- Y. :::::::Az tº:---- ºf r?... * of THE • *l tº º wº º º ºN | | | !!! WA § T.:º # *# ; W! !!! | | |||| ||||| | I ſº ‘. . * * : - -*. ~ - ºr ºf ''Wiſ º.º.º. º. 9, § ". . . . . . . .3, J. V ºf 92 ºf P. J.A .2 •' it.' ... º.º. : * - º: *::::::: § Sillſ||||||||||IIII ſ - º e as as º ºs e º zººs as as ºn as a zºº as a ſº a º ºs e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = e s = e = * - see e s = e = * º fººt titulatitullutilininitianitrilizintinuituititutilitullultilitiințiunililullûllulºllinºiſ f Transportation Library -T-6, 1 T4 , A Q S a 5. COLONEL GEORGE WASHINGTON GOETHALS, THE BUILDER OF THE PANAMA CANAL, Who might be classed as the most absolute despot on earth, although a benevolent one, and the squarest boss a man ever worked for. He is a thorough engineer, a righteous judge, and a stern executioner rolled into one. He realizes that man is but human, and for simple infractions of the rules, is always ready to give the offender another chance, but there will be no second time. A man of prodigious memory, quick to grasp details be they trivial affairs of every day life, or questions of moment; an ear for every one, and the friend of all. The American Nation owes much to the men who rendered yeoman service on the Isthmus; they cannot be too highly re- warded. It owes much to that peerless leader, George Washington Goethals, who, for over six long years has kept the goal steadily in sight, who has never, for a single instant, permitted his de- termination to waver, who has fought inch by inch until every obstacle has been overcome, and who, through his forceful personality and sense of justice, has compelled the admiration of every- one with whom he has come in contact. Col. Goethals was made a Major-General March 4, 1915. THE GREATEST ENGINEERING FEAT IN THE WORLD PANAMA a" Authentic and Complete Story of the Building and Operation of the Great Waterway—the Eighth Wonder of the World. With a Graphic Description of the Panama - Pacific International Exposition the Official Celebration of the Completion of America's Triumph at Panama, the Gigantic Undertaking Successfully Carried Out under the Supervision of ººº. - # *, *.x: ; : COL. GEORGE W. GOETHALs, A S.A. ºs - iſ, - . ; : “. . * \ By R ALPH EMMETT AVERY TRAVELER, AUTHOR AND LECTURER Edited by WILLIAM C. HASKINS of THE CANAL RECORD à • e º ºs —e—o-º-º-º- e & CT&T’s Profusely Illustrated With Photographs in Half-tone and Color. LESLIE - JUDGE COMPANY NEW YORK - Special Revised and Enlarged Edition Copyright, 1915, by Ralph E. Avery copyRIGHT, McMXIII, EY RALPH. E. AVERY DEDICATED TO THE MEN OF BRAIN AND BRAwN OF OUR Country, WHose MATCHLESS SKILL AND INSPIRING CourAGE MADE THE DREAM OF AGES A REALITY IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMA CANAL SUNRISE, SUNSET AND MOONLIGHT SCENES ON PANAMA BAY. During February and March the moon is particularly bright, due to the clear atmosphere which prevails in the height of the dry season. On certain brilliant evenings it is possible to read in the moonlight. The cloud effects are perfect and the rainbows magnificent. One of the prettiest effects, which happens but rarely, is a rainbow at night. FOREWORD FilHE eighth wonder of the world, the crowning | #| achievement of man's greatest undertaking is the construction of the Panama Canal by the Government of the United States. Doubtless for centuries to come the world-wonders of the Panama Canal will be told in story and in picture, but the eloquence of the theme itself will never be ex- hausted while reverence for mighty deeds finds lodg- ment in the hearts of men. --- Recognizing as much as one man could the magni- tude and importance of the work being performed on the Isthmus, the Author for almost two years dwelt among the activities of this gigantic enterprise, and in these pages authentically presents to the reader his chronicles of the step-by-step progress of the construc- tion from beginning to completion, as well as the suc- cessful installation of the world’s majestic waterway from ocean to ocean. The successful opening on February 20, 1915, of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, in celebration of the completion of the world’s most stupendous achievement—the Panama Canal—has called for and received in this work a graphically writ- ten and illustrated detailed account of this great con- temporaneous event. Clothed as it is in a beauty of typography and art illustrations in keeping with the grandeur of the subject it treats, the publishers feel assured of the book's cordial reception on the part of an appreciating public. we taken much pleasure in looking over and ng your handsomely illustrated book giving the "THE GREATEST ENGINEERING FEAT IN THE WORLD AT The Panama Canal is indeed the greatest engineer- ing work of modern times and is of tremendous interest to - - the American people on account of it's commercial and military value . . . . - - . . . . Commercially, it shortens the voyage between the eastern and western coasts of our own country and brings us in nearer contact with South America. This will have a tendency to bind the two continents, North and South America, into closer commercial relations. . - - . . . For the world at large, it will establish a new : . trade route for all countries and, make the Caribbean Sea a | new Mediterranean . . . . . . . . - - | - From the naval standpoint, it will prove to be a great means of National Defense to us because it will prac- tically double the efficiency of our fleet. - - The history of such an important undertaking should i loe familiar to every American, both young and old, and I ; would commend the attractive and condensed form in which you - have placed the large amount of information in your illus- trated book as well worthy of favorable consideration by the public . # * " . March 27th 1915. : ; } | - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; FROM CONGRESSMAN GEORGE EDMUND FOSS, FORMERLY CHAIRMAN OF THE NAVAL COMMIT. TEE IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, U.S.A. CONTENTs EOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT Early Discoverers—The First Settlement—Discovery of the South Sea—Balboa's Unfortunate End—Settlement of Old Panama—Spain's Power Spreads—Period of the Great Trade—The Scotch Bubble. CHAPTER II. RAIDS OF THE BUCCANEERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Drake's Expedition—Fall of Old Panama–Other Attempts. CHAPTER III. PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES Tehuantepec-Atrato River and Tributaries—Calidonia—San Blas—Nicaragua–Panama. CHAPTER IV. THE PANAMA RAILROAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 First Work on the Panama Railroad—Completion of the Enterprise—Early Rates Nearly Prohibitive— Establishment of Steam Ship Service—Concessionary Rights and Privileges—Changes in Ownership—The New Main Line—Busiest Short Line in the World. CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH FAILURE.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 DeLesseps, Promoter—Procuring the Concession—DeLesseps’ Plan—Inaugurating the Work—French Labor Force—LaFolie Dingler—The Sick Poorly Cared for—The Crash—The Second or New Company—French Aid to American Project. CHAPTER VI. THE AMERICAN TRIUMPH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Organization of the Canal Commission—Taking Possession, Change in Chief Engineer—The New Com- mission—Commission Again Reorganized—The Purchasing End. CHAPTER VII. MAKING THE ISTHMUS HEALTHFUL . . . . . 80 The Fight on the Mosquito–Cleaning House—Results Have Justified the Cost—Rigid Quarantine Maintained. CHAPTER VIII. AN ARMY OF WORKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Getting the Force Together—Keeping the American Employes Contented—Plant—Monthly Cost of Allow- ances—Feeding and Clothing the Canal Army—The Canal Zone—The Postal Service—Postal Savings Bank, a Popular Institution—Zone Customs Service—The Zone “Dry”—Keeping Order—Guarding Against Fires— Educational Facilities—The Law Department—Paying the Canal Force—Accounts—No Graft. CHAPTER IX. CONSTRUCTING THE LOCK TYPE CANAL... I35 The Canal a Water Bridge—The Dam at Gatun—Gatun Spillway—Gatun Lake—Dams on the Pacific Side.— The Locks—Guards Against Accidents—How the Locks Were Built—Making the Dirt Fly–Dredging—Cutting Through the Divide—Across the Isthmus in a Hydrobiplane—70,000,000 Pounds of Dynamite—Slides, Eloquent Argument Against Sea Level Project. CHAPTER X. AUXILIARY PLANS AND PROJECTS.. . . . . . . . . . 913 Acquisiton of Private Lands—Tolls—Protecting the Canal—Fort Grant Military Reservation—Fort Amador Military Reservation—Fort Sherman Military Reservation—Fort Randolph Military Reservation—Fort De Lesseps Military Reservation—Breakwaters—Lighting the Canal–Port Facilities—Dry Docks—Permanent Repair Shops—Government Coal and Fuel Oil Business—Private Coal and Fuel Oil Storage—Bonded Warehouses—New Floating Equipment—Permanent Villages and Buildings—Permanent Organization—Wire- less Communication—Beautifying the Canal–Permanent Administration Building, Balboa—Cost of the Canal. &Harter XI. FUTURE CANAL TRAFFIC 247 & s e e < e < e < e < * * * * * * * * * CONTENTS – (Continued) PAGE CHAPTER XII. REPUBLIC OF PANAMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 The Panama Flag—National Hymn of the Republic of Panama—The Reconstruction Period—“The Land of the Cocoanut Tree”—Government is Progressive—Revenues—National Currency—Public Improvements—Free Public School System—Panama Richly Endowed by Nature—The People—The Indians of Panama—The Guaymies—The Chocoes—Ancient Civilization of Chiriqui–Sightseeing—Bathing—Panama Hats—Canal Zone Souvenir Stones—The Panama Lottery—Panama to Hold National Exposition. CHAPTER XIII. THE LAND DIVIDED THE WORLD UNITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13 Destruction of the Dikes—Letting Water Into Culebra Cut—“Gamboa is Busted”—Gatun Locks, the First in Actual Operation—The First Practical Lockage—First Lockage at Pacific End—From the Sea to Culebra Cut—Earthquakes—Making a Passage Through Cucaracha Slide—Secretary Garrison's Visit—The Official Opening—First Boat Through the Canal. CHAPTER XIV. THE MONUMENTAL TASK COMPLETED 336 CHAPTER XV. PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION. . . . 343 CHAPTER XVI. PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION . . . . . , - e > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 347 ILLUSTRATIONS IN FOUR COLORS Colonel George Washington Goethals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facing Title Page The Famous Flat Arch in the Ruins of Santo Domingo Church, Panama City ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One of the Driveways in Ancon Hospital Grounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culebra Cut, Looking North From Gold and Contractor’s Hills. . . . . . . . . One of the Great Locks of the Canal Under Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Typical Street in the Native Village at Chorrera, Panama. . . . . . . . . . . . A Group of Cuna Cuna Indians, Panama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tug Gatun, First Boat Passing Through Gatun Locks, Sept. 26, 1913. . . . Map of the Canal and the Canal Zone and Interesting Facts and Figures. . . S. - y . . - - nº- J U U. - - - - - V_ - º : TsūHE history of the Panama Canal begins with the search for a western | waterway to the Indies, and for fame and gold, by those hardy adventurers who followed in the wake of Columbus. These men, fresh from the Moorish wars, and equipped for a struggle with Italy which did not come to pass, looked for new fields to conquer. Nothing suited them better than the discovery of a New World peopled by heathens waiting to be converted by the sword to the Christian faith, after their gold, of which they seemed to have plenty, was stripped from them to fill the empty coffers of Spain. - ºl. search by the followers of Columbus was fairly successful, so far as fame and gold were concerned and, although no direct water route was found to the Indies to the west, it naturally led to the settlement of the Isthmus of Panama, the narrow strip of land separating the two great oceans and forming the connecting link between North and South America. The establishment of settlements on both coasts and the short distance between them, led to the building of crude roads and trails for the early mule trains. These trails led to the construction of a railroad, and the railroad to a ship canal, for trade follows settlers, and water is the natural highway between nations. The story of the Isthmus is, therefore, in a measure, the evolution of transportation routes. EARLY DISCOVERERS The first European to sail along the coast of Panama was Rodrigo de Bastidas, who sailed from Cadiz in October, 1500, and first touched the continent near the island of Trinidad, and from there went west as far as Nombre de Dios. With him on that voyage was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who, later, was to discover the great South Sea, and Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus on his second voyage and was considered one of the most able mariners of his day. Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his fourth and last voyage in search of a passageway to the Indies in May, 1502. On this voyage he skirted the shores of Honduras and Costa Rica, to Almirante Bay and Chiriqui Lagoon on the coast of Panama. At the latter place he was told by the Indians that, if he | 9 | STHE DAND JOIVIDED --THE WORLD, UNITED would continue his course to the east, he would soon come to a narrow place between the two seas, and this led him to believe that his search for a strait was nearing success; that he would soon pass into the Indian Ocean and thence around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, surpassing the achievement of Vasco de Gama, the Portuguese, who had already sailed around Africa (1497- 1498) in his search for a water route to the Indies. Columbus continued on his way and |. the site of the present city of Colon at the Atlantic entrance to the Canal, and on November 2, 1502, arrived at a harbor 18 miles northeast, which he named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. He stayed there a week stormbound, and then continued on past Nombre de Dios, thus overlapping the voyage of Bastidas. He gave u his unsuccessful search for a strait eventually, and took to the more prac- tical work of hunting for gold. His attempt to found a colony at the mouth of the Rio Belen, southwest of Colon, failed, and on May 1, 1503, he sailed from the shores of the Isthmus. He died on May 20, 1506, still believing that he had discovered the eastern shores of Asia. This belief was shared by all the early voyagers until the dis- covery of the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Statue of Columbus and Indian Girl. Pre- sented to General Mosquera of Colombia in 1868, by the Empress Eugenie, and afterwards turned over to Count DeLesseps. Now occu- pies a commanding position on Cristobal Point. After the unsuccessful attempt of Columbus to found a settlement in Castilla del Oro (Golden Castile), as the Isthmus was termed, two colonizers were sent out by King Ferdinand. One of these, Diego de Nicuesa, a Spanish nobleman, more fitted for the court than for a command in the wilderness, was given control of all the land between Cape Gracias ā Dios, Nicaragua, and the Gulf of Urabá, or Darien, the eastern limit of the present Republic of Panama. The other was Alonso de Ojeda, who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage, and in addition had made two trips to the continent independently. Ojeda was placed in charge of the land east and south of the Gulf of Urabá called Nueva Andalucía. Both of these expeditions outfitted and sailed from Santo Domingo in November, 1509. Associated with Ojeda were Juan de la Cosa, as lieutenant in the future government, and a lawyer named Bachelleer Enciso, who furnished most of the money to equip the expedition. It was arranged that Enciso should remain at Santo Domingo to collect recruits and supplies, procure another ship, and join Ojeda later at the proposed colony. Ojeda landed near the present city of Cartagena, Colombia, founded in 1531. Here he attacked and overcame the Indians with a part of his force, THE FIRST SETTLEMENT | 10 | CTHE DAND J)IVIDED --THE WORLD, UNITED but in following up his victory, his men became scattered, and all those who had landed were killed, with the exception of himself and one other. Among the killed was the veteran Juan de la Cosa. Ojeda then entered the Gulf of Urabá and founded the town of San Sebastian on the eastern shore, but was soon compelled to return to Santo Domingo to obtain men and supplies. He left the new colony in charge of his lieutenant, Francisco Pizarro, famous in his- tory as the conqueror and despoiler of Peru, with the understanding that if he did not return within 50 days the colonists should decide among themselves the best course to follow. He finally reached Santo Domingo, after suffering ship- wreck and many hardships on the island of Cuba, and found that Enciso had departed long before with abundant supplies for the colony, but he was unable to recruit another force to follow. Pizarro and his men, suffering for lack of food, waited anxiously and in vain for the return of Ojeda, and then abandoned the colony and sailed for Cartagena. Here they found Enciso with reinforcements and provisions. With Enciso was a stowaway in the person of Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. Enciso insisted on Pizarro and his men returning with him to San Sebastian. On their arrival, they found the settlement destroyed by Indians. They were without food, and at the suggestion of Balboa, who had sailed along these shores with Bastidas, they crossed the Gulf of Urabá, where it was reported the Indians were less warlike and provisions could be obtained. It was necessary, however, for them to defeat a |. of Indians under a powerful chief named Cemaco, who disputed their landing, but they obtained the much needed supplies, and founded the settlement of Santa Maria de la Antigua, the first on the Isthmus. They were now in the territory which had been assigned by the King to Nicuesa and, consequently, had no right there. The ambitious Balboa took advantage - - - - ºn º, , s , , , , "Tº Tº ºil *A. | - W. sº º Columbus Island where Christopher Columbus stopped to repair and scrape the bottom of his ships before proceeding on to Spain. | | | | CTHE LAND JOIVIDED --THE WOI2LP, UNITED of this circumstance and the fact that Enciso was disliked by his men, for the reason that he allowed no private trading with the Indians, to depose him, and asked Nicuesa to come and take charge of the colony. November 2, 1502, Columbus arrived at this harbor, 18 miles northeast of Colon, which he named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. Rock for the concrete used in the locks at Gatun was obtained at this point. Nicuesa had already sailed from Santo Domingo, taking along with him about 700 colonists. During the voyage, a terrific storm arose, wrecking some of his ships and causing the loss of 400 lives. In the tempest the ships became separated; some of them reached the coast at the mouth of the Belen River, and others the mouth of the Chagres River. After collecting his men, Nicuesa left the Belen River, and after doubling Manzanillo Point shortly landed, saying: “We will remain here in the name of God.” This was the site of the town of Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. During American canal times, the sand for the concrete in Gatun Locks was obtained here, and in 1910 and 1911, the sand dredge cut through the hulks of two old ships, believed to be relics of the days of Nicuesa. The dredge pumps also drew up bullets and other small articles. Nicuesa's situation was desperate, as he was without arms or provisions, but fortunately there arrived shortly his lieutenant Colmenares, who brought supplies, as well as information concerning the new settlement at Antigua. Nicuesa declared his intention of going there and taking all the gold found by Ojeda's men as rightfully belonging to him. News of his intention reached Antigua before he did and, on his arrival, he was met by an armed mob, secretly urged on by Balboa, which cast him adrift in a leaky brigantine along with 17 followers who had remained faithful to him. They were never heard of again. Of the two expeditions, one was now left at Antigua, and of the two men sent by the King of Spain to colonize the mainland, both were gone. Balboa the stowaway ruled in Darien, March 1, 1511. DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH SEA The first move Balboa made on finding himself in charge of the colony was to secure his position by persuading Enciso and those who had led the mob in | 12 | STHE DAND DIVIDED ~~THE WOPLºP, UNITED the attack on Nicuesa to return to Spain. Knowing that they would immedi- ately go to the King and ask that he be dispossessed, he started in to obtain the gold which he knew the King thought more of than all else, and to make new discoveries which would help his cause. The gold he obtained from the Indian chiefs of the Darien. It was made the price of peace, and Balboa showed his shrewdness by making allies of the Indians after he had obtained their treasure. Such an alliance he made with Careta, the cacique of Coyba, who after his village had been sacked by the Spaniards, left with Balboa one of his daughters as a hostage. Balboa accepted the Indian maiden, of whom he became very fond and, although they were never married according to the Christian rites, she considered herself his wife. Balboa started from Antigua on September 6, 1513, to cross the Isthmus and find the great sea to the south, of which the Indians, knowing the cupidity of the Spaniards, had told him glowing tales of the riches of the great race of people which inhabited its shores. Fighting the different tribes which he met on the way, subduing and making friends with them, on September 25, he reached a hill in Darien from which it was said the South Sea could be seen. Halting his men, Balboa made the ascent alone, and was the first European to gaze upon this heretofore unknown ocean. Six days later, September 29, 1513, four hundred years ago, he waded into the ocean and took possession in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. This was in the Gulf of San Miguel, so named for the reason that it was discovered on St. Michael's Day. He also performed a similar ceremony when he reached a point of land at the entrance to the gulf. Balboa subdued the local Indian chiefs, who gave him presents of gold and also many pearls from the Pearl Islands a few miles off the shore, and confirmed the rumors of a powerful and rich nation to the south. The Pearl Islands, so - - - - - - - - - - º - - - - - - - A family of Indians, Darien, | 13 | STHE DAND JDIVIDED -CºIHE WORLD, UNITED named by Balboa, could be plainly seen, but he did not visit them at that time on account of the roughness of the sea and the frailty of the available Indian canoes. He named the largest of the islands, Isla Rica, which is now known as San Miguel, or Rey Island. Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. Sand was obtained here for the cement used in the Gatun Locks. Balboa returned triumphant to Antigua after an absence of about four months. His messenger |. of his great discovery did not reach the King, unfortunately, until after that monarch, listening to Enciso's complaints, had sent out a new governor to take charge of the colony. BALBoA's UNFORTUNATE END The new governor was named Pedro Arias de Avila, commonly called “Pedrarias the Cruel,” which nickname he won in the New World by his method of extorting gold from the Indians. With Pedrarias was Hernando de Soto, who was later to discover the Mississippi River, and Diego de Almagro, who was to become the partner of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. Unlike Balboa, Pedrarias did not try to make friends with the Indians, but in many instances repaid the hospitality which they extended to him as a friend of Balboa with the utmost treachery, destroying their villages, killing women and children, and selling those who survived into slavery. He undid what Balboa had been in a fair way of accomplishing, that is, the settlement of Darien, for the In- dians were everywhere aroused and repaid cruelty with cruelty as often as an opportunity was presented. Pedrarias strove to establish a line of posts for communication between the two oceans in accord- - - - - - ance with the ideas of Balboa, but Shrines are common along the waysides and at without success. The first of these the entrance to villages, but this one has been was located on the Atlantic coast placed in a hollow tree. The photographer dis- - covered it near Gorgona. p at a place named Santa Cruz. | | 4 | at HE LAND DIVIDED ~~THE woplºp UNITED In the meantime, the King had recognized Balboa's discovery with a commission as Adelantado of the South Seas and Viceroy of the Pacific coast, an empty title, as he was subject to the orders of Pedrarias. Pedrarias, jealous of Balboa's achievement, held up this commission and kept Balboa fighting for his liberty in the court of Antigua on trumped up charges. Finally Balboa made an alliance with Pedrarias by promising to marry one of his daughters, who was at that time in Spain, and went a few miles up the coast to a place called Acla, between Antigua and Santa Cruz, where he established a settlement and had timbers cut and shaped which could be readily built into ships with which to explore the new sea which he had discovered. These timbers were carried across the Isthmus by Indian slaves and were set up in San Miguel Bay. While at the Pearl Islands, from where he made several short cruises, Balboa heard of the coming of a new governor to supersede Pedrarias. Think- ing this governor might be hostile to his plans, he sent messengers to Antigua to see whether or not he had arrived. If he had, he instructed the messengers to return without allowing their presence to become known, and he would then leave on his voyage of discovery before orders for his recall could be delivered. His messengers went to Antigua and found Pedrarias still in charge, for the new governor had died on his arrival. One of them, however, A wayside cross, or shrine. Some of these are very old. told Pedrarias that Balboa was contemplating treachery and the founding of an independent colony on the Pacific coast. The bitterness and jealousy Village of San Miguel on Rey Island, one of the larger of the Pearl Island Group. | 15 | STHE DAND JDIVIDED --THE WOI2LP, UNITED of Pedrarias for Balboa again came to life, and he sent Francisco Pizarro, who was later to finish the work Balboa had planned to do, to bring him back to Acla. At Acla, Balboa was given a mockery of a trial for treason, and was beheaded with four companions in the latter part of 1517. Second only to the discovery of the South Sea was the demonstration of the practicability of an Isthmian transit. SETTLEMENT OF OLD PANAMA Pedrarias seeing the advantage of a settlement on the new ocean as an outfitting station for future exploring expeditions, crossed the Isthmus and, on August 15, 1519, founded Panama, situated about five miles east from the new city. The name “Panama” is supposed to have come from an Indian word meaning a place abounding in fish, and tradition relates that the town was built on the site of an Indian fishing village. In the same year the Atlantic port was transferred to Nombre de Dios, directly north of old Panama, and a few years later Antigua and Acla were abandoned to the Indians. | | Some of the interior villages have no jails stout enough to hold a prisoner, so the stocks are resorted to. On September 15, 1521, the settlement at Panama was made a city by royal decree, and the first bishopric in the Americas was removed there from Antigua. The new governor sent out, opportunely for Pedrarias, died on his arrival, as did several others who ..." and Pedrarias ruled until the arrival of Pedros de los Rios, who took charge on July 30, 1526. Before his arrival, Pedrarias took refuge in Nicaragua where he had already established a settle- ment. - SPAIN S POWER SPREADS Following this period in Isthmian history many parties set out inland to explore the country, and outposts were located in the provinces of Chiriqui and Veraguas. These explorations were made in accordance with the desires of Charles V, who took a great interest in the exploration of the South Sea and the discovery of a strait connecting it with the Atlantic Ocean. After he came to the throne of Spain in 1516, he charged the governors of his American colonies to examine the coast line from Darien to Mexico for a possible waterway. In accordance with this policy, Gil Gonzales de Avila was sent out from | 16 | CTHE DAND JDIVIDED ~CIHE WOI2]2P, UNITED Spain in 1521, with instructions to make a search along the coast for the western opening of a strait. Gonzales dismantled and transported his ships across the Isthmus and rebuilt them on the Pacific side. In January, 1522, he sailed from Panama bay and went as far as the Bay of Fonseca, where he landed and discovered Lake Nicaragua. On this voyage Gonzales met men sent out on similar service by Cortez, who, later, established a transit route across the Isth- mus of Tehuantepec in Mexico, following pretty closely the present railroad. This route was started in much the same manner as the one across Darien, through the necessity of transporting suitable lumber from the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus to build ships with which to explore the Pacific coast. When Pedrarias learned of the discovery of Lake Nicaragua, he immediately laid claim to it, and as the country was rich in gold, established a city at Granada Old Fort at Porto Bello. near the shores of the lake after subduing the Indians. In 1529, Captain Diego Machuca thoroughly explored the lake and discovered its eastern outlet, the San Juan River. Sailing down this stream he finally reached the Atlantic Ocean, and sailed along the coast until he arrived at Nombre de Dios, thus opening up another route across the American Isthmus. The first extensive explorations to the south were the voyages of Pizarro and Almagro in 1524, which ended in the conquest of Peru. In 1527, an expedition sailed up the Rio Grande, carried their canoes across the divide at Culebra to a tributary of the Chagres, down which they sailed to its mouth, thus going over the present Canal route. PERIOD OF THE GREAT TRADE Permanent settlements were now located at Nombre de Dios and at Panama, and between these two points was established a paved trail or “royal | 17 | CTHE DAND JDIVIDED ~ - To the right of this picture is shown a gauging station, one of three maintained on the river. Accurate records are kept of the river stages as well as of the rain fall. The Isthmus has two seasons; wet and dry. The greatest recorded rain fall on the Isthmus for 24 hours is 10.86 inches; for one hour 5.86 inches and for 3 minutes 2.46 inches. The small picture above shows the river during one of the floods. | 1.47 | Excavating for lock site, Miraflores. Millions of cubic yards of material had to be excavated before the locks were built. [ 148 | at HE LAND DIVIDED ~~THE woºl D, UNITED The swift moving river, the brilliant tropic foliage, and the towering cliffs, all tend to belie the Isthmian poet Gilbert's lines that: “Beyond the Chagres River But 'tis my firm conviction, 'Tis said (the story's old), Whate'er the tales they tell, Are paths that lead to mountains That beyond the Chagres River, Of purest virgin gold; All paths lead straight to hell.” The Chagres has two principal branches, one (the larger), known as the Pequeni, rising in the San Blas mountains, very close to the Atlantic coast, and It was necessary to go 17 miles along the Atlantic coast to get the proper grade of rock for the concrete used in Gatun locks. Large rock for the Colon breakwater was also obtained here. This shows the rock quarry, crushing plant, and the American settlement established there on account of quarry operations. The crushed rock was loaded in barges and towed to Gatun. Sand for the concrete used at Gatun locks was obtained at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles along the coast from Colon, and was also towed to Gatun in barges. Porto Bello, signifying “Beautiful Port,” is the best haven on the Atlantic Coast of Panama. the other the Indio River. Between Bas Obispo and Gatun, it has 26 branches, the largest of which are the Gatun and Trinidad rivers. In the dry season these tributaries may be regarded as negligible, but during the rainy months they, like the main river, become tropic torrents, with a volume not to be ignored. However, such floods or freshets, which are of frequent occurrence in the rainy season, would have but slight apparent effect on the lake, for it would take the greatest known flood of the Chagres nine hours to raise the level of the lake one foot. The smallest run-off of water in the basin during the past 22 years, as [ 149 | at HE LAND Divided –ative woºl D UNITED measured at Gatun, was that of the fiscal year 1912, which was about 132 billion cubic feet. In 1910, the run-off was 360 billion cubic feet, or a sufficient quantity to fill the lake one and a half times. The rainy season is from May to December, and during that time showers are of frequent occurrence. The average yearly rainfall on the Atlantic coast at Cristobal during 40 years of record, has been about 118 inches and at Porto Bello during four years' record, about 149 inches; at Culebra, during 20 years of record, about 83 inches, and at Ancon on the Pacific coast during a period of 13 years, about 66 inches. The maximum rainfall for 24 hours was 10.86 inches; for one hour 5.86 inches, and for three minutes, 2.46 inches. DAMS ON THE PACIFIC SIDE Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks occupy the ancient valley of the Rio Grande. Here it was necessary to construct two small earth dams, one on the The concrete operations at Gatun locks required modern handling machinery. These are the unloading cableways at Gatun docks. Rock and sand are picked up from the barges by clamshell buckets and conveyed to storage piles. west side of Pedro Miguel lock, about 1,700 feet long and 105 feet high at its crest; and the other, west of Miraflores locks, about 2,700 feet long, and 70 feet high at its crest. The Miraflores barrier consists of earth and rock toes, with an impervious core fill, and dams the Cocoli River, forming Cocoli Lake, now a part of Panama’s water supply system. To the east, both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks approach close to the hills, so it was only necessary to join locks and hills by concrete walls. THE LOCKS Under the original plans, the flight of two locks at Miraflores was to have been located at Sosa Hill near the Pacific entrance. The change was made upon the recommendation of the Isthmian Canal Commission, approved on December 20, 1907, by the President, because suitable lock and dam founda- tions could not be found. In addition, the site at Miraflores is six miles [ 150 | | --> * - - L- --> ==s, ºlº --~~~~ º º º - - - º =s … Zºº, is cºst sº !"º | º Sand bins and unloading cranes at Balboa. Sand for the concrete used in the Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was obtained from Punta Chame, about 25 miles along the Pacific coast from Balboa. It was towed to Balboa in barges, lifted into the bins by the unloading cranes and when needed was dumped from the bins into cars and hauled to the lock storage piles. Ancon rock crusher plant and quarry, between Panama City and Balboa, where the crushed rock was obtained for the concrete used in the Pacific locks. The side of the hill has been literally eaten away to secure the large amount of rock required. | 151 | | Tºº' -- ºil- - A general view of the main concrete mixing plant at Gatun Locks, which houses a battery of eight 2-cubic yard mixers. Rock and sand were carried to the mixers by an electric railroad running underground to a point beneath the storage piles. The finished product was carried to the lock site by a surface electric railroad. A closer view of the same plant, which has produced as high as 3,434 cubic yards of concrete in a day of 12 hours, working 6-hour shifts. [ 152 | CTHE DAND JOIVIDED --THE WORLD, UNITED inland behind hills which will effectively protect them from the fire of a hostile fleet. The locks under the original plans were to have a usable length of 900 feet, width of 95 feet, and a depth over the gate sills of 413 feet. These dimensions were increased on January 15, 1908, in compliance with the wishes of the Navy Department, to a usable length of 1,000 feet and a width of 110 feet in order to allow the passage of larger battleships at that time contemplated. The height of the lock walls is about the same as that of a six-story building. The largest of the present-day ships, the Imperator, 919 feet long, can be locked through the canal. However, most of the ships that will use the Isthmian trade route, or 47. º --- Zºº Aº | º º Uº §l º Z % º º º ſº º º ſº Zºº - Eight of these cableways, four on each bank, were used to place the concrete in the lock walls. They consisted of steel towers, 85 feet high, operating on their own tracks, and supported cables, which carried the concrete buckets back and forth. that are likely to use it for many years to come, are less than 600 feet long. In fact, 95 per cent of the vessels navigating the high seas are less than 600 feet long. For this reason, each lock is divided by intermediate gates into two chambers 400 and 600 feet long, respectively. This does not mean that the full length of 1,000 feet cannot be used if necessary, but with this division a ºf in both water and time can be made in the locking of small ships. here are six double locks in the Canal, three flights of twin locks on each side of the Isthmus to lift ships from sea level to the lake level, and vice versa. They are made in pairs, in order that ships can be locked both up and down at the same time, and, in case of accident to one set, there will be no delay to traffic as the duplicate flight can be used. The usable dimensions of all are the same. Each lock is a concrete chamber with steel mitering gates at each end, and with the gates closed, ships are raised and lowered by simply admitting or withdraw- ing water. The ". walls are 45 to 50 feet wide at the surface of the floor, | 153 | This view shows the dumping of concrete at Gatun Locks. Every move of the bucket is at the will of the man stationed in the cableway tower, who, in dumping, follows the signals of the man supervising the operation. As fast as the concrete is deposited, men, standing knee deep in the mixture, spread it out evenly. [ 154 | GTHE DAND JDIVIDED —at AE woºp UNITED perpendicular to the face, and narrow from a point 24 feet above the floor until they are eight feet wide at the top. The center walls are 60 feet wide, approximately 81 feet high, and each face is vertical. In the six pairs of locks there have been placed approximately 4,500,000 cubic yards of concrete, re- quiring about the same number of barrels of cement. In the center wall of each set of locks, 42% feet above the floor, there is a space 19 feet wide at the bottom and 44 feet wide at the top in which there is a tunnel divided into three galleries. The lowest gallery is for drainage; the middle, for the wires for the electric current to operate the lock machinery Sunday scene on south approach wall at Gatun Locks. In order to finish a piece of work within a given time, it was frequently necessary to work the men the full seven days. installed in the center wall, and the upper is a passageway for the operators. To fill and empty the locks there are culverts extending the entire length of the center and side walls. These culverts are 18 feet in diameter and are large enough to permit the passage of a railroad train. From these large culverts there are several smaller culverts, 33 to 44 square feet in area, which extend laterally under the floor of the locks and open into them through wells. These smaller culverts would permit of the passage of a two-horse cart. The water is conveyed from the lake level through the large culverts, and thence through the small lateral culverts to the lock chamber, thus insuring an even distribution of the water over the entire area of the chamber. This reduces the disturbance when the lock is being filled or emptied, so that ships are lifted or lowered without undergoing any strain or . pitching. The flow of water through the culverts is controlled by valves. The large culvert in the center wall com- municates with the chamber of each of the twin locks, so that water may be passed from one lock to the other of the pair, thereby effecting a saving. The average time required to fill and empty a lock is about 15 minutes, and the time | 155 | The beginning of concrete work at Gatun Locks. Laying the floor and installing the lateral culverts. The circular holes in the floor are to admit the water to the locks, and to empty them. The floor varies in thickness from 13 to 20 feet of solid concrete, according to the character of material underlying it, and is anchored by steel rail to a depth of 10 feet. Installing the cylindrical valves for the control of the flow of water in and out of the locks. The water control system of the locks consists of rising stem or Stony gate valves, and cylindrical valves. The rising stem valves govern the flow of water in the side wall culverts, and the cylindrical valves govern the flow of water in the center wall culverts. [ 156 | CTHE LAND LIVIDED --THE WOPLºP, UNITED of passage of a vessel through the entire canal ranges from 10 to 12 hours, according to the size of the ship, and the rate of speed at which it can travel. The lock gates are of the miter type, built of steel frame covered with steel plate, 65 feet long and from 47 to 82 feet high, according to their position in the |. In all there are 41 gates of two leaves each. These gates weigh from 390 to 730 tons each, and, in order to reduce this weight as much as possible from the bearings and hinges upon which they swing, they are divided hori- zontally into two separate compartments. The lower compartment is water- tight, sufficiently buoyant to practically float in the water. The upper half, however, has an opening and, as the water rises in the chamber it flows into the upper half and adds sufficiently to the weight of the gate to offset the increased pressure of the water in the lock chamber. The machinery for opening and closing the gates, operated by electricity, was invented by Mr. Edward Schildhauer, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer of the canal commission. It consists of a large “bull” wheel, mounted in a horizontal position on the lock wall, to the rim of which is fastened a steel strut or arm; this arm is also attached to the top of each gate leaf. The wheel rotates through an are of 197 degrees, and closes or opens the gate leaf, according to the direction in which it is turned. This operation can be performed in two minutes, and it is similar to the action of a person who reaches out an arm to open or close a door. - GUARDS AGAINST ACCIDENTS To guard against accident, the gates at the entrances to all the locks and at the lower end of the upper lock in each flight are placed in pairs, thus eliminating the chances of a ship ramming the gate which is holding back the water of the level above. These guard gates miter outward to give them added power to resist any blow which might be given to them. They are also available for use in case the gates proper become damaged, or for any reason cannot be operated. º - -1 -- _ - = º_ _ _ - - º - . Zºº ºf , . F. - S. - . - - º - - º' - - - - - - - * . -- º - - - - - - º - Eººl - - - - - - - - º -- - - --~~~~ Steel forms in position for side and center wall construction. They are made of sheet steel, carried on movable towers and operated on tracks. Each tower and form weighs almost four and one-half million pounds. [ 157 | STHE DAND JDIVIDED -CºIHE WORLD, UNITED Ships will not be allowed to enter the locks under their own steam, but will be towed through by electric locomotives operating on the lock walls. A ship about to enter the locks will first come to a standstill alongside the approach walls where the towing locomotives, two on each wall, two forward and two aft, can attach their lines. Before the ship can enter a lock chamber it encounters a Method of constructing the 18-foot side wall culverts. Collapsible steel forms were used and after the concrete had set, were taken down in sections. fender chain which has been placed on the upstream side of all the gates of the upper locks, and in front of the guard gates at the lower end of each flight of locks, to prevent the gates from being rammed by a ship separated from the towing locomotives, or approaching the gates under its own steam. In opera- tion the chain is stretched across the lock chamber from the top of the opposing walls; when it is desired to allow a ship to pass, the chain is .." into a groove in the lock floor, and is raised again after the ship passes. It is worked by a hydraulically operated system of cylinders, and is capable of bringing to a stop a 10,000-ton ship, running at four knots an hour, within 73 feet, which is less than the distance between the chain and the gate. In case these precautions to prevent accident to the gates fail, or in case it should be necessary to make repairs which would necessitate the shutting off of all water from the lake levels, an emergency dam of the movable type has been º above each flight of locks. This dam is a steel truss bridge of the canti- ever type, pivoted on the side wall of the lock approach. When not in use it rests upon the side wall parallel to the channel. When required for use it is | 158 | The handling equipment used at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was entirely different from that at Gatun. At Pedro Miguel, Berm cranes, containing the mixing machinery, were stationed at the head of the lock, with arms extending on either side, from which grab buckets were lowered to pick up sand and rock, as the case might be. The finished product was carried by these trains into the lock chambers. Many of the old French locomotives were repaired and used for this work. [ 159 | - º a. º - sº Tº -- --~~~~ -" º - - - - - ºlº - º - º - º The Chamber cranes, shown here, lifted the buckets of cement from the train and transported them to the point desired. The method of dumping by the Chamber cranes is very similar to that of the Gatun cableways, the operation being controlled by a man stationed in the cage on the trolley arm. These cranes operated on tracks, were self-propelling, and were used to advantage also in handling heavy pieces of lock machinery. - - Zººs - ºr - - - - in Nº. - º " Kº - ºil º' Tº fºllº - tº - T - - - | ºf -º - *::::º. - º º º Nº. º: º _- ---. - Berm cranes at Miraflores Locks. With the completion of the heavy masonry work at Pedro Miguel, the cranes were moved to Miraflores Locks. The mixing cranes were slightly modified, and were stationed on the banks of the locks, instead of at the head, dumping directly into the side walls, while the chamber cranes were used solely for center wall construction. This method eliminated the necessity of concrete carrying trains to a large extent. [ 160 | GTHE DAND DIVIDED ~~THE WORLP, UNITED swung across the channel, with its end resting on the center wall of the lock. A series of wicket girders hinged to it are then lowered with their ends resting in pockets embedded in the lock floor. The action of these girders might be compared to the dropping of the times on a sulky rake, with the exception that the girders are hung on individual pivots. After these girders have been lowered into place, they afford runways for gates which are let down one at a time, closing the space between them. The first row of plates lowered close the channel to a height of 10 feet; another series of panels lowered brings this height to 20 feet, and so on until the channel is completely closed. With the main flow of water checked, the remainder, due to the clearance between the plates, is checked by driving steel pipes between the sides of the adjacent panels. - When it is desired to gain access in the dry to the sills of these emergency dams, or to repair the lower guard gates of the locks, and the gates of the spillway dam, floating caisson gates of the molded ship This gives an idea of the height of a type are available. When their use is side wall of the locks, as compared with required they are towed into position in ..º.º. Fº the forebay of the upper lock, above the standard size locomotive and train of cars, emergency dam, or between the piers of tºº ºn could travel the spillway, and sunk. They are equip- - - * ped with electric motor driven pumps for the purpose of pumping out the caissons and for unwatering the locks. - The gates, fender chains, emergency dams, towing locomotives, and cul- vert valves are operated by electricity, and all but the towing locomotives will be controlled by operators stationed in a control house on the center wall from which all parts of the locks can be seen. These houses are equipped with a double control board duplicated to conform to the duplication in locks. It contains a representation, part model and part diagrammatic of the flight of locks controlled by the respective series of switches. As the operator throws the switches he can see before him, in model or diagram, the progress of the fender chains, the movement of the gates, the opening and closing of the gate CROSS SECTION OF LOCK CHAMBERS AND WALLS OF LOCKS A—Passageway for Operators. E—These culverts run under the F-Walls opening from lateral B–Gallery for electric wires. lock floor and alternate with culverts into lock chamber. C–Drainage gallery. those from side walls. G–Culverts in sidewalls. D—Culvert in center walls. H–Lateral culverts. | 161 ) The upper picture shows the intakes in the walls where water is let in and out of the culverts. The center picture gives a view of Gatun locks under construction. In the lower picture the square concrete building in the distance is the control house from which all of the lock oper- ating machinery will be manipulated. | 162 | CTHE DAND JDIVIDED ~~THE WOI2]2P, UNITED valves, and the rise and fall of the water in the lock chambers. The system is interlocking so that certain motors can not be started in a certain direction until other motors are operated in a proper manner. HOW THE LOCKS WERE BUILT One of the most interesting sights to the canal visitor during the time construction work was in progress on the locks was the working of the concrete mixers and the cableways and cranes, now dismantled, which carried the ma- terial to the point where it was to be poured. At Gatun locks, where 2,043,763 cubic yards of concrete were placed, the assembling and the distribution of the material was done by means of industrial The first monolith completed at Gatun Locks early in 1910. These monoliths are huge blocks of concrete, which joined together, make a continuous wall almost a mile long. This is one of the outside walls, and the space has been filled in with earth and rock level with the top, where you now see the steps. | 163 ] - looking - --~~ º iſ ſº tº - - The upper picture shows a view looking north from Miraflores Locks. Pedro Miguel Lock in the distance, site of Miraflores Lake in between. Spillway to the right, temporary bridge for the gate contractors to the left of picture. The center picture shows a view looking south from the same lock, Ancon Hill in the distance. The lower picture presents a busy scene at the locks when the gates were under construction. | 164 | CTHE DAND JOIVIDED ~~THE WOI2LP, UNITED electric railways and overhead cableways. From the docks in Cristobal, the cement was carried in barges up the old French canal, which had been deepened for the purpose, to a cement storage dock at Gatun. Rock quarried and crushed at Porto Bello, about 17 miles east of Colon, and sand dredged at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles east of Colon, was towed in barges to Gatun docks. This material was unloaded by overhead cableways, upon which grab buckets were hung, and carried to storage piles. The material was then assembled in the mixers by cars operated under the cement shed and under the sand and rock storage piles. Another electric railway carried the buckets of concrete to the bank above the lock sites. At this point the full buckets were lifted from the cars by cableways stretched across the lock site and lowered into the lock chamber where desired. There were eight of the cableways arranged in pairs, The lock walls as a whole give the visitor an idea of massive construction only. The arched sections, shown in the picture, connecting the main walls with the wing and guide walls, effect a saving in concrete and also give a symmetrical touch to the structures. each pair stretching from a steel tower 85 feet high to a similar tower on the opposite side of the locks, a distance of 800 feet. These towers were placed on trucks on which they could be moved along tracks parallel to the locks to the point desired. Besides the concrete, the cableways also handled heavy con- struction material, such as steel forms and lumber. Their capacity was six tons each, and the greatest lift 170 feet for a distance of 670 feet. For the locks at the Pacific end a distinctly different system was employed. Placement at Pedro Miguel was made by means of four cantilever cranes, two resting on tracks on the floor of each lock chamber, and two berm cranes equip- ped with two 2-cubic yard mixers in the upper forebay. Each of the chamber cranes was 95 feet high with cantilever arms, which extended to both sides from the center. Placement in the approach and wing walls was made by means of | 165 | g Tº" - -- " - A general view of Gatun Locks as they appeared October 1, 1912. All heavy masonry work, with the exception of the north approach wall was completed, and this view gives an idea of their magnitude. Each lock contains two parallel chambers separated by a center wall. The side walls are 45 to 50 feet wide at the floor level, and narrow to a width of 8 feet at the top. The middle wall is 60 feet wide and 81 feet high- ă ºr ZTE º º º View inside the lower lock, west chamber, Miraflores Locks. The lock chambers are the largest concrete troughs in the world, having usable dimensions of 1,000 feet in length and 110 feet in width, and at the present time will accommodate the largest ships afloat. A striking comparison is obtained by looking at the man standing on the lock floor. CTHE DAND DIVIDED ~~THE WOI2LP, UNITED derricks, which lifted the buckets from concrete trains which ran between the mixer and chamber cranes. When the heavy masonry work at Pedro Miguel was finished the chamber cranes were transferred to Miraflores, and operated in the same manner. The berm cranes were modified in order that they might be operated on the sides of the locks, instead of at the head. The crushed stone for the concrete of both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was supplied by rail from a large quarry and crusher plant on the west side of Ancon hill near Panama. Sand was dredged at Punta Chame, on Pana- ma Bay, 23 miles west of Panama. It was hauled in barges to Balboa and there unloaded by special machinery and hauled by rail to the storage piles at the locks. MAKING THE DIRT FLY The work of excavation in the canal prism was divided into two classes, “wet” and “dry,” that taken out by means of dredges, and that by steam shovels, respectively. The wet excavation, up to October 5, 1913, when water was admitted into Culebra Cut, was practically confined to the sea level Section of the north guide wall at Gatun Locks under construction. This was one of the most difficult pieces of masonry work in the whole job. The greater part of its length of 1,000 feet rests upon piles driven to solid rock. To the right is seen the east wing wall of the locks. approaches to the Canal, that at the Atlantic entrance seven miles to the locks at Gatun, and that at the Pacific entrance 84 miles to the locks at Miraflores. The largest part of the excavation, however, was accomplished by steam shovels in Culebra Cut prior to the letting in of the water of Gatun Lake and in the Chagres section. |. remained on September 1, about 9,153,000 cubic yards of spoil in Culebra Cut, out of a total of 95,869,000 cubic ". The total excavation, “wet” and “dry” for the entire canal, as originally estimated by the minority members of the Board of Consulting Engineers, was 103,795,000 cubic yards, in addition to the amount excavated by the French companies, | 168 ) Entrance to Gatun Locks from the lake. Gatun Dam on the left and approach wall in the foreground. Approach walls 1,000 feet long, have been built at each end of all the locks, and as the name indicates, they serve as a guide to ships coming up the approach channel. Ships must come to a stop at these walls, until the locomotives which tow them through the locks make fast their lines. - -- - º - - - - - - |- - - - | | - -- - - - - - - - - - - - | . --- - - -- - º - - - - - L - - - View of the upper gates at Miraflores Locks under construction. The first of these is com- pleted and partly swung open to full view giving an idea of their thickness. The gates are operated by electricity and may be opened or closed in one minute and 47 seconds. [ 169 | ºr HE DAND JDIVIDED ~~THE WORLD, UNITED who accomplished 29,708,000 cubic yards useful under the present plans. This estimate has been increased several times on account of changes in the canal plans, to silting in the canal entrances and in the Chagres section, to slides in Culebra Cut, for the terminals at both entrances, and for the dry docks at Balboa. The last estimate made on July 1, 1913, places the grand total at 232,353,000 cubic yards, considerably more than double the amount originally estimated. When the canal is entirely completed, the excavated material would make a line of 63 pyramids, each equal in size to the Great Pyramid of Egypt. DREDGING Most of the work in the Atlantic entrance, about 53,167,000 cubic yards, was accomplished by two elevator dredges left by the French, and overhauled by the Americans, a dipper dredge of American make, and a sea-going 20-inch Completed sills from the lock gates. These sills, built of steel and concrete, form foundations on which the gates rest. suction dredge, also made in the United States. Where the channel ran inside the shore line two small hills were dug out by steam shovels to a depth of 41 feet, and the remainder then accomplished by the dredges. In the Pacific entrance about 61,489,000 cubic yards was accomplished by two elevator dredges of the Belgian type and two Scotch elevator dredges left by the French and overhauled by the Americans, a modern elevator dredge built in Scotland in 1911, and a sea-going 20-inch suction dredge. This latter dredge was floated into Culebra Cut in October, 1913, and is now at work taking out the remaining spoil in that section. In the Pacific entrance a large quantity of rock was encountered which was too hard for the dredges to handle. [ 170 - - * - - º º s ºãì. The gates under construction at Pedro Miguel. The lock gates, 46 in number, two leaves to each gate, constitute one of the spectacular features of Canal construction. They are 7 feet thick, from 47 to 82 feet high, and each leaf or half gate weighs from 300 to 700 tons. They are built up of great horizontal girders weighing from 12 to 18 tons each, with vertical frame work in between, sheathed with steel plates on each side. Near view of the massive lock gates showing riveting gang on scaffold. The lower part of each gate is an air chamber, so that in using it, the gate is buoyed up by the surrounding water, reducing the weight on its hinges, and making it easier to move. To overcome the lifting effect when the lock chamber is full of water, the upper half has openings on the up-stream side which allows it to automatically fill or empty, thus equalizing the weight. | 171 | GTHE DAND DIVIDED ~~THE WOI2L.D, UNITED To break up this material, in addition to subaqueous blasting, a Lobnitz sub- aqueous rock breaker was used. CUTTING THROUGH THE DIVIDE The part of the canal on which the most work has been done, and which was the last to be completed, is Culebra Cut, the 9-mile section through the continental divide. Work has been nearly continuous in this section since the French started operations in 1882. It is also one of the most important and in- teresting portions of the Canal project on account of the deep cutting necessary, and the difficulties encountered on account of slides and the disposal of spoil. When the Americans took over the work in May, 1904, they found the French engaged in taking out just sufficient material to hold their concession. This º Nº. - ſ Wº ſº º 2. H Z - | º: =- E - = | Close view of completed gates at Gatun Locks. There are 46 gates in the locks which aggregate 58,000 tons in weight, and if placed end on end would make a tower about one and one-fifth miles high. The author was standing on the lock floor between the partly closed gates when this photograph was taken. they were doing with a few obsolete side excavators, served by small Decauville dump cars and Belgian engines. Work was continued with the equipment left by the French until it could be gradually replaced with modern steam shovels, cars and engines. The first steam shovel was placed in operation on November 11, 1904, and the last of the French excavators was discontinued on June 16, 1905. On August 1, 1905, there were 11 steam shovels at work, but they were greatly handicapped in their output as they were served by old French cars operated on lines which, as Chief Engineer Stevens said: “By the utmost stretch of the imagination could not be called railroad tracks.” Work was practically stopped until proper prepa- rations could be made for handling the spoil and effecting an organization which would obtain the greatest possible results from the use of modern methods of [ 172 | This illustrates the size to which even the smaller features of gate construction attain, as well as the care taken in their manufacture. This steel yoke, made of vanadium, is used to connect the tops of the gates with the anchors in the walls. It weighs 14,000 pounds, and was subjected to a stress of 3,300,000 pounds before it broke. The operating mechanism of a lock gate. The wheel is a bull wheel, which, in operating, turns through an arc, giving the connecting rod the movement of an arm in opening and shutting a door. It is 19 feet in diameter, and weighs over 35,000 pounds. [ 173 ] STHE DAND JOIVIDED ~~THE WORLD, UNITED excavation. Tracks were properly laid, a ..". transportation system in- augurated, and proper dumping places located before the work was resumed on a large scale in 1907. In that year 9,177,130 cubic yards were taken out, and from that time to when the maximum of 16,596,891 cubic yards was reached in 1911, there was a steady increase in the amount of material excavated as new Side view of emergency dam on east wall at Gatun Locks. In case an accident occurred to the gates, allowing a free passage of water from the 85-foot lake level, to the sea level, the dam would be swung across the lock chamber and a series of wicket girders hinged to it would be lowered with their ends resting in pockets in the lock floor. Steel gates would then be let down, one at a time, which would close the lock chamber and check the flow of water. equipment was installed. Trains of flat and dump cars, 20 to a train, drawn by 100-ton locomotives carried the spoil to be used in the dam at Gatun, the breakwater at the Pacific entrance, fills, or to dumps where it was merely wasted. As the Cut neared completion, the work became concentrated in a short section at Culebra where the deepest cutting, 272 feet, was necessary, and the number of steam shovels had to be gradually reduced. To prevent the flooding of the Cut, the canal channel was paralleled on each side from Gold Hill north to Bas Obispo, a distance of five miles, by small canals or diversions, which carried into the Chagres River the water from streams that otherwise would have flowed into the Cut and interrupted the work. To prevent the water in Gatun Lake from backing up into the cut the earthen dike which was blown up on October 10, 1913, was built. To the south of Gold Hill the water which would have flooded the Cut was carried off by the Rio Grande and an old French diversion channel. Rain water that collected in the Cut flowed north and south. At Gamboa, on the north, it was pumped through the dike, and at Pedro Miguel, to the south, it drained off through the lock wall culverts. All steam shovel work in the Cut was discontinued on September 15, and between that date, and October 5, 1913, when water was admitted, all equip- ment and other material, including over 36 miles of construction track, was removed. At that time there were about 30 steam shovels at work. The following table of material excavated in the Cut and for the whole canal, indi- cates the period of preparatory work, the time when the highest point of effi- | 174 | Section of lock wall showing the rack rail over which the towing locomotives travel. Towing locomotive in operation at Gatun Locks. These machines are designed to tow vessels through the locks. There will be two locomotives ahead towing, and two astern to retard the vessel's progress if required. In towing, they will not move faster than two miles an hour, but a second or return track, permits them to go back at greater speed. [ 175 | STHE DAND DIVIDED -CºIHE WORLD, UNITED ciency was reached, and when the work became concentrated in the short section of Culebra Cut as the other sections neared completion: CULEBRA CUT. ENTIRE CANAL. Year Cubic Yards Year Cubic Yards 1904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243,472 1904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243,472 1905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,167,628 1905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,799,227 1906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,702,991 1906. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,948,497 1907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 177,130 1907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,765,290 1908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,912,453 1908. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,116,735 1909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,557,034 I909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,096,166 1910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,398,599 1910. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,437,677 1911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,596,891 1911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,603,899 1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,028,413 1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,269,349 1913 (to Sept. 10)... . . . . . . 8,348,190 1913 (to Sept. 1) . . . . . . . . 20,937,718 Totals . . . . . . . . . 97,132,801 209,218,030 Two makes of steam shovels were used in the excavation work, the Bucyrus and Marion, of 45, 66, 70, 90 and 105 tons, equipped with dippers ranging in capacity from 13 cubic yards to 5 cubic yards. In Culebra Cut, shovels with These models of Pedro Miguel Lock give a good idea of how ships will enter and pass through the locks. [ 176 | | 2: ... º A comprehensive view of one of the great locks of the Canal under construction, where the largest concrete monoliths in the world have been built. One is almost bewildered by the tremendous machinery of the work—the enormous Berm and Chamber cranes with their almost uncanny air of intelligence towering over the scene with their interlaced-ironwork arms extended above the cement walls which they are constructing. 5 Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks are about one and one-half miles apart. This birdseye view gives an idea of their relation to each other. The Pacific entrance to the Canal and Ancon Hill may be seen in the distance. The newly relocated line of the Panama Railroad, which divides the town of Pedro Miguel into two parts, is visible in the foreground at the left of the locks. The space between the two locks is now filled with the water of Miraflores Lake. STHE DAND JDIVIDED -CTHE WORLD, UNITED 5-yard dippers were used almost entirely, and a shovel thus equipped averaged about 1,800 cubic yards per 8-hour day. A cubic yard of earth and rock weighs about 3,600 pounds, and represents about a two-horse cart load. The work done by the steam shovels would dig a canal 55 feet wide and 10 feet deep from Maine to Oregon. In transporting material to the dumping grounds three classes of cars were used—Lidgerwood flat cars with one high side with a capacity of 19 cubic yards, and Oliver and Western side dump cars, large and small, having a capacity of 17 and 10 cubic yards, respectively. To haul trains composed of 20 flat cars, 27 large dump cars, or 35 small dump cars, American locomotives were used. These trains would make an average of 13 trips daily to the dumps, an average distance one way of 11 miles. The average time consumed in unloading a train of flat cars at the dumps was from seven to 15 minutes. This ** * * * * * * * * º FC. -- &º. - - - - - - Boat landing at Gatun. The structure on concrete piles to the right is a wharf where small boats that ply the lake may land their cargoes, when the lake is to its full height. was accomplished by the use of what was known as an unloading plow. The large dump cars were operated by compressed air from the locomotive, while the small dump cars were operated by hand, and the time consumed in unload- ing was from 6 to 55 minutes. The constant arrival of spoil trains on the dumping grounds made necessary a quick method of changing the construction tracks. This necessity led to the invention by W. G. Bierd, formerly superintendent of the Panama Railroad, of a track shifting machine. This machine consists of a boom, extending from a flat car out over the track in advance of the car, to which a block and tackle is attached by which the track is lifted from its bed. Another boom extending from the car at an angle with the main boom pulls the track to one side or the other. In this way track may be thrown nine feet from its original position in one operation. - In addition to the unloading plow and the track shifter for the rapid hand- ling of spoil, there was also used a machine to spread the material on the dump | 178 | STHE DAND JDIVIDED -CTHE WOI2LP, UNITED and keep them in a uniformly level condition. This spreader consists of a car on which has been placed a machine with steel wings, and it works exactly like an electric snow plow on the city streets in the United States, with the exception that the wings are operated with compressed air obtained from the locomotive which hauls the car over the dump. With a perfect organization, modern equipment, a well planned system of transportation, and the rapid disposal of the spoils on the dumps, the maximum possible output of the steam shovels was obtained and maintained, and many world records were made on the Isthmus in excavation work. ACROSS THE ISTHM US IN A HYDROBIPLANE Several attempts have been made during the past few years to cross the Isthmus in a heavier than air flying machine, but none were successful until April 27, 1913, when Robert G. Fowler, the aviator, accompanied by R. A. Duhem, photographer left the Pacific entrance to the Canal at 10 a. m., and arrived at Cristobal Point on the Atlantic side at 10:57 a. m. The route of the canal was followed closely, the aviator making a circle at Culebra, in order to obtain views of all parts of Culebra Cut. The highest altitude attained during the flight was 1,800 feet; the lowest height at which the machine flew was 400 feet. The President has since signed an Executive Order prohibiting further flights over the Canal, or to take photographs from a flying machine, without written authority of the Chief Executive of the Canal Zone. 7 tº º - | º- ZN TºL -º - * * ~ -- - º - - - - * * Robert G. Fowler's hydrobiplane passing Crossing the Locks at Gatun on a bucket over Culebra Cut. Empire suspension bridge operated by the cableways. in foreground. A rare picture. | 179 | STHE DAND JDIVIDED ~ * > * - sº T | - - - | - - New dock No. 16 at Colon under construction. Part of the Cristobal terminal system. | 241 | at HE LAND Divided –at HE woºlye, UNITED ful in the world, and will establish direct communication between the Isthmus and Washington. In power it will be the same as the Government's station at Arlington, but in the size of its towers, it will exceed the latter. The sending and receiving radius will be nominally 3,000 miles, so that communication may be held direct with the Arlington station, instead of via Key West, as formerly. It will be able to send messages as far as Valdivia, Chile, 421 miles south of Valparaiso; to reach a vessel anywhere along the eastern coast of the United States, or midway between New York and Gibraltar; and to communicate with the island of St. Vincent, 500 miles west of Africa. There are three other wireless stations on the Isthmus, not including one at Bocas del Toro, main- tained by the United Fruit Company. These are at Porto Bello, Colon, and Balboa, and all are in charge of the Navy Department. One, or more, of these plants will probably be dismantled when the new high power station becomes available. In 1912, President Taft signed an Executive Order prohibiting the establishment of wireless stations on the Isthmus by other parties within the radius of 15 miles of any Government station. BEAUTIFYING THE CANAL The Panama Canal Act of August 24, 1912 contained the following pro- VISIOI] . “Before the completion of the Canal, the Commission of Fine Arts may make report to the President of their recommendation regarding the artistic character of the structures of the Canal, such report to be transmitted to Congress.” In accordance with the above, the chairman of the commission, Mr. Along a country road. This picture vividly portrays the pretty scenery that greets the eye in traveling over some of the Canal Zone roads. [ 242 | QTHE DAND JDIVIDED ~~THE WOPLºP, UNITED Daniel C. French, sculptor, and the vice-chairman, Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect, spent a part of the month of February, 1913, on the Isthmus. Their report submitted to Congress on July 26, 1913, states in part: “The Canal itself, and all the structures connected with it impress one with A pretty scene in the outskirts of Culebra Village. a sense of their having been built with a view strictly to their utility. There is an entire absence of ornament and no evidence that the aesthetic has been considered, except in a few cases as a secondary consideration. Because of this very fact there is little to find fault with from the artist’s point of view. The Canal, like the pyramids, or some imposing object in natural scenery, is impressive from its scale and simplicity and directness. One feels that any- thing done merely for the !'...'. of beautifying it would not only fail to ac- complish the purpose, but would be an impertinence. In such a work the most that the artist could hope to do would be to aid in selecting, as between alter- native forms of substantially equal value from the engineering point of view, those which are likely to prove most agreeable and appropriate in appearance.” The report, however, made a number of suggestions calculated to improve the appearance at the Canal entrances, at the locks, in the permanent towns, and the marine and army reservations. It also strongly recommended that a memorial record of the building of the Canal be made in the form of an im- pressive inscription upon a great monumental surface on the east bank of Culebra Cut, at the point of deepest cutting, 492 feet. It favored a space 100 feet in height and somewhat more in width, severely simple in design, with lettering in Roman V-shaped letters large enough to be easily read by normal | 243 | : Model showing the Pacific entrance to the Canal and the docks and inner harbor at Balboa, as they will appear when completed. CTHE LAND JDIVIDED ~~THE WOPLºP, UNITED eyes across the Canal, and that the material should be concrete applied as a massive facing to the irregularly fractured trap rock of the cliff. It also suggested marking the highest point of Canal excavation on Gold Hill, immedi- ately over the proposed inscription with some form of monument. The Southern Commercial Congress made formal application of the Secretary of War, in October, 1913, for permission to place at some prominent Model showing the Atlantic entrance to the Canal and the docks at Cristobal, as they will appear when completed. point along the Canal a bronze tablet, four by six feet in size, carrying a medal- lion life size bust of the late Senator John T. Morgan of Alabama, and legend reciting his relations to the Canal idea. Permission was accorded, and the tablet was placed near the north end of Culebra Cut in November, 1913. PERMAN ENT ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, BALBOA - The permanent Administration Building of the Canal Zone now undel construction in accordance with the design made by Austin W. Lord of New York City, formerly architect to the Commission, and Mario J. Schia- voni, former assistant architect, Culbera, under whose direction the entire plans, elevations, details, and specifications have been developed, is the result of man efforts to obtain a building suitable to the requirements as stipulated by the Chairman, and the very important requirements in providing protection against sun and rain. The architecture of Italian renaissance design, with a square column colonnade, and a second-story balcony treatment around the three exterior elevations of the building and surmounted by a somber red tile roof, will present a character very much to be desired in this climate; viz.: wide projecting eaves and deep recessed colonnades, affording excellent protection against sun and I':ll Il. | 245 | 3IHE DAND JOIVIDED ~GTHE WOPLºP, UNITED The court side, facing northeast, enclosed by the two side wings, will have plain wall surfaces, treated with pilasters and window openings of same pro- portions as on the exterior elevations, and a central wing housing the main stair motive and porte cochere entrance, the entire plan having the form of the letter E with the first floor situated 100 feet above sea level. The office areas are to be treated in a very simple manner with the walls and ceilings treated in white plaster, the floors in yellow pine, and mahogany for all woodwork. & g The rotunda motive, the focal point of interest, entered from both front and rear elevations, and situated between the front entrance and the main stair hall, facing the court, will be treated in a very dignified but somber renaissance style with a coffered dome, surmounting decorative paintings illustrating the various periods of canal construction in a continuous frieze and in four large panels. The rotunda will be illuminated by a dome light under a skylight, thereby producing on a minor scale the Pantheon at Rome. The walls, floor, and staircases, will be treated in a simple marble and Caen stone treatment in harmony with the balance of the work. The building will have an area of 60,000 square feet of clear office space for the three floors, plus the required areas for the rotunda motive, halls, stair- cases, toilets, exterior colonnades, and balconies. The basement, with an area of 32,000 square feet, will be used as a vault for the filing of records, maps, archives, etc. The total floor area in the building taken at grade will amount to 37,772 square feet, and the total (mean) cubic content of the entire building, 2,153,000 cubic feet. A very flexible system of electric lighting, telephone, and buzzer system has been provided for, including the permanent telephone exchange, which will be located on the third floor in one of the rear wings. Every convenience of reasonable necessity has been provided for in this building, such as fire protection, vacuum system, etc., thereby setting an example for future buildings by making this the most extensive and up-to-date steel frame and hollow concrete tile block structure that is being built on the Isthmus as a keynote for future work. COST OF THE CANAL The estimate of October, 1908, placed the cost of the Canal at $375,201,000 divided, as follows: Construction and engineering, $297,766,000; sanitation, $20,053,000; civil administration, $7,382,000; paid to the New French Canal Company, $40,000,000; paid to the Republic of Panama, $10,000,000. The appropriations made by Congress to date aggregate $338,828,273.14 for the Canal work, and $10,767,950 for fortifications. The actual expenditures to June 30, 1913 were as follows: Construction and engineering, $185,316,- 095.75; sanitation, $16,250,164.93; civil administration, $6,393,308.73; law, $44,982.27; general items, $87,866,903.70; fortifications, $3,114,357.52. Total $298,985,812.90. Since 1908, the force has increased so much in efficiency, with a corresponding decrease in unit costs, that it seems probable that $360,- 000,000 will cover not only the cost of the Canal work, but of the fortifications as well. [ 246 ) |HE volume of traffic that will pass through the Panama Canal after it has been thrown open to commerce of the world is largely a matter of speculation. The importance of the new waterway from a military standpoint is easily recognizable, and in the minds of American Army and Navy experts, the probable fact that the efficiency of Uncle Sam's Navy will be about doubled, alone warrants the enormous cost which the project has entailed. In commercial circles, however, the question of the hour is “Can the Canal be made to pay º' To ascertain the probable amount of tonnage that will use the Canal during the next few years, the United States Government, on September 1, 1911, engaged the services of the highest American authority in this line, Dr. Emory R. Johnson, professor of transportation and commerce in the University of Pennsylvania. As special commissioner on traffic and tolls, Dr. Johnson has made an exhaustive investigation of the subject from all points of view, the results of which have been incorporated in a printed volume of 500 pages. His conclusions may be briefly summed up, as follows: “The shipping using the Panama Canal annually during the first year or two of its operation, that is, in 1915 and 1916, will amount to about 10,500,000 tons. At the end of 10 years, the tonnage will doubtless have reached 17,- 000,000 tons. The prospect is, therefore, that the Panama Canal will start with less than half the tonnage which will then be making use of the Suez Canal. Moreover, it will be a long time before the Panama Canal catches up with the Suez waterway in volume of traffic. Should the Suez tonnage continue to increase at the present rate, the volume of shipping served by the Suez route in 1925 will be double that passing through the Panama Canal. It is hardly probable that the Suez tonnage will increase at its present high rate, while it may well happen that the stimulating effect of the Panama Canal upon industry and trade has been underestimated. Eventually, at the end of two or three decades, let us say, the traffic at Panama may equal or exceed that at Suez.” | 247 | 7. '* → ... º -** * = . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * - - - -– Undoubtedly, the famous trip of the Oregon around South America, in 1898, to join the squadron before The United States Battleship Oregon. Santiago, had much to do toward crystallizing public sentiment in favor of an American Canal, at least, it brought the matter into prominence from a military point of view. An effort is being made, and public sentiment may demand, that the Oregon be given first place for the official trip through the Canal. CTHE DAND JOIVIDED ~