg-shaped, four-celled capsules, as large as a
middle-sized apple. It is a native of America, and is culti-
vated particularly in Carolina. 3. Among the cotton shrubs,
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
145
with woody stems, is the gossypium tree, which grows from
eight to twelve feet high in the East Indies, Egypt, and in
some provinces of Spain. The yellow cotton plant, or gos-
sypium religiosum, of India and China, as well as the gos-
sypium Barbadense, or the West India cotton, belongs to the
arborous kind. The cotton-tree, bombax pentandrum, which
grows in India and America, belongs to quite another family
of plants from the gossypium. Its trunk attains the height of
twenty feet, and possesses considerable strength.
The capsules or seed pods of all the cotton plants are at
first green, but become afterwards brown, and sometimes
nearly black. At the period of maturity they burst open
with a slight explosive sound, when the wool must be immc-
diately plucked, to prevent its injury or loss by the weather.
It is then ginned.

d
a
Fig. 10.-Section of Roller-gin.
Fig. 10 exhibits a section of the simple roller-gin; a b aro
the two rollers, each of which is about three-quarters of an
inch in diameter, and six inches in length. They are inado
to revolve in opposite directions, as shown by the arrow, by
means of toothed wheels, fixed upon the ends of their axes
outside of the wooden frame. The under roller turns in fixed
bearings, but each bearing of the upper roller rests at the
extremity of an arm, which turns round a pin at f, so that by
means of the adjusting screw d it may be brought nearer to
the under roller in any desired degree: c is the table on
which the seed cotton is laid; and e is a brush placed be-
neath, which removes the filaments of cotton adhering to the
roller b.
The general characters of a good cotton-wool are fineness,
146
NATURAL HISTORY AND
length, strength, softness, and equality of the filaments, and
freedom from knots and impurities. The more remarkable
it is for these qualities, and the less waste it suffers in spin-
ning, the higher price it fetches. The cotton is commonly
named from the country where it grows, each kind being
classed into three sorts, the prime, the marketable, and the
ordinary—the first being appropriated to warp or lace yarn,
the second to weft of different qualities, and the third to
coarser yarns. To judge of the species of cotton wool, the
continental dealer takes a handful of it from the bag. This
is pressed and drawn out between the thumbs and two fore-
fingers, which affords an indication of its approximate length
and fineness. This flock of filaments being again seized by
the middle is drawn out once more, which affords a second
indication. This process of arranging the filaments in a
parallel riband is many times repeated, till their average
length, softness, fineness, and strength are determined. The
experienced cotton broker and spinner acquire a remarkable
delicacy of tact in this way, so that they can decide in the
dark upon the country, quality, and price of the cotton wool.
By a suitable mixture of a little long stapled cotton wool with
short stapled, the latter becomes susceptible of being spun
into much better yarn than it could afford of itself. Some-
times also the long stapled will bear a considerable admixture
of the short stapled without losing its fitness for furnishing
fine yarn.
The following are the most common distinctions of cottons
recognized on the continent of Europe: 1, the North Ameri-
can: 2, the West Indian; 3, the South American; 4, the
East Indian; 5, the Levantine; 6, the African; 7, the Ita-
lian; 8, the Spanish.
1. Among the cottons of North America, or the United
States, are to be noted that of Georgia short and long stapled,
Louisiana, New Orleans, Carolina, and Tenessee. The short
stapled Georgia is worked up chiefly into the coarser yarns
of No. 30 and under, but when mixed with the Egyptian
Mako, it may be spun up to No. 40. The bluish-white cot-
ton of Louisiana is of a better quality, but ranks below the
long stapled Georgian, the Brazilian, and certain of the West
Indian cottons. It is fit for spinning as high as No. 50, but
is sometimes deteriorated by a number of little seeds left in
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
147
it by imperfect ginning. The Carolina is also preferred to
the Upland Georgia, as well as the cotton of Tenessee and
New Orleans, which are often weak-fibred; yet some of the
latter are fine enough to spin yarns as high as 100.
2. The West Indian cotton wools of the best sorts resemble
in length of staple the Sea-island, the Bourbon, the superior
Spanish, and the South American. That of Porto-Rico is
held to be the best; after which come the others in the fol-
lowing order nearly: Curaçao, St. Domingo, Martinique,
Guadaloupe, Barbadoes, Jamaica, St. Christopher, St. Lucie,
St. Thomas, Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica, Tortola, Mont-
serrat, Bahama, Cuba, St. Jago, Antigua. The last may rank
with the best of the Levant cottons. Of the West India cot-
tons it should be remarked that their cultivation has been much
neglected of late years, since sugar came so much into play;
and that their qualities do not correspond with the above,
which is their ancient and natural order. The Guadaloupe
has often a reddish tinge, has a long staple, and is easy to
spin. It, and the best of the St. Domingo wool, will furnish
yarn as high as 100 in number.
3. South America is capable of affording excellent cotton
wool, of which the best example is the Brazilian called Maran-
ham, Bahia, and Pernambuco, which have sometimes been
made into yarn as fine as No. 200, and upwards. They de-
serve to be placed immediately after the Sea-island Georgian
and the Bourbon, although the Maranham is often ill cleaned.
The Minas-Geraes, the Para, and Ceara are of inferior quality,
and are rarely spun into finer yarn than No. 6c. The Rio
Janeiro is a slight, dirty, and dingy kind of cotton wool, upon
a par with the worst sorts of the West Indian. Among the
remaining varieties of the South American, the Cayenne is
most esteemed, on account of the length, whiteness, and
lustre of its filaments, and it may be classed with good Bra-
zilian. After it comes the Surinam, with long yellowish
staple, which has been occasionally spun into No. 200; those
of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice are generally inferior,
as well as of Lima, the Curaçaos, and Cumana. The Cartha-
gena is coarser and dirtier than the preceding, but has greater
length and strength of staple.
4. The East India cotton wool is, generally speaking, in-
ferior to the American, and even to the better sorts of the
148**
NATURAL HISTORY AND
Levant cotwns. The Surat, which is the most abundant, is
ill cleaned, yellowish, tolerably fine, but very short in the
staple. The Madras, Siam, and Bengal are of very variable
quality. The last is white, silky, and has sometimes been
spun into No. 50. The Nanking cotton was at one time celc-
brated, but it is now little known in Europe.
5. Under the Levant cotton wools are comprehended all
those grown in European and Asiatic Turkey; such as that
of Macedonia, of Smyrna, and the Levant properly so called
-all of which are distinguished by considerable whiteness,
but have a moderate length of staple, so that they can rarely
afford yarn finer than No. 60. The best kinds of the Mace-
donian cotton are the Uschur or the Zehent wool, and the
Salonichi; Cira wool is a very poor article, not workable
into finer yarn than No. 20. A great variety of cottons come
into the market under the name of Smyrna, because this is the
general shipping port for most of the cottons of Turkey in
Asia. They are perhaps inferior to the best Macedonian and
East Indian, and furnish chiefly coarse weft yarns, and candle
wicks. The best varieties are the Arar, Kassabar, and
Kirkadadoch. The most highly esteemed sorts are the Subus-
chat and Kinik; those of Cyprus and Acre are inferior; the
worst are those of Bender and Altah.
It
6. Africa furnishes from the isle of Bourbon the best spe-
cies of cotton wool, almost as much prized as the finest Sea-
island, but it suffers a greater waste in the manufacture.
is uniform, clean, fine, and silky, rivalling the Levant in
whiteness; it may be spun into the finest yarn.
The
Egyptian or the Alexandrian cotton wool, known in com-
merce under the name of Mako or Maho, has a fine readily
twisting filament, admits of being mixed with other kinds of
cotton wool, but is often foul and interspersed with unripe
fibres. It has of late years quite supplanted the Macedonian
in the cotton manufactures of Austria. The Senegal cotton
ranks with the middling cottons of the West Indies, and with
good Levants.
7. The principal cottons, known in trade under the title
of Italian, are grown in Malta, Sicily, and Naples, the Sicilian
being the best; the next are the cottons of Castellamare and
Della Torre in the neighbourhood of Naples, which approach
in quality to the cotton of Louisiana. The Malta cotton
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
149
ranks with the inferior West Indian. The Biancavilla, a
variety of Neapolitan cotton, suits well for mixing with the
Mako, and then affords (in the proportion of three to two of
Mako) a good yarn of from 30 to 50 in fineness of number.
Mixed with Upland Georgia, it is spun into Nos. 30 and 40.
8. The best kind of Spanish cotton wool is the Motril,
from the kingdom of Granada, which deserves to be placed.
immediately next to the first Brazilian. From the fineness of
its staple it may be spun into yarns of a high number.
•
150
NATURAL HISTORY AND
CHAPTER II.
Of the Cultivation of Cotton, or Cotton Husbandry; and the
Cotton Wool Trade.
HAVING been favoured by two of the most scientific and suc-
cessful cotton planters in Georgia, Thomas Spalding, Esq.,
of Sapelo Island, near Darien, and Whitemarsh B. Seabrook,
Esq., of Edisto Island, with two manuscript memoirs upon
the culture of the gossypium, I gladly avail myself of the
liberality with which they have contributed, at my request,
their valuable services to the present work.* The information
thus freshly drawn from the fountain-head, shall be presented
to my readers as nearly as may be in its original form. It
will prove highly interesting to all who are engaged in this
spreading branch of agriculture, but more particularly to our
adventurous countrymen in India, where the cotton husbandry
has been heretofore grossly mismanaged, as appears from the
testimony of Dr. Wallich, and other competent observers.
Mr. Spalding considers that in reference to cotton grown
in the United States, only four species of the gossypium need
be considered.
1. The herbaceum, having a smooth stalk two feet high,
branching upwards, with five-lobed smooth leaves, and
yellow flowers at the end of the branches; the flowers being
in harvest-time replaced by roundish capsules full of seed-
cotton.
2. The hirsutum, or hairy American cotton, has hairy stalks
branching laterally, two or three feet high, palmated three
and five-lobed leaves, with yellow terminal flowers, replaced
by large oval pods filled with seed-cotton.
*The request was conveyed through my very intelligent friend
Edward Woolsey, Esq., of Leman Street, London, to Thomas Cooper
Vander Hurst, Esq., of Woodlands, Carolina, who applied to the gentle-
men whom he knew to be the most skilful planters in Georgia for the
best information on the subject.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
151
Fig. 4, p. 125, represents this species, being carefully
copied by the wood-engraver from a coloured drawing of the
Upland cotton plant by Dr. Capus, transmitted with the
memoir of Mr. Seabrook.
3. The Barbadense, or Barbadoes shrubby cotton. It has
a shrubby stalk branching four or five feet high, three-lobed
smooth leaves, glandulous underneath, with yellow flowers,
replaced by oval pods filled with seed-cotton.
4. The arboreum, or tree-cotton, has an upright, woody,
perennial stalk, branching six or eight feet high, palmated
four or five-lobed smooth leaves, with yellow flowers filled
with sced-cotton.
The seeds of the first and second varieties, besides the
proper filaments of cotton-wool which invest them, are
covered entirely in the second, and partially in the first,
with a dense short fur, resembling closely the under fur of
a hairy animal. In the United States all the cotton seeds
have an increasing tendency to get a clothing of fur, where-
by they become more difficult to clean, but are in no other
respect deteriorated. Whether this change arises from some
regular law of nature, which promotes the formation of fur
on transferring plants and animals from a hotter to a colder
climate, or from some accidental intermingling of the seeds or
pollen of the plants, must be left for future investigation.
The Sea-island cotton of Georgia, and likewise of Carolina,
is derived from the fourth, or what Mr. Spalding calls the
tree-cotton. It would be perennial did the climate permit,
as is proved by the circumstance of its lasting many years
when the soil is new and propitious. He has known it in
warm alluvial lands to survive for five years, and has often
seen it vindicate its title of Arboreum, or tree-cotton, by the
height to which it grew; for he has measured plants eighteen
feet high, which assumed the character rather of trees than of
shrubs. But when the plant grows so large, it yields no
return of cotton-wool to the cultivator, for it continues to
be covered with blossoms or unripe pods when the winter sets
in, and is very liable to be blighted in a single night by the
action of frost at any period after the 1st of November.
Fig. 3, p. 122, exhibits the Sea-island cotton plant, from
a coloured drawing also sent me by Mr. Seabrook. I believe
these two figures to be the only exact representations of the
152
NATURAL HISTORY AND
gossypium hitherto published in connection with the com-
mercial quality of the filaments. "When the Sea-island
kind was first introduced into Georgia," says Mr. Spalding,
"it was very subject to this overgrowth; and though my
memory is fresh as to the time, I do not remember of a sin-
gle pod having rewarded our first labours by giving the pro-
mise of ripeness in a future season. Fortunately the
winters of 1785 and 1785 were mild, and the cotton then
under experiment had been mostly planted in new, warm, and
fertile soils; the frost penetrated slightly into the earth, and
did not extinguish the life of the plants, but suffered them to
resume their vegetable activity in spring. Those cotton
stalks which had been killed by the cold weather were cut
down to the surface of the ground, and the shoots that grew
up from the roots of the preceding year's plants were earlier
in their development, came sooner to maturity, did not rise
so high, displayed their blossoms fully, and more speedily
formed their pods. In the second year of this great agricul-
tural era the plants bore their fruit seasonably, and ripened
it well, being by this time somewhat acclimated. Expectation
was now on the tip-toe, holding forth hopes to the United
States of their becoming ere long a great cotton country.
"The mighty revolution thus commenced in the manufac-
tures and commerce of nations was the work of a few active
minds scattered through the two Southern States of the
American Union, not cheered in their difficult and doubtful
enterprise by the bounties of their own government, or by
the diminished duties of others, but rather put to the ban of
two rival empires in the old world and the new, by which
they were alternately harassed by tariffs and commercial re-
strictions at home on exportation, and increased taxes on
importation into Europe.
"Labours destined at no distant period to give freights
to thousands of ships, as well as profitable employment and
cheap clothing to millions of men, women, and children,
were for a long time placed in the most vexatious jeopardy.
But leaving bad and blundering statesmen in the hands of
Him who visits the sins of the fathers on the children to the
third and fourth generation, we shall proceed," says Mr.
Spalding, "to describe one of the most useful forms of
industry.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
153
"The provinces from Virginia to Georgia had been
colonized by the mother country with commercial views, and
the persons who had migrated to them were not the exiles
of oppression in laws and religion, but had crossed the At-
lantic in order to better their fortunes under the auspices of
the English government; hence, when the war of the Ameri-
can revolution began, the distractions about to break a great
nation in pieces, which had for the first time, at least in
modern history, originated with the rulers and not with the
people, created dissensions among the Southern colonists,
many of whom thought the remote evils from unrepresented
taxation should be borne in preference to the immediate
desolation of civil warfare."
After America had established its republican government,
Great Britain, feeling bound to make a provision for those
colonists who had espoused her cause in the war of independ-
ence, offered them portions of land in Nova Scotia and the
Bahama Islands. At this conjuncture Arkwright was matur-
ing his spinning machinery, and creating a considerable
demand for cotton wool, which induced the colonists whọ
crossed over from the Bahamas to turn their attention to the
cultivation of the cotton plant, and to procure the best species
of seed then known in the world. The small isle of Anguilla,
in the Carib Sea, long celebrated for the excellence of the
cotton wool raised upon it, furnished the first seed to the
Bahama settlers; by the year 1785 they had succeeded in
raising cotton upon two of the Bahamas, viz., Long Island
and Exuma. Mr. Spalding's father, then settled in Georgia,
received from Colonel R. Kellsall, a planter in Exuma, a bag
of cotton seed; some other Georgians also received similar
contributions from their former companions.
Josiah Tatnall may be particularly mentioned in cur
history of the cotton husbandry of the United States, as a
person who received a supply of cotton seed from his father,
surveyor-general of the Bahamas. From that handful of
seed sent over in the winter of 1785, all the Sea-island cotton
plants of Georgia and South Carolina have been produced.
There is a long range of islands lying between George
Town in South Carolina and St. Mary's in Georgia, which
extends from 32° 30′ to 30° of North latitude, through a
space of about 200 miles. These islands were originally
VOL. I.
L
154
NATURAL HISTORY AND
covered with live oak, and the other evergreens of a Southern
climate; they had been the abode of a particular tribe of the
red men of the West, who were fishermen rather than hunters:
the accumulation of oysters, clams, and other kinds of
shells mingled with the remains of the bones and pottery of
the ancient aborigines is so vast as to fill every stranger with
astonishment; and these calcareous matters had become
intimately mixed with the sandy soil and decayed vegetables
into a peculiar loam, of a light and fertile nature. A former
colony of English settlers had made the shores of these
slands the seat of some indigo plantations. It was upon
two of these islets, separated from the continent by a few
miles of grassy salt marsh, that the Sea-island cotton was first
made to grow.
"If Frederick the Great has been admired for honouring
the farmer who first cultivated a superior species of rye in
Prussia, what honour is due to the ingenious planter who
first produced the admirable long-stapled silky cotton, with-
out which the spindle and bobbin could never have rivalled
the finger and thumb of the Hindoo in spinning muslin yarn,
and the cotton trade of Europe would have been still tribu-
tary to India for all the finer fabrics! The following names
of the first growers of Sea-island cotton deserve to be recorded
Josiah Tatnall, and Nicholas Turnbull, on Skideway
Island, near Savannah; James Spalding, and Alexander Bisset,
upon St. Simon's Islands, at the mouth of the Altamaha; and
Richard Leake, upon Jekyll Island, adjoining St. Simon's.
For many years after the introduction of the Anguilla cotton-
seed it was confined to warm high land in the above islands,
under the influence of a saline humid atmosphere; gradually,
however, the cotton-husbandry was extended to the lower
grounds, and beyond the limits of these islands to the adja-
ent shores of the continent; latterly, even to the coarse
clay soil deposited by the great rivers at their confluence
with the sea-tides. In all these grounds the cotton-plant
thrives well, and produces a long stapled wool.”
The only essential point seems to be a saline atmosphere;
with it any soil in Georgia or Carolina may produce fine
cotton, without it no soil will do so.
It is within the district from St. Mary's in Georgia to
George Town in South Carolina, extending not more than
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
155
fifteen miles inland, that the Sea-island cotton is still con-
fined. Whenever its cultivation has been attempted, to the
North, South, or West beyond these limits, a certain decline
in its quality has been observed to take place.
Many variations have occurred in the cotton-husbandry
since it became an object of importance; when first attempted,
the farmers deposited the seed either in hillocks raised
slightly above the general surface, or in holes five feet
asunder every way; the interjacent spaces being dug up,
pulverized, and kept free from grass and weeds by the hand-
hoe or the plough. But it was soon perceived that this
scanty sowing was apt to leave a great portion of the field
unoccupied with plants, and was consequently an unproduc-
tive mode of farming. As the cotton plant is one of the
tenderest scions of vegetable life, it was found necessary to
increase the quantity of seed in order to insure a sufficient
number of healthy plants on a given surface of ground;
fortunately, Tull's ridge-husbandry became known to the
colonists, and was adopted for the Sea-island cotton with
great success.
The present process, which has continued without change
for the last twenty-five years, is to form the ground into
ridges, five feet in breadth, extending in straight lines over
the whole field; if the land be at all low and subject to be
overflowed, these ridges are intersected by ditches at intervals
of 105 feet from each other, for receiving the water that may
collect in the hollow spaces between the ridges on which the
cotton plants are reared. These hollows correspond to the
water furrows in wheat husbandry, and serve the same purpose
of drainage; the ridges should rise about ten inches above
the level of the intervals, the crown being flat and regular
a trench is then made along the middle of the ridge, from
two to four inches deep, according to the time of planting,
which extends from the 1st of March to the 1st of May, the
preferable period being from the 1st to the 15th of April.
When cotton is planted early in March, before the sun has
warmed the soil to any great depth, it is necessary to de-
posit the seed in drills, not more than two inches deep, or
there will not be warmth enough to excite germination; later
in the season, when the heat is greater, moisture must be
secured, which is done by making the drills four inches deep.
The Georgian has been taught by experience not to be
156
NATURAL HISTORY AND
sparing of his cotton seed, and he therefore commonly uses
a bushel to the English acre. The persons employed in
sowing the cotton are generally divided into parties of three
individuals each; one person opens the drill along the top of
the ridge, then the most intelligent drops the seed into the
trench, and the third follows with a hand-hoe to turn back
the soil while still moist over the seed in the trench; this
operation may be very well performed by the foot, by the
pressure of which the crumbling soil may be brought into
close contact with the seeds. Women are principally em-
ployed in these rural labours.
After every care in the sowing, the planter is never sure
that a sufficient number of plants will spring up, for a single
night's frost, often so late as the month of April, will ruin
the whole prospect, and require a renewal of the labours;
nay, one day of a strong north-east wind will blight a field of
promising plants, and upon the best and richest soils, when
both these sources of danger are past, there is another enemy
equally destructive, the cockchafer or cutworm, which pre-
vails in the month of April: as the cotton comes through the
ground and remains several days, like the pca or other pulse,
with only two radical leaves, every one of the plants cut
above or below the ground by the worm is destroyed, in
consequence of which whole fields have not unfrequently to
be replanted in the month of May.
When apprehension from these accidents is over, the labour
comes on of thinning the plants, which would injure each
other, from being too much crowded together; the prudent
husbandman divides this labour into three periods, succes-
sively weeding out the weakly plants as the vigorous ones
increase in size, to be left to grow from six inches to twenty-
four inches apart, according to the fertility of the soil and
the expected size of the shrub. The cotton plant is of the
tap kind, which sends its root straight down into the ground,
and draws much of its nourishment from the atmosphere by
means of its broad leaves; as the fields should be entirely
shaded from the sun when the plants are fully developed, the
distance between their roots should be adapted to this cir-
cumstance.
At every one of these thinnings, as they are called, the
field is carefully cleared with the hand-hoe from weeds, and
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON,
157
fresh soil is gathered round the remaining plants to support
them against the wind, whereby they are easily bent over on
account of their tall slender stems; these several operations
continue till about the 20th of July, by which time they have
been repeated from three to six times successively, according
to the soil and season, and at that period the summer rains
usually set in; they are not tropical in their violence, but are
often pretty heavy: up to that time of the year no country can
possess a more temperate climate than the Sea-island district;
the atmosphere feels springy and enlivening, being refreshed
by gentle winds which blow almost daily from the sea-shore.
But dark and dense clouds now begin to gather upon the
Western hills, and the equilibrium of the weather becomes
unstable; from the 28th of July to the 1st of August the
winds change their direction from the South-east to the
South-west, and are accompanied with clouds replete with
lightning and rain to deluge the fields. At this season all
field-labours must cease, for any attempt to stir the ground
now would be apt to loosen the roots and make the plants
with their large leaves overloaded with moisture fall down;
indeed, they are only sustained in consequence of the re-
peated dressings up of the soil round their roots at the
previous operations. The month of August is a period of
great solicitude to the cotton-grower, as the heavy rains
frequently cause the plant to part with its fruit, and even its
leaves; the August full moon is likewise the time when
the caterpillar makes its appearance. It is the offspring of a
small brown moth, resembling the candle moth, which de-
posits its eggs upon the leaf of the Gossypium always a night
or two before the full or new moon; they hatch a few hours
after they are deposited, and are so small at first as to be
hardly discernible by the naked eye; they do little or no
damage during the first nine or ten days of their life, like the
silkworms, eating little in their infancy; but a few days
before they complete their growth they become so excessively
voracious as to destroy an entire plantation in a few hours.
Mr. Spalding has seen 400 acres of cotton of a promising
aspect, which four days thereafter did not possess a green leaf,
or scarcely a solitary pod upon a plant.
Experience has led to the belief that these caterpillar
ravages may be expected once in the space of seven years.
158
NATURAL HISTORY AND
When cotton fields have escaped injury from rains, winds,
and worms, they display as beautiful a scene as the admirer
of vegetable nature could desire to behold: wide waving
groups of viny foliage blended with three coloured blossoms
of brilliant hues, and pods of darker shades in various states
of ripeness. When the flower comes forth it has a fine
yellow colour, which it retains during the first day; under
the influence of the night it changes to a red or crimson hue ;
in the third day it darkens into a chocolate brown, and then
falls to the ground, leaving a pod already half an inch in
diameter. The interval between the appearance of the
blossom and the maturation of the fruit is very variable,
being altogether dependent on the season. Mr. Spalding has
at one time observed hundreds of flowers which afforded
perfectly ripe fruit in the space of twenty-one days, and
at another he has seen six weeks required for the same effect,
but such delays are always hurtful.
The cotton pods begin to open about the 1st of August;
from which time to the 1st of December the whole attention
of the cultivator is directed to the picking in of the cotton as
the pods daily open. During the autumnal season in Georgia
and South Carolina upon the sea-coast, the winds are violent
and the rains heavy, so that the picking is a tedious though
not a laborious operation; and the persons employed may be
expected to gather from the fields twenty-five pounds a day
when the weather permits them to work.
In the more
favourable times, fifty pounds is a good daily average pick-
ing of seed cotton; but latterly ten pounds may be a day's
work.
Taking the mean product of cotton plantations, Mr.
Spalding considers that four acres will not yield more than
five hundredweight of clean cotton separated from the seeds.
by the gin, of which four hundredweight is white, and one
hundredweight coloured or stained cotton wool. These five
hundredweights of cotton wool have averaged to the planter
for the last fifteen years twenty cents (about 1od.) per pound
for the white, and ten cents for the stained, fetching in
American money ninety dollars to the husbandman. Mr.
Spalding justly remarks, that this is a small remuneration,
not calculated to excite the envy or hostility of those en-
gaged in other productive occupations.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
159
The process of preparing Sea-island cotton for the market
begins as soon as it is generally gathered in from the field,
and it is tedious and troublesome in a high degree. The
seed cotton, as plucked from the pod, is put into a bag to the
amount of about half a bushel, the bag being suspended from
the neck or waist of the reaper; when full, it is emptied into
a large basket, which contains the amount of each person's
gathering in the course of a day. In the evening the crude
cotton is brought home, weighed, and deposited in the store-
house; whence, next morning, if the weather be fine, it is
taken and spread upon drying-floors, made of two-inch thick
American pine; from twenty to forty feet of floor being
required for every hundred acres of cotton under cultivation.
One day's exposure here is sufficient for cotton plucked in
dry weather, but several days may be required for the cotton
picked during rain. As strong cold drying winds and bright
suns are equally injurious to the delicate staple of the Sea-
island cotton, it is left no longer upon the drying-floors than
is absolutely necessary to prevent it from heating in the
house by fermentation. It is also usual and proper to pass it
through what is called a whipper, to strike off any sand,
broken leaves, or other extraneous matter.-See the Primitive
Willow, vol. ii. p. 4.
The whipper is a long cylindric cage, made of reeds or
bars of wood (and might be made of wire), six or eight feet in
length, and two feet in diameter, being close at one end and
open at the other; and is supported at the two ends by
fcet of different lengths, so that the barrel slopes from the
horizontal position about one foot. At the higher end, a
hopper of about a bushel capacity rests upon the upper sides
at the enclosed end of it. This hopper lets the cotton to be
cleaned fall into the barrel or cage, along the axis of which a
shaft runs which may be turned round by the hand, by a
crank or winch attached to the shaft at its upper end. This
shaft has cross bars upon it which reach to within an inch of
the inside of the cylindric cage. The cotton as it falls from
the hopper is whisked round about by these cross bars all the
way in its descent towards the lower end of the cage, by
which means any sand or other impurities fall through the
interstices. This machine resembles in form and effect the
bolting-sieve of a flour-mill.
160
NATURAL HISTORY AND
The whipping was formerly applied both to the ginned
cotton wool and to the seed cotton, but it is now confined to
the last operation, as it was supposed to produce a stringy
appearance in the cotton wool. When these operations are
completed the harvest may be considered as closed, and the
preparation of the wool for the market begins.
Much
Many machines have been designed for separating the seed
from the Sea-island cotton, but all at last resolve themselves
into two wooden rollers, revolving against each other in
opposite directions; see fig. 10, p. 145. The rollers may be
about half an inch in diameter, and turn round from 100
to 500 times in a minute. It is found that the smaller the
rollers, and the slower their motion, the more cleanly will
the cotton fibres be separated from the seeds; for, if the
rollers be an inch in diameter and if they revolve very
rapidly, they will draw in soft seeds, small and false seeds, or
motes as they are called, and crushing them in their passage,
will stain and otherwise injure the cotton staple.
money has been expended upon complicated machines, driven
by the power of horses, water, or wind, at first in the
Bahama Islands, and afterwards in Georgia and Carolina,
but at last most of the growers of Sea-island cotton have
returned to their first and most simple tool, viz., two
wooden rollers, kept together by a wooden frame, and in-
serted into iron cranks, having a round journal and a square
shaft, upon which is fixed a wooden or iron fly wheel from
two to three feet in diameter. The iron cranks which turu
the rollers are connected by strips of wood with a treadle
worked by the foot. This treadle runs under the machine,
and is connected at the further end to the floor of the house
(like the treadle of a turning-lathe) by sockets within which
it moves. The man stands therefore in front of the rollers,
with a board interposed, upon which he holds a large handful
of Sea-island cotton, which he presents from time to time to
the rollers kept revolving by the action of the foot upon the
treadle. This labour becomes easy from habit, as the feet
may be changed in the operation. The task expected from
the labourer upon this machine is from twenty-five to thirty
pounds weight of cotton per day. The gin itself costs when
new and complete ten American dollars. Women are
reckoned the best ginners, as they are more careful to keep
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
161
the rollers supplied with wool in the act of revolution, but
they were found to injure their constitution, and they have
been replaced generally by men. As it is a light in-door
winter work, it is much sought after by them.
"What is a little surprising," says Mr. Spalding, "this
foot-gin, which we received from the West Indies, is men-
tioned, if I mistake not, in the remains of Ncarchus's voyage
down the Indus, as employed in these countries for separating
the seed from the wool."
The seed cotton is prepared for the ginning by careful
inspection and sorting, in which the yellow cotton, the motes,
and any hard or rotten fibres that may have passed through
the whipper are separated from the white wool. This work
requires the greatest care and attention, and is well executed
by women seated upon benches, with tables before them,
where the seed cotton as taken from a basket is spread in
small parcels, examined, picked, and then thrown into
another basket. A woman may sort from 60 to 100 lbs. in
a day. It is now exposed for a little to the sun to take off any
remaining dampness, and immediately thereafter subjected to
the ginning machine. The wool thus separated from the
seeds is again returned to the women placed in a large room
well lighted and furnished with small tables, covered with
slit reeds or wire-work; and it is here freed from every
impurity. Thirty pounds are a good day's work for a woman.
The cotton is now ready to be bagged for the market.
The hempen bags in which Sea-island cotton is shipped
are made of Scotch sackcloth, forty-two inches wide in the
web, weighing about a pound and a half to the yard. Each
bag requires from four and a quarter to four and a half
yards, and ought to receive fully 300 lbs. weight of cotton.
Two men are generally employed together to pack, and they
finish two bags in a day.
The room into which the cleaned cotton has passed is set
apart for the packing operation, and must be kept free from
dust. Adjoining to it is a small apartment under the same
cover with a round hole in its floor, just large enough to
contain the bag when full of cotton. The open end of the
bag is fastened by twine to a wooden hoop which extends
beyond the hole, so as to hang the bag upright by its mouth.
One of the men then gets into the bag with a heavy wooden
162
NATURAL HISTORY AND
or iron pestle in his hands, and first presses the cotton with
his feet as it is thrown in, and then beats it down with the
pestle until the requisite quantity is forced into the bag.
Let us now compute the quantity of labour expended upon
each 300 lbs. bale of Sea-island cotton before it is shipped:
1000 lbs. of seed cotton are required to produce 300 lbs.
of marketable cotton wool; and fifteen persons are employed
in its preparation for the gin. Twenty-five pounds are the
average produce of a gin per diem, so that twelve days' labour
are required to gin a bag full, and ten women take a day to
mote the cotton wool. Thus thirty-eight days' service,
including the packing, are worked up in preparing a bag
of cotton wool for the market. Two others are usually
employed in spreading the cotton that is to be ginned upon
the drying floor. The bag itself costs, with cord, &c., a
dollar and twenty-five cents of American money. This sum
with seventy-five cents for freight is to be deducted from the
price of the cotton, as no return is ever made for the bag by
the purchaser.
The quantity of Sea-island cotton has not materially in-
creased within these last ten years, nor is it likely that it
will increase. The particular soils and climate which have
heretofore produced it, and to which it probably owes its
peculiar qualities, are confined to the narrow limits above
stated. Whether it be that the cultivation of the Sea-island
cotton has afforded fewer inducements than other objects of
husbandry, certain it is that the number of those engaged in
it, even within these limited districts, has not increased; and
they are the successors of the first cultivators who are still
engaged in the business. They are generally an educated
people and stationary, less anxious for change than most of
their countrymen, and not indifferent to the honour and hap-
piness of their fatherland.
The short staple cotton, so called in contradistinction to
the Sea-island or long staple, wherever grown in the United
States, is derived from the first and second of the four varic-
ties above described. They were both cultivated in small
quantities in the United States from Georgia to Virginia at
the close of the revolutionary war, by the poorer classes of
the white population, for the purpose of mixing with sheep's
wool in their domestic manufactures. The cotton was at
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
163
that time separated by the old and young, labouring with
their fingers, as they sat round their evening fire, and was
spun by the women upon the hand-wheel. But it was not
till after the introduction of the West Indian seed that the
short-stapled cotton was cultivated for the market. There
can be no doubt, however, that a different cotton seed was at
a subsequent period introduced into Virginia from some part
of the Turkish dominions, most probably from Smyrna, and
this is the herbaceum of Linnæus.*
No sooner was the attention of the southern States excited
towards the culture of cotton as a profitable branch of hus-
bandry, than it began to spread from the sea-shores into the
interior, but a great difficulty then arose from the adhesion
of the fibres to the hairy green seed, which was not over-
come till Whitney and Miller's saw-gin became known. The
hairy cotton, the second of the four varieties, had obtained
the preference over the others upon the inland grounds of
Georgia and Carolina, because the wool, though shorter in
the staple, was much stronger, and came to maturity at an
earlier period in the autumn. The simple roller gin, which
answered well to separate the long staple from the black secd,
was quite ineffective for the short staple, because the fur upon
its seed stuck to the rollers and obstructed the entrance of
the proper textile filaments. But wherever Whitney's ma-
chine became known it was laid hold of with avidity, and
with little regard to the patent privilege of the inventor.
Whitney's saw-gin was first mounted on a good scale at Mr.
Miller's plantation, sixteen miles above Savannah, in the
year 1795. See fig. 11, p. 182.
This gin acts perhaps a little too roughly on the fibres,
tearing a few, and causing a loss of about one-sixth of the
wool when compared in its product to that of the roller gin
applied to the Sea-island seed cotton. The power of the
saw-gin is, however, so great as to give it a preference, since
one machine of ten pounds value can clean a whole bale of
cotton daily by the work of a single horse.
Henceforth the short stapled cotton began to be grown in
all directions round Georgia as a common centre; north into
the two Carolinas, west into the hill country, and into all the
* The green-seeded Georgian cotton is probably derived from the
accidental crossing of the hirsutum and herbaceum species.
164
NATURAL HISTORY AND
southern states, accommodating itself to the different soils
and climates of the interior, which the Anguilla cotton would
not do. It may be remarked, however, that the short stapled
wool is of a better quality when raised near the sea than at
a great distance from it; and it thrives most luxuriantly in
alluvial soils, a little impregnated with salt, as in some of
the districts of Louisiana. There the soils, which are deeply
tinged with red, and well seasoned with salt, between the
waters of the Arkansa and the Red River, give forth the
most abundant crops of the best quality of that description
of cotton. From the information of intelligent cotton far-
mers, Mr. Spalding states, that a thousand pounds of seed-
cotton or two hundred and fifty of ginned-wool may be raised
with reasonable diligence from an English acre of land in
that district; whereas, in the hill country from the Missis-
sippi to the Carolinas, not more than five hundred pounds of
seed-cotton can be obtained.
The system of agriculture throughout all these districts is
essentially the same: the hand-hoe used exclusively on the
sea-coast being replaced by the plough in tilling the ground
of the interior. The plough breaks up the soil more tho-
roughly than the hoe, and does eight acres at the same ex-
pense as four can be done by the hand instrument; but both
are employed in the method of ridge husbandry. The
distance between the ridges is five feet, and that between
the plants in the furrows varies from six to twenty-four
inches, according to the circumstances formerly mentioned.
As the winds of autumn are much less violent in the interior
than upon the sea-coast of Georgia and Carolina, and as the
capsules that contain the short staple expand much less in
ripening than those of the Sea-island, the upland cotton
harvest is much less precarious than the other, less of its
cotton is lost by the capsules falling off spontaneously, and
less trouble is occasioned in plucking the shrubs. In fact the
short stapled pods are allowed to hang upon the plants till
they are white with the wool, so that they may be reaped
at two or three gatherings, instead of ten or twelve employed
in the Sea-islands, and therefore at not more than half the
cost of labour.
Several varieties of this kind of cotton grow well and
perfect their fruit all the way from the southern borders of
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
165
Virginia to the south-western streams of the Mississippi,
over a length of twelve hundred miles, with a depth of two
hundred miles inland; and in every soil, whether clay, loam,
or sand, provided the waters be kept well drained from the sur-
face of the land. The mean quantity over all is given by Mr.
Spalding at one hundred and twenty-five pounds of both Sea-
island cotton wool, and of the short stapled wool, to an
English acre, but the amount of labour is much greater for
the former than for the latter. Cotton does not exhaust the
ground, but from the density of its shade, and the size and
swelling of its roots, it soon makes the soil too loose to sus-
tain the plant; and, if cultivated continually on the same
land, the plant becomes affected with a disease greatly re-
sembling the blight in wheat, and gives birth to seeds which
have a propensity to extend the evil. Mr. Spalding ascribes
this disease to an insect puncturing the shrub, followed by a
parasitic plant, and recommends fire as the best remedy for
ground so affected: all the weeds and grass on the land
should therefore be burned.
"There is no plant which requires rotation of crops more
than the cotton, and there is no country where that practice
is more important than in the southern states. The cotton
fields should therefore be reaped with an intermediate crop
of grain, and all root crops should be avoided. This simple
triennial course, with manure applied during the grain year
to as great an extent as may be convenient, will preserve the
fields from any material decay.”
In conclusion we may state that eight acres cultivated by
the plough will yield the farmers annually, on a fair average
of seasons, one thousand pounds of short stapled cotton wool
to each labourer employed upon them. Their cotton has
paid them about ten cents a pound during the last seven
years, or one hundred dollars for each mean year's work.
There are exceptions undoubtedly to this estimate, for a few
men have received much higher prices, particularly for Sea-
island cotton, and a few also have raised a much larger quan-
tity than 125 pounds to the acre; "but exceptions," says Mr.
Spalding, can never serve as a guide in conclusions as to
either the wealth or productiveness of a whole country.
The besetting sin of agricultural statements is their exag-
gerations."
CC
166
NATURAL HISTORY AND
Mr. Seabrook states, in a letter accompanying his memoir,
that it contains no assertions which are not historical, or
which could not be substantiated by living testimony; and
he says he makes this observation because considerable
obscurity and doubt have hitherto existed with regard to the
first introduction of Sea-island cotton into the United States.
In an explanatory communication from Mr. Vander Hurst, it
is said that "the exportation from South Carolina in 1795
must have been 1,109,653 pounds of cotton instead of
£1,109,653 sterling worth."
The terms "Mains, and Santees" he defines as follows:
Mains means the black seeded, or long stapled cotton raised
on the main land behind the Sea-islands; Santees, the cotton
raised in the vicinity of Santee river in Carolina; but
there is no original difference in the seed, which is black in
both. He thinks a light sand to be the best soil for the Sea-
island cotton plant. The finest seed is not always coated
with fur, but it has invariably, at one or both ends, a small
tuft or beard. The produce of this sort now brings in the
Charlestown market from forty cents to one hundred cents
per pound, and is procured by a judicious selection of seed
from the general bulk, sufficient for a nursery, from which
the quantity requisite for the entire crop is supplied, but
this cotton from the nursery is "the extra fine," and com-
mands the highest price. The word "hill" is incorrect,
and is properly understood only by practical planters;
for there is no hill: on the contrary, it is a hole into
which the seed is thrown, made on the top of the bed or
ridge. A plantor's acre is 210 feet square, divided for the
apportioning of labour into four square parts called "tasks,"
105 feet square each, and two tasks generally make a day's
work for an able hand; it cannot consequently be 210 feet
square, but 210 by 105 feet only. This error of Mr. Sea-
brook must have arisen from inadvertency, and should be
corrected. The drawings of the black seed or long staple,
and the green seed or short staple cotton plant, are a contri-
bution from Dr. Capus, from which it will be seen that the
leaves of the former have five lobes, agreeably to the botanical
description of the arboreum species.
Mr. Seabrook considers cotton plants to be the spontaneous
production of all the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
167
America. A few of the planters of the state of Georgia be-
gan to raise cotton as an article of export soon after the
peace of 1783. Indeed, the first provincial congress of South
Carolina, held in January 1775, had recommended the inhabit-
ants to raise cotton, yet little attention was paid to that judi-
cious counsel. Ramsay, in his "History of South Carolina,
says that cotton was exported from that state in 1795, to the
value of £1,109,653, a statement already remarked upon as
erroneous.
>>
The long stapled cotton is thought by many to be the
Gossypium Barbadense of the West Indies. But this has a
shrubby stalk four or five feet high, tri-lobed leaves, with
flowers consisting of several large yellow petals, each stained
at the bottom with a purple spot. The capsule or pod when
ripe opens into three partitions, in each of which is a lock of
white cotton, investing the seeds.
The above three distinct varieties of long stapled cotton,
Sea-islands, Mains, and Santees, are worth respectively at
this time, in the Charlestown market, thirty, twenty-five,
and twenty cents. Each of these varieties may be sub-
divided into several others, which are in general distinguish-
able only by the seeds and the quality of the cotton. The
seed of the first variety is covered entirely with green fur,
and has a beard of that colour at one of its ends or at both.
The seed of common Sea-islands, like that of Mains and
Santees, is a pure black, and sometimes it is covered wholly
or partially with white fur. In 1785 the late Governor
Tatnall received, as Mr. Spalding stated above, a parcel of
seed of the silky or Sea-island cotton, which came from
Anguilla through the Bahamas. In that year and the one
following, the seed of long staple cotton, and probably that
of Mains and Santees, was also brought into Georgia from
Pernambuco and the Bahamas: Sea-island cotton was not
extensively raised in South Carolina till 1799; but as early
as 1789 about twenty persons cultivated it in Georgia. It is
not known whence the seed originally came. Before its culti-
vation in the United States the cotton which commanded the
highest price in England came from the island of Bourbon.
In 1786 Bourbon cotton sold at from seven shillings and six-
pence to ten shillings per pound. In 1799 Sea-island obtained
in Liverpool from five shillings to five shillings and threepence
168
NATURAL HISTORY AND
per pound, and the cotton of Pernambuco four shillings and
sixpence. The genuine cinnamon and mango trees were intro-
duced into the West Indies from Bourbon in 1782, and some
other productions at a still earlier period. May not the
seed of the Sea-island cotton have been also received from
the isle of Bourbon, as well as the sugar-cane? and may not
the Bourbon planters have got the seed of their highly-prized
cotton from Persia, since it is now known that the Persian
cotton is nowise inferior to the Sea-island except in point of
strength?
The cultivation of this valuable shrub extends about forty-
five miles from the sea shore in the States, and its fruit
diminishes in all its valuable properties in proportion to its
distance from the atmosphere of the ocean.
The finest and
best cotton now raised in the world is produced on the
islands of Edisto, John's, Wadmalan, and St. Helena, in
South Carolina. There are three methods of sowing the
seed, viz., in long hills, in short hills, and in shallow
trenches extending the whole length of the ridge. Long
hills (by which is meant a row of holes two or three times
the length of the hoe apart) are generally preferred in very
rich land, where it is necessary that the plants should be far
from each other. Of the three methods, that of short hills
(or near holes, the width of a hoe apart) has been found to be
the most useful as well as profitable. The quantity of seed
sown to an acre is about half a bushel. The operation of
hoeing is begun the last of April, and is conducted as follows:
The tops of the beds are first clean hand-picked, then 210
feet square are afterwards hoed by each slave, and every
bunch of grass is carefully collected. The earth about the
plants is also well scratched and loosened with the fingers.
At the second working the usual practice is to haul, or draw,
the earth directly from the centre of the alley (hollow) to
within a few inches of the top of the bed. This is seldom
done, however, when the cotton is very low, when the earth is
too wet, or when it is too lumpy. If none of these circum-
stances prevent, the planter either hauls twice in succession,
viz., at the second and third workings, or he hoes and hauls
alternately. The number of workings which the crop receives
seldom exceeds five or six; the last being usually given about
the first week of July.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
169
The proper thinning of cotton requires much judgment
and experience. At the first hoeing, if the plants are very
thick set, a few may be advantageously taken out. At the
second working they are separated about two inches, where
the seed has been drilled or reduced from six to eight stalks
in a hill (hole); if short or long hills are used, when the
period arrives for a third thinning, which is about the eighth
day after the second, as the bark of the cotton stem is then
sufficiently thick to bear exposure, the plants ought to be
thinned six or eight inches apart, or from two to four in a
hill. About a week or ten days after this, a few of the most
intelligent labourers are employed to separate the stalks a
little further. By the 25th of June the thinning of the crop
is completed. In general, the cotton plants which grow about
three feet high are left to the number of from 120 to 140
stalks in a task row (105 feet long); when they grow four feet
high, to the number of 110; and, six feet high, to the number
of sixty or eighty stalks.
The plough is very generally used in the cultivation of the
santees, for making the cotton beds, which are commonly
about four feet apart.
It is sometimes had recourse to also
for breaking up stiff lands. The number of acres planted to
each hand (labourer) is from four and a half to five and a
half. A good crop is 130 pounds of ginned cotton from an
acre.
The gathering of the crop commences about the 20th
of August, and ends about the 1st of December. From
thirty to sixty pounds per labourer are usually picked in a
day.
The leaf and pod of long-stapled cotton are much smaller
than those of the short-stapled; the pod of the former opens
into three partitions, that of the latter into five. Upland
cotton may remain unpicked on the plants for weeks, or
perhaps months, without injury; but the long-stapled cotton
unless picked very soon after its flower blows, falls from the
pod and is spoiled. Exposure to the weather renders it brittle
and colourless.
Any vegetable matter is a good manure for cotton, but it
must be applied judiciously. Excess of food produces a large
and luxuriant stalk, but renders the fruit scanty. For high
and loose sandy soils, salt mud and green marsh grass or
VOL. I.
M
170
NATURAL HISTORY AND
rushes are now commonly put under the sward on which the
bed is to be made several weeks or months before seed-time.
For low close lands, fresh cotton seed, pine straw, marsh
rushes, corn stalks, or any substance rotted in the cow-house,
may be used.
The quantity of manure to an acre is as
follows-of salt mud from ten to twenty cart-loads; cotton
seed, about forty bushels; from the cow-house, from
twenty to twenty-five cart-loads; green sward or rushes,
a layer of about four or five inches thick and ten inches
in width.
There is perhaps no plant more delicate than Sea-island
cotton. Being deep rooted, it is injured by rain, especially
in the month of August. It is easily blasted by wind, or by
a very slight frost. When young the leaves and roots are
liable to be injured by a small bug, and the whole plant to
be cut down by the grub or caterpillar. Should June prove
a wet month, a visit from the caterpillar towards the end of
August will certainly take place. The depredations of this
insect are almost incredible. In one week it has been known
to destroy completely fields containing more than 100 acres.
It is however seldom known to commit ravages on the main
land.
On the Mississippi the growers of cotton think that new
land does not produce so fine a quality of cotton as that which
has previously borne two crops of grain. In preparing the
ground they use the plough alone, and lay off the rows from
four to six feet, and where the soil is as rich as the low grounds
of the Mississippi even eight feet is not too much. They
open the ridges by running a narrow drill with the plough,
sowing the seed in it as they would grain, and covering it
lightly with the harrow. The only art in making a good
crop of cotton consists in not suffering even a blade of grass
to grow among the plants till they are fully ripe, and not to
crowd them too much together, that is, nearer than ten or twelve
inches from each other. From the 1st of September the
pods, called there boles, begin to mature and open
successively until winter has stopped the vegetation of the
shrub.
As soon as the boles are completely opened, the cotton,
which then hangs partially out of the shells, and has become
almost dry, must be gathered by hand; care must be
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
171
taken by the picker to lay hold with his fingers of the several
locks of cotton only, so as to remove the whole at once, with-
out breaking off any of the dry leaves about the bole; and if
any fall upon the cotton before the picker has secured his
handful in the bag which hangs at his side, they must be care-
fully separated. It is necessary to use a bag with a close
mouth to gather the cotton, for the plants have commonly
many decayed leaves upon them which are easily shaken down ;
and these leaves greatly depreciate the value of the cotton
among spinners.
"The saw-gin of sixty wraggs or saws ought not to make
more than from 600 to 800 pounds of clean cotton in twelve
hours; for when forced to run faster the cotton is not so clean,
and its fibres are liable to be cut and torn."
Some writers on cotton husbandry have remarked that the
red soil of the interior of Georgia is apt to give a tinge to
the wool grown upon it, and that the gray soil produces a
fairer cotton.
The seed when sold for fodder, fetches about a dollar the
thirty or forty bushels. The cattle are very fond of it, but
unless it be mixed with dry fodder, such as the husks
and leaves of maize, in order to dilute it, and prevent the
cotton fibres from balling in the stomach, it has a scouring
effect, and is reckoned unwholesome. Cattle grazed on the
saline meadows of Florida and Georgia are subject to a fatal
disease called the salt sickness. Mr. Couper has discovered
that wood ashes mixed with their food is a certain cure, pro-
bably by neutralizing the muriatic acid disengaged from the
sea-salt in the animal system."
One of the finest samples of Sea-island cotton which I have
ever seen was sent me by D. B. Warden, Esq., ex-consul of
the United States at Paris, and forwarded to him for this
work by Dr. Wardeman of Charleston. It was grown on the
plantation of Mr. Benjamin Freeman, situated on Wadmalan
Island, about twenty miles from Charleston. This cotton
was discovered about five or six years ago, and the first
sent to the market sold for 6 dollars and 75 cents the pound,
while the ordinary Sea-island brought only about 30 cents.
The growing of this cotton was for some time kept a secret, and
* Silliman's Journal, vol. ix., p. 22.
172
NATURAL HISTORY AND
éven in 1831, when Dr. Wardeman visited Wadmalan Island,
the fields in which it was grown were guarded during harvest
time to prevent the stealing of the seed, three quarts of which
were sold as a favour for 150 dollars.
The plant differs from the ordinary Sea-island shrub in
having longer "limbs," (primary branches,) longer "joints,"
(secondary branches,) in the flowers being larger, of a
brighter yellow, and the hairs of the pod being longer. It is
by the latter mark that the best plants are recognised, from
which the seed is selected for sowing the ensuing crop.
Unless this selection be carefully made, the cotton will dete-
riorate every year, probably from the pollen of the commcn Sca-
island getting upon the pistils of the superior kind, as the
former abounds all round about. The pod opens into three
triangular portions, disclosing cotton of a remarkably pure
white; the plant of this fine cotton does not bear so luxuri-
antly as the common Sea-island; it is from three to four feet
high, and is distinguishable by tufted seeds of a greenish
colour, resembling somewhat those of the short-stapled cotton
of the inland country.
I have been told by an eminent cotton spinner in Alsace
that the top flowers of the cotton plant afford the finest seeds,
and are selected by the most skilful planters of the Sea-island
district for improving the staple from year to year.
The cultivation of cotton upon the coast of Guiana has been
conducted with much judgment and success. Here the land
is an alluvial mud, thrown up by the great rivers that empty
themselves into the ocean in its immediate neighbourhood.
Land is daily formed by these deposits. The elevation above
the level of the sea is so inconsiderable as to render inun-
dations not uncommon, and the whole country is intersected
by ditches, without which husbandry would be impracticable.
For this reason, the land on which the cotton shrub is to be
planted must be formed into beds about thirty-six fect wide,
and surrounded by drains that cross the estate, and empty
themselves into the trenches which run parallel with its
length; these beds are slightly elevated towards the middle,
with the soil turned out of the drains, so as to throw off the
redundant moisture more readily, and prevent that stagnation
of water round the roots of the cotton, so injurious to its
growth. The land thus prepared is divided into portions of
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
173
about five feet square. Small holes, four or five inches deep
and six or eight wide, are dug with a hoe, a little light earth is
scraped into each hole, a small handful of seed laid on it, and
it is covered over with mould. If the weather be showery the
seed will spring up in three or four days. As soon as the
plants are three or four inches high, they ought to be all
pulled up by the hand, except three or four to each hole;
this is generally done within a month after the first planting.
About the same time the ground requires a first weeding,
which is repeated every month until the trees are fully
grown. At the second or third weeding one stalk only is
left in each hole, and then if it be eighteen inches or two
feet high, the tops are nipped off to make the shrub throw out
a sufficient number of lateral shoots. The usual period of
planting cotton in Dutch Guiana is during the months of
December, January, April, and May. If it be planted in
the first two months, which is the preferable season, the
shrub will require to be pruned in June to prevent its growing
too high: this is done when it attains a height of about three
feet above the ground, while at the same time all the shoots
from the stem higher than one foot above the ground are
lopped off. But if the cotton be planted in April and May,
the branches will require to be nipped only twice with the
finger, and the plant will generally yield some cotton before
Christmas, even in October, if the weather be dry; in general,
however, the cotton plant of Guiana rarely produces a full
crop before it has attained its second year, its whole duration
being usually estimated at four or five years. Whenever a
tree fails another is planted in its place, which practice is
called supplying a field of cotton, and is particularly attended
to at the period of weeding; the cotton-trees after they are
one year old are regularly pruned annually, between the months
of April and July.
In ordinary seasons the crop in Guiana is generally
finished in April, and if the season be mild, May is the fittest
month for pruning; a labour which generally employs the
gang of negroes for about a month. After this period the
utmost care should be had to keep the ground clear of grass
and weeds, which grow very luxuriantly at that season; if
the weather be favourable the cotton begins to throw out
abundance of blossoms by the end of July or beginning of
F
174
NATURAL HISTORY AND
August; the pods form in succession, and generally begin to
open in about six weeks thereafter. It rarely happens that
picking is general before the end of October, and it continues
all through December, making what is called the first crop.
The short rainy season now begins, and during its continu-
ance the trees vegetate with uncommon vigour, and begin to
blossom. When the weather is mild the second crop should
commence by the end of February, and continue till the
middle of April; the rains in general render this crop very
unproductive.
As salt is considered to promote the growth of cotton, the
old lands in Guiana are frequently inundated with salt water;
this fact corresponds with the well-known circumstance that
Sea-island cotton is superior to every other species.
After the cotton has been picked, it is dried in the sun
until the seed becomes quite hard, for otherwise it would
heat and swell; it is exposed for about three days, upon tiles
or a wooden platform, to the sun; the seed is then separated
by the simple roller gin, consisting of two slender cylinders
made to revolve by a treadle moved by the labourer's foot, like
a turning lathe ; a Guiana workman can gin from fifty to
sixty pounds a day with this very simple machine. The
ginned cotton is picked by women in order to free it from
broken seeds, dried leaves, or yellow flocks of cotton; a
clever hand will clean from twenty-five to thirty pounds
daily; the cotton is now packed in bags, and compressed by
a screw into compact bales for exportation.
The cotton plant of Guiana is particularly subject to the
attack of an insect which has received the general name of
chenille, or cotton caterpillar, an animal about an inch or an
inch and a half in length; it is a species of phalana. One of
the most singular circumstances attending the ravages of this
insect is the fragrant smell which issues from the plant it
feeds upon, although neither the animal nor the healthy
plant possesses any odour; so powerful is this smell that it
may be recognized more than a hundred yards from the
plant.
The rapidity with which this caterpillar carries its ravages
to distinct and even remote plantations is surprising; in the
course of a single night whole fields, containing several
acros, have been devoured by them. Hitherto the only sure
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
175
defence against this destructive enemy is found in keeping
the intermediate space between the cotton shrubs free from
every species of vegetation on which the caterpillar can feed;
children are also employed in picking them off the shrubs.
Cotton plantations are liable also to another calamity,
called the blight; its tendency is to check or destroy the
vegetative powers of the plant, and to deprive it of every
productive faculty for a season. No satisfactory explanation
or remedy for this evil has hitherto been offered.
A species of scarabé, the apate monachus, is a third enemy
of the cotton plant. The larva of this insect begins its attack
by boring a hole in the green bark of the cotton-tree; it pene-
trates into the alburnum, eats it with a revolving motion
under the bark, and proceeds then to the wood and pith; the
branches thus attacked dry up and perish. When a new-
made hole is perceived upon a tree it should be closed care-
fully with wax, which, by excluding the air, soon causes the
insect to die, and saves the tree. The dead branches should
be cut off and burned.
There are, moreover, red and black bugs, which sometimes
suck the seeds of the cotton plant at the period when the
capsules open. When seeds so gnawed get accidentally be-
tween the rollers of the cotton gin, they are crushed flat, and
cause the wool to be soiled with the animal impurities of
the bug.
At Pernambuco the cotton shrub is triennial; it affords a
little wool the first year, more the second, and after the third
crop it is abandoned, and replaced in the land by farinaceous
plants, such as tapioca. The Brazil cotton is also a triennial
plant.
According to Forbes, the rice and cotton fields yield a
double crop in Guzerat, and they are both planted at the
commencement of the rainy season, in June. The rice is
sown in furrows, and reaped in about three months; the
cotton shrubs, which grow to the height of three or four feet,
and in verdure resemble currant bushes, require a longer time
to bring their delicate fruit to perfection. They are planted
between the rows of rice, but do not prevent its growth or
impede its being reaped. Soon after the rice harvest is over
the cotton bushes put forth a beautiful yellow flower, with a
crimson eye in each petal; this is succeeded by a green pod
176
NATURAL HISTORY AND
filled with a white stringy pulp; the pod turns brown and
hard as it ripens, and then separates into two or three divi-
sions containing the cotton. A luxuriant field, exhibiting at
once the expanding blossom, the bursting capsule, and the
snowy flakes of ripe cotton, is one of the most beautiful
objects in the agriculture of Hindostan. Herodotus says, the
Indians in his time possessed a kind of plant which, instead
of fruit, produced wool of a finer and better quality than that
of sheep, of which the natives made their clothes.—Oriental
Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 407.
Whoever has been in India, says Dr. Wallich, must have
found that the ryot, or farmer, will never exert himself beyond
what will give him his daily food. To this state of things it is
owing, for one instance, that the cotton plant is almost always
reared as an annual in India, whereas in America (Guiana
and Brazil) and the Leeward Islands it is triennial. He
believes that India produces of itself every variety of cotton.
It is his opinion, that the justly celebrated American Sea-
island cotton is actually in cultivation in several parts of
India, but owing to the manner of husbandry among the
natives, it very soon loses all its principal characters for
goodness, and returns to the quality of the original wild
species. That miserable husbandry, adds he, which never
allows the plant to outlive a season, if it remained even on
the sea coast, would be quite sufficient to deteriorate any
cotton. Among the thousands of Indian plantations, one
can hardly be found of a perennial kind. In the cleaning,
conveying to the sea-ports, and final packing for export of In-
dian cotton, there are great imperfections. The extreme bad-
ness of the boat, or ugly floating mass of wood called a patella,
in which the cotton is sent to the general place of shipment,
greatly injures its quality. Huge cotton bales are piled
upon it, one over another, with little protection, during a
voyage of four or five months, from the rains so abundant at
the season of conveyance, to Calcutta. Here they arrive
in a very filthy state, and are then subjected to the action of
bad screw presses, very irregularly worked, sometimes by the
power of twenty men and sometimes by that of fifty. Thus
*
* Dr. Wallich does not seem to be aware that all the cotton of the
Southern States of the American Union is the growth of annual
plants.
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
177
the seeds get incorporated with the damp cotton and give
out their oil, so as to discolour the cotton, and render it lia-
ble to rancidity and mouldiness.
Between the cleaned Bombay cottons, and the best cleaned
American upland cottons, there is a very considerable differ-
ence of value in favour of the latter. The improvement re-
quired in Indian cotton is the introduction of a different
seed to which the wool would adhere less strongly, a more
frequent change of seed, much greater attention to the culti-
vation, and care in cleaning, drying, and packing. It ought
to be sown in drills and not broad-cast. The cotton plant at
Bombay is generally an annual with short-stapled wool and.
green seeds. It is never cleaned with the saw-gin, though,
being coarse, strong, and adhesive to the seed, it would require
it. The East India Company never took any measures of
consequence to improve the cottons; and no lands producing
the cotton plant are in the hands of Europeans.
In the eastern, as well as in the western hemisphere, the
influence of the sea coast on the growth of cotton seems
equally propitious. Dr. Wallich brought home several sam
ples of cotton from the coast of Martaban to the India House-
which were grown near the sea. They were not exceeded by,
the cotton of any other country in the quality of the staple,
or the facility of its separation from the seed. There is a
village near Mangrole, in Kattywar, which produces a small
quantity of very fine cotton. It is cultivated by natives, and
grows only on one particular spot of small extent near the sea
coast.
Cotton from the Bourbon seed is grown in India only near
the sea; when transplanted to Benares, which is 400 or 500
miles inland, the crop entirely failed.
The Dacca cotton, from which the finest Indian muslins
are made, is in small quantity, and all consumed in that dis-
trict. It is quite unknown at Calcutta. The finest of the
Chinese cotton is likewise produced near the sea.
Two species of cotton, in particular, are cultivated in the
islands of the Indian Archipelago, which Mr. Crawford calls
the gossypium herbaceum and gossypium arboreum, probably
more in reference to their size than to their true botanical
characters. It is remarkable that Java, the most fertile and
improved country of that region, should produce the worst
178
NATURAL HISTORY AND
native cottons. When the cotton shrub is grown in succes-
sion to rice, it yields only one crop, and then perishes from
submersion during the rains. On such marshy lands the
cotton plant cannot thrive. The seed in the common cotton
of Java is to the wool in the proportion of four to one by
weight, and adheres much more strongly to the fibres than the
black seed. One person can clean no more cotton wool from
this seed than a pound and a quarter a day.
Having detailed the most approved methods of cultivating
cotton, I shall next describe the means by which it is pre-
pared for the market. The first step, the separation of the
wool from the seeds, is effected by the gin or ginning machine,
which is of two kinds, the simple roller-gin, fig. 10, and the
saw-gin, figs. II and 12.
The roller-gin, as above described by Mr. Spalding, con-
sists of fluted rollers five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and
from nine to sixteen inches long, placed parallelly in a
frame which keeps them almost in contact. Were the rollers
thicker or farther apart, they would crush the seeds, or draw
them through with the cotton wool; whereas they are so
adjusted as to pull through the fibres and exclude the seeds.
With one of these little machines, a stout man can clean
from thirty to forty pounds of the black-seeded cotton in a
day, but the labour is extremely hard. A pair of such small
fluted rollers has been used in India for this purpose from an
ancient period. It is worked by hand, without the advan-
tage of the treadle and fly wheel.
In 1820, Mr. Harvie, of Berbice, obtained a patent for an
improvement on the roller-gin, which consisted in the appli-
cation of a thin long brush to the posterior surface of the
rollers, with the view of preventing the cotton from being
carried round about with them, an accident apt to injure its
colour and staple. This brush may be adjusted by screws
attached to the roller-frame, whereby its bristles may be
brought to bear with any desired force against the rollers.
It is said that the rollers are liable to get very hot during
their rapid rotation, to obviate which, it has been proposed
to make them hollow for the free passage of cool air, or even
water. For this contrivance a patent has been obtained in
the United States.
This machine has been occasionally driven by horse power
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
179
in Guiana; but the casualties arising in the progress of
ginning cotton have led to the preference of human labour.
When dexterously managed it performs the business of clean-
ing cotton in a very perfect manner, without injuring the
staple. The principal objection to it is the small quantity of
cotton which it can clean in a day. This is obviated in
some measure by restricting its use to the Sea-island and
other fine-stapled or black-seeded cottons.
Travellers from Senegal report that the roller-gins sent
from Paris thither turned off only four pounds of cotton a
day; and their labour cost 12 sous per pound of cotton, an
expense which absorbed all the profits of the planter. The
cause of this trifling product of the machine may be readily
conceived. As the cylinders possess no elasticity, and as
they must close evenly together to seize the cotton wool, if
they are made from awkwardness to draw in a little more at
any one point, they are thereby forced asunder, and become
ineffective through the rest of their length.
The coarser and stronger stapled cotton of Upland Georgia
was originally cleaned by the vibrating stroke of the bow-
string, the cord being raised by hand and suddenly made to
recoil upon the seed-cotton. The force of this impulsion
separated the seeds, and opened up the wool. From this
practice, this cotton was called bowed Georgia. The bow-
string is also one of the ancient implements used by the
Hindoos and Chinese for cleaning cotton wool. See fig. 2, p.
108.
Till Mr. Eli Whitney invented his saw-gin in 1793, the
wool of the green-seeded cotton could not be separated from
the seed, unless with a degree of labour very discouraging
to the growth of that hardy and productive article. But
since that era, this branch of husbandry has become of para-
mount importance to the Southern States of the American
union. Having spent a winter in completing his machine,
Mr. Whitney showed a few friends that it could separate
more cotton from the seed in one day, by the labour of one
man, than could be done by the existing methods in a month.
The construction of this instrument was an event of such
consequence as to excite an universal interest in the State of
Georgia, where Mr. Whitney then lived in narrow circum-
stances, under the roof of a hospitable friend. Neither the
180
NATURAL HISTORY AND
sentiments of justice, nor the fear of the law, could restrain
the eager crowds from breaking into his workshop by night,
and carrying off his wonder-working tool. In this dis-
honourable way the public acquired possession of Mr. Whit-
ney's invention before the model was finished to his mind,
and before he could secure the protection of a patent. Many
copies were immediately made from it with slight varia-
tions, in order to evade the patent, which he obtained soon
thereafter.
Thus the inventor of a most ingenious machine was not
suffered to reap in peace a reasonable share of the fruits of
his labours, which proved so beneficial to his country. He
was tormented with the most vexatious litigations, and though
he was soon supported by a partner possessed of some capital,
he was in a few years well-nigh ruined. At length, in the
year 1801 the legislature of South Carolina purchased from Mr.
Whitney a patent licence for that State for the sum of 5,000 dol-
lars. Next year he disposed of a licence to the State of North
Carolina, the legislature of which laid a tax for five years, of
2s. 6d. upon every saw in every gin that was mounted within
their jurisdiction. Some of these gins contained no fewer than
forty saws. This tax was collected, along with the public im-
posts, by the sheriffs, and after the expenses of collection wero
deducted, the balance was faithfully paid over into the hands of
the patentee. No small portion of the funds thus honourably
raised in the two Carolinas was expended in carrying on
fruitless lawsuits against the piratical invaders of his privi-
lege in the State of Georgia. “There have indeed," says the
American biographer, "been but few instances where the
author of such inestimable advantages to a whole country as
those which accrued from the invention of the saw-gin to the
Southern States, was so harshly treated and so inadequately
compensated as Mr. Whitney. He did not exaggerate when
he said, that it raised the value of these States from 50 to
100 per cent." “If we should assert," said Judge Johnson,
"that the benefits of this invention exceed 100,000,000 dol-
lars, we can prove the assertion by correct calculation."
Whitney had to vindicate not merely his pecuniary rights,
but his character; for attempts were made, as is usual in
such cases, to deprive him of the honour of the invention.
In 1812 he applied to Congress for a renewal of his patent,
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
181
representing that he had been tormented with litigation for
eleven years before his rights were legally recognised, and
that thirteen years out of the fourteen of his privilege had
expired with very little advantage to himself, but very bene-
ficially to the nation; "for his invention had enabled one
man to do the work of one thousand." The planters of the
Southern States so warmly opposed Mr. Whitney's applica-
tion that it failed of success. Meanwhile this ingenious man,
when he found his hopes blasted of reaping the fair reward of
his saw-gin, betook himself to the manufacture of fire-arms,
and executed several contracts for supplying the United States'
service with them. Thus the implements of human destruc-
tion enabled him to realize that competency which one of the
most powerful tools of peaceful industry had failed to procure.
The saw-gin consists of a wooden cylinder about the size
of a weaver's beam, furnished with a series of circular saws,
fixed on it at regular distances perpendicular to its axis. The
machine in its original state had merely projecting wire teeth,
with which it was apt to tear the filaments into a short nap;
it was thereafter mounted with circular plates of iron serrated
at the edges. These serve to pull the filaments through a
wire grating, the divisions of which are too narrow to permit
the seeds to pass. Though very expeditious in its perform-
ance, and not essentially injurious to ordinary cotton staple,
it would be apt to tear the long and delicate filaments of
Sea-island cotton. One saw-gin can clean about three hundred-
weight of cotton in a day. The common roller-gin has been
occasionally made to clean the Upland Georgian, but it does
not answer so well as the saw-gin in clearing away the seeds
and opening up the wool. The staple of Surat corresponds
in some degree to that of the Upland Georgian, and should be
cleaned with a similar machine, whereby it would fetch a bet-
ter price in the market.
Description of the Saw-gin of Whitney.
The principal parts of the saw-gin are two cylinders of
different diameters (see F H, figs. 11 and 12), mounted in a
strong wooden frame, A, which are turned by means either of
a handle or of a pulley and belt, acting upon the axis of a
fly-wheel attached to the end of the shaft opposite to that
182
NATURAL HISTORY AND
seen in the section, fig. 11. Its endless band turns a large
pulley on the end D of the saw cylinder F, and a smaller
pulley upon the end E of the brush cylinder H, fig. 12, so as
to make the latter revolve with the greater rapidity. Upon
the wooden cylinder F, ten inches in diameter, are mounted,
three quarters of an inch apart, fifty, sixty, or even eighty
circular saws, edged as at I, fig. 11, of one foot diameter, which
fit very exactly into grooves cut one inch deep into the

Q
A
M
P
B
пищит
Fig. 11.-Section of Whitney's Saw-gin.
cylinder. Each saw consists of two segments of a circle, and
is preferably made of hammered (not rolled) sheet iron; the
teeth must be kept very sharp. Opposite to the interstices
HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
183
of the saws are flat bars of iron, which form a parallel grid
of such a curvature that the shoulder of the slanting saw-tooth
passes first and then the point. By this means, when a tooth
gets bent by the seeds, it resets itself by rubbing against the
grid bars instead of being torn off, as would happen did the
apex of the saw-tooth enter first. Care must be taken that the
saws revolve in the middle of their respective grid intervals,
for if they rubbed against the bars they would tear the cotton
filaments to pieces. The hollow cylinder H is mounted with
the brushes c, c, c, the tips of whose bristles ought to touch
the saw-teeth, as at d, d, fig. 12, and thus sweep off the ad-
hering cotton wool. The cylinder H revolves in an opposite
direction to the cylinder F, as is indicated by the arrows in
fig. II.
The seed cotton, as picked from the pods, is thrown into
the hopper L, fig. 11; the disc-saws, I, in turning round,
encounter the cotton filaments resting against the grid, catch
them with their sharp teeth, and drag them inwards and up-
wards, while the stripped seeds, too large to pass between the
bars, fall through the bottom, N, of the hopper upon the in-
clined board, M. The size of the aperture N is regulated at
pleasure by an adjusting screw to suit the size of the particular
species of seeds. The saw-teeth, filled with cotton wool, after
returning through the grid, meet the brushes c, c, c, of the
cylinder H, and deliver it up to them; the cotton is there-
after whisked down upon the sloping table O, and thence falls
into the receptacle P. A cover, Q, fig. 11, encloses both the
cylinders and the hopper; this cover is turned up round its
hinges (as shown in fig. 11), in order to introduce the charge of
seed cotton into the machine, and is then let down before set-
ting the wheels in geer with the driving power. The axes e, e, f,
f, of these cylinders (fig. 12), should be well fitted into their
plummer box-bearings, so as to prevent any lateral swagging,
which would greatly injure their operation. The raised posi-
tion of the cover is obvious in fig. 11, the hinge being placed
at B. By means of the saw-gin one man, with the aid of a
water-wheel possessing a two-horse power, can clean 5,000
pounds of seed cotton in a day, eighty saws being mounted
upon his machine. The clean wool forms generally one-
fourth of the weight of the seed cotton, and sometimes so much
as twenty-seven per cent. The ginners are usually a distinct
184
body from the planters, and they receive for their work one-
cighth or one-tenth of the net weight of the cleaned cotton,
under an obligation to supply all the seed required by the
planter. The owner furnishes the bags in which the cotton
wool is packed at the mill.
NATURAL HISTORY AND HUSBANDRY OF COTTON.
C
C

....................
H
d
AADAAAAAAAAAA
18
e
E
D
Fig. 12.-Plan of the Saw and Brush Cylinders of Whitney's Saw-gin.
Joseph Eubank, of Kentucky, has proposed to make the
saw-gin still more automatic in its performance, by supplying
the seed cotton not by hand, but by a feeding-apron, similar
to what is employed in the cotton carding-machines. This
apron is destined to carry forward the cotton at the proper
rate towards the saw-teeth, where a roller set with iron wire
fangs seizes the cotton, and throws it briskly against the saw-
gin cylinder.
Cotton wool is now generally condensed into compact bales
for facility of transport, by the aid of the hydraulic press;
for which purpose a wooden case is built up, consisting of
several square frames piled over each other, and then fastened
together at the corners by moveable bolts. This chest frame
has the same dimensions in its area as the base of the bale,
but is of a height about four times greater than the bale, to
admit a sufficient bulk of uncompressed cotton wool. The
bottom is the sill-plate or board of the hydraulic press, and
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
185
has grooves cut in it, into which the cords are laid; the top
of the case touches the top plate of the press, and whenever
that top plate enters a certain way into the case by the ascent
of the hydraulic piston, the upper horizontal layer of the
frame is removed by taking out its corner bolts. Presently
another is withdrawn, and so on, till the desired condensation
has been given to the cotton; the bale is now bound hard
by the cords, and then put into its bag. By this contrivance
the cotton suffers such a degree of compression, that from
five to six hundredweight of it may be packed into a bulk of
twelve or thirteen cubic feet. This great condensability of
cotton is very favourable to the manufacturers of Europe,
rendering it transportable from America or India, at an ex-
pense too inconsiderable to affect the price of the finer cotton
fabrics. The average gross weight of a bag of cotton from
the United States varies from 330 to 350 pounds, of which
seven pounds belong to the bag.
The freight in general of cotton wool from Georgia or
Carolina to Liverpool varies from one halfpenny to seven
eighths of one penny per pound; the freight of cotton from
Madras to England is, upon an average, about 1d. per pound
for the freight of a ton, equivalent to four and a half bales,
or to 50 cubic feet, is about £6, and the weight of the Madras
bale is from two hundred and ninety-five pounds to three
hundred. The freight of Egyptian cotton in a bale com-
pressed by power is three farthings per pound, and seven
eighths of a penny when the bale has been packed by manual
labour; the weights of the Egyptian packages are very irregu-
lar, varying from 200 to 400 pounds.
There is no manufacturing district in Europe into which
cotton wool can be imported from the several parts of the
world where it is grown, at an easier rate than into Lanca-
shire, Lanarkshire, and Renfrewshire.
Almost all the cotton wool consumed in the British manu-
factures was obtained from the West Indies and Guiana prior
to the year 1794, with the exception of a little from India
and the Levant for the fustian trade, and a still smaller quan-
tity from the Brazils and the Isle of Bourbon for the finer
muslin yarns. The state of our cotton-wool markets in 1787
was the following:-
VOL. I.
N
186
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
British West-Indian Cotton
lbs.
6,800,000
•
·
6,000,000
ditto
1,700,000
ditto
2,500,000
French and Spanish Colonial
Dutch
Portuguese
Isle of Bourbon
Smyrna and Turkey
100,000
5,700,000
22,800,000
Messrs. George Holt and Co., the eminent cotton brokers
of Liverpool, give, in their printed statement, 25,600,000
pounds as the quantity annually imported into Great Britain
from the years 1786 to 1790.
The American wool was at first ill cleaned, and was there-
fore deemed applicable only to the coarser fabrics; but a
few skilful spinners soon recognized the excellence of the
long-stapled Georgian wool, and eventually gave it a rank
above that of the highly-prized Bourbon cotton. As the
Upland cotton wool was much more difficult to clean from
its seeds, it arrived in Great Britain in a still dirtier state
than the other, and was therefore regarded for some time
with distrust. But it also, at no distant date, surmounted
overy prejudice, and now constitutes the material of a large
proportion of all the cotton goods manufactured in Europe.
In 1832 the cotton wool of the United States imported into
Europe was 880,000 bales, and that imported from all other
quarters was under 450,000; since which time the production
of the States has been increased, while that of the other
cotton districts has been diminished. So long ago as the
year 1807, considerably more than 55,000,000 pounds of
cotton must have been raised in the interior of Georgia, for
Upland wool to that amount was at that time exported from
the United States.
During the war the rate of freight was 3d. to 4d. a
pound; from Amelia Island and other places it is now from
a halfpenny to five-eighths of a penny, and sometimes a
farthing, according to the greater or less distance of the
port from whence imported. By the improved system of
ship-building the ship-owners are making money at those
rates. An American ship was thought formerly to be a very
superior vessel as to model if she carried 900 pounds to the
ton of register, but they have so far improved within the last
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
187
twelve years as to be able to store 2,000 pounds of cotton to
a ton of register, owing partly to the compression of the
bags, but chiefly to improvements in the model of the
vessels. The above rate would not pay British ships upon
the old form of ship-building, which is deep and very short,
whereas the new ones are long as well as deep. The Liver-
pool ships of the new construction, however, can compete
with the American. The risk, and consequently the in-
surance, is less on American ships manned with Temperance
crews than on British. More than half the whole import
for the States comes now from the Gulf of Mexico, and it is
on the increase.
According to Mr. Bates, the cost of transport of cotton
from New Orleans to Boston, Providence, New York, and
Philadelphia, is about half what it is to Liverpool. Also, in
the building, equipment, and navigation, the American ships
are more economically conducted than the English.
The Increase in the Growth of Cotton in the United
States.
COTTON EXPORTED.
Bales of 300 lbs.
5,340
20,901
Nearly all the crops were exported in
this period. In 1795 and 1796,
some foreign cotton was included
in the returns of exports.
Years.
1794
1795
1796
20,355
1797
12,628
1798
31,200
1799
31,774
1800
59,299
1801
67,700
1802
91,670
Slave population in 1790. 697,000
1800 896,000
•
1803
•
137,018
1804
•
127,060
1805
1806
•
•
1807
1808
1809
•
35,434
169,934
1810
310,871
1811
206,860
1812
96,291
1813
1814
127,966
122,225
213,148
These are the quantities exported,
and probably include nearly the
whole growth, except during the
years 1812 and 1814, the period of
war between Great Britain and the
United States.
62,030 Slave population in 1810, 1,191,000.
59,094
188
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
Years.
1815
Bales of 300 lbs.
1816
1817
1818
1819
303,589
1820
369,800
1821
539,038
1822
•
1823
•
588,139
509,600
1824
•
1825
560,000 J
710,000
These are accurate, and represent the
entire crops.
Slave population in 1820, 1,538,061.
1826
937,000
1827
712,000
1828
857,000
1829
•
1830-1
1976,845
1,038,847
Entire crop
Slave population in 1830, 2,010,436..
1831-2
987,477
1832-3
1,070,438
1833-4
I,205,394
1834-5
I,254,328
[Given by Joshua Bates, Esq., to the Committee on Manufactures.]
The fall in the price of cotton wool has been owing to the
extension of the growth of the cotton plant in the Southern
States of the Union, where the lands are more fit for it, and
where it may be produced more cheaply. Hence the exports:
from New Orleans bear a much greater proportion to the
exports from Charlestown and Carolina than they used to do..
The freight of cotton from the Southern States of the Union
to the Eastern or manufacturing States may be reckoned at
five-eighths of a cent, including the insurance and other
charges, as from New Orleans, or Mobile, to Boston. The
saving in this particular to the American spinner is no less
than a halfpenny per lb., which, on cotton worth sevenpence,
is equivalent to seven per cent. upon its cost. The American
manufacturer also saves the average profits paid by the British
manufacturer to the class of middle-men, commonly called
the "cotton importers." The duty in this country of five-
sixteenths of a penny per lb. of cotton wool, becomes, under
such circumstances, an oppressive impost upon its coarse
goods.
It is greatly to be lamented that the parent soil of the
cotton plant and of the cotton manufacture should have been
1
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
189
suffered by its British masters to remain so long without
improvement, or rather to become deteriorated in reference
to this valuable article; and that, while the inhabitants of
Georgia and Louisiana are deriving enormous benefits from
this productive agriculture, the humble ryots of India should
be kept in a state of poverty, to the reproach and loss of our
nation, for want of suitable education and encouragement.
Were the docile peasantry of Hindostan aided in their rural
labours by British enterprise and intelligence, they might
ere long create for themselves and for this country an inex-
haustible source of comfort and independence. How grossly
mismanaged the cotton husbandry was by the residents of
the East-India Company will appear from the fact that they
made by order of Government a trial of the American saw-
gin, the instrument best adapted to their short-stapled cotton,
but without success. The machinery ground up the seed with
the cotton.* The Surat wool, upon which this awkward ex-
periment was made, resembles very closely the Upland
Georgian, and may undoubtedly be ginned by that machine,
rationally applied. Mr. Ritchie stated, in his evidence before
the Committee of the House of Commons, that the natives
have no prejudice against any such machinery. Their own
roller-gin costs 6d. ; it is turned by hand, cleans the cotton
very rudely and with great waste of labour; it takes little
strength, indeed, but occupies the whole time of one person.
The cotton must also be subsequently cleaned by a bowstring,
which breaks it to pieces. "The attempts to improve the
cotton have not succeeded. In some of the experiments, the
cotton deteriorated very much; in others the seeds did not
come up well. There has been no improvement in cotton
since the introduction of the free trade. It was better in
1818 and 1819 than it is now. The Company have taken
very trifling measures, not worth mentioning, to improve it.
There is no doubt that it would be improved by greater skill
being employed in its cultivation. There is no reason in
the world to suppose that the cultivation of India might not
be improved." In May, 1830, the Government published
regulations to prevent the adulteration of cotton wool, and it
* Ritchie-Commons' Report on Indian Affairs, 1830-31.
† Appendix to Report from Select Committee on E. I. Company,
1832, p. 468.
190
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
has become comparatively clean, though there is no improve-
ment in the cotton itself.* India is capable of producing
cotton for the European market, provided there is a proper
application of skill and capital to the production of the
article, in the same manner as in other countries; but the
unaided skill of the natives is incapable of doing it.
The portion of the cotton crop destined for the Company,†
as the rent of land, is delivered by the planter to the collector
in the state of seed cotton, being merely picked out of the
pod. Surely this portion, amounting, on an average, to
one-half of the whole crop, might be ginned by Whitney's
machine if the business were administered with the most
ordinary discretion, particularly as all the damaged and foul
cotton is rejected. The commercial resident bargained
usually for the remainder of the crop, and therefore, had he
not been placed above the necessity of effort and ingenuity,
he might have organized a system of saw-gin mills similar
to the American.
When the rent of lands became payable in money in the
other presidencies as it had been in that of Bengal, the
cotton husbandry was expected spontaneously to improve.
We wonder only how, under the exaction and insolence of
the fiscal system of seizing the produce for rent, Guzzerat
could export 100,000 heavy bales per annum.
We hope
such a liberal policy will be pursued towards the ryots of
Bengal as will enable them to improve their cotton hus-
bandry, as also towards the planters of Bombay, whose abject
wretchedness and ignorance are a disgrace to the British
administration in that district of India.
Though the general use of cotton garments in ancient
Egypt has been fully disproved by an examination of the
mummy clothes, the successful cultivation of the plant in
modern Egypt has been realized by its enterprising ruler,
Mahmoud Pacha. The peculiar fitness of the soil and
climate for rearing the gossypium had no sooner occurred
to his mind than he commenced operations with equal
vigour and sagacity, and, in the course of a couple of years
from undertaking this new species of husbandry, he exported
* Appendix to Report from Select Committee on E. I. Company,
1832, p. 468.
† Ibid.
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
191
no less than 5,623 bales of cotton to England. The wool
sent to this country is of superior quality, is all long-stapled,
the growth. of well-selected seed; one species being called
Mako by the Egyptians, and common Egyptian by the
English; another is named Sennaar in Egypt, and Sea-island
Egyptian in England, as grown from Georgian Sea-island
seed. The average export of cotton from Egypt may be
estimated at from fifty to sixty thousand bales per annum.
The best of it ranks in value next to the American Sea-
island, and in general quality it is fully equal to the Guiana
wool.
A few plants discovered accidentally in a garden of
Makò-bey, at Cairo, suggested this profitable branch of
agriculture, and gave the name of Makò cotton to the
samples first sent to England in 1822. During every sub-
sequent year it has formed an article of importation into this
country, and has now acquired considerable importance in
Europe.
Imports of Egyptian Cotton Wool.

London.
Liverpool.
Glasgow.
Total in
Great
Sale Price,
31st Dec.
Britain,
per lb.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
d.
In 1823
1,277
1,173
1824
10,645
22,622
580
2,450
33,807
II
102
1825
21,831
80,736
631
103,198 101
1826
8,115
38,218
46.333
1827
4,988
14,420
2,310
21,728
1828
3,820
24,702
2,615
31,138
1829
1,980
22,425
24,405
1830
700
11,019
1,865
13,584
1831
8,540
26,487
1,050
36,077
1832
2,837
32,271
5,109
40,217
∞∞∞ ∞ ∞
8
8
722
67
Cl+100
9
8
1610014
The freight from Alexandria to this country is about three
farthings per pound. The Makò is a cotton compared by
some spinners to the Brazil.
It appears, from the narratives of Clapperton and Landers,
that cotton is grown very extensively all over Africa, and
especially along the course of the Niger, for the purpose
of forming articles of clothing for the natives. No details
have yet been obtained concerning the husbandry of the
plant, or the manipulations by which its wool is manu-
factured. The people of Eboe, and other districts near the
mouths of the Niger, are clothed in Manchester cottons,
192
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
which they get in barter for palm-oil, ivory, and other native
products. What a vast area exists in this quarter of the
globe for reciprocity of trade to Great Britain, whence it
may receive the raw materials, cotton, and dye drugs, in
exchange for their multiform and many-coloured fabrics!
M. Dortoc, a few years ago, made experiments during
several seasons upon the cultivation of the cotton plant in
the department of the Gironde; but the Government of
France, after laying out considerable sums of money on the
project, abandoned it as hopeless, according to the decision
of the Committee of Agriculture of the Société d'Encourage-
ment, to which it was referred.
For the following general abstract of the cotton-wool
trade in 1834-5, I am indebted to James Cook, Esq :-
40, Mincing Lane, February 6, 1835.
MY DEAR SIR,-I herewith forward a table of the imports
of cotton into the Continent for 1834, and the consumption
of the United States is 200,000 bales. I reckon the con-
sumption of all countries to be as follows, and in this I am
confirmed by the opinion of a friend of mine well capable of
judging. You are at liberty to give my name as the authority
for this statement, if it answers your purpose to do so.
Bales.
Great Britain
940,000
France
270,000
Continent
220,000
1,430,000
America
225,000
1,655,000
China* (Exports from India)
200,000
Total`
1,855,000
I am, my dear sir, yours very faithfully,
To Dr. Ure.
JAMES COOK.
*The consumption of cotton in China far exceeds this estimate;
for their own growth, which is almost entirely manufactured by them
selves into cotton fabrics, is of considerable importance.
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
193
Estimate of the probable Growth of Cotton in the World (ex-
clusive of China), from the principal Cotton Countries, for
1835-1836.
India
Brazils and the West Indies
America
Bags and bales of 340 lbs.
400,000
200,000
1,300,000
Egypt
Levant
50,000
70,000
2,020,000
Cotton-Great Britain and the Continent.
IMPORTS.
STOCKS.
1833.
1834.
1833.
1834.
Great Britain
930,270
949,020
215,130
185,560
Hamburgh
•
22,700
45, 188
1,985
4,500
Bremen
Amsterdam
Rotterdam
Antwerp
3,530
6,814
345
I,406
7,915
13,532
I, 290
1,418
•
13,862
43,785
1,504
200
24, 120
24,124
4,500
2,480
Havre
•
210,600
201,600
33,920
22,000
Bordeaux
3,944
6,682
81
95
Marseilles
74,544
48,938
12,780
1,063
Genoa
13,960
15,900
2,077
1,467
Leghorn
I,200
I,950
None
None
Trieste
61,847
53,193
12,538
6,375
1,368,492 1,410,726
286,150
226,564
On the 1st of January, 1835, the Stock of Cotton
Wool, in the hands of Dealers and Spinners, was
Taken out of the Ports for Consumption in the course
of that year
Bags.
•
63,672
937,616
Supply to the Trade during the year 1835
1,001,288
Stock in the hands of Spinners and Dealers, 1st
January, 1836
308,301
Actual Consumption during the year 1835
•
923,000*
* Burn's Commercial Glance.
194
COTTON-WOOL TRADE
Quantity of Cotton Wool imported into England and Scotland
in the following Years.

America.
Brazil, &c.
East
Indies.
West
Indies.
Other
Parts.
Total.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1827 216,924,812 20,176,162 20,930,542
1828 151,752,289 29,143,279 32,187,901
1829 157,187,396 28,878,386 24,857,800
1830 210,885,358 33,092,070 12,481,761 3,429,247 4,073,016
1831 219,333,628 31,763,412 25,805,153
1832 219,756,753 20,114,483 35,178,625
1833 237,506,758 28,464, 199 32,755,164
1834 269,203,075 19,370,708 32,920,865
2,652,864 9,119,796
2,099,841 9,682,823
2,474,653
2,456,063
2,519,529 2,861,248 326,875,425
lbs.
7,165,881 6,711,512
5,893,800 8,783,373
4,640,454 7,203,365
lbs.
lbs.
272,448,909
227,760,642
222,767,411
263,961,452
288,674,853
286,832,526
303,656,837
Bags and Weight of Cotton Wool grown and manufactured in
the United States.

Number of
Bags.
Average
Weight
Total Weight.
of Bags.
Cotton
consumed.
lbs.
1826 to 1827
937,000
336
lbs.
314,832,000
lbs.
34,770,288
:
1827 to 1828
712,000
335
238,520,000
40,448,803
1828 to 1829
857,744
3424
301,991,756
40,736,850
1829 to 1830
976,845
3404
332,37,5II
42,845,708
1830 to 1831
1,038,848
342
368,089,796
62,292,564
1831 to 1832
987,477
3501
345,863,819
60,873,450
1832 to 1833
1,070,438
350
374,653,300
68,044,550
1833 to 1834
1834 to 1835
1,205,294
1,254,328
3632
438,425,692
71,445,228
370
464,100,360
80,248,560
By the "George Washington," which arrived at Liverpool
on the 10th of February, 1836, advices from New York were
received to the 10th of January, from which it appears that
the quantity of cotton wool exported during the year 1835
amounted to 370,194,184 lbs., valued at the places of exporta-
tion at 61,435,746 dollars. Since 1792 the increase in the
exportation from the United States has been nearly two
thousand-fold. In 1792 there were exported 138,138 lbs.,
the value of which was 32,000 dollars.
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
195

General Import of Cotton into Great Britain, from 1824 to 1835 inclusive; the Quantities taken for
Export and Home Consumption, and the Stock remaining at the close of each Year, with the Prices
Current of the principal Descriptions on the 1st of December.
1824.
1825.
1826. 1827. 1828.
1829.
1830.
1831.
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
IMPORT.
Of American
Brazil
West India
East India
Egyptian
763,050
143,580
18,250
22,490
118,680
282,773 424,688 395,116 646,982 444,581 461,569 618,185 608,768 627,703 656,764 731,680
142,559 198,034 55,742 120,056 165,240 159,838 |192,267 170,234 114,665 164,537 103,570
31,837 34,614 18,582 29,953 22,117 20,808 12,648 11,815 9,264 15,046
50,846 60,502 | 64,698 73,546 84,795 80,522
35,212 76,654 109,086 95,058 88,490
33,745 103, 112 47,362 21,998 32,855 24,712
13,596 37,719 40,320 2,569 7,030 42,370
Total No. of Packages 541,760 821,250 581,500 892,535 749,588 747,449 871,908 905, 190 901,038 933,974 949,020 1,090,170
Exported
53,100 75,520 95,000 75,300 64,900 109,300
Stock at the close of each year 235,360 415,660 342,500 452,250 405,900 289,390 320,260 274,800 245,120 215,870 185,560
941,320
230,010
35,450 82,800 | 65,100 65,700 85,850 104,400
Taken for Home Consumption 639,100 565,430 559,660 707,500 731,030 754,660 805,580 867,850 865,990 897,600 892,740
CURRENT PRICES.
d.
d.
Bowed Georgia (duty paid)
81 a 101
New Orleans
10
Maranham
Pernambuco
Egyptian
Surat
Bengal
•
10%
12
10 11 10 11 9
10
101 12 94 11 7
d. d. a. a.
61 a 94 64a71
7 II 7 8+
d. d. d. d.
d.
d.
5 a 63
51a7
52 81
6 8
94
74 81
114
13 11 12 II II
81
9
8
51
72 53
7
5
6
52
ཤ་
in
65
51
colcod
4 5
r∞ in in
81
81
5 34 5
5
wway a ou
a7
d. đ.
6 a7 $
d.
d.
d.
d.
43 a 6‡
6
74
d. d. d. d.
71 9
d.
d.
9 1I
73 II+
74 64
8
55 75
10/0000/100+ lagt mag
778 44
4
778854
6484
8 109 11
78 12
7호
​7+
8 10 12 13
IO
12+
81
8.
94 11
12 14t
10
13+
82
8 94
12
I 2
15 164
II
14
41 6
51
71
68
6
8
48 41 5
5+
6
7# 7*
5
64

1806.
1807.
1808.
1809.
1810.
Good.
Good.
Good.
Good.
Good.
Good.
d.
d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
Good. Good. Good.
d. d.d. d. d. d.
Upland.
New Orleans
15 21
15 19
151 36
14 34
141 22
12 16
13 23121
17 24 18 21
17437
17 36
161 231| 131 17
14
26 23
31 29
31 29
Sea-island
30 37 28 30
28 58
28 69 26 33 22 30
25
40 137
Pernambuco
Maranham.
231 29 | 241 26
213 26 22 241 22
25 42
22 38 23 29
18 23
19
27 24
38
193 36
20 27
14 201
16 26 22
26 22
33 23
Surat
Demerara.
17
22 261 23 40
►
14 25
11
26
23 40 20
40
123 19
21 28
10 13
12
16 15
20
18
17
21
17
27 24
33
27
1819.
1820.
1821.
1822.
1.—Statement of the Extreme Prices in each Year, from 1806 to 1835.
1811. 1812. 1813. 1814. 1815.
1316.
1817.
·
1818.
25
d. d.
d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d.
191a234164a19|20a22
15a17191a21 161a20 191a234 164a19 2022
19 20
15 19 20 24 18 2023 25 16 20121
48 42 72 33 57 22 2826
2826 3922 30 25 36 25 36 33 54
24 29 30 224 24 264 274 22 23 26 27
22 27 28 22 23 25 26 20
23 25 26 20 20 243
15 17 18 14 17 16 20 7 14 15 20
23 26 29 19 233 23 26 19
2326 2919_233|23_263 24 23 30
1826.
Good.
d. d. d.
30 23 37 18
25
39 21
39 21
31 15
48 42 72 33
57
34 28 41 25 37
23
39 26
33
22
25 14
21
14
39 24
3924
35
20
1823.
1824.
1825.
d. d. d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
Upland
15 16
10 α 123 17 a 194
New Orleans 10 15 16 21
Sea-island 21 36 29 48 15 28
22 36
Pernambuco 16 18 221 23} II 13 17 18 11 12
Maranham.
201 21 II 111 16 16 10 11
8 a 11
γατο
9fa11
5 a 8
a. d. d. d. d. d. d. d.
7a6a88a1ot 7 a81
8 14
12 17
712
9 14
6
10
8 12 7 II
d. d.
9a 10
8 13 711 9 13 8
d. d. d. d.
6
a 91161a19}|
d. d. d. d.
51a61 6 a 81
12 17 22
5
12 26
14 30
10
24 12.
24
13 141
9
12
13
8
12 28 11 22 13
10 11 12 10 11 13
9 10 11 9 10 12
24 11 22 15
27 15
27 33
42
10
8 7 113
2017
30
14 10
11 11
13
1
121 22
23
9 10 11
12
13 9
10 10
11 10
11 21
22
Egyptian
.
Surat
5 10
Demerara.
12 18
8 14+ 61 9712
19 24 II 14 14 19 9 13 | 11 14
61 81
7
9.1
སའ ་
94 11 II 12 10
12 21
24
5+
7161 815
71 63 835 7
10 9 13 83 11 12 1410
54 8
12 10 13
5
712
16
ION
8 9 10
61819 11
43 6 5
7
10
12 19
24 |
73 103 912
1827.
1828.
1829.
1930.
1831.
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
d. d. d. d.
Upland. +a61 61a7
5 a 68
·
51
New Orleans 5 8 7
847 9 58
Sea-island 9 18 114 20 10 18
d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d.
6 a 78 486 51a7
61 9 4 71 69
·
d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d.
55a7 61a774a67 5a715 a 7
51 8 695
d.
d.
6
a 8
12 22 9 18 12 21 11
71 6 8 5 8
2012 20 9 1810 18
189 18
6 9
[I
d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d. d.
6a77 9a12}| 71a81| 9fa11 67a101| 9ğu13i
63 9931 14
7$ 10 9 126 12
18 10 18 14 22 13 20 18 26
94 143
7
30 10 33
Pernambuco 8 9 10
II
74 81
81 9161 71 71 83|
7
8 896 87
81 7
8
9
10 8
9 12 14 9
Egyptian
Maranham. 7 8
64 8
Surat
Demerara
9
∞ 1-24∞o
9
91 74
8
7 7
7*
11
845 61
7± 7%
68
7
74861
70
77 8
98 7
9 11 13 8
11 12
10 12
14 10
13410
13 16 18
12 14 16
8
68
£ 95%
635
8 II
649
61 9151 8
730
6 8
8 107
7
8
9
12
124 15 16 10 13 20 21
بابا
5 4 633
5*3
4
4
5
4
4
67 815
$9
8
7 106
9
10 16
92 7 ΤΟ 74 101 101 13 8
7
II 114 15 10 14 12 17
7 68 6 8
9



COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
197

JANUARY.
9th.
d. d.
8fa101
16th.
d. d.
23rd.
30th.
6th.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
81α1000
8/α10
82a10
8 arr
88 12
8 12
81 12
8
12
8 121
9 30
9 30
9 30
9 30
ΙΟ 30
124 14
122 14
12 14
12
14
12 14
2.-Statement of the Quotations of Cotton Wool in Liverpool, at the Close of each Week in the Year
1835; also of the Weekly Amount of Sales, and Proportion on Speculation.
Upland
New Orleans
Sea-island
Pernambuco
MARCH.
13th.
d. d.
24α114
8$ 124
20th.
d. d.
87α11+
812 13
ΤΟ 30
27th.
FEBRUARY.
13th.
20th.
27th.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
εξαι
8α111
84α114
6th.
d. d.
8α11+
d. d.
garr
88 12
81 121
8 124
84 121
10 30
10 30 IO 30
10 30
10 30
13 14
13
14
13
14
134 144 | 13
14
134 144 |
9 13
IO 30
13‡ 15
Maranham
Egyptian
•
117 13
16 17
11 13
11 13
11 13
114 13
12 14
12 14
12
14
12 14
12 142
12 144
I 2
14*
15 171
15 17
15$
15 17
164 18
161 18
16. 18
16 18
16 18
16 18
16 18
Surat.
68
64 8
618
648
68
68
6381
6 8
6 8
6381
6381
16
6
18
83
Demerara
II 15
II 15
II 15
II 15
12 16
12 16
12 16
12 16 12 16
12 161
12 161
12
161
Amount of Sales
16760
13625
18628
27730
43826
16080
23230
15500
16470
23170
29450
35290
Proportion on
Speculation
1500
500
1500
1000
8500
1100
2500
1100
2500
2820
5850
10700
APRIL.
MAY.
JUNE.
3rd.
d. d.
10th.
17th.
d. d.
d. d.
24th.
d. d.
1st.
8th.
15th.
22nd.
29th.
5th.
12th.
19th.
26th.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
Sea-island
Upland
New Orleans
Pernambuco.
Maranham
9a11
911
912
91a124
94a12
9a121
91a13
9fa13
98a131 98α131
98a13
9a13
9jarat
9 13
9$ 14
99 141
9 14
94 14
94 14
9 14
9 14
98 141
99 14
98 14
98 141
98 14
ΙΟ 30
ΙΟ 30 10 30 ΤΟ 30
IO 30 ΙΟ 30 IO 32
IO 33
IO 33 ΙΟ 33 IO 33
10 33
10 33
13 15
13 15
14 15
14 16 |
142 16
15 17 15 17
16 18
16 18
154 173
154 172
152 172
152 171
12
14 12
144 12 14
13 14
132 152
131 15
14 16
14 16
14
164
14
161
14 161
131 16
134 16
131 16
Egyptian
Surat
Demerara
Amount of Sales
Proportion on
Speculation
16 18 16 18
12 16 12 16
none
19 20
19 20 19
21
20 21
20 21 20
21
19+ 21
19 21
19 21 | 19
19 21
63 863 82
781
7 84
12
17
12 17
7 81 7
12 17 12 17
9
7 9
7 9
7 9
7 9
7 9
7 83 7
8
12 17
12 17
12 17
12 17
12 17
12 17
12 17
12477 26180
35160
33570
1150 7800
12350
11000
16080
2500
34950 20010
9200 3000
23910
12738
12330
9950
16040
18237
3600
1750 2200
1500
1500
1500
198
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.

Statement, &c.-continued.
AUGUST.
3rd.
d. d.
10th.
d. d.
JULY.
20th.
d. d.
SEPTEMBER.
24th.
d. d.
31st.
d. d.
7th.
d. d.
14th.
21st.
Upland
9a13
98a13
98a13
9tar 3
9α13
d. d.
91α13 9α13
28th.
4th.
d. d. d. d. d. d.
9a128a12 88a1231
11th.
18th.
25th.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
c.
8 2012
81α12
8 a 12+
New Orleans
98 142
98 141
9 14
92 14
9 14
91 141| 92 144
94 141 8 148 14
8 14
8 14
7 14
Sea-island
IO 33 10 33
ΙΟ 33
10 33
IO 33 ΤΟ
Pernambuco
144 164| 14
16
14 16
134 15
13
15 14
ΙΟ
33 10 33 10 33 IO
16 134 16
33 10 33
IO 33
ΙΟ
10 33
9 33
134 16 13
15 13
132 151| 15
13 14
123 15
122 15
Maranham
Egyptian
Surat
Demerara
13 16 132 154|
1719 172 19
7. 8/ 7 8
II 16 11 16
134 151
134
13 15
13
15 13
15 13 15 13 15
13
15
13
14 124 144
144 124 14
12 14
124 14
11 14
17 19
16 18
16
1716
1716
171 16
17 16
17 15 17
15 171
15 17
15
17
7 8
7 8
7
87
81 67
84 67 82 67
868
6 8
6 8
081
114 16
11 16
11
16 11
16 11 161 16 11 16 II 16
10 15:
10 15
10 15
Amount of Sales.
13101 11520
16170 11909
10859
24370
16080 7210
9770 18996
11520
12336
19640
Proportion
on
Speculation
500
550
450
200
500 4000
750
1000
1500
200
500
1500
OCTOBER.
NOVEMBER.
DECEMBER.
2nd.
d. d.
Upland
7α 12
9th.
d. d.
72α12
16th.
d. d.
78012
23rd. 30th.
6th.
13th.
20th.
27th.
4th.
11th.
18th.
d. d. d. d. d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
d. d. d. d.
d. d.
d. d.
24th.
d. d.
31st.
d. d.
78011711717
71
711
610
610
610
610
7 a 10
New Orleans
7 14
71 131
7፤ 13
Sea-island
9 33
9 32
9 32
9. 32
7 131 7 13 7 13 7 13
9. 32
7 13
7 13
613
6 13
6 12
67 12
61 12
730 730 7 30
7
30
7 30 7
30
7
30
7
30
7 30
Pernambuco
II
11 14
11 14
11 14
11 14
10
Maranham
1 13
14 13
11 13
Iot 13
Egyptian
14 16
14 16
13 15
Surat
61 81
618
61 81
Demerara
IO 15
ΙΟ
IO 15
10 14
Amount of Sales.
16800
Proportion
on
Speculation
22885
2500
26088
6600
19370
12 14
68
10 14
11 14 10 13104 134 104 13
10 13 10 13 10 13 10 13 10
12 14 II 15 11 15 11 15 11
6868층 ​6급 ​8급 ​6급 ​8급 ​6승 ​8 686
10 14 10 14 10 14 10 14 10
10 14 10 14 10
14 10 14 10 14 IO 14
16050 27260 24260 25400 10430 17070 22467
700 1000 4600 4100 1550 500 2100 1250
13 10
13
10
13
10
13
10
13 10 13
12 10 12 10
12
10
124 10
12 ΤΟ 12
143 11 14 10
13 10
13 10
86 86
14 11 14
86
8
14 1O
21220
800
24040 28061
3500 5600



3.-Import of Cotton Wool into Great Britain, in the Year 1835.
LIVERPOOL.
Total Total
LONDON. GLASGOW.
Total Import
into Great
Britain in
in
in
|
Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July.
Growth of U.S.from
New Orleans
34853 34222 17786 31681 34702 18277 16373
"
"
Growth of Savannah
Charleston
Other Ports
17059 11700 14318
17390
15658 11374 13526
6457 12124 6729
8277
8277
8875 11235|11910
17344 20261 18202
23242
30913 20011 28878
Total American
Brazil and Portugal
Mediterranean
East Indies
75713 78307 57035
16462 8350 7959 10921
459 733
7094 3710
80590
90148 60897 70687
9601 9524 13179
-
2070
5244
1743 741 2943
4798 3234| 885
Demerara, West In-
dies, &c.
2759 836 197
5433 1576 12002 259515 275718
-
7763 3029 1000 5824118641 123391 6230 5185 4994955241 763199 733528
3889 9043 1707 5956 12451 98653 108805
26262 14120 13442 10752 6784230211 165188
5185 4994955241 763199 733528
-
78952 37764 20582 19284 37061 707020 673102 6230
14640 11958 13207 11165 15336 142302 100451| 1270 3195
143572 103646
1198 10519 8485 4865 3525 37281 6235 1420 982 5020
43721 7277
4821 12278 2853 4856 13783 63556 47005 37816 29751 16593 12342 117965 89098|
1249 748 1279 1307 4168 5707 1220
758 330 20558 14681, 620 1279 1618| 1525| 22796 17485
100074
97071
10703875675 73180
Total packages 102487 91936 65191 100074 107038 75675 89001 103779 78226 46347 40928 70035970717 841474 47356 40392 73 180 69168 1091253 951034
1356 40392
Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1835. 1834.
41038 11572
Total Total Total Totalj
1835. 1834. 1835. 1834.
1835. 1834.
Go!
Increase of Import in 1835
140219
In 1791..68,404
4.- Import of Cotton Wool into Liverpool, from the Year 1791, in Packages.
1796..63,526 1801.. 98,752
1792..72,364 1797..58,258
1793..24.971
1806..173,074
1802..135,192
1807..196,467
1853..140,291
1808.. 66,215
1811..174,132
1812..171,551
1813..141,188
1816..276,715 1821..413,182
1817..314, 181
1822..453,732
1818..425,344
1823..578,303
1804..153, 126
1809..267,283
1814..182,626
1819..365,365
1824..447,083
1795..54,841
1800..92,580 | 1855..177,508
1810..320,594
1815..270,635
1820..458,736
1825..706,316
1798..66,934
1794..38,022 1799..89,784
1826..489,204
1827..756,296
1828..630,245
1831..791,582
1832..779,071
1833..840,953
1829..640, 998 1834..841,474
1830..793,605. | 1835..970,717

200
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.


5.-An Account of the Quantity of Pounds net (in millions and tenths) of Cotton Wool imported into Great
Britain from the Year 1801, and at different Intervals prior to that Time.
1701 a 1705 av.of 5 yrs.1'2 1786 a 1790 av.of 5 yrs.25°4
1805..59 7 1810.136.5
1815.. 99'3
1820..143.9
1716 1720
"" 2.2 1791 1795
26.7
1806..58.2
1771 1775
1776 1780
1781 1785
,,
59
,,
4.8 1796 1800
6.7 1801..56·
10 9 1802..603 1804
37.3
''
1803 53.8
1811..91.6
1807..74°9
1812..63* 1817..124.9
1808..43'6 1813..51. 1818..177.3
61.9 1809..92-8 1814..60 1 1819..149'7
1816.. 93'9
•
1822..142 2 1827..271'I
1825..222*4 1830..261.2
1821..129' 1826..171.5 1831..280.5
1832..287.8
1823..188.1 1828..219.8
1824..143*7 | 1829..221·8
1829..2218
1833..304-2
1834..320.6
1835..3617
•
American
Brazil
East India
Other sorts.
Packages
·
American
Brazil
Egyptian
·
•
East India
6.—Import into Great Britain from the Year 1806, distinguishing the Growth.
1819.
1806. 1807. 1808. 1809. 1810. 1811. 1812. 1813. 1814. 1815. 1816. 1817. 1818.
124,939 171,267 37,672 160, 180 246,759 128, 192 95,331 37,720 48,853 203,051 166,077|199,669|207,580 205, 161
51,034 18,981 50,442 140,927 142,846 118,514 98,704 137, 168 150,930 91,055 123.450 114,518 162,499 125,415
7,787 11,409 12,512 35,764 79,382 14.646 2,607 1,429 13,048 22,357 30,670 120, 202 247,659 184,259.
77.978 81,010 67,512 103,511 92,186 64,879 64,563 73,219 74,800 52,840 49,235 44,872 50,991 31,300
82 561,
249,
303 369,432 479, 261 668,729 546,135
261,738 282,667 168,138 440,382 561,173 326,231 261,205 249,536 287,631 369,303 369,432 479,261 668,729 546,135
-
-
1820.
302,395
180,086
57,923
31,247
571,651
571,651
1835.
763,199
143,572
43.721
1821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834.
300,070 329,906 452,538 282,371 423,446 395,852 646,776 444,390 463,076 618.527 608,887 628,766 654,786 733,528
143,505|144,611 143,310 193,942| 55,590|120,111|167,362 159,536 191,468 168,288 114,585|163,193 103,646|
121,085
5,623 38,022 111,023 47,621 22,450 32,889 24,739 14,752 38,124 41,183 3,893 7,277
30,095 19,263 38,393 50,852 60,484 64,699 73,738 84,855 80,489 35,019 76,764 109,298 94,698 89,098
W. India, &c. 40,428 40,770 27,632 25,537 31,988 18,188 30,988 20,056 18,867 11,721 11,304 8,490 13,646 17,485
Packages .
40,09:
746,707
902,322 930,21
491,678 533,444,668,797,540,092,820,883 581,950 894,063 749,552,746, 707 871,487 903,367,902,322 930,216,951,034 1,091,253
117,965
22,796
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
201
VOL. I.
7.—Comparisons of the Stocks at the Close of the Years 1834 and 1835.
Liverpool.
London.
Glasgow.
Total in Ports.
Dealers
and Spinners.
Total
unconsumed.
1835.
1834.
1835.
1834.
1835.
1834.
1935.
1834.
1835.
1834.
1835.
1834.
Upland
Orleans.
Alabama
37,890 46,970
7,420
6,553
17,160 35,400
37,990 22,820
1,390
630 $3,306
4,581
109,300 118,000 35,000 41,500 144,300 159,500
Sea-island
1,800
290
243
106
Stained ditto
1,500
3.10
564
163
Pernambuco
10,070
3,470
80
388
Maranham.
10, 160
3,110
Bahia
12,6.40
560
1,369
201
3,010
292
33,800 11,800 8,000 10,000 41,800 21,800
Other Brazils
100
130
1
#
Egyptian
18,280
I, 120
180
76
Smyrna
80
160
2801,945
20,500 1,700
1,500
500 22,000 2,200
Surat and Madras
27,360
23,460 | 18,650
20,824
6,391
1,518
Bengal, &c.
4,910
50 3,230
2,998
60,500 48,800 4,000
6,000 64,500 54,800
Bourbon
Dem., Surinam, &c.
230
240
West India, &c.
4,530
4,620
} 460
570
171
123
123
181
Total
184,700 145,310
24,470 26,300
26,300
20,843
20,843 13,953
5,300 1,500
5,900
230,000 185,600 50,000
2,000
7,400
7,300
|
60,000 280,000 245,000

Total unconsumed, 1st January, 1835, 82,320,000 lbs. weight, average about 335 lbs. per bag.
Ditto ditto, 1st January, 1836, 89,633,000 lbs. weight, average about 320 lbs. per bag.


202
COTTON-WOOL TRADE
50,000
1,336,900
· 8.-General Statement of the Import, Export, and Consumption of Great Britain,
Stock in the Ports, 1st Jan., 1835
in the Year 1835.
(EXTRACTED FROM TABLES 3, 7, 10, II.)
Ditto in Dealers' and Spinners' hands:
England
Scotland
•
Import in 1835
52,000
8,000
185,600 Export to the Continent and Ireland :
60,000
1,091,300
American
·
Brazil and West India
East India
Egyptian
nd}
Taken for Consumption of England
and Scotland from the Ports
Decrease of Stock in hands of Dealers
and Spinners
Consumed in England, 861,500, or
16,567 bags per week; in Scotland,
92,600, or 1,781 bags per week
Remaining on hand in the Ports,
1st January, 1836
In Dealers' and Spinners' hands:
England
Scotland
46,700
2,800
52,600
700
102,800
944, 100
10,000
954, 100
}
230,000
45,000
5,000
1,336,900
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
203
9.-Summary Statement of the Consumption, Export, Import, &c., of Great Britain, for the last 20 Years.
1816.
1817.
1818.
1819.
1820.
1821.
1822.
1823.
1824.
1825.
Average Weekly Consumption-Upland
•
2,179
2,380
2,918
3,292
3,839
3,890
4,212 3,713
Orleans and Alabama
990
669
875
1,284
I, 192
1,389
1,552
2,169
2,298
2,442
Sea-island
•
289
329
409
604
652
629
754
360
Total American
4,036
3,509
3,343
3,993
4,519 5,285
6,043
6,688
7,264
6,515
Brazil
1,589
2,075
2,459
2,456
2,408
2,509
2,646
2,577
2,890
2,502
Egyptian, &c.
362
891
East India
207
I, 192
1,581
I, 190
1,518
1,019
953
852
644
1,096
Demerara, West India, &c.
656
1,050
746
713
53.4
785
835
654
473
527
Total
6,488
7,826
8,129
8,352
8,979
9.598
10,477 10,771 11,633
11,531
Consumption of England.
5,744
6,911
7,227
7,387
8,035
8,573
Consumption of Scotland.
9,4II 9,686
10,581
10,435
744
915
902
965
944
1,025
Taken for Consumption from Liverpool
1,066 1,085
1,052
1,096
5,514
5,914
6,609
,064
Sold to Speculators in Liverpool
28,700
33,700
26,600
46,800
7.987
7,855
8,789 8,900
10,917 9,313
36,000
32,000
23,000 160,000
81,000 458,000
Export
Consumption
29,300 26,700 55,500 66,800 28,400
•
Average Weight of Packages consumed
263
260
Weekly consumption in Pkgs. av. 333 lbs..
5,122
Average Weight of Import
256
266 263 204
337,400 407,000 422,700 434,300 466,900 499,100
263
258
6,181 6,346 6,323
52,600 59,300 35,400
53,600
72,800
544,800 560,100 604,900 599,600
252
258
267
6,945
7,45x
249
Lbs. Weight imported, in Millions and Tenths
93.9
124'9
177*3
149*7
143'9
202
129'0
8,402
267
275
8,900
142.2
281
182.1
273
9,537
266
278
9,634
270
143'7
222.4
consumed
ditto
88*7
107'
109'9
109'5
120'3
129'0
145'5
in Ports, 31st Dec. ditto
19*2
28.9
78.2
99'5 110'5
IOI*7
in Great Britain, ditto, ditto
93.3 III.8
127'0 113'9
154'I 165.2
79'4 Ic9'6
64°0
93'7 117.3
80'3 115'5
166.8
107'0
Packages in ditto, ditto
8
II
27
24
IO
52
average rate
West India
Increase of ditto, in ditto, compared with
Decrease S
the preceding year
Packages in Great Bri-
tain, 31st Dec., equal
to week's consump-
tion at the then
American
Brazil
Egyptian
East India
115,800 161,300 351,800 396,800 473,100 413,100 342,500 415,800 297,400 445,900
45,500 190,500 45,000
1
$
}
76,300
73,300
148,500
60,000 70,600
118,400
19
13
24
23
20
32
13
23
29
18
37
28
27
30
22
45
бо
96
121
241
169
197
142
131
167
77
20
ΙΟ
Ditto of all kinds
31
23
36
22
16
15
20
24
18
21
Lbs. wt. of Yarn exported, in Mills. & Tenths
43
47
53
43
33
30
26
38
16.1
Average Quotation of Uplands in Liverpool
16.7
23.9
23.2
28.0
27.4
33.6
32.6
184d
201d
20d
13 d
IInd
Pernams
Surats
93d
8td
Bid
8 d
ditto
IIğd
26d
25d
25d
184d
15 d
12&d
Ind
12d
11fd
ditto
15fd
15 d
Ind
15td
98d
8 d
7fd
6jd
64d
6fd
8fd
1

204
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.

Summary Statement, &c.-continued.
1926.
1827. 1828.
1829.
1830.
1831.
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
Average Weekly consumption-Upland
3,783
4,241
4,990 5,304
5,452
5,241
6,219:
5,421
Orleans and Alabama
5,742 5,896
2,713
3,940
4,210
3,788
4.756
5,800
5,321
6,442
7,352
Sea-island
7,823
369
673
635
539
460
517
519
665
498
354
Total American
6,865
8,854 9,835
9,631 10,668
11,558
12,059
12,528
13,592
Brazil
1,188
Egyptian, &c.
1,215 2,456 3,094 3,602
14,073
3,294
2,843
2,683
2,665
2,339
975
1,142
671
485
508
619
881
279
131
446
East India
489
664 738
658
940
765
1,161
1,210
1,033
1,069
Demerara, West India, &c.
308
502
380
463
284
200
196
223
246
421
Total
9,825 12,977 14,080
14.331 16,002
16,496
17, 140
Consumption of England
8,792 11,677 12,655 12,729
Consumption of Scotland
1,033 1,300 1,425
1,602
Taken for Consumption from Liverpool
•
Sold to Speculators in Liverpool
10,180 12,164 12,714
14,392 14,881
1,610 1,615
13,089
71,000 64,000 | 96,000
41,500
65,000
Export
95,000 69,100 63,700
118, 100
Consumption
510,900 674,800 732,200 745,200
832, 100
294 297
8,675 11,391
295
171.5
303
271'I
ditto
150*2 197.2
89'0 129.2 112'7
in Great Britain, ditto, ditto
Packages
150, 200
23,900
Packages in Great Bri-
tain, 31st Dec. equal
to week's consump-
tion at the then
average rate
Ditto of all kinds
East India
Lbs. wt. of Yarn exported, in Mills. & Tenths
Average Quotation of Uplands in Liverpool
American
Brazil
Egyptian
24
38
Average Weight of Packages consumed
Weekly Consumption in Pkgs. av. 333 lbs.
Average Weight of Import
Lbs. weight imported, in Millions and Tenths
consumed
in Ports, 31st Dec. ditto
ditto
ditto.
Increase of ditto, in ditto, compared with
Decrease the preceding year
94'4 82.3
422,000 572,000 525,900 409,300 415,300 386,300 330,205 300, 100
245,600 280,000
297
12,581
294
298
12,655
14,320
857,800
306
15,157
311
16,007
14,127 15,346
35,500
15,427
16,923|| 17,667
15,248 15,831 16,567
1,713 1,675 1,836 1,781
14,906 15,710 15,848 16,806
90,600 268,000 222,300 145,100
33,400 74,600 67,100 67,800 86,800 102,800
891,300 880,000 918,700 954,100
326
330
|
16,567 17,508 18,348
17,667
18,348
333
293
297
300
219.8
221.8
261*2
310
280*5
319
327
337
331
287.8
304'2
320*6
361.7
217.9
219.2
247.6
262°
276·9
287.
80.3
91'4 81.3
76.5
110'9 164.8 147'0 115'5 118.8 II4'4
66·9 63.2
303'4
318.1
73.3
1037
89.6
6,000
34,400
46,300 116,600
29,000
56,100
30, 100
54,500
25
19
22
19
17
14
12
ΙΟ
69
53
53
35
29
26
17
24
8
18
84
39
64
бо
31
169
120
120
115
47
West India .
42
35
44
25
29
43
44
37
29
26
42.2
44.9
50.5
57:3
62.7
58.8
63d
63d
•
63d
54d
6fd
སྶ ཝཱ ཙོ
16
8
17
49
50
46
53
65
20
17
30
18
19
18
14
15
717
67·8
78.7
6gd
8d
85d
10id
Pernams
Surats
ditto
ditto
10 d
530
隠し
​83d
d
8 id
71d
gil
Iood
11d
14
5 žd
4 d
4d
5d
4 d
5d
6ğd
75d
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
205
10.-LIVERPOOL.
11.-LONDON.
1
Stock, 1st January, 1835
Import in 1835
Ditto from Gloucester
Total quantity sold in 1835, as per 1,036,200
weekly returns
lators for re-sale
145,300 Stock, 1st January, 1835
970,000 Import in 1835
3,200
·
1,118,500 Stock, 1st January, 1836
Exported to the Continent
Ditto
Glasgow
Taken for Consumption in England
or 123 bags per week.
26,300
47,400
73,700
2.4,500
40,600 67,30c
2,200)
6,400
(In 1834, 9,200, or 177 bags per week.)
Deduct proportion sold to specu-
145, 100
891, 100
Forwarded to Country Importers,
and Dealers importing coast-
43,400
wise, &c.
934,500
12.-GLASGOW.
Stock, 1st January, 1835
Stock remaining 1st Jan, 1836
184,000
Import in 1835
Ditto from London
Export in 1835
Taken for Consumption and 934,500, or 17,971 per week.
(In 1834, 852,000, or 16,961 bags per wk.)
Deduct Export to Conti-
Ditto from Liverpool
Stock, 1st January, 1836
Export to Liverpool
nent
51,900.60,600
Ditto, Ireland
8,700
Ditto
Taken for Consumption
Ditto, Glasgow Market
873,900, or 16,806 per wk.
25,800
848,100, or 16,309 per wk.
789,000, or 15,173
Do. for Consump. in England,
In 1834
Ireland
Taken for Consumption in Scotland
or 1,723 bags per week.
14,000
73,200
2,200
25,800
II5,200
20,800
3,20c 25,600
1,600
89,600
(In 1834, 95,000, or 1,836 bags per week.)
206
COTTON-WOOL TRADE,
13.-Growth of America.

Crop of
1820-1
•
Bags.
430,000
1821-2
•
455,000
Crop of
1828-9
1829-30
•
1822-3
•
495,000
1830-1
1823-4
•
•
560,000
1831-2
1824-5
569,259
1832-3
1825-6
1826-7
•
720,027
1833-4
957,281
1834-5
1827-8.
•
720,593
Bags.
870,415
976,845
1,038,847
987,477
1,070,438
I,205,394
I,254,328
(In 1785, the Import into Liverpool from America was only 5 bags;
in 1786, 6 bags; in 1787, 108 bags.)
Remarks.
The Tables of Import into the kingdom, compared with the pre-
ceding year, show an increase of 29,671 American, 39,926 Brazil,
36,444 Egyptian, &c., 28,867 East India, and 5,311 West India,-
total, 140,219 bags.
The average weekly consumption of Great Britain we estimate at
18,348 bags, consisting of 5,896 Upland, 7,823 Orleans and Alabama,
354 Sea-island, total 14,073 American, 2,339 Brazil, 446 Egyptian,
&c., 1,069 East India, and 421 West India, &c., being an increase
upon the consumption of last year of 781 bags per week; but in
packages of the average weight of the consumption of that year 870
bags per week, or for the whole year an increase of 14 millions of lbs.
weight.
The average weekly quantity taken by the trade from the ports is
5,781 Upland, 7,823 Orleans and Alabama, 344 Sea-island,—total
13,948 American, 2,300 Brazil, 465 Egyptian, &c., 1,031 East India,
and 411 West India, &c.,-total 18,155 bags.
The average weight of the import we calculate at 321 lbs. per bag
for Upland, 402 Orleans and Alabama, 322 Sea-island, 173 Brazil,
218 Egyptian, &c., 360 East India, and 230 West India, &c., making
the total import in lbs. weight 361,685,000, being an increase upon
last year of 41,105,000 lbs.
We commenced the present year with the price of fair Uplands at
91d. Under the influence of a good trade, and with the most confident
statements of its continuation daily repeated by those most interested
therein, our market gradually rose in price until June, when fair
Uplands readily commanded 11d.
Here the market rested for some time.
During the first quarter of the year long-stapled cotton of all descrip-
tions became very low in stock; so much so, that, at about the begin-
ning of May, some fear of an absolute scarcity was gravely spoken of.
The consequence was comparatively high prices (Pernams were then
quoted at 16d. to 18d., and Maranhams 14d. to 16 d.), and that again
naturally tended to throw them out of consumption, by diverting the
COTTON-WOOL TRADE.
207
demand in a still greater degree upon the better qualities of Mobiles
and Orleans, as substitutes.
At these raised prices the market continued for about three months,
consumers abstaining from buying to the utmost of their power, and
the importers and holders daily hoping for a renewal of the demand.
In the mean time orders were sent abroad under the promise of high
prices, and our market soon became heavily stocked with high-charged
cotton, leaving an immense loss on all imports, whether from the
United States, Brazil, India, or Egypt.
The market, however, sustained itself pretty firmly until the close
of August, when the accumulated weight gradually broke down prices,
until they finally settled at the present rates, being d. lower for fair
Uplands than at the close of last year, and 1d. for inferior. The good
quality of the new crop is at about the same rate-rather lower.
It may be noticed that the state of the market before adverted to,
with regard to long-stapled cotton, brought about its own remedy,—
reduced consumption, and increased import, until Brazils, Egyptians,
&c., have settled at comparatively very moderate rates.
We have thus endeavoured briefly to sketch the changes in the
market of this great staple, referring with much satisfaction to the
subjoined tables for a proof of the continued progress and steady
increase of the manufacture of this article.
We made a short remark on this subject in our printed circular of
24th July, stating the probable increased consumption at 1,000 bags
per week. With every desire to estimate the increase at as low a rate
as we can, conformably with the stocks, imports, &c., we now find we
cannot rate the increased consumption at less than 870 bags per week,
of the average weight of last year.
With respect to the raw material, the great objects to be desired are,
that the prices on the one hand should be sustained at such a rate as
to continue an abundant supply, and, on the other, that they should
not rise to such a pitch as to repress consumption.
Speculators have not taken any great interest in our market during
this year.
GEORGE HOLT & Co., Brokers.
Liverpool, 31st December, 1835.
208
EARLY HISTORY OF
BOOK III.
ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STATE OF THE MANUFACTURE
OF COTTON BY MECHANICAL POWER.
CHAPTER I.
Early History of the Factory System.
THE general survey of the cotton manufacture portrayed in
Book I. exhibits no systematic character, but betrays the
tottering and wayward steps of infant industry. The labours
of artisans were insulated, or partial efforts prompted by
immediate necessity, and liable at every instant to be arrested
or turned into a new direction by belligerent rulers, regard-
less of the wishes and interests of the community. But
Providence, meanwhile, had been preparing a great revolution
in the social frame, which has become mature only in these
latter days; teaching mankind, by a series of severe lessons,
that poverty and wretchedness were the inevitable results of
military pride and glory; and that national dignity and
happiness were to be found only in the friendly concurrence
of many different kingdoms towards the creation, interchange,
and distribution of the various objects, material and intel-
lectual, which conduce to the well-being of our race.
In reference to this devout consummation, the annals of
humanity are divisible into four eras, each of them character-
ized by peculiar attributes. The first epoch was marked by
the development of the beautiful in form, sentiment, and
expression. From the liberal encouragement given to men of
genius in Greece, while Pericles administered the Athenian
state, this brilliant period of history is deservedly designated
by his name. Models of architecture, statuary, poetry, and
popular eloquence of such perfection then appeared, as have
never been rivalled since, and will probably remain inimi-
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
209
table studies to every coming age. The intolerance of party
spirit in Greece, miscalled patriotism, while it bent the
faculties of its citizens to their utmost strain, and drew forth
those masterpieces of invention, encouraged at the same
time, pride, envy, hatred, and licentiousness to a pitch
incompatible with peace or stability, and ere long involved
their country in a ruin which centuries have shown to be
irretrievable.
There was in truth an efflorescence of glory upon the
summits of society in Athens, while a canker-worm was
gnawing the roots. Idleness and insolence were the badges
of its citizenship. Attica was peopled with 400,000 slaves,
but recognised only 20,000 freemen entitled to bear arms.
The slaves cultivated the land, exercised the mechanical arts,
worked in the mines, dug in the quarries, and performed
every kind of menial drudgery. Petty rival communities so
constituted could neither accumulate capital, nor secure for
a series of years the means of independent livelihood.
Their most considerable citizens were for the most part worse
clothed, worse fed, and less comfortably lodged than the trades-
men of England at the present day.
The second great epoch of civilization commenced when the
Roman arms, by framing the discordant nations round the
Mediterranean shores into one submissive empire, prepared a
highway for the missionaries of Galilee to propagate with
miraculous powers the philanthropic system of their divine
Master, and to substitute for the reckless virtue deified by the
Stoics the evangelical doctrine, that all must seek their own
well-being by promoting the well-being of others, because
mankind are one brotherhood of immortal spirits, precious in
the sight of their heavenly Parent, and candidates of a
common salvation. The perfect equality in social rights of
men of every rank and of every nation was now publicly
declared upon infallible authority; and though this principle
has had to contend at every period, and in every state, with
the prerogatives of pride and the follies of prejudice under a
thousand different forms, yet ever since its evangelical pro-
mulgation, it has been steadily gaining ground, and widening
its benign influence throughout the world. In the course
of a few generations it destroyed the distinction between the
master and the slave, which had disfigured every ancient com-
210
EARLY HISTORY OF
monwealth, and thereby proved that productive industry was
the duty of all men without exception.
The leading features of the third epoch are the wide
diffusion of knowledge among all classes of society, by the
invention of the printing press, and the free intercourse of
nations from the general use of the mariner's compass in
navigation. The stores of learning, hitherto accessible to a
favoured few, were now laid open to the many, rich as well
as poor, with unsparing distribution. Distant communities,
strangers to those petty jealousies which usually lead neigh-
bouring people to hate and harass each other, were brought
into friendly relations by the directive polarity of the mystic
needle. The commodities of one country were prized in
another in proportion to their rarity as well as usefulness;
whence home manufactures and foreign traffic were mutually
promoted. Now Venice, Genoa, Florence, and Pisa, emerging
first from the miseries of Vandalism, became emporia of
great wealth and consideration; by the accumulation of
capitals unparalleled in ancient times, they could command
the industry of remote nations, and the homage of absolute
kings. From this period, commercial expeditions began to
be fitted up at great expense for the most distant parts of the
globe, and their profitable returns were waited for with con-
fidence from one season to another.
The influence of freedom in favouring the development of
productive industry was likewise wonderfully exemplified in
the rapid aggrandisement of Lubeck and the other towns of
the Hanseatic League, at a period when the great monarchies
of Europe, patrons of the restrictive and monopolist system
of trade, could not find funds to equip a small armament for a
brief campaign, except by placing the crown jewels in pledge.
with money lenders.
The fourth era, or that of consummation, began when the
operative classes, having become the disciples of science, and
studious of the laws by which creative wisdom regulates the
material system, resolved to enlist the latent powers of nature
in their service. Many of these marvellous powers had been
for years familiar to the philosophers of the school of
Newton: but they were not diligently pondered by practical
men for the purpose of applying them to the business of life
till the middle of the last century. No experiment ever
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
211
contributed so much to popularize natural knowledge, or ever
shed so bright a halo round its author's head, as that of the
electrical kite, when Benjamin Franklin, by no random hit,
but in consequence of a most sagacious and elaborate train of
researches, dared to interrogate the thunder-cloud as to its
awe-inspiring essence, to draw down its terrific bolt in a
stream of lambent fire, and to make it the subject of sportive
shocks and illuminations. The oriental fabulists in their wildest
luxuriance of fiction never matched the real exploit of the
sage of Philadelphia-stealing lightning from the heavens,
and imprisoning it in a phial. As the feeblest flame may
kindle the mightiest conflagration, so these few sparks of
celestial fire were ordained to be the means of lighting up the
hallowed flame of freedom in the most corrupt monarchy of
Europe, and of inducing multitudes of votaries to do homage
in the temple of science, who would otherwise have never
entered her gates. The noble discovery of the identity of
lightning and common electricity, surmised by many minds
before, but first intrepidly proved by Franklin, gave him, when
ambassador for his mother country, an influence in the despotic
court of France most propitious to the establishment of the
American Republic.
Franklin was not, howe,ver the sole agent then employed
by Providence to inspire the man of business with the love of
philosophical research. He indeed led the van of the illus-
trious train who were devoting themselves with generous
assiduity to explore the dark recesses of nature, in order to
extort her secrets, to obtain the mastery of her powers, and
to make them minister to the weakness and the wants of their
fellow-creatures.

These were
Three individuals were then maturing in the city of
Glasgow faculties destined not only to open up inexhaustible
resources to their own country, but to add indefinitely to the
wealth and comfort of the whole family of man.
Joseph Black, James Watt, and Adam Smith. The first of
these philosophers had, within a few years after Franklin's
grand experiment, made his important discovery of the exist
ence of a fixed air in marbles and other calcareous stones,
which came forth in an elastic state when they were calcined
into quicklime. This was one of the early blossoms of that
pneumatic chemistry, which has yielded since so rich a
212
EARLY HISTORY OF
:
harvest of truths in every district of the animal, vegetable, and
mineral kingdoms. Continuing to pursue the links of that
hidden chain which binds together the apparently incoherent
events of the physical world, Black next proceeded to search
out the laws of latent heat.
When we now look back into these inquiries, so simple in
statement, so conclusive in proof, and so vast in consequence,
we cannot help feeling astonished at the carelessness with
which the congelation of water and the melting of ice, as
well as the generation and condensation of steam, had been
regarded by all preceding observers, whether learned or
unlearned. It was reserved for the sagacious hand of Black
to seize the mystic links of the phenomena, to place them for
ever within the reach of man, and to enable him to dispose of
them at pleasure, in modifying matter for the uses of art, or
in exploring still further her multiform transmutations. His
first achievement was to make us familiar with one in-
visible spirit-a specific kind of aerial substance; his second
was to disclose the constitution of aerial being in general,
and its relations with the solid and liquid forms of existence.
James Watt had a kindred mind, and was pursuing in-
dependently a kindred train of research on the myste-
rious powers of heat, though with less general, or rather
with more directly practical, views. He had turned his
attention minutely to the steam-engine, which for nearly
sixty years before his time had essentially remained the same
rude and unwieldy prodigy which Newcomen had conjured
up, though it had been often modified in outward appearance.
Towards the general enlargement of his mind, Watt had
undoubtedly derived profit from the public lectures of Black,
which he occasionally attended, though he was by no means
a regular student; but he was not indebted to the professor
of chemistry for his ideas on the latent heat of steam, as has
been sometimes said. This statement I make on the authority
of a conversation I had with Mr. Watt himself, a few years
before his death. Benjamin Franklin made use of a phial to
receive the fire of lightning, and to verify its analogies with
the common electricity of the charged Leyden jar. James Watt
also made use of a phial to demonstrate both the latent heat and
the expansible tension of the vapour of water.* If we call to
* Communicated to me in the conversation alluded to above.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
213
mind the sorry plight in which this great mechanician found
the steam-engine, and the condition to which in a few years
he brought it, both as to principle and execution, ready to
drain the deepest mine, to animate the greatest factory, to fly
along the railway, or to march with giant strides over the
crested billows, we must regard the author of this application
of science as no secondary star in the constellation then
ascendant.
In reviewing the golden dawn of modern civilization, we
must not however fail to mention with due reverence the name
of Adam Smith, that master-spirit who first expounded with
systematic perspicuity the science of social comfort,—the art
of turning the industry of nations to the best account, or, in
other words, the principles of the production, the distribution,
and the consumption of wealth.
To the same brightening era the mode of finding the
longitude of a ship at sea may be justly referred. The
mariner's compass, which on its first introduction was hailed
by the navigator as an unerring guide in the trackless deep,
had, in the course of the distant voyages to which it led,
betrayed many strange aberrations. "True as the needle to
the pole" still continues with the multitude a favourite illus-
tration of constancy, though the needle has been proved by
old experience to be as fickle and faithless in its attachment to
that point in the heavens as the living objects it has been
compared to are to theirs. Upon a few favoured spots
indeed of the terraqueous surface the needle does traverse
due north and south, but everywhere else it deviates
from that direction by angular quantities which differ not
only in different parts, but in the same part in different
years.
Science had not been an inattentive spectator of the
embarrassments caused to the navigator by these variations
of the compass. Astronomy had long ago taught him in
determine the latitude of the ship, or its distance counted to
a line due north or south from the equator, whereby he
could deduce from time to time the declination of his
needle; but she reserved her chief gift to crown the period
under review.
The great problem of the longitude was now practically
solved, first by means of chronometric mechanism, and after-
214
EARLY HISTORY OF
wards by lunar observation. Each method has been eventu-
ally brought to a pitch of perfection highly honourable to
our age and nation, and both together give a security and
promptitude to naval enterprise, which even the confident spirit
of Columbus would have deemed unattainable.
The same age in which the union of science and art was thus
happily consummated fortunately found society, in Great
Britain at least, prepared, by the accumulation of capitals
during a long period of peace and security, to cherish their
prolific offspring, and to rear them up to productive maturity.
I shall now draw the attention of my readers to a few
events contemporary with the above, which mark the rising
spirits of the time the harbingers of the great factory system
of Lancashire-the main subject of the present work.
In the year 1753 Parliament originated the British
Museum by the purchase, 1st, of Sir Hans Sloane's cabinet of
natural history, &c., for £20,000; 2ndly, of the Cottonian
library for £10,000; and, 3rdly, of Montague House, for the
reception of these and such other collections as might be
added. The money required for these excellent purposes
was raised, however, by the mean and immoral expedient
of a lottery of £300,000 in one hundred thousand tickets of
£3 each. £200,000 were given in prizes, and £100,000,
after deducting the expenses of the lottery, were reserved for
the Museum. Such was the beginning of the only scientific
establishment erected by the government of Great Britain.
Fortunately, the better spirit which animates the Administra-
tion and Parliament of modern times, promises ere long to
make the mean origin of the Museum be forgotten in the
magnificence of its completion.
The British Linen Company, incorporated at Edinburgh
by Act of Parliament in the year 1746, was greatly instru-
mental in the extension of that and the other manufactures
of Scotland. They advanced ready money to diligent trades-
people for their goods, and thus enabled them to carry on
their useful toils. In the course of twenty years that manu-
facture increased from the annual value of £166,000 to
£334,000, a prodigious amount of business for that poor
country at that time.
The linen trade of Ireland assumed an equally flourish-
ing state. At the accession of William III., Ireland did not
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
215
export to the value of £6,000, whereas in 1741 it exported
annually £600,000 worth of linen goods.
No women,
says Sir William Temple, "are apter to spin linen thread
well than the Irish, who, labouring little in any kind with
their hands, have their fingers more supple and soft than
other women of the poor condition among us." We shall
find in this circumstance one of the causes of the develop-
ment of the cotton trade of Lancashire. The flax machinery
of Leeds has now nearly supplanted the apt spinsters of
Ireland, but it has in return supplied them with abundance
of good and cheap linen yarn to weave in their domestic
looms. In 1759, Ireland exported £939,562 sterling worth
of linen; and Scotland stamped to the value of £451,390.
The canal of the Duke of Bridgewater is a splendid
achievement of this period. This nobleman had the honour
of rendering inland navigation an object of universal interest,
and of inducing capitalists to cultivate this ample field of
private revenue and public improvement. The enterprise was
eminently successful, the Duke having wisely entrusted its
execution to a man of remarkable genius for canals, James
Brindley. The scoffers of that time, who nick-named
his lofty aqueduct over the Irwell, a castle in the air, had
reason ere long to be ashamed of their narrow-minded
sarcasms; for a boat passed along it, sailing over the river
at an elevation of thirty-eight feet, in July, 1761. This is
the most magnificent work of public utility ever executed by
an individual, one which has proved an inestimable benefit to
the industry of England, more especially to the counties of
Lancashire and Cheshire, which it traverses. The cotton
trade of England is under peculiar obligations to this truly
patriotic capitalist. His liquid highway sends arched rami-
fications of considerable length even under the town of Man-
chester; from one of which coals are hoisted by a coal-gin,
through a shaft, out of the boats below, into a large store-
yard in the main street. At this place the successors of the
Duke were by Act of Parliament bound to supply the inhabit-
ants of Manchester with coals at only 4d. per cwt. of 140 lbs. ;
a circumstance which must have had an immense influence in
expanding their industry during the last seventy-five years.
The canal contains seventy miles of level, many extensive
tunnels, several noble aqueducts, and cost little less than half

216
EARLY HISTORY OF
a million of money. Thus Lancashire was providentially
supplied, at a most critical period, with a great arterial trunk
and numerous branches, to supply its industry with vital
warmth and circulation, as also to open up channels of com-
mercial intercourse with the eastern and western seas.
The decriers of the Duke (for eminent virtue is sure to
breed envy in sordid minds) had the folly to object to his
scheme, that canal navigation would greatly diminish the num-
bers of the useful and noble breed of draught horses. What,
however, has been the result? The breeding of tens of
thousands more to meet the demand for them created by the
vast improvements in the husbandry, manufactures, and com-
merce of the canal districts of Lancashire and Cheshire-not
to mention the numbers employed in dragging the boats
which soon after its completion began to cover its surface.
It was also objected that inland navigation would lessen the
coasting trade, injure this nursery of seamen, and thus impair
the navy. How has experience put the croakers to scorn!
In the year 1760, just before the Bridgewater canal was
completed, the shipping cleared out of the English ports
amounted to 471,241 tons. In 1790, when a great part of
England was intersected by canals, after the example of the
Bridgewater enterprise, the tonnage had become 1,379,329,
being very nearly trebled. Canals are in fact a contrivance
to enable one horse to transport as great a lot of merchandise
as thirty could do on a good road, or fifty on an indifferent
one. And how expensive are roads to maintain in com-
parison of canals! Brindley's thoughts were so engrossed
with the value of canals, that he said the main use of
rivers was to supply them with water. Mrs. Barbauld has
alluded to this idea in the following couplet of her beautiful
poem on canal navigation:
"The ductile streams obey the guiding hand,
And social plenty circles round the land."
The water-ways of England now radiate from six central
points-Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Hull, London,
and Bristol, furnishing such easy commercial transport that
each of these emporia of trade participates in the ingenuity
and opulence, not only of the other five, but of all the inter-
jacent counties. Their produce, however ponderous or un-
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
217
#
wieldy, is circulated through these numberless artificial
channels with economy, security, and promptitude.
The railways now constructing in so many directions
throughout Great Britain, will form an invaluable comple-
ment to canal navigation, and render the whole island one
compact and continuous mart of industry.
In 1762, Mr. Harrison received from the Board of Longi-
tude a further sum of £1,500, and next year from Parliament
£5,000, on condition that he should disclose the principle on
which his time-keeper was constructed. The government
promised to pay him the remainder of the great reward of
£20,000 if on further trials in the course of four years his
chronometer should still be found capable of ascertaining the
longitude within the required limits of exactness. Never was.
national munificence more wisely bestowed, for it excited an
ardour of improvement in mechanics, in practical astronomy,
and in navigation, which soon brought the solution of the
grand problem of the longitude to a state of simplicity and
precision greater than Newton himself could have anticipated..
Harrison received eventually the whole of the £20,000.
In
If we consider the contemporaneous dawn of chemical art
then enlightened by scientific principles, we shall find here
also a most auspicious omen of the new age of industry.
1763, Josiah Wedgwood produced the first fine specimens of
his pottery, a production destined very soon to give a fresh
impulsion to the national resources, and add fresh laurels
to the fame of England. Prior to his time, our stoneware
manufacture had moved round in a vulgar routine, estranged
alike from philosophy and the fine arts. Wedgwood first
procured it this noble alliance, whereby he raised it in a
few years to supreme estimation, not only among his country-
men, but among all people who could appreciate taste
and excellence. In spite of the heavy duties imposed upon
his goods by foreign governments jealous of our rivalry in
trade, no less than five-sixths of the English pottery made
with these improvements were exported. The distinguished
French traveller and savant Faujas Saint-Fond, thus speaks
of Wedgwood's manufacture. "Its excellent workmanship,
its solidity, the advantage which it possesses of standing the
action of fire, its fine hard glaze impenetrable by strong acids,
the beauty, convenience, and variety of its forms, and its
VOL. I.
P
218
EARLY HISTORY OF
moderate price, have created a commerce so active and so
universal that in travelling from Paris to Petersburgh, from
Amsterdam to the furthest point of Sweden, and from Dun-
kirk to the southern extremity of France, one is served at
every inn upon English stoneware. The same fine article
adorns the tables of Spain, Portugal, and Italy; it provides
cargoes for ships in the East Indies, the West Indies, and
America." He properly ascribes that excellence and econo-
my, which rendered these manufactured objects the desire of
all civilized countries, to the chemical and classical genius of
Wedgwood. What a contrast does the traveller from Dunkirk
to Marseilles now find in the wretched quality of the stone-
ware placed before him at the inns, in consequence of the
French government continuing to act upon the barbarian
polity of Bonaparte, which renounces all the comforts derived
to their people from commercial interchange with their
neighbours, in order to discourage, and, as far as possible, to
destroy, the productive industry of every non-tributary na-
tion!
The relative influences of internal peace and internal war
on the credit of nations were strongly contrasted in the
comparative soundness of the English capitalists, and un-
soundness of the continental, at the termination of the seven
years' contest of 1763; nor can there be a doubt, that our
stability at this crisis proved most propitious to the rapid
growth of the new modes of cotton spinning then coming into
play. The failures which happened at this period in Holland,
Hamburgh, and Berlin, spread dismay through every com-
mercial town on the Continent, and called forth most despond-
ent letters on the subject from the bankers of Amsterdam
to those of London. A noble opportunity now occurred to
British merchants of manifesting the extent of their capitals,
the solidity of their credit, and the generosity of their spirit.
They remitted loans without security to their foreign corre-
spondents, whose condition was deemed precarious by the
rest of the commercial world, to a very great amount; and
by this means happily allayed the panic which had begun to
paralyze many houses well known for integrity in their trans-
actions. Vast remittances were made to the commercial
cities where the deepest distress was found to prevail by
many of the leading firms of London, and they were liberally
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
219
seconded by the Bank of England discounting an immense
number of bills of exchange. 'If the resources of Britain,
says Chalmers, "arise chiefly from the labour of Britain, it
may be easily shown, that there had never existed in this
island so many industrious people as after the return of the
peace in 1763.
The institution of the Society, in the Adelphi, for the
Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures, ought, perhaps,
to have had an earlier notice in tracing out the foundations
of the new system of automatic industry, but this patriotic
body, though it was incorporated in 1754, in imitation of
similar societies previously organized in Dublin and Edin-
burgh, exercised but a feeble influence upon public improve-
ment till several years after its origin. In fact, such power-
ful pecuniary means were not placed at its disposal by the
government, as were possessed respectively by the Irish and
Scotch societies for promoting their great indigenous occupa-
tions of the linen trade and the fisheries.
We may also mention here a circumstance which operated
very strongly to throw the balance of industry at this time in
favour of Great Britain, against the rival pretensions of
France. The French government, by reducing, in the year
1770, the interest on its national debt to one-half of the
stipulated rate, and also by depriving the holders of its stock
of the benefits of survivorship, brought great distress upon
their whole country. This arbitrary act of public plunder
not only ruined many thousands of private individuals, but
gave such a vital blow to general credit, as to cause an
immense number of bankruptcies, disorganizing trade and
manufactures with wide-spread misery. One house at Mar-
seilles became insolvent for 20,000,000 livres.†
Many causes concurred to prevent the formation in the
several states of Germany of any great factory system. Under
the influence of jealousies and enmities each of them imposed
fiscal restrictions on the sale of his neighbours' goods in the
interior, and also obstructed their transit in search of foreign
markets. Mining was the only department of industry which
was permitted to assume a manufacturing extent, because it
* Chalmer's Estimate of the Commercial Power, &c., p. 136.
† Macpherson, vol. iii., p. 497.
220
EARLY HISTORY OF
;
supplied the governments with resources in the sale of metals
to the circumjacent people for making implements of hus-
bandry and of the arts; yet even it was embarrassed by
frivolous regulations. Germany has besides had the mis-
fortune for ages to be the battle-field on which the sovereigns
of Europe chose to settle the quarrels of their animosity and
ambition; and could not therefore present to capital the
security and repose essential to the development of in-
dustrious combinations.
Great Britain, on the other hand, has enjoyed admirable
opportunities for cultivating productive industry and traffic
on the greatest scale; perfect security from external invasion
and from internal misrule, during more than a century; free
intercourse between its several provinces at home facilitated
by fine roads and canals; and with its colonies abroad and
other distant nations by myriads of merchants' ships sailing
every sea under the protection of a triumphant navy. Thus
the productions of every clime were abundantly supplied
either to gratify taste and encourage consumption, or to
furnish raw materials to the mechanical and chemical arts.
Nor ought we to place in the background of the picture its
inexhaustible mines of the useful metals, most advantageously
worked by its fire instinct steam-engines, and cheaply smelted
by its boundless stores of pit-coal. But, certainly, nothing
has so directly contributed to the pre-eminence of Great
Britain in manufactures, as her race of laborious, skilful, and
inventive artisans, cherished as they have been by the in-
stitutions of a free country, which opened to the possessors
of talents and knowledge, in however humble a station, the
amplest career of honour and fortune to stimulate effort and
dignify success. The reformation of religion, in spreading
knowledge through the middle and lower classes of society,
has distinguished the Protestant population even in Catholic
countries for their superior skill in the useful arts; a fact
illustrated in a remarkable manner at the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, when Protestantism, being banished from
France, drew away manufactures in its train, and enriched
all those neighbouring states which gave the conscientious
exiles shelter and protection. The number of holidays in
Catholic countries has always proved a great obstacle to
factory labour, which more than any other form of industry
THE FACTORY SYSTEM,
221
cannot brook interruption or suspension without serious
injury to the machines, and to the quality of the work-
manship.
In many districts of England a most laudable zeal to
encourage the arts prevailed at an early period of their
growth. Thus the warden and fellows of Manchester
College, in order to lead ingenious strangers to settle in
their town, granted them, nearly two centuries ago, the
benefit of their extensive woods to cut timber for construct-
ing their looms, as well as for fuel, at the trifling annual
charge of 4d. each. The pre-eminence of Lancashire in
manufactures soon after Elizabeth's accession is well-marked,
by an Act of Parliament in the eighth year of her reign, for
regulating the aulneger, or cloth-measurer, an officer origin-
ally created by Richard I. The aulneger is here empowered
to appoint and have his lawful deputy within every of the
several towns of Manchester, Rochdale, Blackburn, and Bury
in the said county. How completely these marts of industry
are the offspring of nature may be inferred from the circum-
stance, that they continue to maintain at the present day
nearly the scale of importance indicated by the above order
of enumeration.
Whether the fustians mentioned by Guicciardini were a
pure cotton fabric or a mixture of cotton with wool or linen
is now very uncertain, but it was most probably an Italian or
Spanish invention, introduced into Antwerp in the course of
trade, and thence made known to the industrious weavers of
Ghent, by whom it was extensively manufactured. From the
Netherlands it was brought over into England by the re-
ligious refugees, who were mostly artisans; several of whom
settled at Bolton and Manchester. This important branch of
business cannot be traced farther back than the conclusion of
the sixteenth century. There can be little doubt that the
warp of fustians was generally linen yarn; a circumstance
accordant with the testimony of Roberts in his Treasure of
Traffic, already referred to.
This compound manufacture continued to flourish in Bolton,
Leigh, and other small towns in Lancashire; the fabrics
being sold chiefly at Bolton in an unbleached state to the
Manchester dealers, who got them finished before they sent
them into the general market. Curious names, more or less
222
EARLY HISTORY OF
characteristic of the aspect or texture of the stuffs, were
given to them by the weavers; such as herring-bones,
pillows for pockets, and outside wear, strong cotton ribs
and barragon, broad-raced linen thicksets and tufts, with
whitened diapers, dimities, and jeans. At an after period,
another style of goods became popular under the more
appropriate titles of cotton thicksets, goods figured in the
loom or draw-boys (named from the draw-boys by whose
assistance they were woven), cottons, velvets, quiltings,
velveteens, strong or fancy cords, and counterpanes. This
business derived its raw material chiefly from the Levant
and from Ireland; the former supplying cotton and also
some cotton yarn for wefts, the latter linen yarn for warps.
In the early part of the eighteenth century, Dr. Stukely
describes the trade of Manchester as incredibly large, con-
sisting greatly in fustians, girth-webs, tuckings, tapes, &c.,
which were dispersed all over the kingdom and to foreign
parts.*
The imports of cotton wool from the end of the seventeenth
century to the middle of the eighteenth seem, however, to
have remained in a stationary condition. In fact, the
quantity was only 24,000 or 25,000 pounds less than
2,000,000 in each of the years 1697, 1701, and 1720. But
in 1730 it had fallen down to little more than 1,500,000,
and in 1740 it was only one million and two-thirds. In
1750 it rose to about 3,000,000, and in 1764 it amounted to
nearly 4,000,000, betokening the auspicious noon-day of the
cotton-trade of England. The importation of cotton wool
was greatly kept in check by the large importation of East
Indian cotton goods, which continued with fluctuations.
during the whole of the eighteenth century, with the ex-
ception of a short period towards its close, after the applica-
tion of the machinery of Arkwright to spin warp, and that of
Crompton to spin weft for muslin yarn in general.f
Since the average annual import of cotton wool was con-
siderably under 2,000,000 pounds during the first half of
that century, and since a good deal of it was spun into
candlewicks, the spinning of cotton yarn would seem to have
* Itinerarium Curiosum.
† See Note B at the end of the volume.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
223
remained almost stationary during that long period, in con-
sequence of the quantities of Indian yarn sold by the East
India Company and of cottons introduced by contraband.
It is not, however, fair to place to the credit of cotton
alone the main value of the fustians, and the other so called
cotton-stuffs then manufactured in Lancashire, since the
warp, which is the more valuable portion of the web, was
always made of linen yarn. The cotton business, therefore,
of Manchester, till Arkwright furnished it with cotton water-
twist for warp, in lieu of linen-yarn, was a mongrel manu-
facture, and should hardly be admitted to form an integral
part of a history of the cotton trade; because any value
assigned to it is chiefly due to the flax constituent. The
cotton weft was undoubtedly a yarn of a most irregular and
indifferent quality, as we may infer from the urgency with
which it was sought after, and the avidity with which it was
bought up by the weavers from spinsters of every degree of
skill.
Of the coarse quality of British cotton goods we have a
remarkable evidence even so late as 1775, in a proposal
then made in Scotland to enact a sumptuary law, or, failing
that sapient scheme, to establish in Edinburgh a patriotic
association, for the purpose of discouraging the ladies from
wearing the cotton robes of India. "While the industrious
inhabitants of Glasgow and Paisley were lately exerting
themselves to improve, bring to perfection, and extend the
manufactures of cambric and lawn (flax fabrics), the greater
part of the women in Scotland were wearing muslin, a fabric
of India; nay, so great is the influence of fashion, that the
very wives and daughters of these men were wearing this
exotic themselves. Surely we are void of thought!!!"*
To counteract this absurdity in the Scottish ladies of wear-
ing these foreign robes, because they were cheaper, more
durable, and more becoming than their country-peoples'
webs, a national society was proposed to be founded for
shaming down these anti-patriotic habits in the ladies, and
for blackballing all the gentlemen who should continue to
keep company with the refractory fair in muslin raiment.
The first cotton goods of English make in which the warp

* Gibson's History of Glasgow, p. 253.
224
EARLY HISTORY OF
was cotton were manufactured at Derby, in 1773, by Messrs.
Strutt and Need, the partners of Arkwright, with some of his
peculiar water-twist yarn. But, after they had caused a
considerable quantity of these genuine British calicoes to be
woven, they discovered that an existing law, for the en-
couragement of the arts, imposed on such goods when printed
double the duty of that chargeable upon mixed fabrics of
linen and cotton. The same sapient law prohibited the sale
of these home-made calicces in the home market.
It required a long and expensive application to the Legis-
lature to procure the repeal of these preposterous enactments.
Such a composite web as that required by law could not take
an uniform tint, on account of the unequal affinities which
linen and cotton have for mordants and colouring matters,
and therefore should never have been favoured with that
impolitic preference, which undoubtedly obstructed the im-
provement of calico printing. It was probably meant to
prevent the printing of Indian white goods for home con-
sumption.
The following account of this Repeal Act, the 14 Geo. III.
c. 72, will sound a little comical to English ears at the
present day. "Whereas a new manufacture of stuffs made
entirely of cotton spun in this kingdom has been lately intro-
duced, and some doubts were expressed whether it was lawful
to use it, it was declared by Parliament to be not only a
lawful, but a laudable manufacture, and therefore permitted
to be used, on paying 3d. a square yard, when printed,
painted, or stained with colour."
While cottons remained a mixed fabric, the manufacture
was altogether a domestic concern in this country, analogous
to that of India. The workshop of the weaver was a rural
cottage, from which when he was tired of sedentary labour
he could sally forth into his little garden, and with the spade
or the hoe tend its culinary productions. The cotton wool
which was to form his weft was picked clean by the fingers
of his younger children, and was carded and spun by the
older girls assisted by his wife, and the yarn was woven by
himself assisted by his sons. When he could not procure
within his family a supply of yarn adequate to the demands
of his loom, he had recourse to the spinsters of his neigh-
bourhood. One good weaver could keep three active women
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
225
at work upon the wheel spinning weft. It was found more
easy to multiply weavers than spinsters, and hence loomis
were often at a stand for want of yarn.
These country weavers were sometimes put to great straits
in fulfilling their contracts with the manufacturers of Bolton
or Manchester, as they were usually bound under a penalty
to return cloth by a stated day, commensurate with the web
of linen warp which they had received. Things had con-
tinued to jog on in this precarious state for probably a
century, with very little increase or amelioration of the
processes, till about the year 1760. Then new marts of
profitable export having presented themselves in Germany,
Italy, and the North American colonies, the merchants
became impatient of the delays and uncertainties in getting
their orders executed. They saw and keenly felt that the
only obstacle was the deficient supply of cotton weft, and
they urged their weavers to greater diligence in pushing its
production. At this time, says Mr. Guest, a weaver was
under the necessity frequently of trudging three or four miles
in a morning, and visiting many spinners before he could
collect weft enough to keep his loom going during the
rest of the day; and such was the competition he met with
from other weavers engaged in the same errand, that he was
often obliged to treat the females with presents in order to
quicken their diligence at the wheel.
A grand crisis evidently now impended over the cotton
trade of Lancashire, and had it not been soon met by effectual
means of multiplying the production of yarn, this district
would probably have missed that tide in its affairs, "which,
taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;" for, had the demand
not found a ready supply in the customary course of trade,
it would have sought out new channels in other directions,
and undoubtedly have caused the domestic manufacture of
cottons to take root in many other countries, to the great
diminution, if not extinction, of the export cotton trade of
England. A mighty fermentation seems, in consequence, to
have taken place at that time all over Lancashire, where the
excitement was chiefly applied, where the prospects of gain
were most alluring, where the habits of this in-door occupa-
tion were most matured, and where the native spring of the
mind had been long intensely bent upon it. Accordingly, a
226
EARLY HISTORY OF
great many projects were devised to remove this grand bar-
rier to fortune, most of them being modifications of the
domestic spinning-wheel.
Two kinds of household wheels have been used by spinsters,
probably from time immemorial; the first is commonly called
in this country the big wheel, from the magnitude of its rim,
or the wool-wheel, from its being employed in the spinning
of sheep's wool; it is represented in fig. 13. It was equally
well adapted to spin cotton, from the analogous form of its

LA
سفامد
་་་་
B
--
Fig. 13.--The Jersey Wheel, used for spinning cotton and wool in the olden domestic
economy of this country. It is probably of Indian origin-see fig. 14 A and B are
the hand-cards and bobbins of rovings.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
227
filaments, which it did at two independent operations. At
the first, the spongy cylinder turned off from the hand-card
was drawn out and slightly twisted into a porous cord, called
a roving; at the second, this cord was stretched and twisted
into a fine cohesive thread; in either case the spinster, hav-
ing fixed round the spindle the extremity of the carding or
roving, seized it a few inches from the end with the finger and
thumb of the left hand, and while she turned round the wheel
with the right, so as to make the spindle revolve, she pro-
gressively extended the cotton cord by drawing her hand
from near the spindle to the position in which it is placed in
fig. 13. She now completed the torsion by turning the wheel
till the thread had acquired the desired degree of twist, and
then, by a slow counter-rotation of the wheel, and proper
giving-in of the left hand, she wound up the thread upon the

Fig. 14.—A Hindoo Woman spinning cotton yarn on the primitive wheel of India.
spindle into a conical shape, called a pirn or a cop. This is
the ancient spinning implement of Hindostan. The first
mechanical invention regularly employed with profit upon a
manufacturing scale for spinning cotton in England was con-
structed upon this principle; several spindles, at first eight,
228
EARLY HISTORY OF
aft erwards eighty, being made to whirl by one fly-wheel,
while a movable frame, representing so many fingers and
thumbs as there were threads, alternately receded from the
spindles during the extension of the thread, and approached
to them in its winding-on.
This multiplying wheel, called a spinning jenny, was in-
vented by James Hargreaves, about the year 1764, at Stand-
hill, near Blackburn, in Lancashire. He was by trade a
weaver, and, being aware of the jealousy and ill-will likely
to be directed against the author of any mechanical substitute
for hand-labour by his narrow-minded neighbours, he worked
in secret, without the aid of any capitalist, under the disadvan-
tages of poverty, and a family of seven children. Before the
year 1768 he had, however, mounted and sold several of his
jennies. The spindle in the spinster's wheel was always
horizontal, but the spindles in Hargreaves' machine were
upright, or very slightly inclined from the perpendicular,—
a position in fact essential to its due operation, one which
was suggested to him, it is said, by observing a common wheel
continue to revolve after it was accidentally thrown down on
the floor with its spindle turned up.
Hargreaves contented himself, for some time after making
the jenny, with spinning weft, with the assistance of his wife
and children, for supplying his own loom, according to the
custom of the weavers of that period, who received their warp
from the wholesale manufacturers. The secret at length
transpired, through an indiscretion of female vanity, and ex-
cited such a tumult among the spinsters, and their partisans
of the neighbourhood, that they broke into his house in a
riotous manner, and destroyed the hated rival of their fingers.
Finding the fruit of his ingenuity, toils, and privations blasted,
and his further prosecution of the plan impossible amidst an
enraged populace, who even threatened his life, he migrated
to Nottingham in 1768, where he found in Mr. Thomas
James, a joiner, a partner willing and able to assist him in
erecting a small spinning-mill upon the jenny plan. For this
invention he obtained a patent in the year 1770, under the
following title: "For a method of making a wheel or engine
of an entire new construction, and never before made use of,
in order for spinning, drawing, and twisting of cotton, and
to be managed by one person only, and that the wheel or
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
229
engine will spin, draw, and twist sixteen or more threads at
one time, by a turn or motion of one hand, and a draw of the
other." "One person," says he in the specification, "with
his or her right hand turns the wheel, and with the left hand
takes hold of the clasps, and therewith draws out the cotton
from the slubbing (roving) box, and, being twisted by the
turn of the wheel in the drawing out, then a piece of wood is
lifted up by the toe, which lets down a presser wire, so as to
press the threads so drawn out and twisted, in order to wind
or put the same regularly upon bobbins which are placed
upon the spindles."
Unfortunately for this inventor he had, under the pressure
of poverty, mounted and sold several jennies before the date
of his patent, so that when they were beginning to be rightly
appreciated, and were promising to procure him a recompense
somewhat proportioned to his deserts, he found, while his
invention was extensively pirated by the manufacturers of
Lancashire, that it could not be sustained in a court of law.
In an evil hour also he refused to accept the sum of £3000
which the delegates of these manufacturers tendered to him for
permission to use his machine; he demanded a somewhat larger
sum, which was refused, and eventually he got nothing, his
attorney having abandoned the prosecution from a conviction.
that a favourable judgment would not be obtained in a court
of law. Hargreaves died in 1778, a few years after this dis-
appointment, but he did not fall a victim to poverty, as some
have erroneously stated. The spinning factory of which he
was a partner went on tolerably well, and enabled its author
to live in humble comfort at least, and to leave a decent provi-
sion for his widow and children.
The jenny received some slight improvements, first from
Hargreaves, and afterwards from other mechanicians; but, in
fact, it is too simple a scheme of spinning to afford much
scope for modifications. Crompton, the celebrated inventor
of the mule, learned to spin upon one of the original jennies
so early as the year 1769. The following figure and de-
scription will explain the construction of the jenny in its best
state, and show that it is merely a many-spindled wheel upon
the ancient wool-spinning principle, in which a definite
length of roving is let out and extended during the revolution
of the spindle, to which its end has been previously attached,
230
EARLY HISTORY OF
The spindles are seen to be arranged at one end of the
frame, and the clasp or clove which holds the rovings, and
which is equivalent to the left hands of several spinsters, is
mounted upon a carriage, which moves backwards and for-
wards on a railway, to represent the backward and forward
motions of the left arms of these spinsters.
The steel spindles, 3, 3, 3, stand upright, about three inches
apart, at one end, A A, of the machine. Their lower ends
are pointed and turn in hard brass steps fixed in a cross rail
of the frame, and are supported near the middle of their
height by passing through brass collars in another horizontal
rail; a small pulley, called a whorl, whirl, or wharf, is fixed
on each spindle near its bottom, to receive an endless cord,
which passes round the horizontal cylinder or oblong drum,
2, of about six inches diameter; this drum is made of tin
plate for lightness' sake, is supported by pivots at its ends in
the sides of the frame, and lies parallel to the row of spindles,
so as to turn them all round together by transmitting a small
band about each whorl. The drum is driven by a band, 1, 1,
which passes round a pulley upon its end, and also round the
great wheel B B, fixed by means of a framing attached to the
ceiling of the apartment. The wheel B is turned by applying
the right hand of the spinner to the winch B, just as in the
household wool-wheel, fig. 13.
In front of the spindles, and about a foot higher than their
tips, a long horizontal cross rail, 16, is shown, supported at
each of its ends in the wooden blocks, c, c, resting on friction
wheels to run on the railway, so that the rail or carriage, 16,
can move horizontally forwards and backwards through a
space of five, six, or seven feet, without deviating in the least
to the right or left, and therefore with a precision surpassing
that of the hand-spinster's left arm. The under side of the
cross bar or rail, 16, is notched to let the rovings pass through,
which notches may be partially filled by projecting pieces
upon the lower bar of the clasp, when this is raised to pinch
the rovings preparatory to their elongation into threads.
When the lower bar or jaw is let down the roving cord can
pass freely through the notches. The rising and falling of
the under rail is effected by small cords attached to it at every
yard of its length, which pass over small pulleys sunk into
the substance of the upper bar, 16, and run to a handle placed
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
231

A
11
7
B
12
over the middle of that bar, and beneath an arched bar
fastened to the top of the clasp. The spinner holds this
handle in his left hand, while with the right he turns the
wheel, and with the fingers of the left hand he can lift the
lower rail, 5, of the clasp, and draw it close to the upper one,
where it is kept by a spring catch; when this catch is pushed
3
2
4
B
Fig. 15.—Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny in its most improved form.
232
EARLY HISTORY OF
!
back, the lower rail falls by its own weight, and releasing the
rovings, lets the proper length of them easily pass through
for another draught of yarn.
The cops or bobbins of rovings to be spun are supported in
the inclined frame 4, 4; they are mounted upon iron wires or
skewers in two rows, one above the other, the number of cops
in each row corresponding to half the number of spindles.
The spun threads are guided by the wire 12, when they
are to be wound upon the spindles. This wire is attached to
a horizontal rail, which turns at its two ends on pivots close
to the row of the spindles, and it may be lowered so as to
depress the thread to any level at the pleasure of the spinner
by his pulling the cord 7, and turning round the pulley 11,
which depresses the wire 12.
The jenny is worked by one person, male or female, who
stands within the frame, and turns the wheel B with the right
hand, whilst he holds the clasp in the left, so as to be able
to run it backwards and forwards along its railway at plea-
sure. The rovings are drawn through between the bars or
jaws of the clasp 16 and 5, the end of each being attached to
its particular spindle. The clasp being open, its carriage is
drawn backwards from the spindles till the requisite length
of rovings has run freely through or be given out (as it was
anciently between the finger and thumbs), by being uncoiled
from the balls or bobbins at 4. This length is regulated by
a mark made on the frame of the machine, to indicate when
the clasp carriage has arrived at its proper position; the
jaws of the clasp are then made to close by raising the
handle under the catch as above described, so as to pinch all
the rovings. The spindles are now caused to revolve rapidly
by turning the wheel B, at the same time that the carriage is
drawn regularly backwards from them; thus twisting and
extension go on simultaneously and in any proportion to
each other, according to the relative actions of the right and
left hands of the spinners: when the threads have gained
their utmost length they receive a finishing twist to strengthen
them, especially for warp yarns. In order to wind up these
threads they are pushed down upon their respective spindles
by depressing the faller wire 12, during which movement
the wheel B is made to revolve slowly, in order to wind the
thread regularly upon the spindles, in proportion as the

THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
233
•
clasp-carriage is moved towards them; as soon as the
carriage has got home one series of threads is finished, and
another series is begun by an operation similar to the pre-
ceding.
"The wooden or tin roller or drum 2, and the vertical
wheel B, were not," says Mr. Kennedy, "of Hargreaves' in-
vention, but were introduced into the jenny by one Haley,
of Houghton Tower, a few years after the invention had been
made.'
In Hargreaves' original jenny-frame the presser wire which
distributes the yarn over the spindle into a shapely cop was
connected by a cord going over a pulley to a piece of wood,
which was lifted up by the toe of the spinner in the act of
winding on the threads.
This implement may be considered as having still a do-
mestic character, and was in fact speedily spread as such
through the houses of a great many weavers in Lancashire,
supplying the long-felt deficiency of spinning hands; as a
woman could with it easily spin as much as sixteen, twenty,
or thirty persons with the one-thread wheel. It therefore
gave a fresh impulse to the old Manchester fabrics of fus-
tians, &c., with linen warp, for the yarn which it furnished,
though somewhat more evenly, was of the usual weft quality.
It was round about Blackburn, the inventor's place of resi-
dence, that the jennies were most rapidly multiplied, not
altogether by his own hands, but by surreptitious imitations;
which were very easy for any clever carpenter or wheel-
wright to make, on account of their great simplicity and
analogy to the ancient spinning-wheel.
The memory of
Hargreaves deserves to be honoured for his multiple hand-
wheel, though it realized nothing new in the principle of
spinning itself.
In my late tour in Alsace, one of the most eminent and
intelligent cotton-spinners of that district informed me, that
he had heard that a machine called the jeannette, which spun
a number of threads at once, had existed for a very long
time among the country-people in the Lyonnois and Picardy
districts. I was hence for some time under an impression
that the jenny was an old French invention, of which Har-
greaves had got some obscure intimation: but this supposi-
tion I now believe to be entirely groundless; for, in the
VOL. I.
Q
234
EARLY HISTORY OF

Fig. 16.-The Domestic Flax Wheel, an old German invention, commonly called the
Saxony or Leipzig Wheel. In some instances two spindles were attached to the
same wheel, enabling the spinner to form a thread with each hand.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
235
great French Encyclopédie, article Coton, published in 1754,
there is not the slightest allusion to any such machine for
multiplying production, in an elaborate article on cotton-
spinning by M. Joret, of Rouen, a gentleman well acquainted
with the cotton trade, who, in consequence of producing
muslins rivalling those of India, was distinguished by the
protection of the minister Turgot. M. Joret treats at great
length of the single-thread housewife wheel, or rouet, but of
nothing else. The word jeannette, may be therefore regarded
as a translation of the English jenny-wheel.
The flax-wheel, sometimes called the little wheel, in con-
tradistinction to that for spinning wool, requires for the
formation of its thread a different manipulation, in which
the forefingers and thumbs of both hands are from time to
time employed, those of the left hand holding a parcel of the
filaments, while those of the right draw them out, and equal-
ize their attenuation. The twisting of the thread, and its
winding on the bobbin, proceed simultaneously, at an unin-
terrupted pace, by a very ingenious mechanism, which is
shown in figure 17.

h
g
P
h
L
Fig. 17.-Spindle, with flyer and bobbin, of the Household Flax Wheel.
There are two small heck and bobbin parts to be consi-
dered here: the spindle b a, with its whorl p, and forked
flyer g k f, which moves at one velocity; and the bobbin h,
with its whorl q, which moves at a greater velocity. The
whorl q, and the bobbin h, are made of wood in one piece;
and they are tubular, so as to revolve easily round the spindle
ba, as an axis. The fly-wheel, which is made to revolve,
236
EARLY HISTORY OF
like the foot lathe, by a pedal and connecting rod and crank,
has two grooves in its circumference for the reception of two
endless cords. One of these goes round the whorl p of the
spindle, and the other round the whorl g of the bobbin. If
the whorl q be smaller by one-fourth than the whorl P, it
will make five revolutions in the same time that p makes four
by the action of the fly-wheel bands. The axis or spindle
a b, is of iron or steel, and is tubular at the end b, having a
small orifice in the side at i, to permit the spinning thread to
pass, in its way to be wound up, by going over a tooth of the
flyer's heck at k, and another at g, to regulate its distribution
round the bobbin. The effect of the apparatus may be easily
conceived. The rotation is imparted to the wheel by the
foot acting on the pedal, which leaves both hands of the
spinster free. The bands transmit the movement of the
wheel to the whorls p q, so as to make the flyer with its wire
teeth revolve, round one of which the thread g passes. By
the rotation of the axis a b, the thread, b c, is twisted as it
is drawn out from the distaff or rock by the spinster's hands.
In proportion as the thread is thus extended and twisted, it
gets also wound upon the bobbin, because the bobbin-whorl
revolves faster than the spindle-pulley p. Every turn of the
fly-wheel in fact corresponds to about six turns of the whorl
p, and to eight turns of the whorl q. The tension is pro-
duced by the rotation of the axis or spindle a, b, and the
winding upon the bobbin by the difference between its velo-
city and that of the spindle. When the thread has been
wound for some time upon the bobbin opposite to the point
g, it is shifted to another hook or tooth on the flyer, so as to
distribute it evenly along the whole barrel. When the
bobbin is filled, it is replaced by an empty one.
fingers of the two hands are employed principally to equal-
ize the distribution of the filaments, and to remove entangle-
ments; while those of the hand next to the spindle at b, by
holding the thread in some measure against the traction of
the winding-bobbin, serve to stretch and attenuate it to the
requisite degree. The skill of the spinster is estimated by
the uniformity, strength, and fineness of the thread.
The
It is by a process similar to the above, in which textile fila-
ments are equally extended and twisted by almost impercep-
tible gradations, that good thread can be formed; but to
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
237
represent or realize these actions of tact and intelligence by
machinery secms at first sight an impossible problem.
Inventions in the useful arts commonly spring from neces-
sity, and advance by slow degrees from rudeness to refine-
ment. Attempts have been recently made to prove that
machine-spinning is an exception to this general conviction
of mankind, that it was invented by an individual remote
from the bustle of textile industry, and by him produced at
once in a state of relative perfection. Mr. Guest, in his
indefatigable zoal to pluck the laurels of fame from Ark-
wright's brow, has brought to the day an apparently startling
document, long buried among the musty archives of Chancery.
This is a patent for spinning wool and cotton by rollers, obtained
in the year 1738 by Lewis Paul, of Birmingham. This in-
vention, however, appears from other evidence to belong
principally to Mr. John Wyatt, an ingenious gentleman then
residing in the same town. The following is the essential
part of the specification :
"The wool or cotton being thus prepared (by carding into
slivers), one end of the mass, rope, thread, or sliver, is put
betwixt a pair of rowlers, cillinders, or cones, or some such
movements, which being twined round by their motion, draws
in the raw mass of wool or cotton to be spun in proportion to
the velocity given to such rowlers, cillinders, or cones. As the
prepared mass passes regularly through or betwixt these row-
lers, cillinders, or cones, a succession of other rowlers, cillin-
ders, or cones, moving proportionably faster than the first,
draw the rope, thread, or sliver, into any degree of fineness
which may be required. Sometimes these successive rowlers,
cillinders, or cones (but not the first), have another rotation
besides that which diminishes the thread, yarn, or worsted,
viz., that they give it a small degree of twist betwixt each
pair, by means of the thread itself passing through the axis
and center of that rotation. In some other cases only the
first pair of rowlers, cillinders, or cones, are used, and then
the bobbyn, spole, or quill, upon which the thread, yarn, or
worsted is spun, is so contrived as to draw faster than the
first rowlers, cillinders, or cones give, and in such proportion
as the first mass, rope, or sliver is proposed to be diminished."
The action of rollers in laminating, drawing, and attenuat-
ing metallic bars, rods, and plates, has long constituted a
1
238
EARLY HISTORY OF
leading feature in the workshops of Birmingham, and ob-
viously suggested the plan described in the above specifica-
tion,--a plan altogether fantastic, absurd, and unmanageable
for the spinning of wool, cotton, or any other textile filaments.
"The soft cord or sliver, after escaping from betwixt the first
pair of rowlers, passes through a succession of other rowlers
moving proportionably faster, so as to draw the rope into any
degree of fineness." This succession implies clearly a series of
several pairs of rollers-a complexity of construction and
movement which never existed but in the brain of the patentee,
impracticable with his means, and utterly destructive to woolly
fibres had it been practicable. It will appear from subsequent
evidence that this succession of rollers moving with successive
velocities was merely a fine phrensy of imagination, and was
never carried into effect. But the next member of the de-
scription exceeds in absurdity anything to be found upon
the specification rolls,--being a self-evident impossibility.
"Sometimes these successive rowlers (not at first) have
another rotation besides that which diminishes the thread,
viz., that they give it a small degree of twist betwixt eaclı
pair by means of the thread itself passing through the axis
and centre of that rotation." As the thread was inevitably
pinched at two points, viz., between the first pair and last pair
of rollers, any twisting of its intermediate parts was manifestly
impossible. But we may ask any mechanic what rotation such
a roller could have, besides the rotation upon its axis, which
diminishes the thread; or how could the thread be made to
pass through the axis and centre of that rotation without being
instantly torn to atoms? The expression here used “be-
twixt each pair" insinuates the existence of several succes-
sive pairs of rollers, all endowed with these impossible
motions and functions; circumstances introduced either for
the purpose of mystifying common minds, or derived from
some vertiginous movements of the brain.
The last sentence, like the postscript of a lady's letter,
contains the whole substance of the invention ;- a pair of
flatting rollers prefixed to the spindle and bobbin of a spin-
ning-wheel; an ingenious fancy, no doubt, but not a mecha-
nism capable, under any modification, of converting a carded
sliver of wool or cotton into tolerably good yarn. Mr. Ken-
nedy, a great authority among cotton-spinners, pronounced
:
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
239
the following opinion upon a sample which had been spun by
Mr. Wyatt's roller machine.
"From examining the yarn I
think it could not be said by competent judges that it was
spun by a similar machine to that of Mr. Arkwright; for the
fabric or thread is very different from the carly production of
Mr. Arkwright, and is, I think, evidently spun by a different
machine, the ingenuity of which we cannot appreciate, as the
model mentioned in the paper alluded to is unfortunately
lost.'
**
Any one may readily conceive that yarn spun by the
simultaneous drawing and twisting of a sliver delivered in a
thick mass by one pair of rollers could not be level, but
lumpy, very different from, and very inferior to, yarn spun by
the twisting and drawing of an evenly-attenuated fine-roving
of parallel filaments.
The specimen on which Mr. Kennedy gave judgment had
been spun on the spinning-engine without hands," of Mr.
Wyatt, about the year 1741; the engine being turned by two
(or more) asses, walking round an axis in a large warehouse,
near the well in the Upper Priory, at Birmingham.
From a manuscript journal of Mr. John Wyatt, obtained by
Mr. Kennedy from the son of the ingenious and unfortunate
patentee of the above engine, it appears that a spinning fac-
tory upon his plan had been established at Northampton
about the same time, of which Mr. Cave, editor of the
Gentleman's Magazine, so well known by Dr. Johnson's
eulogy of his benevolence, was the proprietor. This factory
consisted of several spinning-frames, containing altogether
250 spindles and bobbins, each of which was moved by a
separate wheel and pinion, the one having sixty-four teeth
and the other sixty-five, on purpose, no doubt, to cause the
winding-on motion by the difference in velocity of the
spindle and bobbin,-the whole being driven by a water-
wheel.
Mr. Wyatt seems to have spent much of his time in Lon-
don, inquiring into the prices of yarns, leaving the factory
at Birmingham to be managed by Paul. He visited Mr.
Cave's factory at Northampton in October, 1743, and wrote a
* On the Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade, in the Memoirs of.
the Manchester Society. 2nd Serics, vol. iii., p. 137.
240
EARLY HISTORY OF
number of remarks upon it, most probably for the informa-
tion of that gentleman. Among others, he states that the
agent, his wife, and two other women to assist him, received
altogether a salary of £88 per annum,-a sum which would
seem to imply superior merit in the agent, especially when it
is compared with the wages of the other workpeople: for
fifty carders, spinners, and supernumerary girls in the work,
received for one week's wages £3, being only about is. 2d.
apiece.
An interesting notice of Mr. Wyatt's contrivances for
spinning cotton was published by his son, Mr. Charles Wyatt,
in the Repertory of Arts, Manufactures, and Agriculture, for
January, 1818, of which his brother, Mr. John Wyatt, was
then editor. The following extracts contain the substance of
the communication.
"In the year 1730, or thereabouts, living then at a village
near Litchfield, our respected father first conceived the pro-
ject, and carried it into effect; and in the year 1733, by a
model of about two feet square, in a small building near Sutton
Coldfield, without a single witness to the performance, was
spun the first thread of cotton ever produced without the in-
tervention of the human fingers, he, the inventor, to use his
own words, being all the time in a pleasing, but trembling sus-
pense.' The wool had been carded in the common way, and
was passed between two cylinders, from whence the bobbin drew
it by means of the twist.
"This successful experiment induced him to seek for a
pecuniary connexion equal to the views that the project
excited, and one appeared to present itself with a Mr. Lewis
Paul, which terminated unhappily for the projector; for
Paul, a foreigner, poor and enterprising, made offers and bar-
gains which he never fulfilled, and contrived, in the year 1738,
to have a patent taken out in his own name for some addi-
tional apparatus, a copy of which I send you; and in 1741,
or 1742, a mill turned by two asses walking round an axis
was erected in Birmingham, and ten girls were employed in
attending the work. Two hanks of the cotton then and there
spun are now in my possession, accompanied with the in-
ventor's testimony of the performance. Drawings of the
machinery were sent, or appear to have been sent, to Mr.
Cave, for insertion in the Gentleman's Magazine.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
241
"This establishment, unsupported by sufficient property,
languished a short time, and then expired; the supplies were
exhausted, and the inventor much injured by the experiment,
but his confidence in the scheme was unimpaired. The
machinery was sold in 1743. A work upon a larger scale,
on a stream of water, was established at Northampton, under
the direction of a Mr. Yeomen, but with the property of Mr.
Cave. The work contained 250 spindles, and employed fifty
pairs of hands. The inventor soon after examined the state
of the undertaking, and found great deficiency and neglect in
the management. At that time they had spun about 3,300
lbs. of cotton. On the observations which he then made he
composed what he entitled A Systematic Essay on the Busi-
ness of Spinning, which exhibits a clear view of the mechani-
cal considerations on which an undertaking of that nature, of
whatever magnitude, must be established, and apparently
confines his humble pretensions to the profits on 300 spindles.
It was not within human foresight to calculate the richness
of the harvest to come from this little germ.
"This brings me to the conclusion of our father's con-
nexion with the spinning business.
"The work at Northampton did not prosper. It passed,
I believe, into the possession of a Mr. Yeo, a gentleman of
the law, in London, about the year 1764, and from a strange
coincidence of circumstances, there is the highest probability
that the machinery got into the hands of a person who, with
the assistance of others, knowing how to apply it with skill
and judgment, and to supply what might be deficient, raised
upon it, by a gradual accession of profit, an immense esta-
blishment, and a princely fortune.
"In the year 1739, my father writes to one of his friends,
' that by this method,' some new thought, 'the wool need be no
more carded than to break the knots or mix it well, as with
scribbles or stock cards, and being thus mixed and pressed down
hard into a box, it may without any human touch be picked out
almost hair by hair, and made into yarn.'
"In 1748 Mr. Paul procured another patent, the title of
which was for carding of wool and cotton;' but whether this
was combined with the machinery then at Northampton, or
where it was introduced, I know not. Such, or nearly such,
being the early history of this invention, I thought the late
242
EARLY HISTORY OF
Sir Richard Arkwright would be gratified by possessing the
very model to which I have alluded, and I accordingly waited
on him at Cromford with the offer, but my reception did not
correspond with my expectations.
"To pretend, however, that the original machinery, with-
out addition or improvement, would alone have produced the
prodigious effects which we now behold, would be claiming
improbable merit for the inventor, and degrading the talents
and sagacity of his successors in the same field of enterprise,
for it cannot be denied that a great fund of ingenuity must
have been expended in bringing the spinning works to their
present degree of perfection. The number of spindles now
in use is supposed to exceed 5,000,000.
"If the author of the humble establishment at Birming-
ham gave birth to such a wonderful progeny, he ought at
least to be acknowledged as a benefactor to his country, and
recorded amongst the men who, from an attachment to the
science and practice of mechanics, open the paths of know-
ledge, and point out, but do not pursue, those which lead to
profit and prosperity.
"Connected with this subject I might with great propriety
point out many eminent services that he rendered the
public by his mechanical talents, but being mostly local, and
absorbed by subsequent productions, they have lost their
present intcrest.
"The machine, however, for weighing loaded carriages,
coal particularly, ought to be distinguished as one of known
and extensive utility. It was solely and exclusively his
own; he erected the first at Birmingham about 50 years ago,
and his own description of it is, That it would weigh a load
of coal or a pound of butter with equal facility, and nearly with
equal accuracy. The present makers admit that the prin-
ciple is incapable of improvement.
"The late Mr. Boulton, a man too eminent and too amiable
to be mentioned without esteem and regret, nor on my part
without affection, set a high value on my father's attainments
and virtues, for it was universally acknowledged that he had
the happiness to give a lustre and an interest to his genius
and his knowledge by the purest probity, the most unaffected
humility, urbanity, and benevolence. He was attended to the
grave in 1766 by Mr. Boulton, Mr. Baskerville, the celebrated
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
243
printer, (who, from the peculiarity of his notions, arrayed
himself on this occasion in a splendid suit of gold lace,) and
four other gentlemen of eminence in Birmingham."
This vindication of his father's fame, while it is highly
honourable to the heart of the writer, shows that the original
plan of Wyatt was to employ a pair of rollers for delivering,
at any desired speed, a sliver of cotton to the bobbin-and-fly
spindle, as in a flax-wheel. The nonsensical mystification of a
succession of other "rowlers," and another rotation besides that
which diminishes the thread, appears to have been introduced
into the patent of 1738 by Lewis Paul, and never existed nor
could exist in any machine.
The delivery-roller principle of Wyatt reappeared by itself
in Paul's second patent of 1758. "The several rowes cr
filaments so taken off (the flat cards) must be connected into
one entire roll, which being put between a pair of rollers or
cylinders, is by their turning round delivered to the nose of a
spindle, in such proportion to the thread made, as is proper
for the particular occasions. From hence it is delivered to a
bobbin, spole, or quill, which turns upon the spindle, and
which gathers up the thread or yarn as it is spun. The spindle
is so contrived as to draw faster than the rollers or cylinders
give, in proportion to the length of thread or yarn into which
the matter to be spun is proposed to be drawn."
This specification is identical with the concluding para-
graph of the former, and therefore afforded no valid claim to
new letters patent. In the first, the card-rolls were joined
together into a kind of rope of raw wool; in the second, the
several rows (of cardings) must be connected into one entire
roll. The two patents are therefore entirely the same. The
second is remarkable for the renunciation of the fantastic
whim of successive rollers with certain whirligig inexplicable
motions which cuts so conspicuous a figure in the first, and
which was put there, like the Martello towers on the Irish
coast, for the purpose of puzzling posterity. The equable
extension and attenuation of the thread by means of a pair
of feeding-rollers, a pair of carrying-rollers, and a pair
of drawing-rollers, cannot be traced in the preceding rude
scheme, and they constitute the very essence of roller-spin-
ning.
No wonder the work at Northampton did not prosper,
244
EARLY HISTORY OF
since Paul, with an experience of more than twenty years,
aided during a part of the time by the sagacity of Wyatt,
had never been able to spin with all his roller-apparatus a
single good thread. Had the yarn spun in the factory under
him or Mr. Yeo, from the year 1748 to 1764, been but tolo-
rable, it would have commanded a rapid sale, and secured to
them large profits.
The use of delivering-rollers as heretofore exhibited, so far
from helping an inventor into a right system of spinning,
would most probably mislead him, and induce him to try
various modifications of so plausible a scheme, instead of
abandoning it altogether. This was exactly the dilemma of
Paul, who appears from his carding patent of 1748 to have been
a man of much ingenuity, and a good practical mechanic. He
has an incontestable claim to the invention of the cylinder-
card, an engine which plays one of the most important
parts in a modern factory. Of this elegant contrivance some
particulars will be mentioned in treating of the preparation-
machines of a cotton-factory. If Mr. Charles Wyatt had
studied more deeply the principles of cotton spinning, he
would never have confounded a single pair of delivering-
rollers with a double or triple pair of drawing-rollers,
nor would he have felt surprise at his indifferent recep-
tion from Arkwright, when his errand was to tell the great
master-spinner of the age, that two things in his art so
essentially unlike were the same. Paul's carding invention,
in fact, however valuable in preparing cotton for a good sys-
tem of spinning, became nugatory to himself and his partners,
by being linked to his vicious roller plan, which rendered the
industry of his whole life unproductive, and plunged him, it is
believed, in eventual ruin.
The three patents of 1738, 1748, and 1758, appear to have
been much talked of at the time in the manufacturing
districts; both Wyatt and Paul having done what they could
to make them generally known, and to interest the world in
their behalf. In the years 1739, 1740, 1741, 1742, and 1743,
Mr. Wyatt was resident chiefly in London, visiting the
principal manufacturers of cotton goods, who then worked
up East India yarns, purchased at a high price; and he
endeavoured, but apparently without success, to dispose of
his machine-spun yarn to them. It is quite certain that if
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
245
its quality had been merely tolerable, it would have com-
manded a ready sale and a remunerating price. He also
paid a fruitless visit to Lancashire on the same errand. The
machine was so radically bad that its two schemers, after
working upon it the best part of their lives, from 1730 till
1764, let it drop into the hands of Mr. Yeo, a gentleman of
the law, in London, who became proprietor of Paul's water-
power spinning factory at Northampton, and who, finding it
a hopeless concern, caused it to be dismantled. The disas-
trous result of roller-spinning being thus universally pro-
mulgated, would naturally deter prudent men from attempting
to revive it. Supposing, therefore, that Arkwright, or any
other person had got possession of the whole of Paul's roller-
machines, could he have made more of it than the baffled
patentees had done? Indeed, the spinning project of Wyatt
and Paul, instead of being instrumental to the construction of
a rational roller system, must have proved the greatest
obstacle to its contrivance, and made it be looked upon by
men of business as a folly, with which it would be dangerous
to have anything to do.
The grand mechanical problem which the cotton manufacture
then offered to the solution of the ingenious may be stated as
follows: To construct a machine in which one member should
supply continuously and uniformly porous cords of parallel fila-
ments in minute portions; a second member should attenuate
these cords by drawing out their filaments alongside of each
other by an imperceptible gradation; a third member should at
once twist and extend these attenuated threads unremittingly
as they advance; and a fourth should wind them regularly
upon bobbins exactly in proportion as they are spun. When
contemplated a priori in its delicate requirements, this
problem must have appeared to be impracticable; a convic-
tion strengthened by the total failure of Wyatt and Paul to
produce good yarn, even at the highly remunerating price of
that time. Their rank in the history of roller-spinning may
be justly compared to that of the Marquis of Worcester in
the history of the steam-engine-they gave birth to an idea
which was quite erroneous for practical purposes, and which,
being pursued, did, and could, produce nothing but disappoint-
ment and ruin to its authors, a result most unpropitious to the
progress of invention in any line of industry.
246
EARLY HISTORY OF
That the roller-spinning scheme was
one of common
notoriety in Lancashire about the year 1765 appears from
the evidence of the clockmaker, Kay, on the trial of Ark-
wright's patent in the Court of King's Bench, on the 25th of
June, 1785. Kay lived at Warrington in 1767, when he first
became acquainted with Mr. Arkwright.
"of different
"We were talking," Arkwright and he,
things, and this thing came up of spinning by rollers. He
(Arkwright) said, that will never be brought to bear; several
gentlemen have almost broke themselves by it." The testi-
mony of this man must, no doubt, be taken with reserve, for
when Arkwright returned next morning to Kay, and asked him
(he says) if a roller-spinning model could be made at a small
expense? Yes," says I, "I believe I can. Says he, If you
will I will pay you. Thus, when Kay undertook this job
ઃઃ
ઃઃ
for Mr. Arkwright, he made no mention of Thomas Highs, to
whom, however, on the trial, in 1785, he ascribed the invention
of the plan of drawing-rollers. He merely said, “I and another
man have tried that method in Warrington." On the contrary,
it transpires from Kay, in the course of his examination by the
same lawyer, that he had assumed to himself the original
property of the drawing-roller invention, and no doubt
availed himself, as far as he could, of the credit of it, to raise
his reputation as a workman. When questioned, as follows,
by Mr. Lee, "You must know whether at that time (1775)
it was his own (Arkwright's) invention, or he had it of you,
he replied, "James Hargrave told me I should have lodged
a caveat."*
What inference can be drawn from this advice
of Hargrave, who, being a conscientious man, would not
recommend an act of knavery, than that Kay had represented
himself in the year 1775, after being long a working mechanic
in Arkwright's pay, as the real inventor of the drawing-rollers?
which his other testimony proves that he was not. Had the
leading lawyers of that day been as well versant in manu-
facturing subjects as they are now, the evidence of Kay would
have been entirely set aside. In fact, the above awkward ad-
mission, though quite fatal to his character for truth and fair
dealing, is in perfect keeping with the circumstances of his
*This passage of the examination is quoted by Mr. Guest, at p. 65
of his Compendious History of the Cotton Manufacture. 4to.
London, 1823.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
247
absconding from Arkwright's employment with a charge of
felony at his heels. Mr. Arkwright, amid the multiplicity of
his concerns, did not choose to prosecute the charge against the
miserable offender, who had fled to Ireland.
In the above-mentioned trial in the Court of King's Bench,
Thomas Highs, by trade a reed-maker, was brought forward to
prove that he was the real inventor of the drawing-roller plan of
spinning for which Arkwright had obtained a first patent in
1769, and a second patent, of a more complete and compre-
hensive nature, in 1775.
The testimony of Highs is extremely indistinct and con-
fused, very unlike that of a man who had invented a really
operative mechanism. He does not indeed pretend to have
ever made a machine capable of doing work, but merely
to have got Kay, the clockmaker, in 1767, to put together
a slight toy containing two pairs of smooth wooden rollers,
of which the one pair was to move five times quicker than the
other.
'Q. (Mr. Sergeant Bolton.) I will take him to the
rollers: you see one is fluted, the other covered with leather.
Was yours the same way?-A. Yes, mine was, two years
after (after 1767), but not then.
Q. Not at first ?—A. No.
Q. In 1769 yours were like it ?—A. They were; mine had
fluted work; fluted wood upon an iron axis; but the other
roller was the same, only it was covered with shoe-leather,
instead of that leather; I am informed it is such as they make
shoes of.
Q. Whom did you employ when you first conceived this
invention; whom did you employ to make it for you ?—A. I
employed one Kay, who came from Warrington.
Q. What trade was he?-A. He followed clockmaking at
that time. I employed him to make a small model with four
wheels of wood to show him the method it was to work in,
and desired him at the same time to make me brass wheels,
that would multiply it about five to one.
Q. Who made you the wheels ?—A. I made them myself."
When asked when and where he applied his rollers to
roving and spinning, he replied, "In the town of Leigh. I
did not follow this new manufacture; I was only improving
myself, as I had a large family at that time, and was
248
EARLY HISTORY OF ·
:
not able to follow it. I thought when I came a little abler,
when I should get a friend to assist me; being poor, and
having a large family; I was not willing anybody should steal
it from me."*
Highs shows himself here a sorry driveller, who had
neither appreciated, nor tried to mature, the plan of drawing-
rollers, supposing him to have schemed something of the
kind, and which after the general talk about roller-spinning
was a matter of no great merit. From anything which
appears, however, Arkwright may have invented the drawing-
rollers himself; for the testimony of Kay, a double-minded
man, in open hostility with his late master, cannot be
admitted to be of any weight. Highs swears, first, that the
multiplying wheels of his model were made by Kay, and in
a little after he swears they were made by himself. Surely a
person like Highs, so jealous of his little contrivances as to
lay them aside rather than perfect them for fear of their being
stolen from him, if he could have made those multiplying
brass wheels, never would have employed a clockmaker to
construct them for him, and more especially the wooden
rollers which were far more easily made. Kay says, he made
at the above period two roller models for Arkwright, the one
a fortnight after the other, the last of which Arkwright took
with him to Preston, the place of his residence.
Highs does not appear to have acted as the author of a
valuable machine for spinning, so much sought after then,
would have done; for in the year 1772, five years after his
pretended invention of drawing-rollers, he was occupied in
constructing an engine of a totally different description for a
gentleman in Manchester, and met Arkwright there in
a social manner at a tavern, without showing any symp-
toms of that indignation which an inventor would have
naturally displayed against the plunderer of his genius. He
told Arkwright, indeed, that he never would have had the
rollers but for him, but he does not appear to have either
thought, or done, anything more about them, in that most
stirring birthday of the cotton manufacture. Had he pos-
sessed such a high character for mechanical ingenuity in
Lancashire as has been affirmed by Mr. Gucst, surely he
* Guest's Compendious History, p. 57.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
249**
might easily have found capitalists willing and able to
patronize so useful an invention as that of spinning-rollers,
had it been at all in a feasible form.
The great achievement of manufacturing good yarn by
rollers was reserved for the sagacity and energy of Arkwright.
This illustrious individual, persecuted and calumniated as all
the signal benefactors of corrupt and invidious humanity
have been by contemporary rivals, was raised up by Pro-
vidence from an obscure rank in life, to vindicate the
natural equality of men. He was born at Preston, in Lanca-
shire, on the 23rd of December, 1732, the youngest of
thirteen children, and received a very imperfect education.
He was bred to the trade of a barber, which, being still incor-
porated with surgery in many towns, and deriving much
profitable employment from the making of wigs, then worn
by all people of condition, was no despicable vocation. Nor
was he a mean or commonplace practitioner of his art, for he
became skilled in a superior process for dyeing hair, still onc
of the nicest operations of chemistry. According to the
testimony of Mr. Richardson, hair-dresser of Leigh, the hair
furnished by Arkwright was esteemed the best in the coun-
In the purchase and sale of this valuable article he
had occasion to travel a great deal, and being of an inquisi-
tive mind became well acquainted with the necessities under
which the cotton trade then laboured from a precarious
supply of cotton-weft, and a total want of cotton-warp yarns.
He appears to have been curious in mechanical combinations,
and was, along with many other ingenious men in that dawn
of rational mechanics, intent upon the discovery of the per-
petual motion, for he employed the clockmaker Kay to
make some brass wheels subservient to that project. This
impossible problem, like that of the philosopher's stone, by
exercising invention in endless shapes, gave birth to many
discoveries. The evidence of his enemy Kay is conclusive
on this point. It is probable, however, that Arkwright, aware
of the importance of the spinning apparatus, which he was
then concocting, may have disguised the purpose of his
wheels under the name of a perpetual motion. Having
try.*
* Communicated to Mr. Guest by Mr. Richardson.
pendious History, p. 21.
VOL. I.
•
See Com-
R
250
EARLY HISTORY OF
realized the outline of his idea of drawing-rollers in a little
model, made by Kay in 1767, he applied immediately to Mr.
Atherton, a mechanist, then of Warrington and afterwards of
Liverpool, to assist him in mounting a working machine upon
the same plan. This gentleman declined taking any share
in so hazardous an enterprise, as roller-spinning was then
naturally held to be, after the failure of Wyatt and Paul, but
he sent him two workmen, a smith and a watch-tool maker, to
aid Kay in the construction of his apparatus.
"In this way
Mr. Arkwright's first engine, for which he afterwards took
out a patent, was made.”*
This straightforward expedition in constructing a com-
plex machine, affords unquestionably a conclusive proof that
Arkwright must have thoroughly matured his plan of a
drawing-roller frame before he ever called upon Kay, and
that he employed this workman partly on account of his
reputation as a clever clockmaker, but chiefly from his living.
at a distance from Bolton, where Arkwright resided, and
where he would not wish any hints of his project to tran-
spire.
The operative model being thus rapidly completed, the
vigorous mind of the inventor did not delay an instant to verify
its powers; but, repairing to Preston, his birthplace, he found
among the companions of his early life one ready to assist
him with heart and hand, Mr. John Smalley, a liquor-mer-
chant and painter. This friendly man procured the use of
the parlour of the house belonging to the Free Grammar
School of that town, in order that Arkwright might fit up
and work his spinning-frame. Being convinced by the trial,
of its utility, they resolved to get other machines constructed
on a still greater scale; but aware of the riots which had
recently occurred at Blackburn against the spinning-jenny,
the contemporaneous contrivance of James Hargreaves, they
resolved to abandon their native county, then under violent
fermentation.
The stocking frame of Lee had long afforded a method of
making silk and worsted stockings by mechanism, much
more beautiful and at a cheaper rate than the hand-knitter
could do. But the manufacture of cotton hosiery, though
* Aikin and Enfield's General Biography.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
251
highly prized, had hitherto languished for want of proper
yarn. Hargreaves, and especially Arkwright, saw in their
respective inventions, the means of supplying this much-
wanted article, and accordingly they both in succession
commenced their career in Nottingham, then, as still, the
head-quarters of the frame-work knitting trade. Messrs.
Smalley and Arkwright applied to the Messrs. Wright, the
eminent capitalists and bankers of that town, who readily
joined in the enterprise. After a little time, however, find-
ing that the results of the machinery were not so advantageous
or promising as they had expected, they took alarm, having
the disasters of Northampton before their eyes, and withdrew
from the concern. They introduced Arkwright in this new
dilemma to Mr. Samuel Need, a considerable manufacturing
hosier of Nottingham, who had for a partner that eminent
mechanician and excellent man Mr. Jedediah Strutt, of Derby,
the inventor of the only capital improvement ever made on
Lee's stocking frame, that for making ribbed stockings, still
named, from his place of residence, the Derby rib. Mr.
Strutt discerned at once the sound principles of Arkwright's
machine, and frankly declared his conviction that, with some
slight mechanical adjustments, it would spin excellent hosiery
yarn-the greatest desideratum in the cotton manufactures of
that day; since the common hand-wheel yarn, as well as the
jenny-yarn of Hargreaves, was too soft and loose for making
good stockings.
Being now associated with capitalists of probity and enter-
prise, Arkwright tasked his faculties of mind and body to their
utmost stretch to organize more completely the factory at
Nottingham, which, with the aid of Smalley and Messrs.
Wright, he had mounted so early as 1768, and driven by
horse-power. On the 3rd July, 1769, his first patent is
dated, a year ever memorable also in the annals of industry
for the patent invention of James Watt. In the following
year, 1770, he was joined by Messrs. Need and Strutt. In
1771, this admirable triumvirate selected an excellent factory
site at Cromford on the Derwent, where they erected the first
water-spinning-mill,-the nursing-place of the factory opu-
lence and power of Great Britain. Here still may be seen at
work the original frames of the inventor,-proofs demonstra-
tive, were any wanted by the candid philosopher, that Ark-
1
252
EARLY HISTORY OF
wright was no plagiarist of other men's ideas, since he had
then created a grand productive automaton, unlike everything.
else on the face of the earth. But many years of indefatiga-
ble labour passed over the inventor's head before the system
was completed to his mind,-scarcely a week being barren of
some valuable improvement. "About the years 1772 and
1773," says Mr. Guest, "his (Arkwright's) attempts at spin-
ning had excited considerable interest in Leigh from his
being so well known there, and it was common for the re-
spectable inhabitants of the place to go and view his engines
(at Cromford) and buy a dozen or two of pairs of stockings,
made of yarn spun by them. I have in my possession a pair
of stockings so bought at that period.'
""*
"It seems that he (Highs) and Arkwright happened to be
both in Manchester at that time (1772), and that one Mr. Roth-
well brought them into company together, in the parlour of a
public-house in that town, (Highs was then making an engine
for a gentleman in Manchester, for which he received a
premium,) and their conversation turned upon engines. He
deposes that he told Mr. Arkwright he had got his, the
witness's invention."+ "In 1770 or early in 1771, he
(Highs) removed from Leigh to Camp Street, Manchester,
where he constructed what may be termed a double jenny.
This had twenty-eight spindles on each side, which were
turned by a drum or roller placed in the centre. This ma-
chine was publicly worked in Manchester Exchange in 1772,
by his son Thomas Highs, then about ten years of age, and
the manufacturers on that occasion subscribed 200 guineas,
and presented them to Highs as a reward for his ingenuity."+
"In 1773, he removed to Bolton-le-Moors, where he resided
until 1776. In 1776, he returned to Manchester. In 1778
and 1779, he made machines at Kidderminster for various
manufacturers, among others, Messrs. Pardoe, Lea, and Co."§
Such is Mr. Guest's account of Highs, at the most critical
period of Arkwright's grand invention. If the drawing-
rollers patented by Arkwright, at first in 1769, and a second
time in 1775, for spinning cotton, had been the invention of
*The British Cotton Manufactures, by Richard Guest. Man-
chester, 1828, p. 15.
§ Ibid., p. 205.
† Ibid., p. 29.
‡ Ibid., p. 203.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
253
Highs, they never could have remained for one month in the
state of a monopoly, since Highs was in the very focus of the
cotton manufactures at Manchester, in high favour, and in
confidential relations with the leading manufacturers of that
district. The people of Leigh, on their return from their
visit of wonder at Cromford, would have all risen in arms
against the usurper of their townsman's invention, and have
interested the public in his behalf provided there had been
any good foundation for his claims. The spirited inhabitants
of Manchester would not have suffered the ingenious man to
whom they awarded so handsome a premium for doubling the
jenny, to be robbed of another invention of far greater import-
ance, nor would they have failed to place him at once in the
foreground of an attack upon Arkwright's patents. Priority
of invention is so much more definite a plea than obscurity
of description, in attacking a patent in a court of law, that if
Highs of Leigh, a well-known and much esteemed machinc
maker, in Manchester, had originally contrived a practicable.
set of drawing-rollers, he would have been able to exhibit
them to his friends and admirers, and to have strangled Ark-
wright's patent in the very birth.
Round every schemer "much embryo, much abortion lies.”
That Highs had entertained a vague notion of drawing out
cotton filaments by two pairs of rollers, one pair moving
faster than the other, is possible; but it is certain from the
above circumstances, that he had never realized it in any-
thing of a workable form. I conclude, therefore, that the
merit of a rational system of spinning and roving by rollers
is entirely due to Arkwright, and that but for his high
mental qualities, sagacity, decision, and his unwearied
activity, the water-twist frame, with its offspring the throstle
and mule, might not for ages have ennobled the industry of
England.
It appears from the testimony given by Kay at the trial in
1785, that after he entered into the service of Arkwright, he
left Warrington, and accompanied his master to Manchester,
where he was employed by him for thirteen weeks in making
a clock. Arkwright had occupied himself, we have seen,
with the problem of the perpetual motion, and had no doubt
studied with that view various kinds of clock movements.
With a mind full of the project of roller-spinning, imme-
254
EARLY HISTORY OF
diately after trying the model at Preston, would such a push-
ing man as Arkwright have employed his mechanic at high
wages for thirteen weeks, in making an ordinary clock? No,
surely. He must have had some peculiar scheme of wheel-
work for the measurement of time, which he set Kay to
work in realizing. After this experimental job was finished,
Kay did nothing more for Arkwright, till he joined him and
Smalley at Nottingham, for the purpose of co-operating in
their factory-spinning enterprise.
As Mr. Arkwright had thus evidently directed his attention
to clockmaking, and naturally enough supposed himself the
author of some improvements in that art, he chose to de-
signate himself clockmaker in the drawing-roller patent of
1769, a very pardonable assumption, since he might have
impaired his credit as the patentee of complex machinery, by
appearing under the designation of a handicraft which he
had now for ever renounced.
In the
The specification of this patent is remarkably perspicuous.
It mentions every essential element of a good water-twist or
throstle-spinning machine of the present day, and is there-
fore in perfect accordance with the fact already stated, that
some of the original spinning water-frames of Sir Richard
Arkwright, are still spinning good yarn at Cromford, the
wooden teeth of the wheels and pinions having ground them-
selves into the best shapes for diminishing friction.
preamble of the specification, dated 15th July, he truly says,
that he "had by great study and long application invented a
new piece of machinery, never before found out, practised, or
used, for the making of weft or yarn from cotton, flax, and
wool; which would be of great utility to a great many
manufacturers, as well as to his Majesty's subjects in general,
by employing a great number of poor people in working the
said machinery, and by making the said weft or yarn much
superior in quality to any heretofore manufactured or made."
To no patent ever granted by a sovereign could the above
enunciation be with so much propriety prefixed. The fol-
lowing are his figure and description.
"Now know ye that I, the said Richard Arkwright, do
hereby describe and ascertain the nature of my said in-
vention, and declare that the plan thereof drawn in the
margin of these presents is composed of the following par-
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
255

I
X
A
M
W
W
W
E
M
K
N
C
W
AV
Fig. 18.-Arkwright's original patent Water-frame Spinning Machine of 1769.
ticulars (that is to say). A, the cog wheel and shaft, which
receive their motion from a horse. B, the drum or wheel
which turns C, a belt of leather and gives motion to the
whole machine. D, a lead weight which keeps F, the small
drum steady to E, the forcing wheel. G, the shaft of wood
which gives motion to the wheel H, and continues it to I,
four pairs of rollers, (the forms of which are drawn in the
margin,) which act by tooth and pinion made of brass and
steel nuts fixed in two iron plates, K. That part of the
roller which the cotton runs through is covered with wood,
the top roller with leather, and the bottom one fluted, which
lets the cotton, &c., through it; by one pair of rollers:
moving quicker than the other draws it finer for twisting,
which is performed by the spindles T. K, the two iron
plates described above. L, four large bobbins with cotton
rovings on, conducted between rollers at the back. M, the...
256
EARLY HISTORY OF
four threads carried to the bobbins and spindles by four
small wires, fixed across the frame in the slip of wood V.
N, iron levers with small lead weights hanging to the rollers
by pulleys, which keep the rollers close to each other. O, a
cross piece of wood to which the levers are fixed. P, the
bobbins and spindles. Q, flyers made of wood, with small
wires on the sides which lead the thread to the bobbins. R,
small worsted bands put about the whirl of the bobbins, the
screwing of which tight or easy causes the bobbins to wind
up the thread faster or slower. S, the four whirls of the
spindles. T, the four spindles which run in iron plates.
V, explained in letter M. W, a wooden frame of the whole
machine."
There is no doubt that the above figure, as given in with
the specification in 1769, is an exact portraiture of the model
made at Warrington by the aid of Atherton's workmen,
which was set up and tried in the schoolmaster's parlour at
Preston ; and it is sufficient to convince any competent
judge of such matters, that the author of the machine was
a great master of the principles of mechanical combination,
or, to borrow an expression from phrenology, that he was
endowed in an eminent degree with the organ of con-
structiveness.
In December 1775, Mr. Arkwright obtained his second
patent, which embraced the whole train of operations in a
complete cotton-factory, admirably arranged in subordination
to each other, but somewhat enigmatically described, in order,
as the inventor afterwards said, to prevent such important dis-
coveries as he was conscious of promulgating, from being
pirated by foreigners. So few patents were sued for in those
days, and the laws relating to them were so little understood
by patentees, that a little mystification might be thought
perfectly fair and patriotic to secure the invention to one's
own countrymen. In this patent Arkwright was accused of
having specified, as his own, the contrivances of others; but
I conceive the charge has as little foundation as could be
found in almost any other specification of complex machinery,
were it canvassed with an equally censorious spirit as Ark-
wright's has been. This patent was for carding, drawing,
and roving machines to be used "in preparing silk, cotton,
flax, and wool for spinning." Had the inventor been under
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
257
the guidance of a judicious patent-agent, he would have been
able, with his own indisputable new combinations, to have
framed a patent perfectly tenable, and exempt from reason-
able challenge.
Sir Richard always acknowledged having received cylin-
der-cards from Northampton, of Paul's construction, where
they had been used for carding sheep's wool in a manufactory
of stuff hats. But they were very defective, and, indeed,
essentially different from the cards mounted at Cromford.*
As for the drawing machine, a most important element of a
spinning factory, it was entirely his own, and is clearly
contained in his first patent, being his roller-series without
the spindles and flyers. The roving apparatus as first in-
vented by him, was nothing else but a modification of the
first patent, in which he used larger drawing-rollers, and
substituted for the bobbin a tall revolving tin can or cylinder
into which the porous cord of cotton was laid in regular
coils by centrifugal force and gravity combined-See vol.
ii. pp. 46, 47.
The specification of 1775 very properly affirms, therefore,
that these new machines were constructed on easy and
simple principles, very different from any that had ever yet
been contrived.
Patentees are often injured by not defining strictly what
they peculiarly claim; and by implicitly following the usual
verbiage of specifications. Thus the phrases "first and sole
inventor thereof," and that "the same had never been
practised by any other person or persons whomsoever, to
the best of his knowledge and belief," are regularly repeated
in every specification, and must therefore be always liberally
and candidly interpreted. Arkwright was unquestionably the
first and sole inventor of the complete edifice in its improved
state, though certain materials in general use and appro-
priated to no person in particular might be worked up in it.
One of the most elegant mechanisms in a cotton-factory is
that of the crank and comb for stripping the thin fleece of
cotton from the doffer cylinder of the carding engine. Several
witnesses in the trial to reduce Arkwright's second patent,
swore that the above invention belonged to James Har-
* See vol. ii., pp. 23, 24.
258
EARLY HISTORY OF
'0
greaves, the author of the jenny. Even the widow and son
of this ingenious man gave evidence to that effect, and the
smith who made the crank and comb for Hargreaves con-
firmed it. Yet Mr. Baines, who had been so strongly biassed
against Sir R. Arkwright, as to adopt, in his octavo History
of Lancashire, Guest's apocryphal statement of Highs'
counter-claims as a true narrative of factory invention,
acknowledges that he has recently received decisive testi-
mony in Arkwright's favour as to the crank and comb, from
the son of Mr. James, the partner of Hargreaves.
"He (James Hargreaves) was not the inventor of the
crank and comb. We had a pattern chalked out upon a
table by one of the Lancashire men in the employ of Mr.
Arkwright; and I went to a frame-smith of the name of
Young, to have one made. Of this Mr. Arkwright was
continually complaining, and it occasioned some angry
feelings between the parties."*
Here is a confession from James, the very person who was
the chief accessory to the piracy of Arkwright. From this
specimen we may form a judgment of the rest of the evidence
vamped up at the trial against Arkwright. If any one will
candidly analyze his original model, he will see how natural
it was for him to advance in the straight road of improve-
ment to which the principles of his mechanism sponta-
neously led.
Arkwright had great reason to be disgusted with his
Lancashire compatriots, when he found them flocking to
him merely for the purpose of pilfering his plans, and
communicating them to his piratical competitors, who, if
left to their own resources, would never have made a single
hank of good yarn. It was in this way that many of his
most valuable contrivances, the fruits of much thought and
exertion, were snatched up and spread abroad before he had
time to mature them to his mind, and embody them in his
second patent-so that he found his own ideas stolen and
fraudulently turned against him by his adversaries in a court
of justice.
The difficulties which Arkwright encountered in organizing
*
History of the Cotton Manufacture, by Edward Baines, jun. Esq.,
PP. 177, 178.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
259
his factory system were much greater than is commonly
imagined. In the first place, he had to train his work-
people to a precision in assiduity altogether unknown before,
against which their listless and restive habits rose in con-
tinual rebellion; in the second place, he had to form a body
of accurate mechanics, very different from the rude hands
which then satisfied the manufacturer; in the third, he had
to seek a market for his yarns; and in the fourth, he had to
resist competition in its most odious forms. From the
concurrence of these circumstances, we find that so late as
the year 1779, ten years after the date of his first patent, his
enterprise was regarded by many as a doubtful novelty.
One event has been adduced in evidence of the uncertainty
of his condition, which ought to excite interest in his behalf.
He parted from his wife in 1779, because she would not
agree to join him in converting some landed property into
moncy, for the sale of which her consent was required by
law. The property was worth, it is said, little more than
four hundred pounds. Mrs. Arkwright entertained a high
esteem for her husband, and always spoke of him with
respect; yet she preferred separating from him, to the
chance of being beggared by placing her dowry in so pre-
carious a concern as she then thought the water-spinning
frame to be. For some years after this event she lived
altogether upon her own means. Mr. Arkwright was justly
indignant at this want of sympathy in one so nearly related
to him, and in consequence allowed her only thirty pounds
a year, out of his own pocket, even when he had realized
great opulence. These particulars are given by Mr. Guest
on the authority of Sir Richard Arkwright's niece, probably
a disappointed and prejudiced person.*
The story has upon the whole an apocryphal air. There
was certainly no scarcity of funds in 1779, to carry on the
existing establishment at Cromford with the utmost vigour.
Arkwright was, we own, a man of no common ambition.
Perceiving at this period the means of placing money to
prodigious advantage in other concerns which he projected,
he might be mortified beyond measure at the want of spirit
*The British Cotton Manufactures, by Richard Guest. 8vo.
Manchester, 1828.
260
EARLY HISTORY OF
and confidence in his wife, and might have resented it as an
insult to his understanding. Nor are we to suppose that his
water-frame mechanism, though rude in aspect compared
with the modern throstle, did not spin excellent twist. He,
his son, and his partners, the Messrs. Strutt, with the
machines of that time, turned off, by dint of superior tact
and attention, warp and hosiery yarn as fine as So's, or even
100's, which might bear a comparison with the firmest and
most evenly water-twist of the present day. It is the glory
of modern mechanics that their machines produce good yarn
on automatic principles with hands relatively unskilful, and
with very little superintendence. A few old water-frames
still exist, both at Cromford and Belper, which spin good
hosiery and thread yarns of eighty hanks to the pound.
The malignity displayed against Arkwright by the cotton
manufacturers of Lancashire, as soon as they recognized the
superior quality of his yarn, and found they could not equal
it by jenny-spinning, exceeds anything to be found in the
history of commerce. They not only bribed away his best
servants, but they fomented the evil passions of the mob
into such a paroxysm of rage, as to cause a mill built by
Arkwright, at Birkacre, near Chorley, to be burned, in the
presence of a powerful body of police and military, without
any of the civil authorities requiring their interference to
prevent the outrage. But the most extraordinary piece of
malevolence, which, if not well attested, would be incredible,
was the manufacturers of Lancashire combining not to buy
his yarn, though it was acknowledged to be superior in
quality to any in the market.
The following are extracts from the Case which Mr. Ark-
wright published soon after the first trial of his patent in
1781, when it was declared invalid, on the score of obscurity
and defectiveness in the specification.
"Mr. Arkwright, after many years' intense and painful
application, invented, about the year 1768, his present
method of spinning cotton, but upon very different prin-
ciples from any invention that had gone before it. He was
himself a native of Lancashire; but having so recently
witnessed the ungenerous treatment of poor Hargreaves, by
the people of that county, he retired to Nottingham, and
obtained a patent in the year 1769, for making cotton, flax,
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
261
and wool into yarn. But after some experience, finding that
the common method of preparing the materials for spinning
(which is essentially necessary to the perfection of good
yarn) was very imperfect, tedious, and expensive, he turned
his thoughts towards the construction of engines for that
purpose; and in the pursuit spent several years of intense
study and labour, and at last produced an invention for card-
ing and preparing the materials, founded in some measure
on the principles of his first machine. These inventions
united, completed his great original plan. But his last
machines being very complicated, and containing some things
materially different in their construction, and some others
materially different in their use from the inventions for
which his first patent was obtained, he procured a patent for
'these also, in December 1775.
"No sooner were the merits of Mr. Arkwright's inventions
fully understood, from the great increase of materials pro-
duced in a given time, and the superior quality of the goods
manufactured; no sooner was it known that his assiduity
and great mechanical abilities were rewarded with success,
than the very men who had before treated him with contempt
and derision, began to devise means to rob him of his in-
ventions, and profit by his ingenuity. Every attempt that
cunning could suggest for this purpose was made, by the
seduction of his servants and workmen (whom he had with
great labour taught the business). A knowledge of his
machinery and inventions was fully gained. From that
time many persons began to pilfer something from him;
and then by adding something else of their own, and by
calling similar productions and machines by other names,
they hope to screen themselves from punishment. So many
of these artful and designing individuals had at length in-
fringed on his patent right, that he found it necessary to
prosecute several; but it was not without great difficulty,
and considerable expense, that he was able to make any
proof against them; conscious that their conduct was un-
justifiable, their proceedings were conducted with the utmost
caution and secrecy. Many of the persons employed by
them were sworn to secrecy, and their buildings and work-
shops were locked up, or otherwise secured. This necessary
proceeding of Mr. Arkwright occasioned, as in the case of
262
EARLY HISTORY OF
poor Hargreaves, an association against him of the very per-
sons whom he had served and obliged. Formidable, however,
as it was, Mr. Arkwright persevered, trusting that he should
obtain, in the event, that satisfaction which he appeared to
be justly entitled to.
"A trial in Westminster Hall, in July last, at a large ex-
pense, was the consequence; when, solely by not describing
so fully and accurately the nature of his last complex ma-
chines as was strictly by law required, a verdict was found
against him. Had he been at all aware of the consequences
of such omission, he certainly would have been more careful
and circumspect in his description. It cannot be supposed
that he meant a fraud on his country; it is on the contrary
most evident that he was anxiously desirous of preserving to
his native country the full benefit of his inventions. Yet he
cannot but lament that the advantages resulting from his
own exertions and abilities alone should be wrested from
him by those who have no pretensions to merit; that
they should be permitted to rob him of his inventions
before the expiration of the reasonable period of fourteen
years, merely because he has unfortunately omitted to point
out all the minutiae of his complicated machines."
short, Mr. Arkwright has chosen a subject in manufactures
(that of spinning), of all others the most general, the most
interesting, and the most difficult. He has, after near
twenty years' unparalleled diligence and application, by the
force of natural genius and unbounded invention (excellences
seldom united), brought to perfection machines on principles
as new in theory, as they are regular and perfect in practice.
He has induced men of property to engage with him to a
large amount; from his important inventions united, he has
produced better goods of their different kinds than ever were
before produced in this country; and finally he has established
a business that already employs upwards of 5,000 persons,
and a capital, on the whole, of not less than £200,000,
-a business of the utmost importance and benefit to this
kingdom."
66 In
Mr. Arkwright's object at this time was to obtain from the
Legislature an Act of Parliament to guarantee to him the
patent right of which he had been deprived in a court of law;
an object which he did not prosecute any further.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
263
Let us now turn to another just ground of complaint stated
in the Case.
وو
"It was not till upwards of five years had elapsed after
obtaining his first patent, and more than £12,000 had been
expended in machinery and buildings, that any profit accrued
to himself and partners.' "The most excellent yarn and
twist was produced; notwithstanding which the proprietors
found great difficulty to introduce it into public use.
A very
heavy and valuable stock, in consequence of these difficulties,
lay upon their hands; inconveniences and disadvantages of
no small consideration followed. Whatever were the motives
which induced the rejection of it, they were thereby neces-
sarily driven to attempt, by their own strength and ability, the
manufacture of the yarn. Their first trial was in weaving
it into stockings, which succeeded; and they soon established
the manufacture of calicoes, which promises to be one of the
first manufactures in the kingdom. Another still more for-
midable difficulty arose; the orders for goods which they had
received being considerable, were unexpectedly counter-
manded, the officers of excise refusing to let them pass at the
usual duty of 3d. per yard, insisting upon the additional
duty of 3d. per yard, as being (Indian) calicoes, though
manufactured in England; besides these calicces, when
printed, were prohibited. By this unforeseen obstruction
a very considerable and very valuable stock of calicoes
accumulated. An application to the commissioners of excise
was attended with no success; the proprietors therefore had
no resource but to ask relief of the Legislature, which, after
much money expended, and against a strong opposition of the
manufacturers in Lancashire, they obtained."+
Of this opposition it may be said, the force of envy and
hatred could carry tradesmen no further than for the purpose
of harassing a prosperous rival, to keep themselves and their
trade in a most galling and ruinous bondage under bad laws.
Mr. Baines reprobates this malignant spirit with just severity:
"The prohibition of English-made calicoes was so utterly
without an object, that its being prayed for by the cotton
manufacturers of this country is one of the most signal
*To work it up into cotton cloths and hosiery.
† Case in Arkwright's Patent Trial, p. 99.
264
EARLY HISTORY OF
instances on record of the blinding effects of commercial
jealousy. The Legislature did not yield to the despicable
opposition offered to the reasonable demand of Mr. Arkwright
and his partners (Messrs. Need and Strutt), but on the contrary,
passed a law in 1774, sanctioning the new manufacture, and
rendering English calicoes subject to a duty of only 3d. per
square yard on being printed.”*
We may now form some estimate of the formidable obstacles
with which the Genius of factory industry had to contend
during the greater part of his illustrious career, and of his
transcendent merit in triumphing over them all. Nothing
certainly could be more vexatious than to find the greatest
channel to national wealth ever laid open by inventive enter-
prise, forthwith dammed up by the folly of fiscal legislation.
Though zealous patriots had for more than a century been
exclaiming against the ascendancy of Indian cotton goods.
over our home-made linens and woollen stuffs, yet at length,
when the means of rivalling them in quality and of out-
stripping them in cheapness are found, they cannot be
exercised! and the inventors are to be ruined unless they
possess sufficient wealth and influence to get the preposterous
laws repealed!
Parliament was pleased in 1774 to recognize the propriety
of permitting genuine cotton fabrics to be made, without in-
termixture of linen warp, and thus removed one of the nu-
merous shackles which their wise predecessors had placed
upon industry. In tracing the history of the British cotton
trade, a brief outline of this Act for ascertaining the duty on
printed, painted, stained, or dyed stuffs wholly made of cotton,
and manufactured in Great Britain; and for allowing the use
and wear thereof, under certain regulations, deserves a place.
Its preamble states, that "Whereas a new manufacture of
stuffs, wholly made of raw cotton wool (chiefly imported
from the British plantations), hath been lately set up within
this kingdom, in which manufacture many hundreds of poor
persons are employed; and whereas the use and wear of
printed, &c., stuffs wholly made of cotton and manufactured
in Great Britain, ought to be allowed under proper regulations,
and whereas doubts have arisen whether the said new manu-
* History of the Cotton Manufacture, p. 167.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
265
factured stuffs ought to be considered as calicoes, and as
such, if printed, &c., liable to the inland or excise duties laid on
calicoes when printed by the existing statutes, whether the use
or wearing of the said new manufactured stuffs, when the same
are printed, &c., are not prohibited by an Act passed 7 Geo. II.,
intituled, An Act to preserve and encourage the woollen and
silk manufactures of this kingdom, and for more effectually
employing the poor by prohibiting the use and wear of all
printed, &c., calicoes in apparel, household stuff, furniture,
or otherwise, after the 25th of December, 1722. For obviat-
ing all such doubts for the future, be it enacted, that no greater
or higher duty than threepence for every yard in length,
reckoning yard wide, shall be imposed on the said manu-
factured stuffs wholly made of cotton spun in Great Britain
when printed.
“And be it further enacted, that it shall be lawful for any
person to wear any new manufactured stuffs wholly made of
cotton when printed.
"And be it further enacted, that in each piece of the said
calicoes, there shall be wove in the warp in both selvages
through the whole length thereof three blue stripes, each stripe
of one thread only; and that each piece when printed be
stamped at each end by an excise officer with the words British
Manufactory.
وو
Persons who sold such stuffs without the stamp were liable to
a fine of £50 for each piece, besides its forfeiture; those who
imported them were liable to £10 on each piece, besides the for-
feiture; and whoever counterfeited the stamp, or sold goods so
counterfeited, was punishable by death. This Act, which did
not extend to cotton velvets, velverets, and fustians, is of itself
a complete demonstration of Arkwright's peculiar merit, for
it was framed solely to suit the new style of goods of which
his water-twist warp was the characteristic constituent. No-
body can pretend that at this period, and for several years
thereafter, any factory except those erected and superintended
by Arkwright produced cotton yarn fit to form the warp of a
good printing calico.
The field of enterprise in cotton spinning being now left
free by the Legislature, Arkwright, who had been since 1771
organizing the several members of his factory system at
Cromford, in co-operation with Mr. Strutt, brought forth, as
VOL. I.
8
266
EARLY HISTORY OF
we have said, the patent specification of it in 1775, but its
constituent parts had been undergoing for the three preced-
ing years daily experimental probation, exposed to invidious
espionage and petty piracy, as exemplified in the crank and
comb. "Most of these improvements (relative to the carding
engine) are to be ascribed to Arkwright, and he showed his
usual talent and judgment in combination, by putting all the
improvements together, and producing a complete machine,
so admirably calculated for the purpose that it has not been
improved upon till the present day." I entirely concur in
this sentiment. On the subject of the cards, which constitute
the main novelty in Arkwright's patent of 1775 (for the
drawing and roving principles are clearly developed
in the first patent), the claims of Highs will appear
not only futile but ludicrous to any one who will candidly
consider the silly answers which he made upon the trial
in 1785.
"Q. Have you actually ever made, or not, any of these
carding engines?-A. I have made carding machines, but not
with these individual things as this is; there are various
forms.
Q. What did you do with them; did you sell any of them?
A. Yes, sir, I sold them.
Q. How many did you?—A. I suppose four or five, but
then I never made but one in this method; I tell nothing
but the truth.
Q. You never made but one of that kind?—A. No, I did
not.
Q. It did not answer ?-A. It did not answer the end the
gentleman wanted it for; you know it is nothing to me. I had
nothing to do but to work as I was ordered.Ӡ
How unlike are these statements to those of a practical man
who had constructed a really operative machine! He makes
only one card, even that not from his own invention, but as
he was ordered-and after all, it did not answer.
Such were
Highs' exploits in 1772 or 1773, when Mr. Arkwright was
bringing beautiful hosiery twist into the market, in the pre-
* History of the Cotton Manufacture, by Edward Baines, jun., Esq.,
p. 179.
† A Compendious History of the Cotton Manufacture, by Richard
Guest, p. 59.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
267
paration of which his improved cards, with a perpetual fleece·
taken off by the crank and comb, were employed. This con-
tinuity of the fleece also proves the priority of his claim in
the feed-cloth to Wood and Pilkington, for though they used
the same thing before the patent of 1775 was obtained, they
might most easily have procured the plan from some of his
stray workmen, or have obtained hints of what had been done
at Cromford in 1772, and thus have stolen a march upon him.
The claim made by them goes no further back than the year
1774. Mr. James, the living witness to the fact of the crank
and comb being Arkwright's invention, before 1772, is worthy
of all credit, since, according to Mr. Baines, at 83 years of
age, he still enjoys a most retentive memory.*
We may
therefore receive, without any hesitation, the statement given
in the 'Case' that they were his own series of inventions
which Arkwright "sold to numbers of adventurers residing
in the different counties of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham,
Worcester, Stafford, York, Hertford, and Lancaster; and that
upon a moderate computation, the money expended in con-
sequence of such grants (or patent licences) before 1782,
amounted to at least £60,000. He and his partners also ex-
pended, in large buildings in Derbyshire and elsewhere, up-
wards of £30,000, and he himself erected a very large and
extensive building in Manchester, at the expense of upwards
of £4,000, forming altogether a business which already em-
ployed upwards of 5,000 persons, and a capital on the whole
of less than £200,000."
Mr. Kennedy, in his instructive memoir on the Rise and
Progress of the Cotton Trade, makes the following observa-
tions :-" During a period of ten or fifteen years after Mr.
Arkwright's first mill was built (in 1771) at Cromford, all
the principal works were erected on the falls of considerable
rivers; no other power than water having then been found
practically useful; there were a few exceptions, where
Savary's and Newcomen's steam-engines were tried. But
the principles of these machines being defective, and their

* Mr. Guest says, at p. 19 of his Compendious History, that_Har-
greaves invented the crank and comb in 1772; but as Mr. James
declares that his partner Hargreaves pirated the invention from Ark.
wright, its invention, by the latter, must have been of an earlier date.
268
EARLY HISTORY OF
construction bad, the expense in fuel was great, and the loss
occasioned by frequent stoppages was ruinous.”*
We cannot better conclude this investigation into the ori-
gin of the factory system than by the following judicious
remarks of Mr. Bannatyne, author of the interesting article
Cotton, in the Encyclopædia Britannica. "The originality
and comprehensiveness of Sir Richard Arkwright's mind was
perhaps marked by nothing more strongly than the judgment
with which, although new to business, he conducted the great
concerns his discoveries gave rise to, and the systematic order
and arrangement which he introduced into every department
of his extensive works. His plans of management, which
must have been entirely his own, as no establishment of a
similar nature then existed, were universally adopted by
others, and, after long experience, they have not yet in any
material point been altered or improved."
In another work† I have said, "It required a man of a
Napoleon nerve and ambition to subdue the refractory tempers
of workpeople accustomed to irregular paroxysms of dili-
gence, and to urge on his multifarious and intricate con-
structions in the face of prejudice, passion, and envy. Such
was Arkwright, who, suffering nothing to stay or turn aside
his progress, arrived gloriously at the goal, and has for ever
affixed his name to a great era in the annals of mankind,-an
era which has laid open unbounded prospects of wealth and
comfort to the industrious, however much they may have been
occasionally clouded by ignorance and folly. Prior to this
period manufactures were everywhere feeble and fluctuating in
their development, shooting forth luxuriantly for a season, and
again withering almost to the roots, like annual plants.'
>>
That Arkwright derived useful hints and aids from many
quarters in his wonderful career, is undeniable, and that he
most skilfully adapted the scattered fragments of ingenuity to
his grand factory system, redounds much to his honour. He
was, however, the original architect, as well as the master-
builder of his new edifice. Like Columbus, he meditated many
years on the erratic excursions of his predecessors in the nar-
row seas of industry, and having convinced himself that a
* Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,
vol. iii., 2nd series.
† Philosophy of Manufactures, p. 16.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
269
new world replete with wealth might be reached by a bolder
navigation, he fearlessly embarked his life and fortunes in
quest of it, with means little commensurate to the dangers,
difficulties, and magnificence of the enterprise. Fortunately
for the Englishman, he did not depend on the patronage of
princes and courts, but with the co-operation of two or three
spirited fellow-citizens he advanced with unfaltering energy
towards his object, living in affluence, and dying in honour.
The Genoese, after wasting many painful years as a needy
supplicant to kings, obtained but a paltry equipment for his
heroic expedition, and was rewarded at last by disgrace,
poverty, and a prison. Richard Arkwright, on the other
hand, within eighteen years of constructing his first model,
had risen to such estimation in the great county of Derby,
that he was elected to the dignity of High Sheriff, and soon
thereafter received the honour of knighthood from King
George III., no indifferent judge of mechanical merit. Al-
though athletic in form and power, his corporeal frame never
possessed. firm health; during the greater part of his factory
exertions he laboured under asthmatic ailments, and in the
year 1792, the sixtieth of his life, he sunk under a compli-
cation of maladies.
The powerful men who have been raised up by Providence
from time to time, to move the stagnant waters of civilization,
such as Luther, Calvin, and Knox, have been regarded by
their torpid compatriots as coarse and turbulent spirits,
because they reprobated the unprofitable, frivolous, and cor-
rupt practices prevalent in their day. In like manner the
intrepid reformer of industry, Arkwright, has been accused of
roughness, because, impatient of the slovenly habits of work-
people, he urged on their labours with a precision and vigi-
lance unknown before. But a gentler or more timid master
would have been unequal to the task he took in hand: hence,
even his failings on this account may be said to have leaned
to virtue's side, and to have been of incalculable service to
his country, and to mankind.
His career in manufactures may be compared not unappro-
priately to that of Newton in science. The English philo-
sopher has never been reproached for making use of the
prior researches of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, but has
obtained immortal renown by uniting and perfecting them
270
EARLY HISTORY OF
into one great system of doctrine. His precursors had con-
ceived that in all the bodies of the universe there exists a
reciprocal attractive force; but their attempts to ascertain the
law of the decrease of this force, by distance, were unavailing,
from the defect of their powers of generalization. Descartes
first conceived the bold idea of referring to a single cause
the phenomena of both the heavens and the earth; but New-
ton had the honour of demonstrating its nature and effects.
Attraction proportional directly to the mass, and inversely
to the square of the distance, became in his hands the main-
spring of the universe. A body may be weighed at the sur-
face of the earth, but were it transported to the surface of
Jupiter, Saturn, or the Sun, what weight would it have then?
Before the end of the 17th century this problem would have
been regarded as incapable of solution, and its proposer would
have passed for a fool.
It excited, therefore, no small astonishment when Newton
solved it in a satisfactory manner. He discovered the pro-
portion between the masses of the Sun, Jupiter, and the Earth
by combining the above law of attraction with one of Kepler's
laws; and as the proportion which exists between the diame-
ters of the orbit of Jupiter and the Earth was approximately
known before his time, he found by division, the ratios of the
weights of the same body placed successively on the surfaces
of these spheres. Descartes ascribed to the pressure of the
moon the periodical oscillations daily displayed by the waters
of the ocean, and Galileo referred them to the rotation of the
earth, combined with its movement in the ecliptic; but these
vague and random explanations were incapable of lifting up
the veil which covered the phenomenon. Newton studied its
causes with the aid of geometry, and showed how all the
attendant circumstances proceeded spontaneously from his
great principle of gravitation. When the moon passes the
meridian the particles of the sea nearer this luminary than
the centre of our globe, are more powerfully attracted than
that centre, and hence rise and recede from the earth in obe-
dience to that excess of attractive force exercised by the
moon. The particles of the sea, situated in the corresponding
point of the opposite hemisphere being less powerfully
attracted by the moon than the centre of the earth, on account
of their greater distance, will be attracted more feebly towards
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
271
F
that luminary than the centre of the earth. Thus the parti-
cles of the ocean will rise from the earth at the two extremi-
ties of its diameter in the direction of the moon, constituting
high water or the flux. Invidious cavillers might easily find,
in writers before Newton's time, hints of both planetary
attraction and of the lunar influence on the tides, but they
would be laughed to scorn by all judicious critics. In like
manner, automatic spinning by cards and rollers was attempted
prior to Arkwright, but in a random, ill-digested, and un-
systematic manner.
In the neighbourhood of Preston, during the juvenile years
of Arkwright, there was a considerable manufacture of linen
and cotton goods mixed, with the operations of which he had
an opportunity of becoming intimately acquainted; and being
a man of uncommon natural powers, he directed his thoughts
to the improvement of the mode of spinning. The first hint
respecting the means of effecting this improvement, he said,
he accidentally received from seeing a red-hot iron bar
elongated by being passed through iron rollers.* Between
this operation and that of elongating a thread as now prac-
tised in spinning, there is no mechanical analogy; yet the
hint being pursued, has produced an invention, which, in its
consequences, has been a source of individual and national
wealth, unparalleled in the annals of the world.
The difficulties which Mr. Arkwright experienced before
he could bring his machine into use, even after its construc-
tion was sufficiently perfect to demonstrate its value, would,
perhaps, have for ever retarded its competition, if his genius
and application had been less ardent. His circumstances
were by far too unfavourable to enable him to commence
business upon his own account, and few were willing to risk
the loss of capital in an untried establishment.
Soon after the erection of the mill at Cromford, he made
many improvements in the mode of preparing the cotton for
spinning, and invented a variety of ingenious machines for
effecting this purpose in the most correct and expeditious man-
ner; for all of which he obtained a patent in the year 1775;
and thus completed a series of machinery so various and so
* Samuel Crompton ascribed his first idea of roller-spinning to the
same observation; and it is probable that Wyatt got his suggestion
in the same way.
272
EARLY HISTORY OF
complicated, yet so admirably combined, and well adapted to
produce the intended effect, in its most perfect form, as to
excite the admiration of every person capable of appreciating
the difficulties of the undertaking.
That all this should have been accomplished by the single
efforts of a man without education, without mechanical
knowledge, or even mechanical experience, is most extra-
ordinary; and is, perhaps, equal to any example existing,
of the wonderful powers exhibited by the mind, when its
efforts have been steadily directed to one object. Yet this
was not the only employment of this eminent man.
He was
introducing into every department of the manufacture a
system of industry, economy, order, and cleanliness, till then
unknown in any great establishments where many people
were employed together; but which he so effectually accom-
plished, that his example may be regarded as the pattern of
almost all subsequent improvements. When it is considered,
that during this entire period, he was afflicted with a grievous
disorder (a violent asthma), which was always extremely
oppressive, and sometimes threatened immediately to terminate
his existence, his unceasing industry must excite astonishment.
In speaking of his inventions, Arkwright expressed ideas of
their importance, which to persons less acquainted with their
merits appeared hyperbolical. They are all now more than
realized.
Several years before his death, Sir Richard Arkwright gave
up to the present Richard Arkwright, Esq., of Willersly Castle,
his mill at Bakewell. Here the son displayed talents worthy
at once of the father from whom he had sprung, and of the
manufacturing establishment of Cromford, where he had been
trained. I was informed by an indisputable authority, that
Mr. Arkwright then spun water-twist yarns of as high a
count as 80's of excellent quality, whereby he realized by
his skill and assiduity in that factory alone no less than
£20,000 per annum. This circumstance proves, beyond all
controversy, the perfection to which cotton machinery had.
been brought by the hands of this distinguished family.
In the year 1754 Mr. Jedediah Strutt, then a farmer, being
* This circumstance was told me by George Benfield Strutt, Esq.,
of Bridge Hill, Belper, during my visit to his hospitable mansion, in
August, 1834.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
273
informed by his wife's brother, who was a hosier, and well
acquainted with the stocking-frame, of some unsuccessful
attempts that had been made to manufacture ribbed stockings
upon it, was induced to investigate the operations of that
curious and complicated machine, in the hope of effecting
what others had attempted in vain. Accordingly, after much
time, labour, and expense, having succeeded, he obtained, in
conjunction with his brother-in-law, a patent for the invention,
and removed to Derby, where he established an extensive
manufacture of ribbed stockings, which was successfully carried
on by himself and partners for more than half a century. About
the year 1771 Mr. Strutt entered into partnership with Sir R.
Arkwright. In 1775 he began to erect the cotton works at
Belper and Milford, at each of which places he resided a con-
siderable time; but as his health declined he retired to Derby,
where he died in 1797, in the seventy-first year of his age. His
three sons had conducted his great cotton spinning concerns
for many years before his death with progressive enterprise
and intelligence.
William, the eldest, had the honour of co-operating with
Sir Richard Arkwright at the very commencement of his great
factory career, and being a well-educated and highly-gifted
mechanician, was able to appreciate the character of that ex-
traordinary man. Had Arkwright's schemes been mere
plagiarisms of other men's ideas, as some of his modern
defamers would have us believe, they could not have escaped
the discernment, but would infallibly have revolted the
candid spirit, of Mr. Strutt. Yet no man estimated more
highly than he did the inventive genius and excellent
judgment of Sir Richard Arkwright, of which he afforded the
best evidence in the account of the Cromford cotton works,
which was drawn up by him for Mr. Brayley, and inserted in
vol. iii. of this learned gentleman's Beauties of England and
Wales-under the article Derbyshire.
“The establishment of the mill at Cromford village," says
Mr. Strutt," proved a source of much legal contention; for
the manufacturers of Lancashire, apprehensive of what has
actually been the result, that it would supersede the use of
the hand machines then employed, formed a strong combi-
nation to impede its success, and endeavoured to destroy the
validity of the patent, by contesting the originality of the in-
274
EARLY HISTORY OF
vention; and though in two instances they obtained a favour-
able verdict, from particular circumstances, and lost it in a
third, there cannot be a doubt that every really essential part
of the machinery derived its structure from the powerful
genius of Mr. Arkwright. A great quantity of the cotton
spun by this machinery is used by hosiers, who find it
more suitable to their purpose than any other they can
procure."
Mr. Brayley has kindly put into my hands the original manu-
script of the above narrative, in Mr. Strutt's handwriting.
We have already described the dangers which the factory
system experienced in its infancy from ruffian violence. The
year 1779 was remarkable for a general assault upon spinning
machinery in several counties of England. Though there was
no scarcity of employment at good wages, and though much
pains had been taken to convince the populace that their
condition would be improved by the increased facilities of
manufacture,* yet a notion was artfully instilled into their
minds, that the new machines would ere long entirely super-
sede manual labour. Under the influence of such illusions, a
third and more formidable set of mobs assembled in Lanca-
shire, which destroyed all the carding and spinning machinery
moved by water or horses, as also the hand jennies containing
more than twenty spindles; the maximum prescribed by the
demagogues. This riot was most active in the neighbourhood
of Blackburn, then the focus of the cotton industry of the
county. Jennies mounted with twenty spindles and under,
being reckoned laudable inventions, were respected; but those
of greater size were either cut down, Procrustes-wise, to the
standard, or if refractory to the amputation, they were con-
signed to the flames. Mr. Peel, afterwards Sir Robert, the
* Particularly by Dorning Rasbotham, Esq., an enlightened magis-
trate near Bolton, who circulated a printed address among the weavers
and hand spinners, explaining to them that every contrivance for
cheapening production would increase the demand for their goods, and,
consequently, the employment of their labourers. The upper orders
also fermented these anti-factory outrages, from an apprehension that
the multiplication of machinery would throw a number of idle hands
upon the parish funds. When Arkwright made his working model at
Warrington, probably not more than 30,000 persons were occupied with
the manufacture of cotton; now there are many more than a million,
and at equal average wages.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
275
father of our illustrious statesman, had his machinery at
Altham totally demolished, the fragments thrown into the
river, and his person placed in imminent danger from a
licentious mob. He consequently withdrew in disgust from
the county, transferring the benefits of his capital, skill, and
public spirit to Burton, in Staffordshire, on the banks of the
Trent, where he established a cotton factory, and where he
continued to reside for many years. Thus the populace, by
violence, drew down conspicuous retribution on themselves;
nor was it till a more gentle spirit prevailed that Mr. Peel,
and other refugee capitalists, ventured to resume their enter-
prises among them.
The water-twist frame, as used by Sir R. Arkwright at
Cromford, and the Messrs. Strutt's at Belper, is represented
in figure 19.
A is a bevel wheel fixed upon a horizontal axis, which ex-
tends through the whole length of the mill. This wheel
turns a smaller one upon a vertical axis, B, which has a drum,
C, at the lower end. Round this drum, the strap, a, runs,
which actuates directly all the spindles, and indirectly the
whole machine. Another strap, b, runs to the right hand, to
work another frame, not shown here. The axis B passes
down through the drum C, with a circular fitting, so that it
slips freely round within it, without giving motion to the drum,
till it be put in gear by two locking bolts, which are fixed into
a socket piece, d, made to slide up and down the axis. It has
a groove formed round it, in which a fork at the end of a lever,
e, is received, so that the fork embraces the piece, d, in the
groove, and when lifted, raises the two locking bolts with it.
This lever is raised by the power of a second lever, D, E,
whose extremity, E, being depressed, raises the lever, e, and
unlocks the drum from its vertical shaft, B, by withdrawing the
locking bolts from their contact with an arm, f, of a wheel, g,
fixed to the shaft below the drum, so as to turn with it; the
locking bolts being let down, that their ends may project
through the drum, and intercept the cross arm, f, of the wheel,
the drum and all the machinery are set in motion.
The endless strap a a, passes the whole length of the frame,
makes a turn round the pulley m, and comes back again.
The pulley m is fitted in a frame, and by means of a screw
can be strained to make the strap tight.
276
EARLY HISTORY OF

i
P
H
F
P
P
D
E
i
m
YYY
a
M
Q
C
1
f
Ꮽ
B
1
1
f
Fig. 19.-Water-Twist Frame, as used at Cromford and Belper.
The bobbins of rovings are set loose on skewers in the
creel of two shelves at F. The rovings pass then down to the
drawing-rollers, which are turned by the contrate wheels p, p.
The attenuated threads delivered by the front rollers are
twisted by the rotation of the spindles and flyers, and wound
by friction round the bobbins, which are made to traverse up
and down for the distribution of the spun yarn upon their
barrels, by the rise and fall of the copping-rail M. i, i
shows a band or belt passing over the whorls of the spindles.
*
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
277
to drive them. Under l, l the lower conical ends of the spindles
are seen supported in steps, lubricated with oil.
Arkwright's system of machinery was most advantageously
applied to spin warp and hosiery yarns, of a hard and compact
fabric, of any grist up to seventy or even eighty hanks in the
pound; Hargreaves to spin soft weft-yarn of somewhat
inferior numbers, which answered well for filling the surface
of calico cloth; and on these two independent plans the
whole cotton yarn used in the kingdom was spun for a good
many years. The jenny was, however, eventually superseded
by a very beautiful apparatus, invented by Samuel Crompton,
of Bolton, to which, as being the offspring of the above
two distinct machines, and as combining their respective
features, the name of Mule, or Mule Jenny, was fancifully,
but not inappropriately given. This curious complex combi-
nation was contrived by its humble author about the year
1776, but it was not so perfected and made public as to
come into general use till about the year 1786. Indeed,
had not Sir Richard Arkwright's patent of 1775 been
abrogated, the mule, as embodying his system of drawing-
rollers, must have remained in abeyance upon his mono-
poly. In the place of Arkwright's bobbins and flyers, Mr.
Crompton used the spindle carriage of Hargreaves' jenny to
receive, attenuate, twist, and wind on the threads, after their
emergence from the drawing-rollers. The particular de-
scription of this admirable machine belongs, however, to a
subsequent chapter of this work. The mule enabled the
spinner to make a prodigious advance in the fineness as well
as rapidity of his work; and it may be considered as the
parent of the muslin manufacture, destined in a short time to
render Europe the successful competitor of the hitherto unri-
valled productions of Hindostan.
John Kennedy, Esq., one of the most scientific manu-
facturers of the kingdom, fortunately for Mr. Crompton's fame,
has favoured the world with an account of his life and
labours; a memoir which does equal honour to its author's
head and heart. This interesting paper was read before the
Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, February
20, 1830.
Samuel Crompton was born on the 3rd December, 1753,
at Firwood, in Lancashire, where his father held a farm of
278
EARLY HISTORY OF
small extent; and, according to the custom of those days,
employed a portion of his time in carding, spinning, and
weaving. Hall-in-the-wood, a picturesque cottage near
Bolton, became the residence of the family during the son's
infancy, and the memorable scene of his juvenile inventions.
His father died when he was very young. The care of his
education devolved on his mother, a pious woman, who lived
in a retired manner, and imparted her own sincere and con-
templative turn of mind to her son. In all his dealings
through life Samuel was strictly honest, patient, and humane.
When about sixteen years old, namely, about 1769, he
learned to spin upon a jenny of Hargreaves' make, and occa-
sionally wove what he had spun. Being dissatisfied with the
quality of his yarn, he began to consider how it might be
improved, and was thus naturally led to the construction of
his novel spinning machine. He commenced this task when
twenty-one years of age, and devoted five years to its execu-
tion. As he was not, properly speaking, a mechanic, and
possessed only such simple tools as his little earnings at the
jenny and the loom enabled him to procure, he proceeded but
slowly with the construction of his mule, but still in a pro-
gressive manner highly creditable to his dexterity and perse-
verance.
1
He often said that what annoyed him most was that he
was not allowed to employ his little invention by himself in
his garret; for, as he got a better price for his yarns than his
neighbours did, he was naturally supposed to have mounted
some superior mechanism, and hence became an object of the
prying curiosity of the country people for miles around;
many of whom climbed up at the windows to see him at his
work. He erected a screen in order to obstruct their view;
but he continued to be so incommoded by crowds of visitors,
that he resolved at last to get rid of the vexatious mystery
by disclosing the whole contrivances before a number of
gentlemen and others, who chose to subscribe a guinea
apiece for the inspection. In this way he collected about
£50, and was hence enabled to construct another similar
machine, upon a better and larger plan. The first contained
no more than from thirty to forty spindles.
About the year 1802 Mr. Kennedy and Mr. Lee, of Man-
chester, set on foot a subscription for him, whereby they
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
279
obtained £500; which formed a little capital for the increase
of his small manufactory at Bolton. As a weaver, also, he
displayed great ingenuity, and erected several looms for the
fancy-work of that town. Being fond of music, he built him-
self an organ, with which he entertained his leisure hours in
his cottage. Though his means were slender, he was such a
master of domestic economy, as to be always in easy circum-
stances. In 1812 he made a survey of all the cotton districts
in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and obtained an estimate
of the number of spindles at work upon his mule principle
-then amounting to between four and five millions, and in
1829 to about seven. On his return, he laid the result of his
inquiries before his generous friends Messrs. Kennedy and
Lee, with a suggestion that Parliament might possibly grant
him some recompense for the national advantages derived
from his invention. A memorial was accordingly drawn up,
in the furtherance of which the late George Duckworth, Esq.,
of Manchester, and the principal manufacturers in the king-
dom, to whom his merits were made known, took a lively
interest. He went to London himself with the memorial,
and had the satisfaction to see a bill pass through Parliament
for a grant to him of £5000, without deduction for fees or
charges.
Mr.
This sum was advanced to his sons in order to carry on a
bleaching concern, for the support of the family. But they
mismanaged the business, lost the money, and became bank-
rupt, reducing their father and sister to poverty.
Kennedy, with Messrs. Hicks and Rothwell, the eminent
civil engineers of Bolton, and a few other gentlemen, raised,
by a second subscription, a sum which purchased for Mr.
Crompton a life annuity of £63. He enjoyed this benevolent
pittance only two years, for he died on the 26th of January,
1827, leaving his daughter without any provision.
It would appear that the inventor of the mule had con-
structed, without having seen Arkwright's drawing rollers,
the same kind of roller-beam as exists in his water-twist frame.
"Indeed," says Mr. Kennedy, "we may infer that he had
not, otherwise he would not have gone thus rudely to work;
and indeed the small quantity of metal which he employed,
proves that he could not have been acquainted with Mr. Ark-
wright's superior rollers and fixtures in iron, and their con-
280
EARLY HISTORY OF
nection by clockwork. Even the rollers were made of wood,
and covered with a piece of sheep-skin, having an axis of
iron with a little square end, on which the pulleys were
fixed. Mr. Crompton's rollers were supported upon wooden
cheeks or stands. He finally put dents of brass-reed wire
into his under rollers, and thus obtained a fluted roller. But
the great and important invention of Crompton was his
spindle carriage, and the principle of the thread having no
strain upon it, until it was completed. The carriage with
the spindles could, by the movement of the hand and knee,
recede just as the rollers delivered out the elongated thread
in a soft state, so that it would allow of a considerable
stretch before the thread had to encounter the stress of wind-
ing on the spindle. This was the corner-stone of the merits
of his invention."
A few machines only were made exactly on Crompton's
plan. The first deviation was that of an ingenious mechanic,
Henry Stones, of Storwich, near Bolton, who introduced
Arkwright's metallic rollers, with clockwork, and a chain to
convey motion to the rollers from the fly-wheel, as also
some self-acting contrivance to stop the rollers from giving
out more attenuated roving than was desired. Hargreaves'
spinning-jenny had spread through a circuit of forty miles
in extent, round Manchester, including Blackburn, Oldham,
Ashton, and Stockport, so as to supersede the single spindle
wheel of these districts; but after Crompton's mule became
known, the jenny was rapidly laid aside. Up to the year
1783, there were not, in Mr. Kennedy's opinion, one thou-
sand spindles in existence upon Crompton's construction.
Soon after the opening up of Arkwright's patent, the pre-
paration machines included in it became available to the
trade, and gave mule spinning an extraordinary develop-
ment.
Among the co-operative aids of this time was the billy, a
combination of the jenny and the mule, contrived by a person
at Stockport, to whom the jenny spinners gave a premium for
his ingenuity.
Fig. 20 is a perspective view of the slubbing-billy in com-
mon use. A, A is the wooden frame, within which is the
movable carriage D, D, which runs upon the lower side
rails at a, a, on friction wheels, 1, 2, to make it glide more
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
281
casily backwards and forwards from one end of the frame to
the other. The carriage contains a number of steel spindles,
marked 3, 3, which receive a rapid rotation from a long
cylinder, F, by means of separate cords passing round the
pulley or whorl of each spindle; the cylinder F is a long
drum of tin plate, which extends across the whole breadth of
the carriage. The spindles are placed in a frame, so as to
stand nearly upright, at about four inches apart; their lower
ends are pointed conically, they turn in brass sockets, called
steps, and are retained in their position by a smaller collar
of brass for each, which embraces the spindle about the
middle of its length; the upper half of each spindle projects
above the frame. The drum lies horizontally before the spin-
dles, with its centre a little lower than the line of the whorls;
the drum receives motion by a pulley at one end, with an end-
less band from a wheel E, made like the large domestic wheel
formerly used in spinning wool by hand, and of similar dimen-
sions. The wheel is placed on the outside of the main frame
of the machine, having its axle supported by upright standards,
erected from the carriage D; and it is turned by the spinner
placed at Q, with his right hand applied to a winch (as plainly
shown in the drawing). This gives motion to the drum, and
thereby causes the spindles to revolve with great velocity.
Each spindle receives a soft slab or slubbing, which comes
through beneath a wooden roller, C, C, at one end of the
frame; this is the so much talked of billy-roller; the slabs
thence proceed to the row of spindles standing in the carriage,
so that they are extended in a nearly horizontal plane, ad-
vancing to, and receding from, the roller C, so as to extend
any required length of slubbing in any degree.
The cardings of wool which are to be spun into slubbings
are laid straight, side by side, upon an endless cloth, which
is strained in a slanting position between two horizontal
rollers, of which one, B, is shown in the figure. One card
end is allotted to each spindle, and the number of spindles
may vary from fifty to one hundred in one machine. The
roller Crests on the card-ends, which move with the cloth,
and as it should press very gently, it is made of light wood;
immediately in front of this roller there is a horizontal
wooden rail, G, or long bar, with another beneath it, fitted to
each other, across the frame. The card-end is conducted be-
VOL. I.
T
282
EARLY HISTORY OF
tween these two rails, the upper or movable one being
raised to let it through; when this bar is again let down it
pinches the card-end fast, and hence this cloven mechanism
is called the clasp; it is precisely what was originally used
by Hargreaves in his cotton-jenny.
The upper or movable rail G is guided between sliders,
and a wire, 7, descends from it to a lever, 6. When the
carriage D is wheeled close home to the end of the machine,
a wheel, 5, lifts up the end 6 of the lever, and this, by the
wire, 7, raises the upper rail G, so as to open the clasp and
release all the card-ends. In this state of things, if the
carriage be drawn back from the clasp-bar, it will neces-
sarily pull the card-ends forward on their inclined plane.
There is a small catch which receives the upper bar, G, of
the clasp, and keeps it from falling till the carriage has re-
ceded to a certain distance, and has drawn out about eight
inches in length of the card-ends; a stop on the carriage
then comes against the catch and withdraws it, so as to allow
the upper rail to fall and pinch the card-end, while the
carriage continues to recede, drawing out or stretching that
portion of the roll which is between the clasp and the spin-
dle. Meanwhile the wheel has been turned to keep the
spindles in motion, and to give the proper twist to the card-
ends in proporton as they are extended, in order to prevent
them from breaking.
It might be supposed that the slubbing threads would be
apt to coil round the spindles, but as they proceed in a some-
what slanting direction from the clasp, they merely receive
a twisting motion, always slipping over the points of the
spindles without being wound upon them. Whenever the
slubber has given a due degree of twist to the rovings, he
prepares to wind them upon the spindles in a conical shape,
by pressing down with his left hand the faller-wire 8, so as
to bear them away from the points of the spindles and place
them opposite to their middle part. He now causes the
spindles to revolve slowly, and at the same time pushes in
the carriage, so as to wind the slubbing upon the spindles
into a conical cop.
The wire 8 is made to regulate the winding-on of this
whole row of slubbings at once, and is placed at the proper
depression for this purpose, by its connection with the

THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
283

horizontal rail 4, which turns on pivots at its ends in brasses
fixed on the standards, which rise from the carriage D; by
B
A
E
6
3 3
D
Fig. 20.—Slubbing Billy.
284
EARLY HISTORY OF
turning this rail on its pivots the wire 8 is raised or lowered
to any desired degree; the slubber, seizing the rail 4 with his
left hand, thereby draws the carriage out, but, on its return,
he depresses the faller-wire at the same time that he pushes
the carriage before him.
As the card-ends are exceedingly tender, they would
readily draw out or break by friction if dragged up the
inclined plane. To save the necessity of this traction, a
cord is applied round a groove in the middle part of the
upper roller, and, after passing over proper pulleys, as shown
in the figure, it has a weight suspended at the one end, and
another, but smaller, at the other; the small weight serves
merely to keep the rope stretched, but the large weight tends
to turn the rollers with their endless cloth or apron round in
such a direction as to bring forward the card-ends without
putting any strain upon them. Every time that the carriage
is pushed home, the large weight gets wound up by a piece
of wood projecting from the carriage, and seizing a knot in
the cord at the part which lies horizontally; this pushes the
cord back a certain distance, so as to draw up the great
weight, while the endless cloth cannot run backwards, by
reason of a ratchet and click at the end of one of its rollers;
the rope, therefore, slips round upon the roller. When the
carriage retires, the greater weight turns the roller and
advances the endless apron, so as to deliver the card-ends
at the same rate as the carriage, by coming out, takes them
up; but when the proper quantity is delivered, the knot in
the rope arrives at a fixed stop, which does not permit it to
move any farther, and at the same instant the roller 5 quits
the lever 6, and allows the upper rail, G, of the clasp to fall,
and pinch the card-end fast; the wheel E being then put in
motion makes the spindles revolve, and the carriage being
drawn out extends the slubbings while under the influence of
twisting. In winding on of the slubbings, the operative
must take care to push in the carriage and to turn the wheel
round at such rates that the spindles will not take up faster
than the carriage moves on its railway.
Thus the essence of Crompton's invention, which was the
carriage, became of the greatest importance towards other
constructions; as also (when modified in the billy) to the
original machine itself, though not primarily intended for
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
285
this purpose. The long tin roller, as seen in the jenny and
the billy, being difficult to make with the requisite truth of
motion for the mule, was replaced by a series of upright
drums mounted in the carriage.
The art of spinning with Crompton's machine soon became
widely known among workpeople of all descriptions, from
the higher wages which it procured above those of other
artisans; such as shoemakers, joiners, hatters, &c.; many
of whom were thereby induced to change their employment,
and to become mule spinners. Hence it happened, among
this motley gang, that if anything went amiss with their
machine, each of them endeavoured to supply the deficiency
with some expedient borrowed from his former trade; the
smith introduced a piece of iron, the shoemaker had recourse
to leather, and the hatter to felt; whereby valuable sugges-
tions were obtained. The roving department was, however,
for some time a distinct business in the hands of those who
possessed Arkwright's system of carding and roving machines,
by whom the roove was sold to the hand-mule spinners.
Mr. Arkwright had commenced his operations at Not-
tingham, because he could there obtain tranquillity to work
and a demand for his compact yarn in the stocking trade.
The whole produce of his machines was for some time
absorbed in hosiery. The yarn for this fabric requires to
be particularly smooth and equal, in order to pass readily
through the needles of the stocking frame. To insure its
possessing this quality in the highest degree, it is spun from
two rovings in place of the one used for calico warp; and is
hence called double spun twist. The introduction of the fine
article by Messrs. Need and Strutt produced a vast improve-
ment in the stocking manufacture; it superseded completely
the hand-spun yarn, and it produced stockings which sup-
planted the thread ones previously in vogue.
The oldest cotton mill in Manchester is that on Shude
Hill, which was erected about the year 1780, by Messrs.
Arkwright, Simpson, and Whitenburgh; being one of the
numerous speculations into which the active author of the
factory system entered. It was remarkable for its motive
power, which was a hydraulic wheel furnished with water by
a single-stroke atmospheric pumping steam-engine.
In his valuable paper on the rise and progress of the

286
EARLY HISTORY OF
cotton trade, Mr. Kennedy justly remarks that the intro-
duction of Watt's admirable steam-engine imparted new life
to this business. Its inexhaustible power and uniform
regularity of motion supplied what was most urgently
wanted at the time; and the scientific principles and ex-
cellent workmanship displayed in its construction, led those
who were interested in this trade to make many and great
improvements in their machines and apparatus for bleaching,
dyeing, and printing, as well as for spinning. Had it not
Been for this new accession of power and scientific mechanism,
the cotton trade would have been stunted in its growth, and,
compared with its present state, must have become an object
of only minor importance in a national point of view.*
The first instance of the application of steam to cotton
spinning was at Papplewick, in Nottinghamshire, where
Boulton and Watt erected an engine in 1785, for the spirited
proprietors Messrs. Robinson. In 1787, they erected one
engine for Messrs. Puls, cotton spinners, at Warrington,
and three others in Nottingham. Hitherto the hosiery trade
gave the principal demand for power-spun cotton. It was
not till 1789, that the calico trade of Manchester gave birth
to a factory moved by steam, when Mr. Drinkwater mounted
a handsome mill with one of Watt's engines. In 1790, Sir
Richard Arkwright followed his example, in a mill erected
at Nottingham. The same year a second engine, for cotton
spinning, was fitted up in Manchester, for Mr. Simpson, and
also at Papplewick, for Messrs. Robinson. It ought to be
mentioned that Sir Richard had tried steam power at an
earlier period, but, out of an ill-judged economy, he had
adopted Newcomen's machines, rendered rotatory by a heavy
fly-wheel; but seeing his error, he replaced them by engines
of Watt's construction.
The following detailed narrative of the successive im-
provements in mule-spinning, drawn up by one of its greatest
masters, both in theory and practice, will be perused with
much interest by all who love to trace the mighty streams of
our factory wealth up to their fountain head :-(See also Mule
Spinning, vol. ii. p. 117.)
* Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,
vol. iii., 2nd series.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
287
"The introduction of metal rollers and clockwork soon
enabled the mule to be extended to a considerable length, up
to 100 or 130 spindles, but this extension again was soon at
its limit. The tin rollers, which were difficult to make,
being ponderous and of great vibration, another contrivance
was produced to obviate this inconvenience, viz., by placing
vertical cylinders or drums in the carriage. The first attempt
was made, as above stated, by Baker, of Bury.
"Originally he placed upright pulleys in the carriage with
nicks to carry six or eight spindles, with the rim-band
passing over a pulley upon the vertical shaft, so placed as to
give motion to them; this was soon extended to a cylinder
or drum as it is now called, (first made in wood, then in tin,)
to embrace twenty-four to thirty spindles, the wharves being
put on like the strings of a harp to embrace the whole breadth
of the drum. By this means the carriage was soon extended
to a much greater length, and the better construction of the
rollers and their fixtures on the beam, facilitated the enlarge-
ment of the whole machine. The greatest improvement was
the giving motion to the rollers by a diagonal shaft from the
rim to the rollers, which dropped out of gear at the rim
when the rollers were to stop. This was also a contrivance
of Baker.* By this time (1786) there was a great variety of
methods for measuring the number of revolutions of the
front rollers, in order to give out the required length before
the stretching commenced.
"James Hargreaves, of Toddington, contrived the first
method of bringing out the carriage, by a very ingenious
invention. It consisted of a parallel scroll, with a small
conical one attached to the same, for the band, connected
with the carriage, to wind upon; the whole deriving its
motion from the wheel axis. Of course there were many
contrivances to effect the same purpose, such as a wheel with
a pulley upon it, which was forced into a toothed wheel upon
the front roller, with a band upon the pulley connected with
the carriage, which produced a similar effect, and was dis-
engaged when the rollers were stopped. This was continued
for some time; the spinner completing the second draw by
*** The bevelled gear was at this time made of wood, probably cut..
by his own pocket-knife.
288
EARLY HISTORY OF
the hand and knee, which was more or less, according to the
fineness he was spinning.
"The difficulty of obtaining rollers,* spindles, in short, all
the metal parts of these machines, and the preparing machinery
for rovings, added to the want of experienced workmen of
every kind, retarded the progress of the spinning trade much
less than might be supposed. The fear of over-production
then existed, and did exist afterwards from time to time,
which caused a suspension of increase of means, and some-
times even a diminution of produce by the means that were
in existence. This is the case with every infant trade or
manufacture; an obstinate resistance to a reduction of prices
existing, until some enterprising spirit attempts to meet the
market by some simplification, and better arrangement of the
means of production, so as to enable the individual to offer
the article produced at a lower price. This principle will
hold in all our manufactures, and in such seasons of de-
pression the greatest improvements have always been made.
"It would be vain to enumerate all the little additions to
Crompton's original machine; also, as they arose so much.
out of one another, it is impossible to give to every claimant
what is exactly his due for improvements.† It is therefore
only necessary to mention those who have well authenticated
claims to the addition of parts of great importance to the
machine. But the circumstance of the interval being very
short, in making the machine tolerably correct, shows that
many heads must have been at work. What led to the
enlargement and the forming of the parts of the mule, with
additional strength and accuracy, was the application of
artificial power, which was first introduced in 1790, by Mr.
Kelly, of Glasgow, formerly of the Lanark Mills. The way
* "Spindles were obtained from the manufacturers of wool-combs,
and heckles for dressing flax, for the machines of both Hargreaves and
Crompton.
+ The roving-making then became a distinct business, and in this
state the cotton was sold to the little spinners. This was common till
power was applied to the turning of the mule. Mills were then built
of a suitable width, and in the course of a few years the hand-mule
was entirely superseded.
Two years after this, he took a patent for a self-acting mule.-
See his letter to me, January 8th, 1829, in the Encyclopædia Britan-
nica.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
289
in which Kelly applied this artificial power to the usual
hand-mule, was simply by a loose pulley, to which a catch
was attached, which could be made at pleasure to seize
another catch fixed to the axis; on this axis was placed a
screw, which worked into a wheel, the number of whose
teeth governed the number of revolutions of the rim, by
disengaging the rope from the fast to the loose pulley.
Immediately after the introduction of this power, Mr.
Wright, an ingenious machine maker of Manchester, an
apprentice and workman of Sir R. Arkwright's, constructed
the double mule, embracing the advantages of Kelly's appli-
cation of artificial power. The double mule was constructed
by placing the rim in the middle of the frame or rollers. I
believe he had four hundred spindles in this mule, and his
experiment of its success was with a horse-gin or mill, so
that Wright's double mule gradually superseded the use of
the single mule; as, by his manner of placing them, the
spinner could superintend and operate upon four times the
quantity of spindles, compared with the former method.*
"A few years after this, Benjamin Butler, of Bolton, dis-
pensed with the framing of the rim or wheel, extended the
axis to the middle of the roller-beam, and connected it by
gearing with a little coupling shaft, which the front roller
coupled each way. The shaft or axis of the rim was engaged
and disengaged every stretch, to enable the rim to effect the
necessary revolutions of the spindle to complete the thread.
To put up the spun thread, he attached a small rim to the
carriage about the middle of it, and brought the drum-band
over it; thus the little rim was connected with that band
which gave motion to the spindles, and had a handle upon it,
by which the spinner could govern the spindles in the act of
wrapping up the thread. This was called the fanny wheel
or mule, but since that time various modifications of this
kind have been constructed by successive artisans. About
1790, the muslin trade received a great stimulus at Stockport,
from the efforts of the late Samuel Oldknow, whose spirit of
enterprise extended this branch of our manufacture. He took
new ground by copying some of the fabrics imported from
* "The squaring band, though insignificant in itself, was of no
little importance to the mule. It acts like a parallel rule in guiding
out the carriage.
290
EARLY HISTORY. OF
India, which at that time supplied this kingdom with all the
finer fabrics, and which the mule spun yarn alone could
imitate.
"He was very successful in carrying on the ingenious
processes which he had devised; but the French revolution
creating a panic and general stagnation for a time, he
abandoned this branch of the trade, and betook himself to
his large water-mill at Mellor, which was built in the year
1790. On his retiring from the manufacturing of fine mus-
lin, Messrs. Horrocks, who had just established themselves at
Preston as mule spinners, took up what he had laid down.
They became extensive manufacturers of cloth, similar to
that made by Oldknow, and supplied the same market,
London. This gave a new stimulus in that district, and
immediately upon the subsiding of the panic caused by the
French revolution, a market sprung up on the Continent for
yarns of all kinds, but principally for muslin yarns, up to the
highest numbers that could be produced. This gave a
general stimulus all through the kingdom, and Watt's and
Savary's steam-engine supplied power for the mule spinner,
which was soon generally embraced instead of Kelly's appli-
cation of water power, the use of which can only be local.
"The mule spinning now took the lead, and became im-
portant and extensive. The profits being very considerable the
increase was rapid. It was not until 1793 that any attempts
were made in spinning fine yarns, say from 100 hanks up-
wards, by power, when I observed the process very carefully.
The rollers, according to the fineness of the thread, would
only admit of a certain velocity per minute, for instance,
with 200ds the rollers could only go at the rate of twenty-five
or twenty-six per minute, and the spindle about 1,200.
But when the rollers ceased to move, then the spindle was
accelerated by the spinner to nearly double its former speed.
In what manner the acceleration of the speed of the spindle
might be effected by machinery without the aid of the spinner,
was suggested to me, by observing in Mr. Watt's steam-engine,
that one revolution of the beam, (if I may use the expres-
sion,) acting upon the fly-wheel by means of the sun and
planet wheel, produced a double velocity.
"The difficulty, however, of making the necessary appara-
tus at that time, induced me to use the more complicated
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
291
method of four wheels of unequal sizes for producing the
same effect. The description is as follows:-Two of the
wheels were less and two larger; upon the rim-axis were
placed one of the small and one of the large, and the two
others were fixed in a frame which carried the axis upon
which they were placed, and which had a shank or axis grow-
ing to it. This was placed in a vertical position, so that
when the carriage was put up, an arm projecting from this
vertical shank was connected by a wire with a catch which
kept the lying shaft that turned the rollers in gear. In the
elongating process the smaller wheel was in contact with
the larger wheel upon the rim, but when, by the disengage-
ment of the catch, the rollers became still or stationary, at
that moment the larger wheel, by means of a weight, came in
contact with the lesser wheel upon the rim or axis, to which
it communicated a double velocity. The shaft, with its large
and small wheels working alternately, had a pulley with a
catch upon it, and was driven by the mill work, and was
forced into a corresponding catch upon the said little shaft
when the mule was to be set in motion by the steam power
(the power in this instance was Savary's). There was a
worm upon the rim axis with a wheel upon it, the number of
whose teeth determined the revolutions of the rim, as described
in Kelly's single speed.
"The second drawing, which had generally been performed
by hand, had also to be performed by the machine itself.
This had been done in a few instances before power had been
applied. From the simplest of these methods I took the
hint; by driving a shaft from the rim, by a strap from a small
pulley upon the rim-axis, and a large one upon the little axis,
which had a small pinion upon it; so that when the drawing-
out wheel and band were disengaged from the front roller,
they fell back into the little pinion, whose axis was revolving
at a very slow speed, and consequently gave a much slower
speed to the second stretch or draw, (as it was called,) the
speed of which was more or less according to the numbers to
De spun. Messrs. A. & G. Murray at that time (like myself
and partners) were machine makers, and to a small extent
were engaged in fine spinning by hand. They fitted up, on
the principle described, a few pairs of hand mules, which
they had previously made, wherein they adopted these con-

292
EARLY HISTORY OF
trivances, for one of their customers in Derbyshire, who had
artificial power.
"Mr. Drinkwater, of Manchester, was the most extensive
fine spinner at the time of which I speak. He was one of
the early water spinners, and in possession of the most per-
fect system of roving making. His large mill in Piccadilly
was filled with mules of 144 spindles, each of which was
worked by men's hands.
"Mr. Owen was then his manager, and they came to
see the new machine in 1793. They approved of it, and
thought it practical. Mr. Humphries, of Glasgow, who was
a good mechanic, and succeeded Mr. Owen as manager, also
approved of the scheme, and got instructions to apply this
system of power to his fine work produced by the mules
in Piccadilly mill; and, to make its advantages available, he
coupled these 144 together, so that he saved one-half of the
steam gearing, and obtained a reduction in the price of
spinning, the spinner having double the number of spindles
to operate upon. Mr. H. made an improvement in the four
wheels already described, by keeping them always in gear
with a loose clutch between the two wheels on the rim shaft,
which was alternately fastening the little driving wheel, and
then relieving it and fastening the larger, which accelerated
the speed of the rim, with a loose pulley as already described
in my first. This prevailed for some years, when I thought
that this might be simplified, which was done by adopting
three pulleys, namely, one on the small wheel, and another on
the larger wheel, with a loose pulley; and by removing the
driving strap, which was on the loose pulley when the mule
was at rest, to the pulley on the smaller wheel when the
rollers were to work. Then the strap was removed to the
pulley on the larger wheel, which accelerated the rim and
spindles until the thread was completed, and the strap being
removed to the loose pulley, the whole machine came to rest,
and the thread was put up by the spinner in the ordinary
way. I was now able to construct the sun and planet wheel
for the acceleration of the speed of the spindle, which was as
follows:-the sun and planet wheel had only two wheels and
one pulley, with a clutch that fastened the sun wheel, when
the accelerated motion was required. Many other modifica-
tions were introduced, but the four wheels prevailed, some of
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
293
which for convenience I constructed by making them bevels,
and placing their axes vertically to get motion from an up-
right shaft, which produced the same effect as the spur wheels.
This was suggested to me by Mr. Lee, of Salford, and I made
him a model of one in 1800.
66
Having thus briefly explained the principal modifications
of fine spinning by power, I have only to add, that they
produced a great change in the value of the fine yarn, and,
consequently, a great extension of its use. The Scotch in
Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire, being long in the habit of
weaving fine cambric from flax yarn and silk gauzes, had also
turned their hands to the manufacture of fine cotton fabrics,
principally from the fine yarns produced by Hargreaves',
and other subsequent machines. The Lancashire manufac-
turers followed them in the thicker and firmer fabrics."*
-
What a warning voice does the fate of Hargreaves and
Crompton send forth to inventors and improvers of the useful
arts! how strongly does it justify the sound sense and self-re-
specting energy of Arkwright! Until man, the slave of selfish-
ness, be regenerated by the spirit of Christian philanthropy,
it is folly akin to fatuity for an industrious operative to
surrender to the comparatively rich, without a fair equivalent,
the fruits of his ingenious toils in hopes of requital from the
world at large. How absurd such expectations are, we daily
see exemplified in the scandalous effrontery with which
avarice appropriates to its insatiable desires discoveries
which its dark spirit could never have elicited, acting in
defiance, not merely of honour and honesty, but of the most
positive sanctions of law. What shabby tricks, nay, what
infamous perjury does not almost every case of patent litiga-
tion display!
No contrivance was better entitled to the reward of an
exclusive privilege for a certain number of years than the
mule of Crompton. How many individuals, far his inferior
in mechanical, moral and intellectual merit, has it enriched!
Had he received but 1s. per annum for each spindle worked
on his elegant plan during fourteen years, a contribution
which no honest manufacturer should have grudged, such an
* A Brief Memoir of Samuel Crompton, by John Kennedy, Esq.
Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,
February 20th, 1830.
294
EARLY HISTORY OF
income would have been placed at the disposal of the worthy
contriver, as, while it provided him with a dignified independ-
ence, would have done honour to his compatriots, and have
encouraged genius in every coming age. It is, in fact, as
much for the interest of society, to protect property in inven-
tion, as under any other form.
Some idea may be had of the pecuniary value of Cromp-
ton's machine, even in its rudest state, from the following
facts:-Immediately on completing it, in 1775, he obtained
14s. per pound for the mere preparation and spinning of No.
40, whereas, in 1833, a pound of No. 40 mule-weft could be
bought for 18. altogether, of which the cotton wool cost 8d.,
leaving only 4d. for spinning. The price now paid for spin-
ning one pound of cotton into thirty-six hanks weft, and
returning one pound of yarn, (there being one ounce and a
half waste per pound,) is only fivepence !* A short time
after the above date, Crompton was paid £1 5s. for spinning
a pound of yarn, No. 60, and at the rate of £2 28. a pound for
a small experimental quantity of No. 80; in 1786, 10s. a
pound were paid for the mere spinning, exclusive of the pre-
paration, of No. 100, but in 1790 the price fell to less than
4s.; about 8d. per pound is now paid for the spinning and
preparation of such yarn.
The first water-mill erected in Ireland for spinning cotton
twist was built in the neighbourhood of Belfast. In the
year 1771, at which time there was not a single cotton-loom
in the whole north of Ireland, the late Robert Joy conceived
the scheme of introducing into that then desponding kingdom
the cotton manufacture, which has proved a source of indus-
try and considerable opulence to the sister island. Having,
in conjunction with Thomas M'Cabe, suggested that the
spinning of cotton yarn might, as an introductory step to the
establishment of the manufacture, be a fit and profitable em-
ployment for the children in the Belfast poor-house, several
of them were set to work on the common wheel; but the
novel machinery in England, giving that country so great a
superiority, it was found that no benefit could be gained with-
out the introduction of it there. A spinning machine was
therefore made in Belfast, under the direction of Mr. N.

* Mr. George Smith-Committee on Manufactures, p. 569.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
295
:
Grimshaw, cotton and linen printer from England, who had
some time before settled in Ireland; and shortly after an
experienced spinner was brought over by Mr. Joy, from
Scotland, to instruct the children in the poor-house; also,
under the same direction, and at the expense of the gentlemen
mentioned, a carding machine was erected at Mr. Grimshaw's,
to go by water, which was afterwards removed to the poor-
house, and wrought by hand. A firm was now formed of
the original projectors and others, under the name of Joys,
M'Cabe, and M'Cracken, who contracted with the same
charitable institution for the employment of a number of its
children, as well as for the use of its vacant rooms. They also
despatched a skilful mechanic to England, who, at personal
risk and considerable expense, procured a minute knowledge
of the improved machinery there, which the proprietors and
inventors wished to have kept secret from the Continent as
well as Ireland. But so far from confining their hopes of
gain to themselves, these gentlemen encouraged the public.
to avail itself of their improvements; they exposed the
machinery to open view, permitted numbers even from distant
parts to be taught in their apartments, without any charge for
such indulgence, and promoted the progress of the manufac-
ture of cottons, dimities, and Marseilles-quilting, equally by
example and instruction. These exertions were in time
followed on an enlarged scale by Messrs. Nathaniel Wilson
and Nicholas Grimshaw; to the talents, property, and adven-
turous spirit of the former of these gentlemen, and to the
practical knowledge, genius, and industry of the latter, Ire-
land stands very highly indebted. The first mill for spinning
twist by water there was built by them in the year 1784, from
which year the Irish cotton manufactures were considered to
be firmly established.
In the year 1800, only twenty-three years from the origin
of the enterprise by Joy and M'Cabe, it appeared in evidence
before Parliament that the cotton manufacture which they
had thus introduced gave employment to 13,500 working
people, and including all manner of persons, occupied in
various ways, to 37,000, within a circuit of only ten miles,
but comprehending within its bounds the towns of Belfast
and Lisburn. In less than ten years from their first intro-
duction into the country, several thousand looms were em-
296
EARLY HISTORY OF
I
ployed in the manufacture of cotton in the towns of Belfast,
Lisburn, and Hillsborough; at present there are eight very
large cotton mills in Belfast and its immediate vicinity, and
seven others in different neighbouring towns; and, although
it be difficult to estimate the number of hands engaged in
these mills, it is calculated that those in and about Belfast
give employment to 30,000 individuals.*
At the period of the remarkable development of the
cotton trade in 1787, it happened, unluckily for the British
manufacturers, that the East India Company had a very great
stock of piece goods in their warehouses, which caused a
general depreciation of their value; the manufacturers became
alarmed, and presented to the Committee of the Privy Council
for Trade a memorial, charging the said Company with having
augmented the quantity of their imports of cotton fabrics,
and with lowering their prices, in order to ruin the home
establishments, and destroy British industry in favour of
their subjects in Hindostan and of their European commerce.
The accusation being transmitted by the Committee of the
Privy Council to the Company, it received so complete an
answer as to convince the Committee that if any restrictions
were imposed on the Company's sales, their trade would be
thrown into the hands of foreigners, and thereby give occa-
sion to very extensive smuggling for home consumption.
And, indeed, when we consider that these East India goods
were always sold by public auction, it is evident that the
demand must regulate the price, which is fixed by the buyers
themselves, for the Company would always take the highest
price they could obtain. Neither was the glut of goods
which now overwhelmed the market, and pressed so hard
upon the manufacturers of small capital, permanently hurtful
to the cotton trade, but, on the contrary, of the greatest
eventual advantage, for it caused a vast number of new
channels of sale and consumption to be opened, thus dif-
fusing a taste for those fine fabrics in the remotest villages
of the kingdom, where they had been quite unknown before.
Hence the way was paved for a widely extended demand for
the productions of both the British and the Indian work-
shops, by which the regular sales were increased twenty-fold.
*Hardy's Northern Tourist.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
297
Women of all ranks, from the highest to the lowest, began to
be clothed in British cotton manufactures, from the muslin
cap upon the crown of their head to the stocking under the
sole of their foot. The taste and skill of the calico printers
kept pace with the ingenuity of the spinners and weavers,
and produced patterns of coloured goods, exceeding in beauty
and durability of wear everything imported from the East.
On occasion of the above-mentioned panic a pamphlet was
published, to warn the country of its danger from the com-
petition of the East Indies in the cotton trade. The author
of this work seems as a partisan to have greatly exaggerated
the extent of the business at the time, and must therefore be
followed with many modifications. He states that about the
year 1768 the whole cotton trade of Great Britain did not
return £200,000 to the country for the raw material, com-
bined with the labour of the people, and that before the
introduction of the jenny and water-twist machines the pro-
duction of the single-thread wheel could not exceed that of
50,000 spindles. Here he certainly underrates the extent of
the manufacture, for at the period in question 4,000,000 lbs.
of cotton wool were consumed per annum, and their value
must have been more than doubled by labour, constituting a
total value of at least £500,000.
In 1787 the number of cotton spinning mills in England
and Wales is rated by the pamphlet writer at 145, and their
cost at £715,000, an amount much beyond the truth; for,
though many mills were worth more than £5,600, yet that
sum certainly far exceeded their average value. There were
said to be at the same time 550 mule frames and 20,700
jennies, containing, together with the water-twist frames,
1,951,000 spindles, the cost of which, and of the auxiliary
machinery, was reckoned to have been at least £285,000, con-
stituting a total value vested in spinning mills of £1,000,000
sterling.
These establishments, when in full activity, were esti-
mated by him to be capable of producing as much cotton
yarn as 1,000,000 persons could spin when diligently em-
ployed at the domestic wheel; yet, instead of diminishing
the occupations of the people, as had been apprehended,
they gave vast numbers the means of a comfortable live-
lihood.

VOL. I.
U
298
EARLY HISTORY OF
Spinning and its subsidiary labours gave employment,
according to the same pamphleteer, to
26,000 men, 31,000 women, and 55,000 children ;
Weaving, calico-printing, &c., gave employment to
133,000 men, 59,000 women, and 48,000 children :
making an aggregate of
159,000 men, 90,000 women, and 101,000 children;
or of 350,000 individuals altogether.
If we take one-half of the above numbers we shall be tolerable
near the truth.
The cotton wool imported in the year 1787 amounted to
23,250,268 lbs., whereas in 1781 it was little more than
5,000,000. The cotton consumed in the manufactures of
1787 was of the following descriptions :-
British West India estimated at
•
French and Spanish Colonies
Dutch Colonies
Portuguese ditto.
East India, via Ostend
•
Smyrna and Turkey .
6,600,000 lbs.
6,000,000
1,700,000
2,500,000
100,000
5,700,000
22,600,000
The distribution of the raw material among the different
manufactures was estimated to be as follows:-
Candle-wicks
Hosiery
Silk and linen mixtures
Fustians
Calicoes and muslins
1,500,000 lbs.
I,500,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
11,600,000
22,600,000
'The weight of the manufactured articles would be less by
fully 10 per cent. from waste in the processes.
It is a curious fact that muslins were manufactured at
Zurich and St. Gall, in Switzerland, long before they were
made in this country; but, when our mule-jennies came into
play, they soon enabled England to outstrip and crush all
THE FACTORY SYSTEM.
299
foreign competitors in that fine fabric. It has been com-
puted that in the year 1787 not less than 500,000 pieces of
muslin, with shawls and handkerchiefs, were produced in
Great Britain.
Muslin weaving was attempted at Paisley so long ago as
the year 1700, but it was soon suppressed, in consequence of
the large importations of that article from India. The germ,
after lying dormant for eighty years, rapidly expanded into
a flourishing business, showing a singular aptitude in the
people of that town for this elegant branch of the cotton
trade.
300
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
THERE is no textile substance whose filaments are so sus-
ceptible of being spun into fine threads of uniform twist,
strength, and diameter, as cotton wool. It derives this
property from the smoothness, tenacity, flexibility, elasticity,
peculiar length, and spiral form of the filaments; hence,
when a few of them are pulled from a heap with the fingers
and thumb, they lay hold of and draw out many others.
Were they much longer they could not be so readily
attenuated into a fine thread, and were they much shorter
the thread would be deficient in cohesion. Even the dif-
ferences in the lengths of the cotton staple are of advantage
in adapting them to different styles of spinning and different
textures of cloth.
If we take a tuft of cotton wool in the left hand, and,
seizing the projecting fibres with the right, slowly draw
them out, we shall perceive with what remarkable facility
they glide past each other, and yet retain their mutual
connection, while they are extended and arranged in parallel
lines, so as to form a little riband, susceptible of considerable
elongation. This demonstration of the ductility, so to speak,
of cotton wool, succeeds still better upon the carded fleece, in
which the filaments have acquired a certain parallelism; for
in this case the tiny riband, in being drawn out by the fingers
to a moderate length, may, at the same time, receive a gentle
twist, to preserve its cohesion, till it becomes a fine thread.
Hence we may imagine the steps to be taken or the
mechanical processes to be pursued in cotton spinning.
After freeing the wool of the plant from all foreign sub-
stances of a lighter or a heavier nature, the next thing is to
arrange the filaments in lines as parallel as possible, then to
extend them into regular ribands, to elongate these ribands
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
301
by many successive draughts, doubling, quadrupling, or even
octupling them meanwhile, so as to give them perfect
equality of size, consistence, and texture, and at the same
time to complete the parallelism of the fibres by undoing the
natural convolutions they possess in the pod. When the
rectilinear extension has been thus carried to the fineness
required by the spinner, or to that compatible with the
staple, a slight degree of torsion must accompany the further
attenuation; which torsion may be either momentary, as in
the tube roving machine, or permanent, as in the bobbin-
and-fly frame. Finally, the now greatly attenuated soft
thread called a fine roving is drawn out and twisted into
finished cotton yarn, either by continuous indefinite grada-
tions of drawing and twisting, as in the throstle, or by
successive stretches and torsions of considerable lengths at
a time, as in the mule.
Mechanical spinning consists in the suitable execution of
these different processes by a series of different machines.
After the carding operation, these are made to act simulta-
neously upon a multitude of ribands and spongy cords or
threads by a multitude of mechanical hands and fingers.
However simple and natural the above described course of
manufacture may appear to be, innumerable difficulties stood
for ages in the way of its accomplishment, and so formidable
were they as to render their entire removal of late years in
the cotton factories of England one of the greatest and most
honourable achievements of human genius.
The modern art of spinning cotton by machinery, which
has long since supplanted that by the hand-wheel throughout
civilized Europe and America, consists of the following
operations :-
1. The cleaning and opening up or loosening the flocks of
cotton wool, as imported in the bags, so as to separate at
once the coarser and heavier impurities as well as those of a
lighter and finer kind.
2. The carding, which is intended to disentangle every
tuft or knot, to remove every remaining impurity which
might have eluded the previous operation, and finally to
prepare for arranging the fibres in parallel lines, by laying
the cotton first in a fleecy web, and then in a riband form.
3. The doubling and drawing out of the card-ends or
302
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
ribands, in order to complete the parallelism of the filaments,
and to equalize their quality and texture.
4. The roving operation, whereby the drawings made in
the preceding process are greatly attenuated, with no more
twist than is indispensable to preserve the uniform con-
tinuity of the spongy cords; which twist either remains in
them, or is taken out immediately after the attenuation.
5. The fine roving and stretching come next; the former
operation being effected by the fine bobbin-and-fly frame,
the latter by the stretcher mule.
6. The spinning operation finishes the extension and twist
of the yarn, and is done either in a continuous manner by the
water twist and throstle, or discontinuously by the mule; in
the former the yarn is progressively drawn, twisted, and
wound upon the bobbins; in the latter it is drawn out and
twisted in lengths of about 56 inches, which are then wound
all at once upon the spindles.
7. The seventh operation is the winding, doubling, and
singeing of the yarns, to fit them for the muslin, the stocking,
or the bobbin-net lace manufacture.
8. The packing-press, for making up the yarn into bundles
for the market, concludes this series.
9. To the above may be added the operations of the
dressing-machines, and,
10. The power-looms.
The site of the factory ought to be carefully selected in
reference to the health of the operatives, the cheapness of
provisions, the facilities of transport for the raw materials,
and the convenience of a market for the manufactured articles.
An abundant supply of labour, as well as fuel and water for
mechanical power, ought to be primary considerations in set-
ting down a factory. It should therefore be placed, if
possible, in a populous village, near a river or a canal, but in a.
situation free from marsh malaria, and with such a slope to
the voider stream as may insure the ready discharge of all
liquid impurities. These circumstances happily conspire in
the districts of Stockport, Hyde, Stayley Bridge, Duckenfield,
Bury, Blackburn, &c., and have eminently favoured the
rapid extension of the cotton manufactures for which these
places are pre-eminent.
The situation chosen by Mr. Orrell for the factory repre-
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
303

!
D
sented in perspective in fig. 21 is particularly good. It
stands about half a mile from Stockport, in a beautiful
meadow, stretching along a branch of the Mersey, the grand
b
ДОБ
Fig. 21.-Perspective View of a Modern Cotton Factory. Mr. Orrell's Great Mill, near Stockport.
304
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
river feeder of the cotton trade of England. At a little dis-
tance the ground rises in gentle eminences, and affords a
convenient knoll for sustaining the great chimney stalk of
the boiler flues, sufficiently distant from the spinning-factory
to free it entirely from smoke. The mill consists of a main
body, a, with two lateral wings, b, b, projecting forwards, the
latter being appropriated to store-rooms, a counting-house,
rooms for winding the yarn on bobbins, and other miscella-
neous purposes. The building has six floors, besides the
attic story. The ground plan comprehends a plot of ground
280 feet long by 200 feet broad, exclusive of the boiler sheds,
or the low building seen to the right hand in the perspective
view.*
The right-hand end A, plate 1.,† of the principal building,
is separated from the main body by a strong wall, and serves
in the three lower stories for accommodating two ninety-horse
steam-engines, which are supplied with steam from a range of
boilers, as above said, contained in a low shed, c, fig. 21,
exterior to the mill.
The three upper stories over the steam-engine gallery are
used for unpacking, sorting, picking, cleaning, willowing,
batting, and lapping the cotton wool. Here are the willow,
the blowing, and the lap machines, in a descending order, so
that the lap machine occupies the lowest of the three floors,
being thus most judiciously placed on the same level with the
preparation-room of the building. On the fourth main floor
of the factory there are, in the first place, a line of carding
engines arranged, near, and parallel to, the windows, as shown
at B, B, in the ground plan, plate 1; and, in the second
place, two rows of drawing frames, and two of bobbin-and-fly
frames, in alternate lines, parallel to each other, as indicated
by D, C, D, C, for the drawing frames, and E, E, E, E, for
the bobbin-and-fly frames in the ground plan. The latter
machines are close to the centre of the apartment.
The two stories next under the preparation-room are occu-
pied with throstle frames, distributed as shown at F, F, in the
ground plan. They stand in pairs alongside of each other,
whereby two may be tended by one person. These princi-
* The artist has taken a little licence in the sketch, by giving it.
seven stories instead of six.
† See plate 1., at the end of the volume.
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
305
pal rooms are 280 feet long, and nearly 50 feet wide. The
two stories over the preparation-room, viz., the fifth and sixth
floors from the ground, are appropriated to the mule jennies,
which are placed in pairs fronting each other, so that each
pair may be worked by one man. Their mode of distribution
is shown at G, G, in the ground plan. The last single mule is
seen standing against the end wall, with its head-stock pro-
jecting in the middle.
The ground floor of the main building, as well as the ex-
tensive shed abutted behind it, marked by N, H, H, in the
plan, is devoted to the power-looms, the mode of placing
which is plainly seen at H, H, H.
The attic story accommodates the warping mills, and the
warp dressing machines subservient to power-weaving.
The winding machines, and some extra mules (self-actors),
are placed in the wings; the five winding machines being in
the two top rooms of the left wing.
We shall briefly sum up the references in the ground plan
as follows:-
A, the grand apartment for the steam-engines.
B, the distribution of the carding engines, the moving
shaft or axis running in a straight line through them, with its
pulleys for receiving the driving bands.
C, C, the drawing frames.
D, D, the jack, or coarse bobbin-and-fly frames.
E, E, the fine roving or bobbin-and-fly frames.
F, the arrangement of the throstle frames, standing in pairs
athwart the gallery, in the second and third flats.
G, the mules, are here represented by their roller beams,
and the outlines of their head-stocks, as placed in the fifth
and sixth stories.
H, the looms, with their driving-pulleys projecting from
the ends of their main axes. Sometimes the looms are placed
in parallel straight lines, with the rigger-pulleys of the one
alternately projecting more than the other, to permit the free
play of the driving-belts; sometimes the looms are placed, as
generally in this engraving, alternately to the right and left,
by a small space, when the pulleys may all project equally.
The former plan is the one adopted in Mr. Orrell's mill.
I, represents the cast-iron girders which support the floors
of this fire-proof building.
306.
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
K, K, are closets placed in each floor, in the recesses of a
kind of pilasters built against the outside of the edifice.
These hollow shafts are joined at top by horizontal pipes,
which all terminate in a chest connected with the suction
axes of a fan, whereby a constant draught of air circulates up
the shafts, ventilates the apartments, and prevents the reflux
of offensive effluvia from the water-closets, however careless
the workpeople may be. The tunnels towards the one end
of the building are destined for the men-towards the other
for the women.
L, L, are the staircases, of a horse-shoe form, the interior
space or shaft in the middle being used for the teagle or
hoist, as figured and described at page 47, et seq., of the
Philosophy of Manufactures. In the posterior part of the
shaft a niche or groove is left for the counterweight to slide
in, out of the way of the ascending and descending platform.
M, M, are the two porters' lodges, connected to the corner
of each wing by a handsome iron balustrade. They are
joined by an iron gate.
It will be observed that the back loom-shed has only one
story, as shown in section plate 2.
In the ground plan of the shed,
N represents the roofing, of wood-work.
The rafters of the floors rest at their ends upon an iron
plate, or shoe with edges (as it is called), for the girders to
bear upon.
The two steam-engines, of fully ninety horse-power each,
operate by cranks, which stand at right angles upon the shaft
marked a, both in the plan and section plates 1 and 2. In
the centre, between the bearings, is a large cog-wheel, driving
a smaller one upon the shaft marked b in both plates, to
which the fly-wheel c belongs. That prime motion wheel is
magnificent, and possesses a strength equal to a strain of
300 horses. From this shaft motion is given to the main
or upright shaft d in the section by two bevel-wheels, visible
at the side and on the top of the great block of stone, about
five tons weight, plate 2, which gives a solid basis to the
whole moving apparatus.
The velocity of the piston in these steam-engines is 240
feet per minute.
The first shaft makes 44°3 revolutions per minute.
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
307
The main upright shaft 58.84 ditto, ditto.
The steam-engines make 16 strokes per minute; and the
length of their stroke is 7 feet 6 inches.
As the one engine exerts its maximum force when the other
has no force at all, and as the one increases as the other
diminishes in the course of each pair of strokes, the two thus
co-operate in imparting an equable impulsion to the great
gearing and shafts, which, being truly made, highly polished,
and placed in smooth bearings of hard brass, revolve most
silently and without those vibrations which so regularly re-
curred in the older factories, and proved so detrimental to
the accurate performance of delicate spinning-frames.
To the horizontal ramifications from the upright shaft any
desired velocity of rotation may be given by duly proportion-
ing the diameters of the bevelled wheels of communication
between them: thus-if the wheel on the end of the hori-
zontal shaft have one-half or one-third the diameter of the
other, it will give it a double or a triple speed.
In the lowest floor the second bevel-wheel above the stone
block drives the horizontal shaft e, seen in the ground plan;
and thereby the horizontal shaft f, at right angles to the
former, which runs throughout the length of the building, as
the other did through its breadth backwards. The shaft f
lies alongside of the back-window wall, near the ceiling; and
from it the transverse slender shafts proceed to the right and
left in the main building, and to the shed behind it, each of
them serving to drive two lines of looms. These slender or
branch shafts are mounted with pulleys, each of which drives
four looms by four separate bands.
In the second and third floors, where the throstles are
placed, the shaft d is seen in the section plate to drive the
following shafts :—
Upon the main upright shaft, d, there are in each of these
stories two horizontal bevel-wheels, with their faces fronting
each other (shown plainly over d, d), by which are moved two
smaller vertical bevel-wheels, on whose respective axes are
two parallel shafts, one over each other, g, g, which traverse
the whole length of the building. These two shafts move
therefore with equal velocities, and in opposite directions.
They run along the middle space of each apartment; and
wherever they pass the rectangular line of two throstle frames
308
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
(as shown at F in the ground plan) they are each provided
with a pulley; while the steam-pulleys on the axes of two
contiguous throstles in one line are placed as far apart as the
two diameters of the said shaft-pulleys. An endless strap
goes from the pulley of the uppermost horizontal shaft, I,
round the steam or driving-pulley of one throstle frame; then
up over the pulley of the second or lower shaft, g; next over
the steam-pulley of a second throstle; and, lastly, up to the
pulley of the top shaft, g.—See g, g, in the throstle floors of
the cross section, plate 2.
In the preparation-room three horizontal shafts are led
pretty close to the ceiling, through the whole length of the
building. The middle one, h (see the plan, plate 1), is
driven immediately by bevel-wheels from the main upright
shaft, d, (plate 2.) The two side ones, i, i, which run near
the window walls, are driven by two horizontal shafts, which
lead to these side shafts. The latter are mounted with pulleys,
in correspondence with the steam-pulleys of the two lines of
carding-engines, as seen between the cards in the plan. The
middle shaft, h, drives the two lines of bobbin-and-fly frames,
E, E, E, E (see cross section); and short shafts, i, i, seen in
the cross section of this floor, moved from the middle shaft,
h, turning in gallows fixed to the ceiling, over the drawing and
jack frames, give motion to the latter two sets of machines.
See C, D, in the cross section, plate 2.
To drive the mules in the uppermost story, a horizontal
shaft, k, (see longitudinal and cross sections, as well as
ground plan,) runs through the middle line of the building,
and receives motion from bevel-wheels placed on the main
upright shaft, d, immediately beneath the ceiling of the
uppermost story. From that horizontal shaft, k, at every
second mule, a slender upright shaft, l, passing through both
stories, is driven. (See both sections.) Upon these upright
branch-shafts are pulleys in each story, one of which serves
for two mules, standing back to back against each other.
To the single mules at the ends of the rooms the motions are
given by still slenderer upright shafts, which stand upon the
head-stocks, and drive them by wheel-work, the steps (top
bearings) of the shafts being fixed to brackets in the ceiling.
In the attic, a horizontal shaft, m, m, runs lengthwise near
the middle of the roof, and is driven by wheel-work from the
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
309
upright shaft: this shaft, m, gives motion to the warping-
mills and dressing machines.
This cotton-mill having been recently erected, according
to plans devised and executed by that very eminent engineer
Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, may be justly reckoned a model
of factory architecture. It was calculated for, and will be
mounted with, eleven hundred power-looms, of which one
hundred require steam-power equivalent to twenty-five horses
to impel them, inclusive of the preparation and spinning
operations competent to supply the looms with yarn.
third steam-engine will be added.
À
Ten looms, with the requisite dressing, without spinning,
are considered to be equivalent to one horse's power in a
steam-engine.
Steam-power equivalent to one horse will drive-
500 mule spindles,
300 self-actor spindles,
180 throstle spindles, of the common construction,
in which estimate the requisite preparation processes are
included.
In Mr. Orrell's mill there are 6,474 spindles in
each of the throstle-frame floors
Spindles.
12,948
And fourteen pairs of mules in each of the two
mule floors-containing altogether
24,928
Nineteen self-actors in the wing-containing
·
7,984
45,860
Total yarn spindles
One of the most compact and best-regulated modern
factories, on the small scale, which I visited in Lancashire,
consisted of the following system of machines :—
One willow, one blowing machine, one lap machine,
capable, together, of cleaning and lapping 9,000 pounds of
cotton per week, if required.
Twenty-one cards, breakers, and finishers, which carded
5,000 pounds of cotton every week of 69 hours' work, being
about 240 pounds per card.
3 drawing frames, of 3 heads each.
3 coarse bobbin-and-fly frames.
7
fine
do.
do. No stretcher mule.
12 self-actor mules, of Sharp and Roberts's construction,
of 404 spindles each 4,848 mule spindles.
310
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
10 throstle frames, of 236 spindles each = 2,360 spindles.
7 dressing machines.
236 power-looms.
2 warping-mills.
300 winding spindles for winding the warp.
The rovings have four hanks in the pound, and are spun
into yarn No. 38, on the throstle, as well as the mule.
One bobbin of the roving (compressed) lasts five days on
the self-actors, and six days on the throstles.
According to the estimate of Peile and Williams, of
Manchester, 66 horses' power of a steam-engine are equi-
valent to 396 power-looms, including 16 dressing machines;
the cloth being 36 inches wide upon the average; and the
yarn varying in fineness from 12's to 40's, the mean being
26's. Here, the spinning and preparation not being included,
the allowance of power will appear to be high. The esti-
mate given above assigns ten looms, with the requisite dress-
ing, to one horse; but the latter assigns no more than six.
For the following experimental results, carefully made
with an improved steam-engine indicator, upon the principle
of Mr. Watt's construction, I am indebted to Mr. Bennet, an
eminent engineer in Manchester. His mode of proceeding
was to determine, first of all, the power exerted by the factory
steam-engine when all the machines of the various floors
were in action; then to detach, or throw out of gear, each
system of machines, and to note the diminution of force
now exercised. Finally, when all the machines were dis-
engaged, he determined the power requisite to move the
engine itself, as well as the great gearing wheels and shafts
of the factory.
He found at the factory of J. A. Beaver, Esq., in Man-
chester, that
500 calico looms (without dressing) took the power of 33
horses, which assigns fifteen looms to one horse power.
At Messrs. Birlie's factory, in Manchester, he found that
1,080 spindles in 3 self-actor mules took 2.59 horses
being 417 spindles for one horse power; that
3,960 spindles in II self-actors took 8.33 horses, being 475
spindles per horse power;
1,080 spindles in 3 self-actors took 2 horses, being 540
spindles per horse.
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
311
At Messrs. Clarke and Sons', in Manchester, that
585 looms for weaving fustians of various breadths took
54 horses' power, exclusive of dressing machines; being
II looms to 1 horse.
At J. A. Beaver's, on another occasion, he found that
1,200 spindles, of Danforth's construction, took 21 horses,
being 57 spindles per horse power; and that in a
second trial the power of 22 horses was required for
the same effect; being 54 Danforth spindles per horse
power.
An excellent engine of Messrs. Bolton and Watt, being
tried by the indicator, afforded the following results in a
factory :-
A 60-horse boat-engine (made as for a steam-
boat) took 14 horses' power to drive the
engine with the shafts
3 blowing machines, with their three fans
10 dressing machines
12 self-actor mules, of 360 spindles each (720
spindles per horse power)
14.5
21.55
10.25
6.00
6 Danforth throstle frames, containing 570
spindles (96 in each), being 93 spindles to a
horse power
At Bollington, in a worsted-mill, he found that
6.20
106 spindles, including preparation, took one horse power
upon throstles. N.B. There is no carding in the long
wool or worsted manufacture for Merinos.
At Bradford, in Yorkshire, he found that
A 40-horse power boat-engine, of Bolton and Watt's, drove
598 calico-looms,
6 dressing machines (equivalent to dress warp for 180 of
the said looms), and
I mechanic's workshop, which took 2 horses' power.
Other engineers estimate 200 common throstle spindles,
by themselves, to be equivalent to the power of one horse.
The shafts which drive the cards revolve about 120 times
per minute, with a driving-pulley of from 15 to 17 inches in
diameter.
The shafts of the drawing, and the bobbin-and-fly frames,
revolve from 160 to 200 times per minute, with pulleys from
8 to 24 inches in diameter.
312
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
14
The shafts of throstle frames in general turn at the rate of
from 220 to 240 times per minute, with driving-pulleys 18
inches in diameter, when they are spinning yarn of from
No. 35's to 40's. The shafts of mules revolve about 130
times per minute, with pulleys 16 inches in diameter.
The shafts of power looms revolve from 110 to 120 times
per minute, with pulleys 15 inches in diameter.
The shafts of dressing machines revolve 60 times per
minute, with pulleys 14 inches in diameter.
Before quitting the generalitics of the cotton manufacture
I may state the following facts, communicated also by
Mr. Bennet :-
2
A waggon-shaped boiler, well set, will evaporate 12 cubic
feet of water with 1 cwt. of coals; and a steam-boiler with
winding flues will evaporate 17 cubic feet with the same
weight of fuel: 77% pounds of coals to the former boiler are
equivalent to a horse's power exerted for an hour, estimating
that a horse can raise 33,000 pounds I foot high in a
minute.
The first cotton mill upon the fire-proof plan was erected,
I believe, by the Messrs. Strutt, at Belper, in the year 1797;
that of Messrs. Phillips and Lee, at Manchester, in 1801;
that of H. Houldsworth, Esq., of Glasgow, in 1802; and
that of James Kennedy, at Manchester, in 1805; since
which time all good factories have been built fire-proof, like
Mr. Orrell's.
The heating of the apartments of cotton-factories is
effected by a duc distribution of cast-iron pipes, of about
seven or eight inches diameter, which are usually suspended
a little way below the ceilings, traverse the rooms in their
whole length, and are filled with steam from boilers exterior
to the building. It has been ascertained that one cubic foot
of boiler will heat fully more than two thousand cubic feet of
space in a cotton-mill, and maintain it at the temperature of
about 75° Fahr. If we reckon twenty-five cubic feet contents
of water in a waggon-shaped steam-boiler as equivalent to a
horse's power, such a boiler would be capable of warming
fifty thousand cubic feet of space; and therefore a ten-horse
steam-boiler will be able to heat five hundred thousand cubic
feet of air, from the average temperature, 50° of our climate,
up to 75°, or perhaps even to 80° Fahr.
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
313
It has been also ascertained that, in a well-built cotton-
mill, one superficial foot of exterior surface of cast-iron steam-
pipe will warm two hundred cubic feet of air. In common
cases, for heating churches and public rooms, I believe that
one-half of the above heating surface will be found adequate
to produce a sufficiently genial temperature in the air. The
temperature of the steam is supposed to be the same with
that in Mr. Watt's low-pressure engines, only a few degrees
above 212°,—the boiling-point of water.
The pipes must be freely slung and left at liberty to
expand and contract under the changes of temperature, having
one end at least connected with a flexible pipe of copper or
wrought iron, of a swan-neck shape. Through this pipe the
water of condensation is allowed to run off. The pipes
should not be laid in a horizontal direction, but have a sufficient
slope to discharge the water. The pipes are cast from half
an inch to three quarters thick in the metal. In practice the
expansion of steam-pipes of cast iron may be taken at about
one-tenth of an inch in a length of ten feet, when they are
heated from a little above the freezing to the boiling point of
water. The upper surface of a horizontal steam-pipe is apt
to become hotter than the bottom, if the water be allowed to
stagnate in it; the difference being occasionally so great, as to
cause a pipe sixty feet long to be bent up two inches in the
middle.
In arranging the steam-pipes provision ought to be made
not only for the discharge of the water of condensation, as above
stated, but for the ready escape of the air; otherwise the
steam will not enter freely. Even after the pipes are filled
with steam, a little of it should be allowed to escape at some
extreme orifice, to prevent the re-accumulation of air dis-
charged from the water of the steam-boiler. In consequence
of water being left in the pipes serious accidents may happen;
for, the next time the steam is admitted into them, the regu-
larity of heating and expansion is impeded, some part of the
pipe may crack, or a violent explosion may take place, and the
joints may be racked to a very considerable distance, every
way, from the place of rupture, by the alternate expansions
and condensations. The pipes should therefore be laid, so as
to have the least possible declivity, in the direction of the
motion of the steam.
VOL. I.
X
314
GENERAL VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF
Formerly, when drying-rooms in calico print-works were
heated by iron stoves, or cockles, their inmates were very
unhealthy, and became emaciated; since they have been
heated by steam-pipes the health of the people has become
remarkably good, and their appearance frequently blooming.
The following analytical estimate exhibits the equipment
and cost of two of the most recent and complete cotton
factories in England.
Ist. Mr. Orrell's mill, when mounted, as it will presently
be, with 1,100 power-looms and a third steam-engine, will
have cost £85,000. It will contain the following system of
machines.
I. Cotton cleaning machines:
1. Two of Lillie's great conical willows; speed of
steam pulley
2. Five blowing or scutching machines
3. Five lapping machines
II. Preparation machines:
Revolutions
per minute.
350
1,600
I,600
1. 168 carding engines
•
2. Twenty-four drawing frames.
3. Twenty-four coarse bobbin-and-fly frames, con-
taining
4. Fifty fine bobbin-and-fly or jack frames
III. Spinning machines :
114
Spindles.
1,152
3, 204
1. Seventy-eight throstle frames, containing 12,948 spindles,
which are capable of producing 9,000 lbs. of from 36's to
40's in a week of 69 hours, being at the rate of 25 hanks
of 38's per spindle in that time.
Spindles.
lbs.
2. Fifty-six hand mules, containing 24,928, producing 18,000
Nineteen self-actors,
""
7,984,
""
7,000
32,912
25,000
Total spindles, 45,860.
3. The hand mules produce 26 hanks of 36's in 69 hours.
The self-actors produce 31 ditto
ditto.
4. Five winding machines of 1,200 spindles which are placed
in the two uppermost rooms of the left wing.
5. 1,100 power looms, averaging each 5 pieces in 69 hours'
work, with a speed of 120 picks per minute. In another
factory, in Stockport, several of the same looms are work-
ing well at the rate of 130 picks per minute.
6. Thirty-two dressing machines.
A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
315
For driving the whole of the above machines a power of 250
horses is required.
The price of warp-yarn 36's is
Ditto
weft-yarn
The cotton-wool of the warp costs
Ditto
of the weft costs
•
•
S.
d.
16 per lb.
I 4 ""
Ο ΙΙ
0 93
""
The prices now received for yarn ready made up in packages
for exportation are—
For 30's twist or warp
32's
36's
38's
40's
""
""
""
""
S.
d.
I
6 per lb.
∞HHHH
I
I
I
7
81/12
Ι ΙΟ
H
""
There is a great difference in the wages paid to spinners,
according to the size of the mule, as will be more fully
explained in Book IV. The general and most approved
number of spindles in mules for spinning yarns from 32's to
40's is from 400 to 500; and the price paid to the spinner is
34d. per 100 hanks.
The cost of the above machines, of the best construction at
Manchester, is at present:
The conical willow
The blowing machine.
The lap machine
•
Carding engine, unclothed
Clothing (furniture) of ditto
Drawing frame.
Bobbin-and-fly frame (coarse)
Ditto
Hand mule.
(fine)
•
£ 8.
d.
•
70
70
70
42
24 о
37 10
2 6
o per spindle.
I II IO
Self-actors, about
Throstles
•
о
4 9
о 8 о
29
Ο ΙΟ 6
""
The warp of a piece, thirty-six yards in length, of twenty-
seven inch wide calico, for printing, made from 36's will
take about four pounds four ounces of yarn, and eight or nine
ounces of flour for dressing it.
In a great fustian factory at Manchester, each girl weaves
• at the power-looms fifty pounds of cloth per week; in another
VIEW AND ANALYSIS OF A MODERN COTTON FACTORY.
316
factory of calicoes, nearly the same weight; in a third of finer
goods, thirty-five pounds.
Mr. Fairbairn has very recently erected a spinning and
weaving factory, upon the most improved plan, for Messrs.
Bailey, of Stayley Bridge, of which the following is the esti-
mated cost:
Buildings for containing the machinery
Engine-house, boiler-house, and gas-house
Two steam-engines, of 110 horse power each, with
mill-gearing.
Steam-pipes for heating the mill, and gas-pipes with
Preparation machines, including cotton cleaning and
gas apparatus
40,000 mule spindles.
opening.
1,280 power-looms, with appurtenances
Contingencies.
Total cost of the factory
Or, probably, £90,000.
£
30,000
3,000
8,800
2,400
I1,500
12,000
18,000
2,300
£88,000
An additional weaving shed is proposed, which will increase
the looms to 1,480, and the outlay to £100,000. The power
of these united steam-engines is conveyed from the rim of the
fly wheel, which is a new plan of gearing mills,-one already
tried by Mr. Fairbairn in another mill, and found to exceed
his most sanguine expectations of steady impulsion. Thus the
fly-wheel becomes, in fact, the great spur wheel, so as to serve
the double purpose of regulating the motion of the engines,
and transmitting the power to the mill shafts.
LIST OF PATENTS.
317
List of PATENTS for Improvements in Cotton-Spinning, &c.,
from January 1800, to July 1860, both inclusive.
•
ditto
•
June 19, 1806
Oct. 30, 1806
Feb. 20, 1807
April 2, 1807
April 8, 1807
Dec. 9, 1807
Dec. 24, 1807
Aug. 25, 1808
Nov. 8, 1808{
Feb.
Name.
Date.
Ward, J. S.
Dec. 30, 1800
Wood, J.
Johnson, Thomas
June 14, 1803
Feb. 28, 1803
Doubling
Spinning and reeling
Preparing; dressing cotton-
Wood, J..
Jan. 10, 1804
Heppenstall, John
June 2, 1804
Johnson, Thomas
Huddart, Joseph
Margrave, Thomas
•
Dundonald, Earl of.
Clark and Bugby
Robertson, Matthew
Thomson, Archibald
Ditto
Williams, Samuel
Laybourn and Milbourn
Bradbury, John Leigh.
Dumbell, John.
·
Harkey, Musgrave, and】
Farmery
Thomson, Archibald
June 2, 1804
Sept. 21, 1804
Dec. 19, 1804
Nov. 19, 1805
ways
Spinning
Spinning and twisting
Dressing
Manufacturing and spinning
Throwing; spinning; dou-
bling and twisting
Spinning
Ditto
Combining machinery
Spinning
Ditto
Ditto
Roving
Spinning
7, 1809
Flax-spinning
Roving; slubbing and spin-
ning; twisting and doubling
Spinning
Stead, John.
Feb.
9, 1809
Making cards for carding
Rutt, Tretton, and Webb
Varley, Richard.
Nov. 21, 1809
Ditto
July
7, 1810
Roving; spinning; doubling
and twisting
Rutt, Tretton, and Webb
Cranfield, Thomas
Oct.
8, 1810
•
•
Dyer, Joseph C..
Dyer, J. C.
Rayner, Joseph
•
Courtauld, George
Dyer, J. C.
Wood, John
Palmer, William
April 4, 1815
Wood and Wordsworth.
Mar. 2, 1816
Spinning
Bradbury, John Leigh.
Mar. 9, 1816
Ditto
Welch, John.
Aug. 3, 1816
May 7, 1811
Oct. 30, 1811
Cards
Nov. 1, 1813
Aug. 4, 1814
Jan. 1, 1813
Dec. 15, 1814
Feb. 4, 1815
Making cards
Spinning and roving
Spinning hemp
Roving and spinning
Spindle
Cards
Preparing and spinning
Twisting
Making rollers
318
LIST OF PATENTS.
Name.
Simpson, Wm. Henry
•
Hall, Samuel
Whitham, George
Homfray, Thomas
Eaton, William
Main, Joseph
Jan. 15, 1820
White, James
Chell, P..
July 11, 1820
Ditto
Feb. 18, 1823
Green, John.
Crighton, William
Hall, Samuel
Taylor, Joseph
Leach, Thomas
April 18, 1823
•
April 29, 1823
•
Aug. 18, 1823
Donkin, Bryan
•
Sept. 11, 1823
Nov. 6, 1823
•
Dec. 13, 1823
Mar. 20, 1824
July 3, 1824
Aug. 5, 1824
Oct. 14, 1824
Jan. 11, 1825
Jan. 11, 1825
Booth and Bailey
Jan. 13, 1825
Badnall, Richard
Feb. 10, 1825
Gimson, T. F.
•
Buchanan, Archibald
Boot, Jarvis.
Heathcoat, John
Bradbury, John Leigh.
Jefferies and Drakeford
Price, John
Chell, P..
Bodmer, John George.
Hirst, William
Andrew, Tarlton, and
Shepley
July 29, 1824 Swift
Oct. 14, 1824
Drawing; roving; spinning
Cleaning; carding; drawing ;
roving; spinning
Slubbing; spinning
Spinning; doubling; throw-
ing
Winding;
Carding
Date.
July 10, 1817
Nov. 3, 1817
April 8, 1818
May 28, 1818
June 18, 1818
Mar. 18, 1823
June 26, 1823
Dec. 4, 1823
Spinning
Singeing
Grinding & dressing spindles
Bobbins
Roving; spinning
Preparing; spinning
Drawing; roving; spinning
Carding cylinders
Singeing
Spinning; doubling; throwing
Roving; spinning; twisting
Spinning and doubling
Singeing
Twisting; doubling
Singeing
Spinning
Twisting; spinning; throw-
ing
Spinning
Throstle
doubling; spin-
Roberts, Richard
Mar. 29, 1825
ning
Spinning
De Jongh, Maurice.
Smith, John Frederick.
Mar. 29, 1825
June 21, 1825
Hirst, Wm. and Henry.
Hurst and Carter
Dyer, J. C.
Kay, James
Lamb and Suttill
Edmonds, Ezekiel
Dyer, J. C.
·
Houldsworth, Henry
July 16, 1825
July 16, 1825
July 16, 1825
Brooke and Hardgrave.
July 26, 1825
July 26, 1825
Nov. 17, 1825
Preparing; spinning
Drawing; roving; spinning;
doubling
Scribbling; cärding
Mules and billies
Winding
Scribbling; carding
Spinning; preparing
Preparing; drawing; roving;
spinning
Scribbling; carding
Wire cards
Dec.
•
3, 1825
Dec.
9, 1825
Roving
Jan. 16, 1826
LIST OF PATENTS.
319

Name.
Smith, John Frederick.
Goulding, John .
Molineux, Francis
Bayliffe, Edward
De Jongh, Maurice.
Heisch, Philip
Whitaker, James
Daniell, J. C.
Dexter, Lambert
Church, William
De Jongh
•
•
Ford, John
Sharp, William
Rhodes, Joseph .
Lee, George William
Brooks, Charles.
Hutchison, John
Lane, William
Milne, John .
·
•
Date.
Jan. 19, 1826
May 2, 1826
May 23, 1826
July 14, 1826
Dec. 18, 1826
Feb. 20, 1827
April 24, 1827
June 8, 1827
June 16, 1827
July 13, 1827
Dec. 4, 1827
July 30, 1829
Drawing; roving; spinning
Carding; slubbing; roving;
spinning
Spinning; twisting; roving
Drawing; roving; spinning
Roving; spinning; twisting
Spinning.
Carding; slubbing; spinning
Wire cards
Spinning
Ditto
Ditto; doubling; twisting;
roving
Carding; roving; spinning
Spinning; roving
Ditto; twisting
Roving frames
Roving; spinning; twisting
Spinning
Spinning; doubling; twisting
Ditto
Ditto; twisting
Throstle; spindles
Roving
Spreading; drawing; roving;
spinning
May 13, 1828
Aug. 19, 1828
Sept. 18, 1828
May 2, 1829
Spinning
•
June 4, 1829
Ditto
Ditto
Aug. 5, 1830
Molineux and Bundy
Sept. 21, 1830
Sands, Thomas .
Nov. 18, 1830
Needham, William
Dec. 13, 1830
Wood, Charles
Mar. 11, 1831
Potter, John and James
Mar. 21, 1831
Knowles, Thomas
May 23, 1831
Mules, self-acting
Lambert, Samuel
June 2, 1831
July 13, 1831
Lang, James
Sept 24, 1831
Oct. 27, 1831
Nov. 22, 1831
Jan. 28, 1832
Shankland, Alex. Beattie
Montgomery, Robert
Bolton, Hugh
Wordsworth, Joshua
Jones, James
Newton, William
•
April 13, 1832
April 26, 1832
June 5, 1832
|Ditto
Ditto
Carding
July 26, 1832
May 25, 1833
July 11, 1833
Sept. 21, 1833
Howard, John
•
Robertson, John
Sept. 21, 1833
Nov. 1, 1833
Nov. 9, 1833
Travis, John, jun.
Ewart, Peter
Dobson, Sutcliff, and
Threlfall
•
Drawing; roving; spinning
Roving; spinning; doubling
Roving
Ditto
Ditto; spinning
Spinning
Mule spinning
Feb. 6 1834 Roving; spinning
Bates, Joshua
Selden, David
Gore, Henry.
Jellicorse, John
Dec. 22, 1831
Roving; twisting; spinning
Carding; slubbing
Throstle; frames
Spinning.
320
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Smith, James
Ditto
Walton, James
Simpson, Richard
Bridson, Thomas R.
Wilson, Charles.
Higgins, William
Wright, Peter
Slater, James
Sharp and Roberts
M'Gregor, Malcolm
Jones, James
De Bergue, Charles
Fairbairn, Peter
Whitworth, Joseph.
Bodmer, John George
Kean, James
Dyer and Smith.
Faulker, Samuel
Barber, Richard.
Date.
Feb. 20, 1834 Preparing; spinning
Feb. 27, 1834 Carding
Mar. 27, 1834 Cards
June 3, 1834 Roving; slubbing
June 10, 1834 Drying cotton
June 17, 1834 Spinning
July 7, 1834 Roving
July 17, 1834 Spinning; twisting
Aug. 23, 1834 Bleaching
Oct. 8, 1834 Spinning and doubling
Oct. 20, 1834 Slubbing; roving; spinning
Roving; spinning; doubling
Spinning; twisting
Oct. 20, 1834
Dec. 23, 1834
Preparing; slivering; roving
Spinning; doubling
Nov. 15, 1834
•
Apr. 14, 1835
·
May 27, 1835
July 3, 1835
Preparing; roving; spinning
Throstle; flyer
July 17, 1835
Aug. 6, 1835 Carding
Oct. 22, 1835 Reels
Winding
Dec. 9, 1835 Drawing; slubbing
Dec. 31, 1835
Champion
Horsfall and Kenyon
Houldsworth, John.
Hyde, John
Ramsbottom
•
•
Dec. 9, 1835
Carding
Carding
Jan,
Jan.
6, 1836
Ashworth & Greenough
De Bergue, Charles
Feb.
5, 1836
•
Mar. 29, 1836
Aitkin, Thomas .
Smith, John Burns.
Whitworth, Joseph
Wright, William
Shark, John.
Livsey, Joel.
Whitworth, Joseph
Sharp, William
•
Potter, James
Crighton, John.
6, 1836
Apr. 26, 1836
Spinning; twisting; doubling
Roving; spinning; doubling
Preparing: spinning
Machinery for spinning yarn
or thread
Conveyance of cotton to mules
and throstles
Machinery for roving, &c.
Machinery for spinning and
twisting
Apr. 30, 1836
May 17, 1836
June 22, 1836
Ditto
Oct. 8, 1836
Ditto
Nov. 10, 1836
Ditto
Ditto
Nov. 19, 1836
Dec. 15, 1836
Dec. 21, 1836
Dec. 21, 1836
Treatment of cotton for yarn
Spinning machinery
Cylinders for carding cotton,
&c.
LIST OF PATENTS.
320*

Name.
Date.
1837.
Consett, John .
Mar. 18.
Spinning.
Aldrich, Horatio Nelson.
April 15.
Preparing cotton.
Bodmer, John George
•
June 12.
Spinning.
Nicholson, William
June 17.
Preparation machinery.
Birch, Thomas.
Hill, James.
Nov. 18.
Carding cotton.
1838.
Mar. 19.
Compressing the sliver from
drawing frames.
Berry, Miles
May 14.
Radcliffe, John.
May 24.
Fibres as substitutes for cotton.
Removing the droppings and
waste cotton.
Sleddon, Francis .
June 2.
Spinning.
Cheetham, David.
June 5.
Preparing cotton.
Garnett, William
June 19.
Spinning.
Fairbairn, Peter
June 22.
Roving machinery.
Bennett, Joseph
July 12.
Carding cotton.
Madeley, William
•
July 26.
Spinning.
Rayner, Joseph, Rayner
J.Whitehead, and Ray-
ner, Henry Samuel
July 31.
Roving machines.
Walton, James
Sep. 21.
Wire cards for carding cotton.
Bodmer, John George
Oct. 22.
Carding, drawing, and roving.
Radcliffe, John.
Dec. 19.
Improved covering for rollers,
&c.
1839.
Howarth, John
Jan. 11.
Roving machinery.
Garnett, Joseph
Jan. 19.
Carding machinery.
Potts, John, and Horsfall,
William.
April 20.
Metal cards for cotton, &c.
Kay, James.
July 24.
Power machinery.
Knowles, Thomas
•
August 1.
Machinery for cotton.
Smith, John Burns
Nov. 16.
Roving machinery.
Cutts, John, and Spencer,
Thomas
Dec. 21.
Metal cards for cotton, &c.
1840.
Lawson, John.
Jan. 2.
Jan. 11.
Jan. 28.
Lawson, Samuel, and
Montgomery, Robert
Aitken, Thomas
Craig, William, and Sharp,
William Douglas
Smith, Richard, and
Hacking, Richard
Ditto. Ditto.
VOL. L.
Spinning machinery.
Machinery for drawing cotton.
Mar. 3. Ditto.
Mar. 13.
Ditto.
•
Mar. 16 Ditto.
Machinery for spinning and
twisting.
320**
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Steinhaueser, John Li-
Date.
1840.
brecht.
Walker, Thomas
•
Mar. 31.
Doubling cotton.
•
May
7.
Feeding machinery for carding.
Leach, Edmund
Buchanan, James
·
May 28.
Ditto.
May 22.
Twisting and spinning.
Spencer, Thomas
•
June 26.
Spinning machinery.
Travis, Edwin .
July 15.
Preparation machinery.
Bodmer, John George
July 29.
Spinning machinery.
Horsfall, William.
Oct. 1.
Cards for carding.
Jones, John
Dec. 23.
Carding engines.
1841.
Smith, James
Jan. 19.
Preparing cotton.
Sleddon, Francis
Feb. 2.
Roving and slubbing machi-
nery.
Newton, William
Mar, 16.
Spinning and twisting.
Gore, Thomas
Mar. 30.
Roving and slubbing.
Jones, Ezekiel .
June 12.
Ditto.
Sidebottom, James
June 23.
Preparation machinery.
1842.
Potter, James
Howard, Thomas
Macdonogh, Montague
Baggaly, John James
Bodmer, John George
Smith, John, and Bu-
chanan, James
Rotton, Otto
•
Waterhouse, Thomas.
Seville, Thomas
Fothergill, Benjamin.
•
Jan. 6.
Spindles, flyers, &c.
•
Jan. 29.
Combing.
Mar, 7.
Cleaning machinery.
April
6.
Preparing cotton.
April 26.
Spinning machinery.
•
May 24.
Carding.
May 25.
Spinning machinery.
Oct. 20.
Preparation machinery.
Dec. 3.
Ditto.
•
Dec. 8.
Spinning mules.
1843.
Kirk, Samuel
Jan. 31.
Preparation machinery.
Fletcher, James
Mar. 30.
Spinning machinery.
Kennedy, Robert Alex-
ander
May 15.
Grinding and sharpening cards.
Roberts, Martyn John
Smith, John Burns
·
June 1.
Spinning machinery.
June 8.
Ditto.
Sparkes, Samuel.
June 10.
·
Lister, George, and Bud-
ding, Edwin.
Taylor, William Garnett
Faulkner, Samuel.
Brook, Charles.
Jackson, Robert Rayns-
ford
Oct. 12. Ditto.
Carding machinery.
June 15.
15.
July 10.
Condensing rovings.
July 15.
Spinning machinery.
July 25.
Carding machinery.
Nov. 4. Preparation machinery.
LIST OF PATENTS.
321

Name.
Buxton, Edward
Lamb, Joseph
•
•
Date.
1843.
Nov. 16. Spinning.
Dec. 8.
Spinning machinery.
Champion, James, and
Marsden, Thomas
Dec. 28.
Spinning.
1844.
Smith, James
Feb. 24.
Slubbing cotton.
Tatham, John, and Cheet-
ham, David.
Mar. 14.
Preparation machinery.
Butterworth, John Hol-
land
Mar. 20.
Ditto.
Roberts, Richard
April 18.
Ditto.
Clarke, Josiah, and
Fletcher, Samuel
·
April 27.
Wheels in bobbin frames.
Cooper, William Archi-
bald
•
May 23.
Spinning machinery.
Johnson, William.
May 23.
Preparation machinery.
Wolcott, Alex. Simon
•
June 18.
Roving.
Harrison, James
July 15.
Spinning machinery.
Cooper, Henry.
Sep.
12.
Machinery for doubling.
Ritchie, William Henry.
Sep. 27.
Carding engines.
Chappé, Jean B. P.
Oct. 17.
Spinning machinery.
Maniquet, Jean B.
Nov. 2.
Doubling and twisting.
Groom, John
Nov.
7.
Preparation machinery.
Russel, Thomas, and
1845.
Peter, John, Jun..
Jan. 6.
Spinning machinery.
Wilson, Edward Brown.
Jan. 18.
Twisting and spinning.
Whitworth, Thomas
Schofield.
March 3.
Spinning machinery.
Sykes, John, and Ogden,
Adam.
March 8.
Cleaning machinery.
Pooley, Charles
Mar. 27.
Spinning machinery.
Higgins, James, and
Whitworth, Thomas
Schofield.
April 2.
Ditto.
Ivers, James
April 22.
Roving and slubbing machi-
nery.
Blakey, John Herbert
•
April 29.
Spinning throstles.
Fletcher, James
May 22.
Roving and slubbing machi-
nery.
Bazley, Thomas
May 22.
Tube flyers.
Willis, Thomas
June 12.
Spinning machinery.
Fothergill, Benjamin
June 17.
Preparation machinery.
Chérot, Auguste
June 17.
Spinning machinery.
Wilson, Edward Brown.
June 18.
Roving machinery.
322
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Hague, Charles, and
Date.
1845.
Madely, William
•
June 19.
Slubbing and roving machines.
Pencey, Michael
July 21.
Spinning and twisting.
Wilson, Alexander.
July 29.
Ditto.
Eccles, William,
and
Brierley, Henry
Aug. 5.
Spinning machinery.
Newton, William Ed-
ward
Aug. 28.
Ditto.
Murland, Charles, and
Lawson, Edward
Sep. 18.
Preparation machinery.
Kershaw, John
·
Oct. 2. Ditto.
Johnston, William
Nov. 20.
Ditto.
Ashworth, George Leach,
and Crossley, William.
McLardy, William.
Robertson, William
Dec. 10.
Ditto.
Dec. 22.
Ditto.
•
1846.
Feb. 25.
Spinning and twisting.
Heilmann, Josue
Platt, John.
Feb. 25.
Feb. 25.
Preparation machinery.
Ditto.
Longshaw, William
May
5.
Spinning machinery.
Fothergill, Benjamin, and
Johnson, Richard.
June 16.
Preparation machinery.
Joines, Thomas
June 22.
Slubbing and roving.
Tatham, John, Cheetham,
David, and Duncan, J.
William
•
June 29.
Preparation machinery.
Seed, William.
July 14.
Slubbing and roving.
Bayley, John
Aug. 1.
Spinning machinery.
Senior, George.
Morewood, Edmund
Fairbairn, Peter, and
Carmichael, Peter
Sep. 3.
Combing and carding.
•
Oct. 2.
Ginning.
•
Oct.
2.
Drawing and roving.
Warburton, John.
Oct.
8.
Slubbing and roving.
Anderson, William
Oct. 22.
Preparation machinery.
Denton, James.
Nov. 21.
Ditto.
Shaw, John.
Dec. 14.
Drawing, slubbing, &c.
Bleasdale, Henry, and
Ryder, William.
Dec. 14. Rollers in machines.
1847.
Poole, John, Fray.
Jan. 14.
Spinning machinery.
Preston, Francis
Jan. 23.
Preparation machinery.
Law, John.
Jan. 28.
Compound yarns.
Eaton, William
Feb. 9.
Twisting.
Hancock, Charles.
Feb. 10.
Covers for cotton spinning
rollers.
LIST OF PATENTS.
323
Name.
Leatham, Solomon
Eccles, William, and
Brierley, Henry
Date.
1847.
Feb. 15. Roving.
Mar. 2.
Spinning machinery.
Wood, John
Mar. 2.
Ditto.
Hardacre, Samuel.
Mar. 29.
Carding machinery.
Elce, John, and Bleas-
dale, Richard
May 4.
Preparation machinery.
Fielden, Joshua
May 8.
Laying and pressing in cans,
baskets, &c.
Roberts, Richard
•
June 15.
Preparation machinery.
Houghton, James.
June 15.
Ditto.
Hill, James.
June 19.
Ditto.
Armand, Pierre le Comte
Sykes, John, and Ogden,
July 17.
Opening and cleaning.
Larkin, Robert.
Adam
•
Platt, John, and Palmer,
Thomas.
•
Newton, Henry
Dodge, George H.
Curtis, Matthew, and
Lawson, John
•
July 17.
Cleaning from burs, &c.
•
July 24.
Preparation machinery.
Sep. 23.
Spinning.
Oct. 7.
Spinning and winding yarn.
Oct.
•
14.
Preparation machinery.
Nov. 4.
Cleaning machinery.
Eaton, William
Dec. 1.
Twisting.
1848.
Emen, Godfrey Anthony
Feb. 8.
Twisting.
Derham, James
April 10.
Carding machine.
Newton, William
•
April 27.
Ginning and cleaning.
McLardy, William, and
Lewis, Joseph
May 9.
Preparation machinery.
Hague, Matthew,
and
Frith, Joseph
May 26.
Twisting and doubling.
Metcalfe, John, and Hal-
liwell, Robert
Aug. 8.
Spinning.
Fairbairn, Peter
Oct. 26.
Ditto.
Weild, William
Nov. 2. Ditto.
Burn, Robert
Dec. 2.
•
Roller gin.
Hartley, Edward
Calvert, Francis Alton
Shaw, Robert, and Cot-
tam, S. F.
Gibson, James Green.
Wright, Lemuel W.
Lord, Edward .
1849.
Jan. 18.
Jan. 25. Ditto.
Jan. 27. Ditto.
Jan. 30. Ditto.
Feb. 13. Ditto.
Dec. 11.
Preparation machinery.
Preparation machinery.
324
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1849.
Mason, John, and Col-
lier, George.
Mar. 26.
Laying rovings into cans.
Ormerod, James
Sutcliffe, Robert
•
April 19.
Carding.
•
May 8.
Spinning.
Dodge, George Henry
May 10.
Ditto.
Birley, T. H.
June 5.
Preparing and roving.
Combe, John
July 4.
Carding.
Holt, John
•
July 24.
Roving-frames, preparing ma-
chinery and apparatus for
weighing cotton.
Potter, James
Sep. 3.
Spinning machinery.
Higgins, James, and
Whitworth, Thomas S.
Sep. 24.
Preparation machinery.
Mason, John, and Col-
Weighing table for supplying
lier, George
•
Sep. 26.
blowing machines.
Lakin, Robert, and
•
Macindoe, George Paul.
and
Rhodes, William
Henry.
Armand, Peter le Comte.
Kirkman, Charles F..
Cottam, Adam.
Fairbairn, Peter,
Hetherington, John.
Fairbairn, Peter, and
Hetherington, John.
Eccles, William, sen. and
Nov. 30. Spinning.
jun. and Eccles, Henry Dec. 3.
Christie, David
•
·
Dec. 3. Preparation machinery.
•
Dec. 10.
Ditto.
Preparation machinery.
Ditto.
Jenkinson, James Henry,
and Priestley, Thomas Dec. 12.
. 1850.
De Traux de Wardin,
Winceslas le Baron
Mason, John, and Smith,
Mark.
Jan. 26. Looms for weaving.
Oct. 12.
Preparation machinery.
Oct. 12.
Spinning.
Oct. 18.
Spinning and twisting.
Nov. 2.
Preparation machinery.
Nov. 2.
Ditto.
Jan. 29.
Spiked rollers for breaking
down the cotton as it passes
the teaser.
Mason, John, and Smith,
Mark
Jan. 29.
Carding machines.
Leigh, Evan.
Mar. 26.
Preparation machinery.
Platt, John.
April 11.
Spinning.
Tatham,John, and Cheet-
ham, David.
May 7.
Slubbing, roving, and scutch-
ing machines.
LIST OF PATENTS.
325

Name.
Date.
1850.
Ashworth, James, and
Mitchel, Thomas.
Adam.
•
May 29.
Preparation machinery.
Sykes, John, and Ogden,
June 4.
Cleaning machinery.
Robertson, William
June
6.
Spinning machinery.
Newton, William Edward
June 11.
Carding machinery.
McLardy, William
June 12.
Preparation machinery.
Hill, James.
July 15.
Ditto.
Fairbairn, Peter, and
Hetherington, John.
July 31.
Ditto.
Claussen, Peter,
Aug. 16.
Spinning.
Saul, John
Sep. 5.
Ditto.
Paterson, Thomas L.
Sep. 12.
Spinning machinery.
Bury, Charles .
Oct. 10.
Spinning and doubling.
Newton, William Edward
Oct 10.
Condensing, twisting and spin-
ning rovings.
Barlow, Henry B.
Oct. 17.
Spinning.
Tatham, John, and Cheet-
ham, David..
Nov. 2.
Throstle frames.
Christie, David.
Nov. 7.
Spinning.
Christie, David,
Nov. 7.
Carding machinery.
Mason, John, and Col-
lier, George.
Dec. 12.
Preparation for spinning.
Platt, John.
Dec. 2.
Spinning.
1851.
Milne, John Clarkson,
and Pickstone, Samuel.
Shaw, Benj. Ledger
Jan. 11.
Spinning machinery.
Feb. 5.
Parti-coloured yarns.
Onions, William
Feb.
•
7.
Spinning machinery.
Kirkman, Charles Felton
Feb. 28.
Ditto.
Leach, James.
Mar. 3.
Carding.
Roberts, George
Mar. 10.
Parti-coloured yarns.
Potter, James
May 27.
Spinning machines.
Kennedy, Robert Alex-
ander
June 10.
Carding engines.
Wormald, John
Sep. 18.
Spinning machines.
Platt, John, and Schiels,
Christian.
Oct. 22.
Cleaning machinery.
Halliman, Ephraim
Oct. 22.
Preparation machinery.
1852.
Elce, John, and Bond,
John
Feb. 26.
Roving frames.
Thompson, John, and
Hewitt, John
Mar. 27.
Spinning and twisting.
326
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date,
1852.
Whitehead, John
Mar. 29.
Preparation machinery.
Pettit, Edwin, and For-
syth, James
April 15.
Drawing machinery.
Knowles, John.
April 17.
Roving frames.
Mason, John, and Col-
lier, George
Lester, Samuel Cunliffe
Lord, Thomas Wilkes
Bazley, Thomas
•
Vandeberg, Lazare Fran-
çois
Higgins, James, and
Whitworth, Thomas
May 22.
Spinning and twisting.
June
•
5.
Combing.
June 10.
Preparation machinery.
June 24.
Combing machines.
•
June 30.
Obtaining cotton from
old
fabrics in a condition to be
again used.
Schofield.
July
6.
Doubling machinery.
Shaw, John.
July 20.
Carding machinery.
Denton, James.
July 29.
Preparation machinery.
Ackroyd, William .
July 31.
Combining yarns of cotton and
silk for spinning.
Hughes, Joseph Edward
Aug. 10.
Spinning.
Spencer, Henry
Aug. 19.
Ditto.
Preller, Charles Augustus,
Eastwood, John, and
Gannet, Samuel.
Sep. 16.
Ommoney,
William
Combing, drawing, and pre-
paring machinery.
Mortlock.
Oct.
1.
Spinning.
Frith, Thomas
Oct.
1. Preparation machinery.
Fothergill, Benjamin.
•
Oct. 2.
Ditto.
Watts, Martin
Oct.
•
4.
Roving.
Ross, Jesse
Oct.
5.
Combing, &c.
Pettit, Edwin, and For-
syth, James.
Oct.
7.
Spinning and drawing.
Tatham, John, and Cheet-
ham, David
•
Oct.
7.
Rollers and bosses for drawing.
Duncan, John
·
Oct. 14.
Leigh, Evan.
Brown, William
Creighton, David.
Fothergill, Thomas, and
Harvey,
Cummins.
Alexander
Wormald, John
Watts, Martin.
Ditto.
Oct. 16. Carding.
Oct. 18. | Preparing fibres.
Oct. 23. Roving spindles.
Oct. 23.
Oct. 28.
Oct. 30
Treatment of cotton.
Roving, spinning, and dou-
bling.
Roving.
t
LIST OF PATENTS.
327

Name.
Date.
1852.
Lawson, Edward
•
Nov. 1.
Lord, Edward:
Nov. 3.
Preparation machinery.
Scutching and spinning ma-
chinery.
Zieglier, Jean Jacques
Nov. 9.
Spinning.
Lucas, Robert
Nov. 13.
Preparing cotton.
Vallee, Francois
Nov. 16.
Spindles for spinning and
Tatham, John,
and
doubling.
Cheetham, David
Nov. 25.
Coiling slivers, spinning and
Ogden, Adam, and Og-
doubling.
den, John.
•
Nov. 26.
Spinning.
Lees, Asa, and Kay,
Thomas
Dec. 6.
Spinning and doubling.
Robertson, William
Dec. 18.
Ditto.
Roydes, John
·
Dec. 21.
Drawing.
Ingram, George
Dec. 27.
Ditto.
Darling, James, and
Spencer, Henry.
Dec. 28.
Preparing and spinning.
Mason, John
Dec. 28.
Carding.
1853.
Newton, Edward William
Jan.
6.
Lanville's improvements.
Fletcher, James
Jan. 12.
Spinning and doubling.
Standish, John
Jan. 29.
Preparation machinery.
Leach, Edmund
Jan. 31.
Ditto.
Ogden, Thomas Clark,
and Gibson, William.
Feb. 17.
Spinning.
Beckett, Samuel
Feb. 23.
Mule spindles.
Preston, Francis.
•
Feb. 25.
Bott, George William
Collier, George, and
Thornton, Samuel
Mar. 4.
Flyers and buttons of spindles.
Pressers.
•
Mar. 9.
Spinning, &c.
Stevenson, William
Mar. 14.
Removing knots in spinning.
Tweedale James, Twee-
dale, Abraham A., and
Tweedale, Samuel
Mar. 18.
Spinning.
Eldridge, John.
Mar. 19.
Rotary washing machine.
Sharp, William Prior.
Mar. 24.
Spinning and doubling.
Mar. 24.
Ditto.
Grundy, Robert, and
Jones, James.
Edie, William
•
Spencer, Henry, Tatter-
sall, Henry, and Simp-
son, Hugh
Ross, Jesse, and Ross,
T. R. H.
Mar. 24. Drawing rollers.
April 1. Preparation machinery.
April 4.
Combing.
328
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1853.
Smedley, John.
Pratviel, Jean J. T.
Burden, Francis
April
1.
Preparation machinery.
April 8.
Doubling and twisting.
April 13.
Treating rovings for spinning.
Noble, James
•
April 13.
Preparing cotton.
Maniquet, Jean Baptiste.
| April
14.
Doubling and twisting.
Houldsworth, Henry.
April 23.
Preparation machinery.
Johnson, William.
April 27.
Preparing and spinning.
Hetherington, John
April 28.
Combing.
Fairbairn, Peter, and
Kaselowsky, Ferdinand
April 28.
Drawing, roving, and spin-
ning.
Grimshaw, Weston
April 30.
Hetherington, John
May
5.
Slubbing and roving frames.
Preparation machinery.
Lester, Samuel Cunliffe
May 11.
Preparing cotton for spin-
Crabtree, John, and Scott,
ning.
Thomas Livesey.
May 11.
Preparing and spinning.
Pooley, Charles
May 12.
Mode of feeding machines.
Cowper, Charles.
May 18.
Combing machinery.
Derverte, Louis Auguste.
May 25.
Ditto.
Barlow, Henry B.
June
9.
Spinning and twisting.
Newton, Alfred V.
June 10.
Spinning machinery.
Higinbottom, James and
Joseph.
June 18.
Improvements in spinning.
Schofield, Samuel
•
June 18.
Preparation machinery.
Lester, Samuel Cunliffe
June 24.
Carding and making combs,
Illingworth,
Daniel,
and drawing.
Illingworth Alfred and
Henry
•
June 25.
Combing machinery.
Mason, John, and Ryder,
July
·
Sep.
and Newhouse, James.
•
Popple, Robert
Luke.
Davies, Edward
Robertson, William
Fletcher, James
·
Ogden, Thomas Clark,
and Gibson, William
Hill, James.
Woodhead, Henry.
Arrowsmith, Peter R.,
Oldfield, Edward'
Sharp, William P., Hill,
John, and Martin,
William
Sep. 27. Spinning and doubling.
June 27.
Preparation machinery.
June 30.
Carding machinery.
8.
Preparation machinery.
July 12.
Spinning and doubling.
Aug. 17.
Preparation machinery.
Aug. 27.
Spinning and doubling.
9.
Spinning machinery.
Sep. 22.
Spinning and doubling.
Sep. 22.
Ditto.
Sep. 27.
Slubbing, roving, and spin-
ning.
LIST OF PATENTS.
329

Name.
Halliwell, Robert, and
Johnson, William .
Mason, John.
Elce, John
•
Popple, Robert, and
Woodhead, Henry.
Lester, Samuel C.
Greenbank, James, and
Pilkington, Samuel.
Brierly, Henry.
McGregor, Peter
•
Kilshaw, Henry, and
Hacking, Richard
•
Oct.
Oct.
5.
Oct. 13.
•
Oct. 13.
Date.
1853.
1. Spinning and doubling.
Preparation machinery.
Ditto.
Slubbing, roving, and spin-
ning.
Oct. 17.
Combing.
•
Oct. 21.
Spinning.
Nov. 2.
Spinning and doubling.
Nov. 3.
Ditto.
Nov. 11. Ditto.
•
Kilshaw, Henry, and
Hacking, Richard..
Nov. 12.
Twisting slivers.
Cottam, Samuel Fletcher
Nov. 14.
Spinning, doubling, and reel-
ing.
Lester, Samuel C.
Nov. 24.
Combing.
Mason, Hugh, and Jones,
Doubling, twisting, and spin-
John
Nov. 24.
ning.
Johnson, John Henry.
Nov. 25.
Carding engine.
Elce, John
Nov. 30.
Spinning machinery.
Hewitt, John.
Nov. 30.
Ditto.
Balderstone, Richard.
Nov. 30.
Mules and spinning machines.
Lister, Samuel C..
Dec. 2.
Combing.
Eccles, Richard, Mason,
John, and Kaberry,
Leonard
Dec. 9.
Slubbing and roving frames.
Schonheer, Chuteen G..
Dec. 31.
Improvements in bobbin ma-
chinery.
1854.
Dransfield, John, and
Robinson, William.
Taylor, John, Wrigley,
Miles, and Greaves,
Samuel
Mason, John, and Ka-
•
Jan.
3. Carding engines.
Jan. 4. Ditto.
berry, Leonard.
Jan. 5.
Preparation machinery.
Healy, John
Jan. 6.
Mules and spinning machines.
Dreville, Adolphe .
Jan. 10.
Combing.
Lester, Samuel C.
Jan. 24.
Ditto.
Taylor, William Garnett
Jan. 28.
Preparation machinery.
Hodgson, William
Jan. 30.
Forming threads from slivers.
330
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1854.
Hargreaves, James, and
Fletcher, James.
Moorhouse, Henry
Clegg, Edmund, and
Leach, Edmund.
Potter, John.
•
Settle, Thomas, and
Cooper, Peter
Whitaker, Laurence,
Diggle, John, and
Howarth, George
Whitaker, Laurence, and
Lyons, Greenwood.
Binns, Miles, and Pol-
lard, John
•
•
Feb.
Feb.
1. Preparation machinery.
9. Ditto.
Feb. 13.
Feb. 15.
Slubbing, spinning, &c.
Preparation machinery.
Feb. 23. Ditto.
Mar. 13.
Cleaning apparatus.
•
Mar, 15.
Setting carding engines.
Mar. 15.
Combing.
Hyde, John, and Harper,
John
•
Mar. 18.
Spindles and flyers.
Healey, John, Foster,
John, and Lowe, John
Mar. 22.
Preparation machinery.
Seebohin, Henry .
April 4.
Preparing and combing.
Bekaert, Constant
April
5.
Doubling, twisting, &c.
Whitehead, Thomas
>
April 7.
Preparation machinery.
Williams, Thomas, Áin-
ley, Samuel, and Mills,
Moses.
April 7.
Spinning.
Platt, John.
April 8.
Preparation machinery.
Fothergill, Benjamin,
Brown, Henry.
and Weild, William
Barlow, Edward, John-
son, William, Slater,
William, and Knowles,
Peter.
April 11.
Combing machinery.
April 20.
Combing.
May
4.
Beads, John.
May 18.
Preparing and spinning.
Preparation machinery.
Crighton, William and
Andrew
May 22.
Beaters for opening cotton.
Whitaker, John, and
Pickles, James
June 1.
Preparation machinery.
Poole, Moses
June 2.
Cop tubes for mule and other
spindles.
Kaye, Joseph
June 8.
Slubbing, roving and spin-
ning.
Bellford, Auguste E. L.
June 23.
Picking, or opening cotton.
LIST OF PATENTS.
331

Name.
Date.
1854.
Bottomley,
Reuben,
Schofield, David, and
Spencer, Henry.
June 24.
Spinning and doubling.
Lord, Edward.
July 8.
Cleaning and carding.
Coote, Luke.
·
July 12.
Blowing machines.
Houghton, William, and
Hoyle, Robert
•
July 12.
Cleaning, spinning, and dou.
bling.
Hurd, Julius C.
July 25.
Cleaning.
Preston, Francis.
July 25.
Centrifugal pressers.
Hallum, Ephraim.
July 25.
Copping movements.
Shorroches, William
July 27.
Presser flyers.
Borland, J. Y..
July 29.
Preparation machinery.
Bridson, Thomas Ridg-
way.
·
July 31.
Preparing cotton.
Moorhouse, Henry
Aug.
8.
Substitute for coiler and plun-
ger.
Greville, Peniston G.
Aug. 11.
Cards for cotton.
Caunce, Robert.
Aug. 16.
Stopping single spindles.
Kershaw, Samuel, and
Taylor, James
•
Aug. 18.
Carding engines.
Johnston, William.
Aug. 22
Carding apparatus.
Newton, William Edward
Aug. 22.
Making and cleansing carding
Fairbairn, Peter, and
engines.
Greenwood, Thomas
•
Aug. 23.
Preparation machinery.
Curtis, Matthew, Rhodes,
William Henry, and
Wain, John
·
Aug. 23.
Spinning and doubling.
Barlow, Henry B..
Sep. 2.
Cleaning cotton.
Johnson, John Henry
Sep. 22.
Machinery for cards.
Tatham, William.
Oct. 3.
Preparation machinery.
•
Kershaw, John.
Dunlop, John Macmillan Oct.
Oct. 4.
Self-acting mules.
5.
Imparting motion to spindles.
Shaw, Thomas, and
Dixon, Richard.
Oct. 11.
Slubbing, roving, and jack
Mason, John, and Robert-
frames.
son, William.
Oct. 18.
Preparation machinery.
Marié, Edme Hyppolité.
Oct. 23.
Ditto.
Roberts, Richard..
Oct. 25.
Ditto.
Healy, John, Foster,
John, and Lowe, John. Oct. 26.
Top, Nathaniel, and Par-
Spindles and flyers.
tington, John.
•
Whitehead, James.
Nov.
3.
Nov. 8.
Hand mules for spinning.
Self-acting mules.
332
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1854.
Bury, John, Richard, and
Thomas, and Royds,
Thomas.
Nov. 9.
Mules.
Wain, John.
Nov. 10.
Mules and twiners.
Knowles, Peter, and
Kirby, Edward .
Nov. 16.
Preparation machinery.
Heiller, Jean B.
•
Nov. 23.
Throwing and twisting.
Pettitt, Edwin.
Nov. 30.
Drawing cotton.
Mason, John, and Ka-
berry, Leonard
•
Nov. 30.
Preparation machinery; teazers.
Porritt, James.
Dec. 4.
Carding engines.
Brooman, Richard A.
Dec. 7.
Regulating tension spinning
frames.
Ashworth, Robert, and
Stott, Samuel
Dec. 22.
Preparation machinery.
McKilvey, John
Dec. 23.
Spinning and twisting.
Thrilfall, Richard, and
Pitfield, Robert W.
•
Dec. 28.
Spinning,
Chapman, Robert, and
Miller, John.
Dormoy, Henri Louis
Ashworth, Robert, and
Stott, James.
Bulmer, William Henry,
and Bailey, William
Leigh, Evan
Johnson, John Henry
Nightingale, Henry and
Robert
Warbrick, William, and
Walker, John
Lucas, George.
Smith, Samuel,
Morris, Moses
and
Dec. 30.
Spinning and doubling.
1855.
Jan. 2.
Twisting.
Jan.
•
5.
Spinning and doubling.
·
Jan. 5.
Combing apparatus.
Jan. 18.
Preparation machinery.
Jan. 25.
Preparation machinery.
Jan. 27.
Slubbing, roving, and spinning.
Feb.
•
7. Preparing machines.
Ditto.
Feb. 12.
Improved machine for spin-
ning.
Feb. 13.
•
Metcalfe, Thomas, Sla-
ding, William, and
Metcalfe, John.
·
Feb. 14.
Dyer's tube frame.
Spencer, Henry
Feb. 15.
Preparing and spinning.
Kershaw, Samuel, and
Taylor, James
Feb. 20.
Carding engines.
Murray, Barnaby Angelo
Feb. 24.
Doubling and twisting.
Fothergill,
Benjamin,
and Weld, William
Feb. 27.
Combing machinery.
LIST OF PATENTS.
333

Name.
Date.
1855.
Lowry, George
Mar. 2.
Preparing and spinning.
Aitken, John and Servi-
tus, and Haslam, John
Mar. 8.
Preparation machinery.
Marland, Jonas
Mar. 14.
Cylinders or rollers.
Hetherington, John, and
Vickers, Archibald.
MacNaught, William
Busson, Claude A.
Mar. 14.
Preparation machinery.
•
Mar. 22.
Spinning machinery.
Mar. 26.
Feeding apparatus.
Shaw, John, Harrop,
Lewis, and Fielding,
James.
Mar. 26.
Spinning and doubling.
Johnson, John Henry
April 10.
Slubbing and roving.
Fletcher, James
•
April 11.
Spinning and weaving.
Lawson, John, and Dear,
Somerville
April 18.
Combing and drawing.
Ryder, William
April 20.
Slubbing and roving.
Pettitt, Edwin .
April 21.
Preparing and spinning.
Johnson, John Henry
April 21.
Spinning.
Knowles, Thomas and
James.
April 28.
Steps and bolster machinery.
Beckett, James
May 12.
Smith's self-acting mule.
Mason, John, Thornton,
Samuel, and Kaberry,
Leonard
May 14.
Preparation machinery.
Smith, William
•
May 17.
Cleaning machine.
Mitchell, John, and En-
twisle, James
May 24.
Presser flyers for roving frames.
Ashworth, Robert, and
Stott, Samuel
•
May 31.
Improvements in preparation
machinery.
Spencer, Henry
June 1.
Twisting and winding yarn or
thread.
Leech, Henry, Robinson,
James, and Burrows,
Richard
•
June 6.
Spinning machinery.
Ogden, Thomas
June 7.
Ditto.
Barlow, Henry Bernoulli
June 11.
Deregniaux,
Francois
Slubbing and roving (flyer
presser).
Vennin
June 26.
Oddy, Samuel
July
5.
Spinning machinery.
Mule spindles.
Beckett, James, and Seed,
William
•
July 6.
Spinning machinery.
Tetlow, James
July 9.
Ditto.
Palmer, James.
July 10.
Carding cotton.
334
LIST OF PATENTS.
*
Name.
Date.
1855.
Hamilton, Francis
Lawton, Major, and Scho-
field, Thomas
Kirkman, Charles Felton
July
13.
Preparation machinery.
July 14.
Carding engines.
July 27.
Spinning.
Mellor, Mark
•
Aug. 14.
Self-acting mules.
Heys, Edward.
Aug.
18.
Turning flyers.
Morel, Augustin
Sep. 4.
Preparation machinery.
Nettleship, Ichabod
•
Sep. 5.
An improved spindle.
Curtis, Matthew, and
Wain, John.
Sep. 11.
Preparation machinery.
Barlow, Henry B.
Sep. 29.
Mules and other machinery for
spinning.
Dickens, Thomas
Oct. 1.
Doubling and throwing.
Chadwick, James
Oct. 2.
Carding.
Wilkinson, Robert
Oct. 3.
Ditto.
Brierley, Henry
Oct.
4.
Self-acting mules.
Dickens, Thomas
.
Oct.
5.
Spinning machinery.
Spence, William
Oct. 5.
Cards.
Bayley, William, and
Quarmby, John.
Oct. 11.
Carding machine.
Lyall, William.
Oct. 12.
Oiling spinning machinery.
Walton, William Henry.
Oct. 17.
Carding machinery.
Harding, Thomas Richards
Oct. 17.
Combs.
Tatham, William .
Oct.
19.
Preparation machinery.
Elce, John
•
Oct.
19.
Self-acting mules.
Butterworth, Ellis
Oct. 24.
Preparation machinery.
Ashton, John
•
Oct. 27.
Kerr, Robert
Nov.
1.
Improvements in self-actors.
Spinning different materials.
Cooke, George
•
Borland, John Emil .
•
Nov. 12.
Flyers.
Nov. 12.
Spinning.
Lester, Samuel Cunliffe,
and Warburton, James
Nov. 23.
Ditto.
•
Knowles, Robert
•
Harrison, George, and
Mitchell, William, jun.
Hartcliffe, William
Cottam, Samuel Fletcher
Stevenson, William, and
Crawford, William.
Cooper, Edward Alfred .
Harrop, Lewis, Barlow,
Samuel, and Boyd,
Alexander
Dec. 29. Self-acting mules.
Nov. 24.
Winding on cotton.
Dec.
3.
Spinning and roving.
Dec. 4.
Weighting the top rollers..
Dec. 17.
Mules for spinning.
Dec. 22.
Carding machinery.
Dec. 27.
Combing.
LIST OF PATENTS.
335

Name.
Lees, Sylvester and Ed-
ward, and Newton,
George Henry .
Date.
1855.
Dec. 29.
Spinning and doubling.
1856.
Barlow, Henry B.
Jan.
4.
Carding machinery.
Middleton, Samuel
Lister, Samuel Cunliffe,
and Tongue, William
Ashworth, John, jun.
Platt, John, and Whit-
Jan.
7.
Combing.
Jan.
•
•
8.
Improvements in roller covers.
Jan.
9.
Lap machines.
aker, John
Jan. 17.
Doubling and twining.
Rothwell, Charles.
Jan. 24.
Self-acting mules.
Beads, John
Jan. 25.
Spinning.
Dreschfield, Wilhelm.
Jan. 26.
Improvement in rollers.
Thatcher, Robert
•
Jan. 29.
Doubling and spinning.
Preston, Francis
•
Feb. 1.
Machinery for shaping flyers.
Holcroft, George and Tho-
mas, and Smith, Joseph
Preparing, spinning, and
Feb. 1.
Tolhausen, Alexandre
Feb.
•
4.
Hinchcliffe, Thomas
•
Feb. 5.
Bleasdale, Richard
Feb. 7.
doubling.
Picking, carding, and combing.
Drawing and spinning.
Throstles.
Kenworthy, William.
Feb.
7.
Self-acting mules.
Booth, John B., and
Beckett, James.
Elce, John, and Cottam,
Feb.
8.
Preparing and spinning.
Samuel Fletcher
Feb. 9.
Lubricating spindles.
Emsley, John
Feb. 14.
Tube spinning-frames.
Oldfield, Edward
•
Feb. 15.
Copping motion on mules.
Leach, Edmund, James,
and Edmund, jun. .
Feb. 15.
Preparing, spinning, and drying
Elliott, Eddlestone, Leach,
yarns.
Cyrus, and Ratcliffe,
James.
Feb. 15.
Spinning.
Sherwood, Henry
•
Feb. 20.
Treating spun waste.
Bennett, Thomas, and
Dugdale, W. P.
Feb. 21.
Flyers.
Mowbray, Fred. William
Feb. 22.
Traverse motion in spinning
and doubling.
Schischkar,
Feb. 23.
Cleansing yarn, &c.
Spencer, George H.
Feb. 23.
Manufacture of card-surfaces.
Warburton, James
Feb. 23.
Combing machinery.
Brierley, John .
Feb. 29.
Twisting and doubling.
Platt, James
Mar. 4.
Kay, Richard D.
Mar. 5.
Spinning and doubling.
Card-backs.
Mills, James
Mar. 10.
Spindles.
VOL. I.
Z
336
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1856.
Taylor, Thomas W.
Pettitt, Edwin
•
Brierley, Henry
Tysoe, John and Charles,
Mar. 12.
Flyers or roving-frames.
Mar. 18.
Mar.
22.
Preparing cotton.
Self-acting mules.
and Foxcroft, Peter
•
Mar. 24.
Roving, spinning, and doubling.
Caunce, Robert
Mar. 25.
Mules.
Ward, William
Mar. 28.
Lubricating spindles.
MacGregor, Peter, and
Marquis, Thomas
April 2.
Throstles.
Ellis, Charles
April 2.
Spinning and doubling.
Halliwell, Robert.
April
4.
Self-acting mules.
Fisher, Samuel
April 4.
Manufacture of spindles.
Lister, Paul C.
April 14.
Hollow flyers.
Kaberry, Leonard, and
Horsefield, Aaron
April 14.
Spindle-rails, roller-beams, &c.
Blackburn, Thomas
•
April 19.
Preparing cotton waste.
Lakin, Robert, Thompson,
John, Fitton, E. G., and
Fitton, Frederick A.
April 25.
Preparation machinery.
Pilling, William
April 29.
Saturating yarns and thread for
doubling.
Rigby, Joseph
April 30.
Sharpening the card cylinders.
Pearcy, Richard
May 2.
Tube frames.
Johnson, John Henry
May 9.
Carding engines.
McClay, Richard, and
Hare, John
•
May 17.
Spinning and twisting.
Newton, William Edward
May 21.
Ditto.
Fulton, William
May 28.
Preparing and spinning.
Calvert, Francis Alton
•
May 31.
Opening, cleaning, &c.
Blackwood, Robert, jun..
June
2.
Doubling yarn or thread.
Lebailliff, Jean, J.
June
3.
Cleaning and dressing.
Seed, William .
June 14.
Lap machines.
Sutcliffe, Joseph, and
Leech, James.
June 16.
Preparation machinery.
Turner, William, Hulme,
George, and Blackburn,
Henry
•
Johnson, James, and
Blackwell, William
Spittle, William Frederick
Johnson, John Henry
June 16. Condensing and carding engine.
June 23.
Mules and twiners or doubers.
July 2.
Spindles of glass.
July 4.
Cleaning and carding.
Shaw, Robert
July
7.
Obtaining pressure.
Bodmer, Rudolph
July 9.
Self-acting spinning apparatus.
Robertson, William
•
July 9.
Self-acting mules.
LIST OF PATENTS.
337

Name.
Date.
1856.
Bowles, David.
Ford, James,
Knowles, Peter.
July 16.
Throstles and doubling frames.
and
July 16.
Cleaning and preparing.
Noton, William
•
July 19.
Self-acting mules.
Lord, Edward Thomas,
Abraham, and William
July 25.
Preparation machinery.
Thatcher, Robert .
July 29.
Doubling and spinning.
Walker, George, and
Scrimgeour, James.
Aug. 4.
Spinning frames.
Borland, John Yuil
a
Aug. 6.
Fly.
Goddard, John, and
Hulme, George.
Aug. 14.
Carding engines.
Smith, John Burns
Aug. 15.
Mule spindles.
Hargreaves, William. . | Aug.
16.
Leach, James, Turner,
Improvement in Collins' comb-
ing machine.
William, and Tempest,
John .
Aug. 19.
Rollers for condensing and other
engines.
Apperley, James
Aug. 19.
Carding.
Apperley, James
Sep. 2.
Preparation machinery.
Lamb, Joseph
Sep. 3. Ditto.
·
Leigh, Evan and Geo. P.
Sep.
4.
Flyers.
Watson, John, and Halle,
Charles F.
Sep.
9.
Spinning and twisting.
•
Bousfield, George T..
Sep. 9.
Flying or roving frames.
Lister, Samuel C.
Sep. 13.
Preparation machinery.
Hetherington, John M.
and Gee, James.
Sep. 17.
Flyers.
Johnson, William
Sep. 23.
Doubling and twisting.
Newton, Alfred V.
Sep. 24.
Carding engines.
Horsfall, William.
Sep. 26.
Cards.
Whitehead, James
Oct. 2.
Preparation machinery.
Ward, William
Oct. 8.
Twisting or snarling yarns.
Ashburn, William H.,
and Fairhurst, James.
Oct. 11.
Stopping, drawing, and
Lister, Samuel C., and
Tongue, William
doubling frames.
Oct.
17.
Spinning.
·
Bailey, Isaac
Oct. 24.
Ditto.
Stott, Benjamin
Nov. 1.
Preparation machinery.
Westly, William King
Nov.
3.
•
White, John
Nov.
3.
Combing, drawing, &c.
Spinning.
Murgatroyd, Joshua.
Nov.
4.
Preparation machinery.
Seed, William, and Ry-
der, William
Nov.
5.
Slubbing and roving;—pressers,
338
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1856.
Dickinson, James .
Weild, William
Apperley, James, and
Clissold, William
Nov.
8.
Nov. 12.
Preparation machinery.
Doubling and twisting.
•
Nov. 12.
Condensing apparatus.
Saul, Dan, and Wil-
liams, Peter.
Nov. 14.
Bolsters and washers.
Blackburn, Henry.
Nov. 15.
Billies and mules.
Lister, Samuel C..
•
Nov. 18.
Spinning.
Newton, William Edward
Nov. 21.
Whistles.
Lees, Asa, and Schofield,
David.
Nov. 27.
Self-acting mules.
Crabtree, Thomas.
Dec. 3.
Card-setting machines.
Apperly, James,
Clissold, William
Platt, John.
Hartley, William .
Macpherson, William
Rye, William, and Simp-
son, James
Brooman, Richard A.
and
•
Dec. 4.
Feeding carding engines.
Dec. 17.
Mules for spinning.
•
Dec. 18.
Spinning frames.
Dec. 19.
Spinning and doubling.
•
Dec. 24.
A self-acting willow.
1857.
Jan. 3.
Hardacre, James .
Jan. 9.
Winding, twisting, and dou-
bling.
Roving and slubbing machines,
and flyer.
Parker, George, and Mar-
tin, William.
Jan. 15.
Preparing machine
Massey, John, and Har-
greaves, James, jun.
Elce, John, and Hewitt,
John
Holden, Isaac
•
Royds, Abraham, and
•
Jan. 21.
Preparation machinery.
Jan. 28.
Mules and other machines.
•
Jan. 30.
Combing and carding.
Kenyon, John.
Feb. 10.
Throstles.
•
Desvignes, Peter Hubert.
Feb. 12.
Preparation machinery.
Lawson, John, and Cot-
ton, Stephen.
Feb. 13.
Roving and twisting, &c.
Alcan, Emile
Feb. 17.
Spindles and bobbins.
Cheetham, David
Feb. 18.
•
Sliver cans, &c.
Johnson, John Henry
Feb. 21.
Spinning machines.
Newton, William Edward
Feb. 25.
Machinery for preparing waste
Johnson, John Henry.
Calvert, Francis Alton
•
Feb. 25.
cotton; applicable to carding
engines.
Carding machines.
•
Mar. 6.
Ginning and cleaning.
LIST OF PATENTS.
339

Name.
Date.
1857.
Faulkner, Samuel .
Mar. 9.
Carding.
Fitton, Frederick Alex-
ander
Mar. 9.
Preparation machinery.
Newton, William Edward
Mar. 12.
Preparing for combing.
Adshead, T. Sidebottom,
and Holden, Abraham
Mar. 20.
Carding machinery.
Hall, Henry
Mar. 20.
•
An addition to throstles
Greenwood, Nathan James
Mar. 20.
Spinning mules and slubbing
machines.
Brooman, Richard A.
Mar. 21.
Driving spindles.
Nuttall, Thonis.
•
Mar. 23.
Preparation machinery.
Newton, Alfred V.
Mar. 24.
Carding engines.
Somervail, William.
Mar. 25.
Preparation of materials.
Neild, Arthur, and Sut-
cliffe, N. B..
Mar. 30.
Cleansing mill sweepings.
Sugden, John
•
April 1.
Manufacture of combs.
Hardman, William, and
Dugdale
April 3.
Presser flyers.
Sumner, William
April 4.
Flyers.
Brierley, Henry
April 7.
Improved mules.
Newton, Alfred V.
April 14.
Carding engines,
Warburton, James.
April 16.
Carding and combing.
Oldfield, Edward
April 17.
Self-acting mules.
Robertson, William
April 22.
Carding engines, scutchers, and
openers.
Walmsley, Samuel.
April 25.
Preparing and spinning.
Bottomley, Joseph, Hod-
son, Christopher, and
Fielden, William
April 29.
Mules for spinning.
Walton, Frederick.
April 30.
Wire cards.
Marland, John.
May 2.
Cop tubes.
Fitton, Richard, and
Hall, Samuel.
•
May 11.
Spinning.
Henry, Michael
May 13.
Winding weft.
Apperly, James, and Clis-
sold, William.
May 18.
Carding engines and condensers.
Todd, William.
May 21.
Saturating cops before doubling.
Parkinson, Robert, and
Standish, John.
May 27.
Preparation machinery.
Willis, Thomas, and
Chell, George
May 29.
Spinning and doubling.
Arrowsmith, Peter R., and
Caunce, Robert.
•
June 3. Carding.
Daniel, Thomas
June 9. Drawing frames.
340
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1857.
Lister, George
•
June 12.
Carding engines.
Shaw, James and Hugh.
June 16.
Preparation machinery.
Champion, James.
June 19.
Spindles, flyers, and bobbins.
Shaw, Richard, and Ro-
binson, John.
June 23.
Stopping carding engines and
Nicholls, Benjamin, and
Ledward, Samuel.
June 26.
roving frames.
Mules for spinning.
Newton, William Edward
June 27.
Swindells, George, and
Arnold, Jonathan
Grinding the teeth of card
cylinders.
June 27.
Spinning and doubling.
Ashton, Thomas
July 14.
Teazing, scribbling, &c.
Wainwright, George J.
and Bradbury, Charles
July 18.
Use of cops.
Gedge, John
July 27.
Doubling machines.
Cooke, Luke
July 31.
Blowing machines.
Barlow, Henry B.
July 31.
Self-acting mules.
Newton, Alfred V.
Aug.
7.
Mules for spinning.
Bentley, John, and Wrig-
ley, Thomas.
Aug. 15.
Self-acting mules.
Newton, Alfred V.
Aug. 25.
Preparation machinery.
Preston, Francis.
Aug. 25.
Cop tubes and bobbins.
Leigh Evans
•
Sep. 2.
Drawing rollers and spindles.
Borland, John F.
Sep. 4.
Preparation machinery; flyer.
Marland, John.
Sep.
8.
Cop tubes.
Adshead, T. S., and Platt,
John
•
Sep. 16.
Carding.
Faulkner, Samuel.
Sep. 18.
Ditto.
Newton, Leopold .
and Bradbury, C. T.
Leigh, Evan.
Sep. 25.
Placing tubes on spindles.
Wainwright, George J.,
•
Sep. 30.
Making tubes.
Oct. 1.
Spindles, bearings, card cylin-
ders, &c.
Parker, Jonathan .
Oct. 6.
Grinding card cylinders.
Boyd, Alexander
•
Oct. 8.
Spinning and doubling.
Calvert, Francis A.
Oct. 10.
Ginning and cleaning.
Yates, James
Oct. 13.
Preparation machinery.
Middleton, John, and
Ryland, William
Oct. 14.
Cop tubes.
Heilmann, Paul
Oct. 15.
Spinning.
Newton, William Edward
Oct. 19.
Drawing rollers.
Milne, John.
Oct. 22.
Carding engines.
Hamilton, Thomas, and
James.
Oct. 22.
Making bobbins for throstles:
Clippele, Charles de
Oct. 26
Making rollers for spinners.
LIST OF PATENTS.
341

Name,
Date.
1857.
Taylor, Henry.
Allison, David, and
Livingston, John
Oct. 28.
Cans, slivers, and conductors.
•
Oct. 29.
Pressure to top rollers.
Lawson, John
Oct. 30.
•
Roving machinery.
Apperley, James, and Clis-
sold, William
Nov. 2.
Carding and condensing en-
gines.
Peters, Jules
Nov. 28.
Flyer.
Standring, William
Dec. 4.
Throstle and mule spinning.
Mercer, William, Bodden,
William, and Higgin-
son, William.
Dec.
5.
Slubbing and roving.
Adshead, T. S., and Hol-
den, Abraham
Dec. 5.
Walton, Frederick
Dec. 12.
Grinding carding engine rol-
lers.
Manufacture of rollers.
Marland, John.
Dec. 16.
Cop tubes or spindles.
Bowlas, David.
Dec. 18.
Preparing and spinning.
1858.
Platt, John.
Jan. 5.
Spinning and doubling.
Bowlas, David.
Jan. 15.
Preparing and spinning.
Archibald, Robert.
Jan. 16.
Preparation machinery.
Hyde, Frederick
•
Jan. 16.
Spinning and doubling.
Hamilton, Thomas and
James
Jan. 19.
Forming swift spindles.
Heppleston, Thomas
Jan. 20.
Pin winding.
Weild, William
Jan. 22.
Winding yarn or thread.
Wainwright,
George
James.
Jan. 27.
Drawing.
Midgley, John W.
Jan. 27.
Covered roller.
Caemmerer, Louis.
Jan. 28.
Cleaning rollers.
Heppleston, Thomas .
Feb. 1.
Doubling, twisting, and reeling
in one machine.
Leigh, Evan.
•
Feb. 9.
Carding engines.
Fisher, Charles James,
and Booth, James
Feb. 12.
Driving mule spindles.
Wilkinson, William
Mar. 4.
Spinning, &c.
Morel, Eugene.
Mar. 6.
Drawing.
Derouen, Antoine S..
Mar. 6.
Combing.
Warburton, James.
Mar. 12.
Carding engines.
Lawson, John
Mar. 16.
Spinning.
Rhodes, William Henry.
Mar. 19.
Speed indicators, &c. for spin-
dles.
Brooks, James.
Mar. 20.
Drawing frames.
342
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1858.
Mould, William.
Jackson, Richard
•
Mar. 23.
Preparing and spinning.
•
Mar. 24.
Spinning.
Wood, William and Ro-
bert
Mar. 24.
Spinning and doubling.
Peter, Robert
•
•
Mar. 31.
Gill machinery.
Bayley, Henry,
Greenwood, Thomas,
Batley, John,
Dockray, Jacob.
Greaves, John
and
•
April 8.
Preparation machinery.
and
April 9.
Spinning and doubling.
Lees, Asa, and Scho-
field, David.
April 10.
Collars and footsteps of spin-
Bullough, William, and
dles.
Harrison, James.
•
April 19.
Looms for weaving and wind-
ing machinery.
Newton, Leopold
•
April 26.
Cop tubes.
Tomlinson, Edward
April 28.
Ditto.
Smith, William.
April 29.
Spinning machinery.
Halliwell, Robert
May 11.
Mules.
Bayley, J. S., and Wil-
liam Henry
•
May 12.
Combing.
Brierley, Henry
May 20.
Mules.
Settle, Thomas.
May 21.
Preparation machinery; single
presser flyers.
Elce, John, and Cham-
pion, James.
May 22.
Ditto.
Scholfield, John, and
Cudworth, William
May 24.
Ditto.
Lister, Samuel C., and
Warburton, James.
May 26.
Spinning.
Cowper, Charles
May 27.
Combing.
Sykes, E., R. and P. .
May 29.
Continuous spinning and roving
machines.
Hodgson, William and
Henry.
May 29.
Spinning motley yarns.
Hargreaves, William, and
Haley, Enoch
June 4.
Combing.
Orr, Robert.
June 5.
Frictional drag.
Clark, William.
June 12.
Combing.
Hetherington, Joseph
June 14.
Guides or cleaners in winding
Mayall, Miles, and Jack-
machines.
son, George.
June 22.
Spinning.
Morgan, John.
June 28.
Spinning yarns.
Calvert, Francis A.
June 29.
Cleaning and preparing.
LIST OF PATENTS.
343

Name.
Date.
1858.
Mellodew, Thomas, Dux-
bury, John, and Lay-
field, Edmund.
•
July 2.
Spinning and doubling.
Lord, Edward
•
July 2.
Looms and spinning machines.
Florance, Jean J. .
July 7.
Reels or shooting wheels.
Gilbee, William A.
July 15.
Covering cotton and other
thread with silk.
Higgins, Henry, and
Whitworth, T. S.
July 22.
Spinning and doubling.
Taylor, James, Lang,
John, and Uttley, James
July 28.
Self-acting mules.
Brierley, Jesse.
July 29.
Spinning.
Webb, Thomas,
and
Craig, James.
•
July 30.
Spinning and doubling.
Hine, Stephen.
Aug. 2. Ditto.
Leigh, Evan.
Aug. 5.
Preparing and spinning.
Luis, José
Aug. 7.
Covering, doubling, and twist-
ing.
Newton, William Edward
Aug. 9.
Drawing and twisting.
Cottam, Samuel F.
Aug. 11.
Doubling.
Knowles, William.
Aug. 12.
Preparation machinery.
Worth, Thomas, and
Spencer, Henry.
Aug. 13.
Ditto.
Lister, Samuel Č., and
Warburton, James.
Platt, John, and Hartley,
•
Aug. 14.
Improvements in dyeing cotton.
Edmund
•
Aug. 30.
Preparing and spinning.
Cocker, Elias
Sep. 3.
Spinning and twisting.
Warburton, Thomas
Sep. 6.
Flyer legs.
Fielden, John .
Sep. 6.
Building of cops.
Knowles, John.
Sep. 10.
Preparation machinery.
Cheetham, David .
Sep. 10.
Preparing for spinning.
Kaberry, Leonard, and
Mitchell, Thomas
Sep. 11.
Ditto.
Flageollet, Gustave
Sep. 13.
Self-acting mules.
Lakin, Robert, and Wain,
John
Sep. 14.
Spinning mules.
Vasserot, Charles F..
Sep. 24.
Spinning cards.
Mills, James
Oct. 5.
Roving and slubbing.
Collier, George.
Oct.
6.
Winding machines.
Mitchell, Joseph and
Hiram, and England,
Thomas.
•
Ollerenshaw, J. C.
Oct.
8.
Spinning.
Oct. 14. Cotton gins.
344
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date,
1858.
Parkhurst, S. R.
Oct. 25.
Cotton gins.
Pooley, Charles.
Oct. 28.
Carding engines.
Foster, Benjamin,
and
Smith, Prince.
Oct. 28.
Spinning and doubling.
Fielding, Enos.
Nov. 4.
Forming cops.
Platt, John
Nov. 6.
Spinning and doubling.
Bulkley, Charles A.
Nov. 9.
Ginning and cleaning.
Mellor, Edmund
Nov. 17.
Mules.
Cowper, Charles.
A
Nov. 18.
Assorting combed fibres.
Hess, Richard Henry.
Nov. 24.
Parts of spinning frames.
Booth, John B.
Nov. 26.
Preparation machinery.
Robertson, William, and
Orchar, J. G.
Dec. 2.
Machinery for winding frames.
Platt, John
Dec.
4.
Mules for spinning.
•
Ferrabee, James, and
England, Frederick
Henry.
Dec.
7.
Carding.
Henry, Michael.
Dec. 8.
Twisting.
Brooman, R. A.
Dec. 13.
Ditto.
Ronald, James .
Dec. 20.
Spinning.
Bird, Thomas.
•
Dec. 23.
Cop bottoms, or cop tubes.
Haworth, William, and
Barker, William
Dec. 29.
Top clearers of spinning ma-
Lees, John, and Heap,
William
•
Dec. 31.
Tunkest, Robert, and
1859.
Tomlinson, James.
•
Jan. 3.
Hughes, Edward Thomas.
Jan. 6.
Ditto.
Florance, Jean J..
Jan.
7.
chines.
Punching holes in spinning
rollers.
Preparation machinery.
Reels or shooting wheels.
Newton, William Edward
Jan. 7.
Winding, twisting and dou-
bling.
Lightoller, Richard A.
Jan. 13.
Spinning.
Foster, John
Jan. 18.
Spinning and roving frames.
Thornton, Joshua .
Jan. 19.
Carding engines.
Wells, William.
Jan. 21.
Spinning and twisting.
Cutts, William.
Jan. 25.
Bobbins, spools, and cop tubes.
Hodgson, William and
Henry.
Jan. 25.
Spinning.
Rawson, Henry.
Jan. 27.
Ditto.
•
Buckingham, James, and
Salt, George.
Jan. 27.
Drawing rollers.
Leach, George.
Feb.
2.
Leashing yarn or thread in the
hank, and winding.
LIST OF PATENTS.
345
Name.
Date.
1859.
Miller, John.
Curtis, Matthew, and
Smith, John
Feb. 7. Spinning mules.
Feb.
7.
Combing.
Taylor, James, and Wild,
Charles
Feb. 9.
Self-acting mules.
Crabtree, James.
Feb. 12.
Bobbins and spools.
Willis, Thomas, and
Chell, George
Feb. 12.
Spinning, twisting, &c.
Vasserot, Charles F.
Feb. 16.
An improved carding machine.
Brooman, Richard A.
Feb. 19.
Doubling threads.
Paul, George
Feb. 21.
Spindles and flyers.
McCulloch, Gilbert
Feb. 21.
Spinning, &c.
Paul, George
Feb. 21.
Spindles and flyers.
Harding, Thomas R.
Feb. 22.
Card surfaces.
Sharp, William.
•
Feb. 23.
Spinning and twisting.
Robinson, John
Clark, William.
Feb. 24.
Ditto.
Feb. 25.
Ditto.
Rider, Mark
·
Mar. 4.
Spinning and doubling.
Cowban, James, and An-
drews, Elias.
Mar. 4.
Spinning and leashing.
Leach, George
•
Mar. 5.
Reeling yarn or thread.
Dunlop, John M.
Mar. 5.
Cleaning.
Clarke, J. P..
Mar. 7.
Reels for winding.
King, James, and Wil-
cock, Alfred
Mar. 8.
•
Preparation machinery.
Garnett, Charles.
Mar. 17.
Ginning and cleaning.
•
Buckingham, James
Mar. 28.
Drawing machinery.
Lacey, John, Simpson,
Samuel, and Smith,
Henry.
Mar. 31.
Preparation machinery.
Fairburn, Edward.
April 5.
Carding.
Hetherington,
John,
Webb, Thomas, and
Craig, James.
April 5.
Spinning and doubling.
Scott, Thomas
April 5.
Preparation machinery.
Mosley, David .
April 7.
Cards.
Wappenstern, Rudolph
April 11.
Cop tubes.
Rowan, William
April 11.
Spinning.
Marland, John.
April 11.
Cop tubes.
Bird, Thomas
•
April 14.
New material for pickers for
looms, &c.
Sidebottom, John
April 16.
•
Tubes of spindles.
Stevenson, William
Johnson, John Henry.
April 25.
Spinning, doubling, &c.
April 26.
Combing.
346
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1859.
Arrowsmith, Thomas H.
May 2.
Carding engines.
Nuttall, Charles
•
May
2.
Grinding wire cards.
Scholfield, John, and Cud-
worth, William.
May
5.
Spinning.
Bray, Joseph, and Harri-
son, James W. .
May 7.
Ditto.
Bennett, Thomas P.
May 11.
Carding engines.
Dean, J., Parkinson, J.,
Riley, E., and Burton,
William
May 18.
Mules for spinning.
Ferrabee, J.
June 6.
Machinery for forming bats of
fleece or sheets of sliver, &c.
Pooley, Charles.
June 7.
Preparation machinery.
Fairgrieve, R. R., and
Bathgate, S..
June 7.
Winding yarns or thread.
Brown, William, and
Bathgate, Simeon
•
June 14.
Carding machinery.
Wilkinson, Charles
•
June 16.
Doubling and twisting.
Orrell, Thomas.
•
June 17.
Mules for spinning.
Combe, John, and Smal-
Winding and spinning machi-
page, Robert.
June 17.
nery.
Bousfield, George T.
June 22.
Winding.
Wrigley, George, and
Thomas H.
June 27.
Self-acting mules.
Kay, Richard, Manock,
John, Whittaker, John,
and Booth, Thomas.
•
June 30.
Slubbing, roving, &c.
Borgeot, Lovis.
June 30.
Winding and twisting.
Lawson, John, and Cot-
ton, Stephen
June 30.
Roving, twisting, and spinning.
Jones, Abel.
July 1.
Drawing, twisting, &c.
Winstanley, Edward.
July 27.
Indicators for registering quan-
tity.
Martin, Isaac
July 29.
Cop tubes.
Mitchell, Isaac, and
Lister, Samuel
•
Westly, William K.
Aug.
9.
Spinning machinery.
Aug. 10.
Combing machinery.
Brooman, Richard A.
•
Aug. 22.
Preparing and spinning.
Hetherington, John M.
Aug. 26.
Carding.
Todd, David.
Aug. 29.
Ditto.
Cowgill, James, and
Stocks, John.
Aug. 31.
Cops.
Nuttall, James.
Aug. 31.
Preparation machinery.
Brown, William, and
Bathgate, Simeon .
Sep.
2.
Grinding card teeth.
LIST OF PATENTS.
347

Name.
Rothwell, William, and
Date.
1859.
Watson, Thomas
Sep. 7.
Screw gill boxes.
Clarke, John P.
Sep. 15.
Spools and reels.
Hadwen, John W.
Sep. 16.
Drawing machinery.
Eastwood, Thomas C.
Sep.
19.
Preparing and combing.
Weild, William.
Sep.
20.
Beads, John.
Sep. 20.
Improvements in fluted rollers.
Spinning machinery.
Blair, John.
Sep. 21.
Treatment of yarns.
Harrison, Joseph
Sep. 21.
Spinning mules and twiners.
Bourcart, Jean J.
Sep. 23.
Opening, cleaning, &c.
Airey, William, and Clay-
ton, James
Sep. 27.
Preparation machinery.
Newton, L., and Greaves,
John
Oct. 1.
Cop tubes or spools.
Loftus, John
Oct. 4.
Combing and carding.
White, George.
Oct.
10.
Baron, Edward
H.,
Frames for spinning and twist-
ing.
Wheater, James, and
Tatley, Lambert.
Oct. 12.
Carding engines.
Bates, Ralph
Oct. 15.
Ditto.
Higgins, James, and
Whitworth, Thomas S.
Oct.
18.
Preparation machinery.
Newton, William Edward
Oct. 18.
Ditto.
Newton, William Edward Oct.
18.
Improvements in combs or
gills.
Brookes, William
•
Oct. 22.
Holden, George.
Oct.
•
24.
Preparation machinery.
Spinning.
Bourcart, Jean J.
Brooman, Richard A..
Higgins, James.
Lister, Samuel C., and
Warburton, James.
Oct. 26.
Mules for spinning.
•
Oct. 27.
Thread for weaving, &c.
Oct. 28.
Warping yarns..
•
Oct. 29.
Dyeing, and preparing and
spinning coloured yarns.
Bolton, John
Oct. 31.
•
Winding thread or yarn.
Barlow, Edward, and
Hamilton, Francis.
Nov. 19.
Carding engines.
Maniece, W. C.
Nov. 24.
Cop tubes.
Donisthorpe, Geo. E.
Nov. 25.
Combing.
King, James, and Sut-
cliffe, John
Nov. 29.
Mules for spinning.
Wainwright,
George
James.
Nov. 30.
Supplying moisture to the air
in factories, and for register-
ing the strength and elasti-
city of yarn, &c.
348
LIST OF PATENTS.

Dec.
Dec.
Name.
Mortimer, Samuel.
Makinson, Daniel, and
Hope, James.
Harding, Thomas R..
Combe, James.
•
Lawson, John, and Hago,
William
Date.
1859.
Nov. 30. | Spinning and doubling.
Dec. 2.
Carding engines.
7.
7.
Combing, carding, &c.
Carding and preparing.
Dec. 8.
Spinning or twisting.
Lister, S. C., and War-
burton, James
Dec. 13.
Preparing and combing.
Bolton, Thomas, Berten-
shaw, John, and Mac
Connell, James.
Dec. 14.
Roving, slubbing, spinning, &c.
Champion, James.
Dec. 14.
Spindles, flyers, and bobbins.
Holden, Edward P.
Dec. 16.
Preparation machinery.
Busk, Robert P.
Dec. 17.
Opening and drawing.
Todd, Matthew.
Dec. 19.
Combing.
Goodall, George S.
Dec. 19.
Wire card covering.
Bayley, Henry.
Dec. 20.
Cop tubes.
Kirby, Edward.
Dec. 29.
Spinning machines and cop
tubes.
Barlow, H. B..
Dec. 29.
Stripping or cleaning the
drum and rollers of carding
engines.
Thomas, Thomas
•
Dec. 29.
Spinning machinery.
Fairbairn, Sir Peter, and
Newton, Robert.
Dec. 29.
Combing.
Newton, William Edward
Dec. 30.
Spinning.
1860.
Bateman, Daniel and
Samuel.
Hill, Henry C.
Knowles, John
Jan. 3.
Manufacture of cards.
•
Jan. 6.
Machines for carding.
•
Jan. 14.
Machinery for carding.
•
Smith, William and
Prince.
Jan. 18.
Hardening cast iron cops.
Ermin, Godfrey, and
Platt, John
Jan. 18.
Spinning, winding, and dou-
bling.
Potter, James
Jan. 23.
Self-acting mules.
Donesthorpe, George Ed-
Jan. 24.
Making cop-tubes.
Sykes, Reuben and Phi-
lemon.
Jan. 27.
Spinning, twisting, and roving.
Lord, James.
Jan. 28.
Roving frames and doubling
frames.
LIST OF PATENTS.
349

Name.
Date.
1860.
Newton, William Edward
Jan. 28.
Carding.
Bosshardt, Henry, and
Dingler, Otto
Jan. 30.
Brooman, Richard A.
Jan. 31.
Machinery for treating cotton.
Forming slivers, and winding
threads on bobbins.
Harper, James .
Feb.
3.
Roving frames.
Fielden, Robert
and
Thomas
Feb.
3.
Prickers in looms for weaving.
Lupton, John C., and
Bleasdale, Joseph
Earnshaw, Abel, Gray-
ston, Elias, Shackleton,
James, and Stell, Wil-
liam
Johnston, John Henry
Feb.
9.
Preparing and spinning.
Feb. 10.
Spinning.
•
Feb. 17.
Twisting, doubling, and wind-
ing thread.
Bottomley, John
Feb. 23.
Spinning.
Brooman, Richard A.
Feb. 24.
Quills, spools or bobbins.
Eastwood, T. C.
Feb. 27.
Preparing and combing.
Munslow, William, and
Wallwork, Henry.
Feb. 27.
Weighting and clearing rollers.
Midgley, James Water-
house.
Feb. 28.
Machinery for spinning.
Blair, John
Billington, Edward
•
Feb. 29.
Preparing and carding cotton.
Mar. 7.
Combing machinery for waste
cotton, &c.
Henry, Michael
•
Mar. 15.
Twisting fibrous materials.
Weild, William
Mar. 16.
Winding yarn or thread.
Hodgson, Win
and
Henry.
Mar. 19.
Preparing and spinning.
Newhouse, James.
Mar. 21.
Preparing, spinning, and dou-
bling.
Harrison, Richard, and
Ashworth, David
Mar. 23.
Ditto.
•
Lister, Samuel C..
Mar. 23.
Maniquet, Jean À. de.
•
Mar. 28.
Carding and preparing machi-
nery.
Winding, doubling, twisting,
and spinning.
Holden, Isaac
•
Mar. 29.
Preparing and combing.
Sampson, Edward B..
Mar. 29.
Condensing apparatus for card-
ing engines.
Lakin, Robert, and Wain,
John
❤
Mar. 30. Spinning and doubling.
350
LIST OF PATENTS.

Name.
Date.
1860.
Chapman, William and
John H.
Houldsworth, William..
Wilson, Joshua Henry.
Parker, Thomas, and
Harrison, George
Heywood, Edwin
•
Mar. 31.
Improvemen's in spinning
yarns.
April 3.
Preparing machinery.
•
April 5.
Manufacture of bobbins.
April
9.
Self-acting mules.
•
April 10.
Winding yarns.
Platt, John.
April 13.
Mules for spinning and dou-
bling.
Hadwen, John W.
April 13.
Combing and cleaning.
Bremond, Jean J. L., and
Zephirin, Louis.
April 14.
Spindles, and other parts of
spinning looms.
Hausemann, Gustav
•
April 17.
Spinning yarns.
Cheetham, Samuel.
April 17.
Cop tubes.
Wheatley, Samuel, and
Milnes, Alfred
•
April 19.
An improved stickle for grind-
ing cards.
Rawson, Henry.
April 29.
Combing machinery.
Smith, Ellison.
May 5.
Preparation machinery.
Geoghegan, Robert
May 9.
Preparing and spinning.
Uttley, James, and Bray,
Joseph.
May 11.
Spinning.
Lord, Edward
May 14.
Opening, blowing, and clean-
ing.
Higgins, James, and
Whitworth, T. S.
May 15.
Preparing and spinning.
Fielden, Samuel
and
Abraham
May 19.
Self-acting mules.
Bottomley, John
May 22.
Spinning.
Johnson, John Henry
May 22.
Ditto.
Paul, George
May 23.
Winding yarn.
Dickins, Thomas, and
MacCulloch, Gilbert.
May 25.
Spinning and doubling.
Coltman, Thomas.
May 28.
Reels for reeling cotton thread,
&c.
Mackenzie, George, and
Hamilton, John.
•
May 31.
Bobbins or holders.
Threlfall, Richard.
June 1.
Self-acting mules.
Schuhman, Sigismund,
Spinning, doubling and wind-
and Harrison, George.
June 6.
ing.
Hughes, Edward Joseph
June 7. Roving, spinning, and dou-
bling.
LIST OF PATENTS.
351

Name.
Date.
1860.
Combe, James
Farrar, Jabez B., and
June
9.
Roving and slubbing.
Joshua
•
June 12.
Spinning, doubling, and twist-
Willis, Thomas, and
ing.
Chell, George
June 12.
Twisting, doubling, and wind-
ing.
Harrison, Joseph
•
June 19.
Spinning.
Shaw, John, and Pope,
J. T.
•
June 26.
Flyers.
Vouillon, Francois.
June 29.
Drawing, twisting, &c.
Newhouse, James .
July 2.
Spinning and doubling.
Durand, Francois
Haughton, James.
Noone, Joseph .
July 3.
Slubbing and spinning.
•
July
3.
Driving spindles.
July 5.
Improved carding engine.
Forbes, George F.
July
9.
Cleaning cotton.
Lister, Samuel C.
July 14.
Preparing machines.
Kaberry, Leonard
July 25.
Spinning and doubling, &c.
Dakin, John and George
July 28.
Ditto ditto.
Billington, Edward
Aug.
3.
Combing and preparing.
Higgins, Jas., and Whit-
worth, Thomas S.
•
Aug. 4.
Carding engines.
Smith, Ellison
Aug. 8.
Preparation machinery.
Crawford, John
Aug. 10.
Spinning.
Walton, William
Aug. 15.
Wire cards.
Tempest, Robert, and
Tomlinson, James.
Aug. 18.
Preparation machinery.
Newhouse, James.
Aug. 23.
Spinning and doubling.
Cannon, Wm. W., and
Jackson, Robert
Aug. 23.
Spinning.
Willman, George
Sept. 4.
Carding engines.
Boyle, Thomas
Sept. 4.
Preparing machinery.
Stratheam, John
Sept. 18.
Ditto
ditto.
Calvert, Francis A.
Sept. 19.
Opening and cleaning machi-
nery.
Clark,Jno.,Pollock, Wm.,
and Whyte, James
Oct. 1.
Spinning and twisting.
Hulme, George
Oct. 1.
Carding.
Rutter, George
Oct. 2.
Opening and cleaning fibres.
Robinson, John T.
Oct.
2.
Screw gill apparatus for comb-
ing.
Wimpering, Thomas.
Clegg, Wm., Wild, Tho.,
and Tomlinson, James,
Webster, Joseph Thomas
Hoare, Charles
VOL. I.
Oct.
5.
Spinning.
•
Oct. 6.
Preparation machinery.
•
Oct. 19.
Oct. 15. Drawing spindles.
Twisting and laying.
2 A
352
LIST OF PATENTS.
Name.
Date.
1860.
Jamieson, Wm., Robin-
son, Wm., and Rowbot-
tom, C.
Oct. 20.
Grinding and sharpening eards.
Smith, John, and Holt,
John
Oct. 22.
Preparing and spinning.
Taylor, James, Gartside,
H. N., and Wood, J. H.
Kay, Jno., Hartley, Jno.,
and Mallinson, Thos.
Lawson, Henry
Greenwood, Thomas, and
Oct. 24.
Self-acting-mules.
Oct.
25.
Self-acting mules.
Oct. 27.
Cop tubes to spindles.
Dockray, Jacob
Oct.
29.
Carding and openning.
Higgins, Jas., and Whit-
worth, T. S.
Nov.
6.
Preparation machinery.
Bennet, Thomas P.
Nov.
8.
•
Mules for spinning.
Robertson, William, and
Hetherington, J. M. Nov. 14.
Ditto.
•
Schofield, John, and Miles
Nov. 15.
Doubling yarns.
Dearden, Henry
Nov. 21.
Punching washers.
Mackenzie, G., and Ha-
milton, John
Nov. 26.
Bobbins and holders.
Ronald, James
Dec. 1
Spinning.
Lowden, John, and Buck-
ley, Robert
Dec. 3.
Carding engine.
Whitehead, John
Dec. 3.
Combing.
Hall, Henry
Dec. 12.
Spinning and doubling.
Lister, Sam. C., and War-
burton, James
Dec. 12.
Ditto.
Morison, James
Dec. 17.
Ditto.
Barlow, E., Newhouse,J..
and Hamilton, Francis
Dec. 17.
Carding machinery.
Scholes, William
•
Dec. 18.
Wire card covering.
Warner, Frederic .
Dec. 26.
Improved churka or roller gin.
LIST OF PATENTS.
352*

Name.
Date.
1861.
Heywood, William
Tomlinson, Edward .
Watson, John, and Halle,
Charles F.
Jan.
1.
•
Jan.
3.
Placing cop tubes on spindles.
Grinding card teeth.
•
Jan.
5.
Spinning and twisting.
Coulong, James
Jan.
5.
Carding engines.
Lord, Edward, and Whit-
aker, Robert
Jan.
9.
Spinning and doubling.
Fitton, James, and Ful-
lerton, F. E.
Jan. 9.
Cleaning the droppings from
Whittaker, Edwin, and
carding engines.
Clare, Jeremiah
•
Jan. 16.
Preparation machinery.
Craven, Joseph Henry
•
Jan. 17.
Spinning and doubling.
Brown, William
Jan. 23.
Improved stripper for carding
engines.
Henderson, Henry
Jan. 24.
Machinery for printing yarns
and threads, and twisting.
Higgins, James,
Pollok, Jun., Morris
James, and
Feb. 1.
Winding yarn and thread.
Whitworth, Thos. S.
Wainwright, George Jas.,
Bradbury, Charles T.,
and Lawton, John.
Settle, Thomas.
Nussey, Nicholas
Feb. 9.
Preparation machinery.
•
Feb. 15.
Roving machinery.
Feb. 16.
Preparation machinery.
Feb. 16.
Preparation machinery.
1
•
353
NOTES.
NOTE A. p. 85.
THE commentaries of schoolmen upon the notices of natural
history and the arts which occur in the classics, are often no
less amusing from their ignorance than their dogmatism.
Virgil has in particular suffered severely at their hands,
notwithstanding their pretended reverence for his learning.
He is universally allowed to be the most exact of ancient
authors in describing the productions of nature, and in select-
ing epithets appropriate to their qualities; for he was a
proficient in all the philosophy of his age. Addison says,
"We receive more strong and lively ideas of things from his
words than we could have done from the objects themselves."
His language is so graphic as to lead another critic to say,
"that he found out living words." Of all literary composi-
tions, ancient or modern, his Georgics are reckoned to be the
most highly finished, displaying a vividness of conception, a
regularity of thought, a felicity of diction, an accuracy and
extent of information, which could have resulted only from
the deepest study, animated by the brightest genius. Virgil
was peculiarly conversant with the appearances, properties,
and geography of the animal and vegetable tribes. His
description of the cotton plant in the couplet quoted in the
text is no less picturesque than philosophical, including also

x 2
354
NOTES.
two of its most remarkable localities,-Ethiopia, and the
country of the Seres, or Bochyra. How strangely has the
learned Warton travestied the original in the following
doggerel rhyme :—
"From Ethiop's woods, where woolly leaves increase,
How Syrians comb the vegetable fleece!"
Woolly leaves, and the Syrians combing the woods of
Ethiopia! What a pity he had not gone to school with
Mrs. Malaprop and become acquainted with the contagious
places. It was the Seres of whom Virgil speaks, an Indian
people far enough from Syria, who were famous then, as they
are now, for the growth and manufacture of cotton.
Martyn, in his learned edition of Virgil, Oxford, 1829,
thus comments upon the line "Velleraque ut foliis depectant
tenuia Seres."
"The Seres were a people of India who furnished the
other parts of the world with silk; the ancients were gene-
rally ignorant of the manner in which it was spun by the
silkworm, and imagined that it was a sort of down gathered
from the trees.”
There is no evidence that the Seres supplied the world
with silk, though there is, that they supplied it with muslin
robes. But who that ever saw a silk cocoon enclosed in
its entangled net-work of floss, would think of combing it
out, or would charge Virgil with the folly of applying the
word depectant to it; whereas to the fleece of cotton-wool,
waving tress-like from its opened pods, the term depectant
is most appropriate. The phrase, tenuia vellera, or delicate
fleece, also corresponds to the character of cotton-wool as
known to the Romans, and as described by Pliny, but is
quite inapplicable to the silkworm's coils. The poet and
the naturalist probably derived their knowledge of cotton
plants from the same source-ambassadors and other dis-
tinguished travellers who came to Rome from Eastern Asia.
NOTE B.-p. 222.
For the following important document I am indebted to
James Cosmo Melville, Esq., the accomplished Secretary of
the East India Company :-
NOTES.
355
Statement of the Quantity of Cotton Yarn imported from India
in each Year from 1700 to 1760.

17001
1701
1702
The General Books for these
years are missing.
lbs.
1731
20,496
1732
46,405
1703
114,100 lbs.
1733
70,976
1704
72,938
1734
5,924
1705
39,155
1735
91,394
1706
48,120
1736
40,274
1707
219,879
1737
2,083
1708) The General Books for these years
1738
3,024
1709
do not particularize the goods im-
1739
8,445
1710
ported; the Subsidiary Books,
1740
3,339
1711
from which the information could
1741
20,055
1712)
be supplied, are missing.
1742
II,366
1713
135,546 lbs.
1743
9,904
1714
12,768
1744
14,593
1715
nil
1745
nil
1716
nil
1746
nil
1717
nil
1747
nil
1718
37,714
1748
nil
1719
nil
1749
nil
1720
21,350
1750
14,112
1721
50,624
1751
4,704
1722
10,800
1752
336
1723
24,025
1753
nil
1724
21,588
1754
nil
1725
5,809
1755
37,632
1726
54,300
1756
6,061
1727
27,254
1757
4,357
1728
II,424
1758
12,869
1729
18,816
1759
4,390
1730
32,351
1760
2,814
East India House, March 23, 1836.
The above Table shows that during the early part of the
last century the cotton yarn imported from Hindostan bore a
very considerable relation to the whole cotton wool imported
into Great Britain. Thus in 1710 the total importation of
cotton wool was 715,008 lbs., while in 1707 that of Indian
yarn was 219,879 lbs., and in 1713, 135,546 lbs. The
quantities of yarn imported by the Company seem to have
356
NOTES.
suffered extraordinary vicissitudes ill accordant with the
regular course of the home manufactures into which they
entered. It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that there must
have been in the intervals very large importations of these
yarns through the contraband traders, who are known to have
supplied the European markets, to a great extent, with the
highly prized and then inimitable muslins and calicoes of the
Eastern world.
Average Price of Cotton Yarn per lb., from 1700 to 1760, as
sold by the East India Company.
d.
{NO
No particulars of these years can
be given.
1741
1742
1743
1744
64
7 Ditto
1745
S.
1700 to 1705
1706
2 29
1707
I II
1708 to 1728
Ditto,
1729
1730
1731
2
1732
2
1733
1734
2
1735
3
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
•042MN TO minain no 270
•
45746
I 10
2 422
2/
2. 21
4/
2 34
3 5 Some few bales sold at
3 9
55
Ditto
Ditto
None sold.
5 Some few bales sold at 17
Ditto
Ditto
ditto.
8. d.
8
8
21
14 7
12
8
1∞ 2
2 78 H
I
I
8
1746 to 1748
None sold.
1749
4 II 2
1750
3 5/1/20
1751
Ditto.
1752
4
1753
6 81
· 50
1754
Ditto.
1755
3 IO
1756
4 01
1757
2 9
Some few bales sold at 15
O
1758
2 11
Ditto
1759
4 8
Ditto
HH
15
O
14 O
1760
None sold.
NOTES.
357
For the above Table I am also indebted to the courtesy
of James C. Melville, Esq. The duty, as would appear from
the following letter of J. D. Hume, Esq., Secretary of the
Board of Trade, was about 4 d. per lb.
15 Russell Square, April 3, 1836.
DEAR SIR,—I have looked back to some old Custom-house
books, and see that in 1757 the duties on cotton yarn were,
-East Indian, the pound 42d. and a very small fraction, and
all other yarn a fraction under 3d. the pound. The fractions
arose from the gross duty being formed of various rates, and
also various per-centages, additions upon some of these rates,
so that scarcely any gross duty on any article conformed
to our coinage.
As the duty above given is quoted from a book published
in 1757, I cannot say how long it had stood at that amount;
and considering that, previous to Mr. Pitt's first consolidation
in 1787, the sums payable were always composed of numerous
duties, added from time to time to some ancient first duty, it
would be hardly possible at this day to trace them back so as
to find how they stood at still earlier periods. I should have
thought that the East India House must have had records of their
imports and payments, so as to have cleared up the question by
reference to actual transactions.
I am, dear sir,
Yours very truly,
Dr. URE,
J. D. HUME.
+
APPENDIX.
STATISTICAL TABLES.
360
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST, FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM.
1827.
1828.
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Small
Small
Wares.
Wares.
Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Valuc.
Yards.
£
£
lbs.
£
Yards.
£
. £
lbs.
£
Russia.
Sweden
Norway
Denmark
Prussia
4,258,508
155.932
23,704 12,070,675
933,204
2,502,267
93,4541
24,210 14,882,644
958,242
65,569
2,620
820
250,290
18,365
21,864
1,060
310 321,294
20,449
214,400
8,386
I, 200
9,294
599
364,505
14,546
I,799
14,805
847
270,338
8,288
505
265,824
19,064
248,416
7,686
351
164,207
10,945
20,543
1,006
Germany
43,675,688 1,539,826
6261 55,779 4,888
205,495 17,028,354 1,351,508
9,100
357
175
48,360
4,055
39,501,640 1,325,828|
277,455 17,233,115 1,250,791
Holland
Belgium
13,734,445 550,587
281,347 6,295,493
580,937
13,277,621
506,518
275,406 7,056,293 621,933.
France
365,100
16,055
7,906
15,722
1,580
79, 196
5,945
13,433
32,116
3,680
Portugal, Proper
25,472,135
733,546
16,874
193,456
16,253
18,309,401
485,392
10,597
130,007
10,659
Azores
385,583
11,604
185
424,980
12,073
247
I,42.f
80
Madeira
388,942
12,542
589:
13
2
386,253
12,398 1,212
Spain and the Balearic
Islands
340,516
14,546
1,246
21,365
1,591
327,662
13,138 2,548
5,907
616
Canaries
638,571
25,297
758
1,048
108
685,764
22,188
7111
1,632
81
Gibraltar
17,202,891
593,131 19,233
105,262
8,866 18,507,940
638,965
22,038
53,832
5,229
Italy and the Italian
Islands
28,113,538
905,33027,641|
27,641 4,457,476
267,920 | 32,822,686
993,652
36,488 5,153,295
263,554
Malta
3,275,227
100, 297
Ionian Islands
105,894
3,757
1,344 250,794
167 11,952
13,267 4,466,526
990
128,190
2,021 417,964 22,126
106,855 3,731
202
21,320
1,517
Turkey and Continental
Greece (exclusive of
the Morea)
11,560,172
364, 108
570
647,094
39,6944,719,481|
129,381
832 156,860
10,834

Morea & Greek Islands
Egypt (Ports on the
Mediterranean).
1,966,654
48,715
5༠།
959,580
23,668


APPENDIX.
361
Tripoll, Barbary, and
Morocco
183,395
4,666
1,500
10
406,712
•
1
t
10,327
Western Coast of Africa
1,026,584
41,870
208
Cape of Good Hope
1,748,556 60,838
7,105
50
2,182
12
1,536,861
57,376
289
2,353,346
74,929
189
4,780
50
3,716
5
375
Cape Verd Islands
74,318
2,016
50
St. Helena
44,932 1,824
157
112
12
42,412
1,594
130
Isle of Bourbon
Mauritius
East India Company's
Territories & Ceylon
1,000
40
1,696,516 67,435
5,482
1,477,886 57,253
5,337
36,167,952 1,355,153
40,993 3,063,556 273,990
37,566,836
37,566,836 1,394, 681
43,344 4,549, 219|
390,344
China . .
1,581,353
66,345
935
300
25
Sumatra and Java
2,342,207
87,987
1,697
4,680,371
Philippine Islands
Diemen's Land, and
Swan River
New Zealand and South
Sea Islands
Ports of Siam
New South Wales, Van
887,244 36,902
153,238
1,138
2,791
37,836 2,790
1,105,957
41,309 4,900
3,813
370
I,242,285
43,548
8,190
5,704
445
3,672
158
1
•
·
British North American
Colonies
6,616,812
224,467 13,875
35,568
2,200
9,202,255
304,328
18,679
66,520
3,518
•
British West Indies.
26,730,096
888,661 51,202
7,680
744
21,096,050,
689,291
41,038
5,327
521
Hayti
Cuba and other Foreign
West Indies
4,288,244 145,085
2,763
5,009,333
167,731
1,437
9,779,788 360,300
14,801
•
8,004,786
292,214
11,717
370
180
United States of America
Mexico
Guatemala
52,856,809 2,257,955
269,075
8,914
1,547
36,200,427 1,612,466
185,021
100,285
6,515
13,687,021 507,336
28,235
9,460
1,068
5,331,635 227,514
9,210
150
41
•
9,174
400
150
109,083
4,199
340
4,000
200
Columbia
Brazil.
•
3,987,030 139,322
37,195,322 1,119,344|
6,472
ΙΙΟ
40
5,081,948 163,663
10,496
39,600
8,961
2,145
63,098,012 1,967,643|
62,386
13,340
2,072
States of the Rio de la
Plata
2,076,897 69,527
6,159
25,208
761
4,903,450 160,576
12,574
Chili
Peru
5,825,700 203,722 27,349
2,917,056
14,977
683,445
57, 148 15,366
13,846
114,866
14,010
3,583
Isles of Guernsey, Jer-
sey, Alderney, & Man
Total
1,509
13,206,412 461,680 29,483
1,501 4,129,112 166,808 29,810
459 848,492 51,776 20,379
350,505,
365,492,804 12,948,035 1,144,552 44,878,7743,545,578 363,328,431 12,483,249 1,165,763 50,505,751 3,595,405
14,652
1,560
5,160
600
4,287
бог
362
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST―(continued).
1829.
1830.
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Small
Small
Wares.
Wares.
Declared
Quantities.
Valuc.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Declared
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Russia.
Yards.
2,453,676
£
£
lbs.
£
Yards.
£
£
lbs.
£
94,872
23,146 17,921,369 1,062,225
4,194,962
142,463
13,512 18,555,753 1,087,662
Sweden
Norway
Denmark
Prussia
Germany
•
Holland
Belgium
France
Portugal, Proper.
Azores.
Madeira
12,986
538
205 320,660
18,929
8,868
217
88
322,850
17,702
574,650
20,543
2,296
16,242
890
601,322
18,003
1,738
17,635
Ι,ΟΙΟ
•
352,097
8,439
429
85,161
5,222
390, 118
8,539
177
96,718
5,467
17,725
517
41,019,652| 1,137,532
405 42,878
3,792
2461
13
39
41,040
3,370
279,355 24,055,423 1,585,979
43,816,980 1,174,620
43,816,980 1,174,620
303,950 21,730,661 1,449,521
IL,399,792 443,705
214,681 7,878,249
673,714
10,533,793 402,363
244,326 7,254,258 612,925
509,030
15,462
3,335
24,701,993
631,125
12,385
19,500
159,567 14,083
1,486
139,465
7,055
2,946
5,582
391
21,372,740
592,759
12,471
221,383
14,024
466,326
13,108
521
1,400
63
397,930
10,596
365
3,012
252
502,631
14,602
616
12
I
448,994
13,348
572
Spain and the Balearic
Islands
11,018,689
326,708
12,978
17,620
1,475
6,146,471
190,836
10,318
7,590
694
Canaries .
712,424
21,767
1,206
3,054
224
597,977
17,973
959
700
32
Gibraltar
•
IO,242,089
310,723
10,052 21,873
2,194
4,758,662
139,632
Italy and the Italian
Islands
36,808,440 1,081,461|
44,849 6,355,154
317,580
53,286,586 1,706,324|
Malta
Ionian Islands
Turkey and Continental
Greece (exclusive of
the Morea).
·
Morea & Greek Islands.
Egypt (Ports on the
Mediterranean)
4,628,367 105,995
96,028 3,141
1,869
438,640
21,528
2,899,773
73,044
5,772 14,835
52,601 8,371,944 433,754
I,295 381,430 19,296
1,044
66
15, 100
858
222,555
6,381
580 45,440
2,700
15,536,350
392,725
1,431
662,538
39,918 33,458,077
858,132
3,627 1,528,271
86,148
1,875,161
43,410
28
2
350,265
2,953,343
7,4521
20,700
1,261
71,4041
190
164,980
8,946


APPENDIX.
363

Tripoli, Barbary, and
Morocco
and }
Western Coast of Africa
Cape of Good Hope
Cape Verd Islands
St. Helena
Isle of Bourbon
Mauritius
•
East India Company's
China .
•
1,910,940
2,520,127
70, 104
115
75,310
6,368
3,331
339
1
2,506,266
3,973,907
21,716
96,042
115,487
2291
6,758
370
19,860
54
I, 296
31,597
1,048
173
H
I
33,499
534
1,129
391
38
1
·
-
1,658,937 53,150
7,845
1,875,762
64,914
3,031
56
7
Territories and Ceylon
39,733,698 1,267,216
28,395 3,185,639 210,182 52,179,844 1,549,730
12,844 4,941,995 333,286
Sumatra and Java
3,502,163
121,036
447
2,792,143 102,512 4,153
19, 680
2,040
Philippine Islands
93,279
4,448
1,926,095
62,275
1,315
19,300
1,440
New South Wales, Van-
Diemen's Land, and
Swan River
476,065
19,067
3,498
4,805
479
1,187,640
39,352
6,325
11,999
848
New Zealand and South
Sea Islands
2,008
80
I
•
3,037
901
Ports of Siam.
204, 701
7,644
100
1
British North American
Colonies
8,671,237 261,546
16,191
84,760
4,477
11,434,448
349,256
26,341
213,394
8,803
British West Indies.
Hayti
Cuba and other Foreign
33,319,295 997,408 52,872
6,654,839 207,630 3,065
1,230
195
616
144
18,955,323 608,099 37,669
7,216,267 209,4521 4,293
6,909
698
West Indies
II,447,514 395,288 II,906
50
5
9,016,085 318,744 9,315
United States of America
32,552,062 1,346,023
Mexico
Guatemala
Columbia.
Brazil.
155,334
30,182
1,928
6,007,047 204,677
9,441
97,320 6,660
49,351,574 2,055,658|
17,535,351 631,003 29,543 560,020
249,507
48,980
3,598
32,026
4,277,904 132,526
5,918
4,165,789 141,947
4,696 1,740
80
50,077,739 1,437,963
50,369
5,300
States of the Rio de la
Plata
Chili
Peru
15,429,383 485,381 24,657
16,972,286 570,863 22,508
3,465,460 143,798 15,689
5,460
៩៖
679 46,204,428 1,369,041
47,126
5,560
650
506 10,805,990 324,305
20,005
5,831
587
2,735
327 10,155,279
363,435
9,175
800
48
Isles of Guernsey, Jer-
sey, Alderney, & Man S
785,510 55,312
17,269 4,554
Total
5,365,828
7411,079,339
402,517,196 12,516,247 1,041,885 61,441,251 3,976,874 444,578,498 14,119, 7701, 175, 153 64,645,342 4,133,741
216,521 17,129
51,446
29,682
4,828
2,128
364
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST-(continued).
1831.
1832.
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Hosiery,
Lace, and
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Small
Small
Quantities.
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Wares.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Declared
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Value.
Quantities. Value.
Declared
Russia
Yards.
1,960,634
£
£
lbs.
£
Yards.
£
£
lbs.
£
68,412
7,252 13,959,666|
790,371
3,024,369
110,456|
12,721 19,587,781 1,136,787
Sweden
18,280
615
216
708,510
34,885
35,165
1,306
421
743,747
38,355
Norway
•
434.744
13,704
1,829
34,440
1,553
146,573
3,924
1,117
13,035
610
Denmark
312,461
6,213
992
118,316
5,716
295,658
5,702
360
71,680
2,320
Prussia
1,456
80
201
19,448
1,556
333
241
33
26,241
2,001
Germany
41,520,616
940,441
205,527 20,435,442 1,195,718
51,479,478 1,162,875
336,500 29,959,427 1,796,987
Holland
Belgium
13,285,524
383,127
214,123 9,091,238 794,536
22,432,994
596,957
250,086 10,345,649
890,423
France
946,660
35,357
13,613
2,616
1,127
826,487
29,127
35,869
8,437
1,314
Portugal, Proper
23,377,245
373,916
13,454
231,096
17,534
13,461,688
286,386
10,906
37,230
2,899
Azores
780,099
17,126
383
3,240
149
1,028,861
20,032
712
28,603
1,228
Madeira
569,794
14,577
677
355,166
7,955
582
54
5
Spain and the Balearic
Islands
4,756,652
129,778
9,503
36,170
3,147
2,940,969
72,076
2,877
10,430
771
Canaries
631,079
15,646
515]
2,500
131
377,938
9,497
338
I, 200
56
Gibraltar
Islands.
Malta
·
•
9,909,009
238,732
6,158
39, 196
3,178
11,888,333
281,024
13,241
95,922
7,040
Italy and the Italian
38,164,564 1,035,748
44,172 8,444,518
438,834
47,695,264 1,115,839
41,874 7,641,928
381,948
1,967,953 49.504
1,403 312,740
Ionian Islands
216,159
5,210
Turkey and Continen-
tal Greece (exclusive
of the Morea)
Morea & Greek Islands
Egypt (Ports on the
Mediterranean)
615 62,450
13,468
24,565,580
585,473
3;335 1,735,760
1,328,070 35,084
3,6if3 785,007
99,015 24,206,969| 632,394
970 205,450
10,382
16,261
682 55,665
3,048
1,046 1,361,913
69,440
344,893
6,540
I1,000
600 116,748
4,621
1,200
50
2,354,628
56,088
261
93,600
6,000
2,559,930
1930 |
55,950
66
199,280
19,319
APPENDIX.
365
Tripoli, Barbary, and
Morocco
Western Coast of Africa
Cape of Good Hope
•
and}
7,810
123
·
7,090
205
2
2,384,000
75,058
4461
280
34
3,878,034
97,542
364
1,070
169
2,904,106
83,612
3,807
193
19
3,464,586
93,710
6,065
1,355
126
Cape Verd Islands
St. Helena
73,371
2,173
254
53,368
1,434
118
169
12
Isle of Bourbon
Mauritius
East India Company's
Territories and Ceylon
China
·
Sumatra and Java
Philippine Islands
New South Wales, Van
Diemen's Land, and
Swan River
New Zealand and South
D
2,432,894
43,385,852 1,182,574
5,915,088 194,889
1,132,583 33,639
1,905,428
65,185
3,400
2,365,555
68,973
3,925
2,500
126
13,972 6,624,823 467,861
1,730 312,000 22,653
13 18,800 1,796
61,567 8,380
51,833,913 1,311,773
18,697 4,316,645 302,379
2,671,698
85,046
503 102,500 6,920
2,106,177
72,666
7,233
380
1,744,606
58,836
7,905
9,411
509
Sea Islands
5,014
1351
3,200
100
45
Ports of Siam
British North Ameri-
can Colonies
15,618,106
413,737 25,536
307,997
10,376 16,166,875
411,230 30,606
260,699
8,633
British West Indies
21,975,459
Hayti
6,828,576 178,743 4,731
606,923 31,568
14,416
320
30
835 25,631,940
628,920 30,040
11,563,084 321,224 13,767
4,973
485
252
20
Cuba and other Foreign
West Indies
II,569,441 364,547
United States of America
68,587,893 2,518,824
Mexico
Guatemala
Columbia
Brazil
12,150,426 471,208 23,712
11,329
344,427
200
ΙΟ
317,392
19,063
784,215 37,972
15,802,809
31,508,744 1,049,375
3,425,301 101,062
373,839 10,590
500
50
193,109
82,104
5.045
5,608
467,323
29,537
•
•
States of the Rio de la
Plata
Chili
Peru
5,757,562 177,559 9,060
26,271,527 681,461 20,540
6,242,134 176,874 9,743
12,793,220 431,323 26,851
6,312,931 222,708 19,605
1,013,852
28,880 1,580
7,877,984 183,746
5,676
100
8
2,740
334
60,577,822 1,280,061
33,028
11,460
1,676
800
30
17,256,838 391,591 33,344
4,800
130
44,364
35,755
4,405
Isles of Guernsey, Jer-
sey, Alderney, & Man S
Total
0,630 1,1
421,385,303 12,163,513 1,118,672 63,821,440 3,975,019 461,045,503 11,500, 630 1,175,003 75,667,150 4,722,759
·
755 789,711
13,861,434 368,920 32,047
3,468,734 113,724
16,918
39,053
8,880
22,245
1,700
160
640
80
1,841
366
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST-(continued).
1833.
1834.
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard. Lace, and
Hosiery,
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Small
Small
Wares.
Wares.
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Declared
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£
£
lbs.
£
Yards.
£
£
lbs.
£
Russia.
2,656,997
98,649
9,036 19,311,877 1,164,996
1,779,836
66,546
4,212 16,241,363 1,037,533
Sweden
Norway
Denmark
Prussia
31,173
1,029
5911
557,595
31,711
52,090
1,605
5901
481,474
13,157
1,900
55,562
2,893
567,531
14,602
1,925]
499,550
62,423
30,013
3,575
299,875
6,053
779
16,814 1,092
326,520
6,362
Germany
•
Holland
Belgium
France
Portugal, Proper.
49,534,158 1,188,534|
20,610,649 491,778
3,122,579
1,544,075 46,247
6 21,007 1,692
252,315 23,653,904 1,598,467
4,608
220
50,527,498 1,293,617
46,770 11,242,705
251,648
128,457
36,320
971,719
103,558 11,829
98,193
21,189,927 549,084
4,180,466 155,921
227 23,650 1,317
199 24,342 2,017
207,105 26,492,890 1,793,458
49,718 13,084,898|1,122,337
170,012 65,514 8,009
10,212
25,278,084
540,842
18,409
Azores
1,228,931
24,751
776
13,565
50,062 3,366
2,317,607
60,774
67,385 101,908
22,527
42,004,094 899,862
19,895
241,937
19,955
626
1,361,159
30,661
914
30,612
1,112
Madeira
>
621,687
12,619
686
56
4
573,181
12,284
4421
89
ៗ
Spain and the Balearic
328,263
Islands
9,288
1,218
2,550
447
456,670
12,184
1,053
2,646|
350
Canaries
637,583
15,602
853
625
52
748,669
18,765
581
Gibraltar.
Islands
Malta
•
Ionian Islands
9,403,461 216,439
5,091 10,920
910
13,130,134 312,729
7,927
850
12,909
60
1,071
Italy and the Italian
47,672,152| 1,088,073
40,756 6,956,453
376,835
60,683,663| 1,563,243|
52,844 9,888,968 543,808
2,238,974 57,887
935 136,330
6,940
233,692
5,504
368 54,440
2,955
4,560,503 122,156
1,747,855
1,821 531,840 28,887
36,313
Turkey and Continental
958 129,622 8,888
Greece (exclusive of
the Morea).
30,237,127
750,604
2,089 1,767,731
90,052
28,621,490
828,245
3,546 1,989,851
109,735
Morea & Greek Islands.
316,897
12,311
3451
450,984
17,493
8701 1,581
140
Egypt (Ports on the 2
Mediterranean)
2,682,903
54,743
IO 177,850
I1,028
3,929,444 95,874
296
531,714 29,900



APPENDIX.
367
Tripoli, Barbary, and
and
Morocco
1,465
80
140
1
1
590,362
9,992
793
Western Coast of Africa
Cape of Good Hope
Cape Verd Islands
St. Helena
Isle of Bourbon
Mauritius
East India Company's
4,964,666
4,536,727
118,872
115,567
386
9,882
690
1,164
107
80
4,975,433
129,584
607
570
I 20
4,006,311
100,328
9,527
2,370
174
87,579
2,018
328
110,372
3,124
321
361
2
98,240
1,194
36
794,562 22,582
3,524
2,496,345
70,453
6,671
340
34
Territories and Ceylon
45,755,910 1,152,486)
21,153 4,783,794 324,353
(38,972,059
943,504
15,717 4,267,653
315,583
China .
6,381,018
152,395 10,503
952,440 56,839
Sumatra and Java
11,091,558
316,264
1,813 247,450
15,446
10,118,790
290,901 1,863
328,970
17,443
Philippine Islands
2,812,719
87,807
455
7,600
570
1,794,438
54,053
1,146
20,300
1,115
New South Wales, Van
Diemen's Land, and
1,828,859
53,428
7,655
11,960
593
3,724,420
101,701
11,584
II,433
652
Swan River
New Zealand and South
Sea Islands
Ports of Siam
519,025
11,416
30
22,000
1,565
British North Ameri-
can Colonies
14,210,060
339, 143
29,314
216,806
9,915
10,225,392
263,291
20,357
194,692
6,458
British West Indies
27,507,930
661,340
43,166
8,640
590
30,246,315
728,756 40,584
5,584
455
Hayti
7,224,810
219,983
6,367
1,000
110 7,166,854
212,587 5,936
4,300
505
Cuba and other Foreign
West Indies
12,889,249
323,338
9.465
540
34 21,174,586
511,887 13,424
IO
I
United States of America
45,141,989 1,385,957 340,835
112,575
6,255
45,630,862 1,394,057
277,652
107,443
6,693
Mexico
Guatemala
5,745,446 201,428 16,527
53,127
968,720
53,694
6,823,964 251,177
7,878
463,546
27,364
1,800
II,OCO
765
870,001 23,797
III
23,155
1,775
Columbia
3,210,761 66,743
3,312
5,315,157 114,022
3,262
35,600
3,453
Brazil.
68,903,398 1,607,735
59,848
11,434
1,073
65,424,332| 1,427,029
58,555
57,7301
3,795
States of the Rio de la
Plata
•
Chili
12,731,734 280,292 23,311
20,191,482| 490,805 28,846
300
26
20,942,118
449,831
33,313
9,258
446
4,220
430
23,474,954|
606,054
20,814
5,689
860
Peru
6,819,029 195,496
12,400
1,000
90 4,504,492 127,828
8,760
Isles of Guernsey, Jer-
sey, Alderney, & Man
Total.
687,302 45,329 41,683
5,471
2,067
896,040
49,051
33,255
6,192
9844
VOL. I.
2 B
496,352,096 12,451,060 1,331,317 70,626, 161 4,704,024 555,705,809 14,127,352 1, 175, 219 76,478,468 5,211,015
1835-Exportations of Cotton Manufactures; Declared Value
Cotton Yarn
,2197
£16,394,590
5,709,044


368
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1835.
IIosiery,
1836.
COUNTRIES.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Cotton Manufactures.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Yarn.
Hosiery,
Lace, and
Small
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Wares.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia
Sweden.
Norway
2,883,059
109,298
5,382
21,082,519 1,365,027
1,607,954
62,621
6,312
19,178,483 1,257,411)
•
56,041
2,044
9261
840,774 60,751
102,122
3,550
1,100
836,734 68,675
691,320
17,916
1,715
101,351 6,234
569,210
18,331
1,938
134,352 9,218
Denmark
138,149
3,649
159
119,980 6,589
157,182
4,106
1401
66,740
3,960
Prussia.
240
20
251
16,753
1,427
9
15,750 1,453
Germany
43,571,748
1,191,063
217,968
27,866,013 1,746,893
37,458,457
977,208 194,857
31,323,478 1,960,049
Holland.
21,746,739
595,5921
50,598
13,869,141 1,194,651
19,730,377
554,862 48,101
13,852,746 1,191,229
Belgium
3,581,474
136,71
123,537|
42,368 7,067
3,426, 16
142,216
116,692
31,674
5,357
France
2,432,493
72,253
106,154
82,533 39,493
3,534, 04|
87,619
127,668
105,214 47,123
Portugal, Proper-
Azores
34,710,663 796,002 20,998
161,438 13,338
27,965,019
595,071
20,277
306,940
22,659
942,285
21,813
997
14,955
726
933,493
25,130
749
25,280
1,143
Madeira.
"}
450,557
9,935
1,174
90
61
1,093,512
23,934
935
744
42
Spain
422,053
11,027
1,293
1,820
248
667,077
17,168
5,560
601
20
Canaries
510,554
13,656)
742
200
201
799,938 21,367
860
1,072
51
Gibraltar
17,203,539
449,140
11,701
26,145
2,466
20,704,460| 575,377 16,994j
100,258
6,789
Ita'y and Italian
34,682,334
950,958
37,289
7,024,588 427,875
Isles
Malta
1,819,852
37,915
Ionian Islands
1,223,334 28,430
57,440,865 1,406,204
3,190 306,360 18,883 2,453,903 62,470 1,618
9621 131,080 8,382 1,699,538 40,545
47,755 8,573,605 524,374
165,708 9,227
749
112,997
6,948
APPENDIX.
369

Turkey
31,867,048
970,033
3,344 1,575,400 89,404 47,275,339|1,410,950
4,889
1,881,955 112,535
Morea and Greek Islands
170,191
8,287
439
86,139 5,105
43
70
7
Syria and Palestine
Egypt
5.326,027)
161,779
290 464,120 29,603
Barbary States
1,177,814
24,092
125
Western Coast of Africa
3,905,158
124,777
467
Cape Colony
4,123,145
113,360
9,357
1,149 316
12,612 7801
803,763
5,559,037 134,050
1,051,075
7,706,053 209,609
6,935,352
25,313
95
32,000
2,110
139
300,140
20,436
19,177
248
809
3,066
565
182,904
10,762
32,572
1,207
St. Helena
132,403
4,513
325!
33,393
930
5
50
5
Mauritius.
2,343,161
70,430
7,092
35
11
2,541,072
80,090
7,637
Arabia
·
96,149
2,457
112,320
4,592
India and Ceylon
51,777,277
1,338,323|
30,631
Eastern Islands.
•
9,518,8S3
268,681
3,948
5,399,762 432,821
213,935 15,166)
74,280,506 1,972,816
5,495,175 163,692
47,527
6,592,310
2,412 143,343 12,360
561,879
Philippines
2,058,917
63,395
450
China
11,217,212
289,322
2,530
Australia and New
2,328,228
72,818 11,404
Zealand.
British North America
British West Indies
Hayti
Cub and Foreign
West Indies
·
United States
16,871,933 450,247 31,899
41,548,993 993,639 42,022
6,487,788 187,063 11,003
15,981,329 402,222 19,203
74,962,925 2,392,991 327,910
2,833,362 170,390
4,820 338! 2,717,852 81,754
204,160 11,313 23,483,822 617,081
22,754 2,200
1,097,176 44,110
12,819,530 370,175
15
286 3,158,870 212,933
14,415
78,022 4,454
48,35S
39,736,340 1,002,372 55,036
405,155
22,706
34,380
3,372
4,888,544 146,773
3,694
250
30
21,925,539 578,081 18,095
202
21
126,888 8,529
62,042,139 2,115,061
361,905
212,203
14,753
Mexico
Guatemala
Columbia
5,601,949 204,667 7,881
548,160 10,998
591,962 39,164
3,654,277 114,065
7,963
477,836
33,633
12,620 1,610
3,055,558 76,143
2,212
Brazil
58,830,922 1,438,642 62,066|
10,198
981
Rio de la Plata
12,853,287 312,400 26,488
34,560
2,824
5,587,852 119,125
72,810,106 1,699,994 62,795
18,628,197 435,932 20,588
3,146
7,376
816
4,600
350
Chili.
16,814,765
420,880 15,390
2,360
263
21,325,250 569,337 25,001
Peru
9,886,075 283,007 9,873
5,400
380
Channel Islands
933,470 84,812 28,899
6,743
369
13,781,712 417,791 20,441
946,340 44,509 19,907
1,800
255
3,261
242
Total
557,515,701 15,181,431 1,240,284
557,515,701 | 15,181,431 1,240,284
83,214,198 5,706,589 637,667,627 17,183,167 1,328,525 88,191,046 6,120,366
83,214,198 5,706,589
370
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1838.
1837.
Hosiery,
Hosiery,
COUNTRIES.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Small
Yarn.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Wares.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value.
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia
1,126,539
47,793
9,106
24,108,593 1,612,956
1,719,018
59,137
5,618
19,794,501 1,236,584
Sweden.
111,491
3,567
708
734,336j 55,060
87,274
2,868]
591
808,873 54,630
Norway
512,443
14,045
1,682
197,700 10,474
428,763
11,895
1,654
226,454 10,295
Denmark
117,561
2,399
89!
57,470 2,870
64,825
1,337
8
115,970 5,695
Prussia.
4,924
502
430
28
Germany
43,171,229
1,008,149
•
162,263
162,263
34,272,607 2,177,823
39,039,749
887,268
177,779
15,840
35,523,276 2,264,330
1,272
Holland.
27,970,822
663,848
50,205 15,993,072 1,386,388
25,025,359
580,322
53,719 21,757,913 1,864,529
Belgium
2,863,499
104,799
102,233
67,395 8,752
2,625,585
81,235
113,620
78,708
11,740
France
2,439,677
59,2121
93,768
94,707 31,364
2,606,515
60,321
111,705
113,627
48,272
Portugal and Islands
•
34,157,154
689,452
22,990
342,460
24,476
Spain and Canaries
1,264,882
32,738
1,145
2,045
123
Gibraltar
26,638,013
686,144
17,271
225,939
14,729
39,361,993| 723,028 21,884
1,401,830 32,692 1,760
24,665,796 585,521 15,387
413,882
27,636
2,970
185
108,712
7,637
Italy and Italian
Isles
} 42,607,471 1,008,796
40,910
8,775,028 477,882
62,512,224 1,337,390|
41,692 12,829,923 626,503
Malta
1,670,805
39,002
2,208
176,260 9,729
Ionian Islands
2,338,946
46,269
790
297,980 14,303
4,854,631 97,430
1,777,030 32,982
2,144
487,378 21,048
541
329,466 19,106
Morea and Greek
Islands
}
76,848
2,920
33
100
Turkey
33,150,235
770,668
2,297|
~
1,800
2,297 3,527,538 180,225 56,964,942 1,179,272
77,333 2,856
98
4,220
216
3,970
4,689,550
241,099
APPENDIX.
371

Syria and Palestine.
5,140
Egypt
6,253,140
330
130,232
349 660,700 41,372
Barbary States
3,181,589
46,444
407
Western
Africa
Coast of }
4,973,412!
135,323
391
2,982) 395
6,937,998 137,514
9,557,758 188,310
3,901,951 58,840
7,368,526 187,101
313)
935,405
44,215
780
296,594
14,904
1,090
276
2,093
326
Cape Colony
5,430,879
135,050
9,389
9,314
899
St. Helena and Ascen-
24,142
660
19.
sion
Mauritius
•
5,291,497 151,951
7,749
10,400
468
East Indies and Cey-
Cey-
lon.
4
Eastern Archipelago
Philippine Isles
China
Australia and New
Zealand.
British North America
British West Indies
64,213,633 1,528,249 30,444
8,573,148 242,582 5,931
1,086,791 27,770 1,115
10,964,423 272,375 1,012
2,610,673
81,450 15,809
14,270,749 383,393 39,068
37,693,944 883,029 43,812
8,478,021 602,293
7,921,218|
52,517 1,126
6,794,553 158,727
80,085,122 1,781,298
199,687 12,800
14,465
584
72
56
4
11,259
24,151 10,710,136
640,205
127,620 7,858
14,051,465 371,232
5,788
521,880
27,952
1,873,965 103,908
13,625 781
260,732| 14,307
55,549 4,487
810,412 22,674
22,133,621 519,098 3,759
250
3,851,365 217,047
Hayti
•
Foreign West Indies
·
'United States
2,859,360 81,691 2,751
18,765,205 441,889 11,608
17,481,855 594,822 117,572
Mexico
Columbia
Brazil
48,767,618
6,940,966 199,456 13,339
4,111,717 90,7661 4,085
987,450 26,987
6,250
219,712
2,654,867 144,489|
309
13,359
5,691,187 167,304 27,218
14,995,429| 371,326
31,646
43,496,642 943,228 46,446
5,740,443 151,938
23,828,517 503,714 19,254
13,748
749
362,620
14,824
56,532
3,609
4,737
3,100
135
6,541
291
38,493,113 1,206,364| 264,554
110,235
5,349
8,483,864 259,320
8,114
311,900
15,707
188,283
12,488
4,315,962 91,144
3,816
1,320
90
560
48
80,454,079 1,599,906
57,796
21,240
1,450
River Plate
20,183,454
Chili
•
17,182,524
Peru.
445,291 18,818
390,759 18,217
9,297,125 253,817 14,300
5,734
364
22,170,615| 463,301
23,622
31,000
1,470
11,120,658 257,246
14,776
8,520
391
Channel Islands
933,064 43,309 21,323
7,255
376
7,645,908 204,059 17,620
853,267 34,694 26,817
33,500
1,600
2,904
155
Total
531,373,663 12,727,989
5,942
912,192 103,455,138 6,955,942 690,077,622 15,554,733 1,161,124| 114,596,602|| 7,431,869
372
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1839.
1840.
Hosiery,
Hosiery,
COUNTRIES.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Small
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Entered by the Yard.
Wares.
Entered by the Yard.
Small
Wares.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Quantities. Declared Declared
Value.
Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value. Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Quantities. Value.
Declared
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia
1,706,578
61,397
12,925 18,849,506|1,215,621
2,114,029
59,292
9,594
16,884,418 1,082,912
Sweden.
58,068
1,979
851
1,133,392 73,099
68,157
2,336
628
951,320
63,386
Norway
426,992
11,620
1,216
315,303 14,445
480,049
10,996
1,395
374,615
15,609
Denmark
143,856
3,491
110
45,530 1,941
101,637
2,183
121
101,718
4,024
Prussia
2,190
100
68
Germany
38,907,835
S17,369
196,939
7,234
38,705,121 2,360,822
684
13,180
645
7
16,813
1,309
45,574,510
919,710
180,430
41,765,508 2,451,299
Holland.
27,515,446
605,613
Belgium
2,344,562
France
2,721,568 58,528
70,283
80,796 100,140
93,351
21,193,315 1,729,690
55,016
70,191 37,884
25,335,489
540,746
61,476
21,774,633 1,642,151
7,781
3,193,624 93,665
108,449
34,266
4,416
2,838,585 64,039
101,472
76,272
43,625
Portugal Proper.
35,492,270 680,869 16,807
488,465
34,658
37,042,209 681,787 20,403
468,297
26,119
Azores
1,294,589
28,741
908
20,340
897
"
1,093,739 23,892
704
13,674
642
Madeira
,692,910
13,871
1,038
801,699 15,620
1,002
762
55
Spain and Balearic Isles
444,235
10,624
1,804
20
2
355,040
7,987
2,849
4,584
845
Canaries
1,094,819
25,976
1,427
5,200
220
Gibraltar
31,428,139
760,995 20,655
67,190 3,583
Italy and Italian
39,313,685
Isles
Malta
Ionian Islands
842,735 35,235 8,035,742 381,829
2,308,791 42,046 1,805 209,291 8,472
1,480,917 26,218
294] 128,216 6,670
1,176,386 26,918
27,609,354| 610,456 21,996
58,866,278 1,119,135
4,073,843 62,345
2,365,857 39,245
1,334
1,882
87
55,080 3,369
41,947
11,490,034 510,040
1,718
618
11,490,034
367,530 16,198
201,620 9,311
:
ར་་་"་
APPENDIX.
373

Morea and Greek Isles
239,791
3,214
94
27,720 1,355
27,285
497
141
Turkey
45,167,755
833,577
4,529
2,390,616 108,912
45,000,006
741,880
1,234
3,272,805
152,774
Syria and Palestine
10,976,538
195,771
413
777,135 42,547|
9,227,731
174,526
1,050
753,338
40,693
Egypt
3,072,299
54,856
906
60,016 3,070
3,830,068 62,621
106
24,000
1,540
Barbary States.
2,774,734
46,730
775
52,392 2,105
3,077,479
46,790
177
1,500
80
Western Coast of Africa.
9,184,772
232,801
288
4,469| 730
10,488,479
261,297
307
5,133
$95
Cape of Good Hope
4,956,383
121,781
9,120
13,657
770 6,086,241 121,674
11,902
19,956
1,079
Cape Verd Islands.
155,561 2,431
56
St. Helena
Mauritius
Arabia
80,795
2,038
224
2,736,837
64,970
4,404
53,204
7,290,582 152,338
1,349
145
7,470
90,337
•
1,416
East Indies and Ceylon
100,949,791
2,285,918
Eastern Islands.
9,399,017 215,457
28,836 10,613,915 690,916 145,083,799 2,964,454
1,708 132,150 9,206 11,297,922 263,112
61,202
16,013,708
847,530
4,562
94,726
4,989
Philippine Isles
China
Australia
1,208,261| 33,895
16,675,448 386,255
9,052,155 254,490
815
520 1,389,760
38,314
18,095
76,862
999
5,106,851 104,754
13,478,478 238,271
5,070,819 141,113 37,073
812,100
36,875
118
1,774,350
88,748
27,480
1,521
New Zealand and South
Sea Isles
47,139
1,007
15
159,353 5,043
136
British North America
29,348,371 688,403
53,748
553,427 21,066
24,139,692 530,297
62,694
464,408
18,312
British West Indies
Hayti
58,964,887 1,267,850
10,795,373
73,828
152,420 10,305
253,681
5,615
Foreign West Indies
21,994,631 429,505
22,663
1,346
United States
37,236,052 1,144,749 314,573
117,105
Mexico
13,385,381 390,755 13,167
10,360
58,327,100 1,162,887
6,989,312
106 19,076,126 380,939 20,942
7,760 32,073,004| 698,669 211,609
597 7,361,215 232,912
61,762
176,933
10,038
157,260| 4,429
3,330
240
2,430
401
264,934
13,361
14,004
42,250
2,150
Columbia
8,737,781 170,109
6,644
500
130
12,542,923 238,556
9,399
500
90
Brazil
River Plate States
Chili.
75,965,581 1,516,088 71,592
17,515,043 412,896 30,562
35,501,649 772,527 28,420
11,955
630
76,848,429] 1,451,345
73,364
14,846
328
7,766
460
14,759,926) 299,647
34,474
30,892
1,184
17,200
1,140 38,679,521 877,446
10,851
82,820
3,330
Peru
16,989,457 410,050 24,930
Channel Islands
5,356
229
Total
1,026,415 39,688 21,148
16,302,220 1,265,090 118,470,223 7,101,30S
731,450,123 16,378,445 1,313,737 105,686,442 6,858,193 390,631,997 16,302,220 1,265,090 118,470,223 7,101,30S
20,069,484 465,846 28,981
1,227,742) 44,369 20,759
26,858,193 390,631,997 16,
4,728
253
7
374
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1841.
1842.
Hosiery,
Hosiery,
COUNTRIES.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Entered by the Yard.
Small
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Wares.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Value. Quantities./
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
lbs.
. £.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia
1,241,665
37,625
5,870
17,308,142(1,096,400
1,524,543
36,345
7,346
21,825,427 1,256,172
Sweden
125,657
4,365
1,289
1,964,560 127,488
215,774
5,481
1,335
1,913,683 124,199
Norway
1,159,360
21,619
2,599
608,164
30,529
1,614,491
26,231
1,667
632,776 30,964
Denmark
296,218
5,479
22
178,872 6,679
200,894
3,766
92
242,979
8,418
Prussia.
3,498
95
Germany
48,752,158
945,195
184,654
Holland.
28,217,524
Belgium
583,574 79,498
3,720,788 102,451 112,296
36,886
41,052,824 2,404,331
22,179,383 1,684,738
2,605
4,499
104
4
119,757) 5,226
41,785,680
757,771
184,314
49,034,747 2,842,628
24,691,083)
475,465
70,282
20,792,001 1,609,460
44,364 6,085
2,699,210 78,302
91,380
100,154
9,440
France
3,426,896 71,191
109,963
138,744 54,762
4,135,712 72,578
131,136
182,194
45,682
Portugal Proper.
33,952,602 581,262 16,627
702,529 37,141
33,846,232 568,324 11,476
442,235
20,868
Azores
1,027,677
20,893
872
18,612
675
1,246,002
24,166
582j
15,770|
661
Madeira
505,040
9,667
747
200
12
632,284 9,821
535
424
34
Spain and Balearic Isles
153,982
4,524
2,091
491
38
100,369 2,673 1,234
1,713
144
Canaries
1,303,156 25,024
943
4,854
240
11
Gibraltar
•
28,891,193, 603,542 15,077
80,310
4,256
1,523,587
34,506,81]
30,051
633,817 18,744
1,629
1,687
66
88,122
4,944
Italy and Italian
56,296,126 1,114,791| 41,070 11,616,731 487,954 53,404,161 901,954
28,371 12,322,580
480,658
Isles
Malta
Ionian Islands
4,637,631
79,921
2,392 326,266 14,152
3,989,369
989,369|
63,001
685 311,546 15,447
8,594,315 127,570
2,737,352 41,339
2,996 725,055 27,270
431 396,320 17,336




APPENDIX.
375

Morea and Greek Isles
5,700,
195
62
26,1201
552)
7201
35
Turkey
42,209,084
754,913
1,546
4,795,458 226,757 55,121,685
901,264
1,587
6,959,355
319,590
Syria and Palestine
16,937,435 304,118
270
2,381,675 114,762 14,471,488
240,678
376
2,646,440
123,174
Egypt
11,431,054 180,970
1,284
424,300 21,919 7,564,339
124,877
1,211
328,402
15,529
Barbary States
1,376,033 23,670
7,268
487
1,337,619 22,940
36
Western Coast of Africa
8,389,266
183,632)
400
2,240
441
12,014,239 220,564
450
1,802
272
Cape of Good Hope
•
4,329,607
96,527
6,607
5,682
342
Cape Verd Islands.
93,329
1,979
21
•
Mauritius.
St. Helena
East Indies and Ceylon | 145,881,219
47,093
917
30
4,273,784 79,575
76,942 1,250
53,501 1,114
7,357
1,875
130
74
5,642,981
120,180
5,312
30
2,728,842
37,788
Eastern Islands.
7,407,381
196,875
3 4,339,274 79,887
13,144,648 660,982 155,506,914 2,480,031
3,440 217,950 10,400
4,584
3001
19
35,366
12,050,839
545,075
Philippine Isles
1,762,835
34,3021
China
24,609,456
421,369
410
1,588
7,888,594
320,000 13,100 1,751,743 39,360
3,402,100 156,580
194,173)
8,711
252,600
12,632
1,997
800
120
27,618,839
468,539
1,810 5,774,796
245,965
Australia
2,607,815
64,492 19,686
16,884
939
2,907,493
69,312
20,712
6,935
478
New Zealand.
130,798
3,349
371
72,672
1,791
305
British North America
25,416,390
551,928
60,085
464,282
17,798
22,547,436|
435,511
49,979
457,576
14,902
•
British West Indies
Hayti
31,206,154 590,941 42,501
123,188
7,741
37,705,644
613,632
42,549
32,866
2,298
3,516,528 80,016 1,621
3,804,816
78,936 2,704
Foreign West Indies
22,822,061
437,224 21,133
42,996
2,510
16,890,892 283,596 19,639
1,180
103
Texas
United States
Mexico.
Guatemala
40,200,996
1,188,992
299,389
558,252
27,552
12,855,879
358,573
125,811
39,930
2,892
90,563
2,152!
213
68,326
1,452|
431
6,158,491
188,856
3,128
501,160
20,636
6,529,448
147,143
12,186
48,4-10
2,931
552,757
13,305
476
600
90
•
Columbia
•
4,777,199 89,869
3,737
7,766,593
128,641
5,342
19,220|
939
Brazil
River Plate States
73,575,410 1,408,758 62,470
27,194,513 487,249 49,805
13,250
1,052
44,881,584 786,572
32,958
37,356
1,083
Chili
Peru
11,168,310 229,629 15,153
12,364,665 279,964 15,265
190,950
Channel Islands
2,772
Total
,125,0
1,219,961 46,378 16,211
1,246,700|123,226,519 ,266,
751,125,621| 14,985,S10 1,246,700| 123,226,519|7,266,96S 734,098,809 12,887,220 1,020,664 137,466,892| 7,771,464
21,675,638 374,451
30,845,461 555,002 22,706
8,106 18,905,254 354,265 19,636]
150 1,133,463 47,781 12,158|
36,435
2,240
60
2,952
150
376
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1843.
1844.
COUNTRIES.
Small
Wares.
Yarn.
Hosiery,
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Entered by the Yard.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Hosiery,
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Declared
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Value. Quantities.
Entered by the Yard.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Small
Wares.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia
1,315,811
27,584
5,667
22,063,066|1,241,535
1,264,553
31,468
10,571
23,747,944 1,341,756
Sweden.
190,764
4,143|
620
1,449,305 70,801
163,207
3,557
671
1,321,278 48,853
Norway
Denmark
Prussia
1,554,710
24,710
1,020
910,248 32,537
1,649,738
24,870
2,368
1,099,205
36,789
1,010,008
17,330
201
392,518 12,835
1,236,960
18,966
332
862,128
27,567
•
3,837
147
1,061
Germany
Holland.
Belgium
France
•
Portugal Proper.
48,270,368
813,326
202,579
187,074
42,553,752 2,311,438
6,185
3,878
106
1,357
286,388 10,553
49,648,240
832,574
203,767
38,906,588 2,072,987
28,096,165 485,072 68,049 20,848,676|1,368,511
26,494,973
506,139 76,457
15,566,944 1,001,565
2,556,876 69,617 74,807
387,110 26,468
3,738,160 99,245
75,791
3,883,615 211,966
3,271,117
61,345 106,158
109,834 37,262
3,046,036 64,946
117,688
89,736 32,431
44,035,252
642,622
13,476
703,254
26,958
49,155,840 738,794
14,752
908,400
31,635
Azores
Madeira
►
1,250,721
23,433
356
29,587
1,096
1,975,799
37,378
479
23,732
918
832,750 13,601
479
612
43
"
841,552,
13,058
667
380
16
Spain and Balearic Isles
150,190
4,464
654
546,525
11,514
8231
17,802
797
Canaries
1,317,075 22,361
1,232
5,801
224
1,474,152
27,021
1,180
3,332
117
Gibraltar.
46,912,458
786,422
28,712
115,392 6,936
40,485,723 689,937
30,979
65,700
3,011
Italy and Italian Isles
68,472,365 1,109,749|
31,044
13,712,332 475,664 58,193,099
952,191
28,937
11,174,155
378,397
Malta
5,340,534
•
76,554
3,231
521,630 22,729
4,329,733
64,919
4,729|
404,160 15,575
Ionian Islands
4,458,171
66,283
572
475,630 21,446
4,611,611
69,367
409
500,469 20,876
Morea and Greek Isles
45,344
1,129
16
338,668
7,105
16
Turkey
62,053,108
992,095
1,763
7,887,052 358,143 92,390,853 1,587,168
4,722
9,442,820 400,406



APPENDIX.
377

Syria and Palestine
25,725,767
418,291|
31
3,675,134 169,428|| 26,635,234 433,212
580
2,762,730
129,780
Egypt
10,894,059 167,725
228
408,632
17,395
16,456,770
257,493
13,728
386,296|
16,307
Barbary States
2,670,547
48,760
349
3,920
100
514,750
6,182
1,000
30
Western Coast of Africa
16,563,895
300,133
1,452|
178,155
9,181
9,992,362
193,778
861
2,041
391
Cape of Good IIope
9,213,738
144,876
7,870
7,240
361
5,253,229
85,765
7,065
18,179
900
Cape Verd Islands.
47,433
573
45,492
692
•
St. IIolena
Ascension
108,906
1,990
282
77,922
1,381
178
50
3
5,037
179
42,100
506
Mauritius
•
Arabia
4,719,950
82,301
2,462
5,930,767
106,413
3,112
21,600
653
10,300
139
East Indies and Ceylon | 215,862,174
Isles of E. Archipelago
3,182,530
48,046 16,802,958 706,838 239,493,471 3,709,031
59,931
22,084,132 1,024,280
5,853,491
145,515
3,250
Philippine Isles
5,685,813
129,920
1,580
China
46,085,775
653,748
1,528
221,560 10,359
840
5,683,775 216,663
11,932,732 273,630
2,027
196,260
8,327
75
4,770,625 73,627
360
47,755
1,440
98,798,097 1,457,177
617
3,399,074
117,853
Australia and South
Sea Isles
British North America
British West Indies
Foreign West Indies
•
United States
8,533,527 171,461 31,752
15,019,752 286,824 32,467
48,313,755 781,546 49,469
18,834,623 331,173 28,432
21,118,454
98,091 3,651 6,132,254 119,467
521,846 15,289 34,427,628
192,268 10,004
19,288
53,392
2,263
614,273
59,463
S30,517
28,493
34,518,231 584,539
27,703,821
41,443
334,234
11,981
473,138 39,744
130
12
€02,119
197,467
82,053
4,845 29,356,301
802,176
247,581
$2,810
3,151
Texas
132,142
2,016
266
68,130]
1,561
198
Mexico
9,851,300
209,101
15,549
75,056
8,111
7,266,954
186,256
7,652
26,124
1,549
New Granada, Vene-
zuela, and Ecuador.
12,583,038
223,505
8,997
9051
85
7,751,971 127,069
7,544
1,800
235
Brazil
66,264,656 1,048,697
47,972
4,536
205
83,481,552 1,311,125|
48,866i
35,594
1,667
River Plate States.
16,394,393 296,288
20,012
3,450
93
21,900,529 382,185
28,388
19,500
542
Chili.
21,290,172 385,481
18,456
1,650
114
Peru and Bolivia
North-West Coast of
America.
Channel Islands
14,547,821
271,041 17,227
160
5
18,708,339 348,316 13,520
12,314,938 236,336 14,217
784
87
807
20
1,170,433 40,030
8,692
7,074
358
230,524 4,329
1,266,480 42,C27 11,492
68
120
9
2,474
99
Total
918,640.205 15,168,464 1,085,536 140,321,176,7,193,971 1046,670,823 17,612,146 1,204,618 188,540,079 6,988,584



378
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1845.
1846.
Hosiery,
Hosiery,
COUNTRIES.
Cotton Manufactures. Laco, and Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Small
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
lbs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia
1,320,775
30,184
9,927
18,243,624 1,033,488
1,219,765
30,893
8,865
14,964,941
855,392
Sweden
180,448
4,789
1,328
1,269,670 43,136
177,210
4,227
1,261
1,951,028
66,274
Norway
1,538,392
23,926
1,731
941,178 31,475
1,621,597
25,149
1,749
1,276,950
41,721
Denmark
773,677
11,158
95
707,209
24,857
1,301,353
17,290
55€
1,430,258 46,948
Prussia
5,159
Germany
Holland.
Belgium
France
Portugal Proper.
Azores
Madeira
117
43,620,866 751,829 175,501
26,181,515 474,218 73,924
3,543,043 85,662 90,801
2,506,441 53,581 95,499
39,836,526 572,233 12,809
1,954,195 30,667
124
284,862 11,173
4,073
151
322
43,342,783 2,319,590
43,647,028
744,209
189,176
713,003
48,521,521) 2,584,073
27,411
21,818,927 1,294,124
29,074,256
479,657
64,182
23,844,349 1,391,200
3,486,061 180,116 2,430,837
60,852
69,490
5,277,337 272,509
69,283
755,167
28,606
29,840 39,536,444
2,690,716
56,713
80,304
82,461
30,205
572,278
7,465
832,613
32,983
30S
40,260 1,674
2,057,779
33,210
524
50,958
2,051
783,125
12,926
387
886
49
1,073,651
15,981
758
676
47
""
Canaries
19
·
Spain and Balearic Isles
Gibraltar.
599,790
10,933
739
744
115
26,422
894
596
15,200
929
1,273,184
21,334
955
2,981
78 1,694,761
27,594
1,396
2,841
104
30,367,752 500,581
25,371
70,297 3,905
23,607,040 372,721
23,389
34,773
2,183
Italy and Italian Isles
52,423,520
864,855
36,30212,989,651 534,379
70,725,316 1,140,302|
34,783
20,378,320
714,349
Malta
3,106,340
48,276
6,000 320,426 11,664
6,815,397 97,852
5,774
915,603
31,315
Ionian Islands
8,217,599
129,508
2,638
838,630 37,391
5,359,488 86,827
437
969,210
38,300
Morea and Greek Isles
79,964
1,311
1271
7,271,532 108,634
791
928,148 35,119
Turkey
94,302,500
1,582,202|
8,163
5,830,328 229,917 83,481,744 1,314,381
15,917|
6,546,810 255,732




APPENDIX.
379
Syria and Palestine
29,350,301 472,970 1,495
2,856,981 135,413
11,814,693 197,608
202
1,207,880
50,923
Egypt
8,425,792 120,694
7,517
227,946 8,821
21,510,710 281,670
6,950
1,038,385
34,500
Barbary States
373,100
5,775
55
1,036,248 15,994
50
23,800
1,020
Western Coast of Africa
11,654,703|
222,335
1,180
2,054 415
9,497,986
173,219
1,059
555
100
Cape of Good Hope
9,375,418
160,675
12,982
17,580
869
7,037,082
109,059
8,142
16,637
603
Eastern Coast of Africa|
1,600
23
34,446
387
Cape Verd Islands.
56,9221
825
130,978
1,818
St. Helena & Ascension
133,219
2,144
576
53
7
58,119
1,113
177
100
61
Mauritius & Madagascar
Arabia
•
India and Ceylon
7,926,999
127,940
5,095
370
30
6,852,251
116,754
3,812¡
25
1
67,247
1,052
8,000|
265
229,260,682 8,346,560
24,647
Eastern Archipelago.
20,299,982 389,596
16,823,846 839,216
5,717 296,740
231,698,110 3,236,003
18,428
24,193,923 1,087,744
13,911
14,201,335| 268,690
3,567
824,720 16,090
Philippine Isles
5,638,833
93,183
840
7,280
880
2,416,128 56,109
2,318
23,658
2,713
China
108,449,089
1,633,069
2,114
2,609,850
99,958
78,693,057 1,024,130|
532
5,367,S2S
221,856
Australasia
10,487,315
213,242
31,623
67,827
2,683
7,882,674 173,528
25,547
36,890
1,886
Russian North America
251,173
4,335
96
841
3
British North America
33,016,336
638,390
73,363
996,510
30,472
30,000,005
555,167
62,262
729,787
24,026
►
British West Indies.
Demerara and Honduras
Foreign West Indies
Hayti
46,326,458 733,359 42,222
77,700
4,715
44,486,436
663,476
36,981
37,058
2,972
251,173
4,335
96
84
3
·
36,356,430 565,604 35,324
1,100
95
33,155,753
513,472
26,619
3,187
168
6,424,145
111,349
2,809
440
37
3,964,675
72,847
1,346
United States
31,054,792 835,598
209,575
91,560
8,043 37,105,895|
942,267
187,915
39,051
3,475
Texas
Mexico
182,802
•
2,684
340
8,633,810 234,877
8,862
31,080
1,106
4,964,058
125,956
6,581
Central American States 14,874,670 225,059
10,091
10,296
444
22,081,74 329,127
13,586
70,686
3,363
Brazil
87,076,219 1,393,313]
36,048
1,900
148
107,703,543 1,581,331
42,516
26,701
S64
River Plate States
14,717,814 269,691
17,611
9,489
94
Chili.
35,572,165 577,039 25,235
414
Peru and Bolivia
22,051,959
$97,858 21,918
Channel Islands
1,319,643
45,666 6,317
7,332
292
Total
1091,686,069 18,029,808 1,126,288 135,144,865 6,963,235 1065,460,589 16,701,632 1,016,146 161,892,750 7,882,048
6,312,690 85,818
9 31,162,884 496,670 29,042
26,083,783 429,140 20,736
1,440,452 53,777 4,359
1065,460,589|16,701,632|
5,497
900
110
5,889
486





380
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued.)
1847.
Hosiery,
1848.
Hosiery,
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
COUNTRIES.
Quantities.
Small
Entered by the Yard.
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia, Northern Ports
1,274,436
31,155
12,567
12,788,354 746,222
874,896
21,832
15,299
11,792,749
638,128
Black Sea
"
Ports
}
266,676
4,119
57S
65,400
2,660
730,401
12,677
2
538,700
12,595
Sweden
146,0SS
3,475
2,017
2,012,507
69,455
207,873
4,295
1,954
1,724,098
58,359
Norway
1,334,207
21,660
1,657
660,538
23,969
1,038,613
15,473
1,999
602,079
19,916
Denmark
563,034
8,540
338
1,005,574
33,206
1,477,606
22,650
2,018
1,519,156
49,805
Prussia.
5,239
175
335
407,508 16,643
8,355
239
72
284,352
9,531
Hanover
45,647
1,249
172
2,356,968 116,495
56,098
1,303!
9
2,392,689 118,695
Hanse Towns.
40,572,043
699,198
177,536
37,014,425 1,975,855
38,535,521
604,813
121,453
33,446,548 1,771,526
Holland
20,819,981
370,640
60,388 16,351,339 967,472 |
24,188,739
415,511
44,262
18,998,372] 1,099,559
Belgium
1,947,208 50,082
69,340
3,415,471 177,496
1,818,082
44,457
39,086
3,488,013
181,195
Channel Islands
1,753,068
63.708
6,076
5,196
222
2,568,114
$1,837
6,676
4,150
246
France
2,003,898
41,887
58,370
63,172]
19,018
2,870,703
45,030
22,595
59,811
9,352
Portugal Proper.
38,962,057 537,646 11,559
1,028,793
39,025
58,773,057
698,752
13,902
1,218,938|
41,738
Azores
1,682,759
21,722
3881
19,670
958
2,440,291
30,271
473
65,495
2,850
Madeira
770,984j
11,666|
626
624
44
1,193,363
14,886
663
991
£4
Spain and Balearic
145,596|
4,404
933
20,354
1,258
59,598
1,461
739
120,401
6,033
Isles
Canaries
943,586
15,858
961
Gibraltar
17,045,060
259,609
12,869
1,686
121,566
54
1,813,282
29,373
1,058
2,600
152
4,862
38,685,4621 519,010
23,669
225,605
8,644
Italy and Italian Isles
37,698,090
635,125
39.778 11,193,072 387,207
64,765,586 SS2,715 44,261 16,853,004 472,991
Malta and Gozo.
4,112,109
56,877
5,877
374,800 12,305
12,740,826 136,509
4,106
1,161,947
$0,426
Ionian Islands
4,271,130
76,731
1,761
802,755 28,776
Kingdom of Greece
7,208,568 118,799
1,035
686,256] 25,323
7,125,140 90,958
12,418,800 189,632
743 1,235,660
34,081
7841,200,130
35,401
Turkey
93,234,975
1,688,056
11,755
3,584,708 148,207 139,420,918 1,987,546
12,326 7,628,113
211,175




APPENDIX.
381

Wallachia and Molda-
via.
folda-
:}
5,267,319
76,144
1,083
2,612,000 86,378
6,125,257
82,648
569
2,416,193
70,413
Syria and Palestine
14,735,051
317,915
400
1,678,772
72,881
11,211,003
153,665
449 2,975,049
82,406
Egypt
16,716,513
257,895
9,594
395,613
15,540
29,189,380
359,866
4,511
647,232
22,428
Barbary States.
975,740
9,387
2,800
80
912,460
13,724
160
3,500
175
West Coast of Africa.
12,495,665
228,149
537
4,404
654
14,641,064
233,957
1,876
74,270
2,793
Cape of Good Hope
11,818,184
184,473|
8,402
12,373
547
7,219,960 119,265
7,476
4,924
322
East Coast of Africa
535,305
7,246
Cape Verd Islands.
176,496
2,570
5
187,023
2,416
Ascension and St. He-
103,606
1,775
152
116,794
1,743
165
lena .
Mauritius
4,167,130
68,020
2,885
3,939,357
61,127
2,631
115
4
Persia
4,000
110
300,417
3.154
2,400
123
British India
149,414,176
2,394,215
39,867
15,688,997 744,453
185,375,540 2,300,702
44,061
17,991,526
693,108
Eastern Archipelago
15,720,115
331,938
4,092
827,504
37,512
15,664,876
300,097
7,254
623,655
28,966
China
60,515,124
816,842 1,972
4,104,040
164,264
67,507,519
807,012
1,810
4,572,276
142,423
Sea Islands.
Australia and South} 7,298,139
161,802
31,189
16,075
512
6,609,821
134,871
30,085j
25,669
1,827
British North America
29,988,946
519,729
64,154
693,450
22,713
20,164,574
329,066
42,340
792,364j
24,432
British West Indies
and Guiana.
27,467,043
422,365
27,671
5,318
279
23,020,677
294,294 20,163
2,181
92
British Honduras
8,179,204
113,757
4,055
100,180
6,553
6,158,828
79,625
2,327
104,978
4,783
Foreign West Indies
23,993,653
381,141
54,898
4,650
274
18,656,204
271,866
31,910
400
10
Hayti
5,355,012
103,021
3,051
1,898,093
34,125
988
United States
105.423,188
2,305,103
325,993
57,327
4,098
70,840,207 1,366,814
341,425
104,807
4,785
Mexico
Central America
Now Granada
•
2,018,588 47,528
2,832
8,000
408
20,736,309 428,850
27,785
793,190
26,309
3,434,799 53,168
1,646
29,882
2,030
3,592,199
48,488
1,575
76,340
4,444
5,803,089
91,107
3,841
11,767|
525
10,526,428
166,231
7,380
1,964
215
Venezuela and Ecuador
6,908,772
101,709
6,019
200
9
2,583,578
32,372
1,412
Brazil
84,908.405
1,431,461
44,601
28,428
1,277
70,451,441
1,015,235
42,755
7,144
535
Uruguay
12,366 041
212,769
13,471
5,040
145
4,739,464
65,233
4,207
9,374
ᏮᏣᏎ ;
Buenos Ayres
2,028,311
331,218
2,068
17,242,625
210,594
17,591
10,200
1,280
Chili
•
29,951,374
477,661
20,022
785
28
34,382,981
500,638
14,844
21,900
2,458
Bolivia
910,550
12,527
351
Peru
16,819,107
283,514
16,152
2,400
70
28,895,353 442,024
26,584
6,320
677
Falkland Islands
Russian North America
3001
234,773
201
16
3,413
204
51,068
925
30
Total
942,540,170| 16,207,103 1,168,142 120,270,741 5,957,980 1096,751,823 15,710,857 1,042,512 135,831,162 5,927,831
5,957,9801096,751,823
382
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued).
1850.
1819.
|Hosiery,
! Hosiery,
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
Russia, Northern Ports
1,496,900
36,978
20,030
£.
8,508,109 468,121
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
1,699,065
39,413
19,770
4,348,276
244,755
Black Sea
"}
640,208
7,480
66
196,000 5,170
101,538
1,870
143
22,300
£70
Ports
Sweden
495,602
9,597
3,326
1,082,802 36,077
278,290
5,735
2,246
583,276
19,SS5
Norway
1,679,944
25,030
2,226
715,579
25,419
1,555,255
25,525
3,466
702,654 27,477
Denmark
2,768,057
40,001
3,355
1,526,989 47,649
2,392,302
33,478
3,653
1,265,518
46,118
Prussia
693,674
9,684
647
1,213,308 50,817
141,692
3,024
295
593,482 22,315
Hanover
85,478
1,790
40
2,392,433 120,032
166,091
3,615
117
3,690,460 185,423
Hanse Towns.
42,268,941
656,971 146,315
39,645,671 2,111,995
47,043,749
797,253
179,649
44,040,101 2,277,399
Holland
27,623,964
486,336
62,S86
25,067,835|1,362,801
30,122,170
509,211
71,000
22,523,918 1,265,749
Belgium
4,200,115
85,950
75,018
5,395,950 277,853
2,790,257
68,024
59,516
3,025,913
158,135
Channel Islands
3,350,610
92,335
8,045
14,130
835
1,865,122
42,813
4,561
10,028
512
France
•
3,218,290 61,899
33,190
81,570
26,561
5,042,628
123,088
47,447
126,862
31,916
Portugal Proper.
40,645,064 493,283
11,924
924,515
32,570
47,472,371
585,933
10,055
529,211
23,954
Azores
2,409,090
36,224
387
50,152
1,670
1,509,369
26,294
1,078
22,200
824
,,
Madeira
•
Spain and Balearic
Isles
Canary Isles
Gibraltar
•
783,325
10,814
692
600
32
1,055,205 15,380
737
610
36
aric}
122,648
3,463
1,204
40,990
2,711
2,205,748
64,357
8,345
22,810
2,588
2,380,119 33,735
1,527
3,158
107
2,207,414
36,091
1,623
10,953
227
23,370,915 325,583
16,207
79,695 2,929
14,850,596| 216,187
22,838
68,962
2,749
Italy and Italiau Isles
85,448,728 1,211,152
48,205
21,422,294 624,833
71,145,125 1,134,890
70,324
15,583,245
528,091
Malta and Gozo.
Ionian Islands
12,845,091|| 156,828
8,075
1,010,620| 28,578
9,022,932 126,973
5,272
492,223
19,015
7,523,935
93,844
924
676,068 22,555
5,972,308
79,081
789
453,551
15,678
•
Greece
Turkey
12,255,462 174,269
684
1,149,456 36,263
7,434,543 119,574
724
672,778
24,032
113,681,026 1,658,826|
22,859
6,055,587 179,398 116,624,043 1,877,344|
16,957
2,384,075
80,758
APPENDIX.
VOL. I.
Wallachia and Molda-}
via.
·
Syria and Palestine
Egypt
Barbary States
•
West Coast of Africa.
British South Africa
Cape Verd Islands.
9,320,341
114,233
150
1,675,374 48,380
9,905,985 131,885
1,034
2,271,832
76,105
18,420,729|
225,522
415
1,929,188
80,014
15,029,756 202,033
116
1,680,301
69,308
30,616,396|
362,582j
11,622
1,010,122 31,55S
24,038,104
$26,877
6,650
626,611
20,900
3,720,186
· 48,416
331
15,000
497
979,709
13,313]
922
5,588
201
17,285,544
266,344
351
6,518)
454
16,929,026
270,069
1,169
1,285
125
6,230,296
92,155
5,387
8,646|
342
11,414,638
187,365
9,982
26,912
1,184
79,760
910
86,011
1,132
14
Ascension and St. He-
lena
84,725
1,736
200
177,695
3,221
167
Mauritius
5,774,976
84,518
5,348
75
4 7,593,319 115,412
8,213
1,536!
174
Persia
119,492
1,393
3,000
80
British India
295,943,997
3,437,855
64,036
22,193,700 874,947 314,452,538 4,128,427
52,677
20,976,846 1,040,328
Eastern Archipelago
China and Hong Kong
•
17,424,441
293,807
7,899
308,695 15,947 31,110,538 489,812
16,035
239,710
14,546
78,301,138
Australia and South
Sea Islands
879,662
12,731,464 251,479 51,051
3,527
3,352,994 118,094
73,209,187
£91,691
2,655
3,116,176
126,569
53,242 1,967
15,680,473
318,099 52,291
75,934
3,392
British North America
27,720,261 423,887 43,172
868,803
26,321
35,338,500
British West Indies
and Guiana
:}
34,207,131 441,570 26,160
3,333
169
British Honduras
11,545,689 145,577 4,149
93,450
4,906
569,091 51,121
37,203,394 505,983
9,410,658 125,445
686,290
24,036
34,292
4,168
194
2,465
38,280
1,796
Foreign West Indies
and Guiana
}
36,335,629 485,445
42,335
4,216
344
44,043,957 578,607
40,541
10,927
694
Hayti
3,361,225
45,080
3,323
10,165,989 155,200
5,374
United States
87,160,137
1,704,466
341,230
299,331
9,590
104,229,982| 2,128,061
369,358
113,769
6,861
Mexico
་
15,292,421
343,299
18,575
10,209
900
6,848,168
156,744
8,067
Central America
5,820,907
78,798
2,399
237,640
7,605
12,135,723 178,714
5,676
222,465
10,826
New Granada
14,726,626|
223,403
10,006
7,374
1,017
11,407,303 173,241
8,888
1,300
190
Venezuela.
9,004,264
108,319
5,238
1,530
115
14,847,153
188,456
5,670
1,320
150
Ecuador
172,156
3,577
890,319 15,218
1,223
2,220
277
Brazil
107,463 085
1,461,043
55,094
24,672
2,025
102,979,771 1,511,186
35,384
16,314
1,041
Uruguay
1,232,319
18,635
464
1,000
65
1,436,061
24,891
1,075
4,500
124
Buenos Ayres
45,446,593
652,348
57,080
23,240
592
21,873,035
347,645
24,215
29
1,624]
136
Chill
31,031,042
510,068
23,833
105,702
11,935
30,866,858
479,652
38,806
71,000
6,031
Peru.
20,807,385
373,575 24,839
Falkland Islands
11,548 1,238
21,047,306 371,479
28,193
524
19
500
168,045
20
3,140
Russian North America
Total
1337,536,116 18,794,964 1,276,082 149,502,281 6,704,089 1358,182,941 20,530,435 1,343,262 131,370,368 6,383,704
70,365||
168
7
250.
153,692
20
24
3,313
GO
383
'i
1

384
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued).
1852.
1851.
Hosiery,
Hosiery,
COUNTRIES.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Small
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard. Wares.
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
Entered by the Yard
Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
lbs.
Russia, Northern Ports
1,235,867
25,274
18,569
Southern
333,067
4,983
20
Ports
£.
3,010,492 164,745
336,850
Yards.
£.
£.
lbs.
£.
1,501,011
33,141
15,020 2,382,125
126,572
11,526
796,783
12,430
150
210,000
6,837
Sweden
563,684
10,010
2,756
1,021,235 35,051
344,993
6,529
2,437
1,065,529
36,259
Norway
1,653,812
27,382
2,973
442,891
17,133
1,095,354
20,804
1,664
368,920
15,458
Denmark
3,420,705
47,947
2,160
1,987,866 71,019
2,735,853
37,903
2,051
1,768,586
60,754
Prussia.
21,498
473
1421
707,780 30,116
6,044
52
89
498,926
18,737
Hanover
355,930
6,019
856
2,342,717 115,277
329,468
6,119!
110
2,841,251 140,016
Hanse Towns.
48,046,930
828,859
199,897
40,577,519 2,027,651
41,539,214
709,612
204,791
39,651,461 1,959,703
Holland
27,761,229
478,148
59,820
23,843,481|1,287,503
27,776,866
479,189
76,106 25,948,240 1,486,893
Belgium
2,122,441
54,209
47,573
1,979,556) 104,926
1,572,860
39,824
44,245
1,151,603 67,787
Channel Islands
996,041
27,979
6,433
9,0201 388
998,260
27,813
3,423
5,334
356
France
3,927,821
98,141
35,287
68,619 25,534
3,808,149
89,139
41,686
141,668
55,391
•
Portugal Proper.
45,755,454 572,150
11,375
868,468
33,136
47,670,875
588,699
11,188
935,411
35,992
Azores
2,763,461
38,459
572
48,759
1,337
2,687,165 42,801
971
44,205
1,446
""
Madeira
Isles
Spain and Balearic}
1,226,750
17,053
826
851
63
935,832
13,988
600
660
36
3,166,646
95,844
7,366
32,032
2,835
3,761,454
99,636
6,627
269,775
9,421
•
Canary Isles
1,775,552
28,627
1,504
5,201
207
1,557,920
21,899
973
3,722
151
Gibraltar
22,869,548
310,853
19,217
125,883 5,112
23,913,836
326,360
16,215
268,198
13,320
•
Italy and Italian Isles
Malta and Gozo.
96,259,109 1,405,094
73,235
21,896,334 748,215
69,617,064
999,008
76,976
19,832,632
717.507
10,148,366 119,360
4,998
776,889] 28,051
9,000,118
103,731
3,070
653,528
22,078
Ionian Islands
11,146,201 140,307
8921
902,103 34,237
6,401,371
79,754
849
690,166
27,755
Greece
10,420,459 163,581
365
603,576 21,797
6,904,395
109,891
342
729,190
17,716
Turkey
93,026,830 1,366,192|| 16,287
4,340,707 156,376 110,278,325| 1,570,619|
9,406]
5,251,256
199,668
APPENDIX.
385

via.
Wallachia and Molda-} 11,744,233
94,510
759
3,079,928 109,567 7,973,247
110,538
815
3,343,382 117,756
Syria and Palestine
22,178,383
284,457
5801
1,316,952 49,009
32,098,272
427,242
85
2,525,270
57,937
Egypt
45,118,819
615,950
9,350
1,310,799
48,549
33,470,200
428,864
9,216
860,995
33,217
Barbary States.
1,995,001
32,019
432
2,500
116
6,595,707
87,148
446
38,512
1,286
West Coast of Africa.
17,315,295
274,575
2,215
3,265
285
14,212,537
217,604
637
1,575
233
South African Colonies
10,496,335
148,539
5,727
9,178|
464
15,738,811 265,129
10,511
6,126
349
Cape Verd Islands.
203,388
3,015
23
192,497
2,480
lena
China
Ascension and St. IIe-
Mauritius and Aden
India
Eastern Islands.
Hong Kong
Australia and South}
Sea Islands
British North America
[e-}
107,435
1,930
249
12
2
5,307,195
76,205
3,595
·
360,667,320
4,319,427
65,951
49,206,312|
744,127
7,592
114,975 270
1,406,816
2,966
45,791
5,716,047 84,196
25,735,668 1,213,547 352,637,240 4,242,272
846,531 40,794 37,362,646 550,996
4,319,330 189,047 119,168,851 1,388,456
1,362
72
1,923
46,500
1,643
46,102
24,802,091| 1,070,068|
6,553
739
21,753,214 260,727
1,892
1,273,885 43,566
3,170,992 118,648
3,467,560
134,859
·
15,927,931
303,659
53,185
208,397
7,596 13,033,657 276,261
70,960
197,408
7,476
38,476,592
633,308
57,432
831,689 30,347
25,119,492
405,152
41,812
575,805
22,890
and British Guiana
British West Indies}
37,708,885
520,819
32,128
12,434
476
27,767,610
379,874
26,490
4,056
182
British Honduras
14,132,959
173,599
5,083
25,511
2,421
4,570,030
60,508
4,142
15,840
1,321
Foreign West Indies
51,893,000
713,667
50,267
25,864
1,473
38,146,168
532,906
66,465
17,990
1,328
Hayti
7,268,932
138,628
5,858
6,582,117
127,758
4,210
United States
76,580,430 1,571,459
401,529
79,670
4,307 106,605,712 2,029,518
546,029
168,429
7,233
California
4,389,021
91,839
6,156
3,200
250
Mexico.
10,555,631 232,233
11,262
8,315,908
166,201
10,713
2,540
154
Central America
13,797,976 199,299
8,814
168,690
9,968
11,133,778
163,908
8,349
133,457
9,152
New Granada
11,470,946 176,335
8,979
5,068
432
21,015,739
306,623
10,382
3,376
354
Venezuela.
14,526,854 197,728
12,896
8,500
575
8,420,334 123,693
8,496
10,086
650
Ecuador
1,943,295
30,531
1,511
2,740
272
67,880
1,200
156
Brazil
134,420,924
1,960,156
55,930
3,296
173
124,177,785 1,831,163
60,211
3,652
191
Uruguay
5,632,831
82,543
5,305
4,550
141
18,579,057 279,624
17,811
14,075
543
Buenos Ayres
8,504,317
140,403
9,244
4,532
164
26,072,963 409,517 28,403
28,952
1,440
Chili.
35,434,733
498,543
37,562
29,081
: 1,562
38,092,531
532,734 36,504
50,090
2,072
Bolivia
618,536
11,016
1,198
•
Peru.
35,934,883
566,394
34,854
3,092 174
Falkland Islands
19,742
338
29,953,154
6,708
443,861
161
29,568
72
4
44
Total
1,405,608
0,202
1543,161,789 22,049,202 1,405,608 143,966,106 6,634,026 1524,256,194 21,648,458 1,574,974 145,478,302 6,654,655|
386
APPENDIX.
EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued).
1853.
Hosiery,
1854.
Hosiery,
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
Russia, Northern Ports
1,283,163
27,613
4,981
lbs.
£.
2,290,800| 137,321
Yards.
£.
£.
lbs.
£.
3,700
175
"
Southern
Ports
422,873
5,550
100
103,470
4,186
142,000
3,077
226,000
7,840
Sweden.
1,278,307 45,295
3,148,454 110,157
Norway
Denmark
1,041,978 18,428
2,022,734 26,717
620,021 25,399 1,118,464
20,506
1,842,498 64,142
1,579,237
20,288
2,118,511
1,562,890 55,033
70,799
Prussia.
765,123 26,508
1,324,998 66,302
Hanover
Hanse Towns.
43,939,399
782,654 201,671
2,975,930| 146,795
41,742,609 2,076,717
1,265,140 64,107
54,203,125
870,195 193,536
45,269,443 2,161,494
Holland
27,478,269 472,374 81,342
30,034,746|1,692,043
23,906,394
416,820
53,937
31,100,696 1,664,001
Belgium
2,232,919
59,613 56,778
3,159,880 179,676
2,828,139
61,415
56,892
2,892,043 158,288
Channel Islands
2,025,982
¡46,066)
927,350
21,130
1,260
France
2,859,614
61,836
57,360
126,102 43,581
5,038,400
110,204
38,423
126,048 23,839
Portugal and Isles.
53,141,514
671,695
8,170
1,046,038 43,468
58,175,265
731,947
11,850
1,187,658)
48,132
Spain and Canaries
6,562,422
32,917
3,927
4,922,302
107,022
21,424
Gibraltar
25,949,568
369,729
21,801
30,526,588
448,005
24,111
182,350
7,095
•
Sardinia
14,760,427
210,654 16,526
1,341,831 46,775
12,913,176 190,199
10,021
899,946
29,745
Tuscany
17,481,559
234,710
25,031
3,468,285 104,742
15,730,984
191,731 16,041
3,138,339
95,152
Papal States.
5,378,270
80,219
2,462,086 78,740
3,658,481
60,405
1,310,527
44,699
Two Sicilies
9,206,357
147,272
12,798
Austrian Territories
14,704,917
199,476
5,252
5,762,964 199,630
4,121,081| 135,113
7,876,054 136,704 5,695
5,250,258
165,140
14,137,237 181,812
6,347
4,145,229
133,781
Malta
9,104,108
107,687
Ionian Isles
4,715,521
66,655
Greece.
5,600,691
95,510
874,698 30,447
628,718 18,411
354,194 12,161 2,336,769 40,945
14,431,934 155,879
5,691,209 73,720
704,271
24,562
491,949
15,489
182,820|
7,855
Turkey
101,100,341
1,506,897|
4,665,467158,368
12,092 4,665,467 158,368 112,983,303| 1,796,508|
2,532
4,302,488
136,398




APPENDIX.
387

via.
Wallachia and Molda-}
6,385,037
77,155
2,198,493 75,332
251,000 7,764
Syria and Palestine
Egypt
19,353,068
242,235
1,066,835 33,430 23,850,603 282,783
25,379,111 317,966
6,401
875,073 27,795
53,272,929 625,689
10,262
2,041,795 60,030
1,220,281 41,307
Barbary States.
4,202,030 58,087
3,600,883 49,880
West Coast of Afri-
23,975,234
SS3,891
23,717,265 411,599
157,257 8,297
са
South African Colo-
nies
Colo-}
°:
11,629,099
204,905
10,621
7,210,047 129,676
9,485
Mauritius.
8,667,973
122,810
4,515|
6,885,643 95,396
2,901
British India.
357,281,200
4,456,780
54,249
26,131,675 1,168,264
516,510,469 5,832,278
87,871
Eastern Islands.
49,879,409 743,617
13,537
China and
Kong.
Hong} 98,602,583 1,205,561
2,011
Australia and South
Sea Islands
38,045,234 853,084 197,864
са
British North Ameri-} 44,470,200
845,291
60,161
British West Indies
22,609,293
442,284
24,075
712,951 30,344 46,836,612 713,918
5,234,617 198,485 41,643,649
497,720
31,424,780 663,259
632,384 23,456|| 38,842,887 682,149 59,573
30,410,862
22,304
26,531,939 1,230,766
1,058,825
3,614,709 139,293
43,499
138,568
653,050
24,968
381,932
17,362
British Honduras
3,603,753
51,636
5,853,387 76,847
Cuba
19,718,858
339,607
42,702
17,038,371
275,547
23,668
Foreign West
In-
20,440,729
271,472
11,991
28,324,785 356,991
14,164
dies
Hayti
3,755,253
73,134
1,654
6,365,020 106,957
3,218
United States
193,328,908 3,607,608
655,515
163,455,334 2,830,034
521,011
148,076
8,322
Mexico
32,989,639 469,080
47.555
493,155 11,719
8,686,885 175,062
11,244
46,620
2,063
Central America
7,940,958
114,385
1,849
8,520,581 120,786
4,525
98,285
6,891
New Granada
18,755,837
279,453
11,721
10,597,690
153,196
5,519
Venezuela.
10,431,458
151,060
4,068
13,244,131| 178,626
4,658
Ecuador
•
824,364
13,606
131,893
4,871
Brazil
116,792 581
1,727,388
60,009
103,386,556 1,390,636
56,647
Uruguay
15,669,466
251,181
8,551
14,032,818 196,713
10,181
Buenos Ayres
15,389,230
237,023
14,481
35,670,466 508,404
35,919
Chili.
35,409,389 541,766 45,5991
44,159,772 597,969
36,057
Peru.
39,173,666
621,040 33,2991
Other Countries.
6,746,101 132,967 67,862 1,192,320 57,304
24,989,311 367,397 23,363
7,095,337 135,781.61,495|
440,603
28,222
Total
1594,592,659 23,901,940 1,915,309 147,539,302 6,895,653 1692,899,122 23,481,506 1,573,021 147,669,312 6,691,330|
895,
388
APPENDIX.

EXPORTATIONS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES AND COTTON TWIST (continued).
1855.
1856.
Hosiery,
Hosiery,
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and Cotton Twist and
Cotton Manufactures. Lace, and:
COUNTRIES.
Entered by the Yard.
Small
Wares.
Yarn.
Entered by the Yard.
Quantities.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Quantities.
Declared
Value.
Quantities.
Small
Wares.
Declared Declared
Value. Value.
Cotton Twist and
Yarn.
Declared
Quantities.
Value.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Yards.
£.
£.
ibs.
£.
Russia, Northern
719,088
17,255
1,311
3,859,008] 215,226
Ports
•
Sweden
995,666
19,500
4,028,475 146,262
1,060,500
21,694
2,868,494
101,163
Norway
2,733,814
44,066
1,204,884 46,606
2,648,881
48,142
634,900
27,401
Denmark
Prussia
·
3,340,263 46,893
2,759,519 105,394
2,322,880
38,871
5,647
2,647,157
102,843
3,055
1,920,124 81,377
308,139
12,743
Hanover
1,511,100 76,153
2,442,963 50,719
12,895
3,406,610
172,417
Ilanse Towns.
71,178,758 1,103,554
162,559
47,654,874 2,230,821
38,553,178 1,050,335
62,405 49,278,282 2,378,842
Holland
26,829,487
43S,855
44,890
27,018,810 1,457,293
34,785,223 575,780
49,750
31,926,453| 1,731,487
Belgium
2,801,150
63,177
59,260
3,400,205 175,902
2,158,949 52,261
51,837
1,736,857
93,4:11
Channel Islands
973,900
29.781]
550,410 16,423
France
7,027,624
134,737 31,857
174,008 34,132
9,460,879
149,933
32,117
126,306
24,796
•
Portugal and Isles.
60,356,073
722,357 12,109
996,802 39,374
51,715,280
631,589
10,390
684,067
28,736
Spain and Canaries
6,892,271
146,004 4,034
164,582
8,608
6,650,106
150,362
4,275
95,015
7,488
Gibraltar
33,752,215 432,691 25,689 225,546
7,425
32,996,950
429,289
19,648
366,762
12,516
Sardinia
14,048,800
215,115 10,540
1,802,618 61,397
17,578,973
251,481
9,042
1,366,739
51,862
Tuscany
19,614,526
242,847
18,560
3,621,040 101,160
18,231,000
245,693
25,587
4,636,897 135,465
Papal States.
4,420,368
52,756
1,942,492 51,005
6,296,930
92,445
3,532,173
104,818
Two Sicilies
16,090,759
246,032
5,701
9,499,865 282,937
18,507,169
284,541
5,608
10,270,048 329,621
Austrian Territories
18,244,811
232,413 4,579|
6,797,630 208,408
21,082,352| 272,353
7,885
8,038,964
246,298
Malta
15,658,557
168,386
1,196
1,038,210 31,501
11,937,938
142,285
1,981
715,965
22,510
Ionian Isles
8,824,361
111,613
1,622,378 48,058
12,371,253
156,905
2,142,503
66,307
Greece
9,480,434
154,214
Turkey
234,106,313
3,389,470
19,144
Wallachia and Molda-
904,260
15,401
345,124
8,446,792 313,946 184,963,064 2,614,655
551,593 18,927 2,721,997 35,302
13.467 8,235,724
182,469
489,989
19,208
21,223
12,102,444/
422,016
1,159,468 40,586
via.
Syria and Palestine
59,650,038
773,232
3,748,571 132,739 40,718,019 581,640
3,609,821 105,957
APPENDIX.
389
Egypt
Barbary States
West Coast of Afri-
63,980,716
771,990
771,990
13,894
1,414,290 53,427 50,625,140 614,990
7,629,917
94,713
7,096,691
11,286
1,147,048 36,860
94,909
fri-
32,427,219
521,547
са •
South African Colo-
nies
Colo-}
7,540,314
134,191
:
9,033
29,904,663 452,489
17,630,615 312,898 17,427
Mauritius.
5,652,512
71,056
2,162
10,572,324 144.553
5,547
British India.
467,373 363]
5,097,192
76,104
Eastern Islands.
44,759,266
628,513
23,542
28,944,460 1,283,931| 477,950,239 5,451,418|
638,525 28,873 70,597,841 998,736
57,508
25,244,086 1,175,785
18,921
China and
Kong.
Ilong}
·
74,031,539
785,854
2,864,500
95,511 | 112,657,384 1,330,453
658,645
5,775,620
32,532
210,294
Australia and South
Sea Islands
British North Ameri-
}
13,428,647
269,081
47,998
27,713,829 575,536 101,774|
17,448,164
293,218
34,750
332,503
13,397 32,681,479| 535,968 30,019
460,020 18,703
ca
British
West In-
dies
•
British Honduras
9,029,237
31,464,750 393,759 22,420
82,261
29,193,156 381,517 19,955
11,144,984 136,355
40S
Cuba
18,627,230 295,671
28,404
16,743,650 272,560 47,915
Foreign
West
In-
dies
27,901,273
325,866
11,261
27,586,441 344,302
17,477
Hayti
6,399,219
96,264
2,323
United States
184,587,995
3,150,237
493,233
162,636
10,789
Mexico
•
17,433,437
304,700
15,633
5,436,554 94,990
207,288,756 3,771,508
33,040,491 571,048
4,214
640,084
355,137 20,903
25,066
348,536 14,793
Central America
13,129,034
177,689
6,945
170,178 8,648
16,131,872Į 193,412
4,531
317,457 12,434
New Granada
27,837,008
400,446
10,411
25,439,629 329,867
6,3881
Venezuela.
16,483,881
227,134
6,513
13,723,766 191,680
11,169
Brazil
124,961 680
1,663,821
51,070)
154,490,646 2,086,346|
57,650
Uruguay
8,209,073
112,473
6,745
12,352,070 177,591
6,308
Buenos Ayres
16,661,409
226,121
29,399
Chili
Peru
•
39,931,295 542,846
34,850
•
38,609,262 556,984 52,542
Other Countries.
4,239,084 £3,614 70,464 491,264 32,867
Total
27,330,141 381,203 27,124
37,211,068 541,323 37,745
9,516
26,968,473 420,497 29,732
4,927,904 98,542 77,761 772,519 43,025
5,493,598
28,5
95,805
1937,734,025 26,123,447 1,455,269 165,493,598 7,200,395 2035,274,969 28,521,559 1,682,607 181,495,805 8,028,575
**For continuation of these Tables see the second volume.
114,376




3900
APPENDIX.
TABLES EXTRACTED FROM THE RETURNS TO THE LANCASHIRE FORMS OF INQUIRY
BY MR. S. STANWAY.
COTTON MILLS.
LIST I.-(Comprehending 151 Mills from which Complete Returns were made.)
Table extracted from the Returns to the Tabular Forms issued at Manchester on the 17th and 20th May, and 20th June, 1833.
Name of Firm.
Town or Place
in or near
which the Mills!
are situate.
which
ending
Hours
during
the Mill worked in
the Month
May 4, 1833.
Counts
spun.*
Number of Persons
engaged in prepar-
ing and spinning
Cotton.
Average Counts
spun.
Number of l'ersons
engaged in Weav-
ing.
Number of Persons
engaged as Engi-
neers, Mechanics,
Roller Coverers,
Total Number em-
ployed.
*0X
Total NET Earnings
realized by the Total
NUMBER of Persons
given in the preceding
Column during the
Month ending 4th May,
1833, and for working
the Number of Hours
given in the Third
Column.
Average
Net
cach
Weekly
Earnings of
Individual,
calculated for 69
hours.
£ s. ¿.
l'ence.
2
τα
1a Birley and Kirk
Ib Ditto
Ormrod and Hard-
castle
Manchester
270
14 to 40
25
931
471
100
Duckenfield
276
22 to 40
30
176
1,692
3,470 12 0
$127.26
14
2111*79
Bolton.
274
30 to 200 100
1,255
295
26
1,576
2,877 5 01
110'34
3
M'Connell and Co.
Manchester
276
100 to 240 170
1,493
52
1,545
3,374 2 0
131.03
4a E. and W. Bolling
Bolton
286
36 to 110
50
698
30
100' 19
46 Ditto
Ditto.
286
38 to 70
43°42
140
I
4c Ditto
Ditto
276
46 to 68
1,356
2,446 6 2
57
213
1
4d Ditto
Ditto
286
40 to 130
85
273
5
T. Houldsworth, M.P.
Manchester
276
130 to 230
180
1,155
46
1,201
2,456 10 2
78
6 Joseph Horsefield.
Thomas Ashton
Hyde
276
38 to 40
3902
475
705
3
1,183
2,520 16 3
98.77
98.18
126.36
122 72
•
127.85
.Ditto
272
12 to 40
18.96
326
762
I
I, 149
2,888 3 II
153'3
T. Marsland, M.P.
Stockport
207
18 to 32
25
347
566
34
947
2,447 7 11
160'28
Mule Twist
9 Taylor, Hindle, and
Co.
and}
80
Bolton
272
860 40
24
924
1,569 6 9
103.40


Water ditto
17


APPENDIX.
391

IO
Collinge and Lan-
Oldham.
cashire
276
34 to 55
41.66
338
444
7.1
853
2,096 3 6
147'44
II
A. and G. Murray Manchester
276
90 to 200
145
805
36
841
1,989 16 4
141·96
12
Stirling and Beckton. Ditto
264
14 to 24
19
343
432
66
841
1,699 13 93
126.77
13
Joseph Lane and Son. Stockport
280*5
34 to 38
30
305
542
26
873
1,995 9 43
134'94
14
Jer. Lees and Sons
Stayley Bridge.
276
28 to 38
34
308
485
3
796
1,774 17 45
133.78
15
The Oxford Road
Manchester
Twist Company.
276
17 to 36
23
306
427
41
774
1,717 19 4
133.17
16
William Smith
Heaton Norris.
276
36 to 40
38
267
490
4
761
1,668 17 41
131.57
17
Lambert, Hoole, and
Manchester
Co.
276
•
725
27
752
1,422 14 83
113.51
18a Samuel Ashton
Apethorn Mill.
288
37
37
134
237
186 Ditto
Woodley Mill
300
20 to 38
25.83
128
226
КН
I
727
1,813 12 23
$143.80
I
(137.33
19
T. R. and T. Ogden
Manchester
276
150 to 220
176
709
3
712
1,483 9 II
125.or
20
James Guest
Ditto
276
16 to 24
20
323
386
3
712
1,243 2 I
104.75
21
C. and T. Howard
Hyde
276
36 to 38
37
224 403
21
648
1,396 3 O
129.27
22a Sampson, Lloyd, and
Co.
Stockport
287
36 to 40
38
116
252
I
127.28
226 Ditto
Ditto
276
36 to 40
632
22c Ditto
Ditto
257
36 to 40
23
John Howard .
Hyde
296
36 to 40
38
www.
38
1,354 7 I
38
241
ភេទ។
57
54
149'09
50 102
112.13
358
29
628
1,512 18 3
134.79
"}
* N.B. This column indicates the quality of work done in each mill during the month ending May 4, 1833. Mills are roughly classed
in the district as "fine spinning" and "coarse spinning" mills, and each confines itself in general to its own class of work. Coarse spinning
ranges from No. 1 to No. 90, at Manchester, and fine spinning from No. 90 to No. 340, which is the highest number that has ever been reached,
as I have been informed, with the present machinery. These different qualities are technically called “the counts spun or the "numbers
spun.
A hank of cotton yarn or twist always measures 840 yards. Therefore,
No. 1 signifies that one bank of cotton yarn or twist weighs one pound.
forty hanks taken collectively weigh one pound.
"
No. 40
No. 340
three hundred and forty hanks taken collectively weigh one pound.
Consequently the length of 16 ounces of cotton yarn of the fineness of No. 340 is 840 x 340, or 285,600 yards, or rather more than 162 miles.
Cotton yarn and cotton twist are general terms for all spun cotton.
+ The hands in this column are all strictly "mill hands," and though some of them are not engaged in the actual manipulation of cotton,
yet all are correctly entitled to be called " operatives." Jobbers are included in this column, but all the persons comprehended in the answers
to the 1st and 2nd primary queries of the first form, and likewise managers, are rigidly excluded from it, and, of course, from the two pre-
ceding columns.
392
APPENDIX.

Name of Firm.
Town or Place
in or near
which the Mills
are situate.
TABLE OF COTTON MILLS-(continued).
the Mill worked in
Hours during which
the
Month ending
May 4, 1833.
Counts
spun.
594
1
t
in
5
599
Average Counts
⚫unds
engaged in prepar-
Number of Persons
ing and spinning
Cotton.
Number of Persons
engaged in Weav-
ing.
Number of Persons
engaged as Engi-
neers, Mechanics,
Roller Coverers,
&c.
Total Number em-
ployed.
Total NET Earnings
realized by the Total
NUMBER of Persons
given in the preceding
Column during the
Month ending 4th May,
1833, and for Working
the Number of Hours
given in the Third
Column.
£ s. d.
Average
Weekly
Net Earnings of
each Individual,
calculated for 69
hours.
24
James Kennedy
Manchester
25
Bayley and Brothers. Stayley Bridge.
272 {
70 & below
Pence.
315
and 170
34 to 38
90
957 12 10
97.33
35 33
243
322
20
585
1,435 13 7
129'01
26
Henry Sidebottom
and Brothers
Houghton
•
270
12 to 40 |
36·78|
245
331
I
577
1,310 II 8
136.28
27
Samuel Greg and Co.
Bury
273'5
12 to 36
24'14
217
326
14
28
Hugh Beaver
Manchester
207
20 to 55
22' ΟΙ
201
301
29
H. and E, Ashworth
Bolton
•
271
50 to 100
·
515
30
Pooley and Son
Manchester
264
30 to 40
35
475
39
4320
557
1,009 I 75
109.69
525
1,091 15 81
128.98
517
986 10
IO 9
116.60
514
967 I 8
118.02
Above18
31
George Cheetham
Duckenfield.
300
6 to 60
and Sons
Under18
30
454
6
460
881 19 3
108.58
274
32
Jesse Howard.
Stockport
252
20 to 40
33.64
33 64
292
153
5
450
949 3 11
138.61
33
New Bridge Mills
Twist Company.
Manchester
264
115 to 195
155
444
6
450
866 5 0
120 75
34
Apelles Howard .
Brinnington
266
14 to 40
36.39
176
268
2
446
881 11 91
123'05
35
Jas. and John Potter
Manchester
·
265.8
12 to 36
24
238
173
33
444
967 7 3
130*72
36
Samuel Stocks
Heaton Merse.
276
20 to 40
36.25
177
259
2
438
816 4 8
III.81
37
T. and R. Barnes
New Mills
240
1
437
437
756 8
I
119'43
Cheadle
38
James and R. Gee
39
Charles Axon
►
Bulkeley.
Stockport
299*83
36 to 40
38
211
208
14
433
952 II 7
121*50
་
253
36 to 38
36.8
189
213
17
419
818 4 10
127.82
40
Thomas Harbottle
Manchester
276
18 to 65
27.81
126-
267
8
401
739 18 9
110*71
Above 18]
288
4I
Thomas Fernley
Stockport
Under 18 36 to 40
38
116
279
5
400
949 16 9
138.58
276
APPENDIX,
393
42 |J. and R. Ashton
Benjamin Gray
Ralph Orrell
G. T. Knowles
·
Hyde
270.5
18 to 40
31.81
155
240
2
397
907 13 31
Manchester
•
276
100 to 200
130
388
3
391
739 13 I
Brinnington
273
19 to 38
26.5
194
190
4
388
842 7
Stockport
•
276
12 to 36
19.33
143
243
I
387
782 I
2
46
Benjamin Sandford
Manchester
276
140 to 210
175
365
17
382
719 I
MHONE
I
139.96
113'50
131.69
121.24
112.94
47α |Hadfield and Frost
Warrington
276
31 to 42
36.5
143
42
476 Ditto
Ditto
·
276
350
716 0 of
$112.63
192
II
130.06
48
Thomas Robinson.
Stockport
264
40
40
123
219
7
349
850 I 54
152.78
49
Dacca Twist Company Manchester
282
16 to 38
24
180
155
13
348
730 19 11
123'35
50
Thos. Ogden and Sons. Ditto
276
30 to 170
43 29
344
2
346
726 13 7
126.01
SI
Thomas Plant
Ditto
276
140 to 210
175
342
I
I
343
642 5 I
112.34
52
Samuel Ratcliffe
Oldham
201
12 to 50
I
186
153
}
342
553 7 5
129'44
Above 18
53
Hardy and Andrew
Stockport
296
Under 18
7 to 30
18.50
310
6
3
319
516 14 5
93'57
276
54
Mosley and Howard .Disley
276
38 to 46
42
233
76
10
319
636 17 6
119.78
58
មុខឌ
55 John Brown
Stockport
294:5
14 to 38
30.78
156
154
2
312
694 12
125*18
56 John Tattersall
Oldham.
276
50
116
188
304
594 8
1 1 7 * 3 1
57 Roger Holland & Co. Bolton
274'5
24 to 130|
72·85]
277
3
18
Rooth and Mayer
Stockport
270
40
40
112
176
I
T8
298
669 16
135'59
289
536 4 7
113.80
Above 18
59
T. Steel and Son
Ditto
296
Under 18
36 to 38
37
140
122
22
284
659 5 8
133.82
276
бо
Trustees of Josiah
Cheetham
Tintwistle
273
20 to 36
28
7
184
7
278
730 17 5
159'47
Spinning
rooms
61
John Sidebottom
·
Hyde
276
Other rooms
300
36
36
107
169
276
656 7 111
133.72
65
66
67
68
OFCARDS
62
James Lord
Manchester
210
253
20
273
429 5 93
124'00
63
D. Dronsfield
W. Higson
C. Ainsworth and Co. [Bolton
Oldham.
276
28 to 40
34
177
92
269
576 4 5
128.52
Stockport
291
14 to 20
17
99
166
276
20 to 140
100
235
1}
3
Peter Ewart
Manchester
273
6 to 26
16.75
250
I
John Garside
Brinnington
266
18 to 24
21
112 132
Richard Thompson
Oldham
252
24 to 60
49.48
211
23
~ = H WI
265
541 O I
117.17
251
488 16 71
116.85
251
424 8 6
102.57
I
245
581 17 1
147.85
7
241
480 4 6
130'94


394
APPENDIX.
Name of Firm.
Town or Place
in or near
which the Mills!
are situate.
TABLE OF COTTON MILLS-(continued).
Hours
during
which
the Mill worked in
the
Month ending
May 4, 1833.
Counts
spun.
engaged in propar-
ing and spinning
Cotton.
Number of Persons
Average Counts
spun.
Number
of Persons
engaged in Weav-
ing.
Number of Persons
engaged as Engi-
neers, Mechanics,
Roller Coverers,
&c.
Total Number em-
ployed.
Total NET Earnings
realized by the Total
NUMBER of Persons
given in the preceding
Column during the
Month ending 4th May,
1833, and for working
the Number of Hours
given in the Third
Column.
Average
Weekly
Net Earnings of
each Individual,
calculated for 69
hours.
£ s. d.
Pence.
69
87
T. Barton and Co..
Manchester
272.5
14
to 24
20
105
135
1
240
505 7 2
127.96
70
J. and W. Bellhouse
Ditto
276
130 to 210
170
208
3
71
Abraham Haigh
Bolton
276
•
60 to 150
110
209
211
210
522 2
2
148.46
425 9 6
121*56
Above 18
72
73
and
Adshead & Brothers .Duckenfield
Blackstock
296
Under 18
36 to 54
45
· 204
5
209
504 18 3
137.92
276
Levenshulme
276
18 to 24
21
68
136
•
204
Bowers
570 3 111
167.70
74
E. and T. Dodgshon
Manchester
270
17 to 20
18.5
79
119
5
75
J. and J. Hague
Oldham.
274
30, 40 & 55
41·66|
149
51
76
Wagstaff and Side-
Duckenfield
296
40 to 140
90° 20
196
293 6
203
434 7 4
131*23
203
399 7 3
118.89
202
468 17 9
129.86
bottom
Above 18
77 Taylor, Weston, and
288
Manchester
Co.
Under 18
78
William Higgins
Ditto
79
Henry Lees
Glossop.
276
270.5
272
}
18 to 40 32 16]
180
ΙΟ
8
198
317 14 0
93.84
13 to 40
22
180
16
196
382 5 5
119'40
34 to 40
38
64
126
I
191
424 10 I
133'35
88888
80
S. M. Moore
Manchester
276
150 to 210
180
186
3
189
407 19 3
129'49
Above21
81
James Hall and Sons. Stayley Bridge Under 21
299
276
}
8 to 40
30*75
185
2
187
381 0 8
82
Alexander M'Cool
Bolton
276
60 to 100
80
185
Ι
186
419 16 81
135'43
83
Ogden and Walmsley. Oldham
252
38
38
82
104
186
333 15 9
117.92
84 Hugh Shaw and Co. .Manchester
276
150 to 210
180
181
182
339 3 I
III.80




APPENDIX.
395
85 A. W. Thorniley and
and
Duckenfield
280
Brothers
35 to 40
39
121
Go
I
182
403 0 I
130.96
86
The Pin Mill Twist
Manchester
Company
272.8
14 to 22
18
87
Robinson and Ar-
Duckenfield
276
mitage
36 to 40
38
88
Seville and Wright
Oldham.
252
24 to 30
27
166
2 28
76
105
181
406 9 4
136.32
76
94
3
173
417 9 I
144.78
2
4
172
290 10
110.98
Above 18
89
F. S. Clayton
Stockport
288.5
155
Under 18
155
348 13 I
131*71
270'5
90
91
8* *
J. Rothwell
Bolton
276
90 to 120
105
150
Barker & Ainsworth.Warrington
276
50 to 80
65
144
5
ગમ
151
291 O
115.62
149
230 4 0
92.69
Spinners
92
H. Marsland & Co. Stockport
267
Weavers
36 to 60
43
43
102
I
146
359 167
154.06
264
93
Assignees of James
Oldham.
255
12 to 40
27.5
142
4
146
260 18 II
116.06
Gleadhill
94
Joseph Walsh
Warrington
299
30
30
61
81
3
95
Samuel Shepley
Glossop.
288
•
40
40
144
96
Nathan Gough
Manchester
276
28 to 36
30.75
139
5
97
William Carruthers
Ditto
276
•
150 to 210] 180
143
98
John Winterbottom
Tintwistle.
308
38 to 46
99
Smith and Rawson
Manchester
276
22 to 30
100
Welsh and Sells
Ditto
276
40
ΙΟΙ
Gould and Cooper.
Oldham
•
248
•
20 to 50
102
France & Boardman
Manchester
•
277
103
S. Forster and Co.
Ditto
276
30
104
105
J. and R. Howard.
Wimpenny
Stayley Bridge
276
40
AW WANT
42
126
128
46
82
88888
86
48
•
122
42
75
min : co in INÝ
145
287 13 I
109.87
144
232 13 8
92.91
144
193 18 9
80*80
143
348 II O
146.24
8
1334
303 II 5
121.80
5
133
211 12 45
95.46
132
292 18 7
133'14
130
240 16 4
123.69
124
2240 24
108.39
4
121
252 6 II
125'13
114
I
115
2637 64
137°41
and
Duckenfield
286
z Swindells
106 Haywood and Sons
40
40
IIO
3
113
236 18 4
121.39
Manchester
279
155 to 175 165
109
•
3
112
231 18 IO
122.91
Carding
room
107
Broadbent and Sons
Oldham. -
·
252
Spinning
room
246
20 to 40
30
104
2
106
241 2 4
151.90
J

396
APPENDIX.
Name of Firm.
TABLE OF COTTON MILLS-(continued).
Hours during which
the
the Mill worked in
Month ending
May 4, 1833.
Counts
spun.
Total NET Earnings
realized by the Total
NUMBER of Persons
given in the preceding
Column during the
Month ending 4th May,
1933, and for working
the Number of Hours
given in the Third
Column.
Town or Place
in or near
which the Mills
are situate.
hours.
£ s. d.
Pence.
108
W. Sidebottom
Werneth
262
36
36
31
74
>
109
Johnson and Brooks. Manchester
276
17 to 20
18.5
42
бо
3
IIO
James Wilkinson.
Stayley Bridge
296
40
40
104
III
John Clegg
Oldham
276
14 to 32
26
49
48
IMI2
105
251 4 113
151.24
105
186 5 8
106.44
. 104
244 6
8
131'43
99
180 18 3
109°64
112
Robert Shepley
Glossop
282
•
34 to 38
36
98
98
196 14 9
117.88
113
Edward Brideoak
•
114
C. Bradbury
Oldham.
Ditto
276
20 to 50
36
95
2
97
167 14 1
103.73
276
20 to 80
50
94
I
95
201 14 2
127 39
115
Ogden and Walmsley Ditto
252
38
38
ΙΟ
88
90
170 8 61
124°43
116
Edmund Wilde
Ditto
276
20 to 26
23
90
128 16 9
85.89
117
Abraham Clegg
Ditto
•
252
7 to 30
16
88
88
146 12 92
109°50
1J8
James Wardlow
►
Glossop
288
38, 40, & 42
40
87
87
187 9 8
123'91
119
John Lees
Ditto
296
38 to 42
40
86
I
87
168 17 92
108.60
120
Robert Schofield
Manchester
276
124 to 150
137
87
87
134 3 0
92.51
121
John Barker
Glossop
276
32, 40, & 50
40 66
122
Ralph Sidebottom.
Tintwistle
295.58
46
46
84
123
Buckley and Howard.
Stayley Bridge
288
40
40
124
The Islington Twist
Company
Manchester
276
28 to 34
30.25
125
J. Stanney
Mellor
276
36, 38, & 60 44·66
39
126
S. Thornley and Co.
Levenshulme
276
20
20
22
127
Daniel Nield, jun..
.Oldham
276
20 to 30
23'33
48
128
Hugh Shaw
•
129
T. and R. Hope
Duckenfield
Manchester
•
276
23
•
279'75
130
Sowden
·
131
Samuel Armstrong
132
Sibson Rigg
Clare, Crosfield, and
Warrington
Disley
Manchester
276
34 to 36
35
72
214'5
24 to 36
32
68
264
20 to 26
23
66
IFN & AN ON, 200
8-4
82
221
2
86
175 10 81
122.46
2
86
173 4 5
112.84
82
180 19 13
126.89
76
•
I
77
121
2 93
94'39
50
50
73
7383ཡུ
100 16 11
79.61
3
75
26
74
166 14 72
139 5+
I
55
︽ ཡིག
133'38
112.76
73
172 8 0
141.69
73
141 17
I
115'02
•
72
86 6 6
71.93
1
1
68
92 9 2
104'97
66
105 12 11
100'40



APPENDIX.
397
133 John Duncuft
Oldham.
238
Under 18
40 to 60
50
60
1
00
121 3 14
140'50
134
Joseph Cooper.
Glossop
276
60
60
Adults
52
I
53
99 15 7
108.50
300
135
James Nield, jun.
Oldham
276
20 to 26
23
53
53
84 17 21
136
Joseph Howard
Glossop
296
50
50
52
52
113 17 c
137
J. and J. Bennett
Ditto
294
40
40
49
52
138
Waring and Sons
Oldham
276
2 to 40
26
49
49
139
Parrott and Weston
Brinnington
207
36
36
47
47
84 I 2
113 6
140
C. Bullock
Manchester
•
270
18 to 42
25.02
47
47
141
Cheetham and Hill
Duckenfield
296
50 to 60
55
142
James Kershaw
Charlestown
•
308
33, 35, & 36
34.66
44
143
M. Hadfield
Glossop
286
40
40
43
144
John Cheetham
Stockport
282
20 to 26
23
36
145
Aaron Rangeley
Hayfield
276
40
40
WW***:
44
I
45
85 19 5
102 6
5
1
4+
97 14 5
1
IH
43
95 15 8
39
66 17 5
38
I
38
69 18
NOGN O IN IN 2000 in 0
94 12 9
96.06
122.48
102.51
103.47
149'54
112.18
127°20
119.41
128.97
100.68
110.36
Under 18
146 Rusby and Linney
Glossop.
264
Above
20 to 24
22
37
!
37
62 7 10
100.58
300
147
Moss and Howard
Oldham
276
36
36
28
28
84 8 3
180.88
148
George Platt
Glossop.
286
40
40
27
27
45 16 4
98.25
149
J. Greaves
Mottram
240
38 to 42
40
26
26
60
159.23
150
Joseph Lamb
Stockport
282
20 to 24
22
25
I
26
44 9 I
100'40
151
George Froggatt
Mellor.
267
8
8
19
19
31 4 9
101.97
31,444 16,040 1,161
16,040
48,645 100,971 18 11
125'13
SAMUEL STANWAY.

*398
APPENDIX.

SUPPLEMENT (A.) (GENERAL).—Showing the Distribution of the 48,645 Hands (employed in the 151 Mills given in
the preceding List) in the different Places mentioned, their Ages, Sex, &c., the Aggregate Net Earnings of
the whole Number, and the Average Net Earnings of an Individual, in each Place, for 69 Hours' Work.
Adults.*
Place of Employment.
Males. Females.
Children under Eighteen Years.
Malcs.
Females.
In the direct
Employ of
In the direct
Employ of
Operatives.
Masters.
uncertain.
Employers
In the direct
Employ of
In the direct
employ of
Operatives.
Masters.
uncertain.
Employers
Average Number em-
ployed.
Hours worked by
the whole during
the Month ending
4th of May, 1833.
Aggregate Number of
Number
of
Hours worked by
Total
each.
AggregateAmount of
their Net Earnings
for the Month end-
ing May 4th, 1833.
Earnings of each
Individual, calcu-
Average Weekly Net
lated for 69 Hours.
Manchester and
immediate neigh-
bourhood
4,421
5,731 1,423 2,349 29 1,9571,451
29
S. d. Pence.
17,390 4,737,977*1 272*4 35,089 2 31 122·64
£
Stockport and Hea-
ton Norris
Duckenfield & Stay-
ley Bridge
Hyde, Brinnington,
&c. .
2,314 2,175
609 917 30 883 525
1,251 1,256
458
87
1,936 2,451 698 598
38 7,491
2,057,002 0 274 5
16,399 7 6 132.02
7
240 192
27 1,402
25
3,516
1,016,789 0 289 1
7,822 2 6
127°39
127
10
7,249 | 2,020,639′5| 278.7
16,629 6 01
136·28
Tintwistle,Glossop,
&c.
Oldham
728
675 108 445
19 262 227
18
2,482
678,228*7 273°2 4,951 4 0
120.89
1,318
824
198 575
40 506
276
38
3.775
987,294 0 261.5
7,577 3 3
127.09
Bolton
1,443
1,279
356 1,069
057
665
5,469
1,510,984 0 276 2 10,174 8 0
111.50
Warrington
207
235
38 105
63
68
One Mill at Bury
122
195
68
41
121
ΙΟ
716
557
200,951*0 280·6) 1,320 3 7
152,339.5 273'5] 1,009 I 7109.69
108.79
13,740 14,821 3,585 6,557
152 6,091 3,541
158 48,645 13,362,204 8 274 6 100,971 18 11 125 13
* The word "Adult" is used throughout these Tables to signify a Person who has completed the Eighteenth year of age.
APPENDIX.
399

SUPPLEMENT (B.) (GENERAL).--Distributing the 48,645 Hands into Eight different Branches or Departments of
Cotton Working, and showing the Aggregate Net Earnings of the whole Number of the Operatives in each
Branch, and the Average Net Earnings of an Operative in each, for 69
Adults.
Employed in
Males. Females.
Children under Eighteen Years.
Males.
Females.
Hours'
Work.
Employ of
In the direct
Employ of
In the direct
Operatives.
Employers
Masters.
uncertain.
Employ of
In the direct
In the direct
Employ of
Operatives.
Employers
uncertain.
Masters.
Total Number em-
ployed.
Hours worked by
Aggregate Number of
the
whole,
during
the Month ending
the 4th May, 1833.
Average Number of
Hours worked by
each.
their Net Earnings
for the month end-
ing 4th May, 1833.
Aggregate Amount of
Earnings of each
Branch, calculated
Individual, in each
for 69 Hours.
Average Weekly Net
VOL. I.
Cleaning & spread-
ing cotton
£ s.
d.
Pence.
272
212
689
Ι
9 94
2
3
1,282
| 275°8|
353,660 5 275 8 2,111 I 5
98.85
Carding
Mule-spinning
Throstle-spinning
Reeling
2,350 3,501 1,229
5,163 1,189
194 688 373 4
146 2,552 40
81
18 2,061 117 40
9,397 2,591, 188.7 275*7 17,252 16 8 110.26
697 5,852
32
33 33
50
500
5
Weaving
4,627 6,108
986
610
346 2,284 24 15,605 4,291,208.6| 274'9
4 51 1,846
542 23 8 3,316
35 2,538 1,104 32 16,040
Roller covering.
бл
87
5
I
'9
7
170
33,057 12 2
501,621.5 2717 2,819 1 61
906,261'8 | 273′2| 5,213 14 31
4,400,274*7 | 274°3 36,080 19 11
47,268.3 278.0
127°57
93.06
95.26
135*78
414 15 7
145'31
As engineers, fire-
men, mechanics,
927
ៗ 43
3
8
I
989
270,7207 2737 4,021 17 27 246 01
&c..
13,740 14,821 3,585 6,557
10,557
152 6,091 3,541 158 48,645 13,362,204.8 274-6100,971 18 111 125'13
૭
2 D
400
APPENDIX,

!
SUPPLEMENT (C.) (GENERAL).-Showing the Number of Children under Fourteen years of Age comprehended in the
Total Number of 48,645 Hands, the Aggregate Net Earnings of the whole Number of Children under Fourteen
and the Average Net Earnings of a Child under Fourteen, for 69 Hours' Work.*
Children under Fourteen.
Persons Eighteen Years of
Age and upwards.
Persons above Fourteen
and under Eighteen.
Place of Employment.
Males.. Females.
Total
Number.
Males. Females.
Total
Number.
Total
Males. Females.] Number.
Average
Net
Aggregate Net Earnings
Earnings of the per
whole Number Week of
of Children for each
the Month end-
ing 4th May,
1833.
Child
under 14.
media
Manchester and immediate
neighbourhood
Stockport and Heaton Norris.
Duckenfield and Stayley Bridge
Hyde, Brinnington, &c..
Tintwistle, Glossop, &c.
Oldham
£ s. d.
Pence.
4,421 5,731 10,152 1,514
2,314 2,175 4,489
3,401
1,887
2,287
1,550
3,837
2,861 3 91
44.74
583
777
1,360
973
669 1,642
1,370 15 8
50*08
1,251 1,256 2,507
232
163
395
320
294
614
480 2 5
46.91
1,936
2,451 4,387
666
924
1,599
657
728
675 1,403
324
252
576
248
1,318
824 2,142
371
422
793
442
Bolton
Warrington
One Mill at Bury
1,443
1,279 2,722
570
637
I,207
855
62 MO
615
1,272
1,256 I 5
59.24
255
503
422 4 42
50*36
398
840
603 9 0
43°10
685
1,540
956 14 3
37°27
207
235
442
53
55
108
༡༠
76
166
109 5 8
39°50
122
195
317
40
73
M
113
69
58
127
83 17 8
39.63
13,740 14,821 28,561
4,353
5,190
9,543 5,941 4,000 10,541
8,143 14 5 46*35
Of which total number of 10,541 Children under the age of 14,-There are in the direct employ of the mill owners
Ditto
ditto
of operatives
And of those whose direct employer is unknown
*The statement of time worked by Children under 14, and also of Engineers, is to be taken with the modification specified in the Preface,
This remark is to apply throughout.
}
3,931
·
5,898
712
10,541
APPENDIX.
401

SUPPLEMENT (D.) (GENERAL).-The 48,645 Hands exhibit the following Proportions in 100, of Persons above Eighteen
years of Age, of Persons above Fourteen and under Eighteen, and of Children under Fourteen. The Propor-
tions of the Sexes of each Age are likewise exhibited.
Adults.
Persons above
Fourteen and
Children under
Fourteen.
Total
Total
Total
Total
under Eighteen.
Place of Employment.
Adults.
Non-
Adults.
Males. Females.
Males. Females.
Males. Females. Males. Females.
Manchester and immediate
neighbourhood
25.42 32.96
Stockport and Heaton Norris
30.87 29.06
Duckenfield & Stayley Bridge
Hyde, Brinnington, &c.
35 58
35.72
8.71
10.85
7.78 IO"37 12.99
6.60
13.15
8.91
58.35
41.62 47°28
52.72
8.93
59.93
26.71
33.81
9.19
4.64 9.10 8.36 71.30
12.75 9'06
Tintwistle, Glossop, &c.
29°33
27.20
13.06
10'15
Oldham
•
34 91
21.83
9.83
Bolton
26.38 | 23°39
IO 42
II 18
11.65
9*99
11.71
Warrington
28.91 32.82
One Mill at Bury
21.90 35.01
7'40
7.18
40°0751.64 | 48°36
28.70 51.28 48.72
8.48
60°52 39°48 44'96 55'04
10.27 56.53 43'47 52.38 47.62
10°54 56.74 43.26 56°45 43.55
12.53 49.77 50.23 52.43 47°57
15.63
7.68 12.57
13.11
12.39 10'41
Total Average
28.24
30°47
8.95 10.67
10.62 61.73 38.27 48.88 51.12
56.91 43°09
12.21 9'46 58.71
4177
58.53
58.71 41°29 49°40 50 60
ན་
402
APPENDIX.

Class of Operatives.
Classification as respects
Sex and Age.
SUPPLEMENT (E.) (GENERAL).-Showing the Average Net Earnings of certain Classes of Operatives employed in the
Four Processes of Carding, Mule-spinning, Throstle-spinning, and Weaving, in all the Districts, as specified in
Supplement (C.)
Denomination
of Process in which
employed.
Total Number
Aggregate
Average Net earnings
Number
for the
Month ending
4th May,
Average
Weekly Net
Earnings of
each Individual]
in each Process,
calculated for
Total
Number
of Hours
of
Persons
em-
ployed.
worked by
the Month
them during
ending 4th May,
1833.
of Hours
worked
by each.
1833.
69 Hours.
£ s. d.
Pence.
(Carders or overlookers.
Male adults
376
103,495'9
275.2
1,762 17 31
282'06
Jack-frame tenters
Carding
·
Bobbin-frame tenters
Drawing tenters
Overlookers
Principally female adults
696
190,385 0
273.5
1,103 10 34|
95'98
Ditto
ditto
•
945
261,650*I
276.8
1,414 3 5
89.50
Ditto
ditto
1,931
532,287.3
275.6
2,885 3 81
89.76
Male adults
145
40,018.6
275'9
848 2 2
350°95
Spinners
Mule-spinning
•
Piecers
pally the latter
Throstle-spinning
Scavengers
J Overlookers
Spinners.
Overlookers
Male and female adults, but
principally the former
Male and female adults and
non-adults, but princi-
Male and female non-adults.
3,797
1,046,252'0
275*5 19,454 3 5
307 91
7,157 | 1,966,804.8
274.87,688 14 84
64.73
1,247
340,019'I
272.6 712 2 113
34.68
Male adults
82
22,371'9
272.8
362 14 11
268.51
Female adults and non-adults
1,123
305,712 4
272.2
1,716 17 61|
17161
93.00
Male adults
400
109,577'0
273.9
2,088 I 4
315.56
Warpers
•
Male and female adults
332
90,660.2
273°0
805 5
147'08
Weaving
Male and female adults,
Weavers
male and female non-
10,171
2,784,258.7
273°7 21,835 9 63
129.87
Dressers
adults, but chiefly females
Male adults
836
230,771'0
276.0 4,650 4 II
333.69
APPENDIX.
403

SUPPLEMENT (F.) (GENERAL).-Showing the Average Net Earnings per Week of Sixty-nine Hours of each Class of
Operatives employed in the Eight different Branches of Cotton Working in the under-mentioned Districts.
Employed in
Manches-
ter and its Stockport
immediate
and
Heaton
Ducken-
field and
Neighbour-
Norris.
hood.
Stayley
Bridge.
Hyde, Tintwistle,
Brinning
ton, &c.
Glossop, Oldham. Bolton. Warring-
ton.
&c.*
Average
Weekly Net
Earnings of
each
Individual in
each Branch,
calculated for
69 Hours.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Cleaning and spreading
84.68
174'14
80.52
162.70 267.69
cotton
103.13
91.35
67°27
98.85
Carding
118.59
107.31
120°37
113.28
II0*79
107.02
92.22
90°31
IIO 26
Mule-spinning
126.96 135.99
125 47
132.78
123'71
138.06
122 14
107.II
127'57
Throstle-spinning
93.67
99°29
108.07
90.60
96.00
82.II
95'24
58.02
93'06
Reeling
•
97.65
96.70
94.34
88.20
90'00
100*85
86.14
77.24
95.26
Weaving
127'41
136.80 142.20
144.63
141.36
131'10 123.74
122.06
135.78
Roller covering
145.87
155°32
136.01
160*30
86.18
176.50 | 152°45
103°45
145'31
As engineers, mechanics,
firemen, &c.
255°36 | 265 66
206.36
217°13
229'40
252.08 211*45
231.76
246.01
122.64 | 132.02
Total Average.
* None but adults are returned as employed in this departraent in Tintwistle, &c.
127.39 136.28 120.89 127°09 III.50 108·79
125 13
404
APPENDIX.

Manches-
of Process
in which employed.
Class
of
Operatives.
ter and its Stockport
and
immediate
Neigh-
Heaton
Norris.
bourhood.
SUPPLEMENT (G.) (GENERAL).-Showing the Average Net Earnings per Week of Sixty-nine Hours of certain Classes
of Operatives employed in the Four Processes of Carding, Mule-spinning, Throstle-spinning, and Weaving, in the
under-mentioned Districts.
Denomination
Average
Weekly Net
Earnings of
each
Individual in
each Process,
calculated
for 69 Hours.
Ducken- Hyde,
Tint-
field and Brin- wistle,
Stayley |nington,| Glossop,
&c.
Bridge.
&c.
Oldham. Bolton.
War-
rington.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Pence.
Carders or overlookers
314.46
283.65
249.60
Jack-frame tenters
Carding
103.26
III.64
102' ΟΙ
245*73
100.92
258.11
95.21
304*19
91'01
256 94
209.87
282.06
62.54
69.52
95'98
Bobbin-frame tenters
103.92
95.76
95'52
Drawing tenters
101.96 92.78 76·26
101.73 92.38
67.94 73.79
89.50
92.57
76.48 87.78
95'31
70.82 72.95
89.76.
Overlookers
Mule-spinning
Spinners
392'55 314.69 311.25
325'64 291°46 247.96
284.78 274.80
363·54 364.90
277 30 303'43 345.60
350'95
312.68
341*71 287.75
307'91
Piecers
Scavengers
70°37 70.41
66.34 55.28 58.96
33.15 39.87 43'05 42.65
74'03
56.10
59.82
64.73
41.49
30.92
33°38
29.86
34.68
Throstle-spinning
Overlookers
Spinners
Overlookers
Weaving
Warpers
Weavers
281.JO 284.40 237.50 226.64 |
91.85 100*03 102.40 102.88
293.86 354.81 271.81
296 28 | 270·68
270.68
217.41
1
1
268.51
10f 23 79'37
90*21
56.01
93.00
308.14
373°44 | 295*81
282.56 270°72
315.56
142°35
147.86
121.76
150'52
215'55 150*50
152.87 131*05
147.08
129*93 128.25
135'47 132.50
137.60
128.51
·
III 19 141*65
129.87
Dressers
323.70 349*36
290.78 | 344.89 | 345 63
345.63
353'48
286.03 369.04
333.69
APPENDIX.
405

1
SUPPLEMENT (H.) (LOCAL).-Distributing the 17,390 Operatives employed in Manchester and in the immediate
Neighbourhood, and concerning whom complete Returns were obtained, into the Eight different Branches of
Cotton-working specified in General Supplement (B.), and exhibiting similar
Adults.
Employed in
Males. Fema.es.
In the Em-
Children under Eighteen Years.
Males.
Females.
Results.
Total Number em-
ployed.
Total
Number
of
Hours worked by
them during the
Month ending 4th
May, 1833.
Average number of
Hours worked by
cach.
ings for the Month
ending 4th May,
1833.
Aggregate Net Earn-
Average Weekly Net
Earnings of each
Individual in each
Branch calculated
for 69 Hours.
1
£
s.
d.
Pence.
Cleaning and spread-
ing cotton
92
493
152
i
69
I
806
220,674'9
273 7
1,128 9 of
84.68
Carding
783
1,352
404
3
5 579
41
3,167
Mule-spinning
1,745
606
364 2,147
12
233 1,058 7
866,545*I
6,172 1,690,261*1
273.6
6,205 17 4
118.59
273.8 12,959 3 101
126.96
Throstle-spinning.
90
388
181
9
286
18
972 265,255.6
272.8 1,500 8 4
93.67
Reeling
•
67
1,446
36
I
277
3
1,830
502,030*9
274°3 | 2,960 12 6
97.65
Weaving
1,127
1,407 251 197
507
347
3,836 1,029,429 I
2683
7,920 14 104
127'41
Roller covering
16
34
I
6
པ་
5
62
16,901.6
272.6
148 17 7
145.87
chanics,
And as engineers, me-
firemen,
501
5
35
3
I
545
146,878.8
269.5 | 2,264 188
255*36
&c.
4,421
5,731 1,423 2,349 | 29 |1,957 |1,451
29
17,390 4,737,977″ I
2724 35,089 2 3
122.64
406
APPENDIX.
SUPPLEMENT (H.)—continued.
In addition to the number of 17,390 Operatives, concerning whom complete Returns were obtained from
Manchester and the immediate Neighbourhood, incomplete Returns were obtained regarding 5,05 2 others who were
either employed in Mills working both night and day, or the duration of whose work was not stated by the hour.
The Distribution of the Total Number of 22,442, and the Aggregate of their Net Earnings, is as under. See List II.,
incomplete Returns.

Employed in
Total Number
employed.
Aggregate Net Earnings
for the Month
ending 4th May, 1833.
£ 8. d.
1,275 6 81
7,713 10 5
Cleaning and spreading cotton
912
Carding
3,986
Mule-spinning
7,458
15,767 8
I
Throstle-spinning
I, 190
1,814 11 21
Reeling
2,526
4,024 I II
Weaving
5,672
11,815 8 10
Roller covering
82
202 18 8
And as engineers, mechanics, firemen, &c..
616
2,551 3 5
22,442
45,164 9 5
APPENDIX.
407

SUPLEMENT (I.) (LOCAL.)-Showing the Average Net Earnings of certain Classes of Operatives employed in the Four
Processes of Carding, Mule-spinning, Throstle-spinning, and Weaving, in Manchester and immediate Neigh-
bourhood.
Number
Total Number
of Hours
Denomination
of Process in which
employed.
Class of Operatives.
Classification as respects
Sex and Age.
of
Persons
worked by
them during
Number
Average Net Earnings
of Hours
em-
the Month
worked
Aggregate
for the
Month ending,
Average
Weekly Net
Earnings of
each individual
in each Process,
ployed. Jending 4th May,
by each.
4th May,
1833.
1833.
calculated
for 69 Hours.
£. s. d.
Pence.
Carding
(Carders or overlookers
Jack-frame tenters.
Bobbin-frame tenters
[Drawing tenters
Male adults
121
33,084'5
273'4
628 5 I
314'46
Principally female adults
192
52,600,7
273.9
330 2 0
103.26
Ditto
ditto
182
49,841.0
273.8
310 15 11
103.92
Ditto
ditto
638
174, 129'7
272°9 |1,069 15 81
101 73
Overlookers
Male adults
.
57
15,565*3
273°0
368 197
392.55
Spinners
Mule-spinning
Male and female adults, but
principally the former
1,435
392,409'9
273'47,716 12 113
325.64
Male and female adults and
Piecers
Scavengers
non-adults, but princi-
2,697
738,404'9
273 7 3,137 16 11}
70°37
pally the latter
Male and female non-adults
884
241,598.I
273'3
483 14 2
33.15
Throstle-spinning
Overlookers
Spinners.
Male adults
39
10,699.6
274°3
181 12 6
281.10
Female adults and non-adults
596
162,720.5
273.0
902 12 8
91.85
Overlookers
Male adults
95
Warpers
Male and female adults
86
126
25,144'I
264.6
446 3 9
293.86
23,428.8
272.4
201 8 I
142'35
Weaving
Male and female adults,
Weavers
Male and female non-adults,
2,021
536,923°4
265.6 4,212 17 6
129'93
but chiefly females
Dressers
Male adults
133
36,415.7 273.8
711 16 6
323.70
408
APPENDIX.


TABLE I.-Total of Cotton Factories worked by Mechanical Power, in the United Kingdom, according to the
Inspector's Returns of 1835.
Number of
Factories.
Countries.
England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
1,070 42 4,030
5
33
159
454
538
28
44
153
181
334 286
Total.
1,262
42 4,528
Number and Ages of Persons employed.
Between 8 and 12 Yrs. Between 12 and 13 Yrs. Between 13 and 18 Yrs.
At work. Empty Males. Females. Total. Males. Females.
3,073 7,103 39,196
9,196 7,865 17,061 23,974 29,869 53,843 50,675 53,410 104,085 87,875 94,217 182,092
89
458
708 452
992 1,258 1,832 3,090 2,845 7,597 10,442|| 6,168|| 12,403 18,571 10,529 22,051
58 102
561 847 960 1,553
2,513 1,639
1,639
377/100,
38,235 65,486 58,053
3,669 8,197 10,663 9,911 20.574 27,251 38,235 65,486 58,053 67,824 125,877 100,495 119,639 220,134
Above 18 Years.
Total Persons.
Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total.
1,151
32,580
2,672
4,311
Totals.
TABLE II.—Total of Children, Young Persons, and Adults in all the Factories of the United Kingdom.
Number
of Fac- Between 8 and 12 Yrs. Between 12 and 18 Yrs.
tories at
Work. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females.
Total Persons.
Number and Ages of Persons employed.
Totals.
Above 18 Years.
Total.
Males. Females. Total.
England
2,555 9,292
Wales.
90
47
Scotland
425
690
Ireland
·
9°
58
94 152 1,150 2,563
9,536 18,828 53,114 65,218 118,332 62,406 74,754 137,160 75,848 80,685 156,533
29
76 485 403 888
532 432 904
448 524
842 1,532 6,420 14,722 21,142 7,110 15,564 | 22,674 | 8,904 19,117
3,713 1,208 2,657 3,865 2,099
2,099 3,085
138,254 155,439 293,693
980 956 1,936
15,818 34,362
5,184 3,503 6,061
50,180
9,564
Total. 3,160 10,087 10,501 20,58861,
3,160 10,087 10,501 20,588 61,169 82,906 144,075 71,256 93,407 164,663 87,299 103,411 190,710 158,555 196,818 355,373
972
28,021
APPENDIX.
409

Motive Force.
Number
of Factories.
Number of
COUNTIES,
TABLE of the Working Power employed in the Cotton Factories of England.*
"Number and Age
of Persons Employed.
Between
Power
actually | Eight and Twelve Years.
employed.
Amount estimated
according to the Power of same
in Horses.
At
Empty.
Steam- Water-
Engines. Wheels.
Total.
Steam. Water. Total.
Males. Females. Total,
Chester
109
7
170 53 223
5,055 1,266 6,321
5,598
425
406
831
Cumberland
13
8
Derby
32
60
Durliam
Lancaster
683
Leicester
OH MU
w::
4
12
87
97
184
33
58
91
553
853 I,406
1,270
95
95
190
I
6
23:
32
714
233 947
20,30212,851
20,302 2,851 23,153
21,207 2,806 1,983 4,789
Middlesex
7
22
26
9
22
Nottingham
20
17
23
40
Stafford
9
35
49
80
4
York, West Riding
126
3
75
2
5
129
204
50
1,317 1,403
60
150
2,720
134
2,2311
37
33
70
489 387 876
Total
1,070
42
*
4,030 3,073 7,103
* Excepting the Northern District under Mr. Horner's inspection. See his Table, pp. 357, 358.
410
APPENDIX.

TABLE of the Numbers and Ages of Persons in the Cotton Factories of the different Counties of England.
Number and Age of Persons Employed-(continued).
Between
Between
Twelve & Thirteen Years. Thirteen & Eighteen Years.
Above Eighteen Years.
Total Persons.
COUNTIES.
Males. Females. Total.
Males. Females Total. Males. Females Total.
Males.
Females,
Total.
Chester
Cumberland
Derby
I,448 1,206
57 38
261 289
243 275
Durham
2
21
I
II
12
8
2,654 3,672 4,315 7,987 9,971 10,069 20,040 15,516 15,996 31,512
95 169 332 501 392 658 1,050
626 1,032
1,658
550 550 998 1,548 ·940 2,003 2,943 1,838 3,387 5,225
518
523 926 1,449 1,915 1,553 3,468 2,276 2,849
19
5,625
ΓΙ
୨
24
33
Lancaster
6,419 5,261
16,855|20,365
11,680 16,855 20,365 37,220 34,071 94,655 68,726 60,151 62,264 122,415
Leicester
66
17
83 130
92 222
120 158
278 325
267
592
Middlesex
24
24
Iog
14
1231
62 119
181
217
133
350
Nottingham
82
131
213
132
382
514
2501
706
956
481
1,242
1,723
Stafford
33
68
ΙΟΙ
95
237
332
152 392
544
315
742
1,057
34
45
79
106 166
272
257 313
570
434
557
991
York, West Riding
529
533
1,062 1,632 2,031 3,663 2,537 2,773
5,310
5,187
5,724
10,911
Total
9,196 7,865 17,061 23,974 29,869 53,843 50
061 23,974 29,869 53,843 50,675 53,410 104,085 87,875 94,217 182,092
APPENDIX.
411

Mills and Factories in which the Machinery is worked by Mechanical Power, engaged in the Manufacture of Cotton,
&c. in the whole of Scotland, in the Northern half of Ireland (North of the county of Dublin), in the counties of
Cumberland, Northumberland, and Durham, a part of Westmoreland, and the North-east angle of Yorkshire,
being the district assigned to Leonard Horner, Esq., Inspector of Factories, as reported in July, 1834.
COUNTIES.
Manufacture.
Moving Power.
Steam. Water.
Together.
Total of Persons
employed in the
Factories.
Of whom, of Thirteen
and under Eighteen Years.
Of whom,
under Thirteen Years.
Cotton.
Wool.
Flax.
Silk.
Total.
Total
Total
of
of
Male. Female. | Total.
Male. Female. | Total.
Horses. Horses.
Lanark
74 2
:
2
Renfrew
Ayr
I
Bute
2
Dumbarton
Stirling
HAN 44
4I 2
2
~ 4
78 2,394
520
21
49 550 650
22 146 365
2,914 17,949 1,345 3,702
1,200 7,615 722
5,047
5,047
756
895 1,651
1,759
2,481
304
706 1,010
5II 1,271
91 147
238 ILT
150
261
2
ΙΟ
бо
70 499
65
ΙΙΟ
175
30
5.7
87
I
5
9༠ 241
334 1,339
163
227
390
89
ΙΙΟ
205
6
Clackmannan
17
HH
ΙΟ
48
479
527 1,615
151
306
457
148
206
354
17
154
1541
540 100
5I
151
28
49
77
Linlithgow.
I
2
I
4
32
45
77 153
17
28
45 19
23
4.2
Edinburgh
Fife
I
Forfar
mo
3
48
36
84
360
15
90
105
7
32
39
47
355
80
SO 1,166
ww
389
744 2,669
126
610
736
79
220
299
315
1,481 5,701
405 1,174
1,579
47
470
945
Perth
Kincardine.
:
Aberdeen
Selkirk
Roxburgh
Dumfries
Kirkcudbright
Wigton
::
H H
I
I
4
II
12
I
2
446
14
18
432
432 1,457
:
96
ΙΟ
4
14
473
598
16 9
67
67 174
MH
136
281
417
137
114
251
II
34
45
3
9
12
1,071 4,363
315 1,216
1,531 263
523
786
II
12
161
161 258
:
:
I
134
86 159
::
:
3
HAWN
189
189
545
18
86
104
199
55S
56
8
64
38
26
64
58
131
189
49
65 114
18
32
50
20
20
::
92
12
12
26
I
I
6 388 5,330 4,822 10,152 46,825 3,799 9,922 13,721 2,552 3,676 6,228
15
IS
มา
5
I
956
15
15
30
3
2
3W
2
412
APPENDIX.

COUNTIES.
Cotton.
Wool.
Flax.
Silk.
Total.
Total
Total
of
of
Horses. Horses.
Mills and Factories in which the Machinery is worked by Mechanical Power, engaged in the Manufacture of Cotton,
Manufacture.
&c.-(continued).
Moving Power.
Steam. Water.
Together.
Total of Persons
employed in the
Factories.
Of whom, of Thirteen
and under Eighteen Years.
Of whom,
under Thirteen Years.
Male. Female. Total.
Male. Female. | Total.
Antrim
Derry
ΙΟ
:
II
21
I
Down
3
Armagh
Meath
HAH
HMH
I
I
4
6
I
I
Mayo
I
I
нитони
642
275
917
3,887
358 1,075,433
114
15
15
82
II
29
40
91
86
177
710
115
134
249
126
126
574
39
165
204
MH
36
36
107
2
33
35
I
267 H
181
2
291
4
36
17
33
37 54
4.
69
པའ
9
9
35
4
4
16
18
34
733
547 1,280 5,395
525 1,440 1,965
170
257 427
Cumberland
I 2
12
Northumberland
3
Durham
Westmoreland
Yorkshire*
I
3
12 21
19
736
2 MI Hot
31
136
270
406 2,147
227
479 704
97
83
180
6
76
54
130
387
26
67
293
7
43
50
I
II
214
I02
316 1,277
55
220
75
79
72
151
I
7
7
17
1
I
6
6
3
36
36
132
II
35
46
18
13
31
:
52
462
438
895 3,960
319
800 1,119
207
211
418
* No Return from a Mill near Gisborough.
APPENDIX.
413
REPORT OF DR. KAY OF MANCHESTER TO THE COMMISSIONERS UNDER
THE POOR LAW AMENDMENT ACT, 22nd JULY 1835.
Quantity of Steam Power recently erected, but not supplied with
Hands, or which is ordered and will be in Operation in a Year and
a Half or Two Years, in the Cotton District of Lancashire and its
immediate Vicinity.

Miles Distant
from
Manchester
to
Town, &c.
6
8
7
20
5
II
8
12
14
6
18
ΙΟ
12
13
20
Name of Town, Township, or Parish,
which form the
Centre of the District so called.
Township of Hyde
Ashton and Dukinfield
Stayley Bridge
Saddleworth (Greenfield)
Stockport.
Rochdale (district)
Heywood
Spotland
•
Number of
Firms
to which the
Power is
to be supplied.
17
94 76MHH hay paral
76
Number
of
Horse Power.
9
486
8
•
640
606
I
60
936
16
660
3
78
I
50
I
60
I
ΙΟ
I
50
19
755
•
2
50
2
175
6
325
4
120
70
9
17
25
26
20
30
Bagslate
Birch
Accrington
Bolton (district)
Leigh
Horwich
Wigan
Bury
•
·
Haslingden
Burnley
Bacup (district)
Todmorden
Colne
30
Preston
ΙΟ
2 78 73
AMO
241
196
285
100
422
I 2
Longdendale, near Mottram
4
70
20
Blackburn
4
280
20
Chorley
I
60
20
Bollington, near Macclesfield
I
80
17
Glossop-dale
7
187
Manchester
12
395
Oldham
3
60
Total Horse Power
:
7,507
From the preceding Table it appears that 7,507 horses'
power will be erected, and, if possible, brought into opera-
414
APPENDIX.
1
tion in the cotton district of Lancashire in the course of
the next two years. One only doubt affects the limit of
the period when this power will be in full operation, and
this arises from the difficulty of supplying, in that time,
even with the utmost exertion of every mechanist in the
trade, the machinery which this prodigious force is intended
to move. The impossibility of accomplishing this will, in
the opinion of some of the most experienced manufacturers,
delay the period when this vast accession to the trade will be
in full employ.
وو
Within whatever period this power is brought into
complete activity, (calculating on an extensive average of
mills in different departments of the trade,) six "mill
hands at least will be required for every horse-power, or
the introduction of this power presupposes the employment
of 45,042
"mill hands" and if we take into account the
unemployed members of the families of "mill hands," as
well as mechanics, labourers, handicraftsmen, warehousemen,
dyers, calenderers, finishers, shopkeepers, &c. &c. &c., in fact
the whole population necessary to complete the social fabric
of which these 45,042 "mill hands” will form a part, we
must add an equal number.
This steam power will, therefore, place in immediate
relation with itself a population of 90,084.
The outlay in buildings and machinery necessary to
bring this horse-power into operation may be safely esti-
mated at £500 per horse-power, without taking into account
the capital necessarily employed in trading transactions in
connection with the power; or, in other words, the erection
of this power presupposes an outlay of £3,753,500 in build-
ings and machinery, and which outlay we have shown will
occur in the cotton district of Lancashire within two years.
END OF VOL. I.
Plan of Cnell's Cotton Richey cartid after designs by W. Fairburn, Esq. Manchester.
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