...
…”
-r
. TILLSON
| Consulting Engineer to the
| President
| Borough of Brooklyn
| NEW YORK CITY
| As a Result of an Examination of City
| Streets and Pavements in Certain
European Cities in 1913
. . . . |Ty OF MICHIGAN LIBRARIES
























Report of
\ova
GEORGE W. TILLSON
Consulting Engineer to the
President
Borough of Brooklyn
NEW YORK CITY
AS a Result of an Examination of City
StreetS and PavementS in Certain
European Cities in 1913
transportation
library
CITY OF NEW YORK
Office of the President
BOROUGH OF BROOKLYN
Brooklyn, N. Y., March 2, 1914.
Hon. LEWIS H. Pou NDs,
President, Borough of Brooklyn,
The City of New York.
SIR:
In the early spring of 1913 I was designated by his Honor the Mayor
as a delegate to attend the Third International Road Congress to be held in
London June 23-28, inclusive, 1913. At the same time I was directed by
former Borough President Alfred E. Steers to visit some of the larger cities
of Europe and to investigate and report upon street conditions in them to
such an extent as was possible in the time at my disposal.
The first city to be studied in detail at the end of the congress was,
naturally, London. London is such an enormous and complex aggregation
of people that it seems almost folly to say anything about it by one who
has only been in the city ten or twelve days. It has, however, many salient
features which can be easily recognized and which are of interest to the
stranger, especially to the student of municipal affairs. It is not generally
known that what is considered as London and what foreigners understand
to be London is made up of twenty-nine distinct municipalities, each having
a separate municipal government. The divisions are the City of London
proper, the City of Westminster, and twenty-seven boroughs. London is
always called the largest city in the world, and since consolidation New
York City has been given second place. As a matter of fact, New York
City is by far the largest municipality that is governed by any one man.
The City of London proper consists of about one square mile, with 48 miles
of streets. A great many of the streets, however, are so narrow that they
have no roadways, being flagged for foot traffic only from street line to
street line, yet upon them are located substantial business houses. In obtain-
ing from the Engineer's office the statistics of the different kinds of pave-
ment in the streets it was found that the pavements aggregated about 10
miles less than the street mileage. . This, as explained by the Engineer, was
due to the fact that so many streets were too narrow for street traffic.
This old City of London has a night population of 19,000 people and a
day population of 364,000 people. In 1911 it was found by actual count that
in one day 1,077,000 people and 94,000 vehicles entered this one square
mile. When by observations taken by the Public Service Commission of
this city a few years ago it was learned that approximately 500,000 people
went from Long Island to the Borough of Manhattan each day, some idea
of the congestion in this locality can be had. Assuming that each vehicle
occupies a linear space of 15 feet, these 94,000 vehicles would make a pro-
3

cession 267 miles long, or would fill the 38 miles of pavement in the city
with a double line of vehicles three and a half times each day. *
These figures will give some idea of the amount of traffic in London,
but it can only be appreciated by seeing it.
In considering the question of traffic it must be understood that the
terms “heavy,” “medium,” and “light” traffic, as used in this country, have
really very little significance, as no unit of traffic has ever been determined,
and there is nothing to determine whether these terms refer to volume of
traffic or to heavy units. This is an extremely important matter. It can be
easily understood by persons who are not engineers that a vehicle weighing
20 tons passing over a pavement will have a very different effect from 20
vehicles each weighing 1 ton; also whether wheels have steel or rubber tires,
whether the tires are 2 inches or 6 inches wide, and whether the vehicle
is moving at the rate of 3 or 30 miles an hour. What is required is to know
the effect of certain kinds of traffic upon different kinds of pavement, at
different speeds and with different tire conditions.
The English Road Board has an apparatus designed for making these
tests, and it was shown to the different delegates. A machine of a very sim-
ilar kind was exhibited at the American Road Congress held in Detroit last
fall, the experiments being made under the auspices of the University of
Wisconsin, but no definite unit has ever been worked out. Until this is done
the terms “heavy,” “medium” and “light” must always be indefinite, but,
with a well-defined unit, traffic of different cities can be compared; and
even at that there will be some uncertainty, as the weight of the different
vehicles must be estimated to a great extent.
Mr. Francis Wood, Engineer of the Borough of Fulham, London, has
by observation determined what he considers the wear per 100 tons of
traffic per foot in width of roadway per day, and by obtaining the traffic
upon any particular street he thus figures out how long a pavement should
last from traffic conditions only. If this could be determined accurately
it would be of great value to the municipal engineer, but it will require con-
siderable investigation, and experimentation before the conclusions can be
considered satisfactory. - -
Illustrations of both heavy volume of traffic and heavy units of traffic
were obtained on the trip. Nothing, however, exceeded the volume of
traffic observed in London. This was probably as great on the Strand, per
foot of width, as anywhere else, if not greater. A large portion of this
traffic consisted of the motor buses, weighing from 3% long tons empty to
6% long tons loaded with thirty-six passengers, proceeding at a permissible
rate of 12 miles per hour. A feature of the traffic, which is exceedingly
annoying to Americans, is that all vehicles pass to the left rather than to
the right, as in this country and in most cities on the Continent. This
feature makes it exceedingly unpleasant to cross the streets, as it is neces-
sary for one to be looking in every direction in order to feel at all satisfied
from which points vehicles are liable to come.
Quite a number of pictures were taken to illustrate what seemed to be
the most striking features of the different cities. It was not deemed neces-
sary to photograph each kind of pavement in each city, as a good pavement
of one kind in a picture should show practically the same, no matter where
it is located, as surface conditions only can be shown.
4
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 shows conditions in one of the London streets where delay has
been caused by traffic regulations. It is a fair illustration of existing
congestion. -
Fig.2 shows moving traffic.

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Fig. 3 is a view of another street, with the Holborn Viaduct and St.
Paul's Cathedral in the background. It shows clearly the traffic moving in
both directions to the left.
The first really heavy units of traffic were observed in Liverpool. Fig. 4
shows some of the heavy loads, drawn sometimes by one horse and some-
times by two horses, on a street that runs parallel with and adjacent to the
Mersey River, Liverpool, where the grade is naturally almost level.

Fig. 5. Fig. 6."
Fig. 5 shows also the heavy units in the same city, where a large tractor
is pulling a so-called “lorry.” These loads average 5 or 6 tons, and are
borne on wheels with tires not less than 5 or 6 inches in width.
While the heaviest traffic could not be observed in Glasgow, the En-
gineer in charge of street pavements of that city stated that loads, consisting
of boilers for steamships weighing 100 tons were often drawn on these
trucks along the streets. Upon being asked how many horses it took for
each load, he replied, “Horses? We don't use horses, but six or seven
tractor engines.” These loads are probably the heaviest that are drawn
through the streets of any city in the world.
Fig. 6 shows a one-horse truck in Vienna. It will be noticed how small
the wheels are, the loads projecting over them on both sides, in front and
rear. The matter of the small wheels was often noticed in this city.
Particular attention is called to the groove of the granite blocks in the
pavement. This was on a grade of 4 or 5 per cent., and the blocks were
grooved in order to give the horses better foothold. Another example of
this was seen in London.

Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Fig. 7 shows a heavy load in Paris, drawn on two wheels. Unfor-
tunately, the man with the cart placed himself exactly in front of the wheels
as the camera was snapped. It shows, however, quite clearly the heavy
loads there drawn by two horses. The material of this load is building
stone. The heaviest loads observed in Paris were of this material, drawn on
trucks with four wheels, with six horses, the arrangement of the horses
being one in the shafts, three abreast in front of the shaft horse, and then
two horses in tandem in front of the three. These loads were extremely
heavy, but, unfortunately, no opportunity was given for taking a picture.
All unit loads, however, even in Europe, are not heavy. The smallest
unit observed in London is shown in Fig. 8. This is the well-known Coster
donkey, which is used by the Coster-mongers for carrying their produce
from the markets to their shops. This particular picture was taken in
front of the Parliament houses, and the driver is evidently returning from
the market, which is back of the Strand and just beyond Trafalgar Square.


Fig. 9. Fig. 10.
Fig. 9 shows light traffic in Holland. There dog carts are seen on
every hand, sometimes with one and sometimes with two dogs, as shown in
the picture, and also with three and four dogs attached.
Fig. 10 shows a one-dog cart, the picture being taken in Vienna. Here
a truck appeared just as the picture was taken, but fortunately in the rear
of the dog rather than in the front. This picture also shows very plainly the
diagonal method of street paving in Vienna, which is so common.

Fig. 11.
Fig. 11 is a picture which probably represents the lightest traffic seen.
This woman was moving along in the middle of the day on the principal
retail business street of Vienna. Many instances of men, women and boys
drawing carts of different kinds through the streets were seen in Germany,
Austria and Holland.
The foregoing shows very clearly the variations in traffic conditions
in Europe, which apply to a certain extent to all the cities. In this country
there is not so much of the lighter traffic. Of course, so far as practical
purposes are concerned, this light traffic can be left out of consideration in
determining the durability of pavements.
In 1902 a number of the municipalities of London came together and
informally agreed to report to a special committee the paving work of each
year. According to the tenth report, which was published in 1913, these
municipalities had pavements as follows:
Cost of
Borough Tar Miscel- Paving and
or City. Wood. Asphalt. Granite. Macadam. Macadam. laneous. Maintenance. Total.
Greenwich, 1.42 5.07 55.62 3.20 $62,010 65.31
Hammersmith, 9.00 1.25 0.12 42.12 20,275 52.49
Hampstead, 8.14 0.75 3.02 48.32 2.52 0.11 62.86
Holborn, 2.25 12.25 9.00 1.00 1.25 25.75
The Royal Bor-
ough of Ken-
sington, 17.00 4.00 70.00 156.315 91.00
City of London, 8.50 20.00 10.25 145,000 38.75
St. Marylebone, 16.16 2.95 11.80 24.67 2.51 206,745 58.09
Wandsworth, 17.00 0.14 0.79 173.49 0.24 96,950* 191.66
City of West-
minster, 40.50 25.50 11.25 18.75 3.00 160,000 99.00
Woolwich, 1.00 4.00 73.00 1.00 79.00
Total, 120.97 66.84 55.30 506.97 10.48 3.35 763.91
Per cent., 15.8 8.8 7.2 66.4 1.4 0.4 100.00
(596.3 miles, $840,795 cost.) -
* This borough also expended $24,815 for repaving over trenches.

1()
A very striking and important fact here is that of the 763.91 miles of
pavement reported, 506.97 miles, or 66.4 per cent., was macadam. Wood
comes next with 15.8 per cent., asphalt and granite combined being practi.
cally the same as wood.
The three principal municipalities of London are undoubtedly London,
Westminster and the Borough of Holborn, as they are situated in the business
part of the city. It will be noticed that of these three municipalities London
alone has no macadam; Holborn has 1 mile and Westminster 18.75 miles,
or a little less than 20 per cent. When the other boroughs are considered,
however, especially those lying on the outskirts of the city, a very large pre-
ponderance of macadam obtains. For instance, the Royal Borough of Ken-
sington, which contains Buckingham Palace, has 7 7 per cent. macadam;
Hammersmith, 82 per cent.; Greenwich, 85 per cent.; Wandsworth, 90 per
cent., and Woolwich, 92 per cent. Wandsworth is the borough just across
the Thames, in the southwestern part of the city, and is a large borough,
with 191 miles of pavement.
Compare this group of municipalities with the Borough of Brooklyn,
for instance, which on January 1, 1914, had 808 miles of pavement, of which
541 were asphalt, 156 stone block, 4 cobble, 8 wood, 4 iron slag, 93 macadam,
and miscellaneous 2.
This gives only 93 miles out of 808 as macadam, or 11 per cent. of the
whole, and practically alf of the rest of the pavement is of a good char-
acter.
It could be said then that, if the streets of Brooklyn were in as good
condition as the streets of these municipalities, Brooklyn would be better
paved than the portion of London under consideration. As a matter of
fact, however, this is not true, because, while a very great proportion of
the streets in Brooklyn are in first-class condition and as good as in these
municipalities. it cannot be said that as a whole they are. The fact which
most impresses the municipal engineer in examining the streets, not only
of London but of other cities of Europe, is that, as a whole, no matter with
what material the street may be paved, it is always found in good condition.
There were very few exceptions to this conclusion that came under your
engineer's notice during the past year.
It is undoubtedly true that the poorest paved streets in American cities
are those in which street car tracks are located. It would be difficult to
find any city in this country with all the pavement in the street car area in
good condition. As a rule this condition does not prevail in Europe. This
may be from the fact that European cities keep all their streets in good con-
dition, and in most cases the street car tracks are owned or directly con-
trolled by the municipalities themselves, so that there is no reason why one
portion of the street should be in any better condition than any other por-
tion. Possibly the exceptions to this rule were the street car areas of Glas-
gow, Amsterdam and Paris, where pavement between tracks was in a
materially poorer condition than that outside.
It is a source of wonderment to the American engineer to notice in
what uniformly good condition are the streets of London under the ex-
tremely heavy motorbus traffic referred to, and the defects seen as a rule
were where the pavement was worn out by the excessive traffic, and was
rough on the surface rather than worn into holes, as is generally seen in
America.
A more complete study of pavement conditions was made in the City
11
of Westminster than in any other. It will be noted from the table that this
city has only 99 miles of pavement and that 66 miles of it, or exactly two-
thirds, are wood and asphalt, although it does contain 1834 miles of .
macadam. One of the great surprises of the study was to find that White-
hall, between the Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey (two of
probably the best-known buildings in the world, and certainly the best known
of any two on the same street), was paved with water-bound macadam,
which was in poor condition. .
Mr. Bradley, the City Engineer of Westminster, was very kind and .
courteous, and gave detailed information regarding his city. It is well
known in Europe, as in this country, that the openings in the pavements
have a great deal to do with the destruction of the pavements, and in all
cases the officials are working so as to have these openings as few as pos-
sible. Mr. Bradley, upon being asked as to the number of openings per
year in his streets, stated that there were practically 20,000, about one-half
being in the roadway and the other half in the sidewalk area. This number
seemed surprisingly large, when it was remembered how few openings
were seen about the city. These openings are restored by the city gangs dur- '
ing the daytime. The concrete foundation is allowed to set 7 days before
the pavement itself is restored. This was said to be true even on the
Strand, where the traffic is so heavy. Openings are fenced off and the
traffic rigidly respects the barricades. -
Wherever possible subways, telephone and electric light lines, etc., are
laid in the sidewalk area so that the roadway will not be disturbed during the
construction or repairs. The most striking practice, however, of reducing the
number of openings is in the City of Westminster, where it has been decided
to construct no sewer smaller than 2 ft. 4 in. by 3 ft. 6 in., so that work-
men can enter the sewer and tunnel from the sewer to the house line for a
house connection, and in this way the surface of the street will not be dis-
turbed. This practice is particularly interesting from the fact that in
America most cities will not permit tunneling except under special condi-
tions.
As will be seen by the table, the pavements of Westminster are prac-
tically wood, asphalt, granite and macadam. The streets of this city are,
of course, all paved, so that paving work is really repaving, and their
method of conducting this is extremely interesting. Early in 1913 the city
advertised for all the repaving work proposed to be done during the year,
and received bids for same on the 28th of February. The blank sent out
contained the general conditions of the contract and also the specifications.
It enumerated all the different streets to be paved, giving the quantities of
each kind and asking for unit price bids. Bids were received for two kinds
of wood and for rock asphalt, the determination of which particular kind
to be used being made after the bids were received. The pamphlet also
stated at what time and on what date the work should begin and also the
date of completion. - -
The first work was to be begun on the first street on April 7, and all
work ordered in the spring was to be completed by June 16, and nearly all
by June 6. During practically all of June and July no work on the streets
was allowed. The work on the first street to be paved in the fall was to be
begun on July 28, the work on the last one to be completed by September 29.
So that between January 1 and April 7, between June 16 and July 28, and
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between September 29 and December 31, in 1913, no paving work was to
be done.
This seems to be a very desirable state of affairs, as every contractor
when he bid would know just when he was expected to begin work and
the property owner on the street would know just when the street would
be torn up. The subsurface corporations as well as the people on the street
could make all their arrangements in accordance with this predetermined
plan.
It may be said that this scheme is not practicable except in a very small
city. Possibly this may be true, but even in the City of New York, with its
large boroughs, if it were known in November of one year how much money
was to be appropriated for repaving in each borough the following year,
plans could be worked out during the winter, so that it would be nearly
practicable if not entirely so to proceed in this way. The advantages of
this plan are so great and so obvious that they do not need any argument,
but only comment.
The pavements laid in Westminster in 1912 were all wood but one,
which was asphalt. They were all laid on a 6-inch Portland cement con-
crete base composed of 1 part cement and 8 parts gravel, covered with a
1-inch floating composed of 1 part cement and 3 parts sand. This floating
was made absolutely smooth and the wood blocks laid directly upon it. The
blocks were laid close and grouted with a mixture of boiling pitch and
creosote oil, the upper portion being filled with Portland cement grout, and
then top-dressed with 36-inch ballast.
The specifications for 1913 on the streets enumerated call for a 9-inch
concrete foundation. The blocks themselves, which the specifications stated
must be cut from good quality pine deals from Baltic, White Sea or Arch-
angel ports, are treated with creosote to an extent of not less than 10 pounds
to the cubic foot of timber. The specification for oil states that it shall be
“free from all ammoniacal water, and containing not less than 8 per cent.
of tar acids.”
This method of laying wood blocks, while referring in this particular
instance to Westminster, seems to be practically the same as is used in the
other boroughs, except where hard wood is used, this not being treated.
The specification for cement states:
“The cement shall be the very best Portland, manufactured solely
from chalk and clay of the best possible quality, free from stones, hard
lumps, or any foreign matters, and in entire accordance with the British
Standard Specification for Cement, copy of which may be seen at the
Engineer's Office at the City Hall.”
Referring to the specification for cement, as well as that for creosote,
it is noticeable how indefinite these specifications are as compared with those
of America for the same articles. This fact of indefiniteness is true of
practically all European specifications, but at the same time it must be
admitted that with these specifications, indefinite though they be, first-class
work is obtained. The reason for this is probably difficult to state. Very
likely it may be because most of the contractors have been in business,
either themselves or their ancestors, a great many years and feel that, no
matter what the specifications are, they must do good work and make their
prices with that intention. It is true, of course, that business conditions in
13
Europe are more stable than in this country, that people are more satisfied
with their conditions and are not striving all the time to change them. It is
more like, once an asphalt man always an asphalt man. In fact, one of
the contractors said that his company could not afford to do bad work, that
it would do good work whether it were watched or not, and without regard
to specifications. In talking with the Engineer of Westminster regarding
this, he said that, while it might be so, it was a good plan to watch them
just the same, and that while inspectors were not maintained on the street
all the time, if one did come and found anything going wrong, the work
was taken up back far enough to disclose everything that had been done
improperly. This, he seemed to think, had a salutary effect upon the con-
tractorS. *
The specification for asphalt reads:
“Rock asphalte shall be a natural bituminous limestone rock of the
best quality, without the addition of any other substance whatever,
ground to a fine, powder, heated to the proper degree, and thoroughly
compressed with hot rammers, or rolled to the uniform thickness
specified.” *
On the one street paved with asphalt in 1912 the top was 2 inches thick
and cost $1.93 per sq. ya..., exclusive of foundation.
In 1913 the cost was $3.46 per sq. yd. on a 9-inch concrete foundation.
The price of the wood pavement laid in Westminster in 1912, includ.
ing foundation, ranged from 8s. 5d. per yard to 12s. 7%d., or from prac-
tically $2.10 per sq. yd. to $3.15 per sq. yd. The price of $2.10, however,
was for one street only, the next higher being $2.65, the average being a
little over $3.00. In this connection the shilling is taken as 25 cents.
All of these pavements were laid with a 12-month guarantee only, 10
per cent. of the contract price being retained for that length of time.
In Westminster the cost of asphalt repairs runs from 12% cents to
62% cents per sq. yd., and for wood from 12% to 37% cents per sq. yd.
#4
º
Fig. 12.
A modified plan of wood pavement is shown in Fig. 12. This form
is laid on grades in order to prevent slipping. As is seen, it consists of a
wooden strip about 1 inch wide, being placed between regular blocks and a
little higher, so that the thin blocks projecting give a foothold for horses.
This is used on one of the streets leading from Trafalgar Square. The cost
does not vary much from that of the standard wood pavement.
The specification regarding this is as follows:
“Combined strip paving shall consist of creosoted pine paving
supplied, prepared and executed in every way of the character and in
the manner previously specified, with this exception, that every alter-
nate transverse course shall be a line of plain Jarrah wood strips, each
strip the same depth as the pine paving, and consisting of blocks not
greater than 1% inches thick and 9 inches long, and not less than 1%
inches thick and 8 inches long (i. e., the transverse courses of Jarrah
and pine shall be equal in number).
“These thin Jarrah blocks shall be laid dry in the first instance,
and after the paving has been examined and approved by the City
Engineer each Jarrah block shall be hand-dipped in a tough mixture of
pitch and creosote oil, kept hot and extremely fluid, so that the lower
part of each block for a depth of 3 inches from the bottom of the block
is thoroughly coated with the bituminous mixture. In replacing the
blocks after dipping care is to be taken to knock up the joints tightly.
The paving shall be finally grouted off and finished in all respects as
previously specified for laying wood blocks.”

15
On account of the smallness of so many of the municipalities of Lon-
don, it often becomes necessary to construct improvements from one
borough to another and often across several boroughs. When such improve-
ments are carried out they are under the jurisdiction of the London County
Council, but in each case authority for the work must be given by Parlia-
ment. The widening of the Strand and the cutting through of the Kings
Way to Holborn were done under the authority of the London County
Council. This Council also has jurisdiction over much of the sewer system,
and also of the tramways and motorbuses. . -
Very few building operations were noted, but in every case the work
was done wholly in the property to be improved, hoists being arranged in all
cases on the private property, so that material was delivered or taken from
the building by the hoists over the sidewalk, the truck to receive or deliver
the same being standing adjacent to the curb. This gave an absolutely free
walk, so that pedestrian traffic was not interfered with. . . . . . .
Water hydrants were all below the surface of the street, and, in fact,
this was true in all cities visited except Vienna, where a few were noticed
similar in style to those used in America. In one case in London a street
sprinkler was seen being filled with water from a hydrant in the centre of
the street. - . . .
In the table on page 10 it will be noticed that many of the boroughs
give the amount expended in 1912 for repaving and repairs. London
proper, it will be seen, expended $145,000 for its 48 miles all told of streets,
and the City of Westminster $160,000 for 99 miles. This seems a very . .
small amount when the character of the traffic is taken into consideration.
An opportunity was given of visiting the plant for treating wood blocks
in London. While it was not possible at the time of the visit to see how
all the details of treatment were carried out, it was practically the same as
is in use in America, the blocks being packed into cages, which were run on,
tracks into the cylinders, when the treatment was applied. The amount of
creosote forced into the blocks was 10 pounds per cubic foot, requiring on
an average about four hours. The creosote oil used had a specific gravity
of 1.06, and the blocks then being treated were 4 inches deep.
LONDON PROPER.
The street system of London, as obtained from the Engineer, is 48.5
miles. This consists, as is shown in the table, of wood, 8.5 miles; asphalt,
20 miles; and granite, 10.25 miles, or a total of paved streets of 38.75,
asphalt being the prevailing material. It was said that the wood block does -
not last as long as the asphalt, but costs less for repairs. Asphalt, on a
9-inch concrete base, costs $3.81 per sq. yd., and the wood $3.20 per sq. yd.
The average repairs per year for asphalt is 30 cents per sq. yd., and for
wood 20 cents per sq. yd., although some streets cost as high as 43 cents
per sq. yd. A contract was let for keeping the asphalt pavement in Cheap-
side in repair for fifteen years after it had been laid two years at a price
of 56 cents per sq. ya. per year. . -
An opportunity was had of observing the repaving of Grace Church
Street with wood. Here an old asphalt pavement, with a 9-inch foundation,
had been entirely taken up and replaced with wood block pavement on a
9-inch foundation. This work was being done at a cost of $3.25 per sq. yd.
The roadway was 34 feet wide and two courses of blocks were laid parallel
16
with the curb, with an expansion joint of clay between them. The concrete
was finished perfectly smooth and the blocks laid directly upon it, one man
laying 200 yards per day. The joints were then pitched and covered with
cement grout, and received a final covering of gravel, as in the City of
Westminster. The Engineer stated that this pavement was expected to last
five years.
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.
Fig. 13 shows a view of this street, the smooth concrete being in the
foreground.
Fig. 14 shows the blocks “headed up,” as it is called, upon the concrete,
the completed pavement being in the background.



17
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.
Fig. 15 shows the work actually going on, including the brooming in
of the pitch.
The grating at the left of the picture and in the centre of the street is
a ventilator from the sewer.
Fig. 16 is a view along the gutter, showing the detail used in laying the
blocks parallel to the curb and the great care in fitting the blocks around
the catch basin and manhole head. The square grating at the left of the
picture, in the gutter, shows the typical catch basin of Europe. This type
was seen in almost every city except Paris. The rainfall* is not as heavy
in the cities visited as in New York, nor are the local rains as heavy, so
that as much provision is not required for the run-off as in this country.
These basins are located in London some one hundred feet apart in the
gutters, thus collecting the rain water at short intervals and not allowing
any great accumulation. The expansion joint is plainly seen between the
blocks.
* London, 26”; Glasgow, 30”; Berlin, 32”; Vienna, 24”; Paris, 22.6’’.

18
Fig. 17. Fig. 18.
While the laying of the concrete on this particular street was not seen,
an opportunity was had of observing the method on another street, which is
clearly shown in Fig. 17. It will be noticed that a strip of concrete was
first laid from the street car track to the curb, and then this was afterwards
used as a template for bringing the concrete to an exact grade, the work
being performed with a straightedge.
Fig. 18 shows a repair gang repairing an opening.

19
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.
Fig. 19 is a picture of a narrow street in London proper, looking out
towards the Old Bailey, the object of the picture being to show the grooved
blocks laid on a grade.
Fig. 20 shows a wood pavement at Hyde Park Corners, directly in
front of Hyde Park.

20
Fig. 21. Fig. 22.
Fig. 21 shows an asphalt pavement, with the different kinds of traffic.
Fig. 22 shows the granite pavement in the approach to the Black
Friars' Tunnel, under the River Thames, the picture being taken looking
from the tunnel towards the portal.

21
Fig. 23.
Fig. 23 shows macadam pavement on Whitehall, between the Houses
of Parliament on the left and Westminster Abbey (not shown) on the right.

22
Fig. 24.
Figs. 24 and 25 show views of
Square.
Fig. 25.
different isles-of-safety in Trafalgar


Fig. 26.
Fig. 26 is a view of Great Tower Street, London proper, showing an
abrupt jog in and then out on the right-hand side of the picture.

24
Fig. 27. Fig. 28.
Fig. 27 is a view of Whitehall, looking southerly from Trafalgar
Square, the object being to show the treatment of the curb, when the pave-
ment was lowered, without disturbing the sidewalk.
Fig. 28 is a view looking from the Thames Embankment up towards
the Strand, showing a similar condition of the curb on the left and an
abrupt jog in the street line to the right.


Fig. 29.
Fig. 29 represents a portion of the sidewalk on the river side of the
Thames Embankment, the river being immediately to the left of the picture.
Here the sidewalk is seen to be 12 inches below the top of the curb, a small
catch basin being built to take the water collecting after rains to the sewer.
It was stated that this was caused by the fact that the tramway, which is
indistinctly seen in the picture, was constructed after the street was first
built, and that it was necessary to raise the track and the curb above the
sidewalk. The catch basin prevents any serious inconvenience.
LIVERPOOL.
After the completion of the work in London the next city visited was
Liverpool. This is a large commercial city on the east side of the Mersey,
with an area of 26 square miles and a population of 750,000. Its City
Engineer, Mr. John A. Brodie, previously referred to, has given special
study to road and street work, and has probably had as much to do with its
improvement during the last ten years as any one engineer in Europe. The
pavements of Liverpool, as stated by Mr. Brodie, consists principally of :
Welsh granite, or syenite blocks or sets;
Wood blocks;
Macadam.
--

26
But there are other kinds of pavements, as is shown by the following:
Miles.
Granite or syenite blocks on concrete base, 158.50
Waterbound macadam, 144.27
Cobblestones, 80.31
Old granite (Telford form), 34.79
Pitch-macadam, z 20.50
Wood, 8.52
Random sets, , \ . 5.08
Tar-macadam, 1. ^. * * * 4.50
Trinidad asphalt, 3.50
Asphalt, compressed, * ‘. 1.66
Grit stone (sets), g 1.25
Concrete-macadam blocks, 2.40
Mastic asphalt, .31
465.59
The street pavements of Liverpool have a good reputation, and de-
servedly so. Much has been said in New York during the past few years as
to their condition. One must not expect, however, to find all of the streets
first-class or the materials up to date, as is shown by the table; but it can
be said that most of them are in first-class condition for their character, and
that they are free from holes and depressions.
Much surprise was expressed by the fact that there were over 80 miles
of cobblestone pavement. This is a type of pavement that has been used to a
great extent in American cities, principally on the seaboard, but at the
present time it has practically all been displaced by some modern material,
except in the City of Baltimore, where the work of replacement is rapidly
going on.
For heavy traffic, granite or syenite sets 5 to 8 inches long, 4 inches wide
and 6% inches deep are used. These are laid upon a foundation of Port-
land cement concrete 8 inches thick in the neighborhood of the docks and
warehouses, where it is sometimes subject to loads of 30 tons on four wheels,
and on concrete 6 inches thick for the ordinary heavy city traffic. Upon
the concrete is spread a cushion of fine gravel 34 inch thick, the joints
being filled with a gravel grouted with a hot pitch and sand mixture.
Sets 4 by 4 by 6 inches deep similarly laid are also used in heavy
traffic streets, and in streets of lighter traffic sets 3% inches square and
5 or 6 inches deep are used. Also, 4-inch cube sets are used on a 6-inch
concrete base, or on broken stone 10 inches thick for light traffic, such as
main roads in the outer districts and side streets in the central part of the
à As a rule, however, at the present time pitch-macadam is laid for this
traffic.
The cost of the foregoing pavements, exclusive of foundations, ranges
from $2.50 per sq. yd. for the 6-inch sets to $1.87% for the 4-inch cubes.
WOOD BLOCKS.
The wood that is principally used for this class of pavement is what is
known as Australian hard wood and red pine, the latter only being creo-
Soted. The foundation consists of Portland cement concrete 6 to 8 inches
deep, according to conditions, the surface being worked smooth, so that the
blocks, which are approximately 9 inches long, 3 inches wide, and 5 to 6
inches deep, are laid directly upon the concrete bed, with close joints, which,
27
however, receive a final grouting of pitch mixture. This pitch mixture con-
sists of coal tar and pitch fluxed with about 40 gallons of creosote oil per ton.
The hardwood blocks are used principally on heavy traffic streets, but in
latter years the pine blocks are coming into more general use.
The hardwood pavement costs from $2.87% to $3.87% per sq. yj., and
the soft wood from $2.16 to $2.75 per sq. yd., without foundation.
The pine block specification states:
“They shall be impregnated with creosote oil of approved quality,
to the extent of not less than eight (8) pounds per cubic foot of timber.”
MACADAM.
The pitch-macadam previously referred to is largely taking the place
of the waterbound macadam and also the cobblestone pavement. It is laid
to a depth of from 3% to 4% inches, in two layers, the lower layer being
broken to a 2%-inch gauge, and the top surface to 1% inches. Each layer
is put down dry and continually rolled after the grouting of the pitch and
sand mixture has been applied until the surface is thoroughly consolidated.
The foundation is generally broken stone 10 inches deep, as for ordinary
macadam, but in some cases 6-inch concrete has been used. When this
pitch-macadam takes the place of cobblestone pavement the cobblestones are
lowered, rolled, and the pitch-macadam laid directly upon them. The cost is
25 cents per sq. yd. per inch of depth.
Fig. 30.
It will be seen that the small 3 or 4 inch cube pavement is not being

28
laid, and the City Engineer stated that it had not been for some years. The
small blocks now in use, while being not more than 3 or 4 inches square on
the surface, sometimes extend to a depth of 6 inches. This makes a pave-
ment which in the Liverpool parlance is known as “pegtop.” It will wear a
long time, but is expensive on account of the work necessary to make the
blocks. A sample of this is shown in Fig. 30, which is in front of the City
Engineers' office. This pavement was laid in 1886 and was in good con-
dition in 1913. It did not, however, at that time seem to be having a traffic
that would give it any material wear.
-
º-ºººº...
º
Fig. 31. Fig. 32.
Fig. 31 shows another pavement of the same character where there
are no street car tracks. This is in good condition and is as smooth as
appears in the picture, and without disturbance will last a long time.
Fig. 32 shows a type of construction that was seen in England and
Scotland, but not on the Continent. This consists of large granite stones,
called technically, “wheelers,” as shown in the picture, laid on heavy traffic
streets, not as might be supposed to save the pavement, but to reduce the
traction. As the custom is for traffic to keep to the left in Liverpool, as in
London, they are naturally laid on the left up-hill side.

29
Fig. 33. Fig. 34.
Fig. 33 shows the standard heavy traffic granite pavement on the street
that runs parallel to the river and where the heaviest loads are seen. . Its
surface is smooth and even, but the joints are not particularly well broken,
nor is it much different from the standard American pavements.
Fig. 34 shows an inferior street, at right angles to that shown in
Fig. 33, where the traffic is apparently light and the pavement has not been
kept up to the standard.

30
-
- - -
Fig. 35. Fig. 36.
Fig. 35 shows a crossing on a heavy traffic street, where the stones have
been grooved to afford the horses a better foothold.
Fig. 36 shows a portion of the pavement on a principal street coming
down from the Lime Street station, on a heavy grade, where it was necessary
to intercept the storm water by a transverse run covered with a cast iron
grating, which is shown in about the central portion of the picture. The
catch basin inlets in Liverpool are of the same nature as those seen in
London, so that on grades it is necessary to have some special device for
intercepting the water.

31
Fig. 37.
Fig. 37, while taken in Chester, is a fair representation of the cobble-
stone pavements of Liverpool, of which, as has been stated, there are over
80 miles. The older residents of Brooklyn, where, in 1888, there were 308
miles of this pavement, need no description of its character.

32
Fig. 38.
Fig. 38 is a good representation of the concrete-macadam blocks re-
ferred to in the list of pavement mileages. These blocks are formed in
molds in the yard, 2 ft. long by 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 5 inches deep. They
are allowed to set for six months, when they are laid on the concrete foun-
dation and the joints filled with cement grout. The pavement shown in the
picture when seen was in good condition, but, as would be inferred from
the picture, the traffic is very light. This pavement costs, exclusive of foun-
dation, $1.45 per sq. yj.
The amount allowed for maintenance in Liverpool is approximately
$140,000 per year.
The original pavement is paid for by the property owners. The repav-
ing, however, is paid for by the city. To meet the cost of a pavement,
30-year bonds are issued, one-thirtieth of the amount being paid per year,
the life of the pavement being taken at thirty years. Should any pave-
ment, however, not last thirty years, when it is to be replaced the amount
due on the first cost is provided for in the next year's budget, so that each
pavement starts off with nothing against it except the one payment.
The public utilities in Liverpool, except the gas and the telephone, are
owned by the city. This includes street railways, which are also operated
by city employees. It is estimated that the profit from the tramways in
1912 was $500,000.
On account of obnoxious laws that were passed some three years ago,
practically no building has since been done in the City of Liverpool. Very



33
few openings were noticed in the pavements, as would be natural under
such a condition. In 1812, however, pavement was relaid over 43 miles of
trenches. :
An interesting condition was noticed relating to the barricading of
streets during processions. On streets where parades were about to pass
during any local celebration, cylinders about 8 inches in diameter and 12
inches deep were set some 9 feet apart back of the curb for the purpose of
sustaining posts, which in turn would sustain barricades. The object of this
was to keep the crowds back from the roadway when the parade was passing.
These when not in use are closed with iron covers. -
Liverpool was visited just prior to the first coming of the present King
of England. The city was in an uproar, and extensive arrangements were
being made for his reception. In many cases the barricades were being
erected in the roadway rather than back of the curb, it being anticipated
that the crowds would be larger than usual and that the sidewalks would not
be wide enough to hold them. It was expected that the police could not
keep the crowds back from the parade without these physical barricades.
Practically all substructures are in the sidewalk area. -
Mr. Brodie has made a good deal of a study as regards actual wear
and tear upon pavements under different traffics. In order to measure this
exactly he established a plan of inserting steel sockets imbedded in concrete
just back of the curb and in the centre of the roadway, in the latter case
being low enough so as to be protected from the traffic itself. He then has
a straightedge, to which is attached at each end a vertical steel bar, being
inserted in the sockets so that it will be in exactly the same position each
time it is applied. After the straightedge is put in place, measurements
are taken down from it to the surface of the pavement and the distance
noted. The difference between any measurements and those taken pre-
viously gives the wear on the pavement. Traffic conditions are also noted
at the places where the measurements are made, so that a very accurate
determination can be made of the actual wear under the traffic observation.
This, of course, means that the foundation of the pavement, no matter what
its kind, must be absolutely solid; otherwise the result would be a difference
in surfaces at different times rather than an actual wear caused by the traffic.
The city received bids for sets to be delivered between the 1st day of
April, 1913, and the 31st day of March, 1914. The prices received were
per ton. The size of the sets was given in the schedule, and the specifica-
tions provided as follows: . • *
“The Sets to be supplied shall be equal in quality as regards tough-
ness and rate of wear under traffic to samples submitted by the Con-
tractor, and they shall be properly squared. The Sets shall be accu-
rately, gauged, and this will be tested by caliper, as is customary in
the City Engineer's Department, previous to accepting delivery. The
maximum deviation from the specified size of the Sets shall be a 54-inch
in depth and breadth respectively. Sets where there is a difference of
more than a quarter of an inch between the broad and thin ends will
not be accepted.” - . . .
The specifications for coal tar, pitch and creosote oil, which the city
buys, are as follows: : . . .
Coal Tar Pitch.
“1. The pitch must yield no matter volatile below 270 deg. C.,
34
when subjected to dry distillation, and its total volatile organic matter
must not fall below 30 per cent.
“2. It must not contain more than 80 per cent. of its weight of
matter insoluble in Petroleum spirit of 0.700 specific gravity (boiling)
and must be free from extraneous matter, such as sand and grit.
“3. It must twist fairly after immersion for two minutes in water
at 60 deg. C., but not under 55 deg. C.” -
Special Creosote Oil.
“1. The Oil supplied shall be obtained exclusively by the distilla-
tion of Coal Tar, and shall not contain any portion of the distillate ob-
tained below 240 deg. C. No portion of it shall re-distill below 240
deg. C. &
“2. The Oil as obtained by distillation of Coal Tar shall not be
treated in any way, either by the addition of any Coal Tar product, or
by the extraction of any of its constituents, excepting such extraction
as may be required to comply with Clause 3. It shall contain no
moisture.
“3. It shall contain no solid matter at 15 deg. C., and shall have
a specific gravity of not less than 1.075 (taking water as 1.000 at 15
deg. C.).
“4. It must contain not less than 40 per cent. of its constituents
that do not distill over below 320 deg. C., and the 60 per cent. which
does distill over below 320 deg. C. shall contain 10 per cent. of tar-acids
to be extracted by soda sp. gr. 1.125 (water 1.000).”
Special Heavy Oil.
“1. The Oil shall be obtained exclusively by the distillation of
Coal Tar. No portion of it shall redistill below 290 deg. C. The dis-
tillation to be tested by putting 100 C. C. of oil in a 6 oz. glass retort
having a neck about 13 inches long and heating with a bunsen flame 3
inches high, the thermometer to be so placed that the bulb is 54 inch
clear of the bottom of the retort.
“2. The Oil as obtained by distillation of Coal Tar shall not be
treated in any way, either by the addition of any Coal Tar product, or
by the extraction of any of its constituents, excepting such extraction
as may be required to comply with Clause 3. It shall contain no
moisture.
“3. It shall deposit no solid matter when cooled to 15 deg. C., and
shall have a specific gravity at 15.5 deg. C. of not less than 1.1125
(water at 1,000).
“4. It must contain not less than 78 per cent. of its constituents
that do not distill over below 320 deg. C., the distillation to be con-
ducted as described in Clause 1.”
35
GILASGOW.
The next city visited after Liverpool was Glasgow. This is an impor-
tant manufacturing city, situated on both sides of the River Clyde. It has
an area of 80 square miles and a population of 1,032,228. Its pavement
mileage, previous to the annexation of the last 7,000 acres, was:
Granite and Whin sets, 111
Macadam, 113
Asphalt,
Wood, 21
Tar-macadam,
-,
Total, 245
On expressing some surprise that a city of one million people should
have only 245 miles of pavement it was stated that this was the mileage that
was under the jurisdiction of the Master of Works, who is the official in
charge of all public works, but that there was about the same amount under
the jurisdiction of private property owners. It seems that when the large
land owners in the vicinity of Glasgow improved their property they sold
the houses leasing the land, and retaining their title to the street and their
obligation to keep it in repair. This will be referred to later on.
Practically all public utilities are owned and operated by the munic-
ipality, the telephone and telegraph system, however, being under the juris-
diction of the Government officials. Water mains, sewers and electric light
conduits are laid in the roadway, but gas mains are laid under the side-
walks. The total number of openings made in the street pavement for the
year ending May 31, 1912, was 8,582. These openings are temporarily re-
stored by the people who make them, but permanently repaved by the munic-
ipality after they have had time to settle, generally about six months.
STONE PAVEMENTS.
The greater part of the stone pavement of Glasgow has evidently been
laid for some time. Some blocks in the streets were seen that were 16 inches
long and 6 inches wide. The stone pavement being laid at the present time
consists of granite and Whin setts, the latter being the cheaper and less
durable material, and is laid on the lighter traffic streets.
36
Fig. 39. Fig. 40.
Special pavements that are being laid, however, are very different, and
are probably as good as any granite pavement that your engineer has seen
anywhere, if not the best. Fig 39 shows very clearly the kind of pavement
that was being laid last summer, showing the character and size of the
blocks distinctly. These blocks were dressed on every side but the bottom
and axed upon the top. They make, however, an expensive pavement, costing
in Glasgow $6.25 per sq. yj. This particular pavement replaced an asphalt
pavement that had been down for about ten years.
Fig. 40 shows a general view of a gang at work on the same street, but
it also shows the part of the street where the pavement was completed.

37
It is the practice of the City of Glasgow to buy the paving blocks and
furnish them to the contractor who does the work. Bids are received on all
stone blocks by the ton. The specifications for stone setts read as follows:
“Each ordinary sett shall be properly dressed and squared on all
its faces, shall be level on the top and bed, and have sides and ends
parallel and square. Setts of each class shall be truly gauged. . No
variation in width or depth greater than one-quarter of an inch over
or under the sizes specified on orders will be allowed. All setts must
be free from cracks and flaws. Setts with bulges or hollows will not
be accepted.”
There is also a special specification for what is called “crossing setts,”
which take the place of bridge stones in our pavements. These are dressed
more elaborately. - - -
The sizes as given in the bid are as follows:
Ordinary Setts.
3% inches broad by 6 inches deep.
3% & & 6 & & 6 & 6 & &
£ 6 & Cº. & 6 & 6 & 6
& & “ & © & 6 66
square “
& & 66
& & & 6 & 6
i
i
Crossing Setts.
4 inches broad by 6 inches deep.
4 6 & “ 6 & 7 - 6 & & 6
5
5
& & & 6 & 6 6 & & & &
& & & 6 & 6 7 & © 6 (;
The specifications also state that setts, other than cubes or pegtogs, may
vary in length from 6 to 10 inches, but the average length supplied under
any order shall not exceed 9 inches. - -
The time of delivery runs from the date of the acceptance of the bid to
May 31 of the following year. -
WHEELERs.
Reference has been made to the wheelers used in Liverpool. While
they were noticed in several other places in Great Britain, they seemed to
be used to a greater extent in Glasgow than anywhere else, presumably on
account of the grades and also the heavy loads. In this city there are at the
present time in use 10.75 miles of these wheelers. They run in size from
10 to 15 inches wide and from 6 to 8 inches deep, according to conditions.
They cost about $1.40 per running foot. - -
The specifications for the pitch to be used in joint filling read as follows:
“Pitch grout shall consist of . Pitch and Oil made from pure
coal tar, manufactured in gas-works by the destructive distillation of
coal in close retorts. No blast furnace, iron-work, or coke-oven pitch
or oil will be allowed to be used. The Oil shall be of a specific gravity
38
of from 1.032 to 1.050, at 60 deg. F. The flash test shall not be under
116 deg. F. Sufficient oil shall be used to produce a plastic Grout.
The Grout shall be boiling hot when used. The Contractor shall inti-
mate to the Master of Works the names of the persons from whom
the Pitch and Oil are obtained. The Pitch Boilers shall be so con-
structed that the vapours from the boiling material shall be conveyed
into the Furnace, which shall be fired with the best coke. No coal shall
be used.” -
The contract requires the contractor to take the blocks from designated
places where they have been delivered by the block contractor.
The concrete for the foundation is mixed in the proportion of 1 part
Portland cement, 1% parts sand, and 4 parts broken Whin stones. The
stones are broken so as to pass through a 2-inch ring in any direction and
screened with a 34-inch mesh screen. The materials passing through the
screen are rejected, but, if allowed by the Master of Works, can be used in
place of sand in the concrete.
The specifications for Portland cement require that it shall conform
to the British Standard Specification drawn up by the British Standards
Committee.
One clause in the contract which seems strange to an American is that
which provides for arbitration in case of any dispute between the contractor
and the representative of the city. It reads as follows:
“Should any difference of opinion arise, either during the con-
struction of the works or subseqeunt to the completion thereof, regard-
ing any matter connected with the Contract or works which has not
been hereinbefore specially precluded, the same shall be submitted to
and determined by Mr. Gordon T. Frew, of Messrs. Kyle & Frew,
C. E., Glasgow, whom failing an Arbiter to be appointed in terms of
the Arbitration (Scotland) Act, 1894, as sole Arbiter, and the decree
or decrees, decisions, valuations, and awards of the above named Ar-
biter shall be final and binding on all parties, and shall not be subject
to review in any court of law.” - -
Another clause provides that on all work done by order of the Master
of Works between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. the following additions will be made
to the contract rates: *
Foundations, 12 cts. per sq. ya.
Laying setts, 16 cts. “ “ “
Extra excavation, 18 cts. “ “ “
ASPHALT.
The asphalt work is done by contract, including the furnishing of mate-
rial. The general conditions are the same as those for stone. The asphalt
is the natural rock asphalt that is in such general use in Europe, and the
requirements are as follows:
“The rock asphalte shall be new, pure, natural, bituminous rock, of
uniform texture, finely ground, and free from all impurities, and shall
contain not less than 9 per cent, or more than 13 per cent. of natural
bitumen.” - - -
39
It is laid on concrete similar to that used for stone pavements to such
a depth that its thickness, after the expiration of six months from the date
of completion, shall not be less than 2 inches.
WOOD BLOCKS.
There is very little wood block pavement in use in Glasgow. The speci-
fications for the blocks themselves read: .
“Blocks shall be of the best quality of Australian hard wood, cut
from large logs, solid and free from sapwood. The dimensions of the
blocks shall be 5 inches by 9 inches by 3 inches.”
TAR MACADAM.
Nine thousand yards of tar-macadam were laid during the year ending
May 31, 1912. The city does not attempt to make specifications for this
work, the contract providing: w .
“The Contractor shall describe fully the nature of the tar-macadam
tendered for, the mode of laying and the time which will be occupied
in executing the work,” - . . . . . .
—the best bid being accepted. . .
During the year 51,119 sq. yds. of new pavement were laid, as follows:
Granite setts, 11,143
Whin setts, - 6,852
Tar-macadam, - - 9,078
Asphalt, 24,045
The average price per sq. yd. for the different materials was:
Granite setts, - $3.63 .
Whin setts, 2.19
Smooth pavements (tar-macadam not
being separated from the asphalt
in the cost), - 2.84
The contract required a maintenance on the stone pavements of six
months, and for the asphalt pavement a maintenance of 10 years, the first
five years being included in the original price. For the second five years
the price ranges from 8 cents to 20 cents per sq. yo. per year, according to
conditions. The contract for one asphalt pavement included full mainte-
nance for 10 years. * * * - -
The price for the tar-macadam streets included free maintenance for
two years and a price of from 4 to 6 cents per sq. ya. per year for the eight
subsequent years. This would seem to indicate that the tar-macadam is
cheaper than the asphalt, but the tar-macadam was undoubtedly laid on
minor streets where the traffic was not great. - -
In addition to the foregoing work was also done upon streets that are
owned by the “proprietors” previously referred to. This work was done by
authority of an official known as the “Dean of Guild,” according to special
laws that were passed in 1866 and 1900. This work was payable by the
“proprietors.” It was nearly all macadam, and amounted to $34,178, in-
cluding about $3,500 that was paid for sewer repairs.
The amount expended during the year for repairs to streets paid out of
40
revenue was $351,205, in addition to which, however, there was paid for
work done for other departments $76,110. Macadam roads were repaired
at a cost of $61,285, the average cost per yard being 3.9 cents.
SANDING STREETS.
Although the mileage of smooth pavements in the city is small, quite
an amount of work is done during the year in sprinkling them with sand.
For the year ending May 31, 1912, there were used for this purpose 7,742
tons of sand which cost $14,893.00.
Fig. 41. - Fig. 42.
Fig. 41 shows a street paved with the improved granite, as well as the
double-decked street cars in use.
Fig. 42 shows an old granite pavement, considerably worn, but with
the surface in good condition.

41
Fig. 43. Fig. 44.
Fig. 43 shows a rubblestone pavement, which was probably the worst
specimen seen on the trip. When this view was taken the Engineer re-
quested that it be not shown as a sample of Glasgow's pavements. He was
given the assurance that it would not be.
Fig. 44 shows the wheelers in use, a truck using the same being in the
centre of the picture.

Fig. 45. Fig. 46.
Fig. 45 shows a street car track laid in a wood pavement, with cast
iron toothing against the rails. In another street stones 10 inches wide and
some 3 or 4 feet long were laid adjacent to the rails, the pavement being
laid up against these large stones.
Fig. 46 shows a unique double-deck ferryboat which is used for carrying
passengers and vehicles across the Clyde. It is almost a moving bridge, as
the river is narrow at this point, both banks being shown in the picture.

43
IE DINIBURGH I.
From Glasgow to Edinburgh is a ride of about fifty-five minutes on an
express train. This latter city has an area of 18 square miles, and is very
hilly. For that reason it is not adapted to smooth pavements, as might be
expected from the mileage of streets, which is as follows:
Stone, 89.5
Macadam, 85.5
Wood, 3.0
Concrete, 3.0
Asphalt, 1.5
Tar-macadam, 1.5
Total, 184.0
This mileage refers to public streets only, there being, as in Glasgow,
a certain number of streets that are still controlled by private individuals.
It may be of interest to know that the area of the streets, including foot-
ways, is one-twelfth that of the entire city.
It will be noticed that the pavement of the city consists almost entirely
of stone and macadam. Princes Street, however, which fronts on West
Princes Street Gardens, one of the finest retail business streets in Great
Britain, is paved with wood, the grade being nearly level.
Many of the streets are extremely wide, some being practically 100 feet
between curbs. Traffic in the city, however, is light; there is not much
general business, and stone pavements properly laid will last generations on
many streets.
The total expenditures for street work during the year ending May 15,
1912, was $252,329.00, of which, however, little more than $9,000.00 was
expended on the private streets.
About 5,000 openings per year are made in the pavements.
The specifications for stone block provide that granite setts shall be of
the ordinary lengths, by 4 inches broad and 6 inches deep, bedded on not
less than 2 inches of sand, the joints to be filled flush with boiling tar pitch
prepared and tempered with creosote oil. It is also provided that the new
setts must be dressed within 34 inch of scheduled sizes.
The specifications for joint filling require it to be:
“* * * composed of the best quality pitch and creosote oil, boiled
together in proportions of about 10 cwt. of pitch to 15 gallons of oil.
The pitch shall be free from grit or sand, but shall contain a sufficient
proportion of heavy non-volatile oils. The creosote oil shall be ob-
tained only from coal tar, and be of at least 1.06 specific gravity at 60
deg. F. The mixture shall be tempered so that, when boiled and cooled
in water to 60 deg. F. it shall be capable of stretching out to fine
threads, at least 36 inches long, before rupture; and—with a detached
3 feet length—be capable of striking a hard blow on any smooth surface,
without cracking.”
& The specifications for cement require that it shall be the best London
Portland, with a specific gravity of 3.10, and fineness to pass 97 per cent.
through a sieve of 5,776 meshes per square inch; to have a tensile strength
of 400 lbs. per square inch, without injury, with pure cement, and 120 lbs.
44
per square inch with a mixture of 3 to 1 standard sand and cement; the
test to be made in each case when the briquettes are 7 days old, the last 6 of
which being under water.
The specifications for concrete require it to be 6 inches in minimum
depth, and composed of 4 measures of Whinstone, broken to 1%-inch size,
to 2 measures of fine, clean pit gravel, passing through a 34-inch sieve, and
1 measure of cement.
It will be noted that the concrete in both Glasgow and Edinburgh is
made much richer than in the other cities.
The contract provides that the contractor shall maintain the pavement
for a period of 12 months, and that 5 per cent. of the total cost of the work
will be retained during said period as security for fulfillment.
The clause in regard to arbitration is somewhat different from that in
Glasgow, and provides that, in case of any difference of opinion, the deci-
sion shall be submitted and referred to the City Road Surveyor, whom
failing or declining to act, to any other party whom the Corporation may
specially appoint, the contracting parties being bound and obliged to abide
by and fulfill any decision or decree pronounced on the matters submitted.
ASPHALT.
The specifications require that the asphalt shall be new pure bituminous
limestone rock of uniform texture and hardness, and of very fine grain, and
specifies four mines from which it can be taken. It requires that it shall
be free from all substances capable of becoming oxydized or otherwise
affected by atmospheric action, and from all adulteration of previously
heated or used material of any description whatever, and contain not less
than 10 per cent. and not more than 12 per cent. pure natural bitumen.
The specifications for the cement are the same as those for stone block,
although the concrete itself, which is laid 6 inches deep, in one body, must
be composed of clean, hard freestone, machine broken to pass through a
1-inch screen; 1 measure of fine clean stone grit, passing through a 9%-inch
screen, and 1 measure of cement.
The specifications require that the surface of the concrete shall be fin-
ished thoroughly close and smooth, and carefully ruled in from suitable
curved screeds to the camber required. -
The executive officer of the Corporation Roads Department is called the
City Road Surveyor, and he has a departmental staff averaging 208 men,
with a wages bill amounting to $71,950 during the year ending May 15,
1912. There were laid by the repair gangs 120,000 sq. yds. of stone or
wood blocks, and under contract 16,500 sq. yds. of new pavement, exclusive
of private street work. e
The contractor, when he makes his bid, in addition to stating a price for
the actual work, also bids for maintaining the pavement for a period of
three years after its completion; repairs to be necessary
“* * * in the event of subsidence or other deformation, wear, tear,
cracking, wasting or distintergration, from traffic or other ordinary use
or natural cause (openings or other such interference excepted), or
from having become otherwise unsuitable for traffic.”
In the case of asphalt, as well as granite, 5 per cent. of the total value
of the contract is retained for security for repairs. -
Although, on account of conditions, not much new paving work is
45
being done in Edinburgh, some very interesting work was seen in connec-
tion with tar-macadam roads. The interesting part of the process was that
the stone and tar are mixed together, and not used until after the mixture
becomes cool; sometimes several weeks elapsing before it is laid upon the
road. -
Fig. 48.
Fig. 47 shows a general view of the Corporation yard in Edinburgh.
Fig. 48 shows the material as it is stored in the yard, two sizes of stone
being clearly discernible. -
An opportunity was given to visit a road being constructed of this mate-
rial in the southern part of the city. The foundation course was of rough
cobble, rolled until it had become solid. Upon this was spread the first
course of the tarred stone, 1% to 2 inches in size and 4 inches deep. Upon
this course was laid another 1%-inch course composed of 34-inch Whin-
stone, and then this latter course surfaced with 34-inch screened limestone.
After these three courses were laid upon the foundation the roller was
applied and the rolling continued until the pavement was hard and satis-
factory. -
This seems, especially in this country, where such material is always
used hot, a remarkable procedure, but the results were certainly good.



46
Fig. 49. Fig. 50.
This particular road was being widened, and Fig. 49 shows the work
of construction, the coarse stone being in the foreground and the fine in the
back, but showing very clearly in the picture.
Fig. 50 is a view of the road as completed showing in the background a
further portion not yet widened.

47 -
Fig. 51. Fig. 52.
Fig. 51 shows a street in the finest part of the residential section, the
roadway of which was constructed in this manner and had received no
repairs in the four years it had been in use.
Fig. 52 shows a gang laying concrete and the methods used to obtain the
smooth surface spoken of in the asphalt specifications.

48
Fig. 53. Fig. 54.
Fig. 53 shows an exaggerated case of a roadway being depressed below
the sidewalk and the methods pursued to overcome this depression, and
Fig. 54 is a detailed view of the sidewalk. This picture also shows on the
curb line a metal structure used instead of the ordinary underground electric
manhole. A similar device was seen in Glasgow.

49
Fig. 55. Fig. 56.
Fig. 55 shows how on residential streets foot stones are allowed to
project beyond the curb.
Fig. 56 shows a typical street in a Scotch village, this picture being
taken in the Village of Roslyn, some eight miles from Edinburgh.

50
AMISTERIDAMI.
Although it was not intended to make a detailed study of any cities in
Holland or Belgium, a side trip was made to these countries for general
information.
- ºlº-
- " -
Fig. 58.
Fig. 57 is a view of one of the principal streets of Amsterdam, on the
left being the Amstel Hotel, the principal hotel of the city. It will be
noticed that the porch of the hotel is built beyond the main building to the
curb line, and that there is a space only about 2 feet in width in front of this
porch projecting into the roadway for the accommodation of foot traffic.
Fig. 58 shows a typical Dutch street in one of the islands in the Zuyder
Zee.

51
BRUSSELS.
After spending a short time in Holland, Brussels was next visited. This
is a beautiful city; its streets are well paved, the material generally being
stone, as there are many steep grades. A new pavement of wood was being
laid on a boulevard, the blocks being 7 inches long, 2 inches wide and 3
inches deep, and treated with sulphate of copper. Very little wood pave-
ment was, however, seen in Brussels.
Fig. 59. Fig. 60.
Fig. 59 shows a stone paved street containing an underground trolley
track, the slot being shown adjacent to the left-hand rail.
Fig.: 60 shows a motor car with trailer, which is in common use in
Brussels as well as in some Dutch and many other cities, the power in this
case being the overhead trolley. In Brussels street cars are operated by
underground and overhead trolleys, and by steam; one train of three cars
operated by steam was noticed in the central part of the city. On the over-
head system the cross wires supporting the feed wires are generally fastened
to buildings, thus doing away with the use of trolley poles. This same
practice was observed in several Dutch cities.

52
-
--
º: ====
ºf
Fig. 61. Fig. 62.
Fig. 61 shows a type of motorbus which is in quite general use.
Fig. 62 shows a bus of a different character drawn by horses. Ordi-
narily only two horses are used, but extra ones are stationed at the foot
of steep grades to assist the regular team in drawing the bus up the hill.
This picture was taken on a steep hill.

53
- - ---
-
- -
W.
-
º
º
|
2.
|
º
|
Fig. 63. Fig. 64.
Fig. 63 shows a distributing telephone pole in Brussels. Poles of simi-
lar character were also seen in Dutch cities. It will be noticed that the
ornamental character of the pole was given serious consideration.
In walking on one of the principal streets the portal shown in Fig. 64
was noticed. Upon closer examination it was found that the houses shown
on the right of the picture were on a street which ran at right angles to the
one upon which the observer was, and that there were three stories of these
buildings below the level of the street, the arch shown in the picture being
the portal to the stairway that led to the street on the lower level.
BERLIN.
The next place visited for special study was Berlin. This city is situ-
ated on a plain nearly level, and has an area of 24.5 square miles and a
population of 2,070,000. There are a number of quite large cities, like
Charlottenburg, for instance, adjacent to it, however, so that the entire
population directly tributary to the city is said to be practically 3,000,000.
The pavement of the city is almost all granite and asphalt, divided as
follows:
Sq. Yas. Miles.
Granite, 4,410,936 251
Asphalt, 3,594,096 204
Wood, 155,200 9
Macadam, 8,168 0.5
Total, 8,168,400 464.5

54
The data given by Berlin was in meters, and this was reduced to miles
of streets having a roadway 30 feet wide. -
The city is divided into two parts by the River Spree, and the central
portion, where are located the retail business, the Emperor's Palace, the City
Hall, and other public buildings, is paved almost entirely with asphalt, wood
being used for aproaches to the bridges over the river and the different
railroads. - - - -
The asphalt used is the so-called rock asphalt, and the streets paved
with it were in remarkably good condition. It is laid by contract, the price
including free maintenance for nominally five years, but the year in which
the pavement is laid is one of the five, so that really the maintenance begins
four years from the 1st of April first following the laying of the pavement.
At the same time a contract is made for keeping the pavement in repair for
an additional 15 years, or until the pavement is between 19 and 20 years old.
The price for this work is $3.12% for the first cost, including the free main-
tenance, and 12% cents per square meter per year for the following 15
years. Contracts have also been made for keeping the same streets in repair
for the period of life of from 20 to 30 years, at a cost of 15 cents per square
meter per year, and for the period of life between 30 and 40 years 17%
cents per square meter per year. The Engineer said that when the pavement
became 40 years old he did not know what they would do. This does not
mean, of course, that the original pavement would last necessarily 40 years.
or even 20 years, but that the contractor would for these prices maintain a
pavement on the street. The Engineer stated that often when a contractor
had a long period of maintenance he would entirely resurface the street,
deeming it cheaper to do it in that way than to repair holes as they occurred.
The age of the oldest asphalt pavement in the city was 31 years.
The specifications for maintenance require that the asphalt surface, as
well as the concrete foundation, shall be kept continuously in a good, usable
condition, the asphalt to have no defective places or cracks or holes, the
surface to be even and regular so as not to hinder the running off of the
water. At the end of the 19 years of maintenance the concrete foundation
must have a thickness of at least 7.9 inches (20 cm.) and the asphalt a
thickness of at least 0.6 of an inch (15 mm.). . . -
The price of 12% cents per square meter for the maintenance is based
upon the understanding that the contractor will secure contracts from the
city amounting to at least 5,000 square meters per year. Should, however,
the new pavement be less than 5,000 square meters in any one year, the
price for repairs would be 6% cents additional.
In the construction of an asphalt pavement concrete is laid 7.9 inches
(20 cm.) thick. The concrete is made of cement and broken stone or gravel
in the proportion of 374 lbs. of cement to 1 cubic meter of gravel or stone.
The specifications also provide that concrete must not be laid when the
temperature is less than 36.5 deg. F. Also that the broken granite or lime-
stone to be used for the concrete must have not over 4 to 6 sides, be free of
earth and clay, and washed thoroughly with water before using.
The asphalt itself must have a thickness when finished of 1.96 inches
(5 cm.).
A novel feature of the requirements is as regards the amount of work
to be done per day, the provision being that the smallest daily work between
April 1 and October 1, for working days, where the total contract is for an
area of 2,500 square meters, is, for concrete under the street railway tracks,
55
100 square meters; concrete as foundation for the asphalt, 200 square
meters; and asphalt pavement itself, 200 square meters. Where the area of
the contract is from 2,500 to 5,000 square meters, 50 per cent. more work
shall be done per day than as above stated; and where the area is more than
5,000 square meters the daily amount of work must be double.
The contract provides that the following wages shall be paid for extra
work that is required by the city:
Stonesetter finisher, or asphalt worker, per hour, 31% cts.
- 6 (; -
Stonesetter of posts (journeyman), * 2834 “.
Stonesetter journeyman, “ 26% “
Stonesetter apprentice, “ 10 “
Rammer, “ 20 “
Workman, . “ 15 “
Stonebreaker, - “ 22% “
Stonemason, working sandstone, “ 30 “
Stonemason, working granite, - “ 31% “
Stonemason journeyman, - 25 “
Stonemason apprentice, & & 10 “
For overtime up to 9 p.m. add 25 per cent.
For overtime after 9 p.m. and for Sundays and holidays add
50 per cent. -
STONE PAVEMENT.
The specifications for stone blocks require that all stones must be taken
from the hardest, toughest and completely sound parts of the quarry, and
must consist of similar, similarly hard and similarly resisting material, and
bear no trace of incipient decay. The stones on their top surface must be
right-angled and worked even, full and sharp-edged. Edges otherwise must
be as straight as possible. The bottom of the stones shall be parallel to the
top, and in stones of Class II. be at least 4/5 of the top face, and in Class
III. 2/3 of the top face. . -
The sizes range from 5.9-6.3 inches to 7.5-7.9 inches in height; 5.9–11.8
inches in length, and from 4.7-5.1 inches to 5.1-5.5 inches in width. At least
15 per cent. of the stones shall be of a length of from 9.4 to 11.8 inches.
The stones are purchased by the square meter. Stone pavement costs on
an average $4.87% per square meter, with a four-year guarantee. The cost
of maintenance is about 6 cents per sq. ya. per year, for 20 years after
guarantee, the average life being from 25 to 30 years. -
The authorities prefer asphalt to stone, and consider that it is cheaper.
wood BLOCK.
This material was first used in Berlin in 1879, and since that time both
hard and soft woods have been used, although not to any great extent, as is
shown by the mileage figures. The material used at present is a Swedish
deal, and costs, when impregnated by dipping, $4.06 per sq. yd., with a 5-year
guarantee, and $4.87% per sq. yd. when creosoted, with a 10-year guar-
antee. The blocks in each case are 5 1/10 inches deep. The average cost
of repairs is about 20 cents per square meter. In arriving at costs the mark
has been taken at 25 cents. - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
The gentleman who contributed the article on wood pavements for the
International Road Congress stated that a wood pavement which in Berlin
would be considered as requiring renewal would in other cities not only be
considered satisfactory, but would be so for quite a number of years. The
Berlin authorities believe that the durability of a wood pavement is gov-
erned not so much by heavy as by dense traffic.
The average life of the soft wood pavement in Berlin is taken at 12
years, provided it has been kept in good condition. One case is instanced
where a street that had been down part of it ten years and part of it fifteen
years had to be renewed because the blocks had worn, though evenly, from
2 to 2.4 inches; while on the Frederichstrasse in one instance soft wood had
a life of only four years, when it was replaced with hard wood, which was
in good condition at the end of eleven years, the height of the blocks in this
case being 5 1/10 inches. In some cases, however, the hard wood has only
lasted six years. ;
An experiment was tried in Berlin in the maintenance of wood by
taking up old blocks, trimming off the broomed edges, and relaying the blocks
upside down in soft concrete, and so imbedding them that the surface of
the pavement was level. The result of this experiment is not yet known.
Much trouble is met with in all cities where wood pavement is used
on account of its expansion and contraction under weather conditions. In
one case in Berlin it is stated that at the edge of the pavement movement
amounting to 59/10 inches had taken place. This change, caused by the
alternate wetting and drying of the blocks, is overcome in some places by
keeping the surface of the pavement moist, but not the expansion joint, and
in tarring the surface, the latter being so that no moisture can penetrate
into the block. Other cities prevent the movement, in the case of long-
continued drought, by frequent and ample watering, as in Berlin in summer.
When the use of the water mains has to be restricted as much as possible,
wood pavements are watered at least three times a day. -
On all streets where the pavement was laid previous to 1874 it is kept in
repair by the city, but on new streets which are less than 87 feet wide (26
meters) one-half of the cost is paid by the property owners and one-half
by the city. When the streets come to be repaved, however, the total ex-
pense is borne by the city. On wider streets the property owners pay the
same amount as if the street were 26 meters wide. -
The streets of the City of Berlin as a whole are probably in the best
condition of those seen in any city.
Where it is possible all subsurface work is laid under the sidewalk, and
the space to be occupied by the different corporations is apportioned by the
city. The larger mains are laid under the roadway. The cuts made in the
pavement by corporations, while not given, were said to be very few, and
there was very little indication in the streets of their having been recently
disturbed. Very little building, however, was going on in the built-up portion
of the city. -
57
|
-
º
Fig. 65.
Fig. 66.
Fig. 66 is a view of another street built up with apartment houses, where
the decorative effect of the window gardens so common in Germany is shown
to great advantage.


58
Fig. 67. Fig. 68.
Fig. 67 shows a rock asphalt block pavement in front of the Emperor's
Palace, the pavement being so smooth that the joints are hardly discernible.
Fig. 68 shows a typical Berlin sidewalk, on the central portion of which
the pedestrians are supposed to walk, it being smooth and composed of either
stone, asphalt mastic or cement, and the space between this walk and the
curb, as well as between the walk and the building, being filled in with small
irregular shaped stones, as is shown in the picture.







59
Fig. 69.
Fig. 69 shows how elaborately the sidewalk is protected in case of
building operations. This building was being erected on Unter den Linden,
where extra precaution is taken.

60
Fig. 71.
Fig. 70.
Fig. 70 shows one side, and Fig. 71 the other, of a street in the suburbs
of Berlin, where a real estate development is being carried out. The effect
is extremely gratifying, the street itself being wide, the buildings set well
back from the curb, with a sloping lawn from the edge of the sidewalk,
with both buildings and lawn decorated with flowers.

61
Fig. 72.
Fig. 72 shows a view of the same street, taken from one side, looking
squarely at the opposite side, showing more in detail some of the decorative
features. At the end of the block where these buildings were observed the
street branched to the right and to the left, and then extended in parallel
lines, the main street then coming back to a point opposite the portion of the
street shown, so that a park some four or five hundred feet square was
enclosed. This was grassed over and had a fountain on the centre line
of the street.

62
Fig. 73.
Fig. 73 shows a view of this park and the street continuing on to be
developed as the same is not already shown. Apartments in these houses
were said to rent for about $10 per month per room.

63
º | -
º
A. º
Fig. 75.
While in Berlin a letter was received from the Borough President asking
that some inquiries be made as regards motorbus operation. Figs. 74 and 75


64
show two kinds of buses used in Berlin. They make but little noise, and, of
course, are more flexible under operation than those confined to special
routes, as are the tram cars. Upon being questioned, the Engineer of the
city stated that the residents generally preferred these buses to the cars;
that is, the owners of the property wish the buses, but the occupants as a
rule objected; but if the owners themselves lived on the streets they desired
bus operation. -
Probably the most unique thing seen on the entire trip was the opera-
tion of a trolleybus in Berlin. This bus was similar in appearance to those
just shown, but was operated entirely by overhead trolley, the wires being
stretched as for street cars. The bus moved from side to side on the street
with little difficulty, and almost as rapidly as the ordinary electric car. An
attempt was made to photograph the bus in operation, but for some reason
the picture was a failure. *
- A portion of the street car system in Berlin is operated by the city
and a portion by private corporations. In August, 1911, a contract was
entered into between the City of Berlin and the Great Berlin Street Railway
to settle some questions that had arisen in connection with contracts that had
been previously made. By the terms of the contract it expires on December
31, 1939, although under certain conditions it would be taken over by the
city. The contract is very elaborate, and provides, among other things,
that the company shall give the city 8 per cent. of its gross income. It
makes the usual provisions, and provides special prices that shall be paid for
pavements of different kinds. For maintenance it provides that the com-
pany shall maintain the pavement and its foundation between all its rails
and for a distance of 26 inches beyond the outer rails, but the city is to con-
tribute a certain portion of the expense.
Fig. 75A.
Fig. 75 B.
Since this report was in press pictures have been received showing the
trolleybus referred to above on this page. Fig. 75A shows the operation of
changing the cable, and Fig. 75B shows the bus in operation.



66
Fig. 76.
MIUINICHI.
Fig. 76 shows a repair gang at work in the City of Munich. Com-
plaints are often made as to the amount of work that is performed by men
working for municipalities in this country. This picture would indicate that
human nature is practically the same, whether existing in Germany or in
the United States. It would be interesting to see what kind of a report
would be made by our Efficiency Bureau should a repair gang in New York
City be found in the position represented in the picture.
VIIENNA.
Vienna is situated on the River Danube, and has an area of 106 square
miles and a population of 2,098,225. The area of the city is much larger,
as will be seen, than other European cities, but it has been increased largely
in the last fifteen or twenty years. Its pavements consist mainly of stone.
The following shows the mileage of the different kinds of pavement:
Stone, 319.3
Asphalt, 14.0
Wood, 12.2
Concrete, 2.0
Clinker, 0.8
Macadam and unpaved streets, 366.1
Total, 714.4
- 67

The above mileage was obtained by reducing meters to square yards
and then figuring on the mileage for a 30-ft. roadway, as in Berlin, and while,
of course, not accurate as to exact mileage, it is as to the relative propor-
tions of the different pavements.
Information could not be obtained as to the exact amount of macadam,
but a large mileage of streets is unpaved, probably what was included in
the areas recently annexed to the city. -
In the early days of the city the lower portion was often flooded by
the rising of the Danube. For that reason a canal was cut through the
eastern part of the city, connecting different portions of the river. This
has very materially reduced the flooding. The Ringstrasse, a beautiful
street which takes the place of the fortification around the old city, is in
approximately a horseshoe form, the two ends of the street meeting the
canal. This feature of the street system is beautiful and valuable. The
Ringstrasse is very wide and its general plan consists of a sidewalk, service
roadway, another sidewalk with grass on each side, with a row of trees, and
then a wide central roadway, the other side of the street being similar to that
just described. This is the plan where business houses are on both sides of
the street. A large portion of the entire length of the street, however, is occu-
pied by parks, public buildings, etc., and at these places the character of
the treatment is varied in order to suit conditions.
Vienna probably carries out the idea of city ownership more than any
other European city, as almost no public utilities are controlled by private
parties, the State owning the telegraph, telephone and the pneumatic lines,
and the city nearly everything else, down even to breweries, and in some
cases coffee houses.
Office hours in the public work departments were from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m.
The sewers are constructed in the centre of the street, the gas and
water mains on opposite sides of the street about 4 feet from the curb, with
the telephone and telegraph lines very near the curb on one side, the electric
mains being laid in the sidewalk area.
There are three water supplies, one for manufacturing purposes and
two for drinking.
The smallest sewer constructed is about 2 feet (60 cm.) in diameter.
The city pays for and keeps in repair all pavements, construction work
being done by contract. The city, however, furnishes the granite blocks to
the contractors who do the work. These blocks are very large, being prac-
tically 8-inch cubes, although on some of the streets oblong blocks are used.
These cubes are generally laid on the diagonal, meeting the curb and the
street car tracks, where they exist, in many cases with special blocks pre-
pared for that purpose, as will be shown in the pictures later. This stone
pavement is laid on a gravel foundation 5.9 inches deep, upon which is
placed a 2-inch cushion of sand. This pavement costs from $4.00 to $4.40
per square meter, which would be from $3.33 to $3.66 per square yard, with
a two-year guarantee.
ASPHALT.
The asphalt pavement is constructed of the European rock asphalt, no
particular specification being given. It is laid on concrete in 2-inch and
1.6-inch thicknesses, probably according to traffic. It is laid with a 5-year
guarantee. One year previous to the expiration of the guarantee the
average depth of the thicker pavement must be 1.3 inches and of the
thinner 1.1 inches, with a minimum for the former of .9 of an inch and
for the latter of .6 of an inch. The cost of the asphalt is $2.60 per square
68
meter, or about $2.17 per square yard, the concrete foundation being from
7 to 7.9 inches thick. :
The concrete is made in the proportion of one part of Portland cement,
three parts sand, and five parts broken stone. The specifications, however,
require that only 1% hectoliters, or a little more than 5 cu. ft., shall be
mixed at one time.
It is also prescribed that in making the concrete five men shall be used,
four men mixing and one supplying the water, pouring the same upon the
mixture from a watering pot. -
The average cost of keeping the asphalt in repair could not be obtained.
wooD BLOCK.
The wood block as used in Vienna consists principally of northern pine
and Norway spruce, although some larch is used. The blocks generally are
about 4 inches high, and chemically treated before being laid. The mate-
rials for treatment are lye of chloride of zinc, a solution of chloride of zinc
in water, a mixture of creosote and chloride of zinc, and creosote oil alone
of a specific gravity of 1.06 and containing 6 to 10 per cent. of tar acids.
The concrete for the foundation is laid in practically the same way
and of the same depth as that for asphalt, but the surface is made perfectly
smooth, so as to provide an even and firm bed for the blocks.
The blocks are laid in courses at an angle of 45 degrees to the curb.
Wooden strips about 1/6 of an inch thick are inserted between the courses
in order to make the joints perfectly uniform when the material is pine or
fir, but with larch or the Australian woods, which have been laid to some
extent, the blocks are laid close and no strips are used. -
Two or three courses of blocks are laid next to and parallel with the
curbs, with an expansion joint of some 1% inches to 3 inches in width, the
same being filled with clay, bitumen or some other plastic material.
After the blocks are laid the joints are thoroughly filled with sharp,
fine sand, and thoroughly settled, when the whole surface of the pavement is
flooded with a hot mixture of pitch and coal tar, which in turn is covered
with a thin layer of fine-grained gravel about the size of small peas. The
amount of pitch and tar in the mixture depends upon the state of the weather
while the work is going on, as it is expected that that coat will wear off, but
that quite a portion of the gravel will be ground into the blocks, materially
adding to the life of the pavement.
The cost of the wood pavement is as follows:
Pine or fir impregnated with a mixture of
chloride of zinc and creosote; blocks
3.9 inches high, and concrete founda-
tion from 7 to 7.9 inches deep, - $2.78 per sq. yd.
The same as the above with the blocks 5.1 .*
inches deep, 3.22 “ & 4
Creosoted larch blocks 3.9 inches deep, 2.97 “ & 6
On Australian wood the price runs from $4.00 to $4.66. This includes
a guarantee of 5 years, beginning at the 1st of the third month after the
completion of the work. -
The average cost of maintenance for wood pavement after guarantee
has been 11 cents per sq. yd. -
With regard to the life of wood pavement in Vienna it is stated that
there are some streets paved with pine and fir blocks that have been in use
for more than 20 years and are still in fairly good condition, although the
69
traffic is light. One case of a bridge is instanced where pine blocks were
laid and the maintenance for the five years during which the pavement was
under guarantee was a little over 7 cents per sq. yd. per year, but during
the next three years it averaged nearly 30 cents. The traffic, however, was
extremely heavy. It is also stated that these blocks in thirteen years wore
down 1.6 inches.
No positive information could be obtained of the number of openings
in the pavements per year. In the case of new buildings a permit to open
the pavement is given with the building permit, but for repairs special appli-
cations are made. The cuts are repaired by the people making them, who
make special arrangements for the relaying of the pavement. City inspec-
tors are, however, detailed to watch all openings.
The street railways are all owned by the city, some being operated by
overhead trolleys and some by the underground system. The slot is adjacent
to the rail, as was also seen in Brussels. When this system of construction
was referred to and comment made that it was more satisfactory than the
centre slot, the engineer in charge of the Vienna railway said: “While this
might be true from a pavement standpoint, it is not true from a railway
operating view.” The city headquarters for the people employed in the
Tramway Bureau is very large and extensive, tickets for the lines being
printed by the bureau.
In considering costs the kronen has been taken at twenty cents.
Fig. 77.
Fig. 77 shows a granite pavement where the blocks are laid diagonally,
meeting a special block next to the rail. These special blocks are very large,
so that they are not easily displaced. In fact, the stone pavements of
Vienna seem to be kept in position largely by the massiveness of the blocks.

70
-
- -
º
Fig. 78.
Fig. 79.
Fig. 78 shows a railroad street with the slot in the rail, as referred to.
Fig. 79 shows a pile of new granite blocks which were being used in
repaving.

71
Fig. 80. Fig. 81.
Fig. 80 shows a unique arrangement of the street where there was at
one place three levels, the roadway at the right continuing on an up-grade,
the one at the left a lower grade, the one in the centre connecting the two.
It will be seen that the different roadways are separated by slopes
paved with stone and protected by wooden railings.
Fig. 81 is a different view of the same street, showing the central road-
way connecting the higher with the lower.

72
Fig. 82 is a view of one portion of the Ringstrasse, showing in detail
one of the advertising kiosks, the construction being a little more elaborate
than of those in Berlin. These kiosks are sometimes used as telephone
booths for the patrolmen to connect with headquarters, sometimes for the
storage of tools, but their main object is for advertising purposes.

73
-
- a -
Fig. 83. Fig. 84.
Fig. 83 shows a bridge over the canal at one end of the Ringstrasse, and
Fig. 84 a bridge at the other end. The elaborateness of the bridges is worthy
of notice.


º Pºlsº
º
º
Fig. 85. Fig. 86.
Fig. 85 shows a square jog in one of the streets extending from
Kärtnerstrasse, the principal retail street of the city. It will be noticed that
the square surface opposed to the spectator's eye is utilized to its fullest
extent for advertising purposes.
Fig. 86 is a view of one portion of the Ringstrasse in which it is seen
very plainly to how great an extent the cafes utilize the sidewalks for their
private purposes. Here more than one-half of the sidewalk is railed off
with an iron fence.

75
*** A.
|
º
Fig. 87. Fig. 88.
Fig. 87 is a picture of the Graben, a short but wide street, where some
of the finest shops in the city are located. The low building in the centre
of the roadway is a coffee house, and is maintained by the city; it has
traffic passing on both sides of it.
Fig. 88 shows a fender which is often used in Vienna to prevent the
encroachment of vehicles. Here a lamppost is located on an angle with the
curb, and flush with its outside, and instead of setting the lamppost back,
this piece of curved cast iron is put in the pavement so as to prevent vehicles
from running against the lamppost.
SWITZIERI LAN ID.
In passing through Switzerland from Vienna to Paris one or two inter-
esting things were noticed in the smaller cities. Street car track construc-
tion is important in every city, but it is not always realized how much
simpler the proposition is in smaller towns, where the traffic is lighter and
the cars themselves naturally of smaller size. While in the larger cities of
Europe many of the cars are heavy, still as a rule they do not compare in
weight with those in this country.

76
Fig. 89. Fig. 90.
Fig. 89 shows one of the smallest street cars seen. This was in the
City of Lucerne, Switzerland.
A short stop was made in Berne, and Fig. 90 shows a gang engaged in
the operation of laying a sheet asphalt pavement. The heated asphalt was
brought to the street in a truck and carried from the truck in a pushcart
to the location where it was to be used. The photograph shows the cart
just as the material was being dumped upon the concrete. Adjacent to the
cart will be seen a plank which was used to determine the thickness to
which the pavement was being laid.

77
-
Fig. 91. Fig. 92.
Fig. 91 shows a view of the principal street of the City of Berne, with
its arcades. This was one of the most interesting streets seen. The pave-
ment, as will be noticed, is stone, and slopes to the centre. The street is
wide and the traffic is light, and a stone pavement under those conditions
should last an extremely long time.
Fig. 92 is another view of the same street, showing the gateway and
tower, as well as a watering trough in the centre, a glimpse of which is
shown at the lower right of the previous picture. Although this is the prin-
cipal street of the city, women were seen washing at some of these watering
troughs, which are placed at intervals of several hundred feet along the
Street.

78
PARIS.
From Berne, Switzerland, to Paris is a ride of about eight hours by
rail. The city is situated on both sides of the River Seine, and has an area
of 30.1 square miles, and its population in 1911 was 2,847,229. It is sur-
rounded entirely by an earthen fortification embankment, through which
pass, at irregular intervals, streets that connect with the outlying country.
Outside of the embankment is a strip about 700 feet wide, owned by the city,
and known as La Zone Militaire. It was stated that the city is now taking
measures to do away with the embankment and to use the space occupied by
it and the military zone for municipal purposes.
At the present time nearly every new article that comes into the City
of Paris pays a tax to the city. These taxes are collected at the streets that
pierce the embankment and are said to amount to $27,000,000 annually.
The street system of Paris is one of the best noted in any of the cities
visited. While many of the old streets are narrow, there is a system of
boulevards connecting at central points, so that communication between dif-
ferent parts of the city is over wide boulevards that run diagonally from
place to place, allowing traffic to move generally by a short route.
The city has four kinds of pavement, divided as follows:
Miles.
Stone block, 372.9
Wood block, 131.3
Macadam, 90.7
Asphalt, 38.0
Total, 632.9
—or 11,250,566 sq. yas.
This should be compared with the Borough of Brooklyn, which has 808
miles of pavement, with an area of 15,916,412 sq. yjs.
The streets of Paris as a whole are not in as good repair as those of
the other cities visited, and it was stated by the Chief Engineer that the
reason for this was that sufficient funds were not available. The principal
streets of Paris have an enormous traffic, but the roadways are so much
wider than those of London that the streets do not seem as congested.
The area of Paris pavements does not change much from year to year,
there having been an increase only of 544,092 sq. yjs. in ten years.
The latest year for which complete data was obtained regarding pave-
ments was 1911, and the figures herein given relate to that year.
STONE PAVEMENTS.
The stone pavements of the city are in the outlying and older sections,
the central and business portions being paved principally with wood and
asphalt. A considerable portion of the stone pavements is being relaid with
asphalt and wood as funds are provided, the total area being reduced in 1911
by repaving and other minor reasons 106,572 sq. yds. Of the amount of
stone pavement in existence on December 31, 1911, only one-twelfth was
laid on concrete. This city and Vienna were the only large cities visited
where the most of the stone pavement was on a sand or gravel foundation.
79
During the year 7,824 sq. yds. of macadam were repaved
with stone blocks at an expense of 79 cents per sq. yd., not in-
cluding the blocks, amounting to $6,163.56
During the year 165,654 sq. yds. of stone pavement were re-
laid, about one-third being with old and two-thirds with new
blocks; and 76,735 sq. yds. were changed to wood block and
36,030 sq. yds. to asphalt. The cost of the above mentioned
amount of stone pavement, exclusive of blocks, was 56 cents per
sq. yd., or • 99,093.94
There were also made what are called large repairs, of which
there were 194,573 sq. yds., costing 43 cents per sq. yd., amount-
ing to 83,076.94
In addition to the foregoing what are known as small repairs
were made, both by the city forces and by contract. The cost of
these small repairs was about 64 cents per sq. yd. of actual work
done, and the amount expended was 283,303.40
Total, $475,637.84
The total expense for the maintenance of stone pavements is
given as $881,690.00
$
The difference between these two amounts is evidently the cost of stone
blocks, general expenses, etc. The average cost per square yard over the
entire area is 13 cents.
There were employed in the stone maintenance work 424 men.
The average cost of the new stone pavements was $4.09, the price vary-
ing according to conditions.
The City of Paris operates a stone quarry for the production of sand-
stone paving blocks, etc. The granite blocks used in Paris, however, gen-
erally come from Belgium. The blocks made are of three sizes: 5.5 in. by
7.9 in. by 6.3 in. ; 4.7 in. by 7 in. by. 6.3 in...; and 3.9 in. by 6.3 in. by 6.3 in.
During the year there were produced at this quarry 678,183 paving
blocks of these sizes, 7,978 cubic yards of building stone, and 1,005 tons of
white sand.
The laborers in the quarry work ten hours a day in summer and nine
hours in the winter, their pay ranging from 9.4 cents to 11.4 cents per hour.
The cost of furnishing new blocks for the year amounted to $290,071,
of re-cutting old blocks $64,163, and of old blocks $36,288, a total of
$390,522. The new and re-cut blocks are used for relaying stone pave-
ments and also in the repair work.
MACADAM PAVEMENT.
The area of the macadam pavement during 1911 decreased 31,140 sq.
yds. The Engineer, however, in his report states that since 1882 there
has been an average reduction per year of 28,164 sq. yds., and, further, that
on December 31, 1911, there was an area of 138,624 sq. yds. where the cost
of repairs was exceedingly heavy, and that this amount should be repaved
with permanent material as soon as possible. It was estimated, however,
to do this would cost a little over $500,000.
The force employed in repairs to the macadam pavement was 438 men,
and the cost of the labor of these men during 1911 was $199,114; the cost
of labor for repairing macadam was 15 cents per sq. yd. for the entire area.
80
The cost of material used was $103,186, or 8 cents per sq. yd. over the
entire area.
For sweeping macadam pavements the cost was $55,818, or about 4
cents per sq. yj.
During the year 632,400 sq. yas. were treated with tar at a cost of
14,591.
$ There were also laid on four different streets 12,702 sq. yas. of bitu-
lithic pavement. ar
The cost of rolling in the macadam maintenance work amounted to
28,951. -
$ The total amount of money expended on the macadam streets, includ-
ing labor and material, was $460,488, or 34 cents per sq. yd. If, however,
the cost of cleaning be deducted, the amount will be reduced to 25 cents
per sq. yd.
The macadam cost $1.50 per sq. yd. for a thickness of 9.3 inches.
ASPHALT PAVEMENT.
During the year 1911 the asphalt pavement was increased 45,264 sq.
yds. Since 1899 all work on asphalt pavement has been done by contract.
In that year a contract was made for all new work and repairs required
until 1904, and upon the expiration of this contract it was extended to 1909,
and subsequently until March of 1913. This means that the asphalt work
in Paris was done under practically one contract from 1899 to 1913, includ-
ing repairs as well as new pavements.
The total amount expended during the year 1911 for new work and
repairs was $232,158, of which $125,196 was for new work and $106,962
for repairs. No figures are given for the actual amount of new work laid,
but the average cost of new asphalt pavement is $3.80 per sq. ya. If that
figure should be applied to the amount expended it would give an area of
31,892 sq. yas. of new work.
The cost of actual repairs amounted to 19.5 cents per sq. yj. over the
entire area maintained. In 1910 the cost was 20 cents. -
The average life of asphalt pavement in Paris is 10 years.
WOOD PAVEMENT.
Wood seems to be the most popular material in Paris for a smooth pave-
ment, the principal avenues and boulevards in the central portion of the city
having wood pavements, and 20 per cent. of the entire mileage of the city
being paved with this material.
During the year the wood pavements increased 99,000 sq. yas., the
average cost being $3.54 per sq. ya.
Up to 1901 the repairs to wood pavements were made entirely by the
city, except that the concrete foundation was laid by contract. Since 1901,
however, all of the new and some of the repair work has been done by
Contract.
In the work of resurfacing only good blocks are used, the old, resawed
and retrimmed blocks being used in repair work alone. During 1911 there
were resurfaced in this way 145,980 sq. yds., which cost, without the blocks,
$80,988, or about 55 cents per sq. yd. This represents about 1/19 of the
entire surface of the streets paved with wood.
81
In the repair work on wood pavement done by the city 34 men only
are employed, but when occasion requires pavers from the stone block gangs
are detailed for this work.
The cost of the repair work proper dome in 1911, both by the city gangs
and by contract, was $196,946.
On all wood block work done by contract the city furnishes the blocks.
For the manufacture of the blocks it has a large yard with an area of about
8 acres, 1.9 acres of which are covered. There are employed in this yard
from 116 to 170 workmen, according to the requirements of the work. In
1911, 45,300 cubic yards of lumber were purchased, nearly two-thirds of
which was what is known as Pine of the Landes. The plant is equipped
for the manufacture of the blocks from the plank, also for treating them
with creosote.
The general method of creosoting in 1913 was rather crude. The
blocks were brought in steel receptacles under the tanks containing the hot
creosote, when the receptacles were filled with oil and allowed to stand for
about half an hour, when the oil was drawn off and the blocks were ready
for use. A small plant, however, was in place for treating blocks in prac-
tically the same way as is done in this country, and there was in process of
installation more machinery by which all blocks could be so treated. The oil
used has a specific gravity of 1.08.
The proposed treatment is, roughly, to put the blocks into a cylinder at
a temperature of 160 deg. C. and under such pressure that the blocks will
be impregnated with 9.4 pounds of oil per cubic foot in two hours. The
proposed change in treatment, it was stated, is not so much for the purpose
gºing the life of the blocks as to prevent expansion and consequent
ulging.
During the year 1911 this plant made 20,373,000 blocks, of which
313,150 were creosoted under pressure. The total number of blocks pro-
duced would lay about 465,168 sq. yjs.
In taking up old blocks it is often found that many of them can be used
again. These are taken to the yard and some of them resawed, and others,
where the tops have been simply broomed, are trimmed with a special
machine designed for that purpose. During the year 476,450 blocks were
resawed and 593,850 trimmed as above described. When, however, it is
intended to reuse the blocks at once, they are treated on the street, and
during the year 3,142,860 blocks were treated where used.
Of course, a large proportion of the blocks taken up and brought to
the yard are not suitable for use. These are generally sold to the poor
people for fuel, the average price being 61 cents per cubic yard. In the
summer of 1913 the demand had been small, and consequently a large
amount had accumulated in the yard.
The total cost of the operation of the yard during the year was $442,420,
of which $336,596 was paid for lumber.
The yard is composed of two parts, separated by a street, but con-
nected by a tunnel. The blocks after being treated are brought to the storage
yard in small hand cars. Practically all of the lumber comes to the plant by
rail, a small amount only being brought by the river.
The total cost of the entire work chargeable to the maintenance of wood
pavements in 1911 was $902,989. This means an average per sq. yd. over
the entire area of 33 cents. The cost of repairs proper, however, as applied
to the entire surface amounted to 26 cents per sq. yd.
82
The average life of the wood pavement in Paris is 8 years, and on the
Champs Elysees from 6 to 7 years. This latter street is about 260 or 270
feet wide, with a very wide roadway, but the traffic is enormous and con-
tinuous.
The original pavement is paid for by the city or by the abutting property
owners. Repaving is paid for by the city.
Fig. 93. Fig. 94.
Fig. 93 shows a gang laying concrete in a street in the central part of
the city, and Fig. 94 is another view of the same work. It will be noted
that a beam of concrete is laid in the centre to an exact grade and another
one adjacent to the curb, when the space in between is filled with concrete
to the exact grade and a smooth surface obtained by the use of a straight-
edge, plainly seen in the picture. But six or seven men were employed in
this gang; the work was being done by hand, as is shown, and water for use
was brought by one man from a tub at the corner of the block in a water-
ing pot.

83
Fig. 95. Fig. 96.
Fig. 95 shows the laying of a wood block pavement, temporarily sus-
pended for lunch at noon, the gentleman at the left being M. Le Conte,
Chief Engineer, Ponts et Chaussees. It will be noticed that the blocks were
laid, as in London, directly on the concrete, and that two rows of blocks
are laid adjacent to and lengthwise of the curb. The joint left for expan-
sion between the two rows of blocks next to the curb is filled with sheet
metal shaped, so as to form a hollow oblong about 1% inches wide and
3 inches deep. This device is shown on top of the first course of the finished
pavement at the right. The joints are filled with pitch, but farther along
on the same street, where the President of France lives, the joints are
filled with cement grout.
Fig. 96 shows a view of the yard, some of the lumber being stored
under the sheds, the factory itself being in the background.

Fig. 97 shows a part of the yard across the street used for storage, a
great many blocks being piled up, as seen.
Fig. 98 shows a wood pavement on the Rue de Rivoli, giving a view of
the method of arcading on the easterly side of the street. The Louvre is
on the right.

85
Fig. 99. Fig. 100.
Fig. 99 shows how the sidewalks on some of the wide avenues in the
residential part of the city are treated, a space next to the curb being left
for trees, then the through sidewalk, then a space between the sidewalk
and the service walk next to the building, which is generally gravel. The
widths of the different portions of the sidewalk depend upon the width of
the entire sidewalk space. If the weather is pleasant carriages come to the
outside curb and take the people from the residences; if the weather is
stormy they come to the gravelled space between the two walks and stop
in front of the doors.
The pavements of Paris are being sprinkled nearly all the time and
most of them are constantly kept moist. Fig. 100 shows a method of
sprinkling by hand, where the hose is made up of portions of iron pipe some
eight or nine feet long, connected by rubber hose about a foot long, the
whole having ball-bearing supports, so that the man at the nozzle can easily
swing the pipe in any direction, covering thereby a large extent of surface.
This method was seen on the macadam, asphalt and wood pavements.

86
Fig. 101. Fig. 102.
Fig. 101 shows a small horse sprinkler used on some of the streets,
this particular one being on the Avenue Bois du Bologne. There are also
in Paris automobile sprinklers and sweepers, with rubber rolls, very similar
to those seen in Berlin.
The sweepings are often brushed into the gutter and the gutters flushed
by a device shown in Fig. 102. This is an iron hydrant, generally located at
a summit in the grade, for the purpose of flushing the gutters. When it is
desired that the water shall run to the right, a dam composed of a bag filled
with sand is placed at the left of the hydrant and the water allowed to run
down the gutter. The sweepings are brushed into the water, when they
are carried to the catch basin of the sewer. If it is desired to flush the
gutter to the left, the sand bag is placed at the right and the operation
continued.

87
Fig. 103. Fig. 104.
Fig. 103 shows the ordinary Paris catch basin, which is quite similar
to some used in New York.
Fig. 104 shows a sidewalk protected where a building is being put up
on the Rue Scribe. This is an important street, connecting the Boulevard
Hausmann with the main boulevards. The opposite side of the roadway was
entirely taken up by a street car operation, so that, as is seen in the picture,
foot passengers were obliged to step down into the roadway in the face of a
heavy automobile traffic. The picture also shows how this structure was
used for advertising purposes. A comparison of this structure with those
seen in Berlin is unfavorable to Paris.

Fig. 105.
In Paris in 1913 there were street cars operated by overhead and under-
ground trolley, by steam and by gasoline. The system was, however, in the
process of being changed to all electrical operation, and the Engineer stated
that in two years it was hoped all would be so operated. Fig. 105 shows a
double-decked street car operated by steam on the Avenue Kleber, an upright
boiler, hardly discernible, being located on the front platform. The fare
on this car for about two miles was 3 cents, first-class, on the lower level,
and 2 cents, second class, on the upper level.

89
-
*
-
Fig. 106. Fig. 107.
Figs. 106 and 107 show two different kinds of autobuses used in Paris.

90
Fig. 108. Fig. 109.
Fig. 108 is a view taken on the top of the fortifications near the Cours
de Vincennes, the vertical wall to the right of the picture being on the out-
side of the embankment, the city itself being to the left.
Fig. 109 is a view of a granite paved street just outside the city limits.
Here is shown a special location of street car tracks, the street itself being
wide, the roadway being curbed and paved with granite, a second line of
curbing being set adjacent to the rows of trees, and the space between the
two curbs occupied by the street railway. A car is shown to the right using
the tracks.

91
Fig. 110.
Fig. 110 represents one of the national roads leading out from Paris
in the direction of Fontainebleau. A visit was made to this town, which is
between forty and fifty miles from Paris, by automobile, the outward trip
over one road and the return over another. Three kinds of pavement were
observed—stone blocks, as shown in the picture; bituminous macadam, and
waterbound macadam. It was thought that the entire road both ways would
average one-half in good condition and one-half in poor condition, and there
seemed to be no particular difference as to the condition of the different
materials used. The bad condition of the stone block pavement was due to
the surface being rough and uneven. The road shown is located in an
entirely farming section, away from cities or villages, and it is noticeable
from the rows of trees on both sides of it. This is a feature of the national
roads of France, and is particularly pleasing.
CONCLUSIONS.
After having made a trip of observation as above set forth, it would
seem in order to give a few general conclusions upon conditions observed.
The following are some that might be noted, it being understood that the
conclusions have to do only with the cities which were visited and which
have been described in this report.
The fact that the London streets are kept in as good condition as they
are, despite the enormous traffic per yard of width, is remarkable.

92
The general condition of the pavements in European city streets is
better than that of the streets bf America. As a rule-all pavements were
good for each particular kind.' If the pavement was old stone block, its sur-
face would be good, arid the same was true of macadam, showing plainly
the attention given to proper repairs. . Of the cities visitéd Berlin had the
best pavements, and they were kept in the best condition. & 5
Street car tracks and the pāvement in the street car area.áre in better
condition in Europe than in America. The possible exceptions to this rule
were noted in but two or three cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .” -
- - - * . . . . # * x - * : . .” • * * : * x
In the larger cities street surfaces are disturbed more on account
of subsurface construction than is generally recognized in America. This is
shown by the figures for Westminster and Liverpool. In Continental cities
it was not possible to obtain the number of ºpenings made.
As a rule obstructions and encroachments in streets do not receive as
much consideration in Europe as in America, and not as much attention is
given to having the street lines uniform. This is shown in the pictures of
practically all cities visited. Double and triple curbs noted in London and
Edinburgh are special cases in point, as well as the use of the sidewalks for
restaurant purposes, as seen in all Continental cities. -
The cheap pavement of Europe is macadam, and the large amount noted
is especially surprising in all cities except Berlin. The officials recognize,
however, that this is not a permanent pavement, and steps are being taken
to replace it with permanent pavements as rapidly as possible. This is par-
ticularly true of Paris, as is shown by the figures in the report.
- There are several reasons for the condition of streets being better in
Europe than in America. As a rule a good new pavement in this country is
practically as good as that in Europe, and the wood pavements are undoubt-
edly better. It must be admitted, however, that more care is taken in the
construction and more attention given to details, and after the work is com-
pleted repairs are more promptly made. Practically the same materials
are used for modern European pavements as in this country, but there is
a feeling that the pavements, like all other construction in Europe, should
be of a more durable and permanent character than is considered necessary
in this country. The street car track areas are under the entire control
of the city officials in almost every case, so that there is no red tape existing
to prevent prompt repair and renewal when necessary. •
Officials in Europe recognize the fact that openings in pavements are
very detrimental, and everything possible is done to reduce these openings
to a minimum. For instance, wherever possible, subsurface work is laid in
the sidewalk area, and, as in the case of Westminster, connections are made
directly from the sewer to the property. Manholes are so constructed as to
present as little obstruction to the street surface as possible, and again, as
in the case of Westminster, the property owners and corporations are
notified long in advance as to when and with what materials the streets are
to be paved. - -
European cities are generally built from the centre outward, and when
once built there is very little change in the buildings, so that openings, which
in this country are so largely due to the erection of new and larger build-
ings, are much less in number than in the United States. Probably more
building, including new construction and repairs, was seen in the City of
Paris than in all other cities visited combined. In Berlin, in the suburbs,
considerable building was going on, but very little in the central portion.
*...* :
* *. . .
93
||||I||
Paris, surrounded as it is by an earthen embankment, the interior of which
is practically all built up, must remodel or tear down old buildings and put
up new if changes are made. In Liverpool, as was stated, practically no
building has been done for the last three years. This one fact alone, that is,
the small amount of building, would very materially lessen the number of
openings made in the pavement.
The people of European cities are more law-abiding than those in
America and the laws and ordinances are more rigidly enforced. If a rule
is made regarding pavements, it is generally considered that it is to be
enforced, and the property owners govern themselves accordingly,
All work appeared to be carried on slowly; the municipalities seemed
to be in no hurry. This fact undoubtedly aided in carrying out details.
The small amount of maintenance work going on was surprising.
Although two months in the middle of the summer were spent on the trip,
repairs or construction work were observed on but very few streets, and on
Grace Church Street, London, only did there appear to be any necessity
for haste.
Although specifications in all European cities are less rigid, more in-
definite and capable of wider variation in work than those in this country,
it must be admitted that the results were uniformly good, the contractors
evidently having moral obligations to do good work.
The amount of money spent for repairs to pavements seemed in all
cities except Paris to be remarkably small. This is undoubtedly due, to a
certain extent, to the lower rate of wages and the lower cost of material.
For instance, in Liverpool men at work on the tar-macadam streets make
$6.00 per week, and the stone pavers $12.00. Taking all things into consid-
eration, however, it would seem that first-class results were obtained for the
money spent.
Another reason possibly for the efficient work are the small units of the
municipal corporations. Of all the cities visited, Vienna was the only one
that contained a greater area than the Borough of Brooklyn, and none of
the others, except Glasgow, contained half as much. It might be said that
with the smaller units work should cost more. Possibly this would be
true as a general proposition, but with the smaller units the head of a
department has a greater opportunity of giving individual attention to the
work going on and consequently can often get more satisfactory and more
efficient results.
Another curious fact observed was that streets which were practically
continuous would often have their names changed every few blocks; also
that the numbers would run up consecutively on one side and down on the
other. Both these facts were noted particularly in London and Paris.
SUGGESTIONS.
As it has been admitted that the best pavements of this country when
laid are as good as those of Europe, and that practically the same materials
are used, it might be pertinent to suggest methods of procedure in this coun-
try so that the condition of its streets would be improved, and the following
are offered:
1. Standard first-class paving material only should be used and the
proper material selected for each street.
This suggestion is generally carried out at the present time, except
that it does not seem that sufficient care is given to the selection of the
94
right material for any particular street. This is extremely important, and
it is only within the last few years that it has had any careful or systematic
attention.
2. Work should be done carefully, with special care for small details.
As a whole, the above has not received proper attention in this country.
Where a great amount of work is done of any particular kind it is apt to be
carried out in a hurry, without attention being paid to the minor points,
which often affects the durability and the appearance of the pavement.
3. The funds for new pavements should be provided in advance, so
that at least several months should intervene between the time when it was
known what streets would be paved and the carrying out of the work, and
an attempt should be made in each case to determine when the work was
to be ordered and just when it should be carried out on each particular
Street.
If this were done corporations and individuals could make definite
plans for repairs to any subsurface work that might exist in the streets, and
also provide for new construction if any were necessary. It must be ad-
mitted, however, that in large cities, where a great amount of work is to
be done and where it is necessary to let work to the lowest responsible
bidder, it would be difficult to determine this in every case. It would, too,
be more difficult in the case of new work than in repaving, as when new
work is ordered the demand for its immediate completion is very strong. At
the present time the Board of Estimate and Apportionment will not permit
an original pavement to be laid unless water, sewer and gas mains have first
been constructed, but other subsurface work is often necessary. It is
believed, however, that if an earnest attempt were made to determine some
time in advance just when work should be done, it could be more nearly ac-
complished than would seem probable at first thought. The advantages of it,
however, are so great that even a partial success would be worth much more
than it would cost. -
4. The number of openings in the pavement should be reduced to a
minimum.
The remarks made on the former paragraph apply to a certain extent to
this. The discussion can be profitably carried farther, however. It must
be admitted that with the different kinds of subsurface work in the streets
of this country, and nearly all being in the roadway, with the general
changes that are taking place in the character of business along the streets,
many openings in the pavements are necessary. This being the case, it
becomes all the more important to reduce this number to a minimum. The
problem, however, is not easy of solution. If, in addition to the precau-
tions suggested in the previous paragraph, all corporations and property
owners were convinced that after a street is once paved it cannot be opened,
except where absolutely necessary, and that no new construction would be
permitted for a term of years, a great gain would be accomplished. When
mains are laid in the street, openings must be made for their repair, but if,
previous to the construction of the pavement, and as is generally done at the
present time, corporations put all of their subsurface structures in good
repair, there should not be the necessity to make openings for some time to
come. Emergencies, however, will arise when openings must be made, and
that condition must be accepted.
95 . . .
The problem now in the built-up sections of our city is to take care in
the best possible manner of what structures are there, but the City of New
York is growing rapidly towards the outside, and in the residential and
suburban districts now being built up it is possible to arrange so that future
repairs and installation of work can be made without disturbing the road-
way pavement. The most of the streets of the city in the residential dis-
tricts are 60 feet wide, with a roadway of 30 feet. This leaves 15 feet for
sidewalk space on each side, where, unless the property is built up solidly, a
5-foot walk only is laid. This gives ample space for all subsurface work,
except water, sewers and gas mains. And even if the street is solidly built
up and the sidewalk space paved for its full width, these subsurface mains
could still be laid without much inconvenience. It would require, it is true, a
set of mains on each side of the street, but the reduction in the length of
service lines would be such that the expense as a whole would probably
be not much greater. In any event the advantage gained by not having the
roadway pavement opened for service connections would more than com-
pensate for the extra expense.
The street belongs to the city for its entire width, from property line
to property line, and its entire width should be used to the best advantage
and not the roadway only.
In the business part of the city, as in the residential part, where the
streets are at present solidly built up, subsurface work is constructed in
the roadway. At the present time in order to get connection to private
property it is necessary to dig up the pavement.
It must be admitted that it is a proper requirement in our crowded cities
to have everything underground that it is possible to place there, but it
does seem as if the telephone and electric light companies could work out a
scheme by which possibly one connection could be made with the main in
the street for each block and subsidiary connections made to this sub-
main by property owners in the block without tearing up the roadway
pavement.
This matter of reducing the openings in the pavement is so important
that it does not seem that too much stress can be placed upon the necessity
of reducing the openings to a minimum.
5. The surface of the pavement should be broken by any foreign con-
struction as little as possible.
Street car tracks are necessary, but they should be built in such a way
as to conform as nearly as possible to the surface of the street and so
that the pavement can be easily maintained adjacent to them. Man-
hole heads also tend to vary the surface of the pavement, and while,
with the present construction of the underground system they are
necessary, they should be as few as possible and built with the utmost care.
This fact is recognized abroad, where manhole heads are much less frequent
on the streets than in this country, and in Paris almost none were seen on
the streets. In Glasgow and Edinburgh structures to take the place
of electrical manholes in the streets were erected on the sidewalk, an
example of this being shown in Fig. 54. It is a well-established fact that a
pavement, of whatever character, will last longer if it is kept smooth and
even, so that the wear comes directly upon the top of the pavement. This
1s especially true of any block pavement, but it is also true to a certain extent
even on sheet pavements.
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