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AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
ſº Zs, e. . •.
TO

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNI CA.
(NINTH EDITION.)
A DIC TI O N A R Y
ARTS, SCIENCES AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
I L L U S T R 4. T E D.
VOLUME IV.
NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, LONDON:
J. M. STODD ART.
1889.
Pntered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889, by
HUBBARD BROTHERS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,
FNTERED A T STATIONERS’ HALL.
WOL. IV.
PREFACE TO WOLUME IV,
WITH the present volume the American Supplement to the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica is brought to a close soon after the completion of the original work. This Supplement
was commenced in 1882 at the earnest request of a large number of the American subscribers to the
Britannica. A dozen volumes, forming one-half of that great work, had then appeared and its cir-
culation in the United States was steadily increasing. Prof. Robert Ellis Thompson, Ph. D., was
selected as editor-in-chief of the new undertaking and under his supervision the plan was drafted and
the greater part of the first two volumes was prepared for the press. The original publishers having
then relinquished the work Prof. Thompson retired and was succeeded by Rev. Howard Crosby, D.D.,
LL. D. Prof. John P. Lamberton, as associate editor, has had constant and direct charge of the
work throughout its progress.
It had been announced that the Supplement should be comprised in four volumes of size similar
to those of the Britannica. The First volume corresponds to Volumes I-IV. of that work; the
Second to Volumes V.-VIII. ; the Third to Volumes IX.-XVII., and this concluding volume to
Volumes XVIII.-XXIV. It is a fact manifest to all who have made the comparison that since
this American work has been under way the successive volumes of the Britannica have given evidence
of increasing attention to American subjects. Especially the several States and cities of this country
have been more carefully described by American writers. Some of these, therefore, whose names fall
within the limits of this volume, it has been deemed unnecessary to treat again. -
The Encyclopædia Britannica has also furnished in its Twenty-third Volume a compact article
on the “United States,” in which American authorities of the first rank have discussed our country’s
history, geography, climate, vegetation, mineral resources, population, commerce, etc. This elaborate
treatise seemed at once to render it superfluous to discuss this subject again in a similar way. The
reader should remember, however, that numerous topics, there briefly considered within the compass
of one article, have been treated more fully under appropriate titles throughout the Supplement.
The greater fulness of the Encyclopædia Britannica on American topics in its later volumes has
enabled the editors of the Supplement to traverse the corresponding ground more rapidly. They
have still found abundant room for judicious enlargement and addition to the original work. Amer-
ican biography, the careers and works of living persons of note at home and abroad, the political, legal,
religious and social institutions of our country, its natural history and resources, are here exhibited
at such length as their interest to Americans seemed to demand.
The important subjects relating to the Bible, which have been treated in the Britannica in an
extremely rationalistic spirit (the later volumes in this regard exceeding the earlier), have been dis-
cussed in this Supplement in a reverent manner by American scholars of acknowledged ability. The
views here presented, so far as they controvert the assertions of the English and German writers in
the Britannica, will be found to be based on an equally thorough knowledge of the original languages
and to show a more thorough sifting of evidence.
In concluding their labors in connection with this work the publishers and editors render their
hearty thanks to the contributors who have diligently assisted them in their endeavor to amend,
enlarge, perfect and adapt to American ideas the marvellous treasury of information to be found in
the Encyclopædia Britannica. They trust that the American public which has shown a kind appre-
ciation of the former volumes will receive this concluding volume with the same generous favor
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE SUPPLEMENT.
vo LUME IV.
This list embraces the names of those contributors whose names are signed (by their initials) to articles in the
present volume.
Where two or more contributors have the same initials,
enable the reader to assign to each his own work.
a distinction has been made in printing them, which will
The writers whose names are marked with an asterisk (*) have exercised more or less editorial supervision in their
respective departments.
HowARD CROSBY, D. D., LL.D., Editor-in-Chief.
Prof. JoBN P. LAMBERTON, A. M., Associate Editor.
Prof. CLEVELAND ABBé, U. S. Signal Service Bureau,
Washington, D. C.
Signal Service. -
H. G. ADAM, Editor Oil, Drug and Paint Review, New York.
Oils, Pigments,
Petroleum, Quinine,
Pipe Lines, White Lead.
WILLIAM B. ATKINSON, M.D., Secretary American Medi-
cal Association, Philadelphia.
Obstetrics.
Surg. PRESTON H. BAILHACHE, U. S. Marine Hospital
Service.
Sanitary Science, Wentilation,
Sewerage, Water Supply.
Vaccination,
Hon. KEMP P. BATTLE, LL.D., Chapel Hill, N. C.
North Carolina, North Carolina University.
* Prof. WILLIS J. BEECHER, D. D., Auburn Theological
Seminary, N. Y. -
Pentateuch, Samuel,
Philistines, Septuagint,
Prophets, Solomon,
Psalms, Synagogue,
Ruth, Book of, Tabernacle,
Samaria, Vows and Oaths.
Hon. CHARLEs H. BELL, Exeter, N. H.
New Hampshire.
REV. FREDERIC M. BIRD, South Bethlehem, Pa.
Sanitary Commission, Tolstoi, Lyeff S.,
Strikes, Whittier, John G.,
Theological Seminaries, Wolseley, Lord,
and other biographical articles.
John BIRKINBINE, M. E., Philadelphia.
Rolling Mills.
Col. R., BRINKERHOFF, Ohio State Board of Charities,
Mansfield, Ohio.
Prison Discipline, Reformatories.
R. W. D. BRYAN, Esq., Albuquerque, N. M.
New Mexico.
Rev. H. C. CAMERON, D. D., Princeton, N.J.
College of New Jersey.
Rev. ELMER H. CAPEN, D. D., College Hill, Mass.
Tufts College, Universalism.
Key. TALBOT W. CHAMBERs, D. D., New York.
Resurrection.
Hon. THOS. V. Cooper, Chairman of Pennsylvania Repub-
lican State Committee, Media, Pa.
Republican Party.
Col. JAMES A. Colvin, New York.
Paper.
ELLIOTT Coues, M.D., National Museum, Washington, D.C.
Night Hawk, Partridge.
Rev. JOSEPH CUMMINGs, D. D., LL.D., Evanston, Ill.
Northwestern University.
MADISON DAVIS, Post-Office Department, Washington, D.C.
Postal Service. -
Rev. D. D. DEMAREST, D. D., New Brunswick, N. J.
Reformed Church in America.
Hon. JOHN M. DOANE, State Librarian, Columbus, Ohio.
Ohio.
Rev. T. S. DOOLITTLE, D. D., New Brunswick, N. J.
Rutgers College.
Pres. JULIUS H. DREHER, Ph.D., Salem, Va.
Roanoke College.
Rev. J. H. DUBBS, D. D., Lancaster, Pa.
Reformed Church in the United States.
WILLIAM H. EGLE, M.D., State Librarian, Harrisburg, Pa.
Pennsylvania.
J. H. ESTILL, Editor Savannah News.
Savannah.
WALTER M. FERRIss, Bay Ridge, L. I.
Patents, Riots,
Polygamy, State Militia.
Prof. G. M. FoEBEs, Rochester, N. Y.
Rochester, University of.
MASON, F,GALLAGHER, U. S. Pension Bureau, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Pension System.
Rev. HERVEY D. GANSE, D. D., Chicago.
Sabbath.
Rev. T. A. K. GESSLER,
Rationalism,
D. D., New York.
Socialism.
* CHARLEs W. GREENE, M.D., Merchantville, N. J.
Neat Cattle, Prairie,
New Jersey, Snakes,
and articles in Natural History.
Prof. SAMUEL HART, Hartford, Conn.
Trinity College.
S. S., HERRICK, M. D., Secretary Board of Health, New
Orleans, La.
Small-Pox.
(5)
6
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORs.
FREDERICK HESS, Fort Dodge, Iowa.
Nebraska. 0.
Major-General OLIVER O. How ARD, U. S. A.
Revolutionary War, War of 1812.
* JAMES HUNTER, Lynchburg, Va.
Peninsular Campaign, McClellan's, Stuart, den. J. E. B.,
Saratoga, Battle of, Thomas, Gen. George II.,
Shenandoah Valley, Verrazano, Giovanni,
South Mountain and Antietam, Wicksburg, Siege of.
Stone River, Battle of,
Prof. THOMAS HUNTER, New York.
Normal Schools.
HOWARD M. J.ENKINs, Jenkintown, Pa.
Quakers.
Mrs. C. B. KILGORE, Philadelphia.
Women, Law Relating to.
* Prof. JoHN P. LAMBERTON, Philadelphia.
Newman, John Henry,
Numismatics, American,
Parnell, Charles Stewart,
Pawnbroking,
Phillips, Wendell,
Pennsylvania, University of,
Renan, Ernest, .
Sioux,
Stanley, Henry Morton,
Taine, Hippolyte A.,
Tammany Society,
Thurman, Allen G.,
Time, Standard,
United Presbyterian Church.
Rev. B. B. LEACOCK, D. D., Baltimore.
Reformed Episcopal Church.
Rev. H. M. McCRACKEN, D. D., New York.
University of the City of New York.
WILLIAM F. MACLENNAN, U. S. Treasury Department,
Washington, D. C.
Treasury of the United States,
FREDERIC G. MATHER, Albany, N. Y.
New York, Reciprocity,
New York City, Sports, Athletic,
Niagara, Stoves,
Ontario, Lake, Street Railroads,
Opium, Taxidermy,
Political Conventions, Telegraph,
Public Lands, Thanksgiving,
Receivers, Whig Party.
JoBN P. MEANY, Editor Poor's Manual of Railroads.
Railroads.
THOMAS MEEHAN, Philadelphia.
Ranunculus.
JOSEPH. C. MOORE, San Francisco.
Nevada,
*
Oregon.
* CHARLEs MORRIs, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.
Ocean Life, Sheep,
Oleomargarine, Silk,
Oyster, Silver,
Parks, Societies, Mutual Aid,
Richmond, Grant's Siege of, Soils,
Ruskin, John, Spencer, Herbert,
Salmon, Stones, Building and Precious,
Salt, Sugar,
Sequoia, Tornado,
Sewing-Machines, Viticulture,
Shad, Volapük.
Rev. THOMAs B. NEELY, Ph.D., D. D., Philadelphia.
Parliamentary Practice.
# Lieut. LEWIs Nixon, Assistant Naval Constructor, U.S. N.
Ordnance, Steel.
Shipbuilding,
HAMILTON PELTz, The Press, Philadelphia.
Typography.
SAMUEL C. PERKINS, Esq., Philadelphia.
Property.
THoMAS REATH, Esq., Philadelphia.
Negligence, Receipt,
Neutrality, Usury,
Partnership, Will,
and other legal articles.
# Rev. MATTHEw B. RIDDLE, D. D., Western Theological
Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.
New Testament,
Pastoral Epistles,
Paul,
Peter,
Revelation, Book of,
Romans, Epistle to.
|
Pº 9. V. RILEY, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
Phylloxera.
Rev. E. G. ROBINSON, D.D., President of Brown University,
Providence, R. I. -
Rhode Island, Sears, Barnas.
HENRY R. ROSE, College Hill, Mass.
Sports, Athletic.
Rev. John RUSSELL, Albion, Mich.
Prohibition Party. -
Rev. L. CLARK SEELYE, D. D., Northampton, Mass.
Smith College.
JOHN GILMARY SHEA, LL.D., Elizabeth, N. J.
Roman Catholic Church. t
Prof. E. G. SIHLER, New York.
Seyffarth, Gustav.
Rev. LUCIUS E. SMITH, D. D., Editor of The Watchman,
Boston, Mass.
Religious Liberty, Temperance Reform.
Rev. WILLIAM M. TAYLOR, D. D., Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Vassar College.
Prof. JAMES R. TRUAx, Schenectady, N. Y.
Union College. *
Prof. ROBERT ELLIS THOMPson, Ph. D., D. D., University
of Pennsylvania.
Political Economy,
g Taxation.
Tariff,
COLIN K. URQUHART, Lockwood Press, New York.
Pen, Pencil.
NORMAN WALKER, The New Orleans Times-Democrat,
New Orleans, La.
New Orleans.
CHARLEs E. WASHBURN, M. D.
Tennyson, Lord Alfred, Swinburne, Algernon Charles,
* FRANK WEITENKAMPF (“Frank Linstow White”), Astor
Library, New York.
Opera, Piano,
Organ, Rogers, Randolph,
Painting, Sculpture in America,
and biographical sketches of artists.
EDGAR A. WERNER, Esq., Editor Civil List, Albany, N. Y.
Savings Banks, Trust Companies.
Safe Deposit Companies,
J. WILLIAM WHITE, M. D., University of Pennsylvania.
Physical Education, Surgery, American.
*Hon. A. J. WILLARD, late Chief-Justice of South Carolina,
Washington, D. C.
Nullification, Sedition,
Petition, Right of, Slavery,
Reconstruction, States' Rights,
Representation, Territory,
Repudiation, Treason,
Revolution, American, Treaty,
Search, Right of, Veto,
Secession, Waite, Morrison R.
Col. GEORGE W. WILLIAMS, Worcester, Mass.
Negro in America. 1.
J. WYLIE WILLIAMs, Philadelphia.
Virchow, Rudolf, Youmans, Edward L.,
and other biographical sketches.
Rev. DAVID B. WILLSON, D. D., Allegheny, Pa.
Reformed Presbyterian Church.
CHARLEs F. WINGATE, Sanitary Engineer, New York.
Sewerage.
WILLIAM C. WINLOCK, U. S. Naval Observatory, Wash-
ington, D. C
Observatories, Telescopes.
HoRATIo C. Wood, M.D., University.of Pennsylvania.
Poisons.
SUPPLEMENT
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNI CA.
NEAGLE–NEAT CATTLE.
NEAGLE, John (1799–1865), painter, was born
at Boston, Nov. 4, 1799. He was apprenticed to a
coach-painter in Philadelphia, and about 1818, began
to paint landscapes. In 1826 he painted Patrick Lyon
the Blacksmith, and afterwards Gilbert Stuart, both
of which are now in the Boston Athenaeum. He mar-
ried the daughter of the artist Thomas Sully, who gave
him much encouragement and help. He lived for a
time at New Orleans, but spent most of his life in
Philadelphia. Among his notable portraits are Wash-
ington, Henry Clay, Henry C. Carey. He died at
Philadelphia in 1865.
NEAT, DAVID, an Ameriean-German artist, was
born at Lowell, Mass., in 1837. He went to Munich
in 1861, and while studying there married the daugh-
ter of Čhevalier Ainmüller. In 1869 he entered the
studio of Piloty, and afterwards devoted himself en-
tirely to figure-painting. Among his earlier works
were The Chapel of the Kings, Westminster Abbey,
and The Interior of St. Mark’s, Venice. In 1876 his
noted painting, The First Meeting of Queen Mary
Stuart and Rizzio, obtained the grand medal of the
Bavarian Academy. Among his other pictures are
The Return from the Chase, jº Watt, and several
portraits.
NEAL, John (1793–1876), author, was born at Port-
land, Maine, Aug. 25, 1793. After a varied experience
of business life he studied law, but decided to obtain
his living by his pen. In 1817, he published his first
novel, Keep Cool, and about the same time was dis-
owned by the Society of Friends, in which he had been
brought up. He published a volume of poems, a
tragedy, and wrote the History of the American Revo-
lution, to which Paul Allen's name was prefixed. He
prepared an index to the 50 volumes of Niles' Register,
and wrote Seventy-Sic and other novels. Going to
England in 1824, he wrote for Blackwood's Magazine
and other periodicals, and lived for a time with Ben-
tham. Returning to America in 1827, he settled at
Portland, and wrote diligently for the newspapers,
practised law, and taught sparring and fencing. He
#. his profession in 1850, but continued to write.
€
ied at Portland, Me., June 20, 1876. Among ||b
his works are Brother Jonathan (1825); Rachel Dyer
(1828); Bentham's Morals and Legislation (1830);
Doign-Easters (1833); True Womanhood (1859), and
finally his Wandering Recollections of a Somewhat
Busy Life (1870).
... NEAL, Joseph CLAY (1807–1847), humorist, was
born at Greenland, N. H., Feb. 3, 1807. His father
had been principal of a school in Philadelphia, and
after his death the family returned to that city. Joseph
became connected with newspapers, and in 1831 was
editor of the Pennsylvanian, which he conducted
for several years, until his health failed. He went
abroad in 1841, and in 1844 established Neal's
Saturday Gazette. He died at Philadelphia, July 18,
1847. To his papers he had contributed sketches
which were collected under the title, Charcoal Sketches,
or Scenes in a Metropolis (1837). These were
republished in London by Dickens. Neal also wrote
Peter Ploddy (1844), and a new series of Charcoal
Sketches.
NEAT CATTLE. What are called the “native
cattle '' of the United States are of no
; º definite breed or strain, and are, de-
#. scended from animals coming from
various parts of Europe. During the
colonial period settlers coming from different parts of
England naturally took with them the live-stock of their
own districts. The British Islands, even from early
times, had cattle of various types, although little pains
were taken to keep the breeds distinct, or to rear stock
having any special points of excellence. As a conse-
quence the importations to this country were of
varied character, and in many parts the stock assumed
a mongrel type. The Dutch carried to New York
their own excellent races of cattle ; the French took
theirs to Canada and Louisiana; cattle of Spanish
breeds were imported to Texas, California, and Florida.
There were also importations made later of large, yel-
low cattle from Denmark. Such and so various were
the ancestors of the hormed cattle of North America.
But the methods and conditions of early American
agriculture had their effects on the live-stock kept in
the colonies. In New England the cattle were remark-
able for hardiness and for activity under the yoke, and
not a few cows possessed excellent milking qualities.
In this part of the country oxen are still largely em-
ployed for labor on farms. Throughout the lumbering
districts, both in the North-west and in the South, oxen
are much employed in drawing logs from the forests,
eing serviceable in rough and roadless places where
the less patient horse cannot be employed to advantage.
For like reasons oxen are also esteemed for work in
stone-quarries, and generally in mountainous districts.
In the Southern States many of the poorer class of
farmers employ steers, or even cows, for draught pur-
poses, often fastening a single animal by a rude harness
to the shafts of a little car. Elsewhere oxen are com:
|
8
NEAT CATTLE.
monly worked in pairs, being yoked together by the
neck. The head-yoke, so commonly used on the con-
tinent of Europe, is sometimes seen in this country,
and its general use has found some earnest advocates
among intelligent agricultural writers.
Hardly anywhere in the United States have there
been stocks of cattle produced worthy of distinction as
new breeds. An exception might be made in favor of
the Texans and of a race of small cattle reared in the
swampy regions of Florida. These diminutive Florida
animals have latterly acquired a good reputation as
generous producers of milk, and in the Southern States
there has been awakened a considerable demand for
them, not as true dairy animals, but rather as suppliers
of milk for family use in villages and suburban places,
much as Kerry cows are kept in the British Islands. It
is not a little remarkable that in some marshy districts
of the Gulf States the cattle have adopted some of the
habits of the oriental buffalo, often submerging them-
selves in water to escape the heat of the sun and the
attacks of insects, and plunging the head under water
while browsing on aquatic and floating plants. In eat-
ing this kind of food the cattle devour also great num-
bers of insect larvae and of other small water-animals
of low type.
What are called Texam and Cherokee cattle are de-
scendants of early Spanish importations. They are
extensively bred in the South-west, where they live in
a more than half wild state, cared for by mounted
herders and cowboys, and knowing nothing of shelter
nor, as a rule, of artificial feeding. A very large pro-
portion of the stock on Western cattle-ranches is of
this Texan race, wholly or in part. The reasons why
they are still reared are these : they are very hardy,
they are very cheap, and they already have the field.
Intrinsically, the Texan steer is of little worth. The
cows have very little of the milking quality. The
form is lean and lank, the bones prominent, the horns
of enormous size, the beef is of inferior quality, the fat
very scanty. Yet many thousands of these cattle are
marketed all over the country. The best are some-
times selected for corn-feeding, and are then partially
fattened before being taken to the shambles. Many
thousands of these bulls and cows come to us from
Mexico, being driven across the line as “breeding ani-
mals,” and thus escaping duty at the custom-house.
The chief value of the Texan cows is as the mothers of
grade Short-horn or Hereford beeves. The first cross
with a blooded bull will produce steers and cows which,
when three years old, will be worth double what a
Texan animal of the same age is worth, besides bein
much more tractable in disposition. Half-bloode
Texans, when well cared for, are often handsome
animals.
The business of cattle-ranching has become a great
feature of American enterprise. Vast fortunes have
been made in it with small original capital, and the
occupation has in itself many points of attraction for
young men of adventurous and enterprising. Spirit.
The life of ranchmen and cowboys is marked, indeed,
with much of hardship and excitement, and some of
its heroes have already found their way into dime novel
literature and the weekly story-papers. But as hither-
to conducted, there is as much or more to repel as to
attract a sober-minded business man. The risk of los-
ing stock from winter storms and Scanty pasture is very
great. Wealthy and unscrupulous ranchmen well
understand the art of ruining the prospects of young
and inexperienced aspirants. More than all, the field,
or the best of it, is already well occupied, and the
business is taking on new features. Many capitalists
now have their own cattle-ranges instead of feeding
their stock on the public lands. The fencing-in of such
ranges interferes with the old practice of shifting the
feeding-ground with the change of seasons; and many
breeders who have irrigable or arable lands find it to
their advantage to grow winter forage for their stock.
The personnel of the cattle-ranges presents many
oints of interest. Not a few cattle-men are college-
red gentlemen, with a taste for literature and society,
but naturally, many frontiersmen of almost savage
habits, and men from the Eastern States and from
Europe with no character and doubtful record, have
drifted into the business, the latter chiefly taking sub-
ordinate places.
The cattle-ranching business in the United States is
carried on in all the unsettled districts between the
Mississippi River and the Pacific, from the “Bad
Lands” of the Upper Missouri southward to the Gulf
of Mexico. Indeed, the “Bad Lands” have some
good points for the cattle-men, for in their “draws,” or
ravines, the stock are sheltered from the winter storms,
and in many spots good pasturage is to be found.
Even the elevated mountain valleys and the desolate
wastes of Arizona and Nevada are, to a great extent,
covered with cattle-ranges. Such an unpromising
native plant as the *White Sage” (Eurotia lamata,
called “winter-fat" in some places) is highly esteemed
for its property of keeping the cattle fat in winter.
Among the improved breeds seen in the United
States, the first place in point of popularity and in the
money value of stock must undoubtedly be given to the
Short-horns. The eastern and north-eastern counties .
of England were the original home of this race, which
appears to have an alliance with the Dutch and Hol-
stein breeds. As early as 1785 cattle of this stock were
taken to what is now West Virginia, a State which to
this day breeds many excellent beef-cattle, and others
about the same time were sent into the State of New
York. The first Short-horns were taken to Kentucky
in 1800. Col. Lewis Sanders, of Kentucky, in 1817
made further importations. Col. John Hare Powel,
of Philadelphia, was another early Short-horn importer
of note. From year to year many high-priced animals
of the best Short-horn families have been introduced
into this country, until now the best American Short-
horn stock is fully equal to any in the world, and some
of our best animals have been sent to Great Britain
for breeding purposes. The Short-horns are hardy in
habit, of good constitution, and are of high excellence
as beef-producers. The cows often prove good milk-
ers. But this race is chiefly valued in this country for
grading up unimproved herds of native stock. For this
purpose no bulls but those of pure Short-horn race
should be employed. The half-breed grade Short-
horns are often animals of great beauty and excel-
lence, but the males should not be used for breeding
urposes. Short-horns make strong and willing oxen,
ut are considered too slow for general farm-use.
For this purpose the more active North Devons are
much preferred. This race of beautiful and gentle
animals is of English origin. Many of them have
been from time to time imported into this country,
and there are many districts to which they are well
adapted. The cows are fair milkers, the milk is
rich, and the beef is excellent, though the steers are
not so early fit for the butcher's use as are those of
the Short-horn blood. The Hereford breed has many
excellent qualities. It is a good beef-producing fam-
ily, but the cows are seldom of much use in the
dairy, and many breeders consider that the steers
are less hardy and require more skill than Short-
horns need in order to be bred to a profit. The
Ayrshires are a handsome Scottish race with strong
Short-horn alliances. They are splendid and copious
milkers, and are justly valued by dairymen. ... Their
milk is less rich in butter than that of the Channel
Island cows, but they are more profitable when the
milk is sold in the cities, and their milk is inferior.
to none for use in the cheese-factory. There are
“butter families '' and “cheese families” among
cattle of this breed. The Jersey and Guernsey breeds
are the two principal stocks of Channel Island cattle,
for the true Alderneys are scarcely known to the general
breeder. These relatively small and very beautiful
animals are greatly prized for the richness of their
NEBRASKA. 9
milk and the excellence of their butter. They are
often kept for family use, and many American butter-
producers keep them in considerable herds. Their
peculiar excellence is often transmitted to their grade
offspring, which frequently excel their mothers in the
quantity of their milk. The bulls of this race are
often singularly fierce and treacherous. For the sham-
bles, the Channel Island cattle have little to recom-
mend them. Many Dutch, North Holland, and Hol-
stein cattle are now bred in this country. Practically,
they may be considered as all of one breed. They
produce enormous quantities of milk and are every
ear increasing in favor with dairymen. They are of
arge size, and when past the age of service make good
beef. For producing butchers' steers, it is believed
that this breed and its grades will not rank far below the
Short-horns. The hormless Scotch breeds (the Aber-
deen, polled Angus, and Galloway) are very thrifty
and hardy animals, producing a good flow of rich milk.
They afford excellent beef steers, and are of late attract-
ing much attention in this country. The nations of
Continental Europe have a great many well-marked
breeds of cattle. Several of these are worthy of trial
in this country. A few breeders have turned their
attention to Swiss cows, of which there are several
retty distinct stocks. Some strains of Swiss cows
i. proved extremely profitable as milk-producers,
while for hardiness and activity they are not surpassed.
These latter qualities ought to fit them well for ranch
life. On the plains an active, independent animal
that can shift for itself, and does not fear wolves or
wild dogs, and has the courage to graze far away from
water-holes, is highly valued, and is set down as “a
good rustler,” the highest title of commendation that
a beast or a man can receive on the plains. -
The subject of transportation of cattle has received
great attention in this country, and the trunk-lines of
railway have invested large sums of money in cattle-
cars and the other appliances needed in the business.
Near most of the large cities of the country extensive
stock-yards have been established for the reception and
marketing of cattle. Much capital has been employed
in the shipment of live-stock to European markets, but
the recent invention of cheap systems of refrigeration,
by means of which dressed beef can be shipped in per-
fect condition from New Zealand or Australia to Lon-
don, has interfered with American shipments of living
cattle and made capitalists very cautious in their ven-
tures in such enterprises.
For an account of the cattle-ranch business in its palmi-
est days see Gen. J. S. Brisbin's The Beef Bonanza (1880).
The U. S. Census Report of Mr. Clarence Gordon on Meat
Production (1880, published in 1883) is a very elaborate
and careful one, but its statistics have already gone out of
date, so rapidly has the business been developed since that
report was made. (See MEATs.) (C. W. G.)
NEBRASKA. Since 1883 the following changes
have been made in the counties of this
jº State. Sioux county has been divided
km. º ” into three, the most western retaining
the original name; the middle is Dawes
county, with county-seat at Chadron; the eastern is
Sheridan, with county-seat
at Rushville. Keya Paha
county has been formed
from that part of Brown
north of the Niobrara river,
tº and has Springview as its
county-seat. From the part
formerly unorganized have
been formed the counties
of Blaine, with county-seat
at Brewster, and Logan,
with county-seat at Gandy.
Thºre still remain 112 townships unorganized.
The population of the State is estimated, in 1SSS, at
750,000, At the State election in November, iss6.
the total vote was 138,239. There are In any unnatur-
alized foreigners domiciled here. The total area is
about 52,000,000 acres. Much still belongs to the public
domain, and is subject to entry under the U. S.
land laws at the government land offices at Beatrice,
Lincoln, Niobrara, Grand Island, North Platte, and
Neligh. Investigation is being carried on in regard to
entries in the western half of the State, and final action
on these is deferred until their character is proved.
Of the 12,370,497 acres of land granted by Congress
to the Union Pacific Railroad, and of the 2,315,864
acres to the Burlington and Missouri Railroad, to which
the State also gave an additional 50,000 acres, much
remains as yet unsold within the State, and can be had
at reasonable prices and on easy terms; while the State
still owns 2,786,527 acres, subject to sale at not less
than $7 per acre, or to lease for terms of 20 years, at
an annual rental of 6 per cent. on an average valuation
of $2.50 per acre, with the privilege to purchase at any
time for not less than $7 per acre, ...! subject to for-
feiture of rents paid and improvements made on the
land if the terms of the lease are not strictly complied
with.
The total valuation of taxable property within the
State as assessed for 1886–87 was $133,418,699, of
which $18,534,789 was represented by 2,765 miles of
railway, and the remainder by real estate and personal
property in the hands of private owners. But for such
property there is no standard of value fixed by laws.
and the biennial assessments for tax levies are no index
whatever to its market value, which depends wholly
upon the caprice or necessity of the private owner, the
supply of and demand for money, and is purely a
matter of speculation.
Within a few years Omaha was transformed from a
rovincial town of muddy streets and rickety frame
i. into a beautiful city of magnificent dimen-
sions, with miles upon miles of excellent pavement
lined on each side with grand structures of brick, iron,
and stone in the latest styles of noble architecture,
heated by steam and lighted by electricity and provided
with all modern improvements.
Nebraska has been struggling with the problem of
taxation and of just equalization of land values. As
yet taxes on real estate are much lighter there than in
other States; her tax laws do not essentially differ from
those of other Western States. The Legislature in
1887 commenced the work of revenue and land tenure
reform in good earnest. A law was passed looking
toward the abolition of alien ownership of land, the
limitation of private land ownership in general to ac-
tual use and occupation, and the raising of revenue by
taxation of products rather than of the means of pro-
duction. -
The act of May 30, 1854, creating the Territory of
Nebraska, abrogated the Missouri Compromise, mak-
ing the line of 36°30′ N, lat. a boundary to the exten-
sion of African slavery on this continent, and while it
was declared to be the true intent and meaning of that
act “not to legislate slavery into any Territory or State,
nor to exclude, it therefrom, but to leave the people
thereof. perfectly free to form and regulate their do.
mestic institutions in their own way,” etc., the real
design of the promoters of that act was to open all the
Western country to the introduction of negro slavery
wherever profitable. The long and bloody struggle
that ensued Qught to be a warning to both sides in the
present conflict between capital and labor over the
means of existence. ... Otherwise Nebraska has profited
by the experience of her elder sisters, and has shown
greatºr wisdom in the prudent management of her
inunificent endowments by the national government
for educational purposes and public buildings.
The new State capitol at Lincoln, in process of con-
structiºn, is to be completed in December, 18S9, at a
cost of $439,187, according to the contract made in
1883, and when completed it will be of more imposing
appearange and better adapted to its uses than other
more costly buildings of the kind.

10
NEBRASKA.
The new Insane Asylum, at Norfolk, is a substantial
brigk building with a stone basement, 244 feet by 75.
It has four stories, the top of its main tower being 120
feet high. It was erected at a total cost of $65,772,
but has not been opened as yet for the reception of
patients.
The State Reform School for juvenile offenders,
located on a farm of 320 acres, near the city of Kear.
ney, in Buffalo county, has been enlarged by the addi-
tion of two new family buildings and a workshop at a
cost of $25,600. Instruction and labor under thorough
discipline, which is that of the family, the school, the
Workshop, and the farm, rather than that of the prison,
are the means employed for the reformation of those
Committed to its charge. Lately, instruction in mili-
tary tactics has been introduced there with good results.
The library contains 520 volumes of well-selected books.
Besides an abundance of wholesome food for the in-
mates, the farm last year yielded a surplus for sale
amounting to $800. The total number of youths com-
mitted to the care of this institution from its opening
º . until 1886 was 208, of which 166 were boys and
2 glrls.
The State Penitentiary, at Nobesville, is a solid stone
structure, containing three tiers of eighty cells each,
to which another tier of cells is to be added. Wooden
buildings in the prison yard are used for workshops.
*he prison library contains over 3000 volumes of choice
literature. The total number of prisoners received
since its foundation in 1869 is 1146, of which 328 re-
mained in prison at the beginning of the present year.
Of these 307 were white, I6 colored, and 5 Indians.
The Nebraska Institute for the Blind is located at
Nebraska City, and has now entered upon the twelfth
year of its existence. During that time 73 blind chil-
dren have received instruction, and 9 have completed
the prescribed course. The enrolment in 1886 was 38.
A Home for the Friendless has been erected at Lin-
coln, costing $10,000, but is not yet open.
An Asylum for Feeble-Minded Children and Adults,
costing $45,444, has been established near the city of
Beatrice. It is a substantial two-story brick building
with stone basement, 141 feet long by 91 feet wide,
provided with all modern improvements, and will afford
comfortable quarters for all of the 614 idiotic and im-
becile persons thus far discovered within the State.
The Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, at Omaha, has
been much improved. There are now 144 pupils at
this institution, of which 83 are males and 61 females,
from 7 to 22 years old.
The Hospital for the Insane, at Lincoln, has been
renovated and enlarged, and the grounds around the
buildings have been greatly beautified by the laying out
of drives, walks, grass-plats, and flower-beds, and many
other improvements have been made about the prem-
ises; 747 patients have been received there for treat-
ment in 1886–87, and the present enrolment is 374, of
which 227 are males and 147 females. A carefully
selected library of some 450 volumes has been added
to the hospital.
The State University and Agricultural College, at
Lincoln, has been repaired and remodelled, and a new
building of fine proportions has been erected at a cost
of $23,700 for the use of the industrial and scientific
department. A complete equipment made to order in
Europe has been procured for the Chemical Laboratory;
3000 volumes have been added to the general library;
325 to the Botanical Library; 1497 specimens to the
Botanical Cabinet; 15,000 specimens to the Herbarium;
and 1792 specimens to the Geological Cabinet. The
fine arts school acquired a valuable collection of casts
from the French exhibit at New Orleans. The total
number of students is now 343, of which 31 attend the
college of medicine, 135 the industrial and Scientific
school, 126 the Latin school, and 74 the School of fine
arts.
The State Normal School, at Peru, has been enlarged
by the addition of a substantial brick structure 94 by
A.
56 feet, two stories high and a basement, and many
other improvements have been made at a total cost of
$20,000. Its library now contains about 5000 volumes.
Alºne increased from 274 students in 1881 to 478
lū g
The appropriations for the current expenses of these
State institutions for the years 1887 and 1888 amount
in the aggregate to $2,722,897.
le Common Schools of the State are most liberally
provided for. The total expenditures for these schools
during the years 1885–86, including $244,081 on hand
at the close of 1886, amounted to $6,357,624. The
permanent common school fund, arising from a munifi-
gent endowment in lands yielding a large sum annually,
had increased to $4,904,119 at the close of the year
1886, and it is estimated that this fund will reach full
$20,000,000 when the lands are all sold. In the 4400
School districts of the State there are now enumerated
252,006 School children of both sexes, of which 180,059
are enrolled with an average attendance of 107,945 in
4369 School-houses, valued at $3,821,317, and provided
with $122,675.33 worth of books and apparatus. Dur-
ing 1886 teachers' institutes were held in 66 counties,
lasting on an average 11 days each, with an average
daily attendance of 4225 teachers out of 5359 enrol-
ments, at a total cost of $11,947. The average monthly
wages of male teachers is $42.68, and of female
teachers, $34.70. -
In 1843 districts lists of uniform text-books have
been adopted which the pupils are required to purchase;
422 districts select their own text-books and furnish
them free of cost to the children, while the remainder
of the districts have as yet adopted no settled policy in
this respect. The uniform experience in the districts
which have adopted the free text-book system is, that
it saves time and money, that school attendance is in-
creased, that children of poor parents are kept at
School longer, that the cost of books has been reduced
one-third, and that of other supplies about one-half,
and that in no case have contagious diseases been com-
municated thereby. “Arbor Day” (April 22) is
generally observed in all the schools as a holiday, de-
voted to the planting of trees, with appropriate ceremo-
nies and discourses on memorable persons and events.
Besides these public schools there are a number of col-
leges and private schools devoted to higher education.
Prominent among these are Creighton §. a Cath-
olic institution at Omaha, for young men alone, and
Brownell Hall, an Episcopal Seminary for young ladies
alone, also at Omaha; the Methodist Episcopal §.
of Nebraska at York; the Nebraska §. College,
another Methodist institution, at Central City; Gates
College, established by the Columbus Association of
Congregational Ministers and Churches, at Neligh ;
and Doane College at the beautiful town of Crete, an-
other Congregational institution and the oldest of the
kind in the State, having been founded in 1872; Mer-
riſ Hall was added in 1879, Boswell Observatory in
1883, and Ladies' Hall in 1884. These are for both
sexes. Omaha and other towns of the State are also
justly proud of their Public High Schools, where the
eight years' course of common school studies is supple-
mented by a four years' course of instruction in the
higher branches. ºr
The growth of churches of all denominations has
been co-equal with the general progress of the State,
and many fine edifices have been j are being erected
in every city and throughout the country generally.
Railroads.-The total number of #. operated
within the State by the various railroad companies in
1886 was 3051 miles, of which 1633 miles were com-
posed of steel rails and the rest of iron rails. The
capital stock of these roads is estimated by the Railway
Commissioners at $66,292,832, or an average of $21,722
ºr mile, and their aggregate debt at $83,122,813.
Their gross earnings.for the year ending June 30, 1886,
were $15,720,747.95, an increase of $1,571,429.25 over
the previous year. The total amount of taxes paid by
NEEDLES-NEGLIGENCE.
11
the various lines was $647,210, being over 8 per cent.
on their net earnings within the State.
The total number of persons directly employed in
the operation of the roads was 12,190, who earned
$6,745,454, or an average of $582 each, during the
763.I’.
y The main trunk lines traversing the length and
breadth of the State are competing with each other
for new territory, and pushing out branch lines in every
direction, so that the total mileage of railroads will
soon be greatly augmented.
The building of railroads and telegraph lines, the
turning of the sod, and the planting of groves has had
a marked ameliorating influence on the climate of the
State, increasing the moisture and modifying the con-
ditions of the atmosphere.
The observing traveller on a second summer's journey
through the State, after an interval of a few years,
cannot fail to be impressed with the changed appear-
ance of the country, and notice that verdure and showers
of blessings follow the star of empire in its westward
COUll'Sé.
There is a marked difference in the water of streams
heading on the Divide running east and west through
the State about 25 miles south of its northern boundary.
The waters flowing southward into the Platte River are
all strongly alkaline, while those flowing northward into
the Niobrara River are all soft-water streams from
springs gushing out of the hillsides all along the
northern side of the Divide, until the gypsum country
of the Black Hills is reached. This northern part of
the State gradually rises from an altitude of 1000 feet
at the Missouri River to 3500 feet at the western boun-
dary, giving a very good mean altitude for health and
freedom from miasmatic troubles.
Agriculture and stock-raising are the chief industries
of the State. The staple products of the farm are
corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, flax, broom-corn, sorghum,
millet, all the common garden vegetables and the
products of the dairy, the total value of which, pro-
duced during 1887, is estimated at $60,000,000. The
abundance of summer and winter pasture and the great
corn product has made Nebraska one of the best meat-
producing States of the West, and there is no other in-
terest more prominent to-day than that of cattle-
raising and fattening for market, as well as growing
young stock for breeding purposes, in which business
a vast amount of capital is profitably invested. Hor-
ticulture too has progressed far enough in the eastern
part of the State to sustain a number of fruit-canning
establishments.
The wholesale trade of the State is concentrated at
Omaha, and carried on by about 200 firms,
For further detailed information see the biennial
reports of the several State officers, the maps and
descriptive pamphlets issued by the various railroad
companies, and The Industries of Omaha. (F. H.)
NEEDLES. . ; º Illéâ.DS % modern
‘Ur invention, but has been in use from pre-
sº historic times, probably before the era
Am. Rep.). of woven fabrics. These early needles
were clumsy implements, made of wood,
bone, or bronze, and even of gold, though these mai
terials have long since been superseded by steel. Steel
needles seem to have been introduced into Europe by
the Moors, though it is not probable that they were
the first inventors, since the Chinese claim to have
used them from time immemorial. The first knowl-
edge we have of the manufacture of needles in Eng-
land is by a so-called “Indian,” probably a Moor, who
established this art in London in 1545, but it died out
with him. The art of needle-making was then prac.
ticed in France and Germany, whence it had come
from Spain, the home of the Moorish artificers. It
was revived in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and
by 1650 there was a numerous body of needle-makers
established in London. They formed one of the Lon-
don trade companies, having for their first crest the
tree of knowledge of good and evil, with a Serpent
twined round it. Afterwards a wreathed Moor's head
was adopted.
At that period and until long afterwards the needles
were made with square eyes, but this style of needle
is now extinct. They were scoured by being wrapped
in buckram, with emery-dust and oil, and rolled back
and forth under the feet of the workmen. In 1700 a
horse-mili was established for scouring and pointing,
water-power not being used for this purpose till later.
In the early period the needle-makers drew their own
wire, cut it to length, flattened the eye end and punched
the hole, a square punch being used as the easiest form.
In 1793 drilled-eye needles were made, but these
proved too expensive, and the old method was re-
sumed. In 1800 stamps and dies to pierce the eyes
of needles came into use, and in 1826 the drill was
successfully applied, but it left the edge of the hole SO
sharp as to cut the thread. This was overcome by the
burnishing process, which came into use about 1838.
The needles were threaded in rows on hard steel wire,
on which they were made to revolve rapidly by steam-
OWer.
p Up to 1840 needles had been hardened in water,
which made many of them crooked. This was obviated
by hardening in oil, which then came into use. The
needle-pointing machine is an English invention. The
pointing is done by a grooved grindstone, which is
made to revolve at great speed, the needles being fed
to it from an inclined plane. By the use of a revolving
disc the wires are fed continuously and made to turn
while pointing.
It is an interesting fact that round-eyed needles were
made and used in §. long before even the square-
eyed ones were in use in Europe. In England the
centre of the needle trade is the small town of Red-
ditch—for no particular reason except that needles
happened to be first made there. Aix-la-Chapelle in
Prussia is the centre of the continental trade. Needles
are now made in a great variety of shapes and applied
to many different purposes, and the trade has become
a very extensive and important one. The manufac-
ture, as now carried on, is a remarkable instance of the
division of labor, each needle having to pass through
seventy pairs of hands before completion. The needle
manufacture in America is not a particularly important
one. It is classed in the census reports with the pin
industry, there being in 1880 forty establishments for
the manufacture of pins and needles, with a total
product valued at $1,378,023. (C. M.)
NEFE, FELIX (1798–1829), a Swiss missionary, was
born at Geneva, Oct. 8, 1798. In early life he was a
soldier, but in 1819 he engaged in missionary labors in
neglected valleys of the higher Alps. He extended
his work into similar districts in France, where he
greatly improved the religious, moral, and physical
condition of the inhabitants. In order to carry out
his º more effectually he obtained ordination in
England in 1823 as an Independent minister. He died
at Geneva, April 12, 1829, at the early age of thirty,
worn out by his toil and hardships,
NEGLIGENCE. In º as in English law
rol xvrr it, is generally for the jury to say
iº, whether there has been negligence on
Am. Rep.). the part of the defendant or not;
. . ." ... there must, however, be evidence upon
which intelligent men could reasonably and properly
find the fact of negligence, or the court will withdraw
the case from the jury and dismiss the complaint.
The burden of proof is upon the plaintiff, and when
he has raised a presumption of negligence he is en-
titled to recover unless the defendant produces evi-
dence sufficient to rebut that presumption.
The strict English rule in regard to contributory
negligence has recently been modified in the courts of
that country. . There it was formerly held that a pas-
senger, in train of A. Company, though having no
control over the driver, was so far identified with him
12
NEGRO).
that he could not recover against B. Company for an
injury caused by an accident to which the negligence
of A. Company's driver contributed. This rule has
been followed by the courts of Pennsylvania and one
or two other States only, but has recently been re-
pudiated in England.
The rule that negligence of a parent or guardian in
permitting an infant to become exposed to danger is
to be imputed to the infant so as to bar its right of
action for injury resulting therefrom has been followed
in New York, Massachusetts, Illinois, Indiana, Ne-
braska, and California, but repudiated in Pennsylvania,
Vermont, Ohio, and Alabama.
A master is liable for the negligent acts of his ser-
vants in the course of their employment. He is not
responsible for any such act with respect to matters
unconnected with the general business in which they
serve him.
The general rule in England, as well as in America,
has been that a master is not liable to a servant for in-
juries received by reason of the negligence of a fel-
low-servant.
command of others the English courts, as well as those
of some of the United States, have held that the
master was not liable for injury to a fellow-servant re-
sulting from his negligence. In the U. S. courts and
the great majority of the State courts the contrary rule
has been followed. (T. R.)
NEGRO. For anthropological treatment of this
see vol. xvii. “ the reader is referred to the ENCY-
*...", "...: CLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. The present
p. 316 (p. 325 wº • . { %
Am. Rep.). article is confined to the “Negro Race
in America : its history, present condi-
tion, and future prospects.”
In the year 1565 Don Pedro de Menendez, the
founder of a Spanish colony at St. Augustine, Florida,
introduced the first African slaves into territory sub-
sequently included in the United States of America.
But prior to this Sir John Hawkins, in October, 1562,
organized the first expedition of English-speaking
people to engage in the African slave-trade. Associ-
ated with him in this ignoble enterprise were Sir
Lionel Ducket, Sir Thomas Lodge, M. Gunston, his
father-in-law, Sir William Winter, M. Bronfield, and
about 100 men as well able to fight as to perform the
functions of sailors. The expedition went forward in
three vessels: the Salomon, 120 tons burthen ; the
Swallow, 100 tons; the Jonas, a bark of forty tons.
Hawkins landed his expedition at Tagarin, on the
coast of Guinea, and by sword and torch secured 300
African captives, whom he subsequently bartered in
Hispaniola at the ports of Isabella, Porto de Plata, and
Monte Christo. In exchange for his living chattels he
received from the Spaniards sugar, ginger, hides,
pearls, etc. ©
Hawkins performed two other voyages as an im-
porter of slaves, voyages characterized by great cruel-
ties to the African villages he set upon and burned,
and many of whose inhabitants he slew with the
sword or bore away into captivity. His second slave-
voyage was begun on the 18th day of October, 1564,
and the expedition was composed of the same vessels
with the exception of the Jonas, whose place was
filled by the Jesus, of Lubeck, 700 tons burthen. The
third voyage was begun on Oct. 2, 1567, and, after
many hardships and perils, ended Jan. 25, 1568. All
the slaves secured by the three slave-hunting voyages
of Sir John Hawkins were stealthily disposed of in the
northern ports of the Spanish-American colonies, be-
cause the Spanish government, jealous of the increas:
ing fame and power of the English upon the seas, had
issued orders to its colonial governors to exclude all
British ships from their ports. . Notwithstanding
official opposition Hawkins found the Spaniards, eager
to purchase his stolen Africans; and thus did, an
Englishman open up the slave-trade between Africa
and America. - * * * * *
In August, 1619, a Dutch man-of-war fell in with an
In the case of one servant being put in
English vessel, the Treasurer, Captain Elfred, in the
West Indies, and, having recaptured from her twenty
slaves previously taken from a Spanish vessel, sold
them to planters in the colony of Virginia. The
Treasurer was owned by the Earl of Warwick and
Gov. Samuel Argall, and had been sent out by the
earl with an old commission from the Duke of Savoy
authorizing her to seize Spaniards as lawful prize.
The twenty negroes were a part of 100 Africans whom
the Treasurer found in a Spanish vessel. The Dutch
man-of-war was not engaged in the slave-trade, but,
being short of provisions, exchanged the recaptured
Africans for food. The Dutch introduced slaves into
Manhattan (New York) in 1625; and the first lot
landed in the Eastern colonies was brought to Massa-
chusetts in the ship Desire, Capt. Peirce, Feb. 26,
1637–38. -
In 1631 an African Company was chartered for
thirty-one years to trade on the coast of Guinea be-
tween Cape Blanco and the Cape of Good Hope ; and
all other persons and traders were strictly prohibited
from trespassing upon the exclusive rights of the pat-
entees. The English colonies in the West Indies and
America were now to be supplied with African slaves;
and in order to facilitate its business of stealing Afri-
cans the company erected forts and factories on the
coast of Guinea at great expense.
In 1662 Charles II. granted letters of incorporation
for an African Company with exclusive rights; and it
undertook to supply the British West Indies with
3000 African slaves annually. The king's brother, the
Duke of York, and other gentlemen of quality, be-
came enthusiastic members of the company. In 1672
the company surrendered its charter to the crown,
when the “Royal African Company’’ was incorporated
upon a joint stock. This company included among
its members the king, the Duke of York, and other
persons of rank and quality. Its capital stock was
£111,000 sterling, and the grant embraced the terri-
tory between Port Sallee, in South Barbary, to the
Cape of Good Hope. It did a thriving business for a
while ; but by the “Declaration of Right” in 1688,
with other royal companies, it was compelled to sur-
render its charter. owever, in the following year it
entered into a contract to supply the Spanish West
Indies with slaves from Jamaica. By the close of the
seventeenth century Brazil and the West Indies had
been well stocked with African slaves, and the British
colonies in America were exchanging rum and fish for
slaves in the Spanish-American colonies or importing
them direct from the west coast of Africa.
Convinced as to the value of African slaves in its
North American colonies, the British government be-
gan to take official notice of the slave-trade and inaug-
urated the eighteenth century by encouraging the
traffic in human flesh. In 1702 “her most gracious
majesty,” Queen Anne, in a letter of instructions to
her colonial governors, directed that her subjects “take
especial care that God Almighty be devoutly and duly
served,” and that the “Royal African Company of
England’’ “take especial care that the said province
may have a constant and a sufficient supply of mer:
chantable negroes at moderate rates.” . Having opened
up the slave-trade in North America the English now
proposed to levy a tax upon all slaves imported into
British colonies. On April 18, 1707, the Board of
Trade, in a circular letter to the English-American
colonies, urged that a light tax upon slaves was the
best means for “the weſi supplying of the plantations
and the colonies with a sufficient number of negroes at
reasonable prices.” The board maintained that the
chief point to be considered was that it was “abso-
lutely necessary that a trade so beneficial to the king:
dom should be carried on to the greatest advantage.”
Stimulated by the British government and by the
rivalry of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, and
Dutch adventurers, the slave-trade grew to enor-
mous proportions. Between the years 1679 and
NEGRO. 13
1689 the annual importation was about 4500; and
between 1698 and 1707 about 25,000 slaves were
landed annually. But notwithstanding the large
number of interloping vessels of all nations engaged
in the slave-trade, England was the only power that
clothed the action of its seamen with the majesty of
national authority. Her slave-ships increased until
she could undertake to steal Africans for other na-
tions. The service that France had once performed
for Spain England now undertook. In 1713 Queen
Anne, of England, entered into a contract with King
Philip V. of Spain, to import 144,000 negroes into
Spanish America within the space of thirty years, and
she advanced to Philip 200,000 crowns for the fran-
chise, and agreed to pay a duty of 33} crowns upon
each slave. The agreement was known as “The
Assiento,” and was as follows: “Her Britannic
Majesty did offer and undertake, by persons whom
she shall appoint, to bring into the West Indies of
America belonging to his Catholic Majesty, in the
space of thirty years, 144,000 negroes, at the rate of
4800 in each of the said thirty years.” The Assiento
was considered of such great importance that it be-
came the subject of stipulation in the preliminaries
of the treaty of peace at Utrecht; and it was solemnly
confirmed as the sixteenth article of that treaty.
This enterprise, which constituted the Queen of Eng-
land and the King of Spain the largest slave-traders
in the world, seemed to promise great financial gain.
Philip took one-quarter of the stock and gave his note
for it ; Anne reserved to herself one-quarter, and the
remaining one-half she left for her loyal subjects.
For twenty years the annual importation of slaves was
about 15,000, divided between the Spanish and Eng-
lish colonies; and for the last twenty years there were
imported in English ships 20,000 slaves per annum.
The number of slaves imported continued to increase
until just before the passage of the “Non-importation
Act,” when it had reached 41,000 per annum for
the British-American colonies, and 97,000 carried to
the Spanish-American colonies. Between 1680 and
1700 the African Company and private traders ex-
ported about 300,000 slaves from Africa; and from
1700 to 1786 from Africa to Jamaica alone 610,000.
The total number imported into the West Indies and
British colonies from 1680 to 1786 may be carefully
stated at 2, 130,000, an annual average of 20,095.
The loss at sea was about one-eighth of the entire
2,130,000 slaves imported. The fleet that was engaged
in the slave-trade was without a parallel in the history
of the world. In 1771 there were 192 slave-ships
sailing from London, Liverpool, and Bristol, with a
capacity for carrying 47,000 slaves. There were 107
ships from Liverpool alone, with a capacity for 29,250
slaves. From 1771 to 1776 the average annual slave-
fleet was 150 vessels sailing from English ports alone,
in addition to those vessels employed by the subjects
of other nations and by the British colonists in Amer-
ica. For the half century of the slave-trade to
America, from 1700 to 1750, the estimated loss of life
upon the ocean was 250,000 Africans, who were cast
into the deep. The loss upon the land from hunger,
disease, overwork, and cruel treatment was about
one-sixteenth of the entire number landed, which was,
in the English West Indies, American colonies,
Sºlish and French possessions, about 3,000,000
SOUllS.
The rapid increase of slaves in the British-American
colonies led to the enactment of special laws regulating
the new system of labor in vogue. The laws varied in
the different colonies. In the Southern colonies, where
many, whites had sold their service for a specified
period, the law of bondage recognized two classes,
” servants for a term of years, and servants for life; ”
while in Massachusetts and other Eastern colonies
slavery was established by statute. In those colonies
Where there was no statute legalizing slavery it existed
in contemplation of law; and many laws were enacted
§
recognizing negro slaves as real, personal, and mixed
property. Slaves were bought and sold at private and
public sales; were disposed of by will, and, sometimes,
manumitted under certain declaratory and restraining
statutes. The slave codes of the colonies were quite
similar. The slaves were excluded from the ecclesias-
tical, civil, and militia establishments. They were not
competent to testify in any criminal Qr judicial pro-
ceeding, unless all the parties to the cause were
negroes. In some colonies the master's power over
the slave extended to life and limb ; in others the cor-
rection was restricted to moderate corporal punishment.
As a class the colonial slaves were governed rigorously:
being overworked, underfed, thinly clad, and wretch-
edly housed. When old and infirm they were usually
manumitted, and then sent forth to earn their own
living. This was practiced to such an alarming extent
that some of the colonial Legislatures required that
masters emancipating old slaves should furnish a bond
that they should not become a charge upon the com-
munity. The slaves were not allowed to receive in-
struction of any kind in schools or from private indi-
viduals. In rare instances they were received into the
communion of the Christian church ; but the custom
was to abandon them to the most degrading and de-
stroying ignorance. Their marriages were by common
consent without the presence or official sanction of a
clergyman. Their immorality was due to the System
under which they were constrained to languish. In
sickness they were without nursing, and rarely secured
the service of a physician, and when they died they
were thrown into the common ditch. The free negroes
and mulattoes were taxed, without representation.
They were admitted to the church, but were without a
voice in ecclesiastical government. They were com-
pelled to train with the militia of the parish in which
they resided, and yet they were assigned to fatigue
duty alone. They could not stand for any civil office ;
could not cast a ballot for any candidate for office.
They were denied social intercourse with the whites,
and were forbidden to consort with slaves. They were
constrained to furnish their own instruction, since
there was no provision made by the colonies for the
education of their children. The opportunities for
young men to secure remunerative positions were rare;
and thus the free negroes of the colonies were confined
to servile employments.
Notwithstanding the painfully obscure position the
free negroes and mulattoes of the colonies occupied,
many of them attained to a high degree of intelligence
and virtue, and some of them accumulated consider-
able property. During the colonial period there were
some able representatives of these people. Phillis
Wheatley (1753–1794), the poetess; Paul Cuffee
[q, v.] (1759–1817), navigator, merchant, and philan-
thropist; Prima Hall, (1756–1789), soldier, politician,
and grand-master of the first lodge of negro masons;
Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806), astronomer, philoso-
pher, and author; James Durham (1762–1804), phy-
sician and chemist; Richard Fuller (1749–1829), math-
ematician,"and others, were persons whose talents have
attracted attention. They were not indifferent to the
hardships under which their less fortunate brethren
suffered, and their talents and character pleaded elo-
quently the cause of the oppressed. -
Although slavery existed in all the British-American
colonies, there was at all times more or less opposition
to the system. A few years prior to the war of the
revolution the agitation of the slavery question began
to take definite shape. Letters of protest appeared in
the colonial newspapers; the town meetings passed
resolutions condemnatory of slavery, and instructed the
representatives to the general courts to secure such
legislation as would put an end to slavery. The move-
ment assumed several aspects. An attempt was made
to tax the slave-trade to its death ; but this only gave
the trade legal recognition, and emboldened the traffick-
ers in human flesh, Nor was a tax levied against the
*
14
NEGRO.
3.
colonial slave-trade, as such. Slavery had been fos-
* by the crown; and every royal governor sent to
the British-American colonies was strictly charged to
give his official aid to the slave-trade. Until the
Stamp Act” and “Tea Tax” the people were loyal
to the mother-country; and, therefore, the colonial
agitation found few prominent adherents. From 1750
till the war of the revolution some efforts were put
forth for the liberation of the slaves. James Otis,
James Swan, and Nathaniel Appleton were the pract
tical leaders of the agitation. The impending revolu-
tion was favorable to the enslaved blacks, and the free
negroes and mulattoes lost no opportunity of making
Converts to the cause of universal freedom.
Although the free negroes of the colonies were
exempted from militia service, they patriotically rallied
with the colonists at the outbreak of the revolution.
At the battle of Bunker Hill Peter Salem and Salem
Poor distinguished themselves. When the army was
reorganized, in the summer of 1775, both the “Com-
mittee of Safety’’ and the “Council of War” at Gen.
Washington's head-quarters were averse to the em-
ployment of negroes as soldiers. But public sentiment
was not friendly to such conduct on the part of a peo-
ple who claimed to be struggling for liberty, and, after
a few months of agitation, negro soldiers were incor-
porated into the “Continental Army.” They shared
the hardships, conflicts, and victories of the Continental
troops. They were engaged in the battles of Rhode
Island, Point Bridge, Germantown, Saratoga, York-
town. Nor were the English indifferent to the value
of the negro as a soldier. They offered him freedom
and the pay and bounty of a British soldier as an in-
ducement to enlist in the royal army. Some few hun-
dred accepted the offer, and faithfully served in the
English army till it was withdrawn by Sir Guy Carlton,
when they sailed away with the retiring troops. The
Americans acted with the same fidelity towards the
negroes who had supported their standard in the war.
In most of the colonies slaves as well as free negroes
had been accepted as soldiers; and, while the slaves
were manumitted, the masters were compensated.
Notwithstanding the anti-slavery feeling—which
was almost wholly confined to the Northern colonies—
before and during the war of the revolution, slavery
was not checked to any considerable extent. Such
slaves as had served as soldiers were ipso facto free ;
but the thousands who had performed agricultural
labor, while they had been loyal to the American
cause, were still in bondage. The slave-trade from the
West Indies and Africa had practically ceased since
the war of the revolution ; but the inter-colonial
trade in slaves continued. In the New England colo-
nies there sprang up a movement among the people
to rid themselves of an institution that had been es-
tablished by the British government. Slavery was
not extinct until nearly a generation after the Declara-
tion of Independence. But while the Northern colo-
nies desired the abolition of the institution of slavery,
and sought to effect it by legislation and voluntary
manumission, the Southern colonies clung to it as a
basis of their present and future prosperity.
In the Constitutional Convention of 1787 the slavery
question occupied a large place in the debates. The
delegates from the Northern colonies were not more
zealous for free ships than the Southern delegates
were for slaves. Four questions were to be decided–
the legal status of the slave ; the right to reclaim
fugitives from labor and service; the basis of Southern
political representation, and the prohibition of the
slave-trade. The delegates from the Northern States
made some show of opposition to the slavery question,
but finally yielded to the demands of the Southern
delegates. An attempt to abolish the slave-trade by
law was defeated by the Southern members; and the
representatives of the Northern colonies effected a
compromise by which the South was, to have twenty
years of the foreign slave-trade, and the North the
tion as “a person ;
exclusive right to enact navigation laws. The South-
ern delegates insisted upon having the slaves of their
Section counted as three-fifths of their ratio of repre-
sentation in Congress. They won their point; and
the negro slave made his appearance in the Constitu-
and authority was secured to re-
turn any such person who might be a fugitive from
“labor and Service '' to those to whom such labor and
service were due.
Before the opening of the nineteenth century the
Quakers of the Eastern and Middle States had shown
their opposition to slavery. On Nov. 9, 1789, Ben-
jamin Franklin, President of the “Pennsylvania So-
ciety for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, and
the Relief of Free Negroes unlawfully held in Bond-
age,” had addressed a memorial to Congress praying
that body to enact some law abolishing slavery. In
1800 Congress received a petition from Quakers, asking
redress for some free negroes who had been unlaw-
fully enslaved. Abolition societies were then forming.
Public sentiment was being created in favor of liberty,
and the triumph of the movement seemed to be but a
question of time.
By the “Ordinance of 1787 '' slavery had been ex-
cluded from the “Territory of the North-west; ’’ and
all States formed out of that territory were expected
to prohibit, slavery by their constitution. In March,
1818, the citizens of Missouri petitioned Congress for
permission to form a constitution and be admitted
into the Union as a State. The question as to
whether the fundamental principle of the republic
was liberty or slavery was now for the first time raised.
Missouri wanted a constitution establishing and pro-
tecting slavery ; and after a struggle of nearly two
years the cause of slavery triumphed, and the Missouri
compromise was enacted.
On the part of the South the compromise was a
gain by the extension of slavery and the admission of
a new slave State. On the part of the North it was
a guarantee of a prohibition of slavery in future
States. But the Southern statesmen fought the battle
for slavery over again when other States asked to be
admitted into the Union. Kansas was saved to liberty
only by the eternal vigilance of patriots, and by the
expenditure of much treasure and blood.
The anti-slavery movement of the colonial period,
and the consistent efforts of the º had at length
aroused the public conscience that had nodded over
this question for so long. At the very time the
struggle between slavery and freedom was in progress
in Missouri, Benjamin Lundy, the chief apostle of
universal emancipation, was at St. Louis. Already in
1815 he had organized an anti-slavery society, “the
Union Humane Society,” at St. Clairsville, Va. In
1828 he made the acquaintance of William Lloyd Gar-
rison, who subsequently became associated with him
as editor of the Genius of Universal Emancipation,
at Baltimore, Md. The free negroes of the {j
States began early to write and speak in behalf of
their enslaved kinsmen ; and the service they rendered
the cause of freedom was both creditable to their
brain and heart. Many of them served as conductors
on the “Under-Ground Railroad,” and made sacri-
fices to aid their escaping brothers to Canada, where
they would be beyond the reach of United States
marshals. During the period of the anti-slavery
agitation more than 30,000 fugitive slaves found
homes in Canada, while at least 21,000 were estab-
lished in their freedom in the Northern States and
territory.
The Abolitionists and negroes of the North, were
opposed by a violent and mobocratic spirit in all sec-
tions of the country. Anti-slavery papers and books,
when sent South, were taken from the mail-pouches
and burned. Persons travelling in the South were fre-
quently suspected of anti-slavery sentiments and gon-
sequently cast into prison. In the North Garrison
had been thrown into jail at Baltimore ; Lovejoy's
NEGRO.
15
ress had been burned at Alton and his life taken ;
Hºsºni, Hall had been destroyed at Philadelphia;
Abolition meetings had been broken up, and the right
of free speech and free press generally denied to the
friends of freedom.
In some parts of the South the free negroes were
considerable in numbers, and while they might legally
acquire property and secure to themselves the blessing
of education, they were denied intercourse with the
slaves lest they should incite them to acts of violence
and bloodshed. And although the slaves were docile
and tractable they were, nevertheless, capable of bitter
resentment at times. Denmark Vesey, in South Car-
olina, “General’’ Gahiel and Nat Turner, in Virginia,
with other negro insurrectionists, between 1797 and
1831, had taught the slaveholders the danger of under-
estimating negro courage. In 1839 an intelligent and
brave African captive, named Cinque, led a number
of his fellow-countrymen, who were being conveyed
from Cuba to another Spanish island on board the ship
Amistad, in a desperate effort for liberty, in which
they slew their captors. The whites, whose lives they
spared, were imprisoned, and, ignorant of navigation,
they placed a Spaniard at the wheel with orders to
sail for Africa. He obeyed in the daytime, but at
night turned about and steered for the United States.
Capt. Gedney, U. S. brig Washington, discovered the
Amistad and brought her to New London, Conn.
After a long and exciting trial the Africans were lib-
erated. In 1841 an American slaver, the Creole, with
135 slaves on board, sailed from Richmond. In the
early part of November, when the Creole was near
the Bahamas, one Madison Washington, an intelli-
gent and intrepid negro, led eighteen of his fellow-
slaves in a revolt against their owners. They killed a
slave-trader and wounded the captain and several
other whites, and then put into Nassau, New Provi-
dence, where, after some waiting and much bitter
diplomatic correspondence between the United States
and England, they all obtained their freedom. The
free negroes of the Northern States were excluded
from the militia and denied, quite generally, the right
to vote, although taxed. Their schools were separate,
few in number, and poorly conducted. Frequently
they were the objects of cruel and murderous mobs
who sought them out in the seclusion of their homes
and maltreated them. They were excluded from
churches, confined to the galleries of theatres, denied
entertainment at hotels, and were not permitted to
travel as first-class passengers upon land or water.
Nearly every State constitution contained the word
” white ’’ as a restriction of civil rights; nearly every
common-carrier company had special rules to apply to
the negro ; nearly every community contained men
and women who were always ready to denounce and
abuse the blameless and inoffensive blacks.
In 1850 the original Fugitive Slave law of 1793 was
altered by Congress so that a master could go into a
free State and, without any regard to the laws of that
State, claim a negro as his property and take him
South. The negro was denied the writ of habeas cor-
pus; he could not testify in court, nor could he de-
mand a trial by jury. The U. S. marshal of the dis.
trict in which the alleged fugitive “from labor and
service'' was discovered was required to deliver him
up, and was empowered to call the posse comitatus if
the exigencies of the case required it. Citizens who
attempted to aid the fugitive were liable to heavy
fines. The slaveholders did not hesitate to avail them.
selves of the wide-sweeping provisions of this law,
and its enforcement soon fanned the flame of anti-
slavery sentiment of the free States into a blaze of
indignation. Shadrach, a fugitive slave, had been
rescued from a U. S. court-room at Boston by the
friends of freedom ; and Thomas M. Sims, another
fugitive, would have been rescued from slave-hunters
had he not been arrested upon a charge of theft and
then held as a fugitive slave. The rendition of An-
thony Burns by the U. S. marshal at Boston; the
posse comitatus of 100 respectable citizens of Boston;
the company of U marines and artillery with
shotted cannon; the U. S. revenue cutter at the
wharf, sent by the order of Pres. Pierce to convey
the heavy-hearted and manacled slave back to the
bondage from whence he had escaped, were the chief
features of one of the most dramatic events in the
history of the slave-power in America.
Next in historical importance was the DRED SCOTT
CASE (q.v.). The opinion of the court was delivered
by the Chief-Justice, Roger B. Taney, March 6, 1857.
He maintained that neither persons of African descent,
imported into the United States, nor the descendants
of such persons, were citizens of the United States
under the Constitution ; that the framers of that
instrument never intended to confer upon them such a
right; that the only two references to them in the
Constitution relate to them as property; that a negro
could not become a citizen, and that Dred Scott was
not a citizen of Missouri, and, therefore, dismissed the
case. From this opinion Justices McLean and Curtis
dissented ; but the Chief-Justice spoke for the slave-
power. The confusion, alarm, and dissatisfaction
created in the North by the decision was unprece-
dented ; and the people, through public meetings
called to denounce the decision of the court, and
through the newspapers, defied the bold attempt to
prostitute the Constitution for the destruction of hu-
man freedom.
During the administration of Pres. Buchanan the
attention of the whole country was riveted on Kan-
sas, where a desperate struggle for the extension
of slavery over territory declared free by the Missouri
Compromise was then taking place. Hardly had it
closed in favor of freedom than the irrepressible con-
flict seemed to be transferred to the soil where slavery
had first been planted in the limits of the United
States. On Oct. 16, 1859, Capt. John Brown, at the
head of 21 men, captured the U. S. arsenal at Har-
per's Ferry, Virginia, and held it until the 18th, when
it was retaken by a company of U. S. marines.
Brown's object was to emancipate the slaves of the
States of Virginia and Maryland and not to take life
except in self-defence. With five of his men he was
tried by a court of Virginia, convicted, and hanged on
Dec. 2. Though his attempt was thus easily quelled,
it sent a thrill of terror through the slaveholding
States. ©
Southern leaders insisted on new constitutional
guarantees for the safety of their peculiar institution,
While a majority of the people of the North demanded
the perpetual exclusion of slavery from territory re-
peatedly dedicated to freedom. The Republican party
organized to carry out this policy triumphed at the
polls in November, 1860, and elected Abraham Lincoln
to the presidency. The heated and unscrupulous
partisans of slavery urged forward their States to
secession and rebellion without waiting for his inau-
guration.
Although the war of the rebellion was brought on
by the slavery question, both the Union and Confed.
erate governments strove, during the early months of
the conflict, to avoid it as an issue. The Union army
surrendered fugitive slaves to rebel masters who were
permitted to come within the lines in pursuit of their
ghattels. Gen. B. F. Butler shrewdly declared such
fugitives contraband of war, but a great majority of
Union officers surrendered the slaves who sought shel-
ter in their camps from their masters. In Louisiana,
South Carolina, and Kansas negroes were mustered
into the military service of the United States as
early as 1862, and before the spring of 1863 the
J. S. government published a plan by which negroes,
free and bond, were to be employed as soldiers. By
the end of autumn 50,000 troops of this character
Were under arms. From the beginning to the close
of the war there were 178,975 negro troops in the ser.
16
NEGRO.
vice of the nation, who participated in 449 engage-
ments and sustained a loss of 36,847. At Fort Wag-
ner, Port Hudson, Chapin's Farm, Nashville, and
upon other fields they won the confidence and approval
of the military and civil leaders of the cause they so
gallantly served. Doubted and discriminated against
in respect to their pay, bounty, and clothing, they were
subsequently placed upon the same footing with their
more favored white comrades. The war had pro-
pounded several difficult problems that the govern-
ment was, at first, unprepared to solve ; but history
pointed to the past annals of the nation for guidance
in the war of the rebellion. The exigencies of a war
between Great Britain, and her colonies in North
America gave the negro his position as a soldier in the
War of the revolution. In the second war between
America and England the services of the free negroes
of Louisiana had been secured upon the same terms
as other troops. Their valor received the official
notice of Gen. Andrew Jackson, and the applause
of the national Congress. But in the war of the
rebellion it became necessary to emancipate 4,000,000
slaves to save the Union. Pres. Lincoln's prelim-
inary proclamation of emancipation was issued Sept.
22, 1862. He warned certain States, engaged in
armed rebellion against the government and authority
of the United States, that if they should be still en-
gaged in rebellion on Jan. 1, 1863, he would then
issue a final proclamation emancipating their slaves.
On that date, accordingly, the President, by virtue of
the war power, proclaimed the slaves of the enemies
of the Union forever free.
After the war was over the government was charged
with the grave and difficult work of reconstructing the
insurgent States. Before the war had come to a close
a Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned
Lands (see FREEDMEN's BUREAU) had been established
by an act of Congress. It made provision for needy
and deserving white refugees and freedmen, and en-
couraged and fostered a system of education and
agricultural industry. Pres. Andrew Johnson, who
had succeeded Lincoln, at first posed as the “Moses of
the negro,” but later opposed the giving of the right
of franchise to the black race. He vetoed every
measure passed by Congress calculated to give protec-
tion and political rights to the freedmen. Congress
passed over his vetoes the Thirteenth and Fourteenth
Amendments to the Constitution, and all the legisla-
tion necessary to restore order, justice, and political
government to the insurgent States. Slavery was ren-
dered forever impossible, and the negro was made a
citizen and a voter by amendments to the Constitu-
tion. -
Pres. Johnson's defiant attitude towards Congress
and his opposition to the enfranchisement of the negro,
as well as his sympathy with and support of the rebel
element of the South, led to great disorder and blood-
shed in the insurgent States. Encouraged by the
recognition from the President, and from the Northern
politicians that supported him, some people of the South
entered into a conspiracy against the legal results of
the great war as engrafted upon the Constitution. A
secret organization, called the “Ku-Klux-Klan,” be-
gan a series of barbarous outrages. Negroes and loyal
white men were whipped and their property burned.
Hundreds were murdered in cold blood, and the larger
Southern cities were the scenes of frequent riots. All
the laws of Congress respecting the rights of the
freedmen were set at naught and the work of recon-
struction greatly embarrassed, if not defeated. The
Legislatures of the insurgent States, controlled by
men still possessed with the very ideas which had led
to rebellion, passed laws that practically disfranchised
the freedmen, and the acts regulating negro laborers
made them the merest vassals of the soil. ©
The speedy failure of Pres, Johnson's policy of
restoration left an open field for Congress to operate
in. The insurgent States, being divided into five mil-
itary districts, all persons who took an oath of alle-
giance were registered as voters. New elections were
ordered for State constitutional conventions; new con-
stitutions were submitted to a vote of the people, and
State officers were elected who were friendly to the
amendments to the Constitution of the United States.
These States were subsequently admitted to the Union
and allowed representation in Congress. This was the
beginning of the political career of the Southern
negro. Inexperienced, ignorant, and pliable, he soon
became the foot-ball of political parties, and the
local administrations with which he identified himself
were notorious for their imbecility and corruption.
The negro, however, sinned less than he was sinned
against, and the Republican State governments of the
South were ultimately extinguished by tissue ballots
and assassins' bullets.
During the period of reconstruction negroes were in
the majority in the Senate and House of Representa-
tives of some Southern States, while two became U.
S. senators and a dozen were members of the House
of Representatives. Fourteen held positions in the
diplomatic and consular service of the government.
The U. S. marshal for the District of Columbia, the
tax-collector, the recorder of deeds, and the register
of the treasury were, at one time, negroes, and all of
them ex-slaves save one. There were about 600
negroes in the departments at Washington, D.C., and
several thousand of them, in the postal, revenue, and
customs service in various sections of the country.
The negro is not so porminent in American politics
now (1888) as he formerly was when the Republican
party was in power. But there are unfailing signs
that he is accumulating property and rapidly acquiring
knowledge. In the District of Columbia, where the
government emancipated the slaves by compensating
their masters, the negro citizens pay taxes upon about
$8,000,000 of real property; in Georgia they are
taxed for about $11,000,000; in Louisiana, for about
$25,000,000; and in other States in an almost propor-
tional amount. Their morals are improved, their
social life more elevated, their deportment more cor-
rect, and their tastes more chaste and elegant.
The ninth census of the population of the United
States seemed to indicate that the negro race in
America was doomed to speedy extinction. From a
population of about 4,500,000 in 1860 it had risen,
according to the ninth census, to but 4,886,378 in ten
years. ut the census of 1880 exhibited that the race
had reached 6,580,793, an increase of 34.67 per cent.
in ten years. At present (1888) the negro school pop-
ulation of the former slave States is 2,020,219, and
the enrolment is 1,048,659, a percentage of 55.8.
They have 281 normal schools with 6207 students;
270 institutions for secondary instruction with 9970
students; 238 universities and colleges with 5119 stu-
dents; 110 schools of theology with 1297 students;
16 law schools with 98 students; 22 schools of medi-
cine, dentistry, and pharmacy with 208 students; 40
schools for the deaf, dumb, and blind with 139 students;
and, adding the 661 schools for negroes in the Northern
States to the 18,794 for the freedmen, there are 19,455
public schools with a total enrolment for the race, as far
as reported, of 1,127,839. , But this does not include
the negroes and mulattoes in the schools of the North
where no discrimination is made as to color or nationality.
There are more signs of improvement among persons
heretofore held in bondage and the descendants of
such persons than in the small communities of Northern
negroes, who, contented with their condition, make
little effort to improve their opportunities. They are
the servant class as a rule, although there are worthy
exceptions, and make little or no progress. However,
in the larger cities of the Northern States negroes
have branched out into lucrative business enterprises,
and by industry, frugality, and ability have attained to
high and honorable business standing. Prejudice is
yielding to a better feeling toward this race among the
NEHLIG–NETTLETON.
17
more enlightened, and wherever character and talent
are exhibited they have been appreciated and ap-
plauded. It is different in the old slave States, since
the prejudices and customs of centuries will not yield
to nobler sentiments in a few decades. When the freed-
man acquires both education and property he will re-
turn to politics as a potent but peaceful factor; and
his rights, so long denied, will be accorded him as the
irresistible logic of civilization. Meanwhile, the friends
of humanity, in all sections of a common country, will
create a public sentiment friendly to the negro as a
citizen, as a laborer, and as a man. Within two cen-
turies the black race will have been merged into a
composite American nationality, and the legends of
its wrongs will have been wrought into a literature
that will thrill the heart of the civilized world with
passionate grief.
List of Authorities Consulted :-Hakluyt's Voyages;
PHolmes’ American Archives; Court and 7 innes of James
First ; Chalmers’ American Colonies; Hildreth’s History of
the United States; Palfrey's History of New England; Force's
American Archives; Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen ;
Some Account of the Trade in Slaves from Africa, as Com-
mected with Europe and America; Astley’s Poyages;
Iºward's West Indies ; Josselyn’s Voyages; The Hutchinson
Papers; The Madison Papers; The Journals of Congress ;
Elliot's Debates; Hurd's Bondage and Freedom ; Mott's
Sketches, etc. (G. W. W.)
NEHLIG, VICTOR, a French-American painter, was
born at Paris in 1830. He studied .. Abel de
Pujol and Cogniet. He settled at New York in 1856,
and was made a member of the National Academy in
1870. Several of his pictures relate to American his-
tory and romance. Among these are Gertrude of
Wyoming, Hiawatha and Minnehaha, and Pocahontas.
NELATON, AUGUSTE (1807–1873), a French sur-
geon, was born at Paris, June 17, 1807, being son of a
captain of the Imperial guard, killed at Wagram. He
studied medicine and surgery under Dupuytren, and
received his degree in 1836. He became adjunct pro-
fessor in the faculty of Paris in 1839, and after a com-
petitive examination in 1851, professor of clinical
surgery. In 1844 he published his Eléments de patho-
logie chirurgicale, which established his reputation as
an expositor. The work was enlarged by his pupils
and passed through many editions. In 1856 Nélaton
was admitted to the Academy of Medicine, and in 1867
to the Academy of Sciences. His professional prac-
tice extended throughout France and even beyond its
borders. In 1862 he astonished the world by his cure
of Garibaldi's wound, received at Aspromonte two
months before Nélaton reached him. In 1866 he was
made surgeon to Napoleon III., and having effected a
remarkable cure in !. case of the prince imperial, he
was made grand officer of the Legion of Honor, and
senator. He died at Paris, Sept. 22, 1873. His lec-
tures were noted for their clearness and his operations
for their almost magical success. With the simplest
possible means he seemed to achieve the most impor-
tant results. His improvements in surgery were happy
modifications of pre-existing methods rather than en-
tirely original processes. He assisted in the Rapport
sur les Progrès de la Chirurgie (1867), and published
some special treatises. -
NELSON, DAVID (1793–1844), clergyman, was born
near Jonesborough, Tenn., Sept. 24, 1793. He gradu-
ated at Washington College, Va., in 1810, and studied
medicine at Danville, Ky., and at the Philadelphia
Medical School. He was surgeon of a Kentucky regi-
ment in the war of 1812. For a time he was a skeptic,
but, returning to the religious belief in which he had
been trained, gave up his medical practice and became
a Presbyterian minister in 1825. After preaching in
various parts of Tennessee and Këntucky, he removed
in 1830 to Marion co., Mo., where he established a col-
lege. He was an advocate of emancipation and in
1836, on account of disturbances arising from this
cause, he removed to Quincy, Ill., where for a time he
WOL. IV.-B.
then ravaging the State.
conducted a training school for missionaries. He died
at Oakland, Ill., Oct. 17, 1844. He was the author
of The Cause and Cure of Infidelity, which had an
extensive circulation. e
NELSON THoMAs (1738–1789), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born in York go,
Va., Dec. 26, 1738. He was educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, England, and while on his way home
in 1759 was elected to the house of burgesses. He was
member of provincial conventions in 1774–75, and was
made colonel of the Second Virginia regiment, but
resigned on being elected to the Continental Congress.
Here he signed the Declaration of Independence. He
opposed the sequestration of British property; he
made large advances from his private property for the
benefit of the State, and was thereby greatly embar:
rassed. In 1781 he was governor of Virginia, and
called out the militia to oppose the British, who were
He died at Yorktown, Va.,
Jan. 4, 1789. Two of his brothers were officers in
the revolutionary army.
NELSON, WILLIAM (1825–1862), general, was
born at Maysville, Ky., in 1825. He entered the navy
in 1840, and commanded a naval battery at the siege
of Vera Cruz in 1847. He rose to the rank of lieuten-
ant, and in 1858 was on board the Niagara, which car-
ried back to Africa the negroes taken from the slaver
Echo. At the outbreak of the civil war he was on
ordnance duty in Washington, and was sent to com-
mand the gunboats on the Ohio. Being placed under
the authority of the Secretary of War, he organized
camps in Kentucky for the mustering of Union troops.
He was made brigadier-general Sept. 16, 1861, and
commanded the second division of Buell's army at the
battle of Shiloh. He took command of Louisville
when it was threatened by Gen. Bragg. He was made
major-general of volunteers, July 17, 1862. In a per-
sonal quarrel with Gen. Jefferson C. Davis, occasioned
by his overbearing disposition, he was shot and killed,
Sept. 29, 1862.
NEMOURS, LOUIS CHARLEs PHILIPPE RAPHAEI,
D'ORLEANs, DUC DE, was born at Paris, Oct. 25, 1814.
He was the second son of King Louis Philippe, but
was educated as one of the people at the Collège Henri
IV., and gave especial attention to science. In 1834,
after he had served two campaigns in the field, he was
made marshal. In 1836 he went to Algeria, where he
rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1840 he
married the Duchess of Coburg-Gotha (1822–1857).
The premature death of his elder brother gave him
increased importance, but though he was diligent in
performing public duties his popularity was never
great. At the outbreak of the revolution of February,
1848, he was in command of a body of troops and he
accompanied the Duchess of Orleans when she made
an ineffectual appeal to the chamber of deputies.
After assisting the royal family to escape to England,
he fixed his residence at Claremont. He remained
quiet during the reign of Napoleon III., but after his
downfall in 1870 obtained permission to return to
France, and was soon restored to the list of generals.
Even then he did not busy himself in the attempts at
a fusion of the monarchical factions. In September,
1873, with his nephew, the Duc de Chartres, he vis-
ited the Comte de Chambord at Frohsdorf. In 1879
he was placed on the retired list.
His son, Louis, Comte d'Eu, born April 28, 1842,
married the eldest daughter of Dom Pedro II., Em-
peror of Brazil, and is a marshal of the Brazilian army.
His second son, Ferdinand, Duc d'Alençon, was born
July 12, 1844, and became a captain in the French
artillery. He married Sophia, daughter of Duke
Maximilian of Bavaria. In 1886 republican jealousy
required him to leave the army and depart from
France.
NETTLETON, ASAHEL (1783–1844), evangelist,
was born at North Killingworth, Conn., April 21, 1783.
He graduated at Yale College in 1809, studied theology
-
18
NEUKOMM–NEU WILLE.
at New Haven, and was licensed to preach in 1811. He
was ordained in 1817, but still continued the work of
revival preaching to which he had devoted himself.
After, laboring, with great success in Massachusetts,
New York, and Connecticut, he went to Virginia in
1821, and to Great Britain in 1831. He was appointed
professor of º theology in the seminary founded
at East Windsor, Conn., in 1832, and without accepting
the chair delivered lectures to the students. He died
at East Windsor, Conn., May 16, 1844. Rev. Dr. B.
Tyler edited his Remains and Sermons and published
a Memoir (1844), but he was most widely known by
the collection of hymns bearing his name. .*
NEUKOMM, SIGISMUND (1778–1858), a German
composer, was born in Salzburg, July 10, 1778. He
Was partly instructed by Haydn, and in 1804 became
director of the German opera at St. Petersburg, but
retired on account of ill health. He taught music at
Vienna and Paris, and in 1816 went to Rio de Janeiro.
In 1821 he returned to Paris, living at Talleyrand's
house, and went with him to England in 1830. Towards
the end of his life he became blind. He produced
about 800 compositions of all kinds—operas, cantatas,
Symphonies, songs, etc. His most noted works are his
oratorios Mount Sinai (1831) and David (1834), which
are still performed. He died at Paris April 3, 1858.
NEUMANN, KARL GOTTFRIED, a German mathe-
matician, was born May 7, 1842, at Königsberg, where
his father, Franz Neumann, was professor of physics
and mineralogy in the university. Here he was
trained, but in 1858 he became privat-docent in mathe-
matics at Halle, and in 1863 professor extraordinary.
He afterwards held professorships at Basle, Tübingen
and Leipsic. He has given special attention to mathe-
inatical problems connected with heat, light, and elec-
tricity. Among his publications are Theorie der Elek-
tricitats- und Warmeverteilung in einem Ringe (1864);
Theorie der elektrischen Kräfte (1873); Hydrodyna-
mische Untersuchungen (1863).
NEUTRAH. º º º º ;
reaty of Washington, 1871, have adde
jº to the duties of England and the United
Am. Rep.) States as neutrals, but, owing to a differ-
ence of opinion as to their interpretation,
other nations have not been invited to accede to them.
A government may not sell munitions of war to a
belligerent, but its subjects may, provided they sell
indifferently to both parties, and the transaction is a
purely commercial one. A belligerent has the right
of seizing such goods as contraband, when on their
way from the neutral state to the enemy. The bona
fide sale of a ship intended for war, by citizens of a
neutral power, is a commercial venture and is not for-
bidden by international law, but the difficulty of dis-
tinguishing between such a sale and the organizing
of a hostile expedition has led England to prohibit
such sales to belligerents altogether.
n the case of the ship Alabama, built at Liver-
pool, England, during the American civil war, for the
Confederate States, the British authorities were noti-
fied of the purpose for which she was being con-
structed, but allowed her to sail, without armament,
which she subsequently received by two other English
vessels from the same port. A great deal of damage
was done by this vessel to American commerce, the
claims for which were subsequently submitted to arbi-
tration, the award being in favor of the United States,
on the grounds that Great Britain had failed to use
due diligence, and that after the escape of the vessel
the measures taken for its pursuit and arrest were so
imperfect as to lead to no result, and therefore could
not be considered sufficient to release Great Britain
from the responsibility already incurred; also that the
ship was on several occasions freely admitted into the
ports of the colonies of Great Britain, instead of being
proceeded against, as it ought to have been. (See
* -
*#). CLAIMS.) - * . | from the Zulu war.
There are well-known exceptions to the general free-l
dom of neutral commerce with belligerent powers.
Certain articles are said to be contraband of war. A
complete list of goods always to be deemed contraband,
and therefore liable to seizure, has never been made.
The main point is whether the article is intended or
would probably be applied to military purposes. In
England and America the court before which the
goods are brought will inquire into all the circumstances
of the case and condemn or release them accordingly.
Any treaty stipulations will of course be taken into
consideration. The Supreme Court of the United
States has said that articles manufactured and pri-
marily or ordinarily used for military purposes in time
of war are always contraband, while articles which may
be and are used for purposes of war or peace may or
may not be contraband. Of the same nature with the
carrying of contraband goods is the transportation of
military persons or despatches in the service of the
enemy: a neutral vessel transporting the forces or de-
spatches of one belligerent is liable to confiscation, if
captured by the other. The United States have con-
tended that this applies to diplomatic agents, the con-
trary, however, being maintained by England and the
Continental nations. Where the ship and cargo do
not belong to the same person, the contraband articles
only are confiscated. The articles must, however, be
taken in delicto, in the actual prosecution of the voyage
to an enemy's port.
Another exception to the general freedom of neutral
commerce in time of war is as to the trade to ports
blockaded by one of the belligerents. While a neutral
subject is under no positive duty imposed by the law
of nations to abstain from blockade-running, he is yet
exposed to the chance of losing his ship and cargo if
unsuccessful. The duty of a neutral state consists
simply in letting its subjects engage in such traffic at
their own risk, and abandoning them to .the prize
courts of the belligerent who may capture them. A
blockade must actually exist and be carried on by an
adequate force, and not merely declared by proclama-
tion, to render commercial intercourse with neutrals
unlawful. Notification of the existence of the block-
ade, however, is essential, unless actual knowledge
thereof can be proved against the person charged with
its violation. An act of violation is essential to a
breach of blockade ; as either going in or coming out
of the port with a cargo laden after the beginning of
the blockade. A mere intention to violate is not suffi-
cient ground for condemnation. The intent must
exist, however, to constitute the delictum, and must be
inferred from the ship's papers, acts of the owners,
officers, etc. (T. R.)
NEUVILLE, ALPTIONSE MARIE ADOLPHE DE
(1836–1885), French painter, was born at St. Omer,
May 31, 1836. Though his predilection was always
for art, he studied law in accordance with the wishes
of his family. He passed his examinations success-
fully, but still devoted his time to drawing. He re-
ceived some lessons from Picot, but soon left his studio.
His first painting, A Scene from the Siege of Sebas-
topol, was exhibited in 1859 and received a medal.
Delacroix gave the young artist advice and encourage-
ment. He illustrated Guizot's IIistory of France and
some other works, but soon devoted himself to paint-
ings of battles and soldier-life. In 1864 he achieved
marked success with his Chasseurs and Zouaves in
the Streets of Magenta; in 1866 with his Zouave
Sentinel. In the war of 1870 De Neuville was com-
missioned as an engineer officer and took part in some
engagements, but his chief object was to obtain ma-
terial for his art. His Bivouac before Le Bourget
(1872) was purchased for the museum at Dijon, and
his Last Cartridges (1873) obtained for him admis-
sion to the Legion of Honor. Among his latest
works were The Cemetery of St. Privat (1880), The
Dispatch-Carrier (1881), and Rorke's Drift, a scene
He died at Paris May 19, 1885,
His works are strongly realistic, yet full of romantics
NEWADA.
19
suggestions. They have been popularized by pho-
tographs and engravings. .. e zºº &
'NEWADA. This State lies east of California and
extends to the 114th meridian W. from
- 4; Greenwich. Its remarkable geological
Å ."º ” features have been largely discussed
m. Rep.). under GREAT BASIN (q.v.). In spite
of the manifest sterility of a large part of its surface
See Vol. XVII.
there was a time when it was thought to give promise
of rivalling California in prosperity. In 1858 its rich
silver mines were discovered and in 1861 it was sep-
arated from Utah, of which it had formed a part, and
organized as a Territory. In 1864 it was admitted as
a State, though still having much less than the full
ratio of population required for a single representative
in Congress. The population, which by the census of
1860 was only 6S57, had probably quadrupled, and it
was expected to increase rapidly. In 1870 it was
42,491, and in 1880 it reached 62,266, showing an
increase of 46 per cent, for the decade. In the pres-
idential election of 1880 the total vote was 18,343, the
Democratic majority being 879. In the presidential
election of 1884 the total vote fell off to 12,771, the
Republican majority being 1615. In November, 1886,
the total vote for governor was 12,362, the Republican
majority being 594. These returns indicate that the
present population scarcely exceeds that of 1880. It
is certainly less than half of the average required for
a representative in Congress (154,325),
The failure of Nevada to realize its early expecta-
tions is due not merely to the aridity of the larger
portion of its surface, which prevents profitable agri-
culture, but also to the diminution in amount and
value of the products of its mines. Their enormous
output for several years had astonished the world.
The sudden excess of silver violently disturbed the
ratio of the precious metals and so alarmed the
nations of Europe that they joined in demonetizing
silver. The depression of the silver market of the
world reacted disastrously on the “Silver State.’’
Congress, however, has endeavored to sustain its
interests, not only by maintaining the double metallic
standard which other nations have discarded, but
by ordering the secretary of the U. S. treasury to
coin $2,000,000 or more of silver each month. This
law still holds in spite of protests of more than
one secretary of the ºnal treasury. But phys-
ical causes also contributed to the depression of
the people of Nevada. The bonanzas of the Com-
stock mines were exhausted. The ores, taken from
great depths at greatly increased expense, showed a
very low average assay. Deep mining was finally
abandoned and all the Interests of the State suffered
in common with the one which had given Nevada its
early promise and bright prospects.
Since 1 SS5, however, in the upper levels of the
famous Comstock mines there have been discovered
valuable deposits of ore, which were overlooked while
the search was directed chiefly to bonanzas, or masses
of almost pure silver. Some of these mines, after an
interval of five or six profitless years, have again begun
to pay dividends. Mines were discovered and opened
in other parts of the State. In 1887 the bullion from
the Comstock mines exceeded $5,000,000, more than
twice the amount for 1885. In 1888 the total output
for the State was estimated at $8,000,000.
Live-Stock.—Grazing is the next most important
interest to mining. Sheep-walks and cattle-ranges
have become numerous in the northern counties,
though less than a fourth of the total area is devoted
to this purpose. The counties of Washoe, Elko, and
Humboldt take the lead, but others are advancing in
this respect. While the native bunch-grass, and even
some varieties of the sage brush which everywhere
abounds, have been found excellent food for cattle, the
nutritious alfalfa has been largely introduced for this
purpose. In the peculiar climate of the Great Basin
the grass is cured on the soil without human aid. . In
1887 there were in Nevada 17,683 mileh-cows, valued
at $638,256; 317,059 oxen and other cattle, valued at
$6,949.933; 674,486 sheep, valued at $1,153,371 ;
14,543 hogs, valued at $77,339; 44,654 horses, valued
at $2,461,449; and 1657 mules, valued at $121,251.
There has been no loss in Nevada from pleuro-
pneumonia, which has made such ravages elsewhere.
Cattle from Nevada are largely shipped to San Fran-
cisco. *
Agriculture.—Although the greater part of the soil
is unfit for agriculture, there are fertile regions, espe-
cially in the valleys. Here the climate and soil are
well adapted to the raising of cereals and vegetables.
The fruits of Nevada are of excellent flavor and quality.
At the New Orleans Industrial Exposition in 1884-5
Nevada made a very creditable display of productions,
mineral and vegetable. To this State were awarded
the first premiums for wheat and for potatoes, and the
silver medal for apples.
Irrigation.—A proper system of irrigation and legal
regulations for the use of water are greatly needed in
Nevada. While there are in some places corporation
ditches and several Legislatures have discussed the sub-
ject and passed various laws, the State has not yet
undertaken to provide storage reservoirs in which
water could be collected during the flood season and be
distributed as needed during the dry season. Until
this is thoroughly and effectually done, nine-tenths of
the water will continue, as at present, to run to waste.
Constitutional Amendments.-The State Constitution
requires that an amendment shall be passed by two suc-
cessive Legislatures, and then be submitted to a vote
of the people and ratified by them before becomin
part of the organic law. As the population is stil
fluctuating and their needs and desires are rapidly
changing, these restrictions on their legislative action
have been found too severe for their circumstances. It
has, therefore, been proposed to alter the Constitution
so that a proposed amendment, if passed by a two-
thirds vote of the Legislature, may then be subunitted
to the people. This amendment is to be voted on at
the election in November, l SSS. Ten other amend-
ments are pending at various stages. One abolishes
the office of lieutenant-governor, others relate to the
power of the Legislature and its time of meeting, and
one imposes on the State instead of the several coun-
ties the duty of providing for infirm and indigent
citizens. Another proposed amendment is to make
Women eligible for school-officers, while another is to
deprive Mormons of the elective franchise. There is
a general tendency, in the interest of economy, to di-
minish the number of State and county officers, and to
lessen public expenses.
Finances.—The total assessed valuation of real and
personal property, and of the net proceeds of mines
during the year 1887, was $37,997,339. From this the
State obtained, by a tax of 90 cents on $100, a revenue
of $251,976. The amount paid by all the counties
(save one) was $225,374. The total State receipts for
year ending Jan. 1, 1887, were $794,702.58. The ex-
penditures for the same time were $702,670.52. The
total amount raised by taxation was $537,499. The
State debt was $484,484, funded partly at 4 and partly
at 5 per cent. - t -
Railroads—There are in Nevada altogether 922 .
miles of railroad. The Central Pacific is the grand
trunk line of the State. It has 450 miles of main line;

20 - NEWIN–NEWARE.
its chief branches are the Virginia and Truckee, run-
ning south from Reno to Virginia City, 52 miles; the
Nevada and Oregon, running north from Reno, has 28
miles in Nevada; the Nevada Central, running south
from Battle Mountain to Ledley, 93 miles; the Eureka
and Palisade, running south to Eureka, 90 miles.
Some of these have also smaller local branches. On
i. railroads in the State Indians are allowed to ride
Tee.
Education.—In 1887 the total number of children
under 21 was stated to be 14,537, of whom 14,236 were
white. The attendance in the public schools was re-
orted at 98.28, but four districts failed to report.
"rom the State school fund over $63,000 was appor-
tioned among the districts. This fund contained
$147,632.53 in cash, while State and U. S. bonds swell
the total to $981,256. Part of the school fund was
used in building the State Insane Asylum, at Reno.
In 1885 the Nevada State University was transferred
from Elko in the eastern, to Reno in the western part
of the State. In February, 1886, the new building,
costing about $20,000, was opened with two instructors
and 56 students, chiefly in the preparatory department.
There is a State Orphans' Home in Carson City, with
52 inmates.
Indians.—There are in Nevada about 9500 Indians:
4500 Pah-Utes, 300 Pi-Utes; Shoshones, 4200, and
Washoes, 500. About 1300 remain permanently on
the three Indian Iłeservations, Pyramid Lake, Walker
Lake, and Duck Valley. Nearly 9000 of them wear
citizens' dress. About 900 speak English, and about
400 can read. On the reservations the schools are well
attended, but elsewhere there is no provision for their
instruction. The Indians are generally industrious
laborers, but they live around the towns and rely on
the white population for employment and support.
(J. C. M.
NEWIN, John WILLIAMSON (1803–1886), º
ian, was born at Shippensburg, Pa., Feb. 20, 1803.
e was of Scotch-Irish ancestry, and graduated at
Union College, 1821, but on account of feeble health
spent the next two years at home. Then entering on
the study of theology at Princeton, he became so well
versed in Hebrew that when Dr. Charles Hodge went
to Europe in 1826, Nevin was appointed to supply the
chair of Oriental and Biblical Literature. His hand-
book of Biblical Antiquities, then prepared, had a wide
circulation. On being licensed to preach in 1828 he
was called to the newly established Presbyterian Theo-
logical Seminary, at Allegheny, Pa., as assistant pro-
fessor of Hebrew and Biblical Literature. Ten years
were spent here, during which his character as a leader
of religious thought was manifested. On the one hand
he opposed slavery, infidelity, and worldly tendencies
in the church; on the other he opposed the increasing
tendency to individualism in religion. He was thus
led to give prominence to the historical church as a
divine institution. Itegarding the German Reformed
Church as more true to the principles and usages of
the Reformation he joined that denomination in 1839.
He was then made professor of theology in its semi-
nary at Mercersburg, Pa., and in 1840 he succeeded Dr.
F. A. Rauch as president of Marshall College there.
His tractate on The Ancious Bench (1843) caused a
brisk controversy within and beyond the Reformed
Church. In 1844 Dr. Nevin received as his colleague
Dr. Philip Schaff, whose Principle of Protestantism he
had already translated into English. In 1846 he pub.
lished The Mystical Presence, which set forth the doc-
trine of the Reformed Church in regard to the Lord's
Supper. The theological views here presented met
with opposition even in the Reformed Church, but Dr.
Nevin earnestly and ably maintained them as the his-
torical creed of the church. With his friends he
established in 1849 the Mercersburg Review, for the
defence and exposition of this theology, and conducted
it with ability for four years, when he relinquished the
task to others. In 1851 Marshall College had been re-
moved to Lancaster, Pa., and united with Franklin
College, and Dr. Nevin retained the presidency until
1853. He then retired from professorial work, but
continued to preach and to write. He had also much
to do with the preparation of a new English liturgy
for the Rºad Church. In 1861 he undertook the
duties of professor of history in Franklin and Marshall
College, and in 1866 again became its president, and
held the office for ten years. Thereafter he lived in
retirement at Lancaster until his death on June 6, 1886.
Dr. Nevin was one of the foremost theologians of
America. He set forth the person of Christ as the
true centre of theology, the visible church as his body,
and its ministers and ordinances as the appointed
channel of divine grace. His views were not summed
up in any single work adequate to his reputation, but
were given in occasional treatises and discourses and in
his contributions to the Mercersburg Review. Besides
The Mystical Presence may be mentioned The Apostles'
Creed : Its Origin, Constitution, and Plan {j ;
Revelation and Redemption (1870); The Revelation of
God in Christ (1871); Christ and His Spirit (1872).
His son, ROBERT JENKINS NEVIN, during the civil
war commanded a battery of artillery, and afterwards
took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church. He
has been for some years rector of the American Church
of St. Paul's within the walls at Rome, Italy.
NEW ALBANY, a city of Indiana, county-seat of
Floyd co., is on the N. bank of the Ohio River, nearly
opposite Louisville, on the Louisville, New Albany,
and Chicago, the Louisville, Evansville, and St. Louis,
and the Jeffersonville, Madison, and Indianapolis Rail-
roads. Two other railroads are in process of construc-
tion. The city has a court-house, U. S. government
building, 4 national banks, 1 daily and 4 weekly news-
papers, 18 churches and 10 schools, and De Pauw Fe-
male College. New Albany is the largest manufactur-
ing city in Indiana, having 142industrial establishments,
comprising iron and brass foundries, rolling-mills, flour,
woollen, and cotton-mills, tanneries, shoe, chair, baskct,
and box factories, potteries, stone and brick yards.
The glass-works are the largest west of Pittsburgh.
New Albany is lighted with gas, and has water-works
with 3 reservoirs. Its property is valued at $9,000,000,
and its public debt is $400,000. Settled in 1814, it was
incorporated in 1846. In 1880 it had a population of
16,423, but it is now estimated to have over 20,000.
NEWARK, the principal city of New Jersey,
see vol. xvii. ºnºſ of Essex co., is on tle Pas-
p. 370 (p. 3.j Šºlo River, 3. milº above Newark
Anu. Rep.). Bay and 9 miles W. of New York.
Four railroads maintain frequent com-
munication with the metropolis. The city, excellently
laid out with well-paved, shady, and well-drained
streets, and several small parks, has somewhat of a
rural appearance in spite of its abundant factories, which
entitle it to be called the “Birmingham of America.”
It occupies a site about five miles long by five broad,
and on the river front there is a line of docks over a
mile long. It has public buildings for city, county,
and government purposes, l l national banks, 5 savings
banks, and other financial and insurance companies, 120
churches, a high-school, and 30 public Schools, besides
excellent private schools. Over 400 manufactories
here produce a great variety of articles, including
brass- and iron-work, machinery, carriages, saddlery,
harness, trunks, hats, hardware, and jewelry. The
annual product is valued at $60,000,000. The city has
gas and electric lights, a good supply of water from the
upper Passaic, and a paid fire department. Newark
was settled in 1666 by a l’uritan colony from Connect-
icut, and the inhabitants have long maintained a high
moral and religious character. It received a city char-
ter in 1836, and soon afterward the foreign element
largely increased, as it still continues to do. The pop-
ulation in 1880 was 136,508, and is now estimated to
exceed 150,000. Its suburbs extend west to Orange,
and south nearly to lºlizabeth.
NEWARK—NEWBURGH.
21
NEWARK, a city of Ohio, the county-seat of Lick-
ing co., is on the Licking River, 33 miles N. E. of
Columbus, on the Baltimore and Ohio, the ‘Panhan-
dle,” and other railroads. The North Fork of the
Licking is here crossed by four iron bridges. Newark
has a court-house, 5 hotels, 2 national banks, 1 other
bank, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 20 churches,
and 5 school-buildings, besides 2 commercial colleges.
The industries comprise 3 foundries, making Stoves
and furnaces, 5 wagon-factories, 2 machine-shops, 4
flouring-mills, 3 planing- and woollen-mills. Newark,
one of the early settlements of Ohio, was incorporated
in 1826. It has a park, gas-, and water-works. Its
property is valued at $6,000,000, its public debt is
$125,000, and the public expenses $19,000 yearly. It
carries on a good trade in coal, grain, and live-stock.
The population in 1880 was 9600. -
NEW BEDFORD, a city and port of entry of Mas-
sachusetts, half-shire town of Bristol co., is on the
estuary of Acushnet River, 3 miles from Buzzard's
Bay, 56 miles from Boston, and 31 from Providence.
It is the terminus of the New Bedford and Taunton
branch of Old Colony Railroad. The New Bedford
bridge, 4000 feet long, crosses the estuary to Fairha-
ven. It has a Doric granite city-hall, court-house, U.
S. government building, public library, 3 hotels, 5
national and 2 savings banks, 2 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers, 30 churches, a high-school, with fine build-
ing, and many public schools. Several of the churches
have fine edifices. New Bedford ranks third among
the American cities in cotton manufacture. There are
5 corporations, owning 12 mills, running 475,000 spin-
dles. There are also 2 foundries and manufactories of
twist-drills for boring metals, cordage, glass, silver-
plated ware, carriages, boots, and shoes. The whale-
fishery, commenced in 1755, was the principal pursuit
of the citizens for a century, but since its decline their
attention has been turned to manufactures. At one
time over 300 whaling vessels belonged to this port, but
the number is now reduced to S0. There are several
refineries of sperm and whale oil. , New Bedford was
settled about 1650 chiefly by Quakers. It was incor-
orated in 1787, and received a city charter in 1847.
t was originally part of the town of Dartmouth, which
was incorporated in 1604. The city is regularly laid
out, has gas- and water-works, and a park of seven
acres, and is noted for the elegance of its private resi-
dences. A broad drive of four miles around Clark's
Point leads to a strong U. S. fort of granite, and com-
mands a fine view of the sea. The assessed valuation
of property is over $32,000,000; the public debt is
$1,250,000, and the yearly expenses about $475,000.
The population of New Bedford in 1880 was 26,485,
and by the State census of 1SS5 it was 33,393.
NEW BERNE, a city and port of entry of North
Carolina, the seat of Craven co., N. C., is at the junc-
tion of the Neuse and Trent Rivers, on the Atlantic and
North Carolina Railroad, about 90 miles N. E. of Wil-
mington. The Neuse is here 2 miles wide, and navi-
gable for steamboats. Across the Trent there is a
bridge half a mile long. New Berne has a court-house,
2 hotels, 2 banks (1 national), 2 daily and 3 weekly
newspapers, 15 churches, and 8 schools. There are
railroad-car-shops, 2 machine-shops, wood-pulp-factory,
cottonseed-oil-mills, 5 saw-mills, and an oyster-canning
establishment. New Berne was settled in 1710 by
Swiss immigrants, and was for a time capital of the
State. It ships early vegetables to the Northern mar-
kets. Its property is valued at $1,500,000. The pop-
ulation in 1 SS0 was 6443.
NEWBERRY, John STRONG, geologist, was born
at Windsor, Conn., Dec. 22, 1822. Two years later
his father removed with his family to Cuyahoga Falls,
Ohio. The son graduated at Western Reserve Col-
lege in 1846, and at Cleveland Medical College in 1848.
After spending a year in Europe he began practice at
Cleveland in 1851. His strong inclination for natural
science led him to become assistant surgeon and geolo-
gist of the U. S. Survey of Northern California and
Oregon in 1855. He also joined Lieut. Ives, in 1857,
in exploring the Colorado River for 500 miles from its
mouth, and in 1859, under Capt. Macomb, he com-
oleted the exploration of this river and its branches.
his the civil war Dr. Newberry was connected with
the U. S. Sanitary Commission, and directed its opera-
tions in the Mississippi Valley. In 1866 he was made
professor of geology in the School of Mines, Columbia
College, N. º While still holding this position he
was made, in 1869, State geologist of Ohio. Prof.
Newberry has been president of the American Associ-
ation for the Advancement of Science, and is connected
with the principal scientific societies of the country.
As a geologist and palaeontologist he holds a foremost
place. His publications include The Geology, Botany,
and Zoology of Northern California and Oregon; Ge-
ology of the Colorado Erpedition ; Geology of the
San Jian Expedition; Reports of the Geological Sur-
vey of Ohio; Iron Resources ºf the United States, and
other works on geology and palaeontology.
NEW BRITAIN, a city of Connecticut, in Hartford
co., is on the New York and New England Railroad,
102 miles from New York and 8 miles from Hartford,
with which it is connected by a branch of New York,
New Haven, and Hartford Railroad. It has handsome
streets and residences, and two parks, the larger con-
taining 40 acres, and a good supply of water from a
reservoir of 175 acres. There are 2 national banks, 1
savings bank, 1 daily and 5 weekly newspapers, 10
churches, and 13 public school-buildings. The hig
school, State normal school, State armory, Masonic
temple, and institute library are fine buildings. The
manufactures are builders' hardware, cutlery, hooks
and eyes, harness-trimmings, knit-goods, hosiery, etc.
Settled in 1634, it was originally part of Farmington,
and was incorporated as a city in 1872. In 1880 the
population of the city was 11,800, and of the townships
13,979.
NEW BRUNSWICK, a city of New Jersey, county-
seat of Middlesex co., is at the head of navigation on
the Raritan River, 33 miles S. W. of New York, on
the New York division of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
It is the terminus of the Delaware and Raritan Canal,
which is 75 feet wide and 7 feet deep. Besides the
court-house and county buildings, it has a city hospital,
orphans' home, a free library, 4 large hotels, an opera-
house, a Masonic hall, 2 national banks, a savings
bank, a Catholic cathedral, 17 churches, 4 weekly and
3 daily newspapers. It is noted for its educational
facilities, being the seat of Rutgers College, which was
founded in 1771, and is under the patronage of the
Reformed Church. Connected with it is the theological
Seminary of that denomination, an observatory, and a
State agricultural college, with a model farm of 100
acres. The industrial establishments comprise 3 iron-
foundries, a brass-foundry, and manufactories of India-
rubber, hosiery, paper, shoes, lamps, bronzes, fruit-
jars, needles, paper-boxes, carriages, doors, sash and
blinds. The town site rises rapidly from the river. It
is lighted with gas and electricity, and has water-works.
The municipal debt is $1,516,000, and the annual
expenses in recent years exceed $400,000. The town
was settled in 1681, and received its first charter in
1730, but the present charter dates from 1784. The
population in 1880 was 17,166.
NEWBURGH, a city of New York, the seat of
Orange co., is situated on the W. bank of the Hudson
River, 60 miles N. of New York and 83 miles S. of
Albany, 41° 20' N. lat. and 74° W. long. In front, for
about 8 miles, the river is 14 mile wide and from 30 to
60 feet deep. This body of water, known as New-
burgh Bay, is protected by mountains, which form a
semicircle. The city, as it recedes from the river-
front, rises in terraces until a height of 300 feet is
reached. Here on a plateau are the finest residences,
while the whole furnishes an attractive view from the
river. The New York Central and the New York and
22
NEWBURYPORT-NEW HAMPSHIRE,
New England Railroads on the opposite side of the
TiVer maintain communication by means of a steam-
ferry from Fishkill. The Erie Railroad has two
branches terminating in Newburgh, and the New York,
West Shore, and Buffalo Railroad passes through the
çity, The Ontario and Western and the Lehigh and
Hudson River bring large amounts of coal to be
shipped here. Newburgh has 3 national banks, a
savings bank, a hospital, a free library of 16,000 vol.
umes, 24 churches, a high-school, and other public and
private schools, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers. It
is supplied with water from a lake 3 miles distant, has
gas and electric light, and a volunteer fire department
of 8 companies. The manufactures comprise woollen-
and cotton-goods, carpets, agricultural implements,
Soap, oil cloth, paints, brushes, plaster, tiles, flour, and
beer. There are also foundries, boiler-works, and ship-
building-works. Orange county is noted for its ex-
tensive dairies and excellent butter. The Orange
powder-works are noted for the excellence of their
product. Newburgh was noted during the revolutionary
War, and at its close the American army was disbanded
here June 23, 1783. The old Hasbrouck house, since
known as the “Washington Head-quarters,” is owned
by the State of New York, and is open to visitors.
Newburgh was incorporated as a city in 1865. Its
property is assessed at about $9,000,000, and there is
a debt of $350,000. Population in 1870 was 17,014;
in 1880 was 17.327.
NEWBURYPORT, a city of Massachusetts, and a
shire-town of Essex co., is on the estuary of the Mer-
rimack River, 35 miles N. E. of Boston. It has 4
national and 3 savings banks, 18 churches, a free
library, Putnam Free School, a high-school, and other
schools. The industrial works comprise an iron-
foundry, 6 large cotton-factories, 9 shoe-factories, and
manufactories of pumps, carriages, hats, combs, and
silverware. There are I weekly and 2 daily newspapers
published here. Shipbuilding has been long carried
on here, and many vessels are owned in the city.
Plum Island, which helps to form the harbor, has a
hotel. Dummer Academy is in the town of Newbury,
from which Newburyport was separated in 1764. The
latter was chartered as a city in 1851, and, in 1880, had
13,538 inhabitants.
NEW COMB, SIMON, astronomer, was born at
Wallace, Nova Scotia, March 12, 1835. He removed
to the United States at an early age, and while teach-
ing School in Maryland was employed in 1857 as a
computer for the Nautical Almanac. In 1861 he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the navy and
stationed at the naval observatory. He superintended
the construction and erection of the telescope now
used there, which was then the largest in the world.
In 1874 he was secretary of the U. S. commission for
the observation of the transit of Venus, and he organ-
ized the several expeditions then sent out. In 1877 he
was made superintendent of the American Ephemeris
and Nautical Almanac.
rofessor of mathematics and astronomy in Baltimore.
Iis astronounical researches have had reference to the
orbits of the asteroids, solar parallax, action of the
lanets on the sun, etc. The results have been pub-
}. partly by the Smithsonian Institution and partly
in the Ephemeris. His Popular Astronomy (1878) is
an excellent treatise. He has since published text-
books on Algebra (sº Geometry (1881), and
Trigonometry (1882). He has also given much
attention to political economy and finance, and has
published A Critical Ecamination of the Finam-
cial Policy during the Southern Rebellion (1865);
The A B C of Finance (1877), and many articles in
periodicals.
NEW HAMºº is well lº º { { º
State ’’ from its fºunous ite Moun-
See Yºlº tains. It had by the U. S. census of
Kºº. 1880 a population of 346,991. , Accord-
g ing to the same authority its land area
In 1884 he was also made
is 9005 Square miles, thus giving a density of 383.4 per
mile.
Finance.—The number
of Savings banks in New
Hampshire in 1886 was 67;
the number of depositors
Was 125,273, an increase
of 4037 within a year. The
amount of deposits was
$46,631,913, an increase of
$2,804,557. The laws of
the State respecting the
taxation and supervision of
Savings banks are unchanged.
The State debt is (approximately) $2,838,000, and
was reduced about $160,000 in 1887. The debts of the
Several counties, so far as returned, amounted in 1886
to $444,086, 49 ; but the assets of the counties, in cash
and other property, far exceeded that sum. The total
indebtedness of cities and towns (including village pre-
cincts) is $4,171,673.61, a decrease of $214,467. Il since
the preceding year. The total net State and local in-
debtedness amounts to $7,009,673, and as the assessed
valuation of the State is $173,658,499, and the popu-
lation (assuming that it has increased in the same ratio
since 1880 as in the decade preceding that date) is
367,000, the entire debt, of every description, amounts
to a trifle over 4 per cent. of the taxable property of
the State, and to about $19 per head of the population.
The taxes assessed for all purposes in 1886 were
$2,646,526.33, being $1.52 on each $100 of taxable
property.
It'eligion and Education.—The Congregational de-
nomination is the most numerous in the State, having
188 churches, and the Presbyterians, affiliating with the
Congregationalists, 6 churches. The Congregational
ministers number 184, and the Presbyterian 5. The
members of both these denominations aggregate 20,749;
and there are, connected with the Sabbath-schools as
instructors and pupils, 21,660. The Methodists have
125 churches, and 12,879 members. They have 107
pastors in charge of churches, and 76 local preachers.
Their Sunday-schools number 136; the officers and
teachers of Same. 1823; the scholars, 13,739; proba-
tioners, 1400. The Baptists have 80 churches, and
87.82 members; 75 Sunday-schools; l l l l officers and
teachers of same, and 8502 scholars. Their ordained
ministers number 82, and licentiates 11. The Free-
will Baptists constitute an important sect in New
Hampshire, where it took its rise about the year 1780.
It now embraces within the State 109 churches, 129
ministers, and 8893 members.
In 1885 the “ district system ’’ of common schools,
which had prevailed in the State for two generations,
was abolished by law and what is known as the “town
system ’’ was established in its place. Boards of edu-
cation, the members of which serve for three years,
are now chosen by the towns and have the entire su-
pervision of their schools. They have authority “to
provide schools at such places and times as in their
judgment shall . . . give all the scholars of the town
as nearly equal advantages as may be practicable.”
There had been complaint that the pupils in the small
and remote districts, under the former system, some-
times fared poorly in respect to facilities for instruc-
tion, and one chief purpose of the new law was to
place all pupils, so far as may be, on the same footing.
The “literary fund,” derived from the tax on bank
capital and on savings bank deposits of non-residents
and divided for the support of schools among the several
towns of the State, according to their apportionment
of the State tax, j in 1886 to $38,833.21.
he whole amount raised for public education was
$617,472. 16. The number of schools was 2770, in-
cluding 526 grade and 57 high-schools. The whole,
number of scholars enrolled was 64,221, and the num-
ber attending private Schools, not registered in the
public schools, was 5832.

NEW HAVEN.
23
State Institutions.—The State prison is situated in
Concord and has 132 inmates. They are employed in
the manufacture of bedsteads under a contract. The
expenses of the prison exceed the earnings by about
$2500 annually. The Industrial School (formerly
State Reform School) is situated in Manchester and is
intended for the reformation and instruction of ju-
venile and female offenders, in which design it has
been fairly successful. The number of inmates in
1886 was 112. The Asylum for the Insane has been
from its inception growing yearly in extent and value.
The number of patients in April, 1886, was 317, of
whom nearly three-fifths were females.
Judustry.-A new and productive employment has
grown up in New Hampshire, to large dimensions,
within a few years past. This is the entertainment
of “summer visitors,” who resort thither for health
or pleasure. For this purpose not only all available
points on the sixteen miles of sea-coast, but a multi-
tude of airy and commanding positions among the
mountains and around the lakes are covered with
hotels and boarding-houses, which are kept open be-
tween June and October and are thronged during
July and August and a part of September. It is, of
course, the cool atmosphere and the fine scenery that
offer such attractions to visitors, and these fully com-
pensate the inhabitants for their rough and sterile
soil. The agriculture of New Hampshire had fallen
to a low ebb. In raising cereals she could not com-
pete with the States and Territories of the West,
whose easily-grown products were transported to the
sea-board at the lowest rate of expense. A small
number of farmers in the vicinity of the cities and
larger towns could supply the markets with other
products which brought in a fair, return, but consider-
able quantities of outland, which had once been cul-
tivated, had been abandoned to weeds and bushes.
Now that the summer hotels and boarding-houses
have become so numerous, and even hundreds of far-
mers' houses are filled with boarders, the demand for
the products of agriculture is greatly increased and
new encouragement is offered for the cultivation of
the soil. A market is found at the farmer's door for
every esculent that he can raise. The effect of this
new industry cannot fail to be widely beneficial to the
State, and is already visible in the improved agricul-
ture and general prosperity of the inhabitants of cer-
tain localities. No careful estimate has been made of
the value of this business, in a year, but it is safe to
say that it amounts to millions, and is still increasing,
with every prospect of continuing for an indefinite
period. &
History.—As Belknap's History is referred to as
especially trustworthy in its account of the early trans-
actions in New Hampshire, it is proper to state that
since the last issue of that valuable work, in 1831,
Several ancient documents have been discovered which
throw new light upon some of those transactions.
Belknap states that John Mason, the patentee of New
Hampshire. Sent out at his own charges the first
colony which was planted there, at Little Harbor, in
1623. But recently-found evidence indicates that
David Thomson, the leading man of that colony, had
himself obtained a grant of land and brought out the
colonists at the expense of three merchants of Ply-
mouth in England, and though it is probable that
Mason was cognizant of the grant and adventure, yet
that he expended no money in settling his American
grants until six or seven years later, Belknap, and
most other historians, represent that Mason's patents
gave him simply the ownership of the soil and no
authority to set up a government upon it. But
in April, 1887, a copy of a patent was unearthed,
urporting to have been issued by King Charles
r of England, to John Mason, dated in 1635,
and confirming to him and his heirs the territory
of New Hampshire, and adding thereto the power of
government. The existence of this royal grant had
been asserted early in the last century, but was
doubted, mainly on the ground that no action was
known to have been taken or attempted under it.
New Hampshire is doing much for the preservation
of the materials of her early history. There have
been already published fifteen volumes of her MS.
records, eight of province and State papers, four of
town papers and three of revolutionary records, and
more are to follow. The Legislature has also made
appropriation to procure copies of the documents
in the British archives illustrative of her early
history. (g. H. B.)
NEW HAVEN, the largest city of Connecticut
- ºr, and county-seat of New Haven cq., is
See Yºl. XV º: on a sandy plain at the head of New
Kºłº * Haven harbor, into which the small
. Evep. rivers Quinnipiac, Mill, and West flow.
It is 74 miles N. E. of New York, on the New York,
New Haven, and Hartford, and the Shore Line.
There are three railroads to Boston and three other
railroads. Across the rivers are several bridges, the
largest being that over the Quinnipiac near its mouth.
The city is now co-extensive with the original “town,”
but each has its own administration. On the public
green of 16 acres, in the centre of the city, stands the
building used as a state-house down to 1873, while New
Haven was, jointly with Hartford, the capital of the
State. Opposite the green is the city-hall, an imposing
structure, the county court-house, the U. S. govern-
ment building, and various churches. Other important
buildings are those of Yale College (q. v.) and the
Sheffield Scientific School, the hospital, two orphans'
asylums, the public high-school, and the Hopkins
Grammar School. There are altogether 34 schools,
61 churches, 7 national banks, 3 savings banks, and 3
other banks. Seven daily and 10 weekly newspapers
are published here. Of the more important publica-
tions Silliman's Journal of Science is famous in its
department, and the New Englander is of high repute
as a literary periodical.
New Haven is largely engaged in manufacturing.
According to the U. S. Census of 1880 it had alto-
gether 587 manufacturing establishments, with a capi-
tal of $9,793,737, employing 15, 156 hands, and produc-
ing to the value of $24,040,225 yearly. The chief
products are hardware, wire, locks, clocks, corsets,
carriages, guns, pistols, rubber goods, paper, matches,
furniture. The harbor is shallow, yet a large coasting
trade is carried on, especially in coal and iron, but the
foreign trade, formerly extensive, has been transferred
in great measure to New York city. Long Wharf is
3480 feet in length ; the U. S. government has con-
structed a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse. A
jetty has been built at the entrance of the harbor.
New Haven is finely laid out, and the streets are beau-
tifully shaded with elms and other trees. It is bounded
on the north by two ranges of hills, terminating in the
East and West Rocks, which present precipitous faces
towards the city. Besides the public green it has ten
small parks or squares, the W. College Athletic
grounds, and a private park. On the border of the
town is the picturesque East, Rock Park, containing
350 acres, which has been improved partly by the
liberal gifts of private citizens. On the highest part
of the rock stands a soldiers' monument, 125 feet
high. The city is lighted with gas and well supplied
with water. The assessed valuation of city property
is $50,000,000, the public debt of town and city is
about $1,500,000, and the yearly expenses about
$950,000.
New Haven was settled in 1638 by wealthy London
merchants, who desired to found a colony to be gov-
erned by Bible laws. This colony was united in it;62
to that of Connecticut, but New Haven was recognized
as a capital of the State until 1874. It was incor-
porated as a city in 1784. Its population in 1880 was
62,882, but as the city bounds have since been en-
larged it now exceeds 77,000.
24
NEW JERSEY.
NEW Jºnsº * U. inº of 1880 had
x -ºſ. , 131, 16 inhabitants, and thus
sº Yº ranked as the nineteenth State. In
Am. Rep.). 1887 there were reported 374,011 chil-
dren between 5 and 18 years of age ;
of these 224,109 were enrolled at Schools, but the
schools had actually accommodations for 200,000 only.
For this reason the com-
pulsory educational act of
1885 cannot be enforced.
There were 825 male teach-
ers with an average monthly
Salary of $64, and 3177 fe-
male teachers with average
Salary of $41. The State
Normal School had a total
enrolment of 239, with an
average attendance of 206.
The school fund in 1888 was
reported at $2,267,455; in addition to which there are
riparian leases (for lands now under water) valued at
$1,009,759, and an agricultural college fund of $116,000
(see RUTGERS COLLEGE). The income from the
school fund for 1888 was $275,512. Besides this there
were School taxes amounting to $1,511,820, of which
$1,465,268 were expended.
The State Insane asylum at Morristown had 1073
patients for the year 1887, of whom 873 remained at
the close. The asylum at Trenton had 865 patients
for the year, 707 remaining at the close. The expense
of these asylums in 1888 was $165,328.45. The ex-
pense of the county lunatic asylums for that year was
$78,742. The State supported 89 feeble-minded chil-
dren in 1887, mostly at Elwyn, Pa., at an expense of
$23,492, but in 1888 an asylum was opened at Wine-
land, N.J., for this class. The State school for the deaf
has over 100 scholars. Provision is made for the blind
at asylums in New York city and Philadelphia, there
being 31 at the former and 10 at the latter, for whom
the State appropriated $14,689.
The State Soldiers' Home has 328 inmates, the total
since its establishment being 14,725. Its receipts for
1888 were $33,814, and its expenditures $33,593. In
1887 the Legislature appropriated $125,000 for a home
for disabled soldiers at Kearny, on the Passaic River.
The cost of this home was reported at the end of 1888
to be $113,305.55. The militia of the State comprises
53 companies of infantry, forming 7 regiments, 2 Gat-
ling gun companies and 1 of Sea-coast artillery.
They have altogether 306 officers and 3693 men. A
camp for practice has been formed at. Sea Girt, con-
taining 119 acres. The annual expenditure for militia
in 1888 was $114,968. ©
The State prison contained in 1888 a total, of 1380
prisoners, the average number being 877, of whom 857
were males. The receipts for the year were $65,617
and the expenses $162,859. Since 1885 the prls-
oners have been employed on piece-work. This sys-
tem has not proved so economical as that of hiring out
the labor by contract, the State having now the re-
sponsibility for both quality and quantity of work.
The governor has recommended the imposing of inde-
terminate sentences (see PRISON DISCIPLINE). The
Reform School at Jamesburg had 441 inmates during
the year, there being 269 at the close. The State In-
dustrial School for Girls had 67 inmates.
In 1884 the Legislature passed an act to compel all
corporations to pay on real. estate the same tax as indi-
viduals, the rate being limited to 1 per cent., and the
main stem of railroads and the waterway of canals
being exempted. Taxes were also allowed to be as-
sessed on the real estate of railroads and canals for
local purposes. The corporations resisting, the courts
decided most of the provisions of the act to be con:
stitutional. Under this act the State revenue derived
from railroads increased from $717,562 in 1884 to
$1,075,000 in 1886, besides local taxation amounting to
$372,364. There were altogether 97 railroad and
canal companies, whose property was valued at $192,-
980, 343. 1.
On Nov. 1, 1888, the receipts of the State fund
for the year were reported at $1,504. 124, and the
State held stocks, bonds, and other securities to the
amount of $1,027,487. The amount of outstanding
loan on the State war-bonds was $1,169,300.
In 1886 a State Board of Health and Bureau of
Vital Statistics was formed, and local boards of
health were required to be formed in each city and
township. A State Board of Agriculture was also
established.
Considerable interest attaches to the recent move-
ments looking toward the settlement and culti-
Vation of the great tracts of waste and sandy plain
land which cover nearly one-third of the State's area,
principally towards the south-east. The natural feat.
ures of this plain are much as follows: The sur-
face has not generally a dead level, but is for the
most part marked by a succession of low ridges of
Sand running parallel to the coast, and presenting
much the appearance of old, yet not very old; sea.
beaches. The whole region is well supplied with
flowing streams; and its lower depressions are gen-
erally swampy. . The swamps are generally over-
grown with the white cedar (Cupressus thyoides), which
affords valuable timber, and after being cleared the
Swamp-lands are often profitably utilized in the cul-
ture of cranberries. Some of the swamps are under-
laid with well-preserved stores of timber from conif.
erous trees. . The extraction and working of this long-
buried supply of sound and still very useful wood form
an important industry at certain places (as at Dennis-
ville). Another industry of this region was formerly
the extraction and working of the abundant, but
somewhat uncertain, supply of bog iron-ores or limon-
ites. These ores, though poor in iron, are easily
smelted and make excellent castings. The once nu-
merous iron-works of this region were all abandoned
on account of the failure of the local supply of char-
coal, due to the cutting of the main part of the forest
growth. The ores, however, when worked out locally
are reputed to have the quality of self-restoration, due
largely to the growth in them of those species of di-
atoms which incorporate in their siliceous frustules a
large percentage of iron, which they extract from the
waters which flow into the ore-beds. The abundance
and tractibility of these ores, and the excellent finish
assumed by the castings made from them, may yet re-
store to the old workings some of their former value.
There are locally found good supplies of peat, which
is a useful fertilizer and may yet become valuable as
fuel. Certain of the peaty deposits are reputed to
make excellent brown mineral paints, presumably those
which combine iron with their peaty constituents. At
many points the sand of this region is extensively util-
ized in the manufactures of glass-ware. There are
large supplies of a dark and coarse brown sand-stone
which is extensively used for foundations and occasion-
ally for general building purposes. This stone is
easily wrought and becomes very hard on exposure to
the weather. Several navigable streams penetrate the
region, and there are, not, a few, good water-powers
already developed. The old stock of pine belonged
chiefly to the dwarfish Jersey or scrub-pine (Pinus in-
ops); comparatively little of it is now found, since the
º have made great havoc with it, and
the largest trees have for many years been cut and
sawed into a coarse and strong description of lumber.
Great forest-fires prevail almost every spring and sum-
mer; and the suppression of these is the first requisite
to the restoration of the old woodland growth.
The soil of the so-called “pines” of New Jersey is
for the most part far better than a stranger would sup-
pose from its appearance. There are large tracts
which are sparsely settled, yet which are naturally
good grasslands and are capable of supporting a large
agricultural population. Still, as a rule, considerable

NEW JERSEY.
25
|| is ired to manage these light lands profitably. e - *
skill is requir ge p |tion of learning, commonly called Princeton College,
The Vineland tract, centring in the town of the same
name, has been the most noted and in some ways the was founded in 1746.
NEW JERSEY, COLLEGE OF. This institu-
Like all our early colleges, it
j' successful of the attempts at colonizing the was primarily established to raise up ºn educated min-
waste lands of this State. The Hammonton colony
affords another instructive example of what thrift and
intelligence can do with unprolulsing ulaterials. The
town of Lakewood, in the extreme north-east of the
comparatively unsettled region of the State, has be:
come noted as a health-resort, and is especially fre-
quented in winter. The principal element among the
settiers in the best known of the recent colonies in
tl is section is made up of native Americans, chiefly
from New England and the State of New York.
Egg Harbor City is a German colony, where the mak:
ing of light wines is a specialty. Near Estellville and
at Alliance, near Vineland, are experimental colonies
of expatriated Russian Jews, driven to this country
by the anti-semitic movements in their native land.
The principal crops of this region are the suiall fruits
grapes, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, gran:
berries, with potatoes, sweet-potatoes, and other hoed
crops, and the garden vegetables. Iłye does extremely
well in some parts. Dr. J. E. Garretson, in his
Brushland (1882), gives interesting notes of the crea-
tion of a profitable farm in this region out of a
tract which, though of very unproulisiºg appear-
ance, must have contained in itself to an unusual
degree the elements needed to foster success in any
agricultural enterprise. The region above discussed
is for the most part bounded landwards by very
fertile light lands; and in solue parts thc line of de-
marcation is very plain and unulistakable between
smiling fertile grass-lands and fields of sand covered
with a relatively scanty herbage. It is noteworthy,
however, that the unfertile region is singularly rich in
plant-species, it being the habitat of many Southern
forms which nowhere else occur so far to the north-
ward. This region is traversed by nearly all the lines
of railway which reach the many seaside resorts of
New Jersey. There are other parts of the State
which are quite as unproulising in an agricultural
point of view as this. . The extensive clay-region in
the central portion of the State, so important for its
terra-cotta. its fine pottery, and its excellent fire-brick,
is in part almost inarable.
The seaside resorts of New Jersey are very numerous
and important. Almost from Sandy Hook to Cape
May its sea-bathing places form a nearly continuous
succession of towns and villages, of which there are
more than 50 in 100 miles of coast. South of Sandy
Hook the coast is everywhere sandy. The beach in
Monmouth county is generally elevated and even
bluffy, and is backed by a fertile region : southward
the New Jersey coast is much lower and is made up
chiefly of a succession of sand-spits and low islands
which shield from the open sea a succession of shallow
bays, much resorted to by sportsmen for game-birds
and fish. The more southern bathing-places are gen-
erally safer, having a more shelving beach with but
little undertow. The largest of the seaside resorts are
Long Branch, Asbury Park, Ocean Grove, Atlantic
City, and Cape May City.
The old boards of the proprietors of East Jersey
and West Jersey still exist, the former having its
head-quarters at Perth Amboy and the latter at Bur-
lington, but both long ago surrendered all except their
roprietary rights. The East Jersey proprietors have
atterly laid claim to large tracts of unoccupied lands
over which other parties have in some cases exercised
the rights of ownership for 200 years, on the ground
that no transfer of title is now on record. This has
led to costly litigation, and has strengthened a move-
ment to have the old proprietary rights finally adjudi-
sixth was I
not interior in the Salubrity of its air to any vi
in land and money, ''
istry, “to be a seminary of true religion and sound
learning,” especially for the Presbyterian, Church,
Prominent ministers and laymen of the Presbytery. of
New York, which then included a large part of New
Jersey, after various ineffectual efforts. succeeded in
obtaining a charter. The only record of this charter
is in Book C., p. 137, of the Colonial Commissions
and Charters, and is as follows: “Mem. of a Charter
for a Colledge. A charter to incorporate Sundry per-
sons to found a colledge passed the great seal of this
province of New Jersey, tested by John Hamilton,
Esq., president of His Majesty's council and com-
mander-in-chief of the province of New Jersey, the
22d day of October, 1746.” This charter was never
recorded, but under it the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson,
9astor of the Presbyterian Church in Elizabethtown,
& J., where he also had a flourishing academy, was
appointed president and the college was established at
Elizabethtown, the first session beginning in the fourth
week of May. 1747.
President Dickinson died Oct. 7, 1747, and the stu-
dents, about twenty in number, were placed under
the care of the Rev. Aaron Burr., pastor of tre Pres-
byterian Church in Newark, to which place the insti-
tution was now removed. An enlarged and more
liberal charter was granted by his Excellency. Jona-
than Belcher, Esq., the Governor of New Jersey,
to which the Great Seal of the Province of New
Jersey'' was affixed Sept. 13 and the charter was is-
sued Sept. 14, 1748. The trustees named in it, who with
two exceptions were Presbyterians, accepted the
charter in a meeting held at New Brunswick. N. J.,
Oct. 13, 1748.
the trustees unanimously elected the Rev. Aaron Burr
president, Nov. 9, 174S.
upon the same day, and at a later hour the first com-
mencement was held. Of the six meubers of the
first class five became ministers of the gospel.
At Newark. Gov. Belcher presiding,
His inauguration took place
The
Richard Stockton, one of the signers of the
Declaration of Independence. The first honorary de-
gree was that of A. M., conferred upon Gov. Belcher.
Liberal subscriptions were obtained, but the con-
tributions were wholly inadequate to the execution of
the designs of the trustees. -
Rev. Gilbert Tennent were sent to Great Britain and
Rev. Samuel Davies and
Ireland to solicit additional benefactions. Their nuis-
sion was very successful, many hundreds of pounds
having been contributed by persons of different de-
* e - e * * * * * ~,
nominations and in various walks of life. The General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland even ordered a
national collection, and among the contributors were
the Bishop of Durham and a descendant of Oliver
Cromwell.
The second commencement had been held at New
Brunswick on the last Wednesday of September, 1749,
but for the next seven years the academical exer-
cises were generally performed in the county court-
house” at Newark. The funds obtained by Messrs.
Davies and Tennent were devoted to the erection of a
college edifice. As the site of this “ the little village
of Princeton was fixed upon as the most convenient
i situation, being near the center of the colony on the
public road between New York and Philadelphia, and
& iſ: upon
the continent.
The people of Princeton made liberal contributions
200 acres of woodland, 10 acres
of cleared land, and one thousand pounds proc. money
($2400).” By suggestion of Gov. Belcher the edi-
fice Saered to liberty and revolution principles,” which
cated, thus terminating all disputes as to claims founded was erected at Princeton, 1754–57, was named Nassau
upon any defect of the registration of title-deeds dur-, Hart!, in honor of King William III., “a branch of the
ing the colonial period.
(C. W. G.)
illustrious House of Nassau.’’ Hence the institution
itself is often called Nassau Hall. This building, 176
26
NEW JERSEY COLLEGE
feet long and 54 wide, with slight central projections in
front and rear, was the largest edifice in the colonies at
the time of its erection. It was three stories high with
a basement, and was surmounted by a cupola. It con-
tained sixty rooms for all purposes, public and private,
chapel, library, recitation-rooms, dining-room, and
chambers, of which there were 49 to accommodate 147
students. It was constructed of stone, and the presi-
dent's house in the vicinity was of brick. Although
burned down in 1802 and again in 1855, its main walls
still stand, and, except for the unsightly towers at the
ends, it presents substantially its original appearance.
The curriculum of studies was equal to that of any
of its sister colleges, consisting of Latin, both written
and spoken, Greek, to be translated into both Latin
and English, French, Hebrew, geography, algebra,
geometry, navigation and astronomy, natural philoso-
phy, Qntology, logic, rhetoric, and ethics, together
with theology for those who intended to become min-
isters of the gospel. The president, assisted by two
tutors and an occasional lecturer, was expected to
give instruction in all these branches in addition to
his regular services as a minister. So varied were
the accomplishments of President Burr, as had been
those of President Dickinson, that he was equal to the
work. -
When the college was removed to Princeton in 1756
there were about 70 students, and the number in-
creased rapidly. Gov. Belcher died Aug. 31, 1757.
President Burr prepared and preached the funeral
Sermon while very unwell himself. Prostrated by his
great labors, he never rallied, but died Sept. 24,
1757, just two days before the commencement.
Rev. Jonathan Edwards, perhaps the greatest mind
this country has produced, was elected to succeed Mr.
Burr, his 3. Inaugurated Feb. 16, 1758, he
had just entered upon his work when he died of inocu-
lation, March 22, 1758. Thus the prospects of Nassau
Hall appeared darker than before.
After a vacancy of eighteen months Rev. Samuel
Davies was chosen president, entered upon his duties
July 26, 1759, and was inaugurated Sept. 26, 1759.
But the bright hopes he had excited were doomed to
disappointment ; for on Feb. 4, 1761, “this brilliant
genius, in the midst of his rising reputation and growing
usefulness, suddenly resigned his breath, to the incon-
Solable grief of the whole Society and universal lamen-
tation of all good men.” -
Rev. Dr. Samuel Finley was now elected president,
entered upon his duties in July, 1761, and was inaugu-
rated Sept. 30, 1761. The college rapidly increased in
numbers, and was flourishing in all respects. The
classes of 1765–66 each contained 31 students. Again
were expectations bitterly disappointed. A peculiar
fatality seemed to attend the office of president. Dr.
Finley died July 17, 1766. Thus within the space of
twenty years the college had been called to mourn the
loss of five presidents—Dickinson, Burr, Edwards, Da-
vies, Finley—an array of the most eminent ministers
our country had yet produced.
The college had graduated nearly 300 students and
had obtained considerable reputation on both sides of
the Atlantic. The Itev. Dr. John Witherspoon, of
Scotland, was now elected president, but at first de-
clined, and the Rev. Šºd Dlair, an alumnus of high
promise, was chosen in his place. He magnanimously
declined when he learned that Dr. Witherspoon would
accept the appointment if again offered. This was
done, and Dr. Witherspoon began his long and suc-
cessful administration, Aug. 17, 1768. Strenuous had
been the efforts made to increase the inadequate funds
by subscriptions, lotteries, and in other ways. Yet in
J767 the college had only £2815 in proclamation
money ($7500). Gov. Belcher had left 474 volumes to
the library, which in 1764 had been increased to 1200.
Dr. Witherspoon obtained large gifts for it from his
friends in Great Britain, and subscriptions were mºde
in the colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia, so
that nearly £8000 were collected by 1775, of which the
Phillips family in Boston gave £500. Mr. John Wil-
liamson, of Virginia, had given £100 sterling to found
a professorship of theology, to which Rev. John Blair
was elected in 1767. This was the first chair endowed,
but owing to the inadequacy of the funds he resigned
in 1769 and Dr. Witherspoon discharged these duties
in addition to his many others. He was assisted by
three tutors. In 1771 Wm. C. Houston was appointed
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. In
1779 the Rev. Samuel Stanhope Smith was made pro-
fessor of moral philosophy and subsequently of the-
ology. -
Dr. Witherspoon was very active and energetic, and
extended the course of study. The number of students,
which had fallen off directly after Dr. Finley's death,
now began to increase, and from this time until the
outbreak of the revolution in 1775 the average of the
classes graduated was 22. The exercises of the college
were greatly interrupted by the war and no commence-
ment was held from 1775 to 1779, although the exam-
inations took place and the degrees were conferred by
the trustees as soon after as a quorum of that body
could meet. Dr. Witherspoon was a member of the
Continental Congress from 1775 to 1782, and along
with Tichard Stockton and Benjamin Rush, alumni of
the collegg, signed the Declaration of Independence.
Nassan Hall was occupied as a barrack and a hospital
by both the British and American troops from 1776 to
1781. It still bears the mark of a cannon-ball fired in
the battle of Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777. Another ball
destroyed the portrait of George II., a present from
Gov. Belcher, which hung in the chapel, now a part of
the geological museum.
The Continental Congress met in the library in the
Second story of Nassau Hall in 1783, and the army lay
at Rocky Hill, a short distance from Princeton. Con-
gress was present at the celebration of the Fourth of
July by the American Whig and Cliosophic Societies,
the two literary societies of the college. Not only the
Congress but the ambassadors of I'rance and Holland
and Gen. Washington himself were present at the com-
mencement in September, 1783, when Ashbel Green,
the valedictorian, afterwards president of the college,
paid a handsome compliment in his address to the
Father of his Country. The trustées requested Wash-
ington to sit for his portrait, to which he consented. It
was painted by Charles W. Peale, and is an admirable
likeness of Washington as he looked at that time. In
the picture is also a portrait of Gen. Mercer, who was
mortally wounded at the battle of Princeton, which is
represented in the background. The picture occupies
the frame which formerly contained the portrait of
George II. Washington, through President Wither-
spoon, presented 50 guineas to the trustees as a “tes-
timony of his respect for the college.”
From Nassau Hall the Continental Congress sent
forth its Proclamation of Peace and Thanksgiving in
1783, and Washington dated his Farewell Address to
the Army at Princeton.
The college had suffered in all respects from the war;
its buildings were devastated, its funds impaired, an
its numbers reduced. In 1782 there were only 40 stu-
dents and 11 graduates, the average number of grad-
uates having been only six for the previous five years.
By dint of great effort the buildings were repaired and
funds were obtained to pay the salaries. Dr. Smith
had conducted the college while Dr. Witherspoon was
attending Congress, and was the vice-president during
the close of his administration, which was the longest
and most arduous in the history of the institution.
Dr. Witherspoon had done a great work despite the
ravages of war, yet at his death, in 1794, the number
of the students and the resources of the college were
no greater than they had been at the beginning of his
administration in 1768, but it was gradually regaining
its old position. Under him 454 students were grad-
uated, 313 under his predecessors.
NEW JERSEY COLLEGE.
27
Dr. Smith now became president, and with such pro-
fessors as Dr. Walter Minto, a distinguished mathe-
matician, and Dr. John Maclean, who introduced the
“new chemistry” into this country, and at that time
had few equals in his special branches of study, a career
of prosperity seemed to be opening for the institution.
But again was the prospect blighted, for on March 6.
1802, Nassau Hall was destroyed by fire. Friends soon
rallied around her. Dr. Smith and others visited the
Middle and Southern States and succeeded in collecting
funds sufficient to rebuild Nassau Hall, and to erect two
other buildings for recitation and lecture-rooms, library.
and refectory.
In consequence of impaired health Dr. Smith re-
sigued in 1812. His administration was very success-
ful and his influence upon the students remarkable.
There was trouble at times, but the number of students
increased and about 30 were graduated annually, 534
in the 18 years of his administration.
He was succeeded by the Rev. Dr. Ashbel Green, an
active trustee and very prominent in the Presbyterian
Church. Some of the old troubles remained and were
increased, but they finally disappeared and the pros-
perity of the college under lin, is shown by the large
increase of students. He did much for their religious
instruction, and in 1815 occurred a most remarkable
revival of religion. Under his administration 350 stu-
dents were graduated, about 36 annually.
He resigned in 1822 and was succeeded in 1823 by
the Rev. Dr. James Carnahan, an excellent scholar and
administrator. From various causes there was a dimi-
nution in the number of students in 1828–29, and sev-
eral of the professors resigned. Prof. John Maclean,
a man of remarkable energy and executive ability, alone
remained. Chiefly through his efforts and with the
hearty co-operation of the president a new faculty of
remarkable ability was formed, which gave great repu-
tation to the college. In it were Profs. Henry, Torrey,
Wethake, Dod, J. A. and J. W. Alexander, Jaeger,
Hart, and S. Alexander. The policy of enlargement
proved to be a wise one, the number of students in-
creased and new buildings were added, notably East
and West Colleges, Whig and Clio Halls, and finally
a new chapel. Dr. Carnahan's administration, begin-
ning inauspiciously, was the longest and most successful
in the history of the college hitherto. When he re-
signed in 1854 the faculty, the number of students and
of the college buildings had been doubled, and an en-
dowment had been begun in the form of scholarships.
Rev. Dr. John Maclean, who had been the vice-
resident for 25 years, was now elected president. He
i. his administration by at once enlarging the fac-
ulty, bringing in such eminent men as Profs. Atwater
and Guyot, and promoting the younger men, extending
the curriculum, and increasing the endowment. The
college again sustained a most serious loss. Nassau
Hall was destroyed by fire for the second time, March
10, 1855. The insurance and contributions of friends
defrayed one-half of the cost of its restoration, the
other half was derived from the income of the college.
The original walls still remain, and the noble building
still stands almost substantially as of old.
The college contained the largest number of students
(317) in its history when the rebellion broke out in
1861. It had always had a large number of students
from the South. After the firing upon Fort Sumter
90 students left in a body to return home. No college
in the North probably felt the effects of the war more
severely than Princeton. Of her alumni and students
150 entered the Union army and a large number of
course were found in the Confederate ranks.
number of students was reduced to 221, and the in-
come of the college was greatly diminished. Appeals
were made to friends and the result was large contribu-
tions from Mr. James Lenox and his sisters, Mr. John
I. Blair, Mr. John C. Green, and many others. Dr.
Atwater was especially active in obtaining an endow-
ment. Legacies were received from Mr. Silas Holmes,
The
Dr. John Woodhull, and Prof. George M. Giger, and
were promised by others. The college was p aced on
a firm basis, the salaries were increased, and the num-
ber of students in 1867 was 264; in that year it re-
ce.ved 117 new students, the largest accession in its
history. In the same year the corner-stone of the fine
observatory was laid. This building, the gift of Gen.
N. Norris Halstead, cost $50,000. Mr. John C. Green.
also gave $100,000, the beginning of his munificence
to the college.
After faithful service for 50 years Dr. Maclean de-
termined to resign. The destruction of Nassau Hall
and the civil war had been severe blows, but the college
was now stronger and more prosperous than ever.
Nearly $500,000 had been received under his adminis-
tration, a sum larger than the receipts during all the
previous history of the college. :
As his successor the trustees selected one of the ablest
philosophers of the present age. Dr. Witherspoºn
had been chosen in 1768; the Rev. Dr. James McCosh,
another Scotchman, was chosen in 1868. As history
thus repeated itself at the end of a century in this
election the old régime passed away and a new era be-
gan. The new president entered upon his work with
the greatest energy, which was crowned with remarka;
ble success in all respects. New friends presented
themselves, liberal gifts were made, beautiful and
needed buildings were erected, new studies were intro-
duced into the curriculum, and the faculty was much
enlarged. Mr. John C. Green founded the School of
Science, erected the building, furnished it with appa-
ratus, and endowed its various chairs. He also erected
Dickinson Hall and the Chancellor Green Library.
After his death the trustees of his estate erected
Witherspoon Hall, Edwards Hall, the small observa-
tory, and made other large contributions. Probably
$1,500,000 were thus contributed from this one source.
Mr. William Libbey erected and furnished Univer-
sity Hall at an expense of $200,000, and gave the E.
M. Museum of Geology so admirably arranged by
Prof. Arnold Guyot. Messrs. H. G. Marquand and
Robert Bonner erected a fine gymnasium. Mr. Mar-
quand also erected a beautiful chapel, costing $125,000,
and from his brother's estate came $60,000 to found a
School of Art, while other friends of the college con-
tributed $42,000 to erect an art-building destined to
receive the splendid ceramic collection of Dr. William
C. Prime. Messrs. R. L. and A. Stuart presented the
elegant president's house and grounds, and Mrs. R. L.
Stuart gave $154,000 to found the School of Philoso-
phy. Mrs. E. Stevens and the Rev. S. B. Dod en-
dowed the chair of mathematics in memory of their
father, and Mr. J. S. Kennedy endowed the chair of
Latin. Murray Hall, for the meetings of the Philadel-
phian Society, a religious society among the students,
was a legacy from a young graduate, Hamilton Mur-
ray, who perished in the steamship Wille du Havre.
Fellowships, scholarships, and prizes were founded and
numerous other donations were made. At least
$3,000,000 have been contributed to the college under
the administration of Dr. McCosh.
Not only was the curriculum of study enlarged, but
a wise system of elective studies was introduced, care-
fully guarded so as not to lower the standard of educa-
tion. Post-graduate courses leading to higher degrees
through examination were introduced, thus contemplat-
ing ultimately a university.
The faculty has been enlarged from 16 members to
40, and the number of students, including post-grad-
uates, has more than doubled, rising from 264 to 604.
This has been the most brilliant and successful ad-
ministration in the history of the college, and after
20 years of arduous service Dr. McCosh has retired
with the admiration and gratitude of all the friends
and alumni of Princeton.
While the College of New Jersey has never been
under ecclesiastical control yet nearly all its trustees
and professors have always been Presbyterians, while
28
NEW LONDON.—NEWMAN.
equal liberties and privileges are secured to every
denomination of Christians.” It has ever been “a
Seminary of true religion and sound learning.” Daily
public worship is obligatory, and the Bible and the
evidences of Christianity constitute important parts of
its curriculum.
The whole number of its graduates is about 6200.
Of this number 1250 have become ministers of the
gospel, 400 physicians, and a large number entered
the legal profession. About 400 have held high civil
office and 250 have become professors. Space forbids
the enumeration of those who have held conspicuous
positions from James Madison, the fourth President
of the United States, down through almost every
other honorable office in the National and State gov.
€rn ID entS.
At the last commencement of the college, June 20,
1888, under the most auspicious circumstances, the
Rev. Dr. Francis L. Patton was inaugurated the twelfth
president of the college. (H. C. C.)
NEW LONDON, a city of Connecticut, and half-
shire town of New Jondon co., is on the W. bank of
the Thames River, three miles above Long Island
Sound, in 41° 22′ N, lat., and 72° 91" W. long. The
harbor, averaging thirty feet deep, is one of the best
in the United States. The city is built on a declivity
partly occupied by granite rocks. Railroads connect it
with New York, 126 miles distant, and there is also
daily steamboat communication. The New London
Northern Railroad has here a granite wharf. 1125 feet
long. The city has a court-house, a granite custom-
house, brownstone city-hall, 5 national banks, 2 sav.
ings banks, 12 churches, a high-school and other
schools, a daily and a weekly newspaper. The manu-
factures include woollen goods, cotton-gins, agricultural
machines, hardware, and sewing-silk. Fruit-canning
and cracker-baking are also carried on. The inhabitants
were formerly interested in the whale-fishery, and now
in the seal and other fisheries. The U. S. navy-yard
is on the E. side of the Thames, above the city. Forts
Trumbull and Griswold were built for the defence of
the city, but are not effective now. New London was
settled in 1645, though not so named until 1658. Dur-
ing the revolution many privateers were fitted out
here, and Benedict Arnold captured and burnt it in
1781. In the war of 1812 Decatur was long blockaded
in this harbor. The vicinity has now become a popular
summer resort. The population of New London in
1880 was 1 (), 537.
NEWMAN, EDWARD (1801–1876), an English
naturalist, was born at Hampstead, May 13, 1801.
He was a member of the Society of Friends, which
his ancestors had joined at the time of its rise. He
became a printer in London, but his strong love of
natural history led him to devote much time to its
study. In 1833 he founded the Entomological Maga-
zine, which was merged in the Entomologist in 1840.
He also established the Zoologist in 1843, and to other
periodicals he was also a frequent contributor on his
favorite subjects. Among his works are IIistory of
British Ferms (1840); Introduction to the History of
Insects (1841); Insect-Hunters (1858); Birds-nesting
(1861); Dictionary of British Birds (1866); British
Moths (1869); and British Butterflies (1871). He died
June 12, 1876.
NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM, an English author,
was born at London, June 27, 1805, being a younger
brother of Cardinal Newman. Educated at Ealing
School and at Worcester College, Oxford, he graduated
in 1826 as a double first-class. He was fellow of Balliol
until 1830, when he resigned, because unable conscien-
tiously to sign the Thirty-nine Articles for the Master's
degree. He had been trained as an Evangelical, but
gradually diverging in an opposite direction to that
which his brother had taken, he became a rationalist
and eventually simply a deist. His change of views is
set forth in his Phases of Faith (1850), with which
may be compared his previous work, The Soul, its Sor-
|
rows and Aspirations (1849), and a later one on The-
ism, Doctrinal and Practical (1858). After leaving
Oxford he spent three years in travel in the East, and
on his return became classical tutor in Bristol College.
He held a similar position in Manchester New College,
1840–46, and was afterwards professor of Latin in
University College until 1863. Among his numerous
publications are History of the Hebrew Monarchy
(1847); Contrasts of Ancient and Modern History
(1847); Regal Rome (1852); English Institutions and
their Reform (1865); Miscellanies, Academical and
Historical (1869); Europe of the Near Future (1871).
He also translated the Odes of Horace and the Iliad
of Homer in unrhymed metre, the choice of which he
defendel in a subsequent treatise on Homeric transla-
tion. Among his philological works are essays on the
languages of ancient Italy, a hand-book of modern
Arabic, and an English-Arabic dictionary. Other pub-
lications were discussions of public events and social
questions of the time. -
NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY, Cardinal, was born in
London, Feb. 21, 1801. The son of a banker, he was
educated at Ealing School. His marked religious
temperament led him at first to accept the views of
the Evangelical school, whose spirituality had been
quickened by the Methodist movement. Having en-
tered Trinity College, Oxford, he graduated in 1820,
and soon came in contact with Dr. (afterwards Arch-
bishop) Whately, who, as Newman says, “opened my
mind and taught me to think and to use my reason.”
Whately, when made principal of St. Alban's Hall in
1825, showed his esteem for Newman by appointing
him vice-principal. But the place was given up in the
next year, when he was elected fellow of Oriel College.
In 1828 he was made incumbent of the Church of St.
Mary the Virgin, at Oxford. Through Hurrell Froude
he formed a friendship with Keble, who had published
his Christian Year in 1827. Having parted from the
Evangelicals, Newman turned to the study of the
Church Fathers. His first literary work was The
Arians of the Fourth Century (1833), a history which
grew out of a call to write an account of the Council
of Nicaea. His health being impaired by the labor, he
made a visit to the shores of the Mediterranean, and
during his stay in Rome called on Rev. Dr. (afterwards
Cardinal) Wiseman. When he returned the Oxford
movement had been inaugurated by Keble's sermon on
“National Apostasy.” Newman at once began the
publication of the Tracts for the Times, to set forth
what he maintained as Anglican doctrine, and to estab-
lish its historical basis. In a few months Rev. Dr. E.
B. Pusey (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA) joined in
the new movement, and his ability, learning, and social
prominence gave it such a powerful impulse that it
received his name. He, as well as others, contributed
to the Tracts, whose publication extended over seven
years, yet Newman remained the chief author and re-
sponsible editor. Following Pusey's advice and exam-
ple, he engaged also in the preparation of more elabo-
rate works, the first of which was The Prophetical
Office of the Church, Pierced Relatively to Romanism.
and Popular Protestamfism (1836). The Church of
º was held to be identical throughout its history
and to furnish in modern times the safe Via Media.
Next appeared his Essay on Justification (1837), in
which he controverted Luther's fundamental doctrine
of justification by faith alone. In his University Ser-
mons the Church was exhibited as a divine institution,
“the source of all spiritual power and jurisdiction and
the channel of all grace.” From 1838 to 1841 New-
man was also editor of the British Critic, a monthly
magazine which upheld these views, though not to the
exclusion of other topics. In 1838 Bishop Bagot, of
()xford, in his charge made some animadversions on
the Tracts, whose Romeward tendency was now plain.
Newman at once offered to stop them, but was not
then required to do so. At last, in 1841, Tract No. 90
explained the Thirty-nine Articles so as to remove all
NEWMAN–NEW MEXICO.
29
opposition to characteristic Roman doctrine. ...At this
definite conclusion a violent outcry arose. The Uni-
versity authorities condemned the Tract. Newman
refused to withdraw it, but he discontinued the series,
and even consented to refrain from defending the
Tracts, though many bishops now directed charges
against them and the movement they represented.
An ecclesiastico-political event, however, induced New-
man to break his silence. In 1841 the British govern-
ment joined with the Prussian in establishing a bishop-
ric at Jerusalem. The scheme had originated with
Chevalier Bunsen, who hoped that the unity of Prot-
estantism would thereby be exhibited and promoted.
Newman protested openly against the countenance
thus given to Lutheranism. In September, 1843,
finding he could no longer hold an official position in
the English Church, he resigned his charge of St.
Mary's and retired to Littlemore, where he had formed
a kind of convent. Having lost faith in the catholicity
of the Church of England, he formally retracted his
earlier attacks on the (hurch of Rome. For two years
he and his associates busied themselves with transla-
tions from Athanasius and with writing Lives of the
English Saints. In 1845, as a chart of the direction
of his thoughts, he drew up his Essay on the Derelop-
ment of Doctrine; but before it was finished he was
received into the Roman Catholic Church (October
9). In the following February he left Littlemore,
going first to Oscott, and thence to Rome. Here he
was ordained priest, and on returning to England, in
JS4S, he became head of the Oratory of St. Philip
Neri, at Birmingham. The Oratory was afterwards
transferred to Edgbaston, where a convent, church, and
schools were erected. Besides his labors in conducting
the affairs of this order, Father Newman was busy in
lecturing and preparing works for publication. Among
these were his Sermons to Mired Congregations (1849);
Lectures on Difficulties Felt by Anglicans in Submitting
to the Catholic Church (1850); and two religious now-
els, Loss and Gain (1848), and Callista (1850). In
1854 Dr. Newman was appointed rector of the newly
founded Catholic University of Dublin, in which he
delivered several courses of lectures. Though he
seemed eminently fitted for this position by his gifts
of mind and character, the institution did not achieve
the success that was anticipated. After four years,
devoted to organizing and conducting the university,
he returned to his former work in the Oratory. The
Roman Catholic Church in England owes to him a
change in its attitude. Among its members he pro-
moted some freedom of opinion, and diminished the
alien proclivities which had formerly characterized
them. In 1864 Rev. Charles Kingsley provoked a
noted controversy by charging Dr. Newman, in com-
mon with other Catholics, with depreciating veracity
as a virtue of the natural order, in comparison with
spiritual virtues. Newman replied, and as the contro-
versy bore a personal aspect, he published the Apologia
3ro Vita Sud, giving a history of his religious opinions.
He endeavored to prove a consistency in his career in
spite of the changes in his belief. When the heat of
conflict had cooled he regained some favor with those
from whom he had separated. Eventually ()xford so
far forgave the secession of her distinguished son that
in December, 1877, he was elected an honorary fellow
of Trinity College. Newman was among those who
deprecated the promulgation of papal infallibility by
the Vatican Council in 1870. W i. Gladstone, how-
ever, five years later made an attack on Vaticanism,
Newman contented himself with pointing out the mar-
row limits within which infallibility was declared to
exist. After the accession of Leo XIII, to the papacy,
Dr. Newman was raised to the dignity of ...
deacon, May 12, 1879. He resides at Edgbaston, near
Birmingham, where he conducts a school for the edu-
cation of sons of the Roman Catholic gentry, and stili
supervises the affairs of his order.
A uniform edition of Cardinal Newuman's works has
been issued, with some annotations indicating the
change in his views since their original publication.
Besides the works already mentioned, they include An
Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent, a treatise. On
faith and reason ; Discourses on the Nature and Work
of Universities, and other educational treatises, and
many sermons. He is also the author of several ad.
mirable poems and hymns, among which is “Lead,
Kindly Light.” His writings are noted for the beauty
of their style and the purity of their English, as well
as for their philosophic treatment of all subjects.
Never content with the mere aspect of things, he probes
their being until he seems at times to unsettle their
reality. Yet his genius is able to present the results
of his meditations in most attractive forms. Turning
his back on modern criticism and progress, he sympa-
thizes deeply with mediaeval scholasticism. His çır.
cumstances placed him for a time in the van of a
religious movement, but his vocation was always rather
that of a teacher, influencing individuals, than that of
the leader of a movement. The opposition to liberalism
which had been strong, in Oxford from 1833 to 1845
lost its importance after his withdrawal. Comparatively
few followed him into the Roman Catholic Church, and
his subsequent influence was limited almost entirely to
that church. (J. P. L.)
NEW MEXICO. Prior to the advent of the
, , ,-, ... Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Rail-
sº road, in 1879, the Territory of New
Kºº. Mexico was a comparatively unknown
region. The laborious journey over the
plains with ox-teams offered few inducements to emi-
grants or tourists. Althougn
a part of the United States
and under control of the
government for 30 years
it had received but little
attention, and its wonder-
ful natural resources were
either unknown or neg-
lected. Delays in settling
questions touching the own-
ership of land and in ad-
justing conflicts between
the races served to retard the progress of the Terri-
tory.
With the railroad came an army of active, energetic
Americans, who peopled the towns and villages, devel-
oped mines, attacked the forests, covered the plains
with cattle, and proved the amazing fertility of the
soil. Their enterprise has impressed the native Mexi-
can and the Indian, and stimulated the older settlers.
The increase in population has, however, been only
about 33 per cent... the population of the Territory at
present being about 200,000. The delightful climate
and the incentives to fortune-seekers in mining, stock-
raising, and farming would have brought many more
into the Territory had the land questions or the Indian
troubles been settled. Within the years 1886–88 all
the hostile Indians have been subdued, and under a
firm and enlightened management of Indian affairs no
serious trouble is to be apprehended. Many questions
affecting the rights of peaceable Indians require the
attention and action of the government before full
justice is done.
The settlement of the land claims is now being con-
sidered by Congress, and it is certainly time that
definite action should be taken to carry out the terms
of the treaty made by our government with Mexico in
1848. Over 10,000,000 acres are claimed under grants
from the Spanish government. The vast majority of
these claims are for small holdings, and comprise the
best land in the Territory, which has been cultivated
for hundreds of years.
Under the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo the United
States agreed to protect the holders of property, but
their title cannot be made perfect id the land is
surveyed by authority of the United States, and the

30
NEW MEXICO—NEW ORLEANS
grants thus located and defined confirmed expressly by
Congress. - º
The Pueblo Indians, 12,000 in number, occupy 19
villages, and own nearly 1,000,000 acres of land. They
have herds of horses and cattle, flocks of sheep, culti-
Vate large areas, and raise wheat, barley, oats, corn,
fruit, and vegetables. They are steadily improving in
their manner of living : leaving the villages and settling
on their individual farms, introducing modern agricul-
tural implements and adopting the American dress.
The Navajoes number 25,000 and occupy over
8,000,000 acres. They are self-sustaining, but depend
upon the sale of horses and wool, cultivating but little
land. They have not advanced materially in civiliza-
tion. The Mescalero Apaches number less than 600
and occupy nearly half a million acres of land. They
are making commendable progress. The Jicarilla
Apaches have in 1888 been located near Amargo, on a
reservation embracing 75,000 acres. The tribe has a
population of 900, and under suitable control and
guidance will become useful members of society.
The Mexican population in the 'Territory exceeds
100,000. They engage in mining, stock-raising, and
farming. The wealthier class are well educated and
vie with the progressive Americans in public &nter-
prises. The poorer classes are steadily in proving their
condition. The opening of markets for their products
has increased the raising of vegetables 1000 per cent.
in the past five years. This increased income has ena-
bled them to improve their stock, the furniture of their
homes, and the quality of their clothing.
Water ditches have been constructed in Laos, Col-
fax, Lincoln, San Juan, and Mora counties, which have
materially increased the area of productive land.
Large ditches are contemplated in ğ. parts of
the Territory, and if capital for their construction is
secured, immense bodies of fertile land will be open to
successful occupancy.
The debt of the Territory is about 70 cents per cap-
ita, which is less than that of any State or Territory in
the Union.
During the years 1884-88 the annual production of
gold has increased 200 per cent., and that of silver 30
per cent. ; the government has disposed of nearly one
million acres of land to settlers, and the area of agri-
cultural products has been increased as follows: corn
3331 acres, wheat 16,649, oats 3889, barley 500, pota-
toes 600, hay 16,300.
The public school system, owing to the small amount
realized from taxes, imperfect administration, and de-
fective laws, is in a backward condition. The mass of
the people are, however, awakening to the necessity
of popular education, and in a short time will frame
their desires in suitable legislative action. During the
years 1883–8 at least 10 public school-houses have been
built, a few of which are creditable structures. . The
laws are administered with more rigor, and a larger
proportion of the money actually raised is honestly
expended. Boarding- and day-Schools under private
auspices have increased greatly. . tº .
The Indian children are now instructed in 1 board-
ing- and several day-schools under the control of the
Interior department of the government; in 2 boarding-
and 8 day-schools conducted by orders gonnected with
the Roman Catholic Church ; in 1 boarding- and 4 day-
schools under the Home Mission Board of the Presby-
terian Church; and in 1 boarding-School controlled by
the American Missionary Association. .
The youths of the Mexican ..". are cared for
in 3 boarding- and 17 day-schools under the Home
Mission Board of the Presbyterian Church ; in 4 day-
schools under the New West Educational Commission;
in I boarding-school under the Methodist Church, and
in several day-schools under the Roman Catholic
Church. In some of these the public money pays part
of the expense. A school for deaf-mutes has recently
been established.
-There are several academies and colleges under the
auspices of religious denominations, but the standard
is low. They are doing good work, however, and gain-
ing ground every year.
n numbers, wealth, and influence the Roman Cath-
olic Church leads all the religious organizations in the
Territory. During the past five years it has displayed
commendable activity in erecting fine church edifices
and in establishing schools and hospitals. The Jesuits
are in strong force, and the Christian Brothers, the
Sisters of Loretto, and the Sisters of Charity and other
orders are represented. Some of the orders own ex-
tensive ranches, gardens, and fruit orchards, and secure,
a large income by the sale of their products and in the
manufacture of fine wines and brandies.
The Presbyterians, the Methodists, the Congrega-
tionalists, the Baptists, the Episcopalians, and the
Lutherans have churches in nearly every town in the
Territory. They have evangelists preaching and work-
ing from village to village and from house to house,
and are increasing steadily and rapidly.
The only Young Men's Christian Association in the
Territory is located at Albuquerque. The Women's
Christian Temperance Union has organizations in every
large town. A Father Mathew temperance society is
also doing gool work. Civic societies are represented
in Masonry, () lil Fellowship, Good Templars, Knights
of Pythias, Grand Army of the Republic, Woman's
Relief Corps, American Order inited Workmen,
Benai Berith, Ancient Order of Hibernians, Catholic
Knights of America, and Knights of Labor.
In the larger towns are regular city governments,
gas-works, water-works, electric-light-works, street
railroads, and telephone exchanges. Seven daily and
over twenty newspapers are published in the Territory.
- (R. W. D. B.)
NEW ORLEANS, the metropolis of Louisiana,
r which had by the U. S. census of 1880
See Vºl. XVII, a population of 216, 190, was estimated
R."...!". " by the State Board of Health to hav
A m. Rep.). by the State Board of Health to have,
in 1888, 248,000, of whom 180,000
were white and 68,00) colored. The disproportion of
sexes has been steadily increasing for some years; in
1880 the excess of females was 14.318; in 1888 it had
grown to 18,623. The race mixture in the population
is great, giving the city a very cosmopolitan appear-
ance. Of people of Anglo-American blood there are
but 43,124, or about one-sixth of the total ; the French
and Creoles (descendants of the original French settlers)
number 41,720 ; the Germans and their descendants,
40,345; the Irish, 37,032; Spaniards and Spanish
Creoles from Mexico, Cuba, and South America, 6147;
Italians, 4225; Jews, 41 18; and other white races,
mainly Scandinavians, Poles, Hungarians, and Portu-
guese, 3287. Of the colored or negro population
22, 168 are mulattoes or mestizoes, half or more than
half white, some of them being seven-eighths white,
but classed nevertheless as “negro '' or ‘’ colored ; ''
and 44,612 are negroes, although a majority of the
latter also contain some white or Indian blood. The
Indians and half-breeds number 420, and the Chinese,
Malays, and other dark races, 800.
The French language, spoken generally by one-third
the population ten years ago, is disappearing, although
still used by many. German, Spanish, and Italian
survive in general use. The “Creole’’ or African-
French spoken by the negroes is now practically extinct.
While the French and Creole influence which
formerly dominated the city has latterly perceptibly
waned, New Orleans is still largely French in its ideas
and customs. The opera is a success as it is nowhere
else in America; the public holidays, as Mardi Gras
and All Saints' day, when the graves are decorated, are
those handed down from the original French settlers,
and the social customs and usages are generally of
French or Creole origin instead of English or American.
‘Since the great epidemic of 1878 New Orleans has
escaped its former scourge, yellow fever, and has be-
come a far healthier city than formerly. The improve-
NEW ORLEANS.
31
ment is largely due to the establishment of an efficient
quarantine system, which has exploded the idea,
formerly entertained, that yellow fever originated here.
The annual death-rate is now 26.45 per thousand, but
very unequally distributed, being nearly twice as great
among the negroes (39.03 per thousand), who take no
sanitary precautions, as among the whites (21.89 per
thousand). The Auxiliary Sanitary Association, Sup-
ported by popular subscriptions, co-operates with the
city and health authorities in cleaning the streets and
gutters and in caring for the public health.
The diseases carrying off the greatest number of
people are consumption, pneumonia, bronchitis, and
other diseases of the respiratory organs, which are
frequent in winter in consequence of the humidity of
the atmosphere ; malarial fevers, which, however, pre-
Vail mainly in the outskirts of the city, and diseases of
the stomach and bowels. On the other hand most
zymotic diseases are generally rarer than in other
American cities, scarlet fever unfrequent, typhoid'
fevers very rare, croup seldom, and cholera infantum
almost unknown. The summer has, for the past ten
years, been the healthiest season of the year, and the
worst the beginning of winter when rains are frequent.
The most agreeable weather is from the beginning of
February to June, when it is dry, clear, cool, and com-
fortable.
The drainage of the city, which plays an important
part in determining its health, is defective, the original
Ylans never having been carried out to completion.
}. without sewers, the drainage is all on the sur-
face, the rain water being carried off in open gutters
and canals to the rear of the city, where it is pumped
over a levee and thence carried to Lake Pontchartrain,
while the garbage and sewage are carried to the river
in carts and dumped into it. Steps are being taken to
improve the drainage by the construction of a new
canal running through the centre of the city, and ad-
ditional drainage machines. Since 1880 the system
of flushing the gutters by pumping water from the
Mississippi into them has been practiced, and has
resulted in keeping them cleaner and improving the
public health.
New Orleans, being spread over a large area of ter-
ritory, 155 square miles, with 450 miles of streets, has
paved but a small proportion of them, the rest being
“dirt" streets, wholly unpaved. Since 1883 there
has been a decided improvement in this respect,
22 miles of pavement having been laid, of which 9
are in asphaltum, 5 in stone, mainly granite, and 8 in
iron gravel.
No public buildings of any inportance have been
latterly erected in New Orleans. The Shakespeare
Almshouse, which accommodates 125 paupers, was
erected in 1880, on Carondelet street. Additions
have been made to the famous Charity Hospital, and
an ambulance service established in connection with it.
Other late additions to the already numerous charit.
able institutions of New Orleans are the Touro In
firmary and Hºspital and the Asylum of the Little
Sisters of the Poor (Catholic), on Prytania street, and
the Jewish Widows' and Orphans' Home on St.
Charles avenue. ... The latter institution is established
‘or the benefit of the Jews of all the Southern States.
. The educational advantages of New Orleans have
improved greatly since 1880. The donation by Mr.
Paul Tulane of $2,000,000 to the University of
Louisiana, the name of which was, in his honor,
changed to Tulane University, enabled that institution
to greatly extend its operations. An industrial school
Was established in 1883, and a museum in 1885, and a
series of free lectures has been since delivered each
Winter. Including the medical, law, academical, and in-
dustrial departments the college will now average 1200
students in attendance each year. The Sophie New-
combe College for Girls, a branch of Tulane College,
Was established in 1886 with a donation of $200,000
from a lady of Louisville.
The colored people of New Orleans have the advan-
tage of four colleges: Straight University (Congrega-
tional), Leland University (Baptist), New Orleans
University (Methodist), and the Southern University,
undenominational and supported by the State. All
four are open to both sexes and have n average an-
nual attendance of 1250, about equally divided be-
tween males and females. The College of the Immacu-
late Couception (Catholic), with 450 students, is also
authorized to grant degrees.
The Howard Memorial Library, with 125,000 vol-
umes, was erected in 1888 by Miss Annie Howard.
The only other public libraries are the Louisiana State
Library, 30,000 volumes, and the Fisk or Tulane Li-
brary, 12,000.
The commerce of New Orleans has undergone im-
portant changes in the last ten years with the construe-
tion of railroads. Formerly the trade was almost
wholly done on the Mississippi, and “ the levee,” as
the river front of the city is called, became the most
active commercial point in the world. As late as 1882
the steamboats and barges handled the greater bulk
of the receipts from the interior, but since then the
railroads have surpassed them, as shown by the fol-
lowing table of value of receipts of produce :

|
Year (endin Receipts by Receipts by
Aug. J1). § river. rail. Total value.
1880............... $120,006,300 $59,765,300 $179,771,600
1881............... 132,278,425 65,439, 5 197,758. 175
1S 2............... 97,187,406 62,329,323 159,516,729
1NS3. 117,90s, 950 $2,019, 95 200,01S,645
1884............... | 80.39t), 194 80,878,843 161,259,037
I SS5 | 72,S)3,584 90,9–0,226 16 7-3,810
1886............... 65,4}S 6,453 104,6Sl,456 170,667 909
1887............... : 59,326,765 104,901, S39 164,228,60 i
1888............... 61,420,25l. 1U7,054,142 168,474,393
|
There were three trunk railroad lines reaching New
Orleans in ISS2. A fourth was built that year, a fifth
in 1883, and a sixth in 1885. There are in addition
two local railroad lines, the New Orleans, Terre-aux-
Boeufs, and Gulf, and the New Orleans and East
Louisiana Railroad. g
The effect of railroads upon the river traffic is seen
in the arrival of steamboats and barges:

T
Steamboats. Barges. River tonnage.
lº"......................... & e º & tº 2,658 S57 2.609,950
18'' .............................. 2,562 8:3S 2,427,439
1383 ...................... * * * * 2,413 857 2,331,528
1883. ............................ 2,335 S 6 2,261,409
1884.............................. 2,175 . 835 2, 67,858
1855.............................. 2,162 , 932 2,260,400
1886.... ......................... 1,954 9.S7 2,184,840
1887.............................. 1,90S 1,099 2,211,350
Qn the other hand the railroads have increased
their tonnage steadily, as follows:

Received. Shipped. Total Toris.
1850........................... 543,076 455,712 998,788
18Sl........................... 558,261 474,2' 5 1,132,536
1882........................... 6S5,020 555,659 1,240,679
1883........................... SS4,223 507,510 1,4S1,733
1884... tº. 89 |,371 623,618 1,517.989
1885........................... 1,003,185 619,784 1,622,369
lºº................... ........ 1,125,809 6:35,418 1,761,227
1887............ * * * * * * * * * * * * a se 1,344,430 746,146 2,090,576
y
While the commerce of New Orleans has changed
much in the last ten years, the volume has increased,
the loss in foreign imports and the coastwise trade
with the Gulf towns being more than compensated for
by the improved trade with New York. The following
32 NEW ORLEANS-NEWPORT,
shows the value and distribution of the entire com.
* . * * and rain, the water-works supplying only the mudd
merce of the city for 1SS6 : } pplying on 1 y
Water from the Mississippi, which has to be filtered
Ocean Commerce.
Foreign. Coastwise. Total.
Imports............... $S,115,171 $51,442,628 $59,557,799
Exports............... 82,560,198 38,264,984 120,825, 182
Total ...............S90,675,369 $89,707,612 $180,382,981
Receipts of Produce from Interior.
º Tons. Value.
By river....... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2,337,226 $61,911,534
By rail.................. * * * * * * * * * 1,344,430 106,622,320
Total........................... 3,681,656 $168,533,854
Shipments to the Interior.
º Tons. Value.
By river......................... 1,390,538 $35,826,230
By rail........................... 7 46,146 62,4SS,920
Total...........................2,136,684 $98,315,150
Total Trade.
Tons. Value.
With interior........ . ......... 5,818,340 $266,849,004
Totai ocean trade............ 2, 198,575 180,382,981
Grand Total of Trade.
Tons. Value.
For 1886 .............. ... ...... 8,016,915 $447,231,985
For 18S7........................8,324,372 462,211,178
New Orleans up to 1870 was almost wholly a com-
mercial city, but since then, and particularly since 1880,
it has been forced by trade changes more and more to
manufactures, in order to find employment for its
working classes. From 1870 to 1880 there were
12,000 men employed in handling cotton in the com-
presses and placing it aboard ship ; while in 1888 the
number was reduced one-half. On the other hand
there has been a large increase in the number of per-
sons engaged in manufactures. The following table
gives the manufacturing statistics:
Es- | *
* - - - No. hands … * : Value of
Year. tablish- Capital. * .." Wages paid. * . . . "
Il 1 tº Il t S. | Employ ed: Products.
| |
1STſ) 554 $5,429,140 4.41 1 $1,204.254 || $8,450,439
I SSO S96 6,430.303 7,844 3,317,777 18,052,596
I SSS | 2,185 21,607,670 23,865 8,242,599 || 41,508,546
The chief industries are, boots and shoes (products,
$2.227,500), bread and bakery (products , $1,923,750),
clothing ($4,424,500), machinery ($1,485,200), beer
($1.277,210), lumber, etc. ($1,484, 146), cotton-seed oil
and fertilizers ($3,187,100), rice cleaning and polishing
($2,792,750), sugar refining ($7,335,000), ...] tobacco
and cigars ($1,898,500). There were, in 1888, 3840
women engaged in factory work against only 120 in
1880.
With these new factories important changes have
come over New Orleans industrially, socially, and
otherwise. Many buildings formerly devoted to com-
merce have been fitted up as factories. The long
period, from May to October, formerly known as the
dull season,” when the city went to sleep and business
was generally suspended, has disappeared, the factories
remaining open and in operation throughout the
Year.
The control of the city debt is in the hands of a
“ Board of Liquidation,” under whose administration
it is beigg reduced at the rate of$275,000 a year. The
bonded and floating debt amounts to $17,491,546.
The streets, squares, and public buildings of New
Orleans are lighted altogether by electricity, the tower
system prevailing in the suburbs. For drinking water
the inhabitants are dependent almost wholly on cisterns
before use. Latterly a dozen or more artesian wells
have been sunk in the city limits, and have struck an
abundant supply of water, excellent for drinking or
manufacturing purposes, at a depth of 1000 feet.
The history of New Orleans since 1880 has been un-
eventful, the most important item being the Interna-
tional Exposition held there in 1884–1885, and contin-
ued during 1885–1886.
This exposition, known as the World's Industrial and
Cotton Centennial Exposition, opened in December,
1884. The United States contributed $1,000,000 tow-
ards its expenses, besides $350,000 to enable the several
Federal departments to make displays. The grounds
covered 249 acres. The principal buildings were : the
Main Building, 1378 by 905 feet, or 33 acres, the Music
Hall in its centre having a seating capacity for 13,000
people; the U. S. Building, in which the United
States and the several States had their exhibits,
885 by 565 feet ; the Art Gallery; Horticultural Hall,
wholly of glass; Factory and Mill Building, for the
exhibition of machinery ; and the Mexican National
Building, where the Mexican display was exhibited.
All the States and Territories had exhibits, and of for-
eign powers there were represented Mexico, all the
Central American states, Brazil, England, France,
Italy, Russia, Germany, China, Japan, Siam, and
other countries. Although the amount of space cov-
ered and the number of exhibitors were greater than at
any previous World's Exhibition, the attendance was
not so large, falling short of 3,000,000. (N. W.)
NEWPORT, a city of Kentucky, the county-seat of
Campbell co., is on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the
Licking River, 1 mile from Cincinnati, on a branch of
the Louisville and Nashville Railroad and the Eliza-
bethtown and Big Sandy Railroad. It has a fine court-
house, post-office, and Masonic temple, 5 hotels, 2
national banks, 1 tri-weekly and 3 weekly newspapers,
20 churches, and 5 schools. The industrial establish-
ments comprise large iron-rolling-mills, bolt-works,
pipe-foundry, flour-, saw-, and planing-mills, tool- and
tile-works. It has gas- and water-works, a paid fire de-
partment, and a park. Its property is , valued at
$7,000,000, its public debt is $1,042,000, and the yearly
expenses are $143,000. It is connected with Covington
by a suspension bridge over the Licking River, and
with Cincinnati by a railroad bridge with roadways and
footways (see BRIDGES, fig. 40). There is also a
steam ferry to Cincinnati, and a line of street cars to
Covington. Newport, settled in 1791, had in 1880 a
population of 15,693.
NEWPORT, one of the capitals of the State of
... Rhode Island, is on the west shore of
See..". *Y. Rhode Island, in Narragansett Bay, 5
Knºke º miles from the ocean and 22 miles south
A m. Ivep.). of Providence. It has a spacious
and commodious harbor, which is defended by Fort
Adams, 13 miles from the city. The U. S. torpedo
station is on an island in the harbor. The city contains
a state house, U. S. custom house, city hall, 2 libraries,
5 national, 3 State, and 3 savings banks, 15 churches,
a high school and other schools, 1 daily and 2 weekly
newspapers. The industrial works comprise a brass
º 2 cotton-mills, and lead-works. N ewport has
daily steamboat communication with New York and
Providence. It is now chiefly noted as a summer re-
sort, the whole southern part of the island being occu-
pied with hotels and villas. The beach is one of the
finest in the United States for bathing and for prome-
nades. Bellevue avenue and Ocean drive are noted for
their fine equipages during the summer season. New-
ort was settled in 1638 by William Coddington, who
ad separated from Roger Williams' colony. Before
the American Revolution the town had become noted for
its commercial enterprise. The Redwood Library and
several of the public buildings belong to this period.
During the revolutionary war the island was occupied

NEW TESTAMENT.
33
by 8000 British and Hessian troops, who inflicted great
injury on the town. The commerce, then transferre
to New York was never regained. But the excellence
of the beach and harbor has made Newport a famous
Summer resort.
NEW TESTAMENT. This name is applied to the
twenty-seven books, originally written in Greek, which
are recognized as authoritative among Christians. The
term is derived from Testamentum, the Latin equiva-
lent for the Greek 6tathkm, which usually means
“covenant,” a more appropriate and significant title.
But usage will not now permit an alteratiºn of the
name. The articles on the BIBLE in the ENCYCLO-
PA DIA BRITANNICA and in this SUPPLEMENT treat
with much fulness of the main questions respect-
ing the New Testament. The articles on the GOSPELS
and on the respective Epistles deal with the special
topics connected with the separate books. But a sup-
plementary article is necessary : (1) There has been
some addition to our knowledge of the literature of
the earlier Christian centuries since the article BIBLE
was prepared for the BRITANNICA; (2) The treatment
in that article suggests doubts to an unnecessary ex-
tent; (3) The several books having been discussed by
different authors representing a variety of opinion,
there is a lack of unity in the other articles referred to.
The point of view in the later volumes of the BRITAN-
NICA is more rationalistic than that taken by the
authors who write on the New Testament books in the
earlier volumes.
The topics properly belonging to this article are
three : I. The origin of the New Testament books.
II. The preservation of this literature, III. The col-
lection of it as a body of writings claiming authority
among Christians. These topics are named respec-
tively: Higher criticism of the New Testament; Textual
criticism of the New Testament ; Canon of the New
Testament. The last has been adequately treated in
the articles CANoN in the BRITANNICA and this SUP-
PLEMENT. It will only be necessary to discuss the first
and second.
I. The Origin of the New Testament Books.--(1)
After protracted discussion, it seems more positively
proven than ever before, since the question has been
formally raised, that all of the books were written in
the first century, between A. D. 53 and 97, that each
one is the work of its reputed author (the case of the
anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews being an isolated
one), that the historical books are trustworthy histories,
and that each presents characteristics distinguishing it
from all other literature outside this collection, and
that taken together the collection forms the authorita-
tive rule of faith for believers in Jesus Christ. The
Old Testament writings also constitute a part of this
rule of faith, but the fuller and complete revelation is
made in the New Testament. The unique character
and authority of these writings is due to inspiration,
which our Lord expressly attributed to the Old Testa-
ment, and which tº all the more necessary in
9Qūnection with the records which present, to us Jesus
Christ himself, since he says of the Old Testament
Scriptures, “These are they which bear witness of
me” (John v. 39).
2. The earliest books written were six of the Epistles
of Paul, namely, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1
and 2 Corinthians, and Romans (A. D. 53–58). The
four last named are “undoubted;” no critic, however
destructive in his theories, has denied that they were
Written by the apostle, and near the date given above.
It follows, therefore, that in A. D. 58 the belief in Jesus
Qhrist was widely extended throughout the Roman
Em i.e.; that the personal object of this widely ex;
tended faith was held to be a historical person who had
lived and taught in Judea a short time before. It was
also held that he had been put to death and risen from
the dead on the third day, sending down the Holy
Spirit to work spiritual life in those who trusted in
him. These are the facts assumed throughout in the
VOL. IV.-C
“undoubted" Pauline epistles. We have other litera-
d |ture bearing the name of Paul, other letters purport-
ing to come from other apostles, and five books of a
historical character, telling the story of this same Jesus
Christ whom Paul preached, one of them narrating the
early efforts of the preachers. The question then
arises: Are these books what they purport to be? or
can we account for them as forgeries or as later
“manipulations” of earlier (and truer) documents?
The latter view is suggested again and again in the
BRITANNICA; the former has all the positive evidence
to support it. Moreover, when the leading, Pauline
epistles have been accepted, the rejection of the other
New Testament writings cannot be readily justified.
(1) If any books, the Gospels for example, are objected
to because they contain statements that imply the ex-
ercise of supernatural power by Jesus Christ and his
apostles, then the Pauline epistles are open to the same
objection. But these epistles cannot be denied , hence
a book is not necessarily spurious or “manipulated ''
if it narrates miracles. Yet many of the historico-
critical school argue for the later origin of the Gospels
on the assumption just stated. (2) Since the un-
doubted Pauline epistles prove the existence of a
widespread belief in Jesus Christ as early as A. D. 58,
it is exceedingly probable that other Christian litera-
ture would soon be penned. The belief in Christ was
of such a character that it would be impossible to leave
the story unrecorded. (3) The only records that have
come down with any claim to historical accuracy are
those included in the New Testament. In fact there
is no proof that any books were written in the first
century, other than the four canonical Gospels, that at-
tempted to narrate the history of Jesus Christ. It
has often been assumed and asserted that many such
3ospels existed, but there is no proof of it. Those who
believed in Jesus Christ as Paul did would desire some
succinct and truthful records, and when such records
were made they would be carefully preserved. Luke,
it is true, refers to “many ” who had made attempts
to write on this subject (i. 1), but his language does
not imply that these writings were full histories. He
rather suggests that they were unsatisfactory. At all
events we have no material of any consequence outside
the canonical New Testament respecting the history
of Jesus Christ, and no positive evidence exists that
any full accounts were written at the same time with
our canonical Gospels. It seems certain that some
Gospel histories would be written, since the belief in
Jesus Christ was so widespread. From the earliest
times these four canonical Gospels have been accepted
as veritable histories of the person in whom Christians
believed. (See below.)
3. The twenty-seven books constituting the New
Testament were all written in the first century, between
A. D. 53 and 97. The minor details of date and order
are open to doubt; but the repeated attempts to prove
that some of the books were written in the second
century have utterly failed. The evidence in favor of
the earlier date, always strong, has been augmented
during this generation. The probable chronological
order of the books is as follows:
A. D. 53–58; Pauline Epistles, first group (1 and 2
Thessalonians, Galatians, l and 2 Corinthians, Ro-
mans). r -
A. D. 61–64: Pauline Epistles, second group
(Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, Philippians).
A. D. 60–70 : Matthew, Mark, Luke, Acts, James,
1 Peter.
Uncertain date, but before A. D. 67 : 1 Timothy,
Titus, 2 Timothy, Hebrews, 2 Peter, Jude.
Toward the close of the century : Gospel of John,
Epistles of John and Revelation (an º: date for
the last is assigned by many).
The points open to discussion respecting the time
of composition are treated of in the articles upon the
several books. The genuineness of the epistles may
be accepted as established, since the most serious ob
34 NEW TESTAMENT,
lººtions raised against the Pastoral epistles and 2
Peter have been repeatedly answered. (See articles
PASTORAL EPISTLEs and PETER.) The important
Questions respecting the Apocalypse are fully dis-
cussed in the article REVELATION. But the most per-
Slºtent attacks have been made upon the genuineness
ºf the four Gospels. While Dr. E. A. Abbott, in the
BRITANNICA, has given an elaborate statement of many
of the questions respecting the Gospels, the positions
taken are far from satisfactory, and the evidence pre-
sented is not çonvincing. . It is, therefore, necessary to
iscuss more fully the origin of the Gospels.
4. The four canonical Gospels are all of them gen-
uine, that is, the work of their reputed authors.
Despite, the common matter found in three of them,
these , three (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are in all
probability independent of each other (in a literary
sense), the common matter being derived from the
substance of the oral preaching of the apostles and
early disciples. The positions of Dr. Abbott, to which
most serious exceptions must be taken, are : (1) his
theory of the origin of the synoptic Gospels; (2) his
denial of the genuineness of the Fourth Gospel.
5. The origin and relation of the synoptic Gospels.
The problem has been discussed most vigorously, but
is still far from a satisfactory solution on any theory
other than that of independence. It still seems most
probable (as Canon Westcott, Godet, and others hold)
that no one of these three writers borrowed matter
from the Gospel written by either of the others. It
is not probable that any one of them ever saw the
work of the other. There is no internal evidence of
any one of them having written (or modified) his nar-
rative to supplement, correct, or adapt the work of an-
other. Nor can the theory of a common document as
the basis of all three be established. Dr. Abbott
“passes his pen through all that is not common to the
three synoptists, and offers us the residuum as the
closest approximation we possess to the original narra-
tive from which each of the three was derived '' (Dod's
Introd. to the New Testament). The same theory has
been most beautifully illustrated in a printed edition
of the Greek Testament, called Synopticon, of which
Dr. Abbott is one of the editors. But a careful study,
with this convenient help, does not convince the writer
that we are thus brought nearer to the original source
of the narrative. It is true, and has long been re-
marked, that the Gospel of Mark bears greater evi-
dence of originality than either of the others, and that
were there an original Gospel as a common basis of all
three, Mark most nearly represents that original. But
further than this we can scarcely go, nor is there any-
thing to be gained by going further. Either our canoni-
cal Gospels are true or they are full of later additions.
As a literary problem we may discuss the literary origin
of the different forms of the same story as recorded by
two or more of the evangelists. But the unfairness
of most of the critics consists in this, that they suggest
and imply what they will not assert. They claim that
the discussion is a purely literary one, and presently
we discover that it is a historical one. The truthful-
ness of the various narratives is assailed under cover
of a literary problem. The Tübingen School was en-
tirely honest in its attitude. It attel ºpted to solve the
literary problem by a certain historical theory (Tendenz-
theorie), to the effect that there were two opposing
arties in the early Christian Church, and that the
ospels arose in the second century, as the result of
these conflicts and attendant compromises. This theory
has been disproved; all more recently discovered evi-
dence controverts it, though much deference is paid to
it in some of the articles in the BRITANNICA. The
resent “critical” school does not accept this theory,
ut seeks to discover the original, histºrical basis of the
Gospels. Sometimes this is done without denying the
truthfulness of our Gospels, but oftener it is implied
that all the matter which cannot be traced to some as-
sumed “original source” is less trustworthy. Against
the entire method it may be urged that no positive re.
sults have yet been firmly established, despite the im-
mense amount of labor bestowed upon the problem.
Twenty distinct theories could be cited, each differing
from the others, and some of them destructive of each
other. ... For example, Meyer and Weiss, two of the
most distinguished German commentators, agreeing in
many respects, differ in regard to the relation of the
Synoptic Gospels, Meyer holding Mark to be the ear-
lier, Weiss stoutly contending for Matthew, while they
differ as to the “original source” lying back of the
Synoptists. Weiss accepts a large amount of narra-
tive matter in the “apostolic source” which he as-
Sumes to lie back of the Gospel of Matthew. To this
Meyer responds in substance: “If there is so much
narrative, why not accept the Gospel of Matthew
itself as the original source?” Indeed the attempt to
separate the discourses '' from the history can only
prove a sorry failure; many of the most striking say-
ings derive their pertinence from the occasion (often a
miracle) that suggested them. The height of absurdity
was reached in this discussion by Ewald, who, in his
analysis, finds ten distinct books, seven of them going
to make up in differing combinations the three synop-
tical Gospels. . It is, of course, an interesting literary
problem, and in discussing it there is room for great
ingenuity. But thus far one man's guess has proved
as good as another's.
In order to find room for all this literary develop-
ment it is necessary to place the date of writing at a
time which, on other grounds, seems too late. The
three synoptical Gospels bear every mark of having
been written before the destruction of Jerusalem
(A. D. 70). Dr. Abbott makes a labored plea for a
later date in the case of Luke. But the only argu-
ment of any special force is that from Luke's specific
references to the details of the destruction of Jerusa-
lem (chaps. xix. 43; xxi. 24). It is urged that such
plain statements could have been written only after
the event. That amounts to this position : because
Luke represents Jesus Christ as making a distinct
prediction which was speedily fulfilled, Jesus Christ
did not make the prediction, but Luke invented it and
put it in his mouth. Unfortunately Dr. Abbott is not
alone in arguing upon such an assumption. But it is
clear from the Book of Acts that the Gospel of Luke
was written as “a former treatise ’’ (Acts i. 1). The
narrative in the Book of the Acts closes with A. D. 63.
It is natural to infer that the date of the second treatise
was near that time. Furthermore, Luke was with
Paul at Caesarea during the years 59, 60. Whai
more natural than to suppose that during this time he
collected the material for his Gospel, since he refers
to his labors in discovering the facts (Luke i. 3).” It
is exceedingly improbable that ten years would elapse
before he published these facts. It is therefore likely
that all three Gospels had been penned by the close
of A. D. 63. There is not sufficient time for editin
and manipulating “original sources” in the interva
between the death of Christ and this date.
The recently discovered evidence, moreover, con-
firms the early date of the Gospels. Not only is it
now established that the Epistle of Barnabas expressly
cites the Gospel of Matthew, but the Teaching of the
Twelve Apostles again and again uses the language of
that Gospel, and in some cases seems plainly to refer
to that of Luke. This document, lost for many cen-
turies, was written about A. D. 120. It was discovered
in 1873, but not published until 1883. In the same
collection of MSS. the entire Homily (miscalled 2
Clement) was discovered. In this sermon the preacher
refers to the New Testament Scriptures as Tā Āóyta Tow
Öeoû (chap. xiv.). Now the date of this homily is be-
tween A. D. 120 and 140. By that time clearly the
Gospels were read in Christian assemblies as Sacred
Scriptures. Papias has referred to Matthew as writing
“Logia,” and it has been stoutly affirmed by some
critics that this term can only mean discourses,” and
NEW TESTAMENT.
9 :
Cºo
cannot mean a gospel like ours, Yet the same term is
used by, a contemporary of Papias in the technical
sense of Scripture, as indeed was done by Paul in
Rom. iii. 2. We may add that these recent discov-
eries of Christian literature written in the early part of
the second century go far to establish the impossibility
of any author in that age having the ability to write
(or even edit) our Gospels. All this makes against
the theories which find in the synoptic Gospels matter
added or modified by later hands using a common
original source.
The results of textual criticism come in as corrobo-
rative evidence (see below, II.). We now know from
most abundant manuscript authority just how much
of alteration has taken place in the New Testament
text during eighteen centuries. In the Gospels the
various readings are most numerous. But all the
variations in all the Gospels taken together do not con-
stitute a sufficient amount of variation to account for
the differences between the synoptic narratives in a
single chapter. When once the Christians accepted
these books they were carefully preserved from modi-
fication. How unlikely it is that there was some older
Gospel (truer than these, as is assumed) which, in-
stead of being carefully preserved, was edited by
various hands and the results palmed on the Christian
people as the work of the reputed authors? If for
eighteen centuries believers have been careful of the
Gospel records, the earliest believers would not be
less so in the care of an original Gospel. Hence it is
not probable that any original Gospel other than ours
ever existed and obtained currency. The early age of
the synoptic Gospels is more fully established now
than ever before, and the earlier the date of composi-
tion the more probable is their literary independence.
The arguments against their truthfulness from alleged
discrepancies need scarcely be considered here. No
greater divergence in testimony exists than might be
expected from the different purpose, point of view,
and emphasis. Absolute contradictions cannot be said
to exist. It is true there remains an unsolved diffi-
culty in regard to the original language of the Gospel
of Matthew. The constant early tradition states that
it was first written in Hebrew ; but only the present
Greek Gospel is cited by the same witnesses, and there
are marks of its being an original Greek work. The
tendency now is to accept our Gospel as the Greek
9riginal, but the theory of a Hebrew original trans-
lated by Matthew himself would account for the two
classes of facts indicated above. Such a theory is far
more probable than most of the solutions of the
Synoptic problem.
6. The Genuineness of the Fourth Gospel.—Dr. Ab-
bott doubts or denies that the apostle John was the
author of the Gospel bearing his name. (In the arti.
cle REVELATION will be found a discussion of the ob.
jections arising from the differences of style and lan-
flºº between this Gospel and the Apocalypse.) To
eny the genuineness of this Gospel is a much
more serious matter than to hold certain literary and
ºritical yiews of the origin of the synoptic Gospels.
Those Gospels do not assert their authors and author.
{ty;, the Fourth Gospel expressly claims to be written
by the beloved disciple, and frequently makes state-
ments and explanations with apostolic authority. The
alternative here, at all events, is : Is this book genuine
ºls iſ a forgery 2 As Dr. Abbott has stated very
fully his objections to the Johannean authorship, the
other side must now be given.
A. External Evidence—The testimony is not only
unbroken, but more abundant and positive than in the
9ase of the synoptic Gospels, Nor are we without
ºf additions to this evidence. It was long known
that Tatian (died A. D. 172) wrote a Harmony of Four
ospels,(Diatessaron) between 153 and iio But as
the work was lost, it could not be proven that he used
the Gospel of John. Recently the discovery of an
Armenian translation of a commentary upon it by
Ephraim the Syrian makes it certain that he used our
four Gospels. (The Armenian work was translated
into Latin in 1841, but escaped general notice until
1876. Since that date the text of Tatian's Harmony
has been largely reconstructed from it.) Shortly after
the middle of the second century the four Gospels
were so widely known and accepted by Christians that
a harmony of the four narratives was prepared. This
proves that all four had been received for some time.
Indeed, there are no indications of any serious objec-
tions to the Johannean authorship of the Fourth Gos-
pel in the second century. The Alogi were a handful
of eccentric persons with extravagant views about the
New Testament, and their doubts have no weight
whatever. The testimony of Irenaeus (Bishop of
Lyons, A. D. 178) is specific and ample as to the Johan-
nean authorship and general acceptance. It would
seem probable, therefore, that a book accepted as the
work of the apostle John by Tatian (between 150 and
170) would be known to Justin Martyr, who was the
teacher of Tatian. The interval of time between the
Apology of Justin (A. D. 138–147) and the Diatessaron
of Tatian is not long. At the date of the latter the
Gospel of John was everywhere accepted. How
could a forgery have gained currency between the date
of Justin's Apology and the appearance of the Dia-
tessaron 3 Dr. E. A. Abbott, in the BRITANNICA,
makes a full and plausible argument against Justin's
knowledge and use of the Gospel of John. But Prof.
Ezra Abbot, the distinguished Unitarian Biblical
Scholar in Harvard University, published as his last
work a small volume on The Authorship of the Fourth
Gospel: External Evidences, which fully, fairly, and
with an affluence of citation, answers every objection
raised in the BRITANNICA. The argument cannot be
given in detail, but as this most valuable and learned
monograph is not properly known, it is well to cite in
full the summing up of the case respecting Justin
Martyr's knowledge of this Gospel. “We find,”
Prof. Ezra Abbot says, “ (1) That the general reception
of our Four Gospels as sacred books throughout the
Christian world in the time of Irenaeus makes it almost
certain that the . Memoirs called Gospels, composed
by Apostles and their companions,' which were used by
his early contemporary, Justin Martyr, and were read in
the Christian churches of his day as the authoritative
records of Christ's life and teaching, were the same
books; (2) That this presumption is confirmed by the
actual, use which Justin made of all our Gospels,
though he has mainly followed, as was natural, the
Gospel of Matthew, and his direct citations from the
Gospel of John, and references to it, are few; (3) That
it is still further strengthened, in respect to the Gospel
of John, by the evidence of its use between the time
9f Justin and that of Irenaeus, both by the Catholic
Christians and the Gnostics, and especially by its in-
clusion in Tatian's Diatessaron; (4) That of the two
principal assumptions on which the counter-argument is
founded, one [that Justin's description of the manner
of the teaching of Jesus shows that he did not know
the Fourth Gospel] is demonstrably false, and the other
that if he used it at all he would have used it more]
aseless; and (5) That the particular objections to the
View that Justin, included the Gospel of John in his
. Memoirs' are of very little weight. We are author.
ized then, I believe, to regard it in the highest degree
º if not morally certain, that in the time of
ustin Martyr the Fourth Gospel was generally re-
ceived as the work of the apostle John ” (Author-
ship, etc., pp. 79, 80). The learning of Ezra Abbot
is eyinced in his treatment of this question; his can.
dor is transparent, and of theological bias there could
be no suspicion in his case.
. But it can be claimed that the Gnostic sects flourish-
ing during the lifetime of Justin Martyr accepted
and used the Fourth Gospel as the work of the apos-
tle John. The evidence from Hippolytus seems quite
clear that Basilides and Valentinus before the middle
36
NEW TESTAMENT.
of the second century used this Gospel without ques-
tion. As it was an armory of attack for their ortho-
dox opponents, the fact that they did not deny its au-
thority seems conclusive against every attempt to prove
a later origin than the apostolic age. Were it forged
or altered to sustain orthodoxy, these heretics would
have so asserted. Furthermore the development of
heresies (or even differences of opinion) requires time.
Since these Gnostics used the Gospel of John without
Question as well as their opponents, at no time during
the development of this difference could a spurious
Gospel have been palmed off as written by John. In
view of this it is impossible to date the Gospel in the
Second century. Those who will not accept it as genu-
ine still claim as late a date as A. D. 110 or l 15, but
with no positive evidence to support this view, and
without being able to find any one who could have
written such a work. But suppose it were written
(that is, forged) in A. D. 115. There were probably
thousands of Christians then living who had known
the apostle John. How could a forgery at that time
have obtained universal acceptance? In Ephesus, a
great commercial city, where John had been living,
some one would have detected the fraud. Only when
we can believe that the Christians of that age were as
credulous in their faith as the modern opponents of
this Gospel are credulous in their unbelief, can we re-
gard such a date for the Gospel as in the slightest de-
gree probable. Prof. Ezra Abbot calls attention to
some of the closing words of the Fourth Gospel (“and
we know that his testimony is true '’) as containing an
“attestation to the truth and genuineness of the Gos-
pel.” Such an attestation would never have been ap-
pended to a forged document.
B. Internal Evidence.—Here we are confronted
even more directly with the alternative, truth or fraud.
The moral tone of the Gospel is such that a forgery
seems a psychological monstrosity. Yet the author so
describes himself, without any immodesty or self-as-
sertion, as to convey everywhere the impression that
he was “the beloved disciple.” The objections raised
from the assumed contradictions to the Synoptic nar-
ratives have been repeatedly answered. .
The positive internal evidence is derived, (1) from
the style, which points to the author as a Hebrew Jew
(not a Hellenist) who was yet familiar with the Greek
language from long residence in a city where that lan-
guage was spoken. The simple structure also points to
an aged man. There is no one who so well suits these
indications as the apostle John. . . * @
(2) That the author had lived in Palestine is also
evident from many local allusions, and from the fa-
miliarity with Jewish usages. It has been objected (by
Matthew Arnold among others) that he refers to these
matters as a foreigner might do. But the Gospel, it
is claimed by all, was written after the destruction of
Jerusalem, when Jewish usage was comparatively un-
known in Asia Minor, and explanation was required.
The knowledge of Jewish affairs in the time of Christ,
evinced by the author, is strikingly minute. *
(3) The evidence that the author was an eye-wit-
ness of many of the events he records is obvious even
to a careless reader of the Gospel. He refers to per-
sons, what each one said, as the synoptists do not.
Weli-nigh every chapter contains some mark that sug-
gests the presence of the author. Not only so, but hº
speaks of himself as present, claims especially to, tell
what he has seen. “Here we are driven to the alter-
native; either the writer was a true witness of what
he relates, or he was a false witness who wrote down a
deliberate lie” (Schaff). - &
(4) The writer intimates again and again that he
was one of the Twelve. He tells what the others said,
naming one and another. He modestly cºnceal; his
own name, but in so doing all the more conclusively re-
veals his own person. It can scarcely be denied that
the author meant to convey the impression that he was
the apostle John. Moreover, the explanations he in-
serts, the tone of authority he sometimes assumes, go
to show that the author knew himself to be (without
proving it) one who was recognized as entitled to speak
in this way. The probability that any one could have
thus successfully personated the apostle in a literary
forgery is very small ; that any one in the first quarter
of the second century could have done it would seem
impossible save to those who have prejudged the case.
The argument from internal evidence may be closed
by a citation from Pres, T. W. Dwight (Godet's Com.
ºnentary, ºn the Gospel of John, Amer, ed., pp. 511,
512): “There is no ğ that the author of this Gos-
pel penetrated in his thought into the centre of the
Christian system, as it has been understood by the
church. The question of the authorship becomes,
therefore, one of gravest importance. If the author
was that most intimate disciple of Jesus of whom the
book speaks so frequently, he gained his conception of
Christ and the new faith from the Lord himself, and
could not be mistaken. His book is the flower and
consummation of the apostolic thought. It is in the
truest and highest sense inspired of God. The at-
tempt to deny the system is a hopeless one, so soon as
this Gospel is established on a firm foundation. In
view of this fact, it may well seem divinely ordered
that the book should stand in the world as it has ever
done, bearing within itself its own evidence. The
writer of it, in addressing the readers for whom his
first Epistle was intended, says that he writes that which
he has seen and heard, in order that they may have fel-
lowship, as he himself has, with the Father and with his
Son Jesus Christ. It is a wonderful fact in the history
of the centuries which have passed since he wrote, that
those who have been persuaded by his story to believe
and who have been conscious, as the result of their
faith, that they had fellowship with God, have had an
abiding confidence that he º of what he had heard
and seen, and that it is those who have rejected the doc-
trine and the peculiar life, who have questioned the re-
ality of the author's experience as the disciple whom
Jesus loved. The past may give us confidence in the
future ; and we may safely predict that, until the in-
ner life of the author ceases to bear this witness, he
and his Gospel will be among the unshaken pillars of
the church.”
7. The Acts of the Apostles.—That this book was
written by Luke, the companion of Paul, is suggested
by internal evidence, and has been supported by ex-
ternal evidence from the earliest times. But the Tii-
bingen school assumed to find in it irreconcilable dif-
ferences with the four Epistles of Paul they accepted
as genuine. This was necessary for their theory. But
many of their arguments rest upon false exegesis, and
few scholars now accept their extreme conclusions.
Still in the BRITANNICA there are suggestions made
casting doubt upon the historical verity of the nar-
rative. Here, as in the case of the Gospels, a “patch-
work '' theory of the origin of the i. has been ac-
cepted by many critics. Some parts, e. g., the Sections
where “we” is used, were written by Luke, but the
book has been edited by a later hand in the Second cen-
tury. It contains a basis of truth, but is not all of
it historical.
But the clumsiness of this theory is apparent even
to Renan. If the integrity of the book *. accepted,
the whole of it must be ascribed to Luke. The date
would seem to be not much later than A. D. 63, at
which time the narrative ends, somewhat abruptly.
The positive proofs of the authenticity of the entire
narrative are very strong. No other historical book of
the New Testament touches upon so many points where
verification from other sources is possible. The titles
applied to magistrates in the different cities, the topo-
graphical allusions, the hints of local usage, the itinera-
ries—all these in hundreds of instances have been
proven accurate, even when imperfect knowledge had
previously indicated that the author had made a mis-
take. (In Schaft's History of the Christian Church,
NEW TESTAMENT.
37
Vol. I., pp. 732–736, fourteen of these confirmatory
facts are discussed.)
Objections have been raised to the reports of the
discourses recorded in this book. But a careful com-
parison of the speeches of Peter and Paul respectively
with the writing of these apostles confirms the ag-
curacy of the author of the Acts. Indeed the investi-
gations have gone further: it has been shown that the
different discourses attributed to Paul give evidence in
style of the presence and absence of Luke, of the cir-
cumstances connected with their delivery as stated in
the Acts. ... Objection has been made to the substance
of these discourses, as indicating a “purpose’’ in the
author who records them. This is an echo of the Tü-
bingen theory. The entire narrative has such marks of
candor that it seems psychologically impossible for the
author to have distorted the language of the apostles
to serve his own theological or literary purpose. ‘’ Ex-
amine and compare the secular historians from Herod-
otus to Macaulay, and the church historians from Eu-
sebius to Neander, and Luke need not fear a comparison.
No history of thirty years has ever been written so
truthful and impartial, so important and interesting,
so healthy in tone and hopeful in spirit, so aggressive
and yet so genial, so cheering and inspiring, so replete
with lessons of wisdom and encouragement for work
in spreading the gospel of truth and peace, and yet
withal so simple and modest, as the Acts of the Apos-
tles. It is the best as well as the first manual of
church history '' (Schaff, ibid., p. 739).
8. Comparison with the Literature of the sub-Apos-
tolic Age.—Accepting as proven the genuineness of
the twenty-seven books constituting the New Testa-
ment, we may call attention to the facts respecting the
Christian literature of the succeeding age. The addi-
tions to this literature recently discovered have already
been referred to. One and all of the Christian writings
of the generation succeeding the apostles fall immeas-
urably below the New Testament literature. That
Some of the former were highly esteemed for a time
in the Christian Church is well known, but they were
never exalted to a level with the New Testament by
any formal act or by general consent. So soon as
controversy arose and the question of authoritative
Writings was considered, the canon of the New Testa-
ment was formed, and with little difficulty (see article
CANON). But the fact on which emphasis must be
put is this : that there is an obvious descent from the
New Testament to the apostolic fathers, that no one
in the first half of the second century appears as an
author capable of writing any of the books of the New
Testament. While each age of the church rightly
reviews the whole question of the origin and authority
of the New Testament books, added to the historical
evidence there is this obvious difference in the litera-
ture to give internal attestation. The proof of the ex-
istence of the sun is its shining ; the New Testament
shines by its own light.
:1. The Preservation of the New Testament Tact.—
This study is called "textual criticism,” in distinction
from the “higher criticism.” . Both are necessary, but
they differ in their aim. The higher criticism discusses
the origin of the books, the lower (or textual) criticism
seeks only to discover a pure and entire text. Hence
it deals only with positive evidence, allows no conject.
ural ºmendation, and never impugns the authority of
A book, questioning only whether the very words have
been preserved uncorrupted. As is well known the
$ºurces for determining the exact words of the New
Testament are vastly better than in the case of any
other bºok. The very extent of our authorities has
multiplied minor variations; yet despite all this, the
number of various readings is not proportionately so
8'ºt as in the works of some classical authors of
Which few manuscripts exist. -
The subject of New Testament textual criticism
has been treated by Prof. W. Robertson Smith in
the BRITANNICA (article Bible); but during the years
since that volume was published there has been a
remarkable advance in this science. A few old manu-
scripts have been discovered (notably Codex Rossan-
ensis), but the main progress has been in the recogni-
tion of correct principles. The discovery of Aleph
by Tischendorf and the publication of B (Vaticanus)
at Rome virtually revolutionized the entire estimate of
manuscript authority. When Prof. W. Robertson
Smith wrote, the effect of the use of these two manu-
scripts had not yet been fully manifest. The publica-
tion of the Greek Testament of Westcott and Hort
and of the Revised English version of the New Testa-
ment (in 1881) mark the great advance. We may add
that the Prolegomena to Tischendorf's Greek Testament
have been edited by Prof. C. R. Gregory (now of
Leipsic), the first part appearing in 1884. The Re-
vised version conveys to the general reader the results
obtained by the textual critics who have published the
learned works just named. The principles and results
may be briefly stated.
The Principles of Tectual Criticism.—It has long
been seen that the ancient authorities represent
three groups of evidence : one from Alexandria,
the second from the Western Church, and the third
coming to us from Constantinople. The first seems
to be the purest, the second is full of minor varia-
tions (in both Greek and Latin), but very valuable
as indicating the origin of various readings. The
third (called Byzantine, Constantinopolitan, and, in
its older forms, Antiochian and Syrian) seems to have
undergone more changes, owing to the attempts at
harmonizing, smoothing, and polishing the text. The
modern school of textual critics agree in giving' more
weight to the oldest manuscripts, and also in attempt-
ing a classification (or genealogy) of the various forms
of the text. On this theory of evidence the immense
number of later cursive manuscripts loses its weight.
It is further agreed that each variation must be sepa-
rately discussed, and that only when the authorities are
nearly of the same weight should internal grounds be
considered.
But Westcott and Hort have developed a fuller
theory. They accept four groups, one named by them
“neutral,” representing the earliest form of tran-
scribed text accessible to us. The chief authority in
this group they claim is the Codec Vaticanus (B).
They also accept the view that the Syrian text is later
than the others, having undergone a revision in the
third century. Hence that it is of little value when
not agreeing with any of the others, but very useful
in enabling us to choose between variations in the pre-
Syrian texts. Practically their theory makes B out-
weigh all other authorities, and their Greek Testa-
ment rarely omits to notice the readings of B, even
when they are not placed in the text. The views of
Westcott and Hort have been strongly opposed, and
the two weak points (a neutral group, and a Syrian
revision) have been objected to by those who accept in
the main the practical results of their labors. On the
other hand Tischendorf, while presenting a text nearly
.."; with Westcott and Hort, is too apt to follow
Aleph (his own discovery), and in the Gospels to adopt
readings that differ from the parallel passages. Yet
Tregelles, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, with most
modern scholars, are in substantial agreement as to the
defects of the received text and the weight of the
older authorities.
The Revised Version does not follow any one of these
editors. The questions of text were discussed in both
the English and American companies, only so far as
they could affect the English rendering. No attempt
Was made to revise the Greek text as such ; but the
Revised. New Testament, as may readily be seen,
accepts in the main the judgment of the textual
critics named above. It is probably nearer to Tregelles
than to Tischendorf, and nearer to Westcott and Hort,
though often dissenting from the latter. Moré
remains to be done ; yet there can be no question
38
NEWTON.—NEW YORK,
that there is now greater agreement among experts in
this department than ever before. It is quite signifi-
°unt that recent German scholars have recognized the
great Value of the text of Westcott and Hört. The
$9-called conservative School of critics, who uphold the
Syrian text, often urging that it has been endeared to
$9 many generations of Christian people, must neces.
Sarily fight a losing battle. The modern textual critics
* not, attempting to do anything else than to restore
the ipsissima verba of the word of God.
Conclusion.—The great progress in textual criticism,
far from Weakening our confidence in the New Testa.
ment, confirms it. (1) The positive evidence of the
care bestowed upon the text and its substantial purity
show that we can trust it as we can no other ancient
literature. (2) The number of variations has helped,
not hindered, the establishment of a correct text on
adequate, evidence. (3) The spirit in which textual
“riticism has been conducted is in sharp contrast with
the wild theories of the “higher criticism.” The
former has been investigated in a purely scientific,
yet reverent, method. (4) The Christian public has
Q9t yet accepted the results as embodied in the Revised
New Testament. But this should not be regarded as
Giscºuraging. It was several centuries before English
Biblical scholars dared to question the accuracy of the
so-called Received Text (Stephens, 1550).
A long process of education as to the basis of the
correct text will be required for the general Christian
public. That the truth will ultimately win we cannot
doubt, especially in view of the present movement to.
Ward popular study of the Bible. M. B. R.)
NEWTON, John, engineer and general, was born
at Norfolk, Va., Aug. 24, 1823. e graduated at
West Point in 1842 and entered the U. S. engineers.
He was engaged chiefly in the construction of fortifica-
tions on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts until the outbreak
of the civil war. In 1861 he was chief engineer of the
departments of Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah
until August, when he was made brigadier-general of
Volunteers and commanded the defences of Washing-
ton. In McClellan's Peninsular campaign Gen. New-
ton was engaged at Gaines' Mills and Glendale, and
afterwards at South Mountain and Antietam. At
Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, 1862, he commanded a divi-
sion, and in March, 1863, was promoted major-general.
During the battle of Chancellorsville he stormed
Marye Heights, May 3, 1863. At Gettysburg he suc-
ceeded to the command of the First corps, July 2,
1863, which he held until March, 1864, when he was
transferred to Gen. Sherman's command. He took
part in the Atlanta campaign, and afterwards held
commands in Florida until 1866, when on the reduction
of the army he returned to the engineer corps with the
rank of lieutenant-colonel. He became colonel in 1879
and chief of engineers in 1884. Among the important
works conducted by him were the removal of the ob-
structions at Hell Gate and other points on East River,
the improvement of Hudson River, and of the channel
between Staten Island and New Jersey (See HELL
GATE IMPROVEMENTs). The final explosion at Flood
Rock took place Oct. 10, 1885, and thereafter Gen.
ewton was engaged in improvements of the channels
around New York until his retirement on Aug. 27,
1886. A year later he was appointed commissioner
of public works in New York city. º
NEW YORK. This State, by its population and
wealth, still justifies its claim to the
See.." *Y. title of the “Empire State.” The last
Äm º j federal census shows, that having a
* -º- w w i. z º. 7 º' opulation of 5,082,871, it º:
Pennsylvania (d. second State) by 799,980, and Ohio
(the third State) by 1,884,809. It is entitled to .34
members of the U. S. House of Representatives. To-
gether with, Vermont and Connecticut it forms the
second judicial circuit of the United States; and it is
itself divided into southern, northern, and eastern judi-
cial districts of the same court. There is a U. S.
marshal and a district attorney for each judicial dis-
trict.
The first governors entered upon their office on July
1st following their election ; - *
but since 1823 the date has
been Jan. 1. The term of
office was two years down
to 1879, since which date
the term has been three
years. The lieutenant-gov-
ernors have been chosen at
the same elections with the
governors, and their terms
of office have been the same
as those of the governors. - -
Every alternate year the following State officers are
elected by the people : comptroller, treasurer, attorney-
general, secretary of state, and State engineer and
surveyor. The Secretary of state keeps the State
archives, and is custodian of the great seal of the
State, which (by recent enactment, 1883) has been
carefully defined. .
Finances.—The report of the State treasurer for 1888
showed that there was a balance of $3,378,540.36 in
the treasury, Jan. 1, 1888. The following table shows
the receipts and disbursements for the fiscal year end-
ing Oct. 1, 1887:
Receipts. Payments.
General fund.................. $9,526,251.9l $8,599,886.10
Common school fund....... 298,084.80 254,519.16
College land scrip fund... 21,439.07 3,569,827.49
Literature fund ............. 313,766.32 310,554.51
Military record fund........ 2,881.73 344,023.85
U. S. deposit fund............ 358,727.80 19,327.63
Free school fund. ........... 3,717,749,68 1,574.71
Canal fund..................... 3,590,523.80 3,671,735.53
Woman’s monument fund. 42.00
Total.................... $17,829,467.11 $16,771,448.98
There was received from the earnings of the State
prisons during the year, $1,111,823.59; State tax,
$5,805,400.78; tax on organization of corporations,
$201,663.99; corporation tax, $1,239,864. 16.
The comptroller valued the investments at the close
of the fiscal year as follows: common school fund,
$3,930,657.39; U. S. deposit fund, $4,017,220.71 ;
literature fund, $284,201.30; college land scrip fund,
$474,409. 12; canal debt sinking fund, $4,061,188.84.
Total, $12,767,677.36. Recent laws have authorized
the investment of the money of various State funds
in the public securities of the villages, towns, cities,
and counties of this State. The wider range of
investments thus Sanctioned has made it practica-
ble to secure substantially better rates of interest than
could otherwise have been obtained. At the same
time the use of these moneys in the discriminat-
ing purchase of local securities has inured to the ben-
efit of thriving and solvent cities and villages. For
1888 the State tax is $9,075,046.08, the rate being 21,
mills, and the valuation $3,361,128, 177, the tax to be
devoted as follows: School purposes, $3,697,240.99;
canals, including canal debt, $2,352,789.73; general
purposes, $3,025,015.36. Total, $9,075,046.08. The
direct school tax for 1887 produced $3,708,384.69. The
total expenditure from the State treasury for educa-
tional purposes was $4,152,874.65. The total expen-
diture, State and local, for the maintenance of schools
was $14,461,774,94. Setting aside the general fund debt
for Indian annuities, the principal of which amounts to
but $122,694.87, the gross State debt upon Sept. 30,
1887, was $7,444,310, of which sum $800,000 is the
amount outstanding of the debt created to provide for
the payment of the Niagara Reservation awards in 1885,
which mature at the rate of $100,000 per annum, The
remaining $6,644,310 is the canal debt, the last of which
matures in October, 1893, and which has been reduced
during the fiscal year by $1,660,200. The receipts

NEW YORK.
39
from taxes upon corporations have been somewhat re-
duced by smaller revenues from insurance companies.
A new law, imposing a tax of 5 per cent. upon, the
gross receipts for admission to race-tracks, brings about
$25,000 into the treasury, which amount is disbursed
by the State Agricultural Society in the form of prizes
for improving the breeds of cattle, sheep, and horses
at the various county fairs throughout the State.
The interest derived from State funds largely exceeds
$200,000. The prosperity indicated in State affairs and
the reduction of the indebtedness to so insignificant a
point have not been attained by any sacrifice of sub-
stantial interests, or by unduly withholding effort in
any direction. On the contrary the past four years
comprise a period of peculiar and wise liberality in
certain respects. The gross amount appropriated
from the general fund during those years for land pur-
chases and for construction of buildings exceeds
$8,500,000. This sum is the more notable as construc-
tion appropriations for the new capitol have been less
lately #. in former years, the amount for the four
years in question being $2,254,000. Of the remainder
$1,500,000 were expended in the purchase of the Ni-
agara Park Reservation. There remain, therefore,
$4,500,000 appropriated in four years to purchase land
or for construction for charitable, penal, military, edu-
cational and general purposes—canal construction and
purchases not being included in this enumeration.
Among the more important recent appropriations are :
$300,000 for a new asylum for insane criminals;
$190,000 for the Hudson River State Hospital (popularly
known as the Poughkeepsie Asylum); $190,000 for the
asylum just projected at Ogdensburg; $120,000 to re-
build the female department of the State Industrial
School at Rochester; $300,000 for State Prison repairs;
and $173,000 for additions to the Buffalo Asylum.
Expenditures of this sort are used to better advantage
than was true twenty or more years ago. Certain
charitable institutions then constructed represented an
outlay of from $2000 to $3500 for each inmate who
could be properly accommodated in them. Recently
similar institutions and buildings have been projected
or erected at a cost of from $320 to $800 for each in-
mate, the provision made in these latter instances being
more than equal to that furnished by the earlier insti-
tutions or edifices.
Assessment.—Since 1883 the assessment of real estate
has increased from $2,557,218,240 to $3,025,229,788 in
1887, or $468,011,548. Since 1883 the assessment of
personal estate has increased from $315,039,085 to
$335,898,389 in 1887, or $20,859,304. The valuation of
taxable property in 1867 was $1,664,107,725; the gross
valuation in 1887 was $3,361,128, 177—increase in 20
years, $1,697,020,452. The valuation of taxable per-
Sonal property in 1867 was $436,404,633; the valuation
in 1887 was $335,898,389—decrease in 20 years,
$100,506,244. The valuation of taxable real property
in 1867 was $1,237,703,092; the valuation in iss7 was
$3,025,229,788–increase in 20 years, $1,787,526,696.
The State tax levied for all purposes in is87 was
$12,647,218.71; in 1887 was $9,075,046.08—decrease
State tax in 20 years, $3,572,172.63. The total amount
of State taxes paid by the taxable property from isgi
to 1887, both inclusive, is about $224,000,000; the
total amount paid by personal property, $37,000,000–
taxes paid by real estate in 20 years, $187,000,000.
Average yearly State tax paid by the personal roperty
in 20 years 16.52 per cent. Average yearly State tax
paid by the real estate in 20 years 83.4s per cent.
Canals.-These important public works of the State
during the year 1887 had accommodated a tonnage over
3,533,805. For 1884 the tonnage was 5,009,488; 1885,
4,731,784; for 1886 it was 5,393,982. These figures
show that the canal System of the State still retains its
ºfulness. The tonnage for 1887 was composed as
follows: Forest products, 1,529,809; agricultural prod-
lºs, 1,590,509; manufactures, 212,216; merchandise,
378,734; other articles, 1,843,537. Of this total.
3,968,767 tons went east; and 1,585,038, tons went
west. The total tons carried by the several canals are
as follows: Erie, 3,840,513; Champlain, 1,229,335 ;
Black River, 111,847; Cayuga and Seneca, 195,933;
Oswego, 176,177. The Legislature of 1887 appropri-
ated $550,000 to double the capacity of the locks by
making each one as long again as it is at present. A
similar appropriation was passed in 1888. Six locks
on the Erie, near Syracuse, and two locks on the Os-
wego have been completed, and nearly all the rest are
i. contract. The original Erie Canal was com-
pleted in 1825, with a capacity for boats carrying 100
tons. Between 1836 and 1862 the prism was deepened
so as to allow the passage of boats carrying 240 tons.
The following canals, lateral to the Erie, were com;
pleted at the respective dates given : Cayuga and
Seneca, 1828; Oswego, 1828; Chemung, 1831;
Crooked Lake, 1833; Chenango, 1836; Black River,
1849; Oneida Lake, 1856; Genesee Valley, 1856.
Some of the lateral canals are now abandoned.
Railroads.-The railroads of New York are under
the supervision of a board of Railroad Commissioners,
created by a law of 1882. The commissioners are ap-
Fº by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate.
Much of the care and responsibility devolving upon
this board has been removed by the appointment of
U. S. Railroad Commissioners, under the Inter-State
Commerce law. The State board of New York has
paid particular attention to accidents. It finds that the
principal cause of death and injury to passengers was
getting on or off trains in motion, and was the result
of their own want of caution. Employés most fre-
quently met death by walking on the track. Experi-
ments were made with patent couplers so as to ensure
the safety of brakemen. The Legislature has not seen
fit to pass the recommendations of the board in favor
of crossings either above or below grade. Bridges
have been closely inspected by the board ; and atten-
tion has been called to the desirability of a uniform
code of rules and signals. The elevated railroads of
New York have voluntarily reduced their fares to 5
cents. On and after Nov. 1, 1888, it is required that
all cars shall be heated with steam from the engine,
and that stoves shall be no longer allowed.
The total number of miles of railroad track in New
York is 12,035; locomotives, 3972; passenger cars,
4486; freight cars, 148, 120; passengers carried,
81,463,709; passengers carried, reduced to a one-mile
uniformity, 1,839,734,634. Total stock and debts,
$59,535,294; earnings, $17,801,464; net earnings,
$4,242,279.
Banks,—The total amount on deposit Jan. 1, 1888,
was reported as follows: Savings banks, $590,458,751;
banks of discount and deposit, $193,324,267. ;
trust companies, $200,087,230.17; safe deposit
companies, $4,214,504.97. Total, $98S,084,753.14.
One hundred and twenty-five savings banks were in
existence Jan. 1, 1888, of which 7 were inactive. The
total amount of resources of the saving banks of the
State on the morning of Jan. 1, 1888, was $590,458,751;
Jan. 1, 1887, $56S,2S6,867; showing a net increase for
the year of $22,171, SS4. The increase during the year
1886 was $33,750,234, and during the year 1885 it was
28,609,137. On Jan. 1, 1878, the total amount of
resources of the savings banks of the State was
$346,726,202, showing a net increase in ten years of
$243,732,549. The total estimated value of real estate
held by savings banks of the State Jan. 1, 1888, was
$7,736,103. Of this amount $6,730,439 represented
the aggregate estimated value of bank buildings. The
remaining amount, $1,005,664, is the estimated value
of real estate which had been acquired under foreclos-
ure proceedings. On Jan. 1, 1888, the savings banks
held $5,776,048 in cash, and had $33,630,607 deposited
with State and national banks and trust companies in-
corporated under the laws of this State, making a total
of $39,406,650. On Jan. 1, 1887, it was $36,532,120,
indicating an increase of $2,774,530. The deposits
40
NEW YORK,
held by the savings banks of the State on Jan. 1, 1888,
amounted to $505,078,751. On Jan. 1, 1887, they
were $482,486,730, showing an increase during the
year of $22,531,921, which sum includes $16,731,002
of accumulated interest which was credited to deposi-
tors, leaving a net increase of deposits during the year
of $5,800,019. During the year is87 the savings banks
received $179,021,049 from depositors, and paid to
them $173,070,683. A constant effort is making to
enlarge the scope of investments for savings institu-
tions. In 1887 a law was passed changing the legal
status of building and loan associations and their mode
of doing, business. Among the amendments is one
which allows such associations to do a savings bank
business upon proper guarantees to the superintendent
of the banking department. The number of banks of
deposit and discount operated under the State laws is
greater at the present time than it has been at any
period subsequent to March 9, 1865, the date of the
passage by the Legislature of the act enabling the con-
version of State banks into national banks. Since Oct.
1, 1886, the unprecedented number of 16 new State
banks has been organized and entered upon active bus-
iness. On Oct. 1, 1887, the total of loans and discounts
in State banks was $115,042,599, out of the total
resources, $190,954,547. Among the liabilities were:
aggregate capital, $23,330,700; surplus, $7,484,780;
undivided profits, $6,831,848; due to depositors,
$139,035,151. During 1887 the aggregate resources
of the banks increased $11,707,273; the increase in
deposits was $8,618,499; in loans and discounts,
$4,502,888, and in capital, $1,235,000; the increase in
surplus fund was $839,188, and in undivided profits,
$788, 173; the increase in cash items was $6,332,801;
the amount due from directors increased $721,528 ;
overdrafts, $11,244; annount due from trust compa-
nies, State, national, and private banks and brokers,
$936,421, and U. S. legal-tender notes and circulating
notes of national banks, $488,876; the increase in
bonds and mortgages was $59,857, and in amount due
to trust companies, State, national, and private banks
and brokers, $129,433; in miscellaneous liabilities, not
classified, there was a net increase of $232,994, and in
loss and expense, $13,368. During 1887 the net de-
crease in specie was $869,968, and in stocks and bonds,
$408,898; the decrease in real estate was $17,492.
The amount due to the treasurer of the State of New
York decreased $21,674, and the amount due individ-
uals and corporations other than banks and depositors,
$114,333. The net increase in the capital stock of
banks, banking associations, and individual bankers was
$1,235,000. §: this amount $870,000 was capital of
new associations; $400,000 resulted from the increase
of the capital stock of the Bank of the State of New
York from $800,000 to $1,200,000.
Insurance.—A law of 1887 reduced the number of
poor co-operative and assessment life and casualty com-
panies, and thus improved the quality of those that
remained. It was also required that all fire policies
written in the State shall hereafter be of a uniform
style and printed in large type. For 1887 the net in-
crease in life companies was 81,372 in policies, and
$252,081,384 in insurance. The number of such com-
panies is 29, having assets, $595,679,478; reserve,
$516,966,750; surplus, $72,427,666. The number offi-
delity and casualty companies is 10; assets, $7,738,512;
reserve, $2,516,933; surplus, $1,162,130. The number
of co-operative companies is 171; assets, $10,829,468,
and total liabilities, $4,654,823. There are 166 fire
companies; assets, $207,159,925; surplus, $57,559,780.
The number of marine companies is 16, with aSSets,
$22,286,114; surplus, $14,250,457. A law of 1884 has
now become operative requiring that the standard for
the valuation of life policies and obligations shall be
the actuary, or combined experience table of mortality,
with interest at 4 per cent per annum. Companies
of other States are treated with the same measure that
they render to New York companies in their respective
States. Assessment associations are now required to
file their preliminary papers with the superintendent
of the insurance department. A comparison of the
business done in 1887 shows that the fire and marine
companies fell away nearly $1,400,000. The fire pre-
miums received were $18,425,955.69; fire losses paid,
$13,419,011.99 ; fire losses incurred, $13,937,470.98.
The estimated amount of expenses for the transaction
of this business is $5,527,786.72, which, if added to
the incurred losses, makes a total of $19,465,257.70,
showing as compared with the premium receipts an
apparent loss of $1,039,302.01.
Prisons.—Three prisons are in operation : Sing
Sing, having 1425 convicts in the year 1887; Auburn,
1 l l l ; and Dannemora, 760. Female convicts are sent
to the Several county penitentiaries. Under the con-
tract system (by which the labor of every convict
brought to the State an average of 40 cents per day)
the prisons had more than sustained themselves in the
years between 1881 and 1886. But since the passage
of the law abolishing contract labor there has been a
deficit—that for 1887 having been $60,049, and that
for 1888 being still greater. A commission appointed
in 1886 to investigate and recommend a substitute for
contract labor gave nothing practical in its report. In
the meantime the labor agitators had demanded still
further concessions, and the State account system (the
successor of the contract system) was also abolished.
Then it was enacted, at the extra session of the Legis-
lature of 1888, that no machinery whatever should be
used in the prisons, and that all the output should be
of articles and materials for use in the several institu-
tions of the State. This has resulted in the idleness
of thousands of the convicts.
Labor Matters.-In 1883 a bureau of the statistics
of labor was established under a commissioner who is
charged with the duty of collecting and presenting to
the Legislature statistical details as to strikes and all
other phases of labor, together with the cause of the
same. The later reports of the commissioner show
that strikes have diminished in number. In 1886
there was created a board of three commissioners of
mediation and arbitration to hear and consider appeals
from local boards, and to investigate such cases. The
board may subpoena witnesses, but it has no power to
decide a dispute. Still it is claimed that the board has
exercised a deterrent influence upon elements that
otherwise would have made much more of a disturb-
ance ; and to its action is attributed the decreased
number of strikes. In fact many of the difficulties
that arose were amicably settled between the em-
ployers and the employed after a brief hearing before
the board.
The civil service is in charge of a board of three com-
missioners. Elaborate reports have been made, but it
must be confessed that the reform cannot be carried on
until the board is made absolutely independent of the
Governor, at whose will each member retains his office.
Sanitary Affairs.--A State Board of Health has
been in existence since 1880. Great progress has been
made in examining the drainage and sewerage of un-
healthy localities; and also in applying Scientific prin-
ciples to the choice of water supplies. The advances
ºp cholera and yellow fever are closely watched by the
board. Many specimens of beer and adulterated food
and drugs have been analyzed and rºported as evidences
for prosecution before the law. The department re-
lating to vital statistics has been greatly improved and
every case of virulent or contagious disease has been
examined with care. It is recommended that the
Quarantine station, in New York harbor, be demol-
ished, and that the cottage plan be substituted.
Charitable Institutions.—The institutions subject to
the visitation of the State Board of Charities are as
follows: 1. Those established and conducted by the
State; 2. Those provided for and supported by coun-
ties and cities; and, 3. Those under the direction and
management of incorporated benevolent organizations.
NEW YORK.
41
The first comprises hospitals and asylums for,the in-
same, institutions for the blind, deaf and dumb, disa;
bled soldiers and sailors, idiotic and feeble-minded, and
houses of refuge and reformatories; the second,
county and city poor-houses and alms-houses, with
their infirmary and insane departments; and the third,
orphan asylums and homes for the friendless, and spe-
cial and general hospitals and dispensaries. The ad;
ministration of out-door medical and other poor relief
devolves upon the local officers of the poor of the
various counties, cities, and towns, and the expense
of this mode of relief is levied and raised by tax as:
sessed upon these localities. The appraised value of
the property held for charitable and correctional pur-
poses, Oct. 1, 1887, was $53,742,535.58 as against
$52,138,192.45, as appraised Oct. 1, 1886, viz.: By
the State, $11,187,649.80; by counties, $2,751,894.86 :
by cities, $4,348,500; by incorporated benevolent asso-
ciations, $35,454,490.92. Their reported indebtedness
then was $3,191,097.97 as against $3,161,994.81, their
indebtedness Oct. 1, 1886. The reported total receipts
for charitable and correctional purposes in the State,
for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1887, were $13,636,-
305.95, as against $13,362,659.61, the receipts for the
previous year being an increase of $272,646.34, derived
from the following sources: From the State, $1,412,-
283.95 ; from counties, $1,843,588.18; from cities,
$3,292,769.50; from individuals for the support and
care of inmates, $751,295.49; from contributions, do-
nations, and legacies, $1,558,934.72; from the income
on investments, $483,745.09; from all other sources,
$4,292,689.02. The reported total expenditures for
charitable and correctional purposes in the State for
the year ending Sept. 30, 1887, were $12,574,074.67,
as against $12,027,990.01, the expenditures for 1886,
or an increase of $546,084.66. The number of bene-
ficiaries in the care of the various charitable and re-
formatory institutions of the State, Oct. 1, 1887, was
63,816.
Education.—The educational interests of the State
are in charge of the Board of Regents of the Univer-
sity, which has been in existence more than a century.
The regents are authorized to incorporate colleges and
academies, and have established uniform conditions on
which such incorporation is granted. They inspect the
academies of the State, prescribe rules for rendering
their returns, apportion the moneys annually distrib-
uted among them, and report to the Legislature the
statistical returns of colleges and academies, with such
other information and recommendations as they may
deem proper. Since 1844 they have been trustees,
ex-officio, of the State Library, and since 1845 trustees
of the State Museum of Natural History. They ap-
point the librarians and assistants of the State library,
and the staff of the museum. They appoint the ex-
ecutive committee of the State Normal School at Al-
bany, in concurrence with the superintendent of Public
Instruction, who is chairman by virtue of his office.
They are authorized to confer annually the degree of
M. D. upon four persons nominated by each of the
State Medical Societies, and may confer any degree
above that of A. M. at their discretion. They are
also authorized to appoint boards of medical examin-
ers, and on their recommendation to confer the degree
of M. D. Under the rules for admission to the bar
they hold examinations and give certificates on subjects
required, as preliminary to legal studies. The super-
intendent of Public Instruction has the oversight of
the public schools. . He also appoints State pupils to
the institutions for the instruction of the deaf and dumb
and the blind, and visits and inquires into the condi-
tion, and management of these institutions. He ap-
portigns amºng the counties the number of pupils in
the State Normal School to which each is entitled.
He has charge of all the Indian schools in the State;
employs local agents to superintend them and visit
them, and directs concerning the erection and repairs
of their school-houses, and determines the branches of
instruction to be pursued in the schools. Nºrmal
schools are located in the following places: Albany,
Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia, Genesee, New
Paltz, Oswego, Potsdam, Oneonta. Laws have recently
been passed enlarging the powers of the superintend-
ent, and also requiring much more strict examination;
before diplomas are issued. Graduates of colleges and
kindred institutions are allowed diplomas without severe
examination. The superintendent has completed an
extensive work containing designs for cheap school-
houses; and the book has been adopted by the com-
missioners of the National Bureau of Education. The
income for public schools in 1887 was $16,433,128,
Of this amount there was expended : For teachers
wages, $9,306,425; school-houses and sites, $2,394,004;
libraries and apparatus, $400,000. The number of
school districts is 12,072; teachers, 22,708; children
between 5 and 21 years of age, 1,763,115; children
attending school, 1,037,812; log School-houses, 55 ;
frame school-houses, 10, 128; i. school-houses,
1420; stone school-houses, 363. Total number of
school-houses, 11,966.
Militia.-The military code provides that the “ag.
gregate force'' of the National Guards “in times O
eace, fully armed, uniformed and equipped, shall not
e less than 10,000 and not over 15,000 enlisted men.
In 1887 the force consisted of 726 officers and 11,909
enlisted men, aggregating 12,635. The * In OW
approximates 13,000 officers and enlisted men. The
inspector-general reported that there were present at
the annual inspection and muster 10,444 officers and
enlisted men. There are 15 regiments, 1 battalion and
44 separate companies of infantry, and 5 batteries of
artillery, organized as 4 brigades. Armories and ar-
senals have been erected in the following places: Buf-
falo, Rochester, New York, Utica, Syracuse, Auburn,
Oswego, Watertown, Brooklyn, Newburgh, Kingston,
Binghamton, Troy, Flushing, Oneonta, išimira. Wal-
ton. The following armories are now to be erected,
under recent acts of the Legislature: Saratoga Springs,
Mount Vernon, Hoosick Falls, Albany. The Reming-
ton rifle is still in use ; but it is likely to be superseded
with rifles of a smaller calibre, such as are used by the
U. S. army. A State camp of instruction has been
established at Peekskill, in which nearly half of the
militia are instructed every year. Recent reports show
that, in the civil war, the State of New York fur-
nished one-sixth of all the troops comprising the Union
army. During that war the State furnished 20 major-
enerals and 97 brigadier-generals, and 65 New Yorkers
were brevetted major-generals, and 220 brigadier-gen-
erals of volunteers, and 115 received the U. S. medal
of honor for bravery and distinguished services in the
field. In the numbers brevetted only those who did
not obtain the full rank are included.
Judiciary.—In 1846 the present Supreme Court was
constituted to exercise the powers of the Supreme
Court, the Court of Chancery, and the Circuit Court,
as exercised at that time. This court has general juris-
diction in law and equity. There are 8 judicial districts,
each one of which has 5 justices, who are elective.
The district comprising New York city is entitled to 2
additional justices. The salary is from $6000 to $S500,
with an allowance of $1200 for expenses. General and
special terms of this court are held. The court of last
resort is known as the Court of Appeals. This consists
of 7 judges, elected by the whole people of the State,
one of whom shall be chief justice. The salary is
$10,000, with $500 additional for the chief judge. The
term of office in this court and the Supreme Court is
14 years, with disqualification at the age of 70. The
Court of Appeals has full power over all decisions of
the Supreme Court. A quorum is 5 judges, and 4
must concur in order to pronounce a judgment. The
Legislature may advance any case from the Supreme
Court directly to the Court of Appeals.
Indians.—There are 9 reservations controlled by the
State and occupied by Indians, of whom there are
42
NEW YORK CITY.
4707, Efforts have been made periodically by interested
parties outside to have the State divide the lands in
severalty among the Indians, the outsiders lying in
Wait to secure the property. This has not been done,
but a commission has been appointed to examine into
the best method of disposing of the reservations and
of caring for the Indians generally.
Census.-The Constitution of the State requires a
census every ten years, which shall be taken midway
between the decennial censuses of the United States.
The last State census was taken in 1875–population,
4,698,958. The U. S. census of 1880 gave 5,082,871.
No census was taken in 1885, because the governor re-
fused to sign a bill relating to the census presented to
him by the Legislature of that year. The governor
called the Legislature together in extraordinary session
to pass another bill. The Legislature gave him the
same bill, which he once more refused to sign, and no
bill has been presented to him since that date. The
probability is that there will be no State census till
1895. A new census would give the cities of New
York, Brooklyn, and Buffalo a much larger representa-
tion in the Legislature, and the opposition to any cen-
sus is led by the rural districts, which fear a reduced
representation. The Senatorial districts still number
32, and the Assembly (or popular branch) districts
number 120. If the Senatorial and Assembly districts
were as small as they are in the States of New England,
the Legislature would have about 1200 or 1500 mem-
bers, instead of the 160 established by the constitu-
tlOn.
Boundaries.—Slight controversies relative to the
outlines of the State led the Legislature of 1867 to
direct the regents of the university to examine and
ascertain the true location of its boundaries. A law
of 1875 empowered the regents to act in accordance
with the resolution, and also (in connection with the
authorities of Pennsylvania and New Jersey) to replace
any monuments that had been removed. In 1880 the
regents were authorized to select three of their number
to confer with commissioners empowered to act for the
States named. Under the provisions of this law the
boundary line with New Jersey was completed in 1882,
and that with Pennsylvania in 1885.
Cities and Counties.—There are 30 cities in the
State, as follows: Albany, Amsterdam, Auburn,
Binghamton, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Cohoes, Dunkirk,
Elmira, Hornellsville, Hudson, Ithaca, Jamestown,
Kingston, Lockport, Long Island City, Middletown,
Newburgh, New York, Ogdensburgh, Oswego, Pough-
keepsie, Rochester, Rome, Schenectady, Syracuse,
Troy, Utica, Watertown, Yonkers. The city of Am-
sterdam was incorporated by the Legislature in 1887,
and the cities of Hornellsville, Ithaca, and Middle-
town in 1888. All of the cities, with the exception
of Hornellsville and Middletown, have a population
of over 10,000. The counties still number 60 ; but
there is a movement to create Lincoln county out of
ortions of several counties to the South and west of
ochester, and Susquehanna county near the head-
waters of the river of that name to the west of Coop-
erstown. The county of the largest area is St. Law-
rence, 2880 square miles; and the county of the
smallest area is Richmond (Staten Island, in New
York harbor), 59 square miles.
Centennial Celebrations.—Appropriate notice was
taken of the several battles and the leading civic
events of the war of the American Revolution that
took place within the boundaries of the State. The
centenary of the adoption of the Constitution of the
State was celebrated at Kingston, where the first State
government was formed, on July 30, 1877. The ori-
ginal Senate house is still in existence. A celebration
of the battle of Oriskany (wherein the American gen-
eral, Nicholas Herkimer, stopped the British advance
of St. Leger and the Six Nation Indians to meet Bur:
goyne near Albany) took place upon the battle-ground
near Utica, Aug. 6, 1877, and a monument was un-
veiled. On Oct. 17 of the same year the centennial of
the battle of Saratoga (q. v.) took place on the battle-
ground, and a monument has been erected upon the
spot. The one-hundredth anniversary of the battle of
Bemus Heights was celebrated Sept. 19th. A monu-
ment to mark the massacre was unveiled at Cherry
Valley, Aug. 15, 1877. During the year 1879 the cen-
tennials of the advances and victories of Sullivan's
expedition against the Seneca Indians were celebrated
at Elmira, Waterloo, Geneseo, and Aurora. At the
centennial of the promulgation of the Federal Consti-
tution in Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1887, New York was
represented . and it will give especial attention
to the centennial, in 1889, of the inauguration of
George Washington as the first President of the
United States. The 30th of April in that year has
already been made a legal holiday. The centennial of
the adoption of the Constitution of the United States
by the State of New York was celebrated, at Pough-
keepsie, July 26, 1888.
After the completion of the Senate chamber of the
new capitol at ''. in 1881 (see ALBANY) the Senate
staircase was completed and progress made upon the
tower, but for several years no appropriations were made
owing to a political quarrel between the governor and the
Legislature. In 1888 $275,000 were appropriated to
take down the stone ceiling of the Assembly chamber
(which had become unsafe owing to faulty construc-
tion) and to replace it with a ceiling of iron and wood;
$140,000 were also appropriated to finish the rooms set
apart for the State library. The cost of the building
to 1888 is $18,000,000. The old capitol and State
library were removed in 1883–4, and !. Capitol Park
has been laid out in harmony with the Academy Park
adjoining.
Recently strict laws forbidding the manufacture or
sale of oleomargarine have been enacted. Safeguards
have been thrown about deer, fish, and other game in
the Adirondacks and Catskills. Concessions have been
made to the laboring men in various ways, including
shorter hours on State work and the requirement that
(for such work) stone must be cut where it is placed in
position. A new law forbids the sale of liquors at or
near county-fairs. Hanging is superseded by death
from electricity, in capital cases, after J *} º,
F. G. M.
NEW YORK CITY. The province of New York
r was divided into 12 counties immedi-
See Nº. º ately upon its final conquest by the
Km £º English in 1683. One of the 12 was
& e New York. The original area of this
county was much larger than the 39 square miles cred-
ited to it by the State census of 1875. A recent law
has made the boundaries of the city of New York co-
extensive with those of the county, and still more re-
cent additions north of the Harlem River (known as
“the annexed district’’) make the present area 413
square miles. The State census of 1875, made the
population 1,041,886; that of the United States in
i880, 1,206,299. No State census was taken in 1885;
but a fair estimate gives the population in 1888 about
1,500,000. According to the census of 1880, 727,629
of the inhabitants were American born, and 478,670
of foreign birth. Of these, 198,595 were from Ire:
land, 29,767 from England, 8683 from Scotland, and
929 from Wales. ermany contributed 153,482;
Italy, 12,233; France, 99.10; Russia, 4551; Spain,
669. There were 17,937 New-Jersey-born New York-
ers; 11,055 from Pennsylvania; 10,589 from Massa-
chusetts. Voters registered Oct., 1888, 286,547.
Government.—The present charter is a law of 1882,
known as the “Consolidation Act.” For a long time
the mayor had almost absolute power of appointment,
but later his power was very much restricted. A com-
mittee of the Legislature, in 1884, made a thorough
examination of the government of the city, and recom’
mended that the power and responsibility of the mayor
should be increased; but the recommendation was
NEW YORK CITY.
43
heeded only so far as to i. him power to appoint
independently of the board of aldermen. As an out-
come of the investigation of the Broadway street rail-
road franchise a law was enacted, in 1886, that the
president of the board of aldermen (made elective in
i884) should be elected for two years, instead of for
one year; and in 1887 it was enacted that the aldermen
should number 25, exclusive of the president, and that
they should hold office for one year. The board of
bolice commissioners consists of 4 members, 2 of whom
lºng to each of the great, political parties. It was
organized as a non-partisan board, but as a matter of
fact, from its very constitution, it is partisan. The
patronage of the department is divided between the
commissioners, and a large part of their business has
been in the past to satisfy the claims of the two po-
litical parties whom they represent. The comptroller,
the chief financial officer, was made elective in 1884;
and the sheriff is likewise elective. The department
of public works is administered by a single head ap-
pointed by the mayor, and removable for cause ; and
the department of charities and correction, under 3
commissioners, is constituted in the same way. The
board of education consists of 21 commissioners, one-
third of whom go out of office every year. The elec-
tions are held in November along with the general
elections for State officers. For election expenses over
$200,000 are appropriated annually by the city.
Courts.-The amended judiciary article of the State
constitution provides: “The Superior Court of the
City of New York, the Court of Common Pleas for
the City and County of New York are continued, with
the powers and jurisdiction they now severally have,
and such further civil and criminal jurisdiction as may
be conferred by law.” These courts were reorganized
in pursuance of this article, under various legislative
enactments, and by the laws of 1873 were termed
“Superior City Courts,” and were vested with original
jurisdiction, at law and in equity, concurrent and co-
extensive with the Supreme Court, of all civil actions,
and of all special proceedings of a civil nature. Ap-
peals are taken directly from these courts to the Court
of Appeals of the State. The Court of Common
Pleas of the City and County of New York is the oldest
judicial tribunal in the State. It was continued under
the constitution of 1846. The three judges in office
when the amended judiciary article was adopted were
continued, and the election of three additional judges
was directed. The Superior Court of the City of New
York was established by an act passed in 1828. It was
the principal commercial court. Equity jurisdiction
was conferred upon it by the judiciary act of 1847.
Three justices were added in 1849, law and equity
jurisdiction given, and cases were transferred to it from
the Supreme Court.
The fire department consists of 84 steam fire-engines,
2 water-towers, 32 hook-and-ladder trucks, a life-saving
corps, 1080 miles of fire-alarm telegraph, 980 alarm-
boxes, 260 horses, and 1000 men. f costs $1,700,000
a year. There are 73 companies, making 12 battalions,
each under a chief of battalion (see FIRE). The police
department has 35 precincts and station-houses, 75
patrol-wagons, 6 courts, and 3200 men (each getting
$800 to $1200 a year). The head-quarters is at 300
Mulberry street, where is kept the “Rogues' Gallery”
Ol' }ºph and records of notorious criminals.
istances.--Battery to City-hall, 3 mile ; to Canal
street, 1% mile ; to Fourth street, 2 miles. Above
Third street the blocks between the streets bearing
numbers are 20 to a mile, and the blocks between the
aVenues are 6 to a mile.
Municipal Buildings.-Although having a spacious
Çity-hall and court-house, in the City-hall park, New
York pays over $100,000 annually as tººl for other
offices. A new municipal building is projected, which
Will also be the terminus of the Brooklyn Bridge and
the several railroads converging toward that point.
Finances. – The municipal debt in ISSS
1S
is about 15 miles an hour.
$144,995,641. The assessed value of real estate in
1887 was $1,254,491,849, a gain of $50,550,784 in one
year. Nearly half of this gain was above Eighty-sixth
street. The total increase for six years, including 1887,
was $277,756,650. The assessed value of personal
property in 1887 was $246,508,151, an increase of
about $36,000,000. The total valuation in 1887 was
$1,500,000,000, an increase of $400,000,000 in ten
years. The city budget of 1888 was $33,800,000, or
$2,000,000 greater than in 1887; and the rate of taxa-
tion was $2.20 per $100, as against $2.16 in 1887.
The following taki. shows the total amounts allowed
for 1887 and 1888, and the appropriations, respectively
exceeding $1,000,000 :
Objects and Purposes. 1887. 1888.
State taxes..... ..................... $4,258,527.93 $4,064,179.24
Interest on city debt.............. 7,391,814.39 7,116,171.54
Redemption of city debt........ 975,779.25 1,773,884.01
Public works....................... 2,759,720.00 3,180,309.00
Park department......... ......... 840,750.00 1,014,650.00
Charities and correction........ 1,498,300.00 2,343,372.00
Police department................. 4,235,867.06 4,415,255.66
Street-cleaning department..... 1,050,000.00 1,259,459.00
Fire department.................... 1,804,765.00 1,976,492.00
Board of education............... 3,994,088.00 4,303,167.00
Salaries, judiciary........ & tº e º s º ºs & 1,014,160.00 1,055,540.00
Asylums, etc........................ 1,426,076.80 1,142,952.44
Totals ........................... $34,343,022.55 $37,051,053.93
Less general fund.................. 2,500,000.00 3,251,053.93
Total............................. $31,843,022.55 $33,800,000.00
Port-Officers.—The governor and the Legislature
appoint certain officers to care for the port of New
ork. They consist of the health-officer, a captain,
the commissioners of quarantine, the port-warden, and
the harbor-masters. A law of 1883 abolished the fees
of the captain and the harbor-masters; and a law of
1888 abolished the fees of the health-officer, which
had occasionally reached $100,000 in a single year. In
place of the fees salaries were substituted. The State
Board of Health has some control over this depart-
ment, more especially in regard to the prevention of
the importing and the spread of contagious diseases.
Steamships and Railroads.-The Cunard line has
recently added to its fleet the Etruria, which has made
the fastest time between Queenstown and New York—
6 days, 1 hour, and 55 minutes. The Anchor line has
added the City of Rome, the largest passenger steamer
afloat. Her length is 560 feet and her breadth 52 feet.
Her engines are of 8000 indicated horse-power, and are
capable of being worked up to 15,000 horse-power.
She has accommodations for 480 first-class passengers.
To the Inman line has been added the City of New
York, with longitudinal compartments and twin engines
which are expected to secure great speed.
In 1883 what is known as the West Shore Railroad
was constructed along the western bank of the Hudson
River from Weehawken to Albany, and thence west-
ward to Buffalo. The road is now under a long lease
to the N. Y. Central Railroad. This road gives direct
access from Washington, and Philadelphia to Saratoga
and the Adirondacks. The Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road will have a terminus at Staten Island; and it
promises quicker time to Philadelphia and Wash-
ington.
Street and Elevated Railroads.—There are over 40
lines of horse-cars in the city, with the uniform fare of
5 cents. The omnibuses which formerly crowded the
streets have been removed, and there is but one line of
stages, which runs up Fifth avenue to Seventy-second
street. There are four elevated roads, viz., the See-
ond, Third, Sixth, and Ninth avenue. All of them
extend the length of the city, starting from South
Ferry, which is at the extreme lower end There are
also branch roads to Brooklyn Bridge, the Grand Cen
tral depot, and other points. The speed of the trains
The fare on all the elevated
44 NEW YORK CITY.
roads is 5 cents, with no extra charges for transfers to
the branch lines. The reduction from 10 cents was
made voluntarily.
Rapid Transit.—The resources of the elevated rail-
roads are being taxed to their utmost, and relief is
sought through another elevated railroad in Fifth
avenue, the cable railroads already partially in opera-
tion in the northern districts, and more particularly by
new roads under the surface. Of the latter there are
three distinct plans. The first is the Arcade charter to
construct an underground road through Broadway.
The second is to build a road under Elm street, to the
eastward of Broadway ; and the third, that of the City
Railway Company through the blocks to the westward
of Broadway.
Bridges and Tunnels.-The Brooklyn Bridge (see
BRIDGES, Fig. 90) has been completed at a cost of
$15,500,000; but the methods of its administration
are not satisfactory. The length is 5989 feet, and it is
89 feet wide. It is suspended from 4 steel-wire cables,
each 16 inches in diameter. In the centre is an ele-
wated promenade, on each side of which is a railroad
track for passenger-cars propelled by a stationary en-
gine. Outside of the railroad track, on each side, are
the roadways for vehicles. From the under side of the
bridge, in the centre, to the water, is 135 feet. Ordi-
nary vessels can easily pass beneath. Very large sail-
ing-vessels, have to lower their topmasts to go under.
The fare for foot passengers is one cent, or if tickets
are bought, one-fifth of a cent. The single fare on the
cars is 3 cents, or 10 tickets for 25 cents. A new bridge
has been constructed across the Harlem River also
(just above the High Bridge), near Two Hundredth
street, to connect the upper districts. The tunnel under
the North River has not yet been completed.
Parks and Streets.—The Central Park now covers
362 acres. Riverside Park, handsomely laid out, occu-
pies the high bank of the Hudson, from Seventy-
second to One Hundred and Thirtieth street, 3 miles
long, and averaging 500 feet wide, with 178 acres of
land, much of which has been improved. A drive-
way, cut into 4 broad sections by curbing ribbons of
lawns and trees, sweeps over the hills and along the
edge of the bluff, affording views of the Hudson River,
Weehawken, Guttenberg, Edgewater, the Palisades,
and upper Manhattan. On an elevation near the north
end of the park is the brick tomb in which Gen.
Grant's body was temporarily laid, Aug. 8, 1885.
Morningside Park, a long drawn and nearly unim-
roved public ground of 47 acres, extends from One
undred and Tenth street to One Hundred and Twen-
ty-third street, near Tenth avenue, and has a costly and
far-viewing driveway. It lies on the east side of the
ridge which separates Harlem plains from the River-
side Park and Hudson River. In the ‘’ annexed dis-
trict’’ parks known as “Pelham '' and “Bronx
River” have been laid out but not yet improved.
The new streets and avenues of the city are laid out
with the greatest regularity, and they are spaced ac-
cording to the distances already noted.
Statues and Monuments.-The latest additions may
be noted briefly. The obelisk which stood originally
before the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, and was
removed by Tiberius to Alexandria, was presented in
1877 by the Khedive of Egypt to the city of New
York. It was successfully transported by Lieut.-Com.
Henry H. Gorringe, U. S. N., the entire cost of the
removal and erection being borne by the late William
H. Vanderbilt. The bronze statue of the Indian
Hunter and The Pilgrim, a picturesquely posed and at-
tired heroic bronze statue, both by J. Q. A. Ward, stand
in Central Park, Bartholdi's statue of Liberty En-
lightening the World stands on Bedloe's Island, in the
harbor. It is a female figure made of copper, 151
feet 1 inch high, standing on a pedestal 154 feet 10
inches high, and was presented by the French people
to the people of the United States. In the upraised
right hand is a torch, lighted by electricity, and in the
left hand is the Constitution. The copper is about
one-fifth of an inch thick. The pedestal was built
by popular subscriptions, and, with the statue, cost
$1,000,000.
Fine Arts.-The Metropolitan Museum of Art
stands in Central Park, near Fifth avenue and Eighty-
third street. The first movement towards founding
the museum was made in 1869, and for some years its
collections were kept in rented buildings. The present
fire-proof brick and granite modern Gothic building,
218 feet by 95, was dedicated in 1880. New structures
are building in connection. In the west-entrance hall
are many fine pieces of statuary—Beer's medallion of
Michael Angelo, the Apollo Belvedere, Hiram Powers's
California, George Washington, Alexander I. of Rus-
sia, Roncanelli's Rose of Sharon, Albano's Thief from
Dante's Inferno, Mozeir's Rispah, Fischer's Goethe,
McDonald's Gen. Hancock, Schwanthaler's Dancing
Girl, Marochetti's Washington, Houdon's Franklin,
Connelly's Thetis, and many fine works by Barye,
Barbedienne, Thorwaldsen, Reinhart, Canova, Launt
Thompson, and others. On the southwest stairway
is a collection of 43 water colors by William T. Rich-
ards, of New England coast and White Mountain
Scenes. The great hall contains many pieces of the
famous Cesnola collection, from Cyprus, and various
other interesting collections of rare objects of art. In
the galleries are the collections of gold jewelry and
Greek and Phoenician glass from the Cesnola treasure-
trove ; and also the Japanese, Egyptian, and Oriental
porcelain and antiquities. . In the western galleries are
many of Kensett's exquisite landscapes, Gifford's and
Durand's master-pieces, Frére's Oriental scenes, Cou-
ture's Decadence of Rome, Moignan's Outrage at
Anagni, Madrazo's portrait of Robert L. Stuart,
Bonnat's portrait of John Taylor Johnston, Meyer
Von Bremen's genre pictures, Granet's Benedictines,
Helloſuist's great Swedish historical scene, Wylie's
Death of a Vendean chief, William M. Hunt's Boy and
Butterfly, Marr's Mystery of Life; landscapes by Crop-
sey, Inness, and Breton; Boughton's famous Judgment
of Wouter Van Twiller, Schreyer's Arab scenes. The
east gallery is devoted to pictures by the old masters—
Baroccio, Albani, Titian, 8. io, Caravaggio, Tinto-
retto, Tiepolo, Sassoferrato, Bordone, Andrea del Sarto,
Ghirlandajo, Rembrandt, Rubens, Jordaens, Hals,
Van Dyck, Cuyp, Wouverman, Ostade, Teniers, Ter-
burg, Breughel, Ruysdael, Steen, Velazquez, Mu-
rillo, Copley, Stuart, Trumbull, Jarvis, Etty, Lely,
Poussin. Many pictures in this remarkable collection
have romantic histories, extending over centuries.
Rosa Bonheur's Horse Fair, purchased at the
Stewart sale for $59,000, was presented by Cornelius
Wanderbilt. The magnificent collection of paintings
bequeathed to the museum by the late Catherine j.
Wolf is in an annex building erected for its reception.
The Lenox Library's Picture-Gallery, at Fifth avenue
and Seventy-first street, has about 150 fine paintings,
including Munkacsy's Blind Milton dictating Para-
dise Lost to his Daughters, Turner's A Scene on
the French Coast and Fingal's Cave, Horace
Vernet's Siege of Saragossa, Gainsborough's A Ro-
mantic Woody Landscape, Andrea del Sarto's Tobit
and the Angel, Delaroche's The Field of Battle,
Church's Cotopaxi, Thomas Cole's Expulsion from
Paradise, Bierstadt's Yosemite. There are portraits
by Leslie, Stuart, Trumbull, Inman, Peale, Copley
Daniel Huntington, S. F. B. Morse, Healy, Pine, and
others. The statuary includes Crawford's Sleeping
Shepherd Boy and Children in the Wood, Rauch's
Victory, Powers's La Penserosa, Ball's Abraham Lin-
coln, Sir John Steele's Sir Walter Scott, Trentanore's
Napoleon.
Underground Wires.—A law of the State ereated a
board of subway commissioners to take charge of
placing underground the telegraph, telephone, and
electric-lighting wires which had been heretofore
strung overhead. The first commission having failed
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY.
45
to carry out its purpose, a law of 1887, reconstructed
the commission with larger powers. The new board
perfected plans which were designed to supply accom-
modations, on fair and impartial terms, to all gom-
panies and others duly authorized to make use of the
same, affording the greatest possible convenience for
placing, removing, repairing, altering, and connecting
said conductors, combined with the least possible
interference with the other uses to which the public
streets are subject. Up to Jan. 1, 1888, 20,000 feet
of trench had been excavated for telegraph and tel:
ephone service, and 900,000 feet of single ducts had
been constructed, each duct averaging 80 wires. This
represented about 14,000 miles of wire. Additional
wires have been laid for electric light and power Ser-
vice. More than 1000 unsightly poles have been
removed from the streets. -
Aqueduct.—The inadequacy of the water supply of
New York brought from Croton River over the High
Bridge led to a law of 1883 creating an aqueduct
commission to be appointed by the mayor. The com-
mission was enlarged by a law of 1886. In 1887 a
committee of the Senate examined into certain allega:
tions of fraud and defective construction, and a third
law was passed making the commission consist of the
mayor, the comptroller, and the superintendent of
public works, together with 4 citizens of the city, to
be appointed by the mayor. In 1884 it was decided
that |. aqueduct should have a conduit 14 feet in
diameter. The work was begun in 1884, and it has
since been decided to extend the terminus to Quaker
Dam. The aqueduct runs under the Harlem River
for safety in case of war or social disturbance. The
length of the aqueduct will be 334 miles, nearly all of
which is completed. The cost thus far is $10,000,000,
and the total cost will approach $20,000,000. º
New Buildings.-The Produce Exchange, at the
foot of Broadway, is built upon 15,000 piles and cost
over $3,000,000. The building is 307 by 150 feet in
area and 116 feet high. The main hall is 220 feet by
144 feet and 60 feet high. The Mercantile Exchange
has a new brick and granite building at Hudson and
Harrison streets. The Cotton Exchange has a build-
ing of yellow brick at Hanover Square, south of Wall
street. The College of Physicians and Surgeons has
new and extensive buildings at Tenth avenue and
Sixtieth streets, the gift of William H. Wanderbilt
and his family. The reconstructed building of the
Equitable Life Insurance Company in Broadway is
considered the finest structure in the world for business
purposes. Other buildings recently constructed are
the Potter, the Mills, the Drexel, the Morse, the
Stewart, and Temple Court.
Churches.—The Episcopalians now have 76 churches
in the city ; the Catholics about 60 ; the Methodists,
76; the Presbyterians, 55; the Baptists, 43 ; the Re-
formed (Dutch), 24; the Congregationalists, S ; the
Universalists, 4; the Unitarians, 2. St. Patrick's
cathedral, probably the most magnificent church in
the United States, was projected in 1850 by Arch-
bishop Hughes and the plans drawn by James Ren-
wick. The corner-stone was laid in 1858; and on
May 25, 1879, the cathedral was dedicated by Cardinal
McCloskey. It has cost over $2,000,000. It is in
thirteenth-century decorated Gothic, the material be-
; fine white marble. It is a Latin cross 306 feet
1OIl Q.
ng and 120 feet wide (140 at º and 108 feet
high, with a noble clerestory upheld on long lines
of clustered marble columns and carrying a lofty and
richly ornamented ceiling. On each side of the front
gable, which is 156 feet high, the carved and pinna-
eled spires are to be carried to a height of 328 feet.
Theatres.—Among the places of amusement lately
built is the Metropolitan Opera House at Broadway
and Thirty-eighth street. It is capable of seating
$900 persons, the dimensions being 200 by 260 feet.
The Casino, at Broadway and Thirty-ninth street, is
a Moorish structure set apart for comic operas. The
new Broadway Theatre is also among the most attract-
ive buildings of the city.
Club Houses.—The new Union League Club House,
at Fifth avenue and Thirty-ninth street, cost $400,000.
The Athletic Club building, at Sixth, avenue, and
Fifty-fifth street, is the most splendidly appointed
building of its kind. F. G. M.) .
NEW YORK CITY, UNIVERSITY OF. This
institution of learning owes its origin to a desire, that
arose in the beginning of the second quarter of this
ºr º
º
º
||f||
ºf Yºſ
- & . Irºr's tº .
iſſiſſillºſ' Tº
º -in - a i
ſºurº
" . . . .# . . " ...: "
f ||| t † i |
f " ; :
Hºi-ſº
sº wº
century in certain merchants, bankers, and professional
men of New York to secure—the language of a con-
ference of nine gentlemen held December 16, 1829, is
here quoted—“the establishment of a university in
the city of New York on a liberal and extensive scale.’’
In answer to the call of this conference a public
meeting was held Jan. 6, 1830, in the rooms of the
Historical Society, by which a standing committee on
subscriptions was organized. On the following Oct.
15th the subscribers of money for the new founda-
tion sought incorporation and chose a council to rep-
resent them. The incorporation of “the subscribers
and shareholders’’ was granted by the Legislature
April 18, 1831, under the title of “The University
of the City of New York.” The charter then
granted provided that, besides thirty-two shareholders,
the council should include the mayor and four mem-
bers of the common council of the city of New York;
that every year one-fourth of the council should go
out of office, their successors to be elected by the
whole body of shareholders, and that no one religious
sect should ever have a majority of the board or coun-
cil. The history of this country was then not far
enough written to show these three things: 1. That
to expect any care of higher education by public
officials is to be deluded, unless the foundation is to be
wholly controlled by the State, a control undesirable
in the American republic ; 2. That to plan a univer-
sity as a joint-stock company to yield material divi-
dends is to disfigure charity ; 3. That to ask citizens in
general to endow a foundation and yet to forbid to
those citizens who open their purses the controlling
Voice is to dam up benefactions. -
These three truths became manifest to all the friends
of the university, and in 1883 three amendments to
the charter were secured : (1) Abolishing the connec-
tion of the city government with the council;
(2) Constituting the council the sole shareholders and
corporation, giving to this body the election of a new
class of eight members every year to succeed the class
whose terms expire; and (3) expunging the denomina-
tional test by allowing members of council to be
chosen without regard to their church affiliations.
The university thus assumes a position in harmony
with the American idea, that higher education is to be
offered by voluntary corporations as a loan to the youth
of the country, to be repaid by them as educated citi-

46
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY.
Zens and members of the liberal professions. The
council of the university, as now constituted, is about
equally divided between members selected from the
alumni and from the whole body of citizens.
The plan of the university in the minds of its found-
ers was broad and far-seeing. Hon. Albert Gallatin,
president of the council in 1831, said in a public meet-
ing, Oct. 20, 1830, as to the chief objects of the uni-
yersity : “One is to complete the studies commenced
in the colleges, . . . another is to diffuse knowledge.”
The early statutes contemplated a department of arts
and science, corresponding to the faculty of philosophy
in a German university, a department of medicine and
a department of law. The first department it was
intended should exist in two divisions, the first to ac-
complish such objects as were named by Mr. Gallatin,
the º to correspond to the well-known American
college.’
The following is the statute as to the two divisions of
the department of arts and science. The first “shall
comprise professorships for instruction in the higher
branches of literature and science, which shall be in-
creased according to the progress of discovery, the
wants of the community, and the financial means of the
university. The second shall embrace what is usually
deemed a full course of classical, philosophical, and
mathematical instruction, and also a complete course
of English literature.” This statute, which contem-
plated what is now known as the work of “the gradu-
ate division,” or “university work proper” in arts
and science, was a half century ahead of the demand
for such work in America, which is only now begin-
ning to be made and to be responded to.
Nevertheless, university work proper, so far as it aims
“ to diffuse knowledge,” has been achieved by profes-
sors of the university from the first. Samuel F. B.
Morse, while a professor, conceived the recording tele-
graph, and in an address in 1853 named as its birth-
place the present Philomathean Hall.
Prof. John W. Draper here first applied photography
to the representation of the human countenance.
Among other deceased professors eminent for their
labors for the public were Henry P. Tappan, Tayler
#. George Bush, John C. Draper, and Henry
I’a, OéI’.
# is probable that the chief work of the faculty of
arts and science in time to come will be in accomplish-
ing the two objects pointed out by Albert Gallatin,
namely: the instruction of graduate students, and the
diffusion of knowledge.
In 1886 a graduate division was formally opened,
which enrolled the first year twelve resident students
and the second year thirty-one, besides several non-
resident students. In answer to demands upon this
division instruction in new fields has been begun, as, for
example, comparative religion and pedagogies.
But the main effort of the faculty of arts and
science has been expended from the beginning in car-
rying on undergraduate instruction, such as ordinarily
leads to the bachelor's degree. A college has flour-
ished which has graduated a class each year, beginning
with 1832. Its standard of admission meets fully the
recommendations of the State regents. Election is
offered between the “scientific’’ course leading to the
degree of bachelor of science, and the “classical,”
leading to bachelor of arts, and also between alterna-
tive studies in limited measure.
But every student, in order to take the bachelor's
degree, must have pursued extended study in each of the
three fields into which learning is divided, viz.: (1) lan:
guage and literature; (2) mathematics and natural
science; (3) philosophy and history. The least amount
of class wº assigned any of the three fields is four
hundred hours in the four years' course. Fourteen
professors and instructors take part in the work for
undergraduates. The number of undergraduate stu-
dents is at the present time 130. * , Yº e
The year is divided into three terms of thirteen weeks
each, including certain recesses. But in certain years
the third term is shortened to twelve weeks. The
tuition is free in the ordinary undergraduate course,
and there, are certain, prizes and fellowships. There
are no halls, students being expected to reside at their
own homes or in approved families. Besides the gradu-
ate division, and the college proper, the department
of arts and science includes in its plan whatever tech-
nical or professional schools, outside of law, medicine,
or theology, the university may establish. At present
there exist a school of civil engineering, a school of
chemistry and assaying, and a school of pedagogy.
The degree of civil engineer is given to such students
as have taken the degree of bachelor of science, and
have pursued the special engineering course for four
years, the last year to follow the attainment of the
bachelor degree. No degree is given for special work
in chemistry. The school of pedagogy offers instruct
tion in the philosophy of education to teachers of
higher attainments and experience. This school has
been recently founded. Other professional or tech-
nical Schools are in contemplation.
The work of the faculty of arts and science is carried
on in the building on Washington Square, East, ex-
tending from Washington Place to Waverley Place.
This building, erected between 1832 and 1835, is con-
spicuous even among the many later edifices of New
York city. It contains well-furnished, though not large
laboratories of physics and of chemistry, a geological
cabinet, and a library. Great advantage is derived
from the nearness of the Astor Library.
The department of medicine, commonly known as
the University Medical College, is the second depart-
ment of the university in age, but the first in the
number of its professors and students. It was or-
ganized in 1841, under a faculty of six professors, of
whom the best known are Dr. Valentine Mott and
Dr. John W. Draper. The building was on Broad-
way, near Bond, and not far from the main university
edifice. In 1851 a larger edifice was erected on Four-
teenth street, adjacent to the Academy of Music.
Upon the burning of this, in 1876, the faculty removed,
after a temporary stay in the New York Hospital, to
East Twenty-sixth street, fronting the Bellevue Hos-
pital Square. A temporary building was used until
1879, when the present main edifice was erected. To
this the west wing was soon added, and in 1887 the
east wing, which is “The Loomis Laboratory.’ The
main building contains the lecture-room and the am-
phitheatre, each seating 500 students, together with the
professors' private rooms and the dissecting-room. The
west wing contains eight section-rooms, or small lecture-
rooms. In these the material available to the univer-
sity, through its dispensary and through the depart-
ment of the commissioners of charities and corrections,
is brought under the observation of each student, and
thoroughly utilized in the system of “section-teach-
ing” devised by this faculty and peculiar to this School.
The college dispensary treats over 9000 patients an-
nually. The material for clinical lectures from Belle-
vue Hospital, and other hospitals and dispensaries,
with which the lecturers are connected, is so great that
the faculty in 1885 resolved to provide special facilities
for advanced students in the way of instruction in
diagnosis and treatment. The graduating class is
divided into sections of twenty-five each, which receive
separate instruction for one or two hours daily through-
out the term, under the ten principal professors. In
1886 an unknown friend of the university, by the gift
of $100,000, secured to the department of medicine a
laboratory-building, attaching to his gift two condi-
tions: first, that the name of the donor should not be
made public; and second, that the building should be
known as “The Loomis Laboratory of the Medical
Department of the University of the City of New
York.” The building, five stories fire-proof, is furnished
with every valuable accessory for its purposes. Labora-
tories of materia medica, physics, chemistry, physi-
NIAGARA.
47
ology, biology, and pathology are found in succession
by % ascending from the first to the fifth floors.
For the degree of doctor of medicine three years of
study are required, including two full winter sessions of
lectures, the second in this college, with the passing of
written examinations under seven professors. There
are three sessions of study : The preliminary, in Sep-
tember; the winter session, October to March ; the
spring session, March to May. The attendance of
students has reached 649 in 1888. The total number
of graduates exceeds 5000. The professors and lec-
turers number 60. Nearly 100 students are enrolled
from countries other than the United States. Liberal
provision is made for the aid of meritorious students.
The department of law in the university, com-
monly entitled “The University Law School,” was
fully planned in 1835 by the Hon. Benjamin F. Butler,
Attorney-General of the United States, and his plan
was adopted by the council. The position of senior
law professor was offered to Mr. Butler and accepted,
to take effect in 1837. This plan and the correspond-
ence relating thereto were published in 1835. But the
execution of the plan was arrested, and it was not till
1858 that the faculty of law was organized. Since
that date instruction has been carried on without inter-
mission. The annual average enrolment of students
has been about fifty. The number in 1888 is one hun-
dred. The course for the degree of bachelor of laws
is completed in two years, terminated by examinations
both oral and written.
In addition to the three professors there are seven
lecturers chosen from among the eminent members of
the New York bar, who deliver each a course upon a
special field of legal learning. There is a special prize
given to the junior passing the best examination, and
prizes to seniors for pre-eminence in the oral examina-
tion and in the written.
The law library was founded in 1863, by John Tay-
lor Johnston, and has received some large additions.
Its collections are supplemented by those of the neigh-
boring Astor Library. The lecture- and library-rooms
of the law school are in the main university building.
The chancellors of the university have been James | #
Mathews, D. D., Theodore Frelinghuysen, LL. D.,
Isaac Ferris, D. D., LL. D., Howard Crosby, D. D.,
LL. D., John Hall, D. D., LL. D. Since 1885 the
executive work has been devolved upon a vice-chan-
cellor, Henry Mitchell MacCracken, D. D., LL. D.
NEZ PERCES, or SAHAPTINs, a tribe of Ameri-
can Indians, who also call themselves Numepo. The
origin of the name Nez Percé (Pierced Nose) is un-
known, and there is no proof of their ever having
had a custom to justify it. But, like other tribes of
the North-west, they practised flattening of the head
of children to some extent. Lewis and Clarke in 1803
found them on the Clearwater and Lewis Rivers, and
a treaty of peace then made was faithfully observed
until after d. admission of Oregon as a State. In
1832 Capt. Bonneville found them friendly, and in
1836 Rey. Marcus Whitman and Rev. Lyman Spaul-
ding, being sent out by the American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions, established a mission
among them. . They were then reckoned at 4000 souls.
Whitman made special effort to promote agriculture,
and Mrs. Spaulding conducted a successful school.
Considerable improvement has been made in their
condition, and after the American Board withdrew its
aid the work went on. But in the spring of isºft
trouble arose from a severe epidemic of measles, intro.
duced by a band of white immigrants. In September
Dr. Whitman was murdered by the Cayuses. The
missiºn, which had been mainly sustained by his labors,
Was destroyed. . Yet in 1855, when the Indians of
regon, alarmed at the inroads of the whites, made
an insurrection, the Nez Percés, who had been de-
rived of much of the land they claimed, remained
aithful to their treaty. They saved the life of Gov.
tevens and assisted the troops under Col. Steptoe.
They were assigned a new reservation on the Lapwai
River in Idaho, but those that settled here were rudely
disturbed in 1859 by gold-seekers and for a time thor-
oughly demoralized. The Presbyterians revived the
mission in Oregon and again had success in training
the Indians in religion and peaceful industry (See IN-
DIANs, AMERICAN). Others of the tribe refused to
accept the treaties which reduced their reservations,
and their remarkable history is given under INDIAN
TERRITORY. º
NIAGARA. This river flows from Lake Erie to
r ... Lake Ontario, a distance of 36 miles,
.*.*.*... in which it has a total fall of 336 feet.
Am º * 52 being in the rapids above the mag-
. Evep.). nificent cataract which has given it
fame. The American Fall is 155 feet high and 1100
feet wide ; the Horseshoe Fall 165 feet high and about
2000 feet wide. These are separated by Goat Island,
which contains 62 acres. The total width of the river,
including the island, is 4750 feet. The water passing
over the falls every hour is estimated at 100,000,000
tons. Both the American and Horseshoe Falls are
rapidly wearing away in the centre. The tendency to
this in the Horseshoe Fall has been apparent for many
years, but to-day the centre is in the form of a V, with
the apex many rods up the stream. The American
Fall has not shown such a tendency until quite re-
cently, but now there is a well-defined V in the line,
as it is seen from Luna Island. Those who, have
watched the recession of the falls believe that soon
nearly all the water will pass through an inner chan-
nel far away from the vintor. There is also danger
that the Canadian side of Goat Island may be washed.
away. Much of that side of the island, which is to-
Ward the former Terrapin Tower, has disappeared within
a few years, and the Legislature of the State has been
asked to appropriate money for the sinking of wooden
cribs to prevent further erosion.
The Falls of Niagara are one hour's ride from
Buffalo, twelve from New York, fourteen from
Chicago. ... The principal village on the river is Ni-
agara Falls, N. Y. Two miles below is Suspension
ridge. Opposite this what was formerly known
as Clifton is now Niagara Falls, in the Province of
Ontario. Fifteen miles to the north, at the mouth of
the river, is the town of Niagara, Ontario. On the
American side there is a distance of three miles be-
tween the falls and the whirlpool, but there is easy
communication by horse-cars. On both sides of the
river the immediate vicinity of the falls is free to all
visitors.
Niagara Reservation.—The Legislature of New
York in 1883 authorized the Governor to appoint five
persons to be known as “The Commissioners of the
State Reservation at Niagara,” who were empowered
to select and locate such lands as might be proper and
necessary to be reserved for the purpose of preserving
the scenery of the Falls of Niagara and of restoring
such scenery to its natural condition. The compensa.
tion to be paid by the State to the respective property-
owners, having been determined by appraisers ap-
pointed by the courts, the Legislature, in 1885, appro-
priated the sum of $1,433,429.50 for the payment of
the several awards. The act also provided that the
lands shall be kept open and free of access without
fee, charge or expense to any person for entering upon
or passing, to or over any part thereof. Subsequently
the control and management of these lands was given
to ºommissioners, who have power to lay out, manage,
and maintain the reservation. They serve without pay,
but are reimbursed for actual expenses incurred in the
performance of official duties. Vacancies in the board
are filled by the Governor. They are authorized to
appoint a secretary and treasurer of the board. They
are required to make an annual report of their pro-
ceedings, with such recommendations and Suggestions.
as they see fit.
"The New York State Park at Niagara Falls”
48
NIAGARA.
---e. --- A --o
ºs
s-º-º:
Bird’s-eye View of Niagar
(the official title) extends along the river-front from the
upper Suspension Bridge to a point nearly a mile
above the falls. It also includes what was formerly
known as Prospect Park, at the very edge of the
American falls, and Goat Island with its group of
smaller islands. The total area in the º is 115
acres. It was opened to the public jul, 15, 1885.
While access to the grounds is free, there are small
charges for using the inclined railway and the eleva-
tors, for ...ſº cave of the winds, and for riding
on the steamer Maid of the Mist. In the upper part
of Prospect Park there has been established a recep-
tion house, a public lavatory, a bureau of advice for
excursionists, including arrangements for picnics with
shelters, and the office of administration. The taking
of provisions upon any other part of the reservation
is forbidden. }. disfiguring objects have been re-
moved from Upper Prospect Park. All along the
edge of the crags a space has been prepared for people
to stand upon, from twenty to thirty feet wide, and
extending from the brink of the falls to the high
ground back of the old wooden balcony, from all of
which a fine view is had of the nearer fail, the river
above it, the islands, the Canadian falls, and the On-
tario reservation. The surface of this standing space
has been reduced to a slope with an inclination toward
the falls of about 1 in 16, which allows visitors at a
distance to look over the heads of those nearer the
more attractive point. A balcony has been built to
enlarge the available space on the projection of rock
south of the wall of the inclined railroad. A new
susptºsº" Fºss, º
-- -
is described in the
º
-
a Falls and Vicinity.
safety cable has been placed upon the inclined railway.
The electric lights have been removed from Prospect
Park, and access is allowed to neither the park nor the
island after dark.
Similar improvements are also to be reported upon
the Canadian side of the falls. Government Commis-
sioners surveyed and outlined the lands proposed to be
taken, the area of which was about the same as that
upon the American side, but the amount allowed by
the arbitrators was $978,000, or considerably less than
the amount paid by the State of New York. There
was so much opposition to this plan that the amount
was finally reduced to $402,000, or $100,000 in excess
of the valuation of the government. The grounds
finally taken extend southward from the Clifton House
for nearly two miles and include the Cedar Islands, to
which an admission is charged. The Clifton House
remains, but the old museum and a long line of un-
sightly buildings will be removed.
Bridges.--The Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge
hcyclopaedia Britannica, under
BRIDGEs, 380. It was . by John A. Roebling,
being commenced in 1852. The first railroad train
passed over it in March, 1855. In 1886 the four stone
towers which supported its cables were replaced with
steel towers. º Upper Suspension Bridge, closer to
the Falls, was built in 1868. It is a light, graceful
structure, 1268 feet long and 200 feet above the river,
which is there 190 feet deep. Originally intended for
foot-passengers only, it was afterwards allowed to be
used by single carriages. In 1887 it was widened to a







NICCOLINI—NICHOLSON.
49
double track; the old cables were replaced with larger
ones; iron trusses took the place of wood and the
towers of heavy-framed timbers gave way to towers of
steel. All these changes were made without interfer-
ing with the traffic. - -
The still more remarkable cantilever bridge was com-
menced on April 5, 1883, and opened for travel on
December 20 of that year. This was the earliest
bridge completed upon the cantilever plan in the
United States; the new bridge over the Hudson River
at Poughkeepsie, the bridge over the Firth of Forth
in Scotland, with a clear span of 1000 feet, and the
bridge over the Fraser, River, in Canada, are later ex-
amples of the same design. The bridge at Niagara
Falls has a double-track railroad, and can carry upon
each track at the same time a freight train of the
heaviest kind, extending the entire length of the bridge,
headed by two “consolidation'' engines, and can with-
stand a side pressure of 30 pounds ; square foot,
which pressure is produced by wind having a velocity
of 75 miles per hour. Under the above loads the
structure is strained to only one-fifth of its ultimate
strength. The total length of the bridge proper is 895
feet, divided into 2 cantilevers of 375 feet on the Cana-
dian side and 395 on the American side, supported on
steel towers rising from the water's edge. A fixed
span of 125 feet is, suspended from and connects the
river arms of cantilevers; the clear span across the
river is 500 feet, being the longest double-track truss
span ever built. The excavations were carried down
until solid rock was reached, when blocks of “béton
coignet '' (q. v.) 20 feet wide, 45 feet long, and 10 feet
thick, were put in. These form one solid mass that
will withstand a pressure almost equal to the best
Quincy granite, and will so distribute the load of 1600
tons that comes upon each pair of steel columns that
it will produce a pressure of but 25 pounds per square
inch on the natural formation. Upon the béton
blocks, 4 in number, was built masonry of the most
substantial character, carried up 50 feet above the
surface of the water. On these foundations the steel
towers rest, rising 130 feet above the masonry, and
upon these are set the steel superstructures. The ma-
terial was subjected to the most rigid inspection and
tests from the ore until it entered the completed struc-
ture. For erection at the bridge site temporary scaf.
foldings, which used some 600,000 feet of timber, were
built from the bluff on either side out to the edge of
the water, on a level with the top of the bluff. Upon
these the shore arms of the cantilever were erected,
one end resting on the steel towers and the other upon
masonry on the bluff. The shore ends are anchored to
this masonry, so that it will take an uplifting force of
400 tons at each end to displace it. This constitutes
the counterweight to balance the unequal loading on
the river arm, and as this load, under the most unfa-
Yorable conditions, can never equal 200 tons, the provis-
iºn is ample. . After the structure was completed from
the shore to the steel towers came the difficult portion
of the work—to span the 500 feet across and 345 feet
above a roaring river whose forces no earthly power can
$ºy, and nº temporary structure can survive a moment.
Here the skill of the engineer came in to baffle nature.
The design of the cantilever was such that, after the
shore arm was completed and anchored, the river arm
Was built out, ºne panel or section at a time, by means
of great travelling derricks, being self-sustaining as it
Fºl . After one panel of 25 feet was built and
had its bracin adjusted, the travelling derricks were
imoved forward and another panel erected. Thus the
Work prºgressed, section by section, until the ends of
the cantilever were reached, when there still remained
* gap ºf 135 feet to close. Into this was swung and
º from the cantilever arms an ordinary truss
"ge, forming the connecting link and completing the
Structure. Compensation for expansion and contrac-
!!!" was, provided for by an ingenious arrangement be.
"ºn the ends of the cantilever and fixed span,
Vol. IV.-D. -
allowing the ends to move freely as the temperature
changed, while yet preserving perfect rigidity against
the side pressure from the wind. There were no guys
for this purpose, as in the Suspension Bridge, but the
structure was completed within itself. either was
there any of that wave motion noticed on a suspension
bridge as a train moves over. (F. G. M.)
NICCOLINI, GIovaNNI BATTISTA (1782–1861), an
Italian poet, was born at the Bagni di S. Giuliano,
Oct. 31, 1782. He was educated at the University of
Pisa, and enjoyed the friendship of Ugo Foscolo.
Several of Niccolini's tragedies were founded in Greek
themes, as Polissena, Medea, Edipo, and he also trans-
lated from AEschylus the Seven against Thebes and
the Agamemnon. His Matilda was an initation of
Home's Douglas. Under the government of Elisa
Bonaparte he was made professor of history and my-
thology. His lectures and prose writings were notable
contributions to Italian literature. On the downfall
of Napoleon he published an allegorical tragedy,
Nabucco. Still greater success had his Antonio Fos-
carini (1827), and his revolutionary drama, Giovanni
di Procida (1830). Ludovico il Moro, written about
the same time, was not allowed to appear until 1847,
but his Armaldo da Brescia, in which he gave expres-
sion to the ardent desire of the people of Italy for re-
ligious and intellectual liberty, was printed secretly at
Marseilles, in 1843. Filippo Strozzi (1847) contained
a representation of the §ſ. yet not hopeless state of
Italy. Among the works of his later years is the lyri-
cal drama, Mario e i Cimbri. He died at Florence,
Sept. 20, 1861.
NICHOL, John PRINGLE (1804–1859), a Scotch
astronomer, was born at Brechin, Jan. 13, 1804. He
was the son of a bookseller, and studied for the min-
istry, but after being licensed to preach became a
popular lecturer on astronomy, and was professor of
practical astronomy in the University of Glasgow. He
died at Rothesay, Sept. 19, 1859. Among his works
are The Architecture of the Heavens (1838); Contem-
lations of the Solar System (1844); The Stellar
#. (1848); The Planetary System (185]);
Cyclopædia of the Physical Sciences (1857).
His son, JOHN NICHOL, was born at Montrose,
Sept. 8, 1833. He graduated at the University of
Glasgow in 1855, and at Oxford in 1859. He was
made professor of English literature in the University
of Glasgow in 1861. He has been a popular lecturer
on literature, and has contributed to the leading
Britishre views and to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Some of his essays were collected under the title
Fragments of Criticism (1860). He has also pub-
lished Hannibal, a drama (1872), Byron in the “Eng-
lish Men of Letters” series (1880); Robert Burns
1882). His article on American Literature in the
Encyclopædia Britannica has been published sepa-
rately.
NICHOLSON, ALFRED OSBorn Pope (1808–1876),
Senator, was born in Williamson co., Tenn., Aug. 3i.
1808. He graduated at the University of North
Carolina in 1827, and after studying medicine for two
years turned to law. He was admitted to the bar
at Columbia, Tenn., in 1833, and was elected to Con-
gress, where he served three terms. In 1840 he was
appointed U. S. Senator on the death of Felix
Grundy, and in 1843 was elected to the State Senate.
In 1845 he removed to Nashville, where he edited the
Union. In 1850 he was appointed a chancellor but
held the office only one year. In 1853 he became
editor of the Union at Washington, D. C., and soon
after was chosen public printer. Returning to Colum-
bia, in 1857, he was elected to the U. S. Senate, but
retired on the secession of Tennessee in June, 1861.
On account of his sympathy with the Southern Con-
federacy he was sent south of the Union lines, and on
his return was imprisoned at Nashville. In 1870 he
was a member of the State Constitutional Convention,
and was also elected to the State Supreme Court, of
50
NICKEL–NIGHT-HAW K.
which he became chief justice. He died at Columbia,
Tenn., March, 1876.
NICKEL. The production of this metal, in the
See Vol. XVII. º States is sign under METALs,
p. 487 (p. 500 and it, use in U. S. coins is shown
A m. Rep.). under MINT. The former shows a sud-
- den great decline in production in 1883.
This was due to the large shipments of rich nickel
ores from the mines of New Caledonia, an island east
of Australia, belonging to France and used as a penal
colony. In 1867 M. Garnier in making a geological
exploration of this island, found serpentine rock with
light green veins. Samples from these on being care-
fully examined in France proved to contain a new
mineral, hydro-silicate of nickel and magnesia, which
was named Garnierite in honor of the discoverer. Not
until 1874 was the mineral found in large quantities.
Then a vein about four feet thick was found in Mont
Doré on the south side of the island, and afterwards
other veins with still richer ore, said to contain about
15 per cent. of the metal. Yet the ore shipped to France
in 1875 yielded only about 6 per cent. In the next
year the shipments were said to be of three grades;
the richest yielding 18 to 20 per cent., the second rate
12 to 15 per cent., and the poorest 6 to 8 per cent.
But by far the largest amount was of the last grade.
In 1883 the exports were 90.24 metric tons of ore
which yielded 824 tons of nickel, or about 9. 13 per
cent. Garnierite is found in small quantities over the
whole island, but only in paying quantities in the
north-west. The district believed to be richest, Bou-
rindi, is not yet worked. This is owing to the dif-
ficulties of access, of climate, and of labor. Water is
everywhere scarce. The natives can be used only for
transportation and incidental work, and easily suc-
cumb to disease, so that the hospitals are kept full and
the rate of mortality is high. The French convicts
are worthless as miners; the Chinese are found the
best, though they require constant watching. From
the Palta district in Mont Doré the ore in sacks of
sixty-six pounds is carried successively on pack-horses,
horse-cars, steam-railroads and scows, a distance of
over 1000 miles before it reaches the steamers which
take it to the island of Noumea. There it is smelted
into a regulus of 60 or 70 per cent. nickel, granulated
and then shipped to England. Latterly the mines at
Thio have been more worked. These extend over
6000 acres, the veins vary from three to seven feet in
thickness, and the average ore yields 10 per cent.
The transportation from Thio is much less arduous
than from the Palta district, there being more con-
veyance by water.
The Nickel Company of Paris now controls the pro-
duction in New Caledonia, and the richness of
these mines has compelled those in other countries
almost entirely to suspend operations. While garni-
crite yields on an average nearly 10 per cent of me;
tallic nickel, pyrrhotite, from which nickel is obtained
in Lancaster co., Pa., yields only 1.5 to 2 per cent.
Although ores of nickel have been found in some other
States, none have been profitably worked, or seem
likely to be so. The duty on nickel in ported into
the United States is 30 cents a pound, but on its
alloy with copper 20 cents, and foreign producers
have found it practicable to make an alloy as pure as
ordinary commercial nickel, and yet have it admitted
at the latter rate. The price of nickel for some years
has been two shillings (50 cents) a pound in London,
This price is believed to be forced by the Nickel Com-
pany with a view to crushing out competition and then
advancing the price. Yet in 1886 the company
offered to make contracts for ten years at this rate.
The American production, which in 1884 had sunk to
64,550 pounds, rose again in 1885 to 245,504 pounds,
valued at $169,398, and in 1886 was 182,345 pounds,
valued at $109,407. There were also in 1886 contri-
butions of ore and matte amounting to 32,647 pounds,
and valued at $17,750. The price has sunk from
$2.60 per pound in 1876 to 60 cents in 1886. The
imports of nickel and its alloys in 1868 were valued at
$118,058 ; they afterwards decreased until in 1876 only
156 pounds, valued at $10, were imported. Then
they rose steadily, reaching in 1882 the maximum of
200,728 pounds, valued at $143,660. In 1886 they
were 159,760 pounds, valued at $89,003.
The German Empire in 1873 adopted nickel alloy
for some of its minor coins. This greatly increased
the demand for the metal, and its price went up to
16 shillings, and for Some years averaged 12 shil-
lings a pound. When the supply finally had to be
obtained from the French company, the German gov-
ernment, in 1883, gave up the use of the metal, and
thus helped to cause a great fall in its price. The
consumption previous to that time was estimated to
be as follows: England, 500 metric tons; "Germany,
300; United States, 200; France, 100; total, 1 100
tons. The production in New Caledonia for the three
years 1882–84 was 2400 metric tons. Finding this in
excess of the demand, the Nickel Company suspended
work in March, 1885, until the stock on hand should
be reduced.
The French government has been considering the
substitution of nickel for copper coins. The United
States continue to make 5-cent and 3-cent pieces of
nickel alloy. The coinage of 1885 and 1886 was as
follows:
3-cent. 5-cent. Nickel consumed,
Troy oz.
1885 ................. 4790 1,476,490 58,616
1886, ....... ......... 4223 3,330,290 166,729
The mint at Berlin, Germany, in 1886, made nickel
coinage for the Egyptian government, amounting to
12,510,210 pieces, valued at $216,432. Nickel-plating
increases slowly, and there is decided increase in the
use of nickel alloys, such as white, casting , metal,
nickel-bronze, silveroid, and other alloys which com-
bine cheapness with hardness, durability, and good
color. (J. P. L.)
NICOL, ERSKINE, a British painter, was born at
Leith, Scotland, July, 1825. He was apprenticed to
a house-painter, but studied at the Trustees' Academy
and becaume a teacher of drawing. He spent some
years in Dublin, where he became familiar with Irish
character. He removed to London in 1862 and was
made an associate of the Royal Academy in 1866.
Among his pictures are Notice to Quit (1862), Wait-
ing for the Train (1864), Both Puzzled §§ A Dis-
buted Boundary (1869), Steady, Johnny, Steady (1873),
E. the Rent (1876), Storm, at Sea (1876), His
Legal Adviser (1877), Unwillingly to School (1877),
The Missing Boat (1878). His works exhibit great
power of expression, both pathetic and comic.
Nº. JEAN NICOLAs (1786–1843), explorer,
was born at Cluses, Savoy, July 24, 1786. Having
studied under the astronomer Laplace, he became see-
retary and librarian of the Observatory at Paris in
1817. Emigrating to the United States in 1832, he
explored the Southern States, the Mississippi River,
and its western affluents. He made important collee-
tions in natural history and Indian ethnology. He
was sent on a second exploring tour by the War De-
bartment, Lieut. John C. Fremont being his assistant.
}. died at Washington, Sept. 11, 1843. His publica-
tions were chiefly on mathematical subjects.
NIGHT-HAWK, a name formerly given to the
common goatsucker of Europe, , Caprimulgus euro-
paeus, now more frequently called the nightjar, fern-
owl, etc. Night-hawk has, however, become , the
usual name in the United States of another bird of
the same family, Caprimulgidae, but different genus
and species, namely, Chordeiles popettle. It is related
to the Whippoorwill (Antrostom its vociferus) and to the
chuck will's widow (A. Carolinensis), but is quite dis:
tinct from both of these birds. It may be recognized
by its long, thin, pointed wings, forked tail, extremely
NIGHT-HERON-NILSSON.
51
diminutive beak, and very wide gaping mouth not
garnished with bristles.
The plumage is of varie-
...! dark colors, with
a white throat-bar and
white spots on the wings
and tail in the male,
these white marks being
º
º
buff in the female. º
The night-hawk is found º
over nearly all of North º
America, and is com-
monly seen towards
evening circling high in
the air in pursuit of in-
sects with a bold and º
buoyant flight, occasion-
ally uttering a charac-
teristic note. It nests
on the ground and lays
two .. mottled eggs.
The bird is 9 or 10 inches
long and nearly two feet
in extent of wings.
There are other species
and varieties of Chor-
ºries which receive the name of night-hawk. (E. C.)
NIGHT HERON is the name of several different
kinds of herons belonging to the family Ardeidae, and
to the genera Nyctiarded and Nyctherodius, found, in
most temperate and tropical countries and somewhat
º
--
º
º
Night-Hawk.
From Coues' Check List of North
American Birds.
Night-Heron.
From Coues' check List ºf North American Birds.
nocturnal or crepuscular in their habits. The common
species of Europe is N. nycticoraz or N. grisea; and
from this the night-heron of the United States is
scarcely specifically distinct. The latter is abundant
in many parts of the United States, and in some is
known as the º or squawk, from its hoarse,
ſº cries. It breeds on trees in swamps in large
leronries, sometimes of hundreds of pairs, and lays
2 or 3 greenish eggs. The adult birds are dark glossy
green on the head and back, elsewhere mostly bluish-
gray or lavender, with 3 or 3, long, white slender
|* springing from the back of the head. The
ill is stout and the legs comparatively short. The
length is about two feet, the extent 43 feet. The yel-
low-crowned night-heron is Nyctherodius violaceus,
quite distinct from the former and a more southerly
bird, seldom seen even in the Middle States. It is
of the same size as the former and similar in habits,
but the coloration is peculiar. (E. c.
NIGHTING ALE, Florence, renowned for !.
services to the sick and wounded, was born at Florence,
Italy, May 4, 1820. Her father, William E. Shore, a
banker of Sheffield, had assumed the name Night-
ingale on inheriting the estate of Peter Nightingale.
She was carefully educated and early showed special
fondness and aptitude for nursing the sick. In 1849
she went to Germany to obtain the usual training of
*onesses in Pastor Fliedner's school at Kaiserwerth
ler description of this school published in 1850 helped
to make it widely known in England. She then tºok
charge of an infirmary for governesses in London, but
the revelation of the sufferings of the English army
in the Crimea in 1854 called her to her most important
work. At the request of the Secretary of War she
went as superintendent of a band of female volunteer
nurses, and opened a hospital at Scutari. The imme-
diate success of her volunteer movement broke down
the barriers raised by the jealousy of army officers.
She was made superintendent of all the hospitals on
the Bosphorus and subsequently in the Crimea. Over
all the difficulties of her self-imposed task her genius
triumphed and brought order out of confusion, but
her health finally gave way. Returning to England in
isió, she received the thanks of the nation. Besides
other marks of honor a fund of £50,000 was raised
which, at her request, was devoted to founding a school
of nurses under her direction. In 1862 she was com-
missioned by the government to examine and report
upon the sanitary state of the army in India. Though
precluded by the state of her health from active work,
she still observes with interest the labors of others in
her chosen field. She has published several hand-
books, among which are Notes on Nursing (1859);
Notes on Hospitals (1859); Notes on Lying-in. Institu-
tions (1871); and Life or Death in India (1874).
NIHILISM. See BAKUNIN. -
NILES, HEzEKIAH (1777–1839), journalist, was
born in Chester co., Pa., Oct. 10, 1777. He became a
printer and was partner in a publishing firm at Wil-
mington, Del, in 1800. He afterwards edited a paper
at Baltimore and in 1811 he founded there the weekly
Niles' Register, which he edited until 1836. The his-
torical information contained in it was considered so
valuable that the Register from 1812 to 1827 was re-
published in 32 volumes, and a continuation was after-
wards made to June, 1849, making in all 76 volumes.
Niles also published Principles and Acts of the Revo-
lution (1823). He died at Wilmington, Del, April 2,
1839.
NILSSON, CHRISTINE, a Swedish vocalist, was born
at Hussaby, Aug. 3, 1843, of a peasant family. Her
father had charge of the music at the village church,
and she early displayed great musical ability. Her
violin-playing and singing at a village fair attracted
Count Thornerhjelm, and by his aid she received a
complete education at Stockholm under Berwald and
at Paris under Massé and Wartel. She made her dé-
but in Traviata Oct. 27, 1864. She afterwards ap-
peared in the Magic Flute, in Martha, Don Juan, and
other operas. In 1867 she visited London and was
received with great applause, appearing in Traviata
and afterwards as Marguerite in Gounod's Faust. In
1868 she took part in the Handel celebration at the
Crystal Palace. She came to America in September,
1870, but did not appearin opera until the following
year, when she achieved a remarkable success. In
July, 1872, she was married in London to Auguste
Rouzaud, a French merchant. She afterwards ap-
peared for a short season at St. Petersburg and in 1873
returned to the United States. Her husband died in
1882, and she afterwards resumed her concerts, Her
voice is noted for its purity, sweetness, and flexibility.
She is an excellent actress both in tragic and in comic
parts.
NILSSON, SweN (1787–1883), a Swedish naturalist
and archaeologist, was born near Landscrona, March 8,
1787. He was educated at the University of Lund,
and there became in 1812 instructor in natural history
and afterwards overseer of the Zoological Museum.
In 1828 he was placed in charge of the Museum of the
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and after arrang-
ing this he returned in 1831 to Lund, where he was
professor of zoölogy until 1856. He died there, Nov.
30, 1883. His principal works are Qrnithologia Sue-
cica (2 vols., 1817–21); Skandinavisk Fauna (4 vols.
1820–55), the illustrations to the latter being published
separately. Other works were devoted to the mollusks,
-











52
NINA–NOMENCLATURE.
fish, and fossils of Sweden. His most important
archaeological work is Skandinaviska Nordens Urime.
vamºre (4 vols., 1838–43).
NINA, LORENzo (1812–1885), an Italian cardinal,
was born at Recanati, May 12, 1812. He was educated
at his native village and at Rome, obtaining the degree
of doctor of theology. In 1835 he was ordained priest,
and held various offices in the congregation of the
council. Cardinal Amat made him his auditor, and
Pope Pius IX. employed him on various delicate mis-
sions. He was then made assessor of the holy office,
and in 1869 was a member of the commission to pre-
pare for the council of the Vatican. He was also
prothonotary-apostolic and consul of the congregation
of rites. He was made cardinal-deacon May 12, 1877.
Pope Leo XIII. made him under-secretary of state in
August, 1878. He became at the same time prefect
of the palace and administrator of the property of the
Holy See. He conducted important negotiations with
Russia, with Germany, and with Belgium. He died
at Rome, July 25, 1885.
NISARI), JEAN MARIE NAPOLEoN DESIRE (1806–
1888), a French author, was born at Châtillon-sur-
Seine, March 20, 1806. He studied at Sainte-Barbe,
and became a journalist. In 1830 he was employed in
the department of instruction. In his first important
work, Les Poètes latins de la décadence (1834), he
drew a comparison between Lucan and Victor Hugo,
which led to an animated controversy with Jules Janin
on romanticism and classicism. Nisard was master of
conferences in French literature at the Normal School
from 1835 to 1843, and meantime held various positions
under the ministry until 1842, when he was elected to
the chamber of deputies as a conservative. In 1843
he became professor of Latin eloquence in the Collège
de France, and in 1852 he was appointed general in-
spector of superior instruction, and also succeeded
illemain as professor of French eloqºence at the Sor-
bonne. In 1855 he ventured to assert that the actions
of rulers are not to be judged by the rules of morality
applying to private station. The consequent disturb-
ances of the students in his room gave occasion for a
ublic trial. In 1857 he was made director of the
igher Normal School, which was then reorganized.
He retired from this post in 1867, when he was made
senator, though he continued to be a member of the
imperial council of instruction. He had been admitted
to the French Academy in 1850. He died March 25,
1888. Among his publications are Histoire de la lit-
térature française (4 vols., 1844–61 ; 6th ed., 1876);
Etudes sur la Renaissance (1855); Melanges d'histoire
et de littérature (1868); Les Quatre grands Historiens
romains (1874).
His brother, MARIE EDOUARD CHARLES NISARD,
born at Châtillon-sur-Seine, Jan. 10, 1808, has done
considerable literary work. From 1831 to 1848 he
held a position in the household of King Louis Philippe
and was connected with various journals. He was
afterwards employed in the ministry of the interior.
Among his publications are Le Triumvirat littéraire
O. M. VIe. Siècle, namely, Scaliger, Lipsius, and
Casaubon (1853); Histoire des livres populaires
1854); Les Gladiateurs de la république des lettres
1860); Des Chansons populaires # 866); Le langage
populaire ou patois de Paris (1873). He has also
edited various memoirs and historical documents.
NISBET, CHARLEs. See DICKINSON COLLEGE.
NITROGLYCERINE. See ExPLOSIVES.
NOAH, MoRDECAL MANUEL (1785–1851), journal-
1st, was born at Philadelphia, July 14, 1785. He
studied law and practised at Charleston, S. C. In 1811
he was made U.S. consul at Riga, Russia, and in 1813
was transferred to Tunis. On his return to America
he settled at New York, where he founded and edited
several newspapers, one of them being the first Sunday
newspaper published there (1834). His earnest devo-
tion to the welfare of his co-religionists was shown in
1820 in his endeavor to establish a Jewish colony on
Grand Island, in Niagara River, but the project failed.
He was elected sheriff of New York, and was ap-
pointed surveyor of the port and judge of the court of
sessions. He died at N. York, May 22, 1851. He
published Travels in England, France, Spain, and the
Barbary States (1819); A Translation of the Book of
Jasher (1840); Gleanings from a Gathered Harvest
(1845), and some dramas. -
NOE, AMEDEE DE, a French caricaturist, generally
known by his assumed name CHAM (i. e., Ham, son of
Noah), was the son of the Comte de Noé, and was
born at Paris, Jan. 26, 1819. He early showed in-
clination for painting, and he received instruction from
Paul Delaroche and Charlet. In 1842 his caricatures
began to appear in almanacs and various periodicals.
Soon they achieved great success, and were furnished
chiefly to Charivari, but afterwards were collected in
Several volumes. They exhibited the ridiculous side
of public events and the social life of France down
nearly to 1860. After this date he published only a
few vaudevilles.
NOEL, BAPTIST WRIOTHESLEY (1799–1873), an
English clergyman, was born at Leightmont, Scotland
July 10, 1799. He was a brother of the first earl of
Gainsborough. He graduated at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1826, and became noted as a preacher. He
was one of the queen's chaplains, and preached at
St. John's, London. In 1849 he withdrew from the
Established Church and became a Baptist. He was
active in benevolent work among the poor. He died
at London, Jan. 20, 1873. He published several vol-
umes of sermons, some treatises on baptism and on the
union of church and state.
NOLDEKE, THEODoR (1836–1875), a German
Orientalist, was born at Harburg, March 2, 1836. He
raduated at Göttingen in 1861, having studied under
Jwald, and afterwards went to Vienna, Leyden, and
Berlin. In 1864 he was made professor-extraordinary
at Kiel, and in 1868 professor-ordinary. In 1872 he
was called to a professorship in the newly founded
University of Strasburg. He died Jan. 20, 1875. He
published Geschichte des Korams (1860); Des Leben
Mohammeds (1863); Ueber die Amalekiter (1864);
Die Alttestamentliche Literatur (1868); Untersuchungen.
zur Kritik des Alten Testaments (1869); and Die
Inschrift des König's Mesa von Moab (1870). He con-
tributed to the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA on Oriental
subjects.
NOMENCLATURE, GEOGRAPHICAL. The greatly
varied spelling given by different writers to geograph-
ical names renders it often difficult to discover the
relationship between the various spellings or to be sure
whether or not two unlike words refer to the same
place. The same difficulty exists in regard to bio-
graphical names. Hitherto there has been no standard
of spelling in biography and geography, most travellers
seeking to give to the words as pronounced by natives
of foreign countries the nearest parallel sounds in the
alphabet of their own language, but usually hearing
and interpreting differently, so that considerable varia-
tions exist in the spelling of these names, except where
long usage has given them a fixed form. Familiar ex-
amples are the two spellings Otaheite and Tahiti,
which are certainly not at once recognizable as variants
of the same name. The same may be said of Hawaii
and Owhyhee, which would naturally be taken as
names of quite different places, not as different spell-
ings of the same name. Many instances might be
given in which, though the difference is less, the lack
of familiarity is more calculated to produce confusion.
Numerous examples of the same kind could be drawn
from the annals of biography. If we take the name
of the great Mongol conqueror of the thirteenth cen-
tury, it is to find it spelled by the French Djenguis or
Djenguyz, by the Germans Dschengis, by the English
Ill OI’0 simply Jengis or Jengiz, and by certain writers
Chingis, Tchenguyz, and in various other methods.
this distinguished barbarian being so fortunate as to
NORDENSKJOLD.
53
have more than twenty different spellings to his name,
besides others which are manifest errors. Similar dis-
crepancies exist in the spellings of many other names,
of which we may instance the Russian poet, Pooshkin
or Pushkin in English, Pouchkine or Pouchekine in
French, and Puschkin in German, and his fellow-poet,
Derzhavin, Derjavine, or Derschawin. A more recent
example is the Russian novelist, Toorgenef or Tur-
geniefſ.
The above examples will suffice to show the great
need of a revision of method in the spelling of foreign
names and the adoption of some clearly defined system
of orthography, for the use of English writers at least,
if not a general system for the use of all the writers of
civilized communities. Although this necessity has
been long recognized, no steps of an authoritative
character have been taken by liº to produce
a uniform spelling of proper names, and no generally
accepted ones by geographers. Dr. Joseph Thomas
says, speaking of biographical names, that the are
only three courses that can possibly be pursued : . (1)
To blunder over, or pronounce such names at random ;
(2) to endeavor to pronounce all names, foreign and
English alike, according to English methods of or-
thography ; (3) to adopt the system of pronunciation
now generally recognized by the more highly educated
classes in England, America, and continental Europe;
that is, to pronounce all names, as nearly as possible,
as they are pronounced by the well-educated people of
the country to which they belong, with the exception
of such names as have acquired an established English
pronunciation.” The third method, which he adopts
as the only rational one, does not present as many
difficulties in spelling as might be imagined, and could
in his opinion be generally adopted with very little
difficulty. All suggestions in regard to biographical
spelling, however, have been personal only, and none
of them carry the weight which would attach to a body
of fixed rules adopted by a recognized congress of
biographers.
In regard to geographical orthography, the Royal
Gººl Society of England, feeling that some
method of producing uniformity in spelling was
seriously demanded, adopted in 1886 the fºllowing
rules, which are the same as those which were pre-
viously in use in the orthography of the Admiralty
charts. The high standing of the society gives its
utterances and recommendations much weight, and we
append its adopted rules. These rules apply only to
those names which are not written in Roman charac-
ters in the countries to which they belong. In Spain,
Portugal, Holland, and other countries which use
Roman characters the native spelling will be pre-
served; nor will in any case a change be made in the
spelling of names which long usage has rendered
familiar to English readers. The true sound of the
Word, as locally pronounced, is to be taken in all cases
as the basis of the spelling, but the finer inflections of
sound and accent are not required to be preserved, a
Feasonable approximation to the sound being all that
is deemed desirable.
As a general rule of orthography, vowels are to re-
ceive the Italian, consonants thé English sound. No
Regent is to be used but the acute, and this only where
it is demanded by a particular stress upon some syl-
lable of the word. Every letter is to be sounded, and
where two vowels come together each should be
sounded, though sometimes so quickly as to seem but
one sound, as in ai, au, and ei. Hindu names will be
accepted as they are spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer. The
i. of the several letters of the alphabet are as
OliOWS :
A as in father.
E as in benefit or ch.
I as in machine or English e.
correct spelling.
Thus Fiji, not Feejee, is the
O as in mote.
as in flute.
All vowels are shortened in sound by doubling the follow-
ing consonant. The vowel is to be doubled only when there
is a distinct repetition of the sound, as in Nuwlºu.
Ai corresponds to English i, as in ice.
Au corresponds to English ow, as in how.
Ao is slightly different from au, as in Macao. º
Ei has the sound of the two Italian vowels, but is fre-
quently slurred and resembles ey in they. Example,
Beirut.
The consonant sounds are as follows:
B, D, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, V, W, and Z as in English.
C is to be always soft, but usually should be replaced by
S, which it so closely resembles.
Ch always soft, as in church. vº e
F as English f. Ph should not be used for f. Write
Haifong, not Haiphong.
G is always hard. Soft g is #. by j.
H is to be always pronounced when given.
J as English j. Dj should never be used for j.
K as English k. This letter should always be used for
hard c. Example: Korett, not Corca.
Kh is the Oriental guttural, as in Khan.
Gh is another guttural, as in Turkish dagh, or ghazi.
Ng has two sounds; one as in English ſinger, the other as
in English singer.
Q should never be used.
Qu is given as Kw. Example: Kwangtung.
Y is always a consonant, as in yard. It should never be
used as a terminal, but be replaced by i or e.
To what extent these useful rules will be adopted is
a matter to be settled by time. They may come into
general use or may serve as a basis for more fully con-
sidered rules, to be chosen by some future congress of
societies. At all events they mark an important step
toward a highly desirable reform and may arouse those
who have suffered from the annoyance of indiscrim-
inate spelling to some decided measures of improve-
ment in this direction. Probably the final system of
geographical and biographical orthography will be one
that can be applied with little or no variation by all the
enlightened nations of modern time and will help
towards that general linguistic conformity which is so
desirable.
Another subject of importance may be noted in this
connection—the superabundant nomenclature of zoö-
logical, botanical, geological, and other sciences. The
species of animals and plants have been renamed so
frequently by different observers that the super-
abundant lists of synonymes are confusing and often
misleading, and it is highly desirable that some authori-
tative body should adopt a fixed rule of biological
nomenclature which will reduce the names to a single
accepted one for each species. This is being gradually
done by the labors of specialists throughout the world,
while varieties which have been classed as species are
also being dropped, but the task is a difficult one and
many years º be needed for its full accomplishment.
A similar difficulty exists in the science of geology, in
which the same formation bears different names in
different parts of the earth, and there is a great need
of a revision and simplification of the nomenclature.
Important steps in this direction were taken at the
London meeting of the International Geological Asso-
ciation in 1888, which it is to be hoped may go far to
remedy the existing confusion. (C. M.)
NORDENSKJOLD, NILs ADolf ERIK, BARON,
a Swedish Arctic explorer, was born at Helsingfors,
Finland, Nov. 18, 1832. His father, Nils, was a dis-
tinguished mineralogist and took him early on explor-
ing tours in the Ural Mountains. The son after
graduating at Helsingfors, in 1857, went to Stockholm,
where he was appointed professor of mineralogy. He
assisted in Arctic expeditions in 1859 and 1861, and
organized others in 1864 and 1868. In the last of
these, conducted in a steamer, he reached on Sept. 19,
1868, a point in 81° 42° N, lat. He also thoroughly
explored Spitzbergen, and on his return made known
its geology, mineralogy, botany, and zoölogy. In 1870
he visited Greenland, where he found the three largest
meteorites yet known. In 1872 he set out again for
Spitzbergon, where he spent the winter, and in the
54
NORDHOFF-NORMAL SCHOOLS.
following spring, with a single companion, went north
to the Seven Islands. His subsequent voyages and
his success in accomplishing the North-East passage
have been recounted under ARCTIC EXPLORATION.
The results of this expedition have been published in
several volumes and translated from Swedish into
other languages. Besides other honors Nordenskjöld
was raised to the peerage. In 1883 he again sailed for
Greenland and conducted an expedition farther into
the interior than had ever been done before.
NORDHOFF, CHARLEs, journalist, was born at
Erwitte, Prussia, Aug. 31, 1830. At an early age he
was brought to the United States by his parents, who
settled at Cincinnati. In 1844 he went to Philadel-
phia and entered the navy. He sailed around the
world and served on merchant vessels until 1853, when
he became a printer. In 1857 he entered upon literary
work in New York, and he was connected with the
Evening Post from 1861 to 1871, when he went to
California. After a visit to Hawaii in 1873 he re-
moved to Washington, where he has since been a
special correspondent of the New York IIerald. His
publications include Man-of. War Life (1855); Whal-
ing and Fishing (1856); Cape Cod and all Along Shore
(1868); Polities for J'oung Americans (1875); The
Communistic Societies of the United States (iS75);
The Cotton States in 1875 (1876); God and the Future
Life (1SSl).
NORFOLK, a city of Virginia, in Norfolk co., is
on the Elizabeth River, 8 miles from Hampton Roads,
and 33 miles from the Atlantic Ocean. It has an ex-
cellent and capacious harbor. There are 2 railroads,
3 canals, and several lines of steamers connecting it
with New York and other cities. Norfolk has a cus-
tom-house, a city-hall, court-house and jail, 2 national
and several other banks, 28 churches, good public
schools and several academies, 4 daily and 6 weekly
newspapers. The city has a good water supply, is
lighted with gas, and has a paid fire department.
Norfolk was settled in 1705, and was made a city in
1845. It was burnt by the British in 1776. At the
opening of the civil war in 1861 the U. S. navy-yard
at Gosport, in the vicinity, attracted attention. It
contained 12 large vessels, brought thither for repairs.
When the place was threatened with capture by Vir-
ginia troops the U. S. commander deemed it necessary
to destroy the vessels and the works of the navy-yard.
Most of them were burnt, but the Merrimac, which
had been scuttled and sunk, was raised by the Con-
federates and made an iron-clad. For its famous fight
with the Monitor, see IRON-CLADS. Norfolk was soon
after abandoned by the Confederates and remained in
possession of the Union troops till the close of the
war. Its commercial prosperity is now reviving.
NORMAL SCHOOLS. Normal schools are insti-
tutions for the training of teachers for the common
schools. The first school of the kind was established
at Rheims, in France, in 1681, by the Abbé Jean Bap-
tist de la Salle, whose character and work have been
set forth under BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.
But although France is entitled to the honor of having
first instituted the system of normal training, Germany
deserves the credit of having adopted, extended, and
perfected it. The benevolent. Hermann Francké
(1663–1727. See sketch in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRI-
TANNICA) turned his attention to the subject of popu-
lar education in the city of Hamburg. He bent all his
energies toward the establishment of a teachers' semi-
nary, in which he finally succeeded at Halle, in Prus;
sia, about 1704; and from this institution well-qualified
teachers were soon spread over all the north of Ger-
lilany. º e
The kingdom of Prussia took the lead in the estab-
lishment of normal schools. The first normal school-
in Germany called a Pedagogium or teachers' semi-
nary—supported by the state was established at Stet-
tin, in Pomerania, in 1735; the second at Potsdam, in
Brandenburg, in 1748; the third at Breslau, in Silesia,
in 1765; and from the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury teachers' seminaries gradually spread all over
Germany. Some of them are private institutions;
but the government exercises the right of supervision
over them. A brief description of the celebrated nor-
mal school of Potsdam will best explain the normal
system as it exists in the different countries of Europe,
for with slight deviations nearly all the European
Schools were modelled after it. The Potsdam Normal
School and its annexed model-School or school of prac-
tice are placed under a director or principal, subordi-
nate to the royal School-board of the province of Bran-
denburg, at Berlin, and to the minister of public
instruction. The last-named authority lays down the
principles to be followed in this school, exacts an ac-
count of all important matters, such as the examina-
tion of the masters, and any change in the funda-
mental plan of the studies; and receives every year,
through the medium of the royal school-board, a de-
tailed report prepared by the director of the school.
The school-board is charged with the special inspection
of the normal school; it must watch its progress, and
from time to time send commissioners to make in-
quiries on the spot. It examines and approves the
plan of studies presented every half year, and decides
upon all questions submitted to the consistory. The
director superintends the whole establishment, observes
and directs the master and servants, makes reports to
the Superior authorities, and carries on the correspond-
€In Ce.
The number of pupil-teachers is fixed at from 70
to 80, and to instruct these there are 6 masters,
besides the director. The conditions for admission are
somewhat rigid. The candidates must be in good
health, and free from all bodily infirmity; they must
be 17 years old, and belong to the Evangelical religion;
they must produce certificates of birth and baptism,
school-certificates, and certificates of good conduct.
The examination for admission is partly written and
bartly oral. The oral examination is confined to re-
#. grammar, reading, logical exercises, and arith-
metic. They are examined also in singing, the piano-
forte, and the violin. When a candidate passes a suc-
cessful examination he is bound to sign the following
engagement to the director, with the consent of his
father or guardian : the undersigned, M
N , by these presents, bind myself conformably
with the ordinance of the royal minister of public
instruction and ecclesiastical and medical affairs to
place myself during three years, after my leaving the
normal school, at the disposal of the king's govern-
ment, and consequently not to subscribe anything con-
trary to this engagement; or in such case to refund to
the normal school the expenses incurred by the state
for my instruction.”
In the first year formal instruction predominates;
in the second material instruction, ºd in the third
practical instruction. Formal instruction consists of
studies calculated to open the mind, and to inculcate
on the pupils good methods in every branch, and the
feeling º Tº e
of what is the true vocation of a primary
teacher; material instruction, or more positive instrue-
tion, occupies the second year, in which the pupils go
through the special studies of every solid kind, much
of which they may never be called upon to teach ;
practical instruction, or instruction in the art of teach-
ing, occupies the third year. In the last year the pu-
pils are obliged to give ten well-prepared lessons :
week in the model school, or school of practice. At
the expiration of the three years' course the pupil-
teachers are compelled to pass a rigid examination, not
only in the subjects they have studied but also in the
methods of teaching them.
Normal schools in l’russia are divided into public or
private, superior or chief seminaries, and secondary or
small seminaries. By a chief seminary was originally
understood such seminaries as were completely organs
ized according to the requirements of the laws. After,
NORMAL SCHOOLS.
55
wards they were distinguished by the fact that a spe-
giai commission of examination was appointed for
them, to which commission the head-teacher and the
director belonged. But by a later regulation a com-
mission for this purpose was appointed to the small,
and even the private, as well as to the Superior semi-
l:ll'10S, .*
l In 1704 a normal school was established at Paris by
the national convention ; but the institution was pro-
jected on a scale beyond the preparation of its earliest
jupils. The instruction was mainly by lectures, deliv-
bred by such eminent scholars as Lagrange, Laplace,
Sicard, Laharpe, and others, and was far above the
comprehension of the immature students of the school.
It was, therefore, abandoned in 1795. After the re-
organization of the university, in 1806, the expediency
of reviving the normal school was felt, and it was re-
organized accordingly, in 1808. The number of pupils
provided for by the new plan was 300; but from 1810
to jS26 there were never more than 58 in actual at-
tendance. According to the plan of instruction, lec-
tures were to be attended elsewhere, and interroga-
tions and study to take place within the school under
the charge of the elder pupils. The recitations of the
pupils to each other were called conferences; a name
which is still preserved, being applied to the lessons
given by the teachers, who are called masters of con-
ferences. The duration of the course of instruction
was at first limited to two years, but subsequently ex-
tended to three. The school was a second time Sup-
pressed in 1822, and in 1826 an institution termed a
preparatory school was substituted for it, which in its
turn was abolished and the old normal school revived
by a decree of the lieutenant-general of the kingdom,
Aug. 6, 1830. A report was made by M. Cousin,
Secretary of the Council of Public Instruction, in Octo-
ber, 1830, the recommendations of which were sub-
stantially adopted. The school then commenced a
career of usefulness which has been increasing ever
since.
The officers, in 1837, were the director, who did not
reside at the school nor take part in the instruction;
the director of studies, the resident head of the estab-
lishment; eight masters of conferences for the section
of letters; six masters of conferences for the section
of sciences, and one for the drawing department; two
“ preparers; " a sub-director, charged with the general
superintendence of the pupils; and two assistants,
called superintending masters. The masters of con-
ferences have, in general, duties equivalent to those of
professors in colleges. The qualifications for admission
are high, and the course of instruction during the
three years' course much in advance of the ordinary
normal school. The Paris Normal School resembles a
college with a normal department attached to it.
In 1811 the Count de Lezai Marnesia founded a
normal school for primary teachers , at Strasburg.
The course of instruction embraced four years, and
included as wide and thorough a range of studies as is
now required in the best normal schools of France.
According to a report of M. Guizot to the king, in
JS33, it appears that the state of primary education in
the two departments constituting the Academy of
Strasburg was far in advance of any other section of
France. Good schools were more numerous, fewer
Columunes were destitute of schools, and the slow,
defective method of individual instruction had given
place to more lively and simultaneous methods of class
instruction. “ In all respects the superiority of the
schools is striking, and the conviction of the people is
as general that this superiority is mainly due to the
existence of this normal school.”
The establishment of 2 normal schools for the de-
º of Moselle and Meuse, in 1820, was fol-
lowed by the same results—the establishment of schools
ill, columunes before destitute and the improvement of
Schools already in operation, by the introduction of
better methods. At the close of 1829 there were
13 normal schools in operation in different sections
of France. In the three years in mediately fol-
lowing, 34 new normal schools were established. The
establishment and extension of the normal system in
France and, it may be said, in Europe and America
are mainly due to the exertions of Cousin and Guizot.
Their investigations and writings attracted the at:
tention of educators and statesmen in every civilized
country of the world. Such was the success of these
two eminent men that in 1849 there were 93 normal
schools in France, including 10 institutes belonging to
the Brothers of the Christian Schools, and 3 for female
teachers under the auspices of an Association of Chris-
tian Education on a similar plan. After the re-
establishment of the Empire by Napoleon III., obsta-
cles were thrown in the way of the successful operation
of the normal schools, and as a matter of course there
followed a marked decline in their efficiency. But
since the establishment of the Republic in 1871 they
have been not only restored to their former good con-
dition but have been greatly improved.
The monitorial system of teaching introduced into
England by Dr. Andrew Bell (1753–1832) and Joseph
Lancaster (1778–1838) was the germ of the present ex-
cellent normal system of Great Britain and Ireland.
The lives and educational labors of these men have
been presented under their names in the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA, to which the reader is referred.
But even Bell and Lancaster had been anticipated in
the monitorial or mutual help plan of teaching : for
Pietro della Valle (11 Pellegrino), whose Travels in
Turkey, Egypt, Persia, and India were translated into
English in 1665, mentions, among the customs which
he noticed in the East, the practice of children teach-
ing one another. In 1780, according to Count La-
borde, in his Plan d' Education pour les emfams pauvres,
the mutual instruction system was, to some extent,
tried by the Chevalier Paulet in France.
The monitorial system became for a time exceedingly
popular in Great Britain and the United States; but
it had one fatal defect: the boys and girls were too im-
mature to avail themselves of the normal methods of
the masters. Germany was the first country to abandon
the system of mutual help and to press forward the
establishment of normal schools. The Bell and Lan-
caster system, with all its faults, accomplished one
great good ; it opened the eyes of the É. and
American educators to the necessity of educating and
training teachers in schools specially established for
that purpose.
In 1808 the British and Foreign School Society es-
tablished in London a model school and teachers' class
for the “training of schoolmasters.” In the begin-
ning, its plan was very simple : it admitted a certain
number of persons every year to observe, learn, and
practise the methods of classification and instruction
pursued there. Its accommodations as a normal school
were insufficient, even on the plan of observation and
practice pursued, until 1842, when a new building was
completed at an expense of £21,433. In the mean-
time the National Society, which was more closely
connected with the Church of England, was pursuing
a similar plan in its model school at Westminster;
and the necessity of training well-qualified teachers by
means of a special course of instruction and practice
was ably discussed, and the mode and results of such
training as exhibited on the Continent, and especially
in Prussia, were ably advocated in parliament, pamph.
lets, reviews, and the daily press. Lord Brougham, in
his whole public life an eloquent advocate of popular
education, remarked in a speech in the House of Lords
in 1835, "These seminaries for training masters are an
invaluable gift to mankind and lead to the indefinite
improvement of education. It is this above all things
We ought to labor to introduce into our system. . . .
Place normal schools—seminaries for training teachers
Tin, a few such places as London, York, Liverpool,
Durham, and Exeter, and you will yearly qualify 500
56 ºs-
NORMAL SCHOOLS.
Persons fitted for diffusing a perfect system of in-
struction all over the country.” *
. Owing to difficulties arising out of religious ques-
tions, the advocates of the normal system were unable
to establish a system of national education which
would provide for the training of schoolmasters. The
National Society, however, erected a training college
fºr 74 masters of schools in Chelsea, which was coil.
pleted in 1842, at an expense of £23,651. At Battersea
a training school was established by government officials
to supply schools of industry for pauper children and
reformatory schools for juvenile criminals, with prop-
erly qualified teachers, and at the same time to give an
example of normal education, comprising the forma.
tion of gharacter, the development of the intelligence,
appropriate technical instruction, and the acquisition
of method, and practical skill in conducting an ele.
mentary school. After the methods and results had
received the repeated and emphatic commendation of
the Queen's inspectors, the founders transferred the
institution to the management of the National So-
Clety.
The success of these experiments dissipated the
prejudices against normal schools as a foreign institu-
tion, and inspired general confidence in their tendencies.
The different religious denominations, which had op-
posed the plan of the Committee of Council in 1839,
now came forward to found training colleges for teachers
of schools in their several connections. In 1852 there
were 34 normal schools or training colleges in England
and Wales, erected at an expense of £350,000, of
which the government contributed about one-half.
According to the latest reports there are at present 44
of these training colleges in England and Wales.
In Scotland the first attempt to train teachers in the
rinciples and practice of their art was made by the
i. Committee of the Church of Scotland in
1826 by placing a few teachers, appointed to their
schools in the Highlands, for a short course of obser-
Vation, instruction, and practice in one of their best-
conducted schools in Edinburgh. This plan was en-
larged and improved in 1838; and in 1846 a building
was erected for a normal school in Castle Place, at an
expense of £10,000. In the meantime Mr. Stow, in
1836, commenced at Glasgow a similar enterprise at
his own risk to train teachers on a system of instruction
somewhat peculiar. The disruption of the Church of
Scotland and the organization of the Free Church led
to the establishment of two other normal schools, one
at Edinburgh, in 1849, and the other at Glasgow, in
1852, at an aggregate expense of £20,000.
he Commissioners of National Education in Ire-
land have always encouraged monitorial teaching. They
never contemplated, however, conducting a large school
solely by monitorial assistance ; nor did they ever per-
mit their monitors to forget that they were pupils.
The first regular monitors in the service of the board
were those in the model schools of Dublin, as far back
as March, 1833. These monitors were simply pupil-
teachers receiving normal instruction in the theory and
practico of teaching. There is one great normal
school in Dublin, with model schools or schools of
practice attached. There is also a normal agricultural
school at Glasnevin. Besides these, and in connection
with them, there are several model schools in different
parts of the country. é
The first suggestion of a normal school in the
United States occurs in the Massachusetts Magazine
for 1789, supposed to have been written by Elisha
Ticknor, in which he recommends the abolition of town
grammar schools and the establishment of a grammar
school in each county, in which should be taught Eng-
lish grammar, Latin, Greek, rhetoric, geography,
mathematics, etc., in order to fit young gentlemen for
college and school-keeping. . He also recommended an
able preceptor who, with a board of overseers, should
annually examine young gentlemen designed for school-
Inasters.
The first normal school established in the United
States, avowedly for the instruction of those who de-
sired to become teachers, was the school at Concord,
Vt., instituted in 1823 by the Rev. Samuel Read Hall.
For seven years he delivered a series of lectures on
School-keeping and school government; and to illus-
trate his theories he established a model school for
practice. This pioneer of American Normal Schools
continued to labor in this special field until 1840—a
teacher of teachers—at Concord, from 1823 to 1830;
and at Andover, Mass., as principal of the Teachers'
Seminary, from 1830 to 1835; and at Plymouth,
N. H., from 1837 to 1840.
The first formal effort to establish a normal school
in Massachusetts was made by James G. Carter, in
Lancaster, in 1827, to realize the plan of such an in-
stitution which he had presented in his Essays on
Popular Education, first published in the Boston Pa-
triot in 1824–5, and afterwards issued in pamphlet form
in 1826. The town of Lancaster appropriated a por-
tion of land and the use of an academy building to aid
him in carrying out the enterprise. He memorialized
the Legislature for aid for a seminary for particular in-
Struction in the science of education. The governor in
his message recommended the establishment of a
normal School, and a suleet committee made a favorable
report. But the movement was in advance of public
opinion as represented in the Legislature, and failed for
the time being. Mr. Carter, however, continued his
private normal school and turned out many excellent
teachers for the district schools of New England.
In 1838, in a communication made by Hon. Horace
Mann, secretary of the board of education, to the
Legislature of Massachusetts, it was stated that private
munificence had placed at his disposal the sum of
$10,000 to be expended under the direction of the
board for qualifying teachers for the common schools,
on condition that the Legislature would place in the
hands of the board an equal sum to be expended for
the same purpose. Resolutions were passed accepting
the proposition and authorizing the governor to draw
his warrant for $10,000 for the purpose specified. Mr.
Mann, who had previously made himself familiar with
the workings of the normal system in Europe, took a
most active part in the establishment of the State
normal schools.
After mature deliberation the board decided to es-
tablish three normal schools, one for the north-eastern,
one for the south-eastern, and one for the western
part of the State. Accordingly one was opened on the
3d of July, 1839, at Lexington ; but the school out-
grew its accommodations and was removed to West
Newton in the same county, in 1844, and afterwards to
Framingham in 1853. The second normal school was
opened at Barré, Sept. 4, 1839. This school has since
been removed to Westfield on account of the insuffi-
ciency of the accommodations at Barré. The third nor-
mal school was opened at Bridgewater on the 9th of
September, 1840, and has never changed its location.
The school at Framingham is appropriated exclusively
to females; and those at Bridgewater and Westfield
admit both sexes.
As most of the normal schools of the United States
have been modelled, to a great extent, on the plan of
the Massachusetts State normal schools, just as the
latter were, as far as feasible, modelled on the plan of
the Prussian schools, a statement of the course of study
adopted for the three new schools will give a fair
idea of the breadth and scope of the instruction.
The Course of Study.—The studies first attended to
in the State normal schools are those which the law
requires to be taught in the district schools, namely:
orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geog-
raphy, and arithmetic. When these are mastered
those of a higher order are progressively taken. For
those who remain longer than one year the following
course was arranged tº . ~
(1) diºi. reading, grammar, composition,
NORRISTOWN–NORTH ADAMS.
57
rhetoric, and logic. (2) Writing and drawing. (3) Arith-
metic (mental and written), algebra, geometry, book-
keeping, navigation, and surveying. (4) Geography
(ancient and modern), with chronology, statistics, and
general history. ... (3) Human physiology and hygiene
or the laws of health. (6) Mental philosophy.
(7) Music. , (8) Constitutional history of Massachu-
setts and of the United States. (9), Natural philºso-
phy and astronomy. (10) Natural history. (I l) The
principles of piety and morality common to all sects
of Christians. (T2) The science and art of teaching
with reference to all the above-named studies. Reli-
gious exercises: A portion of the Scriptures is re-
quired to be read daily in every State normal school.
In addition to the three State normal schools already
mentioned another was established in 1854 at Salem ;
another, in 1870, at Cambridge; and another, in 1874,
at Worcester. Besides these there is a city normal
school in Boston, instituted in 1852.
Among the earliest and most earnest advocates of
legislative provision for the professional training of
teachers stands the name of Gov. De Witt Clinton.
In his message to the Legislature of New York, in
1825, he recommended to their consideration the edu-
cation of competent teachers; and again in the next
year he said : “I therefore recommend a seminary for
the education of teachers in those useful branches of
knowledge which are proper to engraft on elementary
attainments.” In his message of 1828 he again urged
the subject on the attention of the Legislature.
Through the efforts of John C. Spencer and Gen.
John A. Dix, the Board of Regents of the University
of New York, in May, 1834, were authorized to apply
a part of the income to the literature fund to the edu-
cation of common-school teachers. Again, in 1836,
the State Superintendent, Gen. Dix, adverted to the
fact that in the adoption of this system the Legislature
has merely provided for the more complete execution
of a design long contemplated so far as respects the
employment of the academies for normal school pur-
poses. He stated in his report that “the propriety
of founding separate institutions upon the model of
the seminaries for teachers in Prussia was for several
years a subject of public discussion in this State.”
The Committee on Colleges, Academies, and Com-
men Schools made a report to the Legislature of New
York, in 1844, in which it was recommended to estab-
lish a normal school in Albany. By means of a sub-
committee the committee had examined the normal
schools of Massachusetts and inquired into their opera-
tions in other countries. The recommendation of the
committee was adopted by an almost unanimous vote,
and $9600 was appropriated for the first year and
$10,000 annually for five years thereafter in appro-
priations for the support of the school. The city of
Albany tendered the use of a suitable building, free
of rent, and the school was organized and commenced
the business of instruction December, 1844. Since
the establishment of the first normal school at Albany
the following State normal schools have been insti-
tuted : One at Oswego in 1861, one at Brockport in
1867, one at Fredonia in 1868, one at Cortland and one
at Potsdam in 1869, one at Geneseo and one at Buffalo
in 1871. There is also a training school in connection
with the high-school at Syracuse. In addition to these
nine normal schools the city of New York supports at
an annual expense of $100,000 a normal college for the
education of female teachers, which is, perhaps, the
largest and best equipped institution of the kind in the
United States. It has a large school of practice at-
tached to it, and the grounds and buildings are es-
timated to be worth at least a million of dollars. The
cºllege was established in 1870, mainly owing to the
effºrts of Mr. William Wood, who, as commissioner,
in his visits to the common schools, saw the necessity
of guating teachers for their highly important
WOrk.
From Massachusetts and New York the normal
system has gradually spread all over the United States,
until there were, in 1886, 117 public normal schools,
with 1115 instructors and 31,801 students. Ninety-
six of these are supported by the States and 21 by
the cities. There were also, in 1886, 36 private normal
schools, with 279 instructors and 8524 students.
These schools are distributed anong the States and
Territories as follows:
3 & 3 &
- *s <3 - c:
States. 3 i.: States. -E | .:
* à & 3- dº
Alabama............... 6 || 2 || Nebraska............. 2 || 1
Arkansas............... 1 || 1 || New Hampshire...| 2 || 0
California...............| 3 || 2 || New Jersey......... 3 1
Colorado ................ 1 | 1 || New York........... | 1 ( )
Connecticut............ 1 () || North Carolina.....| 5 || 1
I'lorida. ................. 1 || 0 || South Carolina.....| 1 || 3
Georgia ................. 0 | 0 || Ohio................... 5 : ]
Illinois.................. 3 || 2 || Oregon................| 1 || 0 |
Indiana. ................ 3 || 5 || Pennsylvania ...... 11 || 2 |
Iowa. ........ s' e º 'º e º 'º - tº e - tº 3 || 2 || Rhode Island....... 1 ()
Kansas. ................. 1 | 1 || Tennessee............ 1 4
Kentucky. ............ 0 || 4 || Texas..................| 1 || 2
Louisiana................| 2 || 2 || Vermont.............. 3 || 0
Maine. ................... 5 || 4 || Virginia.............. 4 || 0 |
Maryland................ 2 || 0 || West Virginia...... 6 || 0 |
Massachusetts.......... 10 || 0 || Wisconsin............! 5 2
Michigan................ 1 || 0 || Dakota ............... 2 ()
Minnesota............... 3 || 0 || Dist. of Columbia. | 2 || 0
Mississippi............... 1 | 3 || Utah ................... 0 || 0
Missouri................. J C || Washington......... 1 || 0
See H. Barnard's Journal of Education ; Dr. James
Phillips Kay's Report to the British Parliament on the
“Prussian System of Teachers' Seminaries; ” Guizot's Re-
port, as Minister of Public Instruction in France, on the
Normal Schools of Prussia ; the Report of the Prussian
System to the Massachusetts Board by Dr. Julius, of Hann-
burg; Horace Mann's Report to the Massachusetts Legisla-
ture on the Establishment of Normal Schools; the Mes-
sages of Gov. De Witt Clinton recommending the Normal
System ; A. D. Bache's Report on the Normal Schools of
France and Gerulany; the Reports of U. S. Commissioner
of 12ducation. (T. H.)
NORRISTOWN, a borough of Pennsylvania,
county-seat of Montgomery co., is on the east bank
of the Schuylkill River, 16 miles N. W. of Philadel-
phia, with which it is connected by the Reading and
Schuylkill Valley Railroads. It is a handsome town,
built on hills. It has a fine marble court-house. opera-
house, public library, jail, 2 national banks, l other
bank, 15 churches, Treemount Seminary, and several
public schools. The industrial works comprise rolling-
mills, foundries, cotton- and woollen-mills, glass-works,
tack-factory, flour-mills, etc. Two daily and 5 weekly
newspapers are published here. The State Asylum
for the Insane for the Eastern District is located here.
On the west side of the river is the borough of Bridge-
port, with which Norristown is connected by three
bridges. Population of Norristown in 1880 was
13,063; of Bridgeport, 1802. -
NORTH ADAMS, a manufacturing village of Berk-
shire eo., Mass., is on the Hoosac River, at the west
end of the Hoosae Tunnel, 36 miles E. of Albany.
This tunnel, perforated through the Hoosac Mountains,
is 5 miles long and is owned by the State. It is used
jointly by 5 railroads, which pass through North
Adauns and connect it with Troy and Albany on the
west and Boston and other cities on the east. North
Adams has 8 hotels, 2 national and 2 other banks, 3
weekly newspapers, 9 churches, graded schools and
academies. The industries comprise 1 foundry, 4
woollen- and 7 cotton-mills, 8 shoe-factories, 2 print-
cloth-factories, and other manufactures. The village
is picturesque in situation, being surrounded by high
hills and beautiful scenery. It has gas- and water.
58
NORTIIAMPTON.—NORTH CAROLINA.
Works. Its property is valued at $5,500,000 : its pub-
lic debt is $80,000, and the yearly expenses $119,000.
Its population in 1880 was joiji, but a local census
In 1886 gave 14,250. -
N ÖRTHAMP’ſon , a city of Massachusetts, shire-
ºwn of Hampshire co., is on the W. bank of the
Cºnnecticut River, 17 miles N. of Springfield and so
miles W. of Boston. Three railroads pass through it,
and there is also a street railway to Florence. The
çity has excellent water-works, electric lights, and a
fire department. There are 3 national and 3 Savings
banks; 10 churches and 2 newspaper offices. A
stream affords abundant water-power which is utilized
in , manufacturing paper, silk, and cotton goods.
Other manufactures, are cutlery, sewing-machines,
brushes, etc. Besides the State Lunatic Asylum
Northampton contains the Clarke institute for deaf.
nutes, the John Clarke library with 20,000 volumes,
the Smith Charities, and Smith College (q.v.), an
institution for the higher education of women.
NORTH CAROLINA. There has been no official
y- Census taken
jº, since 1880.
\w * The popula-
Am. Rep.). tion of the
State in 1888 is probably
1,800,000. There is but
little emigration from the
State. The immigration,
mainly from the Northern
and North-western States,
more than balances the
losses. Some of the cities
and towns have increased rapidly in numbers and
wealth. The following table shows the growth of the
most prominent :
1SSS. 1SS0.
Raleigh ............................. 15,800 9,265
Wilmington....................... 23,000 17,350
Charlotte........................... 12,000 7,054
Asheville......... ................. 10,000 2,616
Winston and Salem ............ 10,000 4,194
Durham ............................ 7,500 2,041
Fayetteville....................... 6,000 3,4S5
Goldsboro ............... & e s - e s - e. e. e. e. 6,000 3,286
Greensboro ...... ................. 6,000 2,005
Reidsville. ......................... 5,0: () 1,316
Henderson......................... 5,000 1,421
The public charitable and penal institutions of the
State are in good condition and well managed. There
are three asylums for the insane—one at Raleigh, one at
Morganton, both for whites only, and one at Goldsboro
for the colored. That at Raleigh, Eugene Grissom,
M. D., LL.D., superintendent, has 290 patients. It
cost $250,000. The Western North Carolina Asylum
cost $450,000 and has 420 patients; superintendent,
T}r. P. L. Murphy. The Eastern North Carolina Asy-
lum, Dr. J. M. Miller, superintendent, for the colored
only, cost $78,000. It now contains 196 patients.
The total number of insane in the State, including
harmless incurables, is estimated at about 3000. The
asylums for the blind, deaf, and dumb are at Raleigh,
one for the white and the other for the colored, both
under Mr. W. J. Young, superintendent. The former
has 76 deaf and dumb, and 59 blind ; the latter 30
deaf and dumb, and 23 blind. The buildings cost
about $100,000. The penitentiary is unfinished. It
has 1471 convicts, of wº 184 are within the walls,
the remainder on outside works, mainly constructing
railroads. The State aids the Oxford Orphan Asylum
by annual grant of $10,000. It has 240 orphans and
is under the charge of the Masonic fraternity. -
In addition to a building purchased for the agricul-
tural department, which contains its museum and
State chemical laboratory, the State has recently
erected a structure for the public library and Supreme
Court rooms, and also a mansion for the use of the
governor. o
The Western North Carolina Insane Asylum and
the Eastern North Carolina Insane Asylum have also
ºcently been completed. The State University has
likewise added about $40,000 of new structures, con-
Šišting of laboratories and a capacious auditorium.
The United States has since 1880 completed new
courts and post-offices at Raleigh and Greensboro, and
9thers at Wilmington, Asheville, and Charlotte are to
be commenced at oncé.
Finances.-The valuation of real property in the
State for taxation is $126,883,382; personal property,
$75,561,351; total, $202,444,733, an increase over
1880 of $46,344,551. The rate of taxation is 20 cents
on the $100 value for State purposes, other than edu-
cational. The total amount of taxes for the State on
property, licenses, etc., is $560,369. Total amount
for the counties is $920,077. In addition to this
$605,203 is raised for school purposes.
The compromise offered by the State in regard to
the public debt has been accepted by most of its
recognized creditors and has reduced the acknowledged
debt to $6,404,511. The interest of $2,795,000 of
this is provided for by dividends of the railroad stock,
for which bonds were issued, leaving $3,609,51] bearing
4 per cent. interest to be paid by taxation. This does
not include a large amount (about $20,000,000) of
“special tax bonds,’’ which have been repudiated by
constitutional amendment as fraudulent. The capital
of the national banks of the State is $2,312,280, and
they issue only $795,710 of circulating notes. The
individual deposits are $2,928,300.
Manufactures.—In the absence of official returns
only partial statistics can be given of the progress of
the State in manufactures. The latest estimates show
80 cotton-factories, operating 4671 looms and 199,433
spindles. They have more than doubled since the
gensus of 1880. The tobacco-factories have largely
increased also. A considerable number of establish-
ments for the manufacture of furniture, spokes, han-
dles, and other wood-work have sprung up. There
are hopeful indications that the extensive water-power
of the State and other advantages for manufacturing
are to be utilized. The forests of oak, cherry, walnut,
white and spruce pine, and poplar, in the mountain
Section, are being cut by lumbermen from the North
and North-west, and largely exported. A topographic
survey has been made by the U. S. Geological Survey,
and it is ascertained that deposits of valuable minerals
and ores exist in large quantities. The mountain-sides
are admirably adapted to the growth of fruits and the
grasses. Nearly 7000 square miles of rich territory,
heretofore almost unknown, now invite emigration.
Agriculture.—The principal farming products of the
State in 1887 were as follows: Indian corn, 35,830,000
bushels; wheat, 5,094,000; oats, 8,504,000; tobacco
(in 1886), 31,559,000 pounds; cotton, 1,066,000 acres;
production about 420,000 bales, estimated. Of live-
stock there were : Horses, 149,708; mules, 89,945;
milch-cows, 243,715; oxen and other cattle, 419,383;
sheep, 427,560; swine, 1,206,438. There has been
much improvement in the way of introduction of fine
breeds of cattle and horses, the establishment of stock-
and dairy-farms, the purchase of labor-saving ma-
chinery, the increase of acres devoted to grasses, the
adoption of the intensive system of farming, and the
use of home-made fertilizers. Much of this improve-
ment has been caused by intelligent work of the agri-
cultural department, including the fertilizer control
and experiment station, which by analysis of fertilizers
and dissemination of information concerning their con-
stituents, and by furnishing formulas for home-made
manures, have done much towards enlightening the
people. An experiment-farm has recently been opened,
and extensive experiments promoted. The importance
of the work of the agricultural department may be
inferred from the fact that prior to its establishment
there were 125 brands of fertilizers sold in the State,
of which 80 have been driven out on account of their
inferiority, and the remainder greatly improved. The

NORTH CAROLINA. - 59
&
cost of fertilizers in 1887 was 25 per cent. less than in
1880, while the quality improved 14 per cent. The
phosphate-beds of the State have been explored, and
inapped, and, though inferior to those of South Caro-
lina, will hereafter be a source of wealth. The marls
of the State have been analyzed and their use in-
creased. The establishment of fertilizer-factories has
been stimulated, there now being nine. The pyrites-
deposits of the State have been explored and Sauples
analyzed. Analyses for the board of health have been
made of drinking-water and other substances, and
noxious ingredients ascertained.
An exploration of the coal-fields of the State has
been made under authority of the board, and a report
published by Dr. H. M. Chance. A report was like-
wise published in Mining in North Carolina, by Dr.
George B. Hanna. Under the direction of Lieut.
Winslow, U. S. N., the oyster-beds in the extensive
sounds and inlets of the coast have been explored and
mapped, and a comprehensive report of the same
published. Under Mr. S. G. Worth, Fish Commis-
sioner, hatcheries have been operated for increasing
the supply of shad, herring, rock, and othet fish in
North Carolina waters. Under Mr. ... L. Patrick,
Commissioner of Emigration, valuable publications
have been made and distributed for the purpose of
making known the resources of the State. Other
publications under authority of the board are : A De-
scription of the Minerals and Mineral Deposits of
North Carolina, by F. A. Genth and W. I\err,
the latter being the late State geologist; hand-books
and bulletins, containing miscellaneous information
about the State, published in 1883 and 1886; Annual
Reports and Bulletins of the agricultural experiment-
station, from 1877 to 1887; Report on the Ores of
North Carolina, by W. C. Kerr and G. B. Hanna,
1887, being chapter II. of Kerr's Geology of North
Carolina, vol. II., now in progress of publication,
under the editorial supervision of Prof. Joseph A.
Holmes. It may here be noted that since the death
of Prof. Kerr the State geological work has been dis-
continued.
The activity of the farming class is shown by the
increase of county and district agricultural societies,
and by the rapid spread of the society called the
Farmers' Alliance. There are 1198 organizations, with
about 50,000 members. L. L. Polk is president of the
Inter-State Farmers' Association. The grangers have
also an organization, W. R. Williams being master.
By act of the General Assembly of 1887 a bureau
of labor statistics has been created. The commissioner,
Mr. W. U. Jones, has made a report, giving valuable
but incomplete information on the subject.
Climate.-Much attention has been recently directed
to parts of North Carolina as health-resorts. The ter-
ritºry on both flanks of the Blue Ridge, and the sand-
hills in the southern middle section, are considered
favorable for the cure of pulmonary diseases, and are
much resorted to for the purpose. The mountains and
the sea-coast are likewise attracting many summer
Visitors on account of the beautiful scenery and pleas-
ant, climate of the former, and sea-breezes and surf-
bathing of the latter.
Railroads.-A marked impetus has since ISSO been
given to the development of the State by branch rail-
Toads, connecting with the main lines. These main
lines are : 1. The Richmond and Danville system,
!!!nning through the State by way of Greensboro and
Charlotte, from north to south, and by way of Salis.
bury and Asheville into Tennessee. 2. The Atlantic
Coast Line System, bisecting the eastern half of the
State, by way of Weldon and Wilmington, 3. The
Seaboard Air Line system, running from Norfolk by
Way of Raleigh, and now building an extension to At.
lanta. The first has recently added to its system il
branches, aggregating 308 miles finished, and is eon-
§tructing 130 more. The Atlantic Coast Line has fin-
ished 227 miles of branch roads, and is building 55 in
addition. The Seaboard Air Line has finished 166
miles. Other important new lines are the Cape Fear
and Yadkin Valley, extending from a point on the
Norfolk and Western Railroad, west of the Blue
Ridge, to Wilmington, of which 130 miles are.com-
pleted ; the Charleston, Cumberland Gap, and Cincin-
nati Railroad, of which about 75 miles will be in the
mountain and Piedmont district of North Carolina;
the Carolina, Knoxville, and Cumberland Gap Rail-
road, of which there will be about 60 miles in the
mountain regions. The total mileage of finished rail-
roads may be stated at 2450, with 550 in process of
construction. Other lines in addition are projected,
with fair prospects of success.
Education.—The public school system is still embar-
rassed by the loss of the school-fund during the civil
war, and by the poverty of the people. The constitu-
tion of the State does not permit taxes for general
purposes higher than $2 on the poll, and 663 cents
on the $100 value of property. As the valuation of
property is low, it is impossible at present to provide
by taxation for keeping the schools open for the proper
length of time. The total amount of money collected
for 1887 from this source chiefly was $647.407. The
school-property is valued at $634,356. The number
of whites who attended in JSS7 was 202, 134; the
number of colored, 123,145. The number of children
of school age is 353,48] white, 212,781 colored. There
are 8 normal schools for whites in different parts of
the State, held during the summer for from 3 to 5
weeks each. There are 5 normal schools for the col-
ored, lasting from 8 to 10 months. Excellent graded
Schools, supported by special city taxation, are in Wil-
mington, Goldsboro, Raleigh, Durham. Fayetteville,
Winston, Salisbury, Charlotte, and Asheville. The
State has devoted the public swamp-lands to the
school-fund. Recent surveys show that there are from
600,000 to 700,000 acres of these lands, some of which
are of great intrinsic value; but the expense of drain-
ing them is so great that they cannot be brought ex-
tensively into market until the other lands of the State
greatly appreciate. The board of education is engaged
now in cutting canals for drainage and building roads
through these swamps.
he State University turns out annually many teach-
ers for the schools of the State. Good service in this
regard is likewise rendered by Oavidson, Wake Forest,
Trinity, and other denominational colleges, and by the
best of the high-schools. These colleges, as well as
the university, have conspicuously increased their en-
downents, corps of professors, and apparatus for in-
struction, and are constantly increasing |. patronage.
There are also in the State many classical schools of
the highest rank, some of them drawing their patron-
age from distant States. Notwithstanding these aids
to higher education, parts of the State are deficient in
good schools. In this connection should be mentioned
a strong demand for industrial education. This has
culminated in the establishment of an agricultural and
lmechanical college, the buildings of which are now
being erected at Raleigh. It is contemplated that all
the students of this college shall regularly be employed
at manual labor, while carrying on a course of theo-
retical study.
Sea-Ports. The harbor of Wilmington, on the
lower Cape Fear, has been much improved by the
United States, so that now vessels drawing is to gº
feet can come to its wharves. This, with its early con-
meetion with the railroads of the North-west, by the
completion of the Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley Rail.
Road, will, bring prosperity to this city. Some work
has been done under the authority of the general gov.
ernment in Various rivers and inlets of the State; but
there is a deficiency of good harbors, which drives its
products to markets beyond its borders.
T N e * *
North Carolina has been unaking steady progress in
recent years, and its natural resources, its orderly
population, its singularly agreeable and healthful cli.
60
NORTH CAROLINA UNIVERSITY,
Imate, and its proximity to the great centres of popu-
lation and wealth of the North Atlantic, should insure
a marked advance in prosperity. yº P. B.)
NORTH CAROLINA, UNIVERSITY OF. The
constitution of North Carolina directed the establish-
ment of a university, and a charter was accordingly
i.” Dec. 11, 1789, to forty corporators, the first
eing Gov. Samuel Johnson. A supplemental act
bestowed on the institution all arrearages due to the
State from receiving officers up to Jan. 1, 1783, and all
escheated property. Unclaimed land-warrants granted
to soldiers of the Revolution were located in Tennessee
and its General Assembly allowed to the University of
North Carolina title to one-third. The trustees met
at Fayetteville, Dec. 15, 1790, and chose Gen. Wm.
Lenoir (1751–1839) president. In November, 1792, a
committee selected New Hope Chapel Hill as the site
for the university, 1280 acres there º been offered
as a donation. The village was marked out and the
corner-stone of the first university building laid by
Gov. W. Richardson Davie, on Oct. 12, 1793. Chapel
Hill is 12 miles south of Hillsborough, the county-
seat of Orange, and 28 miles W. N. W. of Raleigh.
Gov. Benjamin Smith in 1790 had given a warrant for
20,000 acres of land in Tennessee, which was sold
about 1837 for $14,000. In 1797 Gen. Thomas Person
gave $1025 for the completion of the “Old Chapel”
or “ Person Hall,” and others subscribed $7648 for
the erection of buildings. Alban of $10,000 from the
General Assembly was afterwards made a gift.
At the opening of the university in 1795 iºid Kerr,
a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin, was made pro-
fessor of ancient languages, and Charles W. Harris, a
graduate of Princeton College, professor of mathemat-
ics. A year later Rev. Joseph Caldwell, D. D., LL. D.,
succeeded the latter in his professorship and in
1804 was made president. He held that position
until his death in 1835, with the exception of the
years 1812–16, during which time Rev. Dr. Robert H.
Chapman, of Virginia, was president. In 1809–10
sundry citizens subscribed about $10,535 for the erec-
tion of buildings. David L. Swain, LL. D., who had
been governor of the State from 1832 to 1835, then
became president of the university, and remained in
"office till 1868. Under his direction the university
had at the outbreak of the civil war nearly 500
students. It was the only Southern institution of its
rank that continued its exercises throughout the war.
The escheated land-warrants had after many years
realized for the university about $150,000, but this
amount was lost during the civil war by the insolvency
of the bank in whose stock it was invested. Other
smaller sums had been received from time to time from
escheats in North Carolina, arrearages, confiscations
etc., amounting in all to $134,000, which had been used
for buildings and current expenses. The United
States by the act of 1862 gave to the State for the
establishment of a college of agriculture and the
mechanic arts land-scrip for 270,000 acres. This was
sold in 1867 at the market price of 50 cents per acre,
but the investment of the funds proved unfortunate.
On the adoption of the State constitution of 1868,
during the reconstruction period, the faculty, of , the
university was displaced by a new corps, of which
Rev. Solomon Pool was president, but no exercises
were held after 1870. In 1875, in pursuance of a
constitutional amendment, new trustees were elected
by the General Assembly, and a new faculty was in-
stalled, with Rev. Charles Phillips, D. D., LL.D., as
presiding professor. In 1876 Kemp P. Battle, LL. 'p.
who had formerly been State treasurer, was elected
president, and has since discharged the duties of that
office. By his efforts about $18,000 had been given
by citizens for the revival of the university., . The
State also gave a certificate for $125,000, on which 6
per cent. was paid semi-annually., Hon. B. F. Moore,
of Raleigh, bequeathed in 1878 the sum of $5000, the
interest of which is to be applied to defraying the tui-
tion of students. Rev. Charles F. Deems, D. D., of
New York, formerly a professor in the university,
established in 1880 a fund to aid indigent students,
and Mr. W. H. Wanderbilt increased this fund, which
now amounts to $13,000. In 1885, Miss Mary Ruffin
Smith, residing near Chapel Hill, bequeathed to the
university a plantation in Chatham co., called Jones'
Grove, and valued at $15,000. The rent of the
property, or interest on the proceeds, if the property
be sold, is to be applied by the faculty in the education
of suitable students. Mrs. C. P. Spencer, daughter
of Rev. Dr. James Phillips, presented to the university
1000 volumes from his ſº.
Government.—The university is by the State consti-
tution entrusted to the General Assembly. That body
has committed it to 80 trustees, who are usually chosen
from different sections of the State. They hold office
for eight years, one-fourth being chosen every two
years. The governor is ec officio president of the
board, though not necessarily a member. Ten mem-
bers constitute a quorum. At the annual meeting,
held in January, an executive committee of seven
trustees is appointed, who hold office for one year and
have all the power not expressly forbidden by the
board. As these are elected on account of convenient
access to the city of Raleigh, continuity of wise and
efficient management is secured. The offices of secre-
tary and treasurer are combined, and this officer now,
Hon. W. L. Saunders, secretary of state, resides in
Raleigh, and is a member of the executive committee.
The Faculty consists of the president, professors,
and assistant professors, their votes being equal. The
president is a member of the board of trustees, whose
communications with the board go through him.
Although his powers have never been defined by law,
courtesy and custom concede to him sufficient author-
1ty.
Among the best known members of the faculty of
the past have been Presidents Caldwell and Swain,
Ethan A. Allen and Denison Olmsted, afterwards of
Yale University, Dr. Wm. Hooper, Dr. Elisha Mitchell,
who lost his life in exploring the mountain named from
him, the highest peak of the Alleghanies, Rev. Dr.
James and Charles Phillips, professors of mathematics,
Walker Anderson, afterwards Chief-Justice of Florida,
Dr. Wm. M. Green, afterwards Bishop of Mississippi,
Dr. Charles F. Deems, now of the Church of *
Strangers, New York, Nicholas M. Hentz, Rev. Dr.
F. M. Hubbard, Wm. H. Battle, LL. D., Judge of
the Supreme Court of North Carolina, B. F. Hedrick.
Under Prof. Olmsted, in 1824, was organized the
geological survey of the State, believed to be the first in
the Union by public authority. In 1831 Pres, Cald-
well built the first astronomical observatory in this
country, but its operations were discontinued after his
death in 1835.
The university has been of great service to public-
school education by successful inauguration of summer
normal schools, now common in the South. A great
impetus was thereby given to the training of teachers,
and the establishment of graded schools.
Instruction.—Originally Latin, Greek, and mathe-
matics were the studies principally attended to. This
system continued uninterruptedly until January, 1854
when a school was established for the ‘’ application of
science to arts,” with Dr. Charles Phillips as professor
of civil engineering, and Benjamin F. Hedrick as pro-
fessor of agricultural cher;istry.
In 1875 the university was reorganized on the basis
of largely increased liberty of election and much greater
proportion of scientific and linguistic studies. Three
courses lead to degrees; one to that of bachelor of
arts (A. B.), including both Latin and Greek; another
to that of bachelor of philosophy (Ph.B.), with Latin
or Greek replaced by French or German ; and the third
replacing both the classics with French, German, and
scientific studies, leading to the degree of bachelor of
science (S.B.). Besides those, students are allowed to
* NORTHCOTE.
61
take an optional course, leading to no degree, but in
number of hours employed equivalent to the regular
courses. The classical course is “the old curriculum,”
but with a larger proportion of scientific studies. The
degrees of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.), master of
arts (A. M.), and master or science (M. S.), are con-
ferred upon students who have completed pºst-grad-
uate studies prescribed by the faculty. The first (Ph.
D.) requires the equivalent of two years' study in two
departments, and the others the equivalent of Qne
year's study in three departments. A course in law
leads to the degree of bachelor of law (B. L.).
In 1881 the General Assembly appropriated $5000
per annum, and in 1885 $15,000 per annum in addition,
so that the university had an income of $27,500 per
annum, besides tuition fees. The trustees were thus
enabled to add seven more professorships. In 1887
the General Assembly concluding to establish a sepa-
rate agricultural and mechanical college, took away the
land-scrip fund, yielding $7500 a year, and it became
necessary to abolish three of the professorships. Its
faculty now consists of fifteen professors and assist-
antS.
A special course of three months is offered, each
spring, to teachers who desire to extend their educa-
tion. The general studies of special benefit to farmers,
merchants, manufacturers, and other business men,
have been grouped into a small course of two years,
for the benefit of students who are unable to complete
a full course. For students of medicine there is a
short course of two years, comprising such general
studies as are essential to the education of a physician,
and such special studies in chemistry, botany, zoölogy,
physiology, etc., as are included in the curriculum of
all medical colleges. No diploma is granted.
Societies.—In connection with the university are the
Dialectic and Philanthropic Literary Societies, to one
of which each student is required to attach himself,
unless excused for special reasons. The halls of these
societies are commodious and elegantly furnished.
The Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society was estab-
lished in October, 1883. Its aim is to stimulate in-
dividual workers, and to enable the members to
keep up with the growth of science. It is a State
society, and includes among its members all scientific
workers in the State. The students are allowed
all the advantages of the society. A semi-annual
journal is published, containing accounts of the meet-
ings and all original papers. Over 500 pages have
thus been published. This journal is exchanged for
the publications of more than 100 other learned bodies
and scientific societies. Occasional lectures on popular
Scientific subjects are delivered by resident members
of the society and lecturers invited from a distance.
A Shakspere Club was organized in November, 1886,
for the critical study of Shakspere and other dramatists.
The North Carolina Historical Society is engaged in
the study of State history and the collection of docu-
ments and material for its illustration. Meetings, as a
rule, are held monthly.
A Seminary of Literature and Philology has been
formed for the benefit of students who feel a special
interest in literary work; and to promote research along
special lines with more thoroughness and individuality
than is possible in the class-room. The professors in
the several departments of the university, besides
guiding and assisting in the regular work of the semi-
nary, present from time to time the results of their own
Special labors. At each meeting reports are made con-
cerning new publications, new theories, and methods,
new achievements in every department of literary work.
. The University Magazine is published six times dur-
ing the year, under the auspices of the Philanthropic
and Dialectic Societies.
There is a branch of the Young Men's Christian
Association among the students. . It has many mem-
bers of †. and activity, and its influence for good is
Very marked.
Museums.—Every scientific department of the uni-
versity is equipped with a museum of specimens for
laboratory work'; and besides these working museums
there is a large and valuable collection of specimens
in botany, geology, mineralogy, zoölogy, and entomol-
ogy, carefully arranged for exhibition in the university
Ill U1SGºll DI). º
Libraries.—The Philanthropic and Dialectic Uni-
versity Libraries have been consolidated and carefully
arranged in Smith Hall. The consolidated library is
open daily, except Sunday, for the use of students.
It contains 25,000 volumes and 5000 pamphlets, il-
lustrating every department of literature and science.
Lectures.—In addition to the lectures presented be-
fore the Mitchell Scientific Society, the Shakspere
Club, and the Historical Society, the university sustains
a course of public lectures.
Campus and Buildings.-The campus is a fine grove
of old forest trees, chiefly oak and hickory, fifty acres
enclosed, beautifully undulating. Adjoining are about
500 acres of woodland, belonging to the university.
The buildings of the university are nine in number,
affording ample accommodation in the way, of dormit-
ories, lecture-halls, laboratories, etc. (K. P. B.)
NORTHCOTE, SIRSTAFFORD HENRY (1818–1887),
became Earl of Iddlesleigh about two years before his
death. IIe was born at London, Oct. 27, 1818, and was
educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He
was private secretary to Mr. Gladstone when the lat-
ter was president of the Board of Trade, 1843-45. He
was called to the bar in 1847 and was one of the secre-
taries of the World's Fair at London in 1851. On the
death of his father in that year he became the eighth
baronet. The investigation of the civil service next
occupied his attention, and in 1854, with Sir Charles E.
Trevelyan, he made a report which was the basis of
the subsequent reform opening all the lower offices to
competitive examination. In 1855 his parliamentary
career began. As a Conservative he represented Dud-
ley until 1858, then Stamford until 1866, and then
North Devon until 1885, when he took his seat in the
House of Lords. He was financial secretary to the
treasury, 1856-59; president of the Board of Trade
under Lord Derby, 1866–67 ; secretary of state for
India, 1867–6S. The Conservatives then retiring,
Lord Northcote was made governor of the Hudson
Bay Company. In 1871 he was a member of the
High Joint Commission on the Alabama Claims at
Washington.
In March, 1874, when the Conservative party
returned to power under Disraeli, Lord Northcote be-
came chancellor of the exchequer. He had learned
financial management from Mr. Gladstone and was the
most successful of the Conservative leaders in this
department. His administration was marked by the
extinction of the sugar-duties and the establishment
of an effective sinking-fund. Disraeli being elevated
to the peerage, Lord Northcote became the Conser-
vative leader in the House of Commons. He was
noted for his conciliatory disposition and affable man-
ners. While he won the favor of his opponents he
did not always gratify the desire of his partisans. In
ISS0 the Liberals again had a majority in the House
and Northcote remained leader of the opposition until
1SS5. When Mr. Gladstone was defeated in that year
Lord Iddlesleigh, having just succeeded to his title,
entered Lord Salisbury's ministry as first Lord of the
Treasury. He was thrown out a few months later, but
in 1886, when Lord Salisbury returned to power through
the change caused by Mr. Gladstone's espousing the
Irish demand for Home Rule, Lord Iddlesleigh was
made secretary of state for foreign affairs. He died
suddenly in London, Jan. 12, 1887. He had published
several sº on financial and political topies, and
Twenty Years of Financial Policy, 1842–61 (IS62).
As. Lord Rector of the University of Edinburgh he
º an interesting address on Desultory Reading
C &
62 NORT}l-WESTERN UNIVERSITY.
NORTH WESTERN UNIVERSITY. This in-
stitution of learning, at Evanston, Ill., obtained its
charter Jan. 28, 1851. Its founders, chiefly citizens
of Chicago, intended to establish an institution devoted
to the interests of Christian learning under the patron-
age of the Methodist Episcopal Church. On June 14,
1851, the trustees organized, and resolved to open a
preparatory school in Chicago. Rev. Clark T. Hin-
man, D. D., LL.D., was elected the first president,
June 23, 1853, after the trustees had decided to open
an institution of higher grade. The site having been
unanimously selected, a purchase was made, of 379
acres of land, for $25,000. A town including this tract
of land was organized in 1857, and called Evanston,
in honor of John Evans, M. D. Subsequently, large
additions were made to the land of the university.
Several amendments were made to the original
charter, the most important of which enacted that
‘’ no spirituous, winous, or fermented liquors shall be
sold, under license or otherwise, within four miles of
the location of said university, except for medicinal,
mechanical, and sacramental purposes, under a penalty
of $25 for each offence, to be recovered before any
justice of the peace of said county of Cook.” The
village therefore enjoys a high reputation for morality
and sobriety. It was also declared that all property
of the university should be exempt from taxation.
Upon this point in 1873 commenced a bitter contest
between the town and the management of the North-
western University. After two unsuccessful appeals
to the Supreme Court of the State a writ of errror
was taken to the U. S. Supreme Court. The decision
of the lower court, which was unfavorable to the uni-
versity, was reversed, and the property of the uni-
versity was held to be exempt from taxation. By
the charter the corporation is not allowed “ to hold
more than 2000 acres of land at any one time, unless the
said corporation shall have received the same by gift,
grant, or devise, and in such case it shall be required
to sell or dispose of the same within ten years from
the time they shall acquire such title, and on failure to
do so such lands, over and above the before-named
2000 acres, shall revert to the original donor, grantor,
devisor, or their heirs.”
The land owned by the university was laid out for a
village, with streets and house-lots; parks were re-
served, lots were donated to churches, and Evanston
soon became a popular place of residence. With the
avails received from the sale of lots the debt of the
university was paid, and a fund secured for the erec-
tion of University Hall. The university was opened
to students in 1856. Dr. Hinman had died in June,
1855, and his successor, Rev. Randolph S. Foster, D.D.,
LL. D., was appointed president June 5, 1856. The
other members of the faculty where Rev. Abel Stevens,
LL. D., Henry S. Noyes, A. M., Rev. W. D. God-
man, and Daniel Bonbright, L.L. D. Literary, Scien-
tific, and elective courses, of four years each, were
established. In the meantime a small wooden struc-
ture had been completed, and was occupied by the
university. The building is still standing, having
been removed from its original site, and with an addi-
tion is now occupied by the preparatory department
of the university. The classes in the university were
transferred to a large and commodious building of
stone, costing $110,000. About this time the uni-
versity adopted as a part of its permanent policy, a
rule that one-fourth of all lands then held by it in the
town of Evanston, and all owned in Chicago, should
be reserved from sale and be leased, and the funds re-
ceived from the remainder that should be sold should
be converted into productive property and held as a
permanent fund. e © º
President Foster having resigned his office in 1860,
Henry S. Noyes, A. M., professor of mathematics, be-
came acting president of the university, holding the
office for six years thereafter. l{ev. Erastus Q. Haven;
J. D., LL. D., was elected president, and assumed
the duties of his office June 23, 1860. About this
time important additions were made to the educa-
tional facilities of the university. The Chicago Medi-
cal College, which had been organized for ten years,
became a department of the university, and during this
year the university classes were opened for the admis-
sion of women. This movement was a preliminary
step to the adoption, in 1873, of the Evanston College
for ladies, as a part of the institution.
Dr. Haven having resigned his office, in October,
1872, Rev. Charles H. Fowler, D. D., L.L. D., became
its president. In June, 1873, the Union College of
Law became a department of the university. At this
time was created the College of Technology, or School
of Applied Sciences, the students in which were given
the use of the now extensive museum, drawing-room,
and laboratories, in which to pursue their scientific
studies and investigations. Photography and telegraphy
were also taught, both in theory and practice. Subse-
quently, because of economical considerations, this de-
partment of the university was discontinued. Of the
presidents named, Drs. Foster, Haven, and Fowler
became bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
In 1876 Prof. Oliver Marcy, LL. D., became acting
president, and held this office till 1881, when Rev.
}. Cummings, D. D., LL.D., the present incum-
bent, became president.
The university has been greatly prospered and its
funds have been largely increased. The land pur-
chased in Chicago for $8000, from which an annual
rental of $8000 has been received since 1880, is now
worth $800,000. By the terms of the lease a new
appraisal is to be made every ten years, and the next
appraisal will be made in April, 1890. By the con-
ditions of the lease the university will receive 73 per
cent. of the appraised valuc, and after the next ap-
praisal its income will be very largely increased. The
university still holds, for lease or for sale, lots in Evans-
ton of the value of $500,000. The property of the
university is estimated to be worth about $2,000,000.
In all departments it has 100 professors and instruc-
tors, and more than 1300 students.
The following departments of the university are
now organized : ]. Fº College of Liberal Arts, which
has four regular courses of study, and opportunities
for a select course. 2. The College of Medicine,
Nathan S. Davis, M. D., L.L. D., dean. 3. The Col-
lege of Law, Henry Booth, L.L. D., dean. 4. The
College of Pharmacy, Oscar Oldberg, Ph. D., dean.
5. The College of Oral and Dental Surgery, john S.
Marshall, M.D., dean. 6. The Dearborn Observatory,
George W. Hough, director. 7. The Preparatory
School, Rev. Herbert F. Fisk, D. D., principal. 8.
The School of Elocution, Robert L. Cumnock, A. M.,
director. 9. The Conservatory of Music, Ören E.
Locke, director. 10. Department of Art, Catharine
Beal, B. P., director.
Located on the university grounds and closely con-
nected with it are the Garrett Biblical Institute, Rev.
Henry B. Ridgaway, D. D., president; also the Swe-
dish Theological S Shinary, Rev. Albert Ericson, A.M.,
president; and the Danish and Norwegian Theo-
logical Seminary, Rev. N. E. Simonson, A. M., presi-
dent. There is an interchange of privileges between
the university and these theologicai schools, and each
one derives all the advantages from the others that
could be secured in any other relation that might
eXlSt.
The Woman's College is a large and elegant building
that gives the young women the advantages of a well-
regulated home. Miss Rena A. Michaels, Ph. D., is
dean. There is also a college cottage, which offers
special advantages to young women of limited means.
The colleges of medicine, of law, of plarmacy, and
of dental and oral surgery are in Chicago, and the
other departments are in Evanston.
The university has always maintained a preparatory
school, graduating annually a class of 60 or more stu-
*
NORTON.—NOTT.
63
dents, with a faculty of 10 instructors. While it
meets the requirements of the best colleges of the
country, there is also provision for a general academic
cducation for students who wish to prepare themselves
for the study of medicine, law, teaching in the public
schools, or for busincss.
A large and well-furnished Hall of Science, recently
crected on the college campus, affords good accommo-
dations for the departments of chemistry and physics.
Practical instruction is given in the laboratories in this
building in the departments of chemistry and physics.
The Dearborn Observatory, connected with the uni-
versity, makes original researches in astronomical
science, assists in the application of astronomy, to
geography, in communicating exact time, and furnishes
instruction in astronomy to the students of the uni-
versity. The principal instruments of the observa-
tory are : 1. An equatorial refracting telescope, made
by Alvan Clark & Sons, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1861.
The instrument was the largest refractor in the world
until a few years ago, and now has very few superiors.
Diameter of object glass, 18} inches. 2. A meridian
circle, of the first class, constructed in 1867 by Messrs.
A. Repsold & Sons, of Hamburg. This instrument
has a telescope of 6 French inches aperture, and a
divided circle of 40 inches diameter, read by 4 micro-
scopes. Hough's printing and recording chrono-
graphs have been added, for making an electrical
record of the time of star transits. (J. C.
NORTON, ANDREws (1786–1853), Unitarian min-
+ster, descended from the Puritan Rev. John Norton
f v.), was born at Hingham, Mass., Dec. 31, 1786.
ſe graduated at Harvard College in 1804, and was
made tuitor at Bowdoin College in 1809 and at Har-
vard in 1811. Becoming librarian in 1813 he succeeded
Rev. Dr. W. E. Channing as lecturer on Biblical crit-
icism and interpretation. In 1819 he was made Dexter
professor of sacred literature, which position he re-
signed in 1830. He afterwards published A Statement
of Reasons for not believing the Doctrines of Trinita-
rians concerning the Nature of God and the Person of
("hrist (1833). His important work on The Genuinness
of the Gospels (4 vols., 1837–55), and his new Transla-
tion of the Gospels (1855), occupied most of the re-
mainder of his life. He died at Newport, R. I., Sept.
18, 1853. IIe was one of the most learned Unitarians.
IIe studied the New Testament with a critical yet
reverent spirit, and opposed the extreme naturalistic
interpretation. After his death his Statement of
Reasons was republished with a memoir by Dr. W.
Newell. Besides the works above mentioned he con-
tributed important articles to the North American Re-
view and other periodicals, and composed some hymns
which have been widely used. -
His son, CHARLEs ELIOT NoFTON, was born at
Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 16, 1827. He graduated at
Harvard College in 1846, and entered upon a mercantile
life. He sailed to India in 1849 and returned by way
of Europe. ... He afterwards made two other lengthy
Sojourns in Europe. He has published Considerations
of some Recent Social Theories (1853); Notes of Travel
guſt Study in Italy (1860); a translation of Dante's
|tº Nuova (1867); and Historical Studies of Church
Building in the Middle Ages. Besides editing his
father's later works he was joint editor of the North
-lmérican Review from 1804 to 1868, and contributed
to the Atlantic Monthly.
NQRTON, John (1606–1663), Puritan divine,
Was born at Stortford, England, May 6, 1606. He
Was educated at Cambridge, was curate at Stortford,
and became a Puritan. In 1635 he removed to Ply-
mouth, Mass., where he preached during the winter
§ºd then became minister of the church at Ipswich.
le took part in forming the Cambridge Platform in
lºts, and in 1652 became associate minister of the
church at Boston, where he was urgent in the perse.
ºluon of the Quakers. After the restoration of
Charles II. Norton was sent with Gov. Bradstreet to
London to assure the king of the loyalty of Massa-
chusetts, but the result was not satisfactory to the
people. Soon after his return Norton died at Boston,
April 5, 1663. His most noted publication was The
Heart of New England rent by the Blasphemies of the
Present Generation (1659), a treatise against the Quak-
ers. He also published a memoir of Rev. John Cotton
(1658), and some theological treatises.
NORTON, WILLIAM EDw ARD, painter, was born
at Boston, June 28, 1843. He was apprenticed to a
housepainter, but at the age of 18 went to sea, and
after making several voyages began painting marine
views in 1865. He went to Europe in 1877 and opened
a studio in London. Among his works are Whale-
ships º: Out, Fog on the Grand Banks, Twilight
on the Banks of Newfoundland, Nantasket Beach in
November.
NORWALK, a borough of Connecticut, and town-
ship of Fairfield co., is on Long Island Sound, 42 miles
from New York city, on the New York, New Haven,
and Boston Railroad, and is the terminus of the Dan-
bury and Norwalk Railroad. It has a good harbor. 5
hotels, 5 national banks, 20pera-houses, Masonic temple,
2 large boarding-schools, besides public schools, 10
churches, and 7 weekly newspapers. The oyster trade
is extensive, and manufactures are largely carried on.
Besides the largest straw-hat-factory in America, Nor-
walk has 7 fur-hat-factories and 3 shoe-factories. There
are also 4 foundries, large iron-works, a lock-factory,
Several woollen- and grain-mills, and other manufactur-
ing establishments. Norwalk was founded in 1649.
Being ardently patriotic in the revolutionary war, it
was burned by Gov. Tryon in 1779. In 1852 a terrible
railroad accident was caused here by an open draw-
bridge. The township of Norwalk, about ten miles
square, includes the city of South Norwalk as well as
the borough of Norwalk. The latter has gas- and
Water-works and several parks. Many wealthy in-
habitants of New York make this a summer residence,
ond during the winter flowers are sent in abundance to
the metropolis. Population of Norwalk, 53US; South
Norwalk, 3726 ; township, 13,956.
NORWALK, a village of Ohio, county-seat of
Huron Co., is on the Lake Shore and Michigan South-
ern Railroad, 56 miles W. S. W. of Cleveland. The
Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad also passes through
the village. It is built on a sandy ridge and has well-
paved, shady streets. There are 2 national banks, 14
churches, graded schools, railroad machine-shops, and
manufactories of ploughs, organs, sewing-machines,
shoes, tobacco, etc. The population in 1880 was 5704.
NORWICH, a city of Connecticut, the county-seat
of New London co., is at the head of Thames River,
15 miles from Long Island Sound. It is on the Norſ.
wich and Worcester and the New Londºn and North-
ern Railroads. It has several hotels, 6 national banks,
3, savings banks, 1 daily and 2 weekly newspapers, 24
churches, graded schools, and the Norwich Free Acad.
emy. The Thames River is formed by the confluence
3. three streams, which furnish abundant water-power.
This has been utilized in large paper-, ºd WOOl-
len mills, and there are severl foundries and works for
making the machinery used in these. There are also
\manufactories of wood-type, files, locks, pieture-cords,
belts, and pistols. The city is lighted with gas and
electricity, has water-works, 2 public squares, and street
railways. The town was settled in 1659. In isso the
ºtion of the city was 15, 112 and of the township
~ 1 1 * O.
NOTT, ABRAHAM (1767–1830), judge, was born at
Saybrook, Conn., in 1767. He graduated at Yale
College in 1787, and, after a brief study of theology,
Went to Georgia to teach school. He studied law at
Qamden, S. C., and was admitted to the bar in jigi.
He served one term in Congress, 1799–isol, and in
1819 Was elected a judge of the court of appeals. He
died at Fairfield, S. C., June 19, 1s;0.
His son, HENRY JUNIUs Nott (1797-1837), grad-
04 NOTT–NUISANCE.
uated at South Carolina College in 1814, was admitted
to the bar in 1818, and was professor of logic and
Wºº. in his Alma Mater for thirteen years.
While returning from New York he was drowned off
the coast of North Carolina, Oct. 13, 1837. He pub-
lished Novelettes of a Traveller (2 vols., 1834).
Another son, Josia.H CDARK NoTT (1804–1873), eth-
nologist, was born at Columbia, S. C., March 31, 1804.
He graduated at South Carolina College in 1824, and
obtained the degree of M. D. in Philadelphia in 1827.
After acting as demonstrator of anatomy to Dr. Phys-
ick for two years, he began practice at Columbia, S.C.
In 1835 he went to Europe, and after his return set-
tled at Mobile. In 1857 he was made professor of
anatomy in the University of Louisiana, and in 1858
established a medical college at Mobile which received
an endowment from the State of Alabama. He died
at Mobile, March 31, 1873. He published Biblical
and Physical History of Man (1849); Physical History
of the Jewish Race (1850); Types of Mankind (1854);
and Indigenous Races of the Earth (1857), being
assisted in the last two by G. R. Gliddon. He held
the theory of a diverse origin of the several races of
mankind and the inferiority of the negro.
Another son, GustAVUs ADOLPHUS NOTT (1810–
1875), became professor of anatomy in the University
of Louisiana in 1839, and materia medica and thera-
peutics in 1848. He was a surgeon in the Confederate
army. He died at Montgomery, Ala., June 6, 1875.
NOTT, ELIPPIALET (1773–1866), president of Union
College, was born at Ashford, Conn., June 25, 1773.
He graduated at Brown University in 1795 and became
pastor of a Presbyterian church and principal of an
academy at Cherry Valley, N. Y. In 1798 he re-
moved to Albany, where he acquired celebrity as a
Yulpit orator. His sermon on the death of Alexander
amilton is one of the most famous specimens of
American pulpit eloquence. In 1804 he was elected
president of Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., which
was then a feeble institution with only 14 students; but
under his judicious management it increased steadily
in numbers and usefulness. In 1854 the semi-centen-
nial anniversary of his inauguration was celebrated
with great enthusiasm by over 600 graduates. . Alto-
gether more than 3700 students graduated in his pres:
idency. Towards the end of his life he was relieved
to some extent of the duties of his office. He had
also been prominent in church affairs, and in 1811 was
moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly.
Besides taking much interest in natural science, he
made several useful inventions. His noteworthy im-
provements in stoves caused them to be generally
used instead of open hearths for heating, dwellings.
Philanthropic movements, and especially the temper-
ance cause, enlisted his services. After a long life
spent in active beneficence, he died at Schenectady,
N. Y., Jan. 29, 1866. Among his publications are
Counsels to Young Men (1810); Iectures on Temper-
ance (1847); Resurrection of Christ (1872). His Me-
moirs were published by H. Van Santvoord (1876).
His brother, SAMUEL NoTT, D. D. (1754–1852), was
born at Saybrook, Conn., Jan. 23, 1754. He gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1780 and became pastor of the
Congregational church at Fairfield, Conn., in 1782.
Here he labored for seventy years, until his death,
May 26, 1852. &
SAMUEL Nott (1788–1869), son of the preceding,
raduated at Union College in 1808 and at Andover
Theological Seminary in 1810. Being ordained Feb.
6, is 13, he was sent as missionary to India by the
American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Mis-
sions. On account of ill health he returned in 1816,
and taught in New York until 1822. He afterwards
held pastorates at Galway, N. Y., and Wareham,
Mass. At the latter in 1849 he founded an academy
which he conducted until 1858. .. He died at Hartford,
Conn., June 1, 1809. He published Slavery and the
leemedy (1800).
NOYES, GEORGE RAPALL (1798–1868), Biblical
Scholar, was born at Newburyport, Mass., March 6,
1798. . He graduated at Harvard College in 1818 and
studied theology at Cambridge Divinity-School. He
was licensed to preach in 1822 and held pastorates at
Brookfield and at Petersham, Mass. In 1840 he was
made professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages and
Dexter lecturer on Biblical literature. Besides many
reviews and sermons he published new translations,
with notes, of several books of the Old Testament.
After his death his translation of the New Testament
from Tischendorf's text was edited by Dr. Ezra Ab-
bot (1868). He died at Cambridge, Mass., June 3,
1868.
NOYES, John HUMPHREY (1811–1886), com-
munist, was born at Brattleboro, Vt., Sept. 3, 1811.
He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1830, studied
theology at Andover and New Haven, and was licensed
to preach in 1833. A year later he began to advocate
“ perfectionism,” and his license was revoked. In
1838 he established a communistic society at Putney,
Vt., and in 1847 removed it to Madison co., N. Y.,
where it was called the Oneida Community, for which
see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. A second commu-
nity was established at Wallingford, Conn. In 1882
the people of Oneida county became thoroughly
roused against the immoral practices prevailing in the
Community and obtined power from the Legislature
to stop them. The members then renounced their
obnoxious practices at d formed a business corporation.
Noyes .. some periodicals, of which the Oneida
Circular was the chief. He also published The Beream,
Salvation from Sin, Bible Communism, History of
American Socialisms. He died at Niagara Falls,
Canada, April 13, 1886.
NUBAR PASHA, an Egyptian statesman, was
born at Smyrna in January, 1825, of an Armenian
Christian family. He was early taken to Europe and
educated in Switzerland and France. In 1842 he went
to Egypt to become secretary of Bogos-Bey, a relative,
who was then minister of foreign affairs. Two years
later he became secretary-interpreter to Mehemet Ali
and afterwards to Ibrahim Pasha. His influence
steadily increased, and Abbas Pasha, in 1850, sent
him to London to support the claims of Egypt against
Turkey, and also on other diplomatic missions. Under
Said Pasha (1854–63), though not always in favor, he
was able to construct the railroad from Suez to Cairo,
in spite of great natural and financial difficulties. Is-
mail Pasha employed Nubar as his agent with the
Sultan, and thus obtained various important conces-
sions. His next negotiations were at Paris with refer-
ence to the Suez Canal, and on his return to Egypt he
was made minister of the public works. Towards the
end of 1866 he was made minister of foreign affairs,
and, having gone to Constantinople, he obtained from
the Sultan for his master the title of Khedive, while
Egypt was made practically independent. Nubar
Pasha's efforts were then directed to introducing
European customs into the administration of affairs.
He was driven from power in May, 1874, but was re-
stored a year later. Again removed early in 1876, he
did not return until England and France had inter-
vened and required a complete reconstruction of the
financial affairs in favor of !. bondholders of Western
Europe. Nubar Pasha become president of the
cabinet Aug. 23, 1878, but the discontent of the native
Egyptians with the new methods of taxation and ad-
ministration obliged him to resign six months later
and even to leave the country for a time. During the
revolt of ARABI PASHA (q.v.) and the English inter-
vention, Nubar Pasha remained quiet. At last, on
Jan. 8, 1884, he was called again to the head of at-
fairs, and his administration has been favorable to the
interests of the British government, and yet more ac-
ceptable to the Egyptians than formerly.
UISANCE. American law has closely followed
the English in defining this term and prescribing the
NULLIFICATION.
65
It may be added here that the locality
has much to do with the question what
* º; constitutes a nuisance. People living in
P. º; º * populous manufacturing towns must ex-
Am. Rep.) pect more noise, smoke, and disturbance
than those living elsewhere; consequently a manu-
factory which might be a nuisance if situated entirely
among residences would not necessarily be so in such
a town. The following are some instances of public
nuisances: The bathing in a public river in sight of
the neighboring houses; rude or riotous games, or
sports, involving a breach of the peace; the keeping
of a disorderly or gaming house ; keeping a dangerous
animal, known to be such, and suffering him to go at
large; exposing a person having a contagious disease
in public; the bringing a horse infected with glanders
into a public place; the selling tainted or unwhole-
some food; the leaving a corpse unburied; the storing
of combustible articles in undue quantities or in im-
proper places. Private nuisances may be either to
corporeal hereditaments, e. g., the building of a house
so as to throw the rain-water on the adjoining tene-
ment; or to incorporeal hereditaments, e. g., obstruct-
ing a right of way, interfering with a franchise, etc.
Annoyances from odors, smoke, unhealthy exhala-
tions, noise, etc., are in the nature of private nui-
sances and will be restrained by injunction at the in-
stance of the person injured. An action for damages
will also lie in such cases, (T. R.)
NULLIFICATION. This term, as used in the
history of the United States, refers to the public acts
of South Carolina, declaring certain acts of Con-
gress to be in excess of the constitutional authority of
that body, and therefore void of efficacy, and com-
manding her citizens to refrain from yielding obe-
dience to them.
On May 19, 1828, an act of Congress was passed
imposing duties upon certain commodities imported
into the United States from foreign countries. Acts
of a similar character, previously passed by Congress,
to meet certain exigencies, financial and commercial,
had not encountered resistance in any of the States.
During the discussion of this act it was characterized
in several of the States, notably in South Carolina,
as intended distinctly for the protection of domestic
manufactures. The Legislature of South Carolina
had in 1825 declared “that it is an unconstitutional
exercise of power on the part of Congress to lay duties
to protect domestic manufactures.”
The discussions attending the action of the Legisla-
ture just referred to disclose the origin of the opposi-
tion to protective legislation, in part, in its inconsistency
with the views of the national Constitution that pre-
Vailed in that State, as in others of the Southern
group, and, in part, in the nature and condition of the
productive industry of that section, that was then re-
§rded as excluding the development of manufactures.
The production to which South Carolina looked as the
basis of her economic system and to which her insti-
tutions and laws were conformed was that of cotton,
the staple of the largest existing manufactures, for
which the principal markets were European, and the
necessities of cotton-planting appeared to those en-
gaged in it to demand the perpetuation of legal
slavery as the only form in which labor could be ap-
plied to that industry under existing climatic condi-
!ons. The cotton-planting interest considered that
the industrial development of the respective groups
of States, Northern and Southern, must disclose di-
Vergences of interest and policy, widening with the
growth of the country, that could not be harmonized
Ander a government unitizing these groups. Viewed
from the same standpoint it seemed a necessity, not
ºnly that the domestic institutions of the cotton-pro-
ucing States should be entirely free from the in-
fluence of other communities differently situated, but
that the commercial intercourse between the great
Staple producer and the best markets of the world
WOL. IV.-R
remedy.
see Vol. XVII.
should be free from conflicting interests. . These pru-
dential considerations were fully, recognized, in the
Legislature of South Carolina and indicate the state
of interests that formulated a political jº. tending
to deny to the government of the United States a na-
tional character and to subject it to a controlling power
held in reserve not only by groups of States united in
interest, but by individual States, to be exercised as
their views of their own interest might suggest. The
policy that thus connected itself with the cotton in-
terest had preceded the development of that industry,
having relation to other staples produced in the South-
ern section of the Union, and was brought into a dis-
tinct statement by the Kentucky and Virginia Reso-
tions of 1798 and 1799. This doctrine, as advanced by
those resolutions and subsequently applied in the at-
tempt of South Carolina to nullify the revenue laws
of the United States, is considered in another place
under STATES RIGHTS.
As stated in the legislative records of South Caro-
lina, discussing the right to nullify the action of Con-
gress, that doctrine involves several distinct proposi-
tions which will be briefly noted. The Constitution
was regarded as a compact between sovereign States,
and not as an organic act of the peoples of the States
uniting in the Constitution of a government of the
whole; certain agencies were thereby created as the
common agencies of the sovereign parties to the com-
pact, and the powers and duties of such agencies
specifically defined, so as to exclude any enlargement
thereof by implication, such as could be made if the
fundamental intention was the production of a sover-
eign government; the allegiance of the citizens of the
States was regarded as wholly due to their respective
State governments, and capable of being claimed by
the general government only through the assent of
such States; the legislative, executive, and judicial
departments of the government of the United States
were regarded as functions depending upon the assent
of the sovereign States, and could not be exercised to
control the source from which their authority was de-
rived ; that any State could, consistently with the
compact, retire from it whenever, in its judgment, the
powers conferred were abusively exercised to the preju-
dice of its honor or its interests.
From the premises just stated it was concluded that
as the power to promote manufactures by means of im-
posts on foreign goods was not among the enumerated
powers specifically conferred upon Congress, it was not
capable of being exercised, and the attempt to exercise
it on the part of Congress was an assumption of pow-
ers that belonged to the States, and accordingly that it
Was competent for any one of the States to refuse to
allow the execution of such laws within its territories,
or, if that course was deemed desirable, to retire from
the union of the States.
On Dec. 19, 1827, the Legislature of South Carolina
reiterated the declaration of 1S25, as above stated.
This action was upon an elaborate report of a Senate
committee declaring that such usurpation of authority
by Congress must be resisted by the States in their
Sovereign character, and was not proper for submis-
Sion to the judiciary of the United States.
After the passage of the act of 1828, and on Dec.
19 of that year, the Legislature of that State protested
against the act on the broad ground before affirmed,
and already stated, and directed such resolutions to be
communicated to , the governors of the respective
J L - º * -
States, to be laid before their respective Legislatures,
tº determine on such ulterior measures as they may
think the occasion demands. Such communication
tºok place and was responded to by Virginia and
Georgia in terms *. the general views of South
Carolina as to the limitations of the authority of Con-
gress, , but, indicating unwillingness to sanction the
attitude of hostility assumed by South Carolina towards
the United States. *
On Dec. 17, 1830, the Legislature of South Carolina
66
NULLIFICATION.
declared that the several acts of Congress imposing
duties upon imports for the protection of domestic
manufactures are deliberate and highly dangerous and
oppressive violations of the Constitution, and that it
is the right of any, State sufering thereby, after all
hope of redress is lost, to interpose in its sovereign
capacity for the purpose of arresting the progress of
the evils occasioned by such unconstitutional acts.
. On June 14, 1832, Pres. Jackson sent a letter to
citizens of Charleston, by whom he had been invited
to unite with them in commemorating independence
on the ensuing 4th of July. This letter was mild and
conciliatory in its general tone, but contained the fol-
lowing sentence, that was the only expression contained
in it that indicated the intended attitude of the admin-
istration. He says, speaking of the circumstances that
should be weighed in the existing state of affairs:
“But he should also see that high and sacred duties,
which must and will at all hazards be performed,
present an insuperable barrier to the success of any
plan of disorganization, by whatever patriotic name it
may be decorated, or whatever high feelings may be
arrayed in support of it.” On Dec. 17, 1831, the
Legislature of South Carolina declared that the letter
of Pres. Jackson was to be regarded as an official
utterance, and, as such, “is an unauthorized interfer-
ence in the affairs of this State ; that the principles
advanced in it are incompatible with the Constitution,
and subversive of the rights of the State; that the
threatened course of executive conduct would, if acted
upon, destroy the liberties of the country, and as a
threat is a dangerous precedent, highly repulsive to the
feelings of a free people.” The report on which this
action was based distinctly assumes the ground that a
State has the right to withdraw from the Union, and
is the sole judge of the sufficiency of the ground for So
doing, this right being stated as inherent in the com-
pact of the States.
Congress, in 1832, repealed the act of 1828 and re-
adjusted a tariff of duties, to take effect from March
3, 1833.
On Oct. 26, 1832, the Legislature of South Carolina
called a convention of the State to take into considera-
tion the acts of Congress imposing duties on foreign
imports for the protection of domestic manufactures,
to determine their character and means of redress;
also any amendment of, or substitute for, such acts
that Congress may enact; also all laws for executing
and enforcing the same.
The convention met, and on Nov. 24, 1832, adopted
an ordinance “to nullify certain acts of the Congress
of the United States purporting to be laws laying
duties and imposts on the importation of foreign com-
modities.” After reciting that the object of these
laws was for the protection of domestic manufactures,
and characterizing them as oppressive and unconstitu-
tional, it declares that the acts of 1828 and 1832 are
unauthorized by the Constitution and are null and Void,
with all obligations, acts, and judicial proceedings
intended for their enforcement. It declares unlawful
any attempt to enforce the collection of such duties by
any officer of the State or of the United States, and
enjoins upon the Legislature the passage of acts to
enforce this ordinance. It declares that there shall be
no appeal from any judgment denying the validity of
such acts of Congress, and that no record in any such
case shall be transmitted to the appellate court, but
the courts of the State shall proceed to execute any
such judgment notwithstanding any such appeals, and
the taking of such an appeal shall be regarded as a
contempt of the court. It further requires, ºn oath to
support this ordinance to be taken by all public officers
and jurors. Finally, it declares that if any attempt
should be made by the federal government to, Coercé
the State, they will hold tº: absolved from all
further obligations to maintain or . their polit-
ical connection with the people of the other States, but
will organize a separate government. Upon the adop-
tion of this ordinance the convention issued an address
to the several States of the Union setting, forth its
action and the grounds on which it was based.
. On Dec. 10, 1832, Pres. Jackson issued a proclama-
tion reciting the ordinance of South Carolina and the
grounds on which it was placed, and characterizing it
as an act of nullification and secession, and declared it
unconstitutional. He states that as the opposition to
the laws had clothed itself with State authority, an
exposition of the views of the administration was ap-
propriate. Ile holds that the only appeals from the
action of Congress, recognized by the Constitution, are
to the judiciary, the people, and the States, and that
as the Constitution is the supreme law of the land no
State can annul a law. He claims that the declaration
that the law was intended for the protection of domes-
tic manufactures, and therefore was unconstitutional,
goes to the motives that prompted the law and not to
the authority by which it was passed, and is a danger-
ous construction. He holds that the government of
the United States is a national government, and not
merely a league ; that to the extent of the grant of
power to Congress the States parted with their sov-
ereignty, and the allegiance of their citizens was, to
that extent, transferred to the national government.
He exhorts the people of South Carolina to yield obe-
dience to the law, and finally declares his determina-
tion “to execute the laws, to preserve the Union by
all constitutional means, to arrest, if possible, by mod-
erate and firm measures, the necessity of a resort to
force.” He says that he would not unnecessarily
cause the shedding of blood. This masterly document,
issued in the name and by the authority of the Presi-
dent, was prepared by his secretary of state, Edward
Livingston.
On Dec. 17, 1832, the Legislature of South Carolina
directed the governor, in view of the President's proc-
lamation, to issue his proclamation to the people of the
State, warning them against the “attempt of the
President of the United States to seduce them from
their allegiance,” and exhorting them “to disregard
his vain menaces,” and calls upon them to protect the
liberty of the State. This proclamation was issued
Dec. 21, 1832. On Dec. 20, 1832, an act was passed
to carry into effect the ordinance, providing judicial
remedies for the recovery of goods seized or held for
the payment of duties imposed by the act of Congress,
and on the same day one was passed regulating the
taking of the oath called for by the ordinance.
Virginia responded to the address of the convention
of South Carolina, communicating her views through
a commissioner sent to that State. Virginia, while
holding to the general doctrines propounded and acted
upon by South Carolina, did not approve of the adop-
tion of the ordinance, and advised its repeal.
On March 2, 1833, Congress amended the act of
1832, by the Compromise act, the main feature of
which was the reduction of the duties imposed by that
act where such duties were in excess of 20 per cent. ad
valorem, to that amount, by a gradual process, that
should not be complete until the year 1842. This act
was followed on the next day by the Force act, by
which the President was authorized to remove any
custom-houses, where obstruction existed to the en-
forcement of the revenue laws, to some convenient
place where the collector must remain, and to use the
military force to secure the collection of duties at such
place. This act also increased the judicial authority
of the courts of the United States in revenue cases.
On March 15, 1833, the convention, which had been
reconvened, passed an ordinance reciting the act of
March 2, 1833, and repealing the ordinance of nullifica-
tion and secession, and on March 18 adopted an ordi-
nance declaring null the act of Congress known as
the Force act, which last measure was followed by an
act of the Legislature to carry into effect such annulling
ordinance. The repeal of the ordinance of nullifica-
tion, aimed at the acts imposing duties, left those acte
NUMISMATICS.–NUTTALL.
67
free to be enforced within that State, and, accordingly,
the Force act not being called into operation, the ordi-
nance nullifying it was inoperative, and appears to
have received no attention from the national government.
See Statutes at Large of South Carolina, Vol. i.,
Appendix; Elliot's Debates on Federal Constitution,
vol. iv.; Dr. C. J. Stillé on “J. R. Poinsett’’ in
Penna. Magazine of History (1888), and STATES
RIGHTS. (A. J. W.)
NUMISMATICS, AMERICAN. Only the coins
•ºr of the United States and its pre-exist-
See yº. *Yº ing colonies will be noticed here. The
Kºłº, ° early settlers of New England found the
... . . . . . . * ~ *-** - K-' s J & Indians using wanpum, or strings of
beads made from shells, as a currency, and for other
purposes. The General Court of Massachusetts soon
recognized this money and fixed an arbitrary rate of
exchange. At first six, white beads, made from the
sea-conch, or three purple, made from the muscle-shell,
were taken as equivalent to an English penny. In a
few years four white and two purple were declared to
have that value. Musket balls and other articles were
made legal tender for small amounts and furs and
eltry for large sums. The coins brought from Eng-
land or received in trade from the Dutch and the West
Indies tended to flow back to Europe, and what re-
mained in the country were insufficient for the needs
of the colonists. On May 27, 1652, therefore, the
General Court of Massachusetts ordered a mint to be
established in Boston, and John Hull, mint-master,
struck silver shillings, sixpences, and threepences.
They bore the device of the pine-tree, and were of the
same fineness but less in weight than the English
coin of the same denomination. For thirty-six years
this mint continued in operation in spite of opposition
from the mother country. An attempt was made to
conciliate King Charles II. by substituting the Royal
Oak for the Pine-tree. Other changes were made in
the device, but no alteration in the date, which re-
mained always 1652, but two-penny pieces were
coined with the date 1662. No other colony had a
mint, but in 1659 Lord Baltimore caused shillings, six-
ences, and groats to be coined for use in Maryland.
ames II. issued tin coins for circulation in America,
though few seem to have found their way thither. In
1722, 1723, and 1733 copper coins were minted in
England with the legend “Rosa Americana.” There
were also copper half-pence issued in 1773 for circu-
lation in Virginia, and in 1774 silver shillings. Florida
and Louisiana had also some colonial coins before they
became part of the United States.
When the independence of the American colonies
was declared the feeling of the people was manifested
in the issue of coins or tokens with patriotic inscrip-
tions. The coins sometimes were authorized by the
States, sometimes emitted by traders, or even pre-
pared, in England and Germany and sent here as a
speculation. Massachusetts in 1787 ventured again to
establish a mint, which issued only cents. The other
colonies which had a coinage were Connecticut, Ver-
mont, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Ken-
tucky, The Continental Congress on Oct. 16, 1786,
º an act for the establishing of a mint, and regu.
âting the value and alloy of the national coin. In
July, 1787, the government prescribed the device for
ºper, goin, and under this authority the so-called
Franklin Penny'' with the legend “Mind Your Busi-
mess" was made by contract. The Federal Consti-
ºution, ratified in 1789, deprived the States of their
former right of coining money. After the Federal
§9Verºnent was organized under this Constitution
the Mint was established at Philadelphia in 1792
(see MINT) and the regular coinage began in the next
* Copper cents and half-cents, bearing an ideal
º With loose-flowing hair, were first issued.
ashington cents,” however, had been prepared as
attern-pieces in 1791, but, being disapproved by
Washington himself, did not become current. In the
article on MINT are given the dates of the authoriza-
tion of the various coins with their respective weights
and fineness. The devices have been changed at vari-
ous times.
Down till about 1837 the obverse had generally a
female head, sometimes with a liberty-cap, and some-
times with a fillet bearing the word “Liberty.” After-
wards was substituted a full-length seated figure with
a liberty-cap on a pole and a shield with a band, in:
scribed “Liberty.” The reverse on the principal
coins has the eagle, often with a shield, arrows, and
olive branch, but in the minor coins the denomination
of the piece encircled by a wreath. The coins issued
at the branch mints at Charlotte (1830–61), Dahlonega
(1838–61), New Orleans (1836–61), San Francisco
(1854), and Carson City (1870) are distinguished by the
initials C., D., O., S., and C. C., on the reverse.
At the establishment of the mint eagles, or ten-
dollar pieces, were the highest denomination author-
ized. Their coinage was discontinued in iso, and re-
sumed in 1838 after the gold mines of the Carolinas
and Georgia began to furnish a larger supply of the
precious metal. The discovery of gold in still greater
abundance in California caused demand for a larger
coin, and the double-eagle was issued in 1850. Ingots
and bars of various sizes were issued by the assayer of
the State of California, and after a time a fifty-dollar
iece was issued by the U. S. Assay Office in San
ancisco. The same excess of gold, which required
these larger denominations, eiei into existence also
gold dollars, which were authorized in 1849. Besides
the governmental issues there were octagonal and ring
dollars and gold half-dollars and quarters put in circu-
lation in California. The Mormons in Utah also had a
series of gold coins with peculiar devices, and their
favorite inscription, “Holiness to the Lord.” The
Constitution of the United States prohibited coining
by the States, and it has been held that individuals
may issue coins which are not similar to the national
coinage. Such coins had been issued by Reed in
Georgia in 1830, and by the Bechtlers in North Caro-
lina from 1831 for several years.
As works of art the coins of the United States are
little esteemed. The finest was the three-dollar piece
of 1854, which was soon withdrawn as too close in
value to the quarter-eagle. The rarest gold coins of
the United States are : Eagles, 1798, I838; Half-
eagles, 1797, 1815, 1822, 1824, 1828; Quarter-eagles,
1796, 1797, 1798, 1806. The Double-eagle of 1849 in
the U. S. Mint is the only one in existence. The
rarest silver coin is the Half-dime of 1802. Of several
coins of rather early date none are known to collectors
although their coinage is reported by the Mint. In
1815 no cents were coined, this being the only year in
which that coin was not issued. See M. W. Dicke-
son's American Numismatical Manual (Phila., 1859);
and Henry Phillips, Jr.'s, Coins of the United States
(Phila., ISSI). J. P. L.)
NUTTALL, THOMAS º , naturalist, was
born in Yorkshire, England, in 1786. By trade a printer,
he came to the United States, travelled extensively in
the Mississippi Valley, exploring both the Missouri and
the Arkansas Rivers, and also visited the Pacific coast.
Part of his observations appeared in A Journal of
Travels into the Arkansas Territory (1821). He also
published a Manual of the Ornithology of the United
States and Canada (1834), and in his North American
. (1817) translated Michaux's work, which he
Subsequently enlarged (3 vols., 1842–49). From 1822
to 1834 he was professor of natural history in Harvard
College, but, having inherited an estate in England,
returned to that country and died there, Sept. 10, 1859.
See BotANY.
68
OAK–OBSERVATORIES.
().
OAK. The highly valuable genus of trees known
as Quercus, or the oak, is found over
See Yº: nearly all the northern hemisphere,
Km i.e. except the extreme north, embracing
- --- both deciduous and evergreen species.
The oaks naturally separate into two divisions: the
annual-fruited, in which the acorns mature in the
autumn of the first year, and the kernel has commonly
a sweet taste; and the biennial-fruited, in which the
acorns do not mature till the autumn of the second
year, and the kernel is always bitter. To the annual-
fruited division belongs the group of white oaks, in-
cluding Quercus alba, or the white oak, a large tree
with whitish bark and edible seed; Q. obtusiloba, the
post oak, Q. macrocarpa, the burr or over-cup oak ;
and Q. lyrata, the southern over-cup oak. To the
same division belong the chestnut oaks, including Q.
bicolor, the swamp White oak ;
oak; Q. primoides, the dwarf
% prinus, the chestnut
chestnut or chinquapin
|al llSe.
The white oak gives hard and durable timber, and
its bark is used . tanning. The live oak yields a
yellow, close-grained timber, which is of unequalled
excellence as ship timber, and is highly prized
everywhere. Its low habit of branching also enables
it to furnish an abundance of excellent ship-knees.
The black oak (Q. tinctorea) yields a timber second
only to that of the white oak in value, while its bark
contains much tannin and an abundance of coloring
matter, and is much used in tanning and dyeing. Other
oaks of commercial utility might be cited, but the above
named are the most valuable. (C. M.)
OAKLAND, a beautiful city of California, the
county-seat of Alameda co., is on the E. shore of San
Francisco Bay, 4} miles from San Francisco. It is the
terminus of the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific
Railroads. Two narrow-gauge railroads, the South
Pacific Coast and the California and Nevada, also ter-
minate here, and there are two local steam railroads
and ferries to San Francisco. Across Oakland estuary
there are two railroad draw-bridges and one for general
The city contains a court-house, hall of records
city-hall, one national and 2 other banks, 3 daily and
º 6 weekly newspapers, 30 churches, 25 schools, and the
ºšt."fio. "...". Adult Blind. It has several
foundries, canning-factories, and cotton-, jute-, woollen-,
iron-, and nail-mills, and manufactures of shoes, leather,
#| pottery, carriages, agricultural º etc. The
- - |
city is on a plateau shut in by hills and the bay, the
ſº ſº wide streets are macadamized and trees and flowers are
tº seen on all sides,
ºf at $30,000,000. It has gas- and water-works and other
The property of the city is valued
public conveniences. It was settled in 1850 and incor-
|porated in 1852, but only fairly began to grow in 1868,
| when the Central Pacific Railroad established the ferry
|and local railroad. No charge is made on these roads
|for riding within the city limits. In the centre of the
#|city is a salt water reservoir used for flushing the
H. SewerS.
Am. Rep.).
Live Oak Grove, Bonaventure, Savannah, Ga.
oak, and the live oak, Q. virens, a tree of the barrens
from Virginia south, whose wood is very firm and dur-
able, and of the greatest value commercially.
The biennial-fruited oaks include, Q, cinerea, the
upland willow oak, Q. Phellos, the willow oak, Q.
imbricata, the laurel or shingle oak ; % aquatica, the
water oak, Q. migra, the black-jack or barren oak; Q.
ilicifolia, the black scrub oak; Q. fulcata, the Spanish
oak, Q. Catesbari, the barren scrub oak; Q. coccinea,
the scarlet oak, with variety Q. tinctorea, the black
oak, Q. rubra, the red oak; and Q. palustris, the
swamp or pin oak.
In the Pacific States there are several species of the
white oak group, including Q. Garryana, whose wood
is equal to that of the whiteºak fºr shipbuilding. Q.
lobata ; and Q. Douglasii. The chestnut oak of Cali-
fornia, Q, densiflora, is an evergreen; as also is Q.
chrysoſpis and Q. agrifolia. The last two of these
species are shrubs or trees of 30 to 40 feet high, ac-
cording as they grow on the mountains or the foot-hills.
There are other species of North American oaks, most
of them of no economical importance, though
Michauci, the basket or cow oak, yields timber that
is excellent for wheel stocks, baskets, etc., while its
large sweet acorns are eagerly eaten by cattle and other
animals.
=|see vol. xvii.
In 1880 the population was 34,554.
ATS. See under AGRICULTURE, chap. v. 1.
OBSERVATORIES IN THE UN º STATES.
The honor of founding the first astro-
nomical observatory in America has
been claimed for the University of
North Carolina. In 1824 Dr. Joseph
Caldwell, the president of that university, purchased
in London a meridian transit instrument and a zenith
telescope by Simms, a refractor by Dollond, an astro-
.." clock by Molyneux, a sextant by Wilkinson, a
reflecting circle by Harris, and a Hadley's quadrant,
and these instruments were used in the university-
building till 1831, when they were placed in an *.
servatory” especially designed for their reception.
Observations were made at this place by Dr. Caldwell,
Prof. Elisha Mitchell, and #.} James Phillips, but
the records have been lost. The instruments were re-
moved in 1835, and in 1838 the building was partially
destroyed by fire, and astronomical activity was never
renewed. The Hopkins Observatory of Williams Col-
lege, erected in 1836, is the oldest observatory that has
continued its activity to the present time, while the
observatory of the Western Reserve College, Hudson,
Ohio (1838), and the High School Observatory at
Philadelphia (1838–1840), which became famous under
Walker and Kendall, deserve especial mention in the
early history of, practical astronomy in this country.
These were followed by the Cincinnati Observatory, in
1842, the United States Naval Observatory at Wash-
ington, in 1844, and the Harvard Observatory at Cam:
bridge, erected about the same time. In later years
we have the Washburn Observatory (1880), the McCor-
mick Observatory (1884), and finally the Lick Observa-
tory, with its magnificent equipment, finished in 1888.
p. 704 (p. 724











OBSERVATORIES.
69
The following list contains a brief description of the
most important observatories in the United States.
The longitude, when obtainable, is referred to the
meridian of Greenwich.
Akron, Ohio, Buchtel College Observatory, lat. --
41° 37, long. 5", 26" W. Built in 1885–86; 43-in.
equatorial by Pike & Sons; 3-in, transit circle, with
zenith telescope attachment, by Fauth; sidereal and
mean time clocks, chronograph, and apparatus for
dropping a time-ball and correcting a system of con-
trolled clocks. The observatory is intended for the
instruction of students and the maintenance of a
time-service. Cost, about $5000. Director, C. S.
Howe.
Albany, N. Y., Dudley Observatory, lat. -- 42° 39'
497.5, long. 4' 54" 59.2 W. Founded by subscrip-
tion in 1851; inaugurated 1856; became a department
of Union University in 1873. The instruments are : a
13-in. Fitz equatorial, 8-in. Pistor & Martins meri-
dian circle, 6.4-in. transit instrument by the same
makers, 4-in, comet-seeker, clocks, chronographs,
and subsidiary apparatus. With the meridian circle
the Astronomische Gesellschaft zone, from + 1° to
+ 5° declination, has been observed by Prof. Boss.
Time-signals are supplied to the city of Albany. Di-
rectors: B. A. Gould, 1854; O. M. Mitchel, 1859;
G. W. Hough, 1862; Lewis Boss, 1875.
Allegheny, Pa., Observatory of the Western Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, lat. H- 40° 27' 41’’.6, long.
5' 20" 2.9. 13-in. Fitz equatorial, reworked by Clark,
4-in. Troughton & Simms transit, spectroscopes, pho-
tometers, bolometer. Prof. S. P. Langley, the director,
has made important investigations in Solar physics at
this observatory, and has also, since 1869, maintained
i. . º time-service over the Pennsylvania
ailroad system.
Amherst, Mass., Lawrence Observatory of Amherst
College, lat. -- 42° 22′ 15’’.6, long. 4° 50" 7.3 W.
Erected in 1847; 73-in. equatorial by Clark; 63-in.
transit instrument by Pistor & Martins, rebuilt by
Fauth; 3-in. transit circle by Gambey; clocks, chrono-
graph, and smaller instruments. The observatory is
chiefly for instruction. Director, D. P. Todd.
Anºpolº Md., lat. -- 38° 58' 53’’.5, long. 5" 5"
56°.5 W. U. S. Naval Academy Observatory, used
for instruction only ; 73-in. equatorial, made by Clark
in 1857, 4-in. Repsold meridian circle, small transit
and Zenith telescope, both by Würdemann, a combined
transit and Zenith telescope of the Russian pattern
by Stackpole, clock, chronometers, chronographs, etc.
The department of astronomy was created in 1853, and
* 1859 was under the charge of Prof. William
lau Venet.
Ann Arbor, Mich., lat. -- 42° 16' 48’’.0, long. 5*
34" 55°. 2 W. Erected in 1853–54 by the citizens of
Detroit, and hence known as the Detroit Observatory;
it, forms a department of the University of Michigan.
The instruments are: a 13-in. Fitz equatorial, a 63-in.
*istor & Martins transit circle, clocks, and chrono-
graph. A students' observatory contains a 6-in, equa-
torial and 3-in, transit, with zenith telescope attach-
ment. The observatory - plant is valued at about
$40,000. Directors: F. Brünnow, 1854; J. C. Wat-
Son, 1858; M. W. Harrington, 1879. Watson discow-
ered 21 asteroids here.
Baltimore, Md., Denmore Observatory, private ob-
Hºlyatory ºf Mr. W. H. Numsen, lat. -- 39° 21', long.
5" "52" W.; 4-in. Cooke equatorial.
Beloit, Wis., Smith Observatory, 9.5-in, equatorial,
Qbjective by Clark, mounting by Warner & Swasey.
*: John Tatlock, Jr., 1884; C. A. Bacon,
º º Cal, students' observatory of the Univer-
ity of California. 6-in. Fauth equatorial, with spec-
*ope and other attachments, 3 in combined transit
and Zenith telescope of the “Davidson pattern” made
by F auth, clºck, chronometer, chronograph, and other
*ssories for instruction of engineering students, or
original work by students of astronomy. Director,
Frank Soulé. e º
Bethlehem, Pa., Sayre Observatory of Lehigh Uni-
versity, lat. -- 40° 36' 23’.9 long. 5* 1: 31°.9 W.
Foundéd in 1877; 6-in. Clark equatorial, Stackpole
transit and zenith telescope. Director, Č. L. Too-
little.
Boston, Mass., private observatory of Mr. C. L.
Woodsidé (1886); lat. -- 42° 22' 39", long. 4° 44* 9°
W.; 63-inch silvered glass reflector.
Brooklyn, N. Y., private observatory of H. M.
Parkhurst; lat. -- 40° 41' 2", long. 4' 55", 50° W.
Built in 1862; rebuilt in 1877; a 9-in. Fitz equa-
torial has been used principally in photometric ob-
servations.
Cambridge, Mass., Observatory of Harvard Col-
lege; lat. 4- 42° 22' 48.”3, long. 4° 44° 31*.0 W.
Founded in 1843. As early as 1815 an observatory
was projected, and in 1827 the Dana house was pur:
chased to serve at least as a temporary astronomical
establishment. In 1839 Mr. W. C. Bond was ap-
pointed “astronomical observer for the college’’ and
carried on a series of observations in co-operation
with the Wilkes expedition till 1842. The provisional
observatory at the Dana house contained a Troughton
& Simms transit of 23-in. aperture, a Short telescope
of 5-ft. focus, and magnetical and meteorological in-
struments. In 1841 the present site of the observa-
tory, then known as Summer House Hill, was pur-
chased. In 1843, under the enthusiasm aroused by
the sudden appearance of the great comet of that
year, the sum of $25,730 was subscribed for the pur-
pose of erecting an observatory and providing it with
a telescope of the largest size. The buildings were
finished in 1844. The 15-in. refractor (costin
$19,842), by Merz & Mahler, of Munich, was ºi
in 1847. With this instrument G. P. Bond discovered
the seventh satellite of Saturn, Hyperion, in 1848, and
the inner or dusky ring of Saturn in 1850. The ob-
servatory possessed also two 4-in. comet-seekers, and
a 43-in. equatorial, which was replaced, however, in
1869, by one of 53 in. made by Clark. A chro-
nograph or spring-governor, the invention of W. C.
Bond, was first brought into use here in 1849. A
Troughton & Simms meridian circle of 84-in. aperture,
embodying several new features suggested by Prof.
Winlock, and a 23-in. “Russian '' transit were mounted
in 1870. With the former instrument the Astro-
momische Gesellschaft zone, + 50° to + 55°, was
observed by Prof. W. A. Rogers. A horizontal pho-
toheliograph of 40-ft. focus, devised by Prof. Winlock,
was successfully used in photographing the sun in
1870. Prof. Pickering added several photometers of
his own invention to the equipment, the most im-
portant being a large meridian photometer constructed
in 1883. Since 1885 much attention has been given
to astronomical photography. Mrs. Henry Draper
has lent to the observatory-the principal instruments
of Dr. Draper's observatory at Hastings, an 11-in.
Clark equatorial and 15-in. and 28-in. reflectors, and
has furnished means for carrying on a special investi-
gation of stellar spectra by means of photography.
With these instruments extremely valuable results
have already been obtained. In 1887 a fund amount-
ing to $238,000, left by Uriah A. Boyden for conduct-
ing astronomical observations at such a height as to be
free so far as possible from the injurious effects due to
the atmosphere, was transferred to Harvard College.
Experiments, mainly in the line of stellar photography,
are being conducted by Prof. Pickering in carrying out
the provisions of this trust. A high altitude station
in the southern hemisphere will be occupied and a
series of observations carried on in co-operation with a
similar station in the United States. A 13-in, equa-
torial, designed by Prof. Pickering, adapted to either
Visual or photographic purposes, has been built by
the Clarks, and a second telescope of 8-in. aperture is
mounted on the same stand. A complete photographie
70
OBSERVATORIES.
laboratory is fitted up in an adjoining building. The
funds of the observatory, which in 1875 amounted to
$164,067, and in 1885 to $226,988, were increased by
a, bequest from R. T. Paine, in 1886, to $398,046,
placing the observatory on a very satisfactory financial
footing. An extensive time-service, established in
1871, also contributes to the support of the institution.
Seventeen quarto volumes of Annals have been pub-
lished, and a report of the director appears each year
as an appendix to the report of the president of the
college. The Harvard Observatory is the central sta-
tion in the United States for the telegraphic distribu-
tion of astronomical information. Directors: W. C.
Bond, 1839; G. P. Bond, 1859; Joseph Winlock,
1866; E. C. Pickering, 1877.
Cambridgeport, Mass., Mr. E. F. Sawyer's private
observatory; lat. -- 42° 21' 56%, long. 4° 44" 23° W. ;
3á Bordan equatorial used for observations of variable
stars and meteors; several interesting variables of
short period have recently been discovered.
Chicago, Ill., Dearborn Observatory, lat. -- 41° 50'
l’’.0, long. 5" 50" 26°.8 W. Founded by the Chicago
Astronomical Society in 1862–63, and attached to the
University of Chicago. Principal instruments, 18}-in.
Clark equatorial, and 6-in. Repsold meridian circle.
The º has been mainly devoted to double-star
work by Burnham and Hough. With the meridian
circle, work was begun upon the Astronomische Gesell-
schaft Zone, H- 35° to +40°, but was not completed.
Since 1871 this instrument has been used for deter-
mining time for the city of Chicago. Directors : T. H.
§. 1865; E. Colbert, 1874; G. W. Hough, 1879.
In 1888 the observatory was transferred to the
North-western University, and the instruments were
mounted in a new building at Evanston, Ill., 16 miles
N. and 3 miles W. of the old site.
Cincinnati, Ohio, lat. -- 39° 8/19/.5, long. 5* 37"
41*.3 W. The Cincinnati Observatory was founded in
1841–43 by the Cincinnati Astronomical Society, and
owes its existence to the energy and eloquence of Prof.
O. M. Mitchel. A new building was erected in 1873
upon Mount Lookout, about 4 miles E. and 2 miles
S. of the central part of the city, the observatory
having become in 1872 a department of the University
of Cincinnati. The instruments are : an 11}-in, equa-
torial made by Utschneider & Fraunhofer, finished by
Merz & Mahler, and objective refigured by Clark ;
4-in. equatorial, by Clark; 3-in. transit, by Buff &
Derger; clocks, chronometer, chronograph, etc.; a
53-in. meridian circle, by Fauth, was added to the
equipment in 1888. Directors: O. M. Mitchel, 1842;
# Twitchel, 1859; W. Davis, 1861; C. Abbe, 1868;
O. Stone, 1875; J. G. Porter, 1884. Observations
of double stars and comets made with the equatorial
and a zone-catalogue observed with the transit have
filled nine numbers of Publications.
Clinton, N. Y., Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton
College, lat. -- 43° 3' 17’’.0, long. 5", 1" 37*.4 W.
Founded by subscription, 1852–55; 133-in. equatorial
by Spencer & Eaton, 4-in. equatorial by Steinheil,
5-in. altazimuth by Schröder, clock, , chronometer,
chronograph, and spectroscope. . With the 133-in.
equatorial Dr. C. H. F. Peters, the director, has con-
structed a series of ecliptic charts, and in the course
of this work he has discovered 47 asteroids.
Columbia, Mo., Laws Observatory of the University
of the State of Missouri, lat. -- 38° 56', long. 6" 9"
18° W.; 7}-in. Merz equatorial, 41's-in. Fitz equa-
torial, 21%-in. Brunner meridian circle, altazimuth
clocks and minor apparatus; used mainly for instruc-
tlOn.
Crete, Nebraska. Boswell Observatory of Doane
College (1883); 8-in. Clark equatorial, Buff & Berger
transit, clocks, break circuit chronometer, and meteoro-
logical apparatus. Building and instruments cºst $7000.
Denver, Col. A new observatory, the gift of . Mr.
H. B. Chamberlin to the University of Denyer, is in
course of construction about 6 miles from the centre
^
of the city, at a height of 5000 feet above sea-level.
The principal instrument will be a 20-in. Clark equa-
torial. Director, H. A. Howe.
Evanston, Ill., Dearborn Observatory, transferred
from Chicago in 1888.
Geneva, N. Y., Smith Observatory, lat. -- 42° 537,
long, 5* 8° W. Built by William Smith in 1888; equa-
torial of 10; in. aperture, 9 ft. 9 in. focal length,
object-glass by Clacey, mounting by Warner & Swasey,
provided with a photographic corrector of the same
aperture, spectroscope, micrometer, etc.; a 4-in. merid-
ian circle by Warner & Swasey; a sidereal clock
wound automatically by a small electro-motor, and a
chronograph. Also a 9-in. silver on glass reflector,
a 5-in, reflector, and several smaller instruments con-
structed by the director, Mr. W. R. Brooks, and for-
merly used at the Red House Observatory, Phelps, N.
Y., in the discovery of 13 comets.
Georgetown (D. C.) College Observatory, lat. H 38°
54′ 26’’.2, long. 5* 8" 18°.3 W. Erected in 1843–44;
4.8-in. Simms equatorial, 4-in. Troughton & Simms.
meridian circle, and 4.6 in. Ertel transit. The equa-
torial was used by Sestini in 1850 for a series of obser-
vations of sun spots. A single volume of Annals,
giving a description of the building and instruments,
was published, in 1852, by James Curley.
Glasgow, Mo., Morrison Observatory, lat. -- 39° 13'
45%.6, long. 6 il" 18' W. Founded in 1874 by
Miss Berenice Morrison ; 12}-in. Clark equatorial, 6-in.
Troughton & Simms meridian circle, clocks, chronom-
eter, and chronograph. Volume I. of the Publica-
tions issued in 1887 contains a description of the ob-
servatory, and observations of planets, comets, and
double stars. Time signals have been sent to Kansas
City and St. Louis, and over the line of the Chicago
and Alton Railroad. Director, C. W. Pritchett,
Greencastle, Ind., McKim Observatory, lat. -- 39°
7/, long. 5° 46” 30° W. The gift of Mr. Robert Mc-
Kim to De Pauw University, 1885; entire cost $10,000.
The principal instrument is a 9}-in. equatorial ; an
almucantar is used for time observations.
Grinnell, Iowa. Mr. Grinnell has provided Iowa
College with an astronomical observatory mounting an
8-in. Clark equatorial (1887).
Hanºe, N. H., Shattººk,9}servatory
mouth College, lat. -- 43°42' 15%, long. 4° 49* 8° W.
Founded in 1853; 93-in. Clark equatorial, 4-in.
Troughton & Simms meridian circle, clocks, chrono-
graph, and spectroscopes. Directors: C. A. Young,
1853; C. F. Emerson, 1878.
Hastings, N. Y., Prof. Henry Draper's Observatory,
lat. -- 40° 59' 25", long. 4* 55" 29°.7 W. Built in
1860; 28-in. reflector made by Prof. Draper, 11-in.
refractor with photographic corrector by Clark, used
until Prof. Draper's death in 1882 for experiments in
astronomical photography; in 1886–87 they were re-
moved to the Harvard College Observatory.
Haverford (Pa.) College Observatory, lat. -- 40° 0'
40’’. 1, long. + 5° 1" 12".7; 8}-in. Fitz equatorial, re-
figured by Clark, 4-in. meridian circle, 13-in. Zenith
telescope, 83-in. Brashear reflector, clocks and chrono-
graph. The observatory was rebuilt in 1883 and pro-
vided with a 10-in. Clark refractor. Directors : JOS.
G. Harlan, 1853; S. J. Gummere, ; Samuel Al-
sop, Jr., 1875; Isaac Sharpless, 1882; F. P. Leaven-
worth, 1887.
Hillsborough, Ohio, private observatory of Henry
A. Pavey; 4-in, equatorial by Benj. Pikes' Sons. . .
Iowa City, Iowa, private observatory of C. W. Irish,
lat. -- 41° 39'.8, long. 6' 6" 4° W. , 4-in. equatorial
by Chevalier.
Lancaster, Pa., Daniel Scholl Observatory. Erected
in 1887; attached to Franklin and Marshall College;
11-in, equatorial, objective by Clark, mounting by
Repsold, 3-in. transit, clock chronometer and chrono-
raph.
§ Żºry, Pa., Bucknell University. Observatory.
Founded in 1887 by Mr. William Bucknell. The build-
of Dart-
OBSERVATORIES.
71
ing is of brick, 25 ft. by 50 ft., a dome 16 ft. in diá-
meter surmounting the central tower ; the instruments
are a 10-in. Clark equatorial and a 3-in. Ertel transit,
chiefly for instruction. The entire cost was $10,000.
Director, W. C. Bartol. º
McCormick Observatory. See University of Vir-
Oſt jū. (M.
(/ Madison, Wis., Washburn Observatory, lat. -- 43°
4' 367.7, long. 5" 57* 37.9 W. Built in 1878–80 by
Gov. C. C. Washburn at a cost of about $50,000, and
presented to the University of Wisconsin. The instru:
ments are a 153-in. Clark equatorial, 4.8-in. Repsold
meridian circle, chronograph, clocks, chronometers, etc.
A 6-in. Clark equatorial, formerly the property of S.
W. Burnham, and a 3-in. Fauth transit are mounted
in a students' observatory adjoining the main building.
The equatorial has been used for observations of double
stars, comets, and nebulae; the meridian circle for obser-
wations of Anwers' 303 Southern stars. Directors: J.
C. Watson, 1879; E. S. Holden, 1881; J. E. Davies,
1886; G. C. Comstock, director, Asaph Hall, con-
sulting director, 1887. Five volumes of Publications
have been issued.
Mount Hamilton, Cal., Lick Observatory of the
University of California, lat. -- 37° 20' 23’’.5, long.
8*6* 34°. 1 W., height above sea-level, 4302. Founded
by James Lick through a deed of trust dated Sept. 21,
1875, in which he devoted $700,000 to the construction
of a telescope “superior to and more powerful than
any telescope ever yet made . . . and also a suitable
observatory connected therewith.” The work of con-
struction was begun by the Lick trustees in 1880, and
the observatory was completed and delivered, in ac-
cordance with the terms of Mr. Lick's will, to the Re-
ents of the University of California, June 1, 1888.
n the main building are computing-rooms, a library,
and the domes for the 36-in. and 12-in, equatorials,
and detached buildings contain a 63-in. Repsold me.
ridian circle, 63-in. Warner & Swasey equatorial,
4-in. Fauth combined transit and zenith telescope,
and 5-in, horizontal photoheliograph, the objectives
for all these instruments being furnished by Alvan
Clark & Sons. A 4-in. Clark comet-seeker, 2.1-in.
Repsold universal instrument, 5 clocks, 5 chronometers,
3 chronographs, measuring engine, and minor apparatus
complete the equipment. The visual objective of the
great equatorial has a clear aperture of 36 in. and focal
length of 56 ft., 6 in. ; the flint disc for this objective
was obtained by Clark from Feil & Co., of Paris, in
1882, and after nineteen failures the crown was cast by
the same makers in 1885. The objective was com-
pleted and delivered by the Clarks in 1886. It cost
$51,000 and weighs, with its cell, about one-third of a
ton . In 1887, a third (crown) lens of 33 in aperture
and 46 ft, focal length was procured, at a cost of about
$14,000, as a “photographic corrector.” The equa-
torial mounting was made by Warner & Swasey and
put in place in 1887 for $42,000. The total weight of
the telescope is about 40 tons. The dome is of steel,
75 ft. in diameter, and has a floor movable vertically
16% ft. The cost of the dome and floor was $56,800.
Volume I. of the Publications, issued in 1887, contains
a.description of the buildings and instruments, a list
9f double stars discovered and measured by Mr. Burn-
an upon the site of the observatory in 1879 and
1881, observations of the transit of Mercury in 1881
and of the transit of Venus in 1882, and an extensive
series of reduction tables. A time-service is in opera.
§on over the whole Pacific system of railways from
gden to El Paso. The observatory has an endow-
ment fund of somewhat over $100,000 remaining from
the original bequest of $700,000, and the further ex-
Pºlises are provided for by the Regents of the Uni-
Versity, Director, E. S. Holden.
Mashville, Tenn., Vanderbilt University Observa-
%ry, lat. -- 36° 8: 58%. 2, long, 5' 47m iś W.T. i.
90k equatorial, 4-in. Ertel meridian circle, 3-in. Cooke
tazimuth, clocks, and chronograph. A 5'in. portable
refractor was used by Mr. E. E. Barnard in the dis-
covery of a number of comets. e º
New Haven, Conn., Observatory of Yale University,
lat. -- 41° 18' 36/.5, long. 4' 51" 42°. 2 W. In 1830
a 5-in. refractor was purchased from Dollond, and
mounted in the steeple of one of the college buildings;
subsequently a 3.8-in. meridian circle by Ertel, for-
merly the property of the U. S. Naval Observatory, a
meridian transit with object glass by Fitz, mounting by
Prof. C. S. Lyman, a 9-in. Clark equatorial, a 4-in.
transit by Troughton and Simms, and minor instru-
ments were added to the equipment. In 1882 a new
observatory was built and supplied with a 6-in. Repsold
heliometer (cost $7500) and an 8-in. Grubb equatorial.
A time-service and bureau for testing thermometers
were established in 1880. Volume I., part I, of Trans-
actions, published in 1887, contains Dr. Elkin's heli-
ometer measures of the brighter stars in the group of
the Pleiades. Directors : E. Loomis, 1831; § § -
sted, 1836; C. S. Lyman, 1847; H. C. Newton, 1882.
Since 1884 the observatory has been in charge of a
board of directors.
Newington, Conn., private observatory of D. W.
Edgecomb; lat. -- 41° 44' 0", long. 4° 46” 47° W.;
9.4-in. Clark equatorial.
New Windsor, Ill., private observatory of E. L.
Larkin; lat. -- 41° 13', ". 6* 1* 52° W.; 6-in. Clark
equatorial.
New York, N.Y., Columbia College Observatory,
lat. -- 40° 45' 23’’.1, long. 4' 55" 53°.7 W. The ob.
servatory is upon the top of the library building of
Columbia College, the floor being 100 ft. above the
level of the street. Instruments: 5-in. equatorial,
combined transit and zenith telescope, clocks, chro-
nometers, spectroscopes, etc. To these were added in
1884 the instruments of Mr. L. M. Rutherfurd’s ob-
Servatory, a 13-in. equatorial with photographic cor-
rector, 3-in. Stackpole transit, and other apparatus.
Director, J. K. Rees.
New York, N. Y., private observatory of L. M.
Rutherfurd, lat. H 40° 43' 48’’.5, long. 4' 55" 56.6
W.; 13-in. equatorial by Rutherford & Fitz, used for
celestial photography, 3-in. Stackpole transit. The
instruments were dismounted in 1884 and presented to
Columbia College.
Northampton, Mass., Smith College Observatory,
lat. -- 42° 19 7’’, long. 4' 50" 32.9 W. Erected in
1886; a one-story brick building containing an equa-
torial room, photographic dark-room, library, clock-
room, and transit-room. The equatorial is of 11 in.
aperture, objective by Clark, mounting by Warner &
Swasey, meridian circle of 4-in. aperture by Warner &
Swasey, and chronograph by the same makers. A
Spectroscope for solar and stellar work is fitted to the
equatorial. Director, Miss Mary E. Byrd, ISS7.
Northfield, Minn., Carleton College Observatory,
lat. -- 44° 27° 40'’.S., long. 6" 12" 35°.9 W. Erected
in 1878; 84-in. Clark equatorial, 3-in. Fauth transit,
clocks, chronometer, chronograph, and minor instru:
ments. . The observatory was rebuilt in 1886–88, and
the 84-in, refractor, provided with a photographic cor-
rector. A Repsold meridian circle with object glass
#S in. aperture, by Clark, was mounted in iss".
Time signals are sent out over several railroads. Di
rector, W. W. Payne. -
Oakland, Cal., Chabot Observatory, lat. -- 37° 4S'
5", long. S".9" 6.4 W. Presented to the city of Oak-
land, in 1886 by Mr. Anthony Chabot. Instruments:
an 83-in, equatorial with micrometer and s ectroscope,
8.4%-in, transit, chronograph, and clocks. }. F.
M. Campbell.
Quyahº, Neb., Creighton College Observatory, lat.
H-41° 16’ 6”, long. 6, 23° 47° W, ; 5-in. equatoria!
by I; H. Steward, London; 3-in. transit circle by
Fauth, clocks, chronograph, etc. A 12-in. equatorial
will be added to the equipment.
Phelps, N.Y., Red House Observatory, lat. -- 42°
58', long, 5' 8" 24" W.; 9-in, and 5-in, silvered glass
72
OBSERVATORIES.
reflectors, both by the owner, W. R. Brooks. The
instruments Were removed in 1888 to the Smith Ob-
servatory, Geneva, N. Y. They have served in the
discovery of 13 comets.
Połghkeepsie, N. Y., Vassar College Observatory,
lat. -- 41° 41' 18%, long. 4° 55' 33.6 W. Built in
1878; 123-in. Clark equatorial, 33-in. meridian circle,
clock, chronometer, chronograph. Miss Maria Mitchell
Yº succeeded as director by Miss M. W. Whitney in
S.
. Princeton, N. J., Observatory of Princeton Univer-
sity, consisting of the observatory of the J. C. Green
School of Science, lat. -- 40° 20' 57.8, long. 4° 58'm
37°.6 W, and the Halsted Observatory. The J. C.
Green Observatory was built in 1877 for instruction in
practical astronomy, and contains a 93-in. Clark equa-
torial, 4-in. Fauth meridian circle, 3-in. Fauth transit,
2}-in. Kahler transit, Aycrigg transit mounted in the
prime vertical, besides clocks, chronometers, and sub-
sidiary apparatus. The Halsted Observatory has a
23-in. Clark equatorial (mounted in 1883), provided
with several large spectroscopes. Director, C. A.
Young.
A rovidence, R. I., private observatory of F. C. Sea-
grave, lat., + 41° 49' 46’.4, long. 4” 45" 37*.6 W. ;
83-in. Clark equatorial, with Browning spectroscope.
Rochester, N. Y., Warner Observatory, lat. -- 43°
8′ 15’, long. 5* 11", 20° W. Erected in 1879–80 by
H. H. Warner; 16-in. Clark refractor, used mainly in
the search for new nebulae. Director, Lewis Swift.
St. Louis, Mo., Observatory of Washington Uni-
versity, lat. -- 38° 38' 3’.6, long. 6' 0" 49*. 1 W.; 6}-
in. Fitz equatorial, 2.6-in. Würdemann transit, clocks,
spectroscope, photometer, etc. An extensive time-
service is maintained. Director, H. S. Pritchett.
Sam José, Cal., Observatory of the University of
the Pacific (1885); 6-in. Clark equatorial, Fauth tran-
sit. Director, J. C. George.
South Evanston, Ill., Observatory of Dr. Marshall
D. Ewell, built in 1886, 10.8 miles south of Chicago.
The instruments are a 63-in. Clark equatorial, mounted
on a pier made of Portland cement and sand, a 2}-in.
Troughton & Simms transit, a sidereal and a mean time
clock, and subsidiary apparatus.
South Hadley, Mass., Observatory of Mount Holyoke
Seminary, lat. -- 42° 15' 1877.2, long. 4° 50" 20°.3 W. ;
8-in. Clark equatorial, 3-in. Fauth meridian circle,
clock, and chronograph. The building and its equip-
ment cost about $10,000.
Syracuse, N. Y., Observatory of the University of
Syracuse. Founded in 1887; 8-in. Clark equatorial,
3-in. Troughton & Simms transit, clock, chronometer,
and chronograph. Director, J. R. French.
Tarrytown, N. Y., private observatory of C. H.
Rockwell, lat. -- 41° 4' 21’’, long. 4° 55" 24.9 W. ;
64-in. equatorial, object glass by Dr. C. S. Hastings,
mounting by Byrne. An almucantar is used for de-
termining time.
Troy, N. Y., Williams Proudfit Observatory, lat. H-
42° 43' 52%, long. 4' 54" 45° W. Attached to the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute ; 3.5-in. Fitz equa-
torial, 2.5-in. Kübel transit, 2-in. Phelps & Gurley
transit, clocks, and chronometer. Director, Dascom
Greene. e
University of Virginia, Va., McCormick Obser-
vatory, lat. -- 38°2' 1.2%, long. 5"14" 5", 2 W., near
Charlottesville. A small astronomical observatory was
built by Thomas Jefferson in 1825, but no instruments
were mounted, and the building was removed in 1855
or 1856. The present observatory was built in 1883–
84 at a cost of about $70,000, of which $64,000 was
the gift of Leander J. McCormick. A working fund
of $35,000 was given by W. H. Vanderbilt, and an
endowment of $50,000 was subscribed by the alumni
of the university. In 1882 Prof. Ormond Stone was
chosen director, and the observatory was dedicated
Apr. 13, 1885. The principal instrument is a 26-in.
Clark equatorial, used for the study of faint nebulae
and the observation of comets and double stars. There
is also a 4-in, equatorial by Kahler and a 3-in, transit
by Fauth.
Washington, D.C., U. S. Naval Observatory, lat.
+ 38°53' 38’’.8, long. 5' 8" 12.09 W. Founded in
1842 by act of Congress as a depot of charts and in-
Struments for the navy. Numerous efforts, beginning
in 1810, had been made to obtain authority and funds
for a national observatory, but without success. In
1838, a series of observations was begun by Lieut. J.
M. Gilliss in a small observatory upon Capitol Hill,
connected with the depot of charts, in co-operation
with the Wilkes expedition. These observations were
continued until 1842, when the sum of $25,000 was
appropriated for the erection of a more permanent
and suitable depot. The building, as planned by
Lieut. Gilliss, was completed in is 44. Additions were
made in 1847, 1848, 1868, and 1873. The following
instruments have been in use : 4.1-in. Troughton
Simms mural circle (mounted in 1844); 5.3-in. Ertel
transit (mounted in 1844, object-glass reground by
Clark in 1862); 4.9-in, Pistor & Martins prime vertical
transit (1845); 9.6-ir. Merz & Mahler equatorial
(1845); 4-in, Utschneider & Fraunhofer comet-seeker ;
3.8-in. Ertel meridian circle ; 6.6-in. Ertel refraction
circle; 8.5-in. Pistor & Martins transit circle (1866);
26-in. Clark equatorial (1873; cost, $46,000). There
are also 4 chronographs, 6 clocks, chronometers, and
subsidiary apparatus, and the photoheliographs, tran-
sits, equatorials, and other instruments used by the
American parties in observations of the transits of
Venus in 1874 and 1882 are stored here. The 26-in.
equatorial has been used principally in the measure-
ment of faint double stars and satellites and in observa-
tions for stellar parallase. With this instrument Prof.
Hall discovered in 1877 the two satellites of Mars.
The chronometers for issue to naval vessels are rated
and tested in a suitably built room in the observatory,
and an extensive time-service is maintained, involving
the automatic correction daily of about 250 Gardner
clocks in the various government departments in Wash-
ington and the dropping of time-balls at New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, , , Hampton
Roads, Savannah, and New Orleans Thirty quarto
volumes of observations and memoirs have been pub-
lished, besides the annual report of the superintend-
ent, which is appended to the report of the Secretary
of the Navy. }. 1880 a new site for the observatory
was purchased about 1% mile north and 3 mile west
of the present location, the latter being regarded as
id: and the efficiency of the instruments being
impaired there by the fogs and the proximity to the
Potomac River. Plans for the new buildings were
prepared, but Congress failed to make any appropria-
tion for their construction until 1886, when $100,000
were made available for this purpose with the provi-
sion that the total cost should not exceed $400,000.
New plans were prepared, their main feature being the
erection of ºl detached buildings for each of the
principal instruments, while the offices and computing-
rooms are united in a main building, and work was be-
gun in the autumn of 1888. The observatory as a
naval institution comes under the bureau of naviga-
tion, and line officers of the navy are detailed at inter-
vals to perform the duties of superintendent. The
following officers have held this position : M. F.
Maury, 1844; J. M. Gilliss, 1861 ; C. H. Davis,
1865; B. F. Sands, 1867; C. H. Davis, 1874; John
Rodgers, 1877; S. C. Rowan, 1882; R. W. Shufeldt,
1883; S. R. Franklin, 1884; G. E. Belknap, 1885;
A. D. Brown, 1886; R. L. Phythian, 1886.
West Point, N. Y., Observatory of the United
States Military Academy, lat. -- 41° 23' 31", long. 4"
55" 49". 4 W. Erected in 1839; 93-in. Fitz equa-
torial, 4.6-in. transit by Ertel & Son (mounted in
1843), 4-in. mural circle by Troughton & Simms, and
several smaller field-instruments. The instruments
are used almost entirely for the instruction of cadets.
OBSTETRICS, 73
A new observatory was built in 1883; lat. -- 41° 23'
227.1, long. 4° 55" 50.6 W., 480 ft. above sea-level,
containing a 12-in. Clark equatorial, mounted in 1884,
and an 8-inch Repsold meridian circle, mounted in
*u..., Point, N. Y., Observatory of the U. S.
Army Engineers' School of Application; intended for
instruction of engineer officers in the applications of
practical astronomy to geodesy. Originally built in
isºs, lat. -- 40° 47' 17′7, 19ng. 4h 55m 7.5 W. ; re-
built in 1879, lat. 40° 47' 21’’.3, long. 4. 55' 7"." W.
instruments: a 53-in, equatorial, objective by Clark,
mounting by Fauth; a 3.8-in. equatorial by Tulley,
a ſingkº combined transit and Zenith telescºpe of
2, inches; a 2.6-in. Stackpole Russian transit, also
adapted for use as a zenith telescope; a 2-in; Trough-
ton'transit; a 2-in. Stackpole transit; and a 2.6-in.
Würdemann zenith telescope; chronograph, ghrono-
meters, and sextants. Results of observations for time
and latitude, and an extensive series of observations of
aurorae are published in General Orders. e
Williamstown, Mass., Observatory of Williams Col-
lege, lat. -- 42°42' 49%, long. 4. 53" 53.5 W. The old
or Hopkins Observatory was built, in 1836-37 (dedi-
cated June 12, 1838), and furnished with a 13-in.
Clark equatorial and 33-in. Troughton & Simms
transit. The Field Memorial Observatory was built
in isso and a 43-in. Repsold meridian circle, was
mounted on June 24 of that year. Directors: Albert
Hopkins, 1836; T. H. Safford, 1879 (?),
}psilºnti, Mich., State Normal School, Observa-
tory, lat. -- 42° 13', long. 5" 34" 22° W. , 4-in. Clark
equatorial, 13-in. Gurley transit.
References : Loomis, Recent Progress of Astronomy (N.
Y., is50); André & Angot, L'Astronomie pratique et les
observatoires en Europe et en Amériqwe, troisième partie
(Paris, 1877); Holden, “Reports of Astronomical Observa-
tories, 1879, 1880” (Smithsonian Reports, 1879, 1880);
“Progress in Astronomy”. [1879–1884] (Smithsonian Re:
ports, 1880-1884); Winlock, “Progress in Astronomy.”
i1885–1888] (Smithsonian Reports, 1885–1888); Lancaster,
Liste générale des observatoires et des astronomes (Bruxelles,
1887).
OBSTETRICS is that branch of medical science
which treats of midwifery, child-bearing, parturition,
pregnancy. Midwifery has always been regarded as
aving only to do with the needs of the woman in her
hours of delivery; hence, according to ancient laws, the
midwife was expected to care for the woman at this
time only, and when occasion demanded aid prior to or
after the accomplishment of the birth of the child she
was required to call in a physician or surgeon as the
case might be. Custom subsequently more or less
joined to medical treatment of parturition the Gare of
the diseases of women, and also of children, but since
the study of gynaecology has so wonderfully progressed,
the advanced schools of medicine have separated these
subjects, and very judiciously, in many instances, they
are entrusted to separate departments for study.
The word obstetrics is derived from the Latin obstare,
to stand before ; literally the obstetrician is one who
stands before the woman to render her aid in her de-
livery of a child. The art of delivery has long claimed
the attention of all classes, nor is this to be wondered
at when we consider that child-bearing is connected
with the foundation of the welfare of all races, and
that during a fixed time the pregnant woman is an
object of the greatest solicitude. At first, as was
natural, women alone were regarded as best fitted to
be able to render the needed service, and hence mid-
Wifery or obstetrics was relegated to the care of women,
and so remained for ages. Indeed, at the present
time, in many lands, women only are pººl to be
present on such occasions, and, in fact, some tribes re-
gard these matters as unfit for the notice of any save
the lowest members of their community, and even re-
gard the condition and presence of the pregnant
Woman as unlucky and likely to cause evil results.
The earliest allusion to the obstetric art is in ancient
Jewish history. At first, it appears, there Wäs re;
iºctance to interfere during labor, and only such aid
was given as became absolutely necessary in the sepa-
ration of the child, leaving everything else to the
efforts of nature. But as time elapsed, people in
attendance on such occasions involuntarily used their
common sense in aid of the efforts of the Woman, and
thus, from observation and experience, sºme became
more skilled and regarded as specially able to aid, in
the delivery. Again, from seeing what nature unaided
could do in difficult labors, they were encouraged tº
imitate these efforts or aid them, and finding such aid
to be followed by good results, a similar plan was em-
ployed in subsequent cases at an earlier. moment,
Thus, step by step, was built up the obstetric art, and
then arose a skilled band whose aid was demanded and
relied upon when the emergency occurred.
In all history we find but little allusion to the art or
any advances therein until the advent of Hippocrates,
about 450 B.C. Up to this tim as there was but
little study of anatomy very little was known of, the
structure and relation of the parts to each other.
Upon obstetrical subjects we find that Hippogrates
wrote treatises entitled De Natura Mullebri, De
Mullerum Morbis, and De Superfoetatione, showing that
in his time something at least must have been known
of the diseases to which women are specially subject, as
also upon the subject of twins or triple pregnangy.
His views of conception and generation, though for
many years regarded as correct, have been shown in
the light of modern investigation to be very erroneous.
Evidently, he had obtained in some way, possibly by
the study of inferior animals, a knowledge of the Qvum
and its mechanical expulsion. Of course difficult de-
livery would be most thoroughly investigated, and we
find also that he treats of the various ways by which
the child presents for delivery and alludes to the differ-
ent positions of the placenta or after-birth.
A singular belief which still retains a great deal of
vitality is alluded to in his work entitled De Natura
Pter. This is that the foetus delivered at the seventh
month of pregnancy has a better chance for life than
one at the eighth month. A similar belief is also to
be found in a rabbinical treatise of the third century,
called Midrash Rabbah, a work on the book of Exo-
dus by Rabbah, which says “a child can live at Seven
months and not at eight.”
At this time it appears that when the midwife failed
in delivering the woman the aid of the surgeon was
demanded to accomplish it by force, and we find that
Hippocrates counsels the use of means to break up
the j of the child, and the extraction of the body
by hooks, etc. The Caesarean section, or opening the
womb through the abdomen, would appear to have
been an operation performed in very early times.
Upon this subject, those who are desirous of investi-
gating more thoroughly should read the valuable essay
by Robert P. Harris, M. D., of Philadelphia. It has
been believed, however, that in all cases such an opera-
tion was only attempted after the death of the woman,
while in recent times we have records of instances
where women have been subjected to it not once but
twice, and have survived to a good age. This state-
ment must be taken with some allowance, for we find
in the Jewish Mishna, a collection written about A. D.
180, the question debated as to whether a woman was
unclean who had the child taken by an operation from
her side. Hence it is probable that cases had occurred
where a mother had survived this ordeal.
About the VIIth century Paulus AFgineta appears
to have practised midwifery, and we have quotations
from him as to the delivery of the child where nature
had been unable to accomplish the task. It is remark-
able to what extent people were led to believe in
multiple births, prodigies, etc. We can in the light
of these days understand the reports of foetuses being
passed by the bowels, from abdominal abscesses, or
74
OBSTETRICS.
even where portions had been ejected from the stomach.
One would have supposed that a subject of so much
importange, one connected so immediately with the
growth of nations, would have attracted marked study
in every quarter; but when we reflect upon the very
low estimate placed upon women by barbarous nations,
both of ancient and modern times, we find less
cause for surprise. Slowly, as civilization progressed,
as the means for learning were multiplied, we find a
gradual advance in the study of obstetrics.
Perhaps one reason for the apparent neglect of this
important branch of medical science is to be found in
the fact that delayed, tedious labors are so exceptional,
so rare that, except where disease or injury has caused
deformity, but little aid would seem to be demanded.
Not more than one case in every hundred can truly
be regarded as other than a strictly natural easy labor,
and this small number of cases are only delayed by
causes generally capable of a natural solution. When
We come to those which may be regarded as tedious or
obstructed labors and those positively demanding in-
strumental interference, the proportion ranges notably
greater, to one in 1000 or even more. This proportion
is even greater in the case of nations where females
live according to the laws of hygiene. Much of the
obstruction, the delay in delivery, is due to the artificial
mode of living among civilized nations, producing loss
of general nerve power, exhaustion, and even deformity
of organs, and thus destroying that wonderful exact
i.” which always exists in the healthy female
etween the measurements of her organs and those of
her child. Hence we see that as nations advance in
the so-called arts of civilization they often degenerate
at least bodily, and there arises a need for the study
of methods by which to counteract the evil results
which are sure to follow. Of these obstructions in
labor we may instance cranial disproportions either by
reason of deficiency of the mother or by excess of the
child, requiring for delivery a resort to the operation
called craniotomy or destruction of the child's head in
order to reduce its size so that it may pass through the
unyielding parts of the mother. This was spoken of
by Hippocrates, and undoubtedly for many years was
performed under circumstances where the child's life
might have been preserved. Perhaps the greatest im-
rovement in the obstetric art at any time was the
invention of the forceps, which occurred about the mid-
dle of the seventeenth century. Undoubtedly the in-
troduction of this instrument aided greatly in the prac-
tical instruction of physicians in the art of delivery, and
at first it was regarded as the means by which every life
was to be saved and every labor abridged. Indeed its
use became universal, and at one time bid fair to do as
much harm as good, in consequence of the utter ig-
norance on the part of the profession as to the proper
employment of this aid and the appropriate cases in
which to invoke it.
Now, we find the whole range of obstetrics enlarged ;
it was found necessary to study the development of
the ovum, to follow it from the period of impregna-
tion down to the moment of delivery ; then came the
anatomy of the parts, their relations to each other and
to the foetus; the physiological action of all the organs
which were associated in the functions of child-bear-
ing; finally, the pathological conditions of those organs
and their interference whether in delivery or in the
process of gestation. These studies need to be re-
garded as incident to the life of woman during her
entire procreative period, which is generally regarded
as ranging from the 15th to the 45th year. These
limits have been ascertained as the average of an im-
mense number of observations, although, as in other
departments, we have exceptions either way. Inci-
dents are on record of the delivery of a girl at her 11th
year, and on the other hand of a woman at her 64th
year. The most prolific period is from the 25th to the
30th year. Nor are we to regard cessation of the vis-
ible sign, menstruation, as a proof that the woman has
passed the age of becoming pregnant. Instances
constantly occur where, owing to this cessation for a
number of years, women have been announced as suf-
fering with a tumor when the event proved that they
Were pregnant.
In consequence of such occurrences as this, and also
because at many times necessity would arise to demand
a positive knowledge as to whether a woman was preg-
nant or the reverse, the study of the signs of preg-
nancy has occupied all practitioners of midwifery for
many centuries, and perhaps we may say for all time.
Again and again has an infallible sign been announced,
only to be shown as entirely without value. One of
the most pronounced of these was the peculiar sub-
stance found in the urine of pregnant women and
called Kiesteine. This was known as early as 1839,
and for a time there existed no doubt that the needed
test was at last discovered, but when other investi-
gators found it in the urine of women who were not
pregnant and finally in that of men, the fabric dis-
solved as in a dream and this test is now entirely aban-
doned. The only positive sign, and one which once
heard is conclusive, is the sound of the foetal heart.
This unfortunately can rarely if ever be heard until
after quickening has occurred, and in many cases owing
to other causes cannot be heard ; hence, while its
presence is positive, its absence is not a negative sign.
The absence of the menstrual flow is usually a sign
which leads to the search for contributory evidence,
but this is very unreliable, as in some women menstru-
ation never recurs during the period of childbearing ;
in others it may continue until the close of the latter
months of pregnancy. Any one symptom then is not
to be iºd upon, but the presence of a number or
the absence of others may be regarded as significant.
Thus, when a woman of proper age is in apparent
good health, the cessation of the menstrual flow, a
gradual enlargement of the abdomen, with sickness or
nausea in the morning, and a darkening of the areola
around the nipple, would be symptoms to cause a
strong belief that she was pregnant. If later, about
43 months from the inception of these signs, there oc-
curred at irregular intervals a peculiar feeling of flut-
tering or movement within the abdominal walls, known
to women as the quickening, additional strength would
be given to this belief. nother symptom of preg-
nancy which is regarded by many authorities as of
special value is that of contraction of the womb at ir-
regular intervals. This is noticed often at a very early
period, and to many women is a positive proof that
they are in the pregnant state. In the case of women,
the walls of whose abdomen are not too much loaded
with fat, this may be recognized by the physician by
placing the hand upon the abdomen, and letting it re-
main for a short time. The sensation is then observed
as though the uterine tumor slowly contracted beneath
the hand. No decision should ever be made upon a
few of these signs only, and it is always best to err on
the safe side and act as though pregnancy were pres-
ent than the reverse, as a number of unfortunate in-
stances are on record where a failure to do this has
been productive of mortifying results both to patient
and physicians, and even death has followed.
The duration of pregnancy has been regarded by
even learned authorities as very variable, but it is now
generally conceded that about 300 days is the real
imit, and by some governments this is the period
allowed by law, where it may be necessary to decide
the question. gº
During the first 15 or 16 weeks the cessation of preg-
nancy by the extrusion of the foetus is called an abor-
tion, after that it is a miscarriage, . A belief which
formerly was very common was that the foetus was not
endowed with life prior to the º of quickening.
In fact, the credulous believed that this was the sign
of the entrance of the soul, and that a delivery before
that time was of no importance, and no criminality
attached to any means which might be employed to
O’CALLAGHAN–OCEAN LIFE. 75
induce it. This highly dangerous belief led to the
performance of the most outrageºus practices on the
part of those who did not wish to bear children. For-
tunately, in the interest of humanity and the good of
society, better instruction has promulgated the truth
that the soul—the life—begins at the moment of con-
ception, and the destruction of that life is equally
criminal at any time. Ordinary natural labor should
be regarded as a physical healthy act, and labor,
whether that of miscarriage or abortion, is pathological,
never occurring without more or less injury to the
general system. º º
There are many diseases incident to pregnancy which
become of importance as they may induce premature
delivery, hence their study comes within the scope of
the obstetrician. Of these may be mentioned exces-
sive vomiting, occasionally going to such an extent as
to bring on labor, or to so threaten the life of the
woman as to bring up the question of the induction of
labor for her relief; albuminuria, in which condition
the blood becomes so loaded with injurious matter
that the woman is often placed in a very critical condi-
tion, and is threatened with convulsions and death ;
disorders of the circulation and of the respiration ; dis-
orders of secretion and excretion ; disorders of the
nervous system ; finally, serious displacements of the
gravid womb.
Labor may be defined as the effort of the pregnant
womb to extrude its contents, and it becomes natural
or otherwise as it waries from the proper time for its
occurrence, and as it is complicated or connected with
disorders or disturbances which more or less interfere
with its proper or speedy completion.
A natural labor rarely exceeds 24 hours in its dura-
tion. This is from the commencement of the dilata-
tion of the mouth of the womb to the completion of
delivery. Many accounts of labors of inordinate length
are based upon a calculation from the inception of
apparent labor pains. Instances are constantly occur-
ring in which the labor has been regarded as extending
over many days or even weeks. These are usually
known as false pains, and are due to a variety of
causes, as fatigue, excessive exertion, rheumatism, and
the like. The first labor is usually longer in duration
than any subsequent ones. So invariably is this the
rule that it is generally safe for the obstetrician to pre-
dict a much shorter time and a more easy delivery in
subsequent labors. Of course this alludes to such
cases where it is known that there is no abnormal con-
dition of the parts. Yet, even in cases where there
has been great irregularity, nature unaided shows a
Wonderful power, spontaneous delivery having fre-
quently taken place under the most untoward circum-
stances. This is the only means by which such mon-
strosities as the Siamese twins, or that more recent
one, the double woman, could have been delivered
alive and undivided.
At present the art of obstetries has arrived at such
a stage that the skill of the obstetrician is able to
deliver alive and with safety to the mother many
infants who otherwise must inevitably have perished,
and perhaps have involved the mother, either causing
her death or permanent invalidism. This is shown
by the great success which now follows the operation
ºf Caesarean section; the scientific employment of the
forceps; turning; and the induction of premature
labor; the prevention or relief of puerperal eclampsia
etc. . The study of the art of obstetries is now regarded
as of equal importance with the other branches of med-
icine, and is one of the seven fundamental branches,
taught by a separate professor in all medical schools.
The best works for consultation in the study of obstetrics
are those of Leishman, Churchill, Tarnier's Cazeaux, etc.
(W. B. A.)
Q'CALLAGHAN, EDMUND BAILEY (1799–1880),
antiquarian, was born at Mallow, Ireland, in 1799. He
Went to France in 1821, and to Canada in 1823. He
began the practice of medicine in 1827, but became
editor of the Montreal Vindicator in 1834. After the
insurrection of 1837 he removed to New York, and in
1848 he was appointed keeper of the historical manu-
scripts in the office of the secretary of state at Albany.
In 1870 he removed to New York city, where he con-
tinued his historical labors till his death on May 27,
1880. He had edited for the State the Documentary
History of New York (14 vols., 1849, sqq.); Documents
Relating to the Colonial History of New York (11 vºls.,
1855–61); Historical Manuscripts Relating to the War
of the Revolution (1868), and other works. He also
published a History of New Netherlands (2 vols.,
1845–48).
OCCUM, SAMsox (1723–1792), Indian preacher,
was born near New London, Conn., about 1723. He
was educated at Rev. Ebenezer Wheelock's Indian
school, at Lebanon, Conn., and afterwards taught
school at Montauk, L. I., . In 1766, he was taken to
England by Rev. Dr. Whitaker, who went to raise
funds for the Indian schools. These funds became the
endowment of Dartmouth College (q. v.). Occum
after his return preached in Long Island, chiefly to the
Indians. He wrote an account of the Montauk Indians
and a hymn, “Awaked by Sinai's Awful Sound.”
He died at New Stockbridge, N. Y., in July, 1792.
OCEAN LIFE in most of its forms has been fully
treated in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. This
article treats briefly of the important discoveries that
have been made of recent years concerning the life-
forms of the deep Sea, the unexpected and surprising
information that has been attained by careful dredging
under scientific direction. It was long believed, indeed,
that the depths of the ocean were quite incapable of
sustaining animal life from lack of the necessary con-
ditions of food and light, and from the immense press-
ure of the water at great depths, and it was argued
that the lowest limit of penetration of light, which was
believed to be about 40 or 50 fathoms, probably
formed the lower boundary of ocean life. Late research
has disproved all this. It is now known that light
penetrates the water to a considerably greater depth
than was supposed, and that animal life of high forms
exists far below the utmost possible limit of light pene-
tration.
Scientific efforts to dredge the ocean bottom began
in the last century, but none of these extended to great
depths, and it was not until recently that dredging
below the 100-fathom line was attempted. The earliest
revelation as to the life-forms of the deeper ocean was
made in 1819, when Sir John Ross, during his first
Arctic voyage, sounded to a depth of 1000 fathoms,
and brought up strange forms of life attached to his
sounding-line. Yet it was not till 1838 that a stron
interest in deep-sea dredging began to display itself.
Dr. R. Ball, of Dublin, in that year devising a greatly
improved form of the naturalists' dredge. Previously
a square-mouthed dredge had been used, with a purse-
net attached to hold the collections. He constructed
his dredge with an oblong, narrow mouth of about 12
by 4 inches, and attached scraping edges to both sides,
so that it might do its work no matter how it fell. In
the same year the Wilkes exploring expedition did
Some deep-sea dredging, while in 1840 Sir James Ross
dredged to a depth of over 400 fathoms, and proved
that the sea was prolific at that depth. Many others,
both in Europe and America, followed this example,
but no greater depth, was attained till 1860, when in
the Voyage of the Bulldog, sent to examine a proposed
northern cable route, the sounding-line brought up 13
star-fishes from a depth of 1260 fathoms. These were
attached to a part of the line that had lain for some
time on the bottom, but many naturalists considered
it pºssible that the animals might have clasped the line
9m its Way up. A telegraph-cable, which had been
laid across the Mediterranean from Sardinia to Africa,
and which was lifted in 1861, was found to be covered
with animals in parts that had been 2000 fathoms deep.

76 OCEAN LIFE.
This was an evidence of the prevalence of life at that
depth that could not be readily set aside.
|Yet despite the many indications that had been per-
çeived of the existence of a deep-sea fauna very little
impression was made on the minds of naturalists, and,
up to 1866, it was generally believed that the field
below the 300-fathom line was barren of animal life.
This theory was advocated by Edward Forbes, as a
result of his researches in the AEgean Sea, and was
generally accepted, the facts to the contrary being
quietly ignored. The Mediterranean, indeed, is some.
What barren at great depths, though the existence of
deep-sea life there has since been fully demonstrated.
Before this date, in fact, animal life had been shown
to exist off the coast of Spitzbergen at depths of 1000
and 1400 fathoms, and the Profs, Sars, father and son,
had made a series of systematic researches at consider.
able depths off the Norwegian coast. These were fol-
lowed by similar researches made in 1867 by Mr. L. F.
de Pourtales, of the U. S. coast survey. His explora-
tions were made off the southern coast of the United
States, and reached a depth of 680 fathoms. In the
Succeeding year the Lightning was sent out by the
British admiralty to dredge, under the scientific direc-
tion of Dr. Carpenter and Prof. C. Wyville Thompson.
In this expedition a depth of 650 fathoms was reached.
The better adapted Porcupine, sent out in 1869,
dredged to a depth of 1470 fathoms off the coasts of
Ireland and Scotland, and, in her second voyage,
reached over 2400 fathoms in the Bay of Biscay. At
this great depth (23 miles) life was found to exist
abundantly, and animal forms from the protozoa to
the mollusca were brought up.
During December, 1871, and in the early months of
1872 the coast-survey steamer Hassler conducted a
series of deep-sea dredgings, under the scientific direc-
tion of Louis Agassiz. In 1871 the U. S. Fish
Commission was organized, and from that time for-
ward made deep-sea exploration an important part
of its labors, under the direction of Prof. A. E. Ver-
rill, who had been engaged in labors of this kind
since 1864. \
But the most important exploring expedition of this
kind that has been made up to the present time is that
of the Challenger, a vessel sent out in 1872 by the
English government for the purpose of dredging the
depths of the great oceans. The Challenger traversed
the Atlantic and the Pacific in various directions,
crossing the former ocean five times, her total length
of voyage being 69,000 miles. She returned in May,
1876, bringing an exceedingly rich zoölogical collection,
which has been carefully worked up by noted special-
ists, whose labors are represented by more than 30
bulky volumes. On three occasions the Challenger's
dredge reached a depth of over 3000 fathoms (about
33 miles), and in every case living forms were brought
up from this extreme depth. The deepest Sounding
made was 4575 fathoms. For further particulars see
article DREDGE in ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
Since the date of the Challenger voyage several im-
portant dredging explorations have been undertaken.
Norwegian expeditions were sent into the northern
seas in 1876, 1877, and 1878. The Germans, the
Italians, and the French followed, the same example,
the voyage of the French ship Talisman, in 1883, from
the coast of Morocco to the Azores and the Sargasso
Sea, having yielded highly valuable results. The
Americans have been equally active. From 1877 to
1880 the steamer Blake was engaged in deep-sea ex;
plorations in the region of the West India islands and
the Gulf of Mexico. These researches, under the
scientific direction of Alexander Agassiz, were fruitful
in results, a summary of which has been recently given
to the world in two highly interesting volumes. . In
the explorations of the Blake important modifications
of the dredging-apparatus were made. The dredge
used for deep-sea work is necessarily made mugh
larger than the original Ball dredge, being about 43 ft.
long and 13 ft. wide. In addition to the collecting-
bags long strands of teased-out hemp attached proved
very serviceable in entangling star-fish, corals, and
other spiny inhabitants of the great deep. The
dredge, however, is now in part superseded by the
beam-trawl, which under certain circumstances proves
more serviceable. A trawl, of about 15 ft. in length,
was used occasionally by the Challenger, and a similar
implement is used almost exclusively by the United
States Fish Commission. The improvements effected
in the Blake explorations were to make the beam-trawl
reversible, to alter the dredge so as to prevent it bury-
ing itself in the mud of soft bottoms, to substitute
wire for hempen rope, and to modify the methods of
hauling and reeling, these various changes adding
greatly to the efficiency of the apparatus.
In 1884 the steamer Fish-hawk was built for the
dredging and hatching operations of the Fish Commis-
sion, but her small size unfitting her for deep-sea
work she was superseded by the Albatross, the best-
equipped dredger for deep-sea work in existence. In
her first voyage, in 1883, this vessel made a successful
trawl in the Atlantic of 2949 fathoms. At present
(1888) the Albatross is engaged in an extended voyage
of exploration, and is employed in dredging in the
Pacific, off the western coast of America. V. ery in-
teresting results may reasonably be expected from this
expedition.
This rapid survey of the history of the exploration
of the ocean depths may be followed by an equally
concise description of the zoölogical results. These
have been extensive and important, and have alto-
gether changed the views of naturalists as to the
limits of ocean life. It is now known that instead of
living beings being confined to the littoral zone and to
the ocean surface, they exist in abundance at the
greatest depths yet examined, every order of life below
the air-breathers being represented, and the variety of
species being possibly as great as that on the surface.
It must be borne in mind that what has so far been
done is but a beginning in this work. The dredge has
swept at the most a few square miles of an ocean-floor
represented by millions of square miles, and explora-
tion must be prosecuted for centuries ere any complete
conception of its zoölogy can be attained. So far no
part of the ocean is better known in regard to its
marine products than that adjoining the Atlantic coast
of the United States. The diligent labors of explorers
have given us much knowledge concerning both the
littoral and the deep-sea life of this region of the
WaterS.
Among the specimens brought up by the dredge are
representatives of every class of marine life, including
corals, sponges, echinoderms, annelids, crustacea, mol-
lusks, and fishes, all of which, except the latter, exist
at the greatest depths reached by the dredge. Fishes
have been captured at a depth of 2900 fathoms, and
probably º as low as the others. As to the vast
mid-stretch of the ocean, between the range of surface-
forms and the bottom, nothing definite is known con-
cerning its life-forms. There is some reason to believe
that life is confined to the surface and the bottom re-
gions, and that the intermediate zone is barren ; but
the researches as yet made have been insufficient to
determine this satisfactorily. The most abundant or-
ganic deposits on the ocean bottom are made by minute
creatures, the Radiolaria and Foraminifera, whose re-
mains form a thick layer of calcareous ooze, which is
inhabited abundantly by the shelled animals. (See
PACIFIC OCEAN in ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.)
In those regions of the bottom wanting this ooze the
animal forms are chiefly those without shells, such as
the Annelida and the Holothuroidea.
The variety of animal forms that has been brought
up from the ocean bottom is far too great for any at-
tempt to particularize, and we can but give a general
description of their characteristics. At first it was
imagined by many that the deep sea would yield to us
OCEAN LIFE. 1. 2 3 1 o u 7 PLATE ATXAIA.
s
29
23
27
9
25
24 º
º:
º
2:3
22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
1. Sclerothamnus Clausii. 5. Halosaurus macrochir. 9. Actinotheca pellucida. 13. Peningºa. 17. Euphronides Talismani. 21. Chondrocladia virgata. 25. Eustomias obscurus.
2. Drymonema Victoria. 6. Psychropotes buglossa. 10. Melanocetus Johnsoni. 14. Arcturº Baſini. 18. Pectamthis asteroides. 22. Hymenaster rer. 26. Eurypharyna pelecanoides
3. Hyalonema Sieboldii. 7. Nematocarcinus gracilipes. 11. Pheronema Carpenteri, 15. Styrºſcºpinosus, ... 19. Cºlossendeis Titan. 23. Ypsilothuria attenuata. 27. Stomias boa.
4. Semperella Schultzei. 8. Neostoma bathyphilum. 12. Nymphon Robustum. 16. Oneirophantº mutabilis. 20. Rhopalodina Heurteli. 24. Dactylocalya pumiceus. 28. Macrurus globiceps.
29. Boltenia pedunculata.



OCEAN
LIFE, 81
near relatives of the animals of past geological eras, it
being argued that the homogeneous temperature and
conditions of the ocean bottom would be favorable to
the persistence of antique forms. This theory has not
been sustained by the facts. While indications of an-
tiquity in some of the forms have been perceived, the
great mass of them approach the surface forms in
character, and present indications of originating in the
descent of such surface forms. The range of deep-Sea
fishes is, indeed, very great, Certain forms which
live in shallow water in some regions have been
dredged from the greatest depths in others, and the
presumption is that littoral forms are capable without
great difficulty of adapting themselves to the widely
different conditions of deep-sea life. This may serve
also to explain the variety of colors of abyssal forms.
The fishes are usually of dark color, though some are
ink or silvery ; but many of the crustaceans are of
i. red hues, and the mollusks display consider-
able variety of coloration. Many of these animals,
moreover, display features of protective mimicry, and
others have burrowing habits. It is difficult to believe
that these characters have arisen from the exigencies
of a life passed in regions of darkness. They seem
rather to indicate that these animals are descendants
of surface forms, and have preserved some of their
original features and habits.
There are two further things to consider: the food-
supply of these animals, and the modifications in
structure and mode of life necessarily resulting from
life in a region destitute of sunlight and subjected to
enormous pressure. In regard to food the active car-
nivorous forms, which include all the fishes, find an
abundant supply in the more sluggish creatures which
exist in such numbers. But the basis of all animal
life must be a vegetable diet, and there is no indication
of any plant forms growing on the ocean bottom.
Plants need sunlight, if animals do not, and can only
exist within the reach of its influence. Yet it is not
difficult to ascertain the primary source of the deep-sea
food-supply. The surface of the ocean is crowded with
life, in extraordinary abundance and variety. In addi-
tion to the pelagic animals, minute algae exist abun-
dantly in the surface waters, and form the food of
many of the animal forms. This pelagic life remains
on the surface only during vitality. After death it
immediately begins to sink, and there is probably a
continuous rain of dead animals and plants descending
with some rapidity to the ocean-floor. These forms
possess considerable nutrient material, which probably
decomposes very slowly, and long remains fit for food.
It forms, as Dr. Carpenter remarks, a sort of broth,
which collects on the bottom, and furnishes an abun-
dant food-supply for the sluggish animals, which in
their turn yield food to the more active carnivora. It
is not difficult, therefore, to understand the existence
of an extensive fauna in a region destitute of plants.
The plant-life of the surface is the basis of the food
of deep-sea animals.
The conditions of life in the depths of the ocean are
remarkably unlike those existing at the surface. The
absence of sunlight is one radical distinction, and the
great pressure of the water is a second. At a thou-
Sand fathoms this pressure is about one ton to the
Square inch, and at the lowest depths reached it must
be far more enormous. Yet there seems to be no
difficulty in sustaining this pressure. The tissues of
the animals are permeated with fluids, and the press-
ure, thus equalized, is probably not felt. Yet on
3ringing them to the surface the effect of the sudden
diminution of pressure is clearly seen, particularly in
the fishes, which often come up in a very dilapidated
condition. The tissues of the deep-sea fishes are, in-
deed, very fragile. The bones are often light, fibrous,
and nearly destitute of calcareous material, so that
they may be penetrated by a sharp needle without in-
Jury to its point. The muscular system is also often
feebly developed, the muscles being thin and the con-
nective tissue loose and feeble. It is probable that the
pressure may have something to do with these condi-
tions, the loose tissues being compressed so as to render
them serviceable for swift and vigorous motion.
In addition to this characteristic of the tissues the
deep-sea fishes present many abnormal conditions of
structure, in some cases the head or the jaw being
enormously developed, while the body is reduced to a
ribbon form. Yet these strange creatures do not be-
long to new orders, but are simply modified varieties
of surface types. Their most striking modification,
however, is that due to the absence of natural light in
their habitat. Many of them are organized so as to
yield an artificial light—to serve as lamps in their dark
abode—while a corresponding variation in their eyes
has taken place. In certain cases their eyes are atro-
phied. Many of the gasteropoda, and some fishes and
crustaceans, have thus become blind. These belong
generally to antique types, and they often possess tactile
organs of gigantic size, touch supplying with them the
place of vision. But as a rule the eyes of deep-sea
animals are of increased size, and sometimes are de-
veloped to huge proportions, as if to enable them to
see well under conditions of very feeble illumina-
tlOn.
The fact is that the habitat of these animals is far:
from being the region of perpetual darkness which
might naturally be supposed. Very many of the ani-
mals are Self-luminous, this phosphorescence existing
alike in fishes, echinoderms, crustacea, polyps, mol-
lusks, and annelids, the light yielded being perhaps.
sufficient to diffuse a feeble illumination through the
thickly peopled regions of the ocean cavern. The con-
tentS .P the trawl, when drawn to the surface, are
often brilliantly phosphorescent, many highly luminous.
anthozoa, ophiurans, hydroids, crustaceans, etc., yield-
ing their quota of light. The bottom seems to be
covered in some localities by forests of gorgonians,
which become luminous when disturbed by currents,
thus enabling the animals creeping or swimming:
through them to see for some short distance. It is,
supposed that this light may be protective, and in-
tended to warn foes not to come too near the danger-
ous lasso cells of the well-armed light-givers.
The phosphorescent organs are not equally distrib-
uted among the yarious families of deep-sea fishes,
though those in which they are absent have usually a
well-developed muciferous system, the abundantly
secreted mucus yielding the necessary luminosity. The
phosphorescent organs vary considerably, and are di-
vided into a number of classes. In one case the sides.
of the fish are covered with innumerable minute
tubercles, raised above the skin, and supposed to be
light-givers. Secondly, we find tubercles of larger.
size and less in number, which occur on the head as
Well as on the body. Thirdly, eye-like spots appear,
White in preserved specimens but red or green in life.
These are ranged at regular intervals along the lower.
sides of the body, and also occur on the head. Fourthly
are large, flat, round spots of a mother-of-pearl bright.
ness, which also extend in rows along the lower sides.
of the body and head, while isolated ones appear in
other localities. Fifthly, more or less diffsse patches.
of a White glandular substance, of varying thickness.
and irregularly placed on the body, exist. There are
two or three other conditions and arrangements, though
the above given are the most important, and are sufi-
gient to show that an extraordinary provision for light-
ing up the depths of the ocean has been made. This
provision, with the unusual eye development, must
make the deep-sea a much more . place of
abºde, than would naturally be expected. It is prob-
able, that, these luminous organs are at the command
of the fish, and are used to aid them in search of their
prey, The organs near the eyes, for instance, are Sup-
posed to act on the principle of a bull's-eye lantern, to
project a beam of light ahead. In other cases where
the luminous organs are at the extremities of barbels,
82
O'CONOR-OFFICE.
9r tentacles their probable use is to attract unsuspect-
ing prey. -
Much more might be said in regard to these remark-
able discoveries, but the above may serve as an epi-
tome of their leading features. They have immensely
Widened the area of zoölogical science, and opened a
field of research which cannot become exhausted for
centuries to come, and which may yield in the future
marvels of life which will serve to greatly modify our
conclusions as to nature's powers and º )
C. M. )
O'CONOR, CHARLEs (1804–1884), an American
lawyer, was born in New York city, Jan. 22, 1804, his
father having emigrated from Ireland in 1801. Ad-
mitted to the bar in 1824, his untiring industry was soon
rewarded with a large practice. His successful manage-
ment of the Forrest divorce case gave him a wide repu-
tation. He was also employed in the noted will cases
of Lispenard in 1843, of Parrish in 1862, and of Jumel
in 1872. In 1855 he was appointed U. S. district attor-
ney for New York, and in 1846 and 1864 he was a
member of the Constitutional Convention of that State.
In politics he was an extreme Democrat, and during
the civil war he favored the cause of the South. At
its close he was the leading counsel for Jefferson
Davis when indicted for treason. His greatest legal
efforts were made in the prosecution of William M.
Tweed and his associates for the recovery of the public
money which they had embezzled from the city of
New York. The partial result he described in a volume
called Peculation Triumphant, being the Record of a
Five Years' Campaign against Official Malversation,
1871 to 1875. Yet O'Conor continued the campaign
until he achieved substantial success, though not in the
measure he desired. In 1872 he was nominated for
President against his earnest protest by a small con-
vention at Louisville, which was dissatisfied with
Greeley as the Democratic candidate. In the succeed-
ing campaign O'Conor received only 21,559 votes.
In 1881 he removed his residence from Fort Wash-
ington, N. Y., to Nantucket, Mass. Still erect in
stature and vigorous in health, he carried on profes-
sional work in New York city. On a trip thither, in
April, 1884, he caught cold and he died at Nantucket,
May 12. He was married in 1854, but had no children.
His professional success was due to his indefatigable
devotion to clients' interests, his thorough mastery of
all the details of the most complicated cases, and his
clear presentation of the law and facts of each. Though
inclined to wit and humor at times, he did not permit
it to diminish the force of his arguments. His large
collection of cases and opinions was bequeathed to the
Law Institute of New York, of which he had been
president since 1869. e
OERSTED, HANS CHRISTIAN (1777–1851), a Danish
hysicist, was born at Rudkjöbing, on the island o
}. eland, Aug. 14, 1777. He was the son of an
apothecary, and at an early age began his experiments.
In 1799 he received the degree of Ph. D. at the Uni-
versity of Copenhagen, his thesis being Architectomics
of Natural Metaphysics, a philosophical consideration
of the laws of the natural world. While engaged as
an apothecary in 1800, Oersted made some discoveries
in galvanic electricity. In 1801 he travelled in Hol-
land, Germany, and France, and on his return in 1803
lectured at Copenhagen on electricity and kindred sci:
ences. In 1806 he was made professor of natural
hilosophy, and his lectures attracted much attention.
#. thoughts had long been directed towards the
identity of electricity and magnetism. In 1812, while
in Germany, he published a treatise tending to that
conclusion, and at last, in 1819, he succeeded in proving
the fact. This great discovery gaye him a foremost
place among the scientific men of his time, and foreign
societies bestowed on him numerous marks of honor.
His labors to popularize science among his countrymen
resulted in the establishment of a polytechnic school
at Copenhagen, of which he was director from 1829.
He also founded the Magnetic Observatory of Copen-
hagen. In 1850 the fiftieth anniversary or his doc-
torate was celebrated with a national jubilee. He died
at Copenhagen, March 9, 1851. His most important
works were a Manual of Mechanical Physics (1809;
2d ed., 1844); and The Soul in Nature (1806; Eng-
lish translation, 1852).
His brother, ANDERS SANDOE OERSTED (1778–
1860), was an eminent jurist, and in 1853 became prime
minister of Denmark, but was driven from power in
1854 and impeached for violation of the constitution,
but finally acquitted. He was the author of some
philosophical works.
§§ as a legal term, denotes a right and cor-
respondent duty to exercise a public or private trust
or employment, and to take the fees and emoluments
belonging to it. Offices may be variously classified.
Judicial offices are those which relate to the adminis-
tration of justice. Military offices are such as are
held by soldiers and sailors for military purposes.
Ministerial offices are those which give the officer no
power to judge of the matter to be done, and require
him to obey the mandates of a superior. Political
offices are such as are not connected immediately with
the administration of justice or the execution of the
mandates of a superior officer: e. g., those of Presi-
dent of the tº States, members of Congress, etc.
In England some offices may be granted to a man in
fee, or for life, as well as for years and at will. In
the United States the Constitution or laws of the
State provide for the duration of the office, which is
never more permanent than during good behavior.
Offices in England are either public, which affect the
people generally, e. g., magistrates; or private, which
concern particular districts belonging to private indi-
viduals, e. g., bailiffs. In the United States all offices
are deemed public, though those of presidents of
banks and directors of corporations are in the nature
of private offices. The statutes of 5 and 6 Edw. WI.
c. 15 made the buying and selling of offices a misde-
meanor, to be punished also with the loss of the office.
Its provisions have been enacted by several of the
United States; its object being to prevent corruption
in office, it does not apply to the fair and necessary ap-
ointments of deputies with a reasonable allowance.
f the salary be fixed, a deputation of the office, re-
serving a sum less than the salary, is not illegal; so if
the emoluments be uncertain, the deputy may agree
to pay over a proportion of what he receives. If,
however, the fees are uncertain, and the deputy agrees
to pay a certain fixed sum, without restricting it to the
amount received by him, it is a sale within the statute.
It has been decided by the federal courts, as well as
by those of several of the States, that an agreement by
an applicant for office to divide the fees with another
f|applicant if he will withdraw and aid the former to
obtain it is void. A judicial office must be exercised
by a person of skill and experience in the duties per-
taining thereto; it must also be exercised in person, as
a judge cannot delegate his authority to another.
Under the Constitution of the United States, Art.
VI., 32, no Senator or Representative can hold office
under the United States during his term. By ac-
cepting such an office he forfeits his seat.
By an act passed during the administration of Pres.
Monroe and still in force, the term of office of U. S.
collectors and other executive officers, including cer-
tain grades of postmasters, is for four years, though
they may be removed sooner by the President. Dur-
ing the political struggle between Pres, Johnson and
the Republican majority of Congress, an act was
assed on March 2, 1867, providing that every person
i. any civil office to which he had been appointed
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate
should be entitled to hold such office until a successor
should in like manner have been appointed and duly
qualified. It also prescribed that while the President
might remove or suspend an officer for cause, yet the
OGDEN CITY –OHIO.
83
Senate should be judge of the cause and have pºwer
to reinstate the officer independently of the President,
and that officers appointed by the President º the
recess of the Senate should draw no salary until the
Senate had given its consent. This act also provided
that the secretaries of state, of the treasury, of war,
of the navy, and of the interior, the postmaster-gen-
eral and the attorney-general, should hold their re-
spective offices during the term of the President by
whom they have been appointed and for one month
thereafter. This Tenure of Office Act was vetoed by
pres. Johnson in an able message, but the bill was
passed over the veto by a vote of 35 tº 11 in the Sén-
ate and of 133 to 37 in the House of Representatives.
Pres, Johnson's attempt to remove E. M. Stanton
from his office as secretary of war in 1868 led to his
impeachment, a movement which failed, through its
inability to secure the necessary two-thirds vote in the
Senate.
When Pres. Grant took office on March 4, 1869, he
found the discharge of his duties greatly hampered by
this act, and on March 9th Gen. B. F. Butler intro-
duced a bill in the House of Representatives repealing
this act. The repeal passed the House by a vote of
138 to 16, but the Senate proposed a substitute by
which the President was allowed to suspend any officer
without showing a cause and to nominate a successor.
Nominations could be made until the Senate should
confirm, but in the failure of the Senate to confirm the
suspended officer would be restored. Owing to the
difference between the two Houses the modification of
the act was all that could then be obtained. Its repeal
was asked for in later years by Pres. Grant, Hayes,
Garfield, and Arthur, on the ground that it obstructed
the faithful and efficient administration of the govern-
ment, but the modified act remained in force until
1886,
The President has now freedom to exercise that
salutary constitutional authority over appointments
and removals which had been the uniform rule since
the formation of this government until 1867. This
extensive grant of power to the executive had been
carefully considered by the framers of the Constitution
and deliberately adopted by them, and it has since had
the approval of Chief-Justice Marshall and other em-
inent expounders of constitutional law. (T. R.)
OGDEN CITY, the county-seat of Weber co.,
Utah, is at the confluence of the Weber and Ogden
Rivers, 37 miles N. of Salt Lake City. It is the
terminus of the Union Pacific, the Central Pacific, the
Utah Central, the Denver and Rio Grande (narrow
gauge), and the Utah and Northern Railroads. For
these roads a union passenger depot is provided. The
Weber River here passes through the Wahsatch
Mountains, and the city is at an elevation of 4340 ft.
Ogden Cañon is 7 miles long, with a total fall of 450
feet, thus affording good water-power. There are two
bridges over the Weber and one over the Ogden
River. Ogden has 5 hotels, 3 national banks, 1 semi-
weekly and 2 daily newspapers, 6 churches besides the
Mormon tabernacle and ward meeting-houses. The
six public schools are controlled by the Mormons, but
each denomination has a school of its own. The indus-
tries comprise an iron-foundry, flour-, saw-, and planing-
mills, two breweries, and factories producing brooms,
boots and shoes, woollen goods, and vinegar. In Ogden
cañºn there are large powder-works and also the plant
of the electric light for the city. The streets are wide
and well kept, the business blocks substantially built.
Ogden has a park-square, water-works, and gas-works.
ts property is assessed at $2,158,000, which is half the
true value. The city's debt is $21,000, its yearly ex-
penses are $41,000, and its revenue is still greater. It
Was Settled in 1848 by Mormon agriculturists and in-
$orporated in 1859. Its population in 1880 was 6069,
ut it has since greatly increased.
oGiENšātīā. a city of New York, in St. Law-
rence Co., is on the St. Lawrence River, at the mouth
of the Oswegatchie. It is the terminus ºf three rail;
roads, and has also steamboat lines. . Its 3rincipal
edifices are the Roman Catholic cathedral, the U. S.
government building, and the Seymour hotel. It has
a national bank, 8 churches, graded schools, 1 daily
and three weekly newspapers, a large grain-elevatºr,
flour and lumber-mills, and leather-factories. The
village, founded by French missionaries, did not receive
its present name until 1817, when it was incorporated.
It was made a city in 1868. Its population in 1880
was 10,341. º
OHIO is, bytº: . of ... º of º
r y nited States in population and Wealth.
º ... Yº It was the first State created from the
Kºłº ** North-west Territory. There is some
º º, J & conflict among authorities as to the date
of its admission to the Union, that generally given be-
ing February 19, 1803, while others maintain that
Ohio became one of the States of the Union in 1802.
In 1802 it was decided that
the territory now , com-
rised in the State of Ohio
i. a population sufficient
to warrant the petitioning
of Congress for its admis-
sion as a State. Congress
passed a bill, approved by
the President on April 30,
1802, authorizing the in-
habitants of this Territory
to form a constitution and
State government under such name as they deemed
proper, said State to be admitted to the Union on the
same footing as the original States. This act also au-
thorized all male citizens, residents in the Territory,
of certain prescribed qualifications, to choose represent-
atives to form a convention which was to convene at
Chillicothe on the 1st Monday in November, 1802, and
determine whether it was expedient to form a consti-
tution and government, and if so, to form them, but
if not, to provide for calling a second convention for
that purpose. The act also provided that until the
next census the new State should be entitled to one
member in the House of Representatives. Neither
Legislature or convention nor even the people were
asked to pass upon the question of entering into a State
government, the sole function of the electors being to
vote for the members of the convention as prescribed
by Congress. The convention assembled in the follow-
ing November, and before its adjournment, on Nov.
29, framed a constitution. The following winter Con-
gress passed an act entitled “An act to provide for the
execution of the laws of the United States within the
State of Ohio,” which was approved by the President
on Feb. 19, 1803. There has been considerable dis-
cussion as to which of the three dates can be properly
given as that of the admission of Ohio as a State.
Some claim that April 30, 1802, the date of the en-
abling act, was the date of admission ; others that
Nov. 29, 1802, the date of the adjournment of the
Constitutional Convention, was the date, while the
majority of those considered authority declare that the
date of the approval of the act providing for the exe-
cution of the W. of the United States within the
State of Ohio, Feb. 19, 1803, is the proper date of
admission. The fact is that Ohio was never in set
terms admitted to the Union, although the act of
Feb. 19, 1803, after giving the history of what had
preceded in the organization of the State, says:
“Whereby the said State has become one of the
United States of America.”
Ohio is situated between 38° 27' and 41° 57° N. lat.
and between 80°34′ and S4° 49' W. long. . Its area
is 40,760 Square miles. The greatest length of Ohio
from north to south is about 210 miles, and the greatest
breadth from east to west about 225 miles. € Ilä-
tive as well as the foreign-born population of Ohio has
increased rapidly since the census of 1SS0. There

84
OHIO.
were in 1887 in the State 69,073 births and 29,180
marriages. The number of deaths was 30,818. There
were naturalized in 1887 in the State 5729 voters.
Of these 3188 were natives of Germany, 601 natives
of Ireland, and 288 natives of Austria.
Physical Features.—Since the year 1884 a new chap-
ter has to be added to what was then stated regard-
ing the physical features and resources of Ohio. The
natural resources of the State are now known to in-
clude a bountiful supply of the combustible fluid
known as natural gas. Since the town of Findlay,
Hancock co., in the north-western part of the State,
was first settled natural gas was known to exist there
in Small quantities. The spring-water was charged
with sulphuretted hydrogen, and in 1836 a vein of
gas was struck at a depth of ten feet in excavating for
a well. Although this readily ignited, no thought of
using it for economic purposes resulted in any further
Search for the gas until, in March, 1884, a company
was organized at Findlay to bore for natural gas. In
the first successful well gas was found in large quanti-
ties at a depth of 1092 feet below the surface, flowing
in a volume of from 200,000 to 300,000 cubic feet a
day. ... The record of the drilling of this well is given
as follows:
Drift. ...................................... • * * * e e º 'º - 8 ft.
Upper limestones.......... ..................... 237 “
Shales, red, gray, and brown............... 847 “
Lower limestone or gas rock................ 1092 “
This was the first discovery of the fact that gas was
stored in the Trenton limestone beneath Findlay in
sufficient quantities to be of great value as fuel for
manufacturing and domestic use. This was rapidly
followed by the sinking of other wells, one after an-
other proving successful, and a sufficient supply of gas
soon being tapped to furnish fuel for the houses and
factories of a metropolis.
The excitement attendant was similar to that on the
discovery of petroleum in Western Pennsylvania.
Real estate advanced in value, new manufactories were
rojected, and in a few years the population of Find-
i. increased from 5000 to nearly 20,000. The Find-
lay gas-field extends a dozen miles north and east of
the city.
But the Ohio supply of natural gas is by no means
confined to the Findlay field. Bowling Green, Carey,
and many of the other towns in the same part of the
State were nearly as successful as Findlay in drilling
for the natural gas, the history of Findlay being sub-
stantially that also of other towns in North-western
Ohio. In other parts of the State, in fact in every
part of it, wells have since been drilled with more or
less success. In North-western and Western Ohio
success has, as a rule, attended these efforts. In
Central Ohio Lancaster obtained a good supply of gas.
A system of piping the gas to cities, whose efforts to
secure it by drilling have been unsuccessful, has been
inaugurated. e e
The great merit of the natural gas as a fuel is its
cheapness and high quality as a heat-yielding com-
bustible. In localities where it is present it has super-
seded coal, as the cost of obtaining it after the first
drilling and piping is almost inappreciable, and it can
be furnished to consumers at a Very slight expense.
Supposed at first to be stored in the Trenton lime-
stone, it has since been found in the Clinton limestone,
and at some points in Berea grit. º
The specific gravity of the Ohio natural gas is .566.
The depth at which it is found beneath the surface
varies in different fields, the successful wells in the
Findlay fields varying from 1100 to 1650 feet in depth.
The strongest wells obtain their gas in Trenton lime;
stone. At Cleveland the natural gas was obtained
after drilling over 1800 feet. Scientists differ as to the
likelihood of the supply becoming exhausted, but Ohio
wells from which gas has been burned in quantities for
two or four years still flow with unabated pressure.
Its discovery has given a new impetus to manufactur-
ing industries in Ohio.
At Lima, Allen co., drilling for natural gas in the
Spring of 1885 resulted in developing new oil-fields,
petroleum coming from the Trenton limestone in largé
quantities. This was the opening of the development.
of the Lima oil-field, which has since proved very pro-
ductive.
Agriculture.—There are at least two-fifths of the
persons engaged in any occupation employed in agri-
culture, the leading industry of Ohio. There are
about 10,000,000 acres cultivated, and in 1886 nearly
40,000,000 bushels of wheat, 90,000,000 bushels of
corn, and in the neighborhood of 190,000,000 bushels
of all cereals were produced in the State. The average
production of wheat for the last five years has been
11.86 bushels per acre, and of corn 33.8 bushels per
acre. The products of orchards and dairies are also
prolific. The annual production of wool in 1886 and
1887, though slightly less than in preceding years, was
about 20,000,000 pounds, Ohio holding the first rank
in the wool-producing States. The number of sheep
in 1887 was 4,105,177, and in 1888 was 3,739,449. In
1888 the number of horses was 786,549; cattle,
1,612,726 ; mules, 25, 189 ; hogs, 1,629,616. Ohio
ranks next to Illinois in thoroughbred cattle, and
is one of the largest pork-producing States. Agricul-
tural implement manufactories in this State turn out
one-fourth the annual product of the United States.
Manufactures.—Ohio is one of the leading States
in the number of manufactories, the amount of an-
nual manufactured product, and number of men em-
ployed in manufacturing industries. The manufactur-
ing concerns of the State include nearly every form of
industrial enterprise, from rolling-mills to glass-fac-
tories. In Cleveland are located many large rolling-
mills and iron-factories, the immense works of the
Standard Oil Company employing three thousand
men, with a capital of millions invested, and numerous
other large factories of different kinds. In Akron,
Canton, and Springfield are large agricultural machine
and implement concerns, also employing thousands of
men. This State furnishes at least one-fourth of the
agricultural implements of the country. In Findlay,
in the north-west, in East Liverpool, and in other
portions of the eastern part of the State are large
glass-factories, the latter region being also the seat of
many large potteries. Columbus has immense car-
riage-factories, rolling-mills, and agricultural imple-
ment works. Cincinnati has many large manufac-
tories of different kinds, besides being one of the
leading cities of the country in the pork-packing in-
dustry. There are over 7000 i." establish-
ments in Qhio, employing 200,000 men and 30,000
women, with a capital of over $200,000,000. The
value of the annual product of these manufactures is
$400,000,000. Statistics show that the number of
weeks in which these manufactories are in operation
during the year averages 47.
Railroads.-Ohio is covered with a net-work of
railways, all the principal towns and cities in the State
being now on the lines of railroads and all the eighty-
eight counties being crossed and recrossed by railroad
lines. In the twelve years between 1876 and 1888
4000 miles of new railroad track were laid in the
State. Ohio has now over 10,000 miles of railroad.
In 1887 there were reported to the State Board of
Railroad Equalization 7365.65 miles of main track
and 1968.06 miles of sidings, which were valued for
taxation at $93,869,782.
Several trunk-lines cross the State from east to
west and now have branches extending into nearly all
parts of the State.
There are also several roads traversing the State
from north to south, and these, with the shorter
tributary roads constructed and under process of con-
struction, enable Ohio people and the products of
OHIO.
85
Ohio farms and lactories to readily reach all the gities
of the country, the seaboards, and the markets of the
world by almost direct routes. New lines are con-
stantly being projected. The sworn reports of rail:
road officials to the railroad commissioner for 1881
show that for the year the gross passenger earnings of
roads, all or part of which are in Ohio, were
$25,495,598.31; gross freight earnings, $18,889,473.27
total gross earnings, $112,546,743. 19. The proportion
of these gross earnings for the part of the lines in
Ohio was $56,785,652.86, an increase of 12.93 per
cent over the preceding year. The net earnings for
the entire lines were $37,270,852.90, the proportion
of not earnings for Ohio being $18,795,072.94, this
being an increase of 30.69 per cent, over the preced-
rear for the portion of the lines in Ohio. The in-
terest on bonds, etc., was $15,188,403.38; dividends,
$6,481,398. 19, and the rentals about $3,000,000. The
paid in capital stock of the lines was over $500,000,000,
Öf which $45,000,000 was held by 16,500 residents of
Ohio. The bonded debt of the roads was oyer
$100,000,000, the proportion for Ohio being
$221,000,000. The unfunded debt was $51,000,000,
the proportion for Ohio being $25,000,000. The num-
ber of passengers carried in 1887 was nearly 35,000,000,
and the number of tons of freight hauled was over
S5,000,000. The average freight rate per ton per
mile in Ohio in 1886 was .658; in 1887, .707. The
average passenger rate per mile in Ohio in 1887 was
2.179 cents. The law of Ohio makes three cents per
mile per passenger, the maximum passenger rate and
five cents per ton per mile the maximum freight rate
for distances over thirty miles. The proportion of
accidents to persons travelling on railroads in Ohio, in
1887, was one passenger killed to 106,767 carried, and
one passenger injured to 42,813 carried. An idea of
the products of the State, as well as the business of
the railroads, can be gained from the following classi-
fied freight tonnage carried by railroads in Ohio in
| SS7 :
•
ing year f
Freight Tonnage (Classified).
Tons.
Agricultural products, etc....... ......................... 3,393,739
Coal. ................................... ................... ...... 27,771,677
Flºur .................... © # 4 º' - - * e e e º 'º - e. e. • * * e s e e s a a s e e < * * * * e . * * * * * 1,856,744
Grain ........ ................. ........... ... ........ . . . . . . . 9,242,207
Ores ........... • * * * is e e e s , s = e e º e º s a s e < * * * * & © - e º $ tº e a e s = e º 'º e s p * * * * * a s 5,176,201
Pig and bloom iron ........... ............................. 3,183,770
Iron, steel, and castings.................................... 4,272,878
Manufactures. .......... ...................................... 5,737,985
Stone, lime, brick, tile, and sand......... * * * * * * * * * * * s e 4,594,27 S
Live-stock...................................................... 2,614,452
Lumber, timber, shingles, lath, and other forest
products................ ................ ................ . ... 6,854,247
Petroleum—crude and refined..................... * * * * * * 1,287,325
Salt ................. - * * * * * * * ę & © tº e º e º 'º º e is a e º M ... e º e a º ºs e s - 4 a v e º sº e º 'º is $ 265,785
Bran and mill feed..... tº s - e g º e s - e. e. e. e º 'º - 8 s tº * * * * * * * * * * - s tº e º e º º 497, S55
Merchandise............................................... .... 4,824,342
Miscellaneous................................... e e º e º 'º e º a tº º e e e 3,703,977
Total tonnage yielding revenue. ................ 85,277,462
[It should, perhaps, be explained that in giving the
anount of earnings and other statistics for roads in
Ohio, the whole amount for the whole line of roads
Crossing or entering the State is given, as separate ac-
counts are not kept for these roads for the portion of
the line in the State. The proportion for Ohio in
each case is, however, estimated and stated in the
above statistics.]
Gotºrnment and idministration.—The legislative
pºwer is vested in the General Assembly, consisting of
a Senate and House of Representatives, the members
of which are elected biennially. The judiciary depart-
ment consists of a Supreme Court, consisting of five
judges elected for five years each, Circuit Courts, Com-
mon Pleas Courts, Probate Courts, Police Courts, and
Justices of the Peace. The Circuit Courts were estab-
lished by a constitutional amendment adopted in 1885.
* ->
here are eight circuits in the State, each of which
WOL. IV.—p.
has three judges elected by the voters residing within
the circuit. "The supreme executive power is vested
in the governor, who is commander-in-chief of the
militia and at the head of the civil government. He
is elected biennially and paid a salary of $8000 a year.
The lieutenant-governor, who is president of the
Senate, with an annual salary of $800; a secretary of
state, annual salary $2000, with $1000 additional as
fees; a State treasurer, annual salary, $2000, and
attorney-general, annual salary $1500, with.3500 addi-
tional as fees, are also elected biennially. The auditor
of state, with an annual salary of $3000, is elected fºr
four years. Three members of the board of publig
works, each elected for a three-year term at a salary of
$800, and expenses, have charge of the public works.
A State commissioner of common schools, with a salary
of $2000, is elected triennially ; a clerk of the Supreme
Court, with a salary of $1500, and $500 additionalas fees,
is also elected triennially. These with the five Supreme
judges are all the elective State officers. There are ap:
pointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of
the Senate, a commissioner of railroads and telegraphs
for two years; a State librarian for two years; a superin:
tendent of insurance for three years; an inspector of
mines for four years, and an inspector of shops and fac-
tories for four years; a commissioner of statistics of labor
for two years; a supervisor of public printing for two
years; a State inspector of oils for two years; three
commissioners of fisheries for three years; a SWamp
land commissioner for an indefinite term ; a dairy and
food inspector; an inspector of leaf tobacco, and a
number of minor officials in the executive depart-
In ent.
There is a State board of health, members of which
are appointed by the governor. This board has gen-
eral supervision of local boards of health, compiles
vital statistics and adopts measures to prevent the
spread of infectious diseases. There is also a State
board of pharmacy consisting of five members, which
was created in 1884. No person can compound pre-
scriptions or keep a drug-store without first having
been given a certificate by this board. All the phar-
macists and assistant pharmacists in the State are reg-
istered. The duty of the board of pharmacy, in addi-
tion to examining applicants for certificates, is to
prosecute all cases of violations of the law, which
prohibits unauthorized persons dealing in drugs and
medicines.
The governor also appoints a board of pardons of
four members, two from each of the two leading polit-
ical parties, and a State board of charities, consisting of
eight members, four from each of the leading political
parties, who investigate the system of public charities and
the penal institutions of the State. The governor also
appoints non-partisan boards of election of four mem-
bers for each of the larger cities, to regulate the regis-
tration of voters and all elections held in these cities and
appoint judges and clerks of election. Judges of all
the courts, including justices of the peace and police
judges in the larger cities, are elected i. the people, as
are also all clerks of courts. All county officers are
elected by the people. The State is divided into two
districts, a northern and a southern, in each of which
is a United States court, district judge, clerk, and mar-
shal. All elections are by ballot and every sane male
citizen twenty-one years old and a resident of the State
for one year next preceding the election may vote.
Institutions for the care of the insane, deaf and dumb,
imbecile, blind, veteran soldiers and sailors of the late
war, and soldiers' and sailors' orphans, are maintained
and supported by the State. The State penitentiary
is located at Columbus, the capital of the State, and
provision is made in it for the imprisonment of from
1500 to 2000 convicts. The death-penalty for murder
is carried into effect within the walls of the peniten:
tiary—condemned murderers, after being sentenced
by the courts in the counties where the crime is com-
mitted, being removed to the penitentiary for execu-
86 OILS.
tion. An intermediate penitentiary for the imprison-
ment of first offenders is being built at Mansfield.
Ohio is represented in Congress by two senators and
twenty-one representatives. The county officers in
each county are three commissioners, who have charge
of the county property, fix county taxes, regulate roads,
and have general supervision of all county matters.
Three infirmary directors, an auditor, a recorder, a sur-
Veyor, a clerk of the Court of Common Pleas, who is
also clerk of the Circuit Court, a treasurer, a sheriff, a
coroner, and a prosecuting attorney, are all elected for
three years except the treasurer, sheriff, coroner, and
prosecuting attorney, who are each elected for two
years. A county which contains a city of over 180,000
population has a board of control of five members,
each elected for three years, which has final action and
jurisdiction in all matters involving expenditures of
money. Each county must contain at least 400 square
miles of territory and the Legislature has power to lay
out new counties. Counties are subdivided into town-
ships, each of which must contain at least 22 square
miles. County commissioners have power to lay out
new townships. Township officers are three trustees,
a clerk, a treasurer, constables, and an assessor. Town-
ship trustees have the oversight of elections in the
country precincts, provide for the repairing of roads,
afford relief to the poor, and have general charge of
all township matters.
Education.—The receipts for school purposes in
1887 were $1,761,725.46. The number of pupils en-
rolled in the common schools of the State were 767,030.
The total number of youth of school age in the State
were 1,102,721. The amount paid to the 88 counties
for school purposes from the State treasury was
$1,707,104.90. The total expenses of the common
schools for 1887, as reported by the school com-
missioner, were $9,909,813.12.
Among the higher educational institutions of Ohio
there has been progress and development in the past
few years. One of them, Western Reserve College,
formerly located at Hudson, has been removed to
Cleveland, and its name changed to the Western Re-
servé University. With a large endowment and new
buildings on Euclid avenue, the former town college
has become a university, with a number of different
departments. Strictly speaking, what was formerly
Western Reserve College is now Adelbert College of
the Western Reserve University, with which is joined
the Case School of applied science. A female college
is projected as part of the same, the system of
co-education in Adelbert College having been dropped
in 1888.
Finance.—The receipts of the Ohio treasury for
1887 were $6,512,089.77; the disbursements were
$6,289,811.04; the funded State debton Nov. 15, 1887,
amounted to $3,341,665, bearing interest at 3 and 4
per cent.
The value of realty in Ohio for 1887 was $1,185,-
010,625; of personal property, $520,172,094. The
State taxes amounted to $4,942,447.23; the total
taxes, State, county, township, and municipal, were
$34,565,285.89.
The irreducible State debt (trust funds) was $4,526,-
716.65, making the total State debt $7,943,181.65.
The debts of counties amounted to $6,892,745.26; of
cities of the first and second class, $43,193,963.34; of
incorporated villages, $1,743,772.98; of townships,
$557,883.71 ; of special school districts, $2,455,330.71,
making the total local debts $54,843,696. While the
State debt is steadily decreasing and has been refunded
at low rates of interest, the local indebtedness is in-
creasing at the rate of about a million dollars a year,
this resulting from local improvements, º for
which is made by the issuance of bonds by authority
of the Legislature. Under the laws of Ohio, counties
and cities can create local bonded indebtedness by Se-
curing permission from the Legislature.
(J. M. D.)
OILS. The oils known to commerce may be grouped
under three general heads: animal and
º, fish oils, vegetable oils, and essential
Kn tº. '*' oils. The first group, at one time by
far the more important, has suffered in
commercial importance by the inroads made in their
use by the products of petroleum, the more important
of the animal and fish oils before the advent of petro-
leum being the principal reliances for lubrication and
illumination. The second group has been little affected
by the discovery of petroleum, but oils that were only
a few years ago unknown have come to the front, the
most prominent example being cottonseed oil, now the
most important of the seed oils. The list of dis-
tinctively American essential oils is a short one, al-
though it contains one vying in importance with some
of the more prominent essential oils of the old world
—oil of peppermint. The oils manufactured in the
United States are considered by groups as above.
ANIMAL AND FISH OILS.
Cod and Cod-Liver Oils.—The oil from livers of
codfish is mostly imported from Newfoundland and
from Norway. The amount manufactured by the fish-
ermen is insignificant, and rarely enters the market in
competition with the imported oils. The oil commer-
cially known as cod oil is expressed from the heads,
livers, and other waste portions of the fish. It is not
a medicinal oil, but is used by curriers, and commands
a ready sale at about one-half the price realized for the
oils made from cod livers only. The annual produc-
tion varies greatly, but may be said to average from
20,000 to 25,000 barrels.
Lard Oil.—The manufacture of lard oil in the
United States has suffered less by reason of the sub-
stitution of the products of petroleum than have the
whale- or sperm-oil industries. It is still used as a
lubricant and burning oil where absolute safety is de-
manded, and is largely employed in compoundin
lubricating oils. Chicago is the centre of the .#
industry.
Menhaden Oil.—The menhaden-oil industry is of
comparatively recent origin, having its beginning in
1850. In that year Mrs. John Bartlett, of Blue Hill,
Me., while boiling some fish for her chickens noticed
considerable oil on the surface of the water, which she
collected in bottles and carried to an oil-merchant in
Boston, Mass., who at once pronounced the oil valu-
able. The Bartlett family being encouraged to produce
the oil in quantity, in 1851 sent to market 13 barrels
of the oil from the “bony fish,’’ or “mossbunkers,”
as the fish are popularly called in different sections
along the New En }. coast. The first to sell the oil
was Mr. E. B. Phillips, an oil-merchant of Boston.
The mode of extracting the oil was most primitive, the
fish being simply placed in large kettles with water,
allowed to boil, § the oil skimmed off as it collected
on the surface. From this small beginning the busi-
ness grew rapidly, reaching its highest development in
the year 1882. In this year the amount of capital em-
ployed in the business of catching the fish and render-
ing the oil was $2,858,500. The number of factories
in operation and firms engaged in the business was 97;
there were 83 steam- and 212 sailing-vessels employed
in taking the fish, while employment was furnished
2313 men. The number of fish caught was 346,638,500,
and the amount of oil produced 2,021,312 gallons.
From this year dates the decadence of the industry,
although during the season of 1884, which begins in
April and ends in October, the number of fish caught
reached the enormous total of 858,592,700, and the
amount of oil produced 3,722,927 gallons. In that
year the number of factories in operation was 52, the
number of steam-vessels engaged 59, and 157 sailing-
vessels. Since then the decline of the industry has
been more rapid, the statistics for 1887 being : amount
of capital invested, $1,000,000; number of factories in
operation, 28; steam-vessels, 46; Sailing-vessels, 38;
OILS.
87
men employed, 1233; fish caught, 333,564,800; oil
produced, 2,273,566 gallons. , The decadence of the
industry is due to the use of cheaper substitutes, prin-
cipally products of petroleum. The principal use made
of the oil is by tanners. It is also used in the safety-
lamps of miners and to a limited extent in mixed
paints, The fish appear in large schools along the
coast, the sonthern limit of their appearance being off
the coast of Virginia and their northern limit the coast
of Maine, although during the past six years very few
fish have been taken north of Cape Cod. The favorite
resort of the menhaden is from Narragansett Bay along
Jong Island Sound, south to the Delaware capes. The
oil made from the fish taken in these waters is superior
to that made from fish taken farther South.
Nettsfoot Oil.–It is claimed that no perfect sub-
stitute for this oil has been found, and the use, although
limited, shows little variation. It is largely adul-
terated, and has suffered in repute in consequence.
Porpoise Oil.—This oil is esteemed for lubricating
fine machinery, but the demand therefor is limited.
The oil is made at New Bedford, which is the only
market where supplies are kept on hand. Vessels
have been fitted out for the purpose of catching the
porpoise along the coasts of New Jersey, Long Island,
and the New England States, but the venture proved
unprofitable.
Seal Oil.-The manufacture of seal oil is limited,
and the demand therefor being small, there is an un-
certain supply. Very little of the oil sold under the
name is genuine seal oil.
Sperm and Whale Oils.—The introduction of the
products of petroleum for all the uses for which sperm
and whale oils were in former years exclusively em-
ployed has greatly diminished the use of these oils.
The whale-oil industry from being one of the most im-
portant has dwindled to insignificant proportions. Since
i860 the decline of the industry has been steady and
rapid. In that year the catch of sperm whales pro-
duced 73,70S barrels of oil, and of right whales 140,005
barrels of whale oil. The number of vessels engaged
in taking the whale was 589, with an aggregate ton-
nage of 176,842 tons. In 1887 the amount of sperm
oil produced was 18,873 barrels, and of whale oil 34,171
barrels. The total number of vessels of all classes en-
gaged in the fishery was 116, having an aggregate ton-
nage of 27,851 tons. The city of New Bedford, Mass.,
is still the most important whaling port. New Lon.
don, Conn., from ranking second in importance is at
the bottom of the list, while Stonington, Conn., at one
time having a larger amount of tonnage engaged in the
industry than does New Bedford at the present time,
has abandoned the business entirely, as has also Mystic,
Conn., once an important whaling port. San Fran:
cisco now ranks second, with a fleet of 21 vessels, with
a total of 6480 tons.
Tallow Oil.-The use of tallow oil has decreased,
and its production is restricted to the demand. Sub:
stitutes of lower cost have supplanted this oil for
nearly all purposes for which it was formerly exclu-
sively employed.
VEGETABLE OILS.
T Castor Oil.-This oil was formerly imported from
Çalºitta and London, but since 1875 the production in
the United States has, except in years of small crop
of seed, been sufficient to meet all demands. There
are, however, importations each year from Calcutta,
Which tend to keep the price of the domestic oil from
advancing beyond a certain limit. Five manufacturing
firms produce nearly all the oil used in this Country,
and these working in harmony control the price. Im.
Proved, methods of expressing the oil have been
adopted, by which the yield is fully 30 per cent. of oil,
Whereas formerly 25 percent was regarded a good
Wººd. , Two qualities are made, although there is very
ittle demand except for the best, other oils being
Preferred for lubricating purposes.
Corn or Maize Oil.-The manufacture of corn oil
is of very recent origin, and is a distinctive American
industry. In the manufacture of starch it is found
desirable to get rid of the germ of the corn, and this
was formerly a by-product for which no orofitable use
could be found, the germs being too rich in oil as a
food for cattle, nearly or quite all the oil being in the
germ. The germs as collected from the factories are
first purified by separating them from the bran or husk
of corn that adheres to them, and are then steamed
under pressure to soften them, after which by means
of hydraulic presses the oil is expressed, leaving as a
residue an |. which, when ground into meal, is
a valuable feed for stock, equal to corn-meal made
from the whole corn. The color of the freshly made
oil is a pale yellowish-brown, and its odor and taste
that of freshly ground corn-meal. It does nºt readily
become rancid by exposure to air, and in this.respect
compares favorably with the best olive oils. The un-
refined oil has a specific gravity of 0.916 and 0.917 at
15° C., which is about that of pure olive oil. . .It
saponifies rapidly with caustic alkalies, forming a white
soap, and for the manufacture of the finer qualities of
toilet-soaps it is found to equal the best olive oil. The
supply can be increased to meet any demand likely to
arise, and the price is about the same as the current
market price of cottonseed oil. An analysis made by
an eminent English chemist gave :
Fatty acids (free)........................................ 0.88
Total fatty acids............ ............................. 96.70
Unsaponifiable, mucilaginous, and albumin-
ous bodies........ ....................... ............... 1.34
Cottonseed Oil. —See CottoN, chap. v.
Linseed or Flaºcseed Oil. —Although many substi-
tutes have been tried, linseed oil remains the most
satisfactory in the mixing of paints and for the manu-
facture of warnishes and oil-cloths. The consumption
in the United States is fully 25,000,000 gallons per
annum, and the average increase is about 10 per cent.
The number of mills in operation is 65, fully four-
fifths being located in the Western States, with
Chicago as the centre of the industry. The capacity
of the mills is over 40,000,000 gallons, and owing to
over-production the business has not been so profitable
as formerly. Domestic seed is exclusively used at the
Western mills, while the Eastern mills, notably those
located in the city of New York and vicinity, use Cal-
cutta seed when the domestic seed ranges high in
price.
Mustard Oil.–Of the two oils contained in mustard
seeds the volatile oil is not produced on a commercial
Scale in the United States, nor is it much used, other
rubefacients being preferred. The expressed fixed oil
has a moderate sale, being used as an adulterant in
salad oils, although the oil expressed from cotton-seed
has of late years supplanted mustard oil for this pur-
pose. The quantity produced in this country is not
Important.
Peanut Qū.--Peanuts contain more than 20 per
cent of a fixed oil which was formerly an impor-
tant article of commerce, but the low price of cotton-
seed oil has made the expression of ground-nut oil un-
profitable, the nuts being of greater market value as an
article of food. . The oil has a bright yellow color and a
| mild taste, with the characteristic odor of the fruit.
Its specific gravity is 0.918 at 15.5°C. It is a non-
drying oil unsuited for paints, but is a good burning
oil, equal to the best sperm oil.
ESSENTIAL OILS.
Pºppermint Oil.-The herb from which the oil of
(mentha piperita) is grown in
wº is distilled
Wayne co., N. Y., and in sections of the State of
Michigan. The herb, is distilled by the growers in
primitive stills and sold to dealers, although some sell
the herbs to those who make a business ºf distilling
88
OJIBWAYS-OLEOMARGARINE.
the 9il in improved apparatus. The oil is variable in
quality and the yield of the herb uncertain, in some
yºals proving unprofitable. The value of the exports
of this ºil exceeds that of all the other essential oils
produced in the United States. The principal market
for this oil is New York.
., Sassafras Oil is the least important of the essential
oils that may be called American, both as to the value
of the oil and the quantity produced. Maryland, Vir-
ginia, Delaware, and West Virginia are the principal
Sources of supply. As this is the cheapest of the
essential oils it is largely used in the arts, and was the
lmost cºmmon sgent for Soap until supplanted by myr-
bane oil. As distilled from the fresh roots the yield is
about 2 per cent. The dried bark is said to yield 5
per cent. of oil. *.
Wintergreen Oil.-The oil known in commerce as
wintergreen oil is not made from the plant of that
name, although such was the case in former years. It
is a product of the distillation of the bark of the sweet
birch, which is more abundant and richer in oil. The
properties of the oil from both sources are identical.
The principal sources of supply are the States of New
Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania, where it is dis-
tilled in a primitive manner and sent to market or
sold to dealers who collect it. The supply is always
equal to the demand. (H. G. A.)
OJIBWAYS, or CHIPPEwAs, a tribe of American |T
Indians of the Algonkin stock, have been known since
1640, when the French first explored the western
shores of Lake Huron. A mission was founded at the
Sault Ste. Marie by the Jesuit Fathers Jogues and
Raymbault in 1642, and hence the Ojibways have be-
come known in Canada as the Sauteux. They are
hardy, strong, and devoted to war and hunting. They
drove the Sioux beyond the Mississippi, and during
the French domination they rendered effective assist-
ance in raids on the British settlements. They joined
in the conspiracy of Pontiac and surprised the fort at
Mackinaw in 1763. Brought under British influence
they threatened the American border settlements dur-
ing the revolutionary war, and at its close gave much
trouble in Ohio. They were defeated by Gen. Wayne
and made a treaty at Greenville, Aug. 3, 1795. They
were then scattered along the southern shores of
the Great Lakes, from Erie to the head waters of the
Mississippi. In the war of 1812 they joined Tecumseh
in aiding the British, but in 1816 they again made a
treaty of peace, and soon after abandoned their lands
in Ohio. They were then reckoned at 14,000, and in
1825 the limits of their territory were defined by treaty,
but these have since been greatly reduced.
The Ojibways who remained in the reservations in
Upper Michigan and Wisconsin became peaceful and
industrious and responded well to missionary efforts.
Besides the Roman Catholic missions, which are still
maintained to some extent, the Episcopalians, Presby-
terians, and Methodists have shared in this work. In
1887 there were reported 4042 Chippewas in Wiscon-
sin, who were doing moderately well at farming and
logging. Those in Michigan had given up tribal rela:
tions, many of them exercise the right of suffrage, and
they are sometime elected to local offices. Those not
on reservations are exposed to frauds from the whites,
and the education of their children is neglected.
Those Ojibways who removed to Minnesota long re-
tained their old habits and many have become degraded
under the influence of vicious whites. In 1887 there
were reported at Turtle Mountain agency, Dakota,
1126 persons, of whom 309 were full-blood Chippe:
WaS, th. rest of mixed blood. They are Catholics and
are dependent on the government for support. This
reservation contained 46,080 acres, divided into timber,
farming, and grazing lands. Beyond its limits there
were many others living among the whites and on
equal terms. To the labors of the missionaries is due
our knowledge of the language and customs of the
Ojibways or čijewº, . R. Schoolcraft did much
to popularize it. Two members of the tribe have
published histories of the Ojibways, George Copway
(Boston, 1851) and Peter Jones (London, 1861).
OKRA (Hibiscus esculentus) is a species of the Mal-
vacea, or Mallow family, mucilaginous plants which are
fºund throughout the tropical and temperate parts of
the earth. The okra, in the opinion of some, is a
native of the East Indies, though De Candolle thinks
that its name points
to an origin in tropi-
cal America. It is
an annual, generally
resembling the mal-
lows, with a stem 2
to 6 ft. high, and
rigid, 5-lobed leaves,
in whose axils grow
large, yellowish flow-
ers with purplish cen-
tres. The fruit is a
narrow, 10-angled
pod, 4 to 8 inches
long, of pyramidal
shape, with pointed
extremity. t Con-
tains numerous kid-
ney-shaped see ds.
he plant is culti-
vated for its pods, which when young contain mucilage
in abundance. They are gathered while still tender,
and before any woody fibre appears, and are used as a
thickening material for the peculiar Southern soup
called gumbo. They are also sometimes boiled and
dressed like asparagus. The pods are salted for winter
use, or sliced and dried. The inner bark of the
okra yields an excellent fibre, and has been proposed as
suitable for paper stock.
OLAF, SAINT (c. 995–1030), king and patron saint
of Norway, was a son of Harold Gränske, and grand-
son of Harold the Fair-haired. When only 12 years
old he led a Viking fleet to the coasts of Britain, and
afterwards plundered the coasts of Sweden, France,
and Spain. Having become one of the most dreaded
sea-kings, he returned to Norway in 1014, and made
himself master of the kingdom, and introduced Chris-
tianity. He burned the heathen temples and used such
violence that a rebellion was excited. In 1028 Canute
came with an army to enforce his claim to Norway and
Olaf fled to Russia. After two years he returned with
aid from Sweden, and was defeated and killed near
Dromtheim, July 29, 1030. When Christianity was
fully established his body was enshrined in the Cathe-
dral of Drontheim, and Olaf was made the patron
saint of the country. In 1847 King Oscar I, instituted
the order of St. Olaf.
OLEOMARGARINE. The making of artificial
See Vol. XVII butter has become of late years an in-
º º; dustry of such importance that some
Km. º, " account of its origin and growth is here
requisite. It originated in the desire
of the French government to provide the poorer
classes with a cheap substitute for butter. They em-
ployed M. Mège-Mouriès to make experiments with
this object in view. Presuming that beef fat might
contain the constituents of butter, he experimented
with suet, which he found to be below butter, in its
proportion of oleine. By extracting a portion of
palmatine and stearine from the fat, he brought its
proportion of oleine up to that of butter, and by
proper manipulation produced a substance not easily
distinguishable from butter, while much cheaper.
This substance he named oleomargarine, under the
idea that butter contains margarine. This is a mis-
taken idea, and the name is not properly applicable.
ºrine which is frequently used, is a more correct
title.
It is needless to describe M. Mège's method of man-
ufacture, as an improved method is now adopted in

OLIN–OLIPHANT.
89
the American factories, in which large quantities of
butterine are annually made. Briefly to outline the
process, the beef fat is first thrown into tanks of tepid
water. This is repeated three times, such of the fat
as does not seem suitable being withdrawn after the
first washing. All impurities having been thus re-
moved, only pure white fat remains. This fat is
minced in a cutting machine and melted by the use
of live steam, the temperature being kept carefully
between 114° and 122°F., and about 5 per cent. of salt
being added. The membrane sinks to the bottom of
the kettles, and the pure floating fat is drawn off.
After some other purifying processes the fat is allowed
to solidify very slowly. It is then exposed to a pressure
of 3000 lbs. to the square inch, in order to separate
the butter oil from the stearine. This is kept up until
the butter oil, or oleomargarine, ceases to flow, the
stearine residue remaining as a hard, white, dry mass.
Much of the oil is exported to Europe in this way,
there to be churned with milk into artificial butter.
If properly sealed up, it will keep an indefinite period.
It is of a light yellow color and an agreeable taste,
melting in the mouth like butter. When churned it
is mixed in the proportion of 442 parts oleomargarine,
120 parts milk, 373 of butter, and 13 oz. bicarbonate
of soda. This is churned from 5 to 10 minutes, some
coloring matter added, and then churned from 30 to
40 minutes longer. The substance produced resembles
butter in taste and appearance, though it has a ten-
dency to crystallize, and become lumpy. This is
avoided by chilling it during the process of hardening.
Pure oleomargarine butter is said to contain every
element that enters into cream butter, and to keep
pure much longer. But there is the defect of not
knowing when it is pure, or what injurious ingredients
or objectionable processes may be used in its manu-
facture by irresponsible parties. It is, however,
manufactured in large quantities in America, partly
for home use, but more largely for shipment to Eu-
rope. Three factories in the State of New York pro-
duce not less than 4500 tons yearly, while similar
factories exist in nearly all of our large cities. In some
of these factories lard is mixed with oleomargarine,
yielding compounds known as lardine, suine, and lard
cheese. In J880 the statistics of the oleomargarine
manufacture were as follows:
Fstablishments.............................. 15
Capital invested........................... $1,680,000
Value of material.......................... 5,486,14ſ
Value of product........ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e & 6,892,939
The factories were situated principally in New
York, Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, and Pennsylvania.
Since that date their product has largely increased.
Recent reports from Holland state that the exports
of oleomargarine from the United States are steadily
increasing, and were much larger in 1887 than in
former years, and that all measures taken to suppress
the manufacture of artificial butter serve only to make
it better known and more popular, and to increase
its consumption. The law in Germany against it, for
instance, has been followed by an extension of the but.
ter factories, while the new law against butterine in
England, which took effect Jan. 1, 1888, promises to
have a similar effect. The exports of American but.
terine: in 1887 to the two ports of Rotterdam and
Amsterdam were 184,600 tierces, containing about
60,000,000 lbs. This was one-third more than the
1886 export. Holland imported as much in ISS7 from
ºuropean factories, while making much in her own
factories. The making of artificial butter, indeed, is
now the largest manufacturing interest of the Nether-
lands. The annual consumption in Paris at present is
from 60,000 to 80,000 lbs. daily.
n view of the extensive and growing sale of this sub-
$tance in the United States as cream butter, restrictive
laws have been passed by several of the States, and the
better to prevent fraudulent sales Congress has re-
cently passed a stringent law taxing the manufacture
and sale, and requiring under penalty that every pack-
age containing artificial butter shall be duly, marked
with the name of its contents, and that retail dealers
shall not sell except from the original packages. The
law lays on manufacturers a tax of $600, on wholesale
dealers of $480, and on retail dealers of $48, with an
additional tax of 2 cents on every pound sold. This
law has gone far to restrict the fraudulent sale. Sold
for what it is, oleomargarine is not likely to inter-
fere greatly with the dairy business of this country, as
it will be used mainly for cooking purposes. Its use
as table butter is likely to be ºil, confined to the
poorer classes of Europe.
We append a comparative analysis of natural and
artificial butter, which shows that when properly made
the latter is a wholesome and satisfactory substitute for
the former.
Fat. Caseine. Ash. Water.
Good market butter............. 86.06 0.42 0.12 13.77
POOr “ “ ............ S2.60 ().72 0.20 17.18
Artificial butter, Mège's pro- -
CeSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 86.24 1.20 ...... 12.56
Artificial butter, American
process ............. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * S7.15 0.57 1.63 11.50
Frankfort Margarine Co...... 87.97 0.26 (). 17 11.42
(C. M.)
OLIN, STEPHEN (1797–1851), preacher and educa-
tor, was born at Leicester, Vt., Mar. 3, 1797. He was
the oldest son of Judge Henry Olin (1757–1837), who
was lieutenant-governor of Vermont 1827–29. He
graduated at Middlebury College in 1820, and became
principal of an academy in South Carolina. In 1824
he entered the South Carolina Conference of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1826 he was made
professor of English literature in the University of
Georgia, and in 1834 became president of the Randolph-
Macon College, Virginia. e went to Europe in 1837
and made an extensive tour in the East, which is de-
scribed in his Travels in Egypt, Petraea and the Holy
Land (1843). Being made president of Wesleyan
University in 1842, Dr. Olin exerted himself with
great success to give this institution high rank among
American colleges. He was at this time at the height
of his power as a preacher, intellectual, fervent, and
practical. In 1846 he was a delegate to the first meet-
ing of the Evangelical Alliance in London. He died
at Middletown, Conn., Aug. 16, 1851. His Sermons
Were published in 1852, and his Life and Letters in
1853.
OLIPHANT, LAURENCE, a roving Englishman
whose travels and adventures have furnished material for
several books, was born in 1829, being the only son of
Sir Anthony Oliphant, who became chief justice of
Qeylon in 1838. In 1850 Laurence accompanied J ung
Bahadoor, the Nepaulese ambassador to England, on
his return to Katmandu, and published an account of
the journey. After studying at the University of
Edinburgh and being admitted to the English bar, he
visited Southern Russia. His book on The Russia),
Shores of the Black Sea (1853) acquired special inter.
est from the Crimean war which soon followed. Oli-
phant next became private secretary to Lord Elgin,
Governor-General of Canada, and was made superin-
tendent of Indian affairs. His travels in this ca pacity
gaye occasion for his book on Minnesota, or the Fºr
West (1855). He travelied through the United States
and even accompanied a filibustering expedition to
Central America. Returning to England he published
The Trans-Caucasian Provinces (1855) and then has
tened to join the army of Omar Pacha in a campaign to
that, region. In 1857 he was again private secretary to
Lord Elgin, then minister plenipotentiary to China,
and subsequently published an account of this mission.
In 1861, while he was acting as chargé d'affaires in
Japan, a bold attempt was made on his life and he was
Severely wounded. In 1865 he was elected to Parlia-
90
OLIPHANT—OLSHAUSEN.
ment from Sterling, but he resigned in 1868, and with
his mother jºined the religious community established
by Thomas L. Harris (q.v.) at Portland, N. Y. In
1870 he returned to Europe and was for a while Paris
correspondent of the London Times. In 1873 he be-
came the agent of a trans-Atlantic telegraph company
and resided in the United States. After a few years
he went to Syria with a view to establishing a colony
there. This project was only partly successful, but he
made explorations of the country east of the Jor-
dan, which are described in The Land of Gilead (1881).
Besides the books of travel already mentioned his Putrº.
9ts and Filibusters (1861), Piccadilly (1870), and
Traits and Travesties (1882) contain records of his
Qbservations of men and events. He has also pub-
lished a novel, Altiora Peto (1883), and Haifa (ISS7), a
description of contemporary life in Palestine, as seen
in a second visit, connected with his colonizing project.
OLIPHANT, MARGARET WILSON, an English
novelist of Scotch extraction, was born at Liverpool in
1818. Her first novel, Passages in the Life of JIstress
Margaret Maitland (1849), was an attractive revelation
of life in a Scotch parish. She continued to exhibit
Scotch life and character in several stories, but after-
wards gave equally excellent delineations of the life of
English rural towns. The most noted of these is
Chronicles of Carlingford (1863), which was continued
in several volumes. All her stories are marked by a
subdued yet earnest religious tone. In 1862 she pub-
lished an interesting Life of Edward Irving, and she
has also given to the world biographies of St. Francis
of Assisi (1870) and Count Montalembert (1872). In
The Makers of Florence (1876) she depicts Dante,
Giotto, and Savonarola; and The Makers of Venice
(1888) is a similar work. She has also contributed to
the history of England in her Historical Sketches of the
Reign of George II. (1869). Her Literary History of
England (1882) is confined to the end of the eighteenth
and beginning of the nineteenth century. Her Life of
Sheridan (1883) in the series of “English Men of
Letters” is a pleasing sketch. Her latest biography
is that of Principal Tulloch, of whom she was a warm
admirer.
OLIVER, ANDREW (1706–1774), lieutenant-gov-
ernor of Massachusetts, was born at Boston, March
28, 1706. He graduated at Harvard College in 1724,
and was a member of the General Court, and after-
ward was secretary of the province. In 1765, having
accepted the office of distributor of stamps under the
stamp-act, he was compelled to resign under the Lib-
erty Tree, August 15. In 1771 he was appointed
lieutenant-governor, and with his brother-in-law, Gov-
ernor Hutchinson, secretly furthered the designs of
the British ministry. The General Court, discovering
this, petitioned the king for the removal of both.
Lieutenant-Governor Oliver died at Boston, March 3,
1774. He was succeeded in office by his relative,
THOMAS OLIVER (1734–1815), who was compelled by
the people to resign Sept. 2, 1774, and afterwards went
with the British troops to Halifax, and thence to
England.
Andrew's brother, PETER OLIVER (1713–1791), born
March 26, 1713, graduated at Harvard College in 1730.
After holding several offices in Plymouth co., he was
in 1756 made a judge of the Supreme Court, and in
1771 became chief justice. In 1774, having refused
the demand of the Assembly to engage to receive no
pay except from that body, he was impeached. . He
afterwards accompanied the British troops when leav-
ing Boston in 1776. He died at Birmingham, Eng-
land, Oct. 13, 1791.
OLLIVIER, EMILE, a French statesman, was born
at Marseilles, July 2, 1825. He was the son of Demos-
thène Ollivier, an ardent republican, studied law at
Paris, and was admitted to the bar in 1847. When the
Republic was established in 1848 he was made commis-
sary-general at Marseilles, but soon returned to his
profession. After the coup d'état of December, 1851,
his father was driven from France, but Émile, pru-
dently avoiding politics, acquired high reputation as an
advocate. In 1857 he was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies, where he became a leader of the opposition.
But his hostility to the emperor gradually abated and
finally, in 1867, he was entirely won over. In Decem-
ber, 1869, he was called by the emperor to form a
Cabinet and draft a constitution. This plan was ap-
proved by the plébiscite, May 8, 1870, but the declara-
tion of war against Germany and its disastrous results
oyerthrew first his cabinet and then the Empire. Olli-
vier retired to Piedmont, but towards the end of 1872
returned to his home at Passy. In 1870 he had been
elected to the academy on account of his official posi-
tion, but when he now attempted to take his seat in
1874 his inaugural address caused disturbance by its
defence of the Empire. On other occasions disputes
arose and finally, in May, 1879, he withdrew from the
academy. In early life he assisted in founding and
conducting a law magazine. He afterwards published
various political essays. His latest works are L'Eglise
et l'Etat au Concile du Vatican (2 vols., 1879), and
M. Thiers à l'Académie et dans l’Histoire (1880).
OLMSTED, FREDERICK LAw, an American land.
Scape gardener, was born at Hartford, Conn., Nov. 10,
1822. He studied engineering and natural science at
Yale College, and became a farmer. In 1848 he began
to manage a fruit-farm on Staten Island. In 1850 he
made a tour in England which he narrated in his Walks
and Talks of an American Farmer in England (1852).
On his return he made a journey on horseback through
the Southern States, as correspondent of the New
York Times. His letters drew attention to the deplor-
able effects of slavery on agriculture. They were col-
lected in his volumes, A Journey in the Seaboard
Slave States (1856); A Journey through Teºcas (1857);
A Journey in the Back Country (1860); and a general
summary was given in The Cotton Kingdom (1861).
In 1855 he had made a tour on the Continent of
Europe to examine the parks, and when in 1856 plans
for laying out Central Park, in New York, were called
for, that offered by Mr. Olmstetl and Calvert Vaux
was adopted. Mr. Olmsted was appointed architect
and chief engineer, and carried out his plans energeti-
cally until the outbreak of the civil war. He then be-
came secretary of the U. S. Sanitary Commission.
After the war he was again made architect-in-chief of
the Central Park, and was also engaged in laying out
parks in Brooklyn, Washington, and Chicago. In
1878 he was removed from office by a new board of
commissioners, but he has conducted his labors with
much success in parks for other cities. His firm has
had charge of the Niagara Reservation Park.
OLSHAUSEN, HERMANN (1796–1839), a German
theologian, was born at Oldesloe, Holstein, Aug. 21,
1796. He was educated at Kiel and Berlin, and in
1821 was made professor extraordinary of theology at
Königsberg, becoming full professor in 1827. He ac-
cepted a call to Erlangen in 1834, and died there Sept.
4, 1839. His chief work is a Bublical Commentary on
the New Testament (4 vols., 1830–40). It was com-
pleted by Profs. Ebrard and Wiesinger (vols. 5–7,
1850–53). Prof. A. C. Kendrick revised the American
edition (6 vols., 1856–58).
His brother, JULIUS OLSHAUSEN (1800–f882), a
distinguished Orientalist, was born May 9, 1800, and
educated at Kiel, Berlin, and Paris. In 1823 he was
made extraordinary professor at Kiel, and in 1830 be
came full professor. In 1848 the provisional govern
ment of Holstein entrusted to him the superintendence
of the university. He also represented the city of
Kiel in the parliament, of which he was made vice-
president. In 1852 the Danish government came into
possession of the country, and Olshausen was deprived
of his office. In 1853 he was made librarian and pro-
fessor of Oriental languages at Königsberg. In 1858
he was made councillor in the Prussian ministry of
education. In 1874 he retired on a pension, and he
OMAHA–LAKE ONTARIO.
91
died at Berlin, Dec. 28, 1882. His Oriental researches
related chiefly to the languages and antiquities of
Persia, and to the Old Testament. Among his public
cations were Erklärung der P&almen (1853); Lehrbuch
der Hebraischen Sprache (1861); Die Pehlewi-Legen-
den auf den Münzen der letzten Sassaniden (1843). His
latest investigations appeared in the publications of
the Berlin Academy. See PAHLAVI in the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA.
Another brother, THEODOR OLSHAUSEN (1802–
1869), was an active politician and journalist at Kiel.
In 1848 he took part in the provisional government,
but he afterwards joined the democratic opposition.
In 1849 he founded the Norddeutsche Freie Presse, at
Hamburg. In 1851 he came to America, and edited
a paper at St. Louis. Several German works on the
Western States of America, º by him, were
published at Kiel. In 1865 he returned to Europe
and died at Hamburg, March 31, 1869.
OMAHA, the largest city of Nebraska, is on the
west bank of the Missouri River, 600 miles above its
confluence with the Mississippi. ſtisan important rail-
road centre, having several lines to Chicago, St. Louis,
Texas, and California. A belt-line railroad encircles
the city, accommodating local trade and enabling the
trunk lines to reach the business centre. There are
over 20 miles of street railroad track. The streets are
100 ft. wide, and in the business part are paved with
asphalt or stone. Three squares are reserved for
parks. Large and costly buildings line the principal
streets. Among them are a fine city-hall, court-house,
U. S. government building, Joslyn and other hotels,
Boyd's opera-house, the national banks, and various
buildings for business purposes. The Chamber of
Commerce, organized in 1885, has a handsome and
commodious building. In 1886 the Omaha Exposition
building was completed ; its main hall seats 6000 per-
sons. The wholesale business of the city, which exceeds
$75,000,000, is conducted by 250 firms and there are
over 2000 retail firms. The prosperity of Omaha is
due to the railroads; though it was founded in 1854,
the first railroad from Chicago entered the city in Jan-
uary, 1867. The Union Pacific was completed May 10,
1869, and at once gave a great impetus to the city.
Previously the Missouri was here crossed in winter on
a pile bridge, which was removed during the season of
navigation. Soon an iron bridge, 2750 ft. long, was
built at a cost of $2,500,000, and it has since been en-
larged at a further expense of $1,000,000. Omaha
has 60 churches, 25 school-buildings, a high-school,
Creighton College, Brownell Hall for young ladies, a
Catholic academy, a medical college, and a business
college. The industrial works comprise large smelting-
and refining-works, car-shops, and various factories.
The city is lighted with gas and electric light. The
Water supply is drawn from the Missouri, being fil-
tered and allowed to settle in a reservoir. The daily
consumption exceeds 8,000,000 gallons. Since 1884
there has been a city paid fire department, besides one
belonging to the Union Pacific Railroad. There are
40 miles of sewerage; garbage is removed by boats
which dump it in the middle of the river-channel. The
£ity limits extend 8 miles along the river and 4 miles
back. It is governed by a mayor and 12 councilmen,
the mayor being chosen for two years. The annual
expenses exceed $1,000,000, yet the amount is raised
With little difficulty. The bonded debt is $857,950. In
1886 the school census showed 11,831 persons of school
age, indicating a population of nearly 60,000, and this
has continued to increase.
Near the city the U. S. government has a tract of
$2} acres for military purposes. It contains the head-
quarters of the Department of the Platte. In South
Qmaha are the extensive stockyards of the Union
Pacific Railroad.
OMAHAS, a tribe of American Indians of the Da-
kota family (see DARotA INDIANs). They were
Own to the explorers of the Upper Mississippi as
peaceful and inclined to agriculture. They were har-
assed by the Sioux and other tribes. About 1800
being severely afflicted with small-pox, they burne
their villages, and journeyed southward along the
\fissouri flewis and Ölarke report their number as 600
in 1805. In 1815 the first treaty was made with them
by the United States when they ceded Council Bluffs.
The Sioux continued to persecute them, but after
these enemies were repressed by the U. S. troops
the Omahas improved greatly. Their reservation in
Northern Nebraska comprised 375,000 acres. About
1883 an experiment was made in leaving them to take
care of themselves. They have suffered somewhat,
but appear to be learning self-reliance. They still
have the benefit of Presbyterian missionaries and the
mission and industrial boarding-schools were reported
in 1887 as crowded. Besides these schools, many of
the children are taught at Carlisle, Pa., Hampton, Va.,
and other places. The number of Omahas in 1887 was
reported to be 1175.
OMAR PACHA (1806–1871), Turkish general, was
born at Plaski, Croatia, in 1806. He was the son of
an officer of the Austrian army and was originally
named Mikail Lattas. While serving in 1833 in 3.
regiment on the frontier he incurred disgrace and fled
to Bosnia, where he professed the Moslem faith.
Being made tutor of the sons of Hussein Pacha, he
went to Constantinople, where he also taught Abd-ul-
Medjid. In 1839 the latter became sultan and made
his tutor colonel and afterwards brigadier-general. In
1842 he was military governor of Lebanon and soon
became pacha. Called thence to subdue rebellions in
Albania and Bosnia, he displayed remarkable energy
In the war with Russia in 1854 he was appointed gen:
eralissimo, and drove the Russian invaders out of the
}}anubian principalities. In 1855 he successfully de-
fended Eupatoria and was sent to the relief of the be-
sieged Kars, but arrived too late. After the war he
was governor of Bagdad, but in 1859 was dismissed for
maladministration and banished to Kharput. Re-
stored to office in 1861, he was again employed in
Bosnia. In March, 1867, he was sent to suppress the
rebellion in Crete, but his cruelty occasioned his recall
in October. Thenceforth he was one of the Sultan's
council till his death, April 18, 1871.
ONCKEN, JoHANN GERHARD (1800–1884), a
German evangelist, was born at Varel, in Oldenberg,
Jan. 26, 1800. In his youth he visited England and
there joined an Independent congregation. He was
sent as a missionary to Germany by the British Conti-
nental Society in 1823. He afterwards became at
Hamburg the agent of the Edinburgh Bible Society
and was the first to establish a Sunday-school in his
native land. In 1834 he adopted Baptist views and as
the laws of the country were severely intolerant he
was secretly baptized by Rev. Barnas Sears, who was
then studying in Hamburg. Oncken became the pas-
tor of the first Baptist church in Germany, founded in
April, 1834. Soon after he was appointed a missionary
of the American Baptist Convention. His religious
work was conducted throughout Germany, Switzer
land, and Denmark, by preaching, distributing the
Scriptures, and forming congregations. In his fidelity
to duty he braved the most serious opposition and on
Some occasions endured corporal chastisement. His
labors were so incessant and his success was so marked
that he became widely known as “the German Apos:
tle.” In prosecution of his work he visited the United
States in 1852 and 1865. After a long and faithful
life he died Jan. 2, 1884. He had published and
edited many tracts and religious journals.
ONEIDAS. See IRoquois.
QNIQN. . See AGRICULTURE, chap. v., 2.
QNONDAGAS. See IRoquois.
ONTARIQ, LAKE, the smallest of the chain of
great lakes which finally empty into the St. Lawrence
River, has a length of 190 miles; maximum breadth,
55 miles; and maximum depth, 600 ft. So great is
92
LAKE ONTARIO.
the number of small bays and inlets that the circuit is
9yer 500 miles. The principal harbors are Kingston,
Coburg, Toronto, and Hamilton, in Canada; and
Charlotte, Oswego, and Sackett's Harbor in New York.
The commerce of the lake is very important, connec-
tion being made with the Erie Canal and the Hudson
River through the Oswego Canal, and with the upper
lakes º the Welland Canal, which connects Lake
Ontario with Lake Erie, the entrance to the former
lake being at Port Dalhousie. The level of Lake
Ontario is 250 ft. above the ocean. Therefore the bot-
tom of the lake, in some parts, is 350 ft. below the
surface of the ocean. Ontario being much shallower
than any other of the great lakes (with the exception
of Erie), the bottoms of the upper lakes drop to
about the same level as that of Ontario.
The discharge of water through the Detroit River
from the lakes above, after allowing for the probable
portion carried off by evaporation, does not appear by
any means equal to the quantity of water which the
three upper lakes receive. It has been conjectured
that a subterranean river may run from Lake Ontario.
This conjecture is not improbable, and, if correct,
accounts for the singular fact that salmon and herring
are caught in all the lakes communicating with the
St. Lawrence, but in no others. As the Falls of Niag-
ara block the way, it would seem that the fish reached
the upper lakes by some underground river. The
theory of an underground river has also been adopted
by several scientists who have been watching the
variations in the levels of the great lakes. There are
two kinds of variations: the annual, which rise from
the melting of the snows in the spring ; and the occa-
sional, which come at various intervals. All of the
lakes west of the Niagara River are subjected to the
occasional variations. The period of each rise and
fall covers from 4 to 7 years. The variation from
lowest to highest points has sometimes been as much
as 33 ft. These variations are aside from those caused
by the winds. In September and October Lake
Michigan is subject to an annual flood-tide, the ebb-tide
occurring in January, February, and March. Lake
Ontario is subject to such variations, but, apparently,
in a less degree. The fact that certain of the varia-
tions have taken place at the time variations were no-
ticed in the upper lakes tends to confirm the theory
of the underground channel. In 1886 the Superintend-
ent of the U. S. Life-Saving Service, in which Lake
Ontario is included, reported that the unusual high
water all along the lake had become troublesome. At
the same time there was high water in Lakes Erie and
Michigan. On the other hand there have been periods
when the level of Lake Ontario has fallen to such an
extent that the towns along its banks became alarmed
lest they should be left in the interior. One reason
assigned was that Lake Erie had become so filled up
by sand brought down from the Detroit River that it
had become itself merely a river, thus keeping back
the flow of water and allowing it to evaporate in the
upper lakes. Another reason given was that the out-
let of Ontario, the River St. Lawrence, had been SQ
enlarged by the enlarging of a canal at “The Gallops'.
#. that more than twice the usual quantity of
water had passed through. In other words, the re;
moval of the natural dam of Lake Ontario had resulted
in lowering the level of the lake. At the present
time (1888), however, there appear to be no complaints
in regard to the level. There are on record a number
of instances where the level of the lake has risen Sud-
denly by the appearance of a tidal wave. Such a
wave caused the water to rise 22 in. at Charlotte (the
port of Rochester) in 1872.
Ontario, being the lowest of the Great Lakes and sur-
rounded by some of the largest mountain ranges in
the country, forms an intensely interesting subject for
scientific investigators. The geology and topography
of the lake are so combined that they cannot readily
be separated. The eastern end of the lake is confined
by the Laurentian rocks of the Adirondack Mountains
of New York, and its outlet is over the low and narrow
barrier of the same, forming the Thousand Islands.
The lake itself is excavated out of the soft flower
Silurian rocks. The northern limit of the basin is an
east and west line, about 50 miles back from the
northern shore. Its southern limit is made by three
remarkable escarpments, ranging in parallel east and
west lines from the Hudson River to Lake Erie, caused
by the broad outspread and almost imperceptible
Southern dip of the whole palaeozoic system, from the
Potsdam sandstone at the bottom of the Silurian to
the coal-beds at the bottom of the Carboniferous rocks,
The basset edges of the formations make a series of
steps toward the north ; while down the southern
slope, almost from the very edge of the lakes of Central
New York, flow all the northern waters of the Delaware,
Susquehanna, and Ohio Rivers. The lowest escarp-
ment is that of the Niagara, or Middle Silurian, for-
mation which commences at a slight elevation between
Albany and Utica, along the south side of the Mohawk
Valley, and crosses the Niagara River at Lewiston.
Back of this runs the escarpment of the Helderberg,
or Lower Devonian, limestones, forming high hills
South of the Mohawk, but dying away as it approaches
Lake Erie. Still farther south, and at a still higher ele-
vation, runs the high escarpment of the Upper Devonian
sandstone, from the base of the Catskill Mountains,
on the Hudson, to Lake Erie. The range runs along
the southern shore of Lake Erie into South-western
Ohio. At an elevation of 1000 ft. above Lake Erie
are the bituminous coal-fields of Ohio and Pennsyl-
vania, and from the northern part of these fields the
River Genesee cuts its way through the three escarp-
ments into Lake Ontario. In the western and central
parts of the State of New York deep valleys have
been cut between the middle and upper escarpments
and into the Lower Devonian terrace. These are
known as Lakes Canandaigua, Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked
Lake, Auburn, and Skaneateles—all of them, with
Lake Oneida, at the foot of the lowest escarpment,
drained by the Oswego River into Lake Ontario. But
the principal drainage of Southern New York is
southward through the upper escarpment and by deep
gorges in the Allegheny Mountains of Pennsylvania,
by the Susquehanna River and Chesapeake Bay, into
the Atlantic Ocean. In Western New York the
same set of the waters away from Lake Erie carries
the drainage into the Allegheny, Beaver, and other
affluents of the Ohio, the head waters of which,
therefore, overlook Lake Erie 1000 feet from a distance
of scarce a dozen miles. There are, in fact, several
spots along the watershed where the head waters of .
i. St. Lawrence, the Susquehanna, and the Alle-
gheny may be fed by the same cloud. Lake Chautau-
qua, which drains into the Allegheny River, is much
farther north and at a much higher elevation than
the interior lakes of New York, named above, which
drain into Lake Ontario. Thé lowest or Middle Silu-
rian escarpment crosses the Niagara River and becomes
the constant limit of the basin of Lake Ontario. At
Lewiston Heights it is 365 ft. above the lake. Enter-
ing the Province of Ontario it turns about the head
of the lake and runs to the Georgian Bay and then to
Lake Huron at Cape Hurd. The Blue Mountains of
Georgian Bay are of the Upper Silurian strata. This
makes Lake Simcoe lie in a hollow of the Lower Silu-
rian lakes similar to that which confines Lake Ontario.
Lake Champlain, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Lakes Simcoe, Ontario, and Champlain, and the Gulf
of St. Lawrence would form a continuation of the
same water basin if it were not for the rise in the
Lower Silurian rocks between Simcoe and Ontario and
the upper of the Laurentian rocks at the Thousand
Islands, below which are all the rapids of the St.
Lawrence down to Montreal. It is, apparently, agreed
by geologists that when the whole of this part of the
continent was submerged 300 or 400 ft. below the
OOSTERZEE—OPERA.
93
present surface of the ocean there was one island known
now as the Adirondack Mountains of New York; and
there was another island known now as the
Mountains of Vermont and Western Massachusetts. In
those days it is said that the northern shore of the Gulf
of St. Lawrence extended as far as the Lac des Chats.
In that case Lake Ontario was simply a hole in the
bottom of a great inland sea which covered also the
Falls of Niagara and probably rose above the present
level of the Great Lakes which lie above the falls.
The topographical advantages of Lake Ontario have
also given it a prominent place in American history.
From the earliest settlement of the country this lake
was a favorite route of transportation to the West. In
the war of 1812 important conflicts were waged on the
lake and the adjoining shores. (F. G. M.)
OOSTERZEE, JAN JAKOB WAN (1817–1882), a
Dutch theologian, was born at Rotterdam, April 17,
1817. He was educated at the University of Utrecht,
and was ordained in 1841. After a few years' service in
village churches he was in 1844 called to the principal
church in Rotterdam, where he was noted for his
earnestness and eloquence. In 1862 he was made pro-
fessor of theology in the University of Utrecht, but
from 1867 his work was chiefly in New Testament in-
troduction and the philosophy of religion. He was a vo-
luminous writer and was justly regarded as the leader
of Evangelical thought in Holland. In 1871 he de-
clined a call to a professorship in the theological semi-
nary of the Reformed Church in America at New
Brunswick, N. J. The fortieth anniversary of his
ordination was celebrated in May, 1881, when, although
oppressed by physical weakness, he preached a sermon
of great power, and afterwards received testimonials
from his numerous pupils. He died July 29, 1882, at
Wiesbaden, Germany, where he had gone for the bene-
fit of his health. Among his publications were a Life
of Jesus (3 vols., 1847–51); Christology (3 vols., 1855–
61); Theology of the New Testament (1867); Chris-
tian Dogmatics (1872); Year of Salvation (2 vols.,
1874); , Moses (1876); Practical Theology (1878).
Most of these works have been translated into English.
Dr. Van Oosterzee contributed to Lange's great work
commentaries on the Gospel of Luke, the Pastoral
Epistles, and the Epistle of James. He left some
works in manuscript, including an autobiography.
OPERA. This article is restricted to the history of
operatic performances in the United States. Opera
of any kind first made its appearance in this country,
it seems, in 1750, when the Beggar's Opera, which
had gained an immense popularity in England, was
produced for the first time on the New York stage.
This was soon followed by others. Bickerstaff’s Love
in a Tillage was produced in 1768, and his Maid of
the Mill in 1773. Numerous others were given dur-
ing the succeeding years, including The Duemnct
(1791); Inkle and Yarico (1793–4); a number by
Dibdin, Children of the Wood (1794–5); Blue Beard
(1801); The Review (1807); etc. The singers promi-
nent at this time were Benjamin Carr, an Englishman,
who later settled in Philadelphia as a music teacher,
Miss Broadhurst, Miss Brett, Mrs. Oldmixon, who
made her début here in 1798; Miss Catherine Leesugg,
contralto; Miss Kelly, sister of the Irish composer,
and the two eminent English singers, Philips and In-
cledon. During 1813–17 Athis, The Miller and His
lſen, The Farmer and His Wife, and The Devil's
Bridge, all by a new English composer, Henry Bishop,
Were produced. In 1823 John Howard Payne's
drama, Clari the Maid of Milan, was produced, with
music by Bishop (among the pieces the now famous
Home, Sweet Home”). German music also began
to be heard. In 1825 Weber's Freischiitz was given,
With great success—not entire, however, but “ad.
apted'' in parts.
At the same time that these English º and
#. were being produced in New York, various
rench companies were performing the lyrical drama
reen
in their own language in New Orleans, La. The first
company of French comedians appeared there in 1791.
But although, as Ritter says, “it is safe to presume
that light musical farces and operatic pieces were en-
acted from time to time,” the first positive date we have
is 1810, in which year the Barber of Seville and Romeo
and Juliet were presented. After this, and until the
outbreak of the civil war, French opera was given fre-
quently there, and the companies also made occasional
visits to New York. Several opera-houses were built
in succession, the latest completed in 1859. French
opera, i. e., the light operetta (opéra-bouffe) of Offen-
bach, Lecocq, and other composers, first made its
appearance in this country in 1867, when La Grande
Duchesse was produced and had a run of 158 nights.
Maurice Grau did much to popularize this kind of
music, introducing to the American public a number
of well-known French artists, notably Aimée, Judic,
Paola Marie, and Theo. More recently, the English
comic opera, as represented by Gilbert and Sullivan's
Pinafore, and similar works, has found favor with the
American public.
Italian opera made its first appearance here in 1825.
In that year Garcia brought over a good Italian com-
pany to New York. Il Barbiere was the first opera
given, followed by Otello, Romeo e Julietta, Il Turco
in Italia, Semiramide, Don Giovanni, and others.
But although Garcia's company included such excellent
singers as his own daughter, Mme. Malibran, he had
but poor success, and in 1826 went to Mexico. After
this, and until 1832, operas were produced at various
times in New York, but no work worthy of note was
accomplished. In 1832 the tenor singer Montressor
brought an Italian opera company to New York. A
number of new works were produced, but the venture
was a failure. In 1833 an opera-house was built,
which was burned in 1839. An Italian company,
under the management of Rivafinoli and Da Ponte,
gave performances there, and collapsed, as a matter
of course, as did also its successor, organized under
the management of Porto and Sacchi. Among the
artists in these two companies were Clementina and
Rosina Fanti, Louisa Bordogni, Schneider-Maroncelli,
Signors Fabi, Raviglio, De Rosa, and Porto. Mean-
while opera in English continued to make its appear-
ance in isºf Afme. Caradori Aien gave Operas at
the Park. Theatre, and the Seguin troupe at the
National Theatre. Two years later another English
company appeared in opera, which gave, amongst
other works, Beethoven's Fidelio, for the first time
in America. The Seguins later had great success
at the Park. Theatre with the novelty, Balfe's Bo-
Ilemian Girl, and Mrs. Anna Bishop and W. H.
Reeves appeared in 1847. In 1843 a certain Palmo
built a new opera-house in Chambers street, which
was opened the following year. Italian opera was
given there for four years, after which the place was
abandoned as being too small. At this time a move-
Iment had been set on foot to have an opera-house
built in a more convenient location. The enterprise
Was placed on a firm basis for five years at least, by
subscriptions to support Italian opera for 75 nights a
year during that period. The Astor Place Opera-
House was opened in 1847 with Verdi's Ernani. The
place came under the management of Salvatore Patti,
who was succeeded by Edward Fry in 1848. Both had
ill success, and Fry in turn was succeeded by his musi-
cal director, Max Maretzek: The latter gave Italian
opera there for several years, producing a number of
new operas, but the final result was the same, and the
place was abandoned at the end of the five years. In
Špite of all the failures that had been witnessed, the
hope of placing Italian opera on a firmer footing in this
Country was not abandoned. In 1853 the erection of
the Academy of Music was begun, and it was opened
the following year, Grisi and Mario among the singers
Who appeared. Maretzek gave opera here, as did also
Maurice Strakosch (associated with Ullmann), under
94
OPIUM.
whose direction Adelina Patti made her début in 1859.
Mme. Lagrange, Mme. Frezzolini, and Carl Formes
Were also in his company. Under Strakosch Christine
ilsson also came to the United States in 1870.
arious attempts were also made to introduce opera
sung in German to the American public, the first
probably in 1856, when Meyerbeer's Robert der Teºfel
Was given, with Carl Bergmann as conductor. Carl
Anschütz conducted German opera in New York in
1862, , producing Die Zauberflöte, Don Juan, Die
Entführung ſtus dem Serail, Fidelio, Der Freischütz,
(kar und. Zimmermann, and other works, New
York had its first taste of Wagner when Bergmann, in
1859, brought out Tannhäuser at the Stadt. Theatre.
A second attempt was made in 1870, in which year
Adolf Neuendorff brought a company from Europe
and produced Tannhäuser and Lohengrin. He later
gave also the Walküre, and it was also he who
brought over Wachtel and Pappenheim. During the
succeeding years Maretzek, |. Strakosch brothers
(Maurice and Max), Ullmann, Carl Rosa and Grau
gave seasons of Italian opera, as did later Col. James
Mapleson, whose musical conductor was Luigi
Arditi, an excellent musician. It was to a great extent
the “star” system which caused the final downfall of
the Italian opera. The enormous salaries paid to the
principal performers made it impossible to procure
competent performers for the minor parts and to put
the operas on the stage in a complete and satisfactory
manner. When the Metropolitan Opera-House was
erected in New York, Henry A. Abbey became man-
ager, with a troupe that included Christine Nilsson,
Marcella Sembrich, Scalchi, Trebelli, Valeria, Fursch-
Madi, Campanini, Stagno, Capoul, Del Puente, and
Kaschmann. At the end of this season of Italian opera
there was, as usual, a deficit. Abbey refused to under-
take another season, and the plan of giving German
opera was then seized upon as a last expedient (1884).
Leopold Damrosch became director, and in one month
engaged his company, which comprised some of the
greatest German artists. With this he gave a series
of remarkable performances. Notable and novel was
the careful attention to details, every part being care-
fully presented. It was a tremendous blow struck at
the “star” system. Among the operas given were
Wagner's Tannhäuser, Lohengrin, and Die Walküre,
and Beethoven's Fidelio. Some of these, as we have
seen, had been heard before in New York. Yet even
the efforts of Bergmann and Neuendorff, though very
creditable, bad left much to be desired. Damrosch
died in 1885, and was succeeded by Anton Seidl as
conductor. His son, Walter J. Damrosch, who had
conducted the opera during his father's illness, was
appointed assistant director. In 1886, under the man-
agement of Edwin M. Stanton, Wagner's Meister-
singer, Parsifal, Rienzi, and Götterdämmerung were
given, and in 1887 Wagner's Tristan und Isolde,
rüll's Golden Cross, Verdi's Aida, Goldmark's
Queen of Sheba, and Merlin, and also Faust, The
Prophet, Spontini's Ferdinand Cortez, Nessler's Trum-
peter of Sackkingen, Halevy's Jewess, and Weber's
Euryanthe. The principal singers that have appeared
at the Metropolitan are Lilli Lehmann, N.
Brandt, Auguste Seidl-Krauss, Albert Niemann, Max
Alvary, Emil Fischer, Adolf Robinson, Stritt, and
Staudigl. At this time there was also a company
formed under the name of the “American Opera
Company,” with Theodore Thomas as director. It com-
prised some excellent singers, and operas were given for
some seasons in New York and in other cities, but with
indifferent success. In the season of 1887–88 Italo Cam-
panini made an unsuccessful effort, to revive Italian
opera. With a company that included Galassi and
Scalchi he gave Verdi's Otello at the Academy, New
York. The performances showed the shortcomings
which always characterized representations of Italian
opera, and this attempt emphasized more strongly the
fact that Italian opera had been driven from the field.
A distinct operatic school does not yet exist in
America, although a number of native composers have
tried their hands at that form of composition. Prob-
ably, the first “American" opera produced here was
William Dunlap's Archers, brought out in 1796,
with music by kº Carr, who came to Amer-
iça in 1794. Dunlap's Vintage was produced in
1799, with music by Victor Pelissier, a Frenchman re-
siding in New York; who also wrote the music for
E. H. Smith's Edwin and Angelina, produced in
1798. Another opera by Dunlap was brought out in
1800, with music by James Hewitt, who, like Pelissier,
Was a well-known orchestral leader. More notable
efforts are Rip Van Winkle, by George F. Bristow,
produced in 1855, and Leonora (1858) and Notre
Dame de Paris (1864) by Wm. H. Fry. These three,
as also Julius Eichberg's The Doctor of Alcantara
(1862), enjoyed a certain degree of success. The
number of operas by American composers is very
large, but most of them are of a light character,
modelled after the French operetta. They are, as a
rule, marked by no originality, and have met with
poor Success, . One of the latest native productions in
grand opera is Silas G. Pratt's Zenobia produced at
Jhicago in 1882, which, though good in parts, was not
very well received.
America has produced a number of singers of note,
among them Clara Louise Kellogg, Adelaide Phillips,
Emma Juch, Minnie Hauck, Emma Abbott, Marie
Van Zandt, Emma Nevada (Emma Wixon), and others.
For fuller accounts of the opera in America see Frederic
Louis Ritter's Music in America (New York, 1883), Maurice
Strakosch's Souvenirs d’um Impresario (2d ed., Paris, 1887),
and Max Maretzek's Crotchets and Quavers (New York,
1855). Numerous magazine articles on this subject have
been written by Carl Rosa, Henry T. Finck, and others.
(F. L. W.)
OPIUM is obtained from the capsules of the poppy
and is one of the most complex drugs
See Yol. XVII. known to Materia Medica. It has
Kºś * been raised in the United States, but,
... twep.). on account of the price of labor and
the climate, without profit. The term “opium-eating,"
by which the habit of using it is commonly designated,
is a misnomer, for in no proper sense is opium taken
by the eating process. Among opium-takers the
object, either for relief of pain or stimulation, is ob-
tained by one of four methods, viz., draught, bolus,
injections, and pipe. Of the first, the best known and
most popular preparations are morphine in solution,
laudanum, black drops, and paregowic. The second
method consists in swallowing a pill made of the crude
drug, or in combination with other narcotics. The
alkaloids and salts extracted from opium come under
this head. The medicinal pilulce opii, sulphate of
morphia, and codeia are the principal forms in vogue.
The famous Mash Allah (the great gift of God) and el
magen of the orientals may also be included in the
bolus method. The former, made of opium and aro-
matics, is fashioned into lozenges and much used in
Turkey. The latter is a conserve in which hyoscyamus
is the adjunct and is found principally in Cairo. The
third mode of placing the system under the desired in-
fluence is by injecting a solution of morphia by the
hypodermic syringe, the place generally used being
the arm. This method has found favor among literary
and professional persons, perhaps because the drug
acts more quickly and a smaller quantity will suffice;
and it does not leave the peculiar nauseating after-
effect which is often experienced by the other methods.
Physicians invariably resort to the hypodermic syringe.
This plan is doubly dangerous, on account of the
liability at any time to pierce a vein; and because,
with many, there is a certain fascination about the
instrument which renders it more difficult for them to
be cured of the habit. The syringe very often pre-
duces painful abscesses, and in every instance leaves
scars and marks which may never be obliterated. The
OPOSSUM–OPPERT.
95
pipe method consists in setting fire to a small piece of
the chandoo, or smoking opium, about the size of a
pea, and then inhaling the Smoke through a pipe con-
structed for the purpose. Experienced smokers make
full inspirations, swelling the lungs to their full expan-
sion, and after retaining the smoke as long as they
possibly can, exhale it º the nostrils. The pipe
method is practiged for the most part in China,
Turkey, and the Indian Archipelago. In San Fran-
cisco and New York nearly all the Chinese population
smoke opium. This mode, however, is not exclusively
confined to foreigners, for some Americans use the
drug in combination with their tobacco ; and it has re-
cently appeared that an American opium-smokin
society exists in a Western town. In the Ottoman j
Chinese empires, and also in India, opium, either in
bolus form or by means of the pipe, is used extensively
by rich and poor.
Opium differs widely in its injurious effects, accord-
ing to which of the different ways is adopted. The
weight of opinion is that Smoking is the least injurious.
The effects of the drug, although exhilarating for a
time, are purchased at a fearful cost. The smoker of
the pipe progresses toward the final wreck with increas-
ing i. of eyes and face, that, once seen, can always
be recognized. The morphine-eater shows a some-
what similar condition, varied by a tendency to pim-
ples and eruptions, the result of the paralyzing effect
of the drug upon the bodily functions and secretions.
In all phases of the habit the will power is entirely
subordinated. The victim is helpless. Any delay in
taking the usual dose results in horrors of which the
snake-seeing drunkard never dreamed. The stomach
is gnawed by the terrible appetite as with the sharp
teeth of some wild animal ; pains rack the body and
limbs; the head is also affected, and a general feeling
of being on the very verge of total collapse invests the
sufferer with a dread that is indescribable.
In the United States the use of opium in places
called “joints” has been restricted to large cities,
especially New York and San Francisco. In New York
the joints became, for a time, the haunts of somewhat
fashionable men and women ; but since the passage of
the State law, making it an offence to keep an opium-
joint, places of this sort have disappeared. There is
no law against the smoking of opium ; but the enact-
ment against the maintenance of places of that nature
has given the police control of the matter. In spite
of this practical prohibition to others the Chinese ap-
pear to be free to smoke the drug at joints as much
as they please. Among the medical profession opinion
is very much divided as to the nature of the intoxica-
ion produced by opium ; but it seems to be agreed
that there is no substitute for it, and no antidote. It
is also practically agreed that the only method of
curing the opium habit is for the patient to abandon
the drug; whether he is to do so at once and forever,
or by a retrogressive plan, diminishing gradually the
dose of the accustomed stimulant, is a question upon
which a diversity of opinion exists. The mode of
treatment is determined by the experienced practitioner
according to the peculiar circumstances of each individ-
ual case, and the constitution, character, and general
make-up of the patient. But, in any event, there is
one fate that awaits the victim, and he must firmly de-
termine to brave it and bear it. At some time during
the treatment, whichever mode it may be, he will have
to endure much suffering, though he may be assured
that competent physicians will use all the resources
which medical science has placed at their command to
ameliorate the distress. The disease is certainly vin-
gible; and with a resolute will and proper treatment
the victim can eventually come off victorious. It is
ºvident that the use of opium as a stimulantis increas.
ing in the United States. Some members of the
medical profession state that this is because the use of
Whiskey is becoming less common; and they also say
that while whiskey excites to quarrels, opium is more
disastrous to morals because the opium-eater will stop
at no deceit, and sometimes hesitate at no crime, to
possess himself of the drug. It is thought that one
cause of the spread of the habit is the Superficial
knowledge of the drug and whatever remedies are
supposed to be antidotes for its use. It has been
suggested that physicians should make up the medi-
cines they prescribe without letting the patient know
of their composition ; and that the use of Syringes
should never be within the sight of the patient, nor
should the physician teach the use of them to patients.
All opium prepared for smoking comes from China,
where the right to prepare it is sold by the government
to the highest bidder for a term of years. The amount
of crude opium imported in the United States in
1872 was 189,354 lbs. ; in 1880, 243,21 1 ; in 1886,
471,276, and in 1887, 568,263 lbs. The price per
lb. rose from $2.50 in 1886 to $4.75 in 1887, and
still higher in 1888. The crude opium comes almost
exclusively from Smyrna, being a product of Turkey
in Asia. The chief place of importation for smoking
opium is San Francisco. The importations of smoking
opium in the United States for different years have
been as follows: 1872, 49,375 lbs. ; 1880, 77,196 lbs. ;
1886, 46,207 lbs. ; and 1887, 66,232 lbs. The U. S.
government prior to 1883 imposed a duty of $6 a pound
upon opium for smoking ; and since 1883 the duty
has been $10 a pound. The falling off since 1880 was
probably owing to the increased duty; but there is
suspicion that the actual amount was made up, if not
increased, by smuggling. (F. G. M.)
OPOSSUM, or ºśl, aIte º forms of the
, Irr native lindian name of a marsupial
See Yº! * º, mammal which, inhabits a large part
Am. Bep.). of, the United States, distinctively
called Virginian opossum by Pennant,
in 1781, and technically Didelphis virginiana, first by
Shaw, 1800. The form “possum ” occurs in Lawson's
Carolina (orig. ed. 1709) and is nearer the native orig-
inal than opossum,” which is applied in Catesby's
Carolina º ed. 1731–48), and has always been the
\most current form, of which possum ” is supposed to
be modified by aphaeresis. The word in either form
came to be applied : (a) to all the representatives
of the Linnaean genus Didelphis (1766). These
were five in number: (1) D. marsupialis, based on
the philander of Seba, the opossum of Tyson, the
carigue or carigueya of De Laet, Marcgrave and others,
the maritaeaca of Ray, and the tlaquatzin of Hernan.
dez, being thus a composite species. (2) D. philander.
(3) D, opossum. (4) D. murina. (5) D. dorsigera.
These species are mostly based upon descriptions given
by Seba; all are said to be American (“Asia’’’ very
Wrongly added as the habitat of one of them, D.
murina). The Linnaean genus Didelphis (more cor-
rectly to, be, spelled Didelphys) corresponds to the
modern family. Didelphyidae, which is the only group
of marsupials living in America, and includes the whole
of the American marsupials, all the rest of the order
Marsupialia being confined in the present geological
epoch to the Australian zoögeographical regions. Thus
the word "opossum" or “possum ” came to mean
"...any American marsupial," of which there are severa.
different genera and numerous species, ranging from
middle portions of the United States to Patagonia.
But (b) prior to 1800 the name “opossum ” had been
loosely extended to certain old world marsupials, in
the vague manner which is not exclusively a fault of
travellers and amateur naturalists, but also found in
the Writings of professed zoölogists. Thus we read in
Pennant of a certain.” Javan opossum” which is a
kind of, kangaroo called “filander” by Le Brun in
1711, inhabiting some of the Papuan islands (but not
found in Java); and various Australian marsupials,
especially among the phalangers, are persistently called
Qpossum,” with or without a qualifying term.
Returning to the proper definition of the term, as
{ - e
the name of “any American marsupial,” and of no
96 - OPPERT.
other animals, thus, corresponding in application ex-
actly to the zoölogical family Didelphyidae, we may
note that it covers two very distinct genera." One of
these, Chironectes, contains the curious web-footed
Water-Opºssum or yapock of South America. The
other is Didelphys, containing all the rest of the spe-
Çies, which vary so much in size, shape, degree of
development of the mammary pouch, and other char.
acters that they are often subdivided into several
modern genera. One of these contains the small
three-striped opossum of Brazil, D. tristriatus,
and is called Hemiurus or Microdelphys. A second
has as its type the tiny mouse-like "opossum, D.
ºvulina. A third includes larger species character-
ized by the absence or slight development of the
º as in D. dorsigera or D. derbiana, the young
eing carried on the back of the mother with their
tails wrapped around hers. This group is called Me-
tachirus, and its members grade into those of the
fourth and last and best known division, Didelphys
proper, which contains such large species as the crab-
eating Opossum of tropical and subtropical America,
D. cancrivorus, and our own familiar Virginian opos.
Sum, D. virginiana.
This animal, to which we will now confine attention,
abounds in the Southern States, extends into the Mid:
dle, and has occasionally been seen as far north as
New York. It is about as large as a domestic cat,
measuring 18 or 20 inches in length of head and body,
with a tail of 12 to 14 inches; but individuals vary
much in size. The head is conical, tapering to a long
Snout, Somewhat like a pig's ; the eyes are small and
placed high up ; the ears are large, high, rounded, thin,
and nearly naked. The body is stout, and seems still
thicker from the long, loose, and fluffy hair with which
it is covered, overlying a copious short under-fur. The
general color is gray, darkened on most parts with the
blackish ends of the longer hairs. The limbs are short,
and all four end in a kind of hand; for the opossum
is pedimanous, or “foot-handed.” There are five
digits on each foot, all with claws excepting the inner
toe of the hind foot, which is apposable to the others
like a true thumb. The hands and feet are covered
in part on the backs with short fur, but naked and
callous on the palms and soles. The tail is long, cylin-
dric-tapering, naked and scaly in most of its length,
and perfectly prehensile, so that it constitutes a service-
able “fifth hand.’’
The teeth are no fewer than 50, and of 4 kinds, in-
dicating an omnivorous animal of carnivorous propen-
sities, like the pig. The dental formula is : i. #; c. 4;
pm. #; m. 3–4% X2=50. The canines, especially the
upper ones, are highly specialized.
The sexual organs and mode of generation of the
opossum, so entirely exceptional among American
mammals (outside of the family Didelphyidae), have
given rise to wild aad very gross beliefs among the
negroes, some of which have been repeated beyond the
vulgar. Thus it is said that coition takes place in the
nostrils of the female ; and the young grow upon the
teats in the pouch, in consequence of the deposit of
the sperm by the sneezing of the female into the pouch.
But the genesis of such stories is easy to trace. In the
male, the scrotum hangs loosely from the belly near
the navel, and there are no outward signs of other
genitals. This is because the penis is retractile, and
ordinarily withdrawn within the same sphincter which
guards the orifice of the anus. In copulation it pro-
trudes from the anal orifice to the extent of about 2
in., and is forked at the end. It is furnished with
several intrinsic muscles, for protrusion, retraction,
erection, and the separation of the two prongs, so that
each fork shall enter the corresponding (right and left)
vaginal passages of the female. For in this sex the
internal organs of generation are completely double,
right and left, and both debouch externally by a single
orifice not distinguishable on ordinary inspection from
that of the anus. So that the female, like the male,
appears to be devoid of external genitals, and coitus
seems to be effected per anum. The chief peculiarity
of the female, externally, thus subsists in the pouch or
marsupium, characteristic of the whole order Marsu-
pialia. It is fully developed in the Virginia opossum
as a furry bag on the belly, formed of a duplicature of
the skin, with its mouth directed forward, and the
walls furnished with appropriate contractor muscles.
In the virgin opossum the pouch is inconspicuous,
and scarcely admits the ends of two or three of our
fingers; after bearing young, however, it is much larger,
so that the whole of one's fist may be thrust into it.
Inside the pouch, in the skin of the belly-wall, are
the teats to the number of 13, twelve in a circle and
one in the middle. The young are born after a few
days' gestation (probably less than two weeks), in a very
hº developed and entirely helpless state, about
as large as peas. They are immediately transferred to
the pouch by the voluntary action of the mother
either with her lips or paws, and at once each one of
them becomes firmly attached to a teat by the mouth,
hanging like berries to a stem. In this state they
grow rapidly, never letting go their hold until they
have attained some size. As soon as they are capable
of spontaneous actions, beyond the automatic act of
Suction, they may let go and take hold again when
hungry, like the young of ordinary animals. Soon
after this they may be seen putting their heads out
of the pouch ; then their first excursions are made
over the body of the mother to the limbs, and especiall
the tail, to which they cling, and retreat into the ...
when alarmed as long as it is able to hold them. When
grown too large for this, they ride about on the
mother's back in a bunch, and at length leave her to
shift for themselves, being at this time about the size
of kittens a couple of weeks old.
The opossum is nocturnal, like most marsupials,
and its hunting affords, with that of the raccoon, the
characteristic sport of the Southern States. It is chased
and treed by dogs at night, and either shaken out of
the tree to which it takes refuge, or shot as it hangs
by the tail. Its flesh is palatable, and resembles pork,
especially in the fall, when it is chiefly hunted, and
when it acquires a thick layer of fat all over the body.
Its teeth are sharp, and capable of biting severely ;
but the opossum is a very timid and one of the most
defenceless of animals of its size. It is tolerably active
among trees, but its gait on the ground is a slow and
shuffling amble. It spends most of its time during the
day hiding in hollow logs and like retreats, and at
night forages for its food, which consists of any small
animals it can catch and overpower, as birds and their
eggs, reptiles, insects, worms, etc., as well as variousber-
ries and other fruits, especially persimmons. It readily
eats any kind of carrion, as a dead horse or cow, and
often attacks domestic poultry. It has no voice beyond
a kind of hissing, and a low growling when irritated.
There remains to notice one of the most remarkable
of the opossum's traits—its habit of feigning death when
at the mercy of its captors. Though ordinarily so timid,
no amount of torture can then draw from it a sign of
suffering. Such endurance, joined with remarkable
cunning, frequently enables the creature to escape
what would otherwise prove its destruction ; and these
traits have even given to the English language a pro-
verbial expression of peculiar significance, the phrase,
“Playing possum.” (E. C.)
OPPERT, JULEs, French Orientalist, was born at
Hamburg, July 9, 1825. He is of Jewish descent and
was educated at the University of Heidelberg, Bonn,
and Berlin. In 1847 he took the degree of Ph. D., at
the University of Kiel, and then studied chiefly the
Zend language and literature. Being excluded from
professorship in German universities on account of his
religion, he went to France, where he became professor
of Čerman at Laval and at Rheims. He was sent in
1852 on a scientific expedition to Mesopotamia, and on
his return was naturalized as a Frenchman. In 1854
ORANGE.
97
he laid before the Institute his method of deciphering
the cuneiform inscriptions and received the grand prize
of 20,000 francs. Oppert also studied carefully the
topography of ancient Babylon, and presented to the
geographical department of the Institute a plan of that
city. In 1857 he was made professor of Sanskrit in
the school attached to the Imperial Library. In 1869
he began to teach also, in the Collège de France and
in 1874 was made full professor there. Among his
works are Etudes ass/riennes (1858); Grammaire
sanscrite (1859); Histoire des empires de Chaldee et
d' Assyrie (1866); Babylone et les Babyloniens (1869);
Mélanges perses (1872); Le peuple et la langue des Mèdes
(1879); Fragments cosmogoniques (1879); Fragments
mythologiqués (1882); L'ambrejaume chez les Assyriens
ISS()).
( i. brother, ERNST JACOB OPPERT, born at Ham-
burg in 1832, went to China in 1851 as a merchant,
and made several visits to Corea, the results of which
were published in A Forbidden Land, London (1879).
Another brother, GUSTAV SOLOMON OPPERT, born
in 1836, was employed for some time in the Bodleian
Library, and became professor of Sanscrit in the Uni-
versity of Madras in 1872. He has published treatises
On the Classification of Languages (1879); On the
Weapons of the Ancient Hindus (1880); Contributions
to the Hôtºy of Southern India (1882).
ORANGE is the fruit of Citrus aurantium, and
- , ºr perhaps of other species of Citrus,
See Yol. XVII, É.i. long-continued cultivation has
K.º.º. * remiered the specific relations of ºn
Am. Rep.). rengered the specific relations of the
Varieties of oranges somewhat doubt-
ful. The genus Citrus and its allied genera were for-
merly classed as the orange family, Aurantiaceae, but
they are now considered to form a subdivision of the
Rutaceae, or the rue family. The members of the
genus Citrus are shrubs and low trees, often spiny,
with aromatic, evergreen leaves. The flowers are very
fragrant. There are not many species in the genus,
and they are all natives of the tropics. The fruit is
large, thick-rinded, and separated by partitions into
numerous divisions, its few seeds being surrounded by
large, juicy cells. The wood is hard, heavy, and close-
grained. The leaves, the flowers, and the rind of the
fruit abound in aromatic oils, while the juice of the
fruit pulp contains citric acid.
The orange derives its specific name from Latin
(turum, gold, in reference to its color. The common
English name is a modification of the same, coming
from the French. The flower of this species has five
White petals, of oblong form, the anthers 20-an-
drous, with their filaments grown together, so as to
form various pencils. The flowers grow in little clus-
ters on the sides of the branches. The fruit is a nine-
to twelve-celled berry, globose or flattened at the ends,
with a thin or rough golden yellow or tawny rind, and
Sweet or bitter-sour pulp, . The rind is of spongy tex-
ture, with little glands which secrete an acrid volatile
oil, with a strong, pungent taste. C. Bigaradia is a
prominent variety of C. aurantium, and is notable for
the fragrancy of its flowers, from which is made the
delicate and costly perfume, Neroli oil. The sweet
orange is not so fragrant, and as a perfume-yielder is
9f less yalue than C. Bigaradia. This specific name
but indicates a variety, as there is no specific disting.
tion between the bitter and the sweet orange.
Under favorable circumstances the orange-tree is
usually twenty-five or thirty feet high, and is graceful
in all, its proportions, the trunk being upright, the
branches symmetrical, the bark of a delicate ash-gray
color. The leaves are moderately large and shiny on
the * surface, with a slight appearance of down
beneath. The flowers are of a delicate white color.
The delightful aroma and the pure whiteness of the
9|ange-flowers have long made them the favorite
blossoms for the bridal-wreath. The orange is a na.
five of South-eastern Asia, and seems to have been
brought by the Arabs to Arabia and Syria in the
eleventh century and to Spain at a later date. This
appears to have been the bitter orange, the sweet not
being cultivated in these regions till perhaps the fif-
teenth century. From these countries it has been dis-
seminated until now it is grown widely throughout the
warmer regions of the globe. It is a long-lived and
prolific tree, there being at Cordova, Spain, a number
of monster orange-trees which are known to be 700
years old. The trunks are partly hollow and the bark
cracked, yet they are still in good bearing.
The orange blooms but once a year, yet it seems often
to have flowers, young fruit, and mature fruit on it at
the same time. This comes from the habit in some
regions of letting the fruit of the preceding year hang
on the branches. In Italy the fruit intended for ship-
ment is picked green, while that kept for home con-
sumption remains on the trees all winter and reaches
perfection in the succeeding spring and summer. It
takes about fifteen years from the time of sowing be-
fore the orange comes to full bearing, but the delay in
this respect is more than compensated by its persist-
ence as a fruit-bearer. This is particularly the case in
view of the fact of its frequent great bearing powers.
It is said that as many as 20,000 oranges have been
borne on a single tree in the Azores, while half this
bearing to a single tree has been observed in Florida.
As a rule an Orange-tree bears from 500 to 2000 yearly.
In addition to the oil of Neroli (which gets its name
from having been used as a glove perfume by the wife
of the Prince of Neroli), the orange yields several
useful products. The water from which the oil is
Separated is sold as orange-flower water, while what
is known as oil of orange is obtained by squeezing the
eel. A tea is made from an infusion of orange
eaves which is considered efficacious in fevers, while
the Seeds yield a fixed oil of amber color, which is val-
ued for reducing swellings and as a hair oil. In the
French colony of Martinique large quantities of orange
wine are made, which finds a ready sale in Turkey and
Russia.
The orange is a surface-feeding plant; old trees
make the surface a network of fine rootlets. Its cul-
ture is rapidly on the increase, the facilities of trans-
portation to Northern markets and the cheapness with
which it can be sold having greatly increased the con-
sumption within recent years and brought many new
regions of growth into competition with the old sources
of supply. In the United States Florida has become
an important orange-growing State, its fruit being of
an acknowledged excellence which renders it a formid-
able riyal to the oranges of Southern Europe and the
West Indies, our former sources of supply. The su-
perior ripe fruit which we receive from the Florida
lantations, is already superseding the half-ripe fruit
hitherto shipped in enormous quantities to the United
States.
.9n the settlement of Florida immense groves of
Wild grange-trees were found, so widely spread and so
prolific that they were at first supposed to be indig-
enous, though it is now known that they must have
been introduced by the early Spanish settlers. These
9ranges were of the bitter variety, the only one known
in Europe at that date. Subsequently the Spaniards
introduced the sweet orange, and both these varieties
are now found wild, together with a hybrid, the bitter-
Sweet orange.
One of the pioneers in this culture was an English-
man, named John Eaton, who settled in Florida in
1837 and budded a grove of fifty wild trees with buds
from the sweet orange. The result was highly encour-
aging. ... The bitter orange trunks proved excellent
stºcks for budding, and these fifty trees are still in
full bearing, being said often to net $1500 to $1800 per
§asoº. One tree of this grove is the famous “Big
Tree’’ of Florida, which often bears 10,000 oranges in
a single season, and these of the finest quality. The
other trees bear from 2000 to 5000 each.
Oranges grow luxuriantly in a considerable variety
9S
ORBIGNY–ORCHIDS.
of soils, and much land in Florida formerly unused is
now devoted to orange-culture. High dry land and
low moist soil seem alike suitable, while many groves
are planted in the low hammock lands, under the
shade of the giant oaks which there flourish. An
orange-tree in full bearing is said to be valued at $100
all over the State. Orange-trees are raised from the
seed or are produced by budding and grafting the wild
stocks. Culture from the seed takes much care, and
among the enemies of the young plant one of the
most dangerous is the ant, which seems to consider the
embryo leaves a delicacy and is apt to bite them off as
Soon as they come above the ground. Hard-wood
ashes and air-slacked lime are used to keep off this
foe. Some orange-growers simply clear out the su-
perfluous plants from a wild grove and bud the re-
mainder. Others set out young wild trees and bud
them, while still others bud stocks raised from the
seed. There is a difference of opinion as to which of
these methods is the best and most profitable, but it is
generally considered that the bitter orange-stock, from
its superior hardiness, is far superior to the sweet or-
ange as the basis of a grove. Almost any soil but
heavy clay is suitable, but severe frosts are fatal to the
orange. This fact renders the shelter of oak groves,
above alluded to, of value.
The orange has a variety of insect enemies. For-
tunately none of these are borers, but all are open foes,
which may be easily detected. One of the most in-
jurious of these is the scale insect parasite, which first
appeared about 1868 on some orange-trees intro-
duced from China and quickly spread over the whole
State. The growers have now learned how to fight it,
and its ravages have been greatly reduced. A kero-
sene wash is used for this and the mealy bug, another
juice-sucking parasite. The leaf-footed plant-bug is
an enemy that can only be killed by gathering and
scalding. There are various other insect enemies,
among them the grasshoppers and katydids, who do
great damage by devouring the leaves.
The area in Florida thoroughly adapted to orange-
culture has been estimated at 10,000 square miles, a
space capable of yielding an enormous crop. . The
sweet orange raised in this State is of the finest flavor,
and has no superior in size, productivity, and general
good qualities. A single acre has been known to pro-
uce ten tons of oranges, and this industry promises to
become one of the highest value not only to the State
but to the whole Union. Another locality of the
American orange is Louisiana, the trees having been
probably introduced there from Florida. The Louisi-
ana oranges resemble those of Florida, though the
yield per tree is said to be much greater. The favorite
orange district, in this State extends along the west
bank of the Mississippi from a point abóut forty miles
below New Orleans to the vicinity of Fort Jackson.
For thirty miles in length there is an almost continuous
orange-grove, some of the orchards being very large.
There are trees here said to be more than a hundred
years old, which are still producing fruit. -
The Louisiana produce is supplied to the people of
the Mississippi Valley, as the Florida yield is to the
Atlantic cities. To the Mississippi region comes also
a considerable supply from California, the third im-
portant region of orange-culture in the United States.
In Southern California large crops of oranges are
raised, which, like Californian fruits generally, are of
enormous size, but are said to be deficient in flavor as
compared with those of the East. The cultivation of
the orange within recent years has extended north-
Ward, until now excellent crops are produced in the
Valley of the Sacramento River. Its culture, indeed,
may be enormously extended in the State, the princi-
pal check being the difficulty of finding a market for
the crop. The Eastern market bids fair to be fully
pre-empted by the Florida and Louisiana supply.
ORBIGNY, ALCIDE DESSALINEs D' (1802–1857), a
French naturalist, was born at Coneron, Sept. 6, 1802.
He was educated at La Rochelle, and in 1826 went to
South America, where he spent eight years in scientific
exploration from Brazil and Peru to Patagonia. In
1S52 he was appointed professor of palaeontology at
the Museum of Natural #. at Paris. He died at
Pierrefitte, June 30, 1857. Among his works are
Joyage dans l’Amérique du Sud (9 vols., 1834–52
Paléontologie française (14 vols., 1840–54). He con-
tributed to the Dictionnaire Universel d'histoire
maturelle (24 vols., 1839–49), edited by his brother,
Charles Dessalines d'Orbigny (born in 1806), con-
servator of the Museum of Natural History of Paris.
ORCHARDSON, WILLIAM QUILLER, a British
artist, was born at Edinburgh in 1835. After studying
art at the Trustees' Academy he painted portraits
until 1863, when he removed to London. His pictures
exhibited at the Royal Academy attracted favorable
notice. Among these were Flowers of the Forest,
Hamlet and Ophelia (1865), A Hundred Years Ago
(1871). He was made an associate of the Academy
in 1868, and a member in 1877. -
ORCHIDS. Nº. of º º or orchid
* amily, one of the most extensive
*...* *Y. orders of plants, including in all 394
Km. i.e. * genera and about 3000 species. They
are endogenous herbaceous shrubs,
always perennial, and occurring all over the world,
except in the coldest and driest regions. In the colder
localities they are generally terrestrial, but in the
tropics are usually epiphytic, growing on stones and
trees, and deriving their chief nutriment from the air.
They are distinguished by irregular and often very
beautiful flowers, which are often of remarkable shape,
closely resembling some insect, bird, or reptile. i.
is caused by the variation in shape of one of the petals,
the labellum, or lip, which becomes greatly transformed,
and gives the flower its imitative resemblance. An-
other distinguishing feature is the adherence of the
pollen in grains or waxy masses, and the one-celled
inferior ovary.
The orchids are nearly always fertilized by insects,
to which fact is probably due much of their singularity
of form and also their frequent great fragrance. Some
of them have thickened root-stocks which form under-
ground tubers. Others swell into a tuber-like body,
called the pseudo-bulb, above ground. The leaves are
greatly varied : some being thin and temporary, others
thick, fleshy, and persistent; some spreading into a
broad foliage, others long and slender, like whip-cord.
There are few useful plants in the order, extensive as
it is, the vanilla being the only orchid of marked com-
mercial value.
The United States has comparatively few native
species of this great order. Of late years, however,
florists have succeeded in successfully cultivating in
greenhouses many tropical epiphytes, they being
greatly admired for their beauty or singularity. The
great variety of orchids necessitates variation of method

ORD–ORDNANCE.
99
in their cultivation. The terrestrial forms are propa-
gated by division of the tubers, or of the pseudo-bul 2S,
each piece having one or more. Those with aerial
roots are similarly º: by division, the seed
being rarely used for this purpose. In choosing soil
for the ground-growers the question of nutriment, is
not important, as these plants depend very little on the
soil for their food. The best soil is one that is not re-
tentive of moisture. The whole order, with the excep-
CŞı. $º
sº
Orchid (Odontoglossum
tion of the comparatively few true terrestrial species,
derive the most of their nutriment from the air, and
seem to grow best attached to blocks of wood, or placed
in baskets and hung from the roof of the greenhouse.
They seldom need water at the roots, but require an
abundant supply upon their foliage, particularly during
their season of active growth. They need to be shaded
from intense sunlight, but not from the ordinary light
of the sun. Odontoglossum Rossi, of which we give
an illustration, is an excellent variety for growing in
baskets or on blocks in greenhouses. Its season of
growth is during the summer, yet its magnificent flow-
ers are produced in winter.
ORD, EDWARD OTHo CRESAP (1818–1883), an
American general, was born in Allegheny co., Md., in
1818. His father, James, was an officer in the war of
1812. He graduated at West Point in 1839, and
served against the Seminoles. . He was on duty in
California in 1847–49, and again in 1855. He was
ordered to Harper's Ferry at the time of John Brown's
raid in 1859. In 1861 he was made a brigadier-general
of volunteers, and commanded a brigade in the Penn-
sylvania Reserves. He defeated Gen. J. E. B. Stuart
at Drainesville, Va., Dec. 20, 1861, and was made
major-general May 2, 1862. Being then placed in
command of the left wing of Grant's army at Corinth,
Miss., he took part in the battle of Iuka, and was
wounded at Hatchie, Oct. 5, 1862. He commanded
the Thirteenth corps at the siege and capture of Wisks-
burg and at the capture of Jackson. In July, 1864, he
commanded the Eighteenth corps in the siege of Rich-
mond, and was wounded at Fort Harrison, Sept. 29.
In January, 1865, he relieved Gen. Butler of his com-
mand in Virginia and North Carolina, and commanded
the Army of the James at Petersburg and in the pur-
Suit and capture of Lee. When mustered out of vol-
unteer service he was made brigadier-general in the
regular army, July 26, 1866. He had military com-
Imand of the States of Arkansas and Mississippi in
Margh, 1867, and afterwards of the departments of
California and of Texas. In January, 1881, he was
Wººl on the retired list, and thereafter he lived in
Mexico, his daughter having married the Mexican
general, Trevino, in July, 1880. He died at Havana,
July 23, 1883, while on his way to New York.
.ORDNANCE. Before the invention of gunpowder,
*lings, javelins, bows, cross-bows, and rams were use
*ś Weapons, with which success largely depended upon
the physical strength of the one using them, but the
gun came in as the great ºl. of mankind; with
it the physically weaker became the equal of the
physically stronger, and with it the reign of brute force
game to an end. From the individual to the nation is
but a step, and to-day all nations are actively engaged
in providing themselves with suitable defences, as wars
now must be short, and the nation best equipped and
armed has a decided advantage. º º
An international war is now waging, wherein the
rivalry is as intense as in the actual meeting of oppos-
ing forces. This war is carried on in the forge and ma-
chine-shop and not in the field, but, the results are
watched with the keenest interest, and the consequent
progress in the destructiye arts of warfare is most
impressive. The recognition by Congress of the fact
that the United States should have suitable land, and
naval defences has led in the last few years to liberal
appropriations for guns, and, in the near future, guns
equal in size and destructive efficiency to those of any
other power will be produced in this country,
A brief description of the various classes of ordnange
and their parts will aid the non-technical reader, in
following the progress of gun-making, as the beginning
has already been made and guns turned out for the
army and navy that warrant the belief that our guns
when built will be second to none in the world.
Guns or heavy cannon are distinguished as rifled and
smooth-bore; rifled guns having spiral grooves, which
impart a rotary motion to an elongated prºjectile hav-
ing projections or soft-metal bands, which enter the
rifle-grooves. The smooth-bore gun has no #.
and fires a spherical projectile. Guns are likewise
distinguished as muzzle- and breech-loading, these
terms explaining themselves, and as cast and built-up
UlDS.
g The breech of a gun is the mass of metal in rear of
and around the bottom of the bore. The trunnions
are cylindrical projections for supporting the gun on
its carriage, placed on opposite sides of the gun in a
horizontal plane, with the axes in the same line at
right angles to the axis of the gun. The diameter of
the bore is called the calibre of the gun. The chamber
of the gun is that portion of the bore containing the
charge. The vent is the channel from the exterior to
the chamber through which fire is communicated to
the charge.
There are two methods in general use of closing the
after end of the gun when it is loaded from the breech:
one by inserting a block into the bore from the rear,
and the other by pushing in a block through a trans-
verse opening across the bore. The former is in use in
France, England, and the United States, and is known
generally as the French system, though it is the out-
come of an American patent of 1849, by Chambers,
repatented in a different form by Schenck in 1853, and
used in the construction of six guns for the English
government, in 1855, at Boston, after the design of an
American named Castmann.
The block is a cylinder of steel, upon which a screw-
thread is cut, portions of the thread being cut away,
leaving three blank spaces on the block running length-
ways, and in the female-screw cut in the bore of the
gun, into which the screw on the block is to engage,
three similar blank spaces are left. The threaded por-
tions of the block are brought opposite the correspond-
ing spaces in the breech-screw, and then the block is
forced in to nearly its full extent, and a sixth of a turn
engages at the same time all the threads of the block
with those in the breech. The same fraction of a turn
back disengages the screw by bringing the threads of
the block in the open spaces of i. breech, and the
block can be withdrawn. It rests on a bracket hinged
to the side of the breech, so that it can be turned aside
out of the way when the gun is loading. The vent is
in the axis of the block, and escape of gas through it
is prevented by an ingeniously sºci slide, which
acts automatically as the breech is being closed, and
prevents firing till the breech-block is in place.



100
ORDNANCE.
With guns of large calibre where the breech-block is
of great weight, it is turned, pulled out and drawn to
one side by hydraulie, pneumatic, or steam power. The
charge of powder is fired by means of a percussion
º. which is struck by a spring lock, pulled from a
istance of several feet by a string or laniard.
A section of a breech-block is shown. The charge
rests, against a mushroom-shaped part, with a stem
running through the block proper. To prevent the
escape of the gas past the block a gas-check, or
obturateur, is employed. This consists of a linen
collar (C), filled with a mixture of 65 per cent, asbes-
tos and 35 per cent, mutton Suet, fitting snugly around
Aw
Ež º
Dr-T:::::::::::::::::::::: *tº
º Ż3% S
and just under the movable head. The collar is en-
Qased and protected by steel rings, maintaining the
form of the plastic material. When the gun is fired
the pressure upon the movable head is transmitted to
the gas-check, which is forced out against the sides of
the chamber, causing perfect obturation. The second
method of closing the breech, known as the Krupp
mechanism, is on the wedge plan. The breech of the
gun is extended for a considerable distance in rear of
the chamber, and a hole is cut through the gun hori-
Zontally, in which slides a cylindro-prismatic, or G -
shaped breech-block. The plane-face slides across and
closes the end of the bore. On this face a shallow
circular recess is cut, and in it placed a thin disc of
copper, over which is a steel plate. Against this
presses a steel ring, with annular grooves at the back,
which, expanding against the steel face of the plug and
the walls of the bore, prevents the escape of the gas.
This wedge is a modification of the invention of Mr.
Broadwell, an American, and the gas-check ring is like-
wise his invention, and is called the Broadwell ring.
Mortars are short, heavy pieces of ordnance, with
large bores, throwing shells at high angles, so that they
may fall upon an enemy's ship or into his forts, and
other places that cannot be reached by horizontal fire.
Howitzers are light-shell guns firing large projectiles at
low angles with small charges of powder. They are
made both smooth-bore and rifled.
Machine-guns, while not strictly coming under the
head of ordnance, will be described. These are guns
with which rapid service is obtained by having the
projectile and powder-charge put up as a cartridge, so
that they need not be loaded separately. They are
termed machine-guns, revolving cannon, and rapid-fire
guns, the distinction between the first two and the
rapid-firing gun being the same as between a revolver
or magazine-rifle and a single-barrelled breech-loader,
which must be loaded after every fire.
Guns are cast either solid or hollow ; in the latter
case cooled from the inside, and are then turned to the
proper shape on the exterior and bored. The terms
“built-up '' and “ hooped '' are applied to guns
wherein the gun is made in parts which are afterwards
united by shrinking one part on another.
The latest English guns as well as our own are built
on the system of Mr. J. Vavasseur, of England. The
gun is composed of an inner tube of steel as thin as
is consistent with strength, having a long jacket shrunk
on to provide longitudinal strength, with layers of su-
perimposed cylinders or hoops shrunk on, the number
varying with the size of the gun. The general method
of procedure is as follows:
The gun-tube, jacket, and hoops are obtained from
the steel-maker, accepted only after the most rigid
tests, rough-bored and rough-turned. The tube is
turned to nearly the size required for receiving the
jacket, then tempered in oil and then turned to the
proper finish. The tube is then placed vertical in a
pit, muzzle down, and water is pumped in to keep it
cool. The jacket is then raised to a red heat, lifted
from the furnace and lowered over the tube. Gas and
Water jets are employed for heating and cooling such
portions as require it. When cold the gun is put in a
lathe and the jacket turned for the first layer of hoops,
and these are shrunk on in the same manner as the
jacket, and after cooling are turned down for the next
layer, and so on till all are in place. The gun is then
finish-bored and ground, the trunnion band screwed on,
the bore turned out, rifled, and the breech-screw cut.
Guns are also made of cast-iron bodies with wrought-
iron and steel bands shrunk on to strengthen them.
Cast-iron smooth-bore guns have been converted into
rifles after various systems, the principal being those
of Major Palliser, of England, and of Mr. Parsons,
an American. In the former, after the gun has been
bored out, it has inserted from the muzzle a tube con-
sisting of two thin wrought-iron barrels, the outer a
short one shrunk on at the breech end. The end of
the tube is closed by a solid wrought-iron breech-screw.
The tube is held in place by a screw-locking ring at the
muzzle and a screw passing through the cast-iron just
forward the trunnions. i. the Parsons method of
conversion the tube is made of steel having a solid
breech, the tube being reinforced by jackets of steel
shrunk on, the whole inserted from the rear end and
a plug screwed in behind it.
Shell are projectiles filled with an explosive, such as
gunpowder, generally fitted with a fuse which is
intended to ignite the explosive. Fuses are arranged
to explode the shell on striking or else are time-fuses,
whereby, by means of a slow-burning composition which
is set on fire by the blast of the gun, the time of explod-
ing can be regulated. In spherical shells for smooth-
bore guns a wooden sabot or block is fastened to the
shell by iron straps so that the fuse is kept to the front.
Various methods have been employed to impart ro-
tation to projectiles. Studs on the shell projecting
into the grooves of the bore, lead coating, flanged
rings on the base of the projectile, and the section
of both gun and projectile made hexagonal, as in
the Whitworth system, have all been tried. The
best practice at present gives rotation to the projectile
by means of a soft copper band forced into a score
near the base of the shell, projecting about .07 of an
inch beyond the sides of the shell. This band is
forced into the grooves of the gun as the projectile
passes along the bore.
Cast-iron shell are at present being made at the
Washington Gun-Factory for the new naval guns, but
determined efforts are being made to manufacture cast-
steel shell. Chrome-steel forgings have been found
satisfactory for 6-in. shell. Abroad forged and tem-
pered steel shells are made which pass through armor
plates or rebound with but little deformation.
Besides shell, guns fire case-shot, or a collection of
small projectiles enclosed in a case, the principal case-
shot being grape, canister, and shrapnel. Shrapnel

are thin-sided shell containing a small bursting charge
of powder, around which charge are placed a number
of small balls embedded in sulphur. A grape-shot is
composed of a number of small shot arranged around
a spindle and held in place by discs. A canister is a
metallic cylinder filled with balls, closed at the ends
with wooden or metallic discs. The balls are packed
in rosin or coal-dust and for smooth-bores in saw-dust.
Guns were first used by the English at the battle of
Werewater in 1327. In 1346 guns were used at the
battle of Cressy, where, guns being unknown to the
French, the English were victorious. Portable fire-
i arms are supposed to be the invention of the Italians
ORDNANCE.
101
about 1430. It is said that the Chinese made cannon
of wood wrapped with silken bands. The early British
cannon were cylinders made of iron bars held in place
by hoops. Next large brass cannon were made firing
stone projectiles weighing as much as 1000 pounds.
Such cannon were used by Mahomet II, at the siege
of Constantinople in 1449. These were followed in
1490 by small guns of brass and wrought-iron throw-
ing cast-iron balls. One of these wrought-iron guns
has been recovered from the wreck of the Mary Rose
which went down during an engagement in 1545.
These guns were composed of an interior tube
of wrought-iron with a weld-joint in the direction
of its length heoped with a number of wrought-iron
rings, of 3-in. square section, put on when hot and
allowed to shrink. They were loaded by removing the
breech, as shown, putting in the charge and then
blocking in the breech-piece against a heavy check Se:
curely fastened to the deck. From the same vessel
cast-brass guns were recovered, one containing an iron
ball. Cast-iron guns were introduced about 1558.
The development of the gun from this time on re-
mained practically in a state of stagnation till the be-
ginning of this century, the guns then being, but little
superior to those in use at the beginning of the sev-
enteenth century.
The guns mounted on the vessels of the United
Long Gun.
States during the war of 1812 were of three different
types, all smooth-bore and muzzle-loading. The long
gun was very thick and with a small bore compare
with what was at that time an enormous length. The
Ho
SJ
O O
Carronade.
long guns most in use were 6-, 9-, 12-, 18- and 24-
pounders. The carronade was a short, light gun with
a very large bore in comparison with its weight and
length, and fired a heavier ball for a much shorter dis-
tance than a long gun of the same weight. The
Jolumbiad was a smooth-bore gun about intermediate
between the carronade and the long gun. Guns of
the same calibre but of different types by no means
correspond in power, but roughly a long 12-, a Colum-
biad 18-, and a 32-pounder carronade are equivalent.
hese guns were mounted in two types of vessels,
one with an open or uncovered gun-deck carrying gen-
erally long bow-chasers in parts forward and carronades
along the sides. The other was the frigate type, with
one covered deck and one open deck above, with guns
mounted on both decks. The lower or main deck
generally mounted long guns; the upper deck, carron-
ades with two long bow-chasers. These guns were
well fitted and the guns’ crews were well drilled, and
accidents to the guns were few, though the British
Sarrºnades often upset in action, due to overcharging.
While we had in this war heavier and better fitted
guns, the actual construction of our guns was not so
good as that of the enemy's, and there were cases of
failure leading to cracked muzzles or bursting. Our
shot were deficient in density and so were less in weight
WOL. IV.-G
for the same calibre, the difference often being as
much as 7 per cent.
The practice of firing shells from smooth-bore gun:
is said to have been suggested by the French General
Baixhans as early as 1819, and introduced intº the
French navy in 1824. The introduction of shell fire
with its great destructive effect upon vessels led to the
introduction of armor, and the race between the gun
and armor was begun and is still in progress with the
gun well in the lead. (See IRONGLADS) The prob:
fems that had to be met and solved in the working of
metals for guns and armor have undoubtedly had 3
marked influence upon the development of every kind
of metal work. e
About 1840 the 8-in, shell gun came into general
use in the United States, where it was called the Paix-
hans gun. This gun, which was practically the smooth-
bore muzzle-loader of that date, º: in the same
un a smaller charge with the shell than with the shºt.;
or example the 32-pounder using 6 lb, charges with
shell and iO lb. charges with shot. Dahlgren modified
the Paixhans type of gun by casting the gun of a gon;
siderably greater thickness than it retained in its final
shape, and turning down the excess of metal to bring
it to its proper dimensions. These guns externally are
formed of fair lines without angles or projections, the
thickness decreasing from the breech to the muzzle in
proportion to the pressures of
the powder gases in the interior.
The chamber is conical, round-
ed at the bottom, and the vent
is inclined to the axis. Dahl-
gren guns were built of 9-, 10-,
Il-, and 15-in. calibre, but the
charges were kept very low.
During the civil war the charge
of the 15-in. was usually 35 lbs.,
while at present charges of 100 lbs. are fired from
this gun, with a 450 lb. shot, giving a muzzle velocity
of about 1600 feet per second with very moderate
pressures in the bore.
Rodman about 1849 suggested casting guns hollow
and cooling them from the inside, and his system was
adopted for large calibres in 1859, instead of the Dahl-
gren system of casting solid. His idea was to produce
an initial compression changing gradually to tension
from the interior to the exterior.
The adoption of the Rodman system followed the
trial in 1849 of two 8-in. Columbiads cast at the same
time from the same iron, one being cast solid and the
other on the Rodman plan. The former burst at the
85th round and the latter after 251 rounds, and in
later trials of other guns 1500 rounds were withstood
withoutbursting. There are now a number of smooth-
bore Rodmans available for land service, ranging from
8 to 20 inches in calibre. The 15-in. gun, firing a
projectile of 450 lbs. with 130 lbs. of powder, has a
range at 20° elevation of 33 miles, and will pierce 10
inches of Iron armor at 1000 yards.
Beginning in 1841, Prof. Daniel Treadwell, of Har-
vard, built a number of guns, joining end to end, by
welding a number of short rings or hollow cylinders.
The rings were first a ring of steel about one-third the
whole thickness, over which a bar of iron was wound
spirally. The breech was closed by a screw plug. His
guns were tested by both the army and navy, the
smaller calibres with very satisfactory results.
France introduced the first heavy rifled cast-iron
muzzle-loader during the Crimean war. Rifling was
first developed in small-arms. Barrels were grooved at
Vienna to afford lodgment for the residue produced in
firing and so diminish the friction in ramming home
the ball, and by accidentally making these grooves in-
clined it was found that increased accuracy was given.
About 1850 the rifle-musket came into use as a mili-
tary weapon, Breech-loading small-arms have been
rapidly developed in this country, such as the guns of
Colt, Hall, Sharps, Burnside, Chaynard, and Spencer.
O

102
ORDNANCE.
Rifling very soon made its way from small arms to can-
non. In 1846 rifled breech-loading cannon, were in-
Vented by Maj. Cavalli, of the Sardinian artillery, and
by Baron Wahrendorff, of Sweden.
In 1854–55 William Armstrong (q.v.) built a rifled
steel gun hooped with wrought-iron, which was tried with
most Satisfactory results. In the United States the
Parrott rifle was brought out about 1856, as a field-
piece, and rapidly gained in favor, and was as rapidly
improved till in 1862 it was the most powerful gun for
Weight and size in existence. The first guns of this
sults for all calibres, the 8-in. gun was the only calibre
of the converted muzzle-loaders which was adopted
and manufactured for the service. Our forts were
then and still remain constructed with casemates
adapted to guns of about the size of the 10-in. Rod-
man, and the 8-in. rifles converted from these were
the most economical guns that could replace, them.
Two hundred and ten such rifles were obtained by con-
version, able to penetrate 8 inches of iron armor at
1000 yards, and these are now in service.
In the navy the xi.-in. Dahlgrens were converted
H.
type carried into action afloat were mounted on the New
Ironsides in 1862.
The Parrott rifle is a cast-iron piece, strengthened by
shrinking a coiled hoop or band of wrought-iron over
that part of the body which surrounds the chamber.
The rifle grooves are of the plain rectangular type
about rºw of an inch deep, the twist increasing to the
muzzle.
The Merrimac in the fight with the Monitor carried
two 7- and two 6-in. rifles reinforced at the breech by
steel rings 3 inches thick shrunk on. These were built
on the design of Lieut. John M. Brook, of the Con-
federate navy.
Guns of this kind, cast-iron hooped with wrought-
iron or steel, were the first steps in the development of
the modern all-steel built-up gun, and they naturally
started men to thinking as to the ways in which existing
cast-guns could be improved and made to stand heavier
charges, and the various systems of conversion were
Dahlgren Shell Gun on Marsilly Carriage.
into 8-in. muzzle-loading rifles on the Palliser system,
and a number of 100-pounder Parrott guns were con-
verted into 80-pounder breech-loaders by lining them
with steel tubes fitted with slotted screw j
The breech of the 100-pounder is cut off at the base
ring and the hoop removed. The gun is then bored
from the breech to a short distance forward the trun-
nions, which is as far as the tube extends. The tube
is then screwed in from the rear. The band is then
replaced after being lengthened from 27 to 39 inches.
The rifling of the forward part of the original bore is
continued into the tube. A number of 60- and 30-
pounders were also obtained by conversion.
These guns now form the rifled armament of most
of the wooden naval vessels in commission, as none of the
high-powered guns have been fitted to the old vessels.
They are fairly accurate at short ranges, but naturally
could not compete with high-powered guns, and they
will be retired as the vessels carrying them are con-
brought out in consequence. demned.
i* * me m ºn m = * * * * * * * * * * 2-GS * - sº - - amº am sº e º ºf
%. * * * * = m, as ºms ºems sº - - -s - * *Oamº sm ºr amm ammº sº mm as ºn m = m = - is m ms amº º = * me mº - * ---
Parrott Rifle.
About 1874 the idea of converting cast-iron muzzle-
loading smooth-bore guns into muzzle-loading rifles took
strong possession of this country, as there were a num-
ber º smooth-bore guns afloat and ashore that were of
little good as they were.
The army experimented with a number of Rodman
guns converted on the Palliser and Parsons systems, and
later by modifying the Palliser system to the extent of
making the muzzle inserted tubes of steel, and while
it may be said to have given in general satisfactory re-
The navy department obtained from the army in
1878 a 10-in. muzzle-loading Parrott rifle and had it
converted into a 9-in. breech-loading rifle. This has
been fired with satisfactory results with a powder charge
of 45 lbs. powder and 250 lbs. battering shell.
About 1859 the breech-loading system began to gain
in favor in England, but the breech mechanism having
given trouble in several actions a prejudice sprang up
against the breech-loader, and from 1863 to 1865
heavy muzzle-loaders were gradually introduced. In






ORDNANCE. 103
1870 the admiralty decided to mount 35-ton guns in
turrets. These guns were then the largest in the
world. They were made only 16 ft. long and were
practically failures. As it became evident that long
guns with enlarged powder chambers...firing slow-
burning powder, developed greater initial velocity,
accuracy, and power, and that long guns gave muc
trouble in loading from the muzzle, with the applica-
tion in France and Germany of two successful methods
of closing the breech, the breech-loading system
gradually gained in favor again and, by 1875 began, to
supplant muzzle-loading. The development from this
time has been most wonderful. On account of a
better understanding of the working of steel, , a
thorough investigation of the action of the powder
gases in the gun, and the development of a slow:
burning powder, generating a moderate and sustained
pressure, instead of the violently, explosive quick-
burning powder, guns can now be made twice as
powerful on the same weight as in 1875. Thirty years
ago the largest projectile was 68 lbs. and the largest
charge 16 lbs. ; to-day the largest projectile is a ton,
fired with half a ton of powder. The projectiles of
the largest guns weigh more now than the guns with
which the battles of the last century were fought. In
1874 steel 3-in. boat-guns were designed and built by
the navy; four years later a 6-in. all-steel built-up
rifle, and by 1882 the navy was practically committed
to the steel built-up breech-loading rifle. The army,
up to this time, has not been so fortunate, as specia
legislation has somewhat hampered that branch of the
service, they having been forced by Congress to build
cast-iron guns as well as other special types that, in
the light of the experience of the rest of the world,
could iardly be expected to prove successful. Those
having charge of a certain class of work, such as the
building of guns, are naturally expected to know all
that is done by others and to profit by it, and they
should be the judges as to what is best. Inventors
have, it is true, been in several cases forced to go to
other countries for recognition and aid, but ordnance
bureaus cannot carry on experiments without money,
and the annoyance caused by the horde of cranks
always hanging about the technical bureaus is very
great, so that it is not to be wondered at that occasion-
ally an invention having merit is passed over. It
would seem that the best policy to be pursued by the
government in cases where it does conclude to aid an
inventor would be to require bonds for the full amount
of the outlay, and all expended to be refunded in case
the results are not as promised.
In England the gun now building is the all-steel
built-up gun. In France the army and marine artillery
à l'è ºilº, supplied with guns of cast-iron lined and
hooped with steel tubes; but the navy has abandoned
cast-iron in favor of the all-steel gun. In Germany
the main supply of artillery is drawn from the works
of Krupp at $. The guns are of steel through-
out, the gun being built up with hoops and tubes. The
Russian guns are all-steel and have a thin lining tube
which can be easily replaced, in addition to the usual
tube and hoops.
More than 25 years ago Sir Joseph Whitworth ad-
Vocated the all-steel gun, built-up for large calibres,
and all nations are gradually coming around to his
Views, and it is not likely that the built-up steel gun
Will be supplanted by any other, its only rival being
the wire-wound gun. The wire-wound gun was in:
Vented by Dr. Woodbridge as early as 1850. A 23-in.
gun was built at the Washington Navy-Yard in 1865
and tried by the army; 1327 rounds were fired from it
With no injury to the gun, though the trunnion band
broke loose. A 10-in, gun was built in 1872–6. When
the difficulties attending a new system of construction
as this, are taken into account, this gun gave most
lºomising results, though the gun parted longitudinally
after 103 rounds, the charge increasing from 40 to 90
lbs. and the projectile from 343 to 395 lbs. Both the
army and navy have wire-wound guns in hand. These
guns are composed principally of steel wire wound in
successive layers upon a steel tube, introducing long-
tudinal bars between some of the layers. In a 10-in.
gun building for the army the tube is cast-iron. The
steel 10-in." gun for the army weighs 22 tons and
h has 30 calibres length of bore. The wire-winding ex-
tends from the breech to the muzzle. The steel tube
extends entirely through the gun and the breech
screws into it. Longitudinal bars form a cylinder
about the tube extending about one-half the length
from the breech.
Guns for the army and navy are under the charge of
the ordnance department of the army and the bureau
of ordnance, navy department. * - º
The Chief of Ordnance of the Army is a life-posi-
tion and is at present held by Brig. Gen. S. V. Benét.
The Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance of the
Navy is appointed by the President and confirmed
by the Senate for a term of four years. He
must be a line officer of the navy of a rank not lower
than that of commander, and while acting has the
relative rank of a commodore, if a captain or com-
mander. The present Chief of Bureau of Ordnance
is Capt. Montgomery Sicard, U. S. N.
For many years previous to the civil war the guns of
the army and navy were supplied by private firms, the
principal being the West Point Foundry, Cold Spring,
N. Y.; the South Boston Iron-Works, Boston, Mass.;
|| the Fort Pitt Foundry, Pittsburg, Pa.; and the
Tredegar . Iron-Works, Richmond, Va. They were
kept up by regular annual appropriations made for
guns. The ordnance manufactured at these places
was under the inspection of army and navy officers
and compared more than favorably with that of the
rest of the world. Upon the breaking out of the war
the Tredegar works were seized by the Confederates,
while other establishments than the above undertook
the manufacture of guns, among them being the Read-
ing Iron-Works, Reading, Pa.; the Builders’ Iron-
Foundry, Providence, R. I. ; the Phoenix Iron Co.,
Phoenixville, Pa.; and the Ames Manufacturing Co.,
Chicopee, Mass.
Since the war the Fort Pitt Foundry has closed and
the only private firms building guns are the West
Point Foundry and the South Boston Iron-Works. At
the former works a number of cast-iron smooth-bore
guns were converted into rifles by inserting wrought-
iron tubes, and several breech-loading rifle built-up
steel guns have been assembled for the army and navy.
At the South Boston Iron-Works several large cast-
iron rifles and rifled mortars have been manufactured,
a number of guns converted from smooth-bores to
rifles, and two 8-in. and six 6-in. built-up steel rifles
assembled for the navy. -
The Confederate States in 1861, with the exception
of the Tredegar Works, were almost destitute of ap-
liances in the way of tools and machinery for the
abrication of ordnance ; but during the war extensive
works were built up, which, before the end of the war,
supplied the navy and land batteries with all descrip-
tions of ordnance. The ordnance works at Richmond
supplied the armaments for the vessels in the James
River, at Wilmington, and other places, as well as the
carriages for the heavy navy-guns mounted in shore
batteries, sending to New Orleans, alone, 22 heavy
guns from May, 1861, to May, 1862. The only estab-
fishment where very heavy forging could be done was
at Charlotte, N. C., and there shafts for steamers and
wrought-iron projectiles were forged and finished and
gun-carriages and other equipments built. At Selma
there was a foundry where guns were specially manu-
factured for service against ironclads, supplying 47
guns for the defences of Mobile and 12 for #. batteries
at Charleston and Wilmington. The principal powder-
mills were at Columbia, where excellent powder was
made, and at New Orleans large quantities of ordnance
stores, fuses, powder, and guns were manufactured.
104
ORDNANCE.
The United States rested after the war and seemed
content with converting smooth-bores into rifles, which
were added to the smooth-bores already in our
forts and vessels. The reports of the war and navy
departments were but sorry reading for an American,
and the guns upon which we relied for defence were,
ºther countries, already placed in museums as
Tëll C.S.
While we were resting others were working, and as
happily our peaceful relations were not disturbed, we
are in a position to profit by their experience, and if
we keep out of a war for the next ten years we shall
have defences suited to our national needs. The
Vavasseur all-steel, built-up gun has practically been
accepted as the best gun by both branches of the ser-
vice, and Congress has wisely appropriated the neces-
Sary money. This step was not taken in the dark, but
information of every sort bearing upon guns and gun
construction was examined into. The principal sources
of information were the reports of the board
of the army, the gun-foundry board, composed
of both army and navy officers, with Commodore
Simpson as president ; the fortifications board and the
Senate and House committees on ordnance and war-
ships. The gun-foundry board visited the works of
noted gun-builders in Europe and presented a report
of the greatest value recommending suitable sites,
tools, and all apparatus for the manufacture of guns
and the amounts necessary to carry their recommenda-
tions into effect. The board decided that all forged,
tempered, and rough-bored and turned cast and forged
material should be drawn from the private industries
of the country, while the finish-boring and turning,
the rifling, sighting, assembling of parts, should be
done at government gun-factories, one each to be pro-
vided for the army and navy, located at the Watervliet
Arsenal and the Washington Navy-Yard, respectively;
large appropriations to be made for the purchase of
material from the steel manufacturers, that they might
be warranted in expending the large amounts necessary
to buy plants for the special work required. The re-
port of the fortification board appointed to examine
and report at what port fortifications or other defences
are most urgently needed, the character and kind of
defences best adapted for each with reference to ar-
mament,” is most elaborate and fully covers the
ground.
The whole matter was again gone into by committees
of both houses, and, as an outcome of this, authority
is given in the act approved Aug. 3, 1886, to use such
portions as may be necessary of $1,000,000, appro-
priated for armament of yessels, to manufacturing and
purchasing such tools and machinery, or erecting such
structures as may be required for use in the manufac-
ture of such armament. This enabled the navy
department to build up the Washington Navy-Yard
as a gun-factory, and buildings have †een rearranged
and rebuilt, contracts made for tools and cranes, and
in every way the work of construction pushed as
rapidly as possible by the bureau of ordnance. When
completed the Navy Gun-Factory, working ordinary
time, will be able to turn out each year the following
guns: 25 6-in., 48-in., 6 10-in., and 4 12-in., or a pro-
portionate number of any given calibre. This yard is
situated on the eastern branch of the Potomac and
contains 42 acres. It is well situated as regards defence
against a foreign fleet, and the sources of, supply
secure from destruction by an enemy. It has for
several years been used exclusively as an ordnance
yard, and, with meagre facilities, has turned Qut a
number of high-powered, modern, all-steel, built-up
rifles that have given results equal, and, in some cases,
superior to the best guns of other nations. Carriages
have been constructed for all the new cruisers recently
completed and for the Miantonomoh's 10-in. turret
guns. Cast-iron shells are also made here.
The navy department having the necessary appro-
priations, amounting to $4,000,000, consolidated, in
the summer of 1886, in one advertisement, all of its
requirements for armor and gun-steel for ships of war
then authorized, the steel to be of domestic manufac-
ture, and gave an average of two years and a half in
which to secure and deliver it, which covered the time
necessary to procure a plant. This advertisement re-
sulted in a contract with the Bethlehem Iron Co.
under which a plant for the production of armor and
gun-steel is being erected at Bethlehem, Pa. Such a
result was most gratifying and a new and important
industry is by this means domesticated, and we are no
longer dependent upon other nations for heavy forg-
ings for guns or armor for armored vessels. A similar
policy was followed in the matter of secondary batteries
of machine and rapid-fire guns, the navy department
declining to make any purchases of Hotchkiss arms,
unless they were manufactured in this country, and this
was agreed to by the Hotchkiss company, and with the
Superior tools used in this country in the manufacture
of arms the guns can be made and sold here as cheap
as they are sold abroad to any foreign govern-
ment.
The army has its principal arsenals at Watertown,
Mass., at Watervliet, N. Y., and at Frankford, Pa.,
and small arms are made at the National Armory,
Springfield, Mass. The gun-foundry board recom-
mended that the work on the fabrication of heavy guns
for the army be concentrated at the Watervliet Ar-
senal, and Congress has appropriated $700,000 to carry
this recommendation into effect, the expediency of
making guns in government-shops having been recog-
nized by Congress in the case of the navy. The appro-
priation for the gun-factory is very properly supple-
mented by large appropriations for gun-steel, guns, and
carriages, so that the problem of supplying our forts
with proper guns has been practically solved. The
Watervliet Arsenal is situated at West Troy, N. Y.,
and comprises 109 acres. It has a river front of 1600
feet, half of which has a stone wall where vessels may
unload. From the river it extends to the Erie Canal
and to within 300 feet of the Delaware and Hudson
River Railroad, with which an easy and inexpensive
connection would afford direct communication with the
Albany and Susquehanna, Rensselaer and Saratoga,
Hudson River, New York Central, Troy and Boston,
and Boston and Albany Railroads, affording abundant
means for transportation for supplies and products,
while the city of New York, 43 hours distant by rail and
10 by water, can be drawn on for supplies of material
and skilled labor of every variety. Even with the whole
Atlantic coast commanded by an enemy's fleet, guns
and carriages could be safely distributed to all exterior
points of defence by interior roads.
The army has in its forts and arsenals:
Smooth-bores..................................................... e 1518
20-in. calibre.......................................... 2
15-in. “ ........................................... 308
10-in. “ .......................................... 998
8-in. “ .......................................... 210
Parrott rifles.................... - e. e. e. e. e. e. e s s e < e e s a s e º e º e º 'º & e º 'º e º 'º e º a tº 292
- 10-in. calibre, 300-pdrs................ e tº e º e º e e s e e º a 38
8-in. “ 200- “ ............................. 81
6.4-in. “ 100- “ ............................. 173
Converted from 10-in. smooth-bores to 8-im. rifles..... 210
Smooth-bore mortars................................. ........“ 45
Total....................................... ......... .......” “. 2065
The above are all muzzle-loaders, the nine classes
requiring 33 different kinds of ammunition, and are not
by any means sufficient for the protection of our coasts.
A number of experimental rifles and mortars have
been provided for by Congress since 1882, and these
are being finished and tested as rapidly as possible, but
in all likelihood the guns are not such as will be re-
produced. º
The fortifications board estimates that there will
be required for the proper armament of our coast:
ORDNANCE. 105
-i ighing 110 tons each.................. 44 60-pdrs º ... 75
# gº weighing tº enhº 6 ºpºrº...;
12-in. “ 4 & 50 “ “ ................. 203 20- “ .................................--------- “.... 245
10-in. “ { { 27 “ “ .................. 222 8-in. rifles converted from 11-in. Dahlgrens............ 50
8-in. “ , 4 & 13 “ “ .................. 102 Parrott breech-loading rifles converted.................. 41
12-in. mortars....................................... * - e s e º s " 700 80-pdrs......... 2 e o a o c e o os e 6 cood cocoºn c e < e < e < e o c ce be e º ºt. 9
10-in. mortarS • & © tº e º 'º º e º 'º e º e s is e e s - e. * * * * * * * * * * * • *, * c e o & e º 'º, ºr tº tº ºr 24 60- { { c c < e g c e c e o e c e c t c t c 6 o C & © or e o 'º ea º e º 9 tº e º 'º ºc ºc Cº. 27
30- € $ - o e < c, c co-, ºr c e o 3 ºr - d e o oo &c tº a 2 c e o e co tº cº, Cº. & C ºf “C. § 5
The rifled mortars have been found to give great | Total............................................................... 3285
accuracy in fire, it being
50 per cent. of shells fire
a large ship.
Mortars were first used afloat in 1679, during the
French attack on Algiers. Nelson used bomb-ships
at the battle of Copenhagen, where they materially in-
fluenced the result. During the American civil war our
mortar fleets performed most efficient service. In the
civil war the mortars were all of the short Smooth-
bore variety, firing a spherical shell. A 12-in. muzzle-
loading rifled mortar was built and tested by the army
in 1885. A range of nearly 5 miles was obtained with
52 lbs. of ºi. and an elongated shell weighin
610 lbs., the elevation being 45°, and the time o
flight about 41 seconds. A breech-loading mortar of
the same size was tried in 1887 and with 65 lbs. of
powder and a 625-pound shell, the range was 53 miles,
with better results than with the muzzle-loader. The
body, forming about two-thirds the entire weight, is of
cast-iron, over which are shrunk two steel tubes ex-
tending from the breech to about $ the length. The
weight is about 14+ tons.
It is proposed by the war department to place these
mortars in sunken batteries, in groups of sixteen, so
arranged that as many as desired can be fired in one
direction, thus greatly increasing the chances of strik-
ing a vessel or other object.
The estimates of the fortifications board for the de-
fence of 27 ports is as follows:
º: at two miles to drop
inside the horizontal area of
Land defences.
Masonry and earth-works............... $31,863,000
Armor................ ......................... 20,300,000
Structural metal................. & e e º 'º e º e e < 3,320,000
Armament.
Guns and mortars........ * c < e < e < e e º e * * * * * * * 28,554,000
Carriages...................................... 9,411,800
Floating batteries and armament....................... 18,875,000
&bmarine mines and adjuncts......................... 4,334,000
Tºrpedo boats. ..................................... 9,720,000
Total…............…...............................#126,377,800
h This with a population of 60 millions is only $2.10 a
€3 (i.
The estimated cost to defend our coasts in 1840 was
$57,000,000, or $3.35 a head, and then the valuation of
property was $4,000,000,000; while it is now probably
over $50,000,000,000. We see that the cºst now is
but little more than twice the cost of defences in 1840,
When the most formidable line-of-battle ship cost
$500,000, while now the corresponding ship costs
$5,000,000; ships increasing tenfold in cost, while
the defences against them only increase about three-
fold, and the value of the property to be defended is
Vastly greater.
e number of serviceable naval great guns, not
Sounting those for the new steel cruisers built and
building for the navy, is:
”res…............................................... 2204
20-in. calibre .............. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e º 'º e º e º e a 3
* “ “.................................. 76
* “ …............................... 357
10-in. “ shell................. & tº e º 'º - e. e º 'º e º e º e & 12
10-in. “ shot. <-- “.............. 21
9-in. “ ...... “ss-sers “.... .................. 1011
8-in. “ ............... 346
L *Pdrs, “ . . . ..... .......................... 378
**rott muzzle-loading rifles....................... * * * * * * * ee 990
*Pdrs …......................................... 28
199: " -----------------...............................267
Upon the new steel cruisers, armored vessels, and
monitors there will be mounted 2 12-in. , 24 10-in. , 14
8-in., 102 6-in., and 2 5-in. steel breech-loading rifles.
These guns and the vessels carrying them are actually
completed or building, and the batteries of 8 new ves-
sels, while not yet fixed, are provided for, and also a
number of pneumatic dynamite guns.
Congress, March 3, 1883, appropriated $20,400 for
the purchase and completion of 3 cast-steel 6-in. guns,
one of Bessemer, one of open hearth, and one of cru-
cible steel. Such guns were advertised for and con-
tracts were made for cast guns of Bessemer and open-
hearth steel, costing $3300 and $5300 respectively.
These guns, rough-bored and turned, have been de-
livered at the Washington Navy-Yard, where they will
be machine-finished and then tried. Much interest is
centred in this trial, and by the advocates of cast
guns much is claimed, and their success is expected &
stop the manufacture of the built-up gun. Happily,
however, the manufacture of built-up guns is now on
so secure a basis that the much-needed defence of the
country will not be delayed by having to wait till this:
question is settled. It is probable, however, that if
guns are cast it will not be above 6-in. calibre and the
material a bronze lined with a steel tube.
The powder used in the guns mounted on our older
vessels and in our forts is unsuited to the high-pow-
ered modern guns. A certain amount of German
brown or cocoa powder was purchased abroad by the
navy department for experimental purposes, and hav-
ing given excellent results it was endeavored to have it
reproduced in this country, and with great success.
The Messrs. Du Pont & Co. have lately submitted
samples which performed satisfactorily. The success-
ful manufacture of brown powder in this country is of
the greatest importance and renders us independent of
foreign manufactures in obtaining the only powder at
present suitable for use in high-power guns.
. The Lyman-Haskell multicharge gun is a gun de-
signed with a number of pockets along and opening
into the bore. Charges are inserted in these pockets
and in rear of the projectile, and being ignited suc-
Qessively by the inflamed gases of the breech charge
following the passage of the projectile over the open-
ing of each powder-pocket in the bore. A 6-in. gun
made on this principle was tested at Sandy Hook in
1883–4. The gun weighed 25 tons, and was of cast-
iron lined with a steel tube. It had four powder-
pockets, loaded by pouring in powder from the ex-
terior, , the regular chamber charge being inserted
through the breech. With a powder charge of 96
lbs and a projectile weighing 71 lbs. an initial
velocity of 2101 ft. per second was obtained. The
ordinary built-up ºf it. weighing about 43 tons de-
velºps an initial velocity of over 2000 ft. per second
with a 100-lb. shell fired with 50 lbs. of powder.
The naval 8-in. breech-loading rifle is shown on next
page.
This gun weighs 25,720 lbs. and is 264, inches
long over, all. There are in the bore 32 rifle-grooves
:95 of an inch deep. The rifling begins at the junc-
tion of the bore and powder-chamber, with a twist of
Qme turn in 180 calibres, increasing to within about a
foot from the muzzle to one turn in 30 calibres, beyond
which the twist is uniform. The breech-block, weigh-
ing, 31.4 lbs., is secured in place by a slotted screw
and is fitted with a modified De Bange gas-check. A
muzzle velocity of 2008 feet per second has been ob.
tained with a 250-lb. shell fired with 113 lbs of powder.
106 ORDNANCE.
When it Was decided to have eight-inch rifles among
the batteries of the Roach cruisers, there were no plants in
this country able to make the necessary forgings, so they
were obtained in England from Charles Cammel of Shef.
field and Sir Joseph Whitworth of Manchester, but we
shall not have to dependon foreign manufacturers in the
future, as there are a number of steel-works now pre-
Pared to furnish such forgings as may be needed.
(OM, CA-. O3
. As a rough approximation the range of a gun
is taken as one mile per each inch of calibre, but
this gives results under rather than over, as during
the jubilee year of Queen Victoria a jubilee shot
was fired from a 9.2-inch gun, with a muzzle velocity
of 2360 feet per second, and during a time of flight
of 61 seconds it passed over 12.3 miles on a measured
range.
Naval 8-in. Breech-Loading Rifle.
The character of the latest guns designed for the
army and navy is as follows:
Navy Guns.
§ Powder- e
º Weight— Projec-
Calibre. ... charge– tile.
pounds.
5-inch...................... 30 60
6-inch............ © g º 'º e º 'º º 'º e 4.80 50 100
8-inch ...................... 13.00. 125 250
10-inch...................... 26.00 250 500
12-inch......... e & e º e º e o e º e º e 48.00 425 850
16-inch e ſº e º 'º e º 'º & * e e e º e e º ſº º & e & 110.00 1000 2000
Army Gwns.
* Powder- e
e eight— FO) eC-
Calibre. wº charge— Fº
pounds.
8-inch ...................... 13 100 290
10-inch ...................... 27 200 575
12-inch...................... 48 350 1000
16-inch ..................... 115 800 2300
A 119-ton gun built by Krupp is said to have been
fired 200 times and is still in good condition, and a gun
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weighing 139 tons is now building at Essen which will
penetrate four feet of wrought-iron at the muzzle.
Designs have been prepared at the Royal Gun-Foun-
dry, Woolwich, for a 156-ton gun.
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Central Pivot Carriage, 6-i
Gum-Carriages.—When the vast energy of a modern
high-powered gun is considered, the design of a suit-
j. gun-carriage will be seen to be a problem callin
for great mathematical and mechanical judgment j
Tapplication. The energy of recoil of a 100-ton gun is
60,000 foot-tons, sufficient to lift a vessel of 10,000
tons displacement six feet in the air, yet this vast
energy is taken up without shock or damage to the
vessel in less than five feet recoil.
The first carriages were simply fixed supports, fol-
lowed very shortly by movable ones as larger charges
demanded some recoil, the gun being fastened by straps
or bands around the gun. Next trunnions were in-
vented fitting in sockets on the sides of the carriage
and permitting the gun to be elevated or depressed
without moving the carriage, and soon trucks or
wº were put on the carriage to facilitate moving it
about.
These carriages were at first made of wood and later
on of iron. The Marsilly carriage is mainly used for
our broadside smooth-bore guns in use now, the recoil
being limited by a rope or breeching.
As the energy of recoil became greater it was
necessary to allow the gun to move relatively to a fixed
part of the carriage, and the carriage was made in two
parts, one called the slide held against recoil by a
ivot, and the other sliding on it called the carriage.
Friction was set up between the carriage and the slide
by means of plates on one part tightly compressed be-
tween plates on the other. As it was found that the
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above method was uncertain in its action a hydraulic
recoil was invented, by which a piston is fixed on one
part, fitting into a cylinder on the other. On recoil
the water is forced from one side of the piston to the




ORDNANCE.
107
other through a pipe or through holes in the piston or
sides of the cylinder, and the recoil gradually taken up.
With large guns the piston is made in two discs, one
turned by means of small projections that fit into spiral
grooves in the cylinder. At the beginning of the recoil
the holes in each disc coincide, but as one disc turns it
gradually shuts off the holes in the other, and as the
orifices are made smaller the resistance to the passage
of water through them increases as the gun recoils.
The gun is run out again after recoil by power or by
having the slide inclined, and the gun returns to its
position before recoil by gravity. The gravity-return
rinciple, it appears, was first used by Wahrendorff for
#. rifled gun.
The pneumatic carriage is an American invention by
Mr. A. J. Powlett, of New York. A carriage was
built for a 54-ton carriage, and tried by the army at
Sandy Hook. It is a gravity-return carriage, in which
the recoil was taken up by the compression of air in a
cylinder which was attached to the slide, the piston
being attached to the carriage. The training and ele-
wating was done by compressed air working in pneu-
matic engines. The entire mechanism in this carriage
is crude, and, while the results were not such as were
promised, they were better than could have been ex-
pected with the carriage as it was, and were amply
sufficient to warrant further trials, and the navy has
contracted for an 8-in. gun-carriage, in which the
recoil is to be taken up and the gun elevated, trained,
and loaded by compressed air. A contract has also
been made for four 10-in, gun-carriages for the
monitor Terror. The entire arrangement is now differ-
ent from the first carriage, and preliminary trials lately
made at Sandy Hook with a small experimental car-
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riage were such as to lead to the belief that the govern-
ment will have developed by this contract on its com-
pletion an efficient carriage for use with guns of large
calibre.
Machine-Guns.—In the invention of º
and small-arms America has led the world, though in
nearly all cases the inventor has had to go abroad to
have his invention appreciated. o
The Gatling-gun, invented by Dr. R. J. Gatling, an
American, fires bullets with great rapidity. The gun
most in use has 10 breech-loading barrels, each with
its own lock, the barrels and locks revolving together
about a common axis. The barrels are revolved by
means of a crank, and as they revolve the several
operations of loading, firing, and extracting the car-
tridge are carried on continuously. A feed-case, con-
taining about 40 cartridges, is placed over the lock-
chamber, and the cartridges fall into the proper re-
ceivers, and when it is empty another replaces it. The
ordinary rate of firing is about 800 a minute. Fired
with careful aiming at a target 19 ft. long and 11 ft.
high, distant 1000 yards, 665 hits were made out of
1000 shots.
The Driggs-Schroeder rapid-fire gun is one of the
most promising rapid-fire guns now offered. Great
initial velocity, with corresponding great accuracy and
penetration, is obtained with a lighter gun than with
other guns of like type and calibre. Shots can be fired
with the 3-pounder at the rate of 30 per minute.
The Hotchkiss revolving-cannon is also an American
invention ; resembling the Gatling somewhat on the
exterior aspect, but differing entirely in interior
mechanism, and firing a shell instead of a bullet. It
consists of five barrels grouped around a common axis,
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Driggs-Schroeder Rapid-Fire Gun.
The breech mechanism is shown in the accompanying cut.
*nd Fig. 3 a section through the line 22 in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 showing the breech closed, Fig. 2 the breech open,
To open the breech, turn the bolt B to the rear, which turns the cam
A, till the point d passes from beneath the horizontal wall ab, when the toe of the cam A presses against the lower por-
tion E
bottom
*Spring until the full cock-stud i is caught by
J on the cam.
of the breech-block, and forces the block downwards,
of the grooved recess E in the cam takes against the cocking-lug h on the firing-pin C, and forces it back against
- - !, which happens just as the shoulder g on the block passes into the recess
The ribs XX are now released from the grooves in the breech, and the bolt is in the upper part of
d moving along the line bc.
While this is being done the
the slot D. The block can now be turned down to the position of Fig. 2, being guided by the grooves m, into which
Prºject guide-studs n fixed in the breech.
tridge-case. The gun is fired by
Spring forward.
: There are two extractors, one on each side, for withdrawing the empty car-
means of a trigger, which draws l down to disengage i, which allows the firing-pin to
































108 ORDNANCE.
Which are revolved in front of a solid fixed breech-
block, This block has an opening through which the
cartridges are introduced, and another through which
the gases are extracted. An important feature is, that
at the instant of firing the barrels are still, and the
mechanism is such that the loading, firing, and ex-
tracting take place during this pause. A cartridge is
placed in the feeding-trough, which a piston pushes
into a barrel; the barrel then begins to revolve, and
the cartridge is carried on till it arrives before the
firing-pin, which extends into the solid part of the
breech, and which has been drawn back against a
spring by means of a cam. When the cartridge is in
the proper position the barrel ceases to revolve, the
cartridge is struck by the firing-pin and discharged;
then the revolution begins again, and the empty car.
tridge-shell is carried on till it comes to the extractor;
another cartridge is by this time in the firing position,
the barrels again cease to revolve, and the empty shell
is withdrawn and dropped to the ground.
Shots from the gun firing a shell weighing 1 lb.
will penetrate the sides of a torpedo-boat at the dis-
tance of 13 mile, and they can be delivered with great
accuracy and rapidity.
Besides the revolving-cannon there are Hotchkiss
rapid-firing guns, having one barrel only, wherein the
cartridge is placed and fired by a trigger. This gun is
of recent development, the United States being the
first to order guns of this kind, the ones ordered being
6-pounders, 3-pounders, and 1-pounders, for the Bos-
ton, Atlanta, and Dolphin. The great advantage of
having the charge, projectile, and firing-fulminate all
in one case, so that the loading is all done at once, is
So evident that there has sprung up a demand for large
calibres, and the Hotchkiss company have extended the
use of this fixed ammunition, as it is called, to 9-, 14-,
and 33-pounders. These will penetrate at the muzzle
5.5, 6.7, 9.5 inches of wrought-iron respectively.
Another remarkable American invention is the
Maxim automatic machine gun, which is loaded and
fired by the energy of recoil of a preceding shot, load-
ing and firing itself in fact after once being started,
leaving the aiming only to be done. Smoke is con-
sumed and the report muffled. The cartridges are
laced side by side in a belt, and are fed into the gun
i. a bell-crank lever, one arm attached to the barrel
and the other to a slide having two clutches projecting
downwards. On recoil the clutches move to the right
and engage a fresh cartridge, and the return of the
barrel moves the cartridge into a position to be seized
by a carrier. The first round is fired by hand, the gun
recoiling opens the breech, withdraws a loaded car-
tridge from the belt, extracts the empty shell, cocks
the hammers, compresses a spring which, when the
recoil is at an end, forces the barrels back into the firing
position, the return of the barrel expelling the empty
case, pushing the loaded cartridge into the breech,
closing the breech and pulling the trigger. This is
truly a wonderful piece of mechanism, and the inventor
is sanguine as to being able to apply the principle to
large calibres.
The Maxim-gun has been built of a size to fire rifle-
balls up to a 3-lb. shell.
The rifle-calibre gun is shown in Plate XL.
The outside of the gun is shown in Fig. 1, the fixed
parts in firing are shown in full lines, excepting the
crank A C B. The crank is part of the recoil system,
the arm A coming into violent contact with the
stationary arm D on firing, A by its shape moving up
on D with a gradually increasing arc motion through
about 150°, the most rapid motion being when the toe
of the arm D bears against the lower part of A, the
rotary motion being stopped by, the arm B taking
against the spring-buffer E. The spiral-spring. F.
shown dotted, is in a box on the left of the gun-casing.
The spring is extended one inch by the recoil, and the
chain G is wound up a little at its after end by the
revolution of the shaft, still further extending the
spring. When , the handle B is stopped by E the
Spring, tends to bring all parts back to the firing posi-
tion, the part H, which stops the crank-handle, being
so made as to stop all rebound.
I shows the sights, K the feed-box, L the trigger.
A central longitudinal section is shown in Fig. 2, the
parts being in the firing position.
The lock consists of a firing-pin a, a main-spring b,
a hammer c, and a catch e, all mounted in the detach-
able belt N N N. When the trigger L is pulled the
rod O is drawn back, and with it the lower end of the
catch e, this movement of the catch releasing the
hammer, the main-spring throwing the firing-pin
forward, striking the cartridge and exploding it. Fig.
3 shows the parts when the breech is closed, Fig. 4
the parts when at the end of recoil. Figs. 5 and 6 are
sections corresponding to the outside views of Figs. 3
§§ 4, ºd Fig. 7 is a perspective view corresponding
to Fig. 4.
The limit of recoil of the barrel is one inch, but at
the beginning of recoil the shaft C and the crank R.
begin to rotate, and all other movable parts are thus
drawn away from the barrel. The sliding-piece T has
an undercut groove on its forward face which fits the
head of a cartridge, and in this way serves the double
purpose of a breech-closure and a carrier to transfer
cartridges from the belt to the gun. As it moves away
from the barrel it withdraws the empty cartridge-case
from the bore and a loaded cartridge from the belt,
and, as its motion to the rear continues, it passes from
the guides that sustain it and drops, partly by gravity
and partly by means of a spring, into such a position
as to bring the loaded cartridge into line with the
barrel and the empty case into line with the discharge-
tube P. The hammer is cocked through the motion
of the crank R bringing the connecting-rod S in contact
with the hammer-extension S. The spring brings all
parts back into the firing position, as shown in Fig. 3.
The empty and full cartridges are pushed into the
proper places, the carrier is lifted by the arm U and
the bell-crank V, the bell-crank being of such shape
that the lifting takes place after the cartridge has been
thrust home, while the movement of the connecting-
rod releases the safety-catch f. Now if the pressure
be continued on the lever g the gun will again fire,
and continue to do so as long as the pressure lasts and
the ammunition is supplied.
A safety-catch is fitted, which, when turned out as
in Fig. 2, makes it impossible to pull the trigger.
The cartridges, which are placed in a belt, are fed
into the gun by a bell-crank lever, one end fastened to
the barrel and the other to a slide having two fingers
extending downwards. When the barrel recoils these
fingers move to the right and take hold of a cartridge,
and, on the return of the barrel, move the cartridge so
that it can be taken by the carrier.
At a recent official trial conducted by the Austrian
government an average rapidity of 600 rounds per
minute was obtained, while the gun was being pointed
in every direction permitted by the mounting. In all,
13,504 rounds were fired, and the gun behaved remark-
ably well, the loading and firing mechanisms working
faultlessly. The barrel is surrounded by a water-
jacket, to keep down the heat, holding water sufficient
for the firing of 1000 rounds in rapid succession. The
water can be at any time renewed in 20 seconds.
Mr. Maxim has built a rapid-firing gun wherein the
loading only must be done by hand. When fired, the
barrel recoils through a distance of 4 inches, the breech
remaining closed. The return to the firing position
drops the breech-lock, cocks the hammer, and extracts
the empty case. The insertion of the cartridge brings
into operation a mechanism for closing the breech.
Mr. Maxim has patented also a dynamite gun in which
an explosive mixture is used to expel the projectile.
The projectile is first started by a mixture of air and
a volatile hydrocarbon under pressure, and when the
projectile has passed over a little more than one-quarter
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OREGON. 111
the length of the bore a detonating cartridge is ex-
ploded, exploding in turn the mixture of gases, in-
creasing the pressure about eight times.
The pneumatic torpedo-gun, firing dynamite shells
by using compressed air instead of gunpowder, invented
by Capt. E. L. Zalinski, Fifth artillery, U. S. A., bids
fair to take a most important place in future warfare.
This gun is subject to much adverse criticism, and be-
cause termed a gun it seems to be the impression that
this weapon should at once demonstrate its power to
take the place of all other guns. This it cannot do ; it
has its own place, and that a most important one. Its
fire is more accurate than that of the mortar and the
destructive effect of the shell superior to that of the
torpedo. The torpedo can hardly be considered effi-
cient at more than 350 yards, while this gun throws
charges 2 miles.
A 2-in. gun was first built and, giving satisfaction, a
4-in, gun was built in the spring of 1884 and tried in
December of the same year, showing conclusively that
shells containing high explosives could be thrown with
safety upwards of 2000 yards. In August, 1885, an
8-in. pneumatic gun was completed and mounted at
Fort Lafayette. This gun has been fired a number of
times with satisfactory results. Six shots were fired
Sept. 20, 1887, at a government schooner called the
Silliman, resulting in the total destruction of the vessel,
drawn from those to restore the pressure in the firing
reservoir. Compressed air is furnished by means of
some standard air compressor, the Norwalk machine
having been used so far. The shellis made of Seam-
less brass as light as is consistent with strength. ... It is
kept in the proper trejectory by means of a tail tube
to which are attached spiral vanes, and it is centred in
the bore and kept from metallic contact with the same
by means of pins in the head, by a leather gas-check
at the rear end of the cylindrical part, and by pro-
jections rivetted to the spiral vanes of the tail. The
conical point is made strong enough to resist crushing
from impact with the water, but so thin as to readily
crush when striking a solid target. The charge in the
shell is uncamphorated explosive gelatine with a core of
dynamite. Handled as carefully as gunpowder, there
is practically no more danger of accidental explosion.
A very ingenious electric fuse is fitted to the shell,
so arranged as to explode after striking a target or de-
scending below the water, a current being started by
wetting the elements of a battery carried in the shell.
The dynamite cruiser Vesuvius will carry three of
these guns, of 15-in. calibre, placed abreast and par-
allel at a fixed angle. They are about 55 ft. long and
will throw shells containing 600 lbs. of explosive gela-
tine to a distance of a mile. Thirty charges are car-
ried. The guns can be loaded by hydraulic machinery
==--→V- ~ \ \
Fifteen-Inch Dynamite Gun.
four shells landing in Fº the same spot at a
range of 1613 yards. Three 15-in. guns are now com-
pleting for the dynamite cruiser Vesuvius, and a 15-in.
gun for the Italian government.
The gun-barrel consists of a long tube of brass or
other metal. The breech mechanism is a simple gate
arranged so that the valve mechanism cannot work till
the breech is properly closed.
A complete and accurate control of the range is ob.
tained by regulating the amount of compressed air
admitted in rear of the projectile, and without a change
on the elevation or pressure. The valve admitting air
is a balanced valve whose opening and closing is regu-
lated, and in addition to ū. the air can be throttled
on its way from the reservoir to the valve, so that
though the valve may open and close in a uniform
time, the amount of air passing into the gun in that
time can be varied. As this can be regulated to a
hair's breadth with great rapidity, the range can be
better regulated for a moving target than by changing
the elevation of the gun.
he compressed air is contained in wrought-iron res-
ervoirs from 12 to 16 in. in diameter sand about 18 ft.
lºng. . The reservoir tubes from which the air is drawn
directly for firing are called the firing reservoirs. When
a large number of rounds are required to be fired with
great rapidity an auxiliary storage reservoir is used,
charged with air compressed to twice the pressure to
9 used in the gun. After each discharge the air is
as rapidly as twice a minute. The vessel has twin
screws and will develop a speed of 21 knots, or about
25 miles an hour.
In the preparation of this article the following publica-
tions have been freely used : The Development of Armor, by
E. W. Verey ; the Publications of the Intelligence Office of
the Navy; the Reports of the Fortifications Board, and of
the Chiefs of Ordnance of the Army and Navy; Roosevelt's
Naval War of 1812; Seharf's History of the Confederate
States Navy. [L. N.]
OREGON, one º the Pacific States, occupies but
ºw , , , , , a Small portion
º: of the territo-
'm º ry once inclu-
- ded under its
name. It then denoted all the ſtus
land north of 42° N. lat, and º: fºr ſºlº
between the Rocky Moun-Wºº Wessºw."
tains and the Pacific Ocean. Wºº. Wºº
The word is said to occur first
in Capt. Jonathan Carver's
Travels through the Interior
Parts of North America
(1778), where it denotes a large river which that
adventurer had heard the Indians of the upper
Mississippi mention. The Missouri was proba i.
intended, but Bryant in his Thanatopsis (1818)
applied it to the river to which its discoverer, Capt.
Robert Gray, had given the name of his ship Colum-



112
OREGON.
bia in 1792. John Jacob Astor in 1811 established a
fur-trading station at Astoria on this river, but the
post was sold in 1813 to the North-western Fur Com-
pany. Actual settlement by New Englanders began
in 1832, and a Methodist mission to the Indians was
planted in 1834 at Salem.
Great Britain however put forth claims to the “Ore-
gon country'' and the U. S. Government was remiss in
repelling them until Dr. Marcus Whitman, a zealous
Presbyterian missionary and promoter of immigration,
crossed the mountains in the winter of 1842–43, and
proved to the authorities at Washington the true value | Rail
of the territory which they had almost allowed to pass
under foreign control. The Qregon question was a
prominent factor in the presidential contest of 1844,
the Democratic party insisting on extending the claim
of the United States as far north as 54°40' N. lat.
President Polk's administration, however, compro-
mised with the British government on the extension of
the boundary of 49° N. lat. to the Pacific. After the
acquisition of California by the Mexican war, Oregon
Territory was organized in 1848. Its limits were re-
duced in 1853, and in 1859 it was admitted as a State.
Population.—Oregon at its admission to the Union
had a population of about 50,000. The State census
of 1885 gave it a population of 204,051, not counting
4220 Chinese. In this census the population of Baker
county is estimated at 7000, the records of the actual
enumeration having been destroyed by the burning of
its court-house. The State has received a new impetus
since the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad
in 1883. Three new counties have been organized,
Malheur, Morrow, and Wallowa.
Finances.—The gross value of the property in
the State in 1887 was $120,635,706. The State tax-
rate for general purposes is 49 cents on each $100,
for militia 2 cents, and for the State University 1 cent.
The estimated expenditures for 1888 were $482,709,
against which there was a balance in the treasury of
$71,755.
Education.—The school age in Oregon is from 4 to
20 years. The following table gives the educational
statistics of 1887 :
Males. Females. Total.
Persons of school-age........... 44,691 42,526 87,217
Enrolled in public schools....27,183 25,842 53,025
Average attendance. ........... 18,973 18,433 37,406
Teachers............................ 919 1,170 2,089
Average monthly pay.......... $45.78 $34.79
School-houses ............... ..... • * * * * * * * * * * * 1,324
Enrolled in private schools... 2,505 2,429 4,934
In 1887 the public school system was extended to in-
clude the Kindergarten. The receipts from the school
funds were $669,935. The irreducible school-fund was
$1,059,409. There are in the State 8 colleges with 44
instructors and 809 students. The State University at
Eugene City has 184 students enrolled with an average
attendance of 110. It has over 40,000 acres of public
lands, and an endowment of $126,000, and the Legis-
lature makes an annual appropriation of $5000. In
1887 its expenses were $18,285 and the income $21,511:
The State Agricultural College at Corvallis was founded
in 1870 by the Methodist Conference but received
some support from the State. . The Conference in 1886
transferred the property to the State, and the Legis-
lature accepted it on condition that the friends of the
institution erect suitable buildings. The corner-stone
was laid in August, 1887, but the Conference of that
year endeavored to recall the gift. This college had 5
instructors and 52 students, the annual expenditure
being $8470. It has 90,000 acres from the grant of
the iſ S. Government, and its fund in 1887 was
$99,015. There are normal-schools at Ashland, Mon-
mouth, Drain, and Weston. Among the other educa-
tional institutions are 40 academies, a school for the
plind, and one for the deaf and dumb.
The Penitentiary in September, 1887, had 267 con-
victs, being less than the average number. Of these
165 were engaged in foundry-work by contract, and 30
in brick-making. Their labor pays half the cost of
their maintenance. The expenses for two years were
$57,172, and the receipts $36,063. The Insane Asylum
at Salem, built in 1881–83, half a mile from the peni-
tentiary, cost $144,000.
Railroads.-The Oregon and California Railway
extends from Portland southward, passing through the
Willamette Valley. It has a branch line from Albany
to Lebanon. Its west side division runs to Corvallis;
its east side division is leased to the Southern Pacific
ailroad.
The Oregon Railway and Navigation Company
extends from Portland to Huntington, on the eastern
border of the State, 404 miles. It then joins the
Oregon Short Line, which connects with the Union
Pacific Railroad, to which company the whole is leased.
The company has authorized the construction of 1300
miles of branch roads.
The Northern Pacific Railroad reaches Portland b
a ferry at Kalama. Besides the foregoing throug
lines to the east and south, Portland has a narrow
gauge road 80 miles long on the west side of the
Willamette river, with some short branches.
Legislation.—At the election in June, 1884, the pro-
posed constitutional amendment conferring the right
of suffrage on women was rejected by a vote of 28,176
against 11,223. At the election in November, 1887, an
amendment prohibiting the sale of liquor was sub-
mitted to the popular vote and defeated, there being
19,973 votes for it and 27,958 against it. At the same
time the amendment to change the date of the State
election, and another giving the Legislature power to
fix the salaries, which are now prescribed by the Con-
stitution, were both defeated. The registry-law for
voters has been pronounced unconstitutional by the
Supreme Court. . In 1887 the Legislature, set apart
the first Saturday in June as Labor-day. It also strictly
prohibited the sale or gift of opium, ãoºl or cocaine
except by physicians and druggists for cure of diseases.
A State Board of Agriculture was appointed in 1885,
and a State Fish Commission, State Railroad Commis-
sion, and Stock Inspector were appointed in 1887.
Statistics.—In 1885 there were by the State census
1,243,904 acres under cultivation ; 373,247 cattle ;
165,909 horses; 3591 mules; 202,612 hogs ; 1,636,929
sheep. In 1887 the State Board of Agriculture re-
ported the sheep at 2,593,029.
The State census of 1885 gave the following amount
of agricultural produce : wheat, 8,933,718 bus. ; oats,
6,247,300 bus. ; barley and rye, 1,694,614 bus. ; hay,
377,822 tons; corn, 273,497 bus. ; butter and cheese,
3,287,923 lbs. ; flaxseed, 14,262 bus. ; tobacco, 13,207
lbs. ; hops, 2,547,378 lbs. ; potatoes, 2,650,284 bus. ;
wool, 9,165,830 lbs. ; apples, 2,005,373 bus. ; plums
and prunes, 150,306 bus. There were 169,135,726 ft.
of lumber cut in that year.
The mineral products for the year 1885 were 29,600
tons of coal, and 14,965 oz. of gold; the latter is
probably less than the actual amount obtained, as
many miners do not report.
The county reports to the secretary of state in 1887
gave the following statistics. . There are altogether
5,874,668 acres of land, valued at $34,091,141. The
horses and mules are valued at $6,185,037; cattle,
$6,059,134; sheep, $2,504,888; swine, $184,187.
The salmon fishery is one of the most important
interests of Oregon. Its growth is seen in the follow-
ing table :
Year. Boats. Cases. Price.
1866 ....................... 2 4,000 $16.00
1870........................ 50 150,000 9.00
1875........................ 300 375,000 5.60
1880........................ 900 530,000 4.80
1883........................ 1700 629,000 4.80
1884........................ 1700 629,000 4.60
1885........................ 1600 553,800 5.00
1886...... ............ ...... 1500 448,500 5.30
1887. 1400 5.96
379,000
O’REILLY-ORGAN. 113
The fishery is thus seen to have reached its º
in 1883 and to have since declined. The State Fish
Commission is expected to devise restrictions against
the excessive capture of fish, which threatens to destroy
the business.
For further information see Resources of the State
of Oregon, prepared by the State Board of Agriculture
and published by the State (Salem, 1888). (J. G. M.)
O'REILLY, John Boy LE, poet and journalist, was
born at Dowth Castle, county M. Ireland, in 1844.
He became a reporter for English papers, but in 1863
enlisted in the Tenth Hussars, for the purpose of prop;
agating Fenianism. He was detected, convicted, an
sentenced to penal servitude for twenty years. After
spending some time in English prisons he was, in
1867, banished to Western Australia. From this land
of exile, in 1869, he departed at night in an open boat
with a single companion without food or drink. . After
three days’ exposure to the perils of the sea he was
taken aboard an American whaler. He was carried to
Liverpool, and thence quickly made his way to the
United States. In 1870 he become connected with
the Boston Pilot, of which he is now editor. He has
ublished Songs of the Isles, Moondyne, and other
ooks.
ORELLANA, FRANCIsco (c. 1500–1549), a Spanish
explorer, was born at Truxille about 1500. e took
part in the conquest of Peru in 1531, and in 1540 was
second in command of Gonzalo Pizarro's expedition to
the east of the Andes. While descending the Napo,
their provisions became exhausted, and fºr, Sent
Orellana with 50 men in a brigantine down the river to
procure a supply. Orellana reached the Amazon in
three days. Finding the country entirely different
from what he expected, and judging the return too
difficult, he determined to sail down the main stream.
In seven months he reached the mouth, having fre-
quently been attacked by the natives. On returning to
Spain in 1541 he told of a country inhabited by women
warriors. Obtaining a commission to conquer and colo-
nize El Dorado he organized an expedition, which
º very unfortunate. After entering the Amazon
he died of a fever.
ORELLI, Johan N KASPAR (1787–1849), a Swiss
philologist, was born at Zurich, Feb. 13, 1787. He
graduated at the university of that city and studied
theology. While pastor at Bergamo he preached in
German, French, and Italian. in isſ; he became a
teacher of classics at Coire, and in 1819 was made pro-
fessor of hermeneutics and rhetoric at Zurich. He died
there Jan. 6, 1849. His editions of Cicero, Horace,
and Tacitus are of special merit. He published also
Onomasticom Tullianum (3 vols., 1836–38), and Inscrip-
tionum Latinarum Selectarum Collectio (2 vols., 1828).
GAN. This article is confined to organ-building
See Vol. XVII in America. The art of organ-building
"s: e º, in this country was until recent years
p. *d (p. 852 : & h d W º
Am. Rep.). in a rather crude state. m. M.
Goodrich (1777–1833) was the first
native organ-builder worthy of the name, although
others were engaged in the business before him. The
organ made by Edward Bromfield in Boston in 1745
was the first one built in this country. Thomas John-
ston was also making organs in Boston soon after, and
he was succeeded by Josiah Leavitt. Henry Pratt
built a number of organs during the early part of this
century. During this period, however, foreign organs,
of which the importation had begun as early as 1713,
Were still in demand.
Goodrich came to Boston in 1799, and there followed
his business until his death. He built his first organ in
1895, and had such success that, notwithstanding the
existing prejudice against American work, but few
ºrgans were imported during this time. His brother
Ebenezer, after working Wii him for some time, set
up on his own account. Thomas Appleton, who
entered William Goodrich's employ in 1807, subse-
quently also went into business for himself, first in part-
nership with Messrs. Hoyt and Babcock, and later
alone. A little before 1830 the art of organ-buildin
began to receive a new impulse. The brothers, Elias an
George G. Hook, began business in Boston about this
time, and soon took a prominent position among Ameri-
can manufacturers. In 1853 Wm. Nutting, Jr., estab-
lished himself at Bellows Falls, Vt., and at the same
time there were four large factories in Boston–Apple-
ton's, Simmons', Hook's, and Stevens'. Up to this
time, however, but few attempts had been made to
improve either tone or mechanism of the organ. It
was the interest excited by the erection of the excellent
d organ in the Music Hall, Boston, that did much to
bring about a complete change of affairs. This large
instrument, built by E. F. Walcker & Son, of Lud-
wigsburg, Würtemberg, was begun, in 1857 and fin-
ished in 1863. The American builders, having once
recognized the necessity of producing better work,
soon began to introduce many and important improve-
ments, and it was not long before they could coin-
pete successfully with the European manufacturers.
Two of the best-known houses to-day are those of
Roosevelt and Jardine, both of New York. Hilborne
Lewis Roosevelt (1849–1886) began business in New
York in 1872. He made some notable improvements
in the art of organ-building. By his construction of
the wind-chest each pipe has its own valve, actuated
by compressed air. The “automatic adjustable com:
bination” enables the player to place any required
combination of stops under immediate control, and to
alter such combination as frequently as desired. The
electric action was first employed by Roosevelt in 1869,
when he was with Hall & Labagh, of New York, and
has subsequently been frequently employed. His
brother Frank succeeded him in 1887. Among the
numerous instruments built by this firm are those in
Grace Church, New York (1878); Chickering Hall,
New York; Cathedral of the Incarnation, Garden
City, L. I. (1879–83), 106 stops; St. Thomas' Church,
New York (1881–3), 56 stops; Church of the Incar-
nation, New York (1883), 50 stops; First Congrega-
tional Church, Great Barrington, Mass. (1883), 60
stops; Calvary Church, New York (1887); and the
organ built for the United States Centennial Exhibi-
tion, now owned by the Massachusetts Charitable
Mechanics' Association.
Mr. George Jardine (1801–1883), the founder of the
house of George Jardine & Son, established himself in
New York as early as 1836. He introduced various
improvements, among which are the ‘‘ pneumatic
vacuum pallets.” In 1860 he took his son Edward G.
into partnership. This firm has also built a large
number of instruments, notably those in the New York
Cathedral (60 stops); St. George's Church, New
York (80 stops); Brooklyn Tabernacle (70 stops);
St. Agnes Church, Brooklyn (70 stops); Pittsburg
Cathedral; Trinity Church, San Francisco ; Mobile
Cathedral; and Christ Church, New Orleans.
The firm of Hook & Hastings was founded by the
brothers Hook in 1827. Mr. F. H. Hastings first en-
gaged with them in 1855, became a partner in 1865,
and now succeeds them. The principal instruments
that have come from this factory are the organ in the
Cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston (1875), with 3
manuals and 83 stops; that in the Music Hall, Cincin-
nati (1878), 4 manuals, 96 stops; and that in Tre-
mont Temple, Boston (1880), 4 manuals, 65 stops.
Another well-known Boston firm is that of Hutchings,
Plaisted & Co. It was founded in 1869 by J. H.
Willcox, George S. Hutchings, Mark H. Plaisted,
and G. W. Nordstrom, all of whom had been pre-
viously connected with Hook & Hastings. The firm-
name was at first “J. H. Willcox & Co.,” which, in
1872, was changed for the present name. These build-
ers have erected organs for Christ Church, Baltimore,
Md. ; St. Peter's Church, Philadelphia; Old South
Church, Boston; Church of Immaculate Conception,
Lowell, Mass. ; and numerous others. Other notable
114
REED ORGAN–ORR.
Qrgans in this country are those in St. Bartholomew's,
New York, by J. H. & C. S. Odell; and Temple
Emanuel, New York, by Hall & Labagh. Mention
should also be made of the large organ in the Roman
Catholic Cathedral at Montreal, the work of Samuel
Russell Warren (1809–82) of that city, who formerly
worked in Boston.
As in other arts, so too in that of organ-building,
America has made great strides in advance, and in the
production of such excellent instruments as those
mentioned, our native builders have shown their
ability, to compete successfully with the best foreign
manufacturers. (F. L. W.)
ORGAN, REED. It appears that instruments in
which “free reeds” were used were made in this
Country quite early in the present century. Aaron
Merrill Peasley, in 1818, obtained a patent for reed
instruments; this patent is now in the possession of
the Mason & Hamlin Organ and Piano Co. J. H.
Bazin, of Canton, Mass., is also named as an inventor
in this connection. The instruments manufactured at
this time were, of course, imperfect and defective in
construction. The earliest forms of an organ with
free, reeds and without pipes, the bellows being worked
by the foot, were the “seraphine” and the “melodeon.”
The latter was first introduced about 1840, and two
of the best-known firms engaged in its manufacture
were those of Carhart & Needham, and George A.
Prince & Co., both of Buffalo, N. Y. One form of
this instrument, the harmonium, appears to have been
invented by Debain of Paris, and improved by Alex-
andre, whose name it bore in this country. Until
the introduction of the perfected reed organ, in 1861,
the melodeon was very popular in this country, despite
its faults, and, amongst others, the firm of Geo.
Prince & Co., which dissolved in 1875, manufactured
many thousands of these instruments. Jeremiah Car-
hart, about 1836, made several improvements, notably
the plan of acting on the reeds by suction instead of
blowing, which Peasley had spoken of in his patent.
This is a characteristic feature of the American organ,
the foreign instruments being still worked by force
bellows. Carhart's partner, E. P. Needham, also
made some improvements. But the most important
improvement, and the one which has contributed greatly
to the present perfection of these instruments, and
their consequent popularity, was the discovery that by
twisting and bending the reeds in various ways the
quality of tone was greatly modified and improved.
This discovery was made in 1848 by Emmons Hamlin,
then a workman in the factory of Prince & Co. In
1854 he and Henry Mason, a son of Lowell Mason,
began the business of the firm which in 1868 took the
name of the Mason & Hamlin Organ Co. Under the
inventor's eye this newly-discovered art of “voicing
reeds” was carried to great perfection. In 1861 the
firm first introduced the American cabinet or parlor
organ in its present form. The excellent instruments
produced by the firm have placed it in the foremost
rank of American reed organ manufactures. The
factories of the firm are located at Cambridgeport,
Mass., and the home office in Boston, with |branch
offices in other cities, and agencies all over the world.
The name in 1882 was changed to the Mason &
Hamlin Piano and Organ Co. Another well-known
firm is that of Jacob Estey & Co., Brattleboro, Vt.
The business was begun in 1846, by two gentlemen,
in a building owned by Jacob Estey. In 1852 the
concern passed into the hands of Mr. Estey. The in-
struments of this firm are also well known in this
country and abroad, and rank among the best. The
firm of Wilcox & White, of Meriden, Conn., was
formed in 1876. The business grew rapidly, and their
organs are now favorably known the world over.
Numerous other manufacturers are also engaged in
this business in the United States. The many im-
provements which have been applied by American
makers have resulted in producing an instrument
which is extensively used in foreign countries as well
as in the United States. These organs are made in
all styles and sizes, some of them even with two or
three manuals, being then almost equal to small pipe
organs in power and resource. The popularity which
the instrument has attained through the improvements
introduced is very great, and it has been estimated
that there are now more than 80,000 cabinet or parlor
Organs, under various names, made and sold yearly in
the United States alone, by about 250 makers.
- (F. L. W.)
ORIOLE. The so-called orioles of America are, as
is agreed by all systematists, of a fam-
*Y". *Wºº ily (Icteridae) quite distinct from the
Knºke º * orioles of the Eastern Hemisphere.
. Ivep. Our orioles are briefly noticed in the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA under the name Icterus.
The important family Icteridae is strictly American,
and is pretty closely allied to the starlings (Sturnidae)
of the Old World. Among the Icterids, or American
orioles, are grouped our blackbirds, bobolinks (q.v.),
meadow-larks, cow-birds (q. v.), troopials, and grack.
les. . The family is separated from the Fringillidae
(finches, sparrows, buntings, etc.) by very obscure, if
not intangible, distinctions; some of them, like the
bobolink, or reed-bird, might almost as well be classed
with the finches as with the Icteridae. On the other
hand, some of the family, approach pretty closely to
the crows in many of their characters. The sub-
family, Icterinae, contains those species more properly
called orioles.
The most common North American oriole is Icterus
spurius, the orchard oriole, or “bastard Baltimore
bird,' as it is sometimes unjustly called. This rather
plain bird is found in all parts of this country and is
well known for its beautifully-woven and somewhat
pensile nest. The splendid Baltimore oriole (I gal-
bula) takes its name from the black-and-orange livery
of the Calvert family, to which the Lords Baltimore
belonged. The male is, as usual among birds, far
more showy than his modest spouse. There is much
difference, however, among the males of this species,
Some of which have a very gorgeous coloration, while
others are comparatively plain. Among the popular
names for this favorite are golden robin, firebird, fire
hangbird, and hangnest, the last names bestowed from
its well-known habit of constructing a bag-like, pen-
dent, and well-woven nest at the extremity of some
swaying branch. It is a persistent and noisy singer,
with a monotomous tune. -
Farther west this species is replaced by L. bullocki,
Bullock's oriole, a larger but not dissimilar species.
In the extreme South-west and on the Mexican
frontier we find the hooded oriole (L. cucullatus) whose
general coloring is orange of varying but showy tints
mixed with black. In the same region are found I.
oarisorum, the “Paris brothers' oriole,” and the very
ſº and handsome I melanocephalus, the black-
headed or Audubon's oriole. In {{..., it is highly
prized as a cage-bird, and its singing is said to be re-
markably fine. (C. W. G.)
ORR, JAMES LAWRENCE (1822–1873), statesman,
was born at Craytonville, S. C., May 12, 1822. He
graduated at the University of Virginia in 1842,
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1843. He
entered on practice at Anderson, S. C., where he
edited a newspaper. In 1844 he was elected to the
State Legislature, and in 1849 to Congress. While
holding the abstract right of secession on the part of
each State he long opposed its exercise as inexpedient
This position he maintained in the Southern Rights
Convention at Charleston in May, 1851. He was
chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives in
1857. After the election of Lincoln to the presidency
he became an advocate of immediate secession, and as
such took part in the South Carolina Convention in
December, 1860. He was then appointed one of
three commissioners to Washington to treat with the
ORTON.—OSHECOSH. 115
Federal government for the surrender of the U. S.
forts in Charleston harbor. Although not officially
received by Pres. Buchanan, their mission was not
without effect. After the Confederate government
was formed, Qrr was elected to the Senate and there
remained till the end of the war. Acquiescing in the
result he was made governor of South Carolina in
1866, and held that position till 1869. He was ap-
ointed U. S. circuit judge in 1870, and was sent as
U. S. minister to Russia in 1873. He died at St.
Petersburg, May 5, 1873. &
§§§ , JAMES (1830–1877), an American natur-
alist, was born at Seneca Falls, N. Y., April 21, 1830.
He graduated at Williams College in 1855 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1858. After a
year's travel in Europe and Asia Minor he became a
Congregationalist minister. In 1866 he was made an
instructor in natural science in Rochester University,
and in 1867 he led the Williams College Expedition
which explored the Upper Amazon. e was made
professor of natural history in , Vassar College in
1869. He made a second visit to the Amazon in 1873,
and in a third visit to South America he died while
crossing Lake Titicaca, Sept. 24, 1877. He published
The Andes and the Amazon (1870); Underground
Treasures; How and where to find them (1872); Liberal
Education of Women (1873); Comparative Zoology
(1875).
OSAGE ORANGE. This is the common title of
Maclura aurantiaca, known also by the French title
of Bois d'Arc, a tree native to the contiguous portions
of Arkansas, Texas, and the Indian Territory, but
which is coming largely into use as a hedge material
in other States. It is extensively planted for hedges
in the West, and to some extent in the East, and when
kept properly clipped serves this purpose excellently.
As a tree it attains a height of 50 feet and a diameter
of 2 feet, being most common and prolific in the Red
River Valley of the Indian Territory. Its wood is
heavy, exceedingly hard, close-grained, strong, and
flexible, of a satiny surface, and susceptible of a beau-
tiful polish. Its color is a bright orange, which turns
brown on exposure. It is very durable in contact with
the ground, and is used largely for fence-posts, paving-
blocks, railway-ties, and wheel-stock.
OSAGES, a tribe of American Indians of the Da-
kota family, were known in the seventeenth century as
living on the Missouri and being allied with the Illinois.
They are reported to have assisted the French against
their hereditary enemies, the Foxes, in 1712, and some
of their chiefs were taken to France in 1726. They
continued to aid the French until the power of this
nation was overthrown in America. arly in the
present century they numbered about 6000, of whom
the Great Osages resided on the Arkansas River and
the Little Osages on the Osage River. By a treaty
made Nov. 10, 1808, the chiefs ceded some of their
lands, and the tribes afterwards repudiated the treaty.
But as they were driven out by the whites, they en-
gaged in warfare with the Cherokees and other tribes.
Qther treaties followed, and were no better kept than
the first. They lived by plundering, and resisted all
efforts to civilize or Christianize them. The border
War in Kansas and the civil war had a disastrous effect
upon them, since, they sided with the Confederacy.
After the war efforts were made to induce them to
remove to Indian Territory. Finally this was effected
in 1872, but they were deprived of their cattle and
other property. . When they were settled in their
reservation, north of the Cherokee country and west
of 36° N. lat., Pres. Grant, in carrying out his “Peace
policy,” assigned this tribe to the Society of Friends,
Schools have been established and agriculture em.
couraged, with good effect. Capt. C. H. Potter
reported them in 1887 as rich and indolent. They
receive over $35 quarterly per capita from the interest
on the Osage fund. The number on the reservation was
stated as 403 men, 399 women, 391 children; total, 1193,
OSCAR II., FREDERIC, king of Sweden and Nor-
way, was born at Stockholm, Jan. 21, 1829. In his
youth he served in the navy. He was educated at the
University of Upsal, under the historian Carlson, and
travelled on the Continent. He succeeded to the
throne on the death of his brother Charles, Sept. 18,
1872. He reorganized the army and the railroads. In
1873 he visited. Norwegian Lapland, and in 1875 the
emperors of Germany and Russia. . He sent his son to
travel through Europe and to visit the Centennial
Exhibition at Philadelphia. , King Oscar has fine, lit-
erary taste, and has published translations of Goethe's
Faust and Tasso. #. is also the author of a sketch
of Charles XII. and of a volume of poems.
OSCEOLA (1804–1838), Indian warrior, was born
on the Chattahoochee River, Ga., in 1804. His name
means “Black drink,” and was given to denote his
courage, as shown by his drinking that nauseous mix-
ture. He was the son of William Powell, an English-
man, by an Indian mother. Early distinguished in
the dances, games, and athletic exercises of the Semi-
noles, he gained great influence in the tribe, and
opposed the cession of its lands in Florida. His wife
was the daughter of a fugitive slave, and in 1835 was
herself seized as a slave. Osceola then demanded her
return from Col. Thompson, the U. S. agent at Fort
King, but the latter, resenting his language, ordered
him to be confined in irons for six days. In December,
six months later, Osceola avenged this injury by killing
Thompson and others. He then entered upon a vigor-
ous warfare against the whites, massacred Maj. Dade
and his command, and fought Gen. Clinch at Withla-
coochie. He also had several encounters with Gen.
Gaines, and made attacks on Forts Micanopy and
Drane. At last, while holding a conference with Gen.
Jesup under a flag of truce, near St. Augustine, Oct.
22, 1837, he was treacherously seized, and was there-
after imprisoned at Fort Moultrie, S. C., where he
died Jan. 30, 1838.
OSGOOD, FRANCEs SARGENT (1811–1850), poet,
was born at Boston, June 18, 1811, being the daughter
of Joseph Lock, a merchant. She attracted the notice
of Mrs. L. M. Child, and contributed to her Juvenile
Miscellany. In 1835 she was married to Samuel Still-
man Osgood, a portrait-painter, with whom she visited
London. There she contributed to periodicals, and
published . A Wreath of Wild Flowers from New
England (1839) and Elfrida, a drama (1839). After
her return to Boston she published The Poetry of
Flowers (1840) and The Floral Offering. A complete
collection of her poems appeared in 1849. She died
at Hingham, Mass., May 12, 1850. A Memorial by
R. W. Griswold was published in 1851.
QSHKOSH, a city of Wisconsin, the county-seat
of Winnebago co., is 85 miles N. W. of Milwaukee, on
both banks of the Fox River, which here expands into
Lake Winnebago. The lake is 30 miles long and from
12 to 15 miles wide, and with the Fox and Wisconsin,
which are connected by a short canal, forms a water.
route between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi.
Oshkosh has a lake frontage of nearly 4 miles, towards
which its surface slopes gradually, giving excellent
drainage. The Fox River is spanned by 3 wagon-draw-
bridges and 3 railroad-bridges. Four railroads pass
through the city. Qshkosh has a U. S. government
building, a fine, city-hall, county court-house, Masonic
temple, exposition building, 2 opera-houses, and other
buildings of attractive architecture; 24 church edifices,
a State normal school, a high-school, a business college,
§ public schools, and 8 private and parochial schools.
There are 5 hotels, 2 national banks, 1 State bank, 2
daily and 4 weekly newspapers. The chief industry is
in lumber, logs being floated from the northern pineries
down Wolf and Fox Rivers. There are about is large
saw-mills at, Oshkosh, and factories which produce
one-tenth of all the doors and sashes made in the
United States. There are also several large furniture.
factories, 4 extensive carriage-factories, the largest
116
OSKALOOSA—OTTER.
match-factory in the world, 3 foundries and machine-
shops, 3. Soap-factories, several pork-packing houses.
The business portion of the city is built chiefly of
brick. The Streets are lighted by electricity, but gas
is used by private consumers. The water is supplied
by the Holly system from a cluster of artesian wells.
The assessed valuation of property is about $8,000,000.
The bonded debt is $143,000, and the yearly expenses
exceed $200,000.
This locality was traversed by the early French ex-
plorers and missionaries, but the first permanent white
settlement was made by New Englanders in 1836.
The city was incorporated in April, is 53. In 1859 the
entire town was destroyed by fire ; in 1874 the extreme
nºrthern portion was swept away, and in the next year
all of the city north of Fox River was consumed, the
loss being about $3,000,000. In 1885 part of the
suburbs was destroyed by a cyclone. The population
in 1880 was 15,748, and in 1888 it is estimated at
25,000. (C. W. B.)
OSKALOOSA, a city of Iowa, county-seat of Ma-
haska co., is 60 miles east of Des Moines, on the S. W.
branch of the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Rail-
road and the Central Railroad of Iowa. Oskaloosa is
at the centre of the Iowa bituminous coal-fields. It
has a fine court-house, which cost $150,000, an opera-
house, 4 hotels, 2 national banks, 2 other banks, l
daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 9 churches, 5 schools,
and 3 colleges. The industrial works comprise 2
foundries, electric manufacturing, boiler-works, bridge-
works, and flouring-mills. The city is lighted with
as and electricity, and has a park and water-works.
ts property is assessed at $1,200,000, but is worth
four times as much. The public debt is $45,000, and
the yearly expenses about $21,000. Oskaloosa was
settled in 1844 and incorporated in 1848. The popu-
lation in 1880 was 4598, but now exceeds 7000.
OSMAN PACHA, a Turkish general, was born at
Tokat, Asia Minor, in 1832. Having been educated
at the military school at Constantinople, he entered
the cavalry in 1854, and served under Omar Pacha.
In 1860 he was engaged in Syria and in 1867 in Crete,
where he became lieutenant-colonel. In 1874 he was
made brigadier-general after taking part in the expe-
dition to Yemen. He was afterwards placed in charge
of the operations against the Servians. After the
Russians in 1877 had crossed the Danube, Osman
Pacha defeated their Ninth corps near Plevna, and
then thoroughly fortified that city. On Sept. 14th he
repulsed the Russian besiegers with a loss of 20,000
men. On Dec. 10th he made a gallant but unsuccess-
ful effort to break through the Russian lines. Being
wounded he was obliged to capitulate, surrendering
40,000 men and 400 cannon. His skilful conduct of
the siege had given him fame as an engineer and coln-
mander. After the war, in March, 1878, the reorgan-
ization of the Turkish army was entrusted to him.
He was made minister of war, commander of the im-
perial guard, and chief of the artillery. His influence
with the sultan was, for a time, very great in spite of
the jealousy of other ministers, but in 1880 he re-
signed and retired to private life.
WEGO, a city of New York, county-seat of Os-
wego co., is on the S.E. shore of Lake Ontario, at the
mouth of the Oswego River, here crossed by three
iron bridges. It is 35 miles N. N.W. of Syracuse,
with which it is connected both by railroad and canal.
Its site is elevated, and towards the South there is a
bluff rising 160 ft. above the lake. ... The principal edi-
fices are the U. S. government building, court-house,
city-hall, the State armory, and some churches. Os-
wego has 5 national, banks besides other banks' 20
churches, normal, training and graded schools, 2 daily
and 3 weekly newspapers. It is the chief port on
Lake Ontario, and has a large breakwater, 4 miles of
wharves, and 12 grain-elevators. Grain and lumber
are the chief imports and coal, flour, and salt the ex-
ports. Within the limits of the city the Oswego
River has a fall of 34 feet, and there are 6 dams to
assist the canal navigation. The abundant water-
power has rendered Oswego a noted manufacturing
city. The starch-factory is the largest in the world,
occupying .10 acres of ground and having buildings
Seven stories high. There are also flour-mills, iron-
foundries, machine-shops, ship-yards, car-shops, knitt-
ing-mills, etc. Fort Oswego was built in 1727, and
was noted in the French and Indian war. In 1814 it
was captured by the British. In 1828 the village was
incorporated, and in 1848 it was made a city. In 1880
º ulation was 21,116.
TIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765–1848), Federalist,
was son of Samuel Alldyne Otis (1740–1814), who
was secretary of the U. S. Senate from 1789 to 1814,
and nephew of James Otis (for whom see ENCYCLo-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA). He was born at Boston Oct. 8,
1765, graduated at Harvard College in 1783, and was
admitted to the bar in 1786. He served in the State
Legislature and in Congress. In 1801 he was ap-
pointed U. S. district attorney for Massachusetts, but
Soon re-entered the State Legislature and presided in
turn over each branch until 1811. With his party he
opposed the war with England, and he took a promi-
nent part in the Hartford Convention, of which he
afterwards published a Defence (1824). Meantime he
had been a judge of the court of common pleas and
in 1818 had been again elected to Congress. His last
public service was as mayor of Boston in 1829, but he
lived nearly twenty years longer, and died in that city
Oct. 28, 1848.
OTTAWA, a city of Illinois, county-seat of La
Salle co., is at the confluence of the Fox and Illinois
Rivers, 82 miles S. W. of Chicago, on the Chicago,
Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad, and on a branch of
the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad. There
are three ii. across the Fox liver and two across
the Illinois, besides the bridges over the Illinois and
Michigan Canal. The city has a State Supreme court-
house, a county court-house, 2 national banks, 7
weekly and 2 daily papers, 6 hotels, 12 churches, 8
schools besides the high-school, and the Reddick
Library. The abundant supply of white sand in the
vicinity gives facilities for glass-making, there being
6 furnaces, one of which produces the Bastie lamp-
chimneys. There are also tile-works, fire-proofing-
factories, flour-mills, a foundry, and manufactories of
agricultural implements, wagons, organs, and pianos.
Ottawa is beautifully situated on a level plateau about
30 ft. above the river, has excellent drainage and an
abundant water supply, both from a natural reservoir
formed by a gravel § on the south side of the city
and from numerous artesian wells. These wells, hav-
ing an average depth of 350 ft., give a supply of 50
gallons each per minute. The analysis of the Ottawa
mineral spring, by Prof. Benjamin Silliman, showed it
fairly equal in bromine and iodine to the Saratoga
Springs. Ottawa was settled in 1830, incorporated in
1838 as a village and in 1853 as a city. It is lighted
with gas and electric light. Its property is valued at
$1,250,000, and its city debt is $17,500; the yearly
disbursements are about $50,000. Its population in
1880 was 7834.
OTTER. Concerning the North Pacific sea-otter,
Enhydra lutris, it will be sufficient to
See Yºl. XXXII add that their furs at present com-
p. 69 (p. 73 Am. .nd . exceedingly high price, the
Rep.). e Լ & : ,
principal market or port for their col-
lection and shipment being the little town of Belk-
ofsky in Alaska, though considerable numbers are taken
in some years much farther to the south.
The most common otter of North America is Lutra
canadensis, a true otter, much larger than the closely
kindred European species. Specimens measuring five
feet from the end of the nose to the tip of the tail are
not uncommon in remote places. This species ranges
throughout North America, but is exceedingly rare
in well-settled districts. Some have classed the L.
OTTERBEIN–OWEN.
117
californica of the Pacific coast, and even, one or more
of the rather numerous but imperfectly known South
American species of otter, as mere variants of the
species. The common otter is chiefly hunted in win-
ter, when its fur is at its best. It is fond of the
amusement of sliding down-hill upon the belly, an
amusement which it practices in winter upon the Snow
and ice and in summer upon some steep bank which
slopes into a pool or deep stream. Unlike some of
the other otters, it is a swift runner. It lives upon
fish and is seldom seen far from the water. It is gun-
ning in pursuit, and when brought to bay will fight
with great courage, often proving itself a formidable
antagonist to a dog or man. It is generally taken. in
steel traps. Besides the interesting and little-studied
otters of South America allusion may here be made to
the yapock (Cheironectes yapock) of South America,
called the “little otter” in British Guiana. It is de-
cidedly otter-like in its habits, but in reality it is only
a semi-aquatic opossum, being one of the most
strictly aquatic marsupials anywhere known. It may
be added that a certain proportion of the otter skins
of commerce are furnished by the strongly aberrant
species which are found in Southern Asia, but their
j. are usually small and the pelage is said to be
p00r. (C. W. G.)
OTTERBEIN, PHILIP WILLIAM (1726–1813), the
founder of the Church of the Únited Brethren in
Christ, was born at Dillenburg, Germany, June 4,
1726. He was ordained as a minister of the Reformed
Church at Herborn in 1749, but in 1752 followed the
call of Rev. Michael Schlatter to become a missionary
to the German settlers in America. He took charge of
the church at Lancaster, Pa., but being disheartened
by the prevailing indifference to religion he was led to
join with Christians of other denominations in religious
meetings held in the groves. In 1758 he removed to
Tulpehocken, Pa., and afterwards to Frederick, Md.,
and to York, Pa. In 1774 he took charge of an in-
dependent congregation at Baltimore. He had sought
fellowship in his spiritual views among the ministers
of other denominations, and he fraternized especially
with Asbury and with Martin Böhm. In 1784 he
assisted Dr. Coke in ordaining Asbury as the first bishop
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1800 a con-
ference called by him at Baltimore was attended by
thirteen ministers, who formed the Society of the
United Brethren in Christ. Although this eventually
became a separate denomination, Otterbein is said
never to have left the communion of the German Re-
formed Church. Meantime he and Böhm were rec:
ognized as its superintendents and have been called
bishops, though that title seems not to have been used
till after Otterbein’s death. He died at Baltimore,
Nov. 17, 1813. See Life of P. W. Otterbein, by
Rev. A. W. Drury, D. D.
OTTUMWA, a city of Iowa, the county-seat of
Wapello co., is on the Des Moines river, 76 miles W.
of Burlington. The county was ºpened for settlement
by the removal of the Sac and Fox Indians in 1843.
Ottumwa was incorporated as a city in 1857 and then
occupied a narrow strip of flat land between the river
and the bluffs. This land is now covered by solid brick
business blocks, while the residence portion of the
town spreads out over the bluffs which attain an aver-
age elevation of about 150 feet. The town originally
lay entirely east of the river, but in 1884 the city limits
Were extended and the west side has a population of
about 1500. The length of the city along the river is
about three miles. Its population in 1885 by the
State census was 10,506. It is well supplied in the
Way, of transportation facilities, being on the main line
of the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad, also
on the Kansas City branch of the Chicago, Milwaukee,
and St. Paul Railroad, and is the terminus of the
Central Iowa and Wabash roads. Its other roads are
the Keokuk and Des Moines branch of the Chicago,
Rock Island, and Pacific and the Ottumwa and Kirk.
ville, a short coal-road. A Union passenger depot has
been built at a cost of $125,000. This point of the
i)es Moines River was known to the Indians as
“Ottumwa-e-noch,” signifying 'swift water ford,” the
river at that time falling six feet over a rock bottom
in the course of a half mile. In 1876 advantage was
taken of this fall, and at an . of about $150,000
extensive dams were put in and abundant water-power
obtained. The other advantages of the site, cheap
coal (bituminous), excellent building stone, and the
railroad facilities, have given an impetus to manufaç-
turing. Among the industrial works are a starch-mill,
linseed-oil-mill, 2 iron- and brass-foundries, a ruffler-
factory, 2 machine-shops, plow-, cutlery-, and screen-
factories, planing-mills, 2 furniture-factories, 2 boiler;
works, 2 cooper shops, 2 flour-milis, mining-drills, and
bridge-works. There is also located here, the second
largest pork-packing-house in Iowa, killing, 150,000
hogs a year. Ottumwa is also the centre of a large
jobbing trade. º g
The public school system of the city, comprises 4
buildings on the east side and one on the west side,
erected at a cost of $125,000. There is also a large
Catholic academy, a normal school, and a business col:
lege. There are 15 churches, 2 opera-houses, 3 national
banks, 6 hotels, and 2 daily and 6 weekly papers.
The city has excellent water-works, affording excep-
tional fire protection, gas, and arc and incandescent
electric lights. There are six miles of street railway,
operated by three companies. The system of sewer-
age is very complete.
The assessed valuation of city property is $3,000,000,
about one-third its actual value. The debt is $54,000,
and the expenses of the city in 1886 were $40,378.
Ottumwa is in the heart of the Iowa coal-fields and is
built over a 43-foot vein of coal. (A. H. H.)
OUSELEY, SIR FREDERICK ARTHUR GORE, an
English musician, was born at London, Aug. 12, 1825,
being the only son of Sir Gore Ouseley (1768–1844),
ambassador to Persia and Oriental scholar. He grad-
uated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1846, took orders,
and was curate of the Church of St. Barnabas, Lon-
don, in 1849–50. He had also devoted himself to the
study of music and received the degree of B. Mus. in
1850 and that of D. Mus. in 1854. For the latter he
repared an oratorio, The Martyrdom of St. Polycarp.
e was made precentor of Hereford Cathedral in 1855,
and also professor of music at Oxford, succeeding Sir
Henry R. Bishop. From his means he built the
Church of St. Michael, at Tenbury, of which he was
first vicar. He is also warden of St. Michael's College,
which had grown out of his labors as choir-master.
He is noted for his attainments in music, and has pub-
lished many anthems, the oratorio of Hagar, and
standard treatises on Harmony (1869), on Fugue and
Counterpoint (1869), and . Form in Music (1875).
He has also edited valuable collections of cathedral
Ill U181C. -
OWEGO, a village of New York, county-seat of
Tioga co., is on the Susquehanna River, at the mouth
of Öwego creek, 37 miles east of Elmira. The Erie
Railroad is here crossed by the Southern Central and
connects with the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western.
Owego has a fine court-house, 2 national banks, 8
churches, an academy, and graded schools, 3 weekly.
newspapers. The industrial works comprise a piano-
factory, carriage-works, flour-mills, and manufactories
of soap, leather, etc. Its population in 1880 was
55.25.
OWEN, DAVID DALE (1807–1860), geologist, was
born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, June 24, 1807. He was
a son of the socialist, Robert Owen (1771–1858), for
whom see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. David was
educated with his brother at Fellenberg's school at
Hofwyl, Switzerland, and in 1825 settled with his father
at New Harmony, Ind. He afterwards went to Ger-
many to study natural science, and in 1833 returned to
Indiana. In 1837 he was appointed by the Legislature
3.18
OWEN–OWL.
to make a geological survey of that State, and subse-
Quently he was employed by the U.S. government in
geological Surveys in Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
The results were published in 1852. His surveys of
Kentucky and Arkansas were conducted under the
direction of those States, and he was also employed by
individuals and companies in examination of special
º He died at New Harmony, Ind., Nov. 13,
S{}().
His brother, Robert DALE OweN (1801–1877),
became especially noted as an advocate of spiritualism.
He was born at Glasgow, Nov. 7, 1801, but spent his
early years at New Lanark, and three years in Switzer-
land. He went with his father to the United States
in 1825, and took part in the social experiment at New
Harmony, Ind., . In 1828, for the promotion of infi-
delity, he established at New York a weekly paper
galled The Free Inquirer. While a member of the
Indiana Legislature, 1835–38, he did much to promote
common Schools, and in Congress, 1843–47, he took
part in organizing the Smithsonian Institution. In
1850 he served in the convention for the revision of the
Constitution of Indiana, and secured for married
women the control of their property. From 1853 to
1858 he was at Naples, at first as U. S. chargé
d'affaires, afterwards as minister. During the civil
war he supported the cause of the Union, and urged
the emancipation of the slaves. He was employed by
the government on important commissions relating to
the freedmen and to ordnance stores. His later years
were devoted to the propagation of spiritualism. He
died at Lake George, N. Y., June 24, 1877. His
principal works are Footfalls on the Boundary of Am-
other World (1860); The Debatable Land between this
World and the Nect (1872), and Threading my Way
(1874), the last being an autobiography of twenty-
seven years.
OWEN, John JASON (1803–1869), an American
educator, was born at Colebrook, Conn., Aug. 13, 1803.
He graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., in 1829,
and studied theology at Andover. Although he en-
tered the Presbyterian ministry, he was never pastor,
his life being devoted to teaching and editing the
classics. He was principal of the Cornelius Institute,
New York, from 1836 to 1848, when he was made
professor of Greek and Latin in the New York Free
Academy. While he was vice-president of this insti-
tution its name was changed to the College of the
City of New York. He died at New York, April 18,
1869. His publications were editions of Xenophon's
Anabasis (1843), and Cyropaedia (1846); Homer's
Odyssey º and Iliad (1851), a Commentary on
the Gospels and the Acts (3 vols., 1857–69). He was
an able scholar, faithful teacher, and learned com-
Imentator.
OWEN, SIR PHILIP CUNLIFFE, a British promoter of
industrial art, was born June 8, 1828. His father being
a captain in the British navy, he was engaged in that
service from his 12th to his 17th year. Being then
compelled to retire by ill-health he received an
appointment in the science and art department at
London. After faithful service for ten years he was
appointed deputy-general superintendent of the South
#. †. In 1860 he was made assistant di-
rector, and in 1873 succeeded Sir Henry Cole as director.
He assisted at the Paris Expositions in 1855 and 1867,
and was executive commissioner at the Centennial Ex-
hibition at Philadelphia in 1876. He was secretary of
the Royal commission for the Vienna Exposition in
1873, and for the Paris Exposition in 1878. He also
took part in the International Fisheries Exhibition at
London, 1883, the Health and Education Exhibitions,
1884, the Music Exhibition, 1885, and the Colonial
and indian Exhibition, 1887. In all of these cases he
displayed great executive ability and essentially pro-
moted the objects of the industrial exhibitions. Be-
sides being knighted in 1873, he has received various
marks of honor from his government.
OWEN, SIR RICHARD, English anatomist, was born
at Lancaster, July 20, 1804. He studied medicine at
Edinburgh and at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London,
becoming prosector to Abernethy. e became a
member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1826,
and soon after assistant curator of the Hunterian
Museum. Besides descriptive catalogues of the mu-
seum, he prepared the Physiological Series of Com-
ſº Anatomy (1833–40). His valuable researches
ed to new classifications of animals and the addition
of numerous genera and species. His ability was dis-
played in the reconstruction of extinct families. In
1836 he succeeded Sir Charles Bell as Hunterian pro-
fessor in the Royal College of Surgeons, and in 1856
was made chief of the natural history department of
the British Museum ; he also held a professorship in
the Royal Institution, London, and was connected with
the prominent scientific societies. Among his works
are : Odontography (2 vols., 1840–45); British Fossil
Mammals and Birds (1846); British Fossil Reptiles
(1848–55); The Vertebrate Skeleton (1848); Partheno-
genesis (1849); Lectures on Comparative Anatomy
(1843–46); Anatomy of Vertebrates (3 vols., 1866–68);
Fossil Reptilia of South Africa (1875); Fossil Mam-
mals of Australia (1877); Wingless Birds of New
Zealand (1880).
OWENSBORO, a city of Kentucky, the seat of
Daviess co., is on the Ohio River, 160 miles below
Louisville, and on the Owensboro and Nashville, the
Louisville, Evansville, and St. Louis, and the Louis-
ville, St. Louis, and Texas Railroads. It is 10 feet above
the highest water ever known in the Ohio River. A
steam-ferry plies to Indiana and considerable trade is
carried on by the river packet-lines. Owensboro has
a U. S. government building, 4 hotels, 1 national
bank, 4 State banks, 1 daily and 4 weekly newspapers,
16 churches, good public schools, and private academies.
The manufacturing industries comprise 2 foundries,
wagon-factory, wheel- and spoke-factory, planing-mills,
flouring-mills, and tobacco- and cigar-factories. The
chief staples of the vicinity are tobacco and whiskey,
there being 23 tobacco-factories and 16 whiskey-distil-
leries. The city is lighted with gas and electric light,
and is supplied with water by the Holly system. . Its
property is valued at $3,000,000, its public debt is
$25,000, and the yearly expenses are $47,000. It was
settled in 1815, and incorporated as a city in 1850. Its
population in 1880 was 6231.
§§ To the remarks found in the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA regarding the
88 (p. 92 Am structural affinities of the owls, it may
...” º be added that the hawk-owl (Surnia
funerea) of both continents is the most
accepitrine of known owls and furnishes the best ar:
gument that remains to those systematists who still
cling to the grouping of the owls with the hawks and
other diurnal birds of prey in the old and familiar
order of Raptores. Some have found in the singular
kakapo, or owl-parrot, a link between the owls and
parrots, but though there seems to be a certain rela:
tionship between the parrots and the true birds of
prey, it must be conceded that the kakapo is after all
only an aberrant and strictly local forum of the par-
rot tribe—an owl, it is true, in its physiognomy and in
its nocturnal habits, but in no other respect. The re-
lationship of owls through Steatormis to the goatsuckers
is now generally given up as improbable, but the best
recent opinion would seem to place the owls, the goat:
suckers, and the guacharo in the position of parallel
groups derived from some common parentage, prob;
ably belonging, to that convenient yet confuse and
somewhat bewildering assemblage, the Picarian birds.
(See ALUCONIDAE.)
It is certainly remarkable that while the keen-eyed
and strongly flying sub-family of Old World vultures
have not a single representative in America, being re-
placed here by the totally distinct Cathartidae (q.v.),
several species of the owls, on the other hand, have
See Vol. XVIII.
OYSTER.
119
been able to spread over a large part of the World, six
of our fourteen acknowledged species being European
Hawk-Owl.
as well as American. The burrowing owl (Speotyto
cunicularia), which ranges from Canada southward to
Patagonia, affords, another example of the similar
wide distribution of a remarkably interesting species.
OYSTER. º * º #: !.”.
has a W10 e range of distribution, being
º iyº, found at all suitable points along the
Km. Reº. Atlantic coast from Florida to the
southern shores of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, and along the northern coast of the Gulf of
Mexico. In some portions of this range it occurs in
natural beds of enormous extent; that of Long Island
Sound is said to be fully 115 miles in length, the oysters
not being confined to the sound but extending around
New York Bay and into the small bays along the
Jersey shore. Oysters are often brought here from
Chesapeake Bay and planted in the sound to supply
the beds that have become exhausted by over-dredging.
In the waters of Virginia there is said to be 2,000,000
acres of oyster beds, while in Chesapeake Bay, with
its many inlets and river mouths, the oyster finds its
best adapted home, the bivalve here attaining its
highest excellence and flourishing enormously. The
bottom of the bay is almost covered with beds of the
finest oysters in the world. Baltimore is the most im-
portant mart in the oyster trade and cans and pickles
vast quantities of oysters for shipment to the West and
to foreign countries. Farther down the coast oysters
occur plentifully but are only gathered for local use.
On the coast of Georgia they are said to exist in such
Inultitudes as to form natural breakwaters sufficiently
firm to resist the billows of the ocean. The coast
region here is made up of salt marshes from twelve to
eighteen miles wide, through which slow-flowing rivers
make their way to the sea. These streams flow be-
tween banks of living oysters, so closely compacted
that a vessel might, in some places, obtain a cargo in a
Space not more than three times its length.
Oysters abound in the inlets and small bays on the
north shore of the Gulf of Mexico. In the Bay of
Mobile they are plentiful and of excellent quality, and
are cultivated on a large Scale. In Louisiana are beds
VOL. IV H
of oysters said to be unsurpassed in, size and flavºr.
On the Pacific coast oysters occur abundantly in the
Strait of Fuca and in Puget Sound ; these are quite
small, but of fine flavor. The Eastern oyster has been
introduced and seems to be susceptible of easy cultiva-
tion.
The American oyster is exceedingly prolific, far more
so than its European counterpart, which produces about
2,000,000 young, while the American bears from
10,000,000 to more than 60,000,000 in some instances.
The European oyster takes some degree of care of its
young, keeping them within the fºlds of the mantle
until they are several days old, while in the American
oyster fertilization takes place in the water and the
young are exposed from birth to the perils of the
waves, so that they are destroyed in far greater
numbers than in the case of the European . The
minute embryo bivalves swim about by the aid of cilia
for several days, feeding on the minutest life-forms of
the ocean, after which they fix themselves to some
substance to which one of the shell valves becomes
cemented. There, if not artificially removed, the re-
mainder of their life will be spent. The American
oyster grows much faster than the European and
attains a considerably greater size. At the end, of a
fortnight's growth it is of the size of a pin's head; in
three months it attains the size of a pea; then it
grows more rapidly, becoming an inch long in six
months. It is ready for market in about three years,
and its average life is about ten years, though thirty-
year-old oysters have been known. These old oysters,
at times, attain great size ; one found in Mobile Bay
is said to have been more than 3 ft. long and nearly
2 ft. broad, but they rarely exceed 3 in...in width,
though often found over a foot long. When grown
under favorable circumstances the shells, at first round,
become oval in shape with undulated and scalloped
edges, but after the first winter become elongated and
irregular, the shape being greatly governed by that of
the object to which the oyster is attached. In the
natural banks the oysters become so crowded that they
are apt to stand in a vertical position, the hinge down-
ward and the mouth of the shells upward. Bein
contracted laterally they often become very long j
narrow, forming what are known as “raccoon oysters,”
or “cat's tongues.” The lower layers of these beds are
smothered and die through the annual additions above.
The mortality of the young oysters is enormous,
very few individuals of each batch of millions sur-
viving. They have many enemies, while great num-
bers perish from lack of a clean surface to which to
attach themselves, being smothered in their embryo
state by a very thin layer of mud or slime. The
mature oysters, also, have many enemies, chief among
them the star-fish and the “drill,” or boring whelk,
yet in spite of these and their human foes, it is only
the lack of proper conditions of sea bottom that limits
the indefinite increase of the oyster beds. The oyster,
in fact, cannot live except under certain conditions of
depth and salinity of water, and of firmness of bottom,
a mixture of clay and mud forming favorable ground.
Soft mud is fatal, and deposits of mud through storms
may cause great injury. The young oysters attach
themselves to the shells of older ones and beds of
great thickness are thus gradually formed. On the
western coast of Florida, and in other tropical regions,
they attach themselves to the roots and limbs of the
mangrove trees. Natural beds can be enlarged and
artificial beds made by the deposition of shells, gravel,
or tiles over muddy bottoms, Oyster-shells are much
used as “cultch,’’ to which the young fry attach
themselves and from which they may be transplanted.
Seed-oysters are thus carried from Virginia and Mary-
land to the beds of the North, where they are planted
in shoal waters to be fattened for market.
Prof. Ryder speaks of having examined oyster
beds in water so shallow that the animals are almost
entirely exposed to the air during low tide. In severe

120
OYSTER.
winters a considerable proportion of the oysters in these
eds are destroyed by freezing; yet the animals are so
prolific that the beds are said to be fully restored in a
year or two. The movement of the tides is an advan-
tage to these beds, in keeping them clean, and in
bringing a full supply of the minute animals and
plants which form the food of the oyster.
flate years the study of the embryology of the
Oyster has been diligently prosecuted under the aus-
pices of the United States Fish Commission, with the
Alterior purpose of successful artificial propagation.
The experiments have been attended with promising
indications, though no practical application of the
results has been made. º: is found that artificial fer-
tilization of the eggs can be easily performed, and that
the young can be kept alive until ready to attach
themselves. This, however, is of minor importance,
as natural fertilization can be easily employed under
favorable conditions. The important purpose to be
attained is that of the protection of the fry until
ready to attach itself, the preparation of abundant and
properly distributed cultch for attachment, and ar-
rangements for readily transplanting the young without
lnjury.
Several scientists of the Commission have given at-
tention to this subject, among them Profs. Brooks
and Winslow, and more recently Prof. John A. Ryder,
who has devoted several years to the study. He
advises the use of spawning ponds with systems of
canals, into which the tides can ebb and flow daily,
while by the aid of a filtering apparatus the enemies
of the oyster can be in great measure excluded. The
canals are to be so arranged as to contain within a
limited space a very considerable number of movable
collectors, consisting of frame-work filled with tiles,
slates, shells, etc. The water is made to flow through
the full length of these collectors, and as the fry is
swept by the tide backward and forward it attaches
itself to the cultch in the frames. The collectors being
movable can be rocked on their supports, and the sedi-
ment which is so fatal to the young oyster washed out.
When the seed-oysters are sufficiently grown they
can be easily removed by lifting out the framework,
and conveying the cultch in boats to the beds in
which it is desired to plant the young oyster as seed.
Prof. W. K. Brooks proposes the use of floating
collectors, saying that the embryo has a tendency to
swim to the surface, and that cultch in floating cages
would be frée from danger of sediment, that fatal
Oyster Industry of the United States
enemy of the larval oyster. In an experiment which
he tried he obtained a good “set,” and the young
oyster grew with remarkable rapidity, signifying an
abundant supply of food and other favorable condi-
tlonS.
It is obvious that in the modes here indicated it is
possible to obtain an abundant supply of healthy seed-
oysters, particularly in that proposed by Prof. Ryder,
which is the outcome of long study and experiment,
and in which the unfavorable conditions are in great
measure eliminated. . Similar care of the subsequent
growth of the oyster is necessary. As planted in open
beds it has two destructive enemies, the star-fish and
the inconsiderate dredger, who often destroys more
oysters than he collects. At the Island of Ré, on the
coast of France, vast numbers of oysters are raised in
small “parks,’’ separated by walls, and planted with
seed-oysters. As a consequence this small island, of
about twelve miles circumference, now yields annually
400,000,000 oysters on what were originally its shores
of deep and useless mud. Prof. Ryder believes that
the salt marshes of many localities on our Atlantic
coast could be similarly utilized, oyster ponds of three
or four feet in depth being dug and connected with
tide water by canals, while the inflowing water could
be filtered of its dangerous ingredients. Abundant
oyster-food would grow in such ponds. In this way,
he thinks, the harvest of the American oyster could be
enormously increased. As yet, however, the natural
and planted beds yield a good supply, and the exten-
sion of the area of cultivation j probably be left for
the future.
The fattening of the oyster is a subject of some
interest. What we call fat in the oyster is really not
fat at all, but a deposit of the purest and most nutri-
tious protoplasm, which forms a highly digestible
food. It is laid down in the mantle of the animal
during the winter season, and exhausted during the re-
productive period, when the oyster becomes very poor
and non-nutritious. The so-called fattening by remov-
ing the oysters for a few days to water fresher than
that in which they grew is a dealer's fraud. The
oyster is plumped out by absorbing the fresh water,
and the only real effect is that it loses part of its salt-
ness. Some dealers even use steam to warm the
water, so as to induce the oysters to take in more.
We give, from the 1880 Census Report, the most
recent general statement of the American oyster
industry. #
, according to Census Report of 1880.

The total value of sales includes for Maine $37,500, and for Pennsylvania $187,500, Philadelphia being an important
Stat Persons Capital Bushels Value to Value of
.ateS. Employed. Invested. Produced. Producer. Sales.
w Hampshire........................... 9 $ 2,400 1,000 $ 800 $ 6,050
Nº. a s ºf a tº e º 'º - e º e º & a tº º e º e º e º 'º e º 'º º º tº º 896 303,175 36,000 41,800 405,550
Rhode Island............................... 650 110,000 163,200 225,500 356,925
Connecticut ................................. 1,006 361,200 336,450 386,625 672,875
New York................................... 2,724 1,013,000 1,043,300 1,043,300 1,577,050
New Jersey................................. 2,917 1,057,000 1,975,000 1,970,000 2,080,625
Delaware ........................ ............ 1,065 145,000 300,000 325,000 687,7 25
Maryland ........................... ......... 23,402 6,034,350 10,600,000 2,650,000 4,730,476
Virginia .........….................…. 16,315 1,351,100 6,837,320 1,948,636 2,218,376
North Carolina......................... 1,020 68,500 170,000 60,000 60,000
South Carolina............................. 185 12,250 50,000 20,000 20,000
Georgia....................................... 350 18,500 70,000 35,000 35,000
Florida ....................................... 166 22,000 78,600 15,950 15,950
Alabama ..................................... 300 16,000 104,500 44,950 44,950
Mississippi.......... ............ ............ 60 3,000 25,000 10,000 10,000
Louisiana.............. ....................... 1,400 36,750 295,000 200,000 200,000
Texas ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .” 240 17,750 95,000 47,300 47,300
Washington Territory.................. . 85 6,550 15,000 10,000 45,000
Total ..................................... 52,805 $10,583,295 $22,195,370 $9,034,861 $13,438,852
seat of the oyster trade.
PACA—PAGE.
121
P.
PACA, WILLIAM (1740–1799), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born at Wye Hall,
Harford co., Md., Oct. 31, 1740. He graduated at
the College of Philadelphia in 1759, and studied law
at Annapolis. He became a leading lawyer in Mary-
land, and his opinion on the poll-tax for the support
of the clergy was republished in England. In 1771
he was elected to the Legislature, in which he ad-
vocated the rights of the colonists against the pro-
prietor. His activity as a patriot caused him to be
sent as delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774.
Though employed in important business, he and his
colleagues were long restrained by the Convention of
Maryland from advocating separation from the
mother country. . But at the end of June, 1776, per-
mission was obtained and Paca signed the Declaration.
While still a member of Congress he served in the
State Senate for two years. In 1778 he was made
chief judge of the Superior Court of Maryland, and in
1780 chief judge of the Court of Appeals. In 1782 he
was elected governor of Maryland and again in 1786,
each term being a single year. He was a member of
the State Convention which ratified the Federal Con.
stitution. When the U. S. Judiciary was organized in
1789, he was made district judge of Maryland, and
held this office till his death in 1799.
PACKARD, ALPHEUs SPRING (1799–1884), an
American educator, was born at Chelmsford, Mass.,
Dec. 20, 1799. He graduated at Bowdoin College in
1816, and after studying theology returned to it as tutor
in 1819. After being professor of Latin and Greek for
forty years, he was in 1864 transferred to the Collins
professorship of natural and revealed religion. On
the retirement of Pres. J. L. Chamberlain in 1883
he became acting president. He died July 13, 1884.
He had been librarian of the Maine Historical Society
48 years. Besides contributing to various periodicals
he published an edition of Xenophon's Memorabilia
(1839), a History of the Bunker Hill Monument As-
sociation, and with Prof. N. Cleveland a History of
Bowdoin College (1882). wº
His son, ALPHEUS SPRING PACKARD, Jr., noted as a
naturalist, was born at Brunswick, Maine, Feb. 19.
1839. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1861,
studied natural history under Prof. L. Agassiz and
the Museum of Comparative Zoology. He also
studied medicine, graduating at the Šine Medical
College in 1864. He devoted himself chiefly to en-
tomology, on which he lectured at Bowdoin College for
many years. He has been curator of the Peabody
Academy of Natural Sciences at Salem, Mass., and
one of the editors of the American Naturalist, and
has taken part in several scientific expeditions.
has published Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and
Maine (1867); Guide to the Study of Insects (1869);
Our Common Insects (1873); Half-Hours with Insects
(1875); Zoºlogy for Students (1879); A Naturalist on
the Labrador Coast (1888); Forest and Shade-Tree
Insects (1888). He has also published numerous
monographs and some school-books. See Henshaw's
Entomological Writings of A. S. Packard (1887).
PACKER, ASA (1806–1879), railroad constructor,
was born at Groton, Conn., Dec. 20, 1806.
in canal-boating. As store-keeper, boat-builder, con-
tractor, and coal-miner he steadily acquired wealth.
In 1844 he was elected to the State Legislature, and
was afterwards county judge for five years. About
1850 he projected the Lehigh Valley Railroad as an
outlet for the anthracite coal region, and secured its H
construction and its subsequent extension to connect
With the Erie Railroad and with New York city. In
&
He b
In his
boyhood he removed to Pennsylvania, and was engaged
1853 he was elected to Congress as a Democrat, and
served two terms. In 1865 he announced his pur-
pose to give $500,000 and 115 acres of land for the
crection of Lehigh University (q. v.), which was com-
menced immediately and attained a fair degree of
rosperity in his lifetime. He died at Philadelphia,
§. 17, 1879. His will increased the endowment of
Lehigh University to $1,500,000, and his family have
since made further gifts to the institution.
PADUCAH, a city of Kentucky, county-seat of
McCracken co., is on the Ohio River, 48 miles above
its mouth and at the mouth of the Tennessee. It is
225 miles by railroad W. S. W. from Louisville, next
to which it ranks among the cities of the State. It
carries on a large river-trade, and from it several lines
of steamboats start. The Newport News and Missis-
sippi Valley Railroad also gives facilities for trade,
and has established here car-repair shops. The whole-
sale trade for 1886 was estimated at $9,000,000 and
the retail was still larger. Paducah contains a U. S.
government building, a court-house, 3 national banks,
2 hospitals, 17 churches, 7 graded schools and a high-
school, 2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers. The indus-
trial works comprise 2 foundries, 4 saw-mills, 2 plan-
ing-mills, marine ways for building and repairing
steamboats, and manufactories of soap, vinegar, ice,
wagons, carriages, harness, brooms, flour, meal, and
tobacco. The city is lighted with gas and has an
efficient fire department and is supplied with water
from the Tennessee River. The first settlement on
the site was in 1821, the town was laid out in 1827, and
received a city charter in 1856. In September, 1861, it
was occupied by Gen. U. S. Grant, then commanding
at Cairo, and throughout the war it was held by Union
troops, although Gen. N. B. Forrest made a raid
upon it in March, 1864. Its population in 1870 was
6866, and in 1880 was 8036.
PAGE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, commodore, was born
at Shelly, Va., Jan. 4, 1808. His grandfather, John
Page (1744–1808), was governor of Virginia, 1802–5.
Thomas entered the U. S. navy in 1827 as midship-
man, and was afterwards engaged in the Coast Survey.
After a voyage around the world while lieutenant
he planned a survey of the China seas, which was
eventually changed to the expedition to Japan, com-
manded by Com. M. C. Perry. Page declined the
second place in the expedition, but in 1853 com-
manded the expedition to explore the Rio de la
Plata. While thus engaged his steamer was fired
upon from a Paraguayan fort in February, 1855. He
returned to the United States in May, 1856, having
been promoted commander. In 1859 a fleet sent out
y his government obtained from Paraguay repara-
tion for the attack upon him. He completed his
surveys in 1860, and in the next year resigned his
commission and entered the Confederate service. He
was engaged in resisting Gen. McClellan's advance on
Richmond, but afterwards went to England to take
command of an iron-clad. When prevented by the
vigilance of the U. S. Minister he obtained a vessel
at Copenhagen, which, however, was soon seized in
Spain. He then removed to the Argentine Republie
and engaged in cattle-farming. That government also
employed him to superintend the construction of iron-
glads in England. He resides at Florence, Italy.
He published the narrative of his South American
explorations in La Plata (1859).
is nephew, THOMAS NELson PAGE, born in
Hanover co., Va., April 23, 1853, has become noted
as a writer of stories and poems in the negro dialect.
He was educated at Washington and Lee Uni-
versity and is a lawyer at Richmond. His first
story was Marse Chan (1884), and a collection of
122
PAGE-PAINTING.
* published under the title In Ole Virginny
PAGE, WILLIAM (1811–1885), painter, was born at
Albany, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1811. During his boyhood
his parents removed to New York city, where he
studied painting under S. F. B. Morse and at the
National Academy. For a while he intended to enter
the Presbyterian ministry, but his faith was shaken and
he resumed his artistic pursuits at Albany. Then
Suddenly abandoning a projected visit to Europe, he
married and settled in New York, where he became a
member of the Academy in 1836. He achieved dis-
tinction in portrait-painting, but produced also
historical pictures, a Holy Family, and the Infancy of
Henri IV. For a while he resided in Boston, and in
1849 he went to Europe, where he found such attrac-
tions that he remained eleven years. He became in-
timate with the Brownings at Florence, and painted
excellent portraits of Robert Browning and Miss
Cushman. Other works of this period are Moses and
Aaron on Mount Hor, The Flight into Egypt, and his
famous Venus, representing the goddess guiding
AEneas's fleet to Italy. In his brilliancy of coloring
Page had become a rival of Titian ; though he was
still as from the first a disciple of Allston in spirit-
uality. His natural gifts, careful study, and keen in-
sight gave his works the highest value. After his
return to New York in 1860 Page's fame as a portrait-
painter became equal to that of Gilbert Stuart. He
painted Lowell, President Eliot of Harvard, Henry
Ward Beecher, Admiral Farragut, General Grant,
and many more. From 1871 to 1875 he was president
of the Academy of Design, and his lectures in art
attracted much attention from his remarkable theories.
While in Europe he found in the writings of Sweden-
borg a solution of the doubts which had harassed his
mind since his early theological studies. These
mystical views were blended with his theory of art.
In his old age his intellect was clouded, and for ten
years he did little work. While his studio was in New
York his home was on Staten Island, and there he
died Sept. 30, 1885. He had been thrice married and
twice divorced.
PAINE, ROBERT TREAT (1731–1814), signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born at Boston,
March 11, 1731. His father, Thomas Paine, had been
pastor of a church at Weymouth, Mass., but after-
wards became a merchant at Boston. Robert grad-
uated at Harvard College in 1749, taught School,
studied theology, and in 1755, became chaplain to the
Northern provincial troops. He was admitted to the
bar in 1759, and settled at Taunton, Mass. In 1770
he was counsel for the prosecution of Capt. Preston
and others for the Boston Massacre. In 1773 he was
chosen to the legislature, in 1774 to the Provincial
Congress and also to the Continental Congress, where
he was a member of important committees. In 1777
he was attorney-general of Massachusetts, and also
a member of the executive council. In 1779 he took
part in preparing the State Constitution, , and soon
after removed to Boston, where he held high position
at the bar. He was a judge of the Supreme Court of
Massachusetts from 1790 to 1804. He died at Boston,
May 11, 1814. -
His son, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, JR. (1773–1811),
was born at Taunton, Mass., Dec. 9, 1773. While a
student at Harvard College he became noted for his
knack of versifying. When he graduated in 1792 he
entered a counting-house but still spent his time
chiefly in rhyming. He assisted in introducing
“stage-plays '' into Boston, and married Miss Baker,
an actress. In 1794 he started The Federal Orrery,
a paper whose personalities made him, many enemies.
The poem, The Invention of Letters, delivered on his
taking his degree of A. M., in 1795, gave him wide
celebrity which was inhanced by another in 1797 on
The Ruling Passion, and still more in 1798 by his
famous song, Adams and Liberty. Having removed
to Newburyport, he took up the study of law, and
after his return to Boston was admitted to the bar in
1802. He had many literary projects which were cut
short by his death at Boston, Nov. 13, 1811. His
name was originally Thomas Paine, but on his petition
to the Massachusetts legislature in 1801, pleading that
this was no Christian name, he was permitted to as-
Sume that of his father. His writings were collected
and published by Charles Prentiss in 1812.
PAINTING IN AMERICA. The branch of paint-
ing earliest practised in this country was naturally
portraiture. Many of the paintings that have come
down to us from the colonial period were, of course,
brought over from Europe. But that painters, such
as they were, were practising their art in the colonies
as early as 1667, is shown by a passage in Cotton
Mather's Magmalia. The earlier artists here were
naturally foreigners, and were usually painters of no
high order. But not a few who in their native land
would have been barely accounted respectable artists,
earned fame and money in the new land by transfer-
ring to canvas the faces of the colonial dignitaries.
The first artist of whom we have any record is John
WATSON º a Scotchman, who came to
America in 1715, settling at Perth Amboy, N. J. He
ainted several of the colonial governors, but none of
is works are known at present. John Smysent
(1684–1751), another Scotchman, is better known to
us, as a number of his portraits are still extant. Bishop
Berkeley engaged him as professor of the fine arts in
his projected college in Bermuda. Smybert came to
this country in 1829, and the Bermuda project prov-
ing a failure, he settled in Boston. Gulian C. Wer-
planck said of him : “Smybert was not an artist of
the first rank, for the arts were then at a very low ebb
in England, but the best portraits which we have of
the eminent magistrates and divines of New England
and New York who lived between 1725 and 1751 are
from his pencil.’’ His most important work is the
group of Bishop Berkeley and his family, painted in
1731, which was given to Yale College in 1808. A
copy of Vandyke, which he made in Italy, is said to
have inspired several of our native American painters
notably Trumbull and Allston, with a love of art, and
to have given them their first ideas of color. Smybert
was followed by a swarm of foreign artists. BLACK-
BURN made a brief visit, Cosmo ALEXANDER, a Scotch-
man, came over in 1770, William WILLIAMS painted
for a time in Philadelphia, John RAMAGE was paint-
ing miniatures in Boston in 1771, and so the list
might be extended. The earliest native painter of
merit of whom we have record is Robert FEKE. He
was painting portraits in Philadelphia about the middle
of last century, and specimens of his work are in pos-
session of Bowdoin College, the Redwood Athenaeum,
Newport, R. I., and the Rhode Island Historical So-
ciety. Next in date is Matthew PRATT (1734–1805),
although his contemporaries, West and Copley, were
earlier known as artists. Portraits like that of Čad.
walader Colden, painted for the .N. Y. Chamber of
Commerce in 1772, attest his undoubted talent. He
was remembered by many as an excellent painter of
sign-boards, an occupation, which he followed for some
time. But the most noted painters of this period were
John Singleton Copley and Benjamin West. COPLEY
(1737–1815) had already established a reputation as a
painter when be went to Europe in 1774. , He went
first to Italy, and thence to London, where he settled
and became a member of the Royal Academy. In his
portraits the dryness of tone and stiffness and formal-
ity of the figures have been objected to. He was a
master in the rendering of stuffs, as is attested by the
numerous specimens of his skill in portraiture in the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and at Harvard Uni-
versity. Many of his portraits are also in private 90l.
lections in the United States. Of his numerous his-
torical pictures, executed in England, the Death of
the jºrſ of Chatham is the best known.
PAINTING. - 123
Benjamin WEST (1738–1820) was a successful por-
trait-painter in Philadelphia, at the age of 18. He
went to Italy in 1760, and three years later to London,
where he became the leading historical painter, was
elected president of the Royal Academy, and enjoyed
the king's patronage and protection for many years.
He produced a very large number of historic and
scriptural compositions, notably, The Departure of
Regulus; Death on the Pale Horse; The Death of
Wolfe; and Christ Rejected. There is in his works
much that is conventional, and a certain brick-red col-
oring in them has been objected to. Yet West cer-
tainly possessed talent of a high order, and a thorough
knowledge of the principles of his art. He showed
moral courage, too, when, in painting the Death of
Wolfe, he insisted, contrary to the advice of Reynolds,
in clothing his characters in the dress of their time,
repudiating the traditional custom of employing classi-
cal costume in all historic painting. He was withal a
kind-hearted and benevolent gentleman, and had
always a hearty welcome and good advice for the
struggling young artists who came to him from his
native land for instruction and assistance.
The next period, that of the Revolution, produced
two painters whose names stand high in the list of
American artists, Gilbert Stuart and John Trumbull.
STUART (1755–1828) had his first art-instruction from
the before-mentioned Cosmo Alexander, with whom
he went to Scotland in 1772. He made several visits
to Europe, and studied under West, in London, for
several years. He returned finally to America, in 1793,
and found ample employment for his brush. Of his
large number of national portraits, the one of Wash-
ington, known as the “Athenaeum head,” is best
known to the American public, although most critics
consider it inferior to his first picture of Washington.
His portraits are remarkable for color—to quote his
daughter: “Color was one of Stuart's strong points.’’
He was a master in the rendering of flesh tints, and
gave his attention principally to the heads, in which he
was most successful, slighting the figures and drapery,
which, in some of his portraits, at least, are quite care-
less in execution. Excellent specimens of his works
are owned by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the
New York Historical Society, and other institutions.
TRUMBULL (1756–1843), the son of Governor Jona-
than Trumbull, of Connecticut (1710–1785), was edu-
cated at Harvard, and served with distinction in the
war of the Revolution. He studied under West, in
London, and later made several visits to Europe. He
W. a number of portraits, including several of
Washington, which, though perhaps unlike in details
of feature, are usually spirited and lifelike in their
general resemblance. It was in historical composition
that his talents were conspicuous, and he yet stands
alone in American historical painting. His most nota-
ble works are : The Siege of Gibraltar; Declaration
of Independence; Death of Montgomery; and Battle
of Bunker Hill. He was peculiarly fitted to depict
the scenes in the history of the American struggle for
independence. Himself prominent in public affairs,
intimately acquainted with many of the prominent
actors in his pictures, and thoroughly in sympathy
with his subject, he produced a series of paintings
which, in their line, are as yet unsurpassed in Ameri-
can art. In 1817 he received a commission from Con-
gress for four historical subjects: Declaration of Inde-
endence ; Surrender of Burgoyne; Surrender of
ornwallis; and Resignation of Washington. His
later works are quite inferior to his earlier ones. His
pictures were bequeathed to Yale College, where some
of the best specimens of his skill may be seen.
Another well-known artist of this period was Charles
Wilson PEALE (1741–1827). He was notable rather
for his versatility than for extraordinary talents in any
direction. Besides turning his mechanical talent to
account in various ways, he acted as soldier, legislator,
naturalist, and what not. His fame rests mainly on
his portraits, among which are several of Washington,
who gave him, it is said, no less than fourteen sittings.
Many of his pictures are in the Pennsylvania Academy
and in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. , Of the nu-
merous members of his family who also chose art as a
profession, his son Rembrandt (1778–1860) was the
only one who achieved any works of real note. Among
these is a good portrait of Washington,
Joseph WRIGHT (1756–93) and Edward SAVAGE
(1761–iS17) were also known as portrait-painters.
William DüNLAP (1766–1839), like most artists of his
time, tried his hand at a portrait of Washington. He
is, however, better known as an author, and published
in 1834 a History of the Arts of Design in the ſnited
States, now quite scarce. Col. Henry SARGENT (1770–
1845) was an artist of repute in his time; and John
Wesley JARVIs (1780–1840), an English portrait;
ainter, also enjoyed considerable popularity, as did
i. also Chester HARDING (1792–1866) and Edward
G. MALBONE (1777–1807), whose miniatures are un-
surpassed. Thomas SULLY (1783–1872) painted many
prominent Americans, but was most successful in his
female heads. His contemporary, John NEAGLE
(1796–1865), is best remembered by his excellent full-
length of Patrick Lyon, the blacksmith, painted, in
1835. John WANDERLYN (1775–1852) also painted a
number of portraits, but is best known by his Marius
Among the Ruins of Carthage, and Ariadne, which
latter, classic in style, is a very creditable work.
During all this initiatory period art in this country
achieved its greatest successes in the department of
portraiture and figure-painting. It was, furthermore,
greatly under the influence of England. Now there
gradually came a change, and the eyes of our art-
students going abroad were turned towards, Italy.
Imitation of foreign art-methods was natural and,
indeed, unavoidable. On the other hand there were
various attempts made to found art-academies in New
York and Philadelphia, culminating in the establish-
ment of the Pennsylvania Academy and the New York
Academy of Design. One of the leading representa-
tives of the tendencies towards idealism, often false,
that dominated much of our art, was Washington
ALLSTON (1779–1843), a native of South Carolina.
He studied under West, and lived for a number of
years in Italy. His works aroused much enthusiasm,
and his coloring won for him the name of “the Amer-
ican Titian.” But, as is always the case with those
overestimated in their time, there is now a tendency
to underrate the work of Allston. Though not pos-
sessing genius of a high order, he was an artist of un-
doubtedly great talent, hampered, perhaps, by the
want of encouraging influences in his native land.
The Dead Man Revived by Touching Elisha's Bones;
Saul and the Witch of Endor; Spalatro's Vision of
the Bloody Hand ; and Jeremiah and the Scribe, are
among his works, in some of which he shows an un-
healthy love for the terrible and supernatural. He
also left an unfinished work, Belshazzar's Feast, now
in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. John VANDER-
LYN, already mentioned, was a good classic painter,
who won success while abroad, and gained a medal in
Paris at the Salon of 1808. Samuel F. B. MoRSE
(1791–1872), better known in a totally different walk
of life, was in the early part of his career an artist,
practising both sculpture and painting. He composed
a painting of the Dying Hercules from his statue of
the same name. This work shows considerable ana-
tomical knowledge. Morse was the first president
(isºº) of the National Academy of fesign.
Among the portrait-painters of this period were :
Samuel i. Wido (iişºisei) and William Jewett
(b. 1795), who painted in partnership ; William E.
West (1788–1857); Charles C. Ingham (1797–1863);
Henry Inman (1801–46); Charles Loring Elliott
(1812–68); George P. A. Healy (b. 1813); William
Page (1811–85); W. H. Furness (1828–67); Thomas
Le Clear (1818–82); George A. Baker (1821–80);
124
PAINTING.
Thomas P. Rossiter (1817–71); Joseph Ames (1816–72),
and Richard M. Staigg (1817–81), noted for his min.
iatures, in which department Thos. S. Cummings also
W9rked. One of the strongest of the lot was Elliott,
who was especially successful in the rendition of char.
acter. Page experimented much in color, striving
especially to discover Titian's method of painting.
Daniel Huntington, Thomas Hicks, and Geo. H.Yewell
have also produced notable works in portraiture.
Another change becomes noticeable towards the
middle of this century, for Düsseldorf and Munich
began to claim a share in shaping our national art.
Emmanuel LEUTZE (1816–68) is one of the most prom-
inent artists of this period. A German by birth, he
was brought to America as an infant. Although his
art-education was received in Düsseldorf, he showed
an extraordinary love for American subjects. Among
his more important paintings are, wºon Cross-
ing the Delaware ; Washington at the Battle of Mon-
mouth ; Washington at Valley Forge; and Westward
the Star of Empire Takes its Way, the last in the
Capitol at Washington. A number of other painters
during this period gave more or less attention to his-
toric subjects, but little worthy of note was accom-
plished in this direction. Edwin WHITE (1817–77),
who studied at Paris and Düsseldorf, painted some
American historic pieces, notably Washington Resign-
ing his Commission. He was exceedingly prolific,
most of his works dealing with European subjects.
Peter F. ROTHERMEL has produced some works illus-
trative of American history, among which is the Battle
of Gettysburg. John G. Chapman, well known as an
illustrator and genre artist, also aspired to this difficult
field of painting, as did also John Blake WHITE (1781–
1859). William H. Powell, (1823–79) is known best
by his De Soto discovering the Mississippi, in the Cap-
itol at Washington. Christian SCHUSSELE (1824–79),
an Alsatian, was for some years director of the schools
of the Pennsylvania Academy, in which capacity he
exercised a certain influence on our art. His Clear the
Track, Men of Progress, The Iron Worker and King
Solomon, and other works, became widely known
through the prints by John Sartain and other en-
gravers. Thomas P. ROSSITER (1817–71) painted
many historical and scriptural subjects, and Robert W.
WEIR is known as the painter of the Sailing of the
Pilgrims, and similar works, pleasing in style, although
not strikingly original.
In the department of genre our artists had, until
now, made but few attempts. Charles Robert Leslie
and Gilbert Stuart Newton can hardly claim a place
here, as they are so closely identified with the art of
England. Henry INMAN (1801–46), known best by
his excellent and characteristic portraits, executed
some genre pictures, but the most important genre
painter of the period was William Sidney MoUNT
(1807–68). His works were thoroughly national in
spirit; no one has so well delineated the humorous
side of the life of the American farmer ; and the
negro, too, figured frequently in his compositions.
As a colorist he was not remarkable, but his pictures
show a shrewd observation of human nature. F. W.
EDMONDs (1806–63) produced some clever pictures of
American subjects, and Richard Caton WOODVILLE
(c. 1825–1855), who studied at Düsseldorf, became
well known through his Mexican News, Sailor's Wed-
ding, etc., but was unfortunately cut short in his career
when but 30 years of age. Our Indians and trap-
pers found delineators in George CATLIN (1796–1872),
Charles Deas, and William RANNEY (1813–57).
To come down to the genre art of a later date, John
B. IRVING (1825–77) was noted for his spirited execu-
tion and elaborate finish, and Frank B. MAYER (b. 1827)
also won distinction in this line. John F. WEIR has
executed some vigorous paintings, like Forging the
Shaft, and Seymour J. Guy has given us some charm-
ing pictures of child-life. Two of our best-known
genre artists are Thomas W. WooD and John G.
BROWN. The former frequently chooses scenes in
rural life, and has also j numerous character-
istic pictures of negro subjects. Mr. Brown has come
to be considered mainly as the painter par excellence
of our news-boys and boot-blacks, whom he often brings
before us in characteristic positions. Others more or
less known in the department of figure-painting are
Benjamin F. Reinhart (1829–85); John W. Ehninger;
Constant Mayer; Edward H. May (1824–87); Alfred
C. Howland; E. Wood Perry; Lemuel E. Wilmarth ;
Geo.W. Flagg; Cephas G. Thompson; Jerome Thomp-
son; E. L. Henry ; W. J. Hennessy; P. P. Ryder; #.
ert Wylie (d. 1877); Thomas Hovenden; Walter Sat-
terlee; E. M. Ward; Julian Scott; Henry Mosler; J.
W. Champney, and William Magrath. Daniel Hunt-
ington, better known as a portrait-painter, has executed
graceful and pleasing figure-pieces. George Fuller,
Henry A. Loop, and F. S. Church represent the ideal
element among our figure-painters. Geo. H. Bough-
ton excels in Puritan subjects, Eastman Johnson has
produced effective work in the delineation of negro.life
and domestic scenes, and A. Wordsworth Thompson
has given us some good historical compositions.
In our landscape art we for the first time find decided
originality, and a national feeling which foreign influ-
ences did not suppress. Our landscape artists, although
occupied at times also with European subjects, show in
their works a notable preference for the scenery of
their own country. The Catskills, the White Moun-
tains, Hudson River, Lake George, and later the
Rocky Mountains and the Yosemite Valley, have fur-
nished subjects for innumerable paintings.
Joshua SHAw (1776–1860), an English artist who
came over about 1817, was apparently the first in this
country to make a specialty of landscape. But Doughty,
Cole, and Durand are generally regarded as the pioneers
in this branch of art. Thomas DoughTY (1793–1856)
left the leather business at the age of twenty-eight to
take up landscape-painting, i he followed with
much success the art which he had adopted with so
little preparation. Thomas COLE (1801–48), born in
England, came to this country at the age of eighteen,
and received his first training here. #. later studied
for some time in Italy, and his work shows distinct
traces of the influence of Salvator Rosa and Claude.
The works by which he is best remembered are his al-
legoric landscapes, especially his Course of Empire.
Regarded simply from an art point of view, his paint-
ings show faults, yet there is in them a moral intent
and purpose and a dignity and grandeur which have se-
cured for him a high place among his contemporaries.
He undoubtedly, too, had a lasting effect on our land-
scape art. Asher B. DURAND (1796–1886) had gained
an enviable reputation in other branches of art before
he took up landscape-painting. As a steel-engraver,
he employed his burin in producing such admirable
plates as Wanderlyn's Ariadne and Trumbull's Declara-
tion of Independence. Next he practised portrait-
painting with success, and finally, at the age of thirty-
eight, he directed his efforts to landscape art. The
care he had found it necessary to exercise as an en-
graver was carried into his new vocation, and his iand-
scapes, though faithful in detail, are yet broad and
effective. He excelled especially in rendering the in-
dividuality and characteristics of trees, and produced
occasionally successful atmospheric effects.
One of the most prominent of the landscape-painters
who followed was John F. KENSETT (1818–73), who, iike
Durand, began his career as an engraver. He passed
a number of years abroad in study, and after his return
produced many faithful delineations of the scenery of
his native land. His paintings are good in technique,
broad in treatment, excellent in color, and show much
poetic feeling. George L. BROWN (b. 1814) was some-
what under the influence of Italy, and much of his
work deals with the scenery of that country. His
paintings are effective and brilliant in light and color,
but he belonged to a school which at times, perhaps,
PAINTING. 125
somewhat slighted nature. Worthington WHITTREDGE
was among those who studied at Düsseldorf, when that
school was first introduced as an influence into our art.
He is a close student of nature, and although for tech-
nique he doubtless owes much to foreign training, yet
his work is thoroughly individual, and shows but few
traces of foreign influence. John W. CASILEAR, like
Durand and Kensett, was at first an engraver, and later
abandoned the burin for the brush. His elaborate
landscapes, though not distinguished for originality,
are refined and delicate. James A. SUYDAM's tender
landscapes were characterized by somewhat similar
qualities. Jasper F. CROPSEY, though somewhat
crude at times, has had more or less success in re-
producing the vivid coloring of our autumnal scenery,
and R. W. Hubbard's simple, harmonious composi-
tions have been praised by more than one critic as
veritable poems. T. Addison Richards, C. P. Cranch,
A. H. Wenzler, Martin J. Heade, David Johnson, J.
R. Meeker, John B. Bristol, Wm. Russell Smith,
Charles H. Miller, Aaron D. Shattuck, Wm. L. Sonn-
tag, H. W. Robbins, John R. Tilton, A. H. Wyant,
James B. Sword, Kruseman Van Elten (a Dutchman
by birth), J. R. Brevoort, Geo. Q. Thorndike, R. H.
Fuller, A. Wordsworth Thompson are among the other
artists who have gained repute in the department of
landscape. To these should be added those whose
reputation dates from more recent times, and most of
whom are quite in sympathy with the art-tendencies
of to-day men like Samuel Coleman, F. H. Shap-
leigh, F. D. Williams, R. M. Shurtleff, J. Foxcroft
Cºle (a pupil of flambinet, and good in color). W. A.
(Hay, J. A. Brown, James D. Smillie, Geo. H. Smillie,
Arthur Parton, J. C. Nicoll, F. Hopkinson Smith,
Henry Farrar, John J. Enneking, Frank Waller, D.
W. Tryon, H. Bolton Jones, Wm. S. Macy, Bruce
Crane, A. F. Bunner, J. H.Twachtman, Joseph Lyman,
Carleton Wiggins, Julian Rix, J. Francis Murphy, E.
Gay, Harry Fenn, G. H. McCord, and C. A. Platt.
In Frederic E. CHURCH we have a good representa-
tive of the school whose work is mainly objective in
character. He unites carefulness in detail to breadth
of treatment in general. Tropical scenes form the
subjects of many of his paintings, but the general
public knows him best, perhaps, as the painter of the
grand and impressive picture of Niagara. He is a
careful, Scientific student of nature, whose pictures, it
has been said, are good illustrations of the physical
geography of the countries in which he has travelled.
Louis R. MIGNOT (1831–70) also showed a preference
for tropical subjects, which he painted with a fine feel-
ing for color, and Sanford R. GIFFORD (1823–80) had
a true eye for striking and phenomenal atmospheric
and light effects.
Three landscape-artists, Bierstadt, Hill, and Moran,
are specially prominent as having first delineated for
us the º Scenery of the West. Albert BIER-
STADT, born in Düsseldorf, came to America in in-
fancy and subsequently went back to his native city to
study art. After his return to the United States he
accompanied Gen. F. W. Lander's exploring expedi-
tiºn in 1858, and made the studies for his paintings
of Rocky Mountain scenery. His Rocky Mountains,
which created a furore in its day, is, however, not a
}. of any actual scene, but a typical composition.
old in treatment, and frequently ambitious in design,
his paintings seem at times to show an undue degree
of striving after effect. . An artist of undoubtedly great
originality and power, he is, like Leutze, a true rep-
resentative of the Düsseldorf school, the merits as
well as defects of which characterize most of his
Works. . His earlier paintings, especially, aroused un-
bounded enthusiasm, and he has received various
honors at home, and abroad. Thomas Hill has pro-
duced some bold and effective paintings of California
Seenery. One of his pictures d. with the Yellow-
Stone, a subject that has also employed the pencils of
Bierstadt and Thomas MoRAN. The latter artist's
fine painting of the Grand Cañon of the Yellowstone
is in the Capitol at Washington. , Moran is an exceed-
ingly clever painter, possessed of a vivid, imagination,
and well versed in the technique of his calling. Though
undoubtedly influenced by his attention to the methods
of Turner, his works show him also to be an assiduous
and careful student of nature.
The brothers William and James M. HART, both
born in Scotland, have also gained an honorable place
among our landscape-painters. The younger, James,
has introduced cattle into many of his later pictures,
with considerable success. Albert F. BELLOWs, (1829–
1883), who studied in Antwerp and Paris, first became
known as a genre painter, but later turned his atten-
tion to landscape. He was one of the early members
of the Water-Color Society, and painted much in
water-colors. This medium had not been seriously
used by our artists before 1865. In that year a collec-
tion of English water-colors was exhibited in New
York, which attracted much attention, and seems to
have done considerable towards stimulating our artists
to turn their attention more to the culture of water-
color painting. Their success in this direction was
rapid, as is attested by the works of Bellows, W. T.
Richards, Henry Farrar, H. W. Ranger, and others.
A leaning towards a more subjective style of land-
Scape-painting, as distinct from the purely objective
method that dominated so much of our landscape art,
is found in the works of Jervis MCENTEE, who has
striven to represent on canvas the sentiments suggested
by certain phases of our autumnal scenery, Homer D.
Martin, and others. In some of the earlier works of
George INNESS there is a tendency to make a careful
reproduction of details the first consideration. But his
emotional nature caused him soon to adopt a broader
style, and a less objective method. His principle be-
came, as he said himself, to reproduce for others such
impressions as a scene called forth in his own mind.
Though his pictures are unequal in merit, the best of
them are impressive, excellent in light and color, and
in atmospheric effects. R. Swain GIFFORD, like
Inness, has been influenced more or less by the art of
France, and is also one of those artists who always
leave an impression of his feelings and emotions upon
his work. His earlier efforts were in the direction of
coast scenes, but he later devoted himself to landscape,
and his travels and observations abroad have served
but to broaden his style.
In marine painting but little was produced until lately,
and that, little by foreigners. Thomas BIRCH (died
1851), followed this branch of art in Philadelphia,
painting especially naval engagements, while another
early marine-painter, Salmon, practised his art in
Boston. A. WAN BEEST (d. 1860), a Dutch artist,
Won a certain reputation in this line, and John E. C.
PETERSEN (1839–74), a Dane, who came to this country
in 1865, settling in Boston, was an artist of consider-
able talent. But perhaps the best of our earlier
marine painters was James HAMILTON (1819–78), a
native of Ireland, who established himself in Phila-
delphia. His best-known pictures include Capture
of the Serapis ; Old Ironsides; and such weird and
phantastic productions as the Ship of the Ancient
Mariner. They show a strong contrast of subjects,
much imaginative power, and a bold and effective
style. Bradford and Dix were among the earliest of
our artists to cultivate this branch of art. Charles
Temple DIX (1838–73), a son of Gen. John A. Dix,
produced some promising work, but unfortunately
died young. William BRADFord, of Quaker origin,
has painted effective pictures of the coast scenery of
the Eastern States, but is known especially through
his studies in Labrador, and his paintings of its scenery
and icebergs. . Edward MoRAN, a brother of Thomas,
already mentioned, studied under James Hamilton.
He is a marine-painter of repute, and has successfully
introduced, the human figure into some of his paint-
ings. William T. Richards was at first a decided Pre-
126
PAINTING.
Raphaelite, but later acquired greater freedom of
handling. Of late years his attention has been directed
especially to the painting of marine and coast views.
His excellent water-colors show the same careful finish
which characterizes his work in oil. W. E. Norton
has shown his talents in compositions like the Fog
Horn and Crossing the Grand Banks, and Arthur
QUARTLEY (1839–86), who was originally a sign-painter,
Succeeded, though self-taught, in placing himself in a
few years in the front rank of our marine-painters.
Alfred T. BRICHER has produced some fresh and
Vigorous, coast-scenes, and J. C. NICOLL has worked
in this field, but like Bricher paints also landscapes.
He has more poetic feeling than that artist, however.
Francis A. Silva, Frank K. M. Rehn, Wm. P.W. Dana,
Harry Chase, R. C. Coxe, and S. S. Tuckerman are also
favorably known to the public. J. O. Davidson and
M. J. Burns have given much attention to book-
illustration. One of the most prominent among our
marine-painters of to-day is Maurice F. H. DE HAAs,
who was court-painter in Holland before he came to
America in 1859. His pictures, though broad, are yet
sufficiently finished in detail, and a number of strong
and brilliant compositions have come from his easel.
He has probably had influence on our marine art.
Coming now to animal-painting, we find that in this
department our art has not produced much that is
noticeable. As a scientific ornithological painter, John
J. AUDUBON (1780–1851) held high rank. T. H.
HINCKLEY was one of our earliest cattle-painters, but
never advanced beyond his first, really promising, at:
tempts. Henry C. Bispham produced some spirited
cattle-pieces. William J. HAYs (1830–75) devoted him-
self with some success to the delineation of the animal
world of the western prairies, and Alfred G. Miller
painted similar subjects. Arthur F. TAIT, an English
artist who has settled in this country, is well known to
the public, many of his works having been litho-
graphed and widely circulated. Walter M. Brackett
and Gurdon Trumbull are among those who have made
the painting of fish a specialty. William H. BEARD
has gained a reputation through his pictures of bears
and monkeys, in which the weaknesses and foibles
of humanity are reflected with caustic satire. His
brother, James H. Beard, has also won a respectable
}." as an animal-painter, as has also his nephew,
ames Carter Beard, although the latter has devoted
himself more especially to book-illustration. Peter
MORAN, the third of this artist-family, has been suc-
cessful in painting sheep and cattle, and James Hart,
as has been remarked before, is also favorably known
for his cattle-pieces. Thomas Robinson, George In-
ness, Jr., and J. Ogden Brown have also worked in
this field. Miss Fidelia BRIDGES is known by her
charming pictures of bird-life. Frank Rogers has had
some success in painting dogs, and Henry R. Poore
has also produced some good work in this department.
R. M. SHURTLEFF, known best as landscape-painter,
has introduced deer and other wild beasts into some of
his paintings of forest scenery.
In the départment of still-life, Raphaelle PEALE, a
son of C. W. Peale, was probably the first to practice.
George H. Hall (1826–SS) and A. J. H. Way have
both earned a reputation through their paintings of
fruit-pieces. H. W. Parton has been very successful
in some of his paintings of flowers, as has also Ellen
Robbins. In fact, a large number of ladies have en-
joyed a certain degree of success in this department.
William W. HARNETT has produced some still-life
pieces almost photographic in their truth to nature.
John LAFARGE's ideal and brilliant flower-pieces
have been much admired. It is as a colorist that he
excels, and he has given much attention to decorative
art, in which department he has produced some ex-
cellent work, notably in Trinity Church, Boston.
Francis LATHROP has also distinguished himself in
this direction.
Elihu VEDDER has striven to express his emotions American art to a still higher level.
and impressions in his works. Works like the Lair
of the Sea Serpent have especially aroused much
Criticism as to their deeper intent and purpose. Ved-
der is an artist of undoubted strength, who has shown
great imaginative power in his paintings, and in his
powerfully drawn illustrations to the Rubaiyat of
Omar Khayyam.
In entering upon the present period of our country's
art-development, we find a new force exerting itself,
new influences making themselves felt. The influence
of France is now manifest. Our art has again made a
step in advance. A growing discontent with old meth-
ods and conventionalities has found expression to a cer-
tain degree in the founding of societies like the Amer-
ican Art Association and the Art Students' League.
William M. Hunt (1824–79) did much to further
the cause of American art, and partly by introducing
the new art methods practised in France. He studie
for a short time at Düsseldorf, and then went to Paris,
where he became a pupil of Couture, and was further-
more influenced by } . F. Millet, whose art-methods he
was one of the first to discover and to emulate. He
worked in genre, portraiture, landscape, and decora-
tive painting, a notable example of his work in the last
department being The Flight of Night and The Dis-
coverer, in the capitol at Albany. In the works of
Some of the artists already mentioned in this sketch, a
leaning towards the progressive spirit of the new move-
ment makes itself strongly felt. Of our figure-painters
of to-day, two, especially, have had a most decided in-
fluence on our art—Walter SHIRLAW and William M.
CHASE, both of whom have been instructors in the Art
Students' League. Trained in the school of Munich,
Shirlaw has an excellent technical knowledge, paints
broadly, and has decided feeling for color-values. I) e.
of his most important works, Sheep-shearing in the
Bavarian Highlands, has been favorably received at
home and abroad. Chase has been particularly suc-
cessful in the painting of single figures like The Ap-
prentice, Waiting for the Ride, etc., in which he shows
a fine sense of color. He has also produced some
characteristic portraits. Many of our “younger men ''
show in their works a thorough sympathy with the
present tendencies of our art. Frank Duyeneck, Wil-
liam Sartain, Robert Koehler, J. Alden Weir, Winslow
Homer, Louis C. Tiffany, A. H. Thayer, A. P. Ryder,
Wyatt Eaton, David D. Neal, F. P. Vinton, E. L.
Weeks, Henry Bacon, William H. Muhrman, F. A.
Bridgman, George Inness, Jr., William Dannat, Geo.
W. Maynard, F. D. Millet, E. H. Blashfield, Charles
S. Pearce, J. C. Beckwith, T. W. Dewing, Gilbert
Gaul, A. Kappes, Hamilton Hamilton, C. F. Ulrich,
I. R. Wiles, C. Y. Turner, Robert Blum, Kenyon
Cox, H. S. Mowbray, George de Forest Brush, C. C.
Curran, Louis Moeller, Fred. Dielman, are among those
identified with the new art movement. To these
should be added nearly all of the younger landscapists
mentioned previously in this article. In realistic por-
traiture some excellent results have been achieved by
Eastman Johnson, Moses Wight, B. C. Porter, J. A.
Weir, Thomas Eakins, and John S. Sargent. J. A.
M. WHISTLER, who has for many years lived in Lon-
don, is known chiefly for his experiments in color, and
his skill in etching. Will H. Low, Edwin A. Abbey,
and Charles S. Reinhart, although they have worked
with much success in color, have been more promi-
nent in the department of book-illustration.
As one critic has observed, this new movement
should be regarded not so much as an attempt at re-
form, but simply as another step in advance, another
stage in the progress of art in this country. It can,
of course, not be said that all the qualities of good art
are united in the methods of this new school. With
the great advance in technical knowledge there has
come in also an undue leaning towards ultra-realism.
It remains for the succeeding generation of artists to
modify many of these aims and principles, and to º
(F. L. W.
PALEY-PALMER.
12,
PALEY, FREDERICK APTHORP, an English clas-
sical scholar, was born at Easingwold, near York, Eng-
land, in 1816. He is a grandson of Rev. William
Paley (1743–1805), the celebrated author of The Evi-
dences of Christianity, for whom see the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA. Frederick graduated at Cam-
bridge in 1838, and was tutor there until 1846, when
he became a Roman Catholic. He then retired to
London, where he edited with great ability AEschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides, Hesiod, Theocritus, and other
classics. He translated into English the tragedies of
AEschylus and the odes of Pindar. He was a friend
of Pugin and in early life gave much attention to
Gothic architecture. His Manual of Gothic Mouldings
has passed through several editions. He also pub-
lished A Manual of Gothic Architecture and essays on
kindred subjects, and Greek Wit, a collection of say-
ings and stories from the Greek prose-writers.
ALFREY, John GoRHAM & 796–1881), historian,
was born at Boston, May 2, 1796. His grandfather,
Col. William Palfrey (1741–1780), was paymaster-gen-
eral of the Revolutionary army, and was lost at Sea
while on his way to France as consul-general. John
graduated at Harvard College in 1815, and became
minister of Brattle Street (Unitarian) Church in 1818.
He was Dexter professor of sacred literature in Har-
vard College from 1831 to 1839, and edited the North
American Review from 1836 to 1843. He was a
member of the Massachusetts legislature in 1842, and
secretary of state from 1844 to 1847. In 1846 he
published in the Boston Whig a series of articles on
“The Progress of the Slave-Power.” In 1847 he was
elected to Congress as an anti-slavery Whig but served
only one term. He was defeated as candidate for
i. in 1851, and then retired from public life,
evoting himself to literature. He was called forth
again in 1861 to become postmaster of Boston, which
office he held five years. He died at Cambridge,
Mass., April 26, 1881. Besides a History of the
church to which he had ministered, and a biography
of his grandfather, he published his lectures on The
Jewish Scripture and Antiquities (4 vols., 1833–52),
on The Evidences of Christianity, and on the Relation
between Judaism and Christianity (1854). His most
noted work is the History of New England, of which
three volumes appeared (1858–64), bringing the work
down to 1688, the end of the first cycle in the author's
division. He then abridged this work into two
volumes (1866) and afterwards continued the abridged
edition in two more volumes (1872–73), bringing the
history down to 1765. His work is written with force,
dignity, and impartiality, and gives a faithful picture
of the toils and struggles of the people of New Eng-
land in founding a virtuous republic.
His son, FRANCIS WINTHROP PALFREY, born April
11, 1831, graduated at Harvard in 1851, and studied
law. In the civil war he served as lieutenant-colonel
of a Massachusetts regiment, and was severely
wounded. He has published Antietam and Fred-
ericksburg (1882) and some other volumes.
PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER, an English poet,
was born at London, Sept. 28, 1824. He was the son
of Sir Francis Palgrave (1788–1861), the historian of
Normandy, for whom see the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA. He was educated at the Charter house
School and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he grad-
uated in 1844. He was chosen a fellow of Exeter
College, and was afterwards vice-principal of a train-
ing school at Kneller Hall for five years. He was long
employed in the educational bureau of the Privy
Council. He has been both author and editor of
lyric poems and hymns. His works comprise Idyls
and Songs (1854); Hymns (1867); Lyrical Poems
(1871); and some publications on art. His collection
called The Golden Treasury of English Lyrical Poetry
(1861) is deservedly famous. He was appointed pro-
fessor of poetry at Oxford in 1886.
His brother, WILLIAM GIFFORD PALGRAVE, was
born at Westminster, Jan, 24, 1826. He was educated
at the Charter house and at Trinity College, Oxford,
where he graduated in 1846. He was an officer in the
Indian army until 1853, when he entered the Roman
Catholic Church, Becoming a Jesuit, he studied
theology at Laval, France, was ordained a priest and
sent as a missionary to Syria. Having become well
versed in Arabic and in Mohammedan theology, he
went in 1862 in the disguise of a physician through
the Wahabite kingdoms of Central Arabia. After
his return to Europe in 1863 he left the order of the
Jesuits. In 1865 he went to Abyssinia to k."; the
release of the British prisoners held by King Theo-
dore. He was appointed British consul at Souk-
houni-Kalé in 1866, at Trebizond in 1867, at St.
Thomas, West Indies, in 1873, at Manilla in 1876, and
consul-general to Bulgaria in 1878, and to Siam in
1880. He has published A Year's Journey through
Central and Eastern Arabia (1865); Essays on Eastern
Questions (1872); Hermann Agha (1872); Alkamah's
Cave (1875); Dutch Guiana (1878).
PAiMER, BENJAMIN MoRGAN, Presbyterian min-
ister, was born at Charleston, S. C.; Jan. 25, 1818.
He graduated at the University of Georgia in 1838,
and at Columbia Theological Seminary in 1841. He
was then ordained pastor of the First Presbyterian
Church, Savannah, but two years later accepted a call
to a pastorate in Columbia. Here he was also a
director of the Theological Seminary, and from 1853
to 1856 was its professor of church history and polity.
In 1856 he became pastor of the First Presbyterian
Church in New Orleans. He assisted in founding the
Southern Presbyterian Review in 1847, and has since
been one of its editors. He earnestly supported the
secession movement and the Confederate cause. In
1861 he was moderator of the first General Assembly.
of the Southern Presbyterian Church at Augusta, Ga.
He published Life and Letters of J. H. Thornwell
(1875); The Family in its Civil and Churchly Aspects
(1876); and some volumes of sermons.
PALMER, ERASTUs Dow, sculptor, was born in
Onondaga co., N. Y., April 2, 1817. He was a
carpenter at Utica, N. Y., for several years, but in 1846
settled at Albany and engaged in cameo-cutting.
Finding this occupation injurious to his sight he
turned to sculpture, being now thirty-five years of age.
His first work was The Infant Ceres, modelled from
one of his own children. He then made bas-reliefs,
The Morning Star, The Evening Star, Resignation,
Peace in Bondage. Among his full-length figures are
an Indian Girl Finding a Crucifix, The White Captive,
and The Emigrant's Children. For the Capitol at
Washington he made, in 1857, a group of sixteen
figures, representing The Landing of the Pilgrims, but
it was placed in the pediment for which it was
designed. Palmer has also made portrait busts of
Com. M. C. Perry, Washington Irving, Gov. E. D.
Morgan, and others. He did not visit Europe until
1873, when he spent some time in study at Paris.
His statue of R. R. Livingston obtained a first-class
medal at the Centennial Exhibition. His conceptions
are highly poetic, and are wrought out with strict re-
gard to nature. Several of his best works are ideal
medallions.
His son, WALTER LUNT PALMER, born at Albany,
Aug. 1, 1854, studied art in Paris, and settled at New
York in 1877, devoting himself chiefly to landscape-
painting. In 1882 he removed to Albany. Among
his works are An Editor's Study (1880); Venice
(1882); The Oat-Field (1884); January (1887).
PALMER, JAMES CRox ALL (1811–1883), surgeon-
general U. S. navy, was born at Baltimore, Md., June
29, 1811. He graduated at Dickinson College in
1829 and studied medicine in the University of Mary-
land. In 1834 he entered the naval service as assistant-
surgeon, and within a year sailed around the world.
In 1838 he joined Wilkes's exploring expedition and
encountered various perils in the Antarctic regions.
128
PALMER—PANCOAST.
His vessel being wrecked at the mouth of the Columbia
River in 1841, he spent some months on shore in soil
entific work. He was commissioned surgeon on his
return to New York, and soon after had charge of the
numerous Wounded by the explosion on board the U. S.
steamer Princeton. He served off the coast of Mexico
during the war with that country, afterwards in the
Pacific, and on the steam-frigate Niagara during the
first attempt to lay the Atlantic cable. At the out.
break of the civil war he took medical charge of the
naval, academy then removed to Newport, R. I. In
1863 he joined Admiral Farragut's blockading squad-
Ton, and he was attached to the flagship Hartford dur-
ing the battle of Mobile Bay. At the close of the
War Dr. Palmer returned to the North with health
greatly impaired, but had charge of the naval hospital
at Brooklyn for four years. e was commissioned as
medical director in March, 1871, and as surgeon-gen-
eral in June, 1872, but retired a year later. He died
at Washington April 24, 1883.
His brother, JoHN WILLIAMSON PALMER (1825–
1874), was born at Baltimore April 4, 1825. He grad-
uated at the University of Maryland in 1847, studied
medicine, and became city physician in San Francisco
in 1851 and surgeon in the East India Company's ser-
yiee in the Burmese war. His graphic sketches of
life in California and India were published in Putnam's
Monthly and the Atlantic Monthly. During the givil
War he was a Confederate war correspondent of the
Mew York Tribune. After the war he was a physician
in Baltimore, but in 1870 removed to New York.
Among his books are The Golden Dagon (1853); New
and Old (1859); Folk-Songs (1860), and some novels
and art-books.
PALMER, JoHN McCAULEY, general, was born at
Eagle Creek, Scott co., Ky., Sept. 13, 1817. Having
removed to Illinois during his youth, he became a
lawyer at Carlinsville and was elected to the State
Senate in 1852–4. He took part in the formation of
the Republican party and was presidential elector on
its ticket in 1860. In April, 1861, he became colonel
of the Fourteenth Illinois volunteers and was engaged
in Missouri. He was made brigadier-general of vol-
unteers in December, and took part in the capture of
New Madrid. His gallantry at the battle of Stone
River, Jan. 1–3, 1863, where he commanded a division,
secured his promotion to major-general. He fought
at Chickamauga and commanded the fourteenth corps
in the Atlanta campaign. When Gen. O. O. Howard
was promoted to the command of the right wing of
Sherman's army, on the death of Gen. McPherson,
Gen. Palmer, who thought himself entitled to the po-
sition, asked to be relieved, and was assigned to the
command of the department of Kentucky. He was
governor of Illinois from 1869 to 1873.
PALMER, RAY (1808–1887), hymn-writer, was born ||
at Little Compton, R. I., Nov. 12, 1808. He grad-
uated at Yale College in 1830 and engaged in teaching.
In 1832 he was licensed to preach in the Congregational
Church, and he was pastor of the Central Church,
Bath, Maine, from 1835 to 1850. He was then called
to the First Congregational Church, Albany, N. Y.,
and was its pastor, until 1866, when he became secre-
tary of the American Congregational Union in New
York city. During the twelve years of his secretary-
ship the society assisted in erecting over 600 church
buildings. Dr. Palmer was, during the same period,
one of the visitors of Andover Theological Seminary,
and was engaged in literary work. In 1878 he retired
to Newark, N. J., where he died March 29, 1887.
Dr. Palmer is best known as the author of the hymn,
“My Faith looks up to Thee,” which has been trans.
lated into more than twenty languages. Others of
his hymns have been widely used. His Complete
Poetical Works were published in 1876. He also
published Closet Hours (1851); Home, or , the
Unlost Paradise (1868); Voices of IIope and Gladness
(1880).
PALMETTO is the representative form taken by
See Vol. XVIII the palm within the limits of the United
{}. is ºn 1. States, and probably the most hardy
Am. Rep.). of the palms, since it extends north-
ward as far as the latitude of North
Carolina. Two genera and four species of palmetto
exist in the region between North Carolina and Florida,
the most important of these being Sabal Palmetto,
the cabbage pal-
N §N % metto, a noble
ãº/* Hºº
NºNWiśV/ 11. tº
§§§º % height of 50 ft. and
Šºša Ž Nº. N a diameter of 12
Sºſyº & N • e
=\% is º to 15 in. It is
23% Næ. %| ğış crowned with a
, º Ž , |\. º WN º
Ž / gº circle t of fan-
ſº %\ #|N shaped leaves of
| ſº W a b out 5 ft. in
| Tº
length and breadth
*
ſº and having long
º: footstalks. The
§ flowers, are small,
greenish, and in
long racemes, with
cup-shaped calyx
and 3-petalled co-
rolla, 6 stamens,
and a 3-celled
ovary. The fruit
is a 1-seeded drupe,
black, oblong, 4 to
5 in. in length,
- and not eatable.
2, º e ©
Palmetto Palm. This species re-
ceives its local name from the cabbage, or circle of
unexpanded leaves, which forms one of the most de-
licious of table vegetables.
The cabbage palmetto is found on the sandy coast
regions from Florida to North Carolina, and also occurs
in the Bermudas. Its wood is very porous, but is
almost imperishable under water, and is not attacked
by the teredo. Hence it is much esteemed for wharf-
building. The original Fort Moultrie, whose spongy
wood received the balls of the British guns without
injury, was built of palmetto logs. The leaves are
used in the manufacture of hats, baskets, mats, and
for various domestic purposes. The root is highly
astringent and has been proposed as a tanning material.
The other species of palmetto are of minor impor-
tance. S. serrulata, the saw palmetto, has a low
creeping, stem, 4 to 8 ft. long, with bright-green, fan-
shaped leaves, which are of use in hat-making. It
occurs on the Sandy coast soil from South Carolina
to Florida.
S. Adamsoni, the dwarf palmetto, is destitute of a
stem, sending up above the ground only a circlet of
fan-shaped leaves, 2 to 3 ft. long. It covers dense
patches of ground in the low coast regions from North
Carolina to Florida, growing well in marshy places.
Chamaerops hystric, the blue palmetto of Florida
and South Carolina, is a hardy dwarf fan palm, with
long-petioled, fan-shaped leaves. It grows in shady
woods, and is remarkable for the needle-like thorns
which, like porcupine quills, grow from the root min-
gled with the leaves. From these the specific name is
taken. The roots of the palmetto are so numerous
and strong in some soils as to make plowing difficult
and expensive. (C. M.)
PANCOAST, JosłPH .* an eminent
surgeon, was born in Burlington co., N. J., in 1805.
He obtained his degree at the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1828, and began teaching practical surgery in
1831. He was connected with the Philadelphia Hos-
oital from 1834 to 1845 and with the Pennsylvania
łºń from 1854 to 1864. He was elected professor
of surgery in the Jefferson Medical College in 1838,
and in 1847 exchanged this position for the professor-








wº PAPAW–PAPER.
129
ship of anatomy. Resigning in 1874, he was succeeded
by § son, Dr. William H. Pancoast (born Qct. 16,
1835). He was noted for his bold and successful sur-
gical operations, and introduced many improvements
which have been adopted by other surgeons. He was
especially successful in rhinoplasty, in removal ºf
tumors, and in amputations at the hip-joint. For the
latter he devised an abdominal tourniquet. He died
at Philadelphia March 7, 1882. He published a Treat-
ise on Operative Surgery (1844) which passed thrºugh
several editions, and revised Wistar's System of Anat-
omy and other works. He also contributed frequently
to the American Journal of the Medical Sciences and
other professional periodicals. &
PAPAW (Malay papaya), the fruit of Carica, pa-
paya, a small South American tree, whose fruit,
though not very palatable, is eaten. The root of the
papaw tree has an offensive odor, and the juice ºf the
fruit, before ripening, contains a remarkable albumi,
nous substance resembling fibrine. This plant is said
to have the property of rendering meat tender. Newly
killed meat hung among the leaves becomes soft and
delicate, and the flesh of hogs and poultry fed on its
leaves or fruit becomes remarkably tender. &
The name of papaw is also given to Asiming trilola,
a North American tree of from 10 to 20 ft. in height,
and to several smaller species of Asimina. The roots
4.5LAA/6
The North American Papaw.
and bark of these trees have an extremely nauseous
odor. The ripe fruit is about 3 in, long by 13 in.
thick, of yellowish color and irregular oval form. The
ulp is soft and insipid, containing several large seeds.
t has no marketable value, though eaten to some
extent. The tree grows in the sandy regions of
Georgia and Florida. C. M.)
PAPER. This article is º to#. º
St of paper in America. The development
See Yol. XVIII, of º paper-making industry º the
K.”...[R. " (inited Štites as to most of its details
Am. Rep.). United States as to most of its details
is of comparatively recent growth, but
not the less noteworthy and remarkable. The first
aper-mill in North America was established in 1690
§ William Rittinghuysen, whose descendants, under
the name of Rittenhouse, perpetuate this Dutch
patronymic. Rittinghuysen, associating himself with
William Bradford, the Philadelphia printer, built his
mill in Roxborough, on Paper-mill Run, near the
Wissahickon Creek, and about 2 miles from the Schuyl-
kill River. This locality is now included within the
limits of the city of Philadelphia. Twenty years later
(1710) the second paper-mill in America was built in
Germantown (now also a part of Philadelphia) by
William DeWees. The d. paper-mill was also
started in Pennsylvania in 1728, and in 1730 the first
mill in New England was opened at Milton, Mass.
By 1770 forty mills were in operation in Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, and Delaware; while in 1775, at the out-
break of the Revolution, only four are on recºrd as being
located in New England. The first mill in New Jersey
was started by Bradford in 1728.
These earliest beginnings were followed, by enter-
prises of a similar kind in the other English colonies,
a detailed account of which is unnecessary. The
rowth of the industry during 120 years is illustrated
#. the fact that in 1810 there were said to be 185 mills
in the United States. Until this time the materials
used in paper-making had been solely of home produc-
tion, but in 1810 rags were first imported from
Europe. tº
In 1817 there is the first record of a paper-making
machine in America. This is believed to have been a
cylinder machine. The first Fourdrinier machine, in
use in this country was set up at Saugerties, N.Y.,
and started by Peter Adams on Oct. 24, 1827. This
was followed by others, and some of the most impor-
tant changes in paper-making mechanism have since
that time found birth in America. . In 1828 the system
of uniting two sheets of paper in the process of forma:
tion so as to make a thicker sheet was invented and
put in operation here. & es
Various improvements in paper-making machinery
have been made from time to time. The Fourdrinier,
while preserving its form and essential principles, has
not been neglected, but in many respects has received
the benefit of American invention. So, too, with the
cylinder machine, which has developed from a single
cylinder to two, three, and four cylinders. The Har-
per improved Fourdrinier, invented by James Harper,
of New Haven, is a combination of the Fourdrinier and
cylinder machines, the direction of motion requiring
that the Fourdrinier shall be turned end for end. It
would be impossible, however, to review all of the
details of the changes in paper-machines and in paper-
making machinery in general. In all of the processes,
from the handling of the raw material to the output of
the finished product, in the preparation and cleaning
of the stock, in the work of boiling, beating, and
reducing paper-making fibres to pulp fit for conversion
into paper, and in carrying forward the work of manu-
facture, the skill of the American inventor and artisan
has been called into play. Not the least noteworthy
fact in this connection is the increase in the speed of
the Fourdrinier machine, the rapidity of manufacture
in America being regarded with surprise by the paper-
makers of other countries. While this machine formerly
ran at a rate of speed capable of producing 24 lineal ft.
of paper per minute, afterwards increasing to 40 ft.,
which was regarded as an important advance in manu-
facture, American machines are now speeded up to the
production of 250 lineal ft. of paper, the full width of
the machine, and this is not regarded as an extraor-
dinary occurrence except by those who are unfamiliar
with American paper-making and its methods.
In the preparation of the pulp much improvement
has been gained by the introduction of what are called
refining-engines, of which those known by the names
of their respective inventors are the type. These
embrace the Kingsland engine, the Jordan, the Gould,
the Jeffers, and the Marshall, all of which are in use,
Some of them in Europe, although the introduction of
these machines in European paper-mills has been slow,
and their employment there for the most part is of
recent growth. As adjuncts of the paper-machine and
for finishing purposes the calenders, consisting of sets
of metal or paper rolls combined in a frame, and
forming what is called a stack, have also been the
subject of improvements. Chilled-iron rolls are used
in these stacks, and one of the most important improve-
ments in connection therewith has been the invention
of a machine for grinding the faces of these rolls and
rendering them true and perfectly cylindrical. This
machine is of American origin, and the only one of its
kind. Various devices for use in connection with the
calenders, such as calender-feeds, etc., have also orig-
inated in the United States, and become recognized

130 PAPINEAU-PARDOE.
appendages of the machine. As the paper after pass-
ing through the calenders has sometimes to be wound
and made into rolls, an appendage known as a winding-
machine, and by which the paper can be wound into
different length, after being cut into widths as it passes
from the calenders, has been invented. This winder
has several reeling devices automatic in action, and
maintains an even tension on each separate strip or
web of paper, and in case one strip breaks the other
rolls stop until a splice is made of the broken web.
Aside from these mechanical improvements noted there
are many others. The means for conveying power to
the machinery have all been largely improved, but
these and many other details must be passed by.
. In considering the growth of the American paper
industry the results of the introduction of mechanically
prepared wood-pulp and of wood-fibre produced by
chemical treatment must not be overlooked. The
method of grinding wood so as to render it useful as a
raw material for paper was introduced in the United
States about 1869–70. This was the first great step
in the cheapening process for ordinary news-and print-
papers, and it has served to bring down the price of
the manufactured article so that the product which
was sold as late as 1879 at 9 cts. per lb. is now (1888)
to be bought for 4 cts., and is at the same time of
better quality. This cheapening process has been
aided by improvéments in pulp-making machinery
made by American inventors, | is chiefly due to the
growth of this branch of the paper-making industry,
aided by a tariff which has encouraged the extension
of the industry and increased home competition. The
chemical treatment of wood, resulting in what is known
as wood-fibre, possessing stronger characteristics than
wood-pulp, and which goes into finer grades of paper,
was inaugurated in this country in 1854. This con-
sisted in the reduction of the wood to its pure fibre, or
cellulose, by boiling and treatment with alkaline solu-
tions. The process is generally known as the soda
Fº and was first put in operation at Royer's Ford,
a., where it is still practised, and has since extended
to various parts of the country. This alkali or soda
process induced many mechanical inventions for its
perfection and development. Of late another chem-
ical process of disintegrating wood and separating its
fibres so as to adapt them for conversion into paper has
come into competition with the alkali process, and with
marked influence on the latter. This is known as the
bisulphite process, and consists in treating wood under
pressure with a solution of sulphurous acid in combi-
nation with a base. This is essentially an American
invention. It was suggested and patented by Tilgh-
man, of Philadelphia, in 1869, but its costliness pre-
vented its practical application and development at that
time. Later, the process was taken up in Europe, and
means for conducting it on a profitable basis were
perfected, the American process maintaining its posi-
tion as a foundation principle. This fibre goes into
various grades of print- and writing-papers.
There are two other features of American paper-
making which have had influence on the industry at
karge. The first is the manufacture of straw-boards,
which was started by G. A. Shryock, of Chambersburg,
Pa., in 1829, and is still continued, improvements
having been made in this branch of production also.
Coated-paper for fine book-work is the other. The
elegance attained in the production of illustrations in
magazines has been due to a finish given to the surface
of the paper by means of a white coating after the paper
has been made.
The latest and what promises to be one of the most im-
portant changes in paper-making methods has been re-
cently developed. F. is the process of bleaching paper-
pulp by the employment of electricity, which is utilized
to electrolyze the bleaching solution. This is also the
invention of an American ; first put into successful and
practical operation in 1888. It effects a great saving
of bleaching material, and insures an economy in manu-
facture which may induce a revolution in the produc-
tion of what are known as bleaching-powders.
. In concluding this condensed review of paper-making
in America some further statistics of the trade will be
found of interest. There are in the United States
about 1100 paper- and pulp-mills. The mills located
in other parts of America number 85. These, with
those projected, and on which the work of construction
has begun, will doubtless make the record for 1888
fully equal to 1200 mills representing this important
industry in this hemisphere. There are in the Domin-
ion of Canada 62 paper- and pulp-mills; in Mexico 11
paper-mills; while in all of the remainder of America,
ºins the West India islands, there are only 12
Ill 11|S.
The value of the paper manufactured in the United
States in 1820 was estimated at $3,000,000, and the
business gave employment to 5000 hands. In 1873
the production was 317,387 tons, the capital invested
was $43,500,000, and the help employed numbered
22,042. During the last eight years the American
paper industry has advanced from No. 21, as classified
among the manufacturing industries of the country in
the census tables of 1880, to No. 14 in the same classi-
fication, having nearly doubled in value. The follow-
ing are the statistics of the trade for 1887:
Capital invested............................ ...... $80,000,000
Tons of paper made............................. 1,200,000
Value of product................................. $95,000,000
Number of hands employed.................. 40,000
Wages paid......................................... $18,500,000
The total daily producing capacity (in lbs.) of the
paper- and pulp-mills of the tº. States for the
years undermentioned is given in Lockwood's Directory
of the Paper-Trade (14th ed.) as follows: 1881,
5,315,400 lbs. ; 1883, 6,949,800 lbs. ; 1884, 7,867,830
lbs. ; 1885, 8,147,060 lbs. ; 1886–87, 8,354,480 lbs.
J. A. C.)
PAPINEAU, LOUIs Joseph (1789–1871), a Cana-
dian politician, was born at Montreal in October, 1789.
He was educated at Quebec and admitted to the bar,
but did not practice. Elected in 1809 to the provincial
parliament, he became the speaker of the house in
1815. Lord Dalhousie tried to neutralize his influence
as leader of the French party by making him a mem-
ber of the executive council, but Papineau would not
attend its meetings. When he was again chosen
speaker in 1827 Lord Dalhousie adjourned the parlia-
ment. Papineau prepared the list of grievances sub-
sequently known as the 92 Resolutions, which he sup-
ported in the house and afterwards by Speeches
throughout the country. He also recommended com-
mercial non-intercourse with England. In 1836 he
induced the parliament to vote only six months' sup-
plies to the government, but the measure was vetoed,
and the administration conducted without regard to
parliament. As long as the French party, followed
Papineau, their opposition was confined within peace-
ful limits, but when they took up arms he publicly
declared that resistance by constitutional means would
alone avail. The rebels were soon defeated and Papi-
neau, who was proclaimed an outlaw, took refuge in
the United States. Thence he passed to France, but
in 1847 he returned to Canada under the amnesty of
1840, and was again elected to parliament. Though
he retained his popularity, he did not resume his lead-
ership. In 1854 }. retired from public life, and he
died at Montebello, Sept. 23, 1871.
PARDOE, JULIA g 806–1862), an English author
noted for abundance of her literary labor, was born at
Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1806. At the age of 13 she
had produced a volume of poems, and at 15 a novel.
Her travels on the Continent and residence at Con-
stantinople furnished material for descriptive works
and romances. In 1859 she received a literary pension
from the British government. She died Nov. 26,
1862. Her most important works were Traits and
PARDON.—PARKER.
131
Traditions of Portugal (1833); City of the Sultan
(1836); Romance of the Harem (1839); City of the
Magyar (1840); Louis the Fourteenth (1847); Court
of Francis I. (1849); Episodes of French History
1859).
( PARDON. In addition to what is said in the EN-
CYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, Vol. XVIII., p. 271 (p.
276 Am. Rep.), it will suffice to mention that the rule
or usage in the several States of the American Union
in regard to the exercise of the pardoning power may
be found in the second part of the article CONSTITU-
TION, treating of the “State Constitutions.”
PAREPA-ROSA. See ROSA.
PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE D'ORLEANs, COMTE DE,
was born in Paris, Aug. 24, 1838, being the eldest son
of the Duke of Orleans and grandson of King Louis
Philippe. He was educated by Adolphe Regnier, at
Paris, and after the Revolution of 1848 at Eisenach.
He became proficient in foreign languages and travelled
extensively. In 1860 he went with his brother, the
Duc de Chartres, to Syria, and published Damas et le
Liban (1861). The brothers came to America after
the outbreak of the civil war, and in September, 1861,
were placed on the staff of Gen. McClellan. They
remained with him until after the failure of his cam-
paign against Richmond, when they retired to escape
the complications growing out of the French opera-
tions in Mexico. É. the declaration of war between
France and Prussia, the Comte de Paris applied for
ermission to enter the French army, but was refused.
}. 1873, by his visit to the Comte de Chambord, at
Frohsdorf, the breach between the two branches of the
former royal family was healed. On the death of
Chambord in 1883 the Comte de Paris was recognized
as heir to his pretensions to the throne of France.
Yet he lived under the Republic; at Paris, or at his
Château d'Eu, and held the rank of lieutenant-colonel
in the army until 1886. He was then obliged to with-
draw from the country, and in November, 1887, he
issued an address advising the French people to restore
the monarchy. His literary ability was shown first in
contributions to the Revue des Dewa: Mondes of articles
on various public questions. With his brother he pub-
lished Duc d'Orléans, campagnes de l'armée d'Afrique,
1835–39 (1870). His most important work is the His-
toire de la Guerre civile en Amérique (6 vols., 1874–84),
of which an American edition has been issued, trans-
lated by Dr. Henry Coppée. Though not free from
orrors, it is the best history of the war yet published.
PARK, EDWARDS AMASA, theologian, was born at
Providence, R. I., Dec. 29, 1808. e graduated in
1826, at Brown University, where his father, Calvin
Park (1774–1847), was professor, and in 1831 at An-
dover Theological Seminary. He was pastor of the
Congregational Church at Braintree, Mass., four years,
and then became professor of moral and intellectual
philosophy in Amherst College. In 1836 he was made
professor of sacred rhetoric at Andover, and in 1847
professor of Christian theology, which post he held
forty-four years, resigning in 1881. He was a fore-
most representative of what is called New England
theology. He was active in literary work, and was one
of the founders and editors of the Bibliotheca Sacra.
He edited the works of W. B. Homer (1842), B. B.
Edwards (1853), S. Hopkins (1852), and N. Emmons
(1861), and wrote the accompanying memoirs, and also
published biographies of other divines. To the Dis-
courses and Treatises on the Atonement (1859) he fur-
nished an introduction on The Rise of the Edwardean
Theory of the Atonement. With Dr. Austin Phelps
he edited The Sabbath Hymn-Book (1858), and Hymns
and Choirs (1860). After his retirement he published
Discourses on Theological Doctrines as related to Relig-
ious Character (1885).
PARKE, JOHN GRUBB, general, was born near
Coatesville, Pa., Sept. 22, 1827. He graduated at
West Point in 1849, and entered the topographical
engineers. His principal work was on the north-west
boundary survey until the outbreak of the civil war.
In November, 1861, he was made brigadier-general of
volunteers, and took part in Gen. Burnside's expedi-
tion to North Carolina. In August, 1862, he accom-
panied Gen. Burnside when he joined the Army of
the Potomac, served as his chief of staff at South
Mountain and Antietam, and continued in the Sarne
position when Burnside took command of the whole
army. After the battle of Fredericksburg, Gen. Parke
had command of the Ninth corps in its march to
Vicksburg, and commanded the left wing of Gen.
Sherman's army at Jackson, July 12, 1863. When
Gen. Burnside resumed command of the Ninth corps,
Gen. Parke had a division and was engaged in the de-
fence of Knoxville. In the campaign of 1864 against
Richmond he again assumed command of the Ninth
corps and took part in various operations until Gen.
Lee's surrender. In 1864 he had been made major in
the Engineer corps, and after the close of the war he
was engaged in the office of the chief of that corps.
He rose to the rank of colonel in 1884, and in June,
1887, was made superintendent of West Point
Academy.
PARKER, AMASA JUNIUS, jurist, was born at
Sharon, Conn., June 2, 1807. Removing to New
York in early life, he became a teacher, and in 1825
graduated at Union College. In 1828 he was admitted
to the bar and formed a partnership with his uncle,
Amasa Parker, of Delhi, N. Y. In 1833 he was
elected to the State legislature, and in 1837 to Con-
gress, where he served one term. In 1844 he became
vice-chancellor of New York, and later a judge of the
State Supreme Court. In 1859 he was appointed U.
S. district attorney. He was afterwards member of
State constitutional conventions but held no office.
He was active in procuring reform in the procedure of
the courts of New York. He published 6 volumes
of Reports (1855–69), and assisted in preparing the
Revised Statutes (3 vols., 1859). -
R , FOXHALL ALEXANDER (1821–1879),
commodore, was born in New York city, Aug. 5, 1821,
being a son of a naval captain of the same name. He
graduated from the naval school in 1843, and served
against the Seminole Indians, on the Coast Survey,
and in the Mediterranean squadron. On the outbreak
of the civil war he was made executive officer at the
Washington navy-yard and he frequently gave assist-
ange to the operations of the army in that vicinity.
With the rank of commander in 1862, he was engaged
off Wilmington, Yorktown, and Charleston, having
charge at the latter of a naval battery on Morris Isl:
and. Afterwards he commanded the Potomac flotilla
till the close of the war, and was promoted to be cap-
tain for his services. In 1872 he was made chief-of-
staff to the North Atlantic fleet and from 1873 to 1876
was chief signal officer of the navy. In 1878 he was
appointed superintendent of the Naval Academy. He
died at Annapolis, Md., June 10, 1879. He published
treatises on howitzers and naval tactics which are used
as text-books in the U. S. Naval Academy. He also
translated from the Spanish Elia, or Spain Fifty
Years Ago (1866), and published Fleets of the World,
ſº ºw Period (1876); and the Battle of Mobile Bay
1878),
PARKER, JoEL (1795–1875), jurist, was born at
Taffrey, N. H., Jan. 25, 1795. He graduated at Dart-
youth College in 1811 and became a lawyer at Keene,
N. H. In 1833 he was made a judge of the State
Supreme Court and in 1838 became chief justice. In
1840 he was chairman of a committee to revise the
laws of New Hampshire, and in 1847 was made pro-
fessor in Harvard University. He died at Cambridge,
Aug. 17, 1875. - Among his numerous publications
were Personal Liberty Laws (1861); War Powers of
Congress and the President (1863); Revolution and
Reconstruction (1866); The Three Powers of Govern-
ment (1867); Conflict of Decisions (1871).
PARKER, JoBL, D. D. (1799–1873), was born at
132
PARKER—PARKS.
Bethel, Vt., Aug. 27, 1799. He graduated at Hamil-
ton College in 1824, and was ordained to the Presby-
terian ministry in 1826. He had charges in Rochester, b
New Orleans, Philadelphia, New York city, and Newark.
He was president of Union Theological Seminary,
1840–42, holding, also the professorship of sacred
literature. He died at New York, May 3, 1873. He
published several religious works and was for a time
editor of the Presbyterian Quarterly Review.
PARKER, Joseph, English Congregationalist
preacher, was born at Hexham, April 9, 1830. He
was educated at University College, London, and was
ordained pastor of a Congregationalist church at Ban-
bury in 1853, and afterwards ministered to a church
in Manchester. Since 1869 he has been pastor of
City Temple, London. In theology he is conservative
and orthodox ; as a preacher he ias been considered
to resemble Henry Ward Beecher, and on the death
of the latter Dr. Parker was invited to preach his
memorial discourse. He accepted the task but after-
wards returned to his work in London. Among Dr.
Parker's publications are Emanuel (1859); Ecce Deus
(1868), a reply to Ecce Homo ; The Paraclete (1874);
Ad Clerum (1870); The Priesthood of Christ (1876);
The Immer Life of Christ (3 vols., 1881–2); Apostolic
Life (3 vols., 1882–4). He has commenced the publi-
cation of a series of discourses under the title The
People's Bible. His sketches of ministerial life, Spring-
dale Abbey (1869), and Tyme Chylde (1883), are partly
autºbiºgraphie.
PARKER, PETER (1804–1888), missionary, was
born in Framingham, Mass., June 18, 1804. He
graduated at Yale in 1831, and having studied medi-
cine as well as theology, was ordained in 1834 and sent
as missionary to China. He established a hospital at
Canton which received 2000 patients in its first year.
Many Chinese also received instruction in medicine
and surgery from him. He visited the United States
in 1840, but resumed his missionary work in 1842.
As secretary to the U. S. embassy he rendered valua-
ble service. In 1855 he again visited the United States,
but soon returned to conduct negotiations with the
Chinese government. In 1857 he returned to the
United States and fixed his home at Washington. He
was an active member of the Evangelical Alliance, and
in its behalf visited the Emperor of Russia in 1871.
He died at Washington, D.C., Jan. 10, 1888. He
published Journal of an Expedition from Singapore to
Japan (1838).
fº &ER, WILLARD (1800–1884), surgeon, was
born at Lyndeborough, N. H., Sept. 2, 1800. He
graduated at Harvard College in 1826, and studied
medicine and surgery under Dr. J. C. Warren. He
was soon made professor of anatomy in the Vermont
Medical College and in Berkshire College, and in 1836
was called to Cincinnati. After a visit to Europe he
was in 1839 made professor of surgery in the New
York College of Physicians and Surgeons. . Dur-
ing the thirty years in which he held this position he
made several improvements in practical surgery, includ-
ing the operation of cystotomy. In 1846 he was 90m-
cerned in the organization of the Bellevue Hospital,
and was appointed one of its visiting surgeons. In
1864 he exerted himself to procure the formation of
the New York City Board of Health and afterwards
served as one of its members. In 1865 he was made
president of the State Inebriate Asylum at Bingham-
ton, and in 1869 was made professor of clinical surgery
in the institution with which he had long been asso-
ciated. He was also consulting surgeon to several
New York hospitals, and a hospital for contagious dis-
cases was named in his honor." He retired from prac.
tice in 1882, and died April 25, 1884. His only pub-
lications were contributions to medical journals.
PARKERSBURG, a city of West Virginia, county-
seat of Wood co., is on the Ohio River at the mouth
of the Little Kanawha, about 95 miles below Wheel-
ing and 196 miles from Cincinnati. Its railroads are
the Baltimore and Ohio, the Ohio River, and the
Cincinnati, Wheeling, and Baltimore; there is also a
ranch road to Marietta. The Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad bridge over the Ohio is one of the longest in
the United States. Parkersburg has a U. S. govern-
ment building, 3 hotels, 4 national banks, 1 daily and
4 weekly newspapers, 12 churches, 6 public school
buildings, and a female seminary. It has 3 foundries,
2 machine-shops, railroad repair-shops, 5 large oil-
refineries, and several factories, producing furniture,
barrels, veneer, acids. There are 4 flour- and 3 lumber-
mills. Parkersburg has gas- and water-works, a good
fire department, and a park. Its public debt is
$125,000 and its yearly expenses $45,000. It is the
centre of the petroleum trade of West Virginia and
South-western Ohio. It was settled in 1773 by Vir-
ginians, was incorporated in 1820. The population in
1880 was 6582.
PARKMAN, FRANCIS, historian, was born in Bos-
ton, Sept. 16, 1823. His father, Francis Parkman,
D. D. (1788–1852), was pastor of the New North Church
(Unitarian) from 1813 to 1849, and was noted for his
charitable labors. The son graduated at Harvard in 1844
and then made a tour across the Western prairies,
which he described in sketches first published in the
Knickerbocker Magazine. He afterwards visited Eu-
rope. Though afflicted with partial blindness, he fol-
lowed the example of Prescott and devoted himself
to historical investigation. The first result appeared
in his History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851),
to which his familiarity with actual Indian life gave
special value. He then essayed a novel in 1856,
but his subsequent works, which have brought him
fame, have all related to the history of the French in
North America. They comprise The Pioneers of
France in the New World (1865); The Jesuits in North
America in the Seventeenth Century (1867); The Dis-
covery of the Great West (1869); The Old Regime in
Canada (1876); Count Frontenac and New France
under Louis XIV (1880); Wolfe and Montcalm
(1885). These successive volumes by their graphic
style, their thorough research, and careful judgment,
have become standard works on that part of American
history to which they relate.
PARKS. The idea of providing pleasure-grounds
for the recreation of the people of large cities is one
of recent origin, though it is now being carried out
with all the Nineteenth century energy. In former
times the people were looked upon as of too little im-
portance for any public provision to be made for their
enjoyment, and though large tracts of forest and other
lands were set aside, they were held solely for the
pleasure of the nobility and royalty. Many such tracts
of crown lands have recently been utilized as parks for
the people, a striking evidence of the growing im-
portance of the populace. This is particularly the
case in France, where numerous preserved portions of
the ancient forests are now thrown open as public
pleasure-grounds.
In the old English manors the grounds were divided
into two portions. One of these immediately sur-
rounded the house, and was treated as a garden or an
elaborately ornamented pleasure-ground. The more
distant portion, known as the park, was less artificially
treated, being left principally to the broad handling of
nature. Most of these old parks were originally kept
as deer enclosures, and had the proper alternation of
open forest, grassy dales, and flowing streams for this
purpose. In many of the manorial parks the people
were given privileges, and in some of them they ag-
quired legal rights of crossing, but no park existed in
the modern popular sense. º
The recent European parks are as a rule old private
parks, or crown lands, now made free to the people
and adapted to public use. For this hº they
have been treated so as to bring out all their possi-
bilities of landscape beauty, being in some parts dealt
with elaborately as gardens, but usually on a broader
PARKS. 133
and freer scale than that suitable to landscape garden-
ing. It is the design in the park, indeed, to give a
suggestion of the open country, not of the contracted
house grounds, and for this it needs to be of consider-
able extent, and to embrace woodland, open meads,
glens, elevations, small lakes, flowing streams, and all
that constitutes and enhances the charm of attractive
landscapes. All this, of course, is necessarily done on
a small scale, except in the few parks of enormous di-
mensions, and the effort to improve the natural advan-
tages to the utmost leads usually to an artificial arrange-
ment which is far removed from the work of nature,
but which is, perhaps, more pleasing to city eyes.
European cities, Paris and London are the best
provided with parks. In France, as we have already
said, the ancient state forests have been utilized for
this purpose. There are more than 20 such domains
open to public use, within easy reach by rail of Paris,
varying in size from St. Cloud, of 1000 acres, to the
great forest of Fontainebleau, with its 81,740 acres
and its thousands of miles of roads and paths. Some
of these possess much natural beauty, such as fine old
trees, stretches of beautiful lawn, winding streams,
picturesque scenery, etc. They have already been
adapted to the enjoyment of many generations of
kings and nobles, and need little further change to
make them suitable for the recreation of the people.
Of those within ten miles of Paris the parks of Bou-
logne, Vincennes, St. Cloud, Marly, and St. Germain
are among the most notable. Versailles is yet more
famous, being admired for its palace and gardens more
than for its woodland scenery. The real parks of
Paris, however, are Boulogne (2158 acres), and Vin-
cennes (2225 acres). These are near the city, and form
the chief daily recreation-grounds of the people. The
Bois de Boulogne is not well adapted i. nature for
Fº purposes, being level and with poor soil, yet it
has been much improved in the portions adjoining the
great avenues which traverse it. There are in addition
several small parks of from 40 to 75 acres, and nu-
merous city Squares.
London is abundantly supplied with parks and small
breathing-spaces, which are well distributed throughout
the city, and comprise in all a very considerable area.
In the West End, for instance, occur Hyde Park (390
acres), Regent's Park (470 acres), Kensington Gardens
(360 acres), Green Park (70 acres), St. James Park (80
acres), and several smaller places. The other quarters
of the city are equally well provided, while outside the
metropolitan limits are numerous places of public
resort, among them several of great extent. Epping
Forest, now set aside for public use, contains 5600,
Richmond Park 2253, and the more distant Windsor
Park 3800 acres.
The other cities of Europe, while not equally well
provided with public pleasure-grounds, have their
parks, some of them quite extensive, and are adding
to their advantages with commendable rapidity. One
of the later ideas in this direction is the formation of
broad drives or parkways, adorned with trees and
grassy margins, walks, drives, and seats, and so laid
out as to form trunk-lines of traffic, with the interior
streets as feeders. Paris has taken the lead in this
conception, and has over 80 miles of such avenues,
from 100 to 300 feet wide. In all this city has 120
miles of tree-lined boulevards.
In the above respects Europe is in advance of the
United States, in which the park idea is only about 30
years old, though it has been carried out since its in-
auguration with that activity which forms a distinguish-
ing American characteristic. In planning the city of
Philadelphia William Penn provided five breathing
places for the inhabitants, which have recently been
much improved, though the largest one of them, indeed,
has been swallowed up as a site for the new City-Hall.
Boston took a similar step as early as 1634, by laying
aside the Common as a public garden, though it long
continued unimproved, and was used as a cow-pasture
within the memory of living men. This small en-
closure of 48 acres, with a smaller recent addition, is
all that Boston yet possesses in the way of a park,
though steps are now being taken to provide a series
of public pleasure-grounds on a scale more in accord-
ance with modern ideas.
The idea of the formation of Parks on a large scale
in American cities seems to have originated with A.
J. Downing, (q. v.) of New York, or at least he was
the first to openly advocate it in some articles written in
1850, in which he suggested the need of a great public
park in New York city. This suggestion quickly bore
fruit, for in the succeeding year the mayor of that city
strongly recommended the establishment of a park,
and in 1853 an act was passed setting aside the locality
of the present Central Park for that purpose. Another
locality, known as Jones's Woods, was also named, this
being a large and well-wooded tract along the East
River, opposite Blackwell's Island. It had better
natural advantages, but was of smaller size than the
Central Park tract, and was finally abandoned in favor
of the latter, which was purchased at a cost of
$5,160,369.90. The tract of land thus set aside is 2}
miles long by half a mile wide, and contains, with some
later additions, 683 acres. It extends from 59th to
110th streets and from Fifth to Eighth avenues on the
city plan, these streets, which were then open ground,
having since been solidly built up, so that the park is
now completely embraced by the city. One awkward
featuré of the locality is the existence of the two
Croton reservoirs, of 150 acres in extent, which are
so situated as to divide the park tract into two portions,
with but a narrow line of connection, and have been a
serious detriment to its full adaptation to public use.
Plans for its improvement were advertised for, the
accepted one being that offered by F. L. Olmsted and
Calvert Vaux, gentlemen well suited by their former
studies for the proper execution of the task thus as-
signed them. The ground chosen for the park was by
no means well adapted by nature for such a purpose.
Only a few slight elevations broke its general flatness,
and it presented an aspect of barren ugliness from
which it seemed a hopeless task to seek to work out a
Scene of beauty. But by the free expenditure of
money and the employment of all the resources of the
landscape gardener, Central Park has been made ex-
ceedingly attractive, there being few prettier places of
resort, for its extent, on the continent. The lower
park (that portion below the reservoirs) was neces-
sarily treated artificially, and is rather an extensive
garden than a park in any broad sense. A rocky
ridge of some slight elevation traversed it, and the
ground has been handled with great skill, bringing out
in full all its possibilities of improvement. Through
its reaches of umbrageous vegetation and broad
stretches of greensward runs a wide avenue, the Mall,
which is adorned with much fine statuary, and leads to
the Terrace, a very handsome architectural feature of
the park, ornamented with elaborate carvings and an
attractive fountain which overlooks the lake. The
latter is a winding sheet of water, managed with the
utmost skill, and for its extent perhaps the most at-
tractive bit of water scenery in any American city park.
Beyond the lake extends the Ramble, a hilly slope
leading to the reservoir, which has been treated with
less artificiality, and made to resemble an expanse of
undulating woodland.
The upper park, which is connected with the lower
by a narrow strip running along the reservoirs, has been
differently, treated. Its natural advantages were su-
perior, and a broader handling was adopted, without
the architectural adornments which constitute a leading
feature of the lower section. On the whole it may be
said that a very unpromising piece of land has been
Juanaged with great skill, and all its possibilities of
hº effect fully brought out. *
To the attractions proper to the park have been
added others of a very useful character. One corner
134
PARKS.
of it is 0&cupied by a Zoëlogical Garden on a small
scale, while in another has been erected the Metro.
politan Museum. of Art, whose collection of art objects
has no equal, free to the public, in this country.
Among its treasures are the invaluable Cesnola collec.
tion of Cypriote antiquities and large numbers of costly
paintings and statues, most of which have been re.
cently contributed to the Museum. Near this edifice
stands the Egyptian obelisk, a fine example of the
monolithic marvels of Egypt, which was brought from
its original seat and erected in Central Park a few years
ago. To these attractions may be added the Museum
of the Natural History. Society, erected on the edge
of the park, and well filled with geological and Zoëlog-
ical specimens.
In addition to Central Park the city of New York
possesses about 30 small breathing spaces, and the re-
cently laid Qut Riverside, Park, which extends along
the North River from 72d to 129th street, and is nota:
ble as the site of Gen. Grant's tomb. Since the great
extension of the park idea in other cities, many propo-
sitions have been made with the view of providing
New York with parks on a larger scale. The topogra.
phy of the city did not accord well with this desire,
most of the suggested places being at distances out of
easy reach by the citizens. But the extension of the
elevated railroads has gone far to overcome this diffi-
culty, and a proposition has been adopted to lay out
a series of large parks on the mainland north of
Harlem River. The Legislature has authorized the
purchase of the necessaryland, and the Commissioners
appointed to consider the subject reported in 1888 as
follows: It is proposed to purchase certain old estates,
comprising in all 3800 acres of land, at an estimated
cost of $9,591,961, being an average of $2500 per
acre. This territory divides up naturally into five parks,
of which St. Mary's, the smallest and nearest the city
contains but 25 acres. Van Cortland, the most central
of the new parks, will be of nearly 1100 acres area,
and is to have a rifle-range and a military parade-
ground. It contains that territory which formed the
“neutral ground '' between the British and American
forces in the Revolution, and is the scene of Cooper's
novel of The Spy. , Pelham Park, the largest of the
§. is 1700 acres in extent, situated on Long Island
Sound outside the city limits, and will have a series of
drives for three miles along the water-side. Croton
Park contains 135 acres of high land, which affords
many fine views. Bronx Park derives its name from
Bronx River, which runs through it. It is the most
picturesque of the series, having many old trees and
moss-clad rocks, while the banks of the river are abrupt
and precipitous, and capable of effective handling. It
is designed to establish zoölogical and botanical gardens
on a large scale in these parks, and connect them by
º from 300 to 600 ft. wide, and kept in the
pest of condition as pleasure-driving roads. This
series of parks, if completed on the broad and gen-
erous plan designed, and made practically one by the
broad connecting boulevards mentioned, will place
New York at the head again in respect to park area, a
position which it has lost by the enterprise of other
£1tleS.
In connection with the New York parks may be
named Prospect Park, of Brooklyn. This tract of
land, of 550 acres in extent, was far better adapted by
nature than Central Park for picturesque treatment,
and has been handled in such a manner as to make it a
very attractive place of public resort. Its fine views
are not the least of its attractions. Recently a number
of boulevards, 200 ft. wide, have been laid out, leading
to the park from various directions.
Philadelphia is highly favored in possessing in Fair-
mount Park the largest public pleasure-ground existing
in any city on this continent, and in its natural adapta-
tion to the purpose without an equal in any of the
parks of the world. The original design of Fairmount
Park was utilitarian, the land being purchased with the
i. of preserving the waters of the Schuylkill, the
drinking water of #hiladelphians, from pollution. By
urchase and gift, extending from 1844 to 1867, a very
arge tract of land was gradually acquired, containing
in all 2740 acres, and constituting the largest civic
park in the world with the exception of the Epping
and Windsor forests near London and the Prater at
Vienna. . This tract of land is exceptionally well
adapted by nature for park purposes. Instead of the
miniature lakes of other parks it embraces a section 5}
miles in length of a .. and winding river, on which
steamboats convey passengers to its most remote locali-
ties, while innumerable pleasure-boats dot its surface.
The park embraces the elevated banks of the Schuyl-
kill, and the rolling country for a considerable distance
back, through which cut a number of deep and pictur-
esque glens, traversed by rippling, streams of water.
In addition there are many noble old trees and several
extended groves, the original site having been well
wooded. etween these extend broad stretches of
turf, while elevations of considerable height yield
magnificent views of city and country scenery, perhaps
unequalled for picturesque beauty in any other park in
the world. Taken as a whole the natural attractions
of this section of the park are so decided that art has
been able to do little more than to open them up by
walks and drives to easy access, and nature has $º
left in great part to her old possession of the ground.
A unique feature of Fairmount Park is that known
as the Wissahickon Glen. Here through six miles of
length a picturesque stream flows between lofty, pre-
cipitous, and rugged banks, which are thickly clad
with forest trees, and present at every turn in the
winding ravine views of wild and romantic beauty. It
has many of the features of a mountain glen, in strong
contrast to the more quiet charms of the lower park,
and is a scenic element without rival elsewhere in the
parks of the world.
Fairmount Park was the site of the great Centennial
Exposition of art and industry, to which 465 acres
were devoted, and which has left as permanent adorn-
ments the massive Memorial Building, with its treas-
ure of objects of industrial art, and the ornate Horti-
cultural Hall, which is surrounded by an extensive
landscape garden, and is filled with the choicest repre-
sentatives of tropical vegetation. Another feature of
interest is the Zoëlogical Garden, the largest and best
provided in the country, and the most attractive in the
artistic adornment of its grounds.
Baltimore has been fortunate in securing in its Druid
Hill Park a most attractive locality, unsurpassed for
its natural scenery, and diversified with dells, glens,
streams, lawns, and lakes, the native beauties of all
of which have been fully brought out by the skilful
handling of landscape artists. Druid Hill, acquired in
1860, was originally a beautiful old wood, of 450
acres, which has been added to till the park now
embraces 693 acres. As modified and improved there
is no more attractive pleasure-ground, of its size, in
America. Recently, by the gift of a merchant, Balti-
more has acquired a new park, known as Patterson
Park, originally of 56 acres, but now increased to 112.
Washington, the national capital, is well provided
with park facilities. The wheel-like or rather spider-
web character of the streets of that city has necessarily
left many small openings to which have been added
several tree-planted spaces of larger dimensions. But
the chief park ground of Washington is that which
surrounds the Capitol and extends through the heart
of the city to the President's house, a refreshing ex-
panse of green which is but a step removed from the
principal avenue. This expanse is flat and devoid of
natural beauty, and owes its main charm to the labors
of the landscape gardener, but it has been rendered
very attractive and is certainly very convenient of
access to the tired Washingtonian. At one extremity .
it is adorned with the towering Washington Monu-
ment, while centrally situated are the Smithsonian
PARKS. PLATE XLI.
VOL. I. V.
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o PARKS.
137
Institution and the extensive National Museum, with
their immense collections of objects of nature, art, and
industry.
Passing to the western cities we find Cincinnati not
very extensively provided with public pleasure-grounds.
Eden Park, on a hill in the eastern part of the city,
contains 216 acres, and is an attractive place of resort.
Burnet Woods, recently purchased for park purposes,
contains 170 acres, mostly forest land. In addition
there are several small city parks, containing 25 acres
in all, the total park area being but little over 400
3,CI'éS.
St. Louis is far better provided. It possesses nearly
2100 acres of park lands, embraced in 19 Separate
arks and squares. The most extensive of these is
forest Park, of 1372 acres. There may be named in
addition Tower Grove Park, 266 acres; O'Fallon
Park, 158 acres ; and Carondelet Park, 180 acres. To
these must be added the handsome and attractive Shaw
Botanical Gardens, of about 276 acres in extent, and
embracing the most extensive botanical collection in
the United States. These valuable gardens have been
donated to the city.
On the Pacific coast San Francisco possesses, in
addition to several small squares, the Golden Gate
Park of 1043 acres which extends to and along the
ocean beach. Much of this is a bleak and sandy
stretch of land, presenting none of the ordinary advan-
tages of park localities. About one-half of it has been
handsomely laid out in walks, drives, lawns, etc., its
greatest attraction being a magnificent conservatory
building, modelled after the Royal Conservatory at
Kew, England, and well filled with exotic plants. The
remainder of the tract, that bordering on the ocean,
remains unimproved, and is of an inviting character
for park treatment. It will need to be handled with
id: skill to bring out its possibilities of landscape
beauty.
Chicago needs special mention from having inaugu-
rated a park idea of its own, or one borrowed in part
from Europe, which has been carried out with the
energy for which the Chicagoans are celebrated. The
lands surrounding this city are very poorly adapted for
park purposes. With flat ground, poor soil, and a
deficiency of trees and of the ordinary features of
natural beauty except in the vicinity of Lake Michigan,
the promise was far from good, yet the result, as shown
in Chicago's chain of parks, is very beautiful and
attractive. A series of parks have been thrown in a
semicircle round the city, touching the lake at each
extremity, and so connected by wide, tree-lined boule-
wards as to form virtually a single park, a system
which, as we have already said, is designed to be
adopted in the new parks of New York city.
In the Southern district, outside the city limits, are
the two South Parks, respectively of 372 and 593
acres, the larger having 13 mile of lake front. It is
designed to form in the latter a series of internal park
lakes connected with Lake Michigan. North of these
is the East or Jackson Park, of 600 acres, and 2
miles of lake front. It is designed in the future to
connect this with the South . by a grand boule-
yard, 600 ft. wide. In the western division of the city
lie three parks, the first being Douglas Park, 171
acres in area, and connected with the South Park system
by a boulevard 9 miles long. Next comes Garfield
Park (185 acres), and Humboldt Park (194 acres).
Three and a half miles from the latter lies Lincoln
Park, touching the lake north of the city, and com-
pleting the semicircle. This is the oldest and most
elaborated of the parks. It contains 310 acres, has
2 miles of frontage on Lake Michigan, and contains
a zoölogical garden, with beautiful flower-beds and
groves of native trees. In addition to these there are
many small parks within the heart of the city. The
parks, with the exception of Jackson Park, are con-
nected by broad boulevards, from 200 to 250 ft. in
width, which unite the whole system into one. These
V (, ... I \'.… I
are reserved for carriage driving, their total length
being 40 miles. -
Others of our cities have park systems resembling
that of Chicago. Buffalo, for example, has an inlan
park of 300 acres, from which rural promenades lead
in one direction to an esplanade over Lake Erie, in the
other to a parade-ground and public garden. The
total park area is 530 acres. g
The new park system of Boston is designed on the
Chicago plan. It will begin with the Charles River
embankment, an esplanade of 200 ft. wide and ex-
tending 23 miles along the river side. Next will come
the Back Bay Park, of about 106 acres ; the Muddy
River inaprovement, of 110 acres; Jamaica Park,
comprising a pond of 70 acres and a surrounding drive-
way of 52 acres ; the Arnold Arboretum, of 167 acres;
and the West Roxbury Park, of 485 acres. This will
make a system of parks, connected by broad parkways
8 miles in length, and with an aggregate area of 1059
acres. The land has been purchased, but years must
elapse ere the scheme can be completed. Besides the
above several other parks are designed, which will
make the Boston park system, when finished, a very
complete one.
Of Northern cities, not above named, it may be
stated that Detroit possesses a park of unusual char-
acter, as occupying an island in the middle of Detroit
River. This park, Belle Isle by name, is of 700 acres area,
with a bridge leading to the main land, with which it
is designed to connect a boulevard 9 miles long and
150 ft. wide, curving in a crescent around the city.
Cleveland possesses 93 acres of park lands, with plans
for additional ones. Milwaukee has a park on the
lake front with a fine view over the lake from an eleva-
tion of 80 to 100 ft. , New Haven has a park of 350
acres on the summit of East Rock, on the highest
point of which rock is erected a soldiers' monument
of 125 ft. height. In the city of Lynn, Mass., a
movement is on foot to secure the forest lands of North
Lynn, 3300 acres in extent, for a public park; a project
of very ambitious dimensions for a city of 45,000 in-
habitants.
The cities of the South have been less active than
those of the North in providing large public pleasure-
grounds, though many of them are well provided
with small Squares, New Orleans is dotted over with
such squares and has, in addition, the tastefully decor-
ated New City Park of about 150 acres in area, which
lies on the river near the north-eastern boundary of
the city. The World's Fair and International Cotton
Exhibition of 1884-5 was held here, the buildings
covering a considerable portion of the area. It was
at that time unimproved, though possessed of natural
ornaments in the form of live-oak trees with depend-
ing drapery of Spanish moss, but for the purpose of
the exhibition it was laid out in grass plats and planted
with temperate and semi-tropical plants and shrubs,
While fountains, bridges, electric lights, and other
features of attractiveness were added. The city
squares, about 9 in number, are partly improved,
though some of them remain in a state of nature. Of
these Jackson Square, on the river front, is the favorite
resort. It is handsomely laid out with trees and
shrubbery and in its centre stands Mills' equestrian
statue of General Jackson.
The city of Charleston is very deficient in public
grounds and the misfortunes of fire and earthquake to
which it has been subjected are likely to check any
enterprise in this direction for years to come. Its
principal advantages of this kind are Washington
Park, a city square which contains a statue of William
Pitt, and Battery Park, a popular promenade which
lies near the water's edge and commands an extensive
view of the bay.
. Sayannah, on the contrary, is unusually well pro-
vided, haying no fewer than 24 small parks or Squares
mostly 9f 13 to 3 acres in extent, at the Junction of
their principal streets. The largest of these is Forsyth
138
PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE.
Park of 30 agres, which contains a fountain modelled
after that of the Place de la Concorde, Paris. In
Monterey Square, on the spot where Pulaski fell in the
revolutionary war, has been erected an elaborate
monument, comprising a marble shaft, 55.ft. high, on
which stands, an artistically designed and beautiful
statue of Liberty. Monument Square possesses a
Doric obelisk, erected to the memory of General
Greene and Count Pulaski, the corner-stone of which
was laid by Lafayette during his visit to this country
in 1825.
Atlanta possesses Oglethorpe Park of 40 or 50 acres
in extent, which formed the site of the International
Cotton Exposition held in that city in 1881, one of the
most important and attractive of American industrial
exhibitions. -
Salt Lake City, Utah, is well provided with park
accommodation, it being divided into 21 wards, nearly
eyery. One of which has a public square. The park
idea, indeed, has extended almost universally through-
out the United States, and many even of our smallest
cities are adopting plans for securing public pleasure-
grounds while yet suitable localities can be had at rea-
Sonable prices.
In addition to its civic parks the United States now
possesses Several national parks, comprising extensive
tracts of land, which, on account of their unique fea-
tures of natural scenery, have been withdrawn from
the public lands and set aside for the use of the people
forever. Two of these are in California, one being the
celebrated Yosemite Valley, which, for combined
beauty and sublimity of scenery, has no equal upon this
continent. (See YoseMITE.) The other is the Mari-
posa grove of “Big Trees” (Sequoia gigantea), those
giants of the vegetable world which have so excited
the astonishment and admiration of travellers, and are
among the most striking natural wonders of the West-
ern Continent. This park is limited to an area of 4
sections of land or 4 square miles, its primary design
being to preserve these marvels of nature from the
destruction to which they were exposed by the heed-
less greed of the speculative tree-choppers who have
already wrought such havoc in the American forests.
In this remarkable grove there are said to be 365 trees
of 10 ft. diameter and over, besides very many smaller
ones. The highest tree is 272 ft., being 53 ft. lower
than the highest of the Calaveras grove, but its trees
exceed those of the latter in average bulk, the largest
having still a circumference of 94 ft., after being much
reduced by burning. The remains of a giant tree on
the ground indicate a height of 400 and a diameter of
40 feet. A third national park, the most extensive of
all known parks and the most extraordinary for its
natural scenery, is the YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
(q. v.). We need but say here that it embraces
an area of 3579 square miles, within which it is said
that there are more hot springs and geysers than in all
the remainder of the earth. tº
To the above-named national parks has recently
been added another, established with the same com-
mendable purpose of preserving America's great fea-
tures of natural scenery for the use of the public
forever. This is the Niagara Park, set aside by order of
the State of New York in conjunction with a similar
commendable action of the Canadian authorities. The
park on the American side is to be about a mile long
and of varying width, from 100 ft. at the head of the
upper rapids to 800 ft. at the falls. Everything ob-
structing the view of the rapids and falls is to be
removed and the ground restored, as nearly as possible,
to its natural condition, no artificial obstructions of any
kind being permitted. The Canadian approach to the
falls is to be treated in the same manner, and this
noble phenomenon of nature will hereafter be free
from the exactions and obstructions which have here-
tofore interfered with the enjoyment of its grandeur.
(See NIAGARA.)
The Canadian government has recently followed the
example of that of the United States in setting aside
a large tract of land possessing interesting natural
features as a national park. This tract, on the line of
the Canadian Pacific Railroad, is laid out on a generous
Scale, embracing 260 square miles of territory. The
railroad reaches it at Banff, a station 20 miles within
the Rocky Mountains and 40 miles from their summit.
This district possesses hot sulphur springs of excellent
curative properties, and an º of fine natural
Scenery, including mountains, rivers, etc. The springs
have been improved and beautified, picturesque bath-
houses and cottages built, and many miles of carriage
road laid out and graded through the park. The
rivers are spanned by bridges and bridle-paths have
been made in all directions. The railroad company
has built a commodious hotel at Banff for the con-
venience of tourists, but has no control over any other
portion of the tract, which is held for the free use of
the public.
It is of interest to note that not only governments,
but private societies, are engaging in the desirable
work of thus preserving striking monuments of art
and nature. The Peabody Museum of Ethnology and
Archaeology has recently, at the suggestion of Prof. F.
W. Putnam, purchased and set aside as a public park
the Great Serpent Mound of Adams co., O., with about
70 acres surrounding. This remarkable work, in the
form of a huge serpent 700 ft. in length, winding in
an undulating manner along the summit of a hill, and
apparently swallowing an egg-shaped body represented
by a mound 160 ft. long, is unique among archaeological
remains, and the steps taken for its permanent preser-
vation are highly commendable.
It is much to be desired that this system of preserv-
ing striking features of natural scenery by the estab-
ishment of national parks may be extended to all
localities throughout the world which are possessed of
remarkable scenic characteristics, or striking works of
aboriginal art, and which are exposed to injury or to
withdrawal from the use and enjoyment of the public.
There are many such localities, unique in their features
of interest, in various regions of the earth, which
should be thus preserved and it is to be hoped
that the example set by the United States may be
followed by the national guardians of all such locali-
tleS. (C. M.)
PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE. Blackstone
observes that the word “parliament” was first applied
to general assemblies of the states under Louis VII.
in France about the middle of the twelfth century, but
in that country it came eventually to be the designation
of a body which performed certain administrative
functions, but whose principal duties were those of a
court of justice. From France the name was carried
into England and applied to the great council of
the English nation ; i. as the word comes from
the French parler, to talk, the title parliament has
been extended to other deliberative assemblies which
meet for the purpose of debating and º
questions which may be submitted. In a general
sense, therefore, a parliamentary body is one that
meets for the purpose of discussing, deliberating,
and deciding in an orderly and formal manner. Such
a gathering may be termed a parliament, a congress,
a convention, or it may be known by some other
Ilä. II) (2. -
Parliamentary law is the rule of action which should
direct and control the proceedings of a parliamentary
body. It is evident that some law or common under-
standing which shall bind and control the members
in the transaction of business is needed in a delibera-
tive body just as much as in the body politic. A state
without a law, or without laws to which obedience is
rendered, is in a condition of anarchy, and a delibera-
tive assembly without binding laws would, likewise, be
in an anarchical condition. Parliamentary law tends
to prevent confusion and insures dignified despatch in
the transaction of business. It is the result of long
PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE.
experience and many tests in bodies, most competent
to comprehend what is necessary. It is based upon
the principles of equity and is intended to guarantee
justice to the entire body and to the individual, and,
so, is specially valuable for its power to protect the
minority and even of the humblest member.
The general principles of parliamentary law are to
be gathered from the fixed rules and established usages
of deliberative bodies of great dignity and authority.
Hence the highest deliberative body in the land...is
usually recognized as the standard authority in parlia-
mentary matters. Thus, in Great Britain the British
parliament is so considered, and other bodies, whether
secular or sacred, model their conduct upon the exam-
ple set by the Houses of Parliament. Just as many
of the laws in force in the United States run back to
Britain, so the parliamentary law of this country is
based upon the practice of the British Parliament;
but, as the laws of the United States, though originally
based upon those of England, have, through the
course of years since the separation from the mother
country, and because of our peculiar needs, become
greatly modified, so, through different demands spring-
ing from changed circumstances, there have grown up
practices in American parliamentary bodies which dif-
fer from the English, and, as these developments are
peculiarly American, they give us what, in contradis-
tinction from the British, may be termed American
parliamentary law.
Variations in practice may be found in different
bodies, even in the United States; but, notwithstand-
ing these variations, there are certain general princi-
les which are recognized everywhere throughout the
and, and these general principles may be termed
American common parliamentary law. These prin-
ciples have been collated by certain recognized author-
ities on parliamentary law, and they are sometimes
styled Parliamentary Practice, Rules of Order, or the
Law and Practice of Legislative Assemblies. Thomas
Jefferson, in his Manual of Parliamentary Practice,
prepared when he presided over the Senate, did much
to formulate the principles and spread the knowledge
of American parliamentary law, and the rules of prac-
tice in his manual are to-day recognized by Congress
“in all cases to which they are applicable, and in
which they are not inconsistent with '' other rules sub-
sequently made. Many other writers have presented
the later modifications in parliamentary practice.
Deliberative bodies, including the Congress of the
United States, usually adopt rules for their own gov-
ernment, at least special rules which appear to be de-
manded by the peculiarities of their work or the pecu-
liar purposes of their organization ; but, where no
such special rules exist, or when points arise to which
their rules do not apply, the body is bound to obey
general usage or, in other words, common parliamen-
tary law. For the same reason, until an assembly
adopts rules and orders, it is governed, and its pro-
ceedings are regulated, by the common parliamentary
law. Even the national House of Representatives
would come under this rule. Hence, where the gen-
eral principles of parliamentary practice are well un-
derstood it may only be necessary to formulate a few
specific rules to provide for peculiar circumstances.
Sometimes the rules adopted vary from common par-
liamentary law which is broader even than congres-
sional practice in some instances.
The organization of a parliamentary body implies a
presiding officer who may be called a president,
speaker, moderator, chairman, or who may be known
by some other name, whose duty it is to see that the
business is conducted in an orderly manner. It also
implies a body of members who present, discuss, and
decide the various propositions brought before the
assembly,
Business is introduced under the form of motions
or resolutions. In a parliamentary sense a motion is a
formally worded proposition presented in a deliberative
body for its consideration and decisiºn. The member
offering it says: ‘I move,” etc. The resolution is a
more formally worded proposition and begins, with the
word “Resolved.” The questions are decided by vote.
and usually a majority vote determines the judgment
of the house. In a few exceptional instances a dif-
ferent vote is required. The form of Voting Varies.
Sometimes it is by voice, sometimes by show of hands,
sometimes by counting the members as they stand,
and sometimes by ballot. º
In putting a question, the usual form is for the pre-
siding officer to say: “The question is on the adoption
of the motion (or resolution) which you have just
heard. As many as are in favor of its adoption will
say Aye.” The ayes having voted, he will then say:
“As many as are of a contrary opinion will say Nº."
of “All opposed will say No.” . The chair, judging
from a comparative estimate of the number of voices
heard, will then announce the result, stating that the
motion has been carried or lost, as the case may be:
Where a hand-vote is customary, the hands are raised
for or against in the same manner. The voice- and
hand-votes are not precise but only approximate. The
residing officer is governed by the yoices he hears, or
y the hands he sees; but, frequently, it is impossible
for him to say positively how many voted on one side
or the other, or even to say which side predominates.
Where the chair is in doubt, he may ask the members
to rise and stand until counted, and by this exact
method determine the precise number voting on each
side. This method, which is termed a division of the
house, must be resorted to on the demand of any mem-
ber, if the member expresses a doubt as to the accuracy
of the judgment of the chair on a voice- or hand-vote.
The proper procedure is for the member doubting to
rise and say, “Mr. President, I call for a division of
the house.” Whereupon the chair will say, ‘’A di-
vision is called for. Those in favor of the motion (or
resolution) will rise and stand until counted.” In a
similar way he will take the opposite. By such a
division the exact vote on each side will be ascertained,
and the chair will announce his decision accordingly,
even if it reverses his former opinion.
In taking a division the members, as they stand in
their places, are sometimes counted by the presiding
officer and sometimes by the secretary or clerk. More
than one person should count in order to ensure accu-
racy.
Another form of dividing is that of passing in file
between tellers. In this method the speaker appoints
two tellers, one from each side of the question. These
tellers take positions in the space in front of the pre-
siding officer, and the members pass in single file be-
tween them, those on the affirmative side passing first
and then those on the negative. º
Another method of voting is that of taking the years
and mays, so that each member shall answer when his
name is called, and have his vote recorded. In Con-
gress the vote must be so taken when the call is sus-
tained by one-fifth of those present.
Sometimes voting is by ballot. This method is
resorted to when the rule of the body requires it, and
is quite common in the election of officers, in the
admission of members into Societies, and also when
secrecy is desired. Sometimes white balls and black
balls are used ; at other times slips of paper are em-
ployed. -
If the speaker is a member of the body he has a
right to vote, but he does not ordinarily do so unless
his vote would be decisive. The rule of the U. S.
House of Representatives is that the Speaker “shall
not be required to vote in ordinary legislative proceed-
ings, except where his vote would be decisive, or where
the House is engaged in voting by ballot.”
Motions generally are debatable; a few are not.
Most motions require only a majority vote, but a few
require a larger vote. w
After a motion has been made other motions bearing
140
PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE.
upon the original motion may be presented. Then the
original motion is called the main question, and the
motions bearing upon it are called subsidiary or second-
ary motions.
The most common of all these subsidiary motions is
the motion to amend, the object of which is to amend
or improve the primary motion. The amendment
must be germane to the subject-matter of the main
question. A motion may be made to amend the
amendment. This is sometimes called an amendment
in the second degree. The vote is first on the amend-
ment to the amendment, then on the amendment as
amended or not, and finally on the original motion as
amended or not amended.
. A substitute is of the nature of an amendment, but
its scope is broader. No amendment is permitted at
one time beyond an amendment to an amendment, but
late practice makes it possible, while an amendment to
an amendment is pending, to offer a substitute and an
amendment to the substitute. Thus the Digest of the
House of Representatives of the United States says:
‘‘It has been for many years the practice of the House
that there might be pending, at the same time with
such amendment to the amendment, an amendment in
the nature of a substitute for part or the whole of the
original text, and an amendment to that amendment.
So that, notwithstanding the pendency of a
motion to amend an amendment to the original matter,
a motion to amend, in the nature of a substitute, and
a motion to amend that amendment, were received,
but could not be voted on until the original matter was
perfected.”
The motion to postpone to a certain day or to a cer-
tain time is intended to postpone the question to the
time specified. If carried, the question cannot be
taken up before that time except by a two-thirds vote,
but when the time is reached the subject is entitled to
be taken up in preference to everything except priv-
ileged questions. -
The motion to postpone indefinitely is intended to
suppress a question, and, if carried, it removes the
question from consideration for that session.
The motion to refer or commit is intended to take
the question from the main body and transfer it to the
consideration of a committee. The motion to recommit
is the same as to refer, only that it relates to matter
already reported by the committee. All the above-
mentioned motions are debatable. In some legislative
bodies the motion to refer is not debatable, but, accord-
ing to common parliamentary law, it opens the merits
of the main question to debate.
The motion to lay on the table possesses the char-
acter of postponement, but it keeps the subject directly
within the reach of the body. It is intended to re-
move the question from consideration until the house
votes to take it up. This can be done at any time by a
majority vote. If such a vote cannot be obtained the
measure is effectually suppressed, but the motion in
itself is not a finality but merely a temporary disposi-
tion of the question. Because of this the motion is
not debatable. As a general thing the motion, tables
everything that adheres to the motion upon which it
bears. Thus if an amendment is laid on the table it
carries with it the main question. There are, however,
a few exceptions, thus: as a question of privilege does
not adhere to the subject it interrupts, it does not carry
with it to the table the question pending when it was
raised; an appeal laid on the table does not carry with
it the original question ; a motion to reconsider, when
laid on the table, leaves the original question where it
was before the motion to reconsider was made ; and, an
amendment to the minutes, being laid on the table, does
not carry the minutes with it. . * *
The previous question in American, practice is Very
different from ºft it is in the English. In American
usage it is simply a method for cutting off debate, and
is equivalent to the question, Shall the discussion now
cease? It is itself undebatable, and if it is carried it
brings to an end the debate on the main question. A
member says, “I move the previous question,” but,
when the chairman puts the question, he says, “Shall
the main question be now put 7’’ The previous ques-
tion may be limited to a pending amendment or it may
cover both amendment and main question. In common
parliamentary practice the previous question requires a
two-thirds vote, but in some, legislative bodies a major-
ity vote is sufficient. It ought, however, to require a
two-thirds vote, because it cuts off the natural right of
a member to discuss a question, and that should not,
at least in ordinary bodies, be in the power of a bare
majority.
Another class of motions is called incidental questions,
These are so called because they are occasioned in a
casual way during the consideration of principal, sub-
sidiary, or other questions, and, from their very nature,
they must be decided before the questions which gave
rise to them. They cannot be amended, and, excepting
the case of an appeal, they cannot be debated, and even
an appeal is not always debatable.
The incidental questions are : (1) Questions of order
(including an appeal from the decision of the chair);
(2) objections to the consideration of a question ; (3)
reading of papers; (4) withdrawal of a motion; (5)
suspension of the rules.
f a member notices anything in the procedure which
he thinks is a violation of good parliamentary usage or
of the rules of the body, he may arise, and, addressing
the chair, say : “I rise to a point of order.” The
chairman then interrupts the proceedings, and says:
“The member will state his point of order.” After
the member has stated the point, the presiding officer
decides that the point is (or is not) well taken. If any
member is not satisfied with the correctness of the
decision he may take an appeal to the meeting itself.
The question then is, “Shall the decision of the chair
stand as the judgment of the assembly 7” Ordinarily
an appeal is debatable. It is not debatable, however,
if the previous question was pending at the time the
point of order was raised. When the appeal is debat-
able, the previous question and the motion to lie on the
table may be applied to it, but, if adopted, they affect
nothing but the appeal. To sustain the chair does not
require more than a majority vote, but even a tie vote
sustains his decision, on the principle that the decision
can be reversed only by a majority.
According to present practice any motion may be
withdrawn by the mover before a decision or amend-
ment, but not after the previous question has been
ordered. To suspend the rules of a body requires a
two-thirds vote.
Privileged questions constitute another class of mo-
tions. They are called privileged questions on account
of special privileges which they possess because of their
pressing importance. They may be introduced almost
at any time, and, when properly introduced, must be
considered before any other subject or proposition that
may be before the house,
The privileged questions are : (1) To fix the time to
which the body shall adjourn ; (2) to adjourn; (3)
question of privilege; (4) a call for the orders of the
day.
It is sometimes said that a motion to adjourn is
always in order, but this is not strictly correct. There
are times when it is not in order. Thus, if the motion
to adjourn is lost, it cannot be repeated until there has
been some intervening business, or at least some
rogress in debate. Neither can a motion to adjourn
i. made while a member has the floor; yet the mem-
ber may, if he pleases, give way, in order that the
motion may be presented. A motion to adjourn can-
not be received while the yeas and nays are being
called, or the members are voting on any question, or
when the previous question has been called and sus-
tained and is still '...i The unqualified motion to
adjourn cannot be debated, and cannot have any amend:
ment or any other subsidiary motion applied to it. and
PARNELL. ſº 141
the vote on it cannot be reconsidered. It supersedes
all other motions except the motion to fix the time to
which to adjourn. The latter motion does not adjourn
the meeting, but is intended to fix the time to which
the adjournment will stand when the meeting does
adjourn. This motion takes precedence of all other
questions, and may be made after the meeting has
voted to adjourn if the presiding officer has not
announced the result of the vote. It may be amended
by altering the time.
The general rule as to the rank of questions is that
of the U. S. House of Representatives, which is as
follows: “When a question is under debate no motion
shall be received but to fix the day to which the House
shall adjourn, to adjourn, to take a recess, to lay on the
table, for the previous question, . . . . to postpone to
a certain day, to refer or amend, or to postpone indefi-
nitely, which several motions shall have precedence in
the foregoing order.”
The motion to reconsider is intended to bring back
before the house a question that has been decided, and
to place it before the house just as it stood before the
vote was taken upon it, but as the rule of the U. S.
House of Representatives puts it, “The fact of a ques-
tion having been decided under the operation of the
previous question does not prevent debate on the motion
to reconsider if the original question was otherwise
debatable.” The motion to reconsider may be applied
to votes on all questions excepting on motions to ad-
journ, to suspend the rules, affirmative votes on motions
to lie on the table or take from the table, on matters
which have passed from the possession of the house,
and on the previous question when it has been partly
executed. It may be made when other business is
before the house. In such a case the motion is entered
upon the minutes, the business before the house pro-
ceeds, and the motion to reconsider is held over to be
called up at any time before the close of the session.
The general rule is that the presiding officer must
recognize the member who is first up and first addresses
the chair, but there are a few exceptions. Thus, the
member upon whose motion the subject has been
brought before the body, if he has not spoken to the
question, has the prior claim. No member can be de-
prived of his rights by the chair as long as he is in
order, and it is not within the province of the presiding
officer to cut off debate. Even after a vote has been
taken and the result declared, if it appears that a mem-
ber did rise and address the chair, but was not recog-
nized, then his right to speak must be admitted, and
the question will stand as though no vote had been
taken.
In Congress and in the State Legislatures bills are
read three times. Where the Legislature is a double
body, consisting, for example, of a Senate and a House
of Representatives, a bill after passing one body is sent
to the other. If both bodies agree to its passage, then
it is sent to the president or chief-executive for his
signature. If the second body makes amendments in
the bill, then, when it is returned, the house where it
originated considers the amendments. If there is not
agreement between the two houses, each house selects
a committee of conference, and this committee en-
deavors to agree upon amendments which will meet the
approval of both bodies. If the chief-executive vetoes
the bill it is returned to the house where it originated ;
then, if it receives a two-thirds vote of each house,
the bill becomes a law without the approval of the
executive.
Parliamentary law has become a vast study. The Law
and Practice of Legislative Assemblies, by L. S. Cushing
(Boston), is a large octavo of 1063 pages. Besides this
standard work, the following may be consulted : Jefferson's
Man wal; Digest of Rules and Practice of the U. S. Howse
of Representatives; O. M. Wilson's Digest of Parliamentary
Law ; Warrington's Manwal; Cushing's Manual ; Roberts'
Rules of Order (Chicago); G. T. Fish's Parliamentary Law;
Rufus Waples' Hand-Book on Parliamentary Practice; T.
B. Neely's Parliamentary Practice. (T. B. N.)
PARNELL, CHARLEs STEwART, the Irish agita-
tor, is descended from an English Protestant family
originally settled in Cheshire. His paternal fº.
father, Sir Henry Parnell, was a member of Parlia:
ment, and in 1841 was raised to the peerage as Lord
Congleton. His maternal grandfather was Rear-Ad-
miral Charles Stewart (1778–1869) of the U. S. Navy,
familiarly known as “Old Ironsides.” Parnell was
born in June, 1846, at Avondale, County Wicklow,
Ireland. He was educated in English schools and at
Cambridge University, where he remained two years.
After travelling through the United States he settled
down on his estate in Treland, and in 1874 was made
sheriff of Wicklow county. In the next year he was
elected to Parliament from Meath as a Home-Ruler.
Isaac Butt (q. v.) was then the leader of this party,
but Parnell and Biggar soon introduced a policy of ob-
struction which he did not favor. Their object was to
compel the Parliament to redress the grievances of
Ireland under a penalty of having all the parliamen-
tary, work greatly delayed or entirely stopped. By
persistent speaking on every subject that afforded an
opportunity they wearied out the patience of the Eng-
lish members and at last obliged them to take some
action on Irish questions. The Home Rule party had
sought for a reform in the Irish land laws which was
summed up in the three F’s—Fixity of Tenure, Fair
Rent, and Free Sale. In 1879 the potato crop in Ire-
land failed for the third time in as many successive
years. Evictions of tenants from their little holdings
of land followed in great numbers. Parnell, now
recognized as the leader of the Irish party in Parlia-
ment, was induced by Michael Davitt to give his as-
sent to the formation of the National Land League,
which aimed at peasant-proprietorship. In October
the league was organized, Parnell was chosen president,
and branches formed in all parts of Ireland. In 1880
the Liberal party under Mr. Gladstone returned to
power with overwhelming majority. The case of Ire-
land had not been considered in the election campaign,
and the Parnellites, now thirty-five in number, re-
solved to remain in opposition in Parliament and con-
tinue, the policy of obstruction. , Mr. W. E. Forster,
the Secretary for Ireland, soon brought in Coercion
Bills which justified Parnell's forecast of the situation.
Under the pretence of the increase of outrages in Ire-
land they suspended the Habeas Corpus and required
the disarming of the Irish people. Then Mr. Glad-
stone introduced his Land Bill, which went far towards
meeting the original demands of the league. Yet
Parnell and his adherents resolved to maintain the or-
ganization until it was sure that the action of the
courts under the new act would be equitable and satis-
factory. The government, on the other hand, guided
by Mr. Forster, determined to crush all opposition,
and in October, 1881, arrested Parnell and others
under the Coercion Act and imprisoned them in Kil-
mainham Jail, Dublin. The league was outlawed, but
it replied with a “No Rent” manifesto. The ensuing
struggle proved too severe for the administration. Mr.
Forster was dismissed and Parnell was released on
parole in April and unconditionally in May, 1882. He
returned to Parliament in triumph, but the victory of
the Irish cause was overthrown by the assassination in
Dublin of the new Chief Secretary, Lord Frederick
Xavendish, and of Edmund Burke, the under see-
retary. ... A Crimes Act was speedily passed and
Home Rule sank out of sight. i. policy of obstruc-
tion had been neutralized by the clöture acts which in-
creased the power of the Speaker of the House of
Cºmmons over the members. However, the electorate
of Ireland was soon increased from 250,000 to 750,000,
and a Redistribution. Bill promoted a fairer represen.
tation of the people in Parliament. But the strength
of the Liberal party steadily declined, and in June
1885, it was overthrown. In the November elections
the Tories had the aid of Irish votes, but when they
refused guarantees of their action in Parliament, they
142
PARROTT–PARTNERSHIP.
were defeated on Jan. 26, 1886, and Mr. Gladstone
again became prime minister. Parnell's party had se-
cured nearly every seat for Ireland. Their demand
now was for complete legislative independence and an
Irish Parliament. Gladstone, convinced of the justice
ºf the demand, soon introduced a bill for the purpose,
But though it had many elements of strength, the re-
sult was to disrupt his party and drive him again from
power. In the new election thus precipitated on the
‘ountry the Tory party obtained enough help from the
Liberal dissidents to enable it to undertake the task of
governing the country. In the Parliament of 1887
Parnell's motions were defeated by large majorities,
but he continued steadfast in his purpose of seeking
a national parliament for Ireland.
. Later a sensation was produced by the publication
in the Times of the facsimile of a letter purporting to
have been written by Parnell excusing the murder of
Mr. Burke, though expressing regret for that of Lord
Frederick Cavendish. Parnell repudiated the letter,
but the government refused to investigate the matter.
The Times then published a pamphlet, entitled Pur-
mellism and Crime, charging Parnell and his associates
with being accessories in various outrages. A suit
was brought against the Times by one O'Donnell for
libel, but was decided in favor of the defendant. This
suit the Parnellites declared to be collusive. Finally in
October, 1888, the charges of the Times against Parnell
and others vaguely described were investigated before
a commission of three judges. The prosecution was
conducted by Sir Richard Webster, the attorney-gen-
eral. The proceedings so far as they have gone (No-
vember) seem to support the view commonly held that
the alleged letter which formed the basis of the indict-
ment was a forgery.
Parnell is not a typical Irishman, according to the
types presented in English literature. He is not an
orator; he shrinks from public display. He is hand-
some in feature, quiet in manner, pleasant in his inter-
course with others, perhaps slightly ideal in his aims,
but thoroughly practical in the means he adopts for
accomplishing them. His remarkable power over his
followers is due to his absolute sincerity of purpose,
the excellence of his judgment on all important ques-
tions, and the tenacity with which he maintains his
conclusions. In the presence of the world he has
brought an impulsive, discordant people into har-
monious and almost unanimous effort for the highest
privilege of a nation—the right of self-government.
- (J. P. L.)
PARROTT, ROBERT PARKER (1804–1877), an
American inventor, was born at Lee, N. H., Oct. 5,
1804. He graduated at West Point in 1824 and was
made second lieutenant of artillery. He was assistant
professor at West Point for some years, and in 1836 he
§. superintendent of the West Point iron and
cannon foundry, Cold Spring, N. Y. He invented a
system of rifled cannon which bears his name. (See
ORDNANCE.) He died at Cold Spring, Dec. 12, 1877.
PARSLEY, Petroselinum sativum, a hardy bien-
nial herbaceous plant from Sardinia, has an angular
stem three to four feet in height, shining, tripinnate
leaves of a rich deep green, and small, white flowers
in terminal umbels, with five petals and aborted sepals.
The fruit is ovate, with five narrow equal ridges, and
seeds with an aromatic taste. Parsley is grown from
the seed, sown annually in early spring, and is often
raised under glass. It requires a rich, mellow soil. It
is principally cultivated for the use of its leaves as an
ornamental garnish to meats, for which purpose the
double, or curly-leaved, variety is grown. By re;
peated transplanting during the season the curling of
the leaves is aided, till they become of a regular rosette
form. The leaves are also used for flavoring soups
and stews, for which purpose the seeds are sometimes
substituted. One variety, known as the Hamburg, is
raised for its root, which is large, white, and fleshy, in the profits.
It is eaten boiled, and is
and resembles the parsnip.
| came major-general.
also used, mixed with the leaves, to flavor soups, to
which it imparts a pleasant aromatic taste and odor.
PARSNIP. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. W., 2.
PARSONS, SAMUEL Hold EN (iT37–1789), general
in the Revolution, was born at Lynn, Conn., May 14,
1737. He was the son of Rev. Jonathan Parsons
(1705-1776), a noted preacher. He graduated at
Harvard College in 1756 and became a lawyer. He
was frequently elected to the Legislature and, though
made king's attorney in 1774, took part with the
patriots. He commanded the Sixth Connecticut regi-
ment at the siege of Boston in 1775 and fought in the
battle of Long Island. Congress made him brigadier.
general in August, 1776, and in October, 1780, he be-
He succeeded Putnam in com-
mand of the Connecticut line. In recent years he has
been charged with holding secret communication with
Sir Henry Clinton and furnishing him with informa-
tion of the state of the American army. In 1785 he
was appointed a commissioner to treat with the Miami
Indians. After serving in the Connecticut Conven-
tion which ratified the Federal Constitution, he was
appointed by Washington first judge of the North-
west Territory. He settled in Ohio and took part in
the purchase of the Western Reserve. He was
drowned in Big Beaver River, Ohio, Nov. 17, 1789.
He contributed to the Transactions of the American
Academy a paper on Western antiquities.
PARSONS, THEOPHILUs (1750–1813), jurist, was
born Feb. 24, 1750, at Byfield, Mass., where his father
was pastor of the Congregational church for more
than forty years. He graduated at Harvard College
in 1769 and was admitted to the bar at Portland, Me.,
in 1774, but soon returned to Byfield, and afterwards
settled at Newburyport. In 1778 he formed one of
the Essex Junto, and wrote the Essex. Result, a pan-
phlet which caused the rejection of a State constitu-
tion prepared by the Legislature. It had effect also
on the framing of constitutions in other States. The
author took part in the convention which framed the
State constitution of 1780, and in the convention which
ratified the Federal Constitution in 1788. In 1800 he
removed to Boston and in 1806 was made chief justice
of Massachusetts. His decisions served to place on a
firm basis the laws of real property and marine insurance.
He died at Boston, Oct. 30, 1813. His son published
his Memoir (1859). From his writings were collected
Commentaries on the Laws of the United States (1836).
His son, THEOPHILUS PARSONS (1797–1882), was
also distinguished as a jurist and as an advocate of
Swedenborgianism. He was born at Newburyport,
May 17, 1797, graduated at Harvard in 1815, studied
law and practised at Taunton, but chiefly in Boston.
In 1847 he was made Dane professor of law in Har-
vard College. He died at Cambridge, Jan. 26, 1882.
Among his legal treatises are The Law of Conscience
(2 vols., 1853; afterwards enlarged to 3 vols., 1864);
JClements of Mercantile Law (1856); Laws of Busi-
mess for Business Men (1857); Maritime Law (1859);
Notes and Bills of Ecchange (1862); Law of Partner-
ship (1867); Marine Insurance (1868); , Shipping and
Admiralty (1869). Some of these works have passed
through several editions. Prof. Parsons' writings in
defence and exposition of the teachings of Emanuel
Swedenborg include Deus Homo (1867); The Infinite
and the Finite (1872); and some smaller treatises.
PARTNERSHIP º a relation founded upon a .
* - tract between two or more persons to do
jºyº; business as individuals on joint, undi-
Kn º ” vided account. Every unincorporated
g * A ſe association, for purposes of gain is a
partnership. The question whether a partnership
exists or not has been said to be one of mixed law and
fact, but generally speaking is one to be decided by a
jury. The elements of partnership are the contribu-
tion by a partner to the partnership fund and a sharing
Each is an element in a relation not
complete without both.
PARTNERSHIP.
143
A quasi-partnership, i. e., a partnership as to third
ersons, may result from sharing profits and not losses.
}. is a question of intention, and the intention
to contribute to the partnership and to share the profits
will, if apparent, create the relation, even against the
express stipulation of the parties. ... While the sharing
of profits raises a presumption of partnership, yet it
may appear that the share so taken was nothing more
than a compensation for labor or service, for furnishing
raw materials, etc. It has been held that the officers
and crews of whaling-vessels receiving part of the
produce of the voyage in lieu of wages are not partners;
nor masters of vessels sailing them on shares; nor
clerks receiving share of profits in lieu of wages, there
being no contribution.
While there have been many, and in Some instances
conflicting, decisions on this question of what constitutes
a person a partner, the underlying principle is, that if
there is an evident intention to derive the advantages
of the partnership relation, the liability attendant there-
upon will also be enforced. There is no particular
formality requisite to the formation of a partnership.
Where there is no written agreement, it may be proved
by evidence of the conduct of the parties, the mode in
which they have dealt with each other, and in which
each has, with the knowledge of the other, dealt with
other persons. This may be shown by the books of
account, by the testimony of clerks, agents, and other
persons, by letters, and admissions, etc.
A general partnership is the relation as it ordinarily
exists. A special or limited partnership is composed
of general partners, to whom all the ordinary rules of
partnership apply, and of limited partners with circum-
scribed power and liability limited to the amount of
their contribution. This kind of partnership is stat-
utory, and the requirements of the statute as to adver-
tisement, placing the list of partners in a conspicuous
position at the place of business, indicating which are
general and which special, must be strictly complied
with. The penalty for non-compliance therewith is to
have the association declared a general partnership.
A “partnership limited,’’ also statutory, is in the
nature of a corporation, no liability being incurred by
the members beyond the amount of their subscription,
the penalty for a violation of the requirements of the
statute being the same as in the case of a special part-
nership. Joint-stock companies form another class of
partnerships. They consist of a large number of per-
sons, whose liability as a general rule is that of a general
partner, though in some instances the liability is limited
by the provisions of the statute.
A quasi-partnership may be created by a man hold-
ing himself out as a partner, without having any con-
nection with the business or interest therein ; in such
case he is estopped to deny his liability as a partner.
Holding oneself out as a partner is a question of fact.
It may be by direct assertion, or by authority given to
a partner to use the stranger's name. It may also
occur by reason of failure on the part of a stranger to
forbid the use of his name; it is usually proved by
evidence that the stranger suffered the use of his name
over the shop-door, in printed notices, bills, advertise-
ments, etc., or that he has done other acts, of whatever
kind, sufficient to induce others to believe him a part-
ner. It is essential, however, that the holding out
should have been prior to the contract with the third
person, as well as the inducement to it.
Partnership was formerly confined to commercial
transactions; its scope has been gradually enlarged,
however, until it iºd. associations for all sorts of
purposes, e. g., of attorneys-at-law, physicians, etc.
At the common law partnerships for trading in land
were not recognized, but at the present time, and espe-
cially in America, land is largely held by speculators,
who are recognized as partners by the law; so with
building operations. Farming land on shares, how-
ever, has been held to be no partnership.
The partners are presumed to have the same interest
in the stock that they have in the profits. There is
sometimes no joint stock, as where the pºp IS
merely for the managing and disposing of the goods of
others. A partner may contribute but the use of his
capital, retaining full control of the principal; and he
may charge interest for its use, whether profits are
earned or not. The partnership property has been
said to consist of the original stock, together with the
additions made to it in the course of trade. Real
estate bought with partnership funds is treated as
partnership property, whether the legal title thereto is
in all the partners or only in one. Leases of real estate
by one partner for firm purposes, mines, and trade-
marks have been held to be partnership property.
A partner cannot convey land belonging to the firm ,
his grantee in such case would take title subject to the
rights of the copartner to have the firm property
applied to the partnership debts. It has been held in
some cases that there was an equitable conversion of
land belonging to a partnership, and that it should be
treated in every respect as personalty.
In administering bankrupt partnership estates the
firm and separate creditors have priority upon and are
confined to the firm and separate funds respectively.
A surplus upon a separate fund is divided among the
firm creditors pro rata ; a surplus upon a firm fund is
divided among the separate creditors of the various
partners in proportion to the shares of the partners
therein. If there is no firm fund the firm creditors
come in on an equal footing with the separate creditors
against the separate estate. If, however, there is no
separate estate, separate creditors cannot participate
in the firm estate, upon the theory of the partner's
right to have firm funds applied first to the payment
of firm debts. It has been held that insolvent partners
may divide the firm fund, in proportion to each one's
interest in the firm, among their separate creditors, and
the firm creditors cannot object; contra, however, if
the fund were assigned to the separate creditor of one
partner only.
A separate judgment is not a lien against the part-
nership real estate but only against the partner's
interest. A judgment against the firm, however, is a
lien on a partner's separate estate, and takes priority
over a subsequent separate judgment.
While a partnership is presumed to be at will, it may
be entered into for a definite term by agreement, ex-
press or implied. If a partnership be continued by
express or tacit consent after the expiration of the
prescribed period it will be presumed to continue on
the same terms, but as a partnership at will. A part-
nership for a specified term is, nevertheless, dissolved
by a death within the term. While executors and
testamentary trustees may be admitted, either under
an original agreement or by testamentary direction, to
a partnership, yet it has generally been held that such
clauses gave them the option to become partners, and
did not constitute them such absolutely. Only the
fund already invested or directed to be invested by the
testator is subject to the claims of new creditors, unless
there be a clear direction to charge the general assets.
In England, if an executor undertakes to participate in
the business, whether in carrying out a testamentary
direction or not, he becomes personally liable as a
partner, in addition to the liability of the estate. In
several of the United States, inter alia, Alabama,
Maryland, and Pennsylvania, however, the executor
has been held liable only when continuing in the busi-
ness of his own motion, and not when doing so in
carrying out a testamentary direction.
Dissolution of Partnership.–A partnership may be
dissolved (1) by the act of the parties, as by their mutual
consent. Where no limit is fixed for its continuance
either party may dissolve it at any time. There are
authorities on both sides of the question whether one
partner can dissolve a partnership for a certain term
previous to its expiration ; (2) by the act of God, as by
the death of one of the partners, unless there be an
144 PARTON.—PARTRIDGE.
express stipulation to the contrary. In such case the
partnership is dissolved as to the whole firm ; (3) by
the act of law, as by the bankruptcy of one of the
partners; (4) by a valid assignment of the partnership
effects for benefit of creditors. The mere insolvency
of one or all partners without suspension or judicial
process does not of itself operate as a dissolution; (5)
by the civil death of one of the partners; (6) by the
breaking out of war between two states in which the
partners are severally domiciled and carrying on trade :
(7) by the marriage of a feme sole partner; (8) by the
eactinction of the subject-matter of the joint business, or
by the completion of the business for which the part-
nership was formed ; (9) by the termination of the
period for which the partnership was formed; (10) by
the assignment of the whole of one partner's interest
either to his copartner or to a stranger; (11) by the
award of arbitrators appointed under a clause in the
partnership articles.
A dissolution of a partnership for a term will be de-
creed by reason of fraud or gross misconduct of a part-
ner, or gross carelessness and waste on his part in ad-
ministering its affairs, or violent and lasting dissensions
among the partners, or the hopeless condition of the
business, its continuance being impracticable, and the
property liable to be wasted and lost. Clear evidence
of a partner's lunacy will also induce a court to decree
a dissolution.
Actual notice of dissolution must be brought home
to persons who have been in the habit of dealing with
the firm ; but as to persons who have had no previous
dealings with the firm notice in the newspapers is
sufficient. This notice is necessary to terminate the
agency of each partner, and his powers and liabilities
as such. When the dissolution takes place by opera-
tion of law, or by the death of a partner, notice is not
necessary.
The effect of dissolution is to terminate all transac-
tions between the partners except for winding up the
concern, and to absolve the partners from all liability
for future transactions of the firm. The power of the
partners subsists, however, for some purposes, as for
the completion of all unfinished engagements of the
partnership ; the conversion of the assets for the bene-
fit of the partners; the application of the partnership
funds to the payment of the partnership * )
T. R.
PARTON, JAMEs, a popular author, was born
at Canterbury, England, Feb. 9, 1822, but was brought
to the United States when five years old. He was
educated in the vicinity of New York, and after being
a teacher for seven years became a contributor to the
New York papers. His first work, The Life of Horace
Greeley (1855), contained fulness of research with an
enthusiastic picturesque narrative. It has been en-
larged in subsequent editions and long remained pop-
ular. After completing The Humorous Poetry of the
English Language (1857) he prepared The Life of
Aaron Burr (1859), which possessed much of the merit
of his first work, but was too partial to its subject. In
the appendix to a later edition (1865) many statements
of the first are recalled. Parton had in the meantime
published a bulky Life of Andrew Jackson (1860),
which showed equal diligence in hunting information
from obscure sources and great skill in its presentation.
His next biography was that of Benjamin Franklin
(1864), which gave him room for his love of anecdote
and sketching of character. His story of Gen. Butler
'n New Orleans (1863) skilfully presented the facts
of the restoration of Union rule to a city in which the
spirit of the Southern Confederacy was dominant. After
the war Parton took up various social topics which he
discussed in magazines and reviews in an entertaining
and popular style. To this series belong Smoking ſand
Drººking, Hojo New York City is Governed, the Wºrk
of Congress, Roman Catholics and Jews. ... In the Tº.
ºmphs of Enterprise, Ingenuity and Public Spirit
(1871) he presented the story of the most remarkable
inventions of modern times. ... Another skilful compi-
lation is Caricatures in all Times and Lands (1876).
Parton's best work, however, is in his biographies.
Famous Americans of Recent Times (1867) is a collec-
tion of brief sketches, but his Life of Jefferson (1876)
and Life of Voltaire (1883) are elaborate works with
his characteristic excellencies. Parton is a man of the
people with the gift of story-telling. He cares little
for poetic genius, statecraft, or religion, and misses no
opportunity of deriding those whose station is due to
other causes than personal merit.
His wife, SARA PAYSON PARTON (1811–1872), was
the sister of Nathaniel P. Willis. She was twice
married, but, being reduced from affluence to poverty,
tried to support herself and two children by teaching
and afterwards by writing for the newspapers. Under
the pseudonym “Fanny Fern” she gained a remark-
able popularity. Of her Fern Leaves (1853) several
series were issued. She also published two novels,
Ruth Hall (1857) and Rose Clark (1859). She was
married to Mr. Parton in 1856 and after her death he
published Fanny Fern, a Memorial Volume (1873).
PARTRIDGF is a term used scarcely less loosely
See Vol. XVIII. by º than by others, and its
p. 332 (p. 337 meaning depends upon gircumstances.
Am. Rep.). Its newest technical equivalent is Per-
dicinae, by which is meant a subfamily
of the grouse family, Tetraonidae, containing several
genera and many species of gallinaceous game-birds
of most parts of the world (especially the northern
hemisphere), which average less in size than grouse
and have the nasal fossae and the feet bare of
feathers. Many of these birds have a characteristic
note which the word “partridge’’ in its several
forms seems to have been invented or designed to
€X101’éSS.
n Britain the only indigenous partridge is that
sometimes designated as the gray partridge (Perdic
cinerea) to distinguish it from another bird, Caccabis
rufa, which has been introduced and naturalized there.
(For these as well as some other old-world species of
the above-named genera and others, see the article in
the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.)
In , English-speaking parts of the old world the
partridges of whatever kind are commonly distin-
guished both from the grouse and from the quail, of
oth of which there are various species and genera.
But in the United States the case is the reverse, for
some grouse are indifferently called ‘‘pheasant’’ and
“partridge,” and various birds are indifferently called
“partridge” and “quail.” It is an example of that
confusion which arises in nomenclature when the
names of animals and plants of one country are
loosely applied to other more or less similar animals
of another country.
For, it must be distinctly understood that no galli-
naceous bird whatever, excepting certain ptarmigan
of the Arctic regions, is common to Europe and Amer-
ica. Attempts have been made to introduce the Euro-
pean or migratory quail, Coturnic dactylisonans, but
they have hitherto failed.
In the Eastern United States two very different
birds are called “partridge.” One of these is the
ruffed grouse, Bomasa umbellus. The other is the
bob-white, Ortyx or Colinus virginianus. (See BQB-
white.) Throughout the Northern States, where this
grouse is called partridge, the bob-white is known as
the “quail.” In the Middle and Southern States, or
from Pennsylvania southward, this grouse is called
pheasant, by an absurd misnomer; and whereyer this
name prevails, there the bob-white is called “par-
tridge.” Thus we have three popular names for the
two birds, whose application changes with the locality.
These two are the only gallinaceous game-birds that
are common and widely distributed in eastern parts of
the United States. In the West there are several
others, as the pinnated grouse or prairie-hen, Cupido-
nia cupido; the sharp-tailed grouse, Pedioecetes colum-
PASSAGLIA—PASTEUR.
145
bianus; the sage grouse or cock of the plains, Centro-
ºrºus 'wrophasianus; the dusky grouse, Canacº ob-
scurus, etc. The last-named is a near relative of the
Canada grouse, Canace canadensis, which is often
called the “spruce partridge,” making yet another
bird to share this latter name.
Then, in south-western parts of the United States
and in Mexico and southward are several different
genera and species of birds about as large as the
bobwhite, all called indifferently “partridge ... or
“quail.” Such are the mountain quail of Califor-
nia, Oreorty-c pictus, with a long arrowy crest the
valley quail of California, Lophorty-c californica, with
California Valley Quail.
an elegant recurved helmet-like grest; the very sim-
ilar Arizona partridge or quail, Lophort/c gambel: ;
the blue or sealed partridge or quail, Callipºla squa-
mata; and the very handsome Massena partridge or
quail, Cyrtony.” massent. Moreover, the common
Virginia partridge, quail, bob-white, or colin runs into
several varieties in Florida and in Texas; and a dis-
tinct species of the same restricted genus Colinus, C.
ridgwayi, has been lately ascertained to inhabit Arizona.
Mexico and Central and South America also furnish
yet other species of ('olinus, Dendrort/a, Odontopho-
rus, etc., all of which birds may be indifferently called
quails or partridges. -
All these small gallinaceous game-birds of America
with naked and sealy tarsi (as distinguished from the
feathered shanks of grouse and ptarmigan) {ll’é SO lll e-
times grouped together as a subfamily, Odontophorince
or Ortyginae, which has no representatives outside of
America. (E. C.)
PASSAGLIA, CARLo (1812–1887), Italian theolo-
gian, was born at San Paolo, near Lucca, May 12, 1812.
He was educated at Rome and became a Jesuit in
1827. He taught in the Roman College until 1858,
when he left the Jesuit order and was made professor
in the College of Sapienza. He was active in the
movement which led to the proclamation of the dogma
vocated by many scientists,
of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary,
He afterwards addressed a letter to, the bishops of
Italy on the claims of Italian unity and urged the pope
to renounce his temporal power. But his pamphlet
was placed on the Index, and the author was obliged
to flee from Rome in disguise. He had just published
anonymously two other pamphlets, one on the duty of
the pope to reside in Rome, the other on the limits of
excommunications. He was made professor of moral
philosophy in the University of Turin and soon issued
another pamphlet on schism. . He formed an assºcia-
tion of the liberal clergy of Italy and was elected to
the national parliament in 1863. His political career
was short, and finally in 1882, he submitted to the
Holy See and was restored to his priestly functions.
He died at Turin, March 17, 1887.
PASSAIC CITY, in Passaic co., N. J., is at the
head of tide-water on the Passaic River, 11 miles N.
W. of New York city, on the Erie, the Delaware,
Lackawanna, and Western, and the New Yºrk: Sus-
quehanna, and Western Railroads. . It is well laid out
with macadamized streets, has 14 churches, 5 schools,
2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers, several halls, is
lighted with gas and well supplied with Water. It has
two iron foundries, and manufactures of woollen goods,
chemicals, India-rubber, whips, and other gºods.
Many of the inhabitants conduct business in New York
city. The population was 6532 in 1880, and has since
increased.
PASSOVER. See TABERNACLE.
PASTEUR, Louis, a French chemist, was born at
Dôle, Dec. 27, 1822. He had spent some years, in
teaching physical science at Besançon and at Paris be;
fore he received the doctor's degree from the Normal
School in 1847. He was then made professor of
chemistry at Dijon, and a few months later at Stras-
burg. In 1854 he was appointed to organize the new
faculty of science at Lille, and in 1857 he returned to
Paris to take charge of the scientific instruction in the
Normal School. Here he remained ten years, being
also from 1863 professor of geology, physics, and
chemistry in the school of the Fine Arts. From 1867
to 1875 he was professor of chemistry at the Sorbonne,
and there retired on a pension, his sight and health
having been seriously impaired by his arduous labors.
His chemical investigations and their practical results
had already given him world-wide fame. In 1856 he
received from the Royal Society of London the Rum-
ford medal for his researches on the polarization of
light, and in 1874 the Copley medal. From the out-
set of his career he has been an ardent opponent of
the theory of spontaneous generation, which was ad-
He maintains that fer-
mentation is always due to microscopic plants or ani-
malcuies, and that it can be prevented by carefully
excluding their germs from access to the fermentable
substance. His conclusions have had important con-
sequences on the manufacture of wine and beer.
Their scientific and commercial value was recognized
by the French and other governments, which awarded
him prizes and pensions. His investigations of the
diseases of the silk-worm were also extremely valuable
to the silk industry of France. He traced the disease
to certain minute internal corpuscles and pointed out
the method of prevention. (See GERM THEORY). For
soune years he had directed his investigations towards
the discovery of a specific germ for each disease of
man or the lower animals. Other investigators had
also joined in the researches and the discovery of sev-
eral such germs has been reported in recent years.
None has produced such sensation, however, as Pas-
teur's claim to have found not only the true nature of
hydrophobia but also the method of preventing it by
inoculation. (See HYDROPHoBIA and RACTERIA.)
Pasteur's researches have been reported in the Annales
de Chimie et de Physique and other publications. He
has also published treatises on wine (1866), vinegar
§§ silk-worms (1870), beer (1876), microbes.
S7 S).

146 PASTORAL
EPISTLES.
*Astoºls is º º: º to
Y AT Y hree eplStles in the New Testament
iº. *Yº, (two to Timothy and one to Titus),
Am. Rep.) Written by the Apostle Paul near the
close of his life; 2 Timothy bearing
every mark of being the last epistle penned. (Phild:
º, though placed with the pastoral epistles in our
Bibles, is not to be classed with them since it was
Written at the same time with the Epistles to the
Ephesians and Colossians. Philem. 10; Col. iv. 7, 9;
Eph. vi. 21.)
The difficulties connected with these epistles have
been set forth in the previous article, and the impres-
Šiºn, given that the Pauline authorship is improbable.
... The majority of modern critics,” it is asserted,
* question or deny their authenticity,” that is, their
genuineness. But this assertion holds good only in
the case of a certain school of critics. The difficulties
have nºt led to a rejection of the epistles by any COn-
siderable, portion of Biblical scholars, and the argu-
mºnt in favor of the genuineness is a very strong one.
The three letters stand or fall together. Every at-
tempt to prove one of them Pauline and the others
forgeries has failed from its inherent inconsistency. It
has been fully shown by Dr. Hatch that they cannot
be placed at any period in the life of the apostle up
to the close of the two years named in Acts xxviii. 30.
Yet he somewhat summarily disposes of the theory
that, they were written by the apostle, “subsequent
to the close of the Acts of the Apostles.” Most of
those who accept these epistles as genuine hold that
Paul was released from his imprisonment at Rome,
and after a brief period of freedom was reimprisoned
and beheaded. On the other hand, those . deny
their genuineness object to this theory; indeed, the
theory is frequently objected to, in order to deny the
genuineness of the epistles. The controversies of this
century have virtually narrowed the question to this
single point, which is more probable, that Paul lived
for some years after the time when the Book of Acts
glosed its narrative, or that these epistles are forgeries?
The former is exceedingly probable, the latter equally
improbable. As the improbability of the former and
the probability of the latter have been fully set forth
i. Dr. Hatch's article, the other side should be stated
16 re.
1. The probability that the Apostle Paul lived for
Some years after the time at which the Book of the
Acts closes. (1) The patristic evidence, while open to
discussion, is positive. The objections raised against
this evidence do not weaken its force respecting the
main point, namely, that the apostle was set at liberty
after the two years' imprisonment at Rome, and made
another missionary journey before his death. The
silence of other early writers about this journey is not
evidence. (2) The Book of Acts terminates in an ab-
rupt manner, making no allusion to the death of the
apostle. It therefore presents no evidence on the
matter in question. But this silence respecting the
martyrdom of the apostle is unaccountable, if that
martyrdom took place at the time when the narrative
closes. If, however, the apostle lived and labored for
a few years after that time the conclusion of the Book
of Acts is natural enough. The evangelist wrote it
during the two years at Rome, and it was in circula-
tion while the apostle was still alive. Even if it were
written after his death, that fact would probably have
been mentioned if it occurred at the time when the
narrative closes. On the other hand, if a number of
other events occurred in the later history of Paul the
historian would omit all of them, because his purpose
was accomplished, that of showing the establishment
of Christianity in its new centre at Rome. . This is
“conjecture,” not “evidence,” but (3) the entire argu-
ment against the second Roman imprisonment rests
upon conjecture” rather than ... evidence.' ... It is
urged by the critics who oppose this theory that Paul
would have alluded to the Neronian persecution in the
pastoral epistles had he written these after that perse-
cution began. But his silence is not so singular as the
silence of the author of the Book of Acts about the
death of Paul, if that occurred at the time the oppo-
nents of this theory claim. No positive historical
statement can be adduced against the fact of a second
Roman imprisonment. The internal evidence from
the epistles themselves is constantly used to prove a
later date than that of the other Pauline epistles. This
is valid enough. . But this evidence does not compel
us to accept a date later than that allowed by the
theory of a second imprisonment. Only by pressing
terms and statements beyond their necessary meaning
can a plausible argument for a sub-apostolic date be
presented. Until the epistles are proven forgeries they
themselves are competent witnesses as to the facts of
the apostle's history. Those who accept them as com-
petent witnesses rarely find a serious difficulty in con-
structing a consistent theory respecting the events in
Paul's life subsequent to the two years' imprisonment
at Rome, and in assigning to these epistles their
respective places in that period of his life. The alter-
native is the spuriousness of the epistles.
2. The improbability of these epistles being forgeries.
If spurious, they must be wilful forgeries; for they
claim to be Pauline. Their contents include many
personal allusions and direct commands, as if from the
Apostle Paul. Every attempt to account for them as
based upon briefer writings of the apostle has failed.
The “patchwork” school of criticism has essayed to do
it, but without success. As regards the genuineness
of the pastoral epistles, the following statement must
suffice : (1) The epistles have been well-nigh univer-
Sally accepted as Pauline, and are included in the ear-
liest lists of New Testament writings, as well as cited
by very early fathers. (2) No motive for forging such
epistles can be discovered, either in their contents or
in any circumstances of the early church to which the
contents would be pertinent. (3) As in the case of
other epistles which have been doubted, no author can
be found who could have written such epistles. The
Second century produced few Christian authors of
mark. The works remaining to us are of a character
so much below that of the Pauline epistles, these
included, that one cannot even by “conjecture” hit
upon an author. The contrast with the Teaching of
the Twelve Apostles and the Epistle of Barnabas is
obvious. Yet we are asked to believe that these
epistles came into existence in the same age with these
latter. (4) The historical difficulties themselves furnish
an argument against the spuriousness of the epistles.
A forger skilful enough to personate Paul so success-
fully as to deceive the church for 1800 years would
have been skilful enough to make his historical allu-
sions fit into the narrative of the Book of Acts. Nor
is it improper to suggest that such a forger would
hardly have taken pains to invent the incident about
“ the cloak at Troas” (2 Tim. iv. 13), and other minor
details. (5) The objections raised on internal grounds
have been º answered. (a) As to the com:
tents, the pressing of “ doctrine’’ is not singular.
“Teaching '' is meant, and these epistles were written
to men who were organizing churches and superintend-
ing the induction of teachers into office. The errors
combated are not necessarily those of a later period
of the church than that usually assigned as the date of
these epistles. The early and rapid growth of error is
indicated in the undoubted Pauline epistles. Nor can
there be found any particular age or error in the church,
after the apostolic period, to which the language of
these epistles would apply with such force as to suggest
a forgery to meet that error in that, age. (b) The
objections from the peculiar words and the more simple
style of the epistles amount to little. The purpose of
the letters necessarily led to the use of words not per-
tinent in the other epistles. Arguments from the use
of words are always precarious. Then, as to style;
the involved structure so common in the other Pauline
PATENTS.
147
epistles is absent here. It is the practical missionary
who is speaking, advising, and exhorting his younger
brethren. How far this modifies style every one knows
who has attempted it. Huther remarks on this differ-
ence of style, but only to defend the genuineness. (c)
The historical difficulties are met by the theory of a
release from imprisonment at Rome and a subsequent
reimprisonment, during which the last of the pastoral
epistles (2 Timothy) was written. This allows suffi-
cient time for the development of church organization
and of error which the epistles indicate. For example :
according to this theory 1 Timothy was addressed to
Ephesus about A. D. 63. In A. D. 58 the church had
a body of elders, and these are warned against the
impending danger of erroneous teaching (Acts XX.
17–31). The five years' interval is long enough for the
implied development. (6) The internal evidence of
Pauline authorship is very strong. The personal allu-
sions are not only frequent, but of such a character as
to reveal the same great heart that manifests its
presence in the Epistles to the Romans and Corinthians.
Allusion has already been made to the minute details
which indicate the genuineness of the epistles. It
seems impossible to discuss the bearing of internal
evidence with one who could believe that 2 Tim. iv. 6-8
was written by a forger, posing as the Apostle Paul.
3. While there are differences of opinion in regard
to some details of the theory of a second Roman im-
prisonment, the following summary presents the main
points of the apostle's life after the first Roman im-
prisonment, accepting the pastoral epistles as genuine
and historically accurate. He was probably released
from prison in A. D. 63, before the persecution under
Nero began (A. D. 64). His first journey was probably
to Ephesus, where he left Timothy (1 Tim. i. 3), pro-
ceeding thence to Macedonia, where 1 Timothy was
written. His next journey was to Crete, passing
through Troas and Miletus. In Crete Titus was left
(Tit. i. 5), as Timothy had been in Ephesus. Their
work was that of missionary superintendents, not that
of local “bishops.” How long they remained in this
labor is not known. During this interval of freedom
Paul seems to have spent a winter at Nicopolis (Tit.
iii. 12) after writing the Epistle to Titus. Of further
journeys we have hints in the Fathers, but no definite
historical traces. He was rearrested, and during this
imprisonment wrote a second letter to Timothy.
Shortly afterwards he was beheaded at Rome, but the
date is variously assigned between A. D. 66 and 68.
See further in article PAUL. The whole question is
fully discussed in Schaff's History of the Christian
Church (new ed., vol. i., pp. 798–808). (M. B. R.)
PATENTS. Previous to the Declaration of In-
dependence patents were occasionally
See Yºl. XVII, granted to individuals by the British
º * (P: * colonial governments in North America.
m. Rep.). * tº, e ~!
This power was exercised by the General
Court of the colony of Massachusetts as early as 1641.
In 1652 Connecticut in a statute prohibiting monop-
olies also provided for granting patents for new and
beneficial inventions for such times as the General
Court should deem meet. Such patents were, how-
ever, rare and our information in regard to them is
vague and indefinite.
After the close of the revolutionary war there was
considerable activity among American inventors, espe-
cially with regard to the application of steam-power to
vessels and machinery of various kinds. (See Evans,
QLIVER,) The States of New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia granted to in-
ventors whose projects seemed to promise success mo-
nopolies of navigating their waters with the aid of
steam. The conflicting claims of inventors under
owers derived from the State authorities had an in-
uence in leading the Constitutional Convention in
1787 to incorporate among the powers of the general
government that of granting patents.
By Art. I., Sec. 8, of the Constitution of the United
States power was vested in Congress “To promote the
progress of science and useful arts by securing for
limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive
right to their respective writings and discoveries.”
It is upon this provision that our copyright and
patent laws are based. The first Congress, in 1790
passed an act regulating the issue of patents for inven-
tions. By its provisions the inventor was required to
present a petition to the secretary of state, the Secre-
tary of war, or the attorney-general, setting forth the
nature of his invention and asking for a patent. If
this was approved by the above-named officers or any
two of them the description of the invention was cer-
tified to by the attorney-general and the issuing of the
patent was directed by the President. It was recorded
in the office of the secretary of state and by him de-
livered to the patentee or his agent under the great
seal of the United States.
Various other statutes were enacted subsequently,
but the essential features of the law remained un-
changed until 1836. Patents were granted on appli-
cation with little or no scrutiny, and the duty of decid-
ing whether the patentee was justly entitled to a
patent was icº wholly upon the courts. Hardly
any attempt was made to prevent the issuing of a
patent upon insufficient grounds. The interests of
the public were supposed to be sufficiently protected
by allowing the validity of the grounds upon which
the patent was granted to be called in question at any
time in case of a suit for infringement. After an ex-
perience of nearly half a century the inconvenience
and injustice of this system had become manifest.
In 1836 the Patent-office was burned and many of
the records destroyed. Congress embraced the op-
portunity to thoroughly revise the whole system. By
an act passed in that year prior acts were substantially
repealed and the present system substituted.
As at present organized the Patent-office is attached
to the department of the secretary of the interior. It
consists of the following officers : One commissioner,
one assistant-commissioner, and three examiners-in-
chief, all appointed by the President by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate. All other officers,
clerks, and employés are appointed by the secretary
of the interior on the nomination of the Commissioner
of Patents; they are : One chief-clerk, one examiner
in charge of interferences, one examiner in charge of
trade-marks, 24 principal examiners, 24 first assistant-
examiners, 24 second assistant-examiners, 24 third
assistant-examiners, one librarian, one machinist, 3
skilled draughtsmen, 35 copyists of drawings, one
messenger and purchasing clerk, one skilled laborer,
16 attendants in the model-room, one examiner of de-
signs. The combined salaries of these officers amount
to $261,200 per annum. The principal object of the
great force of examiners above mentioned—one hun-
dred in all—is to prevent the granting of patents for
alleged inventions which are really not new and useful,
and so to prevent individuals from acquiring a monop-
oly of inventions and improvements to the use of
which the public were already entitled.
The general principles of the law of patents are the
same in this country and in England. Among the
peculiarities of the patent laws of the United States
it may be mentioned that the term for which they are
granted, seventeen years, is longer than in any other
country. The development of the patent system in
the United States far exceeds that of any other nation.
For several years the number of patents issued in the
United States has been nearly equal to the number
issued by all other civilized nations together. A pam-
phlet containing the Patent Laws and Laws relating
to the Registration of Trade-marks and Labels, and one
containing the Rules of Practice in the United States
Patent-Office are published by the office and can be
obtained free of charge by any one desiring them on
application by mail to the Commissioner of Patents.
It is, however, practically impossible for an inventor
148
PATERSON.—PATON.
himself to prepare the papers, drawings, etc., necessary
tº obtain a patent, with the requisite degree of scien.
tific and technical skill. “Patent lawyers” form a
distinct branch of the profession and the inventor will
find it in the end the cheapest as well as the surest
course to intrust his case to an attorney who makes
the practice of patent law a specialty. In a simple
case, when no difficulties are encountered, and every-
thing goes through in regular order under the direc-
tion of a reputable attorney, the cost of obtaining a
patent may be stated as follows: Government fee on
filing application, $15 ; government fee on issuing pa-
tent, $20; attorney's fee, $25.5 making the total charge
$60. This may be regarded as the minimum of ex-
pense for Securing a patent. But where the invention
is of a complicated character, requiring great skill and
care in the preparation of the descriptions and draw-
ings, where difficulty is experienced on account of
anticipatory inventions, real or alleged, where the
application is rejected by the primary examiners and
it becomes necessary to appeal from them to the board
of examiners-in-chief, from these to the commissioner
of patents, and from the commissioner to the Supreme
Court of the District of Columbia, the expense will
depend upon the circumstances of each case.
Owing to the destruction of the records of the Patent-
office in 1836, the reconstruction of the history of in-
vention in the United States previous to that year
would involve a great amount of laborious and pains-
taking investigation and research. From that year to
the present time the records are complete and accessi-
ble, and the number of patents granted in each suc-
ceeding decade may, perhaps, be taken as a fair index
of the fertility of American inventive genius and the
progress of American industries. The first patent
granted after the reorganization of the Patent-office
under the act of 1836 bears date July 28th of that
year, and is No. 1 of the present enumeration. From
that date up to and including the year 1846 the number
of patents issued was 5019. During the next ten years
ending with 1856, inclusive, the number of patents is-
sued was 12,578. The ratio of increase was from 572
issued in 1847 to 2502 issued in 1856. During the
decade ending with and including the year 1866 the
number issued was 44,334. The number issued in 1857
was 2685, and in 1866 it was 8873. During the decade
ending with and including the year 1876 the number
issued was 125,155. The number issued in 1867 was
13,015, and in 1876 it was 12,870. This period of 10
years, 1867–76, is the only one in which the number
of patents issued in the first year of the decade was
greater than the number issued in the last. During
the decade ending with and including the year 1886
the number of patents issued was 169,478. The num-
ber issued in 1877 was 13,117, while in 1886 the number
was 21,796. During the year 1887 the number issued
was 20,428.
The whole number of patents issued from July 28,
1836, up to and including Oct. 16, 1888, was 391,395.
This is exclusive of what were termed “additional im-
provements,” which were additions to original patents
permitted under provisions of the act of 1836, which
remained in force until the act of 1860. It is also ex-
clusive of reissues, which down to the date mentioned,
Oct. 16, 1888, numbered 10,963. It is also exclusive
of “design patents,” which down to the same date
numbered 18,690. º
Down to the year 1887 the number of patents issued
to foreign inventors was 1466; the nationalities and
numbers were as follows : English, 500; Canadian,
294; German, 291; Scotch, 28; Belgian, 35; and
each to citizens of Corea, Japan, Luxembourg, and
Syria. If we take the year 1880 as an example, and
compare the ratio of patents to population in the dif-
ferent States and Territories, the following arc the
highest and lowest results: in Connecticut, one patent
to every 790 of the population; in the District of Co-
lumbia, 1 to every 895; in Massachusetts, 1 to every
950. The lowest ratio of patents to population was in
Mississippi, 1 patent to every 25,146 of population;
the next in Allº! 1 to every 23,379 ; and the next
in North Carolina, 1 to every 21,208.
The Patent-office is a self-supporting institution.
There have been only eight years, the last of which
was 1861, during the last half-century when the receipts
did not exceed the expenditures. The receipts in 1837
amounted to $29,289.08. During the year 1887 the
receipts were $1,144,509.60, the expenditures were
$994,472.22, leaving a surplus to the credit of the
office of $150,037.38 for that year. In many previous
years the surplus has been much greater. The rooms
of the Patent-office are notoriously overcrowded to an
extent that is injurious to the health of the employés,
and inconvenient both to them and the public in the
transaction of business, notwithstanding the fact that
the inventors of the country have paid a tax defraying
all the expenses of the office and leaving a surplus
many times exceeding what would be necessary to
make much needed reforms. (W. M. F.)
PATERSON, a manufacturing city of New Jersey,
the seat of Passaic co., is situated on the Passaic River,
16 miles from New York city, on the Erie, the Dela-
aware, Lackawanna, and Western, the New York,
Susquehanna, and Western, and the Paterson, Newark,
and New York Railroads. The Passaic River, which
flows through the city, and is crossed by many bridges,
is noted for its falls, which furnish abundant water.
power. The industrial establishments comprise a roll-
ing-mill, three locomotive-works, a large iron-forge,
numerous cotton- and paper-mills, but above all, 116
silk-mills, which give the city its distinctive place
among the manufacturing cities of America. There
are 5 hotels, 2 national banks, a savings bank, 5 daily
and 9 weekly newspapers, 14 public schools, and good
private schools, 2 hospitals, 2 orphan asylums, and
some 50 churches. The city was settled in 1792, being
named after Gov. William Paterson, who signed the
town charter, and incorporated as a city in 1854. It
is well laid out, is lighted with gas, and has water-
works. The total debt in 1886 was over $2,130,000,
and the yearly expenses nearly $1,189,000. The popu-
lation in 1880 was 15,031.
PATMORE, CovKNTRY KEARSEY DEIGHTON, En-
glish poet, was born at Woodford, Essex, July 23,
1823. At the age of 21, he published a volume of
poems which attracted little attention. From 1846 to
1868 he was one of the assistant librarians of the
British Museum, and in the meantime published the
domestic poem, by which he is best known, The Angel
tº the House (1854–62). This work consists of four
parts—The Betrothal, The Espousal, Faithful for
Ever, and The Victories of Love. It is the most suc-
cessful attempt to depict the poetic aspects of married
life. Patmore has also published A Garland of Poems
for Children (1862); The Unknown Eros (1877); a
Memoir of Barry Cornwall and Amelia (1878). In
later life he became a Roman Catholic.
PATON, SIR. Joseph NoFL, a Scotch painter, was
born at Dunfermline, Dec. 13, 1821. He studied his
art in the Edinburgh Academy and the IRoyal Academy,
London. In 1844 he exhibited at the Royal Scottish
Academy his first painting, Ruth Gleaning. In the
next year he obtained at Westminster Hall, London, a
prize for a fresco of The Spirit of Religion. In 1847 his
large oil-painting of Christ Bearing the Cross and a
small one representing The Reconciliation of Oberon
and Titania were jointly awarded a prize of £300. The
latter picture was purchased for the Scottish National
(; allery, which also obtained its companion picture,
The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania (1846). He has
also taken delight in allegorical subjects, among which
are The Pursuit of Pleasure (1855); Mors Janua
Vitae (1866); Faith and Reason (1871); The Spirit
of Twilight (1876). Of his paintings of religious
subjects may be noted Christ and Mary at the Sepul-
chre (1872); The Man of Sorrows (1875), and Christ
PATRICK–PATTON.
149
the Good Shepherd (1876). He has published outline
..etchings of Shakespeare, Shelley, and other poets.
The works of the great poets have also furnished sub-
jects for his paintings. A ballad of the Scottish
|border, “The Dowie Dens of Yarrow,” has been
illustrated by a series of six pictures. He was
made Queen's Limner for Scotland in 1866, was
knighted in 1867, and in 1876 received the degree
of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh. He
has published two books, Poems by a Painter (1862)
and Spin drift (1866). His brother, Walter Paton,
born in 1825, has some note as a landscape painter.
PATRICK, MARSENA. R. (1811–1888), general, was
born at Houndsfield, Jefferson co., N. Y., March 15,
1811. He graduated at West Point in 1835 and served
in the Mexican war, being made captain and brevet-
major. He resigned in 1850 and in 1859 was made
resident of the New York State Agricultural Col-
ege. The outbreak of the civil war in 1861 called
him again to arms, and he was made inspector-general
of militia. In 1862 he served with the army of the
Potomac and fought at Antietam. He then was made
provost-marshal-general of that army, and afterwards
of all the armies operating against Richmond. He
resigned in 1865 and was afterwards president of the
New York State Agricultural Society. In 1880 he
was made governor of the Soldiers' Home, Dayton,
Ohio, and died there Aug. 5, 1888.
PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. See GRANGERS.
PATTERSON, CARLILE PolloCK (1816–1881), su-
erintendent of the Coast Survey, was born at Shields-
orough, Mass., Aug. 24, 1816. He was the son of
º: Daniel Tod Patterson, U. S. N. (1786–1839),
and entered the navy in 1830 as a midshipman. After
serving five years in the Mediterranean he returned to
Fº an engineering course in Georgetown College.
n 1838 he entered on the work of the coast survey,
but also had navy service occasionally until 1850, when
he became captain of a Pacific mail steamer. In 1861
he resumed work in the Coast Survey and in 1874 he
was made superintendent. Under his administration
the work was enlarged to be a general geodetic survey.
He also assisted in other departments of the naval
service, and was for many years a member of the
lighthouse board. He died at Washington Aug. 15,
1881. His only writings were Reports of his work.
PATTERSON, Rob ERT (1792–1881), general and
manufacturer, was born at Cappagh, Ireland, Jan. 12,
1792, but was brought at an early age to Pennsylvania.
In the war of 1812 he was a first-lieutenant, and after-
wards engaged in manufacturing and in local and State
politics. In the Mexican war he was major-general
of volunteers and served with Gen. Scott, fighting at
Cerro Gordo and capturing Jalapa. On the outbreak
of the civil war Patterson entered the service with the
three-months volunteers and had charge of a military
department extending from Pennsylvania to Washing-
ton. Having, crossed the Potomac at Williamsport
on June 15, he was instructed to watch Gen. J. E
Johnston's force at Winchester, while Gen. McDowell
advanced from Washington. Johnston, however,
joined Beauregard, and McDowell was thus defeated.
atterson was greatly blamed, but asserted that he
had been directed to wait for orders from Washington,
which never came. His commission expired July 27,
1861, and he retired to private life. He published a
Marrative of the Campaign in the Shenandoah (1865).
º gºtinued active in business until his death, Aug.
, 1881.
PATTERSON-BONAPARTE. See Bon Ap ARTE.
PATTI, ADELINA, singer, was born at Madrid,
Feb. 19, 1843. Her father and mother were Italian
musicians, and she was taught in childhood by her
brother, Signor Barilli. At the age of seven she
made her first appearance at a concert and soon earned
enough to secure thorough musical training. In No-
vember, 1859, she appeared in New York as Lucia and
achieved the highest success as a singer and actress.
In 1861 she went to London, in 1862 to Paris, and
thereafter appeared in all the European capitals. In
England and the United States she has frequently ap-
peared in concert, as well as in opera. She was
married to Marquis de Caux, a French nobleman, in
1868, but was divorced in 1883, and in 1886 was
married to Ernesto Nicolini, an operatic Singer.
Her sister CARLOTTA was born at Florence in 1840, and
was early trained for the stage. A slight lameness
interfered with her success in opera, but she became
noted as a concert-singer. She had first appeared at
New York in 1861, and afterwards went to Europe.
where she gave hundreds of concerts. Her voice is a
soprano of remarkable range. She was married in 1879
to Ernst de Munck. e
PATTISON, MARK (1813–1884), English author
and educator, was born at Hornby, Yorkshire, in 1813.
His boyhood was spent at Hauxwell, near Richmond,
where his father was rector. He was educated at
Oriel College, Oxford, graduated in 1836 and was
made a fellow of Lincoln College in 1839. Though
Newman's connection with Oriel College had ceased
before Pattison entered, the whole of Oxford was still
permeated by his influence, and Pattison was reckoned
among his closest followers. He was ordained priest
in 1843 and took some theological prizes, but after
Newman's withdrawal from the Anglican Church,
Pattison devoted himself steadily to his college duties
as examiner and tutor. In 1851 he failed to get the
rectorship of Lincoln College, which seemed then his
due, and his subsequent life showed the effect of the
disappointment. His essay on ‘’The Tendencies of
Religious Thought in England,” one of the famous
Essays and Reviews (1860), proved that Newman had
had little permanent influence on his mind. Pattison
made a Report on Elementary Education in Germany
in 1859 and at last obtained the rectorship of Lincoln
College in 1861. But his former activity in education
was gone. Thoroughly a scholar, devoted to research,
he wished the endowments of the universities to be
used for the promotion of original literary and scientific
research. His Suggestions on Academical Organiza-
tion (1867) may have led to the movement which has
been partially successful in that direction. His literary
work, besides contributions to the Quarterly and other
eriodicals, is to be found in editions of some works of
Milton and Pope, and especially in his Life of Cas-
aubon (1875). e had originally intended to write a
biography of Scaliger, but was diverted from his pur-
pose by learning that Prof. Jacob Bernays had under-
taken that subject. In the last months of his life he
dictated some Reminiscences (1885) in which he
pathetically protests against the caricature of himself
given in George Eliot's Middlemarch and also against
the romantic version of his sister's life given in Miss
Lonsdale's Sister Dorg. He died June 30, 1884. His
widow became the wife of Sir Charles W. Dilke.
PATTON, FRANCIS LANDEY, theologian, was born
in Bermuda, Jan. 22, 1843. He was educated at Uni-
versity and Knox College, Toronto, and studied the-
ology at Princeton. He was ordained to the Presby-
terian ministry in 1865, and had charge of churches in
New York, Nyack, and Brooklyn. In 1871 he was
made professor of didactic theology in the Presbyte-
rian Seminary at Chicago, and he was also editor of the
Interior, 1873–76. He prosecuted Rev. David Swing,
a popular preacher, before the Presbytery of Chicago
for heresy, and procured his conviction and suspension.
He was moderator of the General Assembly at Pitts-
burg in 1878. He became pastor of the Jefferson
Park Church in 1879. In 1881 he was called to
Princeton Theological Seminary as professor of science
and philosophy in their relation to religion. In 1888
he was chosen to succeed fºr James McCosh in the
presidency of Princeton College. He has been a fre-
quent contributor to religious periodicals and has pub-
lished Treatise on Inspiration (1869); Summary of
Christian Doctrine; #. of Future Retribution.
150
|PAUL.
PAUL. The º of the Apostle Paul's life
i in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
See Vol. XVIII. Suggests many doubts in regard to the
p. 514 (p. 425 & 8->
Am. Rep.). trustworthiness of the New Testament
records. But of all ancient historical
books there is not one that has been so thoroughly
tested as the Acts of the Apostles. The many points
ºf contact with Roman history, Greek usage, and
Mediterranean topography furnish sufficient data to
establish the accuracy of the writer. As regards the
' Pauline epistles, the most destructive critics admit the
genuineness of four (Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians,
and Romans). These epistles are in themselves suf.
ficient to show the character and teachings of Paul.
They attest the fact that Christianity was widely dif.
fused in A. D. 58. The genuineness of the other Epis-
tles has not been successfully impugned. The objec-
tions arise from preconceived theories in regard to the
apostolic age. (The Epistle to the Hebrews, of course,
occupies an exceptional position. See HEBREws.)
The strongest array of probabilities is made against
the pastoral epistles, but the objections raised have
been answered repeatedly (see PASTORAL EPISTLEs).
The following sketch assumes the authenticity of the
narrative in the Acts of the Apostles, as well as the
fºnenes of the epistles bearing the name of
alli.
1. Life of the Apostle.—Saul was born at Tarsus in
Cilicia (Acts ix. 11; xxii. 3); he was of the tribe of
Benjamin (Phil. iii. 5; 2 Cor. xi. 22), and by birth a
Roman citizen (Acts xvi. 37; xxii. 28). He was edu-
cated at Jerusalem under Gamaliel (Acts xxii. 3.;
xxvi. 4, 5). But he seems never to have seen the
Lord Jesus during His ministry (1 Cor. vi. 1 ; xv. 8).
This does not invalidate the previous statement about
his education, since our Lord's ministry lasted at most
only three years and a half. Saul first appears in the
Acts of the Apostles as a young man zealous for the
death of Stephen, the first Christian martyr (Acts
vii. 58 ; viii. 1). How old he was at this time is un-
certain. It is inferred by some from Acts xxvi. 10
that he was a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin, but
the “vote ’’ referred to may have been in some lower
tribunal. His Jewish zeal seems to have placed him
at the head of the persecution that arose after the
death of Stephen (Acts viii. 3; ix. 1, 2), and on the
way to Damascus as the emissary of the high-priest
he was converted to Christ by an appearance of the
Lord himself. Three accounts of this occurrence are
given in the Acts (ix. 1–19; xxii. 3-16 , , xxvi.
19–20), and there are many allusions to it in the
epistles. Thus his life was transformed, and he never
ceased to assert that he had seen the Lord. To deny a
real objective appearance on this occasion is to assert
that Paul was either a deceiver or himself deceived.
The date of this conversion is probably A. D. 37 (see
below). * * * * *
The completeness of the change is emphasized in
all the narratives, and the conversion seems to have
been regarded by Saul himself as a call to the apostle-
ship. He at once began to preach at Damascus (Acts
ix. 19, 20), but soon retired to Arabia (Gal. i. 17),
spending the larger part of three years in quiet prep-
aration. Returning to Damascus, he met with perse-
cution from the Jews (Acts ix. 23, 25; 2 Cor. xi. 32,
33), but escaped to Jerusalem, where the disciples
seemed doubtful respecting him (Acts ix. 26), but
Barnabas befriended him.
This visit to Jerusalem is, for convenience, called the
“first,” and the date was about A. D. 40. It lasted
for fifteen days (Gal. i. 18); during which he received
a direct revelation of his mission to the Gentiles (Acts
xxii. 17–21). He met the Apostle Peter and James,
the Lord's brother, but his knowledge of the gospel
was not derived from them (Gal. i. 11, 19). Driven
away by the enmity of the Jews, he goes to Tarsus,
and afterwards was brought to Antioch by Barnabas,
with whom he made his “second '' visit to Jerusalem
(A. D. 44), bearing alms from the disciples in the for.
mer city (Acts xi. 25–30).
Shortly after (A. D. 45), under the special direction
of the Holy Spirit, given through the church at Anti-
och, the apostle begins his recorded missionary
activity, in company with Barnabas and John Mark
(Acts xiii. 1–3, 5). Landing in Cyprus, the native
country of Barnabas, they pass from Salamis to Pa-
phos, where a Jewish sorcerer is rebuked and pun-
ished, and the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, is
converted (Act xiii. 5–12). As the name Paul occurs
from this point onward in the narrative, the change
has been connected with this event, but it is more
probable that the apostle had both names, Depart-
ing to Perga, on the coast of Asia Minor, John Mark
deserts them (Acts xiii. 13). Moving northward to
Antioch in Pisidia, the preachers meet with marked
success among the Gentiles, and formally announce their
mission to the heathen (Acts xiii. 14–52). Passing to
Iconium they gain many converts, but arouse great en-
mity, and flee to Lystra and Derbe. A cripple is
miraculously healed in the former city, when the in-
habitants attempt to worship the preachers (Acts xiv.
8–18). But opposition follows them ; Paul is stoned ;
the missionaries retrace their steps and return to Anti-
och (Acts xiv. 19–28).
Dr. Hatch claims that this record must omit many
of the labors of the apostle during the eleven years
from the first to the third visit to Jerusalem. Prob-
ably he did preach in Cilicia and elsewhere, but we
have no narrative of these labors. The suggestion
that the story of this period is derived from a lost
Acts of Barnabas is characteristic of the method pur-
sued in the article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
Well-authenticated and consistent narratives in our
possession are treated as of doubtful authority ; but
“ lost '' books are more confidingly dealt with.
About A. D. 50 Paul makes a third visit to Jerusa-
lem, of which we have two accounts : one in Acts xv.
4–29, giving the external history, and another by
Paul himself (Gal. ii. 1–10), telling of the private
conferences. (The literature is given by Dr. #.
Paul was recognized as an apostle of the uncircum-
cision ; it was decided that Christianity was not the
religion of a Jewish sect. It would appear from the
entire discussion, that Paul claimed to |. not one of
the twelve, but an apostle independent of the twelve.
Practically the same claim was asserted in the con-
flict with Peter at Antioch, shortly after (Gal. ii.
11–16), when the latter “drew back and separated
himself.”
In the second missionary journey Paul was not ac-
companied by Barnabas, for “a sharp contention ”
arose between them respecting Mark, a relative (“cous-
in,” Col. iv. 10, R. V.) of the latter. Other causes
may have entered. The church at Antioch seems to
have been mainly on the side of Paul (Acts xv. 40),
and there is no warrant for speaking of the “failure
at Antioch,” since Paul returned there and remained
some time (Acts xviii. 22, 23). The details of this
second journey (A. D. 51-4) are given in Acts xvi.-xviii.,
and few important incidents seem to be omitted from
the account. First visiting the disciples in Syria and
Cilicia, he proceeds throu à Phrygia and Galatia, hav-
ing with him Silas and Timothy (Acts xvi. 1-6).
Direct intimations from the Holy Spirit led them to
Troas, where a heavenly vision shows them the way
to Macedonia (Acts xvi. 6-12). Luke seems to have
been of the company from Troas to Philippi, the first
European city in which Paul preached. A purple-
dealer, named Lydia, was the first convert. Coming
into conflict with heathen superstition and covetous-
ness through a miracle of healing, Paul was imprisoned,
together with Silas, but miraculously deliyered and
honorably released as a Roman citizen (Acts xvi.
16–40). At Thessalonica, the next place of labor,
success followed, but the Jews, raised a mob against
the preachers. The enmity of the Jews of Thessa-
PAUL. 151
lonica drove Paul away from Beroea also, and in Athens) Acts xxiv. (Some assign the Epistles to the Colos-
he came into public contact with philosophic heathen-isians, Ephesians, and to Philemon to this period, but
ism, delivering in the Areopagus the well-known dis- all were probably written at Rome.) When a new pro-
course (Acts xvii.), in regard to which Dr. Hatch raises curator came in the place of Felix, Paul appealed to
needless difficulties. the tribunal of the emperor, exercising his right as a
In Corinth, the next city visited, the labors of Paul Roman citizen. . Thus the way was to be opened for
assumed a more settled character. In this important fulfilling his desire to preach at Rome (comp; also Acts
commercial centre he remained eighteen months. | xxiii. 11). Having made a masterly defence before the
Thence he wrote two letters to the Thessalonians, and new governor (Festus) and Agrippa (Herod Agrippa
despite the obstacles to the gospel he founded an im- II.), Paul was sent, with other prisoners, to Rome, in
portant church in Corinth, in regard to which we learn the autumn of A. D. 60. A vivid account of the voyage
much from the two letters afterwards written to the and shipwreck occurs in Acts xxvii., xxviii. [It is
Corinthians. . In the spring of A. D. 54 Paul left|impossible to avoid noticing the doubts cast upon this
Corinth, touching at Ephesus and Caesarea on the way | account by Dr. Hatch in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
to Jerusalem, whence he returned to Antioch, remain- | NICA. If these chapters cannot be trusted, then no
ing there some time (Acts xviii. 1–23), probably until record of antiquity can be termed historical.] *
the close of the year. Rome was reached in the spring of the following
The third missionary journey began with a visit to year. Here two years were spent in mild imprison-
the Christian communities in Galatia, and Phrygia ment, which did not prevent the apostle from active
(Acts xviii. 23). Paul then came to Ephesus (Acts | labor. He preached to the soldiers, wrote four of his
... xix. 1), where he remained for some time, [Dr. Hatch Epistles (Colossians, Ephesians, and Philemon ; these
objects to the division into “missionary journeys,” in- three about the same time, and, probably afterwards,
timating that Paul determined about this time “to Philippians). &
change the centre of his activity, from Corinth to . The Acts of the Apostles tells us nothing, more.
Ephesus...'. But the narrative in Acts gives no war- This is strange, if Paul was beheaded at the close of
rant for this assertion.] Some incidents of Paul's life this imprisonment. Furthermore, the pastoral epis-
at Ephesus are given in Acts xix., and others may be | ties cannot well be placed at any point before this.
inferred from the letters written during this journey |Accordingly it seems safe to accept as fact the state-
(Galatians, l and 2 Corinthians, and Romans). The ment of some early Fathers that Paul was released,
first was probably written from Ephesus, though some and then, after a second imprisonment at Rome, be-
place it later, at Corinth. The first Epistle to the headed at some time between A. D. 66 and 68. (For
Corinthians was undoubtedly penned at Ephesus, and details of these later years, see PASTORAL EFISTLEs.)
the second from Macedonia, during the journey spoken 2. The Chronology of Paul's Life.--Two dates can
of in Acts xx. 1, 2. The Epistle to the Romans was be fixed with reasonable certainty: (1) The death of
written from Corinth, where Paul remained three | Herod Agrippa I. took place in A. D. 44, and the sec-
months (Acts xx. 3; comp. Rom. xvi. 1). The record |ond visit to Jerusalem occurred about the same time
in Acts is very brief at this point, but the personal in- | (Acts xi. 30 and xii.). (2) The governorship of Festus
cidents in the letters are numerous. We see from began in A. D. 60, and the voyage to Rome occurred
these the opposition which pursued the apostle, partly shortly after. Starting from these dates we can ap-
from J. º prejudices (as in Galatia) aſſ partly from proximately determine the time of the leading events
factions and immoral usages, etc. (as in Corinth). Dur- of the apostle's life; but the Jewish mode of count-
ing this period, beginning in Ephesus, Paul instituted |ing parts of years as full years prevents accuracy, and
a system of collections for the poor saints in Judaea, as has led to the great variety in the chronological tables.
a'; the accounts indicate...To carry this contribution to In some cases there are incidental reasons tending to
Jerusalem he made a fifth visit, which proved to be | confirm the assigned dates.
the last. A plot laid by the Jews at Corinth led him
to alter his route, and we find in Acts xx. 3 to xxi. 14 º A.D.
an account of the journey written by an eye-witness. Rats of conversion.................................... 37
The route was through Philippi, Troas, and Miletus §. visit to Jerusalem... ......................... 40
. *- e econd visit to Jerusalem.......................... 44
(where Paul met the elders of the Ephesian church); First Imissionary journey......................... . 45
whence to Tyre and Caesarea. Third visit to jerusalem (council) ........... 50
The apostle arrived in Jerusalem before Pentecost Second missionary journey........................ 51–54
(A. D. 58), when the city was crowded with Jews from Fourth visit to Jerusalem......... ................. 54
all regions. [Dr. Hatch takes pains to cast doubt Third missionary journey.......................... 54–58
upon the narrative in the Acts respecting Paul's con- #. yistºlem spring)..….......... ; 60
duct at Jerusalem, and indeed seeks to prevent “any §. º Caesarea .................... ..... § 3.
certain light” emerging from any of the N. T. docu- First imprisonment at Rome....... § 3;
ments that belong to the later years of Paul's life.] [Release................................ * * * * * * * g. ...... 63
Reeting the elders of the church, it was suggested to [Reimprisonment and martyrdom ........... 66 or 68
Paul, as a matter of prudence, that he appear in the
temple with certain Nazirites, thus to prove that he There are various theories which would modify the
had not taught the Hellenistic Jews to forsake the law above list of dates, but it presents a working theory
\ ºf, Moses, as had been charged (Acts xxi. 17–25). |and preserves the events in their relations, so far as re-
While carrying out this suggestion, Paul was set upon |corded. (See Schaff, and many others.)
by some fanatical Jews from Asia (the Roman provº 3. The Writings of Paul.—The epistles may be di-
inces, of which Ephesus was the capital), who charged vided into three groups, according to the time of com-
him with profaning the temple. Dragging him out of position: (1) The earlier epistles, I and 2 Thessalonians
the sacred enclosure, lest his blood might defile it, they * D. 53), Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Ro-
ºttempted to kill him, but he was rescued by Claudius mans (57 and 58). Some place Galatians immediately
Lysias, the Roman tribune, who appeared with his before Romans. 2) The epistles of the captivity:
soldiers. This officer, after giving Paul an opportunity Qolossians, Ephesians, Philemon, and Philippians
tº address the people, and discovering that he was a (A. D. 61–63). Some place Philippians first in this
Roman citizen, sent him to the Sanhedrin, where the group. (3) The pastoral epistles, written after the
Pharisees and Sadducees were divided in opinion re. first Romº imprisonment. In connection with the
Specting him. The discovery of a plot led the tribune |last group there is the uncertainty, to which reference
to ji. prisoner,to the procurator Felix at Caesarea, has already been made, res ecting the closing events
where he was kept in mild custody for two years, await in the life of Paul ifie pistle to the Hebrews is
ing a trial which never came. The story is told in anonymous, and the question of authorship has been
º
152
PAULDING—PAUPERISM.
discussed in the article on that
EPISTLE TO THE.)
These writings are all of them letters, not merely
theological or didactic treatises. Most of them have
a definite occasion, and each a distinct purpose. They
are human to the last degree, yet nowhere do we find
more marked evidence of Divine inspiration, which
the apostle vehemently claims for the gospel he
preached (Gal. i. 8–11). A brief characterization of
these writings, according to their contents, is given
here : Romans, on salvation by faith for all who be.
lieve.; I and 2 Corinthians, personal, in view of the
divisions and sins at Corinth. [The view that another
letter to the Corinthians was written, and has been lost,
is nºt improbable in itself; but the passages in 2 Co.
rinthians (ii. 3, 4; vii. 8–12) which seem to point to
such a letter are by no means conclusive. If there was
such a letter, it probably contained only matter affect.
ing the local church in its then condition.] Galatians,
in defence of his apostleship and doctrine (against
Judaizing teachers); Ephesians, of the church in
Christ; Philippians, a personal and affectionate letter ;
Colossians, on Christ the head of all things (with are:
buke of certain errors); 1 and 2 Thessalonians, to cor-
rect certain errors about the coming of Christ : 1 and 2
Timothy and Titus, for the guidance of these Christian
teachers; Philemon, a personal letter, sent by Onesi-
mus who was returning to his former master. (See
ROMANs, EPISTLE TO THE.)
The Pauline theology can only be learned from these
epistles. An effort has been made to find in them
glaring inconsistencies; now to deny the genuineness
of one or the other, and again to emasculate Chris-
tianity by denying the possibility of logically formu-
lating the views of its earliest teachers. A persistent
attempt to prove the apostle out of harmony with the
teachings of the other apostles has been successfully
met by recent Christian apologists. We may remark
(l) The meaning of the terms used by Paul can be as
accurately determined as in the case of any ancient
writer. (2) The obscurity arises from the greatness of
the thoughts. (3) The leading positions taken by him
are obvious to all who "º. by the historico-exe-
getical method. (4) The difficulties that have arisen
are largely due either to the mystical (allegorizing)
method of interpretation, or to the influence of eccle-
siastical dogmatism, or to both. (5) The teachings of
Paul all assume a practical character, from his burning
conviction that salvation in Christ was designed and
adapted for all classes, Jew and Gentile alike, Hence
he emphasizes, the free grace of God, justification by
faith, new life in the spirit over against the old life in
the flesh ; all these in such a way as to make it appear
that Jew and Gentile alike can share in these privileges,
and need to share in them. Dr. Hatch, in the BRITAN-
NICA article, fails to do justice to Paul's use of the
term “flesh.” It means in the ethical sense, human
nature as it is by birth, estranged from God, before re-
generation by the Holy Spirit. (See Romans, EPIs.
TLE TO THE.) (6) Out of this grows the culminating
thought of the Apostle Paul's theology—Jew and
Gentile united in one body in Christ (Eph. i.-iii.).
Assuming that these epistles (or any number of
them) are genuine, we have in them the strongest con-
temporary evidence to the facts respecting Jesus Christ
that are recorded in the Gospels. It is a characteristic
of modern apologetics that it starts with the four un-
doubted epistles of Paul (Galatians, 1 and 2 Corin-
thians, and Romans), and shows from these writings
that in A. D. 58 an immense number of people be-
lieved in Jesus Christ, and that Paul preached a
Saviour, who had been crucified and raised again from
the dead. The main facts he presents as facts, and it
was the power of this historical Person that had trans-
formed him. Modern skeptical criticism is simply an
unavailing effort to escape the legitimate inference from
these acknowledged facts respecting Paul and the gos-
pel he preached. Either he was an impostor or a de-
epistle. (See HEBREws,
luded fanatic, or the gospel facts are facts, and his
explanation of them a Divine revelation.
4. The Character of the Apostle Paul.—Before his
conversion Paul led a blameless life, according to the
conceptions of Jewish morality (Phil. iii. 4–6). The
description of the life under the law portrayed in Rom.
vii. 7-13 is probably applicable to his religious condi.
tion as a conscientious Jew. It may have been his
fierce striving to quiet an awakened conscience that
made him a persecutor. Immoral, in the ordinary
sense, he certainly was not, though he speaks of him.
Self as “the chief of sinners” (1 Tim. i. 15). The
Same man became a Christian, and the same character-
istics pervaded his after life, which now had new mo-
tives and aims. The persecutor of the Nazarenes be-
game the Apostle to the Gentiles. What his physical
infirmity was cannot be certainly determined. His
bersonal appearance seems to have been far from pre-
possessing. But of his zeal, his intellectual power, his
acuteness of thought, his decision of character there
can be no question. It is too frequently imagined that
he did not win affection from men. The greatness of
his intellect and the tremendous results of his didactic
statements have led many to forget how greatly be-
loved he was by his companions. Some contrast him
with the Apostle John, regarding the latter as affec-
tionate even to weak amiability, and implying that
Paul was harsh and forbidding. But all the records
prove him to be a man who won the personal affection
of those associated with him. His practical wisdom is
often obscured by those who would deem him the great
“dogmatist.” Yet the whole story of his life is full
of instances of his tact, his wise dealing with men and
with difficult questions. Add to this the indications
We have of a widespread system of missionary labor,
directed by him even when in prison ; and it will ap-
pear that few men in history were so symmetrical in
greatness : great in intellect, great in affection, great
in will. But in the presence of his Master he calls
himself “less than the least of all saints.”
How such a life and character as his can be accounted
for he himself tells us. No other satisfactory expla.
nation of the phenomena has ever been suggested.
Whenever the statements he emphasizes have been
adequately recognized by men, similar characters have
been formed, and under no other influences.
(M. B. R.)
PAULDING, HIRAM ºlº) rear-admiral U.
S. N., was born in Westchester co., N. Y., Dec. 11,
1797. His father, JoHN PAULDING (1758–1818), was
one of the captors of Major André, and was himself
thrice taken prisoner in the Revolutionary war. For
the capture of André, Paulding and his two compan-
ions received from Congress a silver medal and annui-
ties of $200. A monument to his memory was erected
at Peekskill in 1827 by the city of New York. Hiram
entered the U. S. Navy in 1811 as midshipman and
served in McDonough's fleet on Lake Champlain. He
was made lieutenant in 1816 and accompanied Capt.
Porter in his expedition against the West Indian
pirates in 1823. Rising to the rank of captain in 1844
he cruised with the Vincennes three years in tropical
waters. In 1857 while commanding the Home squad-
ron he broke up Walker's expedition against N icaragua
and brought the filibusters to the United States. The
State of Nicaragua in 1860 acknowledged his service by
the gift of a sword, Congress not allowing him to accept
more. Paulding was made rear admiral on the retired
list in December, 1861, but as commander of the New
York navy-yard he rendered important service in pre:
paring vessels for various employment during the civil
war. He also assisted in, protecting, public property
during the draft riots of New York city in 1863.
After the war Paulding was for a time governor of the
Naval Asylum in Philadelphia. He died at Hunting-
ton, L. I., Oct. 20, 1878, being then the senior officer
on the retired list.
PAUPERISM. See CHARITY ORGANIZATION.
PAWNBROKING—PAYER.
153
PAWNBROKING is the lending of money for a
certain rate of interest on the security of goods, such
as jewelry, apparel, utensils, or tools, deposited with
the lender. Practically it has existed since a remote
antiquity, but it became a recognized business in
Europe during the Middle Ages. The merchants of
Lombardy who established themselves in the principal
cities of England and the Continent were in the habit
of lending money on pledges of jewels and costly arti-
cles. In course of time the business passed to other
hands, but the pawnbroker's familiar sign of the three
gilt balls is traced to the coat of arms of the Medici
family, who were the most enterprising of the Lom-
bardy merchants. Their business was with kings,
nobles, and wealthy merchants, but as its advantages
became known, efforts were made to extend such bene-
fits to other classes. Soon the poor, too ignorant to
understand, too weak to maintain their rights, were
grossly oppressed by the usurers.
Came to j. relief and established in Italy in the
latter part of the fifteenth century the monte di pietà.
In the course of the next century such institutions were
found in France, under the name mont de piété. These
were at first charitable institutions, which charged
only a rate sufficient to cover the necessary expenses.
In Italy they have maintained this character until the
present time. In France and other European countries
they have been under the control of the government since
the middle of the eighteenth century. Their transac-
tions are strictly regulated by law and administered by
ublic agents. In Paris there is one principal estab-
#. and three auxiliary offices. There are also
authorized commissioners stationed in different parts
of the city, but whose transactions do not bind the ad-
ministration until ratified at the central office. Here
there is a board of appraisers; and the loan is limited
to two-thirds of their valuation of the article, except in
case of articles of gold or silver, when four-fifths may
be advanced. The least sum lent is three francs, but
there is no upper limit to the demand. The commis-
sioners, who carry on four-fifths of the business, receive
2 per cent. for each pledge effected and 1 per cent. for
each redemption. F. rate of interest is 9 per cent.
per annum, but the first month's instalment must be
paid in advance, and the rest fortnightly. The loan is
for a year, and if the article is not then redeemed it is
sold within a month at public sale; in some cases the
loan may be renewed for another year. Sometimes
too the pawner is allowed to demand the sale of his
pawn before the expiration of a year. For the main-
tenance of the business certain revenues from other
sources may be drawn upon, yet there is generally a
Small balance in favor of the administration.
In England pawnbroking is conducted in private
establishments which are regulated by law. Attempts
at establishing monts de piété have never succeeded.
In the United States the business is regulated by the
law of the several States. . Usually the mayor of a city
has the sole power of issuing a license to a pawnbroker,
Who is required to be a person of good repute. In
New York the rate is limited to 25 per cent, per
annum, on sums less than $25, and to 7 per cent. on
sums beyond that amount. Yet the rate usually
charged is 3 per cent. a month and there are further
charges for storage, safe-keeping, etc., which materi-
ally reduce the sum received by the pawner. The
unredeemed pledges are required to be sold at public
auction, and the law also declares that the amount
received for any article over the pawnbroker's just
claims shall be returned to the depositor. The shops
are generally found in the business streets of the
poorer districts of the cities, and are more used by the
foreign population than by the native-born. The keepers
as a rule avoid receiving stolen goods, but there are
persons, known as “fences,” who make a business of
Tºeiving and disposing of stolen property, and for
this purpose profess to keep a pawn-shop. (J. P. L.)
PAWNEES, a tribe of American Indians, who
VOL. IV.-K
Christian charity
originally resided chiefly in Nebraska, but extended
into Kansas and Texas. They were noted on Mar-
quette's map in 1673. From them the Arickarees
(q. v.) separated and wandered northward. . Some
tribes formerly existing in Louisiana are also thought
to belong to the same family. The Pawnees (or Pani)
proper were bold hunters, excellent horsemen, and
fierce warriors. They carried on constant war with the
Sioux, Tetans, Arapahoes, Sacs and Foxes, and other
tribes. They frequently offered human sacrifices to
the sun, and this practice was continued in the present
century. They lived in lodges covered with earth, and
the women cultivated some grain, but the men hunted
the buffalo. When the Delawares were removed to
the land south of the Platte they came in collision
with the Pawnees, and in 1832 burnt the Great Pawnee
village on Republican Fork. By treaty with the
United States in 1833 the Pawnees gave up their claim
to land south of the Platte, received aid, and for a
time made notable progress in civilization, but this
excited the envy of their hereditary enemies, the
Sioux, who finally drove them from their villages. The
U. S. Government having withdrawn aid and protec-
tion, the tribe was soon reduced to half its original
number. In 1861 they furnished many scouts to the
Union army and took part in the campaign in Min-
nesota against the Sioux. The latter, after being re-
duced to peace, sought revenge on the hapless Pawnees,
who were compelled to sell their lands and emigrate to
a reservation in the Indian Territory. The total amount
of this land is 283,020 acres (100,000 tillable), and when
the entire tribe was finally removed to it in 1876 they
numbered 2026. Part of the land, 53,000 acres, was
purchased from the Creeks by the U. S. Government
with the proceeds of the sale of Pawnee lands in
Nebraska, but the title has not yet been transferred to
the Pawnees. The other part was ceded by the Cher-
okees to the U. S. Government in trust for the Paw-
nees. Under Pres. Grant's administration the mis-
sionary work among the Pawnees was assigned to
the Society of Friends. They are peaceable and well
disposed, but have steadily diminished in number, until
in 1887 they were reported as only 918, of whom 800
wore citizen's dress. They cultivated 2094 acres and
had 2597 under fence. They cultivated wheat, corn,
melons, and vegetables. They had 1400 horses, 575
cattle, 200 swine.
PAWTUCKET, a city of Rhode Island, in Provi-
dence co., is on Pawtucket River at its falls, 4 miles
N. of Providence, and 40 miles from Boston, and on
the Boston and Providence, the Providence and Wor-
cester, Old Colony, New York and New England, and
the Moshassuck Valley Railroads. It has 4 hotels, 3
national banks, 3 savings banks, 1 daily and 2 weekly
newspapers, 25 churches, numerous schools, including
a high-school, and a public library. The falls give
abundant water-power, which is largely utilized in
cotton-, woollen-, hair-cloth-, thread-, and other mills,
the total establishments being nearly one hundred,
Here Samuel Slater first introduced cotton-manufac.
turing into the United States. Pawtucket is lighted
with gas and electricity, and has excellent water-works
and a paid fire-department. Its property is valued at
$20,000,000; the public debt is $1,100,000, chiefly due
to the water-works; the yearly expenses are about
$250,000. Pawtucket was settled about 1640, and be-
longed to Massachusetts until 1862. It was incorpor-
ated as a town in 1874, and as a city in 1886. The
population of the township in 1880 was 19,630.
*AYER, JULIUS, BARON, an Austrian explorer,
was born at Schönau, Sept. 1, 1842. He was educate
at the Military Academy in Vienna, and entered the
Service as lieutenant in 1859. Fol a time he was pro-
fessor of history in the Academy and again was en-
gaged in scientific work in the Austrian Älps. In 1869
he took part in the Polar expedition under Capt.
Koldewey, which explored the east coast of Greenland
and penetrated into the interior. Returning to Bremen
154 PAYNE–PEABODY.
in September, 1870, he joined Weyprecht in prepara-
tions for a new expedition, which were enthusiastically
Supported by the whole empire. The steamer Teget.
hoff started in July, 1872, passed the winter at Nova
Zembla, and then drifted northward, enclosed in ice.
In October Payer discovered the land, which eventually
º to be as large as Spitzbergen, and named it
*ranz Josef in honor of the emperor. For details of
his explorations see ARCTIC Exploration. The
farthest point reached was 82°57' N. lat. After his
return to Austria Payer was made Baron and soon
resigned his commission in the army. He then settled
at Frankfort, but afterwards removed to Munich, where
he, became a painter. As his first work in this line he
exhibited in 1884 The End of the Franklin Expedi.
tion. Besides several geographical monographs he
rºle a full account of his expedition (Vienna,
| O ).
PAYNE, John HowARD (1792–1852), the author
ºf “Home, Sweet Home,” was born in New York,
June 9, 1792. He early showed a fondness for the
stage, though his father, a noted schoolmaster, en-
tirely disapproved his inclination. At the age of thir-
teen, while employed in a counting-house, he published
a weekly paper called The Thespian Mirror. Its merits
being recognized a friend sent him as a student to Union
College, and in February, 1809, made his first appear-
ance as an actor in the Park Theatre, New York, in
the character of Young Norval.” After visiting
other American cities he appeared at Drury Lane The
atre, London, in June, 1813. For nearly twenty years
he remained in England, being engaged as actor, man-
ager, and playwright. Besides translating and adapt-
ing French plays he produced Brutus (1818), in which
£dmund Kean took the title-role, and Charles the
Second, which became a favorite with Charles Kemble.
Another of his plays was Thérèse, or the Orphan of
Geneva. His English opera, Clari, the Maid of Mi-
lan, contains the song which has become dear to all
English-speaking people. In August, 1832, Payne
returned to New y; and engaged in minor literary
and dramatic work. In 1841 he was appointed U. S.
Consul at Tunis, but was recalled four years later. In
1851 he received the same appointment and went again
to Tunis, where he died April 10, 1852. His grave
in the British cemetery there was marked by a stone
erected by one of his successors in office, but after-
wards fell into neglect. Mr. W. W. Corcoran of
Washington in 1883 caused his remains to be removed
and brought to that city, where a suitable monument
has been erected in Oak Hill Cemetery. See C. H.
Brainard's John Howard Payne (1885).
PAYSON, EDWARD (1783–1837), a clergyman, was
born at Rindge, N. H., July 25, 1783, being the son
of Rev. Dr. S. Payson (1758–1820) and nephew of
Rev. Dr. Phillips Payson (1736–1801). Edward gradu-
ated at Harvard College in 1803, spent three years in
teaching at Portland, Maine, and was ordained to the
ministry in 1807. He was the colleague of Rev. M.
Kellogg until 1811, and thenceforward sole pastor. He
was especially noted for his fervent piety and deeply
religious character. He died Oct. 22, 1837. His
Sermons were published in 3 volumes (1846), with a
biography.
PAZ-SOLDAN, PEDRO, a Peruvian poet, was born
at Lima, in May, 1839. He was brought up on his
father's estate of Arona, from which he has taken his
Yseudonym, “Juan de Arona.” In 1859 he went to
Europe, and pursued literary studies at Madrid, Paris,
and Rome. Before he returned, in 1863, he had pub-
lished his first collection of poems, Ruinas (Paris,
1863). These were of very unequal merit, and reflected
the various experiences § which he had been influ-
enced. He served in various government offices in
Lima, and was sometimes sent abroad in a diplomatic
capacity. To the Peruvian journals he contributed
numerous sketches of travels and manners, and several
translations. His Poesias Peruanas (Lima, 1867) gives
graphic pictures of the people and scenery of his native
land. Chispazos is a little volume of sonnets and epi-
grams. Paz;Soldan has been elected a corresponding
member of the Madrid Academy, and has published a
Diccionario de Peruanismos, illustrating the variations
of Peruvian speech from pure Castilian.
PEA. A leguminous garden plant, of the genus
S Prsum. The common pea, Pisum sati-
ee Vol. XVIII. * 27 / . • h d li ſº al
p. 441 (p. 452 viſm, is a smoot and glaucous annual,
Am. Rep.). of from 6 inches to 6 feet high, accord.
ing to the variety, with pinnate leaves,
usually having two pairs of leaflets, the petiole termi.
pating in a branching tendril, of use in the climbing
habit of the plant. ñ. flowers are white or purplish-
yiolet in color, of the irregular form known as papil-
ionaceous. The ovary is one-celled, the pod somewhat
fleshy, containing several globose seeds, with very thick
cotyledons. The native country of the pea, as in the
case of many of our garden vegetables, is unknown.
It was cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, but there
is no proof that it was known earlier. It is now almost
universally cultivated, and is everywhere a favorite
esculent. The highest degree of perfection of the pea
is attained under comparatively low temperatures, and
the early spring sowings always produce the best
results. It needs warm, light soils, moderately manured
for early maturing, though for abundant crops a strong
loam inclining to clay is best. For early crops it is
Sown in November, or at the first opening of the soil
in February or March. The pea is ordinarily eaten in
its green state, and “cannot be eaten too young, or too
Soon after gathering,’’ as it rapidly deteriorates in
healthfulness if kept too long. %. this fact peas
brought from a distance are apt to be flavorless and
unwholesome.
The P. arvense, or field-pea, is probably derived
from the same original species as the garden-pea. It
is valuable not only for its seed but as a forage-plant,
for which some varieties are specially adapted. There
are perhaps more varieties of the pea than of any other
i. vegetable, the varieties dividing into two very
istinct classes: the common pea, of which only the
unripe seeds are eaten, and the eatable podded, called
the sugar-, skinless-, or string-pea, in which the pods
are succulent, and are used in the same way as string-
beans. This class is not much cultivated. Of the
common pea there are two distinct kinds, some being
smooth and yellowish-white when ripe, others wrinkled
and greenish, and much larger. ipe peas contain
much nutriment, and in a dried state are largely
exported from this country to England, where they are
much more extensively used than here.
The pea is liable to a variety of enemies, of which
the most distinctive are the mildew, which often pro-
duces serious injury, and the pea-weevil, a small beetle.
(See AGRICULTURE, Chap. IX.) Many other varieties
of pulse are called peas, as the chick-pea and the
cow-pea (Dolichos) of the South, a valuable forage-
lant, of great importance in Southern agriculture.
}. seeds resemble those of the bean. The produc-
tion of peas in America in 1880 was 6,514,977
bushels. (C. M.)
PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON, educator and au-
thor, was born in Beverly, Mass., March 19, 1811.
He graduated at Harvard College in 1826, studied
theology, and became tutor in the college in 1832. In
the next year he was ordained pastor of the South
Congregational Church, Portsmouth, N. H. In 1860
he became preacher and Plummer-professor of Christian
morals in Harvard College, and held this position until
1881. Throughout his career he was a diligent writer,
and his published sermons, lectures, and pamphlets
are numerous. For several years he was one of the
editors of the Christian Register, and from 1852 to
1861 he edited the North American Review, discussing
with ability and in animated style the social and educa-
tional questions of the time. Among his works are
Lectures on Christian Doctrine (1844); Sermons of
PEABODY
155
—PEACH.
Consolation (1847); Christianity the Religion of Na-
ture (1864); Reminiscences of European Travel (1868);
Moral Philosophy (1873); Christianity and Science
(1874); Christian Belief and Life (1875); Conversation
(1882); Baccalaureate Sermons (1885). He published
also translations of Cicero's philosophical treatises and
a volume of Reminiscences (1888).
PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER, whose life has
been devoted to the cause of education, was born at
Billerica, Mass., May 17, 1812. Her father was a
physician, and her sister was married to Nathaniel
Hawthorne (for whom see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
NICA). Miss Peabody spent her early life in Salem,
but has resided chiefly in Boston. She assisted Mr.
Bronson Alcott in his school, of which she has pre-
served an account in Records of a School (1833), a
book revived in recent years. She was drawn also into
the transcendental movement, and contributed to the
Dial. Besides preparing various text-books she edited
AFsthetic Papers {:} and published Crimes of the
Płouse of Austria (1852), Lectures on the Nursery and
Kindergartem (1874), and Reminiscences of W. E.
Channing (1880). She was associated with Mrs.
Horace Mann in writing Moral Culture of Infancy
(1863), and translated into English De Gerando's
Self-Education (1860). She has been one of the most
vigorous advocates of the kindergarten system, and
; several years she conducted a magazine in its be-
half.
PEABODY, WILLIAM Bourn OLIVER (1799–1847),
an American clergyman and author, was born at Ex-
eter, N.H., July 9, 1799. He graduated at Harvard
College in 1816, studied theology under Rev. Dr. Henry
Ware, and was ordained, in 1820, pastor of the Uni-
tarian Church at Springfield, Mass. He prepared for
Sparks' American Biography the Lives of Alexander
Wilson, Cotton Mather, David Brainerd, and James
Oglethorpe. Having a fondness for natural history he
frequently lectured on such subjects, and prepared for
the State of Massachusetts a Report on the Birds of
the Commonwealth (1839). He died at Springfield,
May 28, 1847.
His twin-brother, OLIVER WILLIAM Bourn PEA-
BODY, after graduating at Harvard, became a lawyer
at Exeter, but removed to Boston in 1830, and was
for several years an editor of the Daily Advertiser.
After spending a year at Jefferson College, La., as
professor of English literature, he became a Unitarian
!. in 1845. He undertook to publish his
orother's literary remains, but before completing the
task died at Burlington, Vt., July 5, 1848. He wrote
for Sparks' American Biography the Lives of Gens.
Putnam and Sullivan. His son, EVERETT PEABODY
(1831-1862), who was killed at the battle of Shiloh,
edited the works of both his father and uncle.
PEACH. The widely cultivated tree yieldin
~ ºr y. , ºr favorite fruit is a member of the
º, XV º, Rosaceae, or rose family. It was for-
Am ić. merly , called Persica vulgaris, but
* tº ºf e through its close affinities to the al-
mond it afterwards received the name of Amygdalus
Persica. More recently the peach, almond, apricot,
lum, and cherry have been classed into one genus
nown as Prunus. It is now believed, indeed, that
the peach, almond, and nectarine are identical in
origin, the almond being the original form, the peach
an improved or fleshy almond, and the nectarine a per-
Sistent sport of the peach. It was long believed that
the peach originated in Persia, but De Candolle is of
the opinion that it probably first appeared in China,
and gradually migrated westward.
e peach is a tree of medium size, usually not
9ver fifteen or twenty feet in height and rarely reach-
ing thirty. It is regarded as short-lived, yet under
proper conditions has been known to live for more
than a century. It has a spreading head, with deep
#leen, leaves, long, narrowly lanceolate, and serrate.
The flºwers appear before the leaves and are of the
this
general structure of this section of the rose family.
The calyx has a short, bell-shaped tube, with five
spreading petals, usually of a rosy hue, the stamens
numerous, pistil solitary, ovary containing two ovules,
only one of which usually develops. The fruit is a
drupe, or stone fruit, the outer portion becoming
fleshy and when ripe very soft and succulent. The
stone is a hard, nut-like body. The peaches are di-
vided into two sections, known as clingstones and free-
stones, in the first of which the flesh clings firmly to
the stone, while in the second it readily separates and
leaves the stone clean and dry.
The peach is readily injured by frosts and cannot be
cultivated with profit in high latitudes. In middle and
northern Europe it is raised against walls and in hot-
houses, but is produced as a standard tree only in the
south. In the United States it cannot be raised
profitably much beyond 40° north latitude. It was in-
troduced into North America by the early European
settlers, probably about 1700, and is now very exten-
sively cultivated. This country, indeed, is the only one
in which it is within the reach of the poorer classes, it
being in Europe a luxury of the rich.
The peach reaches its highest perfection in the Mid-
dle States, its flavor not being so delicate when raised
farther north, while in the South it is apt to grow
greatly to foliage and wood, though with care fine
large fruit may be produced. The peach area of the
Middle States includes portions of New Jersey, Dela-
ware, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, though Delaware
- a. *
J º
F=-º-º:
im.
Peach-Gathering in Delaware.
and the Chesapeake counties of Maryland and Vir-
ginia are the most important sections of this region.
Peaches are here produced in great abundance and of
unsurpassed quality. The 1888 crop is estimated
variously at from 6,000,000 to 10,000,000 baskets, an
unprecedented yield. Formerly the large crops of this
region were in considerable part wasted for want of a
market, but an extension of the area of distribution
and a great development of the processes of drying
and canning have overcome this difficulty, and the
largest crops can now be profitably disposed of
Farther south in the Atlantic States the peach is
raised only sufficiently to supply local needs, but the
State of Georgia has a very large area devoted to
each orchards and produces some very fine fruit.
he peach here ripens early and is safe from danger
of frost. Some of the orchards contain 70,000 trees.
Florida has also made peach-raising one of her in-
dustries. . In the States of the Mississippi Valley the
peach is largely cultivated. Texas is the first in the
market...having ripe peaches by the first of June.
Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri produce largely, while the
lake shore of Michigan yields peaches abundantly, the
temperature being modified by the presence of large
bodies of water. In California immense crops of
peaches are raised, and the cultivation is steadily in-
creasing. The fruit there is said to be of excellent
quality. -
Many varieties of the peach are cultivated, and the
season, in the Middle States continues from late July to
early October. It grows well in sandy, rather poor

156
PEALE–PEAR.
soils, but the most abundant crops are obtained from
land of moderate fertility. . It will also prosper on
glayey and calcareous soils, but too high manuring is
injurious to the fruit. It bears early, sometimes in
the second year after planting, but as a rule the or-
chard peach is short-lived. The tree has many
enemies, the most destructive being a borer (AEgeria
ecitiosa), which is difficult to handle. (See “Peach-
tree Borer" under AGRICULTURE, Chap. IX.) The
tree is also subject to a disease known as the “yel-
lows,' which attacks the leaves. These natural
enemies in connection with the fact that the blossoms
are very liable to injury by late frosts, render the
peach-crop a very precarious one, yet it is sufficiently
lucrative to overcome these disadvantages. (c. M.)
PEALE, CHARLES WILSON, (1741–1827), painter,
was born at Chestertown, Md., April 17, 1741. After
the death of his father, Rev. Charles Peale, in 1750,
the family removed to Annapolis. Here Charles was
apprenticed to a saddler and followed that trade for
Some years. But being attracted to portrait-painting,
he obtained some instruction from Hesselius and after.
Ward from Copley at Boston in 1768. Thence he went
to London, studied painting under Benjamin West,
and learned also engraving, miniature-painting, and
wax-modelling. Returning to Maryland he executed
many portraits, among them one of Washington in the
uniform of a Virginia colonel. In 1776 he went to
Philadelphia and as captain of volunteers fought at
Trenton and Germantown. In 1779 he was elected to
the Pennsylvania Legislature. For fifteen years he
was the only portrait-painter of note in North Amer-
ica. His portraits of the prominent revolutionary
officers were the chief attraction in the picture-gallery
which he afterwards formed. This was indeed but an
adjunct to a museum of natural history, which he
opened at Philadelphia in 1802, being incited thereto
by the discovery of a fossil mammoth in Ulster co.,
N. Y. After various ineffectual efforts, from 1791 on,
he assisted in founding the Pennsylvania Academy of
Fine Arts, to whose exhibitions he contributed for
seventeen years. He was noted for his mechanical in-
genuity and was the first American to manufacture ar-
tificial teeth. He published some essays on bridges,
health, and other topics. He painted fourteen por-
traits of Washington, the last in 1793. His last work,
now in the Philadelphia Academy, was a full-length
portrait of himself at the age of 83. He died at
Philadelphia, Feb. 22, 1827. He had been thrice
married.
His son, REMBRANDT PEALE (1778–1860), also a
painter, was born in Bucks co., Pa., Feb. 22, 1778,
and was trained by his father. He painted a portrait
of Washington in 1795, and practised his art in
Charleston, S. C. In 1801 he went to Europe, studied
under West in London, and while in Paris painted
many portraits of distinguished persons for his father's
museum. After his return in 1809 he was busily en-
gaged as a portrait-painter. He also executed the
large pictures of The Roman Daughter and The Court
of Death, which were exhibited in several cities. He
published a Biography of his father; Notes on Italy
(1831); Portfolio of an Artist (1839); Reminiscences
of Art and Artists. . In 1859 he lectured in several
cities on the portraits of Washington. He died at
Philadelphia, Oct. 3, 1860. , Peale's Museum, which
from an extensive addition of Chinese curiosities came
to be called the Chinese Museum, was destroyed by
fire in isgi. Several other members of the Peaſe
family devoted themselves to art.
PEANUT, Arachis hypogoea, the pea, ground, or
earth nut, is a herbaceous annual, of the pulse family,
of the natural order Leguminosa. It has a branching
stem nine to eighteen inches high, with hairy pinnate
leaves, having four broad, blunt leaflets in pairs. . The
flowers are papilionaceous, of yellow color, and pro-
duced singly in the axils of the leaves. . This plant
has the peculiar habit, after the decay of the petals of
the lower blossoms which alone bear fruit, of bending
downward the flower-stalk and insinuating the ovary
into the earth to the depth of several inches. Here
the fruit develops and ripens. The seeds are borne in
an oblong Fº 1 to 13 inch long, contracted in the
middle, and with a reticulated surface of yellowish
color. It contains ordinarily two seeds, of irregular
ovoid form, with thick cotyledons and a straight
radicle.
This plant is a native of Africa or South America.
It was not known till the discovery of America, but
seems equally prolific in both countries. It is now
S. º \\
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ºśNSº
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Peanuts.
cultivated throughout the tropics and to a considerable
extent in the temperate regions of North America, its
large, sweet, pleasant-tasted seeds being widely used as
food. It succeeds best in a warm, light, loamy soil,
deeply plowed and well pulverized, and yields a quick
and abundant return, fifty bushels per acre being pro-
duced in good, well-cultivated soil. It is generally
grown in Brazil, the West Indies, India, and parts of
Africa, and in several of the Atlantic States of Amer-
ica, its tropical character hindering its successful cul-
ture in the Northern and Middle States. The plant
is killed by the first frost, the nuts then maturing.
The peanut was formerly largely imported into the
United States, but a sufficient supply is now yielded
by Virginia and the Carolinas. The use of the seeds
as food is very considerable, New York city alone ab-
sorbing more than half a million bushels annually.
They are very nutritious and form an important .# -
tion to the food-supply of the world.
The seeds contain much oil, yielding under pressure
over 20 per cent of a fixed, non-drying oil, which is
said to be in no way inferior to olive oil for table use.
It is used principally as a lubricant and in soap manu-
facture, and to some extent in woollen-factories for
cloth-dressing. In lamps it is better than sperm oil,
but thickens in cold weather. (See OILS.) In addi-
tion to these uses the peanut is also a good fodder-
lant. The vines and leaves somewhat resemble clover.
hen ripe the vines are pulled from the ground, the
nuts adhering tenaciously and requiring to be removed
by hand. (C. M.)
PEAR, Pyrus communis, is a near relative botani-
cally of the apple, and the fruit, while
º *Yº quite distinct in sensible qualities, is
Äm ñº closely similar to the apple in botanical
e -º-ºw wºº tº º characters. The flowers are of the type
of the Rosaceae, to which family the pear belongs, and
are pure white in color, with purple anthers. The fruit

PEAT—PEEL.
157
generally tapers towards the stem, the base of which
is not sunk in a cavity, as in the apple. The tree is
ordinarily about 20 feet high, but has been known tº
grow as high as 60 feet. By a º process of
grafting much smaller trees, known as dwarf pears,
are produced. The wood is very hard and close-
rained, and, dyed black, has been used as a substitute
or ebony. The fruit has not the firmness of the
apple, but is sugary and melting, with hard concretions
near the core composed of indurated cells.
The pear is a native of temperate Europe and the
Caucasus, and was cultivated at an early date, many
varieties being known in Pliny's time. At the present
day more than 3000 varieties are enumerated in the
catalogues, though of course very few of these are in
practical cultivation. It is a long-lived tree, one speci-
men in England being about 400 years old. One in
New York planted by Peter Stuyvesant in 1648 was
still bearing fruit 200 years afterward. It is cultivated
as a standard tree, by grafting on pear seedlings, and
as a dwarf, by using the thorn, mountain ash, or quince
as a stock for grafting. The quince is generally used.
The pear needs a strong, dry soil, and is subject to
many insect enemies, which attack the leaves and bark.
Its worst foe, however, is the “blight,” which is prob-
ably produced by a minute fungus, which rapidly
spreads and is destructive to branch and tree alike if
not quickly eradicated.
Of pears grown for sale only a few of the many
varieties are widely cultivated. A general favorite
among these is the Bartlett, which is notable for its
size, lusciousness, and abundant bearing. It is esti-
mated that 90 per cent. of the pears grown for profit
in the United States are of this variety. Another
favorite is the Seckel, a small fruit, but of unsurpassed
flavor. This is traced to a single tree in the suburbs
of Philadelphia. As a rule pears are better if picked
when just mature and ripened in the house. Many
varieties which are excellent thus ripened are worth-
less if left to ripen on the tree.
The pear has a wide range of distribution. Unlike
the apple and the peach, it flourishes in the sea-coast
country of the South Atlantic, while it is equally at
home in the highlands of the interior. The three
States in which it is most largely produced are Georgia,
Florida, and California. The latter seems particularly
adapted to its culture, and produces it in vast quanti-
ties and of extraordinary size. Very many of these
pears are shipped to the East, while great quantities
are preserved . canning, a process to which the pear
lends itself excellently, retaining much of its original
flavor. (C. M.)
PEAT is found in the United States towards the
northern border from New England to Dakota, but more
extensively in Canada and Newfoundland. It consists
of J. decomposed vegetation, and forms only in
cold, moist climates. As fuel it has never attained any
prominence in America, though it is so used through-
out Northern Europe, where several varieties, distin-
guished partly by color, are known. The best is the
ark-brown or black, which is the most free from
earthy matter. This mineral matter varies greatly :
Some peats, when burnt, leave chiefly carbonate of
lime, others the sulphate, while silica, phosphates, etc.,
also occur. .
PECAN, Carya olivaefermis, is a tree belonging to
the walnut family (Juglandaceae) and to the hickory
genus, of the several species of which it produces the
most palatable fruit. It is a handsome, lofty, North
American tree, growing to a height of 70 feet, with a
slender, straight, trunk, and compound leaves with
etioles 12 to 18 inches long with 13 to 15 sessile leaf-
ets. It is found on river banks from Illinois south-
Ward to Mississippi, and will bear in gardens and shel-
tered places as far north as the banks of the Hudson.
It was introduced into France many years ago. The
pegan is the most rapidly growing of the hickories,
and yields a coarse-grained but heavy and durable
wood, which is stronger and more elastic than the white
ash." Its bark, as in all the hickories, contains yellow
dye principles, from which an olive dye may be made
by the addition of copperas, and a green by the addition
of alum. tº sº
The pecan tree is particularly esteemed for its fruit,
which is the most délicious of all the hickory nuts. . .It
is sweet and of an agreeable flavor, and has a thin,
easily broken, yellowish-brown shell, without the in-
ternal partitions of the ordinary hickory nut. The
pecan is raised extensively for commercial purposes in
the Southern States, Texas alone exporting annually
over $50,000 worth of its nuts.
PECK, WILLIAM DANDRIDGE º entO-
mologist, was born in Boston, graduated at Harvard
College in 1782, and became professor of natural his;
tory there in 1805. He published a catalogue of
American and Foreign Plants in 1818. For his other
work see AGRICULTURE, Chap. IX. at end.
PEDRO II., DE ALCANTARA, DOM, Emperor of
Brazil, was born at Rio de Janeiro, Dec. 2, 1825. He
was the son of Dom Pedro I. and of Leopoldina, arch-
duchess of Austria. His father had renounced the
throne of Portugal in 1826 in favor of his infant
daughter, Donna Maria de Gloria, and in 1831, weary
of . struggle with the revolutionary tendency of the
Brazilians, abdicated in favor of his son, then five years
old. He had appointed Andrada e Sylva, the exiled
chief of the democratic party, tutor of the child. The
tutor accepted the position in good faith, but two years
later was driven from the palace by a mob. A council
of regency then administered the government, until
July, 1840, when Pedro II. was declared of age, though
not yet fifteen years old. The country still suffered
from agitation, and in 1842 a dangerous insurrection
was quelled by Gen. Caxias. Thenceforth the internal
eace of the empire was not disturbed. In 1843 Dom
}. was married to the Princess Theresa Christina
Maria, daughter of Francis I., King of Naples. Qf
their four children, only one daughter still lives. She
was married in 1864 to the Comte d'Eu, grandson of
Louis Philippe, of France, and has three sons.
The emperor is remarkably well educated, and con-
verses fluently in English, French, German, Spanish,
Italian. Well versed in science and literature, he is
liberal in promoting them in his dominions. In 1852
he ºf in the overthrow of the dictator Rosas in
the Argentine Republic, and thereby acquired for
Brazil an enlargement of territory and the free navi-
gation of the Rio de la Plata. In 1860 he made ex-
tensive travels in all parts of his dominions. In 1865
Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentine Republic were com-
pelled to unite in repressing the wild ambition of Lo-
pez, the dictator of Paraguay. The war was only
ended by the death of the savage dictator in 1870. A
complication with the Argentine Republic ensued, but
the matter was finally compromised in October, 1872.
Meantime Dom Pedro had visited Paris, giving special
attention to its scientific institutions. He also travelled
in Spain, and in 1876 he made a tour in the United
States and then visited Europe again. Everywhere he
left the most favorable impressions of his courtesy,
energy, scientific zeal, and public spirit. His reign
has been signalized by the abolition of slavery. in
1831 the African slave-trade was prohibited, but prac-
tically it did not cease till 1853. Still more important
was the decree for the abolition of slavery, issued Aug.
25, 1871. By its terms all slaves on the imperial
estates were at once emancipated, and all the children
of slaves of private owners, born thereafter, were de-
clared free.
PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, Speaker of the Brit-
ish House of Commons, was born in 1829, being the
youngest son of the famous Sir Robert Peel. He was
educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford, and
entered Barliament in 1865 as member for Warwick,
which he still represents. He was parliamentary secre-
tary to the Poor Law board in 1868–71; secretary of
158
PEET-PEN.
the Board of Trade in 1871–73; patronage-secretary of
the treasury, 1873–74; under-secretary of the home
department in 1880. He was chosen Speaker of the
House in 1884 on the retirement of Sir Henry Brand,
and was re-elected in 1886.
PEET, HARVEY PRINDLE (1794–1873), educator of
deaf-mutes, was born at Bethlehem, Conn., Nov. 19,
1794. He graduated at Yale College in 1822 and be-
came an instructor in the Hartford asylum for the
deaf and dumb. His noble work there has been de-
scribed under DEAF-MUTEs. He died at New York
city, Jan. 1, 1873. He published a useful Course of
Instruction for the Deaf and Dumb (1844–46); Legal
Rights of the Deaf and Dumb (1856); and other works
tºnected with the cause to which he had devoted his
II62.
His son, ISAAC LEWIS PEET, was born at Hartford,
in Dec. 4, 1824, graduated at Yale College in 1845,
and at Union Theological Seminary in 1849. He and
his brother Edward (1826–1862) followed in the foot-
steps of their father, and contributed to the literature
pertaining to deaf-mutes.
PEKIN, city of Illinois, county-seat of Tazewell co.,
is on the left bank of the Illinois River, 10 miles below
Peoria, and 163 miles S. W. of Chicago. Four rail-
roads pass through the city. It has a court-house, 5
hotels, 2 national banks, 1 other bank, 2 daily and 5
weekly newspapers, 12 churches, and 6 schools. The
industrial works comprise 2 foundries, flouring-mills,
wagon-, plow-, and organ-factories, and 2 header-works.
Pekin was settled in 1831, and incorporated in 1849.
It has gas- and water-works, and a park. Its prop-
erty is valued at $1,250,000, the public debt is $75,000,
and the yearly expenses about $45,000. Its popula-
tion in 1880 was 5993.
PEMBERTON, JOHN CLIFFORD (1817–1881), Con-
federate general, was born in Philadelphia in 1817.
He was descended from Phineas Pemberton, who
came from England with William Penn, and whose
family was prominent in Philadelphia in the eigh-
teenth century. John graduated at West Point, in
1837, served in the Florida and Mexican wars, being
aide-de-camp to Gen. Worth in the latter. At the
outbreak of the civil war he resigned his captain's
commission and entered the Confederate service as
colonel of cavalry and assistant adjutant-general to Gen.
Joseph E. Johnston. In 1862 he was made brigadier:
general, and then lieutenant-general, having command
of the army in Mississippi. He was intrusted with
the defence of Wicksburg when Grant, began his cam-
paign to recover the free navigation of the Mississippi.
Pemberton was defeated at Champion Hills, May 16,
1863, in his attempt to keep open the way for reinforce-
ment by Johnston's army. Thenceforth he was shut
up in the fortifications of Wicksburg until July 4, 1863,
when he was compelled to surrender to Gen. Grant.
Being exchanged he resigned his command, but at the
close of the war he was inspector of artillery at
Charleston. Thereafter he lived in retirement in Vir-
ginia. He died at Philadelphia, July 13, 1881.
PEN. The history of the manufacture of steel pens
- in the United States covers a period of
See Yº. Yº about thirty-five years. In June, 1853,
kº William Gilchrist started his factory,
. Evep.). which was located about 2 miles from
Suffern's Depot, N. J., on the Erie Railroad, the
power being furnished by water from the Ramapo
Creek. This business was conducted successfully until
November of the same year, when the factory was
totally destroyed by fire. James Bishop, of Newark,
N. J., purchased the salvage, and continued the busi-
ness for a short period, when it was sold to a stock
company known as the Newark, Steel Pen,Co. This
concern did not prosper, but labor troubles arose
and owing to disagreements between the company, an
its employés, the company failed, and the business
passed into the hands of the Franklin, Pen. Co.
of New York, a newly organized house. In 1855 the
American Steel Pen Co. began business in New York.
Afterwards under the title of Washington Medallion
Pen Co. this organization conducted the business until
1861, when Harrison & Bradford, of New York, pur-
chased the plant. This firm continued the business for
twenty years, and was really the first house to put the
American manufacture of steel pens on a solid founda-
tion. In 1881 this firm went out of business, Mr.
Harrison becoming a member of the firm of Turner &
Harrison, of Philadelphia, while Mr. Bradford became
connected with the Miller Bros.' Cutlery Co., of Meri-
den, Conn. This house at that time began to make
steel pens, Mr. Bradford being placed in control of the
new department. In 1860 the Esterbrook Steel Pen
Co. entered the field as manufacturers of steel pens,
with an extensive factory at Camden, N. J., and this
house is to-day the largest American maker.
These three houses, the Esterbrook Steel Pen Co.,
the Miller Bros. Cutlery Co., and Turner & Harrison,
are now the only manufacturers of steel pens in the
United States, and their combined annual output is
about 1,500,000 gross, while of foreign pens the annual
importation is about 600,000 gross.
The raw material used by these manufacturers is a
fine crucible steel, produced in Birmingham, England,
which is imported here both rolled and in the rough.
When rolled it is in strips about 4 ft. long and 3 to
3% in. wide.
The process of manufacture has changed but little
all these years. The work is mainly hand labor, and
whatever improvements have been made have been in
the way of “raising '' the pen and changing the side
slits so as to secure greater flexibility. Each pen, in
its progress from the blank to the finished article, is
handled from 22 to 24 times, and in the case of some
special pens the operations exceed these numbers.
First, the pen blank is struck out of the rolled steel,
after which it is “pierced '' or has cut in it the little
hole which is in the body of the pen, just above the
slit in the point. It is then annealed and stamped
either with the maker's or an “imprint” name. It
is next “raised ; '' that is, it is rounded up and given
its proper shape. It is then hardened and tempered,
in which are included a number of operations. After
this it is ground lengthwise to allow the ink to run to
the point, and then cross-ground to hold the ink at the
point and prevent it from dropping off. After the pen
is scoured, the slits are cut in the point and sides, and
the former of these is perhaps the most delicate of all
the manipulations through which the pen passes. The
finished pens are then assorted, each pen being exam-
ined, weighed into boxes, each containing a gross, and
packed into cartons, each carton containing 25 gross.
In the early days of steel pens the demand was
almost wholly for those with fine points, but with the
necessity for rapid and easy writing came the call for
the various grades of blunt, turned-up, round-pointed,
and stub pens, until now some houses show a variety
of 250 different styles. “Imprint” pens are those
which have stamped upon them the name of the job-
bing or retail stationer instead of the name of the
maker. Formerly a large variety of “imprints’’ were
made, and, while now the quantity has increased, the
stamps are mostly confined to jobbers and retailers
doing an extensive business.
Gold Pens.—The manufacture of gold pens in the
United States dates from the spring of 1836, when Sim-
eon Hyde, an enterprising American, purchased the
business of John Isaac Hawkins, an Englishman, who
after years of patient study and experiment had suc-
ceeded in making a gold pen. Hyde bought the busi-
ness for £300, and a royalty on all pens sold. Hawkins
had taken out no patent, and for several years the
process of manufacture was kept a º secret by
Hyde and his assistants. It finally leaked out and by
1849 there were fifteen firms engaged in the business,
and from that time on rapid progress was made, the
trade reaching its zenith about 1861, since which time
º PENALTY-PENDLETON.
159
it has remained at about the same level. The gold
pen to-day is practically the same as when Hawkins
&ompleted it, except that the goods are now made in a
neater and more finely finished manner.
Fountain Pens.—In 1848 N. A. Prince,...of New
York, brought out the first fountain pen. This con-
sisted of a metal barrel tapering to a point at the
upper end; the lower end was round, the under side
of the barrel being cut away, exposing to view and for
use a small curved bit of rubber which was the writin
point. A valve located just above the pen controlle
the ink, and was opened or closed at pleasure., . As
soon as Goodyear produced his vulcanized rubber,
Mr. Prince and his partner, John S. Purdy, secured the
exclusive right to use that rubber for pen barrels.
Since that time inventors innumerable haye taken out
patents on fountain pens, the result being that the
market is now supplied with a great variety of styles.
The general characteristics of all the pens are about the
same, the variations being mainly in the methods em-
ployed to feed the ink to the pen.
The origin of the stylographic pen is obscure. It
seems to have been developed by some one who was
working to produce a fountain pen, and it is hard to
distinguish between early specimens of the two instru-
ments. The earliest record of a stylographic pen is the
ranting of a patent for one to Charles § rebes, of
altimore, Md.; in 1850. The pen was a crude affair.
Six years later Nelson B. Slayton, of Madison, Ind.,
invented and patented a stylographic pen, but in 1869
one Kenyon invented a pen which was about the first
bearing a resemblance in mechanical construction to
those which followed and became popular. Inventors
in this branch appear to be as numerous as in fountain
pens, but the pens brought out of late years have a
general similarity. (C. K. U.)
PENALTY, as a legal term, is used in two ways:
1. It denotes a clause in an agreement by which the
obligor agrees to pay a certain sum of money if he
shall fail to fulfil the contract contained in another
clause of the same agreement. The most ordinary
form of penalty is that named in a bond : it was orig-
inally inserted according to Blackstone to evade the
prohibitions against taking interest for money, and
was considered as part of the real debt. Penalties
were then strictly enforced and continued to be so un-
til courts of equity interfered and held that, upon the
principle that compensation and not forfeiture was the
just and equitable rule to be applied to all cases, they
would grant the obligor relief when he had been pre-
vented from paying the money on the day stipulated.
Consequently, when the debtor paid the i. with
interest for its detention and costs, he should not be
mulcted in further damages. Acts of Parliament
were afterwards passed giving the courts of common
law power to afford the same relief. These or similar
statutes are in force generally in the United States.
There is frequently a question whether the sum
named is a penalty or the amount of damages which
the parties have agreed shall be recovered, in case of a
breach of covenant. Against such stipulated or liqui-
dated damages equity will not relieve. The general
rule has been said to be that “when the injury is sus-
ceptible of definite admeasurement, as in all cases
where the breach consists in the non-payment of
money, the parties will not be allowed to make a stip-
ulation for a greater amount, whether in the form of a
penalty or of liquidated damages. But when, on the
other hand, the injury in question is uncertain in itself
and unsusceptible of being reduced to certainty by a
legal computation, it may be settled beforehand by
special agreement.” In all cases it is a question of
1ntention.
It has been held that a penalty remains unaffected
though the condition may have been partially per-
formed, as where the penalty was $1000 and the con-
dition to pay an annuity of $100, which had been paid
for ten years; the penalty was still valid.
2. Penalty is also the term used for the punishment
inflicted by a law for its violation ; a pecuniary pun-
ishment is generally meant, though the phrase “death-
penalty” is also in common use. (T. R.)
PENCIL. º º i º K. the may
acture of lead pencIIS In America. A1.
º ;Vº L. Leman, of New York, was, the
Km Rep º pioneer manufacturer of lead pencils in
s -- ºwWºw. ..." e J & the United States. He began the busi-
ness in 1830, and his workmen were distributed in
Jersey City, Hoboken, and other places adjacent to
New York. The old system of all handwork was then
in full force, the workmen taking the pencils home to
“finish,” the making of the pencil in the rough
being carried on at a central place.
In 1849 Eberhard Faber came to New York as the
agent of A. W. Faber, of Stein, Germany, and in 1861;
the centennial of the house, it was determined to found
the industry in America. This was done, the plant
being located in New York city, but in 1872 the fac-
tory was burned down and a new one was built at
Greenpoint, L. I. This move of Faber was really the
start of the pencil industry in this country. In 1865
the Eagle Pencil Co. began the manufacture of
pencils in America, all their goods before that time
having been imported. In 1865 the American Lead
Pencil Co. entered the field, and was followed in
1872 by the Dixon Crucible Co., and to-day these
are the only makers in the United States.
With the exception of the American graphite used
by the last-named company all of the pencil lead used
in this country comes from abroad, the chief mines
being in Bohemia, although one maker has the out-
put of the Alibert mine, Siberia, which is used in cer-
tain grades of artists' pencils. The clay which is
Hºei with the lead to give it a proper texture comes
from Bavaria, and Bohemia, the finer grade being from
the former place. The clay is of a brownish color and
possesses fatty qualities, being oily or greasy when rolled
in the fingers. The wood used in the great majority
of grades is cedar and the supply of that wood used by
all pencil-makers the world over comes from Florida.
Other woods are used to a slight extent, but none of
them work so well under the knife when sharpening
the pencil as the cedar. The American inventive
genius has been shown in this industry as in others,
and while the laborer in Europe produces one pencil at
a time the American machine produces six, and in the
subsequent finishing of the pencil hand-labor is reduced
to a minimum. The lead pencil of to-day is practically
the same as when first produced in 1565 in England.
It is made neater, finished better, but is essentially the
Så.II) e. (C. K. U.)
PENDER, WILLIAM DAVIDson (1834–1863), a
Confederate general, was born in North Carolina, and
graduated at West Point in 1854. He entered the
artillery, but was soon transferred to the dragoons and
was employed in frontier service until the secession of
North Carolina, when he entered the Confederate ser-
vice as colonel. He was afterwards promoted to be
brigadier-general and major-general (May 20, 1863).
He had command of a division at the battle of Gettys-
burg, and was killed there, July 3, 1863.
PENDLETON, EDMUND (iT21–1803), a Virginia
patriot, was born in Caroline co., Va., Sept. 9, 1721.
He was of English descent, and early engaged in the
practice of law. In 1752 he was elected to the House
of Burgesses and was prominent in the patriotic move-
ments preceding the Revolution. In 1774 he was a
member of the first Continental Congress, and he pre-
sided in the Virginia Conventions of December, 1775,
and May, 1776. He drafted the resolutions instructing
the delegates of Virginia to propose in Congress a
declaration of independeneº uring the war he was
chairman of the Virginia Committee of Safety, and
when the State was organized he was made speaker of
the House. He also presided over the State conven-
tion which ratified the Rederal Constitution, and strongly
160
PENDLETON.—PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN.
Supported this document against the objections of
Patrick Henry. From 1779 till his death, Oct. 23,
1893, he was president of the Court of Appeals.
PENDLETON, GEORGE HENRY, statesman, was
bºrn at Cincinnati, July 19, 1825. His grandfather,
Maj. Nathaniel Pendleton, had been aide to Gen.
Greene, in the revolutionary war, and afterwards
judge in New York. His father, Nathaniel Greene
Pendleton (1793–1861), likewise had been aide to Gen.
Gaines in the war of 1812, and member of Congress
from Ohio, 1840–42. George was educated partly in
Europe and became a lawyer. He was elected to the
Ohio State senate in 1854, and passed thence to Con-
tess in 1855, where he continued as a pro-slavery
emocrat until the outbreak of the war. Then he was
defeated for re-election, but returned in 1863, and op-
B. the prosecution of the war. In 1864 he was the
emocratic candidate for vice-president, on the ticket
with Gen. McClellan, but was defeated. Soon after
the close of the war he became the most prominent
advocate of the proposal to pay the U. S. bonds in
greenbacks,” and as such was strongly pressed upon
the Democratic convention of 1868 as a candidate for
the presidency, but this movement failed. In the next
year he was candidate for the governorship of Ohio,
but was defeated. In 1879 he was elected to the U. S.
Senate, where he was an able advocate of civil service
reform. On the expiration of his term in 1885 he was
appointed U. S. minister to Germany.
PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN, McCLELLAN's.—
After the disastrous defeat of Gen. McDowell, at Bull
Run, July 21, 1861 (see BULL RUN), Gen. George B.
McClellan, who had distinguished himself in West
Virginia, was called to Washington and put in com-
mand of the troops collected there for the defence of
the national capital. He found there 50,000 men,
mainly newly levied or demoralized. Two things were
clear to him. A large army must be created, and
Washington must be fortified to set at rest apprehen-
sions for its safety. These objects were not accom-
plished till the spring of 1862, and, meanwhile, on
Gen. Scott's retirement on Nov. 1, 1861, Gen. McClel-
lan had been made commander-in-chief of the forces
of the Union. In the early spring of 1862 McClellan
had under his immediate j 180,000 men organ-
ized into four corps, under the name of the Army of
the Potomac. The enemy threatening the capital
numbered 75,000, under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston,
whose head-quarters were at Manassas Junction. His
right wing rested on Acquia Creek and supported the
batteries that blocked the Potomac. McClellan's first
lan was to draw Johnston from his lines by transport-
ing the Army of the Potomac to Urbanna, on the
Lower Rappahannock, and moving it thence on Rich-
mond. If he failed to carry Richmond by a coup de
main, his ulterior purpose was to march to the James,
and with that river as a base to assault the city in the
rear. This, he conceived, by compelling Johnston to
fall back on Richmond, would secure the capital, re-
lieve the blockade of the Potomac, and open the com-
munication between Washington and the West, now
interrupted at Harper's Ferry. -
Unfortunately the government had no longer unlim-
ited confidence in its commander, and a positive order
required him, before moving from Washington, to open
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and destroy the
batteries on the Potomac. The first of these objects
he effected in the end of February, and almost imme;
diately on his return to Washington intelligence reached
of Johnston's abandonment of Manassas for the Rap-
idan. . Thus the Potomac was freed, while the opera-
tions of the Monitor, near the mouth of Chesapeake
Bay, enabled McClellan to look more confidently to the
James River as a base. -
Johnston's move southwards deprived the Urbanna
scheme of its promise, for he could now reach Rich-
mond before the Union army. The alternative was to
adopt Fortress Monroe as a base, and, on March 17,
the leading divisions of what was meant to be an army
of 155,000 were embarked at Alexandria. Precisely
at this time McClellan was deprived of the command.
in-chief, while his army by the withdrawal of troops
for the defence of Washington was reduced to 120,000.
On April 2d he reached the fort and found 58,000 men
and 100 guns disembarked and ready to march, and at
once took steps to advance up the Peninsular.
On April 1, 1862, the status of the army was as follows:
Second corps—Sumner............................ 26,778
Third corps—Heintzelman...................... 33,047
Fourth corps—Keyes.............................. 32,924
Regulars—Sykes and Cooke.................... 5,906
Reserve artillery........... ......................... 2,731
Different corps....................................... 900
Siek. …....... .............. ................. 6,453
Absent.................................................. 10,616
119,965
The disembarkation was completed on April 6th, when
there were slightly over 100,000 men, with 44 batteries on
the Peninsula, fit for service.
Fortress Monroe is 72 miles in a direct line S. E. of
Richmond. The field of operations lay between this
and the Upper Chickahominy on the north, and be-
tween the James River on the S. W. and the York
and its main branch, the Pamunkey, on the N. E. The
region divides itself into two parts—the Peninsula
proper between the York and the James as far up as
City Point, and the tract between the Pamunkey and
James stretching above Richmond. In the former the
land is flat, marshy, and thickly wooded. The second
is undulating and divided longitudinally by the Chicka-
hominy. The James was blocked by the Confederate
iron-clad Virginia, formerly called the Merrimac ; the
York and Pamunkey could be ascended by vessels as
far as White House, but the entrance was blocked by
the guns of Yorktown. Hence the importance of this
place. The secondary peninsula on which it stands is
narrowed by a swampy stream, Warwick Creek, that
rising about 13 mile from the town empties perpen-
dicularly into the James. Here nature marked out the
Confederate true line of defence. Yorktown is 20
miles N. W. of Fortress Monroe, and Williamsburg 10
miles farther in the same direction.
On the 4th McClellan put his troops in motion, and
his right appeared before Yorktown next day. His
left was detained by the unforeseen obstacle of War-
wick. Creek, incorrectly laid down on the maps, along
which was Magruder's line of defence extending 13
miles in length. His force of 11,000 men was evi-
dently too small to hold a line of this length against
the powerful army of his antagonist, and the fortifica-
tions of Yorktown were insufficient. Johnston urged
evacuation and the concentration of all the forces in
Richmond. To this Magruder would not listen. His
obstinacy led McClellan to believe that he had been
reinforced by part of the force from Manassas, and he
deemed it prudent to wait for McDowell's 3 divisions,
which had been promised him. On the very evening
he was reconnoitring he was apprised that this whole
corps was withdrawn from him and that Wool, who
held Fortress Monroe with 15,000 men, had been made
independent. The naval force on which he had relied
for co-operation on the York failed him on the pretext
of sº the Virginia. He hesitated and delayed,
while Johnston sent part of his forces to help Magru-
der, following ultimately in person. When, therefore,
after 11 days, McClellan decided to attack, Magruder's
force was doubled. Yet the disproportion was not
materially affected. The men embarked at Alexandria
were now all in the Peninsula, and Franklin's division
of McDowell's corps was restored to him.
On April 16th a general cannonade was opened and
an attempt made to storm the breastworks. This re-
sulted in failure and McClellan determined to proceed
by regular siege. On May 5th everything was ready
→ . PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN.
161
for the bombardment, when it was discovered the foe
had disappeared. Yorktown had been evacuated on
the night of the 4th of May, in accordance with the
decision of a council of war, in which Davis, Lee,
Johnston, and Magruder took part. Seventy-one guns
were the trophies abandoned to the Union army.
In evacuating Yorktown the Confederates abandoned
York River, and Franklin's command was taken on
board transports to be landed at White House, at the
head of the navigation of the Pamunkey. McClellan
conducted the pursuit by land. The task of covering
the Confederate retreat was intrusted to Longstreet,
under whom it was conducted with the greatest order.
At Williamsburg defensive works had been constructed,
the most prominent being a large work named Fort
Magruder, nearly 2 miles in advance of the town.
This and the chain of adjoining works were occupied
by the Confederates, who saluted the on-pressing col-
umns as they appeared on the edge of the forest with
a fierce fire. e appearance of the numerous works
was a surprise to the Unionists. Longstreet had
manned them during the night, resolved to maintain
possession. Hooker attacked his right, and Long-
street's artillery crossed its fire with that of the Con-
federate infantry. The Unionists in the open unable
to withstand the cross-fire ambushed themselves among
the abatis which became the scene of a fierce struggle.
Hooker lost the abatis and was falling back when Kear-
ney came to his aid. Allowing Hooker to pass between
his battalions he took up the fi ht, and arrived in time
to rescue one or two abandoned batteries. Towards 4
o'clock the right came into action, and Hancock, find-
ing a small redoubt—a link in the Magruder chain—
unoccupied, took possession of it, and his men pressed
on till they arrived in view of the Confederate left.
Longstreet, on discovering Hancock, despatched Early's
brigade against him, but this was driven back in dis-
order. McClellan, who had remained behind to see
Franklin off, arrived before Williamsburg too late for
further action that night. He saw that the Confederate
defences were turned and prepared for a vigorous as-
sault on the morrow, but Johnston, conscious of his
numerical inferiority, evacuated his defences and dur-
ing the night resumed his retreat. The Confederates
had 3000 men disabled, and left 600 prisoners. The
Union loss was 2073 killed and wounded and 623
prisoners.
Franklin's division, which had embarked on the
evening of the 5th, arrived at Elkhorn near White
House on the 6th, but, on attempting to advance on
the 7th, he was confronted by Whiting's Confederate
division and Hood's brigade. This served to hold
him in check, and Johnston reached Richmond without
further molestation.
On the retreat of the Confederates from Williams-
burg the Army of the Potomac was pushed forward as
rapidly as the horrible condition of the roads would
permit and on May 16th its leading divisions reached
the White House, whence the West Point Railroad
runs west to Richmond, 18 miles. Here McClellan
established his depots, and by the 21st had his army
established in echelon along the left bank of the
Chickahominy. Johnston, meanwhile, had pressed
forward the concentration of all available Confederate
forces at Richmond, and had in consequence been
joined by Huger with 11,000 men from Norfolk.
Iuger's abandonment of Norfolk led the Confederate
Commodore Tatnall to blow up the Merrimac, thus
leaving the James open to the Union gun-boats. Mc-
Clellan was thus confirmed in his ulterior purpose of
transferring his base to the James, and co-operating
with Goldsborough in an attack on Rºhºl on the
South. This purpose he would have carried out on the
evacuation of Williamsburg but for an object to which
high importance was attached, viz.: the insurance of a
juncture with McDowell when he should move from
redericksburg. With this object, as well as for the
preservation of his communication with the White
House, he had to leave his centre and right wing on
the north bank of the Chickahominy, when he on the
20th commenced to cross the rest of his army at
Bottom's Bridge. At this moment McDowell's move-
ment had really commenced, and Porter had marched
to meet him as far as Hanover Court-House (where he
had a combat and captured 700 prisoners and a gun),
when Jackson's irruption into the Shenandoah alarmed
the authorities for Washington and led to McDowell
being countermanded, with his 41,000 men.
The ground of McClellan's immediate operations
may be described in a few words. It presents but one
obstacle, the Chickahominy, rising to the north of
Richmond. In its downward course we meet first
Meadow Bridge (over which passes the Gordonsville
Railroad); below this is Mechanicsville Bridge, within
5 miles of the city; then New Bridge, connecting the
hamlet of Old Tavern with Gaines' Mill heights; 63.
miles below this is the bridge of the West Point Rail-
road, and two-thirds of a mile farther down, Bottom's
Bridge, 12 miles from Richmond. Here McClellan had
crossed his left wing. The noticeable tributaries of the
Chickahominy are Beaver-Dam Creek between Me-
chanicsville and Gaines' Mill on the left bank, White Oak
Creek, giving rise to a vast wooded swamp, called White
Oak Swamp, some 3 miles below Bottom's Bridge.
On the 28th McClellan had his left wing (Keyes
and Heintzelman) on the south bank stretching from
White Oak Swamp up to the railroad bridge; Sumner
at the centre stood prepared to cross but his bridges
were not laid ; the right wing under Franklin and
Porter stretched northward on the left bank as far as
opposite Richmond. His whole line formed a semi-
circle, broken near the centre by the Chickahominy
and with the extremities 25 miles apart. The Confed-
erates occupied the chord. Johnston was not the man
to let slip an opportunity so full of promise for an
attack, and accordingly on the 31st delivered an assault
at Fair Oaks Station. (See FAIR OAKs, BATTLE OF.)
Johnston's serious wound in this action led to the ap-
pointment of Gen. Robert E. Lee to the Confederate
command-in-chief.
The battle of Fair Oaks (during which Sumner had
crossed to the south side) was followed by storms, last-
ing till June 20th, that enforced rest on both com-
batants. The only events calling for note were Stuart's
cavalry reconnoissance round the whole rear of the
Federal line with his raid on the railroad and White
House, and the transfer of Franklin's corps on the
19th to the south bank, Porter, reinforced by McCall,
being left alone north of the river.
By June 26th the ground was dry enough to admit
of operations. Lee supposed that McClellan's object
in bringing his forces across the Chickahominy was to
lay regular siege to Richmond. His cadres had now
been filled up by the enforcement of the conscription
in the South and by further reinforcements, and he
proposed to raise the siege by threatening the Union
line of communication with White House. The
armies by which the aims of either general were to be
executed were nearly equal, numbering each a little
over 100,000 men present for duty.
The following is a summary of the effective strength
of the two armies on June 26, 1862:
Union. Confederate.
Sumner, 17,581 A. P. Hill, 14,000
Heintzelman, 18,810 D. H. Hill, 10,000
Keyes, 14,610 Longstreet, 10,000
Porter, 19,960 Magruder, 13,000
Franklin, 19,405 Huger, 11,000
McCall, 9,514 Holmes, 7,000
Staff, Engineers, Jackson, 30,000
Cavalry, etc., 4,844 Pendleton's Art'y, 1,500
Stuart's Cavalry, 4,000
104,724
Deduct losses since 100,500
June 20, say 1,500
103,224
162
PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN.
On the evening of the 25th McClellan was startled
by tidings that Jackson was at hand and threatening
his year, and that, A. P. Hill (who with Longstreet and
D. H. Hill were designated by Lee to effect a juncture
with Jackson and break up. McClellan's communica-
tions) had concentrated his division opposite the Union
extreme right at Meadow Bridge. By 8 next morning
Longstreet and D. H. Hill reached their posts in
front of Mechanicsville. All waited the advance of
Jackson. He, however, was delayed by Union skir-
mishers, and Hill, becoming impatient, crossed the
river at 3 P. M. and pushed down the north bank till he
arrived opposite Longstreet and D. H. Hill. They also
crossed and joined him, whereupon the Union advance
fell back from the village to a position beyond Beaver-
Dam Creek.
The position, a strong one, was held by McCall. The
Creek was passable by artillery only by two bridges,
one near its mouth at Ellison's Mill, the other a mile
higher. It could be attacked in front only with heavy
loss, but it could be turned on the right. A. P. Hill,
supposing this to have been done by jackson, marched
across the open swept by the Union batteries, and
assailed McCall's line, first on the right at the upper
road and, failing there, then on the left at Ellison's
Mill, where he was repulsed even more disastrously
than on the right. At 9 o'clock the Confederates,
beaten back at all points, fell back out of range and
the combat of Mechanicsville, the first of the “Seven
Days' battle '' was at an end. Their loss was 250 killed
and 1250 wounded ; that of the Unionists 300 in all.
McClellan now gave up all thought of maintainin
the north bank of the Chickahominy, and McCall an
Porter were directed to abandon the position at Beaver
Dam and take up a new one with Cold Harbor as their
centre, five miles farther down, the sole object being
the protection of the railroad along which the stores
were being conveyed from White House for transfer.
ence to the James.
On the morning of June 27th Porter and McCall,
reinforced by the half of Franklin's corps, stood
ready for action. The Confederates left Mechanics-
ville at dawn, but the bridges over Beaver Dam being
down, it was noon ere they accomplished five miles.
Passing Gaines' Mill (where a skirmish occurred which
has given name to the whole engagement) they came
in sight of the Union force drawn up on a hill-side
across an unnamed creek. It was past 2 o'clock when
the action began by A. P. Hill dashing across the in-
tervening plain and swamp in the face of a fierce artil-
lery fire and passing close up to the Federal infantry
lines. For two hours the conflict raged, but the Con-
federates were eventually defeated and driven back.
Jackson came now into view along with D. H. Hill,
who had formed a junction with him. Longstreet,
who had been held back for Jackson's approach, now
joined himself with these, and an advance was ordered
of the whole line. The assault was first made on the
Union right held by Sykes with his regulars, and by
6.30 P. M. the whole Confederate force of 56,000 men
was pressing on the Union line of 30,000, on right,
centre, and flank simultaneously. The line gave way
at every point, and its retreat threatened to become a
rout, when French's and Meagher's brigades burst
through the stragglers thronging to the bridge over the
Chickahominy and advanced to what was now the
front. The fugitives rallied ; the Confederates paused
in the pursuit, and after a few yolleys the battle of
Gaines' Mill was over. The Union loss was 675
killed, 3250 wounded, and 2000 men, and 20 guns
captured; the Confederate, 1500 killed and 8000
wounded. ſº
When day broke on the 28th the whole Union force
was across the river and the bridges broken. The
problem before McClellan was how to transport his
immense stores and trains to the James, some 17
miles from his head-quarters. . During the night of the
28th his whole force was put in motion, while Lee, on
comprehending his object, ordered his entire force to
start in pursuit. By dawn of the 29th all his columns
were reunited on the S. bank and in motion, and in
the afternoon Magruder came in sight of Sumner's
corps drawn up as a rear guard at Savage's Station.
A smart conflict of two hours ensued, with the sole
result that while Sumner stood at bay the mighty
Union caravan was passing White Qak Swamp and
.."; its way towards ºil. Hill. During the
night the rear guard crossed the swamp, and Jack-
son, who arrived there on the 30th, found the bridges
destroyed, and on trying to force his way across met
with such resistance from Franklin, who stood on the
farther side, that he was compelled to desist. Lee's
object was to strike the Union line at its centre, break
it and hurl its left wing back on Jackson. With this
view Longstreet had flanked the swamp, and hurrying
forward came on the line drawn up at º Farm.
Supported by A. P. Hill, he charged with all his
wonted impetuosity. Other divisions came up and
the battle raged all along the line, night alone putting
an end to the struggle. The Confederates slept on the
field, having captured 20 guns as well as Gen. McCall,
but the grand result of the action was to insure the
integrity of McClellan's army. The troops that had
checked jackson and repulsed Longstreet withdrew
during the night, and when Lee was next able to
strike, it was at a united army posted on the strong
position of the elevated plateau or heights of Malvern,
and in close communication with its base on the James.
Jackson had crossed the swamp and with all the other
Confederate leaders was present at the battle that
ensued. In the afternoon of the 1st of July Lee
ordered an artillery attack, but this was made by
only one battery, which was instantly shattered. Col-
umns of attack led by D. H. Hill, Magruder, and Ew-
ell repeatedly charged furiously in the attempt to
establish themselves on the table-land. All failed to
make any impression, or even disturb a single battery.
The Confederates persisted in their desperate efforts
till dark, when, repulsed everywhere with fearful loss,
they ceased from the struggle, and the Union troops
stood victors on Malvern Hill. During the night they
were withdrawn to Harrison's Landing on the James,
and the Seven Days' battle was ended. Neither
Longstreet, A. P. Hill, nor Jackson took part in the
fight. The loss on the Union side was 375 killed
and 1800 wounded ; that of the Confederates, 900
killed and 3500 wounded. The total loss from June
25th to July 20 (the Seven Days' battle) was, on the
Union side : killed 1734, wounded 8062, missing 6053
=15,849; on the Confederate side, killed 2823,
wounded 13,223, missing 3360=19,406. At Harri-
son's Landing McClellan found himself at the head
of from 85,000 to 90,000 effective troops, and pur-
posed, in conjunction with the naval force, a gran
attack on Richmond in the rear. On Aug. 3d he re-
ceived a telegram from Halleck, now general-in-chief,
ordering him to withdraw from the Peninsula, and his
campaign there was at an end.
As a master of the art of war and an organizer.
whether of an army or the complicated plans and
operations of a campaign, it may be questioned whether
McClellan had a superior among the generals in the
great civil conflict, and certainly no one of them more
entirely won the love and confidence of his men. But
his military skill and organizing power as well as his
faculty for winning men's hearts were largely neutral-
ized by defects that operated to prevent him showing
the qualities of a general of the first class. The most
prominent of these was his inability in a critical mo-
ment to act with Napoleonic decision, swiftness, and
effect. He halted between two opinions and hesitated,
and so, more than once, let his opportunity slip.
Thus, within little more than a day after his appear-
ance before Yorktown he was at the head of over
100,000 men, with a splendid artillery, while Magruder
lay behind its imperfect defences with but ll,000.
PENN-PENNSYLVANIA.
163
Of these, 6000 were in garrison in Yorktown, Glouces-
ter Point, and Mulberry Island, leaving only 5000
men to defend his long line of 13 miles. , McClellan
was then in a position either to have turned Yorktown
or to have broken Magruder's thin line by a direct
attack. He hesitated and waited, and the result was
that when” he abandoned the former plan Johnston
had come, and it was too late to attempt the other.
“To my own surprise,” says Magruder, “he let day
after day pass without attack.’’ Had he shattered
Magruder and followed close on his heels to Richmond
he might have carried it in its then comparatively
weak state by the coup de main he dreamed of
Again, the fundamental error of his selection of the
White House as a base was that it made it necessary
for him to have a force on the left bank of the Chick-
ahominy to protect his line of communications. This
crippled him for striking Johnston with a force so
preponderating as practically to ensure victory. The
moment all reasonable prospect of a junction with
McDowell vanished, he ought to have transferred his
depots and every man to the right bank, or at once
have carried out his James River scheme. It was not
till Lee was joined by Jackson and had replenished
his ranks by conscription that there was any parity
between the forces. “Gen. McClellan,” says an able
and friendly critic, “knew that the one course or
other was necessary, but unfortunately the case was
one presenting an alternative, and it was the nature
of that commander's mind so to balance between con-
flicting opinions and let ‘I dare not wait upon I would,’
that he was apt to hesitate even in conjunctures where
the worst course was preferable to doing nothing.''
Again, during the battle of Fair ºaks McClellan
lay with two army corps at his command at his head-
quarters at Gaines' Mill, whence he could see the
smoke of the battle as it indicated the steady advance
of the enemy. He could have left one corps to de-
fend his communications and struck the Confederate
flank with the other so as to turn Fair Oaks into a
great victory. By consenting to defer, he lost an op-
portunity unexampled in the course of the war.
Military critics blame him for letting slip two other
opportunities when he was lying on the south of the
river. First, by not making a dash at Richmond
when Lee had, on June 11th, sent Whiting to join
Jackson in the Valley ; and again, by lying supine
when Longstreet, the two Hills, and Jackson with
60,000 men were attacking Porter and McCall with
only 27,000, on the north bank, and he with a force
equally preponderating over Lee's, was within easy
striking distance of him.
As an evidence of his want of promptitude we may
note Stuart's raid, which, with a Grant, a Sheridan, or
a Thomas, would have been impossible. One thing
is to be said for McClellan, that he acted under the
conviction that he was subject to mistrust, and even to
dislike, in high quarters, and that the worst construc-
tion would be put on any error. In a man of his
temperament this feeling, no doubt, tended to paralyze
action. On the whole it may truthfully be said that,
although the campaign, viewed with regard to its
aim, was a failure and left the prestige of victory with
the Confederates, McClellan, in the conduct of his
operations, showed the skill of a finished general; no
One was more conscious than Lee of the adroit man-
ner in which his antagonist parried his blows. His
retreat, with endless trains of wagons and ambulances
and 2500 live cattle over miserable roads (sometimes
only one), and guarded by an army hungry, weary,
and footsore, was executed in a manner to reflect the
highest honor on commander and soldiers, alike.
For the commander,” says the Comte de Paris, “to
have extricated his army from a difficult situation, in
which circumstances as much as his own fault had
placed it, and, in presence of a powerful, skilful, and
determined adversary, transfer it safely to a position
whence it could act with effect, was of itself a notable
achievement. With an ordinary man, the Army of
the Potomac would have been destroyed.” (J. H.)
PENN, JOHN (1741–1788), a signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence, was born in Caroline Co., Va.,
May 17, 1741. His early education was neglected, but
he read law with Edmund Pendleton and was admitted
to the bar in 1762. He was soon noted for his elo-
quence. In 1774 he removed to Greenville co., N. C.,
and was sent as a delegate to the Continental Con-
gress, in which he signed the Declaration of Independ-
ence. He was again a member of Congress (1778–80),
and when Lord Cornwallis invaded North Carolina
Penn had charge of the affairs of the State. He died
in September, 1788.
PENNINGTON, WILLIAM S. (1757–1826), judge
and governor, was born in 1757 and served in the
revolutionary army as major of the Second New Jersey
artillery. After the war he became a lawyer, and in
1804 was made associate justice of the State Supreme
Court. He was elected governor in 1813, and at the
close of his term was made U. S. district judge. He
died at Newark Sept. 17, 1826.
His son, WILLIAM PENNINGTON (1796–1862), grad-
uated at Princeton in 1813, and studied law. He was
clerk of his father's court (1815–26), became chancel-
lor of the State, and from 1837 to 1843 was governor.
In 1859 he was elected to Congress as a Republican,
and his nomination by his party friends for Speaker
of the House led to a struggle protracted through
eight weeks and terminated in his favor Feb. 1, 1860.
He served with ability in the trying times of the
secession movement. He died at Newark, Feb. 16,
52.
*śNNsylv ANIA º º i". U.S.
census of 1830, held the second rank
jº, among the States of the Union. It
Km. ić.). * then outstripped Virginia, originally
the leading State in population and im-
portance, as New York had done in the census of 1820.
The census of 1880 gave Pennsylvania a population of
4,282,891, which has since
1883 entitled the State to 28
representatives in the Nation-
al Congress. After an abor-
tive effort in 1885, a new ar-k.
rangement of Congressional Sº :
districts was made by the ( ſº
Legislature in 1887. The Wºº
population has now increased
beyond 5,000,000. To the * > -
excellent account of the State ==
in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA the following ad-
ditions should be made :
Finances.—The public debt of the State on Dec. 1,
1887, was $15,840,471.2S, since which period there has
been a redemption of nearly $1,500,000. As an offset
it may be noted that the Pennsylvania Railroad Com-
pany owes the State on, the purchase of the internal
improvements, originally made by State authority,
$9,000,000. Of the funded debt about $5,250,000
drew 5 per cent. interest, and the rest 3% and 4 per
cent. The annual revenues of the State from all
Sources in the year ending Dec. 1, 1887, were $7,498,-
125.54, while the expenses on State account were
$7,262,805.66. By law about $1,500,000 annually
passes into the sinking fund established for the pay-
ment of the State debt. The total amount raised by
taxation for State purposes was $6,495,704.26. Real
estate, which is not taxed for State purposes, was
valued at $1,697,202,153. The stock and income of
corporations were valued at $1,200,000,000, and from
taxes on this valuation most of the State revenues are
derived. Personal property is assessed at $263,814,-
762. The State tax-rate is 40 cents on $100. The
aggregate taxation for all purposes, general and local,
is $38,000,000. -
From an early period the State liberally supported
the various measures adopted to open communications

164 PENNSYLVANIA.
between the Seaboard and the West. The system of
canals and railroads completed in 1834 was the great
means of developing her internal resources The pres-
ent State debt, although rapidly decreasing, remains
as a result of her early enterprise in this direction.
In 1888 there were in the State 283 National Banks,
and 79 banks and savings institutions with State
gharters. The paid-up capital of these various financial
institutions exceeds $90,000,000, with an outstanding
circulation of about $60,000,000.
. Education.—In 1887 the number of school districts
in the State was 2281. The estimated value of school
property was $36,991,147. In November, 1888, the
ercentage of population, over ten years of age una-
i. to read, was less than 4 per cent. ; unable to write |Th
only 6 per cent.
In 1864 the Pennsylvania Railroad Company do-
nated the sum of $50,000 for the support of the orphan
children of the deceased soldiers in the war for the
Union, and soldiers' orphans' schools were established
by the State. Upwards of 17,302 children, of both
sexes, have been educated in the various schools organ-
ized for this purpose. At present there are eleven
Schools located in various parts of the State. The
number of children now being cared for, as appears by
the roll for May, 1888, is 2249. From the period of
the establishment of the schools down to the present
time over $10,000,000 have been appropriated and ex-
pended by the State. In addition to the sum annually
appropriated for educational purposes directly about
$200,000 are appropriated for the education and main-
tenance of the deaf, dumb, blind, and feeble-minded of
the State. The State College, formerly the Pennsyl-
vania Agricultural College, and the Normal Schools
established for the education of teachers, are liberally
taken care of. In addition to the various colleges and
universities schools for the special study of Science,
Theology, Law, and Medicine are numerous, while there
are upwards of 400 private academies and seminaries.
Although the recent records of the prisons, reforma-
tories, and penitentiaries do not show an increase in
crime proportionate to the estimated increase of popu-
lation since the census of 1880, the almshouses give a
marked increase in pauperism, and the number of in-
sane persons has increased in even ratio with the popu-
lation. This, however, is attributed to the i.
knowledge on the part of the people of the provision
made by the State for this afflicted class, and greater
willingness to avail themselves of it. Almost $1,000,-
000 are annually appropriated to the various charitable
institutions of the §. among which are the Soldiers'
Home, recently established at Erie, and the Miners'
Hospitals, which are solely under State direction.
Various local hospitals are also provided for.
Manufactures.—Since 1880 the manufacturing in-
dustry of the State has been nearly doubled. The
capital invested, cost of material, the total sum paid in
wages to the number of persons employed, and the
value of products is proportionately increased. This
is particularly true in regard to the iron and steel
manufactures, which have always been prominent in
Pennsylvania. The utilization of natural gas for manu-
facturing purposes has given a special stimulus to
many branches of industry, and has transformed the
aspect of the region where it is abundant. The mining
industry has also been increasing rapidly.
Railroads.—The total number of miles of railroad
operated in Pennsylvania in 1888 is 9714. The aggre-
gate length, however, of all tracks in the State exceeds
I5,000 miles. The total cost of these roads and equip-
ments exceeds $1,013,450,000, not including the value
of real estate held by the various companies, and also
exclusive of roadway, which rises upwards of
$3,000,000. The total number of miles operated, by
these various companies amounts to 15,864 miles.
The number of through passengers carried over these
roads in 1887 was 4,525,612; the number of local pas-
sengers was 59,562,071, yielding a revenue of
$39,819,422 from passenger traffic alone. The num-
ber of tons of through freight carried, exclusive of
coal, was 40,633,688 tons, .#. that of local freight
exceeded 100,000,000 tons.
During the year 1887 there was shipped over the
various railroads of the State the following: Anthra-
cite coal, 54,952,699 tons; bituminous coal and coke,
44,783,031 ; petroleum and other oils, 3,389,799 bbls. ;
pig-iron, 6,468,934 tons; railroad iron, 2,419,524;
other iron or castings, 5,990,924; iron and other ores,
10,204,837. This is exclusive of the various products
consumed at the place of supply. -
There are also 519 miles of street passenger railways
operated in the various cities of the Commonwealth.
ese have been constructed at an expense of
$12,326,068.
Canals.-Although the system of canals is gradually
giving way to that of the railroads there are at pres-
ent operated within the limits of the State 778 miles,
of which 198 miles are slack-water navigation. The
gross amount of tonnage passing over this system dur-
ing 1888 exceeded 10,000,000 tons, and the receipts of
tolls for the same were $2,675,349.
The length of the main line of the Western Union
Telegraph Company in Pennsylvania exceeds 9000
miles, while that of the Philadelphia and Reading sys-
tem amounts to 870 miles.
Historical Notes.—When the province of Pennsyl-
vania was settled by the English and Welsh Quakers
under Penn a remnant of Swedish colonists was found
along the Delaware. German and Swiss immigrants
followed in succession. To them the State owes its
character for industry and thrift.
The Scotch-Irish settlers from the North of Ireland
came during the eighteenth century and were placed
on the frontier counties of the province. To them the
State owes its energy and intellectual culture. New
Englanders, under the “Connecticut Claim,” located
in Wyoming, while the settlers in the western part of
the State were made up of these diverse elements, the
Scotch-Irish predominating. Owing to these hetero-
eneous elements the history and character of the
State have often been misunderstood. Writers in
many instances have failed to give proper credit to
Pennsylvania for its contributions to the progress and
welfare of the Union.
During the French and Indian War, from 1754 until
1764, owing to constant inroads made upon frontier
settlements by marauding savages, from two to four
regiments of provincials were constantly in the service.
Three-fourths of these were Scotch-Irish settlers and
residents on the frontier. In the Revolution, al-
though Pennsylvania did not furnish as many troops
for the Continental line as several other States, her
large number of associators and militia in active ser-
vice exceeded nearly all the States of the Union. The
so-called revolt of the Pennsylvania line in January,
1781, was caused by the fact that the soldiers who were
enlisted for three years, or during the war, were kept
in service beyond the time for which they had enlisted,
viz., three years.
With the exception of the railroad riots of 1877,
which, at that time, extended widely over the United
States, the disturbances in Pennsylvania have been
merely local affairs, and do not warrant the assertion
that they were caused by any general dissatisfaction
with the Government or with the laws of the land.
The first State Constitution framed was in 1776,
when the Proprietary Government ceased. Slavery
was abolished in 1780. In 1789 the Constitution was
revised ; again in 1837–38; and finally in 1874. The
latter revision was ratified by over 100,000 majority.
Its new features are limiting the term of the Governor
to four years (ineligible to re-election), providing for a
Lieutenant-Governor, with various other officers to be
elected by the people, increasing the number in the
legislative body, and in several of the county offices
providing for minority representation. (W. H. E.)
PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY.
165
PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF. This
institution, established in Philadelphia, claims as its
founder Benjamin Franklin. In 1749 he issued anony:
mously Proposals Relative to the Education of Youth
in Pennsylvania, which led influential citizens of Phil-
adelphia to form an association and raise over £2000
for the purpose of an academy. A building which had
been erected to accommodate the congregation of
Whitefield was purchased and opened as . The Acad:
emy and Charitable School” in 1751. It contained
an English, a Mathematical, and a Latin School. Two
years later a charter was obtained from Thomas and
Richard Penn, the proprietors of Pennsylvania. Rev.
William Smith, a graduate of the University of Aber-
deen and a clergyman of the Church of England, was
invited to take charge of the academy. Such was his
success that in 1755 a new charter was granted, raising
the school to the dignity of “The College and Acad-
emy of Philadelphia.” Its first commencement was
held in 1757, when seven young men received the de-
gree of Bachelor of Arts. Provost. Smith made two
visits to England in behalf of the College, and obtained
for its use more than £6000, while the University of
Oxford conferred on himself the degree of D. D. The
College received other donations and legacies, yet for
the erection of its own building in 1762 the trustees
availed themselves of a lottery, a plan then not un-
usual with religious and charitable enterprises. Rev.
Francis Alison (1705–1772), a Scotch-Irish Presbyte-
rian Itinister, was the vice-provost of the college from
1755 until his death. Rev. Ebenezer Kinnersley, who
shared in Franklin's electrical experiments, taught
oratory and English literature. In 1765 a medical
school was projected and it became an important part
of the institution. Its growth will be noticed later in
this article.
During the Revolution Provost Smith adhered so
firmly to the British Parliament and the Proprietors
that the Legislature of Pennsylvania caused his arrest
and imprisonment, but he received and instructed his
classes even while in jail. In 1779 the Legislature, in
the excess of its patriotic zeal, annulled the charter
of the college and bestowed its rights and properties
on the “Trustees of the University of the State of
Pennsylvania.” Liberal grants were also made to the
new body from the confiscated estates of royalists.
Rev. Dr. John Ewing (1732–1806), a graduate of
Princeton College and the pastor of the First Presby-
terian Church of Philadelphia, was then made provost,
and David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, was vice-
provost. In 1789, when the Federal Constitution was
adopted and a new government firmly established, the
friends of Dr. Smith procured the reversal of the
former act of the Legislature and the reinstatement
of the college trustees. In 1791, by an act of the Leg-
islature, the two bodies were united in one under the
present title. Dr. John Ewing remained provost until
his death in 1806.
The subsequent provosts have been as follows:
Rev. John McDowell, D. D., appointed 1806; Rev.
John Andrews, D. D., 1810; Rev. Frederick Beasley,
D. D., 1813; Rev. W. H. De Lancey, D. D. (after-
wards bishop), 1828; Rev. John Ludlow, D. D., 1834;
Henry Vethake, LL.D., 1853; Rev. Daniel R. Good-
win, D. D., 1860; Charles J. Stille, LL.D., 1868;
William Pepper, M. D., LL.D., 1881.
In 1828 two large and commodious buildings were
erected on Ninth street below Market, one for theije.
partment of Arts, the other for the Department of
Medicine. . These continued to be used until 1872,
when the site was sold to the U. S. government for the
erection of a post-office. The Law School, which had
been organized in 1789, and other associated depart-
ments, were also accommodated in the Arts building.
In the course of time the fame and growth of the
Medical Department had greatly surpassed those of
the Department of Arts. ºo. the successive
provosts and professors were men of culture and
acknowledged ability, their labors were confined to a
narrow field and a traditional curriculum. Even the
city of Philadelphia, from which alone the students in
general came, sent as many more of her youth to
other colleges for a liberal education. ... Dr.Charles J.
Stille, who became professor of English literature in
1866, began at once an active effort for the improve-
ment and enlargement of the University. A year
later he was made provost and his ability to effect
changes was greatly increased. He succeeded in stim-
ulating the iii.; and civic pride of wealthy citizens
of Philadelphia. He also enlisted the aid of the
authorities of the city and State. As a result of his
persevering labor the University obtained a tract of
more than ten acres in West Philadelphia, on which
new and imposing buildings were erected. The main
building, in the collegiate Gothic style, has a front of
260 ft. and a depth of 100. It consists of a central
building containing the chapel, library, and other
rooms, and two wings, the western arranged for the
Department of Arts, and the eastern for the Depart-
ment of Science. This building was publicly inaug-
urated with appropriate ceremonies Oct. 11, 1872.
Dr. Stille had not limited his efforts to providing bet-
ter accommodations for the work of the University.
He had greatly enlarged the instruction in Science, as
required by the demands of the age, and organized for
it a separate faculty. This new department after-
wards took the name “The Towne Scientific School,’’
from one of its liberal benefactors.
Under the liberal administration of Dr. Pepper the
University has acquired 17 more acres of land and has
continued to increase the number of its buildings,
courses of study, professors and students. To the
College Department has been added the “Wharton
School of Finance and Economy,’’ founded by the
liberality of Joseph Wharton and designed to give
liberal and special training to young men who expect
to enter on the management of large business. There
have also been added three new faculties—the Veteri-
nary, the Biological and the Philosophical, and in con-
nection with these appropriate buildings—the Veteri-
nary Hall and Hospital and Biological Hall. There
have also been erected a Nurses' Home and Maternity
Hospital. To the course in music and many of the
lectures in other courses women are admitted. The
instruction in the law department is now given in the
central part of the city, where it is expected that a
special building for this purpose will be erected. An
Alumni Hall on the University grounds is also projected.
The public-spirited citizens who had taken part in
the founding of the college made to it valuable dona-
tions of books as the nucleus of a library. Unfortu-
nately, owing to various causes, this important adjunct
to liberal training was neglected. Few additions were
made to the stock of books until the University was
removed to West Philadelphia. On entering its new
buildings the University received from the family of
Stephen Colwell a valuable collection of books on
political economy; the library of Prof. George Allen,
rich in classics, bibliography, Shakespeare and the art
of war. Other additions were made at various times,
and in October, 1888, was laid the corner-stone of a
Library Building, which will furnish accommodation
for 500,000 books. The valuable philological library of
Prof. F. A. Pott (q.v.) was purchased for the Univer-
sity by some alumni. The law library of Hon. Ben-
jamin H. Brewster, U. S. attorney-general, was pre-
sented in the name of George Biddle. The total
number of volumes in the library is about 55,000.
As already mentioned, the Medical School was pro-
jected in 1765. Dr. John Morgan, a pupil of Hunter
and Cullen, filled in it the first medical professorship
created in America. The school was organized in
1767 with Dr. Morgan as professor of the theory and
practice of physic, and Dr. William Shippen as pro-
fessor of anatomy and surgery. Able professors, in-
cluding Dr. Benjamin Rush, were i. within a few
166
PENOBSCOTS PENSION SYSTEM.
years. , Qther professors of national reputation have
succeeded to this faculty at various times. The first
90mmencement at which medical degrees were con-
ferred in America was held here in June, 1768. Since
that time over 10,000 graduates have received diplomas
whose worth has been acknowledged in all parts of the
World. One unpleasant result of this wide reputation
Was the attempt of unprincipled men to sell diplomas
pretended to be issued by its authority. The fraud
Was soon discovered, but to uproot it required the
effort of years. Finally the chief offender was con-
victed and imprisoned and the Legislature of Penn-
Sylvania formally annulled the simulated charters. In
1864 an auxiliary department of medicine was insti-
tuted through the liberality of Dr. George B. Wood,
one of the distinguished professors. Its course is
essentially post-graduate, and is intended to give in-
struction in collateral branches of science as needed for
the thorough education of a physician. The Medical
Department has shared in the changes produced by
the removal of the University to West Philadelphia
and the erection for its use of a commodious building.
An excellent hospital and an extensive laboratory have
been erected in connection with this department. The
course of instruction in medicine here pursued since
1877 is a graded one, extending over four years, though
diplomas are granted to those who have successfully
completed three years of the course. Advanced stu-
dents are encouraged to make original researches in the
Various laboratories. Since the present system was
adopted the zeal and general proficiency of the stu-
dents have increased to a marked extent. (See MED-
ICAL COLLEGES OF AMERICA.)
The departments of the University fully organized
and in operation are those of Arts and Science, Med-
icine, Law, Dentistry, Philosophy, Biology, and Vet-
erinary Medicine. The University has nine large
buildings—the College Hall, Medical Hall, Laboratory,
Hospital, Veterinary College and Hospital, Biological
Hall, Home for Nurses, Maternity Hospital, Library.
Close to the University buildings are the Athletic
rounds, which, as well as the gymnasium, furnish
acilities for physical education, which is here under
the direction of a competent instructor. The Catalogue
for 1887–88 shows the total number of professors and
instructors to be 152; the number of students in the
College Department, 324; in the two Medical Depart-
ments, 445; in the Department of Dentistry, 123; in
the Department of Veterinary Medicine, 57; in the
Department of Biology, 30; in the Department of
Law, 159; in the Department of Philosophy, 54;
total, 1187. (J. P. L.)
PENOBSCOTS. See ABENAKIS.
PENSACOLA, a city of Florida, the seat of Escam-
bia co., is on Pensacola Bay, 5 miles from the Gulf of
Mexico, and 262 miles E. of New Orleans. It is a
terminus of the Louisville, Nashville, and Southern,
and the Pensacola and Atlantic Railroads. The latter
crosses part of the bay on a pile-bridge 6 miles long.
The city has a custom-house, court-house, marine-
hospital, 4 hotels, 1 national and 2 other banks, a
weekly and a daily newspaper, 10 churches, and 8
schools. There are 2 foundries, and several lumber-
and planing-mills. The city has gas- and water-works,
and parks averaging 5 acres. Its property is valued at
$3,000,000, its public debt is $280,000, and the yearly
expenses are $45,000. The city draws 300,000,000 feet
of yellow pine from the forests of Alabama, and ships
it to all parts of the world. Fishing is an important
industry, the pompano, red snapper, and grouper, and
other varieties, being abundant in the vicinity.
Pensacola was settled by Spanish colonists before
1700. In 1719 it was captured by Bienville % v.), but
soon afterwards was restored. The British had pos-
session of West Florida from 1763 to 1781, and durin
the wars with Napoleon they were allowed to hol
Pensacola, and organize expeditions in its harbor.
Gen. Andrew Jackson seized the town Nov. 6, 1814,
and the British withdrew, after blowing up the fort.
In prosecution of the war with the Seminoles, in 1818,
Jackson again invaded Florida, and seized Pensacola,
on the plea that the Spanish authorities abetted the
Indians in hostility. By the treaty of 1819 Florida
became part of the United States.
Pensacola Bay forms an excellent land-locked harbor
nearly 8 miles long. The entrance between Santa Rosa
Island and the mainland is a mile wide, and is guarded
by Forts McRee and Pickens, the latter on the island.
The depth of water on the bar is 21 feet, and at the
wharves 26 feet. Besides a lighthouse, there are a
navy-yard, marine-hospital and barracks, and in the
vicinity the villages of Bagdad and Milton. When
Florida seceded in January, 1861, the navy-yard was
surrendered without resistance to a body of State
militia. But Lieut. A. J. Slemmer, who had taken
80 soldiers and marines from Fort Barrancas to the
more defensible Fort Pickens, refused to surrender.
After fruitless negotiations at Washington, Col. Harvey
Brown was sent with 750 men to take command.
Other reinforcements were sent, which encamped on the
island. After some vain attempts to dislodge them,
and some ineffectual artillery practice, Pensacola was
evacuated by the Confederates. In February, 1864, a
fire destroyed much valuable property. Since the
close of the war Pensacola has slowly recovered from
its effects. It has occasionally been visited by yellow-
fever, and in 1882 this disease is said to have carried
off 200 inhabitants. Yet, with proper sanitary
regulations, the city can be kept free from this
É. and in other respects its salubrity is unques-
tlOned.
PENSION SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES.
A pension is a stated allowance of money to a person
by the government in consideration of merit or the
nation's gratitude for services rendered—civil, military,
or naval; to provide for the casualties of battle, and to
encourage enlistments, continued service, and personal
bravery in the contingency of war. Pensions are
granted either under authority of existing general laws,
or by special act of Congress. Prior to 1858 the
weight of authority ruled that a pension law was a
contract and the pension granted thereunder a debt.
This was the view }. by Attorney-General Cushing.
Since 1858, the Secretaries of the Interior, who have
appellate jurisdiction in the decisions of the Commis-
sioner of Pensions, have invariably held that it is a
gratuity, and no part of a contract for service ren-
dered ; that it is not a vested right; that Congress by
legislation can terminate all rights existing under for-
mer pension laws; that a pension is a payment for loss
of physical disability to earn a livelihood, determined
solely by the degree of disability. The question, per
se, as to whether a pension is a gratuity, has never been
decided by the U. S. Supreme Court.
The pension system of the United States differs from
that of most other countries in two important particu-
lars: first, pensions, with a very few exceptions, are
granted on account of military service only ; there is,
consequently, no large civil list; secondly, owing to the
fact that the United States has no large standing army,
but depends in case of war upon temporary levies, its
pension legislation has to do chiefly with the volunteers
and conscripts of its various wars rather than with
regular troops; hence it is that long service, an impor-
tant element in foreign systems, is not recognized as a
basis for pension in this. Military pensions comprise
two general classes : Invalid pensions, paid to those
who in whole or in part are ãºlific for the per-
formance of manual labor by reason of wounds or dis-
ease contracted in the military or naval service; and
Service pensions, into which the question of disability
ãºf by reason of the casualties or incidents of
military or naval service does not necessarily enter.
Service pensions are usually granted by general acts
many years after the termination of the war to which
they relate ; Revolutionary pensions, thirty-five years
TENSION
SYSTEM. 167
after; War of 1812, fifty-nine years after, and Mexican
war, thirty-nine years after. -
I. Historical.—Within the past quarter of a century
the pension system of the United States has developed
from an inconsiderable establishment to a great bureau
whose operations reach out into nearly every hamlet
and township in the Union. Its clientage and dis-
bursements surpass the most extravagant dreams of
its founders. It may properly be said to commence
with the resolution of 8. dated Aug. 26, 1776,
by which the Continental Congress undertook to pro-
vide for disabled soldiers of the Revolution. From
June 7, 1785, to Sept. 29, 1789, the several States as-
sumed the payment of pensions by a recommendation
of Congress on account of its inability to raise money
by taxation. After the adoption of the new Consti-
tution Congress resumed their payment by annual en-
actments, making them payable during the life of the
beneficiaries, under the acts of March 23, 1792, and
Feb. 28, 1793. By the act of April 10, 1806, pensions
to be allowed thereafter were confined to those who had
received “known wounds,” and extended to the militia
and State troops serving against the common enemy.
The rate for total disability for an officer was one-half
of his monthly pay, not, however, to exceed the pay
of a lieutenant-colonel, and for an enlisted man, $5 per
month. Service pensions for the Revolution were
allowed under act of March 18, 1818, to indigent sur-
vivors at $20 per month for officers, and $8 for privates.
These benefits were further extended by the acts of
May 15, 1828, June 7, 1832, July 4, 1836, and Feb. 3,
1853. Pensions were not provided for the children of
Revolutionary soldiers. The first act providing pen-
sions for disabled officers and soldiers of the regular
army was passed April 3, 1790, and its provisions were
renewed, and amended from time to time until they
were embodied in the act of March 16, 1802, which is
now the fundamental law for pensions on account of
disability incurred prior, to March 4, 1861. This act
provided pensions for widows and children of officers
dying in th. service of wounds received in actual bat-
tle, the rate being one-half monthly pay at date of
death. From the date of the passage of this act to
March 4, 1861, invalid pension acts in the interests of
those serving in the Mexican war and various Indian
disturbances and wars, and of the regular army in time
of peace, referred directly or indirectly to this act, as
containing the principles guiding in their adjudication,
Surviving veterans and widows of deceased soldiers of
the war of 1812, who served sixty days—it being re-
quired of the widows that marriage should have taken
place before the close of that war—were allowed ser-
vice pensions of $8 per month from Feb. 14, 1871, the
date of the passage of the act, upon proof of loyalty
during the Rebellion. Soldiers and widows of soldiers
of that war are allowed service pensions at $8 per
month without condition as to the date of marriage or
loyalty, in case of a service of fourteen days, or in
battle, under act of March 9, 1878. Widows' pensions
under both these acts have been increased by the act
of March 19, 1886, to $12 per month. The act of
Jan: 29, 1887, granted, from the date of the passage
of the act, pensions to survivors of the Mexican war,
who, being duly enlisted, actually served sixty days with
the army or navy of the United States in Mexico, or
on the coasts or frontier thereof, or en route thereto, in
the war with that nation, or were actually engaged in a
battle in said war, and were honorably discharged, or
who have been personally named in any resolution of
Congress for any specific service in said war, and to the
i. widows of such officers and enlisted men :
Provided, that such survivors and widows have at-
tained the age of 62 years, or are disabled or dependent
CWing to Some cause recognized by the pension laws as
sufficient reason for the allowance of a pension. Pen-
sions under this act are at the same rates as under the
preceding acts.
The last two surviving revolutionary soldiers who
were allowed pensions under the general laws were
William #.; s, of Hancock co., Me., who died
May 3, 1866, aged 102 years, and Samuel Downing, of
Saratoga co., N. Y., who died Feb. 18, 1867, aged 101
years. The following revolutionary soldiers were
ranted pensions by special act, dated Feb. 22, 1857 :
ohn Gray, Noble co., Ohio, who died March 28, 1869,
aged 105 years, and Daniel F. Bakeman, of Cataraugus
co., N. Y., who died April 5, 1869, aged 109 years.
On June 30, 1888, there were 37 persons drawing pen-
sions as the widows of soldiers of the Revolutionary
war. Within the past year the names of Nancy. Bun:
tin, widow of William Buntin, of Tennessee, and aged
84 years; Mary Casey, widow of John Casey, of Qhio,
aged 88 years; and Freelove Barnes, widow of Jona-
than Seeley, of Michigan, aged 92 years, have been
added to this roll.
The number of pensions granted under all laws to
soldiers of the Revolution and their widows is 62,069;
war of 1812, 60,670, amounting to $36,310,256.04;
Mexican war, 21,724. By the act of March 2, 1833,
the administration of the pension system was raised to
the dignity of an independent bureau, under the man-
agement of a Commissioner of Pensions. Prior to this
time the pension laws had been administered under the
direction of the Secretary of War, except those which
related to naval pensions, which were under the ad-
ministration of the Secretary of the Navy, and the
laws granting bounty lands, which were administered
under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury.
Both these branches were subsequently transferred to
the pension office, the former, March 4, 1840, and the
latter, Jan. 20, 1843. On March 3, 1849, the pension
office became a bureau of the newly created Department
of the Interior. As at present organized its affairs are
administered by a commissioner, under whose charge
come all matters relating to pensions, and who is ap-
pointed by the President, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, two deputy commissioners, a
chief clerk, an assistant chief clerk, a law or appeal
clerk, a board of legal reviewers, a board of medical re-
viewers, special examiners, examiners' clerks, copyists,
messengers, laborers, and watchmen, in all a force of
1554 persons, directly engaged in the settlement of
claims for pensions. In addition to these there are at
various j." throughout the country 2515 surgeons,
whose duty it is to examine all applicants for invalid
pension who may be ordered before them, and report
to the Commissioner of Pensions as to the degree of
the applicant's physical disability. This makes over
4000 persons under the management and direction of
the Commissioner of Pensions. In addition to this
there are 18 Pension Agents for the payment of pen-
Sions, conveniently located throughout the country,
under his direction, and who are also appointed by the
President by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate. The salaries and expenses of this large force
amounted in the aggregate to $3,262,524.67 for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1888.
II. Statistics.-The following statement shows the
remarkable growth of the U. S. pension system
from its humble beginning : The total amount ex-
pend d by the Bureau of Pensions for all purposes
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1888, was
$82,038,386.59, being 213 per cent. of the total (esti-
mated) gross income—$380,000,000; and 31 per cent.
of the entire expenditures—$267,924,801. 13—of
the U. S. government for the same period ; about
65, per cent of the cost of the entire military estab-
lishment of France, 80 per cent. of that of England,
90 per cent. of Germany's, and $30,730,784.59 more
than that of Austria-Hungary. During the same fiscal
year $1,439,530. 10 were paid as fees to attorneys alone.
"rom 1861 to 1888 inclusive, 1,166,926 claims for pen-
Sion have been filed, 737,200 have been allowed, and
$963,086,444.73 have been disbursed on account of
pensions.
At the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1888,
168 PENSION
SYSTEM.
there, were 452,557 pensioners upon the rolls, classified
as follows: 323,020 late war army invalids ; 90,845 late
War army widows, minor children, and dependent rela-
tiyes; 3815 late war navy invalids; 2083 late war navy
widows; 806 survivors of the war of 1812, and 10,787
widows of those who served in that war; 16,060 sur-
Vivors of the war with Mexico, and 5104 widows of
those who served therein. During the same year there
Were received 2,697,608 pieces of mail matter, and
2,041,482 were sent out. The highest rate of pension
issued during the year was $2000 per annum; the
lowest now being granted is $24. The annual average
value of a pension for the same year is $125.30. The
ayerage age of pensioners, 67 years; average length
of service for which pensions are granted on account
of the war of 1861-65 is two years. The highest rate
of pension paid under the general law is $72. Allow.
ances by special acts of Congress range from $10 to
$416.66 per month. . Up to June 30, 1888, three per-
sons were receiving $5000, four were receiving $2000
and fiye were receiving $1200 per annum under specia
acts of Congress; 1053 were receiving $72 per month.
From 1861 to 1865 President Lincoln approved 41 spe-
cial pension acts; from 1865 to 1869, President John-
son, 431 ; from 1869 to 1877, President Grant, 490;
from 1877 to 1881, President Hayes, 303; from 1881
to 1885, Presidents Garfield and Arthur, 736 ; from
1885 to 1888, President Cleveland, 1577, making a total
of 3578. On June 30, 1888, there were 2363 pension-
ers, receiving $367,976 annually, who resided in foreign
countries; 1004 in Canada, 38 in France, 375 in Ger-
many, 527 in Great Britain, 58 in Switzerland, and
the remainder throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and
Australasia.
III. Who are entitled to Pension ?–1. All officers
of the army, including regulars, volunteers, and militia,
officers of the navy and marine corps, and all enlisted
men however employed in the military or naval service
who have been disabled by reason of wounds or injuries
received or disease contracted in the service of the
United States and in the line of duty. These consti-
tute the class known as “invalid pensioners.”
2. The widows, or minor children under sixteen years
of age, of all officers and enlisted men of the army or
navy who have died of wounds or injuries received or
disease contracted in the service and line of duty. The
widow of a soldier who died of disease contracted in
the military service prior to March 4, 1861, is not en-
titled to pension unless the cause of death originated
in some war; and the widow of an officer or enlisted
man in the navy who died of disease originating prior
to March 4, 1861, is not entitled unless he died in the
service.
3. The dependent mothers, fathers, or minor brothers
and sisters of such officers and enlisted men who died
of injuries or disease originating as above stated, and
left no widows or minor children surviving. Dependent
relatives are entitled in the order in which they are
named. Upon the death of the mother the father be-
comes entitled, and upon the death of the father the
minor brothers and sisters (jointly). They must have
been dependent upon the soldier for support, in whole
or in part, at the date of his death, otherwise there is
no title.
4. The several classes above mentioned who are en-
titled to service pension under the various acts of Con-
gress for services rendered in the Revolutionary war,
war of 1812, and Mexican war.
IV. Rates and Duration of Pensions.—The original
rate of a pension was half the monthly pay the bene-
ficiary had received as an officer or an enlisted man.
In 1816 the “total pension '' for privates was in-
creased to $8 per month, and this rate, although in
many cases grossly disproportionate to the degree of
disability, was the highest that could be allowed to
persons under the rank of commissioned officers until
about the close of the civil war. The “total '' rate for
second lieutenant was $15; first lieutenant, $17; cap-
tains, $20; majors, $25; and lieutenant-colonels and
all officers of higher rank, $30. Like rates were fixed
for naval officers of the same relative rank. Fractional
ratings were given for lesser degrees of disability. In
1866 Congress created three grades above that of “total
ension,” and the pension for all these grades has since
een increased. hat is known as the first grade in-
cludes cases of permanent disability in a degree re-
quiring the regular aid and attendance of another
person, and entitles the beneficiary to $50 per month.
On June 16, 1880, an act was passed increasing the
pension of all who were then on the roll at $50 to $72.
By a liberal interpretation this has been held to include
those who were then entitled to $50; but those who
have become entitled to a first grade pension since that
date receive only $50. The second grade includes cases
of permanent incapacity for the performance of any
manual labor, for which the pension is $30 per month.
The third grade is for a disability equivalent to the loss
of a hand or foot, the rate being $24 per month.
For disabilities below these three grades the rates
range from $2 to $18 per month for privates, non-
commissioned officers and lieutenants, the maximum
in the cases of officers above the rank of lieutenant
being the old “total of rank.” There is also a class
of “permanent specific’’ disabilities, for which the
rates are fixed by law, such as the loss of both feet,
both hands, or both eyes, for which the pension is $72
per month. For amputation at the shoulder or hip
joint, or so near the joint as to prevent the use of an
artificial limb, $45 per month is paid ; for total disa-
bility of an arm or leg, loss of one hand and one foot,
or total disability in the same, or amputation at or
above the knee, $36; for the loss of a hand or foot or
total disability in the same, or for total deafness, $30
per month.
Widows of privates receive $12 per month, and $2
additional for each child of the soldier, and when no
widow survives minor children receive their pension
jointly; dependent, relatives receive $12 per month;
widows and dependent relatives of commissioned offi-
cers receive the “total of rank.” The pension of a
survivor of the war of 1812 or of the Mexican war is
$8 per month. Pensions on account of disability or
death from causes originating prior to the beginning
of the civil war commence from the date of discharge
or death of the soldier, if the application was made
within three years of the time the right of pension
accrued, otherwise from the date of completing the
proof. Pension on account of disability from causes
occurring since the beginning of the civil war begin
from the date of discharge or death of the person
having prior right to pension, provided application was
... July 1, 1880; otherwise from the date of
filing application, except in the case of widows, whose
pensions begin from the time of the soldier's death
without regard to the date of application. Widows'
pensions are generally granted for life, but pensions to
minor children, brothers and sisters terminate when
they attain the age of sixteen years, or, in the case of
sisters, when they marry. Widows' pensions end
when they remarry. The open and notorious adul-
terous cohabitation of a widow operates to terminate
her pension, and an invalid pension may be with-
drawn if it be shown that the disability has ceased.
W. How Pensions are Allowed and Paid.—The great
majority of claims are adjudicated upon eac parte testi-
mony filed by the claimants, or their attorneys, but if
doubt or suspicion arise in regard to the merits of any
claim the papers may be referred to a special pension
examiner, who will proceed to take testimony in the
neighborhood where the claimant resides, or in such
other places as may be necessary, and report the facts
to the Commissioner of Pensions, Pensions are paid
every three months through 18 U. S. Pension Agencies
referred to above. At each of these agencies a per-
manent roll is kept of all pensioners residing within its
limits, showing the class, sex, rates of pension and
à
Table of United States Pensions and Pensioners
Army. Navy. Army and Navy. War of 1812. ‘s? 3.3
: a 5 § Number of pensioners on
Fiscal year # # f g the roll.
ending June 30– Applications filed. | Applications filed. Claims allowed. | Applications filed. Claims allowed. # #: Disburgements.
º º - 3:#. 2.5
Invalids. | "..." |Invalids. | "..." | Invalids. | "..." survivors, widows. |survivors, widows. | ## ## | Invalids. Wºw"| Total
1861 .................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * | e s e e e s e º 'º | * * * * * * e º 'º e s e e º e º e º | * * * * * * e º e a • e º e e a e e i s e a e e s e a tº e s a e s e e s e s • * * * * * * e o e s e e e s e i e a s e º e s e e 4,337 || 4,299 || 8,636 || $1,072,461.55
1862....................................... 1,362 | 1,000 60 65 413 49 | ......... . ........ . ......... . . . . ...... 2,487 462 || 4,341 3,818 8,159 790,384.76
1863 .......................... ........... 26,380 22,377 290 . . 285 4,121 || 3,763 | ........ . ......... . ......... . ......... 49,332 || 7,884 || 7,821 6,970 || 14,791 | 1,025,139.91
1864....................................... 20,263 || 32,627 385 324 17,041 22,446 | ......... . ......... . ......... . ......... 53,599 || 39,487 23,479 || 27,656 || 51,135 | 4,504,616.92
1865....................................... 27,299 || 44,464 455 466 | 15,212 24,959 | ......... . ......... . ......... le 72,684 || 40,171 35,880 50,106 | 85,986 8,525,153.11
1866...... .................... ............ 35,799 || 28,732 350 375 22,883 || 27,294 | ........ . ......... . ......... . ......... 65,256 50,177 55,652 || 71,070 | 126,722 || 13,459,996.43
1867.................. ........ • * * * * * * * * * * * * 15,905 | 20,265 250 333 | 16,589 | 19,893 | ......... . ......... . ........ . ......... 36,753 || 36,482 | 69,565 | 83,618 || 153,183 18,619,956.46
1868....................................... 7,292 || 13,099 170 207 9,460 | 19,461 | ......... . ......... . ......... . ......... 20,768 28,921 || 75,957 | 93,686 169,643 24,010,981.99
1869.................. ..................... 11,035 | 14,496 290 245 7,292 15,904 | ......... . ......... . ......... 26,066 || 23,196 || 82,859 || 105,104 | 187,963 28,422,884.08
1870......... ............... .............. 12,991 11,400 260 200 5,721 12,500 ......... . ......... . ......... . ......... 24,851 18,221 87,521 111,165 198,686 27,780,811.81
1871 ....................................... 8,837 8,985 190 142 7,934 8,399 || 20,741 5,074 198 31 || 43,969 | 16,562 | 93,394 | 114,101 207,495 || 33,077,383.63
1872....................................... 8,857 6,755 240 178 6,468 7,244 6,546 3,815 17,504 3,117 | 26,391 || 34,333 113,954 118,275 232,229 30,169,341.00
1873 ...................................... 8,728 6,427 248 120 | 6,551 4,073 | 1,481 | 1,299 || 3,186 2,242 | 18,303 | 16,052 119,500 | 118,911 || 238,411 29,185,289.62
1874......... ....... .................... 9,302 || 5,603 228 151 5,937 3,152 737 713 563 810 | 16,734 || 10,462 | 121,628 114,613 || 236,241 30,593,749.56
1875.............................. ......... 11,926 5,294 310 178 5,760 4,736 495 57.1 240 416 18,704 || 11,152 | 122,989 || 111,832 234,821 29,683,116.63
1876....................................... 17,030 5,264 344 130 5,360 4,376 319 436 73 168 || 23,523 9,977 | 124,239 107,898 232,137 28,351,599.69
1877.................. ..................... 16,532 5,269 271 97 7,282 3,861 198 348 57 126 22,715 11,326 128,723 103,381 232,104 28,580,157.04
1878............... ........................ 18,812 6,661 300 131 7,414 3,550 2,786 15,897 817 181 44,587 | 11,962 | 131,649 || 92,349 223,998 || 26,844,415.18
1879........ * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e s we e s e s e º e º e < e e e 36,835 | 9,767 599 215 7,242 3,379 811 8,891 2,548 18,177 57,118 31,346 138,615 | 104,140 242,755 || 33,780,526.19
1880....................................... 110,673 || 25,602 | 1,361 559 10,176 4,455 295 2,976 284 4,630 || 141,466 | 19,545 145,410 | 105,392 || 250,802 || 57,240,540.14
1881,........... ........................... 18,455 10,527 515 225 21,394 || 3,920 109 | 1,285 115 1,965 31,116 || 27,394 | 164,110 | 104,720 268,830 || 50,626,538.51
1882 .............. ............... ......... 29,004 || 10,349 472 211 22,946 3,999 85 818 26 693 40,939 27,664 182,633 || 103,064 285,697 || 54,296,280.54
1883............... ............... ......... 35,039 11,878 777 251 || 32,014 5,303 61 770 23 822 || 48,776 || 38,162 206,042 | 97,616 303,658 || 60,431,972.85
1884,...................................... 28,962 11,289 671 244 27,414 6,366 52 567 24 388 || 41,785 | 34,192 225,470 | 97,286 || 323,756 || 57,273,536.74
1885....................................... 27,959 11,557 725 277 27,580 7,743 27 373 18 426 40,918 35,767 247,146 | 97,979 || 345,125 || 65,693,706.72
1886....................................... 35,202 || 13,238 862 265 31,937 8,610 24 304 5 305 49,895 | 40,857 270,346 95,437 || 365,783 64,584,270.45
1887....................................... 36,484 || 15,759 836 338 || 35,283 11,217 17 313 8 231 || 72,465 55,194 || 306,298 || 99,709 | 406,007 || 74,815,486.85
1888...... ........... .................... 47,505 | 18,444 1,251 427 | 35,843 || 10,816 23 223 2 251 75,726 60,252 343,701 || 108,856 || 452,557 | 79,646,146.37
Total................................. 664,468 377,128 12,710 6,639 403,267 251,478 34,737 44,673 || 25,691 34,979 |1,166,926| 737,200 |........... [........... [........... 963,086,444.73
In the total number of applications filed in 1888 are included 5045 survivors and 2808 widows of the war with Mexico. In the total number of claims allowed in 1888 are included 9048
survivors and 4201 widows of war with Mexico.
In the number of pensioners on the roll under the head of “Invalids” and “Widows,” etc., are included survivors and widows of the war of 1812, respectively, commencing with the year
1871, and survivors and widows of the war with Mexico, commencing with the year 1877,

;
170
PENTATEUCH.
post-office address of each.
where an agency
*ppear in person at the office of the Pension Agent on
the quarterly pay-day, and receive a draft on the Ú.S.
Treasury; to others a like draft is forwarded by mail.
A form of affidavit or voucher must be executed by
the pensioner before a magistrate, which with his pen-
Šion certificate must be exhibited to the Pension Agent
before payment is made. The largest number of pay-
ments at any one agency is that of Columbus, Ohio,
where 44,405 pensioners are paid. The largest number
of pensioners in any one State is that of New York,
where,45,249 reside, to whom are paid $5,486,019.84
annually. M. F. G.
PENTATElºh *. J oilº º article on
this subject in the ENCYCLOPEDIA
º: BRITANNICA is essentially a presenta-
Am. Rep.). tion of one out of several controverted
views. In the present state of Penta-
teuchal discussion this is not a severe criticism, but is
merely a statement of a fact which largely determines
the form of the present supplementary article.
It would be generally agreed, no doubt, that the
Hexateuch is essentially a literary unity. One scholar
might claim that this unity arises from the fact that
Moses personally wrote the Pentateuch, while some
one in sympathy with him supplemented his work by
writing the Book of Joshua ; and another might claim
that it arises from the Hexateuch having been put
together, partly from older documents, by a scribe or
succession of scribes who lived a thousand years after
Moses; and others might make still different claims;
but as to the unity itself there would be no difference
of opinion. It is a single work, with a single purpose,
every part of it bending to that purpose, no matter
how it came to be so. i. would also be agreed that
the unity of this work is not that of strictly continuous
composition in one vein. It has a great variety of
contents. It is a prose work, but includes a consider-
able number of poems, e. g. Gen. xlix. ; Ex. xv. ;
Num. xxiii., xxiv.; Deut. xxxii. 1–43; Deut. xxxiii.
It also includes several formal orations, or addresses,
e. g. Deut. i. 3-iv. 40; Josh. xxiii.; Josh. xxiv.,
etc. It further contains a large body of legislation of
the greatest possible variety of form and scope. In
Ex. xxi.-xxiii., in connection with Ex. xx, and xxxiv.
10–26, is a compact, codified list of precepts, largely in
the apparent form of decisions on hiº cases, in
shape to be easily memorized, and suited to practical
judicial use. Again, in Deuteronomy there is a more
extensive collection of laws, with a bulky historico-
homiletical comment on them. These two codes are
designed for magistrates and people of all classes.
Besides these, and of considerably larger bulk, is an
additional collection of laws, scattered through the
different books, and designed especially for the in-
formation of the priestly class. This legislation con-
sists partly in records of precedents, partly in manuals
for particular services, partly in alleged proclamations,
general orders, return-reports, and the like. While
certain portions of it are very carefully, arranged in
order, this class of the legislation as a whole exhibits
no trace of orderly arrangement or of codification.
These various poems, addresses, laws, heterogeneous
as they are in themselves, are bound together, partly
by being arranged in a certain order, but mainly by
being imbedded in a connecting narrative. The narra-
tive itself, moreover, is frequently duplicated, and this
and other phenomena are supposed to indicate that
previously existing narratives have been incorporated
into It.
These facts as to the contents of the Hexateuch
throw light upon the nature of the literary processes
by which it was produced. One who holds that Moses
wrote the Pentateuch in substantially its present form
should also hold that Moses first accumulated a mass
of materials in the shape of poems, addresses, laws in
various forms, narratives, and afterward wove these
Those who live in the city
is located, or in its vicinity, generally |O
together, adding whatever was needful for the purpose.
ne who holds that the book is divinely inspired should
also hold that the method just mentioned was the
method through which divine inspiration operated in
this case. And those who do not hold to the Mosaic
authorship, or to divine inspiration, should yet hold
that these previously existing materials, in some shape,
were a fact, and that they were somehow put º:
to form the present unity known as the Hexateuch.
Further, no one probably would dispute that the differ-
ent parts of the Hexateuch present differences of
literary style, vocabulary, local and temporary point
of view, and the like, as decided as the difference in
the contents of these different parts.
Such, in outline, are the phenomena indisputably
presented. The views now current may of course be
generically classified as two : the views of those who
hold that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch, and
the views of those who deny this. Of those who
deny the Mosaic authorship some reject, in the main,
the external testimony in the case, including that of
the Old and New Testaments, as unhistorical, and
deny that the distinctively Israelitish legislation is
ſº of Mosaic origin; while others affirm the
istoricity of the Scriptures and the genuine Mosaic
origin of the law. Again, the present generation of
the scholars who deny that Moses wrote the Pentateuch
are pretty well agreed (though not unanimous) in the
opinion that the legislative portion of Deuteronomy
was written about the time of the great reformation
under King Josiah. As to the dates of most of the
other parts they disagree greatly. In particular, one
school of them (that represented in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA) hold that the priestly legislation is later
than Deuteronomy, dating from the times of Ezra and
later; while another school, formerly very prominent,
and now again coming to the front, hold that the
priestly legislation is earlier than the Deuteronomic.
Those who hold that Moses wrote the Pentateuch
may be classed in three groups. . The first group hold
to a mechanical theory of Mosaic authorship ; Moses
wrote the Pentateuch by dictation from God, or in
some such way, so that he may as well have written
the account of his own death as any other part of it.
Probably it would now be difficult to find scholars who
deliberately teach this; the place where it mainly
crops out is in the assumptions made by certain men,
notably by certain newspaper controversialists when
they attack men whom they suspect of heresy. The
second group hold to what may fairly be called the
traditional view of the Mosaic authorship, namely, that
Moses personally wrote the five books, but that the post-
Mosaic elements in them were added by later hands, at
some unknown period or periods. This view at first
sight seems simple and satisfactory, each person who
holds it admitting the existence of a very few passages
that contain elements later than Moses. But while
some make one concession and some another, the
number of conceded instances on this theory of irre-
sponsible or at least anonymous tampering with the
Mosaic text becomes quite appalling. The third group
hold what we may fairly call the modified view of the
Mosaic authorship. For my own part, I should state
this view thus: Moses is the author of the Pentateuch,
and Moses and Joshua the authors of the Hexateuch,
in the sense of being responsible for the literary exist-
ence of these books in . present form. But they
may have been, and most likely were, the authors of
them in the way in which one would naturally expect
public leaders, such as they, to be the authors of such
writings as these. That is to say, they are likely to
have written some parts personally, to have written
some parts through amanuenses, to have caused other
parts to be written by directing secretaries to write
them, or by accepting documents prepared to their
hand, to have taken other parts from the works of
earlier authors. In such a case, the question whether
they themselves gathered the writings into their present
PENTATEUCH.
171
form or left that for their successors to do is an ºpen
question until it is settled by evidence. Their claim
to authorship would not be in the least impaired if it
could be shown that the writings were collected into a
whole, and parts of them written, by men of the gen:
eration that had been associated with Moses and
Joshua, and had survived them. Whether their claim
to authorship would be impaired on some theory that
dated the ji. of the writings yet later would de-
pend somewhat on the details of the theory. This last
question, however, it is hardly worth while to discuss,
unless upon inquiry other views are found to be
untenable.
The following proposition would perhaps be accepted
in common by º advocates of the Mosaic authorship
of the Pentateuch, though many of them would regard
it as stating only a part of the truth : The Hexateuchal
writings were produced in part by Moses and Joshua,
and in part by other men under their influence, and
were substantially completed within the lifetime of
men who were associated with Moses and Joshua in
public affairs. In opposition to this, living scholars
who deny the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch
generally hold that the legislation of Deuteronomy was
written in the times of King Josiah, and the other
parts of the Hexateuch, some earlier and some later
than this. These two propositions are not exhaustive
of the question; but, #we examine the evidence bear-
ing upon them, we shall not merely argue the question
they present, but shall touch most of the points of
iº that properly belong to this supplementary
article.
I. The Direct festimony, and the Reasons Alleged
Against it.—To begin with, the direct testimony in the
case is very abundant, and no one disputes that it is
altogether to the effect that Moses is the author of the
Pentateuch. The Rabbinical writings, Josephus, Philo,
the Alexandrian Jewish literature, the Apocrypha,
are explicit on this point, and often full in details;
they betray hardly any difference of opinion, except as
to whether Moses wrote the account of his own death
as well as the rest of the Pentateuch. The books of
the Old and New Testaments are equally full, though
somewhat less explicit. There is no room to exhibit
this testimony here, and no need to do so. One line
of it can be readily examined by looking up in the
Concordances of the Bible and in the indexes of the
other books what is said concerning “the book,’’ ‘‘the
law,” “Moses.” A moderately full presentation of
the Biblical direct testimony may be found in such
works as those of Stebbins, Harman (see titles in
Literature at end), or Essays on Pentateuchal Crit-
icism, Nos. v., vi., vii., viii., xi. A considerable num-
ber of the passages are cited in the article BIBLE, in
this work.
The Biblical testimony in this matter differs from
that of the Jewish and Christian tradition outside the
Bible, in that it never speaks of the Mosaic books as
being five in number, and, except in the Hexateuch
itself, mentions no details as to the writing of the
books by Moses. But the books of the New Testa-
ment and the later books of the Old Testament so cite
and refer to the Pentateuchal writings as to leave no
doubt that these are the writings with which they
connect the name of Moses. Further, they do not
confine themselves to such mention of Moses as might
merely indicate that he is the most prominent person
of the times described in the writings; they explicitly
attribute authorship to him : “Him of whom Moses
. . . did write '' ( ohn i. 45), “For he wrote of me”
(John v. 46), “For the hardness of your heart he
wrote ’’ (Mark x. 5), “If ye believe not his writings”
(John v. 47), “The book of the law of the Lord by the
hand of Moses'' (2 Chron. xxxiv. 14), and very many
similar passages. In Deuteronomy Moses is said to
have written what is there called “the book of the
law,” xxxi. 9-13, 24–27. Many details are given as to
the use to be made of this book of the law, and the
use actually made of it by Joshua (Jºsh. i. 7, §, Xzii.
3. viii. 34, 35, Deut. xvii. 18, 19). We are told that
joshua wrote in it, long after the death, of Moses
(Josh. xxiv. 25–28). There are mentioned a long list
of items of sacred writing, by Moses or by Moses and
Joshua, either in this book of the law, or additional to
it, but in either case constituting a part of the present
contents of the Hexateuch (Deut. xxxii. 44, etc.,
xxvii. 2–8, xxviii. 58–61, 69 [xxix. 1], xxix. 19, 20 [20,
21], xxx. 10, Num. xxxiii. 1–3, Ex. xxiv. 3:8, xxxiv.
27, Xvii. 14, etc.). It is doubtless true that the phrase
“book of the law '' in these passages is not equiva-
lent in meaning to the word Pentateuch; in some
cases it indicates a short section only, and in at least
one instance (Josh. xxiv. 26) it includes post-Mosaic
writing done by Joshua, but the testimony is distinct
to the fact of the production by Moses and Joshua of
a large body of sacred literature, mostly identifiable
with the contents of our present Hexateuch; . This
fact must be allowed to interpret what is said in the
other books. Taken at its face value, we seem to have
here nothing less than a continuous line of testimony
from the times of Moses down. e *
Whether the fact thus testified to is really ºf
less than that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, we wil
consider presently. It is at least beyond dispute that
the testimony, as it stands, represents the written law
of Moses, specifically including the Deuteronomic
legislation, as in existence for centuries before Josiah,
and in this flatly contradicts the main proposition of
the critics who deny the Mosaic authorship. See for
instance 2 Kings xiv. 6, cf. Deut. xxiv. 16.... See also
1 Kings ii. 3, cf. Deut. xxix. 9; 1 Kings viii. 53, 56,
57, cf. Deut. passim ; 1 Kings viii. 9, cf. Deut. x.
2, 5, and many like instances. º
If this evidence will stand, it is by itself sufficient
and decisive. Those who regard it as indecisive
use mainly four arguments against it. . First, they
deny that the testimony means all that it is claimed to
mean. Secondly, they claim that the texts which con-
tain it are mixed and corrupt, so that they must first
be sifted, often to the extent of entire reconstruction,
before we accept their evidence. Thirdly, they say
that the testimony in its present form, and largely in
its more original forms, is the work of men who lived
long after the alleged events, who failed to distinguish
between stories and facts, who did not sift the infor-
mation that came to them, who were deficient in the
so-called historic sense, and were incorrect observers
and reporters of events; and that the testimony must
therefore be regarded as largely unhistorical. Fourthly,
they say of the claims made in the Hexateuch itself,
and of the parts of the testimony that stand or fall
with these, that they are intentionally fictional—not
necessarily untruthful, but a legal fiction devised for a
purpose, and to be interpreted accordingly. These
arguments, it will be observed, are capable of being so
pushed as to antagonize one another. The men who
use them use them in very unlike proportions, and in
a spirit ranging from that of reverent devoutness to
the extreme opposite.
l. There can be no doubt that the first of these
arguments represents a logical process that is some-
times of great value. It is very often true that a
statement does not mean all that we understand it to
mean. Dr. Francis Brown has shown (Journal of the
Society of Biblical Literature and Ecegesis, 1882, p.
95) that the testimony of the New Testament to the
authorship of the various books of the Old Testament
do not go as far as many imagine, and that many
passages commonly held to be explicit testimonies to
authorship might possibly be otherwise understood,
provided there be sufficient reasons against the com-
mon understanding of them. This process of mini-
mizing the meaning of statements, to prevent conflict,
is legitimate, in its own proper use. Nevertheless,
the true law of evidence is that statements are to be
understood in their natural meaning, except as de-
172
PENTATEUCH.
glsive reasons compel us to understand them as hav-
ing less than their natural meaning. There is no dis-
pute that the testimony in the case in hand, in the
Haeaning it naturally conveys, attributes the responsible
literary authorship of the Pentateuch to Moses. It is
true that most of the statements in the Bible might
possibly be understood to mean something less than
this, provided there were sufficient proof that this
cannot be their true meaning. But this possibility
amounts to nothing unless such sufficient proof is forth-
coming. This argument is entirely dependent on the
question : What positive evidence is there that Moses
is not the responsible author of the Pentateuch 2
2. The argument from alleged mixture and corrup-
tion of texts mainly applies to the pre-exilic books of
the Old Testament. }} Several of the more prominent
ºf these books, they call upon us to accept the alleged
fact that the book has been formed by piecing together
Writings that really belong centuries apart; they allege
that we must first dissect the composite work into its
original parts, before we take its testimony to matters
of fact. In the process of dissection, as they perform
it, most of the testimony to writings by Moses is
assigned to the later documents that entered into the
composite works, and is therefore regarded as untrust-
worthy. But there yet remain in the earlier docu-
ments and in other pre-exilic writings a considerable
number of passages that testify to sacred literature
written by Moses; these they dispose of by regarding
them as interpolations—corruptions of the text. In
other words, before we are permitted to take the testi-
mony of these books to the matters of fact under con-
sideration, we are expected to admit that the larger
art of the literary work commonly assigned to Isaiah,
eremiah, and the other later pre-exilic prophets, and
substantially all that commonly assigned to the earlier
men, Solomon, David, Nathan, Samuel, Joshua,
Moses, for example, was written, not by these men,
but by unknown scribes, obscure men, who made no
mark on their own generation, and left no name to the
generations that followed. Views like these are not
credible, except upon strong evidence. That some one
work should have the text-characteristics just men-
tioned would not be surprising, but it is difficult to be-
lieve that nearly the whole of a nation's literature is
marked by these characteristics; it is easier to believe
that almost any supposed criteria of composite struc-
ture are mistaken. }. is not surprising if we find that
some great man did not perform work that has been
commonly attributed to him ; or if we find that some
obscure man has done great work; but when we are
called upon to believe that throughout a nation's his-
tory the great men have done substantially nothing,
and the nobodies have done everything, that is beyond
the bounds of ordinary credibility. That these texts
have been thus mixed and corrupted, to the extent and
in the way required by the argument, is on the face of
it very unlikely, and is not to be admitted except upon
cogent evidence. And if the mixture and corruption
of the text were admitted or proved, that would not
prove that Moses is not the author of the Pentateuch;
it would simply diminish the amount of the evidence
of his being the author. The testimonies to his
authorship would remain in existence, and would con-
tinue to have the character of a respectable tradition,
and the question would still be : What positive evi-
dence is there against this?
3. The same principles cover the argument from the
alleged lack of historicity in the writings that contain
the testimony. It is alleged that the testimony dates
several centuries after the events, that it is not contem-
pºrary testimony, and is on that account of less value,
The allegation depends entirely on the question of
text-distribution which we have just considered. If
we take the text as it stands, without rearranging it,
the testimony begins in the time of Moses himself.
and is continuous from that date. . It is further urged
that in the later times, and particularly in the times of
the New Testament, the witnesses may have thought
of the Mosaic authorship as a matter of practical in-
struction and of received dogma, rather than of his-
torical fact, but admitting this, it remains to be
proved that they did not also regard it as a historical
fact. Further, it is urged, especially in regard to the
Qld. Testament narratives, that these, by their contra-
dictions, by the nature of many of the statements
they make, and by other marks, show themselves to
be unhistorical. The principal alleged marks of this
sort we will consider presently, in another connection.
For the moment we content ourselves with noticing
that the alleged unhistoricity of the testimony is not to
be accepted without sufficient proof, and that it will
take very cogent proof to be sufficient, and secondly,
that if the proof were forthcoming, that would have no
direct weight to show that Moses is not the author of
the Pentateuch ; it would only weaken the evidence of
his being its author. The question would still be :
What proof is there that he was not so?
4. The principles in hand still cover the argument
from alleged unhistoricity, when the argument assumes
the form of the fictional hypothesis. On the face of
it there is no absurdity in supposing that Jewish
statesmen of the times of Josiah and later might have
given the literary form of a Mosaic tradition to laws
codified by themselves. It is possible that such a fic-
tion is morally defensible, and it is supposable that
they might have done the thing, even if it were mor-
ally wrong. But if this fictional hypothesis be resorted
to at all, it must be applied not to the testimony in the
Hexateuch alone, but to much of that in the other
books, both the pre-exilic and the post-exilic. If this
fictional mode of describing the laws of Israel existed, it
existed as consciously fictional for several centuries, cow-
ering several national revolutions, and we have a
pretty abundant literature for those centuries. The
absence of any distinct mention of it in that literature,
as well as the difficulty of the thing itself, shows it to
be quite improbable that it ever existed. In the cir-
cumstances, if the fictional hypothesis be affirmed,
purely on the ground of its being necessary in order to
explain the circumstance that Moses did not write the
Pentateuch, that circumstance needs first to be estab-
lished by sufficient proofs. Unless the proofs are
forthcoming, the hypothesis amounts to absolutely
nothing.
The difficulty of establishing the charge of lack of
historical credibility, as against the testimony of the
Old Testament, has of late years greatly increased.
The outcome of recent excavations and explorations
is altogether against it. As long as these books con-
tained, in the main, the only known accounts of the
events they mention, there was some plausibility in the
theory that perhaps these accounts were written rather
to teach moral lessons than to preserve an exact
knowledge of events. It was easy to say that in those
times men had not the historic sense. But the recent
discoveries touch the events recorded in the Bible at
very many different points, in many different genera-
tions, mentioning the same persons, countries, peoples,
events that are mentioned in the Bible, and showing be-
yond question that these were strictly historic. The
point is not that the discoveries confirm the correctness
of the Biblical statements, though that is commonly
the case, but that the discoveries show that the peo-
ples of those ages had the historic sense, and specific-
ally, that the Biblical narratives they touch are narra-
tives of actual occurrences.
It is also a familiar and acknowledged, fact that the
general contents of the Hexateuch and most of the
phenomena it presents agree with the account of its
origin as given in the testimony, and thus confirm that
account. There is no room here for details under this
statement, though some instances will presently be
given. tº ſe
II. Alleged Proofs of the Late Origin of the Hexa-
teuch.-By universal admission, then, we have an ac-
*
PENTATEUCH.
173
count of the origin of the Hexateuch, given by wit-
nesses who seem to be trustworthy, and confirmed by a
great body of testimonies and circumstances, with no
testimony whatever against it. The presumption is
that the account is true. This is not a merely tech-
nical presumption, but is of the nature of a very strong
probability. If any one seeks to overthrow the result
thus reached it ought to be not by conjectures, but by
impregnable proofs. We turn to see what are the
proofs offered in the case.
The critics who deny that Moses wrote the Penta-
touch are accustomed to claim much on the ground of
the superiority of their scientific methods. On the
strength of this superiority of method they claim for
themselves largely the authority of experts. They
censure their opponents, and sometimes justly, for
arguing from the assumed meaning of passages in-
stead of the necessary meaning, for resorting to har-
monistic conjectures for the removal of difficulties, and
the like. Are their claims to scientific superiority so
well based that we must accord to them something on
this ground, and accept their opinions as the opinions
of experts? To decide this let us examine a few
specimens. We will take them just as they occur in
#. article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
“It was observed that Moses does not speak of him-
self in the first person, but that some other writer
speaks of him in the third—a writer, too, who lived
long after.” But why should Moses be precluded
from speaking of himself in the third person, just as
Caesar and Josephus do? And if it is another writer
that speaks of Moses in the third person, he could do
this as easily while Moses was living as “long after.”
“The expression of Gen. xii. 6, the Canaanite was
then in the land,' is spoken to readers who had long
forgotten that a different nation from Israel had once
occupied the Holy Land.” Not necessarily. A reader
of the times of Moses, or of any other time, might have
a curiosity to know with what peoples, if any, Abra-
ham and Jacob came into contact on reaching Pales-
time.
“Again, the ‘Book of the wars of Jehovah” (Num.
xxi. 14) cannot possibly be cited by Moses himself, as
it contains a record of his own deeds.” But there is
nothing in the fact that a book mentions a man's deeds
to prevent that man's citing the book.
“When Deut. xxxiv. 10 says that ‘There arose not
a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses,’ the writer is
necessarily one who looked back to Moses through a
long series of later prophets.” But this language
would be very * in the mouth of any old man
who, in his youth, had known Moses. The inference
that the writer must have looked back “through a
long series’’ of prophets to Moses is gratuitous.
Absolutely these instances are representative. At
this point any man of sense is competent to test the
claims of this alleged scientific method. Whoever
will take the trouble to look carefully at the instances
of simple use of Biblical passages, in the article in the
BRITANNIgA and in the whole class of writings it rep-
resents, will thereafter find himself little disposed to
lace confidence in this class of writers as experts.
o men are more in the habit than they of putting
upon statements or upon phenomena the interpreta-
tion that will serve their turn, and then arguing as if
this were the only possible interpretation.
It is by processes precisely like these that the at-
tempt is made to invalidate the historicity of the Old
Testament writings, and thus their testimony in the
case in hand. Take a single instance for example,
According to Gen. xvi. 16, xxi. 5, Ishmael was four-
teen years old when Isaac was born. “But how does
this accord with xxi. 9 seq., where Ishmael appears
not as a lad of seventeen but as a child at play (pnxp,
v. 9), who is laid on his mother's º (v. 14),
and when thrown down by her in her despair (v. 15) is
quite unable to help himself? Similar inconsistencies
appear, etc.” But the statement that Ishmael “made
sport” is not a statement that he was then “a child at
play.” The narrative does not say that he was laid
upon his mother's shoulder. When it is said that she
“cast him under one of the shrubs” that does not
imply that he was a baby and she had been carrying
him. According to the account he was “quite unable
to help himself,” not by reason of tender age, but by
reason of exhaustion. In all this there is no contra-
diction to what is elsewhere said concerning Ishmael.
It is true that if we are to understand the Biblical
narratives as historical we must abandon the baby-story
interpretation sometimes given to some of them; and
we must interpret them by putting together all the
known facts in each case and allowing the facts to limit
one another. For the lack of care in these particulars
the traditional understanding of the history is in some
points open to criticism. Most of the difficulties will
vanish if one merely put all the facts together, so as
to obtain a complete understanding of the matter con-
cerning which the difficulties arose, and most of the
remaining difficulties are of the sort that would doubt-
less vanish if we knew more about the matter.
There is then nothing in the methods of these men
to justify us in accepting their conclusions on the
ground of their superior qualifications; all we have
to do is to examine the evidence adduced to see what
conclusions it justifies.
1. The simplest class of arguments for the late date
of the Hexateuch is made up of the instances in
which it is alleged that these writings mention or al-
lude to events later than the times of Moses and
Joshua. To understand the precise bearing of these
instances we need to glance at certain facts connected
with another name—that of Phinehas, the grandson
of Aaron and grandnephew of Moses. Of Phinehas
it is recorded that he was already in public life, and
among the most prominent men of the nation, before
the death of Moses. See Num. xxv. 7, 11 ; Ps. cwi.
30; Num. xxxi. 6. Next to Joshua himself he was
the chief public man in Israel in the times of the
conquest. See Josh. xxii. 13, 30, 31, 32; xxiv. 33.
He was still high-priest in the time of the civil war
with Benjamin, Jud. xx. 28. It follows that this
war, the account of which is given Jud. xix.—xxi.,
was one of the earlier events of the times of the
judges, instead of being the latest, as one might im-
agine from the place it occupies in the Book of Judges.
That this war was itself preceded by the expedition in
which the men of Dan captured Laish, in the north,
is evident from the comparison of Jud. xvii., xviii.,
with Jud. xx. 1.
According to Jud. xx. 28, and the later notices,
Phinehas was the successor of his father, Eleazar, in
the high-priesthood. In this position he was the
chief of the men to whom the custody of Moses'
book of the law had been committed. If anything
was done to the sacred writings of Moses and Joshua
under his direction, it was done in the spirit of Moses
and Joshua, within the lifetime of their personal asso-
ciates. With these facts in mind, notice that the
closing verses of the Book of Joshua bring the history
up to the time of the death of Eleazar, the high-
priest, and all that generation, that is up to the time.
when Phinehas of the next generation was already an
old man. We shall presently find abundant proof that
the earlier books of the Hexateuch, as well as its latest
book, were either edited or annotated as late as the
later years of Phinehas, and the question will become
important whether there is any real evidence of redacº
tion later than this. The instances are numerous and
quite varied ; we can notice only a few specimens in
addition to those already cited.
The instances in which the proper name Dan is
mentioned belong, of course, to a date after Laish had
been captured and named Dan, Jud. xviii. 29, etc. :
but this, as we have seen, was within the lifetime of
Phinehas. The instances are Josh. xix. 47; Deut.
xxxiv. l ; Gen. xiv. 14. The last may possibly be on
174
PENTATEUCH.
a. Somewhat different footing from the other two.
The account of the death of Moses, Deut. xxxiv. 6
10, with the phrase “unto this day,” the account of
Og's bedstead, and of the name Havvoth-Jair, with the
same phrase, Deut. iii. 10–15, the account of the
Gibeonite tabernacle Service, with the same phrase,
Josh. ix. 27, and all parallel cases come id: the
Same general statement. In some of the instances the
phrase would be peculiar if assigned to the times of
Moses, but in every instance it is entirely natural for
Some date not later than the times of Phinehas. If
Luz which is in the land of Canaan,” Gen. xxxv.
§§ Jud. i. 26, be understood as distinguishing the
Palestinian Luz from the Luz afterward built in the
land of the Hittites, then the phrase is later than the
times of Moses, but not later than Phinehas. But it
is not necessary to understand this phrase as post-
Mosaic.
About sixty instances occur in Genesis, Exodus,
Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua of the names
Hebron, Bethel, Debir, and Hormah, proving that
these narratives were not written in their present form
till after the adoption of these names instead of Kir-
jath-arba, Luz, Kirjath-sepher, and Zephath. But it
is alleged that the change of name in each case oc-
gurred after the death of Moses, Jud. i. 10, 11, 17, 23.
But in these cases it does not follow that the old name
became extinct as soon as the new name was given.
Prof. E. H. Palmer holds that the name Zephath is
still in existence in the Arabic name Sebaita. See
Palmer's Desert of the Eaxodus, p. 236, et al. Again,
there is nothing improbable in the idea that the new
name given after the conquest was the renewal of a
Hebrew name previously given ; the Biblical accounts
give us to understand that this was actually the case
with the name Bethel. In short, these instances have
no great weight to prove that the passages where they
occur contain anything later than Moses, and no weight
at all to prove anything later than Phinehas.
No instances are more generally conceded to be of
late origin than the law concerning the Israelite king,
Deut. xvii. 14–20, and the passage concerning the
Edomite kings, Gen. xxxvi., especially v. 31. But
Moses needed no prophetic insight, but only ordinary
human sagacity, to see that the Israelites were likely
at some time to wish to establish monarchy, so that
this was a case to be provided for. Further, according
to the record, Moses held that Jehovah had made a
promise, according to which a line of kings was to
come from the loins of Abraham, Sarah, and Jacob,
Gen. xvii. 6, 16; xxxv. 11. This being the case,
there is no improbability in the idea of Moses giving
such a law as the one in Deuteronomy. And this be-
ing admitted, this man who was looking forward to the
existence of kings in Israel, and whose only interest in
Edom lay in the fact that Esau was the elder brother
of Israel, might very naturally mention the circum-
stance that there were as yet no kings in Israel, though
the Edomites had already had kings for Some genera-
tions. Until light can be thrown on the dates of the
Edomite kings actually mentioned in this chapter, it
cannot be shown that anything in the chapter is of a
later date than Phinehas, or even than Moses.
If it be admitted that Ex. xvi. was written after
the manna ceased (vs. 31, 35), that is, after the death
of Moses (Josh. v. 12), and for a generation who had
not seen the manna, and needed to have it described to
them, that would not date the chapter later than
Phinehas. The minuteness of the description does
dot indicate lateness of date; nothing, is more.com-
mon than for men to write careful descriptions of won;
derful contemporary events for the information of
coming generations.
The expression, “as Israel has done to the land of
his possession,” Deut. ii. 12, may easily be understood
as referring to the conquest and division of the coun-
try east of the Jordan, and may therefore be, the lan-
guage of Moses himself. And even one who refers
this language to the conquests west of the Jordan can
give no good reason for dating it later than the time
of Phinehas. The phrase “within thy gates’’ (Ex.
xx. 10, and elsewhere), and the law against removing
landmarks (Deut. xix. 14) need not be regarded as
post-Mosaic, for they apply to a people who have
been settled and expect to settle again, as well as to a
people actually settled when the law was put into the
code. There is no reason for saying that “the moun-
tain of Jehovah' (Gen. xxii. 14) presupposes Solo-
mon's temple, or that “return to Egypt in ships”
(Deut. xxviii. 68) is a reference to Jer. xliii. 7, or to
anything else than the familiar fact that Egypt, before
º times of Moses, already had a maritime slave-
trade.
Especial stress has been laid, in certain quarters, on
the words used in the Hexateuch to indicate the points
of the compass—“seaward ” for westward, Gen. xii.
8, and fifteen other places; toward the “Negeb” for
Southward, Ex. xxvi. 18; xxvii. 9, and many other
laces; “across the Jordan '' for east of the Jordan,
eut. i. 1, and many other places. But these instances
merely show that these parts of the usus loquendi of
the Hebrew language originated north of the Negeb,
and west of the Jordan ; the allegation that they also
show where the writer of these particular passages was
located when he wrote is untenable. From the days
of the patriarchs until now, you could not locate a
man on any square yard of ground on the face of the
earth where it would be inappropriate for him to say
“across the Jordan,” designating thereby the country
east of the Jordan. We do ..i. need to say that
Phinehas may have written these passages from his
home west of the Jordan, for the use of these estab-
lished geographical phrases affords no evidence of their
having been written in one locality rather than another.
We add but a single instance. The Book of Jashar
is cited in Josh. x. 12, 13. But some composition of
David's was apparently written in the Book of Jashar
(2 Sam. i. 18). If therefore the Book of Jashar was
a work produced at some one date, that date was as
late as }. and we have here at least one passage
some centuries later than Moses and Joshua. If this
view be accepted, a single gloss like this is not very
important. ut even in this case it is not necessary
to accept the late date. The Book of Jashar, instead
of being compiled at one time, may have been a col-
lection that gradually accumulated from generation to
eneration ; it may have received its name as early as
oshua's time, while additions continued to be made
to it till David's time and later.
The instances thus far treated probably number not
less than two hundred. The list could be greatly ex-
tended, but could hardly be made to include anything
that would change its character as evidence. Evidently,
most of the instances might be explained as having
been written centuries later than Moses, provided there
were proof that they ought to be so º ; but on
the other hand, it is equally evident that most of them
may supposably have been written by Moses himself,
and that not one of them necessarily dates later than
Phinehas.
This being the state of things, the argument from
these instances in favor of the early date of these
writings is not merely negative but positive. ... His-
torians are apt to compare the events they directly
narrate with later events, up to their own times.
Josephus, for example, speaking of Moses in Egypt,
is led to mention that the city which he says Moses
besieged was afterward ..i. Meroe by Cambyses,
and also to mention that the Greeks of his own time
were familiar with the Egyptian ibis, Antiquities,
II., x. 2. What Josephus thus does is what nar-
rators are accustomed to do. It is quite prominently
done in the Hexateuchal narratives of the times be-
fore Moses, and somewhat less prominently in those
of the times of Moses and Joshua. They use the
proper names that belong to the times of Moses and
PENTATEUCH.
175
later, up to the time when Laish was named Dan.
When they speak of the birth of Moab and Ben-ammi,
or of the oath at Beer-sheba, or of the shrinking of
Jacob's thigh, or of the monument to Rachel, or of
the laws made by Joseph in Egypt, they mention that
“unto this day” there was in existence a people, or
a proper name, or a monument, or a usage, connected
with the event they narrate, Gen. xix. 37, 38; xxvi.
33; xxxii. 32; xxxv. 20; xlvii. 26. In their ac-
count of what occurred in the times of Moses and
Joshua they do the same, Deut. iii. 14; xxxiv. 6,
10; Josh. iv. 9; v. 9; vi. 25; vii. 26; viii. 28, 29;
ix. 27; x. 14, 27; xiii. 13, etc. To their account
of the original giving of the manna they add a cir-
cumstance connected with the ceasing of the manna,
some forty years later, Ex. xvi. 31, 35. This being
their habit, how are we to account for it that no
unmistakable allusion to any event later than the
lifetime of Phinehas appears in these writings? The
natural explanation is that that lifetime marks the
date of the completing of the writings, and this ex-
planation is thoroughly in accord with all the evi-
dence we have thus far considered.
2. Another class of arguments to prove the late date of
the Hexateuch proceeds on the assumption that certain
principles of evolution apply in this case. This as-
sumption is sometimes avowed, and it is actually one
of the premises of the reasoning of some who do not
avow it. It is assumed, for example, that the condi-
tion of the Israelites in early times was extremely bar-
barous and illiterate, so that such a literature as this
was then impossible, and that it became possible by a
process of development in civilization. But (to say
nothing of the possibility that divine inspiration might
Fº authorship even among a rude people) we now
now that there was a widely extended literature, in
several languages, in Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia,
before the time when Moses is said to have led the
Israelites from Egypt. Prof. Osgood (in Essays on the
Pentateuch, No. 12) has admirably summarized the tes-
timony of recent investigators on this point, and at
the present moment the work being done on the col-
lection of Syria and Mesopotamian tablets found in
the archives of Amenophis III, and Amenophis IV.
of Egypt, is here adding fresh confirmation. See
accounts of this “find '' with references to additional
sources of information, by A. H. Sayce, in the Inde-
pendent of June 28, 1888, and by Dr. Francis Brown,
in the Presbyterian Review of July, 1888.
Again, it is assumed that the law of development
of religion requires that we should hold that the re-
ligion of Israel existed in the form of polytheism, then
in the form of a relatively gross monotheism, and
afterward in that of the higher monotheism repre-
sented by the prophets, all these being stages that
must have j the ritualism found in the priestly
law. Hence it is argued that the law could not have
come into existence till after the writing of the books
of the pre-exilic prophets. This reasoning has been
sufficiently met by many writers, among others by Dr.
Bardiner and Dr. Dwinell, Essays on the Pentateuch,
Nos. 2 and 9, but it is very summarily met by Dr. Os-
good, in the essay just cited, by the well-attested fact
that an elaborate ritualism actually existed before the
times of Moses, both in the regions whence the Is-
raelites are said originally to have come, and in Egypt,
where they made their long sojourn.
3. In proof of the late date of the Hexateuchal
writings it is urged that they have virtually the same
linguistic character with the latest books of the Old
Testament, which could hardly be the case if they
were written a thousand years the earlier. In reply
to this, Dr. Franz Delitzsch (see articles of Dr. S. T.
Curtiss in the Hebrew Student for March, April, May,
and June, 1882; and in the Presbyterian }. for
July, 1882) holds, first, that the range of linguistic
changes is much less in the Shemitic than in the
Western languages; secondly, that many of the lin-
guistic differences that once existed may be presumed
to have vanished in the process of transferring the
books from the old alphabet to the square alphabet:
and thirdly, that, notwithstanding these facts, the differ-
ences now actually existing are quite appreciable. This
has always been a correct and sufficient reply. Some
of these linguistic differences are treated in the latest
editions of Gesenius' Grammar, particularly in the
treatment of the pronouns, and in Harman's Intro-
duction, chap. x., and indeed in most Commentaries
and Introductions that treat of the Pentateuch. The
fact is that the Hexateuch, the later pre-exilic books,
and the post-exilic books, each present characteristic
peculiarities of vocabulary, of verbal form, and of
syntax, and that the Hexateuchal peculiarities are
largely those which are naturally to be assigned to the
earlier stages of a language.
4. In pretty sharp contradiction with the argument
just considered, though frequently urged by the same
men, is the argument that the differences of style be-
tween different parts of the Hexateuch are such as to
show that the passages must be by different authors,
apparently living in #. historical periods. The
fact that there are in the Hexateuch great linguistic
and rhetorical diversities is admitted. Considering the
variety of subjects here treated, the variety of method
of treatment, and the variety of the experiences that
are said to have entered into the life of Moses, who
would here expect anything else than great diversities
of style, even if he supposed that Moses wrote every
word of the Pentateuch 7 And if Moses and Joshua
made use of works by earlier writers, employed secre-
taries, and left the writings to be edited by their imme-
diate successors, we have additional explanations for
this class of phenomena. The phenomena, in this
way of looking at them, have no weight against the
idea that Moses and Joshua are the proper authors of
the Hexateuch.
5. This argument, however, recurs in the more spe-
cific and elaborate form of what is now currently called
“the Pentateuchal Analysis.” Work done in this
analysis, and discussion concerning it, form the bulk of
the contents of recent works and articles on the Penta-
teuch, but this subject is so fully treated in the BRI-
TANNICA, article, that there is no need of giving much
space to it here, even for the sake of presenting a dif.
ferent view. Those who accept the so-called “anal-
ysis" are pretty well agreed in holding that the Hex-
ateuch is a compilation from four previous compila-
tions. These are now most commonly described as J,
E, D, and P; that is, the works of the Jehovist nar.
rator, the Elohist narrator, the Deuteronomist, and
the Priestly narrator. They are pretty well agreed as
to the present limits of P and D, and in the opinion
that the main part of D was written in connection with
the reform under king Josiah. They differ as to the
dates of the other three documents, as to the dividing
line between J and E, as to which parts of D belon
to the original Deuteronomist, and which parts to .#
of a series of supplementary Deuteronomists, as to
which parts of P. are by the proper priestly narrator,
and which parts by each of a supposed series of sup:
plementary priest-scribes, as to the earlier writings that
were incorporated into each of the four documents,
and as to the multitude of other questions that arise.
It is readily seen that every theory of this sort is a
complicated structure, built on no other foundation
than conjectural explanations of circumstantial evi.
dence, beset with difficulties that can be removed only
by hypotheses framed for the purpose. The mere tes.
timony in the case, as understood by those who hold
the modified traditional view, will doubtless explain as
many of the phenomena as can be explained by any
of these more complex theories; and the explanation
by testimony is of course to be preferred to the ex-
planation by hypothesis. It follows that, notwith-
standing the great weight of scholarly opinion now ar-
rayed in favor of the various forms of what is cur-
176
PENTATEUCH.
rently called the Pentateuchal analysis, men who think
for themselves are yet justifiable in hesitating to accept
it. . The nature of the arguments commonly urged
against it may be learned by consulting the volumes
named at the close of this article.
But supposing the current Pentateuchal analysis
were accepted, so far as it pertains to the literary form
and the mode of composition of these writings, it
would by no means follow that we are compelled to ac-
cept the alleged late dates of the several parts of the
Hexateuch. All the different literary processes in-
volved may as well have been performed in the times
of Moses, or before him, or after him within the life-
time of men who were associated with him, as at any
later period. That the times of Josiah and Jeremiah
were times when the Deuteronomic law-book was
closely studied is very evident. It has been alleged in
addition to this that the Deuteronomic legislation bears
marks of having been made in those times and for
those times. This is sufficiently refuted by Dr. Bissell
and others. Similar claims are made, and aro refuted
by the same authors, as to the special affiliations bo-
tween the priestly legislation and the times of Ezra
and Nehemiah. A great deal has been made by some
writers of the alleged absence of Egyptian elements
from the Hexateuch, and the presence there of Baby-
lonian elements; but, at present, no respectable
scholar would allege that Egyptian elements are want-
ing, and the Babylonian elements may be readily ex-
Fº by the known facts as to early relations between
gypt and Babylonia. The “find '' described in the
articles of Profs. Sayce and Brown, in the Independent
of June 28, 1888, and the Presbyterian Review of July,
1888, is rich in material of this sort. It is further
asserted that the Book of Ezekiel presupposes parts
of the Hexateuch, but is in turn presupposed by most
of the priestly legislation; and it is hence inferred that
the priest-code is later than Ezekiel. This has been
most satisfactorily refuted by Dr. Frederic Gardiner,
in the Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and
Eacegesis, 1881. -
6. The argument that is regarded as strongest of all,
in connection with the Pentateuchal analysis, to prove
the late date of the successive parts of these writings,
is the alleged silence of the Books of Judges and
Samuel, both in regard to the Mosaic writings and in
regard to the institutions described in them, combined
with the alleged testimony of these books and the
Books of Kings to the existence of institutions incon-
sistent with those of the Pentateuch. This argument
is spread out into a great variety of specifications; it
is impossible here to do more than mention a few of
the most prominent. It is alleged that the Books of
Judges and Samuel do not mention the Torah. ... The
fact is that they use the noun Torah in 2 Sam. vii. 14,
and the cognate verb, in the same sense with the noun,
in Jud. xiii. 8 and 1 Sam. xii. 23. It is alleged that
these books never cite the Hexateuch. It is true that
they never use the formulas of citation, like those used
in the Books of Kings and Chronicles, and in the New
Testament; but they presuppose the events and the
institutions described in the Hºnº writings, and
abound in what seem to be verbal citations from them.
A few out of very many apparent instances of verbal
citation—instances in which the meaning depends upon
the fact that the phrases are citations—are those in 2
Sam. vii. 1, 12, 24; 1 Sam. viii. 3, 5 ; Jud. xi. 14–27,
ii. 1–3. Indeed, there is now a strong tendency among
the advocates of the Hexateuchal analysis entirely to
give up this allegation, and adopt an opposite Yiew,
namely, that the Books of Judges and Samuel arº
composite productions, formed from continuations of
the same documents from which the Hexateugh was
formed, and are therefore of a correspondingly late
ate. e e
It is alleged that these books are entirely silent, as to
the Pentateuchal system of institutions. This allega-
tion, however, is materially modified by two admis-
sions. First, the allegation is not quite true as the
text of these books now stands; the silence does not
exist until the text has first been corrected and certain
passages that break the silence (e. g., 1 Sam. ii. 22)
omitted as interpolations. Secondly, it is admitted
that these books mention many particular institutions
that belong to the Pentateuchal system. In replying
to this and to several of the following allegations it
should be conceded that, so far as appears from the
evidence, the Pentateuchal system, if it existed during
the period from the death of Joshua to the later years
of David, was then in very imperfect operation. But
the failure to enforce the law in those times neither
implies that the law was then non-existent nor that it
was then unwritten. Meanwhile the passages that pre-
suppose institutions described in the Pentateuch are
too numerous, too explicit, and too varied to be con-
sistent with the allegation that the books are silent on
this subject. Among the Pentateuchal institutions
mentioned are the functions of the Goel, 2 Sam. iii.
27 ; xiv. 11; certain parts of the law of the
Nazarite, Jud. xiii. 5; 1 Sam. i. 11; the prohibi-
tion of foreign gods, 2 Sam. vii. 3, etc.; usages re-
specting ceremonial cleanness, uncleanness, and holi-
ness, 1 Sam. xx. 26 ; xxi. 5; religious laws against
the *g of blood, 1 Sam. xiv. 32–34; against witch-
craft, 1 Sam. xv. 23; xxviii., etc. ; the priestly char-
acter of the Levites, Jud. xvii., etc.; the carrying of
the ark by men, 2 Sam. vi. 13, and context; the burn-
ing of the fat before the priest's fee was due, 1 Sam.
ii. 16 (cf. Lev. vii. 29–34); the offering of meal and
wine with an animal victim, 1 Sam. i. 24; the tech-
nical terms ºl, Tºt, Tºp, 1 Sam. iii. 14; the
distinction of burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, etc.,
1 Sam. x. 8; xiii. 9, et al. ; sacrifices connected with
vows, 1 Sam. i. 21 ; sacrifices for certain seasons dis-
tinguished from particular sacrifices, I Sam. i. 21 ; the
shewbread, 1 Sam. xxi. 6; the high-priest's ephod, 1
Sam. ii. 28, et al.; the sanctuary tent and the sacred
ark, 1 Sam. ii. 22; 2 Sam. vi., et al. ; the service of
the sanctuary by priests descended from Aaron, 1 Sam.
ii. 28, and many places; its being for “all Israel,” ii.
14, 22, 24, 28; iii. 20, et al.; at least one annual festi-
val, with sacrifices peculiar to it, to which Israel came
up, 1 Sam. i. 3, 7, 9, 21 ; ii. 19, etc.; eating and
drinking in Shiloh (before the LORD), as a part of
the celebration of the festival, vs. 7, 9; in fine, the
existence of rigid ceremonial laws, which it was a sin to
neglect, 1 Sam., ii. 29; xiii. 11–13; 2 Sam. vi. 7, etc.
The list might be greatly extended. , Certainly, these
books mention the Levitical laws and the other Pen-
tateuchal institutions as fully as any one has a right to
expect on the supposition that these were then already
in existence. Their silence, therefore, in regard to
other particulars has no weight to prove that the laws
were then non-existent.
But it is alleged that in many of the instances
given, and in other like instances, the details described
in these books are different from those described in the
Pentateuch, and that this fact proves the Penta-
teuchal description to have been then non-existent.
The fact alleged is in part admitted, but the inference
of wholly denied. The cultus described in the Book
of Nehemiah includes many details that vary from
those of the Pentateuch; for example, the pulpit for
the reading of the law, the processional services, the
tax of a third of a shekel, the wood-offering. The
ritual of the scribes included the sacrifice of the cock,
the pouring of water and the use of citrons at the
feast of tabernacles, the ceremonies for receiving
proselytes. No one claims that these variations prove
that the written law was in their time non-existent,
and there is no more ground for such a claim in the
variations of the times of Samuel. It is further al-
leged, however, that the institutions described for the
times of the judges, and for the later times, up to the
reign of Josiah, are not only variant from those de-
scribed in the Pentateuch, but are inconsistent with
PENTECOST-PEQUOTS.
77
f
Լw
them. The strongest alleged fact of this kind is that
theiaw in Deut. ii forbids sacrifices to j ehovah, ex:
cept at a central sanctuary, while in the times of
Gideon, of Jephthah, of Samuel, of David, of Elijah,
it is represented to have been orthodox to sacrifice at a
great number of different sanctuaries. For details
under this argument and the reply to it the reader is
referred to books on the subject, and to the article
TABERNACLE in this work. In general the reply
is that in many of the alleged instances the sacrifice
spoken of is to be regarded as illegal, so that these in-
stances do not count in the argument. The remaining
instances may all be referred to one of three classes :
Either they were merely private sacrifices, such as are
explicitly provided for in the law itself (Deut. xii. 15,
21, where the verb is nint, or they may have been in
the presence of the ark, and therefore properly at the
one central sanctuary, the sanctuary itself i. Ill OV-
able till the building of Solomon's temple, or they
occurred in circumstances when Israel was not, within
the meaning of the law, at “rest from all his enemies
round about ’’ (Deut. xii. 10), and was without the
place chosen by Jehovah “to put his name there ''
(Deut. xii. 5)—that is, in circumstances when the law
was necessarily in abeyance.
Similar arguments drawn from the statements of the
several books concerning the priesthood, from those
concerning the three annual festivals, and from those
concerning various other matters, are drawn out at
length, and refuted at length, in the different works
on these subjects. The results of the discussion may
be fairly summed up in the proposition that the Books
of Judges and Samuel, like those of Kings, mention
and in other ways clearly presuppose earlier sacred
Writings containing wholly or in part the same con-
tents with our Hexateuch. They mention these writ-
ings and the events and institutions described in them
as fully as could fairly be expected on the supposition
that the writings date from the times of Moses and his
immediate successors. The institutions they mention
are either mentioned with disapproval, expressed or
fairly implied, or are institutions consistent with the
Pentateuchal laws.
Literature.—The literature on this subject is immensely
voluminous. Reference may be made to the following :
R. P. Stebbins, D. D., A Study of the Pentatewch (Boston,
1881); Henry M. Harman, D.D., Introduction to the Study
of the Holy Scriptures (New York, 1884); of this work pp.
66–270 are devoted to the Hexateuch; Essays on Penta-
teuchal Criticism by Various Writers (New York, 1888). A
compact presentation of the history of Pentateuchal criti-
cism is given by Dr. C. A. Briggs in the Presbyterian Re-
view for January, 1883.
The views of the dominant school of the advocates of the
late date of the Hexateuch are to be found, of course, in the
Writings of Graf, Robertson Smith, Kuenen, Wellhausen,
Kayser, Stade, etc. Probably the best one book of this
sort accessible to English readers is The Herateuch, by
Kuenen, translated by P. H. Wicksted (London, 1886).
Good, compact statements of the views of men of this
school are given in several of the works written in refuta-
tion of them and mentioned in these notes. That given in
Dr. Green’s little book on the Hebrew Feasts is sufficient.
Dillman, Nöldeke, and Schrader are good representa-
tives of the school of critics, who accept mainly the so-
called Pentateuchal analysis, but deny the post-exilic ori-
gin of the priest code. A good summary is given in the
“Introductory Preface ’’ of The Cuneiform Inscriptions and
the Old Testament, by Schrader (Berlin, 1882), and English
translation by Whitehouse (London, 1885).
Perhaps the most complete single work attacking the “Pen-
tateuchal analysis” and the destructive arguments based
upon it is The Pentateuch, its Origin and Structure, by Dr.
E. C. Bissell (New York, 1885). Dr. W. H. Green has as-
sailed the analysis itself, and some of the consequences
drawn from it, in Moses and the Prophets, and in The Hebrew
Feasts, and in his series of comments on the International
jºy school Lessons, published in the Swnday-School
º???,6°S.
The article “Pentateuch '' in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclo-
padia gives a relatively full list of the literature of this
subject. Other lists are found in the works to which we
have referred and in the various commentaries, introdur
tions, and articles. Dr. Bissell's list has about 2000 titles.
The list of works on Exodus given by Dr. Francis Brown in
the Old Testament Student for November, 1886, with brief
comments on some of the works mentioned, covers nine
|
large pages.
In Hebraica, July, 1888, is an article on “Pentateuchal
Analysis,” by B. W. Bacon, which mentions the literature
and tabulates the views held by the reconstructive critics up
to date. A discussion of the whole question, by Prof. Wm.
R. Harper and Prof. Wm. H. Green, is promised in the same
magazine. (W. J. B.)
PENTECOST. See TABERNACLE.
PEORIA, a city of Illinois, county-seat of Peoria co.
is on the W. bank of the Illinois River, at the outlet
of Peoria Lake, 157 miles S.W. of Chicago. It is on a
plateau surrounded by bluffs rising 180 ft. above the
|. and nearly a mile distant. It is an important
railroad centre, eleven roads already crossing or termi-
nating here. These connect it with Chicagº, Cincin-
nati, St. Louis, and other prominent cities. The Union
Depot furnishes accommodation for eight of the rail-
roads. By the Illinois River also Peoria has commu-
nication with the Mississippi and by the Illinois and
Michigan Canal with the Great Lakes. Peoria has a
stone court-house, a U. S. government building, city-
hall, jail, and workhouse. fits ten parks iſiº.
is Jefferson, with 35 acres. There are 45 churches,
the finest of which are the Roman Catholic Cathedral,
the Congregational, Calvary Presbyterian, First Meth-
Odist, and the tiniversalist Church. Besides the high-
school there are 12 public school buildings, several
church and private schools, a German free school,
business colleges, a free public library, a law library, a
college of physicians and surgeons, and a scientific
association. The police and fire departments are
efficient. The city is lighted with gas and electricity,
and is provided with water by the Holly system. The
street-car lines operate 103 miles of double track.
There are three hospitals, the Bradley Home for Aged
Women, and the Home of the Friendless. Peoria has
6 national, 2 private, and 2 savings banks, 7 daily and
7 weekly newspapers, 5 being German. The leading
manufacture is distilling, in which Peoria surpasses
all other cities in the United States. In 1885 there
were produced 18,602,992 gallons of spirits, consuming
49,185,389 bushels of grain. The other manufactures
comprise agricultural implements, beer, watches, stoves,
starch, glucose, flour, Qatmeal, and pottery. The grain-
elevators have a total capacity of 2,700,000 bushels.
In the lower part of the city are large stockyards
through which 350,000 animals passed in 1886. Peoria
is surrounded with fertile, undulating prairies, which
contain mines of bituminous coal. In the city water
impregnated with sulphur is obtained by artesian
Wells and largely used for medicinal purposes. Peoria
was made a trading-post by La j. in 1680, and a
settlement here was called La Ville de Maillet. After.
wards Fort Clark occupied the site, and in 1819 Peoria
was founded. Its population in 1870 was 22,849 and
in 1880 had increased to 29,315, but on the basis of the
city directory of 1886 (containing 16,520 names) it is
estimated at 50,000.
PEPPERELL, SIR WILLIAM (1696–1759), was born
at Kittery Point, Maine, June 27, 1696. The son of a
fisherman of Welsh descent, he became a wealthy
merchant, and in 1727 was elected a member of the
Council of Massachusetts. In 1745 he was appointed to
command the New England expedition against Louis-
burg, and in less than eight weeks captured this for-
tress, June 17. This exploit won for him a baronetage
and in 1749 a colonelcy in the British army. He was
acting governor of Massachusetts 1756–58, and was
made lieutenant-general shortly before his death, July
6, 1759. His grandson, William Pepperell Sparhawk,
who succeeded to his title and estates in 1774, soon lost
them by his adherence to the British cause, He died
in ſºlº) Dec. 17, 1816.
PEQUOTS, or PEQUODs, an Indian tribe of the
178
PERCH-PERROT.
-Agonkin family, at the time of the settlement of Con-
necticut were found around the Thames River. They
were a branch of the Mohegans and were noted as
Warriors. ... They acquired a supremacy among the
native tribes and made treaties with the futch and
English. Gov. Endicott, however, thought it neces-
sary to send an expedition among them, and thence-
forward they were hostile to the whites. In May,
1637, Capt. John Mason, being sent against them from
Hartford, surprised and burned their fort near Groton.
Several hundred men, women, and children perished,
but the rest of the tribe continued the war until they
were overpowered in Fairfield swamp. Many of them
were sold as slaves in the West Indies, others were
scattered among neighboring tribes, yet a remnant was
finally gathered and recognized by law. They lived
partly at Ledyard and partly at North Stonington. In
later wars they assisted the colonists. Some of them
removed to Oneida co., N. Y., and thence to Green
Bay, Wisconsin.
PERCH, a well-known º º very
common in the rivers of North Amer-
º Yº, ica, Europe, and Northern Asia. It is
Km. Re; ). a member of the Percidae, an extensive
family of acanthopterygious fishes. The
perch has an elongated body, covered with ctenoid
scales, with two dorsal fins, the first having 13 or 14
spines, the second being flexible, while the anal fin is
small and far back, and the ventrals thoracic, each
with one spine and five rays. The skeleton has more
than 24 vertebrae. All the teeth are villiform, with-
out canines, occurring on the palatine bones and
the womer, the tongue being toothless. There have
been 14 species of perch described, all inhabiting
fresh water. Of these the American yellow perch
(Perca flavescens) is generally held to be the only true
species in the United States. It is very widely dis-
tributed in the lakes, ponds, and streams of the Mid-
dle and Northern States and the British provinces, is
easily taken by hook or net, and is considered an ex-
cellent table-fish. This species is ordinarily below 10
in. in length, but is occasionally found of 12 to 15 in.
in length and 23 lbs. weight. It is of a greenish yel-
iow color on the back and golden yellow on the sides,
the back being banded with 6 to 8 transverse dark
bands. The under parts are white, the dorsal and
caudal fins greenish brown ; the pectorals, ventrals,
and anal golden orange ; the body compressed and
elongated, with the lateral line concurrent with the
line of the back.
As a game-fish the perch is a bold biter and may be
taken with worm or small fish, affording fair sport, but
requiring no great skill in its capture. It is a favorite
fish with rural anglers, and is esteemed a great delicacy
in the interior regions where sea-fish are not easily ob-
tained. The European yellow perch (P. fluviatilis) is
generally distributed in Europe and Northern Asia. . It
resembles P. flavescens in coloration, bites well, and is
very tenacious of life out of water. Its flesh is con-
sidered excellent. It frequents still waters, sometimes
descending into brackish, attains in rare cases a weight
of 5 pounds, and is exceedingly prolific, more than
1,000,000 eggs being borne in one Spawn.
There are several other fish which are commonly
called perch, such as Corvina oscula, the white perch
of the Ohio, and Pomotis vulgaris, the bream, to
which is often given the name of pond perch. Some
sea-fish of the genus Serrants are also known as
perches. . There are 26 species in all of these, many
of them handsome fish, abundant in the warmer seas.
The common American salt-water perch, plentiful
around the rocky shores of New England, is Ctenola-
Brus caeruleus. This fish has an elongated, scaly body,
varying in length from 6 to 10 in. and deviating con-
siderably in color. It has a single dorsal fin with
strong and piercingly sharp spines, and is an excellent
table fish. Great numbers are caught in nets or by
hook, and are kept alive in large floating cars until
needed for market. It is a favorite fish with the
anglers of those shores. (C. M.)
PERKINS, CHARLES CALLAHAN (1823–1886), art-
critic, was born at Boston, March 1, 1823. He gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1843, and went to Rome, and
afterwards to Paris, where he studied painting under
Ary. Scheffer. During other visits to Europe he
studied etching, which he used in illustrating his
works on Italian art. His life was devoted to promot-
ing the culture of the fine arts, especially in Boston,
where he assisted in founding the museum for that
urpose. From 1869 to 1879 he was president of the
oston art club, and from 1875 to 1886 of the Handel
and Haydn Society. He was accidentally killed by the
overturning of a carriage at Windsor, Vt., Aug. 25,
1886. Besides delivering many lectures, Perkins pub-
lished Tuscan Sculptors (2 vols., 1864); Italian Sculp-
tors (1868); Raphael and Michelangelo (1878); 3.
pulchral Monuments in Italy (1883); Historical Hand-
book of Italian Sculptors (1883).
PERKINS, JUSTIN (1805–1869), an American mis-
sionary, was born at West Springfield, Mass., March
12, 1805. He graduated at Amherst College in 1829,
and after studying theology at Andover was sent to
Persia in 1833 by the American Board of Commission-
ers of Foreign Missions. He established himself at
Oroomiah and labored especially among the Nestorians,
into whose language he translated the Bible and several
other works. In 1842 he returned to the United
States, bringing the Nestorian bishop, Mar Yohanan.
After another visit in 1848 he finally returned in 1869,
and died at Chicopee, Mass., on the last day of that
year. In English he published Eight Years in Persia
º and Missionary Life in Persia (1861).
PERKINS, THOMAS HANDASYD (1764–1854), mer-
chant and philanthropist, was born at Boston, Mass.,
Dec. 15, 1764. He engaged in the East India trade,
and, having acquired great wealth, retired from busi-
ness in 1823. '#. was for many years a member of the
State Legislature, and in later life was a liberal con-
tributor to the Mercantile Library, the Massachusetts
General Hospital, the Boston Athenaeum, and other
ublic enterprises. In 1827 he projected the 3.
i. the first built in the United States. € WaS
active in promoting the erection of the Bunker Hill
Monument. He gave his mansion on Pearl Street as
an asylum for the blind (see BLIND). He died at
Boston, Jan. 11, 1854.
His nephew, JAMES HANDASYD PERKINS (1810–
1849), after being a clerk in his counting-room, settled
at Cincinnati in 1832, and was successively lawyer, ed-
itor, and Unitarian minister. He was president of the
Cincinnati Historical Society and published Ammals of
the West §
PEROWNE, JOHN JAMES STEwART, an English
clergyman, was born at Burdwan, Bengal, March 13,
1823. He is of French Huguenot descent, and was
educated at Norwich Grammar School and at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge. He graduated B. A. in
1845 and M. A. in 1848, having won several prizes by
scholarship. He was elected a Fellow of his college
in 1849, and was select preacher to the University in
1853, and later years. He was also professor in King's
College, London, and assistant preacher at Lincoln's
Inn. In 1862 he was made vice-principal of St. Da-
vid's College, Lampeter, and held that position ten
years. In 1873 he was made a Fellow of Trinity Col-
lege and in 1875 Hulsean professor of divinity at Cam-
bridge. In 1878 he was made dean of Peterborough.
From 1870 to 1884 he assisted in the revision of the
English Old Testament, and he is editor of the Cam-
bridge Bible for Schools (1877, sqq.). He published
The Book of Psalms, a New Translation, with Notes
2 vols., 1864–68); Hulsean Lectures on Immortality
1869) and some sermons, besides contributions to
various periodicals.
#### GEORGE, French archaeologist, was born
at Villeneuve St. Georges, Seine-Oise, Nov 12, 1832.
PERRY_PERSIMMON.
179
e
He was educated at the Normal School in Paris, and
at the French School at Athens. In 1861 he under-
took archaeological exploration in Asia Minor, and soon
discovered an important monument at Ancyra. In
1872 he was made professor of Greek in the Normal
School, and in 1877 professor of archaeology in the
University of Paris. His publications comprise Ex-
ploration archéologique de la Galatie et de la Bithymie
(1863–73); L'Ile de Thasos (1864); Essai sur le Droit
ublic et privé de la République athenienne (1867).
{j Charles Chipiez he published Histoire de l'Art
dans l'antiquité (4 vols., 1881–4). Vol. I. of this val-
uable work treats of Egypt; Vol. II. of Assyria, Baby-
lonia, and Chaldaea ; Vol. III. of Phoenicia and Syria;
and Vol. IV. of Asia Minor and Cyprus.
PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794–1858), com-
unodore, was born at Newport, R.I., April 10, 1794. His
father, CHRISTOPHER RAYMOND PERRY (1760–1818),
served with distinction in the Revolutionary navy, and
when the navy was reduced to insignificance was made
collector of Newport. His five sons all served in the
navy and were distinguished in the war of 1812. Mat-
thew had been appointed a midshipman in 1809 and
became lieutenant in 1813. In 1819 he selected the
locality for the first settlement of Liberia under the
auspices of the American Colonization Society. He
afterwards cruised in the West Indies, then infested
with pirates. He promoted the introduction of steam
as a motive power in the navy. After commanding
various squadrons he was engaged in the war with
Mexico, and took part in the siege of Vera Cruz. His
most memorable work was the expedition to Japan in
which he negotiated, March 21, 1854, the treaty which
opened that empire to western civilization. The nar-
rative of the expedition was edited from his notes by
Rev. F. L. Hawks and George Jones (3 vols., 1856).
He died at New York, March 4, 1858. A bronze
statue has been erected to his memory in Truro Park,
Newport. His Life has been written by W. E. Grif.
fis (Boston, 1887).
is elder brother, OLIVER HowARD PERRY (1785–
1819), has even greater renown in American history,
yet for a single exploit. Born Aug. 23, 1785, he en-
tered the navy in 1799, and served in the war against
Tripoli. Next engaged in the less honorable duty of
enforcing the embargo, he had the misfortune to lose
his vessel on a reef in Long Island Sound, but was ex-
onerated of blame by a court of inquiry. In 1812 he
at first commanded a flotilla of gunboats in New York
harbor, then served under Commodore Chauncey on
Lake Öntario, and in March, 1813, was sent by him to
equip a squadron on Lake Erie. The vessels gathered
there being too small, others were hastily constructed
at Presque Isle, now Erie, but were closely blockaded
by the "... fleet under Capt. Barclay. On Aug.
12th Perry contrived to get his vessels out of port, and
on Sept. 10th he encountered the British fleet near
Put-in Bay. He had in all nine vessels with 54 guns
and 492 officers and men. Barclay had six vessels with
63 guns and 502 officers and men. The British guns
had longer range and their fire was concentrated on the
Lawrence, Perry's flag-ship, which had outsailed her
consorts. After four-fifths of her crew were disabled
and her guns rendered useless, Perry entering an open
boat under heavy fire, transferred his flag to the Niag-
ara, half a mile off. Then leading his vessels, now
favored by the wind, through the enemy's line, he
ordered them to deliver a cross-fire which in a few
minutes compelled four of the British vessels to strike
their flag. The other vessels attempted to escape but
Were overtaken. Perry immediately wrote to Gen.
Harrison the famous despatch: “We have met the
enemy and they are ours—two ships, two brigs, one
schooner, and one sloop.” This brilliant action was
the first in which he was engaged. His loss in killed
and wounded was 123, that of the British was 400, in-
cluding Capt. Barclay, wounded, Congress gave Perry
a vote of thanks, a gold medal, and the rank of Cap-
tain, and bestowed other rewards on his gallant subor-
dinates. The British having now lost control of Lake
Erie, evacuated Detroit. Gen. Harrison pursued them
and was assisted by Perry at the battle of the Thames
a few weeks later. In the next year Perry commanded
a body of marines on the Potomac. He afterwards
served in the Mediterranean under Decatur. In 1819
he was sent in command of a squadron to the Carib-
bean Sea. He was seized with yellow fever and died
at Port Spain, Trinidad, Aug. 23, 1819. His remains
were removed by order of Congress and buried in the
cemetery at Newport, where the State of Rhode
Island erected an obelisk. In September, 1860, a
marble statue by Walcutt was erected to his memory
at Cleveland. A bronze statue by W. G. Turner was
erected at Newport in 1885. Capt. Perry's Life was
written by Capt. A. S. Mackenzie (1843).
PERRY, THOMAS SERGEANT, educator and author,
was born at Newport, R. I. He is a grandson of
Capt. O. H. Perry, and is also descended from Ben-
jamin Franklin. After graduating at Harvard in 1866
he studied at Paris and Berlin, and was made tutor in
German at Harvard in 1868. He was editor of the
North American Review from 1872 to 1874, and after-
wards returned to Harvard as instructor in English.
He has been busily engaged in lecturing and writing
on literary topics. Among his publications are Life
of Francis Lieber (1882); English Literature in the
ATPIIIth Century (1883); From Opitz to Lessing
(1885); History of Greek Literature (ºs) He has
contributed to this Supplement on “American Liter-
ature,’’ ‘‘ Carlyle,'' etc.
PERRY, WILLIAM STEVENs, bishop and historian
of the American Episcopal Church, was born at Provi-
dence, R. I., Jan. 22, 1832. He graduated at Har-
Ward College in 1854, and was ordained priest in 1858.
After having charge of churches at Nashua, N. H.,
Portland, Litchfield, Conn., in 1869 he became rector
of Trinity Church, Geneva, N. Y. In 1876 he had
been chosen president of Hobart College there, but in
September he was made bishop of Iowa. From the
commencement of his ministry he had given special
attention to the history of the American Church, and
was associated with Rev. Dr. F. L. Hawks in historical
researches and publications. Together they issued one
Volume of the Journals of the General Conventions of
the P. E. Church, 1794–1835 (1861), and the Docu-
mentary History of the P. E. Church (2 vols., 1863–4).
In 1868 Dr. Perry was formally appointed historiogra-
pher of the church. Of the Historical Collections of
the American Colonial Church there have appeared
yolumes relating to Virginia (1871), Pennsylvania
(1872), Massachusetts (1873), Maryland (1878), Dela-
Ware (1878). Bishop Perry has also published Hand-
book of the General Conventions and Journals of the
General Convention, 1785 to 1835 (3 vols., 1874); His-
torical Sketch of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
1784–1884 (1884); and The History of #. American
#.º." Church, 1587–1883 (2 vols., 1885). Bishop
Perry has taken part in the Old Catholic Conference
at Bºnn, in 1875, and in the Pan-Anglican Councils at
Lambeth in 1878 and 1888.
PERSIMMON, the fruit of Diospyros Virginiana,
or the Date Plum, a member of the order E benaceae,
of which the hard and dark-colored heart-woods of
Some species yield the different kinds of ebony. The
CŞSimmon, is a native of North America, the tree
eing usually of small size, but occasionally reaching a
height of 70 ft. Its wood is very hard and of blackish
color, and is of value to replace boxwood in the manu-
facture of shuttles, and also for last-making and other
turnery. The stem exudes a kind of gum. The
fruit ripens as high as 41° N, lat. in Illinois. It is of
globular form, of the size of a large plum, and in its
ūnripe State is exceedingly astringent, which quality it
does not lose until over-ripe. . When hard frosts bring
it tº the verge of decay it becomes soft and very sweet
and agreeable in flavor. There are several other
180
species which bear edible fruit, such as D. discolor of
the Philippines, which yields a fine fruit, and D. Kaki
of Japan, whose fruit is of the size of an apricot and is
dried as a sweetmeat by the Chinese. (C. M.)
PERSONAL ESTATE. See PROPERTY.
PERU, a city of Indiana, the seat of Miami co., on
the .N. bank of the Wabash River, 67 miles N. of
Indianapolis, on the Wabash, St. Louis, and Western,
the Detroit and Eel River, and the Michigan City and
Indianapolis Railroads, being the division head-quarters
of the two latter. It has a court-house, high school,
and, 3 other schools, 4 hotels, 2 national banks, 3
weekly, and 2 daily newspapers, 7 churches. Its in-
dustrial works comprise woollen, bagging, and 1 plan-
ing, mill, 3 large foundries, and railroad shops, basket
and wood-work factories. It is lighted with gas and
has water-works. Settled in 1833, it was incorporated
in 1834. Its property is valued at $5,000,000 and the
public debt is $150,000, the annual expenses being
about $20,000. The population in 1880 was 5280.
The surrounding country is agricultural. Petroleum
has been found at a depth of 880 ft.
PETER. The various names of this apostle are
given in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRI-
See .." *Wº: TANNICA, as well as the circumstances
Knºe p. " connected with his becoming a disciple
. Rep. of our Lord. But the important
events in which he evinced his priority among “the
twelve '' are not so clearly set forth.
There is little or no evidence that the confession at
Caesarea Philippi (Matt. xvi. 13–23; Mark viii. 27–
33; Luke ix. 18–22) is identical with the incident
narrated in John vi. 66–69. The latter occurred im-
mediately after a discourse in the synagogue at Caper-
naum, in which Jesus, by rebuking the multitudes for
following him because he had fed them, virtually turns
the popular feeling against himself. This was shortly
after the feeding of the five thousand, the only miracle
narrated by all four evangelists. The confession at
Caesarea Philippi was made after the opposition in
Galilee had well-nigh closed that region to the ministry
of Jesus. The intervening journeys all show increas-
ing antagonism. But thus the disciples were trained
to see more clearly the real purpose of their Master's
mission. On the borders of the Holy Land, in pri-
vacy, Peter, as the spokesman of the twelve, made his
confession. It indicates a great advance from the
answer given in John vi. 68. The much disputed
sentence, “Upon this rock will I build my church,”
must, therefore, be interpreted in a way that recognizes
the priority of Peter. For his name is first in all the
lists of the apostles. (The four fishermen are always
named first.) Furthermore, the verbal play upon his
name seems to compel a reference to the person bear-
ing that name. But priority and primacy are not
identical terms, and the personal infallibility of Peter
is contradicted by the interview which follows (Matt.
xvi. 21–23; Mark viii. 31–33), as well as by the inci-
dent at Antioch, when Paul rebuked him (Gal. ii. 11,
12); the very last historical notice of Peter.
The narrative of his attempted walking on the water
(Matt. xiv. 28–31), though peculiar to Matthew, is
quite significant, since it isº alike the strength
and weakness of the apostle's character, and represents
in act what was expressed in word at Caesarea Philippi.
That his conceptions of the Messianic kingdom were
at first purely Jewish is evident, but the Gospels are
never read aright until they are regarded as narratives
of the training of the disciples to higher conceptions
of their Master's Person and work. The Tübingen
school ignores this, in order to prove that the twelve
were Judaizing to the last, even, after the gospel had
been widely preached to the Gentiles. But all the
evangelists plainly show the preparations for a wider
view of the gospel on the part of the twelve. Nor is
there any evidence that the Fourth Gospel seeks to
present John as more prominent than Peter. Even
the threefold denial, narrated with varying details in
*
PERSONAL ESTATE–PETER.
all four Gospels, shows Peter in the same character
and º The special appearance of the risen
Lord to Peter (1 Cor. xv. 5; Luke xxiv. 34) is a rec.
9gnition of his leadership; all the more significant,
because it is stated by the very writers whom the
Tübingen school assume to be anti-Jewish in their
coloring of the history.
We now pass to the narrative in the Acts of the
Apostles. The last half of that book is regarded by
Some critics as representing Paul in too compromising
an attitude to Jewish Christianity; and the same
ºrities object to the earlier half, because it presents
Peter as too favorable to the Gentiles. But the narra-
tive is a consistent setting forth of the way in which
this man, in spite of his Jewish habits and prejudices,
was led to see the universal scope of the gospel. That
he proved weak in practising his own avowed prin-
ciples at Antioch (Gal. ii. 11, 12) only shows that this
was the same Peter depicted in the Gospels; advanced
in grace and knowledge, but not yet perfect. The per-
Sistent attempt “to reconstruct not only church history
but also the New Testament,” on the theory of a per-
manent alienation of these two apostles, seems to be
disapproved by Dr. Hatch ; but he attaches entirely
too much weight to the opinions of the critics that up-
hold this theory. For example: in discussing the
question whether Peter ever was at Rome, the Clem-
entines are introduced. The historical romance con-
tained in this literature has been used by the Tübingen
school as a proof of the sharp antagonism between the
Jewish and Gentile elements in the early church. The
Clementines do exhibit a process of evolution in litera-
ture, but they do not prove the main point of the
Tübingen theory, nor is it certain that Simon Magus
always represents Paul. Yet the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA gives as authorities on the Clementines
only writers of the Tübingen school, and allows a place
to the suggestion that the passage in Acts viii. 14–24
is not authentic, but a “reflex of the later legends
in which the name of Simon Magus was substituted
for that of St. Paul as a representative of false Chris-
tianity.” Probably no more groundless theory than
this has been proposed by skeptical criticism. (An
English translation of the Clementines with notes by
the writer of this article will be found in the Ante-
Nicene Fathers, Amer. ed., vol. viii., p. 75–346.)
The later history of the Apostle Peter has been con-
fused by the extravagant claim of a twenty-five years'
residence at Rome. That he went to Rome toward
the close of his life, enduring martyrdom there under
Nero, is exceedingly probable ; but he could scarcely
have been there when Paul wrote his Epistle to the
Romans (A. D. 58). Nor is it likely that “Babylon ''
in his own epistle (1 Pet. v. 13) refers to Rome. It
should be noted that many Protestant scholars, includ-
ing those of very different theological tendencies, hold
the opinion that Peter died at Rome. Ecclesiastical
tradition is singularly unanimous in supporting the
main fact. That Peter and Paul were martyred at the
same time is also the traditional belief, but for this
there is not the same amount of patristic evidence.
It seems quite unlikely that the two apostles ever were
in Rome at the same time; certainly Paul makes no
allusion to the presence of Peter in any of the epistles
written from that city.
The character of Peter is readily understood. “He
was the strongest and the weakest of the Twelve. He
had all the excellences and all the defects of a san-
guine temperament” (Schaff. History of the Christian
Church, vol. i., p. 253. Compare the same, pp. 253–
263, on ‘‘the Peter of history and the Peter of fic-
tion”). He has been called the apostle of hope, and
his epistles, written when divine grace had matured
his piety, are full of consolation. in his s eeches, as
recorded in the Acts of the Apostles as well as in his
epistles, there is a tone of humility in sharp contrast
with the claims that have been connected with the
primacy assumed to have been transferred from him to
PETER–PETERS.
181
the bishops of Rome. The theory of his advance in
knowledge and piety, indicated in the New Testament
and accepted in this article, accords with the final
word of exhortation from his pen : “But grow in the
grace and knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ” (2 Pet. iii. 18, R. Vers.). (M. B. R.)
PETER, Eriº . l I º | º: *.
ºn ness of this letter has only been assaile
jº. º by those who have a preconceived the-
Am Reft ory of the origin, of the New Testa-
& J . . . . . & e ºf e ment writings. The external authority
is very strong, reaching back to the sub-apostolic age.
The internal evidence is equally so, for the coincidence
of thought and expression with other New Testament
writings proves nothing against it. (See the various
theories noticed in the iºnſ, BRITANNICA.)
It seems to have been written from Babylon, and to
Christians in Asia Minor. Some think “Babylon’’ is
a mystical name for Rome, but as the most probable
date is A. D. 63, just before the persecution under
Nero, and as it is unlikely that Peter had visited Rome
at that date, the term is better understood in its nat-
ural sense. The contents accord alike with the gospel
as set forth in the other apostolic writings and with
the character of the apostle. It should be added that
the passages respecting the descent of Christ into
Hades (iii. 18, iv. 6) have occasioned much discussion,
and that at present the possibility of salvation being
offered to those who have died without accepting
Christ is based upon these passages by some theolo-
glanS.
2 PETER. This epistle presents peculiar difficul-
ties. Doubts about the genuineness of the Pauline
epistles are usually of modern origin, but from early
times this epistle has been “disputed '' (so Eusebius).
Jerome refers to doubts, and Calvin (in his commentary
on this epistle) suggests that it was written by one of
Peter's disciples, by his command. Even those who
believe that Peter wrote it must confess that “it is,
perhaps, the least attested writing of the New Testa-
ment’’ (Gloag, Introduction to Catholic Epistles, p.
204). Yet, despite the weakness of the early testi-
mony, even in the case of this “least attested writing,”
the preponderance of probability is in favor of the
genuineness of the epistle.
1. The objections.—(1) The want of early testimony;
(2) the allusion to Paul's epistles (2 Pet. iii. 16), as a
whole, implying a late date; (3) the differences in
style and diction from the first epistle; (4) the oppo-
sition to Gnostic errors of a later date than the apos-
tolic age ; (5) especially the striking correspondence
between chap. ii. and the Epistle of jude, ſm regard
to (1) it may be remarked i. this is purely negative
evidence. After all doubtful allusions are omitted,
there yet remains strong positive testimony to its gen-
uineness. The allusion to the epistles of Paul does
not furnish a strong argument against this epistle.
The reference may be to a few of the former, not to a
complete collection. Paul had certainly, before the
earliest date to which this epistle is assigned, written
Several letters to Asia Minor, the region to which this
letter was addressed. The differences of style between
this and the first epistle do not seem to be greater
than those existing in the case of the acknowledged
Pauline epistles. All arguments from such premises
are notoriously precarious, especially when the docu-
ment in question is so brief. The errors combated
are not necessarily those of a later age than that of the
j. The correspondences with the Epistle of
ude present the most serious difficulty. The current
of opinion now sets in favor of the view that the
Epistle of Jude was earlier, and that this letter is de-
pendent on that. But many holding this view still
accept Second Peter as genuine.
2. Evidence of Genuineness.--(1) The similarity of
style and sentiment to the First Epistle, notwithstand-
ing the acknowledged differences. (2) The similarity
to the speeches of Peter recorded in the Acts of the
this rock most of the destructive criticism
itself. (5) The fact that it, claims to be written by
Apostles. (3) The high character of the letter itself.
(4) The superiority to the writings of a later age. On
estroys
Peter, and the moral impossibility of such a document
being the work of a wilful forger ; this argument de-
rives additional strength from the , reference to the
transfiguration (chap. i. 17, 18), and the words, “we
did not follow cunningly devised fables” (chap. i. 16).
Despite the lack of early testimony and its omission
from the Syriac version, (6) There is a general recogni-
tion of its genuineness and canonicity in those ages
when such questions became prominent., (7) Were it
the product of a later age there would be more posi-
tive evidence of coloring from that age; for example,
the particular form of heresy against which it was
aimed would be readily recognized in some error prev-
alent in the second century. But no such identification
is possible. (8) No motive for forging such a letter
can be discovered. (9) While the “subjective test”
in itself proves nothing, yet in view of all the above
considerations the practical value of the epistle to
Christian people for so many generations has much
weight in determining whether it should be classed
with the other New Testament books. It ought not
to be classed with them, if its claims respecting itself
are false.
3. The epistle seems to have been addressed to the
same circle of readers in Asia Minor as the First
Epistle (2 Pet. iii. 1), and to this view no objection
can be raised, if the genuineness be accepted. The
errors it combats were those that might be naturally
developed in the region and among the people for
whom the First Epistle was designed. Persecution
is implied in one letter, heresy in the other; but this
does not involve a different circle of readers, nor does
it make against the genuineness of the later epistle.
4. The design of the epistle is twofold: (1) to warn
against error and the teachers of it; (2) to exhort the
readers to advance in holiness. This appears in the
closing paragraph (chap. iii. 17, 18), as well as in the
structure of the epistle. While we cannot definitely
identify the false teachers referred to, it is still more
difficult to identify them as the errorists of a later age.
A number of the New Testament epistles indicate
incipient heresies, and the growth of error has always
been rapid. It should be noticed that the correspond-
ence with the Epistle of Jude is in the description of
the false teachers (2 Pet. ii.).
It enunciates no specifically new teaching, breathes
the spirit of the apostle whose name it Bears, and
furnishes a fitting valedictory of the venerable man
who was awaiting the martyrdom predicted by his
Master (John xxi. 18, 19). (M. B. R.)
PETERMANN, AUGUST (1822–1878), a German
geographer, was born at Bleicherode, April 18, 1822.
e was educated at Nordhausen and in 1839 entered
the geographical institute at Potsdam, where he
assisted in preparing Bergham's Physical Atlas and
also prepared the maps of A. Von Humboldt's Asie
Centrale. In 1845 he went to Edinburgh to super-
intend A. Keith Johnson's edition of the Physical
Atlas. In 1847 he established himself in London, and
contributed geographical articles to various publica-
tions. In 1854 he returned to Germany and took
charge of Justus Perthes' geographical institute at
Gotha. Here he founded his monthly Mittheilungen,
which still remains the highest authority in current
geographical literature. His activity was not confined
to gathering, condensing, and criticising the researches
of travellers. He directed and promoted the explora-
tion of the less known parts of the earth, especially
Africa and the Polar regions. His maps are of the
highest excellence. In 1876 he visited the United
jº He died by his own hand at Gotha, Sept. 25,
878,
PETERS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1806–
1880), a German astronomer, was born at Hamburg,
182
PETERS–PETERSBURG.
Sept. 7, 1806. In 1826 he was employed at the Altona
Observatory, and in 1833 was made assistant at the Ham-
burg Qbservatory. In 1839 he took a similar position
at Pulkowa near St. Petersburg. His valuable re-
searches in regard to the motion of the fixed stars
obtained for him admission to the St. Petersburg
Academy. These investigations he continued to the
end of his life. . In 1849 he was made professor at
Königsberg and in 1854 director of the Altona Observ-
atory. Here also he became editor of the Astrono-
mische Nachrichten, of which 58 volumes appeared
under his direction. In 1872 the observatory was re-
moved to Kiel, where Peters was made also professor
in the university. Here he died May 8, 1880.
PETERS, CHRISTIAN HENRY FREDERICK, astron-
Omer, was born at Coldenbüttel, Schleswig, Sept. 9,
1813. After graduating at the University of Berlin he
was employed in astronomical work at Copenhagen and
Göttingen. In 1838 he set out on scientific explora-
tions which extended from Sicily to Palestine. In
1843 he was made astronomer at Naples, but having
taken part in the revolutionary movement of 1848 he
afterwards went to Constantinople. After the Crimean
war he removed to the United States and was for a
time connected with the Coast Survey. In 1858 he
was made professor of mathematics and astronomy at
Hamilton College, at Clinton, N. Y., where he took
charge of the observatory, now called Litchfield Observ-
atory. Some of his labors here have been noted
under HAMILTON COLLEGE, to whose reputation he
has greatly contributed. He also was prominent in the
observation of the total solar eclipse of Aug. 7, 1869,
at Des Moines, and had charge of the expedition sent
to New Zealand by the U. S. government to observe
the transit of Venus, Dec. 9, 1874. Owing to his skil-
ful management his party was the only one which had
entire success, having secured 237 photographs of the
transit. He is widely known as a discoverer of as-
teroids.
His brother, WILHELM KARL HARTWIG PETERs
(1815–1883), noted as a traveller and zoölogist, was
born at Coldenbüttel, April 22, 1815. After studying
medicine at Copenhagen and Berlin, he first investi-
gated the fauna of the Mediterranean, and was ap-
jointed assistant to the Anatomical Institute at Berlin.
}. 1842 he went to Lisbon, and then undertook a scien-
tific exploration of the Portuguese possessions in
Africa. Returning to Berlin in 1848 he was made
prosector, afterwards professor extraordinary and in
i857 professor of zoölogy and director of the Zoologi-
cal collections. Under his care these were raised to
the first rank. His chief work is Naturwissenschaft-
liche Reise mach Mozambique (5 vols., 1852–68). His
contributions to comparative anatomy, philology, and
the natural sciences were valuable. He died at Ber-
lin, April 20, 1883.
PETERS, RICHARD (1744–1828), jurist, was born
near Philadelphia, June 22, 1744. is father, Wil-
liam Peters, held several judicial offices. ... The son
graduated at what is now the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1761, and was admitted to the bar in 1763.
He commanded a company of provincial troops in 1775,
and was made secretary of the Congressional Board of
War in 1776. He detected and exposed Benedict
Arnold's embezzlement of funds while in command at
Philadelphia. In 1781 Peters resigned from the
Board of War and was soon elected to Congress. He
was afterwards speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly
and of the State Senate. In 1785 he visited England
and assisted in securing the act of succession for the
bishops of the Protestant, Jºpiscopal, Church, in
America. In 1792 he was made judge of the U. S. Dis-
trict Court of Pennsylvania and held this office till his
death, Aug. 22, 1828. He was noted as a Wit and was
a practical farmer. His country-ºak at Belmont is
now included in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia.
His son, RICHARD PETERS § 780–1848), was reporter
of the U.S. Supreme Court for many years and pub-
º 18 volumes of Reports, besides condensations and
1geStS.
ińFRS, SAMUEL ANDREW (1735–1826), com-
monly known as “Parson Peters,” was born at He-
bron, Conn., Dec. 12, 1735. He was a grandnephew
of Hugh Peters, Cromwell's chaplain, for whom see
the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. He graduated at
Yale College in 1757, went to Europe and took orders
in the Church of England in 1760. Returning to
Connecticut he had charge of churches at Hartford
and Hebron. During the agitation which preceded
the revolution Peters offended his neighbors by the
political letters he sent to England and New York. In
1774 he was rudely driven out and went to Boston and
thence to England. His satirical Gameral History of
Commecticut (London, 1781) provoked loud remon-
strance in that State. It has been republished several
times and even defended as a sober history (see Mc-
Cormick's edition, N. Y., 1877), though it seems more
like the after-dinner talk of a spiteful humorist. It is
the chief authority for the current fiction about the
Connecticut Blue Laws. (See BLUE LAws.) In 1794
Peters was chosen bishop of Vermont, accepted the
office and wrote an episcopal letter to the churches,
but was refused consecration by the Archbishop of
Canterbury. He returned to America in 1805 and
published a History of the Rev. Hugh, Peters (1807),
in which vanity, family pride, and his customary
recklessness in regard to facts are strangely blended.
At the age of eighty he made a journey to Minnesota
to prosecute some land claims. e died in New York
city, April 19, 1826.
PETERSBURG, a city of Virginia, in Dinwiddie
county, is on the S. bank of the Appomattox River,
23 miles S. of Richmond. The falls of the river near
by mark the head of tidewater and navigation, though
flatboats are used above. Large vessels receive cargoes
of tobacco at City Point at the mouth of the Appo-
mattox, 12 miles below. Two railroads connect the
city with Richmond, Norfolk, and other places, Pe-
tersburg has a court-house, government building (in-
cluding custom-house and post-office), 6 banks be-
sides savings banks, a daily and 3 weekly newspapers,
25 churches, several schools, both public and private,
a theatre, and 2 public libraries. Its industrial works
comprise foundries, cotton- and flour-mills, and tobacco-
factories. The city is well built and has good natural
drainage. It is lighted with gas and has water-works
and a fine park. The town was laid out in 1733 by
Col. William Byrd and was incorporated in 1748.
During the revolutionary war it was twice occupied
by British troops. . During the second war with Great
Britain it obtained the name “Cockade City,” from
the ardor of its volunteers. In the war of secession
it attained still greater prominence, as it was the last
stronghold of the Southern Confederacy. After the
various attempts to reach Richmond from the north
and east had failed, Gen. Grant, just after the battle
of Cold Harbor (q. º determined to seize Petersburg.
On June 12, 1864, the army of the Potomac crossed
the James River below City Point, but the attack on
the works was delayed until the 15th. Gen. W. F.
Smith then succeeded in capturing some redans, and
on the next day Generals Hancock and Meade cap-
tured more. But Gen. Beauregard, in command of
the Confederates, maintained his hold of the city and
strengthened its inner line of defences. The army of
the Potomac now invested the city and the Weldon
Railroad was torn up by cavalry. On June 25th Gen.
Burnside, at the suggestion of Col. Pleasants, whose
regiment was composed of Pennsylvania miners, all-
thorized the construction of a mine under the enemy's
works. The mine was ready July 23d, but the explo-
sion was delayed until 5 A. M. on July 30, when it
made a crater 100 ft. long and 20 ft. deep. The Union
batteries began a vigorous cannonade and a division
promptly entered the crater, but its cowardly, com-
mander iſ: the troops to themselves, and most of them
PETIGRU_PETITION.
183
were captured. The siege was prolonged until Grant
resumed active operations against Lee's army in the
following March. After Sheridan's victory at Five
Forks, Lee saw that he must evacuate Petersburg, and
Gen. Grant entered it on April 3d. The surrender at
Appomattox followed on April 9th. Several years were
required to restore Petersburg to its former prosperity,
but its trade eventually increased beyond its former
limits. Its population in 1880 was 21,656.
#Tréjà JAMES I/OUIS (1789–1863), the leading
opponent of nullification in South Carolina, was born
in Abbeville co., S. C., May 10, 1789. Graduating at
Columbia College in 1809, he was admitted to the bar
and became a prominent lawyer at Charleston. He
adhered to the Federal party, and when the opposite
views swept over the State and were pushed to their
extreme in nullification and secession he remained
faithful. His energy and eloquence did not avail to
stem the tide, but he was called by the Legislature to
codify the laws of the State. After the secession of
the State he was engaged in this work, and completed
it shortly before his death at Charleston, March 9,
1863.
PETITION, º OF. The right of petitioning
y the government, as existing in Amer-
See Yol. XVIII, ican #. institutions, was derived
R.?%.P. " from the system of Éngland, where it
Am. Rep.). ystem of England, where 1
had become established as an incident
of the advance towards popular government, and
passed into our colonial system, and thence into the
Constitution of the United States and those of the
States of the Union with little change. In the original
frame of the Constitution of the United States no
mention was made of the right of petition, but the
First Amendment provides that Congress shall make
no law abridging the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress
of grievances. our States have substantially fol-
lowed the form adopted in the Constitution of the
United States as above given. In seven States the
expression redress of grievances is omitted and the
right is stated as that to petition, by address or remon-
strance, the government or any department thereof.
In one State it is to petition government on all mat-
ters, and in another to petition on any subject. In six
States the object of petition is stated as the redress of
grievances or other purposes. In sixteen States it is
as follows: “to consult for the common good, to in-
struct representatives, and to petition the Legislature
for redress of grievances.”
The right of petition has commonly been associated
with that of assembling for consultation as to matters
of public interest, but never has been regarded as
limited to the case of the transmission to the govern-
ment of the results of popular deliberation in public
assemblies, but on the contrary has been treated as an
individual right as well as one appertaining to collect-
ive bodies of citizens. It will be observed that in the
largest number of States the provision as to the redress
of grievances is associated with one that secures to the
citizen the right to instruct his representatives, and
that in several of the States there is no definition of the
subjects to which such petitions should relate, but the
right is indefinitely extended by such expressions as,
‘‘ other purposes,’’ or “upon all matters,” or “any
subject.”
While the right to make known one's grievances to
the judicial branch of the government and to its ex-
ecutive officers is ºiºi, embraced in these con-
stitutional provisions, the main object they had in
view was to regulate the intercourse of the people with
their representatives in the legislative body, for while
the Legislature would, presumably, provide for the re-
dress of the citizen, as it regarded the other branches
of the government, the intercourse with that body was
required to be placed under the protection of the con-
stitution to which it was subject. At the present day
the right of petition is understood as a right of the
citizen to make known to the legislative body his wants
as an individual or as a member of the community. .
Notwithstanding the fact that in representative
popular º ents the legislative body is habitually
Composed of the representatives of distinct geographical
districts, that would suggest that the communicatiºn
between the citizen and the Legislature should take
place through the representative of the particular dis-
trict of which such citizen is an inhabitant, still the
right to communicate directly, with the legislative
body is habitually recognized, which is consistent with
the idea that the Legislature acts as a unit, Whatever
may be the constitution of its parts. • . e. --
n the United States the right of petition to legis-
lative bodies has become so completely interwoven with
the habits and ideas of the people that it has seldºm
been made the subject of discussion and criticism. Yet
an instance has occurred in the history of the country
where the right was involved in heated controversy.
The right of petition to Congress was brought into
question as involved with the anti-slavery agitation in
the United States. It was conceded that Congress
had no direct authority to contro) the condition of
slavery within the States that composed the Union.
Within the District of Columbia, the seat of govern-
ment of the United States, embracing a very limited ter-
ritory derived by cession from the States of Maryland
and Virginia, slavery existed at the time of the cession
and continued to exist as a legal institution until finally
abolished as a consequence of the war of the rebellion.
It was not seriously denied that Congress had authority
to control the institution within that District, but the
position was taken that it would be a breach of public
faith to abolish slavery within that District while the
States of Maryland and Virginia, from whom it was
derived, still continued to maintain the institution.
The question of the right of Congress to interfere to
prohibit or limit, the slave-trade between the States,
and the introduction of slaves within the Territories of
the United States for the purpose of holding them in
slavery in such Territories, was debated from the
standpoint of opposite views as to the construction of
the Constitution of the United States. The contro-
versy as to the proper construction of the Constitution
turned upon the question whether the government of
the United States was to be regarded as a sovereign
national government, limited as to the subjects over
which that sovereignty might be exercised, or whether
it represented an aggregate of delegated powers that
could not be enlarged beyond the particular subjects to
which it was limited. The Supreme Court of the
United States had adhered to the construction of these
powers that rested upon the conception of a national
sovereignty, but the adherents of slavery, the domi-
nant party in Congress, still held doctrines that ex-
j Congress from all action relating to slavery,
affecting its existence within the States, the Territories,
or the District of Columbia.
The policy of the opponents of slavery centred
upon the limitation and final abolition of slavery within
the District of Columbia as a step preliminary to its
ultimate extinguishment throughout the United
States. With this end in view petitions were presented
to Congress seeking the exercise of its powers to this
end. These petitions asked that the slave-trade existing
in the District should be abolished, that slavery in the
District might be abolished, and for the adoption of a
variety of public measures all tending to the ultimate
extinguishment of slavery.
At first these petitions were respectfully received by
Congress, but immediately laid upon the table without
reference or consideration. In 1836 this considerate
method of dealing with petitions of this class was
deemed unsatisfactory by the friends of slavery and a
more emphatic expression of disapprobation on the
art of Congress of this line of agitation demanded.
ſr. Calhoun, in the Senate, moved the rejection of a
petition for the suppression of the slave-trade and the
184
PETITION.
*
emancipation of the slaves within the District upon the
grºund that Congress had no jurisdiction over the
subject, but this motion was not carried. Respect for
gºvernmental forms, inseparable from free institutions,
still gontinued to moderate the counsels of the majority
of Congress, although in entire Sympathy with the
objects pursued by the friends of slavery.
. The next step taken to defeat the objects of the pe-
tºtioners was a resolution of the House of Representa-
tives that all petitions relating to slavery in the ijis.
trict of Columbia should be referred to a select com-
mittee who should be instructed to report that Con-
gress had no constitutional authority to interfere in
any way with the institution of slavery in any of the
States, and that it ought not so to interfere in the Dis.
trict, because it would be a violation of the public
faith, unwise, impolitic, and dangerous to the Union,
and whose duty it should be to furnish the reasons fºr
such conclusions. The select committee was appointed
and reported that all petitions, memorials, propositions,
or papers relating in any way to the subject of slavery,
or the abolition of slavery, should, without either being
printed or referred, be laid upon the table. This re.
port and resolution were adopted by an overwhelming
Vote. The following year, iS37, this resolution was
in substance re-enacted by the House of Represental
tives. The next Congress affirmed and strengthened
the position thus assumed, the House of Representa-
tives resolving that all petitions, memorials, and
. touching the abolition of slavery, or the buying,
selling, or transferring of slaves in any State, District,
or Territory of the United States should be laid upon
the table without being debated, printed, read, or re-
ferred, and that no further action whatever should be
had thereon.
This action of the House of Representatives was re-
arded as needing explanation, and accordingly at a
i. eriod an explanatory resolution was adopted by
the H. of Representatives. The necessity for some
explanation of the position assumed by the House was
obvious. The people of the United States had been
accustomed to regard the right of petition as an inci-
dent of representative popular government that was
essential to its maintenance, and any aggression upon
that right, when broughtfully to the popular understand-
ing, would tend to the injury of the cause in the
interest of which it was undertaken. The slave policy
could only be maintained by co-operation on the part
of representatives whose constituencies had no direct
interest in the institution of slavery, and, in the event
that the choice had to be made between that institution
and the dismemberment or crippling of the national
government, would adhere to the Union although the
i. of slavery might be the consequence. Such
considerations imposed upon the majority in Congress
the necessity of placing their action in the most favor-
able light. g & º
The explanatory resolution: denied the jurisdiction
of Congress over the institution in the States and
affirmed that the petitions introduced for the abolition
of slavery in the District and against the removal of
slaves from one State to another were part of a plan
set on foot to affect the institution of slavery in the
several States, and thus indirectly to destroy the insti-
tution within those States; that Congress cannot right-
fully do that indirectly which it cannot do directly;
that the agitation of the subject of slavery in the Dis-
trict or the Territories, ...; a view of disturbing or
overthrowing that institution in the several States, was
against the spirit and meaning of the Constitution and
a breach of public faith : that the Constitution rests on
the principle of equality among the States, and Con-
gress had no right to discriminate for or against their
respective institutions with the view of abolishing the
One OT º the other. These recitals were
followed by a resolution declaring that all attempts on
the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the District
of Columbia or the Territories, or to discriminate be-
tween the institutions of the several States in the
manner indicated in the foregoing recitals, are in viola.
tion of the Constitution, destructive of the funda.
mental principle on which the Union rests, and beyond
the jurisdiction of Congress. It finally declares that
any petition, memorial, proposition, or paper touching
or relating, in any way, to any extent whatever, to
slavery or the abolition thereof, should on the presenta-
tion thereof, without any further action thereon, be
laid upon the table without being debated, printed, Ol'
referred. The subsequent action upon petitions of
this class went a step further, declaring that such pe-
titions should not be received or entertained in any
way whatever. -
It is noticeable that the action of Congress that has
been referred to proceeded step by step to unsettle and
deny the right of petition to th. national legislature as
it regarded the subject of slavery in the United States,
and exhibits a hesitation in taking the extreme ground
that was ultimately reached upon that subject. At
first it seemed sufficient to lay all petitions on that
subject upon the table, thus recognizing the right of
their presentation and the duty of their reception, but
giving expression to the disapprobation of Congress
of the measures propounded by such petitions. The
next step was that they should not be printed or re-
ferred, but at once be laid upon the table, still leaving
the duty of receiving them admitted, but providing that
they should neither be brought into consideration nor
disseminated by printing. A further step was that
they should not be read, thus closing the ears of Con-
gress, as a legislative body, to matters deemed of great
public importance by large bodies of the people whom
that body had assumed to represent. It only remained
to declare that such petitions should not be received to
complete the denial of a fundamental tenet of liberty,
and that step was at last taken.
The history of the events thus briefly stated is of
interest not only in characterizing the nature and ten-
dencies of the institution of slavery in its effect upon
the principles of liberal government, but as exposing
dangers that may at any time threaten the right of
petition when material interests are sufficiently strong
and opposed to the principles of social order. That
right is in effect the right of communication between
the Sovereign people of a representative popular gov-
ernment and the persons selected by them to embody
their convictions and desires in public laws, and cannot
be denied without subverting the proper relations be-
tween the public authority and the agents for its exer-
cise. Assume a state of things in which the majority
of the people of a popular government concur in a
certain #. of policy, or of opinion as to the effect of
certain laws, and the immediate representatives of that
majority refuse to give attention to the representations
of the minority, and a case is presented that contra-
dicts the principles upon which not only popular repre-
sentation in government depends but the very security
of popular liberty. Should the representatives of the
people misapprehend or intentionally disregard the
sentiments or interests of the majority of the people
they represent, to affirm that such majority may be
excluded from presenting such sentiments and interests
directly and formally to the body assuming to repre-
sent it, is to contradict the plainest dictates of common
sense. It is equally unreasonable that a minority of
the people should be excluded from formal communi-
cation to the representative body, for rational govern-
ment implies a comparison of opposite and divergent
opinions, and to shut out any º: body of opin-
ion is to destroy the balance of the system. It may be
said that the right of petition has lost much of its
importance since the policy of frequent elections of
representatives has been adopted, and that the elective
act covers all that was intended to be secured under the
right of petition. Such a suggestion is in harmony
with the existing tendency to replace rational methods
by technical devices, and is not strengthened by what
PETITION.
185
appears in the development of the elective system in
this country and elsewhere. The election is means of
selecting an agent, while the right of communicating
with the legislative body is means of directing that
agent in the discharge of his duty. ...Tº affirm that the
right to select an agent tends to displace the right to
direct him when selected, is neither consonant with
logic or common sense. The tendency of the elective
system in highly composite, communities and govern-
ments appears to be in the direction of integrating the
material interests of the community in the formation
of a public policy with especial reference to some
exigency in public affairs that for the time being dis-
places other interests however important. Public
agents selected with reference to a particular exigency,
and as the exponents of a particular policy, espe-
cially when that policy is based on material interests,
are likely to need all available modes of communica-
tion with their constituencies in order to know the
state of opinion and feeling on other than material
interests.
The press has important functions in keeping in mind
the aspirations and wishes of the people, but represents
public opinion in an indirect and reflex way only, while
the petition, memorial, and remonstrance to the legisla-
tive body may be made, and commonly are made, the
vehicle of collective opinion and sentiment. If the
morals and humanity of a community ought to have
any place in an organized system of legislation, that
lace must be assigned in the means of communication
º the lºe body and collective bodies of
citizens. The right of petition thus stands as the ex-
ponent of the conscience and aspirations of the com-
munity as well as of its neglected interests, material
and social. .
Assuming then that there is reason for maintaining
the right of petition, as essential to sustaining the
proper relations between the agents of government
and the governed, and the effect upon that right of
the action induced by the slavery agitation is of prac-
tical importance. It is evident that right was denied,
at first in substance and afterwards in form, to those
who sought to express their convictions as to the social
character of slavery to Congress. That denial took
place on two grounds: first, that Congress was asked to
do that which it had no authority to do ; and, second,
that what was sought would occasion a breach of the
public faith pledged to the States of the Union that
sustained the institution of slavery. That Congress
had authority to act on the representations made to it
of the social evils arising from slavery, even in the
States, cannot be denied with any reason. If it ap-
peared to Congress that the institution of slavery as it
existed in the States was detrimental to the interests
of the whole Union, it had authority under the Consti-
tution to frame articles of amendment to the Constitu-
tion to be submitted to the States for ratification, which
if receiving the assent of three-fourths of the States
would become part of the Constitution and would be com-
petent to inhibit slavery within the States. Whether
the case presented by the petitions on the subject of
slavery was such as to ..ºf for the exercise of that
power was a question for consideration by Congress,
and if it had the right to consider that subject it was
its duty to receive petitions in relation to it.
Placing the impropriety of the consideration of what
was asked by the petitions upon the ground that it
would be a breach of public º, to the slave States
was virtually admitting that Congress possessed the
ower of prohibiting slavery in the District of Colum-
ia and the Territories. The affirmation here implied
is that wherever there is a governmental policy that,
in the opinion of a portion of the people and of the
States, is necessary to be maintained on the ground of
public faith, the residue of the people and States shall
not be permitted to oppose that conclusion by means
of the right of petition. Bald as such a ground would
be it is stronger than the case actually stated. It was
VOL. IV.—M
not claimed that attention to the representations of the
opponents of slavery would directly operate as a,breach
of the public faith, but that it would indirectly have
that effect. The ground taken was that the agitation
of the question of the abolition of slavery endangered
the institution, although in what form that danger was
to be realized was not stated among the reasons given
for the action of Congress. The exclusion of the
petitions was based upon a purpose to suppress the
agitation of the slave question, which means the Sup-
pression of the right of public discussion of the bear-
ing of public measures. It was not claimed at that
day that the methods of agitation implied anything
beyond popular discussion, and, therefore, agitation
meant discussion and nothing more. The question is
resolved to the simple inquiry whether the right of
petition may with propriety be denied as a means of
suppressing discussions on public questions where such
discussion may possibly, in some indirect way, entail
changes on the condition of some section of the coun-
try by which it is regarded as undesirable, and in this
form of statement needs no elucidation. It is a no-
ticeable fact that the States that took part, through
their representatives, in this effort to suppress the
freedom of discussion of public affairs are the same
States that vehemently opposed the Alien and Sedition
laws upon the ground that they sought to suppress the
freedom of speech and of the press.
The action of the House of Representatives in thus
refusing to receive petitions coming from the people
of the ūj States must be weighed by the provis-
ions of the first article of amendment of the Constitu-
tion of the United States, which declares the right of
the people peaceably to assemble and petition the gov-
ernment for a redress of grievances. The term “griev-
ances,’’ as here used, was borrowed from the history of
early times when the people having no hand in making
the laws, if aggrieved by laws unsuited to their condi-
tion and wants, assumed the attitude of supplicants to
the law-making authority for that which they deemed
to be for their good, and the subjects of their requests
were termed grievances where they complained of bad
laws or asked the enactment of good ones. With the
progress of liberal ideas this privilege of communicat-
ing with the law-making power came to be recognized
as a right that might be uaimed under the principles
determining the nature and sanctions of government
as adjusted to the needs of social man. Still further
progress in the right understanding of governmental
principles found the right derived from the fact that
the people were the source of all public authority,
which could not exist without their authorization or
permission, and therefore were entitled to make known
their desires to those who were intrusted with the
formation of laws.
The Bill of Rights, which is a fixed feature of all
the American constitutions and was derived from the
institutions and ideas of England, as the product of
popular revolution in that country, perpetuates the
right of petition as a fundamental right incident to the
relations between the agents of government and the
people. By comparing together the various forms in
which this right is recognized in the constitutions of
the various States and comparing them with the Con-
stitution of the United States, it is made clear that the
term grievances is used in no narrow or technical sense
but as comprehending all that may be within the
authority of the law-making power to promote the well-
being of the citizen.
It has never been supposed that a legislative body
deriving its powers from a written constitution embody-
ing the Bill of Rights, as the expression of the prin-
ciples of liberty that should be the foundation of all
governmental authority exercisable, could decline to
exercise the powers enjoined by it or do that which it
prohibits for any prudential reason whatever without
an infraction of the obligations imposed by it. Where
one clause of the bill secures the right of popular dis-
186 - PETOFI—PETROLEUM.
cussion and another that of petition to the legislative
body the boldest conceivable infraction of its require-
ments would be where the right of petition was denied
for the purpose of stifling public discussion. The right
of petition as stated from its historic and constitutional
Sources implies that appeal to the reason of man can
never be detrimental to the true interests of govern-
ment or Society, although appeals to popular passion,
that are less apt to attract attention and receive re.
Straint, may entail the greatest evils upon governments
and communities. *
. See Greeley's American Conflict; J. Q. Adams's Speeches
in Congressional Globe (1837–42), and SLAVERY in this
work.
(A. J. W.)
PETOFI, SANDOR or ALEXANDER (1822–1849), a
Hungarian poet, was born at Kis-körös, Dec. 31, 1822.
He was sent to various schools, but his restless dispo-
sition led him to become a soldier and then a strolling
player. In 1843 his poems in the newspapers attracted
notice, and soon a collection of them appeared. They
depicted the light and shade of peasant life, and he
has been well called the Robert Burns of Hungary.
Among his noted productions are The Hammer of the
Village (1844); the epic Hero Janos (1845); the
drama, Tiger and Hyena (1846), and several novels.
In 1848 he led the young men of Pesth in the move-
ment for Hungarian independence, to which his na-
tional songs powerfully contributed. He was after-
wards adjutant to Gen. Bem, and in the battle of
Segeswar, July 31, 1849, he was seen for the last time.
In 1882 a statue of him by Huszar was erected in
Budapest. His poems were translated into English by
Sir J. Bowring (1866), and there have been many Ger-
man translations.
PETROLEUM. This jº. the years
1883 to 1888, has undergone numerous
sº and important changes. It was during
Äm Ée; this period that the vast accumulations
tº sº- lºvº º & tº reached their highest, the stocks in the
tanks and pipe-lines during the year 1884 reaching a
total of 40,000,000 barrels. The total production of
crude petroleum during the same year was about
25,000,000 barrels, nearly 2,000,000 barrels of which
were added to the already burdensome supply above
ground. Drilling operations continued unchecked and
it became a serious question what disposition could be
made of the oil. During the summer of 1887 the
producers organized under the name of the Producers'
Protective Association, for the purpose of restricting
the production of oil and to restrict the drilling of
new wells. As the average cost of oil to the producer
is $1.17 per barrel, such a course was considered abso-
lutely necessary to prevent a continuance of serious
losses. The plan adopted contemplated the reduction
of production fully 17,000 barrels per day, and it was
believed that this course would in a short time bring
about such a change in the statistical situation that
the market price of crude oil would advance and in
future insure a profit to the producer. The term of
this agreement was one year from November 1, 1887.
Under this agreement the production was restricted
and drilling operations were suspended. , Stocks were
reduced an average of fully 600,000 barrels per month,
but the price of the product did not show the improve-
ment that was hoped for, owing to speculative opera-
tions on the several exchanges. There was, neverthe-
less, an improvement in the price, and the full effects
of the movement were beginning to be manifest 3.S
the term of what became popularly known as ‘the
shut-down agreement” neared its close. . . e
The most prolific oil-field yet developed is what is
known as the Bradford field, which lies in the upper
part of McKean co., Pa., and occupies, a small por-
tion of Cattaraugus co., N. Y. This field has pro-
duced a total of 150,000,000 barrels of crude petro-
leum during the past twenty years. The greatest pro;
duction was in the year 1881, when the enormous total
of 23,000,000 barrels was reached. During the month
of August of that year the average daily production
exceeded 80,000 barrels, but in December the produc-
tion had declined to an average of 70,000 barrels per
day. The number of wells drilled in this field during
the year 1882 reached 3,803, and the total number
since oil was first discovered in that prolific territory is
fully 16,000, about 10 per cent of which were unpro-
ductive. The rise * decline in the production of
this field is a fair illustration of the whole producing
area of the States of Pennsylvania and New York,
although some of the fields show a more steady pro-
duction. The production of the Bradford field in
1887 had declined to 7,700,000 barrels. The maximum
| daily production of the Allegheny field was 24,000
barrels in July, 1882; that of the Washington field
was 18,000 barrels in September, 1886; of Cherry
Grove, 40,000 barrels in August, 1882; of Thorn
Creek, 15,600 barrels in November, 1884. These
fields have played an important part in the history of
petroleum, although others of smaller production ex-
erted an influence on the speculative market altogether
out of proportion to their importance. Venango
county, where oil was first pumped by Col. E. L. Drake
in 1859, has produced about 60,000,000 barrels. But-
ler and Clarion counties have together produced about
70,000,000 barrels. These comprise the principal
fields from which comes the oil that produces the
burning oil, or kerosene, of commerce.
The oil district known as the Franklin field produces
an oil distinct in character and one which is not taken
into account in the statistics of production of the
Pennsylvania fields. It is a heavy oil of low cold test
which is used for the manufacture of superior grades
of lubricating oil. Its average price is about $4 per
barrel at the wells. The wells in this field produce
less than 10,000 barrels per month, the average per
well not exceeding one-half barrel per day. The wells
in West Virginia also produce an .# of a heavy gravity
used exclusively in the manufacture of superior grades
of lubricating oils. The product of these fields is not
counted in the tables giving the statistics of produc-
tion, consumption, stocks, etc. Important discoveries
of petroleum have also been made in Wyoming Terri-
tory and in several of the Southern States, and it is
believed that petroleum may be found in nearly every
State. The wells in California produce oil of a quality
similar to the Bradford oil and in quantity sufficient to
supply the requirements of the entire Pacific coast of
the United States.
The oil-fields of Ohio have been developed since
1885 and pipe-lines have been laid and immense storage
tanks erected. The oil is inferior to that from the
wells in Pennsylvania, but the wells are more prolific
and the producers continue to drill wells though the
price realized for the product is only 15 cents per bar-
rel. The principal fields in this State are in the vicin:
ity of the city of Lima, and in North Baltimore, Wood
county. The Ohio oil, owing to its low cost, is used
as fuel to generate steam in the burning of brick and
in some metallurgical operations. It has been found
more economical than coal and its use as fuel is extend-
ing. A pipe-line has been constructed from the Lima
field to the city of Chicago, which has a º for
supplying that city with 9000 barrels daily, of the
liquid fuel. The transport of petroleum was formerly
confined to railway vessels, but the fear from explosion
has been found to be groundless and steamships are
now regularly engaged in carrying both crude and re-
fined petroleum. Steamships and sailing vessels have
been constructed to carry petroleum in bulk. In their
hulls are fitted iron tanks which occupy the entire
space between decks, into which the oil is pumped
direct from the reservoirs at the refineries. Arriving
at its destination, the ship is unloaded by powerful
steam-pumps in one-fifth of the time, required to, un-
load a vessel of similar size loaded with the oil in bar-
rels.
PETROLEUM.
187
Marke Value.—The
varied greatly. The hig
the first five months following the date
barrel Gr
urin
of diling the first weii by Col. Drake in isãº.
f
rice of crude petroleum has
est price realized was $20 per
The
production, however, soon exceeded the demand, and
there being at that time but imperfect facilities for
storage, the price declined rapidly and reached the
lowest point in November, 1861, when oil was sold at
the wells at 5 cents per barrel.
for refining the oil were invented the demand increased
and the price advanced, reaching $1.4 per barrel in
July, 1864.
As improved methods
This was in the early history of the
industry. During the last eight years, while the fluc-
tuations have at times been sudden, the range of prices
has been within narrower limits and values have been
for the most part governed by the usual trade condi-
tions.
Speculation on the petroleum, exchanges has
at times governed prices and caused depression in
values despite decreasing stocks, increasing consump-
tion, and restricted production.
half of the year 1888 the price of crude petroleum
has averaged lower than during the year when the
stocks were º, . the
e highest an
Table I. º t
of 42 gal
prices obtained :
Thus, during the first
TABLE I.—Highest and Lowest Price.
Jºº. much larger.
* lowest prices per barrel
ons in each year, and the month when such
Year. Month. Highest. Month. Lowest.
1861 ...... January ........... 1.75 November....... .05
1862...... October............. 2.00 January........... .10
1863...... December.......... 4.00 January ......... . 2.00
1864...... July................ . 14.00 February 3.75
1865......January............ 10.00 August ........... 4.00
1866...... January........... 5.00 December........ 1.65
1867...... September......... 4.00 June .......... ..... 1.50
1868...... July ................ 5.50 January .......... 1.80
1869..... January............ 7.00 December........ 4.25
1870...... January ........... 4.90 August............ 2.75
1871 ...... June................ . 5.15 January ſº 3.40
1872 ......June ............... . 4.10 September....... 3.00
1873...... January ........... 3.05 December........ 1.00
1874...... April............... . 1.90 December........ .45
1875...... April................ 1.65 January.......... .90
1876...... December ......... 4.23% January .......... 1.48%
1877...... January............ 3.70 June............... 1.53%
1878...... February. ........ 1.864 September........ .78%
1879...... December ......... 1.28% June ........ & e º 'º & E. . .63%
1880...... UlDe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.243 April...... ... ...... .70%
1881...... September 1.01% July .............. . .72%
1882...... November ......... 1.36 July ........ * * * * * * * .49%
1883 ...... June . .............. 1.24 January.......... 83%
1884...... January 1.15; June ............... .50%
1885...... October ............ 1.12% January........... .68
1886...... January............ .913 August.......... ... .59%
1887...... July................. .54 December........ . .90%
1888....., March............... 1.00 June ............... .72
Table II, gives the average market price of crude
Year. Month. Highest. Month. Lowest. petroleum, in barrels of 42 gals., for each month since
1859......September......... $20.00 September........ $19.50 petroleum became a marketable commodity, also the
1860.....January .......... ... 20.00 December......... 2.00 l average price for each year: sº
TABLE II.-Monthly and Yearly Average Prices. &
Year. Jan Feb. March. April. May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct NOW Dec. Yearly.
!?..................... ......:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::... [....….......::::::::::::::::: 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 | 20.00
1860.......................... 1}; 13% 13% liº, 10% 9% 8%, 7% 6.3%. 5% 2.73 ſ 2.É 9.5%
1861.......................... 1.00 | 1.00 1.00 62%| 50 50 50 25 20 10 10 10 48%
1862.......................... 10 15 ź . .) 85 | 1.00 | 1.25 | 1.25 | 1.25 | 1.75 2.25 2.25 1.07 "
1863.......................... }} | #2, #3% º żºłż żº | }}}, {{{3| 3:39, 373 || 3:. . .3; 333
1864.......................... §§ #3 º' | }; ºš º żºłż lºš º ż, , 1999 || 11% º
1865.......................... 8.25 | 7.50 6.00 || 6.00 #: §§§ 3 ;% ##3% ºf T 3.1% º $º $8.
1866. #9, # | }...] § | }.} : ..] § tº || 3: T 313 | }}}}} }}
1867. }}}} | . . ; ; 3%| 333 kº 2.É3 § | . . . . ; 1.87%| 2.74
1868.................... ..... !; #. #; #2 º #; #3, #7% #99 || 4.1%| 3 || 43.J. 34.1%
1869.......................... # , º, º ºg #3; ºš, ; ; ; ; ; , ; ; ; ; , ;4 （.3%
1870.......................... #3, #4 # #% #3 || 3:33 º 3.3 T 3: 33.3%. 33.2%. 349 3.89 4.
1871,......................... 3.82% 4.38"| 4:25, 4.01 || 4.66 3.85% ºigt 3.66, 4.65 4.3% .35° ſo ºf
1872.......................... 4.92%| 3.89 || 3.72%| 3.52%. 3.80, 3.85.T 380 || 3.58%. 3.25 3.15' | 3.83%| 3.32%i 3.64
1873.......................... 2.60 "| 2.20 2.12%| 2.30 }}}}} }.3% ºf 1.3%. 115 i.20 i.25" iº9 i.83
1874.......................... 1.20 | 1.40 || 1.60 | 1.90 || 1.62% i; 1.02% 95 95 S5 55 6ix4 i.it
1875.......................... }; #% º! #.] ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 13% ºf ºf .3:
1876. 1.80 2.00 || 2.01 || 2.02%| 1 90%| 2.01 % ###| 3 || || 3 || || 33.3| 3 || || 3.73 || 3.56%
1877.......................... 3.5%| 3 in Žiž 2.És º ż żº i gift| 3:0 % ##, *::, , 2.3% lºº, kºº 24; 4.
1878. 1.43 | 1.65%| 1.59 | 1.37%| 1.35% | 1.14 % tº 86%. 82%. 89%, 1.16 | 1.19
1879.......................... 1.03 98 86,4| 78%| 76 68% º jº º sº; 1.% 1.181 857
1880.......................... 19.4| 1.4 § 78 $6 | 1.00° losſº gi 96 96 91% § §§
*::::::::::::::::::: § . .] §4. ...}} }} }.} : :º § 3 84 :
***** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * § 1.4 #| |}}}| ºś , ś , ś , ; 74%. , 94 || 1.27%| 1.11% 81
1883.......................... § 1 ºff. , sº ºft 1jš 1.dº. 1.03% liº" i.iisg. ii;" i.iii. 1;
1884.......................... 1.11, 1.08.] 1.01% 95 86%| 87 77 90 ...}} , ſº , ; 74%, ’j %
1885.......................... § 3 ;...] § 3 ; 36%| 1.60% ºft| 1.65%. 1.8% º ºs
1886.......................... §§§ 78% ºg º gº à ºð! #4 #3 º “jº ‘º. § º
!88.......................... ić § 3; 64% & 3. % 591 60% si 703 73% º §
1888.......................... $1% tº $3: 82% gº ºff; º; #3 ºz º. 28 4
Wells Drilling.—Owing to various causes discovery of a new field or pool has always stimulated
from year to year and from month to month. The
f
ber of wells in process o
* * * * s the num:
drilling has varied *
new drillin *
continued failures have at other times tended to re-
Ventures, while declining production and
TABLE III.--Wells Dri lling.
Year Jan Feb. March. April. May. June. July, August. Sept. Oct. Now Dec Average
1876.............. tº e º e º t e s tº e 142 151 230 267 307 340 353 374 511
1877........................ 457 463 395 448 512 395 365 417 535 § : ; :
1878........................ 334 || 326 379 409 376 266 188 185 240 2S2 297 218 292
1879........................ 265 323 406 468 46() 384 329 258 270 3.13 37.2 Zao 357
1880........................ 540 || 535 577 580 || 460 440 452 515 491 469 475 408 495
1881........................ 383 420 437 446 470 408 379 352 388 445 4; 46s 423
1882.............. i. s. a a tº º tº tº e ºs 422 438 40S 405 3S1 226 240 194 177 184 154 138 276
1883........................ lºº lº! | 205 || 199 || 216 228 262 315 314 || 33i 301 || 3: . 24.
}}}}........................ 270 273 260 284 244 123 123 91 79 100 86 Tº I68
1886........................ 97 109 139 190 228 209 242 308 391 355 359 277 242
1886........................ 320 || 337 356 $18 358 403 349 290 322 312 285 238 324
1887. g 201 177 155 155 157 142 135 137 107 104 114 §§ iº
1888........................ 64 72 33 59 82 106 124 106 166 187 º
188
PETROLEUM.
strict operations in untried fields. The largest number
of new wells drilling was 618, in November, 1876, and
the smallest number was 33, in March, is88. 'The
large decrease in new work during 1887 was due to the
low price of the product, and during 1888 to an agree-
ment between the producers to restrict operations,
with the object of reducing the stocks. The number
of wells being drilled at the end of each month in the
years 1876 to 1888 is given in Table III.
Wells Drilled.—The largest number of wells com-
pleted in any month was 470, in May, 1878, and the
smallest number 49, in April, 1888. The largest num-
ber completed in any year was 4217, in 1880, and the
Smallest number since 1875 was 1644, in 1887. The
year 1888 will show a further decrease, owing to the
suspension of drilling operations pursuant to an agree-
ment among the producers entered into in the summer
of 1887, and which was to continue from Nov. 1, 1887,
to Oct. 31, 1888.
The number of wells completed in each month dur-
ing the years 1870 to 1888, and the total for each year,
are given in Table IV. :
TABLE IV.-New Wells Completed.
Year. Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec Total
1870........................ 131 131 114 135 164 182 161 156 135 144 112 79 1,644
1871........................ 98 68 70 81 95 150 139 116 125 180 161 181 1,470
1872........................ 48 118 98 122 130 98 131 117 96 101 41 101 1,201
1873................ ....... 100 105 105 110 106 180 112 116 116 111 108 95 1,364
1874........................ 108 111 108 |s 110 112 113 124 102 108 117 112 116 1,341
1875........................ 184 186 194 180 169 194 208 206 208 215 213 228 2,385
1876........................ 240 231 242 200 202 261 248 270 209 273 272 272 2,920
1877..... .................. 281 241 291 269 320 403 317 255 322 467 391 382 3,939
1878........................ 274 226 211 4().9 470 269 203 186 174 229 248 165 3,064
1879........................ 136 132 238 270 402 330 327 283 210 232 227 261 3,048
1880........................ 320 23() 367 500 426 310 338 368 356 364 336 302 4,217
1881........................ 222 220 271 316 406 374 336 332 312 322 363 406 3,380
1882........................ 347 340 385 432 469 340 185 253 164 117 150 122 3,304
1883....................... 125 126 142 209 231 228 261 309 321 321 302 272 2,847
1884........................ 229 209 256 298 311 244 268 I45 89 59 73 66 2,247
1886........................ 64 62 82 116 213 242 217 283 356 397 384 345 2,761
1886........................ 270 280 291 328 343 365 357 317 253 272 221 185 3,482
1887........................ 158 162 138 160 148 157 159 142 134 100 90 96 1,644
1888........................ 57 52 56 49 56 97 82 96 132 229
Producing Wells.-The number of producing wells
shows an almost unbroken increase from year to year to
1886 when the number reached 24,726. During 1883
there was a decrease of 1109 from the total of the pre-
vious year, but the year following showed a large
increase. The largest number of producing wells at
any time was 25,593, in February, 1887. Since Octo-
ber, 1887, the decrease has been fully 8000, showin
the effect of the suspension of drilling operations, j
the fact that a large proportion of the wells soon cease
to be productive. Table W. gives the number of pro-
ducing wells at the close of each month in the years
1876 to 1888, with the yearly average :
TABLE W.-Producing Wells.
Year. Jan Feb. March. April. May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct Now Dec. Average.
1876........................ 3,314 3,638 3,670 3,772 3,930 4,527 4,774 6,047 5,285 5,552 5,809 6,000 4,685
1877........................ 6,283 6,441 6,666 6,846 7,037 7,352 7,872 8,061 8,323 8,458 7,383
1878........................ 8,616 8,726 8,848 9,071 9,400 9,605 9,776 9,884 || 10,012 || 10,188 || 10,276 | 10,337 9,561
1879........................ 10,482 10,582 10,692 || 10,782 | 11,045 11,223 11,461 | 11,585 11,760 11,860 11,960 | 11,960 11,283
1880........................ 12,000 12,072 12,222 | 12,572 | 12,972 || 13,172 | 13,275 | 13,500 13,825 14,100 14,400 || 14,700 | 13,234
1881........................ 14,900 | 15,050 | 15,500 | 15,769 | 16,150 16,700 || 17,000 || 17,250 17,562 17,799 || 18,040 | 18,300 | 16,668
1882........................ 8, 18,600 18,850 | 19,150 | 19,350 | 19,500 | 19,570 19,600 | 19,600 | 19,000 | 18,700 | 18,000 | 19,027
1883........................ 17,600 17,300 || 17,250 | 17,100 17,100 17,050 17,100 17,100 17,300 | 19,100 | 20,406 || 20,606 || 17,918
1884........................ 20,756 20,930 21,000 || 21,242 21,434 21,658 21,844 21,916 || 21,900 21,859 21,859 21,909 21,526
1885........................ 21,950 | 21,987 22,042 22,093 22,233 22,384 22,524 22,688 22,775 23,062 23,295 23,519 22,546
1886........................ 23,699 || 23,865 24,034 24,269 || 24,533 24,797 || 25,030 || 23,120 || 25,243 25,303 || 25,381 || 25,443 || 24,726
1887........................ 25,518 25,593 || 25,472 25,268 || 25,173 || 25,057 || 25,035 25,003 || 24,892 || 24,831 | 16,723 16,637 23,767
1888........................ 16.271 | 16,483 | 16.271 15,722 || 15,719 15,861 | 15,972 | 16,169 20,250 | 21,371
Production.—The production of petroleum in the
Pennsylvania and New York oil-fields has varied con:
siderably from month to month, but there was a gradual
increase from 1861, when the industry began to assume
important proportions, until 1876. During the follow-
ing year the industry made great strides, and each
succeeding year showed a large increase in the produc-
tion until 1882, in which year the maximum was
reached, since which time there has been a decline.
The yearly gross production in barrels and daily average
from 1859 to 1875 inclusive are given in Table VI. :
TABLE VI.-Yearly Production and Daily Average.
Total Daily Total Daily
Year. bbls. av'ge. Year. bbls. av'ge.
1859...... 2,000 224 1868...... 3,715,741 10,180
1860, ..... 500,000 1,369 1869...... 4,186,475 11,469
1861...... 2,113,600 5,790 1870...... 5,308,046 14,542
1862..... 3,056,606 8,377 1871..... 5,278,072 14,460
1863...... 2,611,359 7,154 1872...... 6,505,774 17,824
1864...... 2,116,182 5,797 1873..... 9,849,508 26,984
1865...... 3,497,712 9,583 1874...... 11,102,114 30,416
1866. .... 3,597,527 9,856 1875...... 8,948,749 24,517
1867 ..... 3,347,306 9,143
Beginning with the year 1876 the yearly increase was
unbroken until 1883, since which there has been con-
siderable variation in the production, due to various
causes, mainly, however, to the decline in the produc-
tiveness of many of the wells and the exhaustion of
pools, as small fields are termed. The discovery of
flowing wells in new territory has proven a greater
incentive to the producers than has an advance in the
market price of the product. Such a discovery has
always stimulated drilling operations, resulting in a
large increase in the number of new wells. If the new
wells prove productive, it indicates the discovery of a
new pool or field, according to the extent of the pro-
ductive area. The determination of the extent of a
new field sometimes results disastrously to the drillers
as territory, but a few rods from a good well may, and
often does, prove unproductive. The remarkable de-
crease shown in the returns for 1888 is due to the
restrictions agreed upon by the producers, as already
mentioned. Table VII. gives the average daily pro-
duction, in barrels of 42 gals., during each month in
the years 1876 to 1888 inclusive :
PETROLEUM. 189
TABLE VII.—Average Daily Production.
Year. Jan Feb. March. April. | May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct. NOV Dec. Average.
1876........................ 22,975 23,065 23,167 || 23,383 || 23,721 24,120 24,633 || 25,233 26,920 || 23.1% 33.3% | };}}} | ###
1877........................ Żºłóð ºr, Žº 3; 3.37% 37,393 || 38.355 41,083 40.497 40,946 39.4 435: | #3;
1878........................ āşşić 39.10% | 33.3% 35.363 46.802 40.575 || 41.415 || 43.288 43,857 44,187 44.9% #3; #};}}
1879........................ Žigo || 333i: || 48,365 ài oiá 53,062 55,855 56,057 61,042 61,899 || 59,238 || 37,916 3.97% #%.
1880................... .... 61.323 64.53% 65.04% 67.196 || 71 goi 71,948 || 72,530 75,517 | 78,210 | 16.956 | 73,814 | }}} | {}}}
1881........................ #2.3% 63.325 | 73.372 | 73.525 | 77.203 79.262 76,538 75,217 | 73,114 74.941 Tººl | 89% ſº;
1882. i5@i ičiig | 86.070 86,093 || 80212 94,198 |105,102 100,145 || 87.346 14,118 3.98 º?!? | };
1883. ...] §§49 || 62.72i 59,052 60.55i 63.292 65,930 || 65,174 60,267 63,779 66,989 tº ºl; ºš
1884........................ 53.393 || $4.350 | 66.307 | 68.362 | 72,013 | 62,073 | 66.450 | 67.715 64,942 63,286 39.3% 38.7% ºš
1885........................ 53.336 51.353 52.343 59.343 57,141 58.907 || 57,284 55,031 57,093 || 60,455 58,722 || $1,337 3%
1886.............. * * * * * * * * * 56.4ig 57.316 || 62.208 64.612 || 70.283 77,846 || 78,031 78,426 80,618 17,68, 13,993 || 70.37; Tº
1887........................ 63.23i 65.333 || 64.716 65.372 64.307 || 63.762 61.275 59,641 59.321 61,822 37,515 41,568 59,067
1888........................ 38.271 || 45,893 || 41,918 45,722 || 49,478 50,752 || 47,290 57,379 44,691 || 45,272
Consumption.—The consumption of petroleum has 26,000,000 barrels, fully three:fifths of which is ex-


increased steadily, and, while it did not keep pace with
the enormous increase in the production from 1876 to
1882, there has been no check to the increase since then,
while the declining production has caused a correspond-
ing decrease in the stocks held in tanks and pipe-lines.
The average yearly consumption may be given as
TABLE VIII.—Monthly and Yearly Consumption.
ported as crude oil and its products, principally illumi-
nating oil. Table VIII, gives the monthly shipments
of petroleum from the oil regions of Pennsylvania and
New York. These shipments are accepted as repre-
senting the consumption during the years 1876 to 1888
inclusive :

Month 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881.
January........................................ 677,289 743,461 775,791 663,998 1,650,409 1,061,616
February....................................... 519,193 484,904 774,234 702,729 395,151 15,028
March........................................... 623,762 913,919 741,512 973,879 1,613,371 1,276,740
April............................................. 603,037 903,526 846,632 1,136,188 842,268 1,348,398
May.............................................. 646,150 1,234,324 960,894 1,331,469 1,095,259 1,563,436
June............................................. 921,862 1,391,124 1,135,119 1,369,314 975,083 1,729,697
July ............................................. 1,228,539 1,096,951 * >~~5 1,625,035 1,231,611 1,925,532
August.......................................... 1,203,402 1,425,943 1,655,651 1,808,239 1,394,129 2,214,877
September........................ © e s e e tº & e º a t t e 1,154,549 1,563,797 1,434,225 1,627,120 1,252,635 2,131,950
October......................................... 524,190 1,268,971 1,747,390 1,662,269 1,665,933 2,080,467
November...................................... 871,496 1,205,634 1,281,410 1,453,645 1,226,030 2,066,906
December................. tº s = < * * * * * s e º 4 a a s a e s w 1,190,983 00,019 992,688 1,532,585 1,335,613 1,969,581
Total................. & a s tº a tº & t t e º e º sº e º s e º e º & 10,164,452 12,832,573 13,676,000 15,886,470 15,677,492 20,284,235
Month 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888.
January .................................... 1,657,067 1,357,815 1,686,961 1,804,028 1,991,561 2,312,067 2,265,109
February................................... 1,787,909 1,250,824 1,723,261 2,895,021 1,032,794 1,995,757 2,163,957
March....................................... 1,718,956 1,641,899 1,873,890 1,887,034 2,055,730 2,332,324 1,979,753
April. .................* * * * * * * * is sº tº 4 s a tº e º s e a < * 1,678,134 1,908,379 1,643,336 1,823,726 2,070,468 1,938,278 1,928,435
May.......................................... 1,827,356 1,995,634 1,899,329 2,097,099 2,032,672 2,328,564 1,773,994
June ............................... 2,172,685 1,747,789 1,827,555 2,034,025 2,117,489 2,165,439 1,956,115
July.......................................... 2,402,970 1,634,407 1,740,021 1,961,152 2,418,961 2,000,173 2,098,531
August.................... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2,047,545 2,086,478 2,000,371 2,049,099 2,059,299 2,220,768 2,223,263
September................................. 1,992,171 2,325,574 2,292,087 2,116,659 2,157,323 2,342,227 2,289,486
October...................................... 2,089,428 2,215,421 2,510,283 2,050,150 2,441,848 2,573,008 2,558,115
November ................................. 1,404,640 2,065,602 2,078,261 1,857,080 2,724,796 2,462,082
December.................................. 1,121,453 1,749,547 2,382,244 2,138,253 2,550,891 2,608,341
Total................................... 21,900,314 21,979,369 23,657,599 23,713,326 26,653,832 27,279,028
Stocks.--Previous to 1870, there were no important
accumulations of crude petroleum, and the total stocks
accumulations had become burdensome, and the im-
mense iron tanks of the various storage and pipe-line
at the end of 1873 had reached only 1,625,157 barrels.
At the end of 1874 there had been an increase to
3,705,639 barrels, but at the end of 1875 this had been
* During the next two
years there was little change, but from 1878 the increase
was almost unchecked until the maximum of nearly
decreased to 2,751,758 barrels.
40,000,000 barrels was reached during 1885.
The
TABLE IX.—Stock
companies were taxed to their utmost capacity. Since
August, 1885, there has been a gradual i. in the
stocks, which during these three years has amounted
to about 18,000,000 barrels. Table IX. gives the
amount of crude petroleum, in barrels, in tanks and
pipe-lines at the close of each month in the years 1876
to 1888 and the yearly average :
of Crude Petroleum.
Month. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881.
January....................................... . 3,585,143 2,604,128 3,555,342 5,321,222 8,724.19.
February............................... tº s tº sº tº $ tº a 3,734,835 2,860,636 3,875,964 5 §13,663 §: §:
March........................................... 3,829,250 3,210,454 4,342,832 6,318,099 9,666&sº 22 iošišg
April. & 3,900,703 3.279,731 4,692,090 7,689,111 10,780,153 22.863 iii
May............ tº º ºs e º e º e º e º is a s & e º 'º e º e º s tº a tº a 9 s a s e e 3,989,904 3,173,008 4,996,058 6,980,064 11,916,577 23.733028
June........ .................................... 3,791,642 2,912,674 5,078,189 7,263,150 13.096934 24'44 i.igi
July............................................. 3,326,726 3,044,728 5,061,600 7,353,382 iſiičiš3 24'ssšš37
August;....................................... ..] 3,304,405 2,852,544 4,727,877 7,114,195 15,063'ssi 25'005 is:
September.....................................] 2,930,456 2,503,657 4,599,362 7,620,525 6i57316 25'066.857
October......................................... 3,040,108 2,504,012 4,221,769 7,794,634 16 sºlois 353oºsi
November......... * * * * * * * * * * * * is & e º t t e º g º m n e s a tº 2,955,092 2,471,798 4,289,309 8,051,469 isogā'āog 25.5oºss
December...................................... 2,551,199 3,127,837 4,615,299 8,470,490 is 33s,330 2soiºioſ
Average ........................ tº tº & tº $ tº º is º º 3,411,622 2,875,434 4,501,308 7,065,834 13,541.6s2 23'séologi
****
190
PETROLEUM PIPELINEs.
TABLE IX. —Continued.

Month. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888.
January .................................... 26,716,188 35,187,116 35,884,509 37,214,274 34,186,238 33,835,389 26,927,634
February................................... 27,059,611 35,692,480 36,041,898 36,757,137 34,082,775 33,288,630 26,084,574
Margh....................................... 27,822,825 35,881,255 36,202,262 36,508,236 33,955,493 32,932,502 25,404,276
April......................................... 28,547,481 37,789,406 38,148,670 36,464,800 33,823,385 32,955,084 24,893,223
May.......................................... 29,206,697 35,755,824 38,631,203 36,139,072 33,969,486 32,642,330 24,653,043
"une......................................... 29,859,952 35,985,935 38,665,838 35,872,257 34,187,377 32,389,750 24,219,496
July.…............................... 30,715,144 36,371,922 38,985,767 35,686,909 34,428,490 32,289,269 23,586,951
August...................................... 31,772,094 36,164,881 39,084,561 35,343,771 34,800,397 32,003,536 23, 142,437
September................................. 32,400,303 35,752,677 38,740,734 34,939,902 35,061,614 31,340,939 22,193,819
October..................................... 32,608,533 35,612,915 38,192,317 34,763,857 35,027,877 30,662,583 22,039,162
November ................................. 33,728,555 35,506,653 37,925,756 34,668,437 34,525,871 29,325,951
December .... ............................] 34,596,612 35,745,632 37,366,126 34,428,841 34,156,605 28,006,211
Average.............................. 30,419,499 35,953,891 37,822,470 35,732,291 34,350,467 31,807,681
PETROLEUM PIPE-LINES. A descriptive and
historical account of the petroleum pipe-lines must
necessarily be a history of petroleum transportation,
that the reader may obtain a clear understanding of
the subject. Very early in the history of the petro-
leum industry the transportation problem became the
most important question, next to the marketing of the
oil, to the producer. As all the refineries were located
in the city of Pittsburg, Pa., the crude oil as produced
at the wells had to be transported to that city, and the
cost was fully one-half of the amount realized for the
oil. The oil at the wells was placed in barrels made of
heavy oak staves and bound with iron hoops. These
barrels were coated on the inside with glue, but as crude
petroleum invariably contained a small percentage of
water this coating of glue did not prove a complete
protection, and at times the loss through leakage was
serious. These barrels were purchased at a cost of
$3.50 each. A barrel in every respect superior is now
made at a cost of $1.25 to the refiners. The only
means of transporting the oil was on wagons drawn by
horses, and as the roads were new and for the most
part in execrable condition, the hauling of the oil from
the wells to the points of shipment on Oil Creek was
at times attended with great difficulties. During the
first few years of the petroleum industry the teamster
exacted his own terms. As the only channels through
which oil could reach the market were Oil Creek and
the Allegheny River, when the wells came to be located
farther from these water-ways the cost of hauling the
oil to them increased. Pithole was the shipping point
for the oil produced on the Miller farm, only four miles
distant, and for carting the oil this distance the team-
sters charged $3 per barrel, and at times even more.
Carting oil was the most profitable occupation in the
oil regions during the early history of petroleum, and
the foundation of many a fortune was laid through
the extortionate charges made by the teamsters.
The oil when it arrived at the creek was placed on
flat-bottom boats or on rafts and floated down with the
current, but as for a great part of the time there was
not sufficient depth of water to float the boats or rafts
with their cargoes of oil, recourse was had to damming
the stream and so accumulating sufficient water to carry
the boats and floats beyond the shallows and obstruc-
tions. At times there were large accumulations of
boats at the points of shipment awaiting a sufficient
accumulation of water, and when the dams would at
length be opened the rushing of the waters would
render control of the boats impossible as they were
swept down with the current in inextricable confusion,
and frequent-collisions and wreckages were the result.
During one of these pond-freshets on Oil Creek from
20,000 to 30,000 barrels of oil would be sent through
to Oil City. The empty boats were towed up the
creek again by horses, who made their way along as
best they could, at times along the bank, but for the
reater part of the way wading in the stream. At Oil
É. the barrels of oil were transferred to larger boats.
At one time there were upward of 1000 boats and 30
steamers engaged in this traffic. . The losses occasioned
by collisions and jams were serious and they were of
*
frequent occurrence. During a freshet in May, 1864,
a jam occurred at Oil City, wrecking many boats and
occasioning a loss of upwards of 25,000 barrels of oil.
Bulk-barges were early introduced on the Allegheny
and Ohio Rivers, and these, in an improved form of
construction, are still used to convey oil to refineries
located along the river. These bulk-boats were at first
crude affairs, ill calculated to withstand turbulent river
travel, but are now built with eight compartments with
water-tight bulkheads, and of a capacity to carry 2000
barrels of oil. w
The railroads entering the oil regions early saw the
necessity of providing improved means for the trans-
portation of the ra i. increasing amounts of oil seek-
ing transportation facilities, and during the latter half
of the year 1865 the tank car was introduced. At first
the tank car was simply the ordinary flat car, upon
which were securely fastened two wooden tanks with a
combined capacity of about 4000 gallons. It was not
until the year 1870 or 1871 that the wooden tank car
was displaced by the car with a tank constructed of
boiler-iron. These cars are still in use for transporting
crude oil and the various products of the still. The
tanks vary in size, holding from 4000 to 5000 gallons.
They are, of course, safer than the wooden ones for-
merly in use, and are in every way better adapted to
the purpose. A number of the larger refiners of
petroleum own tank cars, and in this they are encour-
aged by the railroads.
These difficulties in transportation and great expense
of cartage of the oil from the wells to the points of
shipment early attracted the attention of engineers and
others who sought means to overcome the difficulties
and reduce the enormous cost of marketing the product.
The earliest attempt to solve the problem by the use
of iron pipes to convey the crude oil from the wells
was made by Mr. J. L. Hutchinson, of New York,
although Gen. S. D. Karns, of Parkersburg, W. Va.,
suggested the practicability of this mode of transpor-
tation early in the autumn of 1860. In 1862 Mr.
Hutchinson constructed a line of pipe on the Tarr
farm, where the first flowing well hº been struck the
year before, to the first refinery erected in the oil regions,
at Plumer. The wells were on one side of a high hill
and the refinery on the other. Mr. Hutchinson be-
lieved that a line of pipe laid from the wells over the
hill to the refinery would, on the well-known syphon
principle, draw the oil over the hill to the refinery.
This plan proved a failure. The next year Mr. Hutch-
inson laid a pipe-line from the famous Sherman well
to the terminus of the railroad at the Miller farm, a
distance of three miles. To overcome the hydraulic
pressure of a column of oil of that length he placed air
chambers, similar to those used on hydraulic rams, 10
inches in diameter, along his pipe-line at intervals of
50 or more feet to equalize the pressure. . The press-
ure did not burst the pipes, but although 1000 bar-
rels of oil were emptied into them at the well barely 50
barrels reached their destination. The pipes were of cast-
iron with lead sockets, and the joints were brought to-
ether with the blow of a mallet. Pumps were used to
force the oil through the pipes. The slightest disturbance
PETROLEUM
PIPE-LINES. 191 -
of the pipe at the joints would cause a leak, and to this
cause was due the failure of the scheme. Mr. Hutch-
inson was a firm believer in the eventual success of this
manner of transporting oil, but although he continued
his experiments two years longer he was unable to over-
come the mechanical difficulties.
The first successful pipe-line was laid by Samuel Van
Syckle, of Morris co., N. J. Early in the history of
petroleum developments, he went to Titusville. He
struck an important well at Pithole, and as he was
compelled to pay the teamsters $1500 dollars per day
to haul his oil to Miller's farm, a distance of five miles,
he determined to improve on Hutchinson's experi-
ments with pipes as a means of transporting his oil.
In 1865, having conceived the idea of joining the pipes
with a screw and thimble, he carried it out on a line of
four miles in length from Pithole to Miller's farm. The
pipe was laid two feet under ground, and as an ascent
of 600 feet had to be overcome the feat was declared
impossible of accomplishment. When all was com-
pleted the pumps were started, and soon a steady
stream of oil was pouring into the tanks at the other
end of the line, proving the pipe-line theory a success
and marking the beginning of a new era in petroleum
...transportation. The teamsters realized that pipe-lines
would prove the ruin of their business and, determin-
ing to resist the encroachments of the new invention,
tore up the pipe-line as fast as Van Syckle could relay
it, but he placed armed watchmen along his line, and
after many sanguinary conflicts between the teamsters
and the pipe-line men the former finally abandoned
their hostile endeavors to check the march of progress.
In the fall of the same year Henry Harley, a civil en-
gineer, a graduate of the Troy Polytechnic School,
began the construction of a pipe-line from Benninghoff
run to Shaffer farm, which he completed in the spring
following, and secured control of the Van Syckle line.
Later, the firm of Abbot & Harley purchased enough
of the Western Transportation Company's stock to
control the charter, and organized under it the Alle-
gheny Transportation Company.
The first effort to construct a pipe-line to the sea-
board was made by Henry Harley. In 1875 he pro-
cured a charter for a company known as the Pennsyl-
vania Transportation Company, which was authorized
to construct a pipe-line from the oil regions of Penn-
sylvania to tidewater. The plan was generally regarded
as the extravagant idea of a disordered brain, but was
pronounced feasible by eminent engineers, and ample
support being given, the transportation company built
lines in the producing regions, but later the company
was absorbed by a rival. As early as 1877 the oil re-
gions were traversed by ten pipe-lines belonging to as
many different companies, a; competition to secure
the carrying trade reduced the rates to such an extent
that the business was no longer profitable. The cer-
tificates issued by these companies to the producers,
which were equivalent to warehouse receipts, had only
a local value, while the solvency of some of them was
openly questioned. At this time the pipe-lines were
dealers as well as custodians and carriers of oil, and as
losses were inevitable under the system then in vogue,
some of the companies were crowded out, entailing
heavy losses on the producers. The situation became
more and more complicated and uncertain, and it ap-
peared that the solving of the transportation problem
had but brought new difficulties. This was the situa-
tion when the United Pipe-Lines Company was or-
ganized, and relief followed quickly. The certificates
of the new concern became known as representing the
oil actually held in stock, and became negotiable in all
the principal trade centres, where their value and
safety have never been questioned. At this time all the
crude oil transported from the oil regions to New York,
Philadelphia, Cleveland, Pittsburg, and Baltimore was
by railroad in tank cars. Following the consolidation
and the organization of the United Pipe-Lines Com:
pany Sprang up others in various sections of the oil
regions, but most of these were later purchased by the
larger company or abandoned. At the end of $8 the
principal pipe-line companies are the National Transit
Company, the successor of the United Pipelines
Company, and the Tidewater Pipe Company. There
are several others having a local importance only, but
their certificates are not sold in open market. ..
The construction of the long distance pipe-lines was
commenced in 1880 by the United Pipe-Lines ‘...º.
The principal lines constructed were the Seaboard line,
wift extends from Olean, N. Y., to Saddle River,
N. J., a distance of 300 miles; the Pennsylvania line,
extending from Colegrove, Pa., to Philadelphia, the
distance being 280 miles. The Baltimore line extends
from Milway Štation, on the Pennsylvania line, to Bal-
timore, the distance being 70 miles. The Cleveland
line begins at Hilliards, Pa., and extends to Cleyeland,
O., a ăistance of too miles. The Pittsburg line ex-
tends from Carbon Centre, Pa., to Pittsburg, and is 60
miles long. The Buffalo line runs from four Mile,
Cattaraugus co., to Buffalo, and is 79 miles long.
There are also several shorter supply lines in the oil
regions which convey the oil to the several stations as
required. The Seaboard line is a double conduit of
6-inch pipe and extends to the refineries at Bayonne,
N. J., while a branch line crossing the Hudson River
to New York city passes through Central Park at 64th
street, across the city to the i. River, and across
that stream to the refineries at Hunter's Point and
Newtown Creek on Long Island. There are in the oil
regions of Pennsylvania and New York between 3000
and 4000 miles of iron pipe, which form a complete
network of feeders to the mains or trunk-lines, taking
the oil from the tanks at the wells and delivering it at
the several stations. At the termini of the trunk-
lines, and at the numerous stations, there are immense
storage tanks with a capacity varying from 10,000 bar-
rels to 38,000 barrels. Some of these huge tanks are
of wood, but by far the greater number are made of
boiler-iron. The standard adopted a few years since
has a capacity of 30,000 barrels, is made of best
boiler-iron, weighing about 80 tons, is 30 feet high and
has a diameter of 86 feet.
The principal pipe-lines have no marked or important
features differing the one from the other, although the
topography of the country trayersed varies greatly.....A
description of one only is therefore sufficient. The
most important line has its oil region terminus at Olean,
Cattaraugus co., N. Y., which has an elevation of
about 1500 feet above the sea-level. The line consists
of two 6-inch wrought-iron pipes, tested to bear a
pressure of 2000 pounds to the square inch. These
pipes are screwed together at the joints with couplings
as are the ordinary gas pipes. . In order that the pipes
and the oil shall not be affected by every change in
temperature and to partially overcome the extremes
of heat in summer and of cold in winter, the pipes are
buried under the surface of the ground to an average
depth of about two feet. The pipes are laid in as
nearly a straight line as possible, and follow the con-
tour of the country, up hill and down, through forests,
across Swamps, through the streets of towns and vil-
lages, under rivers, across cultivated fields in a straight
line to tide-water. At one point in Alleghany county
the line overcomes an elevation of nearly 1300 feet
within a distance of 4 miles. The route is along the
southern boundary of the State of New York, through
the counties of Cattaraugus, Alleghany, Steuben, Che-
mung, Tioga, Broome, Delaware, Sullivan, and Or-
ange, and across the north-eastern portion of the State
of New Jersey through Sussex, Morris, Passaic, Ber-
gen, and Hudson counties. At central points in the
Valleys along the line the pumping stations are located.
These stations consist of permanent buildings, a boiler-
house and a pump-house, which contains the necessary
machinery for pumping the oil, also a telegraph office.
At each station are also located two or more of the
immense iron storage tanks already described. In the
192
PETTENKOFER—PFLEIDERER.
pump-house are compound condensing engines and
pumps, two in number. Each pump has 28 suction-
Valves and the same number of supply valves. The
stroke of the Fº is double. At every stroke of the
piston a barrel of oil is sent on its way, and a barrel of
oil is forced forward every seven seconds, the pumps
Working day and night. A pressure-gauge indicates
the pressure to which the pipes are subjected, and
makes known at once any interruption in the flow
through break or other cause. . Another gauge records
every stroke of the pump and shows the number of
barrels of oil that have passed through the station.
These pumping engines range from 250 to 1000 horse-
power, according to the resistance the pumps are re-
quired to overcome. The stream of oil flows uninter-
ruptedly day and night, stoppages occurring only when
an accident necessitates a cessation of pumping to make
repairs.
To each station there are allotted two engineers, two
firemen, and two telegraph operators, one-half of the
force working by day, the other by night. To detect
possible leakages too small to be indicated by the
jº. at the stations, each section of the line
etween stations is in charge of a lineman, who walks
along the section once a week. Should a leak be dis-
covered he at once sends word to the station. To re-
move sediment and deposits of paraffin, an automatic
scraper is introduced into the pipes, the peculiar con-
struction of which insures a thorough scraping of the
inside of the pipe, the pressure of the oil forcing the
Scraper along from one station to the next.
hen oil is received from the tanks at the wells the
amount is ascertained by a joint measurement made
by the representative of the owner of the wells and
of the pipe-line, and is placed to the credit of the A
former on the books of the pipe-line company. Such
oil is held in custody of the pipe-line company subject
to the order of the owner, the same as are goods sent
to a store-house, and the credit balance is negotiable
the same as is a warehouse receipt. The producer's
credit balances are held free of storage for thirty days,
after which time the storage charge is 25 cents per day
for each 1000 barrels. All oil when received from the
wells becomes part of the common stock of the line,
and no holder of a credit balance can therefore claim
the identical oil produced at his wells. . The certificates
issued by the pipe-lines are usually for 1000 barrels,
and those issued |. the National Transit Company are
the certificates sold at the several petroleum exchanges.
The daily quotation of the price of petroleum is the
price per barrel of 42 gallons, as represented by these
certificates. (H. G. A.)
PETTENKOFER, MAx VON, a German hygienist,
was born near Neuburg, Dec. 3, 1818. #. WaS
educated at Munich, worked in chemical laboratories
at Würzburg and Giessen, and became chemical as-
sistant in the royal mint at Munich. In 1847 he was
made professor of chemistry there, and besides other
technical improvements introduced a method for the
preservation of oil-paintings. He afterwards devoted
his attention to hygiene, and in 1865 he was made
professor of this department in the Bavarian Univer-
sity. He investigated the influence of soils on public
health and the causes of epidemics. He was one of
the editors of the Zeitschrift für Biologie, in which
most of his essays were published, from 1864 until
1883, when he transferred his labors to the Archiv für
Hygiene. He has published Populäre Vorträge (3d
ed., 1871), and a Handbuch der Hygiene (3d ed.,
1882).
#TTIE, JoFIN, a Scotch painter, was born at
Edinburgh, in 1839. He was trained at the academy
of that city, and in 1862 removed to London, where he
had already exhibited some pictures. His works often
present scenes of old English life. Among_them
are George Fox Refusing to take the Oath at Holker
Hall, A. D. 1663 (1864); An Arrest for Witchcraft
(1866); The Disgrace of Cardinal Wolsey (1869);
Juliet and Friar Lawrence (1874); Jacobites, 1745
(1875). Pettie was elected to the Royal Academy in
1873.
PETTIGREW, JAMES BELL, a Scotch anatomist
and physiologist, was born at Roxhill, Lanarkshire,
May 26, 1834. He was educated at the University of
Glasgow, and graduated in medicine at the University
of Edinburgh with the highest honors. He won the
gold medal by his thesis, “On the arrangement of the
muscular fibres in ventricles of the vertebrate heart.”
He was made Croomian lecturer by the Royal Society
of London in 1860, and two years later became as-
sistant curator of the Hunterian Museum, in the Col-
lege of Surgeons. In 1867 on account of his health
he resigned, and spent two years in Ireland. In 1869
he returned to Edinburgh as curator of the Anatomi-
cal Museum, and º of pathology in the Edin-
burgh Hospital. In 1875 he was made professor of
anatomy in the University of St. Andrews, and in
1877 he was elected by the Universities of Glasgow
and St. Andrews as their representative in the Gen-
eral Council of Medical Education of the United
Kingdom. His earliest investigations were directed to
the muscles and nerves of the heart, and by his skill
in dissection he solved many difficult problems in
anatomy. In 1867 he first presented his novel theory
of flight (“Figure of 8 '’) which is fully shown in the
article on “Flight '' in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
NICA. For his celebrated work Animal Locomotion,
or Walking, Swimming, and Flying (1873), he
obtained a prize from the French Academy of Sciences.
He has also published lectures on The Relation of
Plants and Animals to Inorganic Matter (1873); The
Physiology of the Circulation in Plants, in the Lower
nimals, and in Man (1874), and Man in his
Anatomical, Physical, and Physiological Aspects
(1876).
PFEFFER, WILHELM, German botanist, was born
at Grebenstein, near Cassel, March 9, 1845. He was
educated at Göttingen, Marburg, Würzburg, and
Berlin. In 1871 he began to lecture on botany at
Marburg, and two years later was called to professor-
ship at Bonn. He has since been professor at
Basel (1877), Tübingen (1878), and Leipsic (1887),
being also a director of the botanical garden of the last
two. He has made contributions to morphology, but
in the department of vegetable physiology he has
rendered the greatest service to science. Besides
many important essays he has published Handbuch
der Pflanzen physiologie (2 vols., 1881–82). Since 1881
he has § Untersuchungen aws dem. Botanischen
Institut zu Tübingen, in which valuable researches by
himself and his scholars have appeared.
PFLEIDERER, OTTO, a German theologian, was
born at Stetten, Sept. 1, 1839. He was educated
at Tübingen University, and after a year's service as a
village pastor returned to the University as repetent.
In 1868 he became city pastor at Heilbronn, and in
1870 superintendent at Jena, where he was soon made
professor of practical theology. In 1875 he was called
to Berlin as professor of systematic theology. He
belongs to the most advanced ‘critical school. He
has published Die Religion, ihr Wesen und ihre Ge-
schichte (2 vols., 1869); Moral und Religion (1871);
Religionsphilosophie auf. geschichtlicher Grundlage
(1878), of which an English translation appeared in
London in 1886; Grundriss der christlichen Glaubens-
und Sittenlehre (1880). In the department of New
Testament criticism he has published a notable essay
on Paulinismus (1873), and has contributed much to
Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift. In 1885 he delivered the
Hibbert lectures in London on The Influence of the
Apostle Paul in the Development of Christianity.
His brother, EDMUND PFLEIDERER, born Oct. 12,
1842, was also educated at Tübingen, and after service
as preacher and teacher in various places, returned
there as professor of philosophy in 1878. He has
published some books on Leibnitz, a volume of remin-
PHELPS–PPHILADELPHIA.
193
iscences, and essays on modern pessimism and the
golden age. - & -
#s. AUSTIN, theologian, was born at West
Brookfield, Mass., Jan. 7, 1820. He graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1837, studied theology
at Andover and New Haven, and was ordained pastor
of the Pine Street Congregational Church, Boston, in
1842. He was made professor of sacred rhetoric in
the Andover Theological Seminary in 1849, and re-
tired from this position in 1884. He has given mugh
attention to church music and published time-books
for churches and Sunday-schools. His other publica-
tions are The Still Hour (1859); Hymns and Choirs
§ ; The New Birth (1867); Theory of Preaching
(1880); Men and Books (1881); English Style in Public
Discourse (1883); and collections of his contributions
to periodicals under the titles My Portfolio (1883),
and My Study (1885). Dr. Phelps's writings are
marked by purity of style, breadth of view, and genial
conservatism.
His wife, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPs (1815–1852),
the daughter of Prof. Moses Stuart (q.v.), was mar-
ried in 1842, and died Nov. 30, 1852. She wrote
The Sunny Side and other books for Sunday-Schools,
generally under the name “Trusta.”
Their daughter, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS, born
at Andover, Aug. 31, 1844, wrote several books for
the young. Her most noted work is The Gates Ajar
(1868), which by somewhat novel views of the future
state attained great popularity. A latter work, Be-
ond the Gates (1884), was in the same line of thought.
{. Doctor Zay (1883) the question of professional life
for women is considered. Others of her books are
Hedged In; The Silent Partner ; and The Story of
Avis. She was married to Rev. Herbert D. Ward in
October, 1888.
PHELPS, John Wolcott (1813—1886), general, was
born at Guilford, Vt., Nov. 13, 1813. He graduated at
West Point in 1836, and became second lieutenant of
artillery. He served against the Indians in Florida
and on the frontier until 1846, when he took part in
the Mexican war. He resigned from the service in
1859, but in May, 1861, was made colonel of the First
Vermont Volunteers, and then brigadier-general.
After brief service in Virginia he went with Gen.
Butler's expedition against New Orleans, and assisted
in the capture of the forts defending that city. For
undertaking to arm negro slaves as soldiers he was
declared an outlaw by the Confederate government.
When the Union authorities also countermanded his
act he resigned his commission in August, 1862, and
returned to Brattleboro, Vt. He took much interest
in the educational and historical interests of the State,
but was especially noted for his active opposition to
secret societies. In 1876 he was nominated for Presi-
dent by a convention of the “American '' party on
this ground, but he received very few votes. He died
at Royalton, Vt., Nov. 20, 1886. Among his pub-
lications were Good Behavior (1880); History of Mad-
agascar (1884); and Secret Societies, Ancient and
Modern.
PHELPS, OLIVER (1749–1809), deserves record as
the author of the system of survey by townships and
ranges, which has been adopted for the U. S. govern-
ment lands. He was born at Windsor, Conn., and
trained to business pursuits. During the Revolu-
tionary war he was in the commissary department
of Massachusetts. In 1788, in company with Nathaniel
Gorham, he purchased from that State a tract of
2,600,000 acres in Western New York, being portion
of a still larger tract which had been ceded by New
York to Massachusetts in 1786, Phelps opening at
Canandaigua, N. Y., the first land-office in America,
commenced his system of survey, which proved ad-
mirably adapted to the condition of the Western
country. (See PUBLIC LANDS.) In 1795 he was as-
Sociated with William Hart and others in purchasing
from Connecticut the “Western Reserve” in Ohio,
comprising about 3,300,000 acres. He resided at Ca-
nandaigua, became a member of Congress, 1803.3, and
a judge of the Circuit Court. He died at Canan-
daigua, Feb. 21, 1809. & & &
fHELPS, WILLIAM WALTER, politician, was born
in New York city, Aug. 24, 1839. His father, John
J. Phelps, made a large fortune in business, and rail-
road management. illiam graduated at Yale Col-
lege in 1860 and at the Columbia Law School in 1863.
He quickly obtained extensive #. but after his
father's death in 1869 he was obliged to devote much
time to the management of his estate. In 1872 he
was elected to Congress from a New Jersey district,
and was sent on a committee to investigate affairs in
Louisiana. The Legislature of that State was organ-
ized in accordance with the committee's decision.
After serving several terms in Congress, Mr. Phelps
was sent in is81 as U. S. Minister to Austria, but
retired the next year and was reëlected to Congress.
He has taken an active part in the affairs of Yale
University, and has delivered several important
speeches. *
PHILADELPHIA, the chief city of Pennsylvania,
* and the second in the United States,
º XV º has been well described in the ENCY-
Km kº '* CLoPAEDIA BRITANNICA; this article
… . . ſºlº & * } & will, therefore, treat chiefly of its sta-
tistics and of the changes introduced in recent years,
with incidental mention of some particulars overlooked.
Buildings.-Great advances in street architecture
have been made within recent years. The City-Hall
was completed, so far as the elevation is concerned, on
May 7, 1887, the tower having reached a height of
337 ft. 4} in. Above this an iron dome, octagonal and
200 ft. in height, is to be surmounted by a colossal
figure of William Penn, 36 ft. high. . The clock story
is to be decorated by four groups of figures represent-
ing Swedes and Indians. When this tower reaches its
total height, 537 ft. 43 in., it will be the highest struc-
ture in the world save the Washington monument.
(For illustration see Vol. I., Plate III.) Already
(1888) several city and county officials and commissions
occupy rooms in the hall. The total estimated cost
of the building is $15,000,000, and $11,853,352 had
been expended at last report.
Of recent private structures in Philadelphia the
finest is the white marble Drexel Building at Fifth and
Chestnut streets. It contains 400 rooms, covering
upwards of 190,000 ft. of floor surface. The Stock
Exchange occupies the second story of its east wing.
The Bullitt Building in Fourth street, the warehouse
of Hood & Bonbright on Market street, and the ad-
joining Girard Estate building are imposing edifices.
At no former period of her history have so many fine
banks and offices of trust and insurance companies been
erected in Philadelphia. Mr. Henry C. Lea has built,
at an expense of $50,000, an annex to the Philadel-
phia Library, which will be ready for the reception of
books in January, 1889. In October, 1888, the corner-
stone of a new library building of the University of
Pennsylvania was laid. In 1886 the new Homoeopathic
(Hahnemann) College, Dispensary, and Hospital on
Broad street was opened.
The Academy of Fine Arts in 1886 received a perma-
nent endowment fund of $100,000. Philadelphia has
recently acquired two fine bronze equestrian statues,
one in Fairmount Park to Gen. G. G. Meade, executed
at a cost of $25,000 by Mr. Calder; the other to Gen.
John F. Reynolds, who fell at Gettysburg. Other
military monuments are, that to Union soldiers, dedi-
cated in 1883, in Germantown; and that on the Girard
College grounds, sacred to the memory of its graduates
who fell in the civil war. Philadelphia has sent sev-
eral patriotic monuments to the fields of Gettysburg
and Antietam. Philadelphia, during the civil war,
contributed for the maintenance of the Union 88,000
men and expended $8,500,000.
Among Philadelphia's prized relies of the revolu-
194
PHILADELPHIA
tionary era is the Liberty Bell, cast in London in 1752
for the " Province of Pennsylvania,” and bearing the
inscription, “Proclaim liberty throughout the land to
all the inhabitants thereof. Lev. xxv. 10.” It was first
used in 1753, and on July 8, 1776, saluted the first
jublic reading of the Declaration of Independence.
t was finally cracked on July 6, 1835, while being
tolled for the funeral of Chief-Justice Marshall. The
bell was lent to New Orleans for its World's Exposition
in 1884, and since its return hangs on its old frame in
the southern corridor of Independence Hall.
On Sept. 15–17, 1887, the centenary of the framing
and adoption of the Constitution was celebrated by
civic, military, and industrial parades. The U. S.
government, with 17 States and the District of Colum-
bia, contributed to the display.
Government.—The original charter of Philadelphia
had undergone various changes before the Consolida-
tion Act of 1852, which brought the whole county
(nearly 130 Square miles) under one city government.
The vastly increased outlay for municipal purposes
then rendered necessary gave frequent opportunities
for jobbery, while the control of public works was
chiefly with committees of the city councils, in which
responsibility for maladministration was vague and
uncertain. After the burden had grown oppressive
the citizens sought relief from the State Legislature,
which fixed the limit of the city debt at $70,000,000,
and required the expenditures to be kept strictly
within the bounds of annual appropriations, whose total
should not exceed the estimated income. Another
measure of relief was the granting of powers for
specific purposes to boards or commissions composed
of prominent citizens. Eventually, however, these
independent commissions aggravated the evils they
were intended to cure. After various attempts at re-
form in management under the existing laws, the Leg-
islature authorized the governor to appoint a Commit-
tee on Municipal Reform. Mr. John C. Bullitt, a
member of this committee, drafted an important bill
remodelling the city charter. This bill was, in 1883,
introduced into the Legislature by his son, William C.
Bullitt, then State Senator, was passed in 1885 and
took effect April 1, 1887. Pursuant to this bill the
mayor, who formerly was hardly more than chief of
the police, has authority to administer nearly the entire
city government through various departments, the
heads of which are subject to his appointment and
removal. These departments are those of Public
Safety, Public Works, and Charities and Correction.
There are also Departments of Receiver of Taxes,
City Controller, and Law, whose chief officers are
elected by the people, while the Board of Education
is composed of members appointed by the Judges of
the city courts. - -
Public Safety.—This department, with a Director
appointed by the Mayor at a salary of $7500, com-
prises the bureaus of Police, Fire, and Public Health.
The police force consisted in 1888 of 4 captains at
$1350 each ; 8 detectives at $1080; 28 lieutenants at
$1092.50; 70 house sergeants at $960; 14 patrol, ser-
geants, 14 patrol drivers, 14 patrol officers; 4 pilots;
A firemen; 5 van-drivers; and 1270 policemen at $2.38
a day, the total cost of the bureau being $1,751,710.08.
The number of arrests in 1886 was 53,409; number
of station-house lodgers, 54,589; number of commit-
tals to prison in 1887, 28,968; to House of Correction,
5841. -
The Brooks High License Bill, passed by the State
Legislature in May, 1887, fixed the price of license for
the sale of liquor at retail in large cities at $500, and
gave the judges large discretion in granting licenses,
The License Court in Philadelphia in 1888 granted
only 1340 licenses, while the former number of saloons
was 5989. e b
Fºre.—In bygone years Philadelphia was famed for
its volunteer companies of firemen. In March, 1871,
the volunteer system was changed for a paid fire-
department, and this, in 1887, fell under the Depart-
ment of Public Safety. In 1888 the apparatus ºpthis
bureau consisted of 34 steam-engines, 2 chemical en-
gines, and 7 trucks, operated by 34 engine-men at sal-
aries of $1000 each ; 34 firemen at $867.70; 41
drivers and 7 tiller-men at $867.70; 41 foremen at
$1100 ; and 342 hose and ladder-men at $867.70 each.
The number of fires in 1887 was 1222, involving a loss
of $2,857,456, with insurance of $12,287,301.
Health.-In 1887 there were 24,113 births; 6355
marriages; and 21,719 deaths, of which 8321 were
under five years, the percentage of deaths to popula-
tion being 2.21.
Public Works. –The head of this department is a
Director appointed by the Mayor, with a salary of
$7500, and under it are comprised bureaus of gas, water
and highways. In 1886 Philadelphia had 855 miles of
gas-pipes; the total number of consumers was 114,386
using 'i,886,599 lights. The public lights numbered
15,410. The total gas made was 2,946,407,000 cubic
feet. The cost of manufacture was $3,494,472, the
receipts, $4,659,783, the surplus being applied to the
payment of interest on loans, the sinking fund, etc.
On April 1, 1887, the gas trustees reduced the price to
$1.50 per 1000 ft.
The principal streets of the city are brilliantly lighted
by electricity, which is also liberally used in the larger
stores and warerooms. Girard College, since May,
1887, has been illuminated with 35 electric lights upon
7 towers, each 125 ft. high. -
Water.—The water pumped into the city reservoirs in
1887 amounted to 32,426,779,765 gallons, giving a daily
average of 88,840,492, and, assuming the population
to have been then 998,000, a daily per capita allow-
ance of 98 gallons. In 1886 the total receipts of the
bureau were $1,993,328, the cost of operating the
works, $552,454. The total length of pipes laid up to
1887 was 852 miles, and the average length laid annu-
ally for the 11 years preceding 1888 was 15 miles.
Through the agency of th. Philadelphia Fountain Socie-
ty there are now 61 public drinking-fountains in the city.
Streets.—In 1886 there were in Philadelphia over
2000 miles of highways, of which 900 miles were
paved, the greater portion with cobble stones. For-
merly this style of pavement was universal, but now
a yearly appropriation is made for the replacement of
cobble-stones with improved materials, as Belgian
blocks and asphalt. The expenditure of the depart-
ment for 1887 was $1,010,061, the cost for street-clean-
ing being $314,022, yet the condition of the streets in
respect to paving and cleaning leaves much to be de-
sired. The total length of sewers was 300 miles.
Almost every leading street, except Broad, is tra-
versed by a car-track, double or single, making not less
than 300 miles of street railways, employing some
9000 horses. The uniform rate for a ride is 5 cents
and 8 for extreme distances. On Oct. 1, 1884, steam-
traction or cable-motor cars began to be run. Now
this system has over 20 miles in full operation, with 591
passenger-cars. An electric car built in Philadelphia
made an experimental trip on Aug. 4, 1887. It was
3ropelled by means of storage-batteries in the car.
The pavements of the streets on which car-tracks are
laid are required to be kept in repair between the
curbs by the several street-road companies, but this
condition is but indifferently carried out and is a source
of constant bickering.
In 1888 the total number of dwelling-houses in the
city was 274,835, and of stores having dwellings
attached 1386. The total number of building permits
issued from 1885 to 1887 (both years inclusive) was
21,243, the value of buildings of all descriptions erected
in 1887 being $45,000,000. The new schools erected
in the above three years were 39; factories, 212.
Finances.—On Sept. 1, 1887, the city controller
estimated the expenses of the departments for 1888 at
$17,110,188.18, exclusive of legal obligations amountin
to $4,438,089.93, the full amount to be provide
PHILADELPHIA.
195
according to estimate being $21,220,253.18. Valuation
of ...; sº
increase of $18,533,527 over 1887. Estimated revenue
of 1888 from all sources other than current taxes
$8,956,094.78, among these being $4,000,000 from the
gas department and $1,925,000 from the water depart-
ment. In order to meet all liabilities a tax-rate of
$2.89 would be required ; a rate of $1.85 yielding only
$10,805,324.86, or $6,304,863. 33 less than the depart-
ments ask. Councils, notwithstanding, voted a tax of
only $1.85, and the appropriations were reduced
accordingly. On Aug. 1, 1887, the funded debt of the
city was $58,252,720.22; the excess of debt above
securities being $33,967,785.75. -
Banking.—In July, 1888, Philadelphia had 42 Na-
tional banks with a total capital stock of $22,297,122,
and a reserve of $27,012,700, and deposits amounting
to $76,493,400. Of 18 State banks the capital stock was
$11,450,123; the specie in banks $6,635,382; deposits,
$2,632,646. A marked feature of Philadelphia bank-
ing of recent years has been the establishment of the
trust and safe depositcompanies, which combine, with the
general features of banking, offices hitherto confided to
individuals, such as the administration of estates,
acting as guardians, the direction of various trusts for
the benefit of individuals or corporations, etc.
Post-office.—The Philadelphia post-office is the finest
U. S. government building out .#W. affording
accommodations not only for its own proper depart-
ment but also for the internal revenue and pension
offices, for civil service examinations, for the U.
S. Courts, the railway mail service, the light-house
board, signal service station, etc. The receipts of the
post-office for year ending June 30, 1888, were $1,871,-
786.49; the expenditure, $782,279.89. The total
number of employés was 880. The letter-carriers
numbered 513, an increase of 95 since 1885, and the
aggregate number of pieces handled in the year was
326,388,247, or an average of 636,234 by each carrier.
The money order receipts were $4,436,928. 16.
Schools.-The public schools, in 1887, numbered
460, comprising a Normal School, a High-School, a
School of Practice, a Manual Training School, a
School of Industrial Art, 21 Night Schools, and 6s
Grammar Schools; the remainder being Secondary and
Primary Schools. The number of teachers was 2425
and of scholars 110,279. The expenditure of this de-
partment for the year was $2,028,279, and the money
invested in grounds, buildings, and furniture amounted
to $7,660,629. A new Catholic High-School of white
marble is in course of construction at Broad and
Callowhill streets. -
Harbor, and Marine.—The entries into the port of
Philadelphia in 1887 were 1377 vessels from foreign
ports, with a tonnage of 1,302,196, and 4414 coasting
vessels, tonnage not given. Of the latter 1539 were
steamers. The clearances were 1055 foreign vessels,
tonnage 975,097 ; and 4805 coastwise. Of the vessels
entering from foreign ports 333 were American, of
which 17 were steamers, and 1047 foreign, of which
538 were steamers. Of the clearances for foreign
ports 224, were American vessels, 15 being steamers,
and 843 foreign, 307 being steamers. Of the 4505
clearances coastwise 1819 were steamers. The amount
of receipts at the Custom House was in 1885, $13,918,-
553.66; in 1886, $16,303,918.77; in 1887, $17,950,235. -
19...The statement of vessels belonging in the district of
Philadelphia on June 30, 1888, is shown in the follow.
ing table :
Sailing vessels (wood), 405.........gross tonnage, 100,282.69
{ { “ (iron), 5.......... { { ( & 2,891.2S
Under 20 tons, 1.......... ( & { { 950.15
104,124. 12
Steam-vessels (wood), 99.......... gross tonnage, 19,723.39
t & (iron), 93.......... { { ... ( { 47,695.81
Under 20 tons, 74.......... { { { { 1,651.56
68,070.76
e property for 1888 was $647,213,039, a net.
The total exports from the port of Philadelphia in
1887 were to the value of $33,813,024, of which
$16,865,042 were to Great Britain. The imports were
of the value of $39,570,687, of which $16,744,437 were
from Britain. The Clyde line of steamers, inaugurated
by Thomas Clyde in 1842, with one steamer running to
New York, operates about 60 steamships and occupies
1000 ft. of wharves along the Delaware. The ship-
building works of William Cramp & Sons are espe-
cially, noted. In 1854 the total tonnage of vessels
launched and on the stocks in the 9 ship-building
yards then in the city was 13,797. On Sept. 1, 1888.
the tonnage of steamers under construction in Cramp's
yards was 24,214, the horse-power 44,200. Five of the
vessels were for the U. S. government, namely, the
Baltimore (cruiser, launched 5. 1888), of 4400 tons
displacement, and a guaranteed horse-power of 9000:
the Yorktown (gun-boat), 1700 tons, horse-power,
3000; the Vesuvius (dynamite-gun cruiser) 700 tons,
horse-power, 3500, guaranteed speed, 20 knots; the
Philadelphia (cruiser), 4400 tons, horse-power, 9500,
guaranteed speed, 19 knots ; the Newark (cruiser),
4083 tons, hºw: 8500. Three other great
vessels were on the stocks for private firms. In 1882
fourteen establishments gave employment to in all
2848 hands. Cramp's yards alone now employ 2200.
The channel of the Delaware at Philadelphia is seri-
ously obstructed by two islands, Smith's and Wind-
mill. For preliminary survey in regard to the re-
moval of these islands the U. S. government in 1888
appropriated $100,000, on condition that the city or
State should purchase the title to the islands.
The number of immigrants arriving at Philadelphia
in the year ending June 30, 1888, was 37,018, of
whom 11,543 were English, 7987 Irish, and 5062
Germans.
Railroads.-In 1886 the receipts of the Philadel-
phia and Reading Railroad were $29,343,998 and its
expenditure $16,450,338. The freight carried was
27,748,325 tons, the number of passengers 25,600,760.
Its mileage is 327 the number of its engines oper-
ated 943, and of its cars 57,354. In 1887 these num-
bers were largely reduced owing to the great strike in
the, coal region. The figures for the Pennsylvania
Railroad for 1887 were, receipts, $115,515,506 ex-
penditure, $77,238,082; freight, 106, 12S,215 tons ;
passengers, 68,153,705 ; engines, 1349; cars, 32,101.
In August, 1886, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
entered Philadelphia, having completed its Schuylkill
East Side road to a new depot at Twenty-fourth and
Chestnut streets. From the Schuylkillit passes through
a tunnel 5700 ft. long to Poplar street, where it connects
with the Reading Railroad. On being released from its
receivers early in 1888, the Reading Railroad applied to
Councils for leave to extend its line into the business
heart of the city by an elevated terminal from Ninth
and Green streets to Twelfth and Market. The project
has met with considerable opposition and is not yet
finally decided. A north-eastern elevated railroad is
also projected, its route being from Tacony to League
Island, with a branch to Jenkintown. Other effºrts
have been made to introduce elevated railroads.
Industries.—The census returns of industries, made
in 1880, Were so obviously incomplete as to lead to a
revised census being taken in 1882 under the Super-
Vision of...Mr. Lorin, Blodget, an experienced statis.
tician. His census for the iron industry shows 712
establishments (including rolling-mills, foundries, pipe-
and bolt-factories, machinery and steel-works, etc.),
employing in all 31,917 hands; the Wages paid being
$15,160,175, and the gross product $58,50s, isi. The
leather trade numbered 100 establishments, employing
2.52 men and 730 women and youths, with a product
of $10,712,800. The lumber, furniture, and cognate
manufactories yielded a gross product of $3s,335.53i.
In 1887 there were 130 brewing establishments, pro-
ducing 1,569,661 barrels yearly, of the total value of
$11,772,458. Mr. Blodget's return shows that the total
196
PHILIP-PHILISTINES.
number of manufacturing establishments within the
city in 1882 was 12,063, employing 242,483 hands, and
paying Wages amounting to $83,965,518. The gross
value of the product in that year was $481,226,309.
In 1888 Claus Spreckels, of San Francisco, erected
an extensive sugar-refinery on the Delaware River,
covering between 9 and 10 acres. The works will have
a capacity of 2,000,000 lbs. of sugar daily, employing
from 700 to 1000 hands.
. Voters.-On Sept. 26, 1888, the county commis-
Sioners made return of 232,311 registered voters, an
increase of 3219 over the number in 1887; the total
vote, Nov. 6, 1888, was 205,444. (J. H.
PHILIP, KING (d. 1676), an Indian chief noted
in New England history, was the son of Massasoit,
Sachem of the Wampanoags, who had formed a league
with the Pilgrims, at #. Mass., in 1621.
Massasoit continued friendly to the end of his life in
1661. Then his two eldest sons, Mooanum and Po-
metacon, going to Plymouth, requested English names,
and the court called them Alexander and Philip.
Alexander dying within a year, Philip became sachem.
He resided at Pokanoket, and for a time maintained
friendship with the whites as his father had done, but
in 1670 there were rumors of his disaffection, so that
in the next year an attempt was made to disarm the
Indians. Sassamon, a converted Indian, who had
given information of the hostile movements of the
tribe, was killed, and, when his murderers were tried
and executed, the Indians slew several whites. Philip,
Seeing that the steady advance of the whites was due
to their unity of action, prevailed upon the Narragan-
setts and other tribes to form an alliance to exter-
minate the English settlers. But the colonies of
Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth made still
closer connection to repel the common danger. Capt.
Winslow, in December, 1675, marched with 1000 men
against the stronghold of the Narragansetts, and
destroyed it with all their provisions for the winter.
he war raged with greater fury in the following
spring. Altogether, 13 towns, with 600 buildings, were
destroyed, and 600 colonists slain. But the Indians
were overpowered, and Philip, deserted, sought refuge
at Mount Hope, R. I. Even here he was pursued by
Capt. Benjamin Church, and slain Aug. 12, 1676.
His body was quartered, and his head was long ex-
posed on a gibbet at Plymouth. Church published a
History of the war (1716; republished 1865).
PHILIPPIANS. See ROMANs, EPISTLE TO THE.
PHILIPPOTEAUX, FELIX EMMANUEL HENRI,
French historical painter, was born at Paris, April 3,
1815. He studied under Cogniet, and in 1833 ex-
hibited his first painting, a scene from the American
revolutionary war. His next was The Retreat from
Moscow (1835), then followed The Taking of Ypres
(1837), and The Death of Turenne (1838).
visit to Algiers in 1840, he painted many scenes of
Algerian life. Among his noted works are Louis XV.
Visiting Field of Fontenoy (1840); The Last Banquet
of the Čiji. (1850); Charge at Balaklava (1859);
Siege of Puebla (1865); Meeting of Henri IV. an
Sully (1875). He also produced the remarkable pano-
rama of the Siege of Paris. His works have achieved
great popularity, due to their exhibition of the pomp
and circumstance of war and to their precision in de-
tails, but he cannot be said to display in any high
degree true artistic feeling.
is son, PAUL PHILIPPOTEAUX, born in Paris, Jan.
27, 1846, after studying in the Ecole des, Beaux Arts
and with Cogniet and Cabanel, assisted his father in
preparing the Cyclorama of the Siege of Paris, and
afterwards exhibited it in several American cities. He
made a similar representation of the Battle of Gettys-
burg, which has been exhibited at New York, Phila-
delphia, and other cities. He also prepared Cyglo-
ramas of the Falls of Niagara and of the Battle of Tel:
el-Kebir for exhibition in London, and of the Siege of
Plevna for St. Petersburg. Several of his paintings of
See Vol. XVIII.
After a L
war scenes and historical subjects have been exhibited
at the Paris Salon. In 1888 he exhibited in Boston a
Series of thirty large paintings illustrating the career of
Gen. Grant. His recent works have been illustrative
of American history.
PHILISTINES. The valuable article on this sub-
ject in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
correctly says that the Bible represents
Am. Rep.). the Philistines to have been immigrants
(Am. ix. 7; Jer. xlvii. 4; Deut. ii. 23;
Gen. x. 14). Its correctness is open to question, how-
ever, when it affirms, on the strength of 1 Sam. xxx.
14; Ezek, xxv. 16; Zeph. ii. 5; 2 Sam. viii. 18; xv.
18, etc., that “the #iliºs or a part of them, are
also called in the Bible Cherethites,’’ and that David's
celebrated “Cherethites and Pelethites’’ were Philis-
times. It is at least as natural to understand these
passages as representing that the Cherethites were a
different people, living to the south of the Philistines.
The statements found in Gen. xxi. 32, 34; xxvi. 1,
8, 14, 15, 18; Exod. xiii. 17; xxiii. 31 ; Josh. xiii. 2,
3; Jud. iii. 3, etc., to the effect that the Philistines
p. 755 (p. 769
were already in their seats in the Mediterranean low-
land in the time of Abraham, and that they lived there
from that time on, are indeed “inconclusive '' from
the point of view of those who reject these statements
as unhistorical ; but from any other point of view we
must regard this evidence as dating the Philistine
immigration at a time not later than Abraham. The
Book of Joshua says that Joshua conquered all this
lowland region, but specifies the Philistine cities as ex-
ceptions (x. 40, 41; xi. 16; x. 29–34; xii. 11–15; xv.
11, 38–47, etc.; cf. xi. 22; xiii. 2, 3). Except, there-
fore, on the basis of the wholesale rejection of the
existing evidence, it is a mistake to say that “the first
real sign of the presence of the Philistines is when the
Danites, who in the time of Deborah were seated on
the sea-coast (Jud. v. 17), were compelled—obviously
by the pressure of a new enemy—to seek another home
far north, at the base of Mount Hermon (Jud. xviii.).”
There is nothing in the history to justify the inference
that the migration of the Danites to Laish was caused
“by the pressure of a new enemy; ” the enemy which
at some date or other, pressed the Danites to the hill
country, is expressly said to have been not the Philis-
times but the Amorites (Jud. i. 34, 35); and the
migration to Laish occurred before the death of Phine-
has, the high-priest (Jud. xx. 1, 28), and consequently
a generation or more earlier than the times of Deborah.
The first real sign of the presence of the Philistines,
according to the testimony of the Bible, which is all the
evidence we have in the case, is in the times of Abra-
ham ; the first appearance of the Philistines as the
oppressors of is...}. in the times of Deborah herself,
ang º in the earlier times when the Danites took
alSI].
The careful reader of the Bible will find the following
statements to be true, though they differ alike from
those made in the article in the BRITANNICA and from
most of the opinions currently held. The Biblical
records represent that there were four periods of
Philistine oppression of Israel before the reign of
David. The first was in the time of Shamgar and
Deborah (Jud. iii. 31 ; v. 6, 8). It is again mentioned,
by way of reminiscence, in Jud. x. 11. The accounts
of it are very meagre, but the statement that Shamgar's
weapon was an ox-goad, and Deborah's asking whether
there was shield or spear among 40,000 in Israel, sug-
gest the existence of a state of things like that which
existed afterward in the time of Saul (1 Sam. xiii.
19–22); and thus suggest that the Philistine oppres-
sion of Shamgar's time was very effective and severe.
The fact of such an oppression over the southern tribes
existing at that time affords a better explanation than
those commonly given for the absence of Judah from
Deborah's roll-call of the tribes (Jud. v. 14–18).
The second Philistine oppression is mentioned in
Jud. x. 7, in connection with the administration of
PHILLIMORE-PHILLIPS.
197
Jair, and as preceding the Ammonite oppression of
eighteen years, from which Jephthah delivered Israel.
(See IsrAEL.) This second, Philistine oppression is
probably that of the times of Samson; the traditional
opinion, which identifies the times of Samson with
those of Eli, is not well grounded. In regard to this
oppression not much is told us apart from the personal
exploits of Samson, but we are informed that in Sam:
son's youth the Philistines were recognized as lords of
Judah (Jud. xv. 11), coming up into the country on
slight provocation, while toward the close of Samson's
life, after he had been twenty years judge, the Philis-
tines seem to have found it necessary to entrap him
across the border in order to attempt anything against
him (Jud. xvi.). It therefore seems that Samson
actually accomplished a deliverance for Israel, as it
had been promised he should (Jud. xiii. 5).
The third Philistine oppression was that of the times
of Eli. The rescue from this under Samuel was com-
plete, and lasted for many years (1 Sam. vii. 10–14).
The fourth Philistine oppression began in the reign of
Saul, after Saul had been so long on the throne that
his son Jonathan had grown to be a warrior (1 Sam.
xiii. 3 seq.). At first the Philistine success was com-
plete, but later Saul maintained himself against them
with greater or less success until the overwhelming
defeat at Gilboa, where he met his death.
The statement that “Philistia was never a part of
the land of Israel” is hardly consistent with 2 Sam.
viii. 1, 12; 1 Kings iv. 21, and many other statements
in the record. The account in the Bible seems to be
that the Philistines became tributary to David, and
remained under tribute to his descendants till the
times of Jehoshaphat and Jehoram (2 Chron. xvii. 11;
xxi. 16). After the division they naturally belonged
to the southern kingdom, as their territory was a part
of that of the tribe of Judah. The fact that we have
two accounts of sieges of Gibbethon by the kings of
northern Israel does not at all justify the inference
that “the house of Ephraim . . . . laid claim to the
suzerainty over Philistia.” The fact that Ahaziah of
Israel sent to inquire of a Philistine god (2 Kings i.),
or the fact that the Shunamite woman went to sojourn
in the land of the Philistines (2 Kings viii. 2) do not
necessarily prove that the Philistines were then entirely
independent of Judah. But evidently they had then
already become politically important. The revolt in
the time of Jehoram of Judah soon followed (2 Chron.
xxi. 10, 16). Shortly afterward the dynasty of Omri
was overthrown by Jehu, who took the throne as the
vassal of Shalmaneser II., of Assyria. At the same
date the dynasty of David was for six years displaced
from the throne of Judah by Athaliah. After this,
when we first hear from the Philistines (Am. i. 6–8,
et al.) they seem to be independent of Judah.
The contact of the Assyrians with Philistia does not
begin with Tiglath-pileser (B. C. 734). Shalmaneser
II, says that he took tribute from all the kings of the
Sea-coast, Tyre being expressly specified, and the Phil-
istines very likely being j' However this may
be, his grandson, Rimman-nirari III., whom the
Assyriologists date as reigning B. C. 812–783, but whose
date would be some forty years earlier by the chronology
found in the margins of most Bibles, the contemporary
of Jehoahaz and Jehoash of Israel, explicitly claims
suzerainty over the Philistines. See Smith's Chro-
nology, p. 115, or Schrader's Cuneiform Inscriptions,
translated by Whitehouse, p. 203–206. In the times
of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah, when the Assyrian power
was broken in all these regions, Uzziah partially re-
established the power of Judah over the Philistines (2
Chron, xxvi. 6, 7). Under his grandson, Ahaz, they
again became hostile (2 Chron. xxviii. 18; Isa, ix. 12),
and from that time on they mingled prominently in the
struggles in which Judah, Egypt, Assyria, and Bab-
ylonia were engaged. (W. J. B.)
PHILLIMORE, SIR Robert Joseph (isio-1885),
an English jurist, was born in London, Nov. 5, 1816.
He was educated at Westminster School and Christ
Church, Oxford, graduating in 1831. He was after-
wards clerk in the Board of Control, was called to the
bar at the Middle Temple, and became Queen's Coun-
sel. Besides having extensive practice in civil courts,
he was made chancellor of the dioceses of Chichester
and Salisbury. He was elected to Parliament, from
Tavistock in 1853 and took an active part in legislation
pertaining to ecclesiastical affairs. In , 1862, he was
made advocate-general in admiralty and received the
honor of knighthood. In 1867 he was made Judge of
the High Court of Admiralty and of the Arches Court
of Canterbury, being then sworn of the Privy Coun-
cil. After holding other offices he was in 1875, on the
reorganization of the courts, nominated judge of the
admiralty and probate division of the High Court
of Justice, Wid office he held till his death, Feb. 4,
1885. As a writer his fame rests on his valuable
Commentaries upon International Law (4 vols., 1854–
61). He also published Memoirs of George Lord Lyt:
tleton (2 vols., 1845); Ecclesiastical Law of the Church
of England (3 vols., 1873); an annotated translation
of Lessing's Laocoön (1874), and several treatises of
temporary interest.
His daughter, CATHARINE MARY PHILLIMORE, has
written The King's Namesake (1872); Thoughts on
Marie Antoinette (1873); Pictures from the Early His-
tory of Venice (1874); Scenes from the Life of Savon-
arola (1881), and has edited the Eikon Basilike (1879),
which she maintains to be the work of King Charles I.
PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811–1884), orator, was
born at Boston, Nov. 29, 1811. His father, John
Phillips (1770–1823), was chosen first mayor of Boston
in 1822. Wendell graduated at Harvard College in
1831 and was admitted to the bar in 1834. His natural
gifts, social advantages, and scholarly training seemed
to mark him out for conspicuous success in the usual
course. But his destiny was swayed by his profound
moral character, moved by the peculiar circumstances
of his city, State, and nation. oston was a centre of
wealth and refinement, but still more was it a city of
merchants. The commercial spirit guided its action,
when, on Oct. 21, 1835, a mob of gentlemen gathered
to break up an anti-slavery meeting presided over by a
woman. Their wrath had been especially roused
against George Thompson, an English anti-slavery
lecturer, but when he escaped, they seized and dragged
through the streets with a rope the non-resistant Wii.
liam iloyd Garrison. The sight of this infuriated,
well-dressed mob stirred Phillips' moral nature to its
lowest depths, and this pure-souled, high-born lawyer
joined in spirit with the persecuted abolitionist. Two
years of thought and study passed before he was
prominently identified with that cause. A meeting
was held in Faneuil Hall on Dec. 8, 1837, to make on
behalf of Boston a protest against the murder of Rev.
Elijah P. Lovejoy at Aiton, Tii who had been killed
by a mob while defending the printing-office of his
anti-slavery newspaper. Rev. Dr. Channing made an
impressive address and proposed resolutions, when Mr.
J. T. Austin, State attorney-general, who had come
with others to divert the meeting from its purpose,
strenuously objected. Phillips was called on to reply
and at once overwhelmed the apologist for murder
with a torrent of indignant eloquence. But the
moneyed aristocracy of Boston closed their doors in
the face of the champion of abolitionists. He never
faltered. He adopted Garrison's view of slaveholding
as a sin, personal and national, and immediate emanci.
pation as a duty. Believing that the U. S. Constitu-
tion by its compromises recognized and supported
slavery, he gave up his legal practice and even the ex-
ercise of the elective franchise as contaminating. But
he used all the more the mighty power of the platform
and the press. He spoke without pay wherever he had
a chance to be heard on his chosen topic. For ad-
dresses on other subjects he was paid, but he generally
turned the proceeds into a fund to advance the cause
198
PHILLIPS–PHOENIXVILLE.
to which he had consecrated his life, his fortune, and
his honor. The power of steady, systematic agitation
he afterwards acknowledged he had learned from the
example of Daniel O'Connell. Phillips' eloquence
and devotion profoundly influenced public opinion
throughout the North, though the number of professed
abolitionists always remained small. Other causes
operated to hasten the national crisis. At last war
came, not from the North against slavery, but from
the South against the Union, which the slaveholders
rejected as an insufficient safeguard of their peculiar
institution. Then Phillips urged with renewed em-
phasis on the Northern people and their leaders the
expediency and duty of emancipation. Only after
twenty months' struggle to avoid resorting to this
momentous war-measure did President Lincoln issue his
emancipation proclamation, Jan. 1, 1863. But Phil-
lips still condemned the administration as sluggish and
dilatory and opposed Lincoln's re-election. In 1865,
when the war was brought to a triumphant close, Gar-
rison proposed that the American Anti-Slavery So-
ciety, of which he had been president for thirty years,
should be disbanded as having accomplished its object.
But Phillips insisted in prolonging its work until the
negro should have the constitutional right of suffrage.
He was its president from that time until 1870, when
it dissolved. Part of its later work was to secure the
removal of race distinctions in public institutions and
conveyances and in all places of public resort. Phil-
lips had from his first entering the ranks of the Aboli-
tionists urged the admission of women to their so-
cieties on equal terms, and he pleaded in their behalf
at the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in
1840. The close of the war gave leisure to many
whose energies had been therein occupied, and the
cause of women's rights received a great access of
numbers and enthusiasm. Phillips was still a promi-
nent advocate of this and other social changes. His
sympathies were manifested in behalf of the Indians,
who had been cheated and oppressed both under the
treaties made with their tribes, and in violation of such
treaties. The perennial sufferings of the working
classes became also the subjects of his consideration.
He became an ardent champion of temperance, and
even of State Prohibition. In 1870 he was nominated
by a convention of Prohibitionists for the governor-
ship of Massachusetts. A few years later he advo-
cated the governmental issue of an irredeemable paper
currency. In this Greenback movement he came to
agreement with another Massachusetts man, whose
career otherwise presents a striking contrast with his
own—Gen. Benjamin F. Butler. But little effect,
however, was produced by the movement except Gen.
Butler's election to the governorship, when the Green-
back party was merged in the Democratic. But an:
other noteworthy event marked the seventieth year of
the veteran agitator. In 1881 his Alma Mater, who
had so long shown marked coldness towards her noble
son because of his denunciation of popular evil, so far
relaxed her severity that he was called to make the
address on the centennial anniversary of the Phi Beta
Kappa Society. His Puritanic conscience compelled
him even then to say some things hard to listen to,
but the oration was worthy of the man and the place.
He delivered his last public address on Dec. 26, 1883,
and died at Boston Feb. 2, 1884. (J. P. L.)
PHILLIPS, WILLARD (1784–1873), lawyer, was
born at Bridgewater, Mass., Dec. 19, 1784. He gradu-
ated at Harvard College in 1810, and was tutor there
until 1815. Having been admitted to the bar he prac-
tised law in Boston until 1845 with conspicuous suc-
cess. ... He was employed by a legislative commission
in codifying the criminal law of Massachusetts, and
from 1837 to 1847 he was county judge of probate.
Thereafter he was president of the New England Mu-
tual Life Insurance Company until his death, Sept. 9,
1873. He was a contributor to the North American
Review, and for some years editor of the American
Jurist. He was associated with Edward Pickering in
editing Reports, prepared legal treatises on insurance
and patents, and published a Mantual of Political
Economy (1828) and Protection and Free Trade (1850).
PHILLIPSBURG, a city of New Jersey, in War-
ren co., on the Delaware River, opposite Easton. It
is on the Belvidere-Delaware Railroad, which here
connects with the Morris and Essex and the New Jer-
sey Central Railroad. Two railroad bridges cross the
river here. Phillipsburg has two banks, seven
churches, a high-school and other schools, and a
weekly newspaper. There are several iron-foundries,
a rolling-mill, boiler- and locomotive-works, and other
iron-works. Its population in 1880 was 7181.
PHILPOTTS, HENRY (1778–1869), English bishop,
was born at Gloucester in 1778. He was educated at his
native town and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
where he graduated in 1795 and was then elected a
fellow of Magdalen College. He was made one of the
chaplains of Rev. Dr. Barrington, bishop of Durham,
in 1806, afterwards prebendary of Durham Cathedral.
In 1828 he was made dean of Chester. He had op-
posed Canning's plan of Roman Catholic emancipa-
tion and was consulted by the Duke of Wellington in
regard to the act for that purpose passed in 1829. He
was made bishop of Exeter in 1830 and was thence-
forth the official leader of the High Church party in
all the controversies of a stormy period. In 1849 he
refused to institute the Rev. Mr. Gorham in a church
living on the ground of his denial of baptismal regener-
ation. The judicial committee of the Privy Council,
however, decided in Mr. Gorham's favor, but when
the Archbishop of Canterbury carried out the decision,
Bishop Philpotts anathematized the archbishop. He
wrote an abundance of controversial pamphlets but no
work of importance. He died at Bishopstoke, Sept.
18, 1869. -
PHIPS, or PHIPPS, SIR WILLIAM (1651–1695),
colonial governor of Massachusetts, was born at Wool-
wich, Maine, Feb. 2, 1651. His parents had twenty-
six children, of whom twenty-one were sons. In boy-
hood he was a shepherd, but at the age of eighteen
bound himself to a ship-carpenter, and in 1673 he re-
moved to Boston, where he learned to read and write.
Going to England in 1684 he obtained from the Admi-
ralty the use of a vessel to recover the treasures from a
Spanish wreck, near the Barbadoes, but was unsuccess-
ful in this first attempt. In 1687 a second was made with
the aid of the Duke of Albemarle, and treasure was
recovered to the amount of £300,000, of which Phips'
share was £16,000. His partners also procured for him
the honor of knighthood, and he was appointed high-
sheriff of New England. In May, 1690, he captured
Port Royal in Nova Scotia, but in October his fleet of
thirty-four sail was three days too late to capture Que-
bec, reinforced in the meantime by Frontenac. While
in England in 1692 he was appointed governor of Mas-
sachusetts through the favor of Increase Mather, the
colony's agent in England He returned to Boston in
May, where his administration was made notorious by
the delusion of the Salem witchcraft. Phips, a mem-
ber of Cotton Mather's congregation, for a time will-
ingly followed his pastor in the hideous persecution,
but finally issued a general pardon to all accused of
witchcraft. There had been a strong opposition to his
government, and in 1694 he was summoned to England
to answer the complaints brought against him. He
died suddenly at London, Feb. 18, 1695.
PHOENIXVILLE, a borough of Chester co., Pa.,
is on the S. bank of the Schuylkill River, 28 miles
N.W. of Philadelphia. The Pennsylvania and the Phil-
adelphia and Reading Railroads pass through the town.
The former has here a branch-road to Frazer, and the
latter has the Pickering Valley branch. The extensive
iron- and steel-works of the Phoenix Iron Company
and the Phoenix Bridge Company give employment to
2400 men. Several fine bridges erected by these com-
panies span the Schuylkill River and French Creek in.
PHOSPHATES-
PHYLLOXERA. 199
the vicinity. Phoenixville has two national banks, 1
daily and 2 weekly newspapers, 10 churches, manu-
factures of cotton goods, stockings, pottery, needles,
shirts, and boiler-works. The borough was incorpor-
ated in 1849. It has gas- and water-works, and is free
of debt except the water-loan of $220,000. Electricity
is used to light the iron-works. Near the town is a
beautiful cemetery containing a monument to the sol-
diers who fell in the civil war.
PHOSPHATES are the compounds formed by the
union of basic bodies with phosphoric
See Vol. XVIII; anhydride, P., Os. Of these much the
K sº (p. 827 most important, and the one to which
m. Rep.). our attention will be confined, is phos-
phate of lime, 3 CaOP,0s, which forms the prin;
cipal constituent of several minerals, especially of
APATITE (q.v.), and is the basis of all bones and horns.
Phosphorus, indeed, occurs in nature principally in
the form of phosphate of lime, from which it is usu-
ally derived. Thus combined it appears to be an es-
sential element of plant food, concentrating itself par-
ticularly in the seeds of plants, whence it enters into
the food of animals, to which it is perhaps even more
necessary.
Lime phosphate occurs in many forms in the super-
ficial deposits of the earth's surface, and is the basis
of most of the artificial fertilizers which are now so
largely manufactured, and of the natural manures
which are applied without special preparation to the
soil. It is, for instance, an important constituent of
guano, whose value depends very largely on the per-
centage of lime phosphate which it contains. It also
forms a minor constituent of the marls which occur in
such abundance in this country, vast deposits existing
in New Jersey, and in a broad belt running parallel to
the coast from South-east Virginia to the western limit
of Georgia, and thence across Alabama into Missis-
sippi. The percentage of phosphates in these marls
is small, yet it is sufficient to add considerably to their
value as fertilizers. -
Far the most important deposits of phosphates,
however, are those which are É. as “phosphate
rock” which exists abundantly in South Carolina and
elsewhere. The marl beds near Charleston, S. C., are
overlaid by a stratum of what was formerly supposed
to be nodules of limestone, and was thrown aside as
useless in the mining of these marls. These “marl
stones” were hard, rounded concretions, from the size
of a potato to a diameter of several feet, and had evi-
dently gained their rounded form by rolling in water.
In 1867 Dr. St. Julian Kavenal was induced to ex-
amine them, and quickly discovered that they con-
tained phosphate of lime to the important extent of
55 to 60 per cent. The announcement of this fact was
followed by the discovery that, in addition to the
known deposits, the rivers near Charleston flowed over
beds * with this rock. So far as has been ascer-
tained the beds of phosphate rock underlie an area 70
miles in length and 30 miles in greatest width, and are
practically inexhaustible as sources of fertilizing ma-
terial. The State receives a royalty on all phosphate
rock removed from navigable streams, the quantity
paid on in 1886 being 191,174 tons. Nearly the whole
of this river rock is shipped to foreign and domestic
ports, the South Carolina, phosphate-factories using
the land rock almost exclusively. In 1884 there were
40 such companies, engaged in crushing the rock into
fertilizing material.
Similar deposits exist in North Carolina, in which
State a special survey made in 1884 disclosed nearly
150 separate beds of phosphate nodules. These are
found in a belt of territory 15 to 20 miles wide, and
extending from the Neuse River to the South Carolina
boundary. It runs parallel to the coast and from 20
to 25 miles inland. Similar rock has also been dis-
covered in Florida, occurring in the north-western part
of the State, and also near Gainsville, in the central
region. In places these beds are 6 to 8 feet thick.
The phosphates here described are of animal origin,
and belong to the early tertiary age of geology.
Phosphatic deposits of cretaceous age have been found
in Alabama and Mississippi, and taken as a whole the
American phosphate-beds promise to be of immense
value to agriculture. In addition to the natural phos-
phatic fertilizers the manufacture of artificial ones, is
an industry of considerable importance. For a de-
scription of these see FERTILIZERS. (C. M.)
PHYLLOXERA (Phylloacera vastatric, Planchon).
In 1865 Prof. J. E. Planchon, of Montpellier, France,
announced the discovery of the fact that the disease
of the grape-vine, which had attracted much attention
in the south of France around the mouth of the Rhône,
was due to the work of a minute plant-louse on the
roots. It had previously been described under, three
different generic names in its apterous form, but it
was properly placed by Planchon in the genus Phyl-
loacera and given the specific name of vastatric. In
1854 Dr. Asa Fitch of New York had described an
American grape-leaf gall-louse under the name of
Pemphigus vitifoliae, and in 1869 M. J. Lichtenstein
of Montpellier, France, suggested that this species
might be identical with P. vastatric. Acting upon
this suggestion, Prof. C. V. Riley, then State Ento-
mologist of Missouri, in 1870 established the identity
of the two insects, and in 1871 proved the existence
of the root-inhabiting form in this country, announc-
ing, in the Fourth Missouri Entomological Report, that
there is every reason to believe that the failure of the
European vine in this country and the partial failure
of the hybrids of our vines with the European, as
well as the deterioration of the tenderer native va-
rieties, are chiefly due to the work of this insect. Prof.
Riley's conclusions as to the identity of the American
and European insects were proven correct the same
year by European observers, and were again confirmed
by Prof. Planchon in 1873 when he visited this country
under a commission from the French government.
The most important result of his visit was the dissipa-
tion, to a great extent, of the prejudice existing against
the American vine in France and the confirmation in
his official report of all the more important facts and
conclusions previously announced by Prof. Riley, es-
pecially as to the resisting power of many of the native
American vines. A standing reward of 300,000 francs
offered by the French government for an efficient rem-
edy has stimulated an enormous amount of experi-
ment in that direction. Journals were founded devoted
to this one subject, and an extensive literature on the
subject has grown up since 1869.
he native home of the Grape Phylloxera is the
North American continent east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, and extends from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada.
From this region it has been introduced into Europe
and, recently, into California. It exists in two forms,
the one in galls on the leaves—called by Riley galli-
cola—and the other on the roots—radicicola. In the
gall-making form the species exists only as an agamous,
apterous and very prolific female, with a smooth skin.
The galls are transient, and may be abundant one year
and very scarce the ensuing year on one and the same
yine. The root form closely resembles the gall-making
individual at birth, but deviates later by acquiring
tubercles (see illustration). The insect passes the
winter in the so-called “ winter-egg '' state, either
above or below ground, or it hibernates as a young
larva, darkened in color and flattened in form, on the
roºts, where it can scarcely be distinguished. In the
following spring the winter-egg gives birth to a wing-
less, agamic female, which Riley calls the “stem-
mother,' and which may start a colony either in a
gall on the leaves or on the roots, the former being the
more, common, habit. Late in summer there is pro-
duced, from the root-feeding form a generation of
winged agamic females, which fly abroad and spread the
Species. Each of these winged females lays from 3 to 8
delicate eggs, most often in or on the ground at the base
200
PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
of the vine or occasionally on the lower surface of the
living leaf. They are so delicate as to require especially
favorable conditions to enable them to hatch. From
these eggs, which are of two sizes, come the only true
sexual individuals—males and females—the males from
the smaller eggs and the females from the larger.
They are born without mouth-parts and take no food.
The female, after having been impregnated, lays a
single egg, which is the only directly impregnated egg
produced in the life-cycle of the species, and which is
usually secreted under the loose bark of two-year-old
cane, and there hibernates. Such is the usual round
of life of the species, the exception being that the
wingless hypogean females may occasionally bring forth
the sexual individuals without the intervention of the
winged generation.
Sº jº B
* ! sº jº
ºš.
. . ; : . §º.
º
Yſ ºf
Phylloxera vastatriz.: a, healthy rootlet; b, rootlet with
swellings, caused by Phylloxera; c, do. with swellings
rotting ; dal, lice on larger roots; e, pupa ; g, winged female
—hair-lines showing natural size.
The insect spreads from vine to vine in the wingless
state, but the winged individuals—the immediate pre-
cursors of the sexual individuals—are capable of quite
extended flight, and spread the species from vineyard
to vineyard. It may also be carried to remote districts
in the winter-egg on cuttings.
The grape-vine most susceptible to the attacks of the
root form of the phylloxera is the European Vitis
vinifera. Of the native American varieties the most
susceptible—the Catawba, Delaware, and the Goethe
—belong to the Northern fox-grape (Vitis labrusca).
The hardiest and most resisting species among the
bunch grapes belong to Vitis aestivalis. The gall form
is found most abundantly on the wild winter- or
frost-grape (Vitis cordifolia), and least abundantly on
the European vine (V. vinifera). The symptoms of
the disease above ground are a sickly yellowish appear-
ance of the leaves and a reduced growth of the cane.
This is visible only during the second year of the
attack, and about the third year the vine usually dies.
The symptoms below ground the first year consist of
swellings on the rootlets; the second year of the rotting
and disappearance of the fibrous roots and the settling
of the lice upon the larger roots, which rot away
during the third year.
The natural enemies are quite numerous, though
they are principally found preying upon the gall-inhab-
iting form. #. remedies tried º been almost
innumerable. The most effectual so far experimented
with is the use of bisulphide of carbon, inserted by
means of a special injector, one of the best being that
Phyllozera vastatria: ; a, swellings on roots; b, newly hatched
root-louse; c, d, its antenna and leg; e, f, g, forms of
more mature lice—natural size indicated at side.
invented by M. Gastine, and known by his name.
Sulfo-carbonate of potassium is the next remedy that
has so far been iºd ; about a pint to 40 gals, of water
is employed to each vine, poured into a circular trench
around the vine. Petroleum emulsion, i. e., two parts
of kerosene emulsified in one part of sour milk, and
this mixed with from 40 to 100 parts of water, and
used in a similar manner, is recommended as still more
satisfactory. Submersion, where practicable, the use
of rich fertilizers, the adoption of the American resist-
ant varieties—like Taylor, Clinton, Jacques, etc.—as
stocks upon which to graft susceptible varieties, are the
most satisfactory.
See the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth
Missouri Entomological Reports; the Reports of the Cali-
fornia State Horticultural Commission, and the Reports of
the French Commission Superieure du Phylloſcera.
(C. V. R.)
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. In very remote periods
a definite association was recognized between health,
longevity, and physical exercise, and this became a
little later an integral part of the creed and the civiliza-
tion of all the most powerful nations of the world,
many of whom owed to its recognition their most bril-
liant successes in both warlike and artistic pursuits.
In Greece, especially, the cultivation of the body by
means of gymnastics begun in the earliest life of the
individual, fostered and encouraged by the enormous
rewards in both fame and riches accruing from success
at the Olympic games, and aided by a rigid application
of the principles of heredity, eliminating almost com-
pletely those persons unfit for the founding or propa-
gating of families, resulted in the nearest approach to
hysical perfection in an entire people that the world
i. ever witnessed. Aristotle considered a common-
wealth essentially defective if gymnastics were not a
part of its code, while Plato called him a cripple who,
cultivating his mind alone, suffered his body to “lan.
guish through sloth and inactivity.” The labors of
gymnastics, he very truthfully says, if excessive, may
make men hard and brutal, but under proper restric-
tions they stimulate the spiritual element of their
nature, make them courageous, and bring their passions
under control. &
The Greek gymnasia were not only schools for the
cultivation of the body, but exerted the greatest influ-
ence upon the development of art and upon intellectual
rogress. The idea ever present to the minds of the
§. that the first care of life should be the preser-
vation of bodily health, without which all other advan-










PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 201
tages of mind, of rank, of fortune, became void and
ineffective, resulted in the establishment of an ideal of
physical beauty and excellence which, reacted upon
their art, their manners, their entire civilization, and
made them in certain directions pre-eminently superior
to the rest of the world. Personal hygiene, and what
we now call physical culture, had already attained with
them the dignity of a science. The god of physicians
was the presiding deity of the gymnasia, and none
were considered so well qualified to regulate this branch
of education as those best acquainted with the art of
medicine. Their five favorite exercises—constituting
the pentathlon—running, leaping, wrestling, hurling
the lance, and casting the discus, were admirably
adapted to supplement one another in developing the
body and conferring a high degree of strength and
vigor, together with grace, celerity, and accuracy of
movement. Whatever was needed in addition was sup-
plied by their games of ball, by their practice in liftin
and carrying weights, and by swimming, pugilism, an
other athletic sports. * *
During the middle ages gymnastic and athletic
proficiency became the almost exclusive property of the
nobility and the professional soldiery, and was dis-
played only at tournaments and in actual warfare.
Among those comparatively small classes it was, how-
ever, brought to a great degree of perfection, and it
has been said that, even after the middle of the four-
teenth century, the levy of a small German burgh
could turn out more athletes than the combined armies
of the empire.
It was not until the beginning of the present century
that gymnastics became systematized or popularized
among modern nations. In Germany Jahn established
his gymnasium, or Turnplatz, at Berlin, in 1811, intro-
duced new apparatus, improved the defective system
of exercises, published a celebrated essay on the prin-
ciples of gymnastics, and organized the Turnvereine,
gymnastic societies which, apart from their occasional
connection with political movements, have been of the
greatest practical benefit not only to their members,
but, by force of example, to the community. As a
system of exercises is now employed for all the armies
of the German empire, and as all able-bodied adult
male citizens are required to give three years of per-
sonal military service, it is evident that nearly the
whole male population of Germany enjoys the advan-
tages of a systematic physical education at a period of
life when training is most valuable and important. In
Switzerland, Sweden, and France, societies analogous
to the Turnvereine were formed, and finally government
action was taken making gymnastic exercises com-
pulsory in most of the educational institutions as well
as in the army. In England, directly after the Crimean
War, a commission was appointed to consider the sub-
ject, and upon its report a code of instruction in
physical exercise was prepared by Mr. MacLaren, of
Oxford, which is now in satisfactory operation at all the
barracks of the British army.
In this country, although there are many excellent
ymnasia in the large cities, it is only within the last
ecade, and then at but few of the more important
colleges, that gymnastics have been regarded as more
than a pastime for the younger males, or a prescribed
and unpleasant remedy for some of the ailments of the
older members of society. In 1881, in the Northern
and Middle States, only three educational institutions
in a thousand paid any official attention to gymnastics,
athletics, or physical education. That this is not the
#. position of athletics in an intelligent community
as become evident to all thinking people; but there
are comparatively few who realize the incalculable
power for good which physical education, rightly under-
stood, encouraged, and applied, could have upon the
human race in years to come.
The excellent work and writings of MacLaren,
Ralfe, Ball, Sargent, Hartwell, Blaikie, Oswald,
Schaible and others, have done much to diffuse accu-
WOL. IV.-N
rate knowledge of its true value, and should be con-
sulted by all who desire complete information on the
subject. e e
ealth consists, in a comprehensive sense, in such a
condition of growth and development of all the organs
of the body as enables them to fulfil their functions
easily and completely, respond promptly to occasional
unusual demands upon them, and resist effectually the
attacks of disease. These unusual demands upon the
energies of the body are continually occurring in every-
day life, and should be of themselves sufficient induce-
ment to all persons to aim at the highest attainable
condition of health ; but when we know that on a cer:
tain day or during a certain time such an exceptional
demand will be made on the organism to put forth, all
its powers, we aim especially to prepare it to meet that
demand, and such preparation, whether preliminary, to
the exploration of a continent, the vicissitudes of a
campaign, the fatigue of a week's shooting, or the
strain of a four-mile boat-race, we call “training.”
MacLaren has thus well defined training as a method
of putting the body with extreme and exceptional care
under the influence of all the agents which promote its
health and strength, in order to enable it to meet
extreme and exceptional demands upon its energies.”
Ralfe defines it as “the art which aims at bringing the
body into the most perfect condition of health, making
muscular action more vigorous and enduring, an
increasing the breathing power.” Dr. Parkes says,
“Training is simply another word for healthy and
vigorous living.”
Of the agents of health which are employed in the
process of training, exercise is the most important,
though food, drink, rest, sleep, air, bathing, and cloth-
ing are elements which must be carefully considered.
To understand how exercise produces strength and
health, we should remember that the life of the body
as a whole depends upon the life of numberless atoms
which constitute it, and which are continually dying,
being cast off and replaced by others. The general
health depends directly upon the activity of this pro-
cess and the perfection with which it is performed.
The pabulum or food which is needed by all the organs
and tissues of the body for their repair or for their
growth and development is carried to them by the
blood. At every moment of our lives, whenever we
make a movement, draw a breath, change a muscle of
expression, conceive a passing fancy, certain cells die
and are disintegrated, as a consequence. They become
useless, and must be removed and carried to organs
whose function it is to eliminate them from the body;
new cells must be supplied to take their place. All
this is done by the blood, which in performing this
work becomes loaded with effete and useless material,
much of which in the shape of carbonic acid is thrown
off by the lungs. Now, this process is going on inces-
Santly at every imaginable point in the human organ-
ism. Whether sleeping or waking, sitting or standing,
walking or running, the same successive causes and
effects continue to follow one another in the same un-
broken circle of physiological phenomena—motion or
activity, temporary and molecular loss of vitality,
death of certain cells or atoms, disintegration of those
cells, their removal and ejection from the system by
means of the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys, their
replacement by others brought by the blood, renewed
vital power, and then further motion or activity, with
the same succession of events. Taken as a whole,
these events make up “life,” and, reducing the state-
ment to the simplest possible terms, we may say that
the health and strength of any individual are in direct
proportion to the thoroughness and eelerity with which
these occurrences take place; that is, to the speed and
accuracy with which the cells or atoms are removed and
replaced, or, as MacLaren says, to their “newness.”
Consequently, we are able to understand how an agent
of any sort which influences these processes favorably
must be one which will promote at the same time the
202
PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
§estruction of the old cells and their rapid replacement
by new ones; in other words, one which, while it has-
tens the molecular death of certain tissues, will at the
same time send them an increased amount of material
with which to repair damages, or which may even en-
able them to improve upon and add to the original
structure. Now, when we look for such an agent, dis-
carding drugs, of gourse, as inapplicable and injurious,
and assigning food to its proper place as fuel which
may be transformed into force but is useless alone and
unassisted, we find that there is but one means within
our reach for effecting this purpose safely, continu-
ously, and healthfully, and that is exercise. By “ex-
ercise ’’ is meant certain movements made by means
of the contraction of the voluntary muscles, and
made with sufficient force and rapidity to quicken the
breathing and the circulation of the blood, that is, to
augment the action of the involuntary' muscles con-
cerned in those functions, chiefly the heart and the
diaphragm. We understand what exercise thus essen-
tially means. The force which moves the muscles
employed in exercising is derived from the death or
burning up of some of the cells of the body; this
creates a need for the introduction of more oxygen
into the system to unite with the carbon of these cells
and produce this combustion ; this increased quantity
of oxygen is supplied through the lungs, which conse-
quently have to expand much oftener than usual to
meet the demand. This is the physiological and easily
understood explanation of the fact that exercise is ac-
companied by quickened breathing. The increase that
takes place in the quantity of air inspired under a va-
riety of movements has been estimated as follows:
Taking the amount of air inhaled at each breath in the
recumbent position at 1, it rises on standing to 1; ;
on walking at the rate of one mile an hour, to 1.9; at
four miles an hour, to 5; riding at a trot raises it to
4.05; and swimming to 4.33. But it must be remem-
bered that this oxygen thus brought to the lungs by
the increased quantity of air inspired can be carried to
the cells in the various tissues where it is needed only
by the blood, which must, therefore, itself be sent to
the lungs in greater amount to receive the oxygen and
to give up the carbonic acid with which it is laden; in
other words, when we exercise we not only breathe more
quickly, but the heart beats more rapidly and forcibly.
To make a similar comparison, we may say that while
lying down the heart will beat 65 or 70 times a minute ;
on standing, 75 to 80 times; on walking slowly, 80 to 90
times; during fastwalking,90 to 100 times; and during or
immediately after great physical exertion, as a boat-race
or a running-match, from 115 to 125 times a minute.
These, then, as Ralfe has pointed out, are the two
important facts to be remembered about exercise : that
it increases the breathing-power, rids us of carbonic
acid, and purifies our blood ; and that it increases the
action of the heart, sending a larger quantity of this
purified blood to all the tissues of the body, removing
their waste, supplying the material for their renewal,
and quickening all the vital processes.
Exercise thus fulfils all the conditions that we have
seem to be necessary in an agent which is to increase
strength and health. As soon as any act of exercise
is begun, a number of the voluntary muscles are put
into action, their contraction compresses the blood-
vessels and impels the venous blood actively towards
the heart, which, thus spurred, contracts vigorously and
sends the blood in increased quantity to the lungs.
The inspiratory muscles contract and lift the bony
frame-work of the chest, the diaphragm pushes down
the contents of the abdomen, and air rushes into the
lungs to fill the space thus produced and supplies the
oxygen needed for the purification of the blood. . This
is then returned to the heart, to be distributed anew
throughout the system, carrying with it the materials
to supply the waste caused by the muscular movement
originally made. These materials are often deposited
in larger quantities than are required to counterbalance
the destruction which has taken place, and then we
have the muscle growing in size, or in hardness, or
both. The involuntary muscles also, including the
heart and diaphragm, grow stronger in the same man-
ner, the pulsations of the heart during exercise be-
coming more forcible but at the same time slower and
less obtrusive, showing that it does its work more
easily, the increased activity of the circulation carries
the blood in larger quantity not only to the muscles
but also to all the organs of the body, and thus stimu-
lates them to greater activity, strengthening the appe-
tite, digestion, and nutrition, and causing a gain in
weight; the larger amount of blood sent to the skin
results in an increase in the quantity of perspiration,
which carries with it much of the worn-out and useless
or noxious material of the system, and thus adds to
the resistive power of the economy against evil influ-
ences from without, such as bad air from ill-ventilated
rooms or dirty streets; the bony frame-work of the
chest, though elastic, does not quite go back to its
original dimensions, but, increasing a little at a time,
Soon becomes noticeably augmented in size, giving
additional room for the important organs which it con-
tains and protects.
These, then, are the effects of exercise—the most
obvious but least useful being an increase in the size
and power of the voluntary muscles, the more impor-
tant being a strengthening of the involuntary muscles
concerned in the processes of respiration and circulation,
which enables us to use the increased power of the
voluntary muscles with comfort and safety, and to in-
fluence through these processes not only the health and
strength but also the growth and development of the
whole body, and even the activity and force of the men-
tal processes.
No system of exercise or of physical education is
complete unless it recognizes the necessity which ex-
ists for attending to the symmetrical development
of the contraction of the voluntary muscles, and the
body. If, for example, a typical rowing-man, one who
has been exclusively an oarsman, is carefully exam-
ined, it will be seen that his hips and thighs are devel-
oped at the expense of his calves; that the muscles of
his back and loins are far stronger than his chest mus-
cles; that his back arm and forearm somewhat exceed
in development and hardness the front arm, though
neither is noticeably developed. This condition indi-
cates the proper exercises with which to supplement
rowing in such a man, which will round him out, com-
plete his development, add to his symmetry, and in-
crease his general health and efficiency. He needs, ob-
viously, running for his legs, the parallel bars for his
chest, the rings or ladder for his upper arm ; and this
would be the advice which he would receive from a
careful and intelligent trainer, to his great advantage
not only as a man or an athlete but also as an oarsman.
Further examples might be drawn from athletic sports
to illustrate the general and important truth that no
one exercise (nor, indeed, any series of the recreative
and competitive exercises alone) will give complete
and symmetrical development.
It is with this fact in mind that the systems of physi-
cal education now in use at Harvard, the University of
Pennsylvania, and other American colleges, and long
used at Oxford, have been devised, the plan being
approximately as follows:
Each student is stripped and carefully examined as
to his weight, height, the circumference of his chest
and the size and condition of his legs, thighs, arms, and
forearms. The sum of these measurements, expressed
in any convenient terms which may be selected, centi-
metres or feet, for example, is taken as an approximate
indication of his development. It indicates, that is
with more or less accuracy (and particularly in men of
immature years, in whom there is but little subcuta-
neous fat), the amount of working material which he
possesses, though it fails to show the actual working
value of that material.
PHYSICK–PIANO.
203
Having recorded the development, the examiner pro-
ceeds to estimate the total available strength, and for
this purpose applies a series of tests which show the
strength and capacity of the lungs, and the strength
respectively of the back, legs, thighs, arms, and chest,
forearms and abdominal muscles. The sum of these
is expressed in the same terms as those indicating th; i
the strength is in excess of the development, the con-
development, and can readily be compared with it.
dition is good, and the figures representing it have a
plus value; if the reverse is the case, the cºndition
is poor, and the figures have a minus value. The per-
sonal and family history is also ascertained and recorded.
The examiner is now in position to give advice, if it
is required, upon a number of important topics. He
can point out to the man inclined to be pigeon-
breasted the value of the parallel bars or upright
bars; he can suggest to the man with weak legs the row-
ing-machine or the river; he can instruct the man with
the feeble or irritable heart to moderate his work, or
can advise the man with flabby muscles, slow circula-
tion, or undue accumulation of fat, to become more
active in his exercises. He can go further than
this, if need be, and can point out the proper diet
to those of gouty or rheumatic parentage, the proper
clothing to those inheriting a tendency to pulmo-
nary trouble, and in fact can apply the general rules
of hygiene or of preventive medicine to each indi-
vidual case, with the advantage derived from the pre-
vious thorough and scientific inspection. It would be
well, indeed, if every person in the community sub-
mitted to a similar examination by his family phy-
sician and received similar instruction. The effect of
such a course in warding off preventable disease could
hardly be overestimated.
These examinations are repeated from time to time,
and the changes carefully noted. It has already been
conclusively shown that not only are greater feats of
strength accomplished when this system is properly fol-
lowed, but that they are done with vastly greater ease and
Safety, owing to the symmetrical development of all
parts. Tables made out at Harvard by Prof. Sargent
(whose excellent papers on the subject are well worth
study) and extending over five years show, for instance,
taking the average of ten men as to “condition,” and
expressing the result in figures, that whereas in 1880
their strength was in excess of their development as
126 to 100, in 1884 the proportion had risen as 476 to
100; in other, words, their condition in 1880 being
taken at 126, it had in four years increased to 476,
or nearly fourfold. The improvement may be made
more readily comprehensible, perhaps, by taking a
special example of physical exertion. In 1880 there
Was not a man among them who lifted over 393 pounds:
that was the maximum. In 1884 the maximum was
675 pounds, while the minimum was 427, or 35 pounds
more than the maximum of the first year. The con-
comitant improvement in health and vitality cannot be
expressed in figures, but was no less marked.
This is the sort of athletic work which it seems most
Worth while to preach or prescribe to the world.
Competitive athletics, though far less dangerous and
much more beneficial than is generally supposed, can.
not, for want of time and opportunity, be indulged in
by the majority of men who have entered upon the
real work of their lives. In college students their un-
due encouragement is objectionable on account of the
9ne-sided and partial development which they
bring, and because of the frequent distraction
from college duties which they cause when the
Spirit of rivalry is allowed to become extreme. It
is desirable to foster and preserve the many
§ames , and sports in which for centuries it has
been the pride of the Anglo-Saxon race to ej
and to encourage their spread, not only among the stu-
dents of our schools and colleges, but among the dys.
Peptic, nervous, and over-worked professional and busi.
*ss men produced in such enormous numbers by the
strain and hurry and exciting competition of Our mod-
ern life. But, at the same time, the evils, which sur-
round these sports should be avoided, the risk of strain
from lack of proper preparation, i.e., of rational train-
ing;" the risk of developing the competitive element
until all things are sacrificed for success in one particu-
lar direction or event; the danger—especially to be
guarded against in our colleges—of introducing the
spirit of “professionalism '’ which looks rather at
the prize now than at the means by which it was
obtained ; which abounds in quibbles and wrangles
and unkind feeling; which reduces the masses to the
position of spectators and develops a few specialists in-
stead of a large number of general athletes. It should
be understood that the main object and idea of exer-
cise is the acquirement and preservation of health ;
that it is by far the most important therapeutic and
hygienic agency at the command of the physician of
to-day ; that it can be prescribed on as rational a basis
with as distinct reference to the correction of existing
troubles or the prevention of threatened ones as any
of the drugs of the pharmacopoeia; that it increases
not only the muscular strength and vitality but also
the activity and vigor of the brain ; that it augments
incalculably the working power of the individual, and
that it enables him, by means of the health and strength
which it confers, not only to do better work than his
business or professional rival who lacks these attributes,
but also to do it more easily and safely, with the great-
est amount of comfort and pleasure and the highest
degree of usefulness to mankind. (J. W. w.)
HYSICK, PHILIP SYNG (1768–1837), physician,
was born at Philadelphia, July 7, 1768. is father
had charge of the estates of the Penn family. After
being taught at the Friends' Academy, he went to
Europe to study medicine, and was private pupil under
John Hunter. He was made house-surgeon to St.
George's Hospital, obtained a diploma from the Royal
College of Surgeons, and graduated at the University
of Edinburgh in 1792. Returning to Philadelphia,
he was soon made physician of the yellow-fever hos.
pital during the epidemic of 1793, and one of the sur-
geons of the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1805 he was
made professor of surgery in the University of Penn-
Sylvania, and in 1819 was transferred to the chair of
anatomy, which he held for twelve years. He stood
in the foremost rank of his profession as a Surgeon,
and was exceedingly popular as a lecturer. He was
honored with membership in several medical societies
of Europe. His only publications were in the med.
ical journals. ... He died at Philadelphia, Dec. 15, 1837.
PIANO. Th; general history and construction of
r., x-y- the pianoforte are treated at length in
sº Nº. the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNISA. This
Ām. Rep.). article will therefore be confined to piano
manufacture in America. The piano
was already known and manufactured in Europe when
this nation was still in its infancy. Yet the inventive
genius of the American, once applied to this instru.
ment, accomplished as much towards perfecting it as
all the other nations put together. It is generally
supposed that Benjamin Crehore, of Milton Mass.
made the first piano produced in this country. This
Was about at the beginning of the present century.
Adam and William Bent were making pianos in Bos.
ton as early as 1803. In 1810 the brothers Alpheus
and Lewis Babcock, who had learned their trade with
Crehore, joined with Thomas Appleton and the Hoyts
music dealers, under, the firm-name of Hoyts, Babº
cocks & Abpleton. After the war of 1S12 the Hoyts
Went to Buffalº, John Mackay taking their place.
The firm was dissolved about 1820, john Osbºrne
Worked with this firm, and subsequently set up for
himself, and with him Jonas Chickering (1797–1853)
and Timothy Gilbert worked as journeymen. James
Stuart, a Scotchman, who had the reputation of making
an excellent piano, was associated f *
Was Assºciated for a time with Os:
borne, and later with Chickering. After the firm of
204
PIANO.
Hoyts, Babcocks & Appleton had been dissolved, John
ackay was associated for a few years with Alpheus
Babcock. In 1830 Mackay formed a partnership with
Jonas Chickering, which lasted until his death in 1841.
Chickering had started in business for himself in 1823.
He soon began introducing the improvements which
have made his name famous, and the rapid perfection
of the American piano is in a large measure due to
him. Alpheus Babcock, of Boston, who afterward,
and until his death, was foreman of the Chickering
factory, had, in 1825, patented a cast-iron frame for
Square pianos. In 1833 Conrad Meyer, of Philadel-
phia, also exhibited a piano with a full cast-iron frame.
Babcock's plan of construction was greatly improved
and modified by Chickering, who, in 1837, made his
first Square piano with a complete iron frame, and
three years later the first grand piano ever made with
a full iron frame. About 1843 he took out a patent on
an invention of great importance. This was the intro-
duction of a cast-iron flange on the top of the plate
covering the head-block, which flange was drilled for
each string to pass through. This gave the strings a
firm tendency upwards, and served at the same time as
a transverse strengthening-bar. When grand pianos
of this construction were sent to the i.
Exhibition of 1851, in London, they attracted consid-
erable attention, and were awarded a prize medal. In
1856 this method of construction was superseded by
the “agraffe'' system now in use. According to this
a solid iron flange is cast on the under side of the iron
frame, into which the “agraffes” are screwed. In
1845 Chickering invented and first used the circular
scale for square pianos. The improvements mentioned
are only the most important of those introduced by
him. After his death, in 1853, the business was carried
on by his sons, under the old firm-name, Chickering &
Sons. They have a large branch house in New York,
in the same building with the well-known “Chickering
Hall.” The number of pianos that have come from
their factory is about 75,000. The originator of the
system of “overstringing,” which Chickering did not
adopt until 1853, is, it seems, not known. It has been
claimed, however, that the first piano on this plan
made in America came from the factory of John B.
Dunham. º
Among Chickering's competitors in Boston were
Lemuel and Timothy Gilbert, and about this time a
number of piano-makers were beginning to work in
Albany. Among the first were Boardman & Gray and
James A. Grovesteen. Later came Meecham & Pond,
John Osborne, and others. Grovesteen went to New
York in 1843, and retired from business in 1886. The
rominent firms in New York at this time were R. &
§ Nunns, who enjoyed an excellent reputation ; Stod-
dart, Worcester & Dunham; Firth, Pond & Co., later
Firth, Hall & Pond (the same Pond who was associated
with Meecham in Albany); Bacon & Raven (estab-
lished about 1840); William H. Gieb & Co.; Linden &
Fritz, and Lindeman & Sons (established 1836). Henry
Hazleton was an apprentice with Dubois & Stoddart in
1831. He and his brother were for a time with Bacon
& Raven, but began business soon after that firm was
established. When, some time before 1840, William
Nunns left R. & W. Nunns, Charles S. Fischer entered
the firm, which changed its name to Nunns & Fischer.
Later, he and his brother, John W. Fischer, began
conducting business together, under the name of J. &
C. Fischer, by which the firm is still known. Frank
and Napoleon J. Haines were apprenticed in 1839 to
the N. Y. Pianoforte Manufacturing Company, and,
in 1851, started in for themselves. One of our earlier
musicians, William B. Bradbury, also began to manu-
facture pianos in 1854, in partnership with his brother,
E. G. Bradbury. * e g
A house that has played a prominent part in the
growth and development of piano; making, in this
country is that of Steinway & Sons. , Henry Engelhard
Steinway (originally Steinweg), the founder of the firm,
was born in Germany in 1797. He was originally an
organ-builder, but soon began making pianos on a
small scale, exhibiting some as early as 1839. In 1850
he came with his family to New York, where, three
years later, he established the house which bears his
name. The business increased very rapidly, and, after
repeated removals, the firm finally settled in its present
quarters in 1863. Three years later the well-known
concert-room, “Steinway Hall,” in the same building,
was opened to the public. In 1875 a branch house
was opened in London, England, and in 1880 another
in Hamburg, Germany. Charles and Henry, two of
the sons, died in 1865, and the father in 1871. The
business is now carried on by William Steinway, C. F.
Theodore Steinway, and some younger members of the
family. The firm has patented a number of inven-
tions, among which the overstrung scale (1859); an
agraffe arrangement for square and grand pianos (1859);
the duplex scale (1872); and the tone-sustaining pedals
(1874–75). Their instruments take high rank, and
have gained honors whenever exhibited, notably at
London in 1862 and 1885, and in Paris in 1867.
In 1833 William Knabe (1803–64) came to this
country, and began to work in Baltimore, first under
Hartge, and later alone. He and H. Gaehle went into
partnership in 1839, under the name of Knabe &
Gaehle, and when Gaehle died in 1855 Knabe con-
tinued the business, under the name of William Knabe
& Co. This name it still bears, his sons, William and
Ernest, and his son-in-law, Charles Keidel, constitut-
ing the present firm. The house manufactures a first-
class piano, and its instruments are much in demand.
Another well-known house is that of Weber, also
founded by a German. Albert Weber came to the
United States in 1845, settling in New York. Seven
years later he started in business for himself, but it
was not until about 1871 that the business began to
assume the large proportions to which it subsequently
grew. hen Weber died in 1879 he was succeeded
by his son, Albert Weber, Jr., who, the following year
opened a branch house in Chicago. The house o
eorge Steck & Co., of New York, was established in
1857 by George Steck, the senior partner. Among
the improvements which Mr. Steck i. introduced is
one patented in 1870 in the frame of upright pianos.
His instruments are favorably known, both in this
country and Europe. One of the younger firms is that
of Sohmer & Co., founded in 1872 by Hugo Sohmer
and Joseph Kudor. They also have introduced sev-
eral improvements in construction, among which the
improvement of the “Allicot'’ system, by which they
place the auxiliary tone-re-enforcing string above the
other three, and arrange all the tuning-pins on one side.
They have patented also an improved agraffe-bar for
the upper three octaves of squares and grands (1882),
a pianissimo pedal (1887), and an action in upright
pianos for obtaining quick and certain repetition (1882).
The firm gives much attention to upright pianos, in
which it excels.
The firm of Decker Brothers, of New York, estab-
lished by the brothers, David and John Jacob Decker,
in 1862, has also introduced several notable improve-
ments, and is still adding to its reputation. Myron A.
Decker (not related to the members of the preceding
firm) began business in Albany in 1856, and four years
later came to New York. Here he worked for seven-
teen years, sometimes alone, sometimes in partnership
with others, until, in 1878, he and his son formed the
present firm of Decker & Son. Other firms of greater
or less repute at the present day are Kroeger & Sons
(Henry Kroeger came to New York in 1855, and was
superintendent under the Steinways for 24 years);
Ernest Gabler & Bro. (established 1854); Kranich &
Bach ; Calenberg & Waupel (established 1858); Kra-
kauer Bros. ; Mathushek Piano Manufacturing Com-
pany; Vose & Sons (established 1851); F. Bräutigam;
F. Schuler; Behning; and Behr Bros. & Co. (founde
in 1881), all of New York. The Henry F. Miller &
PIATT–PICKERING. 205
Sons Piano Company, of Boston, Mass., was organized
in 1884, succeeding Henry F. Miller, who had estab-
lished himself as early as 1863; the Emerson Piano
Company, and the Ivers & Pond Piano Company, also
have their head-quarters in Boston. Many others, too
numerous to name here, have arisen within recent
years. The Mason & Hamlin Organ and Piano Com-
pany deserves mention for the new method of string-
ing it has introduced. By this system, which was
patented in 1883, the strings are secured by metal-
#. fastenings directly to the iron frame, instead of
winding them around wrest-pins set in wood as in the
old system.
The business of piano-making in this country is con-
tinually assuming larger proportions, and new firms
continue to spring up. Naturally, a certain percentage
of the work produced is cheap and poor. But on the
whole the many useful improvements made in the con-
struction of the piano by American manufacturers
have served to make their instruments superior in
many ways to those produced in Europe. (F. L. W.)
PIATT, JOHN JAMES, poet, was born at Milton,
Dearborn co., Ind., March 1, 1835. Taken in boy-
hood to Columbus, Ohio, he became a printer. In
1856 he removed to Illinois and soon began to con-
tribute poems to the Louisville Journal, whose editor,
G. D. Prentice, proved a steadfast friend. In 1860
Piatt and W. D. Howells published at Columbus
Poems of Tico Friends. In 1861 Piatt removed to
Washington, having been appointed clerk in the U. S.
Treasury Department. In 1867 he engaged in news-
aper work in Cincinnati, but in 1870 is returned to
Washington as clerk in Congress, and two years later
was made librarian of the lower House. In 1882 he
was appointed U. S. consul at Cork, Ireland. His
publications are Nests at Washington (1864); Poems
in Sunshine and Firelight (1866); Western Windows
(1869); Landmarks and other Poems (1871). The
later volumes contain old retouched as well as new
poems. His uncle, DONN PIATT, born in 1829, rose
to the rank of colonel in the civil war, and is noted as
a journalist.
J. J. Piatt's wife, SARAH MoRGAN BRYAN PLATT,
born near Lexington, Ky., Aug. 11, 1836, was educated
at Henry Female College, Newcastle, Ky., and early
wrote º for the Louisville Journal. She was
married in 1861, and some of her early poems were
published in Nests at Washington and others in
- Wºman's Poems (1871). Her poems are thoughtful
and deep in sentiment, but sometimes obscure.
PICKENS, ANDREW (1739–1817), general, was born
at Paxton, Bucks co., Pa., Sept. 19, 1739. His
§." who were of Huguenot descent, removed to
outh Carolina in 1752. In 1761 Andrew served in
an expedition against the Cherokees, and at the out-
break of the revolution he was made captain of militia.
Throughout the struggle he displayed patriotic zeal.
and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. In Febru.
ary, 1779, he defeated a band of Tories under Col.
Boyd at Kettle Creek ; in June he covered the retreat
at Stono Ferry, and later in the same year defeated the
Qherokees at Tomassee. For his part in the battle of
Cowpens, Jan. 17, 1781, see Cowpens. He had com.
mand of the Carolina volunteers at Eutaw Springs,
Sept. 8, 1781. He made an expedition against the
Cherokees in 1782, which resulted in the cession of a
large territory. He was afterwards member of the
State Legislature (1783–94), then member of Congress
for, a single term, and major-general of militia. He
tºok part in negotiating several treaties with the In-
dians. In 1765 he married Rebecca Calhoun, aunt of
John C. Calhoun. He died in Pendleton District,
S.C., Aug. 17, 1817.
Hison, ANDREW PICKENs, became governor of South
Qar lina in 1816, and died in is3S, FRANcis W.
Ple ENs |...} son of Andrew, was noted as a
§ecession leader. Educated at South Carolina College.
he was a lawyer and first obtained note as a speaker in
the Legislature during the nullification excitement in
1832. He maintained that Congress, being a creature
of the States severally, had no sovereign power. In
1835 he was elected to Congress, and there he denied
the right of Congress to abolish slavery in the District
of Columbia. After ten years' service in the national
legislature he was returned to the State Senate, where
he opposed a movement for immediate secession.... He
took part in the Southern Convention at Nashville in
1850 and in the Democratic National Convention at
Cincinnati in 1854. He was sent as U. S. minister to
Russia in 1858, but returned to take part in the seces-
sion of South Carolina, of which State he was then
chosen governor. He demanded the surrender of Fort
Sumter from Major Anderson, and afterwards aided
in every way the rebellion. He retired from office in
1862 and died at Edgefield, S. C., Jan. 25, 1869.
PICKERING, TIMOTHY (1745–1829), statesman,
was born at Salem, Mass., July 17, 1745. He grad-
uated at Harvard College in 1763, and became a lawyer
at Salem in 1768. He was prominent in resisting the
arbitrary measures of Parliament, and in 1774, on be-
half of the people of Salem, he delivered an address
to Gov. Gage on the occasion of the Boston Port Bill.
While holding the office of judge, he published An
Easy Plan of Discipline for a Militia (1775), which
became the textbook of the State.. He served in the
revolution as colonel, and in 1777 was made adjutant-
general by Washington, and in 1780 quartermaster-
general. After the war he became a merchant in
Philadelphia. In 1786 he removed to Wilkesbarre to
organize the county of Luzerne and to settle the
disputes which had arisen from conflicting claims of
Connecticut and Pennsylvania to the Wyoming Valley.
While acting in this capacity he was seized by persons
in disguise, imprisoned and harshly treated for twenty
days. He was sent as delegate of Luzerne county to
the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1790.
In Washington's administration he was postmaster-
general (1791–94), then secretary of war (1794–95),
and secretary of state (1795–1800). He had also been
much employed in negotiating treaties with the In-
dians of New York and Ohio. Leaving office poor,
he lived for a time in a log-house at Wyoming. but
afterwards, by the sale of lands, was enabled to return
to Salem, Mass., where he was made judge of com-
mon pleas. In 1803 he was elected to the U. S. Senate,
being an ardent Federalist. During the war of 1813
he was a member of the board of war of Massachu-
setts. He was afterwards member of Congress for a
single term, but retired from public life at the age of
72, though he remained president of the Essex Agri-
Cultural Society. He died at Salem, Jan. 29, 1829.
His Life, left incomplete by his son Octavius, was fin-
ished by C. W. Upham (4 vols., 1867–73).
His oldest son, JoHN PICKERING (1777–1846), phi-
lologist, was born at Salem, Feb. 17, 1777, accompanied
his father in his visits to the Six Nations of New York,
and was thus led to investigate the Indian languages,
to which he devoted much attention throughout life.
After graduating at Harvard in 1796 he spent some
time in diplomatic service at Lisbon and London, and
Was afterwards a lawyer at Salem. From 1829 till his
death, on May 5, 1846, he was the city solicitor of
Bºston. His chief publications were on philological
Subjects, and include, besides treatises on the Indian
languages, a Tocqbulary of Americanisms (IS16) and
a Greek and English Lexicon (1826), which reached a
third edition before his death and was long held in
high esteem. He was the founder of the American
Oriental Society and president of the American Acad:
emy of Arts and Sciences.
Another son, OCTAVIUS PICKERING (1792–1S6S),
bºrn in Wyoming Valley, Sept. 2, 1792, graduated at
Harvard College in 1810, and became a lawyer at
Boston. He was State reporter from isºg to 1840,
publishing 24 volumes of Reports. He afterwards
lived in Europe for some years and died at Boston
206
PICKETT–PIGMENTS.
º 1868, leaving his father's biography unfin-
lSI) (201. -
CHARLES PICKERING (1805–1878), naturalist, grand-
son of Timothy, was born in Susquehanna co., Pa.,
Nov. 10, 1805. He graduated at Harvard College in
1823 and obtained his medical degree in 1826. After
Some years' practice at Philadelphia, where he was
also active in the Academy of Natural Sciences, he
Went in 1838 as naturalist on the Wilkes exploring ex-
pedition.
Africa, examining the different tribes. The result of
his researches was given in his Races of Men and their
Geographical Distribution (1848; vol. ix. of Wilkes'
Report); Geographical Distribution of Animals and
Plants (1854; vol. xix. of Wilkes' Report); and Geo-
graphical Distribution of Plants (1861). He after-
Wards lived a very retired, studious life at Boston,
where he died March 17, 1878. After his death ap-
peared his Chronological History of Plants (1879), a
laborious but unsystematic work, cumbered with use-
less learning.
EDWARD CHARLES PICKERING, physicist, great-
grandson of Col. Timothy Pickering, was born at Bos-
ton, July 19, 1846. He graduated at the Lawrence
Scientific School in 1865, and was chosen professor of
physics in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in 1867. He took part in observing the solar eclipse
of 1869 in Iowa and that of 1870 in Spain. He has
made extensive researches in optics and in the polari-
zation of light, and has published Physical Manipula-
tion (1874).
PICKETT, ALBERT JAMES (1810—1858), historian
of Alabama, was born in Anson co., N. C., Aug. 13,
1810. He removed in boyhood to Autaga co., Ala.,
and became a lawyer. He took part in the Creek war,
and became a colonel. His only publication was his
History of Alabama (2 vols., Charleston, 1851). He
died at Montgomery, Ala., Oct. 28, 1858. C. M.
Jackson published a brief biography.
####" GEORGE E. (1825–1875), a Confed-
erate general, was born at Richmond, Va., Jan. 25,
1825. Graduating at West Point in 1846, he served in
the Mexican war from Vera Cruz to the capture of
Mexico, winning two brevets for gallantry. He was
afterwards engaged in frontier duty until June 25,
1861, when he resigned to enter the Confederate ser-
vice. In the defence of Richmond in 1862 he com-
manded a brigade, and was severely wounded at
Gaines's Mill. Rejoining the Army of Northern Vir-
ginia as major-general, he was conspicuous for courage,
skill, and zeal. At Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, he led
the famous final assault on the Union lines (see GET-
TYSBURG). Gen. Pickett afterwards commanded in
North Carolina, where he captured Plymouth. At the
opening of the campaign in 1865 his division was en-
gaged in protecting the Southside Railroad, near Rich-
mond, but was surrounded and overwhelmed at Five
Forks, April 1, 1865. Gen. Pickett died at Norfolk,
Va., July 30, 1875.
PIERCE, GEORGE FOSTER (1811–1884), bishop of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was born in
Greene co., Ga., Feb. 3, 1811, being the son of Rev.
Dr. Lovick Pierce (1785–1879), a noted pulpit orator.
After studying law he joined the Georgia Conference
in 1831, and was engaged as an itinerant in Georgia
and South Carolina. He was prominent in the Gen-
eral Conference of 1844, when the Methodist Church
was divided on the slavery question. In 1848 he was
made president of Emory College, and was ever active
in promoting its financial interests. In 1854 he was
chosen bishop, and found a wider field for his executive
abilities. He was also noted as an orator, edited a
magazine, and published many sermons. His only
book was Incidents of Western Travel (1857). He died
Sept. 3, 1884.... •
i’IER2ONT, John (1785–1866), clergyman and
poet, was born at Litchfield, Conn., April 6, 1785,
being desce:ded from Rev. James Pierpont, the second
He also travelled in India and Eastern | H
minister of New Haven and a founder of Yale College.
Here John graduated in 1804, and then went to South
Carolina as a tutor in the family of Col. William All-
ston. . Returning to the North he became a lawyer in
1812, but soon engaged in unsuccessful mercantile en-
terprises with John Neal (q. v.) at Boston and Balti-
more. In 1819 he was ordained minister of Hollis
Street Unitarian Church, whence he passed to Troy,
N. Y., in 1845, and thence to Medford, Mass., in 1849.
e Was an earnest anti-slavery and temperance orator,
and obtained public favor by his poetic addresses. The
most noted of these was The Airs of Palestine (1816),
which set forth the associations of music with natural
Scenery and national character. At the centennial
celebration of his native place he gave a humorous
sketch of Yankee character. In 1861, true to the anti-
slavery zeal of younger days, he accepted the chap-
laincy of a Massachusetts regiment, but was soon
transferred to a clerkship in the U. S. Treasury, from
which he retired in 1864. He died at Medford, Mass.,
Aug. 27, 1866. A collection of his Poems appeared in
1854, and he also published some school-books.
PIERREPONT, EDWARDs, lawyer, was born at
North Haven, Conn., March 4, 1817. Graduating at
Yale College in 1837, he was admitted to the bar in
1840, and practised for some years at Columbus, Ohio,
but removed to New York city in 1846. He was elected
judge of the superior court of New York in 1857, but re-
signed in 1860 and resumed practice at the bar. In 1862.
he was appointed, with Maj.-Gen. John A. Dix, to try
the prisoners of state held on various charges growing
out of the Rebellion. In 1867 he served in the New
York State Constitutional Convention, especially on the
Judiciary committee. He also conducted for the U. S.
government the prosecution of John H. Surratt for
complicity in the assassination of Lincoln. In 1869.
Pres. Grant appointed him U. S. attorney for the
southern district of New York, which office he resigned
in May following. In 1875 he was called into Pres.
Grant's cabinet as attorney-general of the United
States, and in May, 1876, was sent as minister to Eng-
land. He resigned this office in December, 1877. €.
published From Fifth Avenue to Alaska (1884).
PIG. See SWINE.
PIGEON. See FOWL.
PIGMENTS. The º * º of
igments in the United States have
º: i. of steady growth, and although
º º there was for many years a strong preju-
e - © dice in favor of imported pigments, this
has given way to a fair appreciation of the home
products, until now both the imported and domestic
are sold on their merits, and as nearly all of domestic
productions compare favorably with the imported, the
former are consumed in yearly increasing quantities;
our imports show little variation from year to year on
most pigments, while a few show a decrease. In con-
sidering articles properly classed under the name “pig-
ments,’’ only such are treated as are manufactured or
produced in the United States in commercial quan-
tltleS.
Barytes.—The heavy spar from which this article is
made is found in many sections of the country, but the
principal sources of supply are Missouri, Virginia,
North Carolina, and Tennessee. As its principal use
is as a substitute or adulterant in the manufacture of
paints, both dealers and manufacturers withhold alk
information as to the amount of production and use.
The total amount produced, however, may be esti-
mated as approximating 50,000 tons annually. Its.
principal use is in the adulteration of white lead and in
the manufacture of mixed paints, and as a weighting
material for various purposes. Owing to its great
weight and its dazzling whiteness, it is regarded as the
best adulterant of white lead, and on that account not
liable to detection. It is also largely employed as a
weighting substance by paper-makers and others.
Barytes is also imported from Germany, England, and
PIKE,
207
Canada. Artificial barytes, commercially known as
ºblanc fixõ,” is a mixture of crude heavy spar and
other materials, and is superior to natural barytes, as a
igment, having greater covering capacity. It is
º: employed by paper and card manufacturers.
The amount imposed is about equal to that made here.
There is no difference in the quality, although the im-
ported realizes a higher price.
Litharge.—See article WHITE LEAD.
Ochreº-In commerce only the lighter shades of
hydrated peroxides of iron are known as, ochres; the
darker shades, notably the browns and reds, are desig-
nated as “metallic paints.” . Ochres are found in
many States, but the |. are found in Virginia, Penn-
sylvania, Missouri, Georgia, and South Carolina;
Some of these deposits contain various colors and
shadings, but not all are valuable as pigments. The
more common grades are used by floor-cloth manu-
facturers in the preparation of the body of the cloth.
Of the grades used as a pigment about 10,000 tons are
annually mined and sold. Ochres are imported from
France, and these are preferred by manufacturers of
paints as they require less oil for grinding, and are
consequently more economical in the manufacture of
“mixed paints.’’
Red Lead.—See article WHITE LEAD. %.
Sienna.-There are many deposits of this clay in the
United States, but most of them are of inferior quality.
The mines are in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maine, and
Virginia, the quality of product ranging in this order.
Painters prefer the imported, and although double the
price of the domestic, Sicily sienna is imported in
yearly increasing quantities.
Terra Alba.-The gypsum used to produce this ar-
ticle is imported from Nova Scotia, but what propor-
tion of the total quantity is used in the manufacture
of paints is not known. The terra alba made from
gypsum mined in the United States is used as an
adulterant for many articles, as also by paper-makers
and others as a weighting substance. Fine grades of
terra alba are imported from France and England,
though only in limited quantities.
Ultramarine.—In commerce, the artificial product
has received this name and the pigment product of
lapis lazuli is scarcely known except to the artist, while
its high cost excludes it from most studios. Only
three firms are engaged in the manufacture of ultra-
marine, two factories being located in the State of New
Jersey and one in New York. The annual production
of these works amounts to about 2000 tons. For some
years after the manufacture of this pigment was estab-
lished in the United States, there existed a strong
prejudice against it, and fully double the price aske
for the domestic product was obtained for that im-
ported from Germany. It was not until the year 1880
that the first manufacturer began to realize a fair re-
ward for his perseverance in introducing American
ultramarine, which from the beginning was equal to
the best imported.
Umber.—The only States from which umber is ob-
tained are Pennsylvania and Vermont, the former sup-
plying fully five-sixths of the total of about 1500 tons
annually marketed. In all respects except color the
American umber is the equal of that imported from
Turkey, while the price is much lower. The imported
is of a rich, reddish-brown, while the American in-
clines to gray. An artificial umber, made by mixing
certain mineral pigments, and which in color is a good
imitation of Turkey umber, is sold as the genuine im-
ported.
Vermilion.—The manufacture of this pigment in
the United States is controlled by a ... of
manufacturers which regulates the price, the amount
of production, and the trade in the article. The process
of manufacture being one of extreme difficulty and re-
Quiring great skill, the process is kept secret and the
manufacturers, not over six in number, are enabled to
prevent competition, having successfully checked at-
tempts to establish new plants which have at differ-
ent times been in contemplation. The manufacture
of this artificial sulphide of mercury is made a spe-
cialty of manufacturers of other pigments and paints, the
amount consumed being too small to make.its manu-
facture profitable as a separate industry. The amount
manufactured varies from year to year, averaging, about
800,000 pounds, but does not shºw the increase which is
noticeable in the consumption of most other pigments.
This is due to the introduction of substitutes known as
vermilion, but not made from quicksilver, The genu-
ine quicksilver vermilion is commercially known as
“quicksilver,” “English,” or “California’’’. vermil-
ion. The imports of English vermilion do not increase,
the American product being equal to the imported in
every respect, and by many regarded as, superior. A
number of pigments are on the market, known as Ver-
milion but not made from quicksilver, and these have a
large sale, owing to their low market price. The prin;
cipal of these, “American vermilion,” ... Persian red.”
“Persian scarlet,” “scarlet vermilion,” etc., are chro-
mates of lead. Of these fully 1,000,000 pounds are
produced and sold annually. Qther cheap substitutes
are aniline colors which, instead of growing darker on
exposure as is the case with quicksilver vermilion, grow
lighter. As their color is brilliant they have becºme
popular and their sale has steadily increased until at
the present time their consumption equals that of the
genuine. These aniline imitation vermilions are sold
under various names, the better known being “Roman
red,” “Swiss red,” “Columbian red,’’ ‘’ ruboide,”
etc. The relative value of these several vermilion pig-
ments is not easily stated, but true quicksilver Vermil-
ion is superior in body, richness, and permanency. The
chromates of lead lack body, are not so rich in color,
but have the compensating quality of greater perma-
nency and extreme cheapness. The aniline vermilions
have good body, are even more brilliant than the quick-
silver vermilion, but their grave fault is the fugacious-
ness of the color.
White Lead is treated in a special article, which
See.
Whiting and Paris White.—The manufacture of
whiting is confined to the cities of New York, Brook-
lyn, Philadelphia, and Boston. The material used,
chalk, is all imported from Hull, England, whence
it is brought as ballast in sailing vessels. The annual
production is from 300,000 to 350,000 barrels. Paris
white is made from English cliffstone, a variety of lime-
stone, which is imported from England. From 4000
to 4500 tons are annually used. About 300 tons of
Paris white are imported from England.
Zinc White.—The oxide of zinc, known as zinc
white, ranks second in importance as a pigment. It is
extensively employed in the manufacture of mixed
paints, and is especially esteemed for indoor painting,
owing to the purity and brilliancy of the color. It is
made directly from the zinc ore by several firms in New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Wisconsin. The
consumption has increased steadily and has now reached
about 25,000 tons, only about 2000 tons being imported.
The French zinc white is regarded as superior to the
American in purity of color, and the German is pre-
ferred by others for no well-defined reason. Fully
20,000 tons are annually used as a pigment, while 5000
tons are consumed by manufacturers of paper, rubber,
and pottery. New York city is the principal market.
x-TN . (H. G. A.)
PIKE, the strongest and most voracious of fresh
See Vol. XIX. wº º fish, comprising the
p.’ss” p. º Sºnº ſº, t e only genus of the fam-
Am. Rep.). ily Esocidae. The pikes are well repre-
sented in the waters of the United States,
there being five or six species, while only one species
is found in Europe and Asia. The Esocidae are soft-
rayed abdominal fishes, with long bodies, having but
one dorsal fin, opposite the anal. The mouth is large,
with a wide gape, and is plentifully supplied with teeth.
208 PIKE–PILLOW.
The skeleton, especially the skull, is remarkably soft,
and Agassiz assigns them to a low place among abdom-
inal fishes. The body is covered with scales, barbels
are wanting, the margin of the upper jaw is covered
by the intermaxillaries mesially and by the maxillaries
laterally, the stomach is without blind sac, the air
bladder simple, and the gills open very wide.
Of the American pikes the largest is Eso-c Estor, the
Muskallonge or Maskinonge (Canadian-French Masque-
allongé, long face or snout). This species is found
only in the Great Lakes and the waters of the St. Law-
renee basin. It grows to the length of 3 feet, and is
said to occur in Lake Champlain of over 4 feet in length
and of 40 lbs. weight. This fish is of a deep greenish-
brown hue on the |back, while the sides have numerous
rounded pale yellow spots, and the abdomen is white,
the fins being of a reddish-yellow color with dark green
marbling. The snout is very long and acute, the bor-
ders of the upper jaw being formed of the maxillaries
alone, their edges furnished with several rows of long,
powerful, and very sharp, awl-shaped teeth. The lower
jaw is considerably longer than the upper, and is armed
for less than half its length with powerful, recurved
teeth, the two largest in front. The head and body are
flattened above and much compressed at the sides, the
dorsal fins directly above the anal, the caudal power-
ful and deeply forked.
This is the boldest, fiercest, and most voracious of
all fresh-water fishes, making havoc among all other
tenants of the waters it inhabits, none, perhaps, ex-
cept the great lake trout, being able to resist its attacks.
Even the spring dorsal fins of the perch are said to
not afford protection from the pike. It bites daringly
at dead bait, and is said to be easily taken even by a
bait of tin or red cloth made to play briskly through
the water. The European pike, E. lucius, is closely
related in specific character to E. estor. It attains 3
feet in extreme length, is found in most of the rivers
and lakes of Europe, and is much angled for, the
flesh being well esteemed for table use.
The smaller species of American pike are commonly
known as pickerel. There are several of these, the
largest being E. lucioides, a fish which, like E. estor,
is peculiar to the basin of the St. Lawrence. It is from
one to two feet in length and rarely exceeds 16 or 17
lbs. weight, and is a handsome fish, with a four-sided
body, longer and slighter in proportion to its depth
than in the Muskallonge. The snout is not nearly so
long and much more obtuse than in the latter, the under
jaw being less elongated, and armed with a single row
of small teeth round the fore part, with large, awl-
shaped teeth on the sides. The back is of a rich black-
ish-green color, the sides greenish-gray, the abdomen
pearly white, there being several rows of diamond-
shaped yellowish spots along the body, and head, ... A
bright speck on the tip of each scale gives a sparkling
aspect to this fish. It is equal in boldness and voracity
to the Muskallonge, attacks fish of every variety, even
of its own species, and preys also on..the young, of
wild fowls, rats, reptiles, or any small creature that
ventures into its domain. It is generally taken with a
hook baited with white flesh or other substance and
moved rapidly over the surface. . It is also readily
caught in winter by spearing through holes in the ice. It
formed an essential food-supply to the Indian hunters
when short of other food in winter. e
The common pickerel (E. reticularis) is perhaps the
commonest of all game fishes in the north-eastern United
States. It ranges from New England to Western Penn-
sylvania, and south perhaps to the hill-districts of Vir-
ginia. In size it is much below those above mentioned,
being of an average weight of 2% or 3 lbs. It has the
clongated snout and curved lower jaw of the Muskal-
longe, and is in color olive-green on the back and green-
ish yellow on the sides. It is more voracious, if pos,
sible than the others, bites at any time of the day, and
with the bait above or below water, drawn fast or slow.
It darts on its prey with great force, its prominent
lower jaw serving as a defence against violent blows on
the bottom of streams. The Long Island pike, E. fas-
ciatus, is the smallest of the family, and of little value
to sportsmen. It is remarkable for the great size of
its scales as compared with the other species, whose
scales are very minute. The name *: pike is given to
several sea-fish of the allied genus"Belone, the Euro-
pean Sea-pike, B. vulgaris, being known also as the
mackerel guide, as it precedes the latter in their annual
migration to their spawning-grounds. (C. M.)
PIKE, ALBERT, poet and general, was born at
Boston, Dec. 29, 1809. When he was a child his
family removed to Newburyport, and he began to
teach after studying for a time at Harvard College.
In 1831 he went to St. Louis, travelling mostly on
foot, and then joined an expedition to Santa Fé. After
further wanderings he settled in Arkansas, becoming
editor, and in 1834 proprietor of a newspaper at Little
Rock. He published (Boston, 1834) a narrative of
his adventures and added to it several poems, sug-
gested by the scenery through which he j ºi
He became a lawyer in 1836, supervised the publica-
tion of the statutes of Arkansas, and published Re-
ports of the Supreme Court of that State (1840–45).
In the Mexican war he served as a volunteer, and at
the outbreak of the civil war he recruited on behalf
of the Southern ('onfederacy a force of Cherokee In-
dians, whom he led at the battle of Pea Ridge, March
7, 1862. On account of their scalping some of the
fallen, the Confederate government caused the dis-
bandment of this Indian force. After the war Gen.
Pike edited the Memphis Appeal and in 1868 he re-
moved to Washington. He has received the highest
degrees in free-masonry, and has published the Stat-
utes and Laws of the Ancient Scottish Rite (1859). His
most noted poems are the Hymns to the Gods, com-
posed before he left New Bºi. published at Bos-
ton in 1831, reprinted in Blackwood's Magazine in
1839, and in his Nugae (Phila., 1854, and later).
PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779–1813), gen-
eral, was born at Lamberton (now part of Trenton),
N. J., Jan. 5, 1779. His father, Zebulon Pike (1751–
1834), had been a captain in the Revolutionary army
and afterwards in the regular army. The son was ap-
pointed cadet in his father's regiment in 1799, and
soon promoted lieutenant. His mathematical skill led
to his being appointed in 1805 to make a survey of the
Upper Mississippi, which was accomplished in less
than nine months. Being then made captain he was
employed in exploring the newly acquired territory of
Louisiana, and while thus engaged was arrested for
invading Spanish ground, and carried to Santa Fé,
where his papers were seized and examined. He was
escorted across Texas and arrived at Natchitoches, July
1, 1807. The narrative of both expeditions is given
in his book, The Sources of the Mississippi and its Trib-
utaries (Phila., 1810), for which he received the thanks
of the government. He was promoted colonel in 1812
and brigadier-general in March, 1813, when he was
selected to command the expedition against York (now
Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. He sailed
from Sackett's Harbor, landed under heavy fire, April
27, 1813, carried one battery by assault, and was mov-
ing on the main works when he was killed by the ex-
plosion of the magazine. Pike's Peak in Colorado
}reserves his name and fame. His Life was written
|. Gen. H. Whiting in Sparks's American Biography.
PILLOW,. GIDEON JOHNSON (1806–1878), general
and politician, was born in Williamson co., Tenn.,
June 8, 1806, being a grandson of John Pillow, a Rev-
olutionary soldier, who had settled at Nashville in
1783. He graduated at the university of that city in
1827 and entered on the practice of law at Columbia,
Tenn., in 1830. He assisted in the nomination and
election of President Polk, by whom in July, 1846, he
was commissioned brigadier-general. His brigade of
Tennessee volunteers joined Gen. Scott's army at Vera
Cruz, and took part in its capture. Pillow commanded
PILOTY—PINE.
209
a division of the army in the march to Mexico, and
was wounded at Cerro Gordo and Chapultepec. After
entering the city of Mexico he had serious difficulties
with Gen. Scott and was placed under arrest, but was
released by orders from Washington. Returning, to
Tennessee he devoted himself to the management of his
estate. In 1850 he was a member of the Nashville
Southern Convention and opposed secession. In April,
1861, he undertook to raise troops in Tennessee for
the Confederacy and was made major-general in the
. Confederate army. His conduct at FORT DONELSON is
narrated under that head. Gen. Grant in his Personal
Memoirs expresses a poor opinion of his worth, as Sol;
dier and general. Pillow escaped to Nashville, and
afterwards had some nominal command under Beau-
regard. He died in Lee Co., Ark., Oct. 6, 1878.
PILOTY, KARL voN (1826–1886), a German
painter, was born at Munich, Oct. 1, 1826. He
studied at the Munich academy and became manager
of the lithographic institute founded by his father.
He improved his knowledge of art by travels through
Belgium, France, and England. His first painting,
The Dying Mother and the Nurse, attracted attention
to his merits. His next was The Adhesion of the
Elector Maximilian to the Catholic League. After
Piloty was made professor in 1858, he was quickly
surrounded by a crowd of enthusiastic students, some
of whom, Makart for instance, have since been ac-
knowledged masters. On the death of Kaulbach, the
direction of the Academy was assigned to Piloty.
Among his noted works are The Assassination of Wal-
lenstein ; Nero amid the Ruins of Rome (1864); Co-
lumbus Discovering America (1865); The Death of
Julius Caesar; Mary Queen of Scots listening to her
Death Warrant ; Thusnelda in the Triumph of Ger-
manicus (1872). At various international exhibitions
he obtained the highest honors. He died July 21,
1SS6.
PINCRNEY, CHARLEs (1758–1824), statesman, was
born at Charleston, S. C., in 1758, being grandson of
William Pinckney (1703–1766), commissary-general of
South Carolina. He became a lawyer and on the cap-
ture of Charleston in 1780 was sent as prisoner to St.
Augustine. He was afterwards elected to the State
Legislature, to Congress, and to the Convention which
framed the United States Constitution in 1787. In
the next year he presided over the Convention which
framed the State constitution and was governor of
the State for several years. In 1798 he was chosen
to the U. S. Senate, in which he advocated the prin-
ciples of Jefferson. In 1802 he was sent as min-
ister to Spain and there obtained a relinquishment of
Spanish claims to Louisiana. Returning in 1805 he
served chiefly in the State Legislature, but in Congress,
1819–21, he opposed the Missouri Compromise. He
died at Charleston, Oct. 29, 1824.
His son, HENRY LAURENs PINCKNEY ‘...}
was long a member of the South Carolina Legislature,
member of Congress from 1833 to 1837, afterwards
mayor of Charleston and collector of the port. He
upheld the extreme States rights view. He published
a biography of his brother-in-law, Robert Y. Hayne,
and of Jonathan Maxey and Andrew Jackson.
PINCKNEY, CHARLES COTESWORTH (1746–1825),
Was the most distinguished member of a family noted
in South Carolina history. Thomas Pinckney, its
founder, emigrated from Lincolnshire, England, in
1687. Charles C. Pinckney was born at Charleston,
Feb. 25, 1746. His father, who was chief justice of
the colony, took his family to England in 1753 to be
educated. Charles graduated at Christ Church Col.
lege, Oxford, studied law at the Middle Temple and
attended the Royal Military Academy in | Tâll Cé.
After his return to Charleston, in 1769, he was a law.
yer, and took part in the political agitation of the time.
le, was elected to the Provincial Congress, and at the
outbreak of the war was made colonel. He assisted in
the defence of Charleston in 1775, and afterwards went
Sè8 SOI).
North where he fought at Brandywine and German-
town. Returning to the South he had a share in the
vicissitudes of the struggle for independence, and after
the surrender of Charleston was prisoner, though
part of the time on parole, until February, 1782. He
was a delegate to the Convention which framed, the
U. S. Constitution, to the State Convention which
ratified it, and to the State Constitutional Convention
of 1790. He declined a seat in the U. S. Supreme
Court and a position in Washington's cabinet. He
was sent as U. S. Minister to France in 1796, but the
Directory, offended at the attitude of America, dis-
missed him and threatened war. The government re;
appointed him, but in a spirit of conciliation joined
with him John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry. After
various delays they were told by Talleyrand that no
peace could be made until the members of the Direc-
tory had been paid. The insulting proposal was re-
jected, and according to a popular story, Pinckney ex-
claimed, “War be it, then Millions for defence, but
not a cent for tribute ’’ On the envoys' return to
America this exclamation became a favorite motto.
Pinckney was elected to Congress, and in 1800 he was
supported by the Federalists for the vice-presidency,
but was defeated. He had even less success in 1804,
when he was a candidate for the presidency, and re-
ceived only 14 out of 176 electoral votes.
His brother, THOMAS PINCKNEY (1750–1828), was
also educated in England, and became a lawyer. In
the Revolutionary war he rose to the rank of major,
fought at Stono Ferry, and was wounded and captured
at the battle of Camden, where he was serving as aide
to Gen. Gates. He was sent as U. S. Minister to
England in 1792, and in 1794 negotiated a treaty with
Spain, securing to American citizens the free naviga-
tion of the Mississippi. Returning home in iroshe
was twice elected to Congress as a Federalist, and on
the triumph of the opposite party retired to private
life. In 1812 Pres. Madison appointed him major-
eneral, and he took part in campaigns against the
É. whom he defeated at Horse-shoe Bend. He
died at Charleston, Nov. 2, 1828.
PINE. This Mºnº * i. * has been
- already treate ll]]CleT ONIFERAE,
iº, sº FoRESTRY, and LUMBER, and little
ºn. ſº remains to be said concerning it. . It
may be stated generally that the pines
are distinguished from all the other Coniferae by the
character of their foliage, which consists of needle-
shaped leaves in clusters of 2, 3, or 5, surrounded by
a sheath at the base. They embrace the pitch pines
and their relatives, with leaves 2 or 3 in cluster, scaly-
sheathed at base ; wood resinous; cones lateral and
persistent long after shedding the seeds, scales thick-
ened at the ends, and often tipped with spines; leaves
rigid : and the white pines, with softer leaves, 5 in
cluster, the sheath early deciduous; cones long, cylin-
drical, terminal, and falling after the seeds are shed ;
Scales little or not at all thickened at point; seeds thin-
shelled and winged.
In the genus Pinus the flowers are monoecious, the
fertile catkins terminal, solitary or aggregated, the
sterile catkins clustered at the base of the shoot of the
Each stamen answers to a flower, which is
reduced to a two-celled anther with hardly any filament.
The fruit is a woody cone, usually large, whose nut-
like seeds are partly sunk in excavations at the base of
the scales, there being two to each scale. There are
from 3 to 12 cotyledons. The blossoms develop in late
Spring and the cones mature in the autumn of the
Second year.
. The pines are confined to Europe, Asia, and Amer-
iga, except one species in the Canary Islands, and are
found mostly in the temperate and cooler regions,
where they form large forests. They are among the
most useful of trees, yielding, besides wood, such im-
portant products as turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, etc.,
while several species bear large and edible nuts. They
210
are well represented in the United States, whose white
pine (P strobus) is the most valuable commercially of
all the pines, and yields most of the timber used in
and exported from that country. In the northern and
eastern regions of the United States this species formerly
covered enormous tracts of land, but its range has been
greatly reduced by the destruct. We axe of the wood-
man. In form the white pine is the most elegant of
all the usually grown species, and it is much used for
ornamental purposes. It is distinguished by its gray
bark, which is smooth and shining up to 15 years of
age, but afterwards cracks and roughens, the graceful
White Pine.
lightness of its branches, and its general gracefulness
of form. It grows straight and rapidly, sometimes
attaining a height of 200 feet. The wood is soft, fine-
grained, and very durable, while the stem is so straight
and even that large trunks are much sought for as
masts of ships.
The United States have several other species of the
5-leaved, or white pine group. In the Pacific region
is P. Lambertiana, or the great sugar pine of Califor-
nia and Oregon, one of the huge trees of the West,
isolated specimens of which sometimes reach a height
of 300 feet, and 20 feet diameter of trunk. It bears
large, bright-green leaves, and cones of enormous size.
Other western species of this group are P arisſatt,
the awn-comed pine; P flecilis; and . P. montºlºſ,
the mountain pine, whose wood resembles that of P.
strobus.
Of pines with 3 leaves in the cluster, the Atlantic
United States possess P. australis, the long-leaved
or southern yellow pine, a lofty tree with very resinous
wood and durable timber, much used in the South :
P. taeda; P rigida, the Northern pitch pine. and P.
serotina, the pond pine. In the Pacific region there
are of this group 72 macrocarpa, the great, hooked
pine; P Sabinºma, Sabine's, pine, which, like the
above, bears large edible seeds; 12 pouderosa, tº
most abundant pine of California and Oregon;...ſº
admis, the New Mexican nut pine, with large, edible
seeds; P Coulſºri, a Californian species, with very
large seeds, and leaves thickºr and heavier than in any
other species; and 12 insignis, so named from its
bright grass-green color. e -
Of pines with two leaves in, the cluster may be
named P. pungens, the Table Mountain, or prickly-
PINEAPPLE,
pine of the Southern Alleghenies; P mitis, the yellow
pine of the North, a valuable timber-tree; P. inops,
the Jersey, or scrub-pine, a very resinous species; P.
banksiana, the Northern scrub-pine ; and P resinosa,
the resinous, or red pine of the North, which is next
to the white pine in commercial value. There are
other American species, several of which have been
introduced from Europe as ornamental trees. Prin-
cipal among the latter are P. eccelsa, the Bhotan pine
from the Himalayas; P cembra, from the Alps; P.
sylvestris, the Scotch pine, and P. austriaca, the Aus-
trian pine. American pines have also been taken to
Europe as ornamental trees, a purpose to which this
genus of trees is excellently adapted through its grace-
ful forms and evergreen foliage. For the same reason
much has been done to disseminate the more attractive
species over the earth.
The pines of the Southern Atlantic States are of
special value in their abundant yield of rosin and oil
of turpentine, far, and pitch. This is mainly gathered
from one species, P. australis, though P. taeda, the
loblolly-pine, yields also a considerable quantity of tur-
entine. P. australis, the Southern yellow, or long-
i. pine, is a tree from 60 to 70 feet high and 15 to
20 inches diameter. Its leaves are bright green, and
from 10 to 15 inches long, enclosed at base in long
white sheathes. The hardness and compactness of its
timber render it of great value for floors, or stairways
where the wear is great, while it yields the great sum
of the tar, rosin, and turpentine of the United States.
The range of States from North Carolina to Florida
possesses about 60,000 square miles of pine-forest, and
their present yield of the above-named products is
susceptible of great increase. The value of the naval
stores (pitch, rosin, turpentine, etc.) produced in North
Carolina in 1880 was about $8,000,000, while South
Carolina also yielded largely. This product is steadily
on the increase, and promises to become of great value
in the future. The crude turpentine is obtained by
tapping the trees and collecting their exudatiºns.
From 10 to 25 per cent. of this is oil of turpentine,
which is obtained by distillation, while the residuum
constitutes the rosin. Tar is obtained by burning the
dead limbs and wood in kilns, while the reduction of
the tar to half its volume by evaporation sº rº
C. M.
PINEAPPLE, º ". "". satirºt, a
Cl tropical plant which is indigenous to
º sº, §. Aºa and some of the West
A m. º India islands, though now so perfectly
naturalized in many tropical countries
as to seem a native species. It is found in almost a
wild state in India and Ceylon, and is abundant in the
Malayan Peninsula, China, the islands of the Eastern
Archipelago, and in parts of Africa. The fruit re-
ceives its name from its resemblance in form and ex-
ternal appearance to the cones of some species of pines


PINKNEY-PINS.
211
ſhe plant is a member of the Bromeliaceae, a small
endogenous family, nearly related to the ginger and
banana families, its plants generally stemless, and
mostly epiphytes in the forests of tropical America.
The Tillandsia, or “long moss,” of the Southern
States, is a member of the family. . . º
The pineapple plant is a biennial, with the habits of
the aloé, but much thinner leaves, which form a crown
of foliage, each leaf being recurved at the point and
having small sharp spines on its edges. From the
centre of the cluster of foliage rises a stem two or
three feet high, bearing on its apex a conical spike of
flowers, each flower in the axil of a bract. The upper
flowerless bracts develop into a cluster of small leaves.
The flowers have three outer or calyx divisions and
three inner much longer petalous divisions, six stamens,
and three styles. The pineapple is not a fruit botan-
ically considered, but an aggregation of accessory parts,
to which the fruit proper (the ripened ovary) bears but
a small proportion. Seeds are rarely produced by the
cultivated plant, but the whole cluster of flowers under-
goes a remarkable change, all parts—stem, ovaries,
bracts, etc.—becoming enormously enlarged, and when
quite ripe fleshy and succulent, with a sweet and
highly flavored juice. On the outer tesselated sur-
face the tips of the bracts and the points of the petals
show themselves. -
There are many varieties of the pineapple, and when
properly cultivated it is one of the best of fruits, but is
too often tough, coarse, and indigestible. The first
specimens seen in England were sent there as a present
to Cromwell, and the plant was first cultivated there
about 1715. It had been grown in Holland in the
previous century. These glass-raised English pine-
apples are much superior in flavor to the ordinary
commercial fruit, and still find a market, though sold
from three to six shillings a pound, while the imported
ones can be had for a much lower price. The fruit
imported to American ports is better than that sent to
England, on account of the shortness of the voyage,
yet even here the glass-raised fruit is the best. The
ahamas have long been the source of much of the
imported fruit, it being extensively grown there. At
Nassau, New Providence, large quantities are canned
for exportation. The culture of the fruit for exporta-
tion, which was at first restricted to the Bahamas, has
extended to Jamaica, Trinidad, the Azores, and other
islands, and the trade in it has become extensive and
important. In addition to the fruit imported fresh
and canned, the juice is expressed and sealed in bottles,
for use in flavoring ices and as a syrup for soda-water.
It will keep its flavor for a year. The leaves of this
and allied species yield a long, fine, and very strong
fibre, which is used in Manilla for weaving the beautiful
Pina muslin, said to be the finest web in the world.
It is exceedingly light, delicate, and durable, and is
chiefly employed for ladies' handkerchiefs and dresses.
Only small quantities of it are exported. (C. M.)
PINKNEY, WILLIAM (1764–1822), statesman, was
born at Annapolis, Md., March 17, 1764. His father,
a native of England and related to the Pinckneys of
South Carolina, opposed the movement for American
independence. The son studied law with Judge
Samuel Chase and was admitted to the bar in 1786.
He was a member of the State Convention which rati-
fied the Federal Constitution in 17SS, and he was
elected to Congress in 1790, but did not take his seat,
though he defended the legality of his election, which
Was questioned on the ground that he did not reside in
the district whence he was chosen. By his eloquence
and learning he rose to the head of the Maryland bar,
and was prominent in State legislation. In 1796 he
was sent to London as one of the commissioners under
Jay's treaty, and during his eight years' stay recovered
for Maryland from the Bank of England a claim of
$800,000. In 1806 Pres, Jefferson appointed him
U. S. Minister to England, and after his return in
1811 Madison made him U. S. Attorney-General. In
the British attack on Washington Pinkney was
wounded at Bladensburg, while commanding a battaliºn
of volunteers. After the war he served one term in
Congress and then went to Naples as special enjoy
and thence to Russia as minister resident. Returning
in 1818 he was U. S. Senator from 1820 until his death
at Annapolis, Feb. 25, 1822. His Life, has been
written by H. Wheaton (1825) and by his nephew,
Bishºp Pinkney (1853).
PINS. The original pin was undoubtedly a thorn,
º 7- which was used to fasten together the
See Yo!’. Xº, rude clothing of our remote ancestors.
Knº * Afterwards a considerable variety of
. Evep. materials came into use for this purpose.
In early England wooden skewers were, used, while
clasps and ribbons also did the duty of pins. The
metal pin was introduced from France in 1543, the
manufacture in England beginning in 1626. At Bir-
mingham, which has long been the centre of the Eng-
lish pin manufacture, the industry began about the
middle of the last century. Pins were long made
there by hand labor, it being given as a remarkable
evidence of the division of labor that it took 14 per-
sons to make a pin. Now it takes but 2 or 3 to per-
form the same work, while the making of a needle,
a much more complex process, requires about 70
persons.
Pin-making machines are American inventions of
which many have been made during the present
century. The first of these of importance was devised
by Mr. Wright, a native of New Hampshire, who
took out a patent in England in 1824. This machine
was adapted to produce a complete pin at every revo-
lution of a wheel. It at first worked imperfectly, and
was rendered available only by long-continued experi-
ment and at great expense. . Its method of operation
in its perfected state is briefly as follows: A pin is a
piece of polished brass wire, with point and head, and
covered with a coating of tin. In Wright's machine
the wire is drawn from a wheel by pincers, which push
forward the proper length for a pin at each rotation of
the shaft. This is cut off by a die and carried forward
to the pointing apparatus, where it is held while a
revolving bevel-edge file-wheel roughly points it. It is
then carried to a finer file-wheel which finishes the
ointing. A third carrier takes the pin to the first
heading die, where a steel punch thickens up the wire
for the head, while a fourth carrier takes it to a second
die, where the head is finished. The complication of
this process is now reduced by one machine being used
for pointing and another for heading. It only remains
to whiten and stick the pins. The former is done in a
copper vessel, where the pins are boiled in water con-
taining tin. Several very efficient machines are in use
for sticking the pins in paper.
The manufacture of pins in America was begun in
1810 by some English pin-makers. It was abandoned
after the war, but practised for a short time again
about 1820. A patent for the manufacture of pins at
one process was taken out in 1816, but the machine
proved too intricate. Somewhat later a small machine
is said to have been in operation which made 30 solid-
headed pins per minute. In 1832 a machine was in-
vented by John J. Howe which produced from 40 to
50 pins per minute. In this machine the head was
not solid, but was made from a coil of fine wire which
was wrapped round the pin wire and pressed fast by
dies. These “spun-head '' pins had the defeet that
the head often came loose, and the Howe machine was
soon adapted to make solid-headed pins which were
first made in 183S, and soon superseded the spun-head
pins. There have been other inventions, but those
named are the most important. Pins are now made
with astonishing rapidity, and fastened in papers by
machines which seem almost magical in their opera-
tion. In one process the pins as made by the machine
are placed in a feeding dish, from which they fall to a
trough with a slit just wide enough to let the shank
212
PINTO—PITTSBURG.
through. The pins, thus suspended in rows by their
heads, are carried to a sliding frame with a dozen
grooves, in each of which a pin is deposited as it passes
under the slit. A dozen are thus arranged in a row
With their points all in one direction. The sheet of
paper to receive the pins is passed through a grooving
machine, which creases it into cross ridges, through
which a row of a dozen pins is driven at every thrust
forward of the carrying frame. This process can be
repeated with great rapidity and the pins stuck as
fast as made.
The statistics of the American pin and needle manu-
facture in 1880 were as follows, as given in the census
reports: Establishments, 40; capital invested, $1,144,-
550 ; hands employed, 1077; wages paid, $392,214;
value of materials, $591,013; value of products,
$1,378,023. The making of pins and needles is, in
great measure, confined to Connecticut, which State
claims $804,985 of the total annual product. (C. M.)
PINTO, SERPA. See SERPA PINTO.
PIPE LINES. See PETROLEUM PIPE-LINES.
PIQUA, a city of Miami co., Ohio, is on the W.
bank of the Miami river, 28 miles N. of Dayton, on
the Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Pacific and the Cincin-
nati, Hamilton, and Dayton Railroads. It has an
opera-house, 3 hotels, 2 national banks, 2 daily and 4
weekly newspapers, 13 churches, and 5 schools. It has
two foundries, oil-refineries, and manufactures of mat-
tresses, straw boards, furniture, flour and meal. The
city is regularly laid out with wide streets, lighted with
i. and electricity. The site is a level plateau. Two
ridges connect it with the opposite side of the river.
PISCICULTURE. See FISH CULTURE.
PISTOL. See SMALL-ARMS.
PITMAN, ISAAC, the inventor of phonography,
was born at Trowbridge, England, Jan. 4, 1813. He
was educated at a normal school in London and became
a teacher at Barton-on-Humber in 1832, and afterwards
at Wotton-under-Edge. Having published a book on
shorthand, he removed to Bath in 1839 and devoted
himself to the propagation of his system. He estab-
lished a special printing-office called the Phonetic In-
stitute, and issued a weekly paper. From time to
time he revised his system, though its principles re-
mained the same. See SHORTHAND, in ENCYCLOPAE-
DIA BRITANNICA.
His brother, BENN PITMAN, removed to the United
States, and, settling at Cincinnati, carried on similar
: He was also engaged in reporting important
trials.
PITRA, JEAN BAPTISTE, French cardinal, was born
near Autun, Aug. 31, 1812. He became a priest and
taught rhetoric in the seminary of his native town.
Afterwards he entered the Benedictine order and re-
sided in the abbey of Solesme. In 1858 Pope Pius IX.
sent him to Russia to study the Oriental canons and
liturgy, and in 1869 made him librarian of the Vati-
can. In 1863 Pitra was made cardinal and in 1879
romoted to the rank of cardinal-bishop of Frascali.
}. 1884 he was transferred to the see of Porto et
Santa Rufina. He has published some biographies
and a valuable collection of documents, called Spicºle-
gium Solesmense (5 vols., 1852–60), which sheds much
ight on ecclesiastical history; Juris ecclesiastici Grae-
corum historia et monumenta (1864); Hymnographie
de l'Eglise grecque (1867); and Triodion Katamacticon
(1879), which is a continuation of his work on the
Greek churches. The Spicilegium has also been con-
tinued in a second series called Analecta Sacra and a
third called Amalecta Novissima.
PITTSBURG, the second largest city of Pennsyl-
... vania, is at the confluence of the Alle-
See Vºl. xi. gheny and Monongahela Rivers, which
K "...}} here form the Ohio. It is 353 miles
m. Itep. west of Philadelphia by the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad. Altogether, twelve railroads, six of
which are trunk-lines, enter Pittsburg and contribute
to its prosperity. The commerce, which was formerly
conducted on the Ohio River, has now been mostly
transferred to the railroads, yet in 1887 there were 152
Vessels belonging to this port, with a tonnage of 33,240.
They were chiefly engaged in coal-carrying, the total
capital, invested being $8,000,000, Pittsburg is sub-
divided into three districts, the Old City, East End,
and South Side, formerly Birmingham. The Health
Bureau estimated its population in 1888 at 237,000,
while Allegheny has a population of 96,000. The lat-
ter is enclosed between the Ohio and Allegheny Rivers
and is a favorite place of residence. The total popu-
lation of Allegheny county in 1880 was 355,869, and is
now estimated at 530,000. . The appearance of the
city has greatly improved since the introduction of
natural gas in 1884 has removed the smoky pall which
formerly hung over them. The ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA gives an excellent account of the history,
buildings, and industries of Pittsburg, yet the follow-
ing particulars may be added. The finest public buildin
is the new county court-house, built of granite j
iron, 208 by 306 ft., and enclosing a court-yard. It is
3 stories high and has a tower 425 ft. high. It re-
laces one that was destroyed by fire in May, 1882.
t was completed and furnished at less than the esti-
mated cost, $2,500,000, and was dedicated with special
ceremonies on Sept. 24, 1888, when the centennial an-
niversary of Allegheny county was celebrated with
civic and military parades. The U. S. government
building, which furnishes accommodation for the post-
office and national courts, was built in 1884. The mu-
nicipal hall is a stone structure with a tower 175 ft.
high. A fine Exposition building, with valuable con-
tents, was destroyed by fire, but a new one has been
commenced at the apex of the triangle occupied by the
city, and will be completed in 1889.
Pittsburg has 26 national banks, with a capital of
$10,620,000; 5 private banks, capital $700,000; 7
State banks, capital $1,815,300; 14 savings banks,
$11,964,850. There are 19 blast furnaces in Pittsburg
besides 5 in the vicinity, 36 iron- and 20 steel-mills.
The capacity of the iron-mills is 780,000 tons yearly,
and their actual output is about 580,000. The output
of rails in 1887 was 360,000 tons; of iron pipes
320,000 tons; of railway supplies, 132,000 tons; o
crucible steel, about 42,000 tons; of Bessemer steel,
360,000 tons. Glass is largely manufactured in Pitts-
burg and the use of natural gas has increased the
amount. There are 15 factories making window-glass,
9 making bottles, 16 making table-ware, 4 making
fancy ware, 7 making lamp-chimneys, and 1 making
mold-ware. The capacity of the plate-glass manufac-
ture is now 250,000 sq. ft. per month. There are also
locomotive-works with a capacity of 200 yearly, man-
ufactories of steam-engines, fire-proof safes, brass,
copper, lead, bronze and tin works, manufactories of
iron chains, nuts and bolts, shot-towers, tanneries,
factories making Britannia ware, paper-bags, carbon-
points, boots and shoes, white-lead, etc. Pittsburg
has the largest cork-factory in the world. The lumber
trade in 1887 amounted to 2,000,000 ft., and the pork-
packing to 108,000,000 pounds.
During the civil war 164 companies of soldiers were
raised for the Union army in Allegheny county and
30 more were recruited from it. The official records
of Pennsylvania give it credit for 23,000 soldiers,
of whom 4000 perished in the struggle. The Subsist-
ence Committee, a voluntary association organized in
July, 1861, gave meals to 409,745 soldiers passin
through Pittsburg, and relieved 79,460 sick an
wounded at the Soldiers' Home. The Sanitary Fair
held in June, 1864, realized $361,516, part of which
was used in endowing the Western Pennsylvania Hos-
pital, and the rest for the aid of the soldiers. In
July, 1877, a strike took place among the employés
of the railroads passing through Pittsburg. The
weakness and inefficiency of the mayor allowed tl
riotous mob to seize and destroy railroad property
there to the value of more than $2,500,000. The
PITTSFIELD–PLATTSBURG. 213
State militia was called out and suppressed the riot.
Allegheny county was subsequently held responsible
for the damage done to property, and an attempt to
transfer the burden to the State was defeated.
PITTSFIELD, a city of Massachusetts, shire-town
of Berkshire county, is on a beautiful plateau, 1200 ft.
above the sea. It is on the Boston and Albany and
two other railroads. There are six lakes around it
which give rise to the Housatonic River. The city has
a marble court-house, 3 banks, several hotels, an athe-
naeum with free library, 13 churches, some of which
are notable for architecture, a high-school, 30 public
schools, a young ladies' school, 2 weekly newspapers,
and 2 parks. The lakes furnish water-power which is
used in the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods,
knit goods, silk, and tacks. The site of Pittsfield was
granted to Boston in 1735, and was hence known as
‘Boston Plantation'' until 1761, when it was incorpor-
ated under its present name. Its population in 1880
was 13,364.
PITTSTON, a borough of Luzerne co., Pa., is on
the E. bank of the Susquehanna River, 9 miles above
Wilkesbarre, and in the centre of the Wyoming coal-
region. It is on the Lehigh Valley, the Erie and
Wyoming Valley, and the Delaware, Lackawanna, and
Western Railroads. The last-named road crosses the
Susquehanna River here by a bridge, and there are
two other bridges connecting the borough with West
Pittston, a village of nearly 4000 inhabitants, which is
chiefly used as a place of residence. Pittston itself is
a mining town, though there are also several manufac-
turing industries, including 3 knitting-mills, a silk-mill,
and foundries producing stoves, car-wheels, engines,
and iron-roofing. It has 3 hotels, a national bank, and
2 other banks, 1 weekly and 2 daily newspapers, 18
churches, and 8 graded schools. It has a park and
water-works, and is lighted with both gas and electric
light. The assessed valuation of its property is
$725,922, but the actual value is over $1,000,000.
The public debt is $35,000, and the yearly expenses
are $11,000. The first house on the site was built by
Zebulon Marcy in 1770. The borough was incorpo-
rated in 1852. The population is largely of foreign
birth and in 1880 amounted to 7472.
PLAINFIELD, a city of New Jersey, in Union co.,
is on Green Brook, 24 miles W. S. W. of New York
city, by the N. J. Central Railroad. It has 2 national
banks, 14 churches, good public and private schools,
and 2 weekly newspapers. The manufactures are of
hats, clothing, and machinery. Plainfield was laid out
in 1735 and made a city in 1869. It has become a
favorite place of residence for persons doing business
in New York. Its population in 1880 was 8125.
PLANE, a tree of the genus Platanus, order Pla-
tamaceae, well known under the common names of but-
tonwood and Sycamore, the latter a misnomer, as the
real sycamore is a very different tree. The order con-
tains but one genus, Platanus, and three species, two
of which are natives of the United States. It is classed
by some writers with the bread-fruit family, which it
resembles in many particulars. The planes are distin-
guished by their broad leaves, globular inflorescence
and fruit, and watery juice. 'The leaves are 5 to 6
inches long, and 7 to S broad, with 5 lobes and long
foot-stalks. The leaf-buds end in the leaf-stalk, and
by their expansion break the articulation of the pre-
vious leaves, so that the plant is necessarily deciduous.
The young shoots, leaves, and stipules are thickly
covered with a fine down, which falls off as they ex-
pand and floats in the air. When breathed in it is apt
to produce a disagreeable and persistent cough, for
which reason it is objectionable to plant these trees too
near to dwellings. The female catkin of the plane is
a globular ball, less than an inch in diameter, borne on
a flexible, downy footstock from 2 to 5 inches long.
The flowers are so small as to be imperceptible. The
\male catkins are globes of about $ inch in diameter,
borne on slender, thread-like stalks of an inch or two
in length. The stamens are very, numerºus, each of
two cells opening at the sides and filled with white pol-
len. They are surmounted by brownish-green glandu-
lar disks which form the surface of the ball. The
ripened seeds are small and light, yet have the struc-
ture of nuts. They remain on the tree until the en-
suing spring, when they are dispersed by the bristly
down attached to them. A marked feature of the
planes is the character of their bark, which is deficient
in toughness and extrusibility, while its layers have little
mutual adhesion. . In consequence the outer layers
are apt to crack and scale off in large irregular patches,
revealing the whitish inner bark. This peculiarity
gives the plane a different appearance from any qther
tree. The planes are large, spreading trees, and have
long been highly esteemed as shade-trees. te
The Oriental plane (Platanus orientalis), a native of
the Levant, is a tree of great size, growing to the
height of 80 feet and sometimes higher, and, 9eca-
sionally of immense diameter, while its thickly
leafed branches spread widely from the trunk. It
was a favorite tree in ancient times, the Romans
particularly valuing it as a shade-tree. It is still much
esteemed in the East, and is a great favorite in Persia.
Its wood, which has a beautiful surface, and takes a bril-
liant polish, is much used in carpentry, joining, cabinet-
making, and even in ship-building.
The occidental plane (Poccidentalis), the buttonwood
of the eastern United States, is the largest and loftiest of
American deciduous trees. It has a massive column
or trunk, tapering rapidly to some distance from the
ground, and then ascending with a yery slight taper.
Specimens have been measured on the banks of our
western rivers of from 40 to 50 feet diameter and 100
feet high, but such dimensions as these are very seldom
attained. The tree is a very rapid grower, especially
near water, and sends its lower limbs out hori-
zontally, while the density of its foliage makes it an
excellent shade-tree. The leaves are less palmated
than those of the oriental plane, are large in size and
seldom injured by insects, while they cluster so thickly
as to throw a very dense shade. The wood is of little use
in the arts, being perishable if exposed to the weather,
and liable to warp, but it makes good fuel when grown
on dry soil. The bark of the plane has some astrin-
gency, and the leaves have been used in fomentations.
They were formerly considered an antidote to the poison
of serpents. The American plane has a wide distribu-
tion, extending from the Atlantic to the States west of
the Mississippi and as far north as Montreal, where it
is called the cotton tree.
A third species occurs on the Pacific coast, the Cali-
fornia plane (P racemosus). It is a well-distinguished
species, its leaves being deeply cleft, and very downy
when young, while their under surface continues covered
with a white woolly down, that gives them the feeling
of thick Woollen cloth. The male catkins are smaller
than peas. The female catkins grow in racemes with
from 3 to 5 pendent balls, the styles being remark-
ably long and persistent on the ripe balls. The tree
has a very unusual appearance with its long pendular
racemes, nine inches long, each with from 3 to 5 balls.
The wood is superior to that of P. occidentalis.
C. M.
PLATTSBURG, a city of New York, seat of ciºn
co., is on the W. shore of Lake Champlain at the
mouth of the Saranac River, and on the railroad of
the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, 63 miles S.
of Montreal. Two fine iron bridges cross the river.
The Chateaugay and the Au Sable Railroads lead into
the Adirondack region. In the summer a steamboat
runs daily to Fort Ticonderoga, 70 miles south, and
others run to Burlington, Vt., and various points of
interest on the lake. Plattsburg has 5 hotels, 4 national
banks, I daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 7 churches, a
high-school, and six other schools. Its industries com-
prise an iron-furnace, machine-shops, sewing-machine-
works, wagon-factory, and planing-mills. It has water-
214
PLAY FAIR-PLUMBAGO.
Works and 2 small parks, and is lighted with gas and
electric light. Lumber, iron, and grain are shipped
here. In 1880 the population of the village was 5245
and of the township 8283. On Sept. 11, 1814, Gen-
eral, A. Macomb here repulsed a superior British force,
While on the adjacent Cumberland Bay Commodore
McDonough gained a complete victory over the British
fleet at the same time.
PLAY FAIR, SIR LYON, a British chemist and
publicist, was born at Meerut, Bengal, May 21, 1819.
e was educated at St. Andrews, Scotland, and studied
chemistry under Prof. Thomas Graham at Glasgow
and afterwards at London. In 1838 he went to Gies-
Sen to study organic chemistry under Liebig, some of
whose works he translated into English. On his return
he had charge of calico-print-works at Clitheroe and
in 1843 he was made professor of chemistry in the
Royal Institution at Manchester. He was employed
by the government in various commissions and especially
in connection with the World's Fair of 1851. For his
Services he was made a C. B., and in 1853 was made
#. with Henry Cole, of the newly estab-
ished department of Science and Art. In 1856 he
was appointed inspector-general of the Government
museums and Schools of science. In 1858 he was
called to the chair of chemistry in the University of
Edinburgh, and in 1868 was elected to Parliament for
the Universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews. In
1873–74 he served in Mr. Gladstone's cabinet, being
postmaster-general and member of the privy coun-
cil. He was º of the commission which in
1874 presented the plan for the reorganization of the
civil service. After the election of 1880 he was made
deputy speaker of the House of Commons and chair-
man of ways and means. On retiring in 1883 he was
made K. C. B. Besides his technical work Dr. Play-
fair has published several lectures on educational and
sanitary matters.
PLEASONTON, ALFRED, general, was born at
Washington, D. C., June 7, 1824. He graduated at
West Point in 1844 and entered the dragoons. He
fought in the Mexican war under Gen. Taylor and was
brevetted for gallantry. He afterwards served on fron-
tier duty and as assistant adjutant-general. He con-
ducted his regiment from Utah to Washington on the
outbreak of the civil war. He served creditably in McClel-
lan's Peninsular campaign and was made brigadier-gen-
eral of volunteers in July, 1862. When Lee's army in-
vaded Maryland Pleasonton commanded the division of
cavalry which followed them, and was engaged at Antie-
tam. By his bravery and skilful management at Chan-
cellorsville (q.v.) he checked “Stonewall” Jackson's at-
tack. Being promoted major-general in June, he had
chief command of the cavalry at Gettysburg (q. v.)
In 1864 he was transferred to Missouri, and freed
that State from the invasion of Gen. Sterling Price.
In March, 1865, he was brevetted major-general U. S
A. In 1866 Gen. Pleasonton was mustered out of the
volunteer service and in 1868 he resigned also from the
regular army, believing that his claims to promotion
had been slighted. He was U. S. collector of internal
revenue for some years and afterwards president of the
Terre Haute and Cincinnati Railroad. In May, 1888,
he was placed on the retired list of the army with the
rank of colonel.
PLOUGH. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. III. (1).
PLUM, the name given to Prunus domestica, a tree
+ of the order Rosaceae, which differs
*Y". *:::: from the cherry chiefly in having a
Km Reft * larger and richer fruit, which ripens
- e = e later in the season. Prof. Gray says
that the distinction between the plum and the cherry,
while very perceptible, is hard to define botanically,
none of the botanical distinctions being constant. The
common plum is supposed to have originated from
the bullace, P insititia, a native of Europe, with a
black fruit covered with a yellow bloom, and from P
spinosa, the sloe, a thorny shrub, commonly called
blackthorn from its black bark. Its fruit is a globose
black drupe, covered with a fine blue bloom when ripe.
The plum is said to be a native of Southern Russia,
the Caucasus, and the Volga region.
The domestic plum resembles the sloe, though larger
and destitute of spines. It is from twelve to twenty
feet high, with dark green, lanceolate leaves and soli-
tary flowers of white color, having twenty to thirty
stamens with orange anthers, and one and sometimes
two styles. The fruit is covered with a fine bloom,
and contains a smooth surfaced stone, sharp pointed
at the ends and with a longitudinal furrow passing
around it. There are very numerous varieties, which
differ greatly in size and flavor, some being two inches
long, while others are less than an inch. Among the
varieties the greengage is the most esteemed for sweet-
ness and flavor. It is a delicious dessert fruit, while
some of the inferior varieties are very sour and harsh
in taste. The Damson, another well-known variety,
probably received its name from Damascus, which was
formerly celebrated for its plums. The plum is a very
hardy N. and is cultivated throughout Europe,
from Norway to Barbary, and widely in the United
States, in which country many choice varieties have
originated, some of them of great size and beauty of
fruit. It is less grown here than formerly, however,
on account of the ravages of the curculio and of other
diseases. Another species of the same genus, the
apricot (P. Armeniaca), is widely raised in Europe,
but is only occasionally cultivated in the United States.
It is a native of Armenia, growing from fifteen to
thirty feet high, and bearing a fruit which resembles
the peach, of roundish shape and yellow color, ruddy
on the side next the sun, the flesh being yellow and
juicy.
The sloe and bullace are both naturalized in the
United States, and there are four native species of
Prunus known here. P. Chickasa, the Chickasaw
plum, is a shrub or small tree of the Southern States,
which bears a thin-skinned, yellowish-red fruit of
agreeable flavor. P. Americana, the wild yellow or
red plum, is a bushy tree eight to twenty feet high,
bearing a roundish, oval fruit of two-thirds inch diame-
ter, with a tough skin, but pleasant-flavored pulp.
It has a wide range from Canada to Georgia, and has
been cultivated. The beach plum, P. maritima, is a
low, straggling shrub, which is found on Sandy coasts
from Massachusetts to New Jersey, one variety reach-
ing to Alabama. Its fruit is often an inch in diameter,
and of pleasant taste, but somewhat astringent. P.
glandulosa, of Texas, is less than a foot high, with very
crooked, thorny branches,
The finer varieties of the plum form choice table-
fruit, while the inferior kinds are used in pies, con-
serves, and Sweetmeats. In moderate quantity plums
are wholesome, but are apt to produce colic and
diarrhoea if eaten to excess, particularly if not fully
ripe. A pleasant wine is made from them in Europe,
and in some places a strong spirit is distilled from the
fermented juice. The dried plum, under the name of
prune, is a favorite dessert article, and great quanti-
ties are thus prepared in Europe. Many of the in-
ferior grades are sun-dried, the better qualities care-
fully heat-dried. The best prunes come from France,
while large quantities are produced in Spain and Tur-
key, and many of a coarse quality in Germany. The
prunellos, the finest grade of prunes, are made from
the greengage and the St. Catharine plum. These
afford a delicious and highly esteemed * )
C. M.
PLUMBAGO. —The mineral known Ander the two
*Y h YY (Y & IT {Y (Y : ) i. - Yºº Y 4.
See Vol. XIX. º º º º "...i.
p. 230 (p. 213 jº ſ reºty, ºt
Am. Rep.). Black Lead, is one of the several forms
assumed by carbon, the others being
diamond and coal. It occurs in considerable abundance
in many parts of the world, being found in laminae or
masses in the granite, gneiss, mica, Schist, and crystal-
PLUMER—PLYMOUTH.
2:15
line limestone of the primary geological strata. Con-
cerning , its origin, mineralogists are in ignorance,
though it is generally believed that it was derived from
very ancient vegetation, which has left no other trace
of its existence. It is often found in coal veins where
traversed by trap-rock, indicating that the coal has
been transformed into plumbago iy heat. It is also
produced in iron furnaces, crystallized in flat flakes in
the cavities of cast-iron. As found in the rocks it is
composed of pure carbon, with a little iron oxide me-
chanically mixed, abd occurs in foliated prismatic
masses, and also in a compact granular form. . It is in-
fusible, very difficult of combustion, and of a lead-like
metallic lustre, from which, and the readiness with
which it leaves a black mark on paper, it has received
its name of black lead.
Plumbago is utilized in several important methods,
of which the best known is its employment in the
manufacture of lead pencils. For this purpose it is
used either in its pure state, or ground up and mixed
with clay. For the finer grades of pencils plumbago
free from impurities is required. This is attained by
rinding and removing all impurities and then con-
i. by pressure, or by selecting pure natural gra-
hite and cutting it into appropriate sizes. A second
important use is in the manufacture of retorts and
crucibles, to which its high resistance to heat well ad-
apts it. For this purpose it is mixed with fire clay,
thus forming one of the most refractory substances
known. Plumbago crucibles are used largely in the
manufacture of Bessemer steel. Another important
use is that of dry lubrication, as in producing smooth-
ness of action between the frictional surfaces of the
piano and organ. Plumbago, thus applied, must be
absolutely free from grit. Recently it has come into
extended use as a general lubricant for machinery.
Mixed in proper porportions with an oily substance it
makes a perfect lubricant, which remarkably reduces
friction, and is unaffected by heat or cold, steam or
acids. Others of its uses are for pigments, and for
polishing iron surfaces, while in foundries it is em-
ployed as a facing for moulds in order to produce a
smooth surface in casting. In this particular it is of
great utility. As it is a good conductor of electricity,
it is sometimes used to coat moulds in electrotyping.
Plumbago is found in many parts of the earth, but
in few places in sufficient purity for profitable working,
it being generally mixed in the vein with slaty and
other impurities. Very pure plumbago was formerly
extracted from the Borrowdale mines of England.
This was of sufficient purity to be sawn directly into
pencils, as is now done with that extracted from the
Alibert mine of Siberia. The great source of the
present supply of plumbago is the island of Ceylon,
where a very pure quality is obtained. It is mined
also in several European localities.
Plumbago is distributed widely throughout the
United States and Canada, though in few places in suf-
ficient purity for profitable working. It is found at
intervals along the whole line of the Alleghenies, in
California, and in several other localities, but in few
łº in sufficient purity to warrant its mining. The
Jureka mine of Sonora, California, is said to be ca-
pable of yielding 1000 tons monthly. The only place
where plumbago is now mined successfully in the
United States is at Ticonderoga, Essex co., N. Y. Of
this place we are told in the Mining Resources of the
United States, 1883–84 : “The vein there has been
worked to a depth of 600 feet. The graphite schist
or vein is about 15 feet thick, carrying from S to 15
per cent. of graphite, and is practically inexhaustible.
This mine is unusually rich, for it perhaps produces
the finest graphite in the world.” It contains occa-
sional pockets of graphite of the finest quality, con-
sisting of 99.9 per cent. of carbon. This is the purest
known, and is particularly well adapted for pencil-
manufacture. (See PENCILS.) (C. M.)
PLUMBING. See SANITARY SCIENCE.
PLUMER, WILLIAM Swan (1802–1880), clergyman
and author, was born at Griersburg, Pa., July 25,
1802. He graduated at Washington College, Va., in
1825, studied theology at Princeton, and was ordained
to the Presbyterian ministry in 1827. He served sev;
eral churches in Virginia and North Carolina, and
while at Richmond was editor of The Watchman of
the South (1837–45). In 1838 he was moderator of
the Presbyterian General Assembly. He was after-
wards pastor in Baltimore, and in 1854 was called to a
professorship in the Western Theological Seminary at
Allegheny %. Pa. On account of his sympathy
with the South in the civil war he was obliged to re-
tire in 1862, when he removed to Philadelphia. In
1866 he became professor in the Theological Seminary
at Columbia, S. C., and held that position until 1880,
having in 1871 been moderator of the Southern Pres-
byterian General Assembly. He died at Baltimore,
Oct. 22, 1880. In theology he was an extreme Cal-
vinist. He published The Law of God, an exposition
of the Ten Commandments (1864), The Grace of
Christ (1853), Vital Godliness (1865), Pastoral Theol-
ogy, Studies in the Book of Psalms (1866), Commem-
taries on the Romans and the Hebrews (1870), besides
numerous tracts and minor works.
PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES, English clergyman,
was born in London, Aug. 6, 1821. e was educated
at University College, Oxford, and on graduating in
1844, became fellow of Brasenose College. He was
chaplain of King's College, London, from 1847 to
1868, being also professor of pastoral theology there
from 1853 to 1863, and of exegesis from 1864 to 1881.
He was also dean of Queen's College, London, from
1855 to 1875, when he was made its principal, but he
resigned in 1877. He was chosen select preacher at
Oxford in 1851, 1864, and 1872, and Boyle lecturer in
1866. In 1869 he was made rector of Pluckley, Kent,
and in 1873 vicar of Bickley, which position he held
till 1881, when he was made dean of Wells. He took
part in the revision of the English Bible, and in 1875
the University of Glasgow conferred on him the de-
gree of D. D. Besides contributing to Smith's Bible
Dictionary he annotated the Book of Proverbs in the
Speaker's Commentary, the first three Gospels, Acts,
and Second Corinthians in Bishop Ellicott's New
Testament Commentary, and Isaiah and Jeremiah in
the Old Testament Commentary. He assisted also in
the Cambridge Bible and other commentaries, edited
the Bible Educator (1875) and published the Biblical
Studies (1870) and Introduction to the New Testament
(1883). He has also published Epistles to the Seven
Churches (1877); Movement of Religious Thought
§§ ; Things New and Old (1884); Spirits in Prison
1884); and Life of Bishop Thomas Kerr (1886).
Dean Plumptre is also favorably known by his poems
and especially his excellent translations of Sophocles
(1865) and Æschylus (1868), and of Dante (2 vols.,
1887). His original poetical works are Lazarus (1864)
and Master and Scholar (1866).
PLYMOUTH, , the shire-town of Plymouth co.,
Mass., is situated on Plymouth Bay, part of Cape
Cod Bay, 37 miles S. E. of Boston, at the terminus of
a branch of the Old Colony Railroad. Here the Pil-
grim Fathers landed on Dec. 21, 1620, and founded
their first settlement in America. Plymouth village
is at the north end of the “town,” which is altogether
about 16 miles long and 6 miles wide. The “town.”
contains large tracts of woodland and 180 ponds, of
which 135 bear names and are well stocked with perch,
pickerel, etc. . The village contains Pilgrim Hall, in
which memorials of the Pilgrims of the Mayflower
are preserved. In front of it is a portion of the rock
Qp which they first stepped. The rock itself is in
Water Street, and is now covered by a granite Canopy.
The village has also a town-hall, a court-house, 2 na-
tional banks, 2 savings banks, 2 weekly newspapers, 11
churches, a high-school, and 30 graded schools. Man.
'ufactures are extensively carried on, the chief prod.
216
PLYMOUTH-POISONS.
ucts being cordage, nails, tacks, rivets, shoes, shoe-
shanks, cotton, duck, and seamless pockets. There
are also 2 zinc-rolling-mills and an iron-foundry. The
village is modern in appearance, is lighted with gas,
and has water-works, the cost of which, about
$100,000, constitutes its public debt. The property is
valued at $5,000,000 and the yearly expenses are about
$60,000. The town is much resorted to by summer
visitors, there being 7 hotels, and 7 trains daily to and
from Boston, besides daily trips by steamboat in the
Sll In Iller.
PLYMOUTH, a borough of Pennsylvania, in Lu-
Zerne co., on the east bank of the Susquehanna River,
is on the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Rail-
road, 8 miles from Wilkesbarre. It is a coal-mining
town with 6065 population in 1880. It was in 1885
the scene of a serious epidemic of typhoid fever,
which was eventually traced to the contamination of
the water-supply by the excreta of a single family some
months previous.
POEY Y ALOY, FELIPE, a Cuban naturalist, was
born at Havana, May 26, 1799. Though his father
was a Frenchman, he was educated at Havana, and in
1823 became a lawyer there. His inclination for
natural history was so strong that in 1826 he went to
Paris with drawings and specimens of Cuban fishes,
which were submitted to Cuvier and Valenciennes.
These eminent naturalists used his researches in their
Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, giving him due credit.
In 1833 Poey returned to Cuba and in 1842 he was ap-
pointed professor of comparatiye anatomy and zoölogy
in the Royal University of Havana. Though ham-
pered by want of means, Prof. Poey diligently prose-
cuted his researches in natural history. He made
valuable contributions to the U. S. National Museum,
to the Museum of Comparative Zoëlogy at Cambridge,
Mass., and to the Museum at Madrid. His chief con-
tributions to science are Memorias sobre la Historia
Matural de la Isla de Cubw (2 vols., 1855–60); Synop-
sis Piscium Cubensium (1868), which was revised
under the title Enumeratio Piscium Cubensium (1875),
but he has spent years in preparing a valuable Ictiolo-
gia Cubana, still in manuscript.
POINDEXTER, GEORGE (1779–1853), politician,
was born in Louisa county, Va., in 1779. He
began to practice law in his native State, but in
1802 removed to Mississippi Territory, where he was
made attorney-general by Gov. Claiborne. In 1807
he was sent to Congress as Territorial delegate, and in
1813 he was appointed U. S. District Judge for Mis-
sissippi. When that State was admitted to the Union,
in 1817, he was elected to Congress, and in 1819 he was
elected governor. In 1831 he was sent to the U. S.
Senate, and though he had formerly been a defender
of Gen. Jackson, he now turned against him. Poin-
dexter went to Kentucky in 1835, but afterwards re-
turned to Mississippi, where he died at Jackson, Sept.
5, 1853.
'POINSETT, JOEL ROBERTs (1779–1851), states-
man, was, born at Charleston, South Carolina,
March 2, 1779. He was of Huguenot descent, was
educated by Pres. Dwight at Greenfield, Conn.,
and afterwards studied medicine at the University of
Edinburgh and military science at Woolwich. . . He
spent some years in travel through Europe, visited
the Calmuck Tartars and entered Persia. In 1809,
being sent by Pres. Madison to examine the condi-
tion of the people of South America then in insurrec:
tion against the Spanish authorities, , he established
friendly relations with Buenos Ayres and then crossed
the continent to Chili. While he was there the Span-
ish authorities seized several American whaleships at
Talcahuana, but Poinsett, with the aid of some Chil-
ians, liberated the vessels. The British preventing
his return by sea, he again crossed the Andes. After
his return home he was elected to the Legislature and
in 1821 to Congress. He also visited Mexico in 1822
to report upon the prospects of the empire established
by Iturbide. In 1825 he was sent as minister to that
country and in spite of troubles due to revolutionary
movements negotiated treaties with its government.
He returned to Charleston in 1829 and became a leader
of the Union party in the struggle against nullification.
He was in constant correspondence with Pres. Jack-
son during this trying period and heartily approved
the action of the national administration. After the
nullification movement had failed Poinsett married
and became a rice-planter. Pres. Van Buren called
him from his retirement, in 1837, to be secretary of
war. While holding this office he organized and
equipped the Wilkes Exploring Expedition. He
lanned and founded the first National Museum at
Washington. He reorganized the artillery service and
strongly urged other improvements in army methods.
Yet he stoutly resisted the movements leading to the
Mexican war, which, however, in its course displayed
effectively the value of his services to the military
strength of the country. At the close of his term he
retired again to his plantation at Statesburg, S. C.,
where he died Dec. 12, 1851. See Dr. C. J. Stille's
“Life and Services of J. R. Poinsett” in Penna.
Magazine of History and Biography (1888).
POISONS. The º of º #: been
very fully treated in the ENCYCLO-
§ººl; º; proLA BRITANNica, and this article
p. 275 (p. 287 ill be dev l brief f
Am. Rep.). will be devoted to a brief statement o
antidotes. An antidote is a substance
which is used for the purpose of overcoming the dele-
terious effects of some poison upon the animal system.
There are two kinds of antidotes—physiological and
chemical. Physiological antidotes are uncertain in
their action and require for their use a thorough knowl-
edge of physiology and pathology. We shall not,
therefore, discuss them in the present article.
Chemical antidotes act usually by forming with the
boison a new compound which is inert So far as the
human system is concerned. With but one exception
they are incapable of acting when the poison has been
absorbed. The exception is a very important one in
that it is the antidote of a very common poison, car-
bolic acid. This antidote is a soluble sulphate, es-
pecially the sulphate of magnesium or Epsom salt, or
the sulphate of sodium or Glauber's salt. It seems
to have the power of forming a harmless sulpho-car-
bolate in the blood as well as in the alimentary canal.
The antidotes are best studied for practical purposes.
under general heads.
All mineral and vegetable acids, with but one single
exception, are neutralized and rendered innocuous by
ordinary alkalies or alkaline earths. The exception
is oacalic acid, whose salts of potassa and soda are as
poisonous as is the acid itself. The antidote is lime,
the oxalate of lime formed being completely insoluble.
and inert.
In applying an antidote to an acid time is of the ut-
most importance, and as soap is usually at hand, and
is very effective, it is the most frequently employed of
all the alkaline substances.
The alkalies are also more or less antidotal to most.
of the mineral salts, the principal exceptions being, 1.
Corrosive sublimate. The yellow . of mercury,
which is formed when an alkali is added to corrosive
sublimate, although less poisonous than the corrosive
sublimate, is very deleterious in its action upon the
system. 2. Tartar Emetic. The oxide of antimony
acts less promptly but scarcely less certainly than tartar
emetic itself, and consequently we are not able to em-
ploy it in tartar emetic poisoning. Tannic acid, though
not a perfect antidote, is still the best we have for the
salts of antimony. 3. Arsenic. The antidote to ar-
senic and its soluble preparations is some form of the
hydrated sesqui-oxide of iron. It is necessary that
this antidote be freshly prepared, be given in a moist
state and in great excess. If it has long been pre-
pared it is nearly useless. It should, therefore, be
made when wanted by precipitating the tincture of the:
POLAR REGIONS: POLITICAL CONVENTIONS.
chloride of iron, the solution of the per sulphate of
iron, dialyzed iron or, some other soluble sesqui-com-
pound of iron, by, an alkali. Ammonia is frequently
employed as the alkali, but in order to free the precipi-
tate from it much washing is required, and as time is
a matter of the greatest importance, it is therefore
preferable to add to the iron, solution magnesia in ex-
Čess. The powder which falls after such treatment is
a mixture of the hydrated sesqui-oxide of iron and
magnesia, and is believed by many chemists to be su-
perior to the hydrated Sesqui-oxide of iron as an anti-
dote to arsenic. It is the officinal antidotum arsenici
of the Prussian Pharmacopoeia and has been officinally
recognized in the last revision of the U. S. Pharma-
copoeia (Ferri. Ocidum Hydratum cum Magnesia, U.
S. P., 1880). 4. Nitrate of Silver. It has for its an-
tidote common salt, which is very much more effective
than soap or the alkalies.
Alkaline Poisons have for their antidote vegetable
or dilute mineral acids. When these are not to be
had, or even if they be used, it is very well, in most
cases, to administer bland oils, which act in part by
forming a soap with the alkali, and in partly mechani-
cal sheathing the stomach and bowels from the local
action of the poison.
Of the neutral or elementary poisons one of the
most important is phosphorus, whose antidote is not,
as was formerly thought, freshly calcined magnesia or a
fixed oil, but sulphate of copper. Very old European
oil of turpentine is also antidotal and officinal, but
American emulsions seem to have no such property.
Very few vegetable poisons have reliable chemical
antidotes, but tannic acid forms with alkaloids salts
which are not readily dissolved in the stomach and ab-
sorbed. Whenever a poison containing an alkaloid has
been taken, tannic acid or nutgalls may be given, and
follow immediately by an emetic and such a cathartic
as castor oil, in order to remove the only partially inert
tannate. Mustard flour is the most rapidly acting and
easily attainable emetic in poisoning. A tablespoonful
may be given at once in a tumblerful of water and
repeated in fifteen minutes if required. The principal
poisons depending for their activity upon an alkaloid
are opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus or hembane, stra-
monium or “Jimson weed,” musc vomica, hemlock or
conium, water hemlock, Calabar beam, poisonous mush-
rooms, verałrum viride, aconite, digitalis, Gelseminum
or yellow jessamine. Strychnia and morphia are alka-
loids. (H. C. W.)
POLAR l{EGIONS. See ARCTIC EXPLORA-
TIONS.
POLITICAL CONVENTIONS form the present
customary method in the United States of nominating
persons to be voted for at elections. These conventions
are of various grades, State, city, county, and Congres-
sional district, but all are conducted in practically the
same way. The citizens of a political party are in-
Vited to meet at a primary election in their precinct, or
division, to choose delegates to these conventions, who
are in theory free to name candidates and to vote ac-
gording to their own judgment on the names presented.
In some cases, however, the people vote also directly
for the candidate and the delegate is required simply
to register the will of the majority of those who
elected him. The dangers and difficulties attending
this method and others which have been used are
discussed under CAUCUs (q.v.) This article will give
Simply a brief outline of the various national con-
WentlonS.
As early as September, 1812, a convention in which
eleven States were represented was held in New
ork, and nominated DeWitt Clinton for the Presi-
dency. Madison, then President, had already been
nominated for a second term by a Congressional cau-
Quš. Both candidates and their respective followers
belonged to the Republican party, but Madison, hav.
ing the “regular ’’ nomination, was elected. The
System of nominating by Congressional caucus fell
VOL. IV.-O
217
to pieces in 1824, when only one-third of the Repub-
lican members of Congress attended the caucus which
nominated William H. Crawford. Other candidates
were presented in various ways, and, there being no
choice by the people, the House of Representatives
elected John Quincy Adams. Andrew Jackson, who
had received a plurality of the electoral votes, was
forthwith nominated by the Legislature of Tennessee as
presidential candidate for the next election, and this
action being approved by the Democratic party through-
out the country, he was elected in 1828 over Pres. J. Q.
Adams, who refused to use his power of patronage
to assist his own election.
In September, 1830, a national conference of citizens
opposed to Free, Masonry (see ANTI-MASONRY) was
held in Philadelphia. It had been called by the New
York Anti-Masonic State Convention, and was pre-
sided over by Francis Granger of that State. It
called a national nominating convention, which met
in Baltimore, Sept. 26–28, 1831, and nominated Wii-
liam Wirt, of Maryland, for President, and Amos E!!-
maker, of Pennsylvania, for Vice-President. The ex-
ample of this first national political convention was
followed by the “National Republican '' convention
which assembled in Baltimore, Dec. 12, 1831. Janies
Barbour, of Virginia, oresided ; Henry Clay, of Ken-
tucky, was unanimously nominated for President, and
John Sergeant, of Pennsylvania, for Vice-President.
The Democratic party also adopted this method in
the following May and held a convention at Balti-
more, at which Martin Van Buren was selected as
candidate for Vice-President, a second term of Presi-
dency having been already conceded to Jackson. (See
DEMOCRATIC PARTY.)
In May, 1835, a national Democratic convention
was held at Baltimore, 21 States being represented,
and Andrew Stephenson, of Virginia, presided. At
this convention the present rule of the Democratic
party requiring a two-thirds vote to insure a nomina-
tion was adopted. Martin Van Buren was then unani-
mously nominated for President, and Richard M.
Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen for Vice-President,
receiving 178 votes to S7 votes for William C. Rives,
of Virginia. Gen. William H. Harrison, of Ohio,
the opposition candidate to the Democracy in 1836,
was nominated by a State convention in Pennsylvania
and by several other bodies.
In 1839 a national Whig convention was held
in Harrisburg, Pa. James Barbour presided, and
Gen. Harrison was nominated for President on the first
ballot, receiving 148 votes. John Tyler, of Virginia,
was selected as Vice-President. In December, lS39,
a convention of Abolitionists was held at Warsaw, N.
Y., and nominated James G. Birney, of New York, for
President and Francis J. Lemoyne, of Pennsylvania,
for Vice-President. On May 5, 1840, a national Demo-
gratic convention assembled at Baltimore and Martin
Van Buren was unanimously renominated, but no choice
was made for a Vice-President. This was the first
convention to frame a platform, declaring the ideas and
wishes of the party.
A national Whig convention met at Baltimore on
May 1, 1844, nominated Henry Clay, of Kentucky, for
President by acclamation ; and chose for Vice-Presi-
dent T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey. On May 27 the
national Democratic convention met in the same city.’
The two-thirds rule was adopted, and after a session
of 3 days James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was nomi-
nated for President. Silas Wright, of New York, was
selected, for Vice-President, but declined, and George
M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was chosen to fill his
place. On the first ballot Martin Van Buren had 146
yotes, Lewis Cass S3, R. M. Johnson 29, and James
Buehanan 4. Van Buren's name was withdrawn after
the Sth ballot and on the 9th Polk received 233 votes,
to 29 for Cass and 2 for Van Buren. The national
convention of the Liberty party met in Buffalo, N.Y.,
Aug. 30, JS44, and nominated James G. Birney, of
21S
POLITICAL CONVENTIONS.
Michigan, for President and Thomas Morris, of Ohio,
for Vice-President.
The national Whig convention of 1848 was held in
Philadelphia, June 7–10, Gen. Zachary Taylor being
30minated for President on the 4th ballot and Millard
Fillmore, of New York, for Vice-President. Taylor's
principal competitor was Clay. The national Demo.
Gratic Convention assembled at Baltimore, May 22,
JS4S ; Lewis Cass was selected as the candidate for the
Presidency on the 4th ballot; and William O. Butler, of
Kentucky, for Vice-President. The Free Soil Demo-
gratic convention assembled on June 22, 1848, at Utica,
N. Y., but only 3 States were represented. It placed
in nomination Martin Van Buren for President and
Henry Dodge for Vice-President. The latter subse-
quently declined. On Aug. 9 a larger convention of
those holding Free Soil views met in Buffalo, 17
States being represented by delegates. This body
nominated Martin Van Buren for President and Charles
Francis Adams for Vice-President. (See FREE SOIL
PARTY.)
The national Whig convention of 1852 assembled
on June 16, in Baltimore, and was in session 6 days,
during which time 53 ballots were taken, commencing
with 131 for Gen. Winfield Scott, 133 for Fillmore,
and 29 for Webster; and continuing, with very little
Variation, until the last, when Scott had 159, Fillmore
112, and Webster 21. In the same city the national
convention of the Democratic party met on June 1,
and on the 49th ballot selected Gen. Franklin Pierce,
of New Hampshire, as its candidate for the Presi-
dency. The 1st ballot stood : Cass, 116 , Buchanan,
93; Douglas, 20; Marcy, 27 ; Lane, 13; Houston, S.;
Todge, 3 ; Butler, 2.; and Dickinson, 1. Cass rose to
131 on the 35th ballot, when the name of Pierce was
presented, and on the 49th ballot the vote stood :
Pierce, 2S2 ; Cass, 2 ; Buchanan, 2.; Butler, 2. W. R.
King, of Alabama, was then nominated for the Vice-
Presidency. The Free Soil Democrats held a national
convention at Pittsburg on Aug. 11, 1852, and nomi-
nated John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, for the
Presidency, and George W. Julian, of Indiana, for
Vice-President.
The first national Republican convention was held
on June 17, 1856, at Philadelphia. (See REPUBLI-
CAN PARTY.) After an informal ballot which re-
sulted as follows, Fremont, 359, McLean, 196, John
C. Fremont was declared nominated. Upon the
same ticket was placed William L. Dayton, of New
Jersey, as Vice-President. The American national
council met in Philadelphia Feb. 19, 1856, and
nominated Millard Fillmore for President and An-
drew Jackson Donelson for Vice-President. The
Democratic convention of 1856 met at Cincinnati on
June 2, and cast 17 ballots. The 1st ballot stood :
Buchanan, 135 ; Pierce, 122; Douglas, 33; Cass, 5.
Pierce's votes were given to Douglas on the 15th bal-
lot, but without effect; and on the 17th Buchanan was
nominated.
The national Republican convention met in Chicago
May 16, 1860, with delegates in attendance from all
the free States, and also from Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Texas, and the Terri-
tories of Kansas and Nebraska, and the District of
Columbia. Three ballots were taken for President,
each delegate casting a half-vote ; on the last the vote
was . Jincoln, 231}; Seward, 180; Chase, 24; ; Bates,
22; McLean, 5; Dayton, 1 ; C. M. Clay, 1. As this
gave Lincoln within 23 of a nomination, several dele-
gations changed their ballots and gave him 354 votes.
annibal Hamlin was nominated for Vice-President.
A convention of the Constitutional Union party met
in Baltimore on May 9, and nominated John Bell, of
Tennessee, for President, and Edward Everett, of
Massachusetts, for Vice-President. The national
Democratic convention of 1860 met in Charleston, S.
C., on April 26, delegates being present from all the
States. The Territories are not allowed a vote in
Democratic conventions. After a stormy debate upon
a platform a part of the delegates left the conven-
tion, and those that remained proceeded to ballot.
The 1st ballot stood : Douglas, 1453; Guthrie, 35;
Hunter, 42; Dickinson, 7 ; H. W. Johnson, 12; Lane,
6; Jefferson Davis, 1}; Toucey, 2} : Pierce, 1. The
57th ballot stood : Douglas, 1513 ; Guthrie, 68% ;
Hunter, 16 ; Dickinson, 4; Lafie, 14; Davis, 3. The
convention then adjourned to meet in Baltimore June
13, and there on the 2d ballot Stephen A. Douglas
was declared the choice of the convention for President,
and Benjamin Fitzpatrick, of Alabama, was nomi-
nated for Vice-President. When he declined Her-
schel V. Johnson, of Georgia, was put in his place.
The delegates who had withdrawn from the Charles-
ton convention immediately assembled at St. An-
drew's Hall, in that city, and, after adopting a series
of resolutions, adjourned to meet in Richmond, Va.,
on June 10. This body, after a number of meetings
finally indorsed the nomination of Breckinridge an
Lane. On June 28 the delegates who did not par-
ticipate in the convention that nominated Douglas
and Johnson assembled in Baltimore, and proceeded
to ballot for a candidate for President. John C.
Breckinridge, of Kentucky, received the unanimous
vote of the 105 delegates present, representing 20
States. For Vice-President Gen. Joseph Lane, of
Oregon, was nominated.
On May 31, 1864, a convention to organize a new
party under the name of the “Radical Democracy”.
met at Cleveland, issued an address to the people,
and nominated John C. Fremont for President, and
John Cochrane, C* New York, for Vice-President.
These candidates were subsequently withdrawn. The
national Republican convention of 1864 assembled in
Baltimore on June 7 ; Robert J. Breckinridge, of Ken-
tucky, was its president. Abraham Lincoln was renomi-
nated on the 1st ballot by a unanimous vote, with
the exception of the vote of Missouri, which was
cast for Grant. For Vice-President Andrew John-
son was nominated on the 1st ballot. The national
Democratic convention of 1864 met at Chicago, Aug.
20. Horatio Seymour, of New York, was appointed
permanent chairman. The vote was : George B. Mc-
Clellan, 202; ; Horatio Seymour, 23}. George H.
Pendleton was nominated for Vice-President on the
2d ballot. +
The national Republican convention met at Chicago
May 21, 1868. Gen. Joseph R. Hawley, of Con-
necticut, was selected as President. A ballot was
taken, and the president announced that 610 votes
had been cast, all for Ulysses S. Grant. On the 5th
ballot for Vice-President Schuyler Colfax, of Indi-
ana, received 522 votes and was nominated. On
July 4, 1868, the national Democratic convention met
in New York, Horatio Seymour presiding. The 1st
ballot resulted : Pendleton, 105; Hancock, 333 ;
Church, 34; English, 16; Parker, 13; Packer, 26 :
Johnson, 65 ; Doolittle, 13 ; Hendricks, 2} ; Blair,
3. On the 21st ballot the vote was : Hancock, 1353 ;
English, 19 ; Johnson, 5 ; Doolittle, 12; and Hen-
dricks, 132. On the 22d ballot all the States voted
for Horatio Seymour, and he was declared the nomi-
nee. Gen. Frank P. Blair, of Missouri, was unani-
mously nominated for Vice-President.
The national convention of the Liberal Republican
party met in Cincinnati on May 1, 1872, and opened
the Presidential campaign of that year. Six ballots
were taken. On the 1st Horace Greeley received 147
votes : C. F. Adams, 203 ; Trumbull, 1] (); Tavis,
92}; Brown, 95; Curtin, 62; Chase, 23. On the 5th
ballot Greeley had 258, and Adams 309 ; but on the
6th ballot Horace Greeley was declared the nominee
of the convention for President. On the 2d ballot
B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, was selected for Vice-
President by a vote of 435 to 261. The national
Republican convention of 1872 assembled in Phila-
delphia on June 5. Morton McMichael was chosen
POLITICAL
ECONOMY. 219
Settle, of North
On the 1st ballot
For Vice-
temporary chairman, and Thomas
Carºlina, as permanent president. .
Ulysses S. Grant received the entire vote. -
President Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, Was nºt-
nated over Schuyler Colfax on the 2d ballot. The
national Democratic convention met at Baltimore, J uly
g, 1872, and all the ballots but 45, were, cast for Gree-
icy, who was declared the candidate, for, the party.
B. Gratz Brown was nominated for Vice-President.
The convention of the Republican party for 1876
met at Cincinnati on June 15, having 752 members.
idward McPherson, of Pennsylvania, was permanent
jºirman. On the 1st ballot James G. Blaine had
§ votes; Morton, 125; Bristow, 113; Conkling,
Q); Hayes, 61 ; Hartranft, 58: Jewell, 11 ; Wheeler,
3. The 7th ballot resulted : Blaine, 351 : Bristow,
5i, and Hayes, 384, or 5 more than a majority. . Wil-
liam A. Wheeler received 3 votes for Vice-Presi-
dent on the 1st ballot. The Democratic convention
met in St. Louis June 27. On the 1st ballot S. J.
Tilden had 4033 votes; Hendricks, 1333 ; Allen, 56;
Hancock, 75; Parker, 18; Bayard, 27. On the 3d
ballot Tilden had 508, and was declared nominated:
and Thomas A. Hendricks was unanimously nomi-
nated for Vice-President. A convention of the Pro:
hibition party met at Cleveland May 16, 1876, and
nominated Green Clay Smith, of Kentucky, for Presi-
dent, and G. S. Stewart, of Ohio, for Vice-President.
A Greenback convention was held at Indianapolis
May 17, which nominated Peter Cooper, of New York,
for President, and Newton Booth, of California, for
Vice-President. Mr. Booth afterwards declined, and
Samuel C. Cary, of Ohio, was substituted.
The national Republican convention of 1880 met
at Chicago, June 2. It was a notable gathering of
distinguished Republicans. Gen. Grant had just re-
turned from a remarkable journey around the world,
and a large portion of the Republican party desired
to make him a candidate for a third term. George
F. Hoar, of Massachusetts, was selected as temporary
chairman, and subsequently made permanent presi-
dent of the convention. Edwards Pierrepont, of New
York, reported the platform. After sharp prelimin-
ary contests the first ballot was taken on the fifth
day of the convention, and stood ; Grant, 304; Blaine,
284 : Washburne, 31 ; Edmunds, 34; Windom, 10 ;
John Sherman, 93. The balloting continued for 2
days, and the 36th ballot stood as follows: Grant,
306 ; Garfield, 399 ; Blaine, 42: Washburne, 5 ; Sher-
man, 3. James A. Garfield, of Ohio, thus had a ma-
jority, and Roscoe Conkling, of New York, who had
ed the Grant forces, made the motion that the nomina-
tion be unanimous. Chester A. Arthur, of New York,
was then nominated for Vice-President on the 1st
ballot, receiving 468 votes. The Democratic conven-
tion of 18S0 met at Cincinnati on June 22. A con-
siderable number of Democrats believing that Mr.
Tilden had been defrauded of the election in 1876
urged his renomination. The 1st ballot taken on the
3d day stood as follows : Winfield S. Hancock, 171 ;
Thomas F. Bayard, 1533 ; Stephen B. Field, 65; Wil-
liam R. Morrison, 62; Thomas A. Hendricks, 49% ,
Allºn G. Thurman, 683 : Henry B. Payne, 81 Samuel
J. Tilden, 38 ; Thomas Ewing, 10 ; Horatio Seymour,
• ?
In 1884 the Republican convention met at Chicagº
on June 3. For the first time the new Systern of
representation by delegates elected in Congressional
districts was in force, Government office-hºlders were
juded from the national committee and from the
presidential electors. The scheme proposing that
States and districts should be represented in the gon-
vention in proportion to the number of Republican
votes cast by them had failed. The 1st ballot stood :
Blaine, 334}; Arthur, 278; Edmunds, 93.3 Logan, 63};
Sherman, 30; Hawley, 13; Lincoln, 4; William T.Sher-
man, 2. On the 4th ballot James G. Blaine re-
ºivºdTâ41 votes and was declared the nominee for
President. No opposition was made to the nºi-
nation of John A. Logan for Vice-President. The
national Democratic convention also met at Chicago,
july's. On the 3d day the 1st ballot stood ; Grover
Cleveland, 392; Thomas F. Bayard, 170: Allen G.
Thurman, Ss: Samuel J. Randall, 78; Joseph Me"
Donald, 56; John G. Carlisle, 27; scattering, 9. On
the 4th day Cleveland was nominated by the following
vote: Cleveland, 683; Hendricks, 45} : Bayard, S13 .
McDonald, 2.; Randall. 4; Thurman, 4. Hendricks was
nominated for Vice-President without opposition.
John P. St. John was nominated for President by the
Prohibitionists; and Benjamin F. Butler by the Green-
back and Labor parties.
In 1888 the Republicans met in Chicago, June 19.
The 1st ballot was taken on June 22 with the fol-
lowing result: John Sherman, 229; Walter, Q.
Gresham, 107; Chauncey M. Depew, 99. Russell, A.
Alger, 84; Benjamin Harrison, 795 William B. Alli-
son, 72; James G. Blaine, 33: John J. Ingalls, 28;
William Walter Phelps, 25; Jeremiah M. Rusk, 25;
Edwin H. Fitler, 24; Joseph R. Hawley, 13 ; Robert
T. Lincoln, 3; William McKinley, Jr., 2. The 8th
and final ballot, taken on June 25, resulted as follows:
Harrison, 544: Sherman, 118 ; Alger, 100; Gresham,
59; Blaine, 5; McKinley, 4. Gen. Benjamin Harrison,
of Indiana, being thus the choice for President, Levi
P. Morton was nominated for Vice-President. At
the Democratic convention of 1SSS, held in St. Louis
on June 5, there was no opposition to the renom-
ination of Pres. Cleveland. The convention, with-
out a division, nominated Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio,
for Vice-President. Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, of New
Jersey, was nominated for the Presidency at the con-
vention of the Prohibition party, and Rev. John A.
Brooks, of Missouri, for the Vice-Presidency. There
were some minor conventions which also nominated
candidates. (F. G. M.)
POLITICAL ECONOMY. While the article in
r the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA gives
See Yº!, \lº an excellent sketch of the general his:
Åm *. º * tory and tendency of the science of
. Evep.). Political Economy, the aim of the
present article is to give an outline of the labors of
Americans in this important field. If the work
done in the United States for the development of
this science be measured by the number and weight of
the systematic treatises, it will appear much less than
in England, and perhaps three of the countries on
the continent of Europe. But if it be taken into
account that in America the discussions of such sub-
S; scattering, 22. On the 4th day the final ballot
was taken with this result : Hancock, 705 ; Hendricks,
30; Tilden, l ; Bayard, 21; and the nomination of
Hancock was made unanimous. William H. English
was nominated for Vice-President by acclamation,
An unsuccessful attempt was made to change the
two-thirds rule, which still holds in Democratic con-
ventions. The national Prohibition convention met at
Cleveland, on June 17, and nominated Neal Dow for
President, and A. H. Thompson for Vice-President.
The Greenback party met at Chicago June 11, and
nominated James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for Presi-
i: and B. J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-Presi-
€Il
jects are represented less by books and pamphlets
than by newspapers, articles in periodicals and the
debates before the people in the national legislature
and in political canvasses, it will be found that in no
other country has the science been more sedulously
cultivated and more profitably employed than with
us. From the very foundation of our national gov-
|ernment in 1789 the problems of currency and bank.
ling, taxation, immigration, slavery, protection to home
industry, and the administration of public debts
have formed integral parts in our political discussions,
and in later times those of capital in its relation to
labor, the administration of charities, and the pre-
tensions of communism and socialism have been ad-
220 POLITICAL
ECONOMY.
ded to the number of themes
national university.
In colonial times these questions were not much
agitated, American ideas being in this field as in
9thers little more than reproductions of those of
England. It was the proposal to place the national
finances, upon a better footing by appointing a super-
Visor of finance which incited Peletiah Webster to
Write his Political Essays (1781). Similarly it was
Lord . Sheffield's American Commerce (1783) which
provoked Tench Coxe to reply in his Eramination
9f that audacious book, showing that the colonies
had not plunged into commercial ruin by achieving
their independence, but had at hand all the elements
of industrial prosperity, and were quite able to take
care of themselves. After the formation of “a more
perfect union '' under the Constitution, the duty of
chief adviser of the country in economical matters
fell upon. Alexander. Hamilton, the greatest states-
man of his age, in Niebuhr's estimation. His Treas-
wry Report on the Tariff (1791) and on a national
bank (1790), together with his practical administra-
tion of our finances, laid the foundation of Ameri-
can policy in these matters. Not that there were
ng theoretical dissenters from the national policy.
The fact that Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations was
thrice reprinted in the United States, and that Say's
treatise appeared here in an early translation, denote
the contrary. Two other foreign text-books were
the translations of Destutt de Tracy published in 1817,
with an introduction by Jefferson, and of Charles
Ganilh in 1812.
The agitation over the tariff after the second war
with Great Britain produced a shower of pamphlets,
of which the most notable are those of Mathew
Carey: Addresses of the Philadelphia Society (1816);
The New Olive Branch (1820); Essays on Political
Economy (1822). The same discussion produced our
first attempts at a systematic presentation of the
science: Daniel Raymond's Elements of Political
Economy (1823); Thomas Cooper's Elements of Po-
litical Economy (1826); A Summary of the Practi-
cal Principles of Political Economy by a Friend of
Domestic Industry (1826); Willard Phillips's Man-
wal of Political Economy with Particular Reference
to the Institutions, Resources, and Condition of the
United States (1828); Friedrich List's Outlines of
American Political Economy (1827), and Jennison's
Outlines of Political Economy (1828). All of these
are vindications of the protectionist policy, except
that of Prof. Cooper, of South Carolina (see
COOPER, THOMAS), which repeats the passionate prop-
aganda of Free Trade which he had been conducting
on congenial soil in the South. He speaks of man-
ufactures as though they were little else than a blight
to the nation. The works of Raymond and Phillips
are written with ability and acuteness. That of List,
who was a resident of Pennsylvania at that time,
foreshadows the principles of his later Nationalókon-
omie (1841).
In the next decade the Protectionists are repre-
sented only by Oliver Putnam's Tracts on Sundry
Topics of Political Economy (1834) and John Rae's
New Principles of Political Economy (1834). But
the work of Rae, by birth a Scotchman, is recog-
nized by Senior and Mill as one of the ablest in the
whole field. On the other side we have Prof. Samuel
Newman's Political Economy (1835), that of Dr. Fran-
cis Wayland, of Brown University, first published in 1838
and often reprinted, before its recast by Prof. Chapin
(1886); and Henry C. Carey's Elements of Political
Economy (1837–40). Dr. Wayland's was one of the most
superficial books ever written on the subject, but its
clear and graceful style gave it the greatest popularity
ever enjoyed by any economic text-book in America.
Mr. Carey's Elements represent his first stage, in which
his revolution of the accepted teachings of Political
Economy, so far from bringing him into collision with
handled in our great
the laissez faire principle, had made him an earnest as-
Serter of it. On the same side was his friend Condy
Raguet, whose treatises On Currency and Banking
(1839) and Principles of Free Trade (1835–1840), to-
gether with the three economic periodicals he success-
ively edited, entitle him to remembrance as an acute
and forcible writer.
The adoption of the protective tariff of 1842 marks
a turning-point in the development of Mr. Carey's
ideas. Neither then nor afterwards did he abandon
those convictions which arrayed him against the “ dis-
mal science'' of the English economists. He re-
mained a conditional optimist in his belief that “Men
pass from what is worse to what is better in land, in la-
bor, and in food.” He still asserted that the economic
laws were designed to secure a constantly increasing
return for human labor in subduing nature, and thus
reducing values, and to effect a more equal distribution
between capitalist and workman, between landlord and
tenant. e still contended that where the misery of
the Savage is found within the scope of civilization,
Somebody is to blame. But the effects of the nation's
return to the protective policy satisfied him, after some
years of reflection ...} further study, that he had
underestimated the power of the wealthier and more
advanced countries to check the growth of economic
association in others, and to secure to themselves what
English economists taught were the more remuner-
ative industries. After several years of silence he
announced his new conclusions in The Past, the Pres-
ent and the Future (1848) and in The IIarmony of
the Interests (1850). In the meantime four other
authors had announced the same inferences from our
economic experience : A Southern Planter in Notes
on Political Economy as applicable to the United
States (1844); Ezra C. Seeman in his Progress of
Nations (1846–68); Rev. Calvin Colton, the friend and
biographer of Henry Clay, in his Public Economy for
the United States (1848); and Willard Phillips in his
Propositions Concerning Protection and Free Trade
(1850), a searching examination of Adam Smith's
principles. On the other side the most notable publi-
cation was the Treasury Report of Mr. Robert J.
Walker in 1846, which may be said to have been
answered by that of Mr. William M. Meredith in 1849.
The decade before the civil war was taken up with
the discussion of Slavery, and it is notable that its
moderate opponents, such as Dr. Channing, pressed
the consideration that it was an economic mistake, as
has been proven since the war. On the Free Trade
side at this time there appeared a short systematic
treatise by George Opdyke, of New York, in 1851,
which aims at a new treatment of the subject, but made
little impression : Political Economy for the People
(1859) by the veteran George Tucker, of Virginia, who
in 1837, 1839, and 1857 had published works on the
currency; and The Science of Wealth, a Manual of
Political Economy, by Amasa Walker, a practical
banker, -who also was lecturer on the subject in Am-
herst College. It was by far the ablest of the ortho-
dox treatises which had appeared in this country, and
reached its fifth edition after its author's death. On
the protectionist side are Principles of Political
Economy (1835) by E. Peshine Smith, a disciple
of Carey, but with a good deal of originality of his
own ; Prof. Francis Bowen's Principles of Political
Economy (1854); the translation of Friedrich List's
National Economy (1858), with an elaborate historical
and critical “Introduction'' by Stephen Colwell, whose
own book on the currency problem, The Ways and
Means of Payment (1859), never has been surpassed
either in historical learning or wealth of practical sug-
gestion. Above all Henry C. Carey in 1858–59 pub-
lished his own system in definitive shape in his System
of Social Science, which has been translated into more
languages than any other economic work except per-
haps those of Adam Smith and J. Stuart Mill.
The next decade (1860–70) saw few books on the
POLITICAL
ECONOMY. 221
general, subject, although the great monetary discus-
sions raised by our fiscal policy during the war had al-
ready begun. In 1864 Prof. Bowen published Political
Economy. Applied to the Conditions and Institutions of
the American People, in which hard money and mod-
erate advocacy of Protection are leading features. Prof.
A. L. Perry published in 1866 his Elements of Political
Economy, following Carey and Bastiatin his conception
of yalue, but advocating the laissez faire theory without
reservation. In 1869 Horace Greeley, the veteran editor,
collected into a book his Essays to Elucidate the Science
of Political Economy, chiefly occupied with the tariff
and coöperation. Mr. Andrew W. Young in 1866 pub-
lished under the title National Economy an historical
account of the great debates on the tariff question in this
country. In 1870 Dr. William Elder gave the public
a popular exposition of Mr. Carey's leading doctrines
in Questions of the Day.
The next decade (1871–80) witnesses the division of
the economists who look to Europe for light and lead-
ing into two schools. The new Historical School
founded by Roscher in Germany began to find disci-
ples in America. . . Prof. Francis Walker, a son of
Amasa Walker, published The Wages Question (1876),
Money (1878), Money, Trade and Industry (1879), in
which the new views of labor and the functions of
government are presented, and bimetallism is de-
fended. Since that time the new school has grown
rapidly, and now much more than outnumbers its
orthodox rival in the leading universities of the coun-
try. On the other side Prof. William G. Sumner,
of Yale, represents the old method and the old doc-
trines of English Political Economy with an energy
peculiar to himself, in his History of American Cur-
rency (1874), his Lectures on the History of Protectºon
in the United States (1877), and other works. On the
rotectionist side are Prof. R. E. Thompson, who in
his Social Science and National Economy (1875), re-
vised under the title. Elements of Political Economy
(1882), seeks to combine the views of List with those of
Carey ; Prof. Bowen's American Political Economy
(1877); Orin Skinner's Issues of American Politics
(1873); Prof. Albert S. Bolles's Chapters in Political
Economy (1874) and his Financial History of the
United States (3 vols., 1879–83), besides pamphlets by
John L. Hayes, George Basil Dixwell, Cyrus Elder,
and David H. Mason.
The resumption of specie payments in 1879 may be
said to have disposed of that controversy, only to leave
the country leisure for a prolonged discussion first of
the Silver question, and then of the question of Free
Trade vs. Protection. In the former controversy the
ease for remonetization has been ably maintained by
Mr. S. Dana Horton in The Silver Pound (ISS7) and
other works, by Mr. Balche as an American inter-
preter of the ideas of Cernuschi, by Prof. Francis A.
Walker, Hon. Wm. D. Kelley, and many others; and
the Report of the Congressional Commission on the
question is of permanent value. On the other side
were Prof. Sumner, Prof. J. L. Laughlin, of Harvard,
in his History of Bimetallism in the United States
(ISS6), and the orthodox economists generally. In
that on Protection Prof. Sumner has been the fore-
most champion of Free Trade, as is shown in his
Jºconomic Problems (ISS4), and Protectionism (ISS5).
Next to him comes Mr. Henry George, whose very
readable Protection and Free Trade is marred by readi.
ness to catch at any loose statement made by an op-
ponent, and by extremism. It advocates the entire
abolition of custom-houses and the substitution of a
single tax on land for all others. Mr. David A. Wells,
Mr. J. S. Schoenhof, Prof. F. W. Taussig in his History
of the Tariff (1888), and others have been earnest fight.
ers on that line, and Prof. R. T. Ely has advocated Free
Trade in his Problems of To-day (1SSS) from the
standpoint of the new school which rejects the laisse:
fºre premise of that policy. On the other side are Mr.
Giles B. Hawley's Capital and Population (ISS2); Mr.
Ellis D. Roberts's Government Revenue (1884); Prof.
Robert Ellis Thompson's Harvard Lectures on Free
Trade and Protection (1885); Mr. Robert P. Porter's
Breadwinners Abroad (1885); Hon. Henry M. Hoyt's
Protection versus Free Trade (1886); Mr. Giles B. Steb-
bins's Protectionist's Manual (1883); Mr. Richard W.
Thompson's History of Protective Tariff Laws (1888);
Mr. Henry V. Poor's Twenty-two Years of Protection
(1888); and Mr. David H. Mason's Short Tariff His-
tory of the United States, Part I. (1884), besides
pamphlets by John Welsh, Joseph Wharton, Horace
Castle, John F. Scanlon, Henry Hall, Thomas H.
Dudley, and many others. Arguments from both sides
will be found in Mr. H. W. Furber's Protection and
Free Trade, Both Sides (1888) and in Dr. Albert
Shaw's The National Revenues : a Collection of
Papers by American Economists (1SSS). -
Parallel with these two controversies, and at times
running into the second, has been the discussion of the
relations of rich and poor, wage-earners and wage-
payers, which has come to be recognized as an econo-
mic problem since the discredit of the wage-fund
theory by Thornton and Mill. In America the con-
dition of labor has been a matter of public concern
ever since the rise of the factory system and the con-
sequent formation of a class who live by wages out-
side of personal relations to their employers of any
intimate sort. Mr. George's theories of land national--
ization and the single tax, set forth in his Progress and
Poverty (1879) and Social Problems (ISS4), have given
a notable impulse to the discussion. Mr. Wm. G.
Moody in Land and Labor in the United States con-
tends that machinery has made the reduction of the
hours of labor to six imperative, if we are to find work
for our people. Mr. George Gunton in Wealth and
Progress (1887) maintains that the rate of wages is
fixed by the standard of living, that this can be raised
only by increasing the social opportunities of the
laboring classes, and that the readiest means to this is
a reduction of the daily hours of labor. Mr. Laur.
Gronlund in The Coöperative Commonwealth (1884)
contends for the entire overthrow of the competitive
system and the absorption of all productive energies
by the state. . These are specimens of the teachings
which are stirring the laboring population of all
Christendom like a ferment. The only notable attempt
to assert the old economic indifference to them is in
Prof. Sumner's What Social Classes Once to Each other.
(1883). Genuinely radical is the demonstration offered
by Mr. Edward Atkinson of the truth of the law of
equalizing distribution first formulated by H. C. Carey,
which he presents in The Distribution of Products
(lSS5) and The Jiaºrgh, of Profits (ISS7). Mr. Wm.
B. Weeden in The Social Lane of Labor brings the
light of general sociological development to bear on the
problem. It is taken up in the light of Christian princi-
plein Rev. Washington Gladden's Working People and
their Employers (1885); in Dr. T. Edwin Brown's
Studies in Socialism (ISS6); and in Prof. Richard T.
Ely's admirable book, The Labor Movement ºn Americº,
(1SS6).
Of systematic treatises in this period there are Simon
Newcomb's Political Economy (ISS7) and Prof. J. L.
Laughlin's The Elements of Political Economy (ISS7).
which belong to the orthodox school, as does the latter's
abridgment of Mill (1884) with valuable additious.
also translations of Roscher and Laveleye and Prof. F.
A. Walker's Political Economy (ISS3), which represent
the new Historical School; as does lyr. Simon N. Pat.
tºn's Premises ºf Political Economy (1SS4). On the
l’rotectionist side, to which Dr. Patten also belongs,
there are Dr. Steele's Lessons in Political Economy
prepared for the Chautauqua students, and Dr. Van
Buren Denslow's Principles of Economic Philosophy
of Society, Government and Industry (ISSS).
A marked feature of the decade has been the en-
largement of the facilities for economic study in the
leading universities of the country–Harvard, Yale,
222
POLK–POLY GAMY.
Columbia, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and
Michigan. With , this has come the formation of
organizations to bring together the teachers of the sci-
ence, the Political Economy Club representing orthodoxy
more or less, and the American Economic Association
the new tendencies. Finally, at Harvard, Columbia,
Pennsylvania, and Johns-Hopkins there are series of
publications, in which economic and related questions
are treated. (R. E. T.)
POLK, LEONIDAs (1806–1864), bishop and general,
was born at Raleigh, N. C., in 1806. He graduated
at West Point in 1827 and entered the artillery, but
soon resigned. After a course of theological study he
was ordained to the Episcopal ministry in 1831, and
was made missionary bishop of Arkansas and the In-
dian Territory in 1838. He took charge also of the
adjoining diocese until 1841, when he was made bishop
of Louisiana. After twenty years' service in this ca-
pacity he accepted the appointment of major-general
in the Confederate army. He took command at Co-
lumbus, Tenn., and unsuccessfully endeavored to ob-
struct the passage of the Mississippi to Union forces.
When Gen. Grant captured a Confederate camp at
Belmont Polk crossed from Columbus, but did not
prevent the accomplishment of Grant's object. He
afterwards had command of a division and fought at
Stone River, Chattanooga, and Chickamauga. He was
killed while reconnoitring near Marietta, Ga., June
14, 1864.
POLLOCK, FREDERICK, English lawyer and essay-
ist, was born in London, Dec. 10, 1845. He is a
grandson of Sir Frederick Pollock (1783–1870), who
was chief baron of the exchequer. He was educated
at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he
became a fellow in 1868. He was called to the bar at
Lincoln's Inn in 1871, and in 1882 was made professor
of jurisprudence at University College, London, in
1883 corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford, and
in 1884 professor of common law. He is also editor
of the Law Quarterly Review, and has contributed to
various periodicals. Among his legal works are
Principles of Contract (1875); Digest of the Law of
Partnership (1877); . The Land Lau's (1883). To
other departments belong Spinoza, his Life and Phi-
losophy (1880), and Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics
(1882). His brother, WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK,
was born in 1850, educated at Eton and at Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, graduating in 1871, and was called
to the bar at Inner Temple in 1874. He has delivered
many lectures on historical and literary subjects, and
in 1884 became editor of Saturday Review, with which
he had long been connected. His publications include
Lectures on the French Poets; Songs and Rhymes,
English and French ; Verses of Two Tongues; and The
Poet and the Muse.
POLY GAMY (Gr. Tožić, many, and Yápoc, mar-
riage) means multiple marriage, i.e., the condition of
a man having two or more wives, or of a woman hav-
ing two or more husbands at the same time. Regent
writers on sociology have distinguished these two kinds
of polygamy by different names, calling the former
“polygyny” (many wives), and the latter “ polyan-
ry” (many husbands). Opposed to polygamy is that
form of the marriage relation called “mongguny."
(single marriage), by which one man is forbidden to
have more than one wife, or one woman to have more
than one husband at the same time. Although, from
a scientific point of view this terminology is both con-
venient and accurate, yet it is not in accordance with
popular usage. As commonly employed the word
* polygamy” designates exclusively that form of the
marriage relation in which one man has several wives
at the same time, and it is in this sense that we shall
use it in the present article. Polyandry, the condition
of a woman having several husbands, though much
more extended than is commonly supposed, many in-
telligent persons being ignorant of its existence in any
part of the world, is comparatively limited and excep-
tional. It exists among the aboriginal inhabitants of
the island of Ceylon and in Thibet. In both these
countries, however, it is usually restricted to the case
where all the husbands of one wife are brothers or
half-brothers. Among other barbarous tribes where
it is said to exist, as the Fuegians, the Aleutians, many
of the Pacific islanders and some of the native tribes
of Hindustan, polygamy also exists, and the two form
a system hardly distinguishable from promiscuous in-
tercourse. Polygamy, in the sense ºf one man hav-
ing several wives, is far more frequent and widely ex-
tended. It exists in every latitude and every climate,
in Asia, in nearly the whole of Africa, in Australia
and most of the islands of the Pacific, and on the
western continent and the adjacent islands among the
aboriginal tribes from the Esquimaux and Aleutian
islanders in the extreme north to the Patagonians and
Fuegians in the extreme south. It has existed from
the remotest periods of antiquify, and traces of it are
to be found in the history of almost every race. Nor
has polygamy been confined to barbarous nations.
The Egyptians, Hebrews, and Persians were among the
most civilized peoples of ancient times, and in the mid-
dle ages the Moors of Spain were at one time the fore-
most nation in Europe in literature, science, and art;
yet polygamy was practised among them all. Taking
into consideration all nations, past and present, bar-
barous and civilized, it cannot be doubted that the peo-
ples among whom polygamy has been and is allowed
far exceed in numbers those among whom it has been
and is prohibited.
The only widely extended religion by which polyg-
amy is at the present time expressly sanctioned is
the Mohammedan. Even by that the number of
wives a man may lawfully marry is limited to four
(see Koran, cap. 4), but in practice the number is only
limited by his wealth and his inclination. The Mo-
hammedan religion has, during the present century,
extended itself greatly among the barbarous tribes of
Africa. This, however, has not really extended polyg-
amy, as that custom prevailed among those tribes
previous to the introduction of Mohammedanism.
The fact that Mohammedanism sanctions polygamy
has greatly facilitated the spread of that religion among
the barbarous tribes where the custom already existed.
In all Christian nations (which is equivalent to saying
in all the most highly civilized nations) polygamy is
regarded as a sin, and is prohibited by law as a crime.
Old as polygamy is historically and widely extended
as it is geographically, a closer examination shows that
...i. this extension is more apparent than real.
Inhabitants of highly civilized countries who have
never given the subject any special examination, when
they hear or read about a country in which polygamy
is allowed, are apt to imagine that in such a country
every married man has three or four wives. This has
also been frequently asserted by travellers. Such state-
ments necessarily imply either that the adult female
population is three or four times greater than the
male, or that only, a small fraction of the male popu-
lation have any wives at all unless polyandry exists
at the same time. Excluding this latter case, which
is of limited extent, there is no evidence that either
of the above conditions has ever existed for any great
length of time in any community of any considerable
size. It is fully established that among all races of
mankind the number of male infants born slightly
exceeds the number of female, the ratio being about
twenty-one males to twenty females. From physi-
ological causes, into the nature of which it is not neg-
essary to enter here, the number of deaths among male
infants slightly exceeds that among female. After
arriving at adult age the occupations of men, even in
the most civilized and peaceable communities, expose
them to death by accident more frequently than women.
On the other hand the female sex is alone exposed to
the accidents and perils of child-bearing. Taking the
human race as a whole the numbers of married and
POLY GAMY.
2
&
23
•
marriageable men and women are practically equal,
What is true of the race is, in the great majority of
cases, true of any particular community, or nation.
Exceptional causes sometimes interfere with this equi-
librium of the sexes. Neighboring tribes of Savages
constantly engaged in war with each other sometimes
show a great preponderance of the female pºpulation,
owing to the number of men slain in war. Such cases
are mostly confined to the lowest type of Savages. It
is quite certain that no considerable portion of the
human race has ever been in such a condition that a
majority of the men could each have as many as two
wives. Hence, even among barbarians, the practice
of polygamy is usually confined to a small minority
of the males. º º
Among highly civilized nations economic tendencies
sometimes temporarily disturb the equilibrium of the
sexes in particular localities. Thus, when gold was
discovered in California there was a great rush of the
male population of other countries to that territory.
The same thing happened afterwards in the case of
Australia.
Although the preponderance of the male population
in those countries was for a time very great, yet its
ratio to the population of the countries whence it came
was so small that it had upon them no perceptible
effect. In the United States there is a constant emi-
gration of young unmarried men from the Eastern to
the Western States. This tends to produce an excess
of males in the West and of females in the East. But
the means of rapid and cheap transit have so greatly
increased during the last half century, the opportuni-
ties for self-support afforded to the female sex have
been so multiplied, and the tendency of both sexes not
to enter the marriage state until they have a reasona-
ble prospect of being able to rear a family in a social
condition at least equal to their own has so much in-
creased, that they have more than counterbalanced any
effects of the slight inequality of the sexes thus pro-
duced. Even in a community when from some cause
the female population had become so great in compari-
son with the male as to render it possible for each man
to have three or four wives, unless that cause were
constant in its operation, natural laws would in a few
generations bring about an equality of the sexes, and
polygamy, though tolerated by law and custom, would
inevitably be confined to a small minority of the male
population.
Another circumstance tends to restrict the practice
of polygamy. Where a people is so far advanced in
civilization as to have a permanent abiding place and
to depend for support principally upon its industry,
each one of the great majority of the male population
finds the support of one wife and her children all that
he is able to achieve, and thus polygamy can only be
practised by the wealthy and powerful, who necessarily
constitute a small minority. Hence though polygamy
was allowed by the Gauls, Germans, and other bar.
barous races from which the modern nations of Eu-
rope are in great part descended, yet practically it was
confined to the chiefs, and as a rule among the mass of
the people each man had but one wife.
During the flourishing periods of the Greeks and
Romans no man among dº could have more than
one legitimate wife at the same time. As fast as the
barbarous nations that overthrew the Roman empire
were converted to Christianity the last remnants of
polygamy were blotted out.
In its effects on the family nothing can be said in
favor of polygamy except in comparison with those
lower conditions of mankind where the domestic rela-
tions can hardly be said to exist. W
among barbarous tribes the husband regards his wives
as so much property and treats them as slaves.
Women are compelled to do all the labor, and hence
they do not object to an increase in the number of
wives, thinking that by this means the amount of work
\\} - Ala- two or three generations, would pass
When it exists
more civilized countries, where polygamy is confined to
the rich and the powerful, the number of a man's
wives is looked upon as an index of his rank, and the
women are hence led to regard it with favor as an in-
dication of their own higher position. Travellers in
countries where polygamy is allowed are unanimous in
their testimony that the mutual respect and affection
of husband and wife, which in countries where mo-
nogamy is only permitted is regarded as constituting
the highest ornament of the ideal family, is almost
unknown. The husband regards his wives merely as
the instruments of his pleasures, and considers himself
as having discharged his whole duty to them when he
has provided for their physical comfort; and the wives
look upon the husband simply as a master from whom
they must get all they can by artifice but can demand
nothing as a right.
The effect upon the children is in the highest degree
deleterious. Where there are groups of children by
different wives either the paternal care and authority
is dissipated among so many as to be of little account
or it is concentrated upon some of the children to the
neglect of the others. The rivalries, jealousies, and
contentions of the wives are shared by the children
and hatred rather than love is fostered. Hence in those
countries where polygamy is practised by the rulers
the old age of a monarch is a season of plotting and
conspiracy, and his death is the signal for revolution
and bloodshed. •
A general review of the past history and present
condition of the human race leads irresistibly to the
following conclusions : 1st. In the vast majority of
communities of any considerable size the number of
married and marriageable men is substantially equal
to the number of married and marriageable women.
2d. Whenever from any cause this equality is de-
stroyed the natural laws which govern the reproduc-
tion of the human race will, if the cause ceases to
operate, restore the equality. 3d. Except where the
male population of a community is constantly reduced
by continual warfare the practice of polygamy by a
majority of the males becomes a physical impossibility,
unless wives are obtained by capture or purchase from
Some other community, and this state of things is con-
fined almost entirely to the lowest grades of humanity.
Where polygamy exists in semi-civilized nations the
number of women obtained by capture or purchase
bears but a small ratio to the whole population, and
such women are most frequently regarded as slaves
and concubines, not as wives having equal rights with
those legitimately married, 4th. Wherever polygamy
has co-existed with a high state of civilization it has
been confined to the wealthy and powerful, who are
necessarily a small minority, and in such cases it has
always been a survival from a previous state of bar-
barism. 5th. Natural laws, the progress of science
and the industrial arts, and the spread of Christianity
all tend with irresistible force to its final extirpation.
In modern times the attempt of the Mormons to
revive polygamy within the limits of a Christian na-
tion is the only one of such extent and importance as
to demand attention.
In regard to this only a few words are necessary in
addition to what will be found under MoRMöNs.
When (1847) the members of this sect, after their ex-
pulsion from Illinois and Missouri, selected as their
abiding place the region south of the Great Salt Lake,
they were separated on all sides by a vast extent of
husettled country from all contact with civilization.
They undoubtedly expected that many years, probably
- b - before they would
be interfered with by the advancing tide of emigra-
- - .." N - * * * *
tion from the East. When in IS50 they were organized
The
- - - T ---, * * x- &
into a Territory, Brigham Young was appointed gov.
ºrnor, the ºther territorial offices were filled by mem-
|. º their own sect, and the delegate elected by
themselves was admitted to C … sº ss., sº
- te n - . . . . . ------ * Utº t. : o Congress, these expecta-
which each will have to perform will be lessened. In tions were strengthened. -- l
They hoped in a few years
224
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS.
to become sufficiently numerous to demand admission
as a State. That object accomplished, polygamy, al-
ready established by custom, would immediately be
Sanctioned by law. All these calculations proved mis-
taken. The construction of the Pacific Railroad made
communication on the east and the west rapid and
easy, and they became exposed not only to transient
observers but to the influx of a population protected
by the force of the government and regarding the
system of polygamy with loathing and disgust. Their
polygamous delegate was expelled from Congress. The
territorial offices were filled by men opposed to the in-
stitution. Finally polygamy was declared to be a
crime, and those who practised it were deprived of
the elective franchise and subjected to heavy penalties.
Of course many difficulties have been met with in en-
forcing these laws, but there can be no doubt about the
final result. Already dissensions on this point are
springing up among the Mormons themselves. It is
reported that a large portion of those who are deter-
mined to maintain the institution of polygamy have
urchased a tract of country in the northern part of
Mexico and are about to remove thither. Those who
remain where they now are will undoubtedly gradually
abandon the practice. So long as Utah remains a Ter-
ritory the authority of the government of the United
States is absolute, and it is entirely certain that Utah
will never be admitted into the Union as a State ex-
cept under guarantees that will ensure the final extinc-
tion of an institution so opposed to the moral and
religious convictions of the nation at large. (W. M. F.)
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS (derived from the
Greek Tožíc, many, and Téxum, art) are educational in-
stitutions intended for instruction in the practical
applications of mathematics, physics, and chemistry.
The first school bearing this name was founded in Paris
in 1794 by the National Convention for the recruiting
of the public service. In this the most eminent French
scientists were instructors, and the pupils received an
annual stipend from the government. The Emperor
Napoleon afterwards required the pupils to pay, their
own expenses and gave the school a military organiza-
tion, which it has since retained. Many of the most
distinguished French scientists and mathematicians
have been graduates of this institution.
Similar institutions have been founded in the United
States by private enterprise, while the larger colleges
and universities have formed their scientific depart-
ments on its model. The oldest of these institutions,
the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, N. Y.,
was founded in 1824; and in the same year the Frank-
lin Institute was organized in Philadelphia. These
institutions are still in existence and have done much
excellent work. From time to time other technical
schools were founded, so that by 1848 the Ohio Me-
chanics' Institute was in existence and Scientific depart-
ments had been added to Yale and Harvard Colleges
and to the University of Virginia.
In 1829 the highly useful Central School of Arts and
Manufactures was founded in Paris, while the School
of Design from which has grown the school system of
science and arts of Great Britain came into operation
in 1837. A department of Science and arts was for-
mally added to the school system of Great Britain in
1856. The American movement in this direction was
made national in 1862 by a congressional land-grant
to the several States for the support of Schools of
scientific and industrial education. This action ºf the
government has given rise to a considerable number of
such State schools, some of which are in a flourishing
condition, and excellently equipped with books and
scientific material, though in others the progress, has
been far from satisfactory. In addition to these,
endowed schools a considerable list might be made ºf
unendowed polytechnic institutions, in many of whicli
the instruction is of the most thorough character and
the equipment and professional ability equal to that of
similar institutions in Europe.
The scientific schools of America, indeed,” have
elicited favorable comment from foreign authorities.
Dr. Kerr, a Senior Inspector of the Schools of Great
Britain, remarked in 1883 that America had (at St.
Louis) the finest scientific school in the world. Mr.
Mather, another high authority, says of the technical
schools of the United States: “I am of opinion that
there is nothing better of the kind in Europe. The
advantage of the training in these is its practicalness.”
Yet the schools founded by the land-grant of 1862
have not, as a rule, realized the expectations enter-
tained of their work. Complaint is made that their
instruction is too theoretical, that many of them suffer
from a lack of scientific equipment, and that instruc-
tion in agriculture and the arts has languished through
various causes. These difficulties are gradually being
removed ; several of these schools are equipped for
thorough instruction in pure and applied science,
while progress in this direction is being made in them
all. Of the endowed schools several, such as the Co-
lumbia School of Mines, the scientific department of
Harvard, of the Johns-Hopkins institution, of the
University of Pennsylvania, and of several similar in-
stitutions, with other schools solely devoted to poly-
technic instruction, have attained a high standing as
schools of practical science, and compete .#.
with the most famous scientific schools of Europe.
The following table taken from the report of the
Commissioner of Education, gives the statistical posi-
tion of these schools in the United States in 1886. The
statistics of schools of science endowed with the national
land-grant are given in the column under “With
National Grant ’’ and the statistics of other poly-
technic schools under the head “Without.”
With National Grant. Without.
Schools, 4S 42
Instructors, 527 447
Students, 5SS2 4.263
Books in libraries, 100,266 138,713
Value of grounds, buildings, etc., $5,182,455 $2,004,426
Income from funds, 40.5,507 129,895
Income from tuition fees, 174,099 74,558
Income from State appropriations, 383,390 444,305
Total income, $962,996 $648,758
In recent years a system of technical instruction of
a less advanced grade has been established in several
States, and is meeting with highly encouraging suc-
cess. The experiment of combining manual work with
education is now going on in many of our cities, and
the idea is spreading with great rapidity. The Manual
Training School as a practical institution originated in
1868, in the Imperial Technical School of Moscow,
Russia. It was not till 1876 that the world became
generally aware of the excellent work that Russia was
doing in this direction. In that year a display of the
work of the Moscow school made at the Centennial
Exposition, Philadelphia, attracted the attention of
educators generally. The first to accept the new idea
practically was Dr. John D. Runkle, of the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, who immediately
recommended the adoption of the Russian system,
and added to the Institute a department of mechanic
arts. In 1877 the Washington University of St.
Louis experimented in the same direction, and gained
a fully endowed manual training department by 1879.
Since that time manual training departments have
been added to several of the State agricultural colleges,
to Girard College, Philadelphia, and to other institu-
tions, while manual training has been made a part of
the public school system in Boston, Baltimore, San
Francisco, Philadelphia, Washington, and several other
cities. One of the most notable of the earlier schools
of this character is the Workingmen's School and
Free Kindergarten, established by Felix Adler in con-
nection with the Society for Ethical Culture of New
York. The purpose of this school is to connect gen:
eral training in industrial principles with moral and
POMEROY-POND.
225
l
educational training. The work of the manual train-
ing schools gives high Satisfaction wherever instituted,
and the training of the hand and the mind together
promises to become in the future an essential feature
of educational systems. It is now clearly perceived
that the training of the hand does not detract from
intellectual education, but rather brightens than dulls
the wits, while the instruction of girls in sewing, cook-
ing, and the like, and of boys in the use of tools and
in the general principles of the mechanical arts, cannot
but be productive of good results, in fitting the grow-
ing generation to be practically self-supporting mem-
bers of the community. The time required for manual
training will detract but little from that requisite for
mental training, and will be particularly well applied in
the case of that large percentage of the school popu-
lation who lack capacity for advanced intellectual
education. (See also DESIGN, SCHOOLS OF.)
POMEROY, a city of Ohio, county-seat of Meigs
co., is on the Ohio River, 66 miles below Parkersburg,
and is enclosed landward by precipitous hills. It has
2 national banks, 9 churches, a high-school, and a
weekly newspaper. Its chief industries are coal-mining
and salt manufacture. There are also iron-foundries,
flour-mills, and a woollen-factory. The city was incor-
orated in 1868 and the population in 1880 was 5560,
having decreased since 1870.
POMIEROY, JoHN, NoFTON (1828–1885), legal
writer, was born at Rochester, N. Y., April 12, 1828.
He graduated at Hamilton College in 1847, was ad-
mitted to the bar at Rochester in 1851, and practised
there for some years. In 1864 he was made professor
of law in the University of New York, but in 1869
returned to the practice of his profession at Rochester.
He was also active as a contributor to legal and politi-
cal periodicals. In 1878 he was made professor of law
in the University of California. He died at San Fran-
cisco, Feb. 15, 1885. He published an Introduction to
Municipal Law (1865); Introduction to Constitutional
Lac (IS68); Remedies and Remedial Rights (1876
#! Jurisprudence (1883); and Riparian Rights
‘(I SS4).
POMEROY, SETH (1705–1777), soldier, was born
at Northampton, Mass., in 1705. He served in the
expedition against Lewisburg in 1745 with the rank of
major. In September, 1755, he succeeded to the com-
mand of a regiment in the battle of Lake George. He
Was a delegate to the provincial congress of Massa-
chusetts in 1774 and was appointed by it a brigadier-
general in 1775. He ventured into the fight at Bunker
Hill as a yolunteer and was conspicuous for his blavery.
The Continental Congress had appointed him senior
brigadier, but finding his competency questioned he
retired from the camp without receiving the commis-
sion. In the autumn of 1776 he led a body of militia
to the aid of Washington on the Hudson. He died at
Peekskill, N. Y., in the following February.
PONCAS, a tribe of American Indians of the Da-
kota family, were found by Lewis and Clarke in ISO3
dwelling on the Ponca River, west of the Missouri.
They had formerly dwelt on a branch of the Red River
of the North, but had been driven out by the Sioux,
who are of the same family. Their numbers were then
stated at 200, but this is evidently too small, for in a
Census made by Gen. Porter in 1829 they were set
down at 600. Their first treaty with the U. S.
t
|
(C. M.)
government, Was in 1817, and another was made in
1825. No further notice was taken of them for thirty
years. In 1858, after having been harassed by the
Sioux and the whites, they sold most of their lands to
the government, and were promised aid in cultivating
a reservation on the Niobrara River. The buffalo,
which had once been their chief food, was now driven
to a distance, and they depended almost entirely on
agriculture. Being without arms they were not able
to protect themselves against those who took advan-
tage of their feeble condition. They remained loyal
and peaceable throughout the civil war, though the
soldiers at times committed outrages and the govern-
ment did not give them aid or protection. By a new
treaty in 1865 their reservation was extended, and
promise was made of indemnity for their losses. . Un:
der Pres. Grant's administration they were assigned
to the care of the Protestant Episcopal Church. A
chapel was built and three schools established, and
they seemed for a short time to prosper. Then a flood
in the Missouri in 1873 ºf great damage, their
crops were destroyed by drought and locusts, and they
were reduced to a deplorable condition. In 1876
efforts were made to remove them to Indian Territory.
Their chiefs who had gone to look at the new land re-
turned dissatisfied. But the work of removal went on.
The tribe was conducted by troops, and suffered greatly
on the road. In a few months one-third of their num-
ber had died. In 1877 Standing Bear, a chief, with
thirty others, returned to Kansas and sought refuge
among the Omahas. They were seized and imprisoned.
But this act caused great excitement in Omaha, and
T. H. Tibbles, editor of a newspaper, sought their re-
lease in the U. S. Court by habeas corpus. Judge
Dundy gave a decision in favor of the Indians, allow-
ing them to go where they pleased. Roused by
this revelation of their rights under the law they soon
sought to obtain restoration of their original lands in
Dakota, which had been given to the Sioux. An agi-
tation in their behalf sprang up throughout the coun-
try. In the meantime Standing Bear and others set-
tled on an island in the Niobrara River, and soon 130
Poncas were gathered around him. Assisted by friends
in Omaha they set to work industriously in improving
the soil. In 1887 they were reported as numbering
210, and, receiving instruction from a missionary of the
American Missionary Association, about 40 wear
citizens' dress. Over 400 Poncas remained in Indian
Territory and received aid from the government.
They have a reservation of 101,894 acres about 30 miles
South of the Kansas line. In 1887 their number was
reported as 528, which was a decrease of 23
from that of the previous year. Through the influ-
ence of their chiefs they stubbornly resist attempts to
civilize them, but have been prevailed upon to forego
the annual sun-dance. About 100 wear citizens' dress
Wholly or in part. The agency school had an average
attendance of 77. In 1884 the issue of rations to
them was discontinued, but in 1887 a failure of crops
caused it to be renewed.
PONCE DE LEON (1460–1521), the discoverer of
Florida, was born in Leon, Spain, about 1460. After
displaying great bravery in the wars with the Moors of
Granada, he was attracted by the discovery of the New
Wºrld, and in 1493 joined the second expedition of
Columbus. He was placed in command of the eastern
province of Hispaniola and thence conducted success.
ful expeditions against Porto Rico. He finally sub-
dued this island in 1509 and became its governor, but
the family of Columbus caused his removal from the
post. . Having amassed great wealth he immediately
organized an expedition for the discovery of a “Foun.
tain of Youth,” of which reports were current among
the natives. On March 3, 1513, he sailed from Portº
Rico with three ships and cruised among the Bahamas.
On March 27, being Easter Sunday, called by the Span-
iºds Pºsciſt Florida, he sighted land, which he named
Florida. On agºount of bad weather he did not go on
shore until April 9, when, near the mouth of the River
St. John, he formally took possession in the name
of the King of Spain. He cruised southward along
hºst and among the Tortugas, and then returned
to Porto Rico. On reporting his discovery in S pain he
Was made governor of Florida, and in isºl he at
tempted to effect its colonization, but he was repulsed
and wounded by the natives and withdrew to Cuba
where he soon died of the effects of his wound. *
POND, ENOCII (1791—lsso •o o'ots , , , , ol; st. -->;
e ND, ENOCII (1791-1882), Congregationalist min-
ster, Was born at Wrentham, Mass, July 30, Iºi.
He graduated at Brown University in isis, and studied
226
PONTE–POPE.
|
l
theology with Rev. Dr. Emmons. He was ordained
pastor of the Congregational Church, Auburn, Mass.,
in 1815, and in 1828 became editor of The Spirit of the
Pilgrims, a monthly founded at Boston to uphold
Orthodox theology against the Unitarian movement.
In 1832 he was made professor of theology in the
Seminary at Bangor, and here he remained until his
death. In 1856 he had been made president of the
Seminary and professor of ecclesiastical history, but at
the age of eighty was made professor emeritus. He
published Lives of President Samuel Davies (1827),
Count Zinzendorf (1839), John Wickliffe (1841), the
Mather Family (1844), Sir William Phipps (1847),
John Knox (1856). His other works include Plato
(1846); The Ancient Church (1851); Swedenborgian-
'sm. Eºcamined (1861); Ptstoral Theology (1866); Chris-
tian. Theology (1868); History of God's Church (1871).
PONTE, LORENZO DA (1749–1838), an Italian poet,
was born at Ceneda, Venice, March 10, 1749. He was
professor of rhetoric, but was banished from Venice on
account of his liberal opinions and especially a satirical
poem. He then became Latin secretary to Emperor
Joseph II., and wrote the librettos of several operas,
among which were Dom Giovanni and the Marriage of
Figaro. He went to London as secretary of an opera
company, and in 1805 removed to New York. Here
he gave instruction in Italian, and at the age of eighty
was made professor of that language in Columbia Col-
lege. He published an autobiography (New York,
1823), and died Aug. 17, 1838. His son, Lorenzo L.
Da Ponte (1805–1840), was professor in the University
of the City of New York, and published a History of
the Florentine Republic (1833).
PONTIAC (d. 1769), a noted Indian warrior, be-
longed to the Ottawa tribe, and was born about 1710.
His first exploit after becoming principal chief of his
tribe was the defence of Detroit on behalf of the
French in 1746. He is also said to have led his war-
riors at Braddock's defeat in 1755. His hatred of the
English increased after they had come into possession
of Canada, and he proceeded to organize a conspiracy
among the Indian tribes to exterminate the colonists.
The month of May, 1763, was appointed for a univer-
sal attack on the settlements. In nine cases the at-
tacks were successful, but at Detroit, where Pontiac
led in person, the settlers were forewarned. He then
conducted a regular siege for five months, and mean-
time sought aid from the French in Louisiana. He
also obtained food for the besiegers by issuing a kind
of notes on birch-bark, signed with the figure of an
otter. Though the siege was raised Oct. 12, he faith-
fully redeemed the notes. But he was unable to re-
tain his followers and eventually himself submitted
to the English in 1766. In his later years he was in-
temperate, and he was killed by an Indian at Cahokia,
opposite St. Louis, in 1769. The best history is E.
Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851). F. B. Hough
edited a Diary of the Siege of Detroit (1860).
POOLE, STANLEY LANE, English author and Qri-
entalist, was born in London Dec. 18, 1854, . He is a
randnephew of E. W. Lane, the noted Orientalist,
y whom he was partly educated. He then proceeded
to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, whence he gradu-
ated in 1878. He had already given attention to nu-
mismatics under his uncle's direction, and in 1874 he
was appointed by the trustees of the British Museum
to write the official Catalogue of Oriental Coins (8
vols., 1875–83). To this was added a Catalogue of
Indian Coins (2 vols., 1885). He also completed his
great-uncle's Arabic Lecicon, editing the sixth and
seventh volumes (1877–85), and published a Liſt ºf 10.
W. Lane (1877). As the result of a mission to lºgypt
in 1883 he published Art of the Sartcens (1886), and has
since visited Russia in numismatic investigation. Ile
contributed many articles to the ninth edition of the En;
cyclopædia Britannica, to the Dºctºo!!(try ºf Mational
Biography, and yarious periodicals. Among his Works
are Essays in Oriental Numismatics (2 Series, 1872-77);
Egypt (1881); Speeches and Table-Talk of Moham-
med (1882); Social Life in Egypt (1883); Life of
Gen. F. R. Chesney (1885); Coins and Medals (1885);
History of the Moors in Spain (1886).
His uncle, REGINALD STUART Pool.E, born in Lon-
don Feb. 27, 1832, is also distinguished as an Egypt-
ologist and numismatist. He has been connected with
the British Museum since 1852, holding the positions
of assistant in the department of antiquities, assistant
keeper of coins and medals (1861), and keeper (1870).
He has edited Official Catalogue of Greek, Roman,
Oriental, and English Coins (19 vols., 1873–85). He
has also published Iſorae Egyptiacar (1851); Cities of
Egypt (ISS2); Coins of the Ptolemies (1883); Coins
of the Shºths of Persia (1886). He has contributed
to the Eucyclopædia Britannica and to periodicals.
POOR, ENOCH (1736–1780), Revolutionary general,
was born in 1736 at Andover, Mass., being descended
from Daniel Poor, one of its first settlers. He en-
gaged in mercantile business at Exeter, N. H., and in
1775 was appointed colonel. He served at the siege
of Boston, then went to New York, and was sent to
take part in the invasion of Canada. In February,
1777, he was appointed brigadier-general, and as such
was engaged in resisting Burgoyne's invasion. He
afterwards served under Washington, spent the winter
at Valley Forge, fought at Monmouth in 1778, and
was in Sullivan's expedition against the Indians of
Western New York in 1779. In the next year he had
command of a brigade of light infantry under Lafay-
ette. He was killed in a duel with a French officer
near Hackensack, N. J., Sept. 8, 1780.
POORE, BENJAMIN PERLEY (1820–1887), jour-
nalist, was born at Newburyport, Mass., Nov. 2, 1820.
He was descended from John Poore, who came from
England in 1635, and purchased from the Indians in
1650 Indian Hill in Newbury, on which Ben resided
most of his life. He was educated at Dummer
Academy, learned the printer's trade, and went to
Athens, Ga., where he edited the Southern Whig
from 1838 to 1840. He was then made agent of the
State of Massachusetts to obtain in Europe histori-
cal documents and was connected with the U. S.
legation to Belgium. After travelling over Europe
and as far as Egypt and Palestine he returned in 1847
and became Washington correspondent of the Boston
Atlas and afterwards of other papers. He introduced
the practice of reporting the Washington news by
telegraph. He was clerk of the Senate committee on
foreign affairs, and clerk of the printing committee
for 20 years, He died at Washington, D. C., May
30, 1887. He compiled by order of Congress several
works, among which were Our Diplomatic Relations,
Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters,
Catalogue of Government Publications. He issued
annually the Congressional Directory. He published
Lives of Generals Zachary Taylor, Grant, Logan, and
Burnside. His last work was Perley's Reminiscences
2 vols., 1886). He was prominent in the Masonic
fraternity, having taken the 33d degree, and con-
tributed to this work the article on FREE MASONRY.
POPE, JOHN, major-general, was born at Kaskas-
kia, Ill., March 12, 1823, being the son of Judge
Nathaniel Pope (1785–1850). He graduated at West
Point in 1842, and entered the topographical engineers.
He served under Gen. Taylor in the Mexican war and
won two brevets for gallantry. From 1849 to 1859 he
was engaged in exploring expeditions in Minnesota,
New Mexico, Texas, and among the Rocky Mountains.
He was afterwards engaged in light-house duty. His
intense loyalty to the Union induced him to use such
remarks on Pres. Buchanan's policy in reference to
the United States forts in the South that he was.
summoned before a court-martial, but the trial was not.
pressed. Capt. Pope was one of the officers who es-
corted Lincoln to Washington before his inauguration
as President. In May, 1861, he was made brigadier-
general and assigned to command in Missouri, where
PORCHER—PORTER, - 227
he was successful in suppressing rebel movements.
Early in 1862 he had command of the Army of the
Mississippi and by his vigorous movements in March
he captured New Madrid and Island No. 10 with
thousands of prisoners. He was then promoted
major-general of volunteers and brigadier-general in
the regular army. He took command of the Army of
Virginia, which consisted of all the troops in that
State except those under McClellan near Richmond.
Unfortunately he inaugurated his command with
boastful proclamations which set forth the achieve-
ments of the armies in the West in contrast with the
want of success in the East. He left Washington on
July 29 with rash pledges of victory, and a month later
was completely defeated by Gen. “ Stonewall ” Jack-
son at Bull Run (see BULL RUN). He returned
to Washington and soon asked to be relieved from the
command. He attributed his defeat to the want of
proper support by the officers who had been under
Gen. McClellan's command. The controversy raged
especially around the conduct of Gen. Fitz John Porter,
and took a political form. Gen. Pope was sent to
Minnesota and engaged in a campaign with the Sioux.
After the war he commanded a military district in the
South and later had command of the Department of
the Missouri. In October, 1882, he was made major-
general in the regular army. He published Ecplora-
tions from the Red River to the Rio Grande and Cam-
paign in Virginia (1863).
PORCHER, FRANCIS PEYRE, physician and botan-
ist, was born at St. John's Berkeley, S. C., Dec. 14,
1825. He is of Huguenot descent, graduated at South
Carolina College in 1844, then studied medicine, and
received his degree from Charleston Medical College
in 1847. He lectured on medical subjects at Charleston
and edited the Charleston Medical Journal. During
the civil war he had charge of Confederate hospitals
at Norfolk and Petersburg, Va. In 1872 he was elected
president of the South Carolina Medical Association. His
chief publications are lledical Botany of South Caro-
lina (1849); Cryptogamic Plants of the United States
(1854); Resources of Southern Fields and Forests
(1863).
PORGY or MIENHADEN. See FISHERIES.
|PORK. See SWINE.
PORTER, ANDREW (1743–1813), general, was born
at Worcester, Montgomery co., Pa., Sept. 24, 1743.
He was engaged as a school-teacher in Philadelphia,
when Congress in 1776 appointed him a captain of
marines. He was soon employed in the artillery
service and fought at Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine,
and Germantown. In 1779 he took part in Gen. Sul.
livan's expedition against the Indians of Western New
York. After the war he was a commissioner to run
the boundary lines of Pennsylvania (1784), was
major-general of militia (1800), and surveyor-general
(1809). At the outbreak of the war of 1Slº Pres.
Madison offered him a commission as brigadier-gen-
eral, but he declined on account of his age. He died
at Harrisburg, Pa., Nov. 16, 1813.
His eldest son, DAVID, R. Porter (1788–1867), was
governor of Pennsylvania 1839–45. Charges of ir-
regularity in his election gave occasion for what was
called the “Buckshot War ’’ in the organization of
the Legislature. He died at Harrisburg, Aug. 6, 1867.
Another squ, JAMES MADISON Porter (1793–1862),
was a member of the Peninsylvania Constitutional
Convention in 1838, and was appointed secretary of
War by Pres. Tyler, but rejected by the Senate. He
was afterwards a State judge, and one of the founders
of Lafayette College, Easton.
His nephew, ANDREW Porter (1819–1872), gen-
eral, was born at Lancaster, Pa., July 10, 1819. He
graduated at West Point in 1837, and served in
the Mexican war with distinction. At the outbreak
of the civil War he was made colonel in the regular
army and then brigadier-general of volunteers. He
commanded a brigade of regulars at the battle of Bull
Run, and was afterwards provost-general of the Army
of the Potomac. He resigned in April, 1864, and
died at Paris, Jan. 4, 1872.
HoRACE PORTER, son of Gov. David R. Porter,
was born in Huntingdon co., Pa., April 15, 1837. He
graduated at West Point in 1860 and entered the artil-
lery. In October, 1861, he went as assistant ordnance-
officer to Port Royal, S. C., and he took part in the
siege of Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River. He
was chief of ordnance in different armies from July,
1862, to November, 1863. In April, 1864, he was
made aide-de-camp to Gen. Grant with rank of lieu-
tenant-colonel, and continued with him till the close
of the war. He then made tours of inspection in the
South and on the Pacific coast until Gen. Grant be-
came President, when he was made his military secre-
tary. In 1873 Col. Porter resigned to take part in rail-
road management. He has published West Point
Life (1866), and has contributed to various magazines.
PORTER, DAVID (1780–1843), naval-officer, was
born at Boston, Feb. 1, 1780. His father, of the same
name, was captain of a merchant-vessel and the son
early went to sea. In April, 1798, he entered the U.
navy as midshipman and was on board the Con-
stitution in her fight with L'Insurgente in the West
Indies. He was made lieutenant in 1799 and was
wounded in an engagement with pirates at Santo
Domingo. His next service was in the war with Trip-
oli, but after some exploits he was captured in the
ship Philadelphia aground in Tripoli harbor in October,
1803. A captivity of eighteen months followed. In
July, 1812, he was appointed to the command of the
Essex (32 guns) and sailed on a cruise to the Pacific
memorable in American annals. Among his captures
was the British ship Alert (20 guns), the first man-of-
war so taken. Of twelve other vessels captured some
were armed by him to protect American whale-fishers.
On March 28, 1814, his cruise was brought to a close
in the harbor of Valparaiso, where after a desperate
fight he was overpowered by a British frigate (36
guns) and a sloop (28 guns). Porter wrote to his gov-
ernment, ‘‘We are unfortunate, but not disgraced.”
David G. Farragut, then a lad of twelve, had served as
midshipman in the Essex and won Porter's com-
mendation (see FARRAGUT, in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA). Capt. Porter was employed as naval-
commissioner from 1815 to 1823. He then took com-
mand of an expedition against the pirates in the West
Indies, but having exceeded his power in exacting an
apology from the authorities at Porto Rico for an in-
sult to the American flag, was recalled and suspended
for six months. He resigned his commission in Au-
gust, 1826, and was appointed commander-in-chief of
the Mexican navy in the war against Spain. In IS29
he was sent, as U. S. consul to Algiers, and in 1830
as chargé d'affaires to Turkey, where he was after-
Wards minister-resident. He died at Constantinople
March 28, 1843, and his remains were afterwards in-
terred at Philadelphia. He published a Journal of
the Cruise of the Essex (2 vols., 1815), and from his
letters was compiled Constantinople and its Environs
(2 vols., 1835).
PORTER, DAVID Dixon, admiral, son of the
preceding, was born at Philadelphia, June S, IS14.
When his father took command of the Mexican navy
he Was made a midshipman and was captured on the
Guerrero after a severe fight. In 1829 he became a
midshipman in the U. S. navy and served in vari-
QS Waters until 1845, when he was stationed at the
Washington Observatory. In the Mexican war he
served at Vera Cruz and other points. He was atter-
yards, engaged in the coast-survey, as he has been be-
fore for four years (1836–40), and in IS40 entered on
command ºf the Californian mail-steamers. At the
outbreak of the civil war he held a commander's com-
mission and was sent to the relief of Fort Pickens, at
Pensacola. He prepared a flotilla of mortar-boats for
service in the expedition against New Orleans. After
228
|PORTER.
the capture of this city the flotilla was employed
against Vicksburg, and Porter with the rank of rear-
admiral had command of all the naval forces on the
Mississippi. Steamboats covered with iron plates were
used in many places for attack and for transport. Ar-
kansas Post was captured in January, 1863, and the
Grand Gulf batteries destroyed in April. Porter's effi-
cient and generous co-operation in thesiege of Vicksburg
was repeatedly acknowledged by Gen. Grant. He after-
Wards assisted in Gen. Banks's Red River expedition
in April, 1864, and in the same year was transferred to
the James River. Here he had command of the
naval forces which took part in the expedition against
Fort Fisher (q. v.) and captured it Jan. 15, 1865. He
was made vice-admiral in 1866 and was superintendent
of the Naval Academy for two years. On the death
of Farragut in 1870 Porter succeeded him as admiral
of the navy. He has in recent years published several
books, among which are Life of Commodore David
Porter (1875); Incidents and Anecdotes of the Civil
War (1885); two novels, Allen a Dare and Robert le
Diable (1885); Harry Marline (1886); and a History
of the Navy in the War of the Rebellion (1887).
WILLIAM DAVID PORTER (1809–1864) was another
son of Commodore David Porter, born at New Orleans,
March 10, 1809. Entering the navy as midshipman
in 1823, he retired in 1855, having in the meantime
originated the light-house system now in use. He re-
turned to the service in 1859, commanded the iron-
clad Essex on the Mississippi in 1862, and safely
passed the Confederate batteries on his way to New
Orleans. For his exploits he was made commodore in
July, 1862, but was obliged by ill health to retire from
service. He died at New York, May 1, 1864.
PORTER, FITZ JoHN, general, was born at Ports-
mouth, N. H., June 13, 1822, being a nephew of
Commodore David Porter. He graduated at West
Point in 1845, entered the artillery and served with
distinction in the Mexican war under Gen. Scott from
Vera Cruz to the capture of the City of Mexico,
where he was wounded Sept. 13, 1847. He was after-
wards instructor of artillery and cavalry at West
Point and in 1856 was transferred to the adjutant-gen-
eral's department. He served in the Utah expedition
in 1858. At the outbreak of the civil war he was
made colonel in the regular army and soon after brig-
adier-general of volunteers. He was chief of staff to
Gen. Robert Patterson and to Gen. N. P. Banks until
August, 1861, when he had command of a division in
the defences of Washington. In Gen. McClellan's
Peninsular campaign Porter had direction of the
siege of Yorktown, afterwards commanded the fifth
corps of the Army of the Potomac. His gallantry was
displayed at Mechanicsville, Gaines's Mill and Malvern
Hill. After the failure of the attack on Richmond
Fitz John Porter's corps was transferred to the Army
of Virginia under Gen. Pope. At the second battle
of Bull Run, Aug. 29, 1863, he was ordered to attack
Gen. Jackson's flank, but did not move on account of
the presence of Gen. Longstreet in front. ...Gen. Pope
afterwards attributed his defeat to Gen. Porter's in-
activity and even charged him with treachery. Me-
Clellan returned to the chief command and Fitz John
Porter fought under him at Antietam, but on Novem;
ber 27 he was tried by court-martial on a charge of
disobedience of orders, and on Jan. 21, 1863, he was
cashiered. After many efforts to obtain a rehearing
of his case, a board of inquiry was called by, Pres,
Hayes in April, 1878, which eventually declared Gen.
Porter free from blame. Pres. Arthur in May,
1882, remitted part of his sentence, but vetoed a bill
passed by Congress for his relief, on aggºunt of its
unjust effect on other officers. In 1885 a bill free from
this objection was passed and signed by Pres,
Cleveland, and on Aug. 7, 1886, Gen. Porter, Waj, re-
stored to the army with the rank of colonel. Gen.
forter had in the meantime been engaged in business
in New York city, and was superintendent of the New
Jersey insane asylum. In 1875 he was appointed com-
missioner of public works in New York city. From
1884 to 1888 he was police commissioner. Gen. Grant,
while President, had refused to reopen Gen. Porter's
case, but afterwards became convinced of his innocence
and published an article to that effect in the North
American Review (Dec., 1882). (See BULL RUN.)
PORTER, JosLAS LESLIE, educator and author,
was born Oct. 4, 1823, at Burt, County Donegal, Ire-
land. He graduated at the University of Glasgow in
1842, and studied theology at the University of Edin-
burgh and the Free Church College. In 1846 he was
ordained in the Presbyterian Church of England and
had charge of a church at Newcastle. In 1849 he was
sent by the Irish Presbyterian Church as a missionary
to Damascus and resided there until 1859. He travelled
extensively in Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, and Northern
Africa. On his return to Ireland he was made pro-
fessor of Biblical criticism in the Assembly's College,
Belfast. Dr. Porter was moderator of the General
Assembly in 1875. He took an active part in organ-
izing the new system of higher education in Ireland,
and, in 1878, was appointed by Parliament commis-
sioner of intermediate education. In the next year he
was made president of Queen's College, Belfast, and
in 1880 senator of the Royal University of Ireland.
He has published Five Years in Damascus (2 vols.,
1855); Murray's Handbook for Syria and Palestine
(1858); The Pentateuch and the Gospels (1864); Giant
Cities of Basham (1865); Jerusalem, Bethany and
Bethlehem (1886.) He married in 1849 the youngest
daughter of Rev. Dr. Henry Cooke (q.v.), and he has
published Life and Times of Dr. Cooke (1871.) He
has contributed to various reviews, magazines, and en-
cyclopædias, chiefly on subjects relating to Biblical
geography and history.
PORTER, NOAH, philosopher and educator, was
born at Farmington, Conn., Dec. 14, 1811. His father,
Rev. Dr. Noah Porter (1781–1866), was minister of
that parish for fifty-five years. He graduated at Yale
College in 1831, and engaged in teaching. In 1833
while tutor at Yale College he studied theology, and
in April, 1836, was ordained pastor of the Congre-
gational church at New Milford, Conn. In 1843 he
accepted a call to Springfield, Mass., and in 1846 he
was chosen professor of metaphysics and moral phi-
losophy at Yale College. He became president of the
college on the resignation of Rev. Dr. Woolsey in 1871,
and after a successful career of fifteen years himself
resigned in 1886, . He has contributed to several lead-
ing reviews and has published The Human Intellect
(1868); Books and Reading (1870); American Colleges
and the American Public (1870); Elements of Intel-
lectual Philosophy (1871); The Science of Nature
versus the Science of Man (1871); Evangeline (1882);
Elements of Moral Science (1885); Bishop Berkeley
(1885); Kant's Ethics (1886). Dr. Porter was the
chief editor of the revised editions of JWebster's Dic-
tionary, 1864 and 1880.
PORTER, PETER BUEL (1773–1844), general, was
born at Salisbury, Conn., Aug. 14, 1773. His father,
Dr. Joshua Porter (1730–1825), superintended the
manufacture of cannon for use in the American army
during the Revolution and fought at Saratoga. Peter
graduated at Yale in 1791, studied law at Litchfield,
and settled in Western New York, where he had large
estates. He was elected to Congress in 1808 and he
was active in the measures leading to a declaration of
war against Great Britain in 1812. He then resigned
to become quartermaster-general of New York and
afterwards had command of volunteers who drove out
the British invaders. In 1814 he led a brigade into
Canada under Gen. Brown and fought at Chippewa
and Lundy's Lane. On Sept. 17, while besieged at
Fort Erie, he made a sortie which compelled the enemy
to depart. His services were acknowledged by Con-
gress with a gold medal and by New Yºrk State with
a sword. In 1816 he was employed as commissioner
PORT HURON.—PORTSMOUTH.
229
in settling the boundary between Canada and the
United States. He was afterwards secretary of state
of New York, and was secretary of war in the admin-
istration of Pres. John Quincy Adams. He was prom-
inent in the progress of Western New York and was
one of the projectors of the Erie Canal. He died at
Niagara Falls, March 20, 1844.
His only son, PETER AUGUSTUs PortER (1827–1864),
graduated at Harvard College in 1845, studied in Ger-
many, and was elected to the Legislature of New York
in 1861. He raised a regiment for service in the civil
war and was killed at Cold Harbor, June 3, 1864.
PORT HURON, a city of Michigan, the county-seat
of St. Clair co., is on the St. Clair River, at the mouth
of the Black River, and at the foot of Lake Huron, 62
miles N. N. E. of Detroit. It is the terminus of three
railroads, the Grand Trunk, the Chicago and Grand
Trunk, and the Port Huron and North-western. There
are 4 iron bridges over the rivers, 2 of which are rail-
road bridges, and a railroad tunnel is now being built
under St. Clair River to Sarnia on the Canadian side.
With this town there is steam-ferry communication
and steamboats also ply to Detroit daily while naviga-
tion is open. Port Huron has a fine building for the
U. S. custom-house and post-office, erected in 1877, a
city-hall, 1 national and 3 other banks, an opera-house,
1 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 9 churches, and 7
schools with substantial buildings. Timber is brought
in large quantities by the Black River and manufac-
tured and shipped here. There are several saw-mills,
ship-yards, dry-docks, grain-elevators, machine- and
boiler-shops, threshing-machine-works, and extensive
car-works and railroad repair-shops. In the vicinity
large quantities of salt are produced and natural gas
and some petroleum are obtained. The city is sup-
plied with water from Lake Huron by the Holly
system. It has three small parks. The valuation of
property is $5,000,000, its public debt is $150,000, and
its yearly expenses about $100,000. Originally settled
by Canadian French in 1819, it was incorporated as a
city in 1857. Its population in 1880 was SSS3.
PORT JERVIS, an incorporated town of Orange
co., N. Y., is on the Delaware River above the mouth
of the Neversink River, 88 miles N. W. of New York
city, on the Erie Railroad and on the Port Jervis,
Monticello, and New York Railroad. It is close to the
border of New Jersey and a bridge connects it with
Pike co., Pa. It has 2 national banks, 7 schools, 2
daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 2 foundries, the Erie
Railroad machine-shops, planing-, saw-, and feed-mills,
2 glass-works, boot-and-shoe-factory, glove-works, and
watch-case-factory. The village was settled in 1826
and incorporated in 1853. It has a park and water-
works and is lighted with gas and electric light. It is
free of debt and its public yearly expenses are about
$20,000. Population in 1880 was 8678.
PORTLANT), a city of Maine, seat of Cumberland
co., is in 43°40' N. lat. and 70° 14' W, long., on a pen-
insula of 1666 acres in Casco Bay. It is 62 miles S. S.
W. of Augusta, capital of the State. Besides the
facilities for commerce furnished by its deep and capa-
cious harbor, it has five railroads, the Grand Trunk,
Maine Central, Boston and Maine, Portland and
Ogdensburg, and Portland and Rochester. The impor-
tant buildings include the custom-house, post-office,
city-hall, court-house, observatory, Baxter Hall, Me-
ghanies'. Hall, Maine general hospital, public library.
The Society of Natural History and the Society of Art
have valuable collections. Besides 6 national banks
there are 8 others. There are 15 hotels, 4 daily and 11
Weekly newspapers, and 26 schools. There are 32
churches, several of which have fine edifices. The in-
dustrial works comprise rolling-mills, stove-foundries,
locomotive- and boiler-works, sugar-refineries, shoe-
factories, carriage-works. Rising gradually from the
harbor and well shaded Portland presents a very pic-
turesque appearance. It has gas and electric light,
water-works, and a park called “The Oaks.” Its prop-
erty is assessed at $33,752,040 in 1888; its public
debt is $3,440,000, and the city expenses for 1887, ex-
ceeded $636,000. The first settlement was made here
in 1633, and it was included in the town of Falmouth,
which was incorporated in 1650. Portland, was burnt
by Indians in 1676, by French and Indians in 1699, by
the British in 1775. It was incorporated in 1786 and
received a city charter in 1832, having on its seal the
motto “Resurgam.” In 1866 it again suffered from
a disastrous conflagration. Its population in 1880 Was
33,810.
PORTLAND, the largest city of Oregon, county-
seat of Multnomah co., is on the Willamette River, 12
miles from its confluence with the Columbia and about
120 miles from the ocean, yet it is virtually a seapºrt
to which large vessels come from various parts of the
world. It is in 45° 30′ N, lat. and 122° 27' 30° W.
long. It has a fine court-house, a U. S. government
building, 10 banks, several large hotels, 3 public halls,
a theatre, a high-school, good public schools, a female
academy, a large library, asylum for the insane, and
25 churches. The industrial works comprise iron-foun-
dries, machine-shops, flour-mills, saw-mills, canneries,
breweries, furniture-factories, shoe-factories,etc. There
are 5 daily and 15 weekly newspapers and 2 monthly
magazines published here. Lumber, wheat, flour, and
wool are largely exported. Portland is a handsome
city, with wide, well-shaded streets, and has four lines
of street railway. It has gas- and water-works. It is
the terminus of the Oregon Railway and Navigation
Company's system. It was settled in 1845, became a
city in 1851, and in 1880 had a population of 17,577.
Its present population exceeds 40,000.
PORTSMOUTH, a city of New Hampshire, half-
shire-town of Rockingham co., is on the Piscataqua
River, 3 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, and 54 miles N.
N. E. of Boston. It is built on the slope of a penin-
sula, overlooking a deep, capacious harbor with rock
bottom. The streets are well shaded and there are
many antique mansions. Portsmouth has a custom-
house, an athenaeum, with a library of 10,000 volumes,
a music-hall, 4 national banks, 2 savings banks, and 11
churches, some of which have fine structures. Three
daily and three weekly newspapers are published here.
The manufactures include cotton and woollen goods,
hosiery, shoes, iron-castings, etc. Ship-building is
still carried on, but the commerce has declined. The U.
S. navy-yard of Kittery, on an island opposite, has 3
large ship-houses and a floating balance-dock, 350
feet long by 105 wide, with 24 pumps. Portsmouth
was settled in 1623, but did not receive a city charter
until 1849. It was the capital of New Hampshire
until 1807. It is now a favorite summer-resort. Its
population in 1880 was 96.90.
PORTSMOUTH, a city of Ohio, seat of Scioto
co., is on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Scioto,
113 miles E. S. E. of Cincinnati. It is on the Scioto
Valley, the Ohio and North-western, and the Cincin-
nati, Washington, and Baltimore Railroads. It has a
court-house, 2 opera-houses, 3 national banks, and 1
other bank, 1 daily, 5 weekly, and 2 monthly news-
papers, 21 churches, 6 public schools, and a young
ladies' seminary. The industrial works comprise 2
rolling-mills, 3 foundries, 2 woollen-mills, 2 stone-mills,
3 saw-mills, steel-spring-works, a tannery, wheelbarrow,
furniture, and shoe-factories. Iron is abundant in the
vicinity. Portsmouth has gas and electric light, a paid
fire department, a street railway, a Holly system of
water-works. The city is partly enclosed by hills and
on the opposite side of the Ohio there are hills 500
feet high. Population in 1880 was 11,321.
PORTSMOUTH, a city of Virginia, county-seat of
Norfolk co., is on the west bank of the Elizabeth
River, opposite Norfolk. It has a fine harbor, the river
here being about two-thirds of a mile wide. In the sub-
urb of Gosport is a U. S. navy-yard with a granite dry-
dock and a marine-hospital. The navy-yard was de-
stroyed at the beginning of the civil war, to prevent its
POST-POSTAL SERVICE.
stores from falling into the hands of the Confederates,
but has since been restored. Portsmouth has 2 banks,
15 churches, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, good pub.
lic and private schools. It exportslumber, naval stores,
cotton, and iron. Early vegetables are extensively
shipped to Northern cities. Portsmouth in 1880 had
14,870 inhabitants.
POST. TRUMAN MARCELLUs (1810-1886), clergyman,
was born at Middlebury, Vt., June 3, 1810. He gradu-
ated at the college of that town in 1829 and while study-
ing law was tutor there. In 1832 he went to Washing-
ton and thence to St. Louis, and settled at Jackson-
yille, Ill., where he was made professor of languages
in Illinois College, and also in 1840 ordained pastor of
the Congregational Church. In 1847 he was called to
the pastorate of the Third Presbyterian Church of St.
Louis, and in 1851 he formed the First Congregational
Church there. He exerted great influence and was the
prominent representative of New England views in
theology, education, and public affairs. Besides at-
tending to his pastoral duties he was professor of history
in Washington University, St. Louis, professor of eccle-
siastical history in Chicago Theological Seminary, and
delivered some lectures in Andover Theological Semi-
nary. He died Dec. 31, 1886. He published The
Skeptical Era in Modern History (1856) and contrib-
uted to the Andover Review and other periodicals.
POSTAL SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES.
•r ... Probably the first attempt to establish
See Yol. *º postal service within any part of the
kºi, º 578 territory now embraced in the United
. Ivep.). States was made by the General Court
of Massachusetts in 1639–just nineteen years after the
landing of the Pilgrims, and only four years after the
proclamation of the Crown establishing a general postal
system in England. On the records of the court for
that year we find the following entry : “It is ordered
that notice be given that Richard Fairbanks his house
in Boston is the place appointed for all letters which
are brought from beyond the seas, or are to be sent
thither to be left with him ; and he is to take care that
they are to be delivered or sent according to the direc-
tion. And he is allowed for every letter a penny, and
must answer all miscarriages through his own neglect
in this kind.” This service was in a short time ex-
banded into one for the transmission and delivery of
i. other than those for or from foreign parts;
though its administration did not give universal satis-
faction ; for on the records of the General Court in
1667 is a petition of citizens of the colony for “better
arrangements for the sending and receipt of mails"—
the petition alleging a number of grievances, one among
them being the frequent loss of letters.
In 1657 mail service existed also in the colony of
Virginia, but of a very primitive character. By act
of Assembly March 13, 1657, it was provided “ that
all letters superscribed for the public service shall be
immediately conveyed from plantation to plantation to
the place and person directed, under a penalty of one
hogshead of tobacco for each default.” Although
this system was intended solely for the transmission of
letters on official business, it is not unreasonable to as-
sume that private letters were by general consent at
times transmitted in the same way; but of course this
could not have accommodated the growing demands of
the Colony, and so we find that later on, in 1692, an
act of Assembly was passed providing for the ‘‘ erec-
tion and establishment’’ of a post-office, as a matter
of “general concernment and of great advantage for
the increase and preservation of trade and commerce.”
In 1672 the government of the colony of New York
established a “post to goe monthly from New York
to Boston ; ” and notice was given to “those that bee
disposed to send letters, to bring them to the Secre-
tary's office, where in a lockt box they shall bee pre-
served till the messenger calls for them, all persons
paying the post before the bagg bee sealed up.” . This
monthly dispatch was evidently for along time sufficient
for the wants of the public. Thirty years later it was
changed to a fortnightly one, as appears from the fol-
lowing notice published in the Boston News Letter :
“By order of the Postmaster-General of North Ameri-
ca: These are to give notice that on Monday night, the
6th of December (1702), the western post between
Boston and New York sets out once a fortnight the
three winter months of December, January, and Feb-
ruary, and to go alternately, from Boston to Saybrook
and Hartford, to exchange the mayl of letters with
the New York ryder; and all persons that sends letters
from Boston to Connecticut after the 13th inst, are
hereby notified first to pay the postage on the same.”
In Pennsylvania the first record of any postal ser-
vice is to be found in a law of the provincial Assembly
passed in 1683, which required that “every justice of
the peace, sheriff, or constable within the respective
counties of this, province and territories thereof, to
whose hands or knowledge any letter or letters shall
come directed to or from the governor, shall dispatch
them three hours at the furthest after the receipt or
knowledge thereof, to the next sheriff or constable,
and so forwards as the letters direct, upon the penalty
of twenty shillings for every hour's delay.” This, like
the law of Virginia, was intended for public letters
only ; but in 1693 the General Assembly of the prov-
ince passed a “law for erecting a post-office,” where-
by authority was given to Andrew Hamilton to estab-
lish a “general post-office at Philadelphia, from
whence all letters and packets may be with all expedi-
tion sent into any of the parts of New England and
other the adjacent colonies in these parts of America,
at which said office all returns and answers may be re-
ceived.”
In Maryland and the two Carolinas there does not
appear to have been any postal service whatever until
very much later than the foregoing dates. Even as
late as about 1755, postal communication between
points south of Philadelphia was without any regu-
larity, as is seen in the following passage from Dr.
Wm. Douglass's Historical and Political Summary of
British Settlements in North America (1755) : “From
Piscataqua or Portsmouth to Philadelphia is a regular
postage ; from thence to Williamsburg is uncertain,
because the post does not proceed until letters are
lodged sufficient to pay the charge of the post-riders.
From Williamsburg, in Virginia, to Charlestown, in
South Carolina, the post-carriage is still more uncer-
tain.”
In 1692 the postal service of the colonies was, by
authority of the government of Great Britain, placed
in charge of an officer of the Crown called the Deputy
Postmaster-General for America; but practically each
colony excrcised the right to govern the service within
its own territory, and to fix its own schedule of post-
ages; and this state of things continued until 1710,
when by formal act of Parliament (9 Queen Anne, chap.
10) the first organized system for the transmission of
the nails in the colonies was created. By this act the
Postmaster-General was required “ to keep his chief
office in New York, and other chief offices in some
convenient place or places in other of her Majesty's
provinces or colonies in America; " a monopoly was
established, not only in the carriage of letters, but of
parcels of goods and the transport of travellers; and a
fixed tariff of charges therefor was prescribed. The
following were the rates for letters and parcels
fixed by this act, which were without material modifica-
tion renewed by the act of 1765 (5 Geo. III., chap.
xxv.):
All letters and packets from London to New York, in North
America (or vice versa), single, 1s. ; double, 2s. ; treble, 3s.;
one ounce in weight, 4s. From any part of the West In-
dies to New York, single, 4d. ; double, 8d.; treble, 1s.;
ounce, 1s. 4d.
From New York to any place within 60 English miles thereof,
or thence back to New York, single, 4d. ; double, 8d.:
treble, 1s. ; ounce, 1s. 4d. ; over 60 and not over 100 miles,
single, 6d., etc.
POSTAL SERVICE.
231
From New York to Perth Amboy, “the chief town in East
New Jersey,” the single rate was 6d., as it was to “Brid-
lington, the chief town in West New Jersey;” to New Lon-
don, “the chief town in Connecticut,” and to Philadelphia,
it was 9d.; ounce, 3s. ; to Newport, Boston, Portsmouth,
and Annapolis, “the chief town in Maryland,” it was 18.
ounce, 4s.; to Williamsburg, “the chief town in Virginia,”
it was 1s. 3d. ; ounce, 5s. ; and to Charleston, S. C., it was
1s. 6d. ; ounce, 6s.
The system thus begun in 1710 was not successfully
managed ; it yielded no revenue to the government.
and, as we have seen above, in some parts of the coun-
try it furnished scarcely any mail service whatever.
Even near Philadelphia, then the most populous city
in the colonies, the meagreness of the mails is calcu-
lated at this day to excite a smile ; for example, it was
customary, down to 1750, for letters intended for per-
sons residing in Newtown, Bristol, and Chester, in Penn-
sylvania, and even in Newcastle, Delaware, to remain
in the Philadelphia post-office until called for. Bristol
was 20 miles from Philadelphia in one direction, and
Newcastle 40 miles in an opposite direction, making a
distance of 60 miles with but one post-office. In 1753,
however, on the death of the Deputy Postmaster-Gen-
eral for America, the celebrated Benjamin Franklin—
who had been postmaster at Philadelphia for sixteen
years—succeeded to the office by a commission from
the Postmaster-General of England. He was to have
for himself and an associate £600 per annum, to be
made out of the profits of the service; and to do this
many improvements were undertaken. For example,
in the year of his appointment a penny-post, for
the delivery of letters to the residences of addressees
of the mail, was established at Philadelphia ; in the
following year a tri-weekly mail between Philadelphia
and New York, in spring, summer, and fall, was estab-
lished ; in the next year (1755) notice was given that
to assist trade, arrangements had been made by which
the winter mail from Philadelphia to New England,
which before had set out but once a fortnight, would
thereafter set out once a week, as in summer ; in 1756
the first stage probably that was started in the colonies,
began to carry the mails between Philadelphia and New
York; in 1758 newspapers, which previously had been
carried in the mails free, were charged with postage.
Other reforms and improvements, far in advance of
anything before attempted, were begun, so that in 1774,
the last of Franklin's administration under the Crown,
the net revenue of the postal service was over £3000.
On January 30 of that year this great man was re-
moved from office, as he himself calls it, ‘‘ by a freak
of the ministers,’’ due to his pronounced advocacy of
the cause of the colonies in the troubles with the
mother country just then near their culmination ; and
from then until the middle of the following year, when
the Second Congress of the colonies took upon itself
the management of public affairs, the postal establish-
ment was almost without control.
On July 26, 1775, nearly a year before the Declara-
tion of Independence, a resolution was passed by the
Continental Congress creating a post-office department
with head-quarters at Philadelphia, continuing the rates
of postage then in force, appointing Benjamin Frank-
lin Postmaster-General at a salary of $1000 a year,
and giving him authority to appoint an assistant and
comptroller of accounts, and as many postmasters as
to him might seem proper—their salaries in no case to
exceed 20 per cent of the gross receipts of the post-
ºffice. On Nov. 7, 1776, Dr. Franklin being then in
France engaged in business of a diplomatic character,
his son-in-law, Richard Bache, was appointed Post-
master-General by Congress, and he remained in office
until Jan. 28, 1782, when Ebenezer Hazard succeeded
him. From 1775 to 1789 a vigilant supervision of the
affairs of the post-office department was exercised by
Congress; but owing to the existence of war during a
part of that period, to the depreciation of the cur-
rency, and to more or less inefficiency in administrº
tion, the service was a constant burden upon the public
treasury—repeated appropriations of money having to
be made for its support—and it was otherwise unsatis-
factory. It may naturally be supposed that the dis-
patch of the mails was irregular, and that their secur-
ity could never be absolutely assured ; besides which
the rates of postage were exorbitant and varying—not
less than eight radical changes having been made in
about as many years. The last of these was in 1787,
reducing by 25 per cent, the rates fixed by resolution
of Oct. 18, 1782, which were as follows (the standard
of value being the pennyweight of silver, rated at five-
ninetieths of a dollar):
For a single letter, sent any distance under 60 miles, 1 dwt.
8 grs. or 7.4 cents; over 60 and under 100 miles, 2 dwt.,
or 11.1 cents; over 100 and under 200 miles, 2 dwt. 16 grs.,
or 14.8 cents; and an advance of 16 grs. for every addi-
tional 100 miles.
For a single letter by packet to Europe, 4 dwt., or 22.2 cents.
Double rates for double letters, triple rates for triple letters,
etc. (Single, double, and triple letters were those composed
of one, two, or three sheets of paper, respectively—desig-
nations that had previously been used, and continued to
be used until the weight standard was adopted.)
During the foregoing period—the period of the
Confederation—three very noticeable provisions of law
concerning the post were enacted, which deserve
especial mention : The first was a provision in the
Articles of Confederation (Par. 4 of Art. IX.), which,
in giving the power to Congress to establish post-offices
...i to fix the rates of postage, coupled with the latter
the condition that such rates should be sufficient to
defray the expenses of the said office ’’—a condition
that seems to establish the fact that then, at any rate,
the postal service was intended to be self-supporting.
The second was a provision in the act of Oct. 18, 1782–
after hostilities with Great Britain had ceased—which
gave to the commander-in-chief of the army, to the
President of Congress, and to the governors of the
several States, the right to open or to authorize the
opening of private letters in the mails. The third was
a resolution of Congress passed in secret session Oct.
23, 1786—three years after the treaty of peace with
England was signed—which gave a similar power to
the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. These two
latter laws remained in force until 1792. At present
it is a penal offence for any officer of the government
to invade the privacy of letters.
When the control of postal affairs was transferred,
in 1789, from the government of the Confederation to
that of the Constitution, the number of post-offices in
the thirteen States then composing the Federal Union
was less than 100, Scattered along a line of post-routes
extending from Wiscasset, in the province of Maine,
to Savannah, in the State of Georgia, on which line
not a single, daily mail anywhere existed. The pre-
Vailing method of carrying the mails was that primi.
tive one, the horse and rider, which furnished the
lºº department with the then appropriate em-
lem of its seal; the rates of postage, as is shown
above, Were exorbitant; and the entire postal revenue
for a whole year was less than double that of but one
great post-office now for a single day. For the first
full year after the organization of the post-office de-
partment the gross receipts of the whole service did
not exceed $25,000, arising, too, it seems “ principally
from, letters passing from one seaport to another;”
and for several years thereafter the annual revenue did
not reach $50,000. The revenue of the ten principal
post-offices in 1790–91 was for one year as follows:
Philadelphia, Pa., $7,087.06 Petersburg, Va., $1,472.1S
New York, N. Y., 3,7SS.04 || Alexandria, Va., i. 34.00
Baltimore, Md., 3,034.64 | Fredericksburg, Vs., iºns
Bºston, Mass., 2,SS3.67 | Norfolk, Va., * 1'oison
Riehmond, Va., 2,777.07 | Charleston, S. C., $10.00
ºw * * * £º - * *
So insignificant was this department of the govern.
232
POSTAL SERVICE.
ment that we find the gentleman intrusted with its ad-
ministration in 1790—Samuel Osgood—in a letter to
Alexander Hamilton, gravely discussing the question
whether the postmaster-general should not be required
to occupy the room at the seat of government where
the mails were received and dispatched, in order that
he might personally superintend the work. The fol-
lowing table shows the condition of the department in
1789, 1790, and 1791 :
Expen-
Years. Offices. Miles. Revenue. ditures.
1789 (3 months only) 75 2275 § 7,510 $ 7,560
1790...... ..... ............ 75 1S75 37,935 32,140
1791........................ 89 1905 46,284 36,657
Immediately after the adoption of the Constitution
a law was enacted which continued for one year the
old post-office establishment of the Confederation ; and
this law was twice renewed, until in 1792 a general act
was passed establishing the post-office department upon
Substantially the basis which it occupied down to 1836;
but this act being limited in its operation to two years,
it was found necessary in 1794 to re-enact it, and with-
out limit. The rates of postage fixed by these two laws,
continuing until 1799, were as follows, being a consider-
able increase over the rates previously prevailing :
For every single letter, sent over 30 miles and not over 60
miles, 8 cents; over 60 and not over 100 miles, 10 cents ;
over 100 and not over 150 miles, 12% cents; over 150 and not
over 200 miles, 15 cents; over 200 and not over 250 miles,
17 cents; over 250 and not over 350 miles, 20 cents; over
350 and not over 450 miles, 22 cents; over 450 miles, 25
Cents.
For every double letter, double these rates; triple letters,
triple rates; every packet weighing one ounce avoirdupois
to pay four rates.
Letters and packets passing by sea to and from the United
States, or from one port to another therein, 8, 16, and 24
cents, respectively, for single, double, and triple letters.
Newspapers when sent not over 100 miles, 1 cent each ;
over 100 miles, 1} cent. Free exchanges permitted between
publishers.
By this act, too, authority was given the Postmaster-
General to provide for the transmission of letters to
foreign countries by any means which in his judgment
might be proper. The following table shows the pro-
gress of the service under this schedule of postages, to
1799 :
Expen-
Years Offices. Miles. Revenue. ditures.
1792........................ 195 5,642 $ 67,443 $ 54,530
1793 ....................... 209 5,642 104,746 72,039
1794........................ 450 11,984 128,947 89,972
1795............... ......... 453 13,207 160,627 117,903
1796......... ......... ...... 468 13,207 195,066 131,571
1797............ . . ......... 554 16,180 213,998 150,114
179S...... . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 639 16,180 232,977 169,084
1799.............. ......... 677 16,180 264,846 188,037
By act of March 2, 1799, the rates of postage were
changed to the following—a still further advance over
the rates of 1789 :
For every single letter, sent not over 40 miles, 8 cents;
over 40 and not over 90 miles, 10 cents; over 90 and not
over 150 miles, 12% cents; over 150 and not over 300 miles,
17 cents; over 300 and not over 500 miles, 25 cents. Double,
triple, and ounce rates, upon the same principle as in for-
mer act. w
Letters or packets brought into the United States, or car-
ried from one port therein to another, 6 cents, if for delivery
at the port; if for interior delivery, 2 cents more, º
Newspapers, same rates, as before, except that if for deliv-
ery within the State where published 1 cent only on each
was chargeable. Free exchanges between publishers. .
Magazines and pamphlets, 1 cent a sheet for nºt over 50
miles; 14 cent for over 50 and not over 100 miles; and 2
cents for any greater distance. (A sheet Was reckoned as 4
pages folio, 8 pages octavo, and so on.)
These rates continued without material alteration
until Dec. 23, 1814, when an addition of 50 per gent.
to all of them was authorized—a war-measure—which
addition remained in force until 1816. In 1810, how-
ever, the drop or local rate of postage on letters was
fixed, and for the first time, at one cent each. The
progress of the service to 1816 is shown in the follow-
ing table :
Expen-
Years Offices. Miles. Revenue. ditures.
1800........................ 903 20,817 $280,804 $213,994
1805............... ........ 155S 31,076 421,373 377,367
1810........................ 2300 36,406 552,366 495,969.
1$12........................ 2610 39,378 649,208 540,165.
1814.............. ......... 2670 41,736 730,370 727,126
1815...... ................. 3000 43,748 1,043,065 748,121
1816.................. ...... 3.260 48,673 961,782 804,422.
In 1816, under the act of April 9, the following new
schedule of rates was authorized, which remained
practically unchanged for twenty-nine years :
For a single letter, sent not over 30 miles, 6 cents; over 30
and not over 80 miles, 10 cents; over 80 and not over 150
miles, 12% cents; over 150 and not over 400 miles, 18% cents;
over 400 miles, 25 cents. Double, triple, and ounce rates
according to principle of former laws. Same provisions,
also, as to newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, and as
to drop letters.
The period during which these rates were in force is
memorable for five things: 1st, the efforts of postal
reformers to have books admitted to the mails, which,
strange as it may appear to us now, were strenuously
and successfully resisted by the department; 2d, the
transportation of the mails on railroads, which was
begun in 1834, and which was, it appears, to the post-
office authorities, a decidedly unpleasant innovation ;
3d, the radical change, made during the incumbency
of Amos Kendall as Postmaster-General, in 1836, and
upon his recommendation, in the manner of keeping
postal accounts, which before that time had been
practically under the control of the post-office depart-
ment, but which afterwards were placed in charge of
an Auditor of the Treasury, and by him audited and
settled independently of the Postmaster-General ; 4th,
the tendency to extravagance in the administration of
the postal service, and a manifestindifference to the self-
supporting policy that had previously prevailed, as
shown by the fact that in nineteen years out of twenty-
nine the postal expenditures exceeded the receipts; and
5th, the establishment of the electric telegraph, in 1845,
which, though brought into being by the aid of the
government, was suffered to pass, in spite of the ener-
getic protests of the Postmaster-General, into private
hands. The progress of the service during this period,
however, was very great, as is shown by the following
table:
Expendi-
Years. Offices. Miles. Revenue. tureS.
1817............ 3,459 52,089 $1,002,973 $ 916,515.
1818............ 3,618 59,473 1,130,235 1 035,832
1S 19 4,000 67,586 1,204,737 1,117,861
1820............ 4,500 72,492 1,111,927 1,160,926
1825............ 5,677 94,052 1,306,525 1,229,043
1830............ 8,450 115,176 1,850,583 1,932,708
1835............ 10,770 112,774 2,993,356 2,757,350
1840............ 13,468 155,739 4,543,522 4,718,236
1844......... .. 14,103 144,687 4,237,288 4,296,513
1845............ 14,183 143,940 4,289,841 4,320,732
By act of March 3, 1845, a very marked reduction
and simplification was made in the rates of postage, as
is seen from the following statement :
For a single letter (not over 3 ounce), sent less than 300
miles, 5 cents; over 300 miles, 10 cents; every additional
half ounce an additional rate. Drop letters, 2 cents each.
Newspapers of not more than 1900 square inches, sent
within 30 miles of the office of publication, free; of less
size, sent over 30 miles from office, 1 cent each for not over
100 miles, and 1% cent for over that distance. Newspapers
of greater size, same rates as magazines,
Printed or lithographed circulars, handbills, etc., on sheets
not larger than single cap paper, 2 cents a sheet without
regard to distance.
Pamphlets, periodicals, and magazines, 2% cents an ounce
without regard to distance. Bound books expressly ex-
cluded from the mails.
POSTAL SERVICE.
23
During the period when these rates were in force-
that is to say down to 1851—two events occurred that
are worthy of special mention : one was the negotia-
tion of a postal treaty with England—the first in the
history º the department—by which the single rate of
ocean postage was fixed at 5 cents ; and the other was
the introduction of postage-stamps in 1847, although
their use was not made obligatory until several years
afterwards.
Expendi-
Years. Offices. Miles. Revenue. tureS.
1846............ 14,601 152,865 $3,489,199 $4,084,297
1847............ 15,146 153,818 3,955,893 3,979,570
1848............. 16,159 163,208 4,371,077 4,326,850
1849............ 16,749 163,703 4,905,176 4,479,049
1850............ 18,417 178,672 5,552,971 5,212,953
1851............ 19,790 196,290 6,727,867 6,278,402
In 1851, by act of March 3, the most remarkable re-
duction that had yet been made in the rates of postage
was authorized. The following were the new rates :
Every single letter (+ ounce), sent not over 3000 miles, pre-
paid, 3 cents; not prepaid, 5 cents; any greater distance,
double these rates. Drop or local letters, 1 cent each.
Every additional half ounce, an additional rate.
Newspapers, weekly, free in county where published; out-
side of county, 5 to 30 cents a quarter, according to dis-
tance; other than weeklies, higher rates, varying accord-
ing to distance.
Magazines, books, and other printed matter, 1 cent an ounce
for not over 500 miles; 2 cents for over 500 and not over
1500 miles; 3 cents for over 1500 and not over 2500 miles:
4 cents for over 2500 and not over 3500 miles ; and 5 cents
for over 3500 miles.
In 1852, by act of Aug. 30, the rates on printed mat-
ter were radically changed, one cent an ounce being the
general rate on newspapers, periodicals, and unsealed
circulars, with certain reductions for prepayment, and
one cent an ounce the general rate on books when pre-
paid and sent not over 3000 miles. By this same act
stamped envelopes, since become so popular, were au-
thorized.
Again, in 1855, by act of March 3, prepayment of
postage on letters was made compulsory—the rates be-
ing 3 cents a half ounce for distances not over 3000
miles, and 10 cents for greater distances; drop letters,
1 cent each. By the same act the system for register-
ing letters was introduced—now a very important
branch of the postal service.
In 1861, by act of Feb. 27, merchandise was for the
first time admitted to the mails—the articles admitted
being maps, photographs, phonographic paper, letter
envelopes, and seeds and cuttings, postage on all of
which was fixed at a cent an ounce for less than 1500
miles, and 2 cents for greater distances. By the same
act letter postage to and from the Pacific slope was
fixed at 10 cents a half ounce.
The growth of the service to 1863 is shown in the
following table :
Expendi-
Years Offices. Miles. Revenue. tures.
1852............ 20,901 214,284 $6,925,971 $7,108,459
1853............ 22,320 217,743 5,940,72 7,982,957
1854............ 23,548 219,935 6,955,586 8,577,424
1855............ 24,410 227,908 7,342,136 9,968,342
1856 ........... 25,565 239,642 7,620,822 10,405,2S6
1857............ 26,586 242,601 8,053,952 11,50S,058
1858............ 27,977 260,603 8,186,793 12,722,470
1859............ 28,539 260,052 8,668,484 15,754,093
1860 ........... 28,498 240,954 8,518,067 19,170,610
1861 ............ 28,586 140,139* 8,349,296 13,606,759
1862............ 28,875 134,013* 8,299,821 11,125,364
1863............ 29,047 139,598* 11,163,790 11,314,207
* Not including routes in the insurrectionary States.
. In 1863, by act of March 3, mail matter was divided
into three distinct classes, on which the following rates
of postage were chargeable :
First-class matter, or letters and other written matter, 3 cents
a half ounce to any distance; drop-letters, 2 cents a half
OUIIAC6.
VOL. IV.-P
Second-class matter, or newspapers and periodicals issued
from a known office of publication, weeklies, 5 cents a
quarter for each 4 ounces; semi-weeklies, 10 cents; tri-
weeklies, 15 cents; six times a week, .30 cents; seven
times a week, 35 cents. Weekly papers in county of pub-
lication and exchanges between publishers, free. *
Third-class matter, or miscellaneous articles and transient
printed matter, 2 cents for each 4 ounces; double this rate
for books.
These rates remained practically unchanged for nine
years, during which, however, a number of important
events occurred, which render this period probably the
most memorable in the history of the postal service.
One was the meeting of the first International
Postal Congress, brought about by the efforts of the
United States government begun in 1862, and which
was the first step towards the formation of the Univer-
sal Postal Union effected eleven years after ; another
was the establishment of the free-delivery system in
1863; another, the adoption of the great money-order
system in 1864; another, the organization of the trav-
elling post-office system in 1863, which has revolution-
ized the manner of separating the mails; another, the
further introduction of merchandise into the mails as
authorized by act of June 22, 1864; another, the in-
troduction of envelopes bearing requests to return the
letter enclosed to the writer in case of non-delivery :
and another, the introduction of stamped newspaper-
wrappers. The two latter innovations are purely of
American origin. The growth of the service, too, was
wonderful, as is shown by the following table :
Expendi-
Years. Offices. Miles. Revenue. tures.
1864............ 28,878 139,171* $12,438,254 $12,644,786
1865............ 20,550 142,340% 14,556,159 13,694,728
1866 ............ 23,828 180,921 14,386,986 15,352,079
1867............ 25,163 203,245 15,237,027 19,235,483
1868 ........... 26,481 216,928 16,392,601 22,730,593
1869............ 27,106 223,721 18,344,511 23,698,131
1870............ 28,492 231,232 19,772,221 23,998,837
1871............. 30,045 238,359 20,037,045 24,390,104
1872............. 31,863 251,398 21,915,426 26,658,192
* Not including routes in the insurrectionary States.
By act of June 8, 1872, another rearrangement of
postage rates was made as follows:
First-class matter, 3 cents a half ounce. Drop-letters at
free-delivery offices, 2 cents a half ounce; at other offices
1 cent a half ounce. y
Second-class matter issued less than weekly, 1 cent each a
quarter; Weekly, 5 cents a quarter, less than 4 ounces;
Weekly, 5 cents a quarter; and 5 cents additional for each
issue oftener than once a week. An additional rate for
each additional 4 ounces.
Third-class matter, 1 cent for each 2 ounces. Books and
samples of minerals, metals, and ores, double this rate.
Two years later than this, by act of June 23, 1874
postage on second-class matter was changed to 3 cents
a pound for issues of less frequency than once a week
and to 2 cents a pound for all others; and the rate
on third-class matter was made uniform at 1 cent for
each 2 ounces. This latter rate was changed, how.
ever, by act of March 3, 1875, to a cent an ounce; and
in the following year the rate on miscellaneous printed
platter Was changed back to 1 cent for each 2 ounces
No further changes of postage occurred until isſo.
but two or three notable events transpired, which
should be mentioned, namely: the abolition of the
franking privilege by act of Jan. 31, 1873, and the
adoption of official postage-stamps for the payment of
postage on, official matter—a system that was practi-
cally abandoned in 1877; the formation of the tini.
Versal Postal Union in 1873, by which international
Postage was reduced generally to 5 cents a half ounce
on letters; and the introduction of postal-cards in
1873. The following table shows t
Service to 1879: g Ws the growth of the
234
POSTAL SERVICE.
- Expendi-
Years. Offices. Miles. Revenue. tureS.
1873............ 33,244 256,210 $22,996,742 $29,084,946
1874............. 34,294 269,097 26,477,072 32,126,415
1875............. 35,547 277,873 26,791,360 33,611,309
1876............. 36,383 281,798 27,805,908 33,203,488
1877 37,345 292,820 27,468,323 33,486,322
1878............. 39,258 301,966 29,277,517 34,165,084
1879 40,855 316,711 30,041,983 33,449,898
In 1879, under the act of March 3, a reclassification
of mail matter was made, the following being the rates
of postage established:
First-class (sealed or written matter), 3 cents a half ounce;
postal cards, 1 cent each ; drop-letters at free-delivery
offices, 2 cents a half ounce; at other offices, 1 cent.
Second-class matter, newspapers and periodicals issued
regularly from a known office of publication, or by news-
agents, 2 cents a pound. -
Third-class matter (books and miscellaneous printed arti-
cles), 1 cent for each 2 ounces.
Fourth-class matter (merchandise), 1 cent an ounce.
Since the passage of this act the following impor-
tant changes have been made in the postal laws:
By act of March 3, 1883, the rate of postage on first-class
matter was reduced from 3 to 2 cents a half ounce, the tariff
of money-order fees was considerably lowered, and the issue
of postal notes was authorized.
By act of June 9, 1884, postage on transient newspapers
was fixed at 1 cent for each 4 ounces.
By act of March 3, 1885, the unit of weight of first-class
matter was increased—the rate of postage being fixed at 2
cents an ounce instead of a half ounce ; the special-delivery
system, hereinafter described, was authorized ; and the rate
of postage on newspapers and periodicals was reduced to 1
cent a pound.
By act of June 29, 1886, the fee for money-orders of less
than $5 was reduced.
In August, 1886, the issue of stamped letter-sheet envel- *
opes was begun, under authority of the act of March 3, 1879.
By act of Jan. 3, 1887, the free-delivery, system was ex:
tended to places of 10,000 population, or $10,000 of annual
postal revenue. * ->
By act of March 3, 1887, authority was given for the issue
of postal-notes by other than money-order offices.
By act of July 24, 1888, the rate of postage on seeds,
plants, bulbs, roots, scions, and cuttings was reduced from
1 cent an ounce to 1 cent for 2 ounces.
These changes and the following table bring the ser-
vice down to the close of the fiscal year ending June
30, 1888 :
Expendi-
Years. Offices. Miles. Revenue. tures.
1880... . 42,989 343,888 $33,315,479 $36,542,804
1881............ 44,512 344,006 36,785,398 39,251,736
1882............ 46,231 343,618 41,883,005 40,482,021
1883............ 47,863 353,166 45,508,693 43,282,944
1884............ 50,017 359,530 43,335,959 47,224,560
1885............ 51,252 365,251 42,560,844 50,046,235
1886............ 53,614 368,660 43,948,423 51,004,744
1887............ 55,157 373,142 48,837,609 53,006,194
1888............ 57,876 403,976 52,695,176 55,795,357
The existing rates of postage are as follows, which,
taking everything into consideration, are probably the
lowest in the world :
On letters or written or sealed matter, 2 cents an ounce.
On postal cards, 1 cent each. Q *
On newspapers and periodicals mailed by publishers and
news-agents, 1 cent a pound. g
On books, circulars, miscellaneous printed matter, and
seeds, bulbs, plants, cuttings, roots and Scions, 1 cent for
each 2 ounces.
On all other matter, 1 cent an ounce.
All matter on official business of the government enclosed
in distinctive envelopes or under labels, free.
Newspapers and periodicals sent by publishers to actual
subscribers residing in the county of publication, free.
All matter sent out by agricultural colleges and agricultural
experiment stations on the subject of agriculture, free.
Letters to countries of the Postal Union, 5 cents a half
Oll Il Cé.
From the foregoing sketch it will be seen that the
ostal service of the United States, from its humble
eginning in 1789, has grown to gigantic proportions.
In the course of but one century it has in its progress
outstripped the service of many nations whose history
goes back beyond the middle ages; and to-day in the
general extent of its business it stands conspicuously
ahead of all other countries. Let us judge its position
by a comparison with the postal business of Great
Britain, Germany, and France, the three next great
nations of the Universal Postal Union.
The statistics which follow are the latest that are obtain-
able—those for the United States and Great Britain being
taken from the Reports of the Postmasters-General for the
two countries, and those for Germany and France from the
tabulation of 1886 published by the International Postal
Bureau at Berne.
In ascertaining the postal revenue of Great Britain,
France, and Germany, the income from the telegraph service
is omitted, and in the case of the latter country the income
from the service of couriers and the transportation of trav-
vellers—none of these branches of business being com-
prehended in the postal service of the United States.
The income of Germany and France is estimated upon the
basis of 5 per cent. increase over the actual amount of the
preceding year.
In gross postal revenue the showing is as follows:
United States—(year ending June 30, 1888)....... $52,695..176
Germany—(year ending March 31, 1888)........... 45,194,357
Great Britain—(year ending March 31, 1888)..... 42,362,346
France—(year ending Dec. 31, 1887).......... ... º. º e º G & 28,779,301
In the number of post-offices the United States has more
than the other three countries combined:
United States—(June 30, 1888)........ ............... 57,376
Germany—(Dec. 31, 1886).............................. 18,688
Great Britain—(March 31, 1888)...................... 17,587
France—(Dec. 31, 1886)................................. º 7,296
In the length of mail routes the United States is ahead of
the other countries, as is here shown :
United States—length of mail routes in miles—1888 403,976
Germany— { { { { { { { { 1886 85,885
Great Britain— 1888° 44,275
France— 1886 65,334
In the mileage of mail service annually performed the
United States is immeasurably in advance of all other coun-
tries :
( & & 4 { { & 4
& 4 & 4 ( &
|United States—miles of all service performed
in 1888................................. ................ 287,651,055
Germany—miles of all service performed in
1886....................................................... 132,011,695
Great Britain—miles of all service performed
in 1888°.................................................. 52,669,584
France—miles of all service performed in 1886 90,980,803.
These figures comprehend an advance of about 10 per
cent. over a computation furnished by the Secretary of the
General Post-Office in London for the year 1886.
In the number of pieces of mail matter transmitted—
which is the best criterion of the magnitude of the postal
service—the United States is greatly in the lead, as the fol-
lowing table will show: |
Countries. United States, 1888 Germany, 1886
Letters mailed or delivered 1,769,800,000 720,497,240
Postal Cards “ & 4 372,200,000 245,282,540
Newspapers “ ( & 1,063,100,000 523,873,340
Mis. printed matter, pieces 210,108,220
Parcels of merchandise 372,900,000 116,305,050
Total............................. 3,578,000,000 1,816,066,390
Countries. Great Britain, 1888 France, 1886
Letters mailed or delivered 1,512,200,000 591,451,811
Postal Cards “ ( & 188,800,000 35,923,379
Newspapers “ {{ 152,300,000 92,957,793
Mis. printed matter, pieces 389,500,000 713,962,439
Parcels of merchandise 36,732,000 28,953,858
Total................... ......... 2,279,532,000 1,463,249,280
The average number of pieces of mail matter to every in-
habitant of these countries, upon the basis of the last census,
is about as follows: United States, 71; Germany, 41;
Great Britain, 61; France, 37.
POSTAL SERVICE.
235
The gross expenditure of the postal service of the several
countries was as follows:
$55,795,357
44,348,939
28,876,935
28,327,666
United States, year ending June 30, 1888......
Germany, year ending Mar. 31, 1888°..........
Great Britain, year ending Mar. 31, 1888.......
France, year ending Dec. 31, 1887 *..............
* These amounts are 5 per cent. over the actual expendi-
tures of the preceding year. They also include the cost of
the telegraph service.
There are several branches of the postal service of
the United States which deserve special description :
1st. The Money- Order System, created by act of
Congress of May 17, 1864. The object of this system
is to provide the public with the means of makin
small remittances of money by mail cheaply j
safely. This is accomplished through the issue of
orders by one postmaster upon another, the orders
being issued upon written applications therefor, the
jurchaser in every case being required to deposit with
#. application the amount of money which the order
calls for, in addition to the fee. The order, after de-
livery to the purchaser, is usually sent by him to the
payee through the mails, though it may be, of course,
sent by any means. Money orders are limited by law
to $100, the fees for amounts up to that being as fol-
lows: For an order not exceeding $5, five cents; over
$5 and not over $10, eight cents; over $10 and not
over $15, ten cents ; over $15 and not over $30, 15
cents; over $30 and not over $50, 25 cents; over $50
and not over $60, 30 cents; over $60 and not over $70,
35 cents; over $70 and not over $80, 40 cents; over
$80 and up to $100, 45 cents. The order is always
upon a designated postmaster, and therefore can be
paid by no other, and it is invalid if not presented
within one year from its date. It is assignable to only
one payee beyond the first, and cannot be paid unless
the presentor be known to the paying postmast for be
properly identified. The principal Security, in the
money order, however, lies in the leaving out of the
order the name of the payee, and in the sending by
the issuing to the paying postmaster of a secret letter
of advice, giving the payée's name and , all the other
particulars of the order, which renders it almost im-
possible to make a mistake in payment. If an order
i. lost or invalidated by improper assignment ºr lapse
of time or otherwise, it may be duplicated ; if it be
paid to the wrong person, the government is liable to
the owner. The system on June 30, 1888, existed at
8241 post offices. It has upon the whole been profit-
able to the government, the fees amounting to more
than the expenses : besides which a very large amount
has been gained—probably over a million dollars–
through the loss or non-presentation of orders from
the beginning of the system to the present time. As
the system is carried on without any working capital
except such as accrues from unpaid orders, it is nec-
essary to keep the funds in constant circulation, and as
rapidly as possible to accumulate at paying centres the
receipts of offices where the issues of orders exceed
payments. Every postmaster is therefore required to
remit daily to some post-office designated as his de-
pository all his surplus money-order funds—an arrange-
ment which also tends to prevent defalcations. To
the country at large the money-order system has been
of immeasurable benefit ; for it has given a great
stimulus to many branches of trade ; it has been a not
inconsiderable agent in the ceaseless and necessary cir-
culation of money ; and it has materially aided through
its international branch that wonderful migration of
people from the Old to the New World that has made
the progress of America one of the marvels of history.
Table I shows the growth of the money-order busi-
ness from its establishment Nov. 1, 1864, to June
30, 1888.
TABLE I.— U. S. Money- Order System.
4
Fiscal year Orders paid and
(ending June 30). Offices. Orders issued. repaid. Fees received. Expenses. Deficit. Surplus.
1865................ 419 $1,360,122.52 $1,313,577.08 $11,536.40 $18,584.37 $7,047.97 .......... • * * * * *
1866. ............... 766 3,977,259.28 3,903,890.22 35,803.06 28,664,27 |............... $7,138.79
1867................ 1,224 9,229,327.72 9,071,240.73 70,889.57 44,628.96 |............... 26,260.61
1868................ 1,468 16,197,858.47 16,118,537.03 || 124,503.19 70,345.04 |............... 54,158.15
1869................ 1,685 24,848,058.93 24,654,123.46 176,247.87 110,694.00 |......... ..... 65,553.87
1870. .............. 2,076 34,054,184.71 33,927,924.79 || 235,557.05 || 145,382.42 |.............., goi;463
1871................ 2,452 || 42,164,118.03 42,027,336.31 295,563.38 194,381.60 |............... 10i'isiºs
1872................ 2,775 48,515,532.72 48,419,644.97 350,499.40 244,521.63 |............... 105.67777
1873................ 3,069 57,516,216.69 57,295,012.27 354,816.66 286,232.66 |............... 68584.00
1874................ 3,404 || 74,424,854.71 74,210,156.25 462,238.54 357,040.42 ............... 105'igs is
1875................ 3,401 77,431,251.58 77,361,690.75 494,717.27 374,575.18 ............... 120,142.09
1876................ 3,697 77,035,972.78 77,106,338.85 | 647,021.52 456,250.68 |............... 196770.84
1877................ 3,686 72,820,509.70 72,908,475.25 624,409.66 524,478.47 99.931:19
1878. .............. 4,143 81,442,364.87 81,279,910.80 716,638.98 513,686.61 |............... 202'952.3%
1879................ 4,512 88,254,641.02 88,006,200.20 799,347.09 575,386.32 |............... 233'360.77
1880. ............... 4,829 100,352,818.83 100,165,982.78 917,091.58 659,516.50 |............... 257575.08
1881................ 5,163 105,075,769.35 104,924,853.61 | 967,772.93 || 715,458.29 |............... 2533.j4.64
1882........ 5,491 113,400,118.21 113,388,301.90 | 1,054,538.62 774,197.45 |............... 250341 17
1883................ 5,927 | 117,329,406.31 || 117,344,281.78 1,102,838.42 791,133.75 |............... 3ii. 704.67
1884...- ............ 6,310 122,121,261.98 121,971,083.80 950,479.39 702,603.80 ............... 347's 5.59
1885................ 7,056 117,858,921.27 117,996,205,06 || 925,125.03 | 681,150.06 || .............. 3.43%; ſo;
1886................ 7,357 | 113,819,521.21 113,885,463.04 922,781.97 689,758.38 |... ........ ... 333 033.5%
1887................ 7,853 || 117,462,660.89 117,264,026.66 914,076.57 402,458.59 |...... ......... 5iisiºns
1888...... 8,241 119,649,064.98 || 119,743,345.25 947,316.56 | 406,043.79 |............... ăiiº
Total.......... .......... 1,736,341,816.76 | 1,734,287,602.84 |.................... |*. "…l.….....
*— |
Money-order arrangements exist between the United
States and the following named countries: Great
Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium,
Italy, fortugal, Sweden, Netherlands, Canada, Ja-
\maica, Windward Islands, Leeward Islands, Hawaiian
Islands, New Zealand, New South Wales, Tasmania,
Victoria, Queensland, Japan, India, Cape Colony,
orWay, and Denmark.
By act of March 3, 1883, a new form of money-
order has been added to the system's issues—known
as the “postal note.” These are limited in amount
to $4.99. The fee for issuing them is three cents.
They are payable to bearer, but only at the post-office
on which drawn, and they are transmitted always at
the risk of the purchaser, and not of the government.
If not presented within three months from the last
236
POSTAL SERVICE.
day of the month of issue, they become invalid, though
a duplicate may be obtained upon payment of an ad-
ditional fee. . The following table shows the business
of the postal-note system since its establishment:
Fiscal year. Notes issued. Notes paid and repaid.
1884 ....................... $7,411,992.48 $7,254,125.94
1885........................ 9,996,274.37 9,948,023.80
1886........................ 11,718,010.05 11,666,930.73
1887........................ 11,768,824.81 11,726,767.51
1888........................ 12,134,459.04 12,104,881.55
Fiscal year. Fees received. Expenditures.
1884........................ $110,282.88 $76,389.49
1885........................ 152,018.58 91,275.82
1886........................ 180,333.15 110,115.30
1887... .................... 189,844.56 82,870.72
1888........................ 200,341.68 82,456.30
2d. The Registry System, first authorized by act of
March 3, 1855. By this system additional security is
intended to be given to valuable matter in its passage
through the mails, the means relied on for giving this
security consisting of the recording, or registering, of
all matter presented for registration, the giving of re-
ceipts to the senders at the time of mailing, the re-
ceipting and careful handling of the matter by all
persons through whose hands it may pass throughout
its journey, and the final acknowledgment of receipt
by the addressee. Thus a letter registered may be
traced from hand to hand until it gets to destination,
or, in case of its loss or miscarriage, up to the official
who is responsible therefor. To give distinctiveness
to registered matter it is enclosed in large colored en-
velopes, termed “registered package envelopes,” which
may contain one or more letters to any one office, and
the condition of which must be indicated by the in-
dorsements of all who handle it. A bill of lading, or
“registry bill '' as it is called, accompanies this en-
velope, which bill after verification is returned by the
receiving to the sending postmaster. Every failure to
receipt for these envelopes or their contents, every dis-
crepancy between bill and contents, and every loss, is
promptly reported and at once investigated. Much of
the separate handling of and receipting for registered
matter has of late years been obviated by the use of
through pouches between prominent offices, the pouches
being locked with tell-tale locks that can properly be
ºpened only by the sending and receiving postmasters.
Vast amounts of money, bonds, and other valuables
are transmitted annually by registered mail, so that its
value to the business world is beyond question ; but its
greatest value is probably to people at small places
where the money-order system does not exist, where
banks are unknown, and where railroad, steamboat,
and express lines have not been extended ; for it
brings every one of these little communities into safe
and expeditious commercial intercourse with the great
cities, and places, as it were, their opulence and variety
at its feet. The fee for registering matter is 10 cents,
which is in addition to the lawful postage. The
system is probably self-sustaining. The number of
letters and parcels of matter registered during the past
ten fiscal years is as follows:
1879................. 5,429,022 | 1884................. 11,246,545
1880................. 6,996,513 | 1885................. 11,043,256
1881................. 8,338,918 | 1886................. 11,648,227
1882................. 9,627,922 | 1887................. 12,524,421
1883. . 10,594,716 | 1888. 13,677,169
3d. The Free-Delivery System, authorized by act
of March 3, 1863. –The principal function of this
branch of the postal service is to make delivery by
regular carriers employed by the government, at the
residences of addressees or at other specified places of
address, of all mail matter that may arrive or be de-
posited for local delivery at what are known as free-
delivery offices. In connection with this duty is that
of collecting matter from designated boxes throughout
the cities ... the system exists, and mailing it at the
post-office. The term “free-delivery '' is not strictly
accurate ; for while no direct charge is made for col-
lecting or delivering matter by the carriers, there is an
indirect charge, made by doubling the local or drop
rate of postage on letters at all free-delivery offices.
Thus, at an office where carrier delivery is not made,
the drop rate on letters is one cent an ounce or fraction
thereof; at a free-delivery office the drop rate is two
cents—the difference being originally intended to main-
tain the system. Under the last law passed by Con-
gress affecting the free-delivery system, authority is
given the Postmaster-General to establish it at any
place having a population of 10,000, or where the
gross revenue of the post-office for the preceding year
shall have amounted to $10,000. The total number of
free-delivery offices in existence on June 30, 1888, was
358; the number of carriers in service at the same
time was 6346; and the number of pieces of matter
handled by them during the year ending on that date
was as follows:
Letters delivered.......................................... 873,760,692
Postal cards delivered................................... 212,426,703
Registered letters delivered............................ 4,271,105
Newspapers, etc., delivered............................ 428,710,933
Letters collected................. ........................ 760,113,963
223,980,437
127,597,925
2,630,861,758
Newspapers, etc., collected............................
Whole number of pieces handled
Table II, shows the growth of the free-delivery ser-
vice since its establishment. It will be seen that if one-
half the postage on local matter at free-delivery offices
be taken as the measure of revenue resulting from
the establishment and extension of the system, it has
been financially a burden to the government from the
beginning. If, however, the additional use of the
mails, locally and otherwise, which the system un-
doubtedly influences, with the resulting increase of
revenue, be taken into account, to say nothing of the
immense amount of office separation of the mails
which in the absence of carriers would have to be
done by distributing clerks and paid for out of some
other item of revenue, the system beyond all question
has been self-sustaining. Besides, it handles an enor-
mous amount of matter other than letters, on which
no increase of the local rate of postage has been made,
and from which, consequently, no increase of revenue
has been derived, and it collects for mailing nearly as
much matter as it delivers—a service which was ºf:
ably not intended when the system was created, and
which the increase in the drop rate of postage was not
expected to pay for.
rior to 1863 a carrier-delivery service existed at a
few of the larger post-offices known as the “penny
post ''-the carriers being appointed by the depart-
ment, and being allowed in the way of compensation
a fee to be collected from every person to whom
matter was delivered. It is a rather remarkable fact
that although this system existed in England as far
back as the reign of Charles II.—one Wm. Dockwra
having successfully introduced it into the city of
London—and was a short time afterwards authorized
in this country, and sanctioned, after the separation of
the colonies from England by repeated acts of Con-
gress, it had not, down to the establishment of the
free-delivery system, been extended to more than 15
or 20 post-offices in the whole country. The principal
cause of this is to be found, not in the disinclination of
the people to patronize the system—for we find them
in many places eagerly supporting private letter ex-
presses wherever they were permitted to exist—but in
the opposition of postmasters, whose compensation,
always partially dependent upon the rent of post-office
boxes, the system of carrier delivery was supposed to
seriously affect. Some attempts have been made
within the last five or six years to bring about the
re-establishment of the “penny-post” for places of
less population than the law requires as a condition
POSTAL SERVICE.
237
TABLE II.-Free-Delivery Service of U. S. Post-Office.

Excess of post-
Fiscal year Offices. Carriers. Cost of service. Postage on local Excess of cost. agetº: local
(ending June 30). matter. ITQ2.I.Ler.
1864............... *........ 66 685 $317,063.20 i................. .................................” “.....…..
1865..................... ... 45 757 448,664.51 |...................... [......................] ........' ....... “
1866 ....................... 46 863 589,236.41 ......... ............ [......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1867........................ 47 943 699,934.34 ......................|........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1868...... .............. ... 48 1,198 995,934.59 ...................... i......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1869. 48 1,246 1,183,915.31 ..... e º e s s a e is a º 'º e s is a º f * * * * *2::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
1870........................ 51 1,362 1,230,079.85 $681,864.70 $548,215.15 ......................
1871 ........................ 52 1,419 1,353,923.23 758,120.78 595,803.4: • a tº e º e º s is tº e º e s e º e º º # 3 &
1872........................ 52 1,443 1,385,965.76 907,351.93 || 478,613.83 |.....................
1873,................. ..... 52 1,498 1,422,495.48 1,112,251.21 310,244.27 |......................
1874......... ........…. 87 2,049 1,802,696.41 1,611,481.66 191,214.75 |......... 3: …, 22'
1875… 87 2,195 1,880,041.99 1,947,599.54 |..................... $67,517.5;
1876........................ 87 2,269 1,981,186.51 2,065,561.73 |...................... 84,375.22
1877........................ 87 2,265 1,893,619.85 2,254,597.83 |................... .. 360,977.98
1878.................. ...... 87 2,275 1,824,166.96 2,452,251.51 |...................... £28,084.55
1879........................ 88 2,359 1,947,706.61 2,812,523.86 |...................... 864,7 71.14
1880........................ 104 2,688 2,363,693.14 3,068,797.14 ...................... 705,104.00
1881........................ 109 2,861 2,499,911.54 3,273,630.39 i...................... f iſ 3,718.85
1882........................ 112 3,115 2,623,262.74 3,816,576.09 |... ... ................ 1,193,313.35
1883......... .............. 154 3,680 3,173,336.51 4,195,230.52 ...................... 1,021,894.01
1884........................ 159 3,890 3,504,206.52 4,777,484.87 |...................... 1,274,278.35
1885........................ 178 4,358 3,985,952.55 5,281,721.10 |...................... 1,295,768.55
1886........................ 181 4,841 4,312,306.70 5,839,242.97 ...................... 1,526,936.27
1887........................ 189 5,310 4,618,692.07 6,691,253.69 |... .................. 2,072,561.62
1888........................ 358 6,346 5,422,355.36 7,721,689.16 |...................... 2,299,332.80

precedent to free-delivery ; but although there is little
doubt that such an establishment would prove of great
convenience to many communities, and would certainly
not to an injurious extent affect the postal revenue,
both Congress and the Post-Office Department appear
to look upon it with disfavor.
4th. The Special-Delivery System, established by
authority of the act of March 3, 1885. This system
is intended to secure the immediate delivery of mail-
matter, on its arrival at the post-office of destination,
by means of special messengers employed for the pur-
ose. At first its operations were confined to places
aving a population of 4000 or more ; but by sub-
sequent law it was extended to all post-offices. The
charge for making special delivery is ten cents, which
is paid by the sender of the matter affixing to it a
large and otherwise distinctive stamp, which is addi-
tional to the postage. The amount allowed messengers
for every delivery is eight cents, the government i.
realizing a profit of two cents. The amount of this
profit is about $30,000 a year. At large post-offices,
where the amount of business will warrant it, perma-
nent messengers are employed on special-delivery duty;
at other offices the postmaster effects delivery by any
practicable means. The system has met with a reason-
able amount of patronage, and may be said to supply
a popular want. The following table gives the number
of pieces of matter specially delivered since the system
was introduced, at offices which are required to make
returns :
Fiscal year Pieces Pieces
(ending June 30). ord. matter. drop matter. Total.
1886–9 mos. only and at 555
OTTIC&S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622,054 274,200 896,334
1887—at free-delivery offices 725,330 299,237 1,024,567
1888—at free-delivery offices 899,494 320,782 1,220,276
5th. The Travelling. Post-office System (generally
called the Railway-Mail service).-This great system,
whose main function is to make minute distribution of
the mails on postal-cars, and to make immediate trans-
fers to connecting lines—so that a letter leaving a given
point at the same time as a traveller to the same des-
tination accomplishes its journey at the same time—
-Was begun in an unsystematic and tentative way,
and not by creation of law, in the year 1862. Prior to
that the work of distributing the mail was done en-
tirely in post-offices, the scheme of distribution,
speaking generally, being comprehended in the mass-
ing of the mails at certain prominent offices, called
“distributing post-offices'' – (the number of them
varying in different years from about twenty to fifty)—
where minuter separation was required before further
transmission could be made. The result of that system
was, of course, frequent delays, unnecessary hand-
lings, and great expense. The mail-car in those days
was simply for freighting mails in bulk : now it is a
post-office also, by which not only through mails are
carried, but in which way mails are taken on and put off
—separated and pouched for all offices on the line and
their connections, and for connecting car-lines—while
the car is in progress. Much separating work is nec-
essarily still done in post-offices, such as through
mails, local mails, and mails to go over other than
railway routes; but in general all mails to go over rail-
roads where postal clerks are employed are pouched
to the postal car, and there distributed, with accretions
made en route, according to schemes intended to secure
the utmost possible expedition in transmission. The
travelling post-office system was not organized until
1865 : it exists now on nearly every railroad in the
United States, employs thousands of officials, who
handle the bulk of the entire mail of the country.
6th. The Dead-Letter Office.—The history of this
office, whose business it is to restore to the owners
letters and other mail matter that have failed of de-
livery, goes back to the early days of the republic, the
first “inspector of dead letters” having been appointed
under a resolution of the Continental Congress passed
Oct. 17, 1777. Prior thereto the subject of undelivered
letters had, of course, received some attention—so
much so that in 1753 such letters began to be adver-
tised ; but they were not sufficient in numbers to war-
rant the employment of any separate official for their
treatment. For many years after the establishment of
the office, everything that came into its keeping was,
whenever practicable, restored to the owner: subse.
quently, when the business of the office had increased
considerably, the rule was changed so as to require
restoration of only what was apparently valuable; but
now the original practice is revived, and everything
except printed matter of no apparent interest or value.
such as advertisements, circulars, etc., is restored. In
238
POSTAL SERVICE.
the treatment of undelivered matter at post-offices the
following rules govern : . If the matter bears upon it
the name and address of the sender, it is returned to
him direct by the postmaster at the end of 30 days;
if it bears, in addition, a request to return within a
given time, it is returned direct at the end of that
time ; if it does not bear the name of the sender, it is
advertised, and, if not delivered, retained in the post-
office 30 days, and finally, if still undelivered, sent to
the Dead-Letter Office, where it is opened, if found
neoessary, and restored to the owner. Weekly returns
of such matter are made by postmasters at the larger
offices ; monthly returns by all others. The registered
matter and such as is considered valuable are recorded,
and prompt restoration is made of everything of which
the ownership can be ascertained. Matter of which
the ownership is doubtful or not ascertainable is held
subject to reclamation. All foreign dead matter is re-
turned without examination to the country of origin.
Much of the matter that reaches the Dead-Letter
Office is never restored, especially if no inquiry con-
cerning it is received ; as, for example, where neither
the sender nor addressee of the matter can be found,
or where the writer of a letter has failed to sign his
name, or has signed only a part of his name—a not
inconsiderable class of letter-writers, by the way—or
where, as in the case of parcels, nothing appears to
indicate the sender. All moneys obtained from dead
letters for which no owner can be found, as well as
moneys realized from the sale of unreclaimed parcels
—which sale now occurs annually—are deposited in
the general treasury. The moneys thus obtained
amount to about $10,000 a year. It is a curious fact
that every year there are turned into the Dead-Letter
Office a great many letters that bear no superscriptions
whatever, but still more curious that the most of these
letters are written by business men, and on important
business subjects. In the examination of letters in
the Dead-Letter Office, it has always been an unwritten
law that no employé shall ever divulge any information
he may thus acquire ; indeed, it has been an established
principle, seldom departed from, that the government
itself has no right, even though it should be in the
interests of public justice, to take advantage of secrets
that the business of the Dead-Letter Office may disclose.
But it is rather remarkable that no law exists which
makes an offence of such a betrayal of trust, although
the unauthorized opening of or prying into letters ;
other postal officials has been prohibited from the
foundation of the government, and at times made
punishable by death. The following table gives some
interesting statistics of dead-letter business for the
past 10 years:
Fiscal year. Dead letters. Am’t realized.
1879................................. 2,996,513 $3,323
1880................................. 3,057,141 6,506
1881................................. 3,323,621 6,584
1882........................... ... .. 4,285,285 7,657
1883................................. 4,379,398 12,279
1884........................... ..... 4,564,451 9,619
1885......... ....................... 4,708,240 12,097
1886.............. .................. 4,791,698 8,858
1887,........... ... .................. 5,335,363 10,976
1888...... ...... ..............' ...... 6,217,876 9,118
7th. Transportation of the Mails.-There are five
eneral methods of transporting the mails, namely :
É. railroads, by mail-messengers, by steamboats, by
ocean steamers, and by what is known as “star'' Ser-
vice. The pay for railroad transportation is pre-
scribed by law of Congress, the rates being as follows:
On routes carrying their whole length an average
weight of 200 lbs. of mail a day, $42.75 per mile per
annum; 500 lbs., $64. 12; ; 1000 lbs., $85.50; 1500
lbs., $106.874; 2000 lbs., $128,25; 3500 lbs., $149.62} :
5000 lbs., $171, and $21,373 for every additional 2000
lbs., the average weight to be ascertained by actual
weighing for thirty days once every four years. On
land-grant roads the rates are somewhat less. In ad-
dition to these rates, which most postal experts con-
sider too high, the railroad companies are allowed for
the use of postal cars furnished by them, in every case
where a daily trip is made each way, the following pay:
$25 per mile per annum for cars 40 feet in length; $30
for 45-foot cars; $40 for 50-foot cars; and $50 for 55
or 60-foot cars. Railroad companies are required to
transport the mails on their fastest trains; but with a
number of trunk lines the department often enters
into special arrangements for still faster time, paying
for the increased expedition out of an annual appro-
priation for “special facilities on railroads.” . The
companies are obliged, under a well-established prac-
tice having now the force of law, to carry the mails to
and fro between railroad stations and post-offices at
their own expense, when the distance is not over a
quarter of a mile. Mail-messenger service is that
which comprehends the carriage of the mails between
post-offices and railroad and steamboat stations where
the distance is over a quarter of a mile ; between one
station and another of different railroads; between
post-offices and their branches in the great cities, and
over routes not regularly established as post-routes.
This service is usually let to the lowest bidder. Steam-
boat service is contracted for whenever such service is
considered necessary—usually for four years, and at
the lowest obtainable rates. Star service (which in-
cludes transportation by wagon, carriage, stage, horse-
back, or afoot) is let every four years by separate routes
to the lowest bidders. For convenience in letting this
service the country is divided into four contract sec-
tions, a letting of the service being made every year
for one-fourth of the country. To provide for service
over new routes, or over routes where contractors have
failed to perform service, a miscellaneous letting is also
made every year. Competition has brought the pay
for star service down to low rates—in many cases to
rates too low to secure good service. Ocean steam-
ship service is, of course, confined to foreign mails,
and is usually let for periods of two years. The limit
of pay in most cases is the sea-postage of the matter
conveyed. The pay for carrying United States mails
through one country of the Postal Union to another
is regulated by the Postal Union convention.
8th. Organization.—The postal service is under the
general control of the Postmaster-General, who is,
and has been since the administration of President
Jackson, a member of the Cabinet. Under him are
the First, Second, and Third Assistant Postmasters-
General, the Superintendent of the Money-Order Sys-
tem, the General Superintendent of the Railway Mail
Service, the Superintendent of Foreign Mails, the
Chief Post-office Inspector, and the Superintendent
of the Dead-Letter Office, each of whom has under him
a corps of clerks and other employés at the seat of
government. Besides these there is an officer of the
Treasury Department, known as the Auditor of the
Treasury for the Post-office Department, who has a
close and important connection with the postal service.
The several classes of postal officials outside of the
department proper at Washington are postmasters
and their clerks, letter-carriers, railway postal clerks,
mail-messengers, and mail contractors. The First As-
sistant Postmaster-General has charge of the appoint-
ment and qualification of postmasters, the establish-
ment of post-offices, the apportionment among them
of the appropriations for clerk-hire, rent, fight, and
fuel, the supply of stationery, and the operations of
the Free-Delivery System. The Second Assistant
Postmaster-General has control over the transporta-
tion of the mails, the making of contracts therefor,
the ascertainment of the pay of railroads for mail ser-
vice, and the supply of mail-bags, locks, and keys.
The duty of the #. Assistant Postmaster-General
takes in all business relating to the classification of
mail matter and the rates of postage, the collection
and deposit of the postal revenues, "the payment of
POSTAL SERVICE.
239
postal indebtedness, the control of the registry and
special-delivery systems, and the issue to postmasters
of postage-stamps, stamped envelopes, and other forms
of stamped paper. The duty of the Auditor is to
audit and settle quarterly the accounts of postmasters
and other postal officers, and to certify for payment
the several classes of postal indebtedness. The duties
of the other officers named are indicated by their des-
ignations. . The number of persons employed in the
postal service on the 1st of March, 1887 (not including
assistants in post-offices of the third and fourth classes,
and employés of mail contractors on star routes), was
as follows:
In Department proper at Washington..................... 600
In Auditor's office at Washington .......................... 404
Postmasters of all classes....................................... 54,774
Assistant Postmasters, first and second-classes......... 384
Clerks in post-offices of the first and second-classes... 5,781
Messengers, janitors, and laborers in post-offices........ 222
Carriers at free-delivery offices.............................. 5,206
Post-office inspectors and inspectors' clerks............ 122
Contractors and sub-contractors, star service............ 14,533
Contractors and sub-contractors, steamboat service... 126
Special carriers..................................................... 2,433
Mail messengers...... ............................................ 5,412
Employés in railway-mail service........................... 4,760
Miscellaneous....................................................... 33
Total ............................................................
About 5
the statement up to June 30, 1888.
PROPOSED IMPROVEMENTS.
Among the many things that have been urged for
the enlargement and improvement of the postal service
of the United States these are the most important :
1. The postal service, it is said, is incomplete with-
out the telegraph. Every other great nation has had
to attach to its postal system this important medium
of transmitting intelligence, and the United States,
doubtless, will eventually do so too. If it is to be done
at all, however, it ought to be done soon ; for the only
really equitable mode of beginning such a service
would be to buy up all private lines of telegraph, and
every year, of course, is adding to their value. The
Postmasters-General, who have advocated the adop-
tion of the telegraph, are Cave Johnson, in 1845 and
1846, under whose administration it was, by the aid of
the government, brought into existence; Alex. W.
Randall, in 1868; Jno. A. J. Creswell, in 1871 and
1872; Horace Maynard, in 1880; T. O. Howe, in
1882; Walter Q. Gresham, in 1883; and Don M.
Dickinson, in 1888.
2. It is said, too, that the postal service should in-
clude a system of Savings banks. All over the world,
wherever this system exists, the patronage of it proves
that the people desire a perfectly safe means of invest-
ment for small savings, even though the rate of in-
terest be trifling. In support of the proposition the
claim is made that a º part of the national
debt might be paid off by the money deposited in
postal savings banks; or, to speak more accurately, by
a proper system of receiving and applying the deposits
in such banks a great part of the present bonded debt
might be transmuted into a savings-bank debt, held by
a greater number of the people, and bearing a much
lower rate of interest. The great importance, too, to
the government, of the possession of a large amount
of ready money in times of national peril or financial
stringency, such as would be available under a pos-
tal Savings-bank system, is manifest.
3. Again, it is said that the present method of
compensating railroad companies for transporting the
mails should be changed—the government now paying
too much for the service. The items, at least, of
” postal-car service” and “special facilities on rail-
roads,” which now amount annually to about
2,000,000, should be unknown to the government
ledger. That is to say, the railroad companies should
provide, without any addition to the statutory pay for
mail transportation, whatever cars are necessary, SO
constructed as to afford the best possible facilities for
postal clerks in the distribution and receipt of the
mails, and they should transport these at whatever
rate of speed the Postmaster-General might at any
time deem necessary, just as is done under the law in
England. * - º
4. It is urged, with reason, that the civil service
reform should be extended so as to take under its pro-
tection every employé of the postal service—not merely
the letter-carrier and the clerk, but employés above
and below these grades; that every official in the Ser-
vice should have a secure tenure of office co-existent
with efficiency and good behavior; and that an equita-
ble system of promotions upon competitive examina-
tion should prevail, together with one for the imposi-
tion of fines and penalties for improper conduct or
inefficient service. No person under such a business-
like mode of administering the department should
ever be taken into its service except after such an ex-
amination, to which any man or woman of good char-
acter and sound physique should be eligible, and no
one should be dismissed except for cause. In this
way the service would secure and retain the best talent
and character; and instead of its breeding an official
aristocracy, as some over-scrupulous statesmen have
apprehended, it would originate the purest kind of an
official democracy.
5. As soon as postal business shall have sufficiently
increased to allow of it the present absurd distinctions
in the rates of postage on mail matter should end.
Everything admissible to the mails at all—with the
exception, perhaps, of newspapers and periodicals,
which might, as at present, be granted better terms
than other matter—should be placed on the same foot-
ing. The lowest rate of postage compatible with pub-
lic interests should prevail, and it should be no more
on a letter than on anything else. One cent for every
two ounces would be a rate simple and sensible, and
it would, no doubt, be ultimately profitable.
6. The government should, of course, as the law
now requires, exercise a complete monopoly in the car-
riage of letters for pay. Private letter expresses, dis-
trict telegraph companies, and the like, which in many
of the large cities now invade the rights of the govern-
ment, should be made to give way. It is admitted,
with justice, that the exercise of the government's ex-
clusive right in this respect should carry with it such
efficient service as to render any private competition
unnecessary.
7. It is further insisted that all the mails for deliv-
ery in the great cities should be separated as far as
possible during their transit. For example, the mails
that go into New York by rail should all be made up
en route, so as to reach every postal station—and, for
that matter, every letter-carrier—without the necessity
of separation, on their arrival at the post-office, and
therefore in the shortest possible time. So the mails
that pass from one part of the city to another, and
the mails which arrive at and depart from the post-
office and stations, should be carried to and fro, not by
Wagon Service, as at present, but by underground
Steam conveyance. , Less expense, greater rapidity of
transit, and later hours for closing the mails would
thus be secured.
S. The free-delivery system should be greatly ex-
tended. If, as can, perhaps, be demonstrated free
delivery is profitable and desirable where there is a
population ºf 10,000, there is no reason why it should
not be profitable in a place containing 5600 inhabi.
tants; or, to put it differently, if it be proper to
introduce it where half a dozen carriers are needed, it
Would be proper to extend it to every place where a
Single ºrrier could be economically employed. Indeed,
in thickly settled parts of the country, the system of
rural deliveries might be adopted, the same as exists
in England, France, and Germany—the carrier taking
240 POSTAL
UNION.
the place of the mail contractor, and collecting from
and delivering mail to everybody along his route.
9. The railway officials on all trains that carry mails
not in charge of postal clerks should be required to
receive mail matter offered to them en route, and to
deposit it in designated boxes along the line, or at
post-offices at the termini of their several runs. In
other words, the present law which requires the captain
of a steamboat or the mail-carrier on a star-route to
receive and properly deposit all mail matter handed to
him, should apply equally to the officials of a railroad
company. Greater dispatch of matter, and greater con-
Venience to the public, would in innumerable cases re-
sult from such a regulation.
10. The system, now existing in the postal service
of many European countries, under which reimburse-
ment to a limited amount is made for losses in the
mails, should be introduced, as a part of the system of
registration.
11. The pneumatic tube system, now existing in
London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, should be adopted
for use in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston
and St. Louis, as a part of the system for the special
delivery of letters.
12. There should be a better method of cancelling
the stamps on mail matter than that now in vogue.
Several plans to this end might be urged : for example,
the use of a cancelling ink which by chemical combi-
nation with that used in printing the stamps would
effect permanent discoloration ; or the use of an ink
for printing postage stamps which, while sufficiently
strong to resist the ordinary wear and tear to which the
stamps are subjected by their holders before use, would
yet be so yielding as to give way before such solvents
as would be necessary to remove the usual cancelling
marks ; or the use of a chemically prepared paper in
the making of postage stamps, such as would dis-
color when cancelling inks should be applied, or when
efforts should be made to remove the cancelling marks.
Under any circumstances, the color of the stamps
should be anti-photographic—that is, such a color or
colors as will prevent counterfeiting by the aid of pho-
tography; and in this event it might be cheaper and
better to print the stamps on an ordinary printing ma-
chine from electrotypes than from steel plates and by
the plate-printing process. The value to the govern-
ment of any good plan for preventing the counter-
feiting or the fraudulent reuse of postage stamps is
obvious.
13. The present system of postmarking letters
should be improved. Probably over 25 per cent. of all
the postmarks on letters mailed in the United States
are illegible, causing at times great annoyance and in-
convenience. An excellent plan has been suggested as
a partial remedy for this trouble : that of having vari-
ous outline forms of postmark—say a different form
for every State—which, if the name of the post-office
were indistinct, would assist in its identification.
14. At every place of considerable size—say at
every place of 10,000 inhabitants—the government
should own the post-office building; and these build-
ings should be erected and furnished with facilities
according to carefully considered plans made upon
consultation with postal experts. The result would be
an ultimate saving to the government in the item of
rent and the prevention of changes in the location of
the post-offices; while the transaction of postal busi-
ness would be expedited and rendered more accurate.
15. The method of ascertaining and fixing the com-
pensation of postmasters should be radically, changed;
for, as may be seen by any one who gives the subject
any consideration, the present plan, offers a constant
temptation to official dishonesty. The law authorizing
this method requires that at what are known as fourth-
class post-offices (constituting more than nineteen-
twentieths of all the offices) the compensation of post-
masters shall be made up mainly of commissions on
postage stamps cancelled, the amount of cancellation
at an office being ascertained quarter-yearly from the
postmaster's owfi returns, the verification of which by
the auditing office at Washington is simply impractic-
able ; at what are known as presidential offices the
compensation is fixed once a year, in even hundreds or
thousands of dollars, upon the basis of the gross
postal revenue, as reported by the postmasters them-
selves, the correctness of the reports, as in the case of
the fourth-class offices, it being impracticable for the
auditing office to determine. The schedule of salaries
at the presidential offices is as follows: Where the
gross receipts are $1900 and do not exceed $2100, the
compensation is $1000 per annum ; where the receipts
are $2100 and not over $2400, the compensation is
$1100 ; where the receipts are $2400 and not over
$2700, the compensation is $1200; and so on through
thirty grades, increasing $100 for each grade up to the
three highest, the pay of which is $4000 per annum
where the gross receipts of the office are $450,000 and
not over $500,000 ; $5000 where the gross receipts are
$500,000 and not over $600,000; and $6,000 where the
gross receipts are in excess of $600,000. Thus at
nearly 55,000 post-offices (the department never
knowing the amount of cancellation) the postmasters
practically determine their own compensation ; at every
one of the presidential offices, about 2200 in number,
the postmaster has it in his power, whenever the gross
receipts approach the maximum of the grade in which
for the time being his office is placed, to carry himself.
either by forced sales of stamps or false returns of
sales, over into a higher grade, and thus increase his
compensation. The temptation to do this is very
great, in view of the fact that a single dollar's increase
of gross revenue may make an increase in the post-
master's compensation of either $100 or $1000 accord-
ing to the grade he may happen to be in. The true
policy would seem to be fixed compensation for long
periods, or to be varied only when special examination
should show an increase to be proper. (M. D.)
POSTAL UNION, UNIVERSAL. This is the name
given to an association of nearly all the civilized nations
of the world, formed for the purpose of regulating in-
ternational postal intercourse. The credit of originating
this great union (which has been of inestimable ser-
vice to mankind), or rather of taking the first action
that may be said to have brought about its formation,
belongs to the government of the United States—the
idea having been first suggested in the early part of
1862, to the head of the Post-Office Department, by
Hon. John A. Kasson, then First Assistant Postmas-
ter-General. At his request the Postmaster-General,
Hon. Montgomery Blair, on Aug. 4, 1862, transmitted,
through the Department of State, to the government
of every country with which the United States had
diplomatic intercourse, a formal invitation to partici-
pate in a congress of nations, to assemble at some con-
venient place in Europe, and which should consider
the expediency of establishing a uniform classification
and standard of weight for international mail matter,
uniform rates of international postage, and uniform
systems for regulating the dispatch of matter between
the various countries of the world, the transit of mat-
ter from one country to another through the inter-
mediary of a third, the registration of matter, the
return of undelivered letters, and the transmission of
limited amounts of money by means of international
orders or drafts. Under this invitation a congress—
the first international postal congress that ever assem-
bled—convened at Paris on May 11, 1863, in which
there were distinguished representatives of the postal
administrations of Austria, Belgium, Costa Rica,
Denmark, France, Great Britain, the Hanseatic Cities,
Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, the Sand-
wich Islands, Spain, Switzerland, and the United
States. Mr. Kasson represented this country. The
utmost harmony and liberality of thought prevailed
at the sessions of this congress, and the interchange
of ideas and the discussion of principles and policy
POTASH.
241
gave a great impetus to postal progress. Thirty-one
articles of agreement were formally adopted, covering
all the propositions made by the United States, except
that relating to a money-order system, and establishing
principles that are still the basis of all international
postal business. The i. however, not being
of the nature of a formally ratified convention, did not
secure a perfect union, did not establish for it a fixed
duration, made no arrangements for future congresses,
and failed to provide for the adhesion of other nations.
The necessity for another congress, therefore, in a few
years became manifest; and accordingly, by general
consent of the nations represented in the first congress,
a second one assembled at Berne, Switzerland, Sept.
15, 1874, and on Oct. 9 agreed to a formal convention,
in which the defects of the former agreement Were
remedied, new provisions adopted, and a name—the
“General Postal Union”—given to the association.
The duration of the convention was to be not less than
three years from July 1, 1875, and the territory to
which it applied comprised the United States and the
whole of É. Asiatic Turkey, Asiatic Russia,
Egypt, Iceland and the Faroe Islands as a part of Den-
mark, the Balearic Islands, the Canaries, the Spanish
ossessions on the northern coast of Africa and the
§ anish postal establishments on the west coast of
Morocco as a part of Spain, Algeria as a part of
France, Malta as a part of Great Britain, and Madeira
and the Azores as a part of Portugal. On May 1,
1878, a third congress assembled at Paris, for the
urpose of revising and improving the system estab-
ished by the congress of Berne, and continued in
session until the 4th of the next month, when a new
convention was agreed upon, which was to go into
effect April 1, 1879, and was to endure for an indefinite
period. By this convention the name of the associa-
tion was changed to the “Universal Postal Union ''
by which name it is still known—and the extent of
its jurisdiction was greatly enlarged. On Feb. 4, 1885,
the fourth postal congress met at Lisbon, and adopted
a new convention, which went into effect on April 1,
1886, and which is now in force. The next congress
will assemble at Vienna in 1890, unless an earlier ses-
slon is found to be necessary.
The scope and aim of the Universal Postal Union
are vast and noble, and its work admirably executed.
It makes a single postal territory of nearly the whole
world, uniting all nations under a common idea, sub-
jecting them to the same laws, establishing them all
upon a footing of perfect equality, and making the
self-interest of each give way before the interest of
all. In a word, its conspicuous purpose is the good
of mankind. The subjects covered by the Convention
of the Postal Union are the classification of mail mat-
ter, the rates of postage, the transit of matter between
the several countries of the Union, direct and through
intermediaries, the charges to be made for such inter-
mediary transit and the manner of their settlement,
the reforwarding and return of mail matter, the reg-
istration of matter and the charges therefor, a system
of indemnifying the owners of mail matter that may
be lost, the collection of unpaid postage, and a system
for the transmission of letters of declared values.
Under it an International Bureau is maintained at
Berne, in the Republic of Switzerland, through which,
under established rules, correspondence is carried on
between the several countries of the Union, relative to
its general business, to the settlement of disagreements
between two or more countries, to the tabulation and
Fº of statistics, to the admission of new mem-
ers to the Union, to proposed changes during the in-
tervals between the congresses, and to all other mat-
ters that may be of interesu or benefit to the postal
world. The rates of international postage as now fixed
by the convention are as follows: Letters, 5 cents a
half ounce if prepaid, and double this rate (to be col-
lected on delivery of the matter) if not prepaid.
Postal cards, 2 cents each. Printed matter, commercial
papers, and samples of merchandise, 1 cent for each
two ounces if prepaid, and double this rate if not pre-
aid. *
The Postal Union now comprises the following-
named countries: The Argentine Republic, Austria-
Hungary, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, British India,
Bulgaria, Canada, Chili, Colombia, the Independent
State of Congo, Costa Rica, Denmark, and Danish
colonies, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, France
and French colonies, Germany, Great Britain and
British colonies (except the Australian and other
Oceanian colonies), Greece, Guatemala, Hayfi, Ha-
waiian Islands, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Liberia:
Luxembourg, Mexico, Montenegro, Netherlands and
Netherlands colonies, Nicaragua, Norway, Paraguay,
Persia, Peru, Portugal and Portuguese colonies, Rou-
mania, Russia, Salvador, Servia, Siam, South-west
Africa, Spain and Spanish colonies, Sweden, Switzer-
land, Tunis, Turkey, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
For further information concerning the Postal Union, see
Reports of Postmaster-General of the United States for 1862,
1863, 1874, 1875, 1878, and 1885; also the files of L' Union.
Postale, the official organ of the International Bureau at
Berne, and Documents du Congrès Postal de Lisbonne
(Berne, 1885), and to similar documents of the Congresses
of Paris and Berne, published in 1874 and 1878. (M. D.)
POTASH.-The hydrated oxide of potassium, or
& v r caustic potash (K,OH,0, or, as given
*..." sº by many chemists, KHO), was not
Km. #. º known as a separate substance till 1739,
in which year its distinction from Soda,
which it resembles in general properties, was first rec-
ognized. In its pure state it is one of the most power-
ful basic substances known, and is largely employed in
the decomposition of saline substances, whose acid
combines with the potash. As existing in nature it is
of the utmost importance to the growth of plants. It
is prepared from the carbonate by boiling with lime,
which seizes the carbonic acid and leaves the hydrate
in solution. Its most important sources are the potash
minerals, earnellite and sylaite, which exist abundantly
in the salt mines of Stassfurt, Germany. In a single
locality in these mines there is a mass of carnellite
equivalent to 6,000,000 tons of chlorate of potassium.
Ordinary commercial potash consists of the crude car-
bonate and hydrate, and is chiefly obtained from wood-
ashes, which contain it in abundance. The method
pursued in America is to burn large heaps of wood to
ashes. These are then placed in tubs made from bar-
rels sawn in half, and with perforated false bottoms.
About 5 per cent. of lime is added, and the ashes are
leached by successive applications of water, each of
which is allowed to stand for an hour or two. The
water is then drawn off from the bottom, the first
draining being taken to the evaporating pans, while
the succeeding portions are kept to use on fresh ashes.
Broad, shallow iron pans are used in which the liquid
is boiled till it becomes syrupy. It grows solid on
cooling. The substance thus obtained is intensely
alkaline. When purified by heat, which drives off the
sulphur and some other impurities, it becomes of a
white, bluish, or pearly cast, and is known as pearlash.
The lime used in its preparation acts to decompose the
sulphate of potash, which forms one of the salts of the
ashes, and frees the potash.
The growing scarcity of wood has greatly decreased
the production of potash in this manner, as has also
the competition of foreign potash made from the beet-
root sugar waste and from the Stassfurt minerals. In
1880 the American product was 4,571,671 lbs., valued
at $232,643. Potash is a constituent of the abundant
mineral felspar, which, however, holds it with such
powerful affinity that it cannot be separated with suf-
ficient cheapness. It also exists to the amount of 10
or 12 per cent. in the mineral glauconite of the cre-
taceous or greensand deposits of New Jersey. This is
more easily decomposed then felspar, and is capable of
242
POTATO-POTTSVILLE.
yielding immense quantities of potash. The greater
cheapness of soda has enabled it to replace potash in
most cases where an alkali is needed, but a steady de-
mand exists for potash from its special adaptation to
certain uses. Its principal uses are in the manufacture
of soft-soap and of several important salts of potas-
sium. It is also used in the manufacture of glass;
some of the best and most costly glasses now made,
such as Bohemian white and English flint, being pot:
ash glasses. In its pure state potash is sometimes
used in sticks and pencils as a cauterizing agent. (C.M.)
POTATO. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. v., 2.
POTATO BEETLE. See Color:ADo PotATO
BEETLE.
POTT, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1802–1887), a Ger-
man philologist, was born at Nettelrede, Hanover,
Nov. 14, 1802. Early left an orphan, he was educated
at Hanover and studied philology at Göttingen. In
1825 he began to teach at Celle, and two years later re-
ceived the degree of Ph. D. from the University of
Göttingen. In 1829 he went to Berlin, resolved to de-
vote himself to comparative philology, and became
associated with Franz Bopp, the pioneer in that de-
partment. In 1831 he was a privat-docent at the Uni-
versity of Berlin, and in 1833 was made professor of
comparative philology in the University of Halle. His
reputation was firmly established by his Etymologische
Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen
Sprachen (2 vols., 1833–36), which work, joined with
the labors of Bopp in comparative grammar, intro-
duced a new era in the study of language. Pott con-
tinued to revise and enlarge this work, so that it finally
occupied eight volumes (1859–76), while he issued
numerous volumes and essays on philological subjects.
A curious by-product of his labors was his essay, Die
Zigeuner in Europt und Asien (2 vols., 1845), in which
he proved that the language of the Gypsies had origin-
ated in India. This work obtained the Volney prize
from the French Academy. Other treatises of his re-
late to the systems of numeration by fives and twen-
ties, to personal and family names, and to the origin
of language and of the races of men. He edited Wil-
helm von Humboldt's essay, Ueber die Verschiedenheiten
des menschlichen Sprachbaues, with an introduction
(2 vols., 1876). He held his professorship for fifty-
four years, meantime receiving marks of honor for his
profound learning.
!e mérite for science and art was awarded to him in
1886. In 1877 he celebrated the jubilee of his taking
the doctor's degree, and in 1883 that of his entrance
on his professorship. His literary activity was con-
tinued until the last. He died at Halle, May 3, 1887.
His valuable library was purchased for the University
of Pennsylvania.
POTTAWATTAMIES, a tribe of American In-
dians of the Algonquin family, were found by the
French explorers in the lower peninsula of Michigan.
They were scattered about in small bands, living by
hunting and fishing, though they raised a little maize.
The Iroquois drove them westward to Green Bay,
where the French established a mission among them.
By the favor of the French they increased and greatly
extended their territory. They joined in Pontiac's
conspiracy in 1763, but during the Revolution favored
the English, and annoyed the western settlements.
Their head-quarters were then on St. Joseph's River,
Mich. They were included in the treaty of 1795 with
Gen. Wayne, and afterwards ceded various tracts of
land. Under the influence of Tecumseh they joined
the British in the war of 1812, and after its close were
obliged to give up their lands. In 1838 they num-
bered 4000, many of them being Catholics. Eventually
the greater number settled in Kansas, but in the sub-
sequent troubles of that region they suffered severely.
By the treaty of 1862 they were permitted to hold
lands in severalty, but the civil war produced delay in
carrying out its provisions. In 1867 two-thirds ac-
cepted its terms, but its results were not uniform.
The knighthood of the order pour
While some persons prospered others became paupers.
The Prairie band, which i. always been less docile,
was placed on a reservation in Kansas under the care
of the Society of Friends. It contains 77,358 acres
of which 30,900 are tillable, but only 3300 cultivated
in 1887. The census then taken showed 474 on the
reservation, and about 300 scattered in the States.
The Citizens' band are mixed bloods of French descent,
who live on the Sac and Fox reservation. They num-
bered 418 in 1887, lived in houses and cultivated small
farms. A Catholic mission school has accommodations
for 100 scholars, but is not well attended.
POTTER, ALONZO. (1800–1865), bishop of the
American Episcopal Church, was born at La Grange,
Duchess co., N. W. July 10, 1800. After graduating
at Union College in 1818 he was a tutor there and pro-
fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy until
1826. In the meantime he had taken orders in the
Episcopal Church in 1822, and was elected president
of Geneva College in 1825. He declined this post,
but accepted a call to St. Paul's Church, Boston, in
1826. In August, 1831, he returned to Union Col-
lege as professor of rhetoric and natural philosophy.
He married the only daughter of Rev. Eliphalet Nott,
D. D., president of the college. In 1845 he was chosen
and consecrated bishop of Pennsylvania. In this
office he was energetic in his promotion of church
work; he assisted in founding the Protestant Episco-
pal Hospital and the Divinity School at Philadelphia.
The increase of the church necessitated the appoint:
ment of an assistant, and afterwards the division of
the diocese. But before this was accomplished Bishop
Potter died July 4, 1865, at San Francisco, whither he
had gone on a visit. While engaged in teaching he
bublished Political Economy (1841), and other text-
ooks. In later years besides editing Lectures on the
Evidence of Christianity (1855) he published a Hand-
book for Readers and Students (1847), a volume of
Discourses and Charges (1858), and Religious Phi-
losophy (1853). Bishop Howe has edited his Life
1871).
POTTER, HoRATIO (1802–1887), brother of the
preceding and bishop of New York, was born at Beek-
man, N. Y., Feb. 9, 1802. He graduated at Union
College in 1820, and became rector at Saco, Me., in
1828. In 1833 he was called to St. Peter's Church,
Albany, and in 1854 he was made provisional bishop
of New York. He became bishop in 1861 and dis-
charged the duties of his office until October, 1883,
when his nephew, HENRY CODMAN POTTER (b. 1835),
was made assistant bishop. Bishop Horatio Potter
thenceforth lived in retirement until his death, Jan.
2, 1887. His publications were sermons and charges.
The present bishop has published Sisterhoods and
Deaconesses (1871); Gates of the East, a book of travels
(1876); Sermons of the City (1881).
POTTSTOWN, a borough of Pennsylvania, in
Montgomery co., is on the shiki River, at the
mouth of Manatawny Creek, 40 miles W. N. W. of
|Philadelphia, with which it has connection by two
railroads. It has 2 banks, 14 churches, a seminary for
young ladies, an academy for boys, public schools, 2
daily and 2 weekly newspapers. The industrial works
comprise iron-foundries, blast-furnaces, rolling-mills,
nail-factories, and car-works. The population in 1880
was 5305.
POTTSVILLE, a city of Pennsylvania, county-seat
of Schuylkill co., is on the Schuylkill River, at the
mouth of Norwegian Creek, 93 miles N. W. of Phila-
delphia. It is the northern terminus of the Phila-
delphia and Reading Railroad, and from it branches
extend to Tamaqua, Harrisburg, and other places. It
is built on the side of steep hills. It has a court-house,
town-hall, 3 national banks, 7 other banks, 20 churches,
a high-school and other schools, 3 daily and 6 weekl
papers, some of which are German. It is the i.
quarters of the anthracite coal trade (see COAL, Vol
II.). It has several rolling-mills, iron-furnaces, foun-
POUGHREEPSIE—POWDERLY.
243
dries, machine-shops, saw- and planing-mills. In 1880
it had 13,253 inhabitants.
POUGHKEEPSIE, or PokEEPSIE, a city of New
York, the seat of Duchess co., is on the E. bank of
the Hudson River, 81 miles N. of New York city,
and 70 miles S. of Albany. It is on the New York
Central and Hudson River Railroad, and a ferry con-
nects it with Highland Station on the West Shore
Railroad. The New York and Massachusetts Railroad
also runs from Poughkeepsie 42 miles to Boston Cor-
ners where it connects with other roads. Poughkeepsie
has the county buildings and offices, city library,
the U. S. Government building, an opera-house, Vas-
sar Institute, Vassar Home for Aged Men, Home
for the Friendless, St. Barnabas Hospital, Old Ladies'
Home, and Eastman Business College. Just beyond
the eastern city limit is WASSAR COLLEGE (q. v.), a
noted institution for women. It was founded in 1865
and liberally endowed by Matthew Vassar, to whose
generosity the city owes also other institutions. Two
miles north of the city is the Hudson River State
Hospital for the Insane, erected in 1871, and costing
$750,000. Poughkeepsie has 6 national banks, 1 Sav-
ings bank, 3 large hotels, 18 churches, 12 public school
buildings, 3 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, besides
several periodicals. It has a blast-furnace, rolling-mill,
and several breweries. The manufactures comprise
silk, boots and shoes, clothing, carriages, iron-ware,
etc. The town was settled by the Dutch about 1680.
In 1778 the State Legislature met here, and in 1788
the New York Convention here ratified the Federal
Constitution. Poughkeepsie was incorporated as a
city in 1854. It is on a plateau about 200 feet above
the river and is sheltered on the east by high hills.
It is laid out with wide streets crossing at right angles.
Main street, which extends eastward from the river, is
about two miles long. The population in 1880 was
20,207.
The Poughkeepsie Railroad bridge was commenced
in 1873, by a company which had obtained from the
Legislature a charter, which permitted it to place four
piers in the channel of the river. The work was in-
terrupted and remained in a very incomplete state
until 1886, when it was resumed and pushed forward that
the bridge might be opened for traffic in 1889. The
bridge is 3094 feet in length from anchorage to anchor-
age, and the approaches consist of a viaduct of about
3000 feet in length on the east side and about 1000
feet on the west, making the whole about 7100 feet.
The bridge proper rests on 6 piers, 1 on either
shore and 4 in the channel. The river piers are car-
Tied down to depths of from 125 to 135 feet below the
surface. In order to secure a solid foundation open
caissons of timber were built 60 feet wide by 100 long,
Nº. by “pockets '' filled with concrete, and sunk
by dredging through the open spaces, 12 in number in
each caisson. This method, never before used on a
large scale, proved entirely successful, the caissons
having been sunk by pneumatic caissons, such as were
used in the St. Louis and Brooklyn bridges, and with
much less danger and expense. As the caissons were
sunk they were built up by additions to the top, so that
the lower edges rest upon the solid stratum underlying
the mud and silt at the bottom of the river. The tops
of the caissons are about 20 feet below the surface.
The open spaces were then filled with concrete, the
top levelled and a solid platform of timber placed upon
it, and the masonry built on this. The masonry piers,
which are all that show above the water, are S0 feet
long each by 25 wide, the length being in the direction
of the current, and they are built up to a height of 30
feet above the surface. Upon the piers are erected
steel towers 100 feet high, making the height from
he water to the under side of the trusses 130 feet.
There are 2 rectangular steel truss spans, each of 525
feet and 80 feet high. The 3 other spans are canti-
levers, the cantilever arms being 160 feet each and the
connecting trusses 212 feet; the height of the connect-
ing trusses is 162 feet from the water surface, and the
height of the rail on the top 212 feet. The cantilevers
extending from the river piers are counterbalanced by
the rectangular trusses, and those on the shore piers
by inshore arms, each 200 feet long, attached to the
anchorages. About 15,000 tons of steel and over 6000
tons of iron were used. The bridge is calculated to
hold with entire safety 2 continuous trains of 85-ton
locomotives, covering the whole length of both tracks.
the ultimate strength of materials being equal to 5
times this strain. The bridge is intended to furnish
a short route between the anthracite coal regions of
Pennsylvania and the manufactories of New England.
(F. G. M.)
POUJOULAT, JEAN Joseph FRANÇOIS (1800–
1880) French historian, was born at Fare, Jan. 26, 1800.
He was educated at Aix and went to Paris in 1826,
where he joined Michaud in preparing the History of
the Crusades. Together they visited the East and
explored especially Syria. These travels were reported
in their Correspondance d' Orient (7 vols., 1833–35),
to which Poujoulat added a romance, La Bedouine (2
vols., 1835), which was crowned by the Academy. The
two historians published also a valuable collection of
documents relating to French history from the thirteenth
to the end of the eighteenth century (32 vols., 1836–38).
A joint visit to Italy gave opportunity for another
volume of correspondence, Toscane et Rome (1839).
After the death of Michaud, Poujoulat issued a new
edition of his History with a preliminary sketch of his
life (6 vols., 1840–48). For the remaining half of his
life Poujoulat labored alone but with undiminished
activity. Among his works are Histoire de Jérusalem
(2 vols., 1841–42); Histoire de Saint Augustin (3 vols.,
1844), which also was crowned by the Academy; Voyage
en Algérie (2 vols., 1846); Histoire de la Revolution
française (2 vols., 1847); Histoire de France depuis
1814 (4 vols., 1865–67); biographies of Cardinal Maury,
Archbishop Sibour, Father Ravignan, and various col-
lections of essays, literary and political. In 1848
Poujoulat was elected to the Constituent Assembly,
and afterwards to the Legislative Assembly, in
which he took part with the Right, or conservative
party. Under the Empire he was engaged only in
literary work, though he published some pamphlets
on the clerical side of controverted questions. One of
his latest publications was Les Folies de ce temps em.
ºr. de religion (1877). He died at Paris, Jan. 5,
1880.
POULTRY, See Fowl.
POURTALES, Louis FRANÇors DE, Count (1833–
1880), naturalist, was born at Neufchatel, Switzerland,
March 4, 1833. He was educated as a civil-engineer
and followed Prof. Louis Agassiz to America. He
served in the U. S. Coast Survey and obtained a high
reputation by his papers on the physical geography of
the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf Stream. He was also
associated with Agassiz in the study of natural history,
and in 1873 succeeded him as keeper of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass. He
died at Beverly, Mass., July 20, 1880.
POWDERLY, TERENCE VINCENT, labor-organizer,
was born at Carbondale, Pa., Jan. 22, 1849. His
parents were Irish Catholic immigrants and had nine
children. After attending school six years, Terence
at the age of 13 began to work on a railroad; at 17 he
entered a machine-shop and at 19 removed to Scranton,
where he became a member of the Machinists' and
Blacksmiths' Union. He was soon made secretary of
the union, and so remained till 1880. In 1873, being
discharged on account of his connection with this
union, he sought employment in Ohio and at Oil City.
He was delegate to the International Union at Louis-
ville in September, 1874, and organized assemblies of
the Industrial Brotherhood near Pittsburg. Return-
ing to Scranton he joined the Knights of Labor, and
was made secretary of the District Assembly. He was
then foreman in locomotive works. The Greenback-
244
TOWELL–PRAIRIE.
Labor party enlisted his energies and being nominated
by it for mayor of Scranton in 1877 he was elected by
531 majority. He was re-elected in 1878, but declined
a third term in 1879 when he was made General
Master Workman of the Knights of Labor at their
Convention in Chicago. In 1881 he urged upon the
Knights the abolition of the oaths and the removal
of the obligation of secrecy, which was finally accom-
tºº, In 1886 the Knights had 160 District Assem-
lies, 9000 districts, and 730,000 members; butat the
convention at Indianapolis in November, 1888, their
total was admitted to be less than 500,000. The con-
stitution adopted in 1878 has been revised at nearly
every annual meeting, but Mr. Powderly has been
steadily re-elected, although his health has been im-
paired by devotion to his work. There has been con-
siderable opposition to his policy within the order ; the
disaffected elements have, however, been steadily over-
ruled, and many have withdrawn on this account.
POWELL, BADEN (1796–1860), an English natural
philosopher, was born at Stamford Hill, near London,
Aug. 22, 1796. He graduated at Oriel College, Ox-
foºd. in 1817, and became Savilian professor of geom-
etry at Oxford in 1827. For many years he was one
of a small band at Oxford who kept alive the study
of physical sciences when they were regarded with
little favor. In 1850, as a member of the Oxford
University Commission, he assisted in introducing
some modifications which gave those Sciences a recog-
nized place in the system of study. He died at London,
June 11, 1860. Besides purely scientific treatises he
wrote chiefly on the connection between natural Science
and theology. His principal works are Historical View
of the Physical and Mathematical Sciences (1834);
onnection of Natural and Divine Truth (1838);
Christianity without Judaism (1857); The Order of
Nature considered in Reference to the Claims of Rev-
elation (1859). To the Essays and Reviews (1860)
he contributed an essay “On the Study of the Evi-
dences of Christianity.”
POWELL, John WESLEY, geologist and anthro-
pologist, was born at Mt. Morris, N. Y., March 24,
i834. The son of a Methodist preacher, he was in
early life taken to Wisconsin and Illinois, where he
received a common school education and became a
teacher. Being also an ardent student of natural his;
tory, he gathered specimens for many institutions of
learning. Meantime he pursued for two years a special
course at Oberlin College, Ohio. In his scientific ex-
cursions he descended the Mississippi River in a skiff,
and the Ohio in a rowboat. In 1861 he entered the
Union army as a private but soon rose to a captaincy.
At the battle of Shiloh he lost his right arm, but on
his recovery went to the front and was engaged in the
Vicksburg and Atlanta campaigns, becoming major of
artillery. In 1865 he was made professor of ſºlº
in the Wesleyan University, Bloomington, Ill., but
this position was soon exchanged for a similar one in
the Illinois Normal University. In connection with
his college work he undertook in 1867 a scientific. ex:
ploration of Colorado Territory. This work obtained
the attention of the national government, and in 1870
under the authority of Congress he was engaged, to
explore the region of the Colorado River and its tribu-
taries. During these investigations he became inter;
ested in the ancient cities of the Moquis and entered
upon ethnological reserches, which have greatly affected
his subsequent career. In 1879 when the various gov-
ernment surveys of the Territories were consolidated,
as he had advised, Major Powell was made director
of the bureau of ethnology. In 1881 he became director
of the U. S. Geologicaſ Survey. This work he has
greatly enlarged and thoroughly classified, originating
plans for its prosecution, and ºpploying experts where
their services were most valuable. Among his reports
are Exploration of the Colorado River (1874); Geology
of the Uinta Mountains (1876); Lands ºf the Arid
egion of the United States (1879); Method of Sur-
veying the Public Domain ; Organization and Plan
of the U. S. Geological Survey. The Reports of the
Bureau of Ethnology include Contributions to North
American Ethnology, Outlines of the Philosophy of the
N. A. Indians. Other contributions to anthropology
are an address on Mythologic Philosophy (1875) and
Wyandotte Government, a study of tribal society.
Maj. Powell has been president of the Anthropo-
logical Society of Washington since its organization in
1879, and as such has delivered addresses on Outlines
of Sociology (1882); Philosophic Bearings of Darwin-
ism (1883); Three Methods of Evolution (1884); Human
Evolution (1884); From Savagery to Barbarism (1885);
From Barbarism to Civilization (1886); Evolution of
Civilized Mam (1888). Major Powell in 1886 received
the degree of Ph.D. from Heidelberg University, Ger-
many, and of LL.D from Harvard University. In 1887
he was chosen president of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science.
PRAIRIE. This term in the French language sig-
nifies “a meadow,” and takes its derivation from a
mediaeval Latin prataria, a variant of the classical
Latin pratum, “a field.” Its application as the name
of an extended plain dates from the planting of the
early French settlements in the Mississippi Valley, a
large part of whose floor is of a true prairie formation.
There is some looseness about the use of the name.
In general, a prairie is supposed to be treeless, at least
by nature; but in some of the Southern States a flat
region of a forest-character is called a “timbered
prairie ;” while a treeless plain of the same district is
called a “bald prairie.” So in the Gulf States there
are what are called prairies tremblantes, or “ quaking
prairies,” the surface of which shakes beneath the tread
of a person crossing them. Here the tough sward may
support herds of cattle, and the unstable plain may
even be crossed by lines of railway ; yet it would seem
that the strata beneath must be of a semi-liquid char-
acter. But the true and representative prairies are the
great plains of the upper half of the Mississippi Valley,
with their extensions northward into Canadian territory,
and south-westward to the Gulf and the Rio Grande.
It is usual to discriminate between the prairies and the
upper plains which skirt the eastern flank of the Rocky
ountains; yet the distinction is in the main arbitrary,
for no line of demarkation can be drawn between the
prairies and the high sub-Alpine plain. It is certain
that very considerable areas of the great prairie-region
at one time (and that not very remote, from a geologi-
cal point of viº were lake-beds, or were the basins of
shallow seas. This is proved by abundant and highly
characteristic fossil remains. It is possible that, as
more than one geologist has asserted, the peculiar fine-
ness of the slowly deposited silt, which has now become
a soil, is unfavorable to tree-growth. Another view,
and a very reasonable one, is, that the prevalence
of great annual prairie-fires, which, in the dense
foggage which covers the natural prairie, burn with
great intensity, has done much to repress forest growth.
Certain it is that almost the only native arboreal growth
(and that of few species) is to be found along the water-
courses. But at present the prairie fires are limited in
range and intensity ; and almost everywhere belts of
young native or self-planted forest are seen springing
up, especially in those regions where the rainfall is
considerable. Besides this, in no other part of the
United States has the planting of forest trees been
undertaken upon so large a scale as in the prairie-
regions west of the Mississippi, arboriculture having
been stimulated by State and Fº legislation. But
the final success of much of this tree-planting is still
undecided. It is possible that some drought of excep-
tional length and severity may yet give a great check
to this matter of tree-planting. The climate of the
prairie-regions, especially towards the mountains on the
west, has its drawbacks, such as the tremendous vio-
lence of the winds, the scanty rainfall, and the occa-
sional intensity of the winter's cold.
PRAYER—PRENTISS.
245
As to whether the dryness of the climate is being
lessened , by tree-planting and agriculture, opinions
differ widely. But the weight of scientific opinion
is certainly against the idea that the planting of trees
will very materially increase the fall of rain, although
the popular view asserts that such an increase has
already taken place. That trees by shading the
soil make the process of evaporation a slow one is
certain. The extension of agriculture also makes the
soil more permeable by rains, and thus stores up moist-
ure in it, and the introduction of great systems of irri-
gation-canals, such as may be seen in Colorado, tends
to a similar result.
A comparatively limited part of the true prairie-
region is of a dead-level character, though such tracts
are not unknown. But most of the prairies have a
'' rolling’’ or wavy surface, broken in some parts by
‘' sloughs’’ or muddy depressions; in others by coulées,
or dried-up water-courses, which somewhat resemble
the wadies of Arabia. Elsewhere there are low ridges
of Sandy or flinty nature, and even considerable areas
of soft and wind-worn rock, with deep “draws” or
ravines, which furnish good winter harborage for
cattle. But these are exceptional.
The prairies are the great grazing region of the
United States, The varieties of their grasses are fully
described in Section III. of the article on FoRAGE
CROPS. Two of their most remarkable animals are
fully described under ANTELOPE, AMERICAN (also called
Pronghorn) and BISONs (commonly called Buffalo).
See also GoPHER, etc. (C. W. G.)
PRAYER. Man has always looked up to a su-
perior power, and has sought its favor or deprecated
its anger. That power might be considered as resident
in one God or in many gods, but the most barbarous
nations have recognized the power and bowed before
it. That communication could be had with the divine
power was instinctive in the race, and some form of
Worship (however crude) marked every community.
Part of that worship was prayer, the speaking of the
worshipper to the deity. It took the form of doxology
or supplication, and was generally accompanied with
Sacrificial rites.
Revelation has made this instinctive principle a clear
privilege and duty, and has exhibited its i.
connection with man's position before §. It is thus
shown to be the expression of the heart's faith, receiv-
ing all its value from the truth of that faith, that it
is not a mere form of words, nor a mere external
ritual, but a spiritual action, and that all approaches
to God without the interest of the heart are abhorrent
to him. Our Lord, in teaching his disciples to pray,
gave as the subjects of prayer God's glory upon the
earth and our own supply, forgiveness and deliverance
from sin. Under the ſº of our own supply earthly
blessings may be considered as appropriate subjects of
prayer, but the large preponderance of the other pe-
titions clearly show that earthiy blessings should be
held in subordination to the spiritual wants of the soul
and the world.
Warrant may be found in the Holy Scriptures for
either extemporaneous or prepared prayer in public
worship. The prayer offered by the church for Peter
When he had been seized by Herod (Acts xii. 5) was
eertainly extemporaneous, while the prayer offered by
the church on the deliverance of Peter and John (Acts
iv. 24) must have been prepared and learned, or at
least uttered by a leader and repeated by the assembly.
In no other way can we explain the words “they
lifted up their voice to God with one accord and said.”
.The Christian church has used liturgies in all her
history, but not to the exclusion of extemporaneous
prayer. (H. C.)
PREBLE, EDWARD (1761–1807), commodore, was
born on the present site of Portland, Me., Aug. 15,
1761. His father, Jedidiah Preble (1707–84), was an
early settler of that place, a brigadier-general in col-
port of Tripoli.
onial times, and afterwards a judge and State senator
of Massachusetts. Early in the Revolutionary war
Edward had sailed in a privateer, and in 1779 he en-
tered the Massachusetts navy as a midshipman. In
the Penobscot expedition he was captured and was
confined in the Jersey prisonship at New York. After
his liberation he gained distinction by his daring cap-
ture of a British brig at Castine, Me. Peace being de-
clared he entered the merchant servant, but in 1799,
when the navy was reorganized, he was made lieuten-
ant. Soon promoted captain, he had command of the
frigate Essex (36 guns) sent to protect American com-
merce in the East Indies. In 1803 he was assigned to
the command of the fleet sent against Tripoli. Arriv-
ing at Tangiers in October he succeeded in averting a
war with Morocco. In November he blockaded the
Here lay the captured ship Philadel-
phia, which was destroyed by the gallant Decatur Feb.
16, 1804. In August Com. Preble Degan a series of
attacks on the Tripolitan galleys and gunboats, which
were protected by batteries on the shore. Though he
inflicted much damage his own losses were serious, and
on Sept. 4 a powder-ship intended to destroy the
enemy's fleet was blown up by a shot from the shore.
On Sept. 10 Com. Preble was relieved by Com. Bar-
ron and returned to the United States. He died at
Portland Aug. 25, 1807.
His nephew, GEORGE HENRY PREBLE (1816–1885),
rear-admiral, was the son of Capt. Enoch Preble, and
was born Feb. 25, 1816. He entered the U. S. navy
in 1835, served in the Seminole war in 1841, and on
the coast of Mexico in 1847. While commanding the
sloop Macedonian in 1854 he was sent to punish the
Chinese pirates, and in July and August, 1855, he de-
stroyed five of their junks. During the civil war he
was engaged in the blockade of the Gulf coast, assisted
in the capture of New Orleans, and from 1863 took
part in the South Atlantic blockade, sometimes also
fighting on shore. He attained the rank of rear-ad-
miral. He died at Brooklyn, Mass., March, 1885.
His publications were a Genealogy of the Preble Family
(1868); History of the American F/ag (1872; after.
Wards enlarged; last ed., 1883); and a History of Steam.
Mavigation (1884). He contributed the article on
FLAG, AMERICAN, to this work.
His cousin, WILLIAM PITT PREBLE (1783–1857),
Was a leader of the Democratic party in Maine, and in
fluential in framing the State constitution in Islg.
On the organization of the State government in 1820
he was made a judge of its Supreme Court, and in
1829 he went as U. S. minister to the Netherlands.
PRENTICE, GEORGE DENIson (1802–1870), jour-
nalist, was born at Preston, Conn., Dee, 1s, isog. He
Was educated at Brown University, trained for the
law, but, destined to be a newspaper editor in 183s
he established a literary paper at Hartford, Conn., in
Which many of his own poems, serious and sentimen.
tal, appeared. In 1830 }. removed to Louisville, Ky.,
and became editor of the Journal, with which his
nºme, is constantly associated. His bright wit and
sparkling paragraphs made the paper a daily favorite
with the people. It formed a connecting link between
the poetical, aristocratic South and the practical, pro-
§essive West. Prentice was a gallant Supporter of
Henry Clay, and a firm opponent of secession. When
the civil War came his paper, like the State in which
he presided, suffered severely. In his later years he
gave \p the ownership of the Journal, though he still
ºntributed to its columns. He died at fouisvili.
Jan. 22, 1879. From his writings was collected P.
ºna, or Wit and Humor in Paragraphs (isºo).
His poems were nºver collected in a volume, though
Spººns, may be found in various works. *-
PRENTISS, GEORGE LEwis, Presbyterian minis.
ter, was born at Gorham, Me.. May ig, 1s16. He
§raduated at Bºwdoin College in TS35, and studiº
theology at the Universities of Halle and Berlin. He
Was, Pastor of a Congregational church at New Bed.
ford, 1845-51, and of a Presbyterian church in New
246
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH-PRESCOTT.
York city, 1851–58. He then resigned on account of
ill health, and spent two years in Europe. After his
return he was pastor of the Church of the Covenant,
New York, until 1873, when he became professor of
pastoral theology in Union Theological Seminary. Be-
sides sermons he has published memoirs of his brother
and his wife. *
His wife, ELIZABETH PAYSON PRENTIss (1818–
1878), was the daughter of Rev. Edward Payson (q.v.),
and exhibited the same amiable disposition and fer-
vent piety. She was born at Portland, Maine, Oct.
26, 1818, and in early life was a teacher. She was
married in 1845, and after the early death of her chil-
dren began to write for publication. After some books
for children, she gained a wider circle of readers by
Fred, Maria and Me (1868). But the most marked
product of her pen was Stepping Heavenward (1869),
which has been translated into several languages. Her
other books were Home at Greylock (1876); Penna-
quid (1877). She died at Dorset, Vt., Aug. 13, 1878.
His brother, SERGEANT SMITH PRENTISS (1808–
1850), noted as an orator, was born at Portland, Me.,
Sept. 30, 1808. After graduating at Bowdoin College
in 1826, he went to Mississippi as a teacher, and there
studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1829.
His eloquence gave him success from the start. In
1832 he moved to Wicksburg and won a suit involving
title to the most valuable part of the city. The ground
which he obtained as his fee made him one of the
wealthiest men of Mississippi. He was elected to
the State Legislature in 1835, and was Whig candidate
for Congress in 1837. His rival, Col. Claiborne, ob-
tained the certificate of election, but Prentiss carried
the contest to Washington, and in support of his claim
delivered a remarkable speech before the House of
Representatives. By the casting vote of the Speaker,
James K. Polk, the case was decided against him.
Prentiss then returned to Mississippi and entered upon
an earnest canvass, after which he was returned to
the House by an overwhelming vote. He was, how-
ever, embarrassed by the financial troubles of 1837,
and served but one term in Congress. After Missis:
sippi repudiated her State bonds, Prentiss, who had
earnestly opposed this action, removed to New Orleans
in 1845. There he was leader of the bar, and promi-
nent in philanthropic work. He died at Longwood,
near Natchez, July 1, 1850. See Memoir of Sergeant
S. Prentiss, by his brother (2 vols., 1855; new ed.,
1879).
#Esbyterian CHURCH. The ENCYCLO-
y- PAEDIA BRITANNICA gives not only a
See Vol. Xº, full statement of the system of Christian
Kºłº º * faith and church government known as
Ann. Ivep.). Presbyterianism, and a history of its
progress in Europe, but also an excellent sketch of its
introduction and growth in America. The latter part
of the article was prepared by Prof. Charles A. Briggs,
D.D., and needs only such additions as may bring its
statements down to the present time. -
“The Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America” is the official title of the largest body hold-
ing this system of church government. Its present or-
ganization dates from Nov. 12, 1869, when the twº
bodies which had been known as the “Old School”
and “New School”, since 1837 accepted, a plan of
union “on the doctrinal and ecclesiastical basis of our
common standards.” This reunion was the outcome of
fraternal feeling, revived and nurtured by joint, evan-
gelistic labors during the civil War, especially in the
work of the U. S. Christian Commission (q.v.). The
strength and tendency of this feeling were plainly ºx-
hibited at St. Louis in 1866, where the two Assemblies
participated in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
}. iséï a further step was taken when a national Pres-
byterian convention was held in Philadelphia, ºver
which Mr. George H. Stuart (q.v.), who had been
president of the U. S. Christian Commissions Wils called
to preside. Although this convention failed of its
grander purpose—the organic union of all American
Presbyterians—it was the first practical movement to-
wards the reunion accomplished two years later. The
outcome of the friendly discussions of the joint con-
yention needed only to be formulated to be accepted
by the churches at large. When this was accomplished
the popular rejoicing over the reunion was manifested
in raising a memorial fund amounting to $7,883,984.
This . was chiefly expended in paying church debts
and building new churches. In 1871 the Assembly,
under the leadership of Rev. Dr. James McCosh, un-
dertook a scheme of ministerial sustentation for the
purpose of increasing the salaries of pastors to $1000
per annum, but in a few years this work was trans-
ferred to the Board of Home Missions. A committee
on Systematic Beneficence was appointed in 1879, and
a committee on Temperance in 1881. A Board of Aid
for colleges and academies was established in 1883. The
other Boards through which most of the benevolent
and missionary work of the church is transacted are
of older date, as follows: Board of Home Missions,
organized in 1816; Education, 1819; Foreign Missions,
1837; Publication, 1838; Church Erection, 1844; Min-
isterial Relief, 1855; Freedmen, 1865.
The reports made to the General Assembly in May,
1888, for the year preceding, give the following statis.
tics : Synods, 26; Presbyteries, 202; ministers, 5789;
churches, 6543; elders, 22,434; deacons, 7210 ; com-
municants, 722,071 ; Sunday - school membership,
793,442. The receipts for home missions were
$844,696 ; foreign missions, $743,495; other general
objects, $602,441; ministerial relief, $525,555; the
contributions to the last-named being intended as a
centennial thank-offering. The total receipts for all
purposes were $12,817,783.
“The Presbyterian Church in the United States’’
is the official title of the body commonly distinguished
as the Southern Presbyterian Church, being composed
chiefly of ministers and churches in the Southern States.
Its organization was effected in 1861, and was due to
the separation produced by the civil war. It took its
present name in 1865, and in 1886 celebrated its
quarter-centennial. The reports made to its General
Assembly in May, 1888, for the year preceding, gave
the following statistics —Synods, 13; Presbyteries,
68; ministers, I 129; churches, 2280; elders, 7110 ;
deacons, 5228; communicants, 156,249; Sunday-
school membership, 113,901. The receipts for foreign
missions were $73,389 ; education, $35,226; and the
total for all purposes, $1,463,473.
These two General Assemblies, distinguished as
Northern and Southern, established a system of corre-
spondence in 1882, and in the next year appointed fra-
ternal delegates to each other. In 1885 they agreed upon
a joint celebration of the centennial of the original Gen-
eral Assembly, which was accordingly held with great
enthusiasm on May 24, 1888, in Philadelphia. The Ad-
dresses delivered at the several sessions of this celebra-
tion by distinguished representatives of both churches
have been published. +
Committees were appointed by both Assemblies in
1887 to report on the practicability of reunion between
these bodies holding a common faith and polity. The
report, however, when presented to the Assemblies,
encountered some opposition, especially in the Southern
church.
For other Presbyterian churches in America see their
respective titles. J. P. L.)
PRESCOTT, WILLIAM (1726–1795), colonel, was
born at Groton, Mass., Feb. 20, 1726. He was of the
fourth generation from John Prescott, a native of
Lincolnshire, England, who settled at Lancaster, Mass.
William's first military service was at the capture of
Cape Breton in 1754, and his next in the expedition
against Acadia in 1756. He had large estates at Pep-
perell, Mass., and held local offices. In 1774 he was
appointed colonel of minute-men, and in the º;
April he led his regiment to Lexington and then joine
PRESCOTT PREVENTION OF CRUELTY. 247
the army at Cambridge. On June 16 he was ordered
to throw up defences on Bunker's Hill, and, though the
work was done on Breed's Hill, the battle that ensued
is known by the former name. (See BUNKER's HILL.)
Col. Prescott had the command throughout and was
one of the last to leave the intrenchments. He resigned
in 1777, but afterwards joined Gen. Gates's army as a
voiunteer and was present at Burgoyne's surrender.
He was for many years a member of the Massachusetts
Legislature. He died Oct. 13, 1795.
is brother, OLIVER PRESCOTT (1731–1804), gradu-
ated at Harvard College in 1750 and became a physi-
cian. In 1776 he was made brigadier-general of militia
and in 1777 he was elected to the Supreme executive
council of the State. From 1779 till his death he was
a judge of probate for Middlesex county. He was
active in suppressing Shays's Rebellion.
PRESCOTT, Wii,LIAM (1762–1844), the son of Col.
William Prescott, was a noted lawyer, served in the
Massachusetts Legislature and in the governor's coun:
cil, and was a delegate to the Hartford Convention of
1814. Though twice offered a seat on the bench of
the State Supreme Court he declined, but he served as
judge of common pleas for Suffolk county. He was
the father of the historian WILLIAM HICKLING PRES-
cott (1796–1859), for whom see the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA. .
PRESSENSE, EDMOND DéHoulT DE, a French
theologian and senator, was born at Paris, Jan. 7, 1824.
He studied theology at Lausanne under Vinet, and
also at Halle and Berlin. In 1847 he was ordained
pastor of the Evangelical Free Church in the Taitbout
Chapel at Paris and soon after was made professor in
the Free School of Theological Science. He gained
high reputation as a pulpit orator and soon devoted
himself energetically to the advocacy of the entire separ
ration of church and state. In 1863 the University of
Breslau conferred on him the degree of D. D. In 1871
he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and
during his five years' service voted constantly with the
Republican party. In 1883 he was made a life-Senator.
He is a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Of his
numerous works may be noted Christianisme dams
son application awa, questions sociales (1849) ; Le Ré-
dempteur (1854); Des trois premiers siecles de l'Eglise
chrétienne (4 vols., 1858–77); L'Eglise et la Revolution
français (1864); Jésus-Christ, son temps, sa vie, som
ouvre (1866); Le Concile du Vatican (1872); La
Liberté religieuse en Europe (1874); Etudes contem-
poraines (1880); Les Origines (1882); Variétés morales
et politiques (1885). He founded the Revue chrétienne
in 1854 and the Bulletin theologique. Several of his
works have been translated into English by Annie
Harwood.
His wife, ELISE F. L. DE PRESSENSé, born in Switzer-
land in 1826, has published several religious stories,
including Rosa (1858); Le Journal de Thérèse (1854);
Bois-Gentil (l sº
PRESTON, ILLIAM CAMPBELL (1794–1860),
statesman, was born at Philadelphia, Dec. 27, 1794.
His father, Francis Preston (1766–1835), was then a
member of Congress from Virginia. The son studied
law with William Wirt at Richmond, and travelled in
Europe from 1816 to 1819. He was admitted to the
bar at Richmond, but removed to Columbia, S. C., in
1822, and two years later was elected to Congress.
He was a leading advocate of free trade and nullifica-
tion. In the U. S. Senate from 1834 to 1842 he was
one of the noted orators. His style was ornate and
his elocution graceful. In 1845 he was made president
of South Carolina College, and after filling this position
with honor for six years he retired on account of ill
health. He died at Columbia, May 22, 1860.
His brother, John SMITH PRESTON (1809–1881), was
educated at Hampden-Sidney College and at the Univer-
sity of Virginia and studied in the Law School of
Harvard College. He married a daughter of Gen.
art in the nullification movement. He was a member
of the South Carolina Legislature from 1848 to 1856,
and became noted as a speaker. In February, 1861,
he went as a commissioner to Virginia to urge imme-
diate secession. His speech before the Virginia Legis-
lature at that time was his most noted and brilliant
effort. During the civil war he served first on the
staff of Gen. Beauregard, taking part in the battle of
Bull Run, and afterwards was brigadier-general with
charge of the conscript department. After the War he
went to Europe, where he remained several years,
After his return in some notable occasions he delivered
addresses in which he maintained with vigor, and elo-
quence the right of secession., . He died at Columbia,
Š. C., May 1, is81. He was a highly cultivated gentle-
man and a liberal patron of art.
JAMES PATTON PRESTON (1774–1843), uncle of the
preceding, was a colonel in the U. S. army and was
wounded in Canada during the war of 1812. He was
afterwards governor of Virginia, 1816–19, and State
senator. His son, WILLIAM BALLARD PRESTON (1805–
1862), was a lawyer and served in Congress as a Whig.
He was secretary of the navy under Pres. Taylor and in
1858 went to France to promote the establishment of
a French line of steamers to Norfolk. He took part
in the Virginia convention in 1861, at first strongly
opposing secession, but finally acquiescing. He was
afterwards a member of the Confederate Senate till
his death.
PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. “The
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals,” of the State of New York, the first insti-
tution of its kind ever organized in America, was in-
corporated by an act of the Legislature of the State
of New York, passed April 10, 1866. Its founder
was Henry Bergh, whose career has been sketched in
Vol. I. of this work. .
While engaged in his duties as Secretary of the
American Legation to Russia, 1862–64, he was much
R. at witnessing the brutality of the drivers of the
ussian conveyances to their animals, and in several
instances interfered in their behalf. Passing through
England, on his return homeward, he examined the
methods of the Royal S. P. C. A. in London and de-
termined to found a similar institution in New York.
Soon after his return home he entered with zeal upon
his humane work. He at first solicited the support of
prominent citizens and called a meeting, at which
officers of the society were elected. Then he applied
to the State Legislature for the enactment of laws for
the protection of animals, and also for the grant of a
charter for the institution. Having secured these, he
attacked the problem of obtaining for dumb creatures
a proper degree of consideration for their comfort. At
first his efforts met with much opposition from the
cruel and ridicule from the thoughtless. Neverthe-
less, he persevered, and by continued efforts, in which
at times he personally arrested offenders, he suc-
ceeded in winning public commendation for the cause
to which he had devoted his services.
In 1871 Louis Bonard, a man of humane and gener-
ous nature, died, bequeathing his entire fortune to the
society, which placed it on sound basis financially.
Since that period numerous other contributions have
been received by it, and its power for good largely aug-
mented. The building at the S. E. corner of Fourt
avenue and Twenty-second street, in the city of New
York, was purchased and altered to adapt it to the
purposes of the institution, and the work of reform
was proceeded with on a larger scale.
Every form of unnecessary pain inflicted upon ani-
mals comes under its supervision. Dog-fighting, cock-
fighting, the use of lame, sore, weak, or disabled ani-
mals, violent beating, or needless abuse of these crea-
tures, are a few of many kinds of cruelty suppressed
by it. It has a regularly uniformed force of officers in
New York city and Brooklyn, branch agencies in many
Wade Hampton, of South Carolina, in 1830 and took counties, and agents in nearly every county in the State
248
PRICE—PRIESTS.
ºf New York. An important feature of its work is
the adoption of a system of transportation for disabled
animals, in ambulances, in which they can be placed
With little discomfort and conveyed to proper places for
treatment. Two of these are almost constantly in use
in New York city, and one in Brooklyn. A derrick for
Faising animals out of excavations into which they
have fallen is also provided. The society has taken
ºn active part in the erection of numerous drinking-
fountains to provide water for men and animals.
, Other States have adopted its example, and passed
laws for the protection of animals, . at this date 44
Societies exist in North and South America, 33 of
which are in the United States, all of which have
adopted its emblem.
The following table shows, in a condensed form,
what has been done during the twenty-two years, 1866–
• C) . .
Cases prosecuted in the courts....................
Disabled animals temporarily suspended
from work.............................................
Horses, disabled past recovery, humanely
destroyed.............................................. 24,099
Disabled horses removed from the streets in
the ambulances.....................................
13,850
35,108
4,444
1 The aggregate result for the year 1887 was as fol-
OWS :
Cases prosecuted in the courts................... 797
Disabled animals temporarily suspended
from work............ ................................ 3,456
Horses, disabled past recovery, humanely
destroyed................... .......................... 2,546
Small animals, disabled past recovery, hu-
manely destroyed.................................. 1,202
Disabled horses removed from the streets in
the ambulances......... ........................... 522
Complaints received and investigated.......... 3,773
Henry Bergh remained its president from the date of
its organization until his death, which occurred on
March 12, 1888. His nephew, Henry Bergh, was
then chosen to succeed him. (E. B.)
PR1CE, ELI KIRK (1797–1884), lawyer, was born
at East Bradford, Chester co., Pa., July 20, 1797.
He was descended from Philip Price, one of the Welsh
Quakers who came to Pennsylvania with William
Penn in 1682. He was educated at the Friends'
School at Westtown, and entered on a mercantile
career, but soon turned to the study of law under
John Sergeant. Devoting himself chiefly to real es-
tate practice, he became the most eminent lawyer in
that branch in Philadelphia. Taught by his experi-
ence, he prepared for the Legislature of Pennsylvania
drafts of many important acts regulating the holding
and transfer of real estate by corporations and individ-
uals. They tended to promote security of title and
the welfare of the community by keeping up the im-
provement of real estate. To him especially was due
the act of 1854 by which the various districts of the
county of Philadelphia were consolidated into one city.
Łater labors helped to obtain for that city the land now
forming Fairmount Park and to secure within it the
holding of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. After a
long, useful, and honored life he died Nov. 15, 1884.
He published a few legal treatises, the most important
being The Law of Limitations and Liems against
Real Estate (1857).
PRICE, STERLING (1809–1867), a Confederate gen-
eral, was born in Prince Edward co., Va., Sept. 14,
1809. He removed to Missouri in 1830, and after ser-
vice in the State Legislature was elected to Congress in
1845. In the Mexican war he led a Missouri regiment
to New Mexico, and was made brigadier-general and
military-governor of Chihuahua. ife was governor
of the State of Missouri from 1853 to 1857. He was
a strong advocate of secession, and presided at the
State convention of February, 1861. Gov. Claiborne
F. Jackson appointed Price major-general of the State
militia, but their efforts to withdraw the State from
the Union were baffled by the patriotic energy of F. P.
Blair, and Gen. N. Lyon, who compelled the State
guard at St. Louis to surrender. Price retired to Car.
thage and gathered an army of 9000 men. Being
joined by Gen. Ben, McCulloch, who had brought
3000 from Arkansas, he defeated and killed Lyon at
Wilson's Creek Aug. 10. Price, marching to Lexing.
ton, Mo., captured 3000 Union men, and then re-
treated to Arkansas. In March, 1862, he was ap-
pointed major-general, and he fought at Pea Ridge
and Corinth. He held command of the department of
Arkansas in 1863–64, and then joined with C. L. Wal-
landigham and other Northern opponents of the war
in forming a secret society called “ Knights of the
Golden Circle.” Price was the “Grand Commander”
of this order, and invaded Missouri in September,
1864, expecting to gather an army of knights as he
advanced, but his expectations were not realized.
Though he reached Jefferson City, he was obliged to
flee, closely pursued by Gens. Pleasonton and Curtis.
After the close of the war Price went to Mexico and
9btained some favor from the Emperor Maximilian,
but, on the overthrow of the latter, Price returned to
St. Louis, and died Sept. 27, 1867.
PRIESTS. Prof. § Robertson Smith, in his arti-
cle on PRIESTs in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA, prefaces his account of
the Hebrew priesthood by a general de-
Scription of what he calls the priest-
hood of “the pure Semites,” that is to say, of “the
ancient Arabs.” From what he says the casual reader
would be likely to infer that we have some authentic
and independent information concerning the practices
of “the ancient Arabs,” who lived before the begin-
ning of Israelite history. Of course the author did
not intend to convey any such impression. No one
knows better than he that the alleged facts he pre-
sents are derived either from literature and traditions
later than the Mohammedan era—say from eight hun-
dred to a thousand or more years later than the latest
Old Testament books—or, by processes of pretty re-
mote inference, from incidental notices in earlier litera-
ture, the Old Testament itself being the most ancient
and most fruitful source of these notices. Evidently,
therefore, whatever the value of these views as to the
priesthood of the early Semites may be, they can
have no very great weight as evidence concerning the
Old Testament priesthood. Especially, they have not
sufficient weight to entitle them to be preferred,
when they come into conflict with reputable testimony.
A man who takes a different view of the Old Testa-
ment priesthood would make a correspondingly differ-
ent construction of what information there is concern-
ing the primitive Semitic ideas of priesthood.
Prof. Smith probably would not claim that his ac-
count of the matter can possibly be made to agree with
most of the Biblical statements concerning it. Sup-
pose we reconstruct the Hexateuch on the plan pro-
posed by his school, distributing its contents over sev-
eral centuries, and then reconstruct the history of
Israel to make it fit the reconstructed Hexateuch, even
then the Biblical statements concerning the priests
cannot be interpreted so as to agree with his views;
the only course open to an advocate of those views is
to accept such items of the evidence as agree with his
conclusions, and reject the rest. The Biblical ac-
count of the priests of Israel is entirely different from
his account, and is in every way credible. It has su-
pernatural elements, which are to be dealt with pre-
cisely as we deal with supernatural factors anywhere;
See Vol. XIX.
p. 724 (p. 743
but, considered as a historical account, it is contra-
dicted by nothing in philology, or in authentic tradi-
tion, or in what we know by experience as to the laws
of religious phenomena among men.
The Hexateuchal records inform us that Israel had
priests before the giving of the law at Sinai, and the
setting apart of Aaron and the Levites for sacred
PRIESTS.
249
ministry (Ex. xix. 22, 24), ... They also mention Egyp-
tian, Palestinian, and Midianite priests, with whom
Israel came into contact in the pre-Sinaitic times (Gen.
xli. 45, 50; xlvi. 20;, xlvii.22, 26; xiv. 18; Ex. ii. 16 :
iii. 1; xviii. 1). It is well known that the Egyptian
priests were not mere keepers of shrines, but media-
tors by sacrifices between men and the gods. Among
the few items mentioned concerning Jethro the priest
is his taking “a burnt offering,’’ in addition to the sac-
rificial feast he made for Moses and the elders of
Israel (Ex. xviii. 12). Israel, at , that time had a
national burnt offering, and a ritual of the sprinkling
of blood (Ex. x. 25; xxiv. 5, 6, 8 ; cf. Heb. ix. 19).
Israel was then familiar with the idea of a priesthood,
as that of men set apart, having peculiar relations re-
spectively with God, and with other, men (Ex. xix. 5,
6). From these facts, from the elaborate account in
Num. iii. : viii. 5–22, of the taking of the Levites in-
stead of the first-born, and from the pains taken in
the popular legislation in Deuteronomy to define the
priests there mentioned as “the Levite priests '' (just
as if otherwise, some one might understand that non-
Levite priests were meant), it is a highly probable in-
ference (not, perhaps, a necessary inference) that these
writers meant to be understood that the priests of
Israel, when they came out of Egypt, were “the first-
born,” and that the Sinaitic legislation superseded
this priesthood by that of the tribe of Levi. But
whether this view or some other be taken, in any case
the early Israelite priests are not mere shrine-keepers,
but have a genuine mediatorial priesthood.
In the so-called priest-code legislation, “the priests,
the sons of Aaron,” are sharply distinguished from
the Levites; but in most of the passages where this
distinction is defined, “the sons of Aaron'' are simply
his four sons, whose names are mentioned. That is
to say, after the death of Nadab and Abihu, the
priests, according to the prevailing, perhaps the exclu-
sive usage of the priest-code, are Aaron, Eleazar, Itha-
Imar, and, in the last year of the wandering, Phinehas,
and no others, save that the term “priest'' is also
applied to future descendants of Aaron, as well as to
those then living (Ex. xxviii. 1, 3, 4, 41; xxx. 30;
xxix. 29, 30; Lev. vi. 15 [22]; Num. xviii. 1–7 ; xxvi.
1, 2 ; xxvii. 2, 19, and scores of other places). Occa-
sionally in these writings the terms “ the great priest,”
or the “anointed priest'' are used to distinguish the
person who, later, was known as the high-priest (Lev.
xxi. 10; Num. xxxv. 25, 28; Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16; vi. 15
[22]), but ordinarily the simple term “priest” is used
instead. The especial functions of the priesthood are
those of mediation and atonement, in connection with
the sacrifices and the holy of holies. In distinction
from this the Levites had ministrations, external and
internal, in the care of the sanctuary, and were the
assistants of the priests.
Doubtless the laws of the priest-code assign to the
priests of the times of Moses a vastly greater number
of duties than it was possible for three men personally
to perform. It matters not how we suppose that the
Writer of these laws intended us to understand this,
whether that Aaron had other sons and grandsons
besides Eleazar and Ithamar, acting as priests, or
whether a body of Levites performed priestly func-
tions under the name “sons of Aaron,” though not
lineally descended from him, or whether it was under-
stood that he and his two sons were to do their work
largely by deputy, or whether we adopt some other
understanding of the matter; in any case the term
priest, in the priest-code, is ordinarily used either to
describe the person who, later, was known as high-
priest, or to describe him and a very limited number
of sacerdotal chiefs, associated with him.
From this point of view the alleged contradiction of
usage between the priest-code .# Deuteronomy van-
ishes. Deuteronomy and Joshua use the term “the
priest" precisely as it is often used in the priest-code,
to denote the high-priest of the time, Deut. x. 6;
WOL. IV.-Q
xvii. 12; xxvi. 3, 4; Josh. xiv. 1; xvii. 4; xix. 51 ;
xxi. 1, 4, 13; xxii. 13, 30, 31, 32 (once “the great
priest,” Josh. xx. 6, from Num. xxxv.). Apparently,
however (the point is disputed), these books also call
all Levites priests, insisting mainly on the distinction
between a Levite, priesthood, and a non-Levite, Deut.
xvii. 9, 18; xviii. 1–3; xxi. 5; xxiv. 8; xxvii. 9;
xxxi. 9; Josh. iii. 3, 6, 8, etc. The Levite priests
principally mentioned in these books are those who
have charge of the ark, and the other furniture of the
sanctuary, and of its internal services; these functions
the priest-code assigns to the Kohathite family of Le-
vites, the family to which Aaron belonged. Naturally,
the books of Deuteronomy and Joshua never use the
term “sons of Aaron '' to denote Eleazar and Ithamar;
indeed, they use this term only in one passage (Josh.
xxi. 4, 10, 13, 19). Here the sons of Aaron are also
called priests, and comprise so large a section of the
Kohathite Levitical family that they receive 13 cities,
while the remaining Kohathites receive only 10, the
other two great Levitical families receiving respec-
tively 13 and 12. Whether we suppose that the
lineal descendants of Aaron had now become as
numerous as these proportions would indicate, or
suppose that these “sons of Aaron'' were so called
from their habitual functions rather than from
their parentage, in any case, the representations of
these books are capable of being understood in such
. sense that they perfectly agree with the priest-code
3.W.S.
Thus understood, the state of the Israelitish priest-
hood, at the beginning of the period of the judges,
was about as follows: There was the high-priest
Phinehas, resident in Shiloh, the ordinary seat of the
tabernacle and the ark ; with him were as many
Aaronite priests and other Levites as were needed for
service ; the corps of service was changing, however,
some Levites constantly coming in from their homes,
and others returning to their homes; the great body
of the Aaronite priests, the Kohathites, the other
Levites, and the Gibeonite sanctuary servants dwelt in
their respective cities in the various parts of the coun-
try, or sojourned where they saw fit.
Are these representations contradicted by the other
accounts of the times of the Judges and of David 2
The statement that “the priest,” in the narrative of
Eli's time, “is always in the singular" is incorrect
(I Sam, ii. 13, the Hebrew, and i. 3). The statement
that.” Hophni and Phinehas are not called priests” is
also incorrect (i. 3). The statement that they “bore
the ark" has no ground in anything said in 1 Sam. The
fact is that the term “priest” is here used just as in the
priest-code and Deuteronomy and Joshua, sometimes
to denote the chief priest, and sometimes to denote
subordinate priests. The assertion that “the priest
of Shiloh. . . sits enthroned by the doorway, preserving
decorum among the worshippers,” instead of minist
tering at the altar, is an instance of purely imaginary
exegesis. The statement, “Wherever there was a
temple there was an oracle, a kind of sacred lot, ...
which could be drawn only where there was an ephod,'
and a priest' includes particulars not foundini Sam.
Xiv 18, 41, Sept., xxiii. 6 seq., the passages on which
it is based. The statement from Ex. xxxiii. 7 seſ.
that “Moses was the priest and Joshua the edituus.”
of a tent-temple in the wilderness, has no foundation
either in that passage or elsewhere. To infer that the
priest "is not the minister of an altar” from such in-
stances as, 1 Sam. xiv. 34, 2, Sam, xxiii. 16, 17-
instances that have nothing to do with either priest or
altar—is inconsequent reasoning. When one says “It
is not clear from 1 Sam. ii. 15 whether even at Shiloh
the priests had anything to do with Sacrifice,” he
ignores the apparently clear fact that in that passage
the worshippers complain of the priests for violating
the precept, Lev. vii. 28–34, that the priests portion
was due after the burning of the fat. R.'" in 1
Sam, ii. 28, and elsewhere in the Writings connected
250
PRIME–PRIMROSE.
with this period, the relations of the priests to the
altar are distinctly affirmed.
Further, the assertion that “priesthood was not yet
tied to one family,” but that there were then in Israel
many different priesthoods of different families, min-
istering at various sanctuaries, and all counted as
equally the legitimate priests of Jehovah, is in contra-
diction with 1 Sam. ii. 27, and with all the account
that is given of the priests mentioned in the Books of
Samuel, as being the descendants of either Eleazar or
Ithamar, the sons of Aaron. The Hebrew text says,
not that “The temple at Shiloh . . . was the lineal de
scendant of the Mosaic sanctuary, . . . and its priests
claimed kin with Moses himself,” but that the Mosaic
Sanctuary either was itself the temple at Shiloh, or
was there at the temple, 1 Sam. ii. 22; that its priests
claimed kin with Moses appears in no other way than
by their claiming descent from Aaron. The assertion
that “this sanctuary was hardly visited from beyond
Mount Ephraim '' does not agree with the statements
in the narrative, 1 Sam. ii. 14, 22, 24, 28, iii. 20, etc.,
to the effect that “all Israel” came up thither.
Evidently, the priesthood of Micah's son, Jud. xvii.,
is not recognized by the writer of Judges as legal. No
more is the priesthood of Jonathan, Jud. xviii.,
although the facts in the case show that the priestly
character of the tribe of Levi was then recognized.
We have no information as to the descent of Eleazar,
1 Sam. vii. 1, and no intimation that his consecration
to be keeper of the ark was regarded as giving him
the character of a priest. The priesthood of David's
sons, 2 Sam. viii. 18, is best understood as an irregu-
larity of the same nature with the contemporary
attempt to carry the ark on a cart, instead of on the
shoulders of men. (See paragraph on “David's
Period of Rest” in article IsrAEL).
If it is fair to infer from Deut. xxxiii. 8–10 that
“ the ritual functions of the priesthood still appear as
secondary to that of declaring the sentence of God,”
it is equally fair to draw the same inference from the
yet more decided passage in Malachi ii. 5–8. That is,
this double function of the priests belongs equally to
the latest times of the Old Testament, and to the
times when Deut. xxxiii. was written. The fact is
that the Old Testament attributes it to the priests of
Israel of every date. And at all dates the function
of the priests in regard to the law differs from that of
the prophets; the priest administered and interpreted
the law that the prophet brought from Jehovah.
In fine, the Old Testament account of the priest-
hood of Aaron and Levi is that it was organized in the
time of Moses; that from the death of Joshua to the
later years of David it maintained its succession,
though in those troubled times, it was largely shorn of
its dignity, and often compelled to share the field with
illegitimate rival priesthoods; that it suddenly rose to
magnificence with the quick blossoming out of Israelite
greatness that marked the times following David's
conquests; that from the death of Solomon to the
Babylonish exile it was maintained in Judah, but with
times of decline and times of revival, according to the
characters and circumstances of the various kings;
that it was preserved through the exile, and restored
in the times of the second temple ; that it underwent
reorganizations, with changes more or less marked, in
the times of David, and again after the exile. The
view of the matter that represents the priesthood as a
gradual growth in the times, later than the judges,
through the consolidating of the shrine-keepers of the
various high places, attaining its distinctive, character
only in the post-exilic times, is a view that makes
more difficulties than it solves, besides being contra-
dictory to the only sources of information we have on
the subject. (W. J. *
PRIME, SAMUEL IRENAEUs (1812–1885), Presby-
terian editor and author, was born at Ballston, N. Y.,
Nov. 4, 1812. His grandfather, Benjamin Young
Prime (1733–1791), was a learned physician of New
York, city, who wrote, several Revolutionary songs.
His father, Rev. Nathaniel Scudder Prime (1785–
1856), was an able preacher and teacher. Irenaeus
graduated at Williams College in 1829, studied theology
at Princeton, and entered the Presbyterian ministry
in 1833. He had pastoral charges at Ballston Spa
and Mattawan, but in 1840 was compelled by ill health
to relinquish preaching. He then became editor of
the New York Observer, which by his able manage-
ment was rendered one of the most successful religious
newspapers. Dr. Prime's visits to Europe and the
East in 1853, 1866, and 1876 were narrated in his
paper, and these letters afterwards published in vol-
umes. His personal connection with the religious move-
ments of his time gave variety and freshness to his
Writings. He took a prominent part in the organiza-
tion and various meetings of the Evangelical Alliance.
About fifty volumes are attributed to his pen. Among
these, besides his books of travel, the three series of
Irenceus Letters are the most attractive. The third
series, published posthumously, is chiefly autobio-
graphic. He had also prepared biographies of Rev.
Nicholas Murray, known as Kirwan (1862), and of
Samuel F. B. Morse (1875). His most widely circu-
lated volume was The Power of Prayer (1859), which
gave the history of the Fulton street Prayer Méeting in
New York. He published three later books on the
same subject, the last being Prayer and its Answer
(1882). . He died on July 18, 1885, at Manchester,
Vt., whither he had gone on a vacation journey.
His brother, WILLIAM CowPER PRIME, was born
at Cambridge, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1825. He graduated
at Princeton College in 1843 and became a fº in
New York city. e was a frequent contributor to the
newspapers and was editor of the New York Journal
of Commerce for many years. Much of his leisure
was devoted to numismatics and ceramics. He has
published The Old House by the River (1853); Boat-
Life in Egypt and Nubia (1857); Tent-Life in the Holy
Land (1857); Coins, Medals and Seals (1860); I go.
a-fishing (1873); and a handsomely illustrated work on
Pottery and Porcelain. He has also published mono-
graphs on the hymn O Mother dear, Jerusalem (1865)
and on the Holy Cross (1877). His valuable cera-
mic collection has been presented to Princeton College.
Another brother, EDWARD DoRR GRIFFIN PRIME,
was born at Cambridge, N. Y., Nov. 2, 1814. He
raduated at Union College in 1832 and at Princeton
heological Seminary in 1838. He was pastor of a
Presbyterian church at Scotchtown, N. Y., 1839–5l.
He had charge of the American chapel at Rome in
1854–55, and then returned to New York to assist in
editing the New York Observer. In 1865, he became
also one of its proprietors. He has published Around
the World (1871) and Forty Years in the Turkish Empire
1875), the last being a biography of Rev. William
joodéll.
PRIMROSE (Lat. prima rosa, the first rose), a
handsome flowering sº genus Primula, largely
European in habitat, 5 species growing wild in Great
Britain. Different species are known by the common
names of Primrose, Cowslip, and Oxlip, the European
P. grandiflora being the typical primrose. The Eastern
United States have but two species of the genus. One
of these, P. farinosa, the bird's-eye primrose, is also
a native of England and other parts of Europe. It is
distinguished by a white mealiness on the underside of
the leaves, the flower stems, and the calyx, the flowers
being of a pale lilac color with yellow centre. It is a
rare plant, found on the northern borders of the States.
Another rare species, P. mistassinica, occurs from
Maine to Wisconsin along the lake shores. It is a
pretty little species bearing from 1 to 8 fresh-colored
flowers on a stem 2 to 6 inches high. . Several other
species occur in the far West, the most important being
P. Parryi, found originally on Pike's Peak, and since
then on several other Rocky Mountain peaks. It is
the most beautiful member of the genus, its flowers
PRINCETON collBGE—PRISON DISCIPLINE.
being very large and of the richest purple hue. Un-
fortunately its native habitat, on the banks of streams
fed with ice-cold waters from melting snows, unfits it
for warmer situations, and it does not yield kindly to
cultivation. The American Cowslip, Dodecatheon
Meadia, one of our most beautiful, wild flowers, be:
longs to another genus of the same family. It is found
in woods from Pennsylvania to Wisconsin and south-
wardly, and bears a gracefully drooping cluster of pale
purple flowers. The beautiful garden flowers called
Polyanthus and Auricula are results of cultivation of
species of the primrose genus. (C. M.)
PRINCETON COLLEGE. See NEw JERSEY,
CoLLEGE OF, and THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT. Agency is founded
upon a contract, either express or implied, by which
one of the parties confides to the other the management
of some business to be transacted in his name or on
his account, and by which the other assumes to do the
business, and to render an account of it. The authority
may be by deed or writing, or verbal merely. The
agency may be inferred from the relation of the par-
ties and the nature of the employment, without proof
of any express appointment. If the agent is to con-
vey or complete the conveyance of land or interests
therein, however, the appointment must be in writing.
The agency must be previously given or subsequently
adopted. Acquiescence in the assumed authority of
another when his acts are known to the principal
is equivalent to an express authority. Thus it has been
held that if a confidential clerk has been accustomed
to draw checks for his principal, and has occasionally
been permitted to endorse for him, the jury would be
warranted to infer a general authority to endorse.
An agent intrusted with general powers must exer.
cise a sound discretion, and he has all the implied pow-
ers which are within the scope of the employment. If
his powers are limited, he must strictly follow them :
he cannot have an adverse interest or employment,
as to represent both buyer and seller. If an agent ex-
ceeds his powers, his principal is not liable on the con-
tract except so far as the agent was authorized to go.
If the agent executes his commission in part only, the
principal is liable in some cases, as if the agent was
empowered to buy a farm of fifty acres and he bought
one of forty acres, corresponding to the directions as
nearly as possible. ... The acts of a general agent, with
power to transact all the principal's business of a par-
ticular kind, or at a particular place, will bind the
principal so long as the agent keeps within the general
scope of his authority, though he may act contrary to
private, instructions. But an agent appointed for a
articular purpose, with limited power, cannot bind
i. principal if he exceeds that power. Any one deal-
ing with such an agent does so at his peril, when the
agent passes the precise limits of his power; as where
Ç, a holder of a bill of exchange, desired A to get it
discounted, but refused to endorse it, and A procured
B's endorsement to it, it was held that C was not
bound, A being a special agent with limited authority,
not to endorse the bill. The presumption of an author.
ity to sell is inferred in some cases from the nature of
the business of the agent, as if a broker be intrusted
by a merchant with goods, the principal would be
bound by a sale of them. A factor, who buys or sells
on Commission, may sell on credit if the usage of the
trade is such, provided he be not restrained by his in-
structions, does not give an unreasonably extended
credit, and uses due diligence to ascertain the solvency of
the purchaser. He cannot sell on credit, however,
where such is not the usage, as in a sale of stock. A
note taken in this way by a factor belongs to the prin-
cipal, even if the factor has sold without disclosing his
principal. Should the factor fail, the note would not
pass, to his assignees upon the doctrine that the prin-
£ipal may follow his goods or the proceeds into the
hands of the agent or of his legal representatives or
assignees.
history.
251
The sale by an agent on what is known as a Del Cre-
dere commission, i.e., on credit at his own risk, for an
additiohal premium, has generally been held to sub;
stitute the agent's liability to the principal for that of
the purchaser. & is º
A factor cannot pledge the goods of his principal for
his own debt. In such case the principal may look, to
the pledgee for the goods: there is an exception to this
rule, however, in the case of negotiable paper, unless
notice of the fraud or want of title can be brought
home to the endorsee. tº &
Where an agent is duly constituted, and names, his
brincipal, and contracts in his name, without exceeding
is authority, the principal becomes responsible : the
agent is personally liable only when the principal is
not known, or where there is no responsible principal,
or where the agent undertakes in his own name, or ex-
ceeds his power. If the agent buys in his own name,
but for the benefit of the principal, without disclosing
his name, both are bound, provided the goods reach
the principal, or the agent, acted in the business in-
trusted to him and within his power. If the authority
of the agent be coupled with an interest in the prop-
erty, he may sellin his own name and be personally liable,
e.g., the case of a master of a ship, or a mortgagee. It
has been generally held that an agent cannot be sued
on a written contract binding the principal only, made
by the agent without authority. Where goods have
been sold by a factor, the owner may call upon the pur-
chaser for the price before payment to the factor, and
a payment to the factor after notice from the owner not
to pay would not prejudice the rights of the owner.
Where a party dealing with an agent, knowing him to
be such, elects to make the agent his debtor, he re-
leases the principal. It has been generally held that an
agent, making a contract on behalf of a government, is
not responsible himself, though by the terms of the
contract he might be if it were private : the presump-
tion in such case is that the party who deals with a
public agent relies on the good faith and standing of
the government. ©
The general principle is that an agentis liable to third
persons for acts of misfeasance and positive wrong; but
for mere non-feasance and negligence in the course of
his employment, he is *::::: only to his principal,
and the principal is answerable to the third party.
Since agency is generally a personal trust, the prin-
cipal employing the agent from the opinion which he
has of his personal skill and integrity, the latter cannot
as a general, thing delegate the confidence reposed in
him to another. In some cases, however, a usage of
trade has been held to authorize an agent to employ a
broker.
. A factor has a lien on the goods of his principal in
his possession, or on the proceeds if he has sold the
goods, for his charges and commissions. In like man-
nºr attorneys, bankers, etc., have a lien on the papers
of their clients for the amount of their charges.
The authority of the agent may terminate (1) by his
geath; this results from the personal nature of the trust;
(2) by the principal's recocation, in which case the agent
must immediately be notified : all acts of the agent un-
der the agency previous to notification are binding on
the principal; so also if the agent had concealed the
fact of notification, and the public had no means of
knowing of it; (3) by a change in the state or condition
of the principal, as by his bankruptcy, or lunacy, or the
marriage of a feme sole principal; (4) by the death of
the principal., under the civil law the acts of an agent,
done boma fide, after the death of the principal, but
before notice of it, bind his representatives. In Eng-
land and America, however, it has generally been held
that the death of the principal is an instantaneous and
absolute revocation of the agent's authority, unless the
agent's power be coupled with an interest. (T. R.)
PRINTING. See Typography. .*
PRISON DISCIPLINE, Prisons are as old as
Eighteen centuries before the Christian era
252
PRISON DISCIPLINE. --
Joseph, in Egypt, was in º * lº. I'll ODUl-
N r y- ments testify clearly that prisons were
º, common on the Nile many centuries
Am. Rep.). before. In Chinese annals prisons are
e mentioned a thousand years before
the time of Joseph, and doubtless they have been
a necessity wherever an organized government has
been maintained.
Prior to the present century, however, prison man-
agement with rare exceptions seems to have been
little else than organized cruelty. The founder of
Christianity had taught that mercy to prisoners was
a sign of his coming, and had inculcated the remem-
brance of prisoners as brethren in bonds, but yet
in the practical administration of prisons the hearts
of rulers seem to have been hardened, and darkness
reigned supreme. It is true the church did some-
thing, and under Constantine and succeeding Christian
emperors the bishops were authorized to visit prisons
with a view to their amelioration, and under Theo-
dosius II. and Justinian, criminal codes were some-
what improved, but the results were not large, and
prison reform as a continuous entity had no abiding.
place upon the earth until the beginning of the
present century. -
When we remember that through the Christian cen-
turies the typical prisons were the Mamertine at Rome,
the Tower in London, the Bastille in France, the Spiel-
berg in Austria, the Plombs of Venice, and the dun-
geons of the Inquisition, we may rest assured that the
horrors of prisons, in allages, cannot well be exaggerated.
The dark ages of prisons were very dark, and their
annals are an interesting and instructive study, but the
purview of this article is modern and local rather than
ancient or general, and will be confined almost entirely
to the United States of Anerica. The history and man-
agement of prisons in Europe and other countries of
the Eastern Hemisphere have been fully and clearly pre-
sented in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, which
should be consulted by those who desire additional
information upon this topic.
Penology as a practical science, and a positive force
in the world, in the main, had its origin with John
Howard. As Paul was the apostle of Christianity to
the Gentiles, so Howard was the apostle of prison re-
form to modern nations. As Paul was converted by
special revelation on his way to Damascus, so Howard
was converted by the revelations of Bedford gaol.
Both served the same master, and both died as martyrs
Paul in the Mamertine prison at Rome, and Howard
in a lazaretto at Kherson, near the Black Sea.
The investigations and revelations of Howard at-
tracted attention in all civilized countries, but curiously
the fruition of his work, to any large extent, began in
America. Howard began his work in 1773, and his
first report was made in 1774. On Feb. 2, 1776, the
first Prison Reform Association in the world was Qr-
ganized in Philadelphia. It was called. The Phila:
delphia Society for Assisting Distressed Prisoners.;
but in September of the fºllowing year the British
army entered this city, and the society was dissolved.
Ten years later, May 8, 1787, peace being restored,
the society was reorganized, and has continued its
beneficent work until the present.
The fact that over one hundred prominent men of
Philadelphia (among whom were Benjamin Rush and
Benjamin Franklin) signed the original constitution of
the society on the day of its adoption indicates the
aroused condition of public sentiment at the time, and
enables us to understand the reasons for the rapid prog:
ress made in the amelioration of the criminal laws of
Pennsylvania, and in the improvement...of prisons.
The impelling motive of the Society is indicated in the
closing paragraph of its first ºpºl to the community
for funds to carry on its work: “To a people pro-
fessing Christianity it will be sufficient only to mention
that acts of charity to the maiserable tenants of prisons
are upon record amongst the first Christian duties.
From ladies therefore whom Heaven has blessed with
affluence and the greater gift of sympathy—from gen-
tlemen who acknowledge i. obligations of humanity—
and from the followers of the compassionate Saviour of
mankind, of every rank and description, the society
thus humbly solicits an addition to its funds.”
Perhaps a more thorough transformation in the
character of a penal code, by peaceful legislation,
is not recorded in the world's history than that
which took place in the penal code of Pennsylva-
nia during the eighteen years immediately succeed-
ing the Declaration of Independence. When the Rev-
olution commenced, nearly a score of crimes were
capital. High treason, petit treason, murder, robbery,
burglary, rape, Sodomy, malicious maiming, man-
slaughter by stabbing, witchcraft, arson, and a second
conviction of any crime except larceny, counterfeiting,
OT |. counterfeit money or bills of credit, coun-
terfeit gold or silver coin, were all punishable with
death ; but by 1794 such progress had been made that
it was ordained that no crime should be punished with
death except murder in the first degree.
The Pennsylvania society began its work on the very
day of its organization by securing the release of a
risoner held in violation of law and followed it up
y persistent and continuous efforts for a more humane
administration of prisons. The city prison of Phila-
delphia secured special attention, and the Society pro-
tested against its abuses in vigorous language : (1) that
the clothing of the prisoners was insufficient ; (2) that
the daily allowance to prisoners committed for trial
was only half of a four-penny loaf, while those de-
tained as witnesses had no allowance at all; (3) no pro-
vision was made for decent lodging, the inmates of the
gaol lying indiscriminately upon the floor, unless Sup-
plied with something better by their friends; (4) the
indiscriminate intermingling of criminals, untried pris-
oners, and debtors was another monstrous abuse, and
led in many instances to the conversion of debtors and
innocent parties into criminals; (5) that parents were
allowed to have their children with them in gaol, and
young offenders were exposed to the corrupting influ-
ences of association with confirmed and reckless vil-
lains; (6) it was presented as a radical evil that a large
proportion of prisoners were unemployed; and further
it was maintained that labor, even in the public streets,
was preferable to sheer idleness within the walls.
In view of these considerations the Society recom-
mended “The classification of prisoners, and as far
as possible individual reformation with labor in seclu:
sion, and the interdiction of all intoxicating drinks.”
And so energetically were these points pressed upon
the Legislature that on April 5, 1790, an act was passed
to reform the penal code of the State. By this act the
principle of separation was recognized so far as “hard-
ened and atrocious” offenders were concerned, and in-
toxicating drinks were entirely prohibited. In 1794
this act was amended so as to require the separation
and seclusion of all convicts, and, as has already been
stated, the death penalty was abolished in all cases ex-
cept for murder. º
The society did not stop here, for we find them in
1796 pressing upon the Legislature the abolition of ex-
acting fees as a condition of liberation from imprison-
ment. Also the subjection of prisoners to the pillory,
the whipping-post, the branding-iron, and cropping,
together with exposure to the gaze and taunts of the
rabble with external marks of degradation such as the
clog and chain upon the neck or leg. When we re-
member that all these occurred twenty years before
Elizabeth Fry exposed the horrors of Newgate in
London, and nearly thirty years before remedial legis-
lation was obtained from the British Parliament, it is
apparent that the State of Pennsylvania was in ad;
vance of all other civilized countries in the matter of
prison reform. e
As the years went on additional improvements were
secured in the criminal laws of Pennsylvania, until at
PRISON DISCIPLINE.
253
last the greatest advance in prison reform, which had
yet been made in the world was obtained by the crea-
tion and completion of the Eastern Penitentiary at
Philadelphia, which was opened on Oct. 25, 1829.
This prison soon became famous, and attracted atten-
tion in all civilized countries, and imitation in many;
and even now, after a lapse of sixty years, it ranks as
one of the best managed prisons in the world. .
The system of cellular separation, or, as it is more
generally called, solitary confinement of prisoners, was
here for the first time put into operation as an entirety,
and has since been known in penological science as the
“Pennsylvania System.” F. entire and permanent
separation of prisoners under sentence, as required by
the Pennsylvania system, is not now generally ap:
proved by penologists, and has been abandoned in all
other convict-prisons in the United States, and largely
in other countries, but for prisoners awaiting trial, and
for brief periods after sentence as an initiatory stage
of prison discipline, it is almost universally considered
desirable by penologists.
At Philadelphia the system is no longer enforced in
its original strictness, and prisoners are brought into
such frequent contact with prison officials, and with
individual prisoners, as to obviate largely the evils of
entire isolation. In Belgium, also, where the system
was adopted in all convict-prisons, the severity of con-
tinued separation has been largely relaxed, and such
improvements have been ºãº as to recall the
favorable attention of penologists, and to a certain
extent to cause a reaction of opinion in its favor, at
least in a modified form.
The first prison in America to follow the example of
Philadelphia was that at Auburn, N. Y., which
adopted the Pennsylvania system in 1830, but, unlike
the prison at Philadelphia, no employment was pro-
vided and in fact the cells were not of a size to per-
mit such employment, and the result was the early
abandonment of the system. In its place labor in asso-
ciation, by day, was provided for the prisoners, and
Solitary cellular confinement at night. This soon be-
came known as the Auburn or congregate system, and
is still so recognized.
The Pennsylvania system was also adopted at Sing
Sing, N. Y. ; at Thomaston, Me. ; at Providence, R.
I. : at Trenton, N. J., and the Western Penitentiary
of Pennsylvania at Allegheny, but it was soon aban-
doned for the Auburn system in all of them, and since
then the Auburn system, with various modifications,
has prevailed, almost universally, in American peni-
tentiaries.
Aside from these two systems only one other has
been operated to any large extent in the United States,
and that is known as the lease system, which was
adopted from necessity rather than choice in nearly
all of the Southern States, immediately after the war
of the rebellion, but which does not exist in any
Northern State except Nebraska. Upon the libera.
tion of 4,000,000 slaves there came such a sudden and
large increase of prisoners, convicted of felonies, that
sufficient room for their confinement could not be found
in existing prisons, and therefore, as an available and
economical expedient for getting rid of them, they
were leased out to the highest bidders for the term of
their sentences. The lessees were to have the entire
control of the prisoners under certain restrictions as
to care and management, and for the privileges thus
Secured they were to maintain the prisoners, and pay
the State a stipulated price per capita.
This system, in reality, is a modified form of slavery,
but of necessity is far more dangerous and cruel than
unlimited slavery, with that personal ownership in the
master which makes him interested in the preserva-
tion of his property. In the nature of things it ean-
nºt last long in any civilized country, and is now rap-
idly passing away. In fact, the only Southern States
in which no legislative action has yet been taken for
the extinction of the lease system are Georgia, Florida,
Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana. but
in these there is a powerful and growing public senti-
ment which promises its entire and speedy termina-
tlOn. tº
Next to Pennsylvania, in point of time, the State
of Massachusetts became actively interested in the re-
form of prisons through the organization ºf "The
Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline...and
for the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders,” at Bos-
ton, in 1815. This was the second great prison Society
of the world. The third was “The Royal Prison So-
ciety of France,” organized in 1819; and the fourth;
“The Boston Prison Discipline Society,” established
in 1824. & s
These two Massachusetts societies did an active
work for many years in the education of public sent-
ment, and, through their influence largely, the State
has kept abreast of the best experiences of the world
in its methods of dealing with the criminal classes,
and taken as a whole its prison and reformatory
methods are not surpassed by any State in the Union,
and in some respects they are in advance of all others.
The prison for women at Sherborn, and the reforma-
tory for men at Concord, are especially noteworthy,
and the Suffolk county jail in Boston for many years
has been a model for the nation in its enforcement
of the absolute separation of all prisoners awaiting
trial. The probation system for misdemeanants in
force in the city of Boston has also attracted large at-
tention among penologists, and its centralized control
of prisons is worthy of imitation everywhere.
The State of New York, in its efforts for better
methods of prison management, followed Pennsylvania
and Massachusetts very closely, and in one respect
was in advance of both of them. “The House of
Refuge,” opened in 1825, and still in operation at
Blackwell's lsland, was the first institution for juven-
ile delinquents in the United States, and was the out-
growth of the work of ‘’ The Society for the Preven-
tion of Pauperism,” established in 1818, and reorgan-
ized in 1823 as ‘’ The Society for the Reformation of
Juvenile Delinquents.” Since then New York has
always maintained an advanced position in all matters
pertaining to prisons and prison management.
The prison at Auburn, established in 1816, as we
have already seen, created and gave its name to the
congregate system, now almost universally adopted in
the United States, and the reformatory prison at El-
mira, established in 1877, marks a new era in prison
management, and is now the model prison of the world
in its methods of dealing with felons under 30 years
of age convicted of their first offence. The indeter-
minate sentences in force at Elmira are no longer ex-
perimental, and for this class of criminals are now al-
most universally approved by penologists. So, also,
the Elmira plan of segregating the prisoners into three
classes under the mark system, together with indus-
trial training and conditional discharges, are features of
the highest value, which are being rapidly adopted
elsewhere. New York was also the first State in the
Union to establish a hospital, separate from its prisons,
for the custody of insane criminals, which has been in
operation at Auburn since 185S.
. The organization of the New York Prison Associa-
tion in 1844, and its continued activity since, has also
exerted a wide influence in all matters pertaining to
prisons, not only in the United States but in foreign
countries. By the efforts of this association and its ac-
complished secretary, Rev. E. C. Wines, the organi-
Žation of the National Prison Association was effected
in 1870, and of the International Prison Congress in
1ST2, both of which have contributed very largely to the
advancement of prison reforms, and still remain in
active operation.
. The State of Ohio also has taken an advanced posi-
tion in prison improvements, and has in process of
completion a general system of prisons upon a compre-
hensive plan of progressive classification, which pro-
254
PRISON DISCIPLINE.
vides jails so constructed as to secure the absolute sep-
aration of all prisoners awaiting trial (of which a score
9r more have already been completed), district work-
houses for misdemeanants, an intermediate peniten-
tiary, for young men under thirty years of age convicted
of felony for the first time (now being erected at Mans-
field), and retains the old penitentiary at Columbus for
life-prisoners and incorrigibles.
For delinquent children Ohio was the first State in
the Union to establish reformatories upon the family
or cottage system. . The first was for boys, at Lancas-
ter, in 1858, and the second, for girls, at Delaware, in
1878. Ohio has also taken the lead in establishing a
System of paroles for penitentiary prisoners, and in
making a third conviction for felony conclusive evi-
dence of incorrigibility, and subjecting the offender to
imprisonment for life.
During the first half of the present century the
United States were clearly in advance of all other na-
tions in prison management, but since then we have
fallen behind, and other nations, having adopted all
that was best in our American systems, have added
large improvements of their own.
fn recent years, however, through the influence
largely of State boards of charities and correction, and
the conferences and publications of the national and
local prison associations, there has been a revival of
public interest in America upon prison subjects, and
annual improvements are indicated by the action of
Legislatures in almost every State.
The fact that in the United States, for many years
past, there has been a steady increase of crime in a
ratio largely in advance of the increase of population,
has also emphasized the necessity of better methods in
dealing with the criminal classes, and has aroused pub-
lic attention. This increase, as indicated by the U. S.
census reports, is as follows:
Year. Prisoners. Ratio to population.
1850............... 6,737 1 out of 3,442
1860 .............. 19,086 1 “ “ 1,647
1870............... 32,901 1 “ “ 1,171
1880...... ........ 58,609 1 “: “ 855
That this rate of increase has been checked some-
what now seems assured by reports of investiga-
tions in several States, and it is probable that the na-
tional census of 1890 will show a perceptible and pos-
sibly a large decrease in the country as a whole.
The science of penology is, no longer in a chaotic
condition, for its fundamental principles are as wel
established as those of any other Science relating to
social development, and their application in other
countries, and notably in England, has shown that
crime can be so dealt with that, instead of increasing,
it can be steadily diminished. In the nature of things,
preventive measures will always be more potent for
good than any others, but still the necessity will always
remain for intelligent treatment of those actually con-
victed of crime and sentenced to prison confinement.
At the bottom of all effective prison management, and
without which no large results in the reformation of
criminals can be obtained, is such classification as will
cut off, or at least minimize, the contaminating influ-
ences of evil associations.
According to the census, the number of prisoners in
the United States, June 1, 1880, not iºdiº. the in-
mates of reformatory institutions for juvenile delin-
quents, was 58,609. The number of juvenile delin-
quents reported was 11,468. The total number,
therefore, of criminals and quasi-criminals, taken to-
gether, was 70,077. Of the 58,609 prisoners, properly
so called, 30,659 were found in penitentiaries, 7865 in
workhouses and houses of correction, 12,691 in county
jails, 1166, in city prisons, 499 in military prisons, 350
in hospitals for the insane, and 4879 were leased out
to private parties. -
it will be noticed that of these prisoners 14,359, or
nearly one-fourth of the entire number, were in county
jails and city prisons. This, however, only repre-
sents the number actually in confinement on the day
of enumeration. Taking the whole year through, the
number of separate prisoners actually confined in jails
and city prisons would be increased at least tenfold,
and possibly twentyfold ; and if we include village lock-
ups and city station-houses, the number would again
be increased many times. It is very evident, there-
fore, that in the classification of prisoners, with a view
to prevent the contaminating influences of association,
the largest attention by far should be given to county
jails and city prisons, and it is here our American
prisons are most deficient. In fact, at this one vital
point of unrestricted association among prisoners, our
American jails are substantially the same as the jails
of England were found by John Howard a century ago.
In England at the present time jails, by act of Par-
liament, are simply places of detention for prisoners
awaiting trial, and each prisoner is kept entirely sep-
arate from every other prisoner; but in America, with
very rare exceptions, prisoners in jail are herded to-
gether in a common hall, and all the evils of associa-
tion are not only permitted, but enforced, so that the
jail becomes a school of crime and a moral pest-house.
So long as this continues all penologists are agreed
that no large advance in the suppression of crime can
be expected, and they are also agreed that cellular sep-
aration is the only effective remedy.
Several States are making progress in this direction,
notably Massachusetts and Ohio. The Suffolk county
jail, in Boston, has already been referred to as the
pioneer in cellular separation, and in Ohio nearly all
new jails, for several years past, have been constructed
upon what is known as the central corridor or Ohio
plan, which provides for the entire separation of pris-
oners, and in several such separation is now enforced ;
and a law is now under consideration by the Legisla-
ture to make it compulsory in all.
In England, by act of 1877, the control of jails was
vested in a body of prison commissioners, appointed
by and responsible to the Home Secretary, which se-
cured uniformity of action throughout the kingdom,
and contributed largely to the present pre-eminence of
English prisons; but in the United States the control
and maintenance of jails, except in Massachusetts, is
entirely with county authorities, and so long as this
continues progress will necessarily be slow. It is so
clearly evident that jails, together with all other
prisons, should be wholly under control of the State
| authorities, that it would only seem necessary to bring
it to the attention of the public, in order to secure its
adoption, but thus far local and political interests have
been strong enough to prevent affirmative action.
Outside of jails and other places of detention for
prisoners awaiting trial, the prisons of the United
States, as a whole, are not inferior to those of other
countries, either in construction or management, and
many of them are keeping fairly abreast of the best
experience of the world. In each of the Northern
States, and in most of the Southern States, there is at
least one penitentiary for prisoners convicted of
felonies; and in some of the larger States there are
two or three, and all of these, except the Eastern Penn-
sylvania Penitentiary, at Philadelphia, are conducted
upon the congregate or Auburn system of manage:
ment, which maintains cellular separation at night, and
associated labor in silence by day. “º -- sº
The tendency of public sentiment in the United
States now seems to favor such classification of pen-
itentiaries as shall provide for the separate confine-
ment of young men under thirty years of age con-
victed of their first offence. The first prison of
this kind was established at Elmira, N. Y., and is
known as the Elmira Reformatory. Its success in the
reformation of prisoners has been so conspicuous that
several other States have adopted the system. The
reformatories at Concord, Mass., Huntingdon, Pa.,
PRISON DISCIPLINE.
255
and Mansfield, Ohio, are prisons of this kind, and
similar prisons are now being constructed in Minne-
sota and Kansas, and are under legislative considera-
tion in several other Western States.
The distinguishing features of the Elmira system
are : (1) i. sentence. (2) Classification
of prisoners into three grades regulated by a system
of merit and demerit marks. (3) Discharge upon pro-
bationary parole, under supervision. The Elmira
system is distinctly a new departure in prison manage-
ment, and is receiving large attention, not only in the
United States but in other countries, and the general
adoption of its leading features now seems probable.
#. is also a growing sentiment in favor of separate
prisons for women, to be entirely controlled by
women. Two such prisons have been in operation for
several years, one at Indianapolis, Ind., and one at
Sherborn, Mass., and their advantages are so manifest
that others are contemplated in several of the larger
States.
In the United States there are no prisons owned and
controlled by the general government, except a few
territorial jails, and the military prison at Fort Leav-
enworth, Kas. Prisoners convicted of felonies under
federal laws are confined in such State penitentiaries as
may be designated by the Attorney-General of the
United States, under agreements with State authorities.
Of this class of prisoners 1228 were reported July 1,
1886, as Serving out sentences in 55 separate prisons,
in 25 States, 6 Territories, and the District of Columbia.
That a great government like ours should convict its
citizens of violations of its laws, and then consign
them to prisons in which it has no ownership, and to
the care of officials over whom it has no control, is not
Creditable, and attorney-generals for several years
past, in their annual reports, have recommended the
erection of federal prisons for all prisoners of this kind.
Bills for this purpose have been considered by Con-
gress, but no act has been passed.
The attorney-general has also recommended to
Congress some action for the better care of federal
prisoners awaiting trial, or serving sentences for misde-
meanors, of whom there are several thousand, who are
at the present time kept in the local jails of the judi-
cial districts where the offences were committed, and
are substantially outside of any federal care or super-
vision.
Misdemeanants.-For misdemeanants, especially,
there would seem to be an imperative necessity for
Workhouse or reformatory care, for association in idle-
ness, as at present, with hardened criminals in county
jails, cannot be otherwise than demoralizing. For
misdemeanants generally there is now large considera-
tion, among penologists on account of the apparent
inefficiency of existing methods for their treatment.
By the term misdemeanants is meant such persons as
are convicted of offences less than felony, and are
usually sentenced for short periods to jails or work-
houses. As these institutions are wholly under county
or city control they seldom receive that intelligentsuper-
Vision or management which is essential to their highest
efficiency. Penologists are substantially unanimous in
the opinion that district workhouses exclusively under
the control of the State should be provided for this
class of prisoners, and that jails should be solely
places of detention for prisoners awaiting trial.
In view of the fact that workhouse misdemeanants
are largely recidivists for whom short periods of con-
finement have no terrors, it is also advised that sen-
tences should be cumulative, and after a third or fourth
conviction be made indefinite, with a maximum limit
of five years.
. In the United States, in recent years, an obstructive
interference in the management of prisons has arisen
from the opposition of outside labor organizations on
account of the supposed injurious competition of
\rison labor with free labor. In a few of the Northern
tates this influence has been sufficiently powerful to
| secure legislation entirely abolishing contract labor in
prisons, and in New York by act of july, 1888, not only
contract labor but all other forms of labor are practi.
cally abolished in the penal institutions of the State.
This law entirely prohibits the use of machinery in
prisons, and only permits handwork in the manufac-
ture of clothing and other necessary supplies for the
public institutions. This, possibly, may give employ-
ment to prisoners for a month in the year, but for the
remainder of the year there seems no recourse but
idleness. In the estimation of all prison experts, not
only in this country but throughout the world, there
can be nothing more injurious to the discipline of
prisons, or to the conditions essential to the reforma-
tion of prisoners, than enforced idleness. If this
kind of legislation is to prevail, and become permanent,
it must follow as the night the day that American
prisons will retrograde to the condition of the dark
ages, and the progress of the last century will be
practically lost.
That there is ground for objection to contract labor
most penologists agree, and they greatly prefer some
other form of labor, whenever the reformation of pris-
oners is a leading object, but that productive labor of
some kind is an indispensable requisite to the proper
conduct of convict prisons of every grade is considered
by all students of penology and by all practical prison
managers settled i. all dispute. #: is not likely,
however, that a people as intelligent as those of New
York, or of any other State, will submit for any long
period of time to the taxation necessary to maintain
in absolute idleness an army of criminals, and especially
when they discover, as they will, that no good comes
by it either to the laborers outside of the prison walls
or to prisoners inside.
The total amount of prison labor in the United States,
as compared with the total amount of free labor (as
shown by the report of the U. S. Commissioner of
Labor, for 1886), is only ºr of 1 per cent., and there-
fore by the economic law which shows that wages (the
price of labor) are not fixed by the number of laborers
or the producing power of any single manufacturing
industry, but are governed by the total number of
laborers and the total production of all the industries
of every kind in the country, it is absolutely certain
that the abolition or retention of prison labor cannot
have any appreciable effect upon the wages of freelabor
or the price of its products.
The concentration of all prison labor upon a few in-
dustries, doubtless, might affect, injuriously, industries
of the same kind outside, and might compel their oper-
atives to seek other employments on account of over-
production, as often occurs in other cases, but even
then there would be no perceptible influence upon the
general average of wages. As a matter of fact such
concentration has rarely occurred to an injurious extent,
and such cases could easily be corrected by legislation.
The total number of persons employed in prison in-
dustries, and the total number of free laborers in the
same industries outside, is shown by the following sta-
tistics from the census reports of ISS0:
No. of con-
• Total No. Total No. victs to 100
Form of industry. citizens. convicts. citizens.
Agricultural implements... 39,580 2S4 0.7
Bolts and rivets............... 5,064 167 3.3
Boots and shoes............... 134,256 6,358 4.7
Boxes * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 17,400 55 0.3
Brickmaking, quarrying. 66,355 1,016 1.5
Brooms and brushes......... 8,773 1,786 20.3
Buttons........................ • 5,825 29 0.5
Qarpeting ....................... 21,023 304 1.4
Chairs............. .............. 10,575 3,313 31.3
Cigars and tobacco........... 53,297 659 1.2
Clothing......................... 160,813 1,291 0.8
Cooperage....................... 25,973 S21 3.1
Foundry and machinery... 110,351 157 0.1
Furniture................. ..... 48,729 946 1.9
Hardware ...................... 17,201 215 1.2
Harness and saddlery......, 21.446 4.7
1,014
256 PRIVATEERING.
No. 9ſ 999 |tinental countries where high attainments have been
Form of industry. º Tºº viº made in prison management, efficiency of administra:
Hats ........ .... 22871. 396 1.4.” tion by trained officials is considered indispensable, and
Hemp and jute. T.306 392 3.1 without it no prison, however complete in its construc-
Hosiery and knitting........ 28,885 2,417 8.3 tion and equipment, can be a success, either there or
Lime-burning..... ............ 4,570 218 4.7 here.
Marble work.......... ... • * s e º e s e 21,471 320 1.5 In the construction, classification, and management
Printing......................... 58,478 82 0.1 of prisons in the United States a greater advance has
§. º • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 14:32 180 1.2 been made in the last decade than in the previous quar-
§. º § 1% ter of a century. The discussions and interchange of
Stoves and holiowware. gº 1,576 4.5 experiences among penologists at national and inter-
Tanning...... .................. 23,812 87 0.4 national conferences have brought about an intelligent
Tools ............................ 13,679 248 1.8 consensus of opinion which has had a large influence
Trunks and valises.......... 4,534 25 8.8 for good, not only in prison management but also in
Wagons and carriages....... 46,704 1,458 3.1 legislation pertaining to prisons, and there is every
Włºń. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * a s a 1,056 130 12.3 reason to º that in the near future a still larger and
lre-WOrk. ..................... 4,459 208 4.6 more general advance will be made in all our methods
Total....................... 1,059,020 27,302 ... of dealing with the criminal classes.
It appears, therefore, that only 32 industries, all
told, are represented in the prisons of the United States,
and that the aggregate of these industries compared
with the same industries outside is only 2% per cent.
It should be remembered also that a large proportion
of prisoners are employed in the same industries inside
that they were previously engaged in outside, and as
the product of their laborinside cannot be greater than
it was outside the percentage of competition should
receive corresponding reduction. The productive power
of convict labor is also much less than free labor, so
that the 2# per cent of apparent competition, small as
it is, should be largely reduced. In fact, except for
political purposes, it would scarcely be noticed.
As with prison labor, so also with prison administra-
tion, political influences of a partisan character have
been largely injurious. In fact, to a large extent,
prison officers are selected, not because of experience and
trained efficiency in prison management, but because
of their services in securing votes for the dominant po-
litical party, and prisons can be named in which it has
been the established custom for many years that when-
ever a change of politics occurs in the State, all per-
sons within the prison walls, except the prisoners, must
go out, and the result is untrained officials, and terms
of office so brief, as to forbid the attainment of the ex-
perience essential to the highest efficiency in prison
management. Until this evil can be corrected American
prisons must remain at a disadvantage in comparison
with other countries. -
In England the entire prison service is organized un-
der the control of the Secretary of State for the Home
Department, subject to whose orders each class of pris-
ons is governed by central boards of directors and
commissioners, and constantly examined by govern-
ment inspectors and by local justices. The officers
within the prisons are men who devote their lives to
the work, and are appointed and promoted, paid or
pensioned, solely for fitness, experience, and efficiency
in the service. “Politics'' are utterly without in-
fluence in the matter. Every appointment is made
after a rigid examination into qualifications for the
special work in hand, and then is probationary only, its
continuance depending solely upon proved efficiency.
Administrations, parties, and governments may rise or
fall, but from the chairman of directors of convict pris-
ons, now the highest authority in the kingdom on the
subject of prison discipline, down to the humblest turn-
key, every man is secure in his place while he fills it
well; not one can be dislodged or fail of his fair pro-
motion except by failure to do his work.
In France, at Mettray, in connection with the agri-
cultural penitentiary at that place, for forty years past
there has been a training-school for prison officers, and
M. De Metz, its veteran superintendent and the highest
authority in the world upon this subject, has declared
that a good penitentiary establishment is impossible
which does not create a nursery of agents from which
to recruit its staff. So also in Belgium and other con-
As to the character of these improvements there is
now, substantially, no difference of opinion among
American penologists, and their leading requirements
may be briefly summarized as follows:
1. County jails should be solely places for the deten-
tion of prisoners awaiting trial, and in them no pris-
oner should be permitted to associate with any other
prisoner.
2. Prisoners convicted of misdemeanors should be
sent to district workhouses and employed at produc-
tive labor.
3. Prisoners convicted of felony should be sent to
penitentiaries, of which there should be at least two in
each State—one a reformatory for young men, and
the other for life-prisoners and incorrigibles, and no
prison should contain a population ...i. 1000, and
a reformatory not more than 600.
4. All sentences, except for life, should be indefinite,
subject to parole and police supervision within a mini-
mum and maximum limit.
5. All able-bodied prisoners should be kept at pro-
ductive labor, but those in reformatories should re-
ceive such educational and industrial training as will
enable them to earn an honest living after discharge.
6. All prisoners upon discharge should be systemat-
ically aided to obtain employment.
7. Prisoners convicted more than twice for felony
should be adjudged incorrigible, and sentenced for life,
or at least for long periods, with the privilege of parole
for good conduct at the maximum limit of a first con-
viction.
8. Prison officers should be as thoroughly trained for
their duties as are army and navy officers, and their
tenure of office should be as secure and their compen-
sation as liberal.
9. Prisoners convicted of violations of federal laws
should be confined in prisons owned and controlled by
the general government.
10. In all prisons moral and religious culture should
be the leading reformatory influences, and a prison
School, with competent instructors, should be an indis-
pensable requirement. (R. B.)
PRIVATEERING is the practice of sailing armed
vessels owned and officered by private
ºl *::: ersons, but acting under a commission
Km º º rom a state, which authorizes them to
cruise against the commerce of an enemy.
Such commission is usually called a “letter of marque,”
the term being derived from a procedure upon land,
granting license to go across the boundary (“mark '')
and make reprisals. A privateer corresponds to a
troop on land commanded by private parties, but act-
ing under authority of the state, rather than as a
guerilla band. A privateer without a license from
the state would be liable to the charge of piracy. The
use of privateers in Europe dates back to the time
when large public navies had not been formed. During
the Middle Ages the European states without navies
impressed merchant vessels in time of war. Private
parties also engaged in warfare upon the high seas in
PRIVATEERING.
257
their own vessels or at the public expense. There
were also free plunderers, who hired public vessels and
sailed them with crews and outfits of their own, the
expedition of the French against the Portuguese at
Rio Janeiro, in the reign of Louis XIV., being an ex-
ample. It was toward the end of the sixteenth century,
in the middle of the war in the Netherlands, that let-
ters of marque began to be issued. William of Orange
appears to have used this method, and he was met in
retaliation by the Spanish government. The French
adopted privateering about 1555.
The advantage of privateering on the side of a nation
with a small navy, when it is at war with a nation
having a large commercial marine, is very evident.
The United States had this advantage during the war
of the American Revolution, yet Benjamin Franklin,
in his correspondence with the British authorities, de-
clared that though the practice of privateering may be
incidentally beneficial, yet “it is a remnant of piracy,
and is far from being profitable to all engaged in it or
to the nation that authorizes it.” He claimed that
farmers, fishermen, and merchants should not be mo-
lested by enemies even in times of war; and his doc-
trine was incorporated in the treaty of 1785 between
the United States and Prussia, which he fashioned.
This treaty provided that neither of the contracting
parties ... issue any commission to any private
armed vessels against the other, empowering them to
take or destroy its trading vessels, or to interrupt com-
merce. When this treaty expired, in 1799, this
article was not renewed. Had it been renewed, and
had Great Britain and the United States agreed to the
same, it would have been a fortunate thing for the
former power in the war of 1812, and for the latter
in the civil war of 1861. Thomas Jefferson is known
to have approved of the practice of privateering, and
to his influence may be attributed much of the priva-
teering carried on by Americans in the war of 1812.
During the war of the Revolution the people of the
United States had engaged in the practice in but a
small degree, except toward the latter end, New Lon-
don, Conn., became head-quarters for the privateers,
and this fact afforded an excuse to the British for burn-
ing it in September, 1781. The Legislative Assem-
bly of France in 1792 proposed that all nations should
do without privateering, but not one of them adopted
the suggestion.
The war of 1812, the second between Great Brit-
ain and the United States, proved the opportunity of
the Americans to prey upon British commerce. Con-
gress declared war June 18, 1812, but 75 days before
that date there was a list of 18 privateers already fitted
out at Baltimore, and by October 15 there were 26
from New York. The first British ship was captured
July 1, and by July 14 it is said that there were at
least 65 privateers at sea. In November the owners
of 24 privateers from New York petitioned Congress
to reduce the duties on prizes, and to allow captors to
dispose of such prizes. The first privateers of this war
carried less than 10 guns, but later from 20 to 30 guns
were carried. It is stated that a contract was made in
Boston for the building of a privateer in 18 working
days. The estimate is that within 2 years more than 800
British vessels were captured. The list of American
brivateers numbered 250 in all, of which 58 were from
altimore, 55 from New York, 40 from Salem, Mass.,
32 from Boston, and 14 from Philadelphia. At the
opening of the war the effective force of the American
navy consisted of only 7 frigates, with a total of 278
guns.
In 1818 Congress º a law forbidding the enlist-
ment, within the United States, of any person on
board of any privateer belonging to a foreign power.
In 1824 the United States urged upon Great Britain
the abolition of privateering, but that entreaty was not
heeded. Thirty years later, in 1854, Lord Clarendon
advised such abolition. James Buchanan, then the
ambassador of the United States at the court of St.
James, replied that this would not be satisfactory un-
less all the naval powers should agree that war should .
not be waged against private property on the high
seas, in the same way that it had been already agreed
that war should not be waged against private property
on land. While the law of 1818 was very strict in for-
bidding American citizens to enter the service of for-
eign privateers, yet the United States, according to
Buchanan's statement, could not agree that it would
not use its merchantmen in case of war.
A very important step toward the entire abolition
of privateering was taken at the treaty of Paris in
1856. This treaty contained four points relating to pri-
vateering, which it was agreed should be regarded as
an entirety. These points were to bind only those
states assenting, and it was the understanding that
those states signing would try to secure the signatures
of other states not represented. The four points were
as follows: “ 1. Privateering is and remains abolished.
2. The neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the ex-
ception of contraband of war. 3. Neutral goods, with
the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to
capture under an enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, in order
to be binding, must be effective ; that is to say, main-
tained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to
the coast of an enemy.” Nearly all of the secondary
states of Europe and America signed the treaty. The
United States, through W. L. Marcy, then Secretary
of State, refused to sign, but declared that the treaty
would be signed “il. case the clause abolishing pri-
vateering were amended by adding that the private
property of the subject or citizen of a belligerent on
the high seas should be exempted from seizure by pub-
lic armed vessels of the other belligerent, except it be
contraband of war.” The great powers refused to
allow this change. When the civil war of 1861
broke out the U. S. government found itself in a
very difficult position on this account. W. H. Seward,
then Secretary of State, offered the assent of the
United States to the treaty of Paris without the
amendment noted above ; but this was declined by the
governments of Great Britain and France if coupled
with the condition that it was to be made applicable
to the use of privateers by the Confederate States.
. Pres. Lincoln's proclamation of April 15, 1861, call-
ing for 75,000 men to put down the insurrection and
to repossess, the ports, was answered by the granting
of letters of marque and reprisal by the Confederate
States. . Lincoln then, April 19, declared a blockade
of all the Southern ports, and threatened the Confed-
erate privateers with punishment for piracy. A long
debate took place in the British House of Lords in May.
and the ground taken by the President was strongly
denounced. Finally, England declared that no Con-
federate prizes should be carried to the British ports.
The French declared that privateers might enter
their ports with prizes which they could not sell, and
that such lº should remain only 24 hours.
The Spanish government enacted a similar require-
Iment. The recognition of the Confederate States as
belligerents by the British government was a severe
blow to the U. S. government, for the latter was very
pºorly prepared to show that the blockade was an
effective one; The Confederates followed up their ad-
Vantagº by threatening retaliation in case the captured
§ew of the privateer Savannah were treated as pirates.
The trial found the court in doubt as to Wi. the
S. government could treat as pirates those of its
own citizens Who were alleged traitors against it, and
so the ºse fell to the ground. This left the seas open
to the Confederate privateers, and the opportunity was
eagerly seized, Swift steamers, like the Sumter. Nash.
ville, and Alabama, preyed upon the American com-
Illel Cé.
For years after the end of the civil war the U. S.
government sought compensation from Great Britain
on the grºund that the latter had allowed the j
of the privateers from British ports" in is: §.
258
PRJEWALSKI—PROHIBITION PARTY.
treaty of Washington provided for the settlement of
several disputes between these governments, the chief
of which referred to those demands known as the Ala-
bama Claims (q.v.). The commission met in Decem-
ber, 1871, at Geneva, and, after a hearing of 9 months,
agreed upon the “Geneva award.” By its terms
$15,500,000 in gold were paid by Great Britain to the
United States for the satisfaction of the claims referred
to the consideration of the tribunal. Congress subse-
Kłuently constituted a court to take charge of the Ala-
bama Claims, which court has but recently (1888) com-
pleted its business. According to the present agree-
ments between the leading nations of the world, there
is no probability that any war hereafter will be attended
by such acts of privateering as have been frequent in
the past. (F. G. M.)
PRJTWALSKI, NICHOLAs voN (1839–1888), Rus-
sian explorer, was born March 31, 1839, at Smolensk.
Educated at the Military Academy in St. Peters-
burg, he became instructor in history at Warsaw. In
1867, at his own request, he was sent to East Siberia,
where he spent two years. Then he journeyed south-
ward to the Yangtsekiang, and thence northward,
crossing the Desert of Gobi on his way to Irkutsk,
which he reached in October, 1873. In his next expe-
dition, 1876–77, he explored Lob-Nor, and the Altyn-
Tag Mountains. In 1879 he crossed into Thibet, and
had approached within 120 miles of Lassa when he
was obliged to turn off towards the Hoangho, and
thence back to Orenburg. In 1883 he again crossed
the Desert of Gobi, discovered the sources of the
Hoangho, and again reached the Yangtsekiang and
Lob-Nor in 1885. He gathered a vast zoölogical col-
lection, containing over 500 reptiles and 5000 birds.
He held the rank of colonel in the Russian general
staff. His explorations have been published by the
Russian Geographical Society, but he also published
Journeys among the Mongols and in the Deserts of
North Thibet, 1870–73 (1875–76); Journeys in Thibet,
1879–80 (1883). His travels were translated into Eng-
lish, and the geographical results given in the Proceed-
ſings of the Royal Geographical Society (London, 1887).
He died in Central Asia in 1888,
PROCTOR, RICHARD ANTHONY (1837–1888), as-
tronomer, was born at Chelsea, Eng., March 23, 1837.
He was educated at King's College, London, and St.
John's College, Cambridge, and graduated B. A. in
1860. He devoted himself to astronomical labors,
and from his analysis of the researches of the Her-
schels, Struve, and others, as well as his own, he
formed a new theory of the stellar universe. For a
time he was a member of the Roman Catholic Church,
but he left it in 1875 on the ground that certain of his
scientific views were incompatible with its faith. Proc-
tor was a most industrious writer and lecturer, but
never held a really prominent position among Scientists.
He was made fellow of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety in 1866, and was its honorary secretary for a few
months in 1872. He spent the winters of 1873–74
and 1875–76 in lecturing tours in the United States.
In 1881 he took up his residence at St. Joseph, Mo.,
having married as his second wife a lady of that city,
and he was naturalized as an American citizen. In
1887 he removed to Marion co., Florida, where he began
to build an observatory. He died suddenly on Sept.
12, 1888, at New York, having come thither on i.
way to Europe, where he was to lecture. His princi-
pal works are Saturn and its System §§ ; Gnomonic
Star Atlas, recording 324,000 stars (1866); Constella-
#ion Seasons (1867); Half-hours with the Telescope
(1868); Half-hours with Stars (1869); Other Worlds
fham Ours, with a star-atlas (1870); The Sun (1871);
The Moon (1873); Transits of Venus (1874); Treatise
on the Cycloid and Cycloidal Curves (1878). He also
published an interesting pamphlet on Whist, and con-
tributed largely to periodicals, besides editing Knowl-
edge, a weekly journal. At the time of his death an
elaborate work, The Old and Neu! Astronomy, was in
course of publication. Proctor's labor was spent in
diffusing among the people a general, though not exact,
knowledge of astronomy, and in awakening interest in
its researches. His successive works combined theory
with ascertained facts, and discussed them in such a
way as steadily to diminish his reputation with practi-
cal astronomers. -
PROHIBITION PARTY. This party received its
national organization by a convention of nearly 500
delegates from twenty States and the District of Co-
lumbia, assembled in Farwell Hall, Chicago, Ill., Sept.
1, 1869. The convention continued its sessions during
two days. The call was issued by a committee of those
favoring independent political action during the ses-
sion of the R. W. Grand Lodge of Good Templars,
held in Oswego, N. Y., in the month of May previous.
The committee consisted of James Black, of Lan-
caster, Pa.; Prof. Daniel Wilkins, of Bloomington,
Ill. ; John N. Stearns, of New York city; Julius A.
Spencer, of Cleveland, O., and John Russell, of De-
troit, Mich. When the convention assembled Mr. D.
R. Pershing, of Indiana, called the meeting to order,
read the call, and nominated Rev. John Russell, of
Michigan, as temporary chairman. On taking the
chair Mr. Russell, among other things, said : “The
people who fear God and regard the social and moral
welfare of their fellow-men are, in all parts of the
country, beginning to realize the imperious necessity
for some stronger and more formal bond of union be-
tween those who favor legal prohibition of the liquor
traffic. While separated by other political party lines,
and absorbed in other issues, we are unable to act effi-
ciently together for what we conscientiously believe to
be the most important moral and political movement
of the age. Hence, the object of our meeting is the
organization of a separate and independent political
party, presenting complete legal prohibition of the
manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks as its para-
mount issue.” These sentiments were heartily ap-
plauded by the convention. Upon request of the
chairman, Rev. Dr. Evarts invoked the divine bless-
ing. After the appointment of secretaries and the
usual committees, Hon. James Black, of Pennsyl-
vania, was chosen permanent president, together with
a vice-president from each of the States represented.
The committee on platform and resolutions was
appointed as follows: Rev. J. C. Stoughton, of Illi-
nois; Rev. John Russell, of Michigan ; Henry D.
Cushing, of Massachusetts; D. R. Pershing, of Indi-
all a L. Haines, of Ohio; Dr. S. W. Wilson, of
Wisconsin ; O. K. Harris, of District of Columbia ;
Timothy Parsons, of Missouri; M. D. Bartlett, of
Minnesota ; E. C. Judson, of California ; Dr. Chas.
Jewett, of Tennessee; Rev. J. H. Chase, of Vermont;
Rev. Wm. Goodell, of Connecticut; Frank Walker,
of Iowa; Hon. Gerritt Smith, of New York; S. B.
Ransom, of New Jersey, and Hon. Robt. M. Foust,
of Pennsylvania. A preamble and six resolutions
were presented, carefully considered, and adopted as a
latform. The second resolve, expressive of the chief
intention of the party, is as follows: “That the traf.
fic in intoxicating beverage is a dishonor to Chris-
tian civilization, inimical to the best interests of so-
ciety, a political wrong of unequalled enormity, sub-
versive of the ordinary objects of government, not
capable of being regulated or restrained by any system
of license whatever; but imperatively demands for
its suppression effective legal prohibition, by both
State and national legislation.”
Previous to this convention, however, the question
had been tentatively discussed in temperance societies,
lectures, and in newspapers, and initiative local organi-
zations had been effected in several of the States.
Michigan led the way by a small convention of about
forty persons, held in the city of Detroit, Jan. 8, 1867.
As there was no political canvass at the time this
meeting simply declared by resolution in favor of a
separate party, and appointed a State committee au-
PRONGHORN.
259
thorized to call future conventions, Illinois followed
by a much larger assemblage, of some 200 delegates,
at Bloomington, Dec. 9, 1868. And to Ohio belongs
the honor of placing the first State ticket in nomina-
tion by a convention held at Mansfield, July 14, 1869.
For this ticket 679 votes were cast in that State.
The following is the opening sentence of a call for
the first national nominating convention, issued Dec.
9, 1871, and signed by John Russell, chairman, and
Gideon T. Stewart, secretary : “The friends of the
National Prohibition party are hereby requested to
assemble in national convention at the city of Colum-
bus, O., on the 22d day of February, 1872, at 11 A.
M., for the purpose of putting in nomination candi-
dates for the offices of President and Vice-President
of the United States, to be supported at the next en-
suing national election ; and of transacting such other
business as the convention, when assembled, shall
deem advisable.” At the convention, assembled pur-
suant to the above call, Hon. Henry Fish, of Michi-
gan, was chosen temporary chairman, and subsequently
Hon. S. B. Chase, of Pennsylvania, was elected to
preside permanently over the deliberations. Prof.
}. M. Avery, of Ohio, was elected secretary, with
Capt. Chas. P. Russell, and several other assistants.
Fis convention adopted a broad platform consist-
ing of a preamble and 17 resolutions on various sub-
jects; the two subjects of chief importance which re-
ceived unequivocal endorsement were the complete
legal outlawry of the liquor traffic, and impartial, yet
properly qualified, suffrage, without distinction of
“sex or race.” Hon. James Black, of Pennsylvania,
received the nomination for the Presidency, and Rev.
John Russell, of Michigan, for the Vice-Presidency,
at the hands of this convention. For this ticket there
were cast a total of 5508 votes, in six States–Con-
necticut, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio,
and Pennsylvania.
The second national nominating convention met in
the city of Cleveland, O., May 17, 1876. Rev. H. A.
Thompson, D. D., of Ohio, presided, and Charles P.
Russell, of Michigan, was secretary. Hon. Green
Clay Smith, of Kentucky, was made the nominee for
the Presidency, and Hon. G. T. Stewart, of Ohio, for
the Vice-Presidency. The platform of 1872 was re-
affirmed, and 15 new resolutions were adopted. This
year there were cast 97.57 votes for the Presidential
ticket by 17 States.
On June 17, 1880, the party held its third nominat-
ing convention, again at Cleveland, O., and Rev. A. A.
Miner, D. D., of Boston, Mass., presided. Gen. Neal
Dow, of Maine, was unanimously chosen as Presiden-
tial candidate, and for Vice-Presidential nominee
Rev. H. A. Thompson, of Ohio, was selected. The
ticket received 11,610 votes.
The great social and semi-religious temperance re-
vival which spread over the country during the pre-
vious decade i. by 1881 fairly crystallized into its
logical sequence of prohibition sentiment. But many
of the more active new workers now in the field were
but imperfectly informed regarding the real status of
the Prohibition party. Hence, at a convocation com-
osed chiefly of such new recruits, held at Lake Bluff,
ll., in August, 1881, an organization known as the
“Home Protection Party'' was effected. However,
at a subsequent conference, convened at Chicago Aug.
23, 24, 1882, composed of 341 delegates, there was lit-
tle trouble in effecting a union of the two organiza-
tions under the name of “Prohibition Home Protec-
tion Party.” Even this change of title lasted only
two years, when the original name of “Prohibition
Party'' was restored by a vote of the next national
nominating convention, which was held in Pittsburg,
Pa., July 25, 1884.
This convention marked a bright era in the history
of the party. There were 602 delegates present. The
platform, although newly constructed in form, was
not essentially changed in sentiment. Prof. Samuel
Dickie, of Michigan, was selected to preside, Qyer the
deliberations. Ex-Gov. John P. St. John, of Kansas,
received the nomination for the Presidency, and Hon.
William Daniel, of Maryland, for the Vice-Presidency.
More than 150,000 votes were cast for this ticket in the
nation. The late Hon. John B. Finch was made
chairman of the national committee, and infused new
life and force into the operations of the party.
After the death of Mr. Finch, which occurred. Qct.
3, 1887, the present incumbent, Prof. Samuel Dickie,
of Michigan, was called to that position. wº
The fifth national convention, held at the city of
Indianapolis, Ind., on May 30, 31, 1888, composed of
1046 delegates, nominated Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, of
New Jersey, as its candidate for the Presidency, and
Rev. Dr. John A. Brooks, of Missouri, for the Vice-Presi-
dency. It is reckoned that 242,984 votes were polled
for the ticket, being about 100,000 more than were cast
for the party in 1884.
The comparatively slow progress of the movement
is a source of discouragement to persons of sanguine
temperament. But patience is an essential virtue in a
reformer. Drunkenness and its adjunct, the liquor
traffic, constitute a chronic disease of the body-politic.
Such difficulties yield but slowly even to the best of
treatment. Prohibitionists regard the temperance re-
form as a complex question, both social and political.
In its legal relations it is strictly a political measure,
demanded by strong moral considerations. The legal-
ized liquor traffic is a counter-educating and counter-
acting force, standing directly in the way of all moral
efforts to save society from the direful consequences of
using alcoholic intoxicants.
License or taxation provides for the regulation and
continuance of the business, but not for its suppres-
sion. Prohibition is the only line of policy which aims
logically at, and seriously contemplates the utter over-
throw of the dram-shop system. Therefore the par-
amount issue which the Prohibition party presents is,
“Prohibition versus Legalization of the Liquor Traf-
fic.” They indict the business of making and vending in-
toxicating beverages as grossly immoral in its nature and
tendencies, in violation of the sound principles of po-
litical economy, and at variance with every object of
good government, constituting a political wrong of un-
equalled enormity. For this “ gigantic crime of
crimes” absolute prohibition is the only adequate rem-
edy, to secure which involves the responsible agency
of a political party.
They regard the nation as being again confronted
with the solution of a great public question, which is
of So radical a nature as to be utterly incapable of any
just compromise. The question is not whether we
shall have a few saloons or many, but whether we
shall have any or none at all. Only such a condition
can justify the formation of a new political party in
this country, but when such a political question does
present itself for settlement, there is no other way out
of the difficulty.
Postulating, as somewhat axiomatic, that “ Gov-
ernment by the people involves government through
parties,” and that “political parties are either strong
or weak to handle public questions in proportion as
the members are united or divided on the particular
question to be adjusted,’’ the main argument against
the older parties and in favor of the new may be placed
in syllogistic form thus : Where the members of a
political party are radically and irreconcilably divided
on any question, it thereby becomes impossible for the
party to give positive and effective legislation on that
question. But members of the two leading parties are
radically and irreconcilably divided on the question of
prohibiting the liquor traffic. Therefore, it is impos-
sible for either of them to give positive and effective
prohibition of the liquor traffic. Hence the need and
existence of the radical Prohibition Party. (J. R.)
PRONGHORN, or PRONGBUCK. See ANTELope,
AMERICAN.
260
PROPERTY.
PROPERTY. Property consists of material things,
and rights growing out of such things, to and of whic
one has the exclusive right and possession. The earli-
est division of property known to the English law was
into “real” and personal.” So far as the subject
matter is concerned, real property includes land, min-
erals in it, what is grown or built upon it, and certain
rights which are connected with or issue out of it.
All other forms of property whatsoever are personal.
REAL PROPERTY.
The law governing real property was developed
under the feudal system. The theory
iº", *. of this system was that the king was
Am... Rep.). the absolute owner of all the land
in the kingdom and granted por-
tions of it to certain of his subjects who, in turn, sub-
divided their respective shares and granted portions to
others. What was conveyed by these grants, however,
was not the land itself but an interest or an estate in
the land, and therefore every one who held land, ex-
cept the king, was called a tenant because he held
under some superior lord, and all held, finally, either
mediately or immediately, of the king, who was the
lord paramount. The interest in land which a subject
had was called his estate.
All subjects held their lands feudally ; that is, under
Some Superior to whom they were bound to render
allegiance and service in return for the land; the king
held allodially; that is, he held the land itself, and was
under no obligations to any superior.
The tenure by which these tenants, if they were
freemen, generally held the land was upon condition
of performing military service ; of following their lord
to the war and furnishing from among their retainers a
certain number of armed men. The tenant also swore
allegiance to his lord and promised to be subject to his
commands. If the tenant was not a freeman the ser-
vices he rendered were of some menial kind.
There were certain incidents connected with this
military tenure. The tenant was bound to ransom his
lord if he was captured ; to pay the expense of making
his lord's eldest son a knight ; to give his eldest daugh-
ter a marriage portion. He was also bound to pay for
the privilege of being his lord's tenant. The lord was
entitled to the wardship of his tenant's heir if he was
a minor. The tenant was obliged to pay for the priv-
ilege of transferring his estate, and, by reason of the
lord's superior title, the land reverted to him when the
tenant died and left no heirs. -
As these military tenures became vexatious on ac-
count of the uncertainty of the amount and time of
service which the tenant was to render, they were all
changed, in the reign of Charles II., into what was
called tenure by free and common socage, when the
military feature was abolished and the service upon
which the estate was held was of some certain and
honorable nature, as payment of money, or perform-
ance of some work or duty, to the lord. This tenure
was still feudal in its nature and had many of the in-
cidents of military tenure, but the amounts or fines to
be paid were fixed by statute, and the service was ren-
dered less onerous.
This socage tenure, as it is called, is probably the one
under which lands in this country were held under the
Tºnglish grants. Every acre, as it has been said, was
held either mediately or immediately of the king. By
the Revolution the Sovereign, proprietary, and terri-
torial rights of the crown of Great Britain passed to
the people of the various colonies. As the people of
each colony took the place of the former sovereign, and
the social condition which grew up was entirely differ-
ent in its structure from the old order, the superior
lords disappeared, and most of the incidents of the
feudal tenure fell into disuse. Whether the holding
of lands in the United States is feudal or allodial is a
question about which the opinions of jurists of equal
eminence differ. No State, it is believed, ever asserted
the claims of tenure and fealty from its citizens by
reason of their holding of land. Some States have
rejected the existence of tenure and fealty; and others
have, by statute, abolished feudal tenure. Some of the
courts of last resort have declared that lands are held
allodially. Perhaps the true view is, that while the
nomenclature of real-estate law and the forms of con-
yeyancing still suggest some traces of feudal tenure,
lands are actually held as nearly allodially as they can
be when the holders are members of society under any
form of government. Allegiance of the citizen to the
government is still obligatory, but is independent of
the holding of real estate. And the claims of eminent
domain and escheat are not put upon the ground of
any superior title in the government, but are enforced
by reason of the agreement and consent of the citizens.
Land titles in parts of this country—as Louisiana
and some of the South-western Territories—are derived
from the civil, and not from English common, law. The
nature of the estates, and the rights and obligations of
their owners, are, however, essentially the same for all
practical purposes at present under either system.
The interest which a man has in lands is still called
his estate, and may be of greater or less duration.
Under the feudal system a man could not have posses.
sion of the soil unless he had a freehold estate, which
was defined to be “the possession of the soil by a free-
man.” This did not mean the unqualified and abso-
lute ownership of the land, but the possession of it
under the superior rights and title of his lord, as dis-
tinguished from the mere right to use the soil. Under
the artificial system of the ɺ law it was thought
a freeman could not have the possession of the soil for
a less period than his life--a freehold estate came to be
an estate for life at least; and so now the smallest
estate in real property is an estate for life, and a free-
hold is either an estate for life or a greater interest.
An estate for life may be created to last either during
the life of the person to whom it is granted or during
the life of some other person. In either case its exist-
ence is measured by a life, and the rights of the owner
are limited to that period ; he cannot sell a larger
interest than he possesses, nor can he dispose of it by
will. At the expiration of the life the estate ceases to
exist. A life-estate may be created by deed or will or
by operation of law. Upon the death of a husband or
wife the law gives to the survivor an estate for life in
the lands of the decedent. What portion of the de-
cedent's estate shall go to the survivors is generally
fixed by the intestate laws of the different States. The
homestead estate is an interest in lands which is created
by statute in most of the United States. Its general
incidents are similar to those of a life-estate, although
it sometimes continues after the death of the husband
for the benefit of the wife during widowhood, or of the
minor children. This interest is intended for the ben-
efit and support of the family, and is therefore allowed
to a householder, who is also the head of a family, or
to the widow and minor children. Sometimes, how-
ever, it is allowed to any householder, although unmar-
ried. It cannot be taken in execution for the owner's
debts, and its disposal is generally restrained so far as
not to allow the object for which it is created, that is,
the support of the family, to be defeated.
The largest freehold known to the law is an estate
in fee-simple, which is created by granting or devising
land to one and his heirs forever. This interest is
without end. The owner may change, but the estate
will not diminish. The then owner may grant or
devise out of his fee-simple a smaller estate, as for life,
to another person, but at the expiration of this life-
estate the fee will return to the owner, or those who
then represent him ; or he may, by selling his fee, give
to the purchaser the same unending interest that he
possessed. He may dispose of his entire interest by
will, subject to the rights of his surviving wife and to
special statutory limitations peculiar to individual
States, and, if he die without a will, his estate will
PROPERTY.
261
seek for his heir to the remotest degree of relation-
ship.
º, interest which is smaller than a life-estate or
freehold is an estate for a term of years, or the usual
tenancy, as it is generally understood. . The tenant has
not the possession of the soil, but only the use of the
land. Of so much dignity and value did the old law
esteem the freehold that an estate for even a period of
years very much longer than an ordinary life was cºn-
sidered of less importance. And this theoretical dis-
tinction is still observed. This estate is in Some re-
spects peculiar, for while the property is itself land,
the interest of the tenant, being less than a freehold, is
personal property and not real estate, and, at the same
time, as to most of his obligations in respect of his
property, to all persons except his landlord he is held
responsible practically as the owner of the land. The
mutual rights and duties of the tenant and his landlord
are generally regulated by contract between them, but,
in the absence of any agreement, they are governed by
the rules of law usually applicable to real property.
The disposition of the estate, if the tenant dies before
the expiration of his term, is governed by the rules
which regulate personal property, and not those which
control the descent of realty.
An estate may be created to begin or end upon the
happening, or not happening, of some event, and, in
this case, it is said to depend upon a condition. . Most
of the cases where real estate is given as security for
debt are conditional estates; that is, an estate granted
. condition that it shall cease when the debt is
33.1Cl.
} The whole of an estate may be granted or devised to
one person, or it may be divided into portions for suc-
cessive periods, and each be given to a different indi-
vidual. So a fee-simple may be carved up so as to
take out of it several smaller estates before the final
vesting in possession of the fee. As, however, the
policy of the law is against any restraint upon the free-
dom of alienation, the limit of time within which these
smaller estates may be created is generally regulated
by statute.
A person may have certain rights in the land of
another, and these are regarded as interests in real
estate. A man may acquire the right of way over the
land of another person ; and adjoining owners have
certain mutual rights of support in the houses or lands
of each other.
An interest in land may be divided into a legal and
an equitable estate, and the owner of each has his own
special enjoyment and rights. This is accomplished by
giving the legal estate to one as trustee for another;
the latter is said to have the equitable estate.
The trustee is possessed of whatever extent of inter-
est is necessary to enable him to carry out the provis-
ions of the trust, and his management of the estate is
intended to be for the benefit of the person for whom
he holds it. The interests of the beneficiaries, or
equitable owners, and whatever rights of enjoyment or
disposal they have, are usually defined by the terms of
the instrument which creates the trust. These estates
are created for a great variety of purposes; frequently
for the benefit of some one who, on account of some
disability, cannot hold the legal estate, or for some
improvident person who would squander the estate if
he had full control, but for whose support some pro-
vision is desired. They are also created in order to
preserve the estate intact for the person who is to be
finally entitled to it, while the income is to be dis-
tributed to different individuals for a period of years,
or one or more lives. The duty of the trustee is to
hold and manage the estate, and distribute the income
as the trust directs. To make a good trust the trustee
must have some actual duties to perform ; if he is
made the depository simply of the legal title, the law
will strike down the trust and west the legal as well as
the equitable estate in the person who is entitled to the
latter. When the purposes of the trust have been
accomplished, and the equitable estate vests in those
who are finally entitled to it, the trust dies out, and
the legal and equitable estates merge in the same
OWImer. * º
The owner of an estate may be one individual, or
several who are joint owners. These joint owners may
have the same quantity of interest, and hold by the
same title, and acquire their estate at the same time;
or they may have simply one possession of the same
iece of property but for different interests—as one for
#. the other in fee—and they may have acquired
their titles at different times. 3-
The extent of the owner's enjoyment in, and right
of disposal of his estate depends upon the extent of
his interest in the land. The right of disposal by will
is, however, restricted by statutory regulations, in many
of the States, in two directions: first, in fixing at what
period of time before the death a devise or grant for
charitable uses can be made ; and second, what share
of the estate cannot be devised but must be left for the
decedent's family. Subject to these limitations, he
has, generally, the right to do as he pleases with his
own property, provided he does not injure the rights
of others in the same property or infringe, upon the
rights of the use and enjoyment of his neighbors in
their possessions.
. It is a general rule in this country that real estate is
liable for the payment of the debts of its owner. . A
creditor can, by legal process, put his debt in such a
position that it becomes a lien, under statutory limita-
tions as to time, etc., upon the real estate of his debtor,
and when this is done, a transfer of the property by
the owner will convey it subject to this lien. Real
estate is also liable to be taken by the government,
either by taxation or under the right of eminent
domain. This latter right, however, is subject to the
conditions that it can be taken for the public benefit
only, and upon due compensation to the owner.
Title to real estate is defined by Blackstone to be
“the means whereby a man cometh to the just pos-
session of his property.” Where the right of posses-
|sion, the right of property, and actual possession exist
in the same person, he has a perfect title. Title may
be acquired by occupancy. This is the taking possession
of land which has no owner, or the taking possession
of land which belongs to another and holding the
same adversely to the title of the real owner. It
may also be acquired by the act of the parties, as
by gift or sale—and this, in the case of real estate,
must be by a deed—or by will ; or by the operation
of laws, as by a judicial sale, a sale under legal
proceedings, or by forfeiture; or by descent, where
the law casts the property upon whomsoever it desig-
nates to be entitled to it, in case the owner dies with-
out a will ; or by escheat, which is a proceeding by
which the title to lands, where the owner dies with-
out any heirs, becomes wested in the commonwealth.
PERSONAL PROPERTY.
Personal property includes every species of property
See Vol. XVIII. that is not real estate, or an estate in
p. 664 (p. 677 land. To understand what this ex-
Am. Rep.). pression means it is necessary to re-
call what the old law designated an
“estate in land,’’ to wit, the possession of the soil by
a freeman. As the smallest estate of freehold was
the life-estate, any interest which was less than this in
value or dignity was simply personal estate. The word
“estate '' does not fairly express the owner's inter-
est in reference to personal property. For “estate ''
meant his interest in land, whereas in the case of per-
sonalty the owner possessed not an “interest” in it,
but the very thing itself. The property is designated
as “personal'' because, unlike land which has a fixed
location and is immovable, this can accompany its
owner's person wherever he goes, subject only to the
limitation inherent in the particular case. After the
possession of the soil, the next interest in it is the
262
PROPERTY.
right to use it for a certain time. As, therefore, per-
Sonal property includes, as to its subject-matter, both
land and other things, the first division of it is into
chattels real, including every interest in land less than
a freehold ; and chattels personal, all other things
whatsoever. Chattels personal are said to include
things in possession and things in action ; and by the
latter is meant the right to sue, as for the recovery of
a debt. This division is incomplete, for there is a
right to sue for a specific thing when one has been de-
prived of it; and, on the other hand, there are certain
Species of intangible property which imply more than
a right to Sue, as one's interest in a partnership or in
the stock of a company. A more accurate division
of chattels personal would be into things corporeal,
including all tangible, visible property ; and things in-
corporeal, or all property which is not tangible and
visible. Property may pass or be changed from one
species into another. &º and minerals, when not
separate from the land, are part of it, but by sever-
ance become personal property; and lumber which is
used for the construction of a dwelling becomes part
of the realty. Gold, which is realty before it is mined,
becomes by severance a corporeal chattel, the owner-
ship of which is lost by a loan of the money coined
from the gold, and in its place the lender has simply
the incorporeal property, the debt for which he may
sue. In animals that are wild by nature one has a
qualified property so long as they remain upon his
premises.
Certain kinds of property lie along the border line
between realty and personalty. hese are things
which, from their nature, would be considered personal
property, but, by reason of their connection with land,
pass as part of the realty. Heirlooms, as family pic-
tures, armor, title-deeds, are strictly chattels, but as
formerly their importance consisted principally in their
connection with the land, they were considered part
of the inheritance and, at the death of the owner,
would go with the land to the heir and not to the
executor as personal property. They are of little im-
portance in this country, as title-deeds are generally
recorded, and, under the various intestate laws, there
is less distinction than formerly between the heir and
those who are entitled to the personal estate. Em-
blements, or the products of the soil, may be realty or
personalty. The question as to which, they are is of
importance chiefly between the landlord and the ten-
ant upon the termination of a tenancy. Fixtures,
also, are personal chattels which are attached to the
land. Whether these are strictly chattels or become
part of the realty are questions of great importance in
transactions that may arise between a seller and pur-
chaser of land, or between the heir and executor of
the deceased owner of land ; or between a mortgagee
who has loaned money upon the security of premises
used as a mill or factory, etc., and the creditor of the
mortgagor who is seeking satisfaction out of the per-
sonal property of his debtor; or between a landlord
and tenant when the dispute is as to what things the
latter has the right to remove at the expiration of his
tenancy. In determining these respective rights,
great attention was formerly paid to the manner of the
connection of the chattel to the land, the rule being
that whatever was built into the land, including the
buildings, became part of it and belonged to the
owner of the realty. But now greater stress is laid
upon the intention of the parties and the use for
which the fixture was intended, and very little upon
the nature of the physical connection. The leaning is
strongly in favor of allowing the tenant to remove all
fixtures placed upon the premises by him for the pur-
pose of #. trade.
Among many of the most valuable species of prop-
erty in modern times are incorporeal chattels, as stock
in corporations, or patent- or copy-rights.
Ownership in chattels may be transferred either by
delivery of the chattel itself, or by delivery of that
which is evidence of its ownership. Personalty has
also some of the incidents of realty. A chattel may
be owned by one person, or by several as joint owners.
Interests, analogous to present and future estates in
realty, may be created in chattels. This, of course, is
true generally of chattels not intended for immediate
consumption or which are perishable, but especially of
those which yield an income. The chattel may be
given to one for a term of years, or for life, and, upon
the termination of this interest to another. Chattels
are frequently the subjects of deeds of trust. The same
general rules against creating perpetuities apply in case
of chattels as in realty.
There is a difference between land and personalty in
the rules of law which govern each. Land has a fixed
locality, and the rules of law which control it are those
of the jurisdiction in which it lies, no matter what
may be the domicile of the owner, while the law which
controls personal property is, generally, that of the
domicile of its owner. While this is generally true,
there are some exceptions to it; as, in the case of the
transfer of stock, the manner of doing this may be
regulated by the law of the jurisdiction of the corpo-
ºn. although that might not be the holder's domi-
ClF6.
Title, which is the true foundation of ownership,
may, in the case of personal property, be acquired by
occupancy; by the act of the parties; by the act of
the law. Possession is evidence of title, but not com-
plete. A perfect title is where possession and the
right of possession are in the same person.
Occupancy is the taking possession of a chattel which
belonged to no one, with the intention of appropriating
it. §. may acquire title to a chattel which has no
owner by taking possession of it as his own, or by find-
ing a lost chattel, to which the finder has title against
all the world except the real owner. Title is acquired
in this way, also, to the increase of animals, the off-
spring being the property of the owner of the female ;
and also to the products of the exertions of one's
brain, as his inventions.
Title by the act of the parties is by gift, where a
chattel is voluntarily transferred from one to another;
or by sale or exchange, where the property is transferre
for a price, or for some other article ; or by will. Title
by the operation of the law is where the property is
transferred by a judicial sale, as upon execution for
the payment of a debt; or by the intestate law when
the owner dies without a will. In many States the
personal property of one who dies intestate and with-
out leaving any known person who may be entitled to
his property under the statutes of distribution is
vested in the commonwealth by process of escheat.
LITERARY PROPERTY.
It seems to be agreed that the right to property is
founded upon occupancy, or first posses-
º * sion. “Occupancy,” says Blackstone,
Km. R. “is the taking possession of those
things which before belonged to nobody.
This is the true ground and foundation of all property,
or of holding those things in severalty, which by the
law of nature, unqualified by that of society, were
common to all mankind. When it was once agreed
that everything capable of ownership should have an
owner, natural reason suggested that he who could first
declare his intention of appropriating the thing to his
own use, and actually took it into possession, should
thereby gain the absolute property of it.” Upon the
ground of occupancy depends one's right to what is
called his literary property. Literary property is the
right one has to the possession, use, and disposal of his
own intellectual productions. A person is pre-emi-
nently the first possessor or occupant of his own ideas,
thoughts, and sentiments. The possessor of these
mental products may either keep them to himself or
by speech freely give them to the public, or put them
into the form of property by committing them to
PROPERTY.
263
manuscript or print. When these thoughts take the
form of property the law treats them as it does all
other property. The owner has the right to claim
brotection against the improper use or appropriation
I. others of his property; he may give it away or
abandon it to the general public ; he may derive an in-
come from it, may sell it, or dispose of it by will. Al-
though it is necessary, in order to receive the protec-
tion of the law, that, literary property be put into
some form, the author's property does not consist in
the form or the substance upon which his mental pro-
ductions are inscribed, but in the thoughts, sentiments,
and ideas themselves.
The author's rights in and to his property depend
upon what is called the common law and certain statu-
tory enactments.
trol and disposal of his manuscript has never been
doubted, but whether he had a common law copyright,
that is, a right to multiply and distribute for his own
sole benefit copies of his work, or whether by such
multiplication and distribution the author did not lose
his exclusive right by abandonment to the public, have
been debated questions. These differences of opinion
have been further emphasized by the consideration of
the effect of copyright statutes. The various opinions
upon this subject seem to group themselves into three
views : First, that at common law an author had the
right of multiplying copies for his own benefit; sec-
ondly, that he had not such right until it was given to
him by statute ; and, thirdly, that, although he had a
copyright at common law, the statute took it away
from him and gave him instead a statutory copyright,
which thereafter was the only one he possessed. In
the history of judicial discussions upon the subject of
the author's right of property all of these views at
times have come to the surface. In some of the
earlier cases injunctions against the piracy of books
were granted upon the ground of the author's common
law copyright. In 1710, in the reign of Anne, the
first copyright statute was passed. The first view of
this statute seems to have been that it did not take
away the common law copyright, but was intended to
afford additional remedies against piracy. In 1769 the
question of the piracy of Thomson's Seasons came be-
fore the court. In this case (Millar vs. Taylor, 4 Burr.
2303) the statutory copyright had expired, and a major-
ity of the court held that literary property did exist
at common law and was not taken away by the statute.
The same question again presented itself for decision
in 1774, in the case of Donaldson vs. Becket (4 Burr.
2408), which was carried upon appeal to the House of
Lords, where the final judgment, which has been the
law from that day to this, was that the statute of Anne
had taken away the author's common law copyright,
and the only rights of publication he had thereafter
were such as the statute secured to him. And this de-
cision was followed by the Supreme Court of the United
States, when the same question presented itself, in the
case of Wheaton vs. Peters (8 Pet. 591), under our own
statute of copyright.
Copyright statutes are intended to protect the au-
thor's rights in the multiplication and distribution of
copies of his work. In most other respects his rights
are governed by the usual common law rules applicable
to personal property. The great value of literary
property, as a source of gain, consists in its owner's
ability to make and circulate copies without interfer-
ence or competition from others. The author's control
of his manuscript is exclusive and absolute, but by
dedicating his property to the use of the public he
loses this sole possession. Publication of a work in-
tended to be protected by the copyright statute, with-
Qut compliance with the requirements of that act, is a
dedication to the public. Literary property may be
dedicated to the public by any act of its owner which
shows that he abandons his exclusive right of property.
Such dedication, however, must be the free, voluntary
act of the owner, and not of some one else without his
His right to his own exclusive con-
consent or knowledge. The mere gift of a manuscript
confers no right to publish. A restricted circulation
of copies, as among friends, indicates no abandonment
of the owner's right of property; nor does the use of
a manuscript for a particular purpose, as lectures read
to a class, give any right to a student or hearer to print
and sell for profit or in any way interfere with the leg-
turer's rights. (Abernethey vs. Hutchinson, l H. & T.
39; Morrison vs. Moat, 1 Edw. ch. 25; Miller's Appeal,
15, W. N. C. (Pa.) 27).
While intellectual productions must assume Some
form in order to be recognized, identified, and protected
as property, no particular form is prescribed, and
whether the property exists in manuscript or print, the
owner's rights are equally protected if he has done
nothing to prejudice them. The writer of a letter does
not lose his right of property in it by sending it to his
correspondent. The sending of the letter is a gift to
the receiver of it of the material upon and by which it
is written, and the writer loses control over his manu-
script to the extent that he cannot demand its return;
but no rights of publication are conferred upon the one
to whom it is sent, and the writer could restrain such
publication, and his right to do this is upon the ground
that he has not parted with his property. There may
be cases where, perhaps, for his own vindication, the
receiver of a letter which reflected upon him might
have the right to publish, but some necessity of the
kind must exist to justify such a course.
A very common form in which literary property ap-
pears is the daily newspaper. These are rarely, i
ever, copyrighted. They certainly come within the
language of the act and could be copyrighted if de-
sired. But as the great object of such a paper is the
first circulation of news, not much would be gained by
simply providing against the piracy of its contents.
Of course, the publication of valuable material, as let-
ters, or a novel, may be protected by copyrighting
such matter for a newspaper or any serial publication.
A copyright by the editor of any matter published in
his paper would not give him the right to publish it in
any other form. The title of a newspaper is valuable
property, and the proprietor can be protected against
the unlawful use of it by others, but he cannot secure
this protection by copyright, as a title cannot be copy-
righted by itself, but only as part of a work.
A dramatist's rights in his property differ somewhat
from those that pertain to any other kind of literary
property. He may have his copyright in it as a liter-
ary production, and also his playright or the right of
representation upon the stage. And as the value of a
book, as a source of profit, consists in the right to
Imultiply and sell copies, the value of a play consists
largely in the right to perform it and prevent others
from doing so. It is a recognized rule of law that
where any kind of literary property is not included
within the terms of a statute of copyright the owner's
rights are to be determined by the ordinary rules of
the common law applicable to such property. The
U.S. copyright statutes refer to plays in two respects
only. . They provide that when an author obtains a
copyright for a dramatic composition he only is entitled
to represent, or cause to be represented, such play,
and, further, that for the unauthorized publishing of
any one's manuscript damages may be recovered. If,
therefore, a play is printed, the only right of perform-
ance is the one conferred by the statute, and, accord-
ing to the rule which has been followed in the case of
copyrighted books, the statute has taken away the au-
thºr's common law rights. But as the statute nowhere
refers to manuscript plays, it would seem that the
author's common law rights in them still exist to their
fullest extent. And as the author of a book had at
ºommon law the exclusive right to multiply copies—
for the decisions say only that that right was taken
away by the statute—the dramatist had and still has
he exclusive right to the performance of his drama.
The question whether the public performance of a
264
PROPERTY.
manuscript play by its author or owner is a dedication
of it to the public, so that thereafter any one could law-
fully reproduce it, has not been squarely decided, but
the tendency of the decisions seems to be in the direc.
tion of holding that such performance is not a dedica-
tion and the unauthorized reproduction of the play is
a piracy. . It has been .. that the performance
of a play by its owner does not prevent him from after.
Ward having it copyrighted ; and that the performance
of a drama which has been obtained from its owner by
fraud, breach of trust, or unfair means, will be pre-
Vented. (Keene vs. Wheatley, 9 Am. Law Reg ’33;
Boucicault vs. Wood, 2 Biss. 34.) Some courts have
decided, and others have to some extent approved this
View, that reproducing a play from memory by one who
has seen its performance is not obtaining the play by
*Infair means. This view has, however, been repu-
diated by courts of equal authority, and certainly
Seems to be entirely inconsistent with common sense.
Literary property must possess the qualities of inno-
gence and originality in order that its possessor may
demand the protection of the law. The law does not
generally prohibit the publication of works which are
not innocent, but it refuses protection to the owner of
such works when others have infringed his rights. It
is impossible, perhaps, to give an accurate definition of
‘...innocence” within the meaning of the law. The ju-
dicial conception of this quality has varied consider-
ably, and protection was formerly denied in many cases
where now it would be granted without question. In
England, some years ago, an injunction to restrain the
pirating of certain lectures on the “Physiology, Zoël-
ogy, and Natural History of Man,” was refused upon
the ground that they contained passages hostile to
natural and revealed religion and the doctrine of the
immortality of the soul. (Lawrence vs. Smith, 7
Jacob, 471.) And the owner of an edition of Byron's
Cain was refused protection, as, in the opinion of the
court, that production was intended to bring into dis-
credit portions of the Scriptures. (Murray vs. Benlow,
Shortl. L. Lit. 8.) In this day, however, of free dis-
cussion and expression of sentiment it may be safely
said that no work which discusses, criticises, or teaches
any branch of knowledge, faith, or practice, or which
expresses sentiments at variance with those generally
j on any subject, would be condemned as not inno-
cent. But works which are openly blasphemous, in-
decent, immoral, or libellous, or put forth false pre-
tences to authorship which are calculated to deceive
the public, still fall under the ban. The certificate of
copyright has no effect upon the question of the inno-
cence of the work.
Originality is, perhaps, as incapable of exact defini-
tion as “innocence,” but there is a legal conception of
originality, and this is what the law requires a literary
work to possess. The law does not merely refuse pro-
tection to a work which does not possess its own origin-
ality, but it may restrain the reproduction of the iden-
tity of a former work. Every original work possesses
an identity; this consists, says Blackstone, “in the
sentiments and the language. The same conceptions
clothed in the same words must necessarily be the same
composition ; and whatever method may be taken of
exhibiting that composition, to the ear or the eye of
another, by reciting, by writing, or printing, in any
number of copies, or at any period of time, it is always
the identical work of the author which is so exhibited.”
Any work which appropriates this identity of a former
work, in whole or in part, is not an original composition.
This originality, however, does not mean absolute new-
ness, for there is no such thing ; nor does it exclude all
imitation. It does not mean the addition of something
new, as a part, to something old, as a part. No num-
ber of chapters added to one or more chapters of a
work formerly published would make the second publi-
cation an entirely new work. The newness must con-
sist in some essential feature of the work. There must
be original labor in the plan, selection, arrangement, or
composition. Every word of a work may be found in
a subsequent one and yet the last production be en-
tirely original; as a Concordance of §. An
abridgment, compilation, translation, etc., if the results
of original labor, fulfil the requirements of the law. An
author does not forfeit his claim to an original produc-
tion by employing some one to assist or prepare certain
portions of his work.
Literary property is as much the subject of contract,
under the statutory requirements and limitations, as
any other species. The owner of a manuscript may
sell it outright, or part with an interest in it. He may
retain the property and license its publication for a
term of years, or within a certain territory. The license
to publish for a certain time would probably carry with
it the right to sell copies of the work unsold at the ter-
mination of the period. The only satisfaction the law
affords for the breach of a contract to write a work is
an action for damages. It would be impossible for a
court of equity to order a specific performance of such
a contract, as, a court could not determine, after per;
formance in obedience to its order, whether the original
contract had been actually carried out. Where the
breach consists not only in a refusal to carry out the
contract but in an attempt to perform the same work
for Some one else than the person with whom the
original contract was made, a court of equity can re-
strain such attempt. No contract to write a work
which the law regards as not innocent, as to violate the
copyright of another, can be enforced.
Where an author who is producing a literary work
under contract with a publisher dies during the prog-
ress of the work, as his contract is one of personal skill
it dies with him, and his executors cannot be compelled
to finish the work or pay damages for its non-com-
pletion. The general rule of law is that all one's prop-
erty is liable to seizure to pay its owner's debts. This,
however, is true to a limited extent only in the case of
literary property. The products of literary property,
the books published, may be taken in execution. And
while a manuscript, or the stereotype plates of a book,
as a piece of property, may be seized under a levy,
Such seizure confers upon the officer, or upon one who
purchases at his sale, no right to publish for the bene- .
fit of the author's creditors or of any one else, because
all that is sold is the manuscript or the metal of the
plates, and the literary property—the intangible thing
of which the manuscript is the form—is not taken. It
might be possible, however, under some circumstances,
for equity to come to the assistance of creditors, by com-
pelling the taking out of a copyright and the publica-
tion of copies.
The injury to literary property which the law is most
frequently called upon to redress is piracy—which is
the illegal use of another's literary property. As prop-
erty of this kind is generally j by copyright,
piracy is sometimes defined as the infringement of an-
other's copyright. The literary property must be ap-
ºf or used to render one guilty of piracy;
merely stealing a manuscript is not this offence. Where,
for any reason, the law does not recognize the right of
property, the appropriation of it is not piracy.
The mere taking of another's literary property con-
stitutes this offence, without regard to the intention
with which the act was done, and, therefore, ignorance
that the property belonged to another, or the absence
of any intention to injure, is no defence. Of course, a
flagrant intention to injure might be ground for giving
greater damages. There may be no pecuniary damage
done and the offence would be complete—as in the
case of the publication of a work which had been
rinted for private circulation only and not for profit.
or is it necessary that the piracy be committed for
profit; it may be done for convenience merely. As
some one's property must be injured to constitute pi-
racy, the offence is not committed by resorting to the
same sources of information, provided such sources are
common and open to all alike. There is a fair use of
PROPHETS.
265
literary works, already published, which the law rec-
ognizes and allows. What is such fair use must be de-
termined by the circumstances of each particular case.
It is perfectly fair to use portions of a work, for criti-
cism or review, but criticism must not be made a guise
for the publication of another's work. And in the same
way fair quotation is allowable. The remedies for piracy
are an action for damages or an injunction to restrain
the act. e
Copyright Statutes.—Prior to the adoption of the
Constitution of the United States many of the States
had passed copyright statutes, but as these were in-
adequate for the protection of authors outside the
boundaries of each State, a provision was inserted in
the Constitution giving Congress the power to enact
such statutes. The first act of this kind was passed in
1790, and after several amendatory acts were passed
from time to time, finally the act of 1870 came into
force which repealed all previous laws, and, with a few
alterations, constitutes the copyright law of to-day.
The provisions of this act are briefly as follows: Any
citizen in the United States or resident therein, who
shall be an author of any book, or dramatic or musical
composition, and his executors, administrators, or as-
signs, by complying with the provisions of the law,
have the sole liberty of printing, reprinting, publishing,
and vending the same ; and in the case of a dramatic
composition, of publicly performing or representing
it, or causing it to be so done. And authors may re-
serve the right of dramatizing or translating their own
works. Copyright is also given in maps, charts, cuts,
prints, photographs, paintings, drawings, chromos,
statuary, models, and designs.
The copyright is granted for twenty-eight years from
the time of recording the title. The author, if living
and a citizen of the United States or resident therein,
or his widow or children, if he be dead, may have the
same exclusive right continued for fourteen years more
by complying wi the provisions as to recording and
advertising within six months before the expiration of
the first term. A copyright can be assigned by an
instrument in writing duly recorded.
To obtain a copyright there must be deposited with
the librarian of Congress the printed title of the book,
etc., and two copies of the book. A fine is imposed
for failure to deliver these copies.
No action for the infringement of a copyright of a
book can be maintained unless there is inserted in the
several copies of each edition published, on the title-
page or the immediately following page of a book, or
on some visible portion of a dramatic or musical com-
position, maps, etc., the following statement, “Entered
according to the act of Congress in the year by
in the office of the librarian of Congress at
Washington,” or “Copyright,” together with the year
the copyright was entered, and the name of the per-
Son by whom it was taken out.
Any one who knowingly prints, publishes, or sells a
book or other work, or performs a drama, duly copy-
righted, without the written consent of the owner, duly
attested, forfeits every copy of the book or the work
issued in violation of the copyright, and in his posses-
sion ; and is also liable to damages.
, Damages may be recovered for printing or publish-
ing any manuscript without the consent of the author,
if he is a citizen of the United States or resident therein.
The act further provides that an injunction may issue
to protect a copyright ; and that the provisions of this
law do not extend protection to aliens and non-residents.
. The words of this act have frequently received ju-
dicial interpretation. The applicant, if not a citizen,
must be a * ‘‘ resident.” The assignee of a
foreign resident is not entitled to copyright. “Author.”
includes any one who performs original labor in compo-
filton, whether as writer, translator, or abridger. A
book"may consistin a diagram of one page, with direc-
tions for cutting ladies' dresses, as Wºli as the bound
Volume of many pages. All the contents of a book,
VOL. IV.-R
including engravings, etc., are covered by a copyri ght.
Any mode of depicting action, whether by words,
ballet, or pantomime, is included under the term ' ' 'tra-
matic composition,” and the copyright 91 Sugh Pro-
duction will protect the music in the action, the letter-
press, the text, and the dramatic incident ºr situation,
but not the mechanical arrangement for facilitating the
flow of the incident. tº
There is no international copyright statute in the
United States, though vigorous efforts have been made
for some years by native authors as well as foreigners
to induce Congress to pass such a measure. (S.C. P.)
PROPHETS. In this article we will consider £4'st
..., , , , the phraseology employed in the Old
º sº Testament to describe prophecy and
K. * ” the prophets; secondly, the history of
. Itep.). the succession of men known as the
prophets; thirdly, their position and functions; and,
fourthly, the written works commonly described as the
books of the prophets. - o
I. The word commonly translated “prophet” is juſti, hi,
sº. Other words of the same stem are translated
“prophesy,” “prophecy,” “prophetess.” . The der-
ivation of the word is unknown, and is of no con-
sequence; even the assertion that it is borrowed from
the Canaanites is a mere guess. Practically, the word
is a technical term used to describe a certain class of
men and their acts; the only way to define it is to learn
what we can concerning the men.
The phrase, “’ man of God,” has precisely the same
meaning as the word “prophet, so far as the person
denoted by it is concerned ; it is never applied to a
priest as such, or to a holy man as such, but always to
one who is thought of as having the prophetic char-
acter.
The word is roeh, translated “seer,” is used
a few times to denote the person who is more commonly
called a prophet, or a man of God. It is from the
stem which primarily denotes ordinary eyesight. Two
different nouns of this stem are sometimes translated
‘‘ vision.” The passive verb of it may be translated
“appear,’’ and is the verb regularly used to describe
the instances when Jehovah is said to have appeared
to his servants. The active and the causative verbs of
this stem are frequently used of the seeing of visions.
In the use of these words a prophet is described as a
man to whom Jehovah reveals truth by causing it to
take a form in which it is thought of as visible to the
eye. Ezekiel's visions of the winged creatures are
familiar instances. -
A prophet is also sometimes called Tºri hozeh,
also translated “seer.” Several words of this stem
are translated “vision,” and the verb may be used in
the cognate sense. In some of the other Shemitie
languages this stem is employed to denote ordinary
eyesight, but in Hebrew it is restricted to the idea of
insight or of thoughtful seeing. Used of the visions
of a prophet, it may include other forms of divine
revelation than those that are thought of as presented
to the eye. The word “vision,” as found in the titles
of the prophetic books, is always a word from this
stem (Isa. i. 1, e. g.). Where words of the two stems
are found in the same context the derivatives of
nin should be regarded as generie, and those of ish
as specific. -
Cl The prophetic gift is currently said to be by “the
Spirit of Jehovah '...(I Kings xviii. 12; Isa. lxiii. 10,
lli, Joel,ii. 28.2% (iii. 1, 2); 2 Chron, xv. 1, etc.).
{ { The phrase the, word of Jehovah,” very rarely
the word of God,” is used throughout the Old Tes-
tament to describe the message brought by a man en-
dowed with the gift of prophecy, e. g., Mie, i. 1 :
Jonah i. 1 ; Jer, i. 4. The word massa, stºp bur-
den,” is used from Elisha's time onward to denote
a prophecy of a certain character (2 Kings is 25: Isa.
xiii. 1, etc.). *- -
In Hag. i. 13, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 15, 16, and possibly
elsewhere, a prophet is called a “messenger,” or angel,
266
PROPHETS.
of Jehovah. Prophets are also called “watchmen,”
‘‘ servants of Jehovah,” “shepherds.” In Mic. ii.
6, 11, the word translated “prophet,” “prophesy,”
In ea. InS physically “to let drop,” and so “to talk
Sagely,” to be a sage. But all these are figures of speech,
or descriptive phrases, rather than strictly proper
terms.
Most of the terms descriptive of prophets and
prophecy are actually used in three degrees of exten-
Sion : first, to denote a man whose distinguishing char-
acteristic is the possession of the prophetic gift, such a
man, for example, as Samuel or Isaiah ; secondly, to
denote any man who has the prophetic gift, even
though he is more distinguished in some other direc-
tion–Moses, for example, or David, or doubtless Ezra
or Nehemiah ; thirdly, to denote the men who are also
called “the sons of the prophets,’’ that is, the secondary
prophets, the disciples or followers of the great prophets
(1 Kings xx. 35, 38; 2 Kings ix. 1, 4). For the sake
of distinction, we may apply the term “prophetic
men '' to the second of these three classes.
II. The sources of information concerning the
prophets are two—the testimony of the Old Testa-
ment, slightly supplemented by testimony from other
Sources, and the analogy between the religious history
of Israel and that of other peoples. In its treatment
of the testimony, the article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA assumes that it is necessary first to recast
a large part of the text of the Old Testament, and
then to reject certain statements as untrue, and to dis-
count others as fictional. We shall get an account
somewhat different if we examine the testimony as it
stands, without any preliminary manipulation ; and if
this account turns out to be consistent and credible it
is of course to be preferred to the other.
Before Samuel's Time.—The Pentateuch and some
of the later books attribute the gift of prophecy to the
patriarchs. Abraham is called a prophet (Gen. XX.
7 : ] Chron. xvi. 22; Ps. cw. 15). The “word of
Jehovah” came to him (Gen. xv. 1, 4). Several
times it is said of him and of Isaac and Jacob that
they had divine visions, or that Jehovah “appeared ''
to them (Gen. xv. 1; xlvi. 2; xii. 7: xvii. 1; xviii. 1;
xxvi. 2, 24; xxxv. 9). •
Prophecy is represented as being very abundant in
the times of Moses and Joshua. , Moses himself,
though we are accustomed to think of him chiefly as a
lawgiver, is currently described as “the man of God,”
and is said to have been the greatest of prophets
(Deut. xxxiii. 1; xxxiv. 10; Josh. xiv. 6; Ezra iii. 2;
Hos. xii. 13, and very many other places). Miriam is
called a prophetess (Ex. xy. 20). Moses is compared
with other prophets of his time (Num. xii.1, 6, 7).
We have an account of the prophesying of Eldad and
Medad and the seventy in Num, xi. 25–29. The
function of a prophet as the special spokesman of his
God is assumed to be a well-known fact, and is used
for the purpose of an illustration (Ex. vii. 1). Specific
legislation in regard to prophets is given in Deut.
xviii. 15–22; xiii. 1, 3, 5. -
But it is alleged that these testimonies come largely
from sections of the Pentateuch that are of late date,
and that they must therefore be regarded as carrying
back into the patriarchal and Mosaic periods the
phraseology that properly belongs to later times. In
reply to this; First, if all the testimony, in the case
were of late date, that would not prove the inference
as drawn, but would merely open the way for proving
it; the statements are still credible unless disproved.
Secondly, part of the testimony in the case is from
other sources than these alleged late parts of the
Pentateuch. Thirdly, irrespective of the phraseology
used, the testimony to the facts is clear; it does not de-
pend on the question whether the narrator used, the
phraseology of his own times or of the times of which
}. wrote. Fourthly, it is to be noted, however, that in
several of the instances cited the writer puts, the
phraseology describing prophecy into the mouth of Je-
hovah, or of Moses, or some other person, thus ap-
parently representing it to be the phraseology of the
time when the events occurred. Finally, the allega-
tion that these sections of the Pentateuch are of late
origin is itself not to be accepted without proof, and
the proof of it is not forthcoming. (s. article
PENTATEUCH.)
Prophecy is represented to have been in existence in
the times of the judges, though the thread of testimony
is here slender. It is said that Deborah was a proph-
etess (Jud. iv. 4); that “a prophet man’’ came in the
Midianite times (vi. 8); º the angel of Jehovah
“appeared '' to Gideon and to Manoah (vi. 12; xiii.
3, 21); that Manoah and his wife were familiar with
the character of a “man of God,” and described by
that phrase the person who appeared to them (xiii. 6,
8). It is mentioned as marking the time when Samuel
was a child that “the word of Jehovah” was then
scarce, there being “no open vision'' (1 Sam. iii. 1);
though even for that time we have an account of a
divine message brought by a “man of God’’ (ii. 27).
When Samuel became a distinguished prophet, we are
told that Jehovah “again appeared in Shiloh, for Je-
hovah was revealed unto Samuel in Shiloh in the word
of Jehovah” (1 Sam. iii. 21). This seems to imply
the restoration of a state of things that had existed in
Shiloh before the time of especial scarcity of “the
word of God.”
The facts thus testified to are entirely consistent with
the statement made in 1 Sam. ix. 9. It is there ex-
plained, to account for the fact that Saul inquired, not
for the prophet, but for the seer, that “seer'' was then
the term in common use. It does not follow that the
term “prophet” had never been known till then ; the
facts we have been examining rather show that it had
been temporarily superseded by the word “seer,” this
being one of the phenomena of the time of the scarcity
of the prophetic gift.
Prophecy in the Times of Samuel, David, and Solo-
mom.–In Acts iii. 24 (cf. 22), in the same breath in
which Moses is spoken of as a prophet, we read of “all
the prophets from Samuel and them that followed
after,” as if Samuel was in some sense the first of the
prophets. This agrees well with all the statements of
the Old Testament. Prophets and prophecy had ex-
isted in Israel from the earliest times, but under
Samuel they assumed new forms and a fresh impor-
tance. Samuel himself, followed by Gad, David,
Nathan, Asaph, Heman, Jeduthun, Zadok, Solomon,
Ahijah, Shemaiah, Jedo (spelled Iddo in the King
James version), form a group of distinguished prophets
and prophetic men (see Concordance of Proper Names).
Besides these, we find “ the companies of prophets,”
mentioned in 1 Sam. x. and xix., probably organized
by Samuel, and certainly controlled by him to a large
extent. The attempt to make it appear that Samuel,
being a seer, was therefore not properly a prophet, but
that the prophets were a different class of men, who
afterwards absorbed the class known as “seers,” is not
a success. The true statement of the difference be-
tween such a man as Samuel and the ordinary mem-
bers of the prophetic companies is, that most of the
latter, like the “sons of the prophets” of later times,
were mere secondary prophets—the followers, and dis-
ciples of the men who were recognized as having great
prophetic gifts.
Prophecy in the Later Periods—The next group of
prophets is that of which Elijah and Elisha are the
great figures. The men of this group who are named
in addition to these two are Oded, Azariah, Hanani,
Jehu, Micaiah, Jahaziel, Eliezer, the high-priest
Jehoiada, and his son Zechariah. But, in addition
to these, prophets are represented to have been very
numerous, especially in the Northern kingdom. Qba;
diah, for instance, saved the lives of a hundred of
them, at a time when this was apparently only a small
proportion of the whole number (1 Kings xviii. 4; cf.
xix. 10). The so-called schools of the sons of the
PROPHETS. 267
prophets were flourishing at Jericho, Gilgal, Bethel,
and doubtless other places. Very likely most of the
numerous prophets were so only in the sense of being
members of these organizations. At this time, also,
we find mention made of great numbers of false
rophets who prophesy in the name of Jehovah (1
#. xxii.), whether we regard these as mere pre-
tenders or in some other light. The next group is
that of which Isaiah is the chief figure, including
Jonah, probably Joel and Obadiah, Amos, Hosea,
the Zechariah named in 2 Chron. xxvi. 5, Isaiah,
the Oded named in 2 Chron. xxviii. 9, Micah, Nahum.
Throughout this period true prophets are spoken of as
numerous, and false prophets as equally so. (To find
instances use Concordance.) The next group includes
the Palestinian prophets of the time of Jeremiah.
Desides him, we have some account of Habakkuk,
Zephaniah, Uriah (Jer, xxvi. 20–23), and Huldah
(2 Chron. xxxiv. 22). Prophets, both true and false,
are still numerous. Offalse prophets, Ahab, Hananiah,
and Shemaiah are mentioned by name, with some de-
tails (Jer. xxix. 21 ; xxviii. 10; xxix. 8, 24). Still
another group is that of the prophets of the exile in
Babylonia. Of these Daniel and Ezekiel are the
prominent ones. False prophets are numerous, both
male and female, and possibly true prophets also. A
final group is that of the post-exilic prophets. To this
group belong Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, and, by
fair implication, Ezra and Nehemiah are to be regarded
as prophetic men. The existence of other prophets is
referred to, with false prophets among them (Zech.
vii. 3 ; viii. 9; Neh. vi. 7, 14). The Jewish traditions
concerning the men of the Great Synagogue affirm that
many of these men were prophets. With the death
of Malachi the succession of prophets is held by Jew-
ish tradition to have ceased (1 Mac. ix. 27; iv. 46;
xiv. 41 ...Josephus Cont. Ap. i. 8).
III. The character and functions of a prophet are
briefly outlined in such passages as Ex. vii. 1; Num.
xii. 6; I Sanj. iii. 20, 21 ; Deut. xviii. He is simply a
citizen (“of thy brethren, like unto me '’) who speaks
for Jehovah in a special message given him for the
purpose. He differs from the practitioners of magic
arts in that he has genuine communications with the
invisible world, through the word of Jehovah, revealed
to him. He differs from the Levitical priest, in that
his message is special, and not a matter of regular
routine. The simplicity of the Old Testament state-
ments concerning the prophets is quite remarkable.
The prophets did and saw wonderful things, but so far
as they themselves are concerned, the elements of mys-
tery and marvel are conspicuously absent, except as
these have been interpreted into the Old Testament
accounts from other sources.
The Personal Appearance of the Prophets.-Our
most current picture of a prophet is one for which
some ecclesiastic or monk sat as a model, the artist
modifying the picture, according to his fancy, by ele-
ments copied from the Greek oracle priests, or from
Eastern dervishes. But we may as well start by re-
minding ourselves that in part the picture is contrary
to the facts, and in part the facts are unknown. It is
customary to infer from Zech. xiii. 4, Isa. xx. 2, 3, 1
Sam. xxviii. 14, 1 Kings xix. 13, that the prophets as :
class wore a peculiar garb to distinguish them from
other people; but the passages do not justify the in-
ference, and the contrary is fairly to be inferred from
l Sam. ix. 18, 2 Kings i. 7, 8, etc. On the strength of
1 Sam. Xyiii. 10, xix. 19–24, Jer. xxix. 26, and like
passages, it is frequently alleged that frenzied utter-
ance was characteristic of the prophets, and indeed
that this is the radical idea of the word “prophet”
itself. But the assertion that Jeremiah raved is men-
tioned as a slander, and not as a fact. Saul acted like
à crazy man when the spirit of prophecy came upon
him at Ramah, but he acted so because he was crazy
at the time; the passage does not say nor necessarily
imply that any one but Saul acted so. In i Sam.sviii.
10, Saul's raving is called “prophesying ; but this
may be not because prophesying is thought of as a
species of raving, but because Saul, when he raved,
talked religiously, like a prophet. Ordinarily, the
words and deeds of the prophets, even those that are
strangest, or most impassioned, are marked by very
clear, self-contained common sense. It is safest to think
of a prophet as having the dress, the appearance, and
the habits of an ordinary citizen, except in the in-
stances where particular prophets, for particular pur-
poses, are described as dressing or acting otherwise.
The Prophetic Schools.-The term “school,’’ as
thus applied, is not Biblical, but is convenient. The
evidence does not show to what extent the organiza-
tions of Samuel's time (1 Sam. x. —xix.) resembled
those of the times of Elijah and Elisha (see especially
1 Kings xx. 35–41; 2 Kings ii.-ix.), but it is a natural con-
jecture that they were much alike. From 2 Kings v. 22,
ix. 1, 4, it is natural to infer that the members of these
organizations were mostly young men. That married
men were included among them appears from 2 Kings
iv. 1. That they were of the obscure class in society has
been inferred from 1 Sam. x. 11, but the inference will
hardly hold ; the surprise that Saul should be among
the prophets shows, indeed, that his reputation was
different from that of the others, but not necessarily
that he was more prominent than they ; it may just as
well be that he was known as less religious than they.
From what is said in the chapters referred to, it ap-
pears that the sons of the prophets sometimes lived
together in common residences, that contributions for
their support were sometimes made by citizens, that
they were accustomed to organized action for their own
comfort, and for other purposes, that they took their
part in national politics, that they cultivated music,
that they sometimes held out-of-door religious services
(1 Sam. x.), that they had certain exercises in con-
certed prophesying of some sort (1 Sam. xix.).
Whether these were schools or not, they were not
mere schools, but organizations for public work and
influence. Whether they had anything like a course
of study and training we are not informed. As we
have seen, their members were sometimes called
prophets, but it by no means follows that most or all
of, them, regularly became endowed with prophetic
gifts. That some of them became so endowed is prob-
able; and it is also probable that the name “prophet”
would come to be applied to them, in general, whether
they had the gift or not.
The So-called Prophetic Order. —It is probable that
the prophets were an unbroken succession, in the sense
that from Malachi back to Samuel, and earlier, Israel
Was never wholly without living prophets of Jehovah.
But in addition to this a great deal is said about the
prophetić order, as if the prophetic body had an
organic character, like that of the priests, or was per-
petuated by some ordaining act, like the ministry in the
Christian churches. It is true that some priests were
prophets or prophetic men, Zadok, Jeremiah, and
Ezra, for example; it is also true that a prophet, not
of the priesthood, might be commissioned to perform
priestly acts, Moses for example, Lev. viii. 15–30; but
there is no trace of any priestly functions regularly
exercised by the prophets, as prophets, nor of any prop-
erly prophetic functions regularly exercised by the priests
as such. In this the religion of Israel differed notably
from certain other ancient religions. The only alleged
instance of anything like ordination is the setting apart
of Elisha, 1 Kings xix. 15, 16, 19; cf. 2 Kings in it is,
But Elisha's case is evidently exceptional, like the par-
allel cases of Jehu and Hazael. e Was not set apart
to be a prophet, but to do certain especial work as a
prophet.
In fine, a prophet became such, so far as appears
solely by becoming endowed with prophetic gifts, he
came to be recognized as a prophet by its being per-
ceived that he had the gifts (Deut. xviii. 31, 35 ºil.

1–5), and not ordinarily through his costume of per-
268
PROPHETS.
sonal appearance, or mode of life, or registry of or-
dination. But men might, of course, become second-
ary prophets by merely becoming followers of the
pº whose gifts were recognized.
Jertain Naturalistic Functions of the Prophets.--They
were prominent as the public men of their times. In
proof, note what is said concerning the career of Moses
or Samuel, Elijah, Elisha, Isaiah, Jeremiah. They
were the leaders of the party that advocated a certain
religious policy on the part of the government, and of
the party that opposed foreign alliances in every direc-
tion. After the Babylonian conquest became an ac-
complished fact, such prophets as Jeremiah advocated
the political action that accepted it as a fact. As long
as the separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah existed,
the prophets were a bond of unity between the two
kingdoms; Judaean prophets like Amos and Isaiah
prophesied for the Nº. kingdom, and northern
rophets, Elisha and Hosea, for instance, for the
outhern kingdom (Am. i. 1 ; iii. 1, 12, etc.; Hos. xi.
12, etc.; 2 Kings iii. 14; Jer. xxx. 3, 4; xxxi. 1, 5, 6,
9, 12, 15, 18, 20, 27). In short, a biography of the
prophets would be a history of Israel.
They were the reformers of their times. Besides re-
ligious questions, they discussed improper divorce,
licentiousness, usury, land monopoly, drunkenness and
dissipation, slavery, and like questions (Mal. ii. 10–16;
Jer, v. 7–9, etc.; Neh. chap. v. ; Ezek. xviii. 8, etc.;
Isa. v. 7–10, 11–22; Jer. xxxiv. 8–22, and the pro-
phetic books throughout). Further, they were evangel-
istic preachers and organizers. As a rule, the pro-
hetic books are homiletic. Still further, they were the
#. men of the nation. This is of course true of
the so-called literary prophets and their contempo-
raries, and among those who lived earlier the Bible at-
tributes authorship to Elijah, Jehu, Shemaiah, Jedo,
Ahijah, Solomon, David, $º. Heman, Asaph, Na-
than, Gad, Samuel, Joshua, Moses. So far as func-
tions of these kinds are concerned, the prophets of
Israel have their counterparts among two classes of
men, in all ages: first, among devout religious work-
ers, adherents of the true religion ; and, secondly,
among the especially gifted men whom God anywhere
raises up for special purposes in the history of man-
kind.
Wonder- Working by the Prophets.-But in addition
to all such functions as have been mentioned, the Old
Testament attributes distinctly supernatural powers tº
the prophets. Under the influence of the Spirit of
Jehovah, supplied to them for that purpose, they be-
came workers of miracles. Familiar instances of this
sort are to be found in the accounts given of Elijah
and Elisha. Very prominent among their miracles is
the supernatural discovering and revealing of secrets,
e.g., 2 Kings vi. 12, or Dan, chap. ii. - - -
The Prophets as Predictors of Events.--In Christian
apologetics, the argument from fulfilled prediction has
constituted one of the chief uses made of the proph-
ecies. Owing in part to this fact, many persons un-
questionably make the predictive element too, promi-
ment in their ideas of prophecy. Prediction is far from
being, as many imagine, the central and essential fac-
tor in prophecy. Nevertheless, the Old Testament
represents it as a real factor, and an especially impor-
tant one. Evidently a prediction might be one of the
signs whose fulfilment would accredit the prophet who
speaks in Jehovah's name, Deut. xviii. 22 : xiii. 1–5.
Fulfilled predictions are prominently claimed as having
this effect, e. g., Isa. xli. 22, 23, 20 : xlii. 9; xliii. 9,
12, 18, 19; Zech. i. 4-6. &
Messianic Preaching by the Prophets.-That which the
prophets make most prominent in their utterances is
the doctrine that Israel is Jehovah's peculiar peo-
ple, in virtue of Jehovah's purpose, and his covenant
with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob that this,covenant
promise and purpose has been regeiving fulfilment up
to the time when each prophet lived, and is to have
yet larger ſulfilment in the future. In all the pro-
— — .
phetic writings this doctrine, either expressed or implied,
lies at the basis of all counsel, all rebuke, all exhorta-
tion to repentance or obedience, all encouragement, all
comfort, all direction for private life, all patriotic ap-
peal, all religious teaching. The doctrine is central in
the discourses of the prophets, just as the doctrine of
a crucified and risen Christ is central in the discourses
of the apostles. A part of this doctrine is that Is-
rael's mission as Jehovah's peculiar people is not for
himself alone, but for all the nations. The passages
cited in the New Testament in support of the claims
of Jesus are, with hardly an exception, those in which
the prophets teach this great central doctrine. The
New Testament claim is essentially that the promised
fulfilment of Jehovah's covenant purpºse with Israel
mainly comes about through Israel's Christ, and that
Jesus of Nazareth is that Christ.
If this view be correct, we have in the Old Testa-
ment not a great number of predictions concerning the
Messiah, but a single prediction, often repeated in a
great variety of forms and aspects. If we make a dis-
tinction between prediction and promise or doctrine,
the Messianic utterances of the Old Testament are of
the nature of promise and doctrine rather than of pre-
diction, though this does not render them any the less
genuinely predictive. With this view of the matter,
we need neither affirm that the evangelists claim that
the prophets had in mind the person of Jesus, when
they wrote these passages, nor admit that the evan-
gelists used the passages in an accommodated sense.
From the point of view of the great covenant promise,
they regard the history of the Christ as the crowning
portion of the history of Israel, and they interpret ac-
cordingly what the prophets say of the future history
of Israel, as fulfilling the covenant promise.
The Prophets and Jehovah's Law.—The handling
of the Torah of Jehovah is, in the Old Testament,
attributed to both the priests and the prophets. It
does not follow that there were two different bodies of
Jehovah's law—a prophetic Torah and a priestly
Torah. The difference seems rather to be that the
priests, in association with the magistrates, were the
custodians, teachers, and interpreters of such law as
Jehovah had already given (Deut. xxxi. 9; xvii. 8–12,
18, 19; 2 Chron. xv. 3; xvii. 9; Jer, ii. 8. Lev. x. 11;
Deut. xxxiii. 10; xxiv. 8; Mic. iii. 11; 2 Kings xvii. 27,
28, etc.), while the prophets not merely give instruc-
tion in the law, but bring the law from Jehovah (Isa.
viii. 16, 20; Neh. ix. 26 ; Jer. xxvi. 4, 5 ; Dan. ix. 10;
1 Sam. xii. 23, etc.). The representation everywhere
seems to be that through the prophets Jehovah re-
vealed the Torah, which it was the duty of the priests
merely to administer.
The term “Torah,” as thus used, seems to have
been applicable to any particular revelation made by
Jehovah to a prophet, especially if the revelation
were committed to writing, and again, to have been
applicable collectively to the whole body of such rev-
elation. It is more correct to say that it is often so
used as to include the sacred writings attributed to
Moses, than to say that it is currently used to denote
those writings. Long before the Christian era, how-
ever, those writings had come to be regarded as the
Torah par eccellence.
Modes of Divine Revelation to the Prophets.-As we
have already seen, the inspiration of the prophets is
represented to have been by the Spirit of Jehovah.
The modes in which the Spirit is said to have commu-
nicated with them are commonly classified as three,
namely, by dreams, by visions, and by direct revela-
tion. A better classification is that suggested by the
terms employed to describe the prophets, namely,
first, by dreams (Num. xii. 6; Deut. xiii. 1; Dan.
i. 17), with the dreams of Joseph, Solomon, etc., and
the interpretations by Joseph, Daniel, etc.; second,
by sense-visions, the presenting of object lessons,
thought of as visible to the eye, as in Zech. i. 8–13,
18-21; ii. 1–5; iii., etc.; third, by theophanies, Jeho-
PROPHETS. 269
vah (usually in the character of “the angel of Jeho-
vah”) taking visible form and appearing to the eye,
or attracting the eye by some visible manifestation
(the burning bush, for example), and then communi-
eating directly with the person thus, aroused;. fourth,
by excited insight, or other form of mental vision, as
distinguished from sense-vision. Among the most
familiar instances of theophany are those described in
Gen. xviii., Ex. iii., the events at Sinai, Jud. xiii.
Perhaps the instance in 2 Kings iii. 15 is an instance
of mental vision as distinguished from sense-vision. It
may be presumed that most of the instances described
by words of the stem jiri are instances of mental
vision, except as otherwise specified. Theophany, in
either form, is regarded as the highest form of divine
communication.
Modes of Utterance by the Prophets.-Certain pecu-
liar modes of utterance by the prophets bear a close
analogy to the modes of revelation just considered.
For example, they use symbols, that is, physical ob-
jects or personal acts representing the truths they have
to utter, e.g., 1 Kings xi. 30, 31 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 15, seq. ,
Isa, chap. xx. A higher class of symbols are those
called types. The subject of prophetic typology has
been voluminously discussed, with much difference in
definition and opinion. Perhaps the best definition of
what is properly to be called a “type '' is that it is an
object or event used to present a great truth in such a
way that it becomes a foreshadowing example of a
greater presentation of the same truth. Thus Chris-
tian theology might hold that the Levitical sacrifices
were types of the sacrifice of Christ, or that each
member of the line of great Old Testament prophets
was a type of Christ in his prophetic office.
No utterances of Jehovah's prophets have a double
meaning in the sense of being equivocal in meaning.
In some cases which have been regarded as presenting
a double sense, the New Testament uses a prophetic
assage simply for illustration. An instance of this
§. doubtless, is that in which Matthew applies
Jeremiah's language concerning Rachel Weeping for
her children to the case of the innocents slaughtered
by Herod, Matt. ii. 18; Jer. xxxi, 15. But there is
a large class of instances in which a prophecy may
have a manifold application, or a manifold fulfilment,
without being equivocal in meaning. Types and anti-
types, for example, may occur in a series, so that the
foretelling of one event amounts to the foretelling of
all the future events in the series. Or a statement
made concerning some part of a complex event may
equally be true of the whole, or vice versa. Or a pre-
diction may be capable of a successive or a progressive
fulfilment. Or the foretelling of a final event in a
historic process may imply that of many of the events
that lead up to the final event. It is evident that in
these and other ways a prophecy may be generic with-
out being ambiguous. And still further, when a
prophecy, whether properly predictive or not, enunci-
ates a principle on Wil, God acts, its statement may
be made to apply to every case in history that comes
under the principle.
IV. The Jewish tradition counts the Books of
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings as the four books
of the earlier prophets, and the Books of Isaiah, Jere-
miah, Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets as the
four books of the later prophets. By one form of the
tradition—a form which is corroborated by the arrange-
ment of the versions and by the phenomena in the
case—Ruth is counted as a part of the collection of
the earlier prophets, being regarded as one with
Judges, but our present Hebrew Bibles put Ruth in
the º They also put Lamentations in the
Hagiographa, though another form of the tradition
counts this book along with Jeremiah as prophetic.
Starting from the idea that prophecy is mainly predic-
tion, it is sometimes mentioned as remarkable that
Daniel, the book more marked by prediction than any
other, is uniformly reckoned among the Hagiographa,
and not in the division called the Prophets; but really,
the fact that the book is predictive, to the exclusion
of the homiletical element, constitutes a sharp differ:
ence between it and most of the books that are classed
as prophetic. Whatever may have been the reason
for classifying this list of books as “The Prophets,’’,it
certainly does not indicate that the men who made the
classification regarded the Pentateuch and the Hagio:
grapha as of non-prophetic authorship. It is beyond
dispute that they, whoever they were, regarded
Moses, David, Daniel, and others as prophets, and re-
garded all the Old Testament as written before the
disappearance of prophecy. See articles on BIBLE
and CANON.
The records contained in the Books of Judges,
Samuel, and Kings, up to the times of Jeroboam II.
of Israel, doubtless consist largely of transcriptions
from writings of Samuel, Gad, Nathan, Ahijah, She-
maiah, Jehu, and other prophets, who flourished be-
fore the times of Amos and the other earliest prophets
whose names are attached to our present prophetic
books. This fact, or even the traditional opinion that
this was the fact, affords a natural and plausible reason
why these books should be called the books of the
earlier prophets. See further in the articles JUDGES,
RUTH, SAMUEL, KINGs.
The books commonly called the twelve Minor
Prophets seem to be arranged in what their collector
regarded as four chronological groups. The last three,
Malachi, Zechariah, and Haggai, belong to the Per-
sian period. The two next preceding, Zephaniah and
Habakkuk, belong with Ezekiel and Jeremiah, in the
Babylonian period. The next two preceding, Nahum
and Micah, belong with most of Isaiah in the later
Assyrian period—the period of the Sargonidae. The
intention seems to have been to indicate that the first
five of the twelve books belong in a group together,
dated by the dates of Hosea and Amos as in the middle
Assyrian period—the period to which Tiglath-pileser
gives character. Hosea is placed first, though it is not
the earliest. The Jewish traditions explain this by
the fact that it is the largest of the twelve books. The
earlier prophecies of Isaiah belong with these five
books to the middle Assyrian period, and the historical
situation of Zech. ix.-xiv. is that of the same period,
no matter when these chapters were written. Our
study of the books will be facilitated if we first make
a brief survey of the history of the period.
On their face the Biblical numerals give 175 years
for the interval between the accession of Jehu and the
destruction of Samaria. . The chronology most com-
monly received so treats the numerals as to reduce this
by a few years, and the chronology now accepted by
many Assyriologists and others rejects a part of the
statements of the Bible, and reduces the length of the
period by about fifty years. It is not a matter of in-
difference which chronological theory we accept, but
we need not now discuss the question, as the point
before us does not depend upon it. In any case the
first decades of the interval belong to what may fairly
be called the earlier Assyrian period, that in which
Shalmaneser II, figures prominently. This monarch
mentions Samaria and nearly all the Palestinian coun-
tries except Judah as his tributaries, and says that
Hazael of Damascus, who came to the throne at about
the same time with Jehu, was conquered after some
resistance. According to the accounts in the Books of
Nings, and Chronicles, Hazael's reign lasted some
forty-six years, his son Benhadad being a part of the
time associated with him in some capacity; it covered
the reigns of Jehu and his son Jehoahaz in Israel,
and those of Athaliah and Joash in Judah. Hazael
Was the enemy of Israel. We may assume that he
Was checked by the power of Assyria, but before the
death of Jehu he had “cut Israel short and gained
control of the country east of the Jordan. Later, he
and his son Benhadad, utterly wasted the Northern
kingdom, and finally, in the last year of Joash of
270
PROPHETS.
Judah, he invaded Philistia, and afterward marched
against Jerusalem. Meanwhile, according to the Mo-
abite stone, corroborated by such notices as that in 2
Kings xiii.20, the Moabites were also engaged in acts
of successful hostility against the two Israelite king-
doms, and we may assume that their usual allies, the
Ammonites, were associated with them.
The great event of this part of the history is
Hazael's expedition against Jerusalem. The accounts
of it are brief, but with several very distinct particu-
lars. . It occurred just at the close of the reign of
Joash of Judah, 2 Chron. xxiv. 23, 25. The utter
wasting of the Northern kingdom had continued up
to that time, that is, all the days of Jehoahaz, 2 Kings
xiii. 3,14, 22. Hazael first took Gath, and started for
Jerusalem from that direction, 2 Kings xii. 18 (17).
With a comparatively small force he signally defeated
a very great army of defence, 2 Chron. xxiv. 24. He
destroyed the princes of Judah, and captured their
spoil, 2 Chron. xxiv. 23. Joash bribed him to leave
by giving him sacred treasure from the king's house
and the temple, 2 Kings xii. 19 (18). It is not said
that he captured Jerusalem. He left Joash of Judah
prostrated by illness and about to be slain by conspir-
ators, 2 Chron. xxiv. 25. Very soon after, Hazael
died, and Joash, the newly crowned king of the North-
ern kingdom, was able, notwithstanding the depleted
condition of his power (2 Kings xiii. 7), to overcome
#enhadad in a succession of battles and recover the
cities of Israel.
Rimman-nirari, the contemporary king of Assyria,
grandson of Shalmaneser, says that Tyre, Sidon, the
land Omri, Edom, Philistia, were tributary to him,
and immediately adds an account of his besieging
Mariha, king of Damascus, and compelling him to sub-
mission and to the payment of immense fines. These
operations are not dated, but it is plausible to conjec-
ture that Mariha (the lord) is an appellation for Hazael,
and that the interference of the Assyrian king may ac-
count for the successes of Joash of Israel. But whether
this conjecture be accepted or not, the Biblical account
is that the successes of Hazael at Jerusalem were pres-
ently followed by his death and the humbling of his
kingdom. - º -
It remains further to be noted in connection with
these events that Amaziah, the successor of Joash of
Judah, a few years later regarded himself as having
reason to take bloody vengeance on the Edomites; pos-
sibly this may suggest something as to the attitude of
Edom in the days of Hazael.
Joash of Israel reigned sixteen years, and was suc-
ceeded by Jeroboam II., who reigned forty-one years.
In Jeroboam's twenty-seventh year Uzziah became king
of Judah. Waiving the question whether we should
count the numerals as overlapping one another, and
shoukd thus, or by any other process, count the period
as shorter than it at first seems to be, our attention
should now be fixed on the fifteen years (or whatever
the number may be) during which Jeroboam and Uzziah
are said to have been contemporary. The situation
now contrasts very strongly with that when Hazael
made his attempt upon Jerusalem. Jeroboam re-
stored the border of Israel from the entering of Ha-
math unto the sea of the Arabah,” 2 Kings xiv. 25. He
“restored Damascus and Hamath to Judah in Israel,”
xiv. 28. Of Uzziah it is recorded that he built Elath,
2 Kings xiv. 22; that he made successful war with the
Philistines and other enemies, and received tribute
from the Ammonites, 2 Chron. xxvi. 6-8; that “ his
name spread abroad even to the entering in of Egypt,"
xxvi. 8 ; that he fortified Jerusalem, and had an in-
mense army, xxvi. 9-15; that “his name spread far
abroad,” xxvi. 15. It is common to assume that Ju-
lah and Israel were at this time in hostility; but the
passages cited more naturally imply the contrary, and
give us to understand that they were two kingdoms
with one policy and purpose, and with a sway under
which Hamath, Syria-Damascus, the Ammonite coun-
try, and Philistia were included as tributaries. This,
with the possession of the Elanitic gulf, implies the
subjection of Moab and Edom, as well as of the peoples
mentioned.
We instinctively ask how it was possible that Assyria
would allow such a power to spring up in the west, and
reduce her tributaries to tribute 7 At present, there is
no answer to this question, but certain Assyrian in-
scriptions of a few years later testify to the fact that
these Assyrian tributaries actually had “in their faith-
lessness made revolt to Azariah,” giving him such
strength as to make him a formidable foe to Assyria.
See Schrader's Cuneiform Inscriptions, translated by
Whitehouse (pp. 208–212), or the inscriptions attrib-
uted to Tiglath-pileser, in any collection of Assyrio-
logical matter. The inscriptions in question are so
mutilated that very little can be learned from them,
but they clearly agree with the Biblical statements as
to the greatness of Uzziah and the extent of the sway
of the combined Jewish-Israelite kingdoms of this
period. They further indicate a temporary decadence
of the Assyrian empire, covering a longer or briefer
time, between the date when Assyria held all this re-
gion in undisputed subjection, and the date when AS-
Syria was making efforts to wrest the same region from
its allegiance to Uzziah.
Leaving the remainder of the history, for the pres-
ent, we are now ready to look at the prophetic books
which connect themselves with the history as already
sketched.
The Book of Amos. –This book dates itself “in
the days of ’’ Uzziah and Jeroboam, “two years be-
fore the earthquake.” The best analysis of it makes
it to consist of four discourses, the song “I will not
reverse it,” i. 3-ii. 16, the exhortation, iii.-iv., the
lamentation, v.-vi., and the book of visions, vii.-ix.
The present treatment will be confined to a single
point, namely, the historical situation presented in the
book.
This is twofold : the book is quite distinct in its pic-
ture of the times when it was written, and in addition
to this, it is very distinct in its presentation of a cer-
tain earlier period, to which it alludes in the way of
reminiscence. We find here the same representation
that we found in the historical books as to the extent
of the dominion of Israel in the reigns of Jeroboam
and Uzziah. “From Hamath to the brook of the
Arabah,” Ann. vi. 14, shows this, as does the chal-
lenge to compare the region of Assyrian conquests
centring in Calneh with the region from Hamath to
Gath, vi. 2. If “Damascus '' is the correct reading
in iii. 12, that verse represents Israelite grandees as
living in luxury in the subject city Damascus. It fol-
lows that some at least of the peoples mentioned in i.
and ii. are there thought of as dependent on Israel
and Judah, and not as independent.
We find the same community of interest between
Israel and Judah that we found in the accounts in the
historical books. Amos is a Judaite, i. 1. His pre-
dilections are for the house of David, ix. 11, et al.
But his prophecy refers almost exclusively to the
Northern kingdom. He seems to know no difference
between Jeroboam's Hamath and Uzziah's Gath, but
speaks as if both were included in the same interest.
The passage between him and Jeroboam's priest Ama-
ziah (vii. 10, 12) could hardly have taken the form it
did, except when the relations between Israel and Ju-
dah were intimate. See also iii. 1 and ix. 12.
We find that the prosperity mentioned in the his-
torical books has resulted in luxury, dissipation, and
the oppression of the poor by the rich, on the part of
both men and women, ii. 6, 7 ; iii. 9, 12 ; iv. l ; v. 11,
23 ; vi. 1, 4–6. We further find, throughout the
book, descriptions of the religious life of the Northern
kingdom, its various sanctuaries, its conformities to the
law of Moses and the opposite, that give to the book
especial historical interest and value.
To mention only one thing more in this list, the
PROPHETS.
27]
|
book is written under the shadow of a threatened and
impending invasion from Assyria. To.cite a few
among many passages, calamity and exile are thus
threatened in v. 2, 5, 27; vi. 7, 10 ; vii. 16, 17 : ix. 9.
Syria, Ammon, etc., are included in the threat, i. 5,
15, etc. In i. 5, vi. 2, 14, Assyria is pretty distinctly
pointed out as the power that will carry these peoples
into exile, though it is not directly named.
So much for the historical situation contemporary
with the uttering of these prophecies. A very different
situation, belonging to an earlier date, is recalled by
the prophet in chapters i., ii., and iv. 6-11. What-
ever else may be referred to in the first two chapters,
the following points are clear: Damascus is named
first in the list of threatened nations, the names of
Hazael and Benhadad being also mentioned, i. 3-5.
The sin especially charged is the “threshing '' of
Gilead (cf. 2 Kings x. 32–33; xiii. 7). Ammon and
Moab are included among the threatened nations (i. 13–
15; ii. 1–3), the sin of Ammon being that “they
ripped up the pregnant women of Gilead, that they
might enlarge their border ’’ (cf. 2 Kings viii. 12;
xiii. 21, and the Moabite stone). Gaza, Ashdod, Ash-
kelon, and Ekron are mentioned (but not Gath), i. 6-8,
the offence charged being this very peculiar one, that
“they caused to go into exile an entire exile-band,
shutting [them] up to Edom.” Tyro is included,
charged with two offences, namely, “their shutting up
an entire exile-band to Edom,” and that “they re-
membered not a brethren's covenant,” i. 9, 10. Edom
directly follows Philistia and Phoenicia in this list, with
the charge that he “pursued his brother with the
sword,” and was implacable in his cruelty, i. 11, 12.
In connection with these phrases of brotherhood, as
used of Tyre and Edom, note that the charge against
Moab is his burning the bones of the king of Edom
to lime, ii 1.
The situation thus outlined is peculiar enough to fix
our attention. Apparently, the two Israelite kingdoms
have their interests in common ; Israel has been in
brotherly relations of some sort with Phoenicia and
with Edom ; Israel and Edom have suffered grievously
from the hostile attacks of Moab, Ammon, and Syria
—the Syria of Hazael and Benhadad ; a change has
come, in which Phoenicia and Edom prove false to the
brotherly relations, Edom committing bitter hostilities,
and Phoenicia and Philistia somehow less directly sup-
orting the hostile acts—“ shutting up an entire exile-
i. to Edom,” whatever that may mean. Evidently,
these are not the particulars given in the historical
books, of Hazael's career, and his great attempt upon
Jerusalem ; but just as evidently, it is likely that these
may be additional particulars of those transactions.
As long as Edom, Phoenicia, and northern Israel
quietly paid their tribute to the Assyrian, they had so
much, at least, in common, distinguishing them from
Hazael and his confederates, who were in the habit of
making revolts. When Hazael at last made his march
from Gath upon Jerusalem, defeating the great army
that opposed him, he necessarily sent a crowd of fugi-
tives flying for safety to the neighboring countries. It
would be very much like the Edomites, at such a
crisis, to break loose from their friendliness, and treat
with hostility both the fugitives who came among
them, and other men of Israelitish blood. It would
not be unlike the l’hoenicians and Philistines to aid
them in this, or to seek to make gain from them and
the Syrians, by affording them a market for their cap-
tives and their spoils. Thus understood, the particu-
lars fit so well as to render it probable that this is the
true explanation of them.
Our versions render the verbs in Amos iv. 6-11 in
the present-perfect tense, as if the situation there de-
Scribed was contemporary with the prophet, thus mak-
ing the passage difficult to reconcile with all else that
is said in the book as to the contemporaneous situation.
The verbs should rather be translated by our simple
past, e. g.: -
“And also I, for my part, give you cleanness of teeth in
all your cities,
And lack of bread in all your places;
Yet ye returned not unto me, saith Jehovah.”
This and the following verses thus allude to notable
calamities that God had brought upon the people at
some past time not here specified. They mention a
calamity of drouth, verses 7, 8, a calamity of blasting
and of locusts, verse 9, and then follows:
“I sent among you pestilence in the way of Egypt;
I killed your chosen youths with the Sword,
With the captivity of your horses,
And I brought up the stench of your encampments even
into your nostrils;
Yet ye returned not unto me, saith Jehovah.
“I made overthrow among you,
Like God's overthrowing Sodom and Gomorrah,
And ye were as a brand plucked from a burning,
Yet ye returned not unto me, saith Jehovah.”
It is barely possible that the “way of Egypt” may
here mean “after the manner of Egypt,” but that is
an unnatural translation. By its most simple and
natural meaning the phrase is geographical, and we have
here a mention of a signal overthrow of the forces of
Israel in the region lying toward Egypt. Either the
destruction in battle was preceded by a pestilence in
the camp, or it is itself called a pestilence. At once
we recall to mind that, according to the historical
books, Hazael was on his way from Gath to Jerusalem,
and, therefore, somewhere “in the way of Egypt.”
when Jehovah ‘‘ delivered a very great host into their
hand,’’ and also that there is no other recorded defeat
of Israel that corresponds to this description in Amos.
It is not a necessary part of the view now presented,
but is in itself likely that “the very great host '' in
question was composed of the allied armies of Israel
and Judah, and that it was after this defeat that Je-
hoahaz had left only fifty horsemen, ten chariots, and
10,000 footmen (2 Kings xiii. 7). There may be a
connection between the disproportionately small num-
ber of horses left to Jehoahaz and the fact described in
Amos in the noticeable phrase, ‘‘ with the captivity of
your horses.”
It seems to be true, therefore, as we should have
expected to find it, that the career of Hazael was still
remembered with especial distinctness in the times
when Amos prophesied, and that several additional
particulars in regard to it are preserved to us in the
allusions made by this prophet.
The Book of Obadiah. —This book speaks of an
event in the past in which Edom wronged Judah, of
punishment already incurred for the wrong, and of yet
greater punishment in the future. The points men-
tioned in regard to the wrong to Judah are that
strangers took his army captive; that they came into
the vicinity of his gates (possibly, that they entered);
that they cast lots upon Jerusalem, verse ll'; that they
drank upon the holy mountain, verse 16: that there
Was ... the exile-band of this army to the sons of
Israel', among the Canaanites as far as Zarephath.”
and ... the exile-band of Jerusalem which is in Sepha-
rad," verse 20. Nothing is said about Jerusalem be-
ing destrºyed or even captured, nor about the land
being made desolate, nor about the nation in general
going into exile. In these respects there is a sharp dif.
ference between Obadiah and the passages in ps
cxxxvii.; Ezek. xxy, and xxxv.; Lani. iv., and indi-
reely, Jer. xlix. In other words, the event here de-
scribed has not very much in common with the de-
struction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. The
particulars agree, at least equally well with those of
Hazael's expedition. . Further, the resemblances be-
tween this event and that referred to in Amos are
striking. We have the same stress laid upon the fact
that Edom was in brotherly relations with Judah, and
Was false to these, verses 10, 12. In verse if we have
**
272
PROPHETS.
the same peguliar phraseology that we found in Amos:
and shut thou not up his survivors in a day of dis-
tress...’, But the phrase, obscure in Amos, is here in-
telligible, being interpreted by the parallel line, “And
stand thou not at the fork of the road to cut off his
escaping ones.”. In Amos Edom is associated with
Philistia and Phoenicia, and the same is true, though
less distinctly, in Obadiah, see verse 19, and “Canaan-
ites as far as Zarephath,’’ verse 20. From Obad. 7 it
appears that Edom's allies used him for their own ad-
Wantage, got him out to the border, deceived him,
made his bread a snare to him—that is, possibly stim-
ulated him to acts of violence by furnishing him a
market for spoils and captives; cf. verse 20. The im-
plication is that they did not stand by him after they
had thus got him into trouble. With this agrees the
fact that, a few years later, when Amaziah took ven-
eance on the Edomites in Sela (2 Kings xiv. 7 ; 2
hron. xxv. 11, 12; cf. Obad. 3), they seem to have
stood alone.
It follows that we have no need to pull the text of
Obadiah to pieces, and no need to put forced explana-
tions on the fact that Obadiah speaks as if Ephraim,
Samaria, the house of Joseph (verses 18, 19), existed
in his time side by side with Judah, in order to reckon-
cile the phenomena of the book with its supposed ref.
erence to the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar.
The reference is not to the Babylonian monarch, but to
Hazael. The Book of Obadiah gives us the following
particulars connected with Hazael's invasion, in addi-
tion to those stated or alluded to in the historical
books and Amos : There was a scene of drunken
revelry and gambling in the vicinity of Jerusalem,
verses 16a, 11c ; bands of captives were sold into ex-
ile by way of the Phoenician coasts, or sent to Se-
harad (Sardis, perhaps), verses 14, 20; Edom claimed,
y way of justification, some right of retaliation for
Some previous injury, verse 15.
These considerations seem to fix the date of the
prophecy as after Amaziah's revenge upon Edom, and
at a time when there was cordial feeling between
Judah and Israel; that is, either just before Joash of
Israel beat Amaziah and broke down the walls of Je-
rusalem (2 Kings xiv. 8–14), or some years later than
that event, probably the former.
The Book of Joel.—This book, like Obadiah and
unlike Amos, is distinctly Judaite, being even more so
than Obadiah. It consists of a single discourse, and
therefore belongs to a single date. Probably no one
would dispute that its affiliations with Obadiah are
such as to prove the two books to be of about the same
date.
The careful reader will observe that the argument
mainly depended upon, in the article in the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA, to prove that Joel is post-exilic
is drawn from the fact that Joel evidently presupposes
the priestly legislation of the Pentateuch, and must,
therefore, have been written later than that legislation.
To one who is already convinced that the priestly leg-
islation is post-exilic the argument is decisive ; but
really it is bad reasoning first to argue that the priestly
legislation is post-exilic because it is only mentioned in
post-exilic books, like Joel, and then to infer that
these books are post-exilic from the fact of their men-
tioning the priestly legislation.
The historical situation recognizable in Joel is mainly
that of a related group of recent calamitous events.
Verbally, the calamities mentioned are three—a
drouth, i. 10–13, 15–20; a locust plague, i. 4-9 ; ii.
1–11, and a subjugation to enemies. In this Joel is
parallel with Amos iv. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Whether we re-
gard the drouth and the locust plague as separate facts
or as figurative modes of expression for the invasion by
enemies, in any event the invasion is the most promi-
nent fact contemplated in the descriptions, the threats,
and the promises of the book. The situation is pecu-
liar, is pretty distinctly outlined, agrees in some par-
ticulars with the situation of the invasion of Hazael, as
d
presented in the historical books, and in Amos and
Joel, and is in no particular inconsistent with that
situation.
It was a time when strangers were passing through
Jerusalem, iv. 17 (iii. 17); when Jehovah's inheri-
tance was being dominated to its reproach by the na-
tions, ii. 17–19; when they had apportioned Jehovah's
inheritance, scattered Israel among the nations, and
reduced the population of Jerusalem to an escaping
remnant, iv. 2 (iii. 2); iii. 5 (ii. 32); cf. Obad. 17.
Joel nowhere uses any word of the stem ºl, and,
roperly understood, nowhere speaks of the nation as
; in exile; but he speaks of a condition of cap-
tivity, either past, present or future, from which
Judah needed restoration, iv. 1 (iii. 1). Like Obadiah,
he speaks of a scene of revelry, when Jewish captives,
boys and girls, had been sold cheap to satisfy the de-
mands of drink and lust, or had been gambled for, iv.
3 (iii. 3) ; cf. Obad. 11. In these injuries Edom and
perhaps Egypt had participated, doing violence to the
Sons of Judah, and shedding innocent blood in their
land (perhaps the blood of Jewish fugitives shed in
Edom), iv. 19 (iii. 19); cf. Obad. 10. Tyre, Sidon,
and Philistia, under pretence of retaliating upon Jeho-
vah for something (say for the fate of Jezebel and
Athaliah), had taken their part in the affair, iv. 4
(iii. 4). Perhaps in the way of trade for spoils they had
brought in Jehovah's silver and gold and delightful
things into their palaces, iv. 5 (iii. 5); they had sold
Jewish captives as slaves to the Greeks long distances
away, iv. 6 (iii. 6); cf. Obad. 20.
Joel describes the principal agent of subjugation as
“ the northerner,” ii. 20. His occupation of the
country is not permanent, but he is driven out into a
dry and desolate country, and his stench ascends.
His going is with his face to the eastern Sea, and his
rear toward the hinder sea; that is, perhaps, from the
vicinity of Jerusalem, out of the country in an easterly
direction. At first thought this might seem incon-
sistent with the referring of the passage to Hazael,
since the account in Kings seems to represent him as
leaving the country in triumph, bearing with him the
spoils of the temple, which had been given him to
bribe him to leave. But why did Hazael content
himself with thus receiving a part 2 Now that Jeru-
salem was at his mercy, why did he not take the
whole? Combine the suggestion in these questions
with the possibility that the interference of Rimman-
nirari occurred at this point of time, and with the fact
that the power of Syria so soon afterward went down
before that of Israel, and we see that this part of Joel's
description may very probably be true of the invasion
by Hazael.
If the reference is to this event, it fixes the date
of the Book of Joel. It belongs within the lifetime
of the men who had witnessed the event, i. 2, while
some of the captives then taken were yet living, with
the promise of returning to their native country, iv. 7
(iii. 7), cf. Obad. 20. ©
Joel elaborates a doctrine of the day of Jehovah, in
which Jehovah will judge the nations ; Obadiah and
Amos cite this doctrine as something already known,
e.g., Obad. 15 ; Amos v. 18. From this and other
circumstances, it is to be inferred that Joel was first
published, then Obadiah, then Amos, and that the
citations of one from the other are to be interpreted
accordingly. Joel and Obadiah were prophets, by
whose word concerning Jehovah's day of judgment
for the nations Jeroboam and Uzziah were encouraged
in the efforts by which they established their power
from Hamath to the sea of the Arabah, and thus
became the “saviours." Jehovah promised, Obad. 21 ;
2 Kings xiii. 5; while Amos prophesied a few years
later, against the sins that were rife, in spite of
Jehovah's graciousness.
The Book of Jonah. —According to the statement
made in 2 Kings xiv. 25, Jonah prophesied before the
victories by which Jeroboam II. restored the glories of
PROPHETs.
273
constituted the empire of Jeroboam
Israel. He belongs, therefore, with Joel and Obadiah ;|later parts of the book often directly mention Assyria,
though, unlike them and Amos, he was a northern
Israelite. It is possible that he was the earliest of
the four, and therefore the earliest of the prophets
who have given their names to the prophetic books.
The Book of Jonah is thoroughly recognized both
in the New Testament and in tradition, as well known
and as scriptural, and hence as having whatever
authority of inspiration belongs to any book of Scrip-
ture. This fact, and, along with it, the religious
teachings of the book, should be carefully guarded, no
matter what questions may arise in regard to its
authorship, or the settling of the difficulties it pre-
SentS.
We now resume our study of the history. Unless
reasons can be given for some different interpretation,
the Biblical numerals make the interval between the
death of Jeroboam II. and the destruction of Samaria
to be seventy-four years. The chronology adopted in
the BRITANNICA’s article on HOSEA would reduce this
nearly one-half, while still other different views of the
matter have their advocates. These differences cannot
here be discussed ; it is sufficient to say here that the
numerals given in the BRITANNICA are merely tenta-
tive ; the failure of any one of half a dozen conjectures
would leave them groundless ; there is reason here for
careful inquiry into all items of evidence that may
throw light upon the Biblical numerals and statements,
but no reason, as the evidence stands, for rejecting or
suspecting these.
In any case the death of Jeroboam was followed by
anarchy in northern Israel. Probably there was an
interregnum before the accession of his son Zechariah,
and certainly Zechariah, after reigning only six months,
was slain by Shallum, who, in turn, was in a month
dethroned and slain by Menahem. The ten years of
Menahem extended from the thirty-ninth of Uzziah to
the forty-ninth. In the early part of it, apparently,
Pul, king of Assyria, invaded the land, and Menahem
paid him a thousand talents “to confirm the kingdom
in his hand.” To this date, most likely, belongs the
deportation of the tribes east of the Jordan, mentioned
in 1 Chron. v. 6, 26. That Pul was Tiglath-pileser
seems to be generally accepted, but a comparison of
the Biblical dates with the Assyrian shows it to be
probable that these transactions occurred before he
became king of Assyria. An Assyrian account of them
probably exists, in the shape of the fragmentary in-
Scriptions mentioned above, conjecturally attributed to
Tiglath-pileser. These mention Menahem as paying
tribute, and Uzziah as the chief of an anti-Assyrian
confederacy.
Menahem was succeeded by Pekahiah, and he by
Pekah, whose first year was the last year of Uzziah.
Uzziah was succeeded by Jotham, and he by Ahaz, who
came to the throne in the seventeenth year of Pekah.
By this time the combination of peoples which had
I. and Uzziah
was broken up, and the unity of Israel and Judah was
also broken. Pekah joined Rezin of Damascus in war
against Ahaz ; , Ahaz became tributary to Tiglath-
pileser, and asked help from him ; he conquered
Damascus, and deported its citizens, and captured
Several cities of the north of Israel, deporting their
inhabitants, 2 Kings XV. 29. Apparently this is a
different deportation from that of the trans-Jordanie
people, 1 Chron. v. 26. These transactions are narrated
Somewhat in full in the Assyrian records, Tiglath-
pileser, Ahaz, Rezin, and Pekah being mentioned by
‘Ilºlil) (2.
The Book of Hosea.—According to its inscription
Hosea prophesied in the times of Jeroboam II, and of
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, of Judah. Of
the prophecies contained in this book the earlier
antedate the death of Jeroboam, but, perhaps, none
are later than Uzziah. The historical situation exhib-
ited in the earlier prophecies of Hosea is the same with
the contemporary situation as shown in Amos; the
and represent Israelitish public men as in a state of
perpetual intrigue with Assyria and with Egypt, e. g.,
v. 13 ; vii. 11, 16 : viii. 9 : ix. 3, 6 ; x. 6; xi. 5; xii.
1.5 xiv. 3. The violent changes in the monarchy are
also alluded to in such passages as viii. 4 and xiii. 11.
The absence of elements like these from Amos,
Obadiah, and Joel, and their presence in Hosea, are
facts that enable us to fit the dates of these proph-
ecies very closely to those of the history.
The Earlier Prophecies of Isaiah. —The points in the
treatment of Isaiah which especially need notice have
already been considered in the article on ISAIAH.
The parts of Isaiah which we naturally assign to the
reign of Uzziah are the three prophecies contained in
chaps. ii.-vi. The historical situation here ought to
agree with that in Hosea, and the agreement actually
exists, if we make due allowance for the fact that
Isaiah is essentially a Judaite prophet, and Hosea
a Northern prophet. The Book of Isaiah, chaps. vii.
–xii., is made up of prophecies of the time of Ahaz.
In them the invasion of Pekah and Rezin and the
Assyrian intrigues and movements of the time are
especially prominent.
The Prophecies in Zechariah i.e.—eir.—The relation of
these chapters to the earlier chapters of the Book of
Zechariah will be considered in its proper place. For
the present we have to notice the historical situation
presented in them. Chaps, ix. —xi, are a discourse
entitled “The Burden of the Word of Jehovah in the
Land of Hadrach,” while chaps, xii.—xiv. are
entitled “ The Burden of the Word of Jehovah upon
Israel.”
In the first of these two discourses the follow-
ing are among the noteworthy points : “Hadrach ''
occurs only here in the Bible. The name is used about
in the same way with such names as Hamath, Damas-
cus, Samaria, in the Assyrian inscriptions, in connec-
tion both with Menahem and with Pekah. The time
of the prophecy was during the Assyrian period, x. 10,
11. It was when the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
were both in existence, that is, before the downfall of
Samaria, ix. 10, 13; x. 6 : xi. 14. According to the
traditional translation of ix. 2 it was a time when
Hamath was the border of Israel, and therefore before
the empire of Jeroboam II. had utterly gone to
pieces. Like Joel and Amos, this discourse groups
tºgether Tyre, Sidon, Ashkelon, Gaza, Ashdod, and
Ekron, as having certain relations with Judah, but,
unlike them, omits Edom, ix. 1–8. Like Joel, it has
something to say concerning the Greeks, ix. 13. A
short time previously there had been in existence “my
covenant which I made with all the peoples,” and this
covenant had now been broken, xi. 10. There had
also been “brotherhood,” now broken, between Ju-
dah and Israel, xi. 14; cf. ix. 10, 13; x. 6. The
exactor," has been passing through upon the temple
at Jerusalem, perhaps by way of Philistia, ix. S.; R. 4.
Apparently, there has been a great recent defeat of
Ephraim and Judah combined, ix. 10, (Trans-
late thus : ‘‘ And though I cut off chariot from
Ephraim, and horse from Jerusalem, and battle-bow
be eut off, yet he shall speak peace,” etc., cf. Hos. i. 7;
ii. 30 [18]), the prisoners being now confined in dry
Wells and such places (ix. 11, 12). Israelites from
Gilead and Lebanon have been sown among the peo-
ples, and their return is promised, especially from
Assyria and Egypt (x, S-12; cf. Hos. vii. 16; iv. 3-6).
The Israelites are now the “flock of slaughter,” and
therefore “the most miserable of sheep ’’ (xi. 4, 7),
especial, emphasis being laid upon certain mercenary
transactions by which they became so (xi. 5 ; cf. Hos.
Yiii.,9;, 2 Kings XV. 19). It is a time of bad “ shep-
herds, and of the cutting off of shepherds (x. 3, § ;
xi. S, 16, 17). On the whole the situation is pretty
sharply that of the later years of the reign of Uzziah,
either, shortly before or shortly after the death of
Menahem.
274
PROPHETS.
The discourse concerning Israel, Zech. xii.-xiv., is,
notwithstanding its title, exclusively concerned with
Judah. It is late enough in date so that it can refer
to the earthquake in the days of Uzziah as a thing of
the past, but early enough so that people then living
had fled from the earthquake (xiv. 5). That is to say,
it is a generation later than Amos (Amos i. 1). It is
enough later than the previous discourse so that the
attitude of the surrounding peoples, then somewhat
undecided, has now become one of positive hostility
(xii. 2; xiv. 12, 16, etc.) In fine, it contemplates a
condition of things like that of the reign of Ahaz,
as delineated in Kings, Chronicles, and Isaiah vii.-xii.
The prophets of this earliest group all preach, prom-
inently, the doctrine of “the day of Jehovah.” In
Joel and Obadiah it is mainly a day of judgment
for the nations and of rescue for Israel. In Amos,
Hosea, Isaiah, and Zechariah it is the same, but is
also a day of judgment for Israel, a day of dread, as
well as a day of gladness. It would be a mistake, in
any of these prophets, to refer it to any particular
event in such a way as to exclude its application to
other events. It is an eternal judgment day, always
impending, and perpetually repeating itself. The
conception of it in the minds of the prophets, from
Joel onward, is large enough to include and justify the
largest New Testament use of their language.
Even more prominently than their preaching of the
day of Jehovah these prophets preach the covenant
promises made to Israel. In connection with this they
all allude very abundantly to the events, the institu-
tions, and the phraseology of the various parts of the
Pentateuch.
Beginning with Amos, they preach the promises
made to David, combining this in their preaching,
with the doctrine of the day of Jehovah, and the
romise to Israel, e. g., Amos ix. 11; Hos. iii. 5;
sa. ix. 7 : Zech. xii. 7, 8, 10, 12 ; xiii. 1. The
Israelite prophets are as distinct in this as the Juda-
ite. Here again the person mentioned is commonly
not some particular king of the house of David, but
the seed of David as promised, an eternal seed, includ-
ing, of course, all particular kings in the line, but
always anticipating something yet greater in the future.
It is true to the stirring scenes in which these prophe-
cies were uttered that they sometimes make splendid
promises of victory won in battle, over Israel's ene-
mies, e. g., Zech. ix. 13–16. But far more promi-
nently they insist upon the sway of the seed of David
as that of a prince of peace, having universal domin-
ion, e. g., Zech. ix. 9, 10; Isa. ix. 6, 7 : xi.; ii. 2-4,
etc. This conception of these prophets stands out in
striking contrast with the scenes by which they were
surrounded.
The Prophets of the Later Assyrian Period.—These
are Isaiah, Micah, and Nahum. In the sixth year of
Hezekiah, the political power of the Northern king-
dom was finally extinguished by Sargon, king of
Assyria. Sargon was succeeded on the throne by his
descendants Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, and Assur-
banipal. Hezekiah was succeeded by Manasseh,
Amon, and Josiah. For most of this period... the
Assyrian records are abundant and throw great light
on the Bible. The chronology of these records Syn-
chronizes very closely with that of the Bible, rightly
understood, though the contrary is sometimes as-
serted. º
According to Mic. i. 1, Micah prophesied in the
days of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. Those of his
prophecies that are recorded, however, all belong tº
the days of Hezekiah, and mainly to the six years of
Hezekiah's reign that elapsed before the downfall of
Samaria, e. g., i. 6 ; iii. 12; Jer. xxvi, S. Frºm the
rebukes uttered by Isaiah and Micah at this period, Prof.
W. Robertson Smith in the article in the ENCYCLO-
pædia BRITANNICA infers “the conclusion that Heze-
kiah was not from the first a reforming king,’’ as the ae-
counts in Kings and Chronicles represent him to have
been ; but the premises justify no such conclusion.
If Hezekiah was from the first a reformer, it does not
follow that he would be able by a pen-stroke instantly
to annihilate the evils of the times, so that there
would no longer be these evils to rebuke. It is more
natural to think that there would be a struggle, and
that he would need all the aid these prophets could
give him in carrying out his purposes of reform. The
alleged contradictions between Isaiah and Micah, and
between Mic. iv. 9, 10 and iv. 11–13, are not contra-
dictions, but the presentation of different aspects of
the same fact. When we remember that Tiglath-
pileser and the kings of the Sargon dynasty claimed it
as a special glory that they were kings of Babylon as
well as of Assyria, and that some of the immigrants
to Samaria were brought from the Babylonian regions,
we see that there is nothing in the words, “ thou shalt
come even to Babylon,” Mic. iv. 10, to justify the
charge of interpolation, or of the presence of a
later hand than Micah's. The idea that Mic. vii.
7–20 is post-exilic is sufficiently refuted by the mention
of Assyria in verse 12, and the alleged difference of
situation between chaps. vi.-vii. and the previous
chapters does not exist except on the assumption that
people of different characters cannot live in the same
country at the same time. -
Nahum is not formally dated. As it consists largely
of threats against Assyria, it evidently belongs to the
Assyrian period. If it were necessary to refer iii.
8–10 to the taking of Thebes by Assurbanipal, that
would prove the prophesying of Nahum to have been
in the latter part of Manasseh's reign, or later, but the
sacking of Thebes referred to may be an earlier event.
Josephus says, very circumstantially, that Nahum's
prophecy was uttered in the reign of Jotham, 115
years before the fall of Nineveh (Ant. IX., xi. 3).
The Prophets of the Babylonian Period.—These are
Zephaniah, Habakkuk, and Jeremiah in Palestine,
and Ezekiel in Babylonia. No one knows just when
the downfall of Nineveh occurred, but the power of
Nineveh in Palestine evidently ceased from early in
the reign of Josiah. The first three of the prophets
just named began to prophesy in the interval between
the loosening of the hold of the Assyrian over Judah
and the rise of the Babylonian supremacy. The 1300k
of Zephaniah is, like Joel, a monograph on ‘‘ the 1)ay
of Jehovah.” It is best regarded as consisting of
three parts—a threat of judgment, i. ; an exhortation
to repentance, ii. and iii. 1–8, and a promise of Salva-
tion, iii. 9–20. It is dated “in the days of Josiah,”
i. 1. Havernick, Ewald, De Wette, Jahn, and others
regard it as belonging to the first eleven years of
Josiah's reign, the years before his reformation begun.
Keil, Witsius, W. Coeln, Knobel, Hitzig, E. Meier,
Strauss are quoted as assigning it to the middle seven
years of Josiah, the years when his reformation was in
* - x- Y - 2 I •
progress, and Delitzsch, Bertheau, Klein, and Klein-
ert, as assigning it to the later years of Josiah, after
the reformation had become an accomplished fact.
The evidence can hardly be regarded as decisive in
favor of either view. Such passages as i, 4, 6, seem
to imply that there had recently been a reformation,
which had reduced the worshippers of Baal to a rem-
nant, and that still more recently there had been some
apostasy on the part of those who had reformed. . If
it were certain that the reformation here referred to
is that of Josiah, that would be decisive as to the date
of the book; but this reformation is quite as likely to
be that of the later days of Manasseh, 2 Chron.
xxxiii. 12–17, with the apostasy that followed in the
sº - - º
days of Amon. Taking this view of the matter,
there is a preponderange of probability in favor of
the opinion that Zephaniah prophesied early in
Josiah’s reign, and that we have here one of the dis-
courses by which public opinion in Judah was influ-
euced in favor of undertaking the reformation.
Concerning Habakkuk, it need here only be noted
that this prophecy is dated by its affiliations with Zeph-
PROPHETS.
275
aniah and Jeremiah, as belonging, probably, to the
later years of Josiah. º
The Book of Jeremiah, as it now exists, is more
fully provided with a system of titles and sub-titles
than any other book of the Old Testament. Follow;
ing these, or classifying by them, the book consists of
five parts: The first part, chaps. i.-xx, contains six
collections of sketches of prophecies (i. 4-iii. 5; iii.6-vi.;
vii.-x.; xi.-xiii.; xiv.–xvii.; xviii.-xx.). Each collection
includes several sketches, some of the prophecies be-
ing sketched in a sentence or two, and others given
quite in full. The sketches mingle poetry and prose
in the most unexpected ways, and are remarkably un-
even, both in literary character and in the topics dis-
cussed. The first two of these collections are dated as
belonging to the reign of Josiah ; the third is identi-
fied in chap. xxvi. as containing the group of prophe-
cies for which Jeremiah was prosecuted early in the
reign of Jehoiakim ; the other three are not dated.
The second part, chaps, xxi.-xxxvi., is a series of
dated narratives and addresses, each complete in
itself, in an order which seems to be entirely miscel-
laneous. The third part, chaps. xxxvii.-xliv., is a
continuous narrative of the times of the destruction
of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, including some
discourses. The fourth part, chaps, xlv.–li., is a col-
lection of poems, which might be entitled “The
Book of Woes upon the Nations.” The poems con-
tained in it are of different dates, but they have a
common character. The fifth part is the historical
appendix, chap. lii. Whatever there may be that is
puzzling in the present order of the book, it seems at
least to be clear that the man who put the book to-
gether had in his possession the first, third, fourth,
and fifth parts, each complete in itself, and also the
various discourses that compose the second part ; he
first arranged the completed parts, in the order which
was on the whole the most natural, and then put the
remaining separate discourses in the place where, as a
whole, they belonged, without arranging them, rela-
tively to one another, in the order of time.
The first collection of the first part of Jeremiah con-
tains sketches of five different prophecies, each intro-
duced by the formula, “And the word of Jehovah
was unto me, saying.” The five sketches are i. 4–10,
II, 12, 13–19; ii.; iii. 1–5; the introductory formula
being incomplete in our text in iii. 1. . Here and in
the following collections it is at once evident that we
have not, ordinarily, the full text of each prophecy,
written out in the words in which the prophecy was
originally uttered, but a mere sketch of the prophecy,
made for some purpose, at a later date. What should
we expect to find different from these collections, if
we could recover the roll said to have been written by
Baruch, Jer. xxxvi. 32? The different roll mentioned
in xxxvi. 2–26, the roll which the king destroyed
“when Jehudi had read three or four leaves,” can
hardly have been so brief a document as Graetz sup-
poses, when he says that it was merely the prophecy
now found in chap. xxv. A resumé of the prophet's
utterances for many years would give weight to his
testimony, even if it included much besides direct
threatenings as to what the king of Babylon would do
to Judah. It is not good reasoning to substitute con-
jecture for testimony, in cases where there is no more
ifficulty with the testimony than there is here.
In the argument as to the authorship of Jer, lii., it
should be kept in mind that the accession of Evil-
merodach was but sixty-six years after Jeremiah began
to prophesy, he being then a “child '' (i. 6). We
have no information as to how long Jeremiah lived.
It is true that Ezekiel was his “late contemporary,”
but we do not know which of the two died first,
and most of the Book of Ezekiel is dated either be:
fore the destruction of the temple, or very soon after
that event, that is to say . the probable life-
time of Jeremiah.
The article on EZEKIEL in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA includes a good many dates from the
Christian era, given according to the commonly 30-
cepted scheme of chronology. If any one will take
the trouble to compare the Biblical dates with those
of the Canon of Ptolemy, and will do the work cºr-
rectly, he will find that all these dates are too large by
two that is, for example, the date of the exile.9f
Jehoiachin was B. c. 597, instead of B. C. 599. The
difference is important, not for the times of Ezekiel
only, but for all dates concerning the prophets, or
concerning the history, back to the time of the down-
fall of Samaria. For all this period, the dates B. C.
accepted by the Assyriologists are based on the Canon
of Ptolemy. As a matter of fact, if we reduce the
Biblical dates to the same standard, we transform
many a supposed general and vague synchronism be-
tween the Biblical and the Assyrian records into an
exact synchronism. e -
The connecting of Ezekiel's forty years with his
frequently repeated prophecies of the restoration of
Judah is, it should be remembered, a matter of in-
terpretation, and not of direct statement by him.
Whatever may be true as to Kuenen's having proved
the traditions concerning the Great Synagogue to be
unhistorical, no history is more veritable than much of
the tradition concerning Ezra, Nehemiah, and some
of the other men who are often called “the men of
the Great Synagogue ; ’’ and it is the traditions con-
cerning the men, and not those concerning the organi-
zation, that are mainly important as evidence in re-
gard to the completing of the Scriptures. According
to the traditions, Ezekiel's contemporaries, Daniel,
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego were among the
men of the Great Synagogue. Ezekiel himself is
likely enough to have been one of the number. There
is no reason for doubting the essential fact in the tra-
dition concerning Ezekiel, namely, that the men of the
Great Synagogue are responsible for its existence as a
literary work.
As to the relations of Ezekiel to the Pentateuch, his
holy land, holy city, temple, and ritual are all largely
symbolical, for they are full of specifications that are
palpably impossible, if we try to understand them as
literal facts; the strong literary resemblances between
Ezekiel and certain parts of the Pentateuch are readily
accounted for by the fact that the prophet was evi-
dently a man of narrow reading, whose style was greatly
affected by those writings to which he paid especial
attention; Ezekiel is distinguished from every part
of the Pentateuch, by the fact that the Babylonian
locus of the author never for a moment disappears from
Ezekiel, and never sharply appears in the Pentateuch;
and by the fact that Ezekiel throughout presents lin.
guistic peculiarities different from those found in the
Pentateuch. The relations of Ezekiel to the Law are
admirably discussed by Dr. Frederic Gardiner, in the
Journal of the Society of Biblical Literatureand Ece-
gesis for 1881.
The Post-exilic Prophets.-These are Haggai and
Zeehariah, each containing several short prophecies,
dated by certain days of certain months in the reign of
Darius Hystaspes, and Malachi, dated by its contents,
its position in the canon, and tradition as from the latest
period of the Old Testament canon, that is, from the
latter part of Nehemiah's second administration in
Jerusalem. By the plan on which the present articles,
are written, these books require no extended notice.
Any reader who will carefully examine the references.
given in the article on HAGGAI in the ENCYCLOPEDIA
BRITANNICA will see that, really, there is no conflict
between the statements made in Haggai and those made
in Ezra, as to the restoration of the temple, but that,
Qn the other hand, the prophecies of both Haggai and
Malachi presuppose that the builders had had especial
hindrances and difficulties, and that the hindrances
mentioned in Ezra exactly fit the case.
We have already noted the fact that the two proph-
ecies in Zech. ix.-xiv., although they immediately
276
PROTECTION−PSALMS.
follow eight chapters dated in the reign of Darius, yet
present distinctly the historical situation of the times
of Uzziah and Ahaz. This would be accounted for if we
suppose that two independent books have here been
arbitrarily joined, or if we suppose that the Zechariah
of the times of Darius wrote both, but, in writing ix.-
xiv., put himself back to the point of view of the
earlier time, or if we suppose that he possessed the
earlier work, and edited it into his own book, or very
likely in other ways. Among the various possible
theories, it is not necessary here to decide ; with the
facts clearly in mind, the question as to how the facts
are to be accounted for is a question that can wait.
The present writer, having in mind the fact that
this article is to be supplementary to those in the EN-
CYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, has regarded it as ordinarily
unnecessary to repeat the details that are given, and
often admirably given, in those articles. Nor has he
regarded it as his duty to controvert every point in
which those articles present views different from those
held by most American evangelical scholars. Much
less has he attempted the limitless task of arguing all
such questions. The reader who really desires to get
at the truth should carefully look at the evidence for
himself, on both sides of these controverted questions.
But there is one line of statements that requires a brief
additional consideration. In regard to nearly every one
of the prophetic books the reader will observe that the
various writers in the BRITANNICA make two affirma-
tions : first, that the text is corrupt, containing errors
and interpolations, and needing emendation ; secondly,
that the book shows marks of having been worked
over, changed from its original form by additions,
omissions, and the piecing together of parts that orig-
inally did not belong together. In the instances where
these writers are cautious and avoid these affirmations,
some other living writers are less cautious ; there is
probabiy no prophetic book, and indeed no book of
the Old Testament, in regard to which a certain class
of critics do not confidently assert both that the text is
in need of emendation, and that the book has been
worked over since it was written. These points are
raised in connection with a multitude of instances
throughout the prophetic books ; it has been impos-
sible to notice the instances separately as they arose, and
is now impossible to discuss the points at length. But by
all fair laws of critical reasoning, most of the instances
are mistakes, and, in general, the inferences drawn from
them are not well drawn. Al, questions of this sort
have a right to be examined and decided by the evi-
dence. But presumptively, phenomena that charac-
terize every part of a literature are to be regarded as
the ordinary phenomena of that literature, and not as
marks of text-corruption or of complicated redaction.
In the books of the prophets, the fair application of
this principle will sweep away nearly all the alleged
instances of these.
Literature.—Among accessible commentaries that treat of
the prophetic books, those of the Lange series and those of
the Keil and Delitzsch series are full and valuable. The
successive volumes of the Cambridge Bible for Schools are
highly prized. The successive issues of the Old Testament
Sºdent from January, 1888, contain notices of the prophetic
books with references to the literature ; and the same peri-
odical has for some years published a monthly list of pub-
lications concerning the Old Testament, including, of course,
the prophetic parts of it. Dr. W. H. Green's book, Moses
and the Prophets, includes reviews of the volumes of Kuenen
and of W. Robertson Smith. Orelli's book on Old Testa-
ment Prophecy has attained wide celebrity. An especially
valuable compact discussion of the most important questions
concerning the prophets and prophecy is contained in sev-
eral of the lectures in The Old and New Testaments in their
Mºtway Relations, by the Rev. Frederic Gardiner, D. D.
Messianic Prophecy, by the Rev. C. A., Briggs, D. D., is
fresh and brilliant, and of very great value, for many pur-
poses. The various Bible Dictionaries and Religious En-
cyclopædias contain full lines of articles on these subjects,
with jists of the literature ; the literary lists in the Schaff.
Herzog Encyclopædia are especially rich. (W. J. B.)
PROTECTION. See FREE TRADE and POLITICAL
ECONOMY. .
PROVERBS, Book OF. See SoLOMON.
PROWOOST, SAMUEL (1742–1815), bishop of the
American Episcopal Church, was born in New York
city, March 11, 1742, being of Huguenot descent.
After graduating at King's (now Columbia) College in
1758 he went to England, studied, and graduated at
Cambridge University, and was admitted to orders in
1766. Returning to New York he was made assistant
minister of Trinity Church, but in 1770 retired to a
farm in Duchess county. During the Revolution he
favored the American cause, but took no active part.
On the evacuation of New York by the British in 1783
he became rector of Trinity Church, and in 1785 he
was chaplain to the Continental Congress. In 1786 he
was elected bishop of New York, and in company with
Dr. William White, who had been elected bishop of
Pennsylvania, went to England and was consecrated at
Lambeth palace, Feb. 4, 1787. Returning to New
York, he continued his work as rector of Trinity
Church until 1800, when he resigned on account of his
infirm health. He also resigned his bishopric in the
next year, but the resignation was not accepted, though
Rev. Dr. Benjamin Moore was chosen his assistant.
Bishop Provoost died Sept. 6, 1815.
PRYOR, ROGER ATKINSON, Confederate general
and lawyer, was born near Petersburg, Va., July 19,
1828. He graduated at Hampden-Sidney College
in 1845, and at the University of Virginia in 1842.
He was admitted to the bar and was also active
in journalism in Petersburg, Washington, and Rich-
mond. In 1854 he was sent as a special commis-
sioner to Greece. In 1857 he was elected to Congress,
where he threw all his youthful ardor into the advocacy
of extreme Southern claims. A noted incident of his
career as representative was his challenge of John F.
Potter, of Wisconsin, who selected bowie-knives as the
weapons, but no duel was fought. Pryor joined Gen.
Beauregard's staff at the attack on Fort Sumter. On
the secession of Virginia, he was sent as delegate to the
Confederate Congress, but he soon entered the army
with the rank of colonel. He was promoted brigadier-
general in 1862, and led a division in the defence of
Richmond against McClellan. He resigned from the
army in August, 1863, and being taken prisoner in
November, 1864, was confined for a short time in Fort
Lafayette, in New York harbor. Since the close of
the war he has been a lawyer in active practice in New
York city.
PSALMS. “As regards the dates and historical
See Vol. XX interpretation of the Psalms, all older
* ..." ºpº discussions, even those of Ewald, are
'm Rep p. ° in great measure antiquated by recent
progress in Pentateuch criticism and
the history of the canon.” This statement, taken from
the last sentence of Prof. W. Robertson Smith's article
on the PsALMs in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,
defines his point of view. The psalms which by their ti-
tles, their apparent contents, and external testimony, are
attributed to David and his contemporaries, contain
hundreds of allusions to the various parts of the Hex-
ateuch. If any considerable number of the psalms
were actually written in the times of David, then the
whole Pentateuch had been previously written. But if
the view of Pentateuchal criticism presented in the
successive volumes of the BRITANNICA is correct, then
most of the psalms are not only post-Davidic, but
post-exilic, and the completion of the Psalter cannot
have been earlier than the Maccabaean times. It is
well to have this issue sharply presented. But unless
one assumes that the post-exilic origin of the Hexateuch
is a proven fact, the reasons are very weak for assign-
ing a majority of the psalms to a date later than Da-
vid, or any of them to a date later than Nehemiah.
It is conceded that the contents of a psalm may
have more weight, as evidence of its date, than any
external evidence that can ordinarily be cited. PS.
PSALMS. - 277
cxxxvii., for example, with its picture of the chil-
dren of Zion weeping by the rivers of Babylon,
was evidently written after the beginning of the Baby-
lonish exile, and apparently within the lifetime of some
of the very persons whom Nebuchadnezzar had car-
ried away. And this case shows us what we are to ex-
pect in other cases. The writers of the Psalms were
not men who took pains to cover up the signs of the
date when a psalm was written. If a psalm is really
of late date, it is likely, in most cases, that there will
be, as there is in Ps. cxxxvii., some evident and dis-
tinct sign of that fact. The absence of such signs has
weight against attributing a late date to a psalm. But
if any one will take pains to examine the reasons that
are given when it is proposed to assign an apparently
Davidic psalm to later ages, or any psalm to a date
later than Nehemiah, he will find that the reason, in
most instances, is not very distinct or very strong ; in
many instances it is as attenuated as possible.
The fact, for example, that a psalm mentions the
temple or its service is no strong proof of its having
originated later than David. To say nothing of the
earlier temple of Eli's time, the accounts of the reign
of David inform us that he and other devout Israel-
ites used much time and treasure, making preparations
for the temple that was to be built by his successor,
and arranging for its services. Nothing could be more
natural, during this period, than that a sacred poet
should look forward to the times when the proposed
building and its ritual should be in existence, mention-
ing them in his song.
Nor is a psalm proved to be of post-exilic origin by
its speaking of Israel as in distress, or as needing to be
saved, or even of Israel as scattered among the na-
tions. At half a dozen different periods between the
reign of David and the Babylonian exile the history
of Israel or Judah was such that language of this
sort would be appropriate. During the later years of
Saul, and the earlier years of David, there was a period
of this sort; witness the battle of Gilboa, and, later,
the two desperate attempts of the Philistines against
David, after he took the throne of all Israel. War
always means the driving of people as fugitives from
their homes ; wars in ancient times involved the selling
of the conquered into slavery. Nothing could be
more superficial than to regard every expatriated Is-
raelite spoken of in the Bible as an exile of Nebuchad-
nezzar's time. There never was a century of Israel-
itish history that had not its own cases of this sort.
Nor is a psalm proved to be post-exilic by the fact
of its containing Aramaic or Syriac peculiarities of
language, nor even by its containing peculiarities that
are also found in prose in the later Hebrew. No fact
is more familiar than that the poetic forms of a lan-
guage, or of one period of a language, are apt to show
affiliations with the prose forms of some cognate lan-
guage, or of some different period. The colloquialisms
of one language or period correspond to the literary
usage of a cognate language, or a different period.
The times of David were times when the Israelites
were rapidly changing in culture, and largely through
the fact of their having conquered certain Aramaean
peoples more cultured than themselves. In the cir-
cumstances, the literature of the times of David ought
to show the marks of the times. And later, in the
times of Benhadad, Hazael, and the successive Assyr-
ian conquerors (see 2 Kings xviii. 26), there existed
facts that might easily account for linguistic peculiar-
ities of this sort.
Nor is a psalm proved to be non-Davidic by its not
having a title, in the Hebrew, attributing it to David.
We have no sufficient knowledge as to the origin of the
titles to justify any'inference of this sort. It is easy
to say that the collectors of the psalms would naturally
ascribe a psalm to David, if they knew of the least
shred of evidence to justify them in doing so; and that
their failing to do so therefore shows that no evidence
existed in their day , but of this we have no proof.
As a matter of fact, several of the psalms that are most
specifically attributed to David in the New Testament
and in the Books of Chronicles are those that have no
titles.
A psalm is not necessarily proved to be of late date
by agreements of its phraseology with that of pas-
sages in the later books. Nothing could be more
natural than that the authors of these laterbooks should
quote the psalms. . . Nothing could be more natural
than that they should be so familiar with the national
sacred songs that their own phraseology should be influ-
enced thereby, even when they made no formal quota-
tions.
The positive proof that a majority of the psalms
date from the lifetime of David and of men who were
contemporary with him, that a large proportion of the
rest are pre-exilic, and that none are later than the
possible lifetime of Nehemiah, includes many different
items, and applies differently to different psalms. Of
course it is possible here to consider this evidence only
in general.
The Testimony of the Hebrew: Titles.—To begin with,
the Hebrew titles of about ninety psalms (the same
titles that are found in the English versions) contain
the name of David or of one of his contemporaries,
Asaph, Heman, Ethan (or Jeduthun), or Solomon.
Save in a very few instances these titles are corrobor-
ated by the Septuagint, and the various copies of this ver-
sion also prefix the name of David to a considerable num-
ber of the psalms where it is not found in the Hebrew.
It is not necessary, in all cases, to suppose that the
man who wrote the title intended to be understood that
the man named in the title is the author of the psalm.
Supposably, the words “to David,” prefixed to a
psalm, might mean, not that David wrote the psalm,
ut that he is the subject of it, or that it was dedicated
to him, or that it was regarded as Davidic in its char-
acter, or that it belonged to a collection that was con-
sidered as in some sense Davidic ; and there are other
ways in which a psalm might be regarded as Davidic,
though not written by David. Any one who will look
up the Septuagint titles to the psalms with care will
readily see that, in some cases, the Septuagint writers
and annotators did not regard the man named in the
title of a psalm as its author. But after making all
due allowances of this sort, no one would dispute the
statement that, prevailingly, the prefixing of a name to
a psalm, in its title, was intended as an indication of
its authorship. In any given case, therefore, this in-
terpretation of the title is to be preferred until reasons
appear for a different interpretation.
But it is said that the titles originated in a later and
uncritical age, and are therefore of little value. If it
were known that they are of late origin, that would
not prove them valueless, but would merely open the
way for proving them so ; on comparing them with
other evidence, external and internal, it might still ap-
pear that they were thoroughly trustworthy. But
what evidence can any one adduce that the titles are
of late origin” This is a thing to be proved, not to
be assumed. The titles have been there as far back
as we can trace the psalms themselves. In the Hebrew,
they are printed with nothing to distinguish them from
the rest of the psalm if a title is long enough to
make a verse, it is numbered as the first verse of the
psalm, and not, as in the versions, as a separate
paragraph. No one has a right to reason from the
premises that the titles are some centuries, or some
generations, later than the psalms to which they are
prefixed, until he has first proved these premises.
But it is said that the titles are inconsistent with the
contents of the psalms to which they are prefixed, and
are by this shown to be unhistorical. If this incon-
sistency really exists, in some cases, then it shows that
in those cases the title is either erroneous or else is to
be understood as indicating something else than the
authorship of the psalm. But to justify this, the in.
consistency must be clearly made out, not slimly guessed.
278
PSALMS.
'at. '. To refer Ps. li. to Doeg, Ps. liv. to the Ziph-
ites, Ps. lix. to David when watched in his house by
Saul, implies an absolute lack of the very elements of
historical judgment.” The question which displays
the greater lack of historical judgment, the man who
wrote these titles, or the man who made this remark
concerning them, may safely be left to the decision of
any intelligent reader who will read carefully, in each
case first the passage referred to in Samuel, in its
full connection, and then the psalm referring to it. In
none of the cases does the psalm contain a description
of the incident referred to, so that some later editor
would be likely to identify the psalm with the incident ;
but in each case the psalm delineates thoughts an
feelings such as might naturally arise from the inci-
dent, in an earnest, religious young man, who held
fºlia large views in regard to God's purposes with
ST8,621.
“There is a whole series of hymns in which the
writer identifies himself with the poor and needy, the
righteous people of God suffering in silence at the
hands of the wicked, without other hope than patiently
to wait for the interposition of Jehovah (Ps. xii.,
xxv., xxxvii., xxxviii., etc.). Nothing can be further re-
moved than this from any possible situation in the life
of the David of the books of Samuel.” On the con-
trary, if any one will carefully read what the books of
Samuel say concerning David and his relations with
Saul, up to a point of time when David had become a
fugitive, but before the time of his defection to the
Philistines, he will see that the Twelfth psalm accu-
rately fits a situation in the life of David. If any one
will get distinctly into mind the situation of David in
the period after his domestic troubles began, say from
the time of the murder of Amnon by Absalom to the
close of David's life, and will observe the extent to
which David had brought these troubles upon himself,
by practising polygamy, by the sin with Uriah's wife,
and in other ways, he will see that just such a situation
as this is the situation contemplated in such psalms as
the Twenty-fifth and Thirty-eighth. If he will think
of David in these later years, repentant, but bound
fast to such men as Joab, Absalom, Ahithophe], by
bonds that were partly creditable, but partly discredit-
able, he will find a situation that fits the Thirty-seventh
psalm, as it also fits the shorter psalm found in 2 Sam.
xxiii. 1–7.
“Even the bare names of the old history were no
longer correctly known when Abimelech (the Philis:
tine king in the stories of Abraham and Isaac) could
be substituted in the title of Ps. xxxiv. for Achish,
king of Gath.” But if this argument proves anything,
it proves that this title has not yet been written, and
never will be ; for the time has not yet come when the
name of Achish is “no longer correctly known.”
Whatever explanation may be given for the variation
of names here (variant names are too common in the
Old Testament to require much explanation), there is
nothing in it that has the slightest weight to prove
either that the title was written after the name of
Achish was forgotten, or that the title is unhistorical.
“Ps. xx., xxi. are not spoken by a king, but ad-
dressed to a king by his people.” If this were true, it
would prove nothing against the Dayidic authorship of
these psalms; why should not this poet, like other
lyric poets, sometimes write from the point of yiew of
others, especially when he writes a song for others to
repeat and sing 2 But Ps, xxi., bears every mark of
having been written by the king in question, as well as
to the king. - *- :-
“The titles which ascribe four of the pilgrimage
songs to David and one to Solomon are lacking in the
true LXX., and inconsistent with the contents of the
psalms.” Considering the extent to which the copies
of the Septuagint differ both among themselves and
with the Hebrew, no one should regard the omission
of these titles by the Septuagint as very significant.
As to whether the contents of these psalms are incon-
}
sistent with their coming from David and Solomon,
that can best be decided by any one for himself, by
reading the psalms in question. They are Ps. cxxii.,
cxxiv., czzxi., czzxiii., and cxxvii. Any ordinary
reader, reading with this question in mind, will prob-
ably decide that the sentiments of these psalms are
such as would come with peculiar appropriateness from
David and from Solomon.
“The notes struck in the Lamentations and in
Isaiah xl.-lxvi. meet our ears again in not a few psalms
of book i..' The psalms cited in proof of this are
xxii., XXV., xxxiv., xxxv., xxxviii., xli., and xxxi.,
“with many points of resemblance to Jeremiah.”
“Other psalms of the collection treat the problems of
individual religion in the line of thought first opened
by Jeremiah. Such a psalm is xxxix. and above all
Ps. xvi.” But the phenomena referred to in these
statements are best explained by the view that these
psalms were already ancient in the times of the pro-
phetic authors mentioned, and were familiarly known
to them as the ancient sacred songs of the nation. It
follows that “the line of thought" alluded to was not
“first opened by Jeremiah,” but was found by Jere-
miah in the Davidic psalms, and used accordingly.
If any reader of the preceding paragraphs takes the
trouble to verify them by carefully reading the pas-
sages of Scripture referred to, he will probably find
himself wondering how any man could possibly be led
to make such statements as those that have been
quoted ; perhaps the fact that the misstatements in
the quoted passages are so very palpable may lead him
to question whether the present treatment of them is
not one-sided and unfair. But to explain this puzzling
fact, he need only plant himself at the point of view
from which the quoted statements are made. If it
were true that the Pentateuchal legislation came into
existence long after the times of David, and the cere-
monial parts of it mostly after the exile, then it would
be true that all the psalms that mention this legisla-
tion are of correspondingly late date. Again, those
who hold, as a fundamental part of their theory of the
origin of the Hexateuch, that literary and humane
culture in Israel practically began several generations
later than David, are obliged so to understand the
history of the times of l)avid that it will be consistent
with their view. It is a part of their work to analyze,
emend, and correct the books of Samuel, to submit
these books to what they call a process of sifting, so as
to make the books conform to the truth, as the truth
seems to them. The statements quoted above in re-
gard to the character of David and his times are
based, not on the books of Samuel as found in the
texts, but on what these critics understand to be the
credible portions of the books of Samuel, interpreted
according to a certain scheme for the historical devel-
opment of Israel. Facts like this at once account for
the statements that have been quoted, and corroborate
the reasons that have been given for condemning them.
The article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
regards Ps. li. as a psalm of the exile, purely on the
ground of its mentioning, in the last two verses, the
offering of sacrifices and the building of the walls of
Jerusalem ; but according to the historical books of
the Bible these marks fit David's time. From the
mention of Zebulon and Naphtali along with Benjamin
and Judah, in Ps. lxviii. 27, it infers that this psalm
must have been written later than Nehemiah's time :
but, according to the historical books, this mark ac-
curately fits the time of David. It is useless to multiply
examples. Evidently, the reasons alleged to discredit
the titles of the psalms have no great weight, and the
titles remain, as a whole, historically credible
The Testimony of the New Testament.—In many
different passages the New Testament books connect
the name of David with the following psalms that have
this name in their titles : Ps, xvi., xxxii., lxix., ciz.,
cx. (see Concordance), and also with PS. ii., cyxxii.,
and xcv., which are anonymous in the Psalter. The
PSALMS.
279
last instance appears in Heb. iv. 7 : “Saying in
David, after so long a time . . To-day if ye shall hear
His voice, etc.” In this cuse it would not be difficult
to understand the writer as merely citing the book that
commonly went by the name of David ; not necessarily
as testifying that David wrote the particular psalm
here cited. But in all the other instances the personal
attribution of the psalm quoted to David is, verbally,
at least, and, to all appearance, really, as explicit as
possible. See, for example, Acts ii. 25, 29, 34, or iv.
25, 26. If this testimony is to be believed (and there
is no reason for disputing it, even apart from all super-
natural claims made for it), it confirms the titles to
five of the psalms, thus incidentally confirms the testi-
mony of the titles in general, adds Ps. ii. and less
distinctly Ps. cxxxii. (Acts vii. 46) to the list of those
written by David, and strongly points out David as
pre-eminently the great writer of psalms.
The Testimony of the Books of Chronicles, Ezra, and
Nehemiah. —These books testify to the personal exist-
ence, in David's time, of the singers Asaph, Heman,
and Jeduthun, whose names appear in the titles of
certain psalms, and that their function as singers was
handed down from the times of David, 1 Chron. vi.
33, 39; xv. 19 ; xxv. ; 2 Chron. v. 12; xx. 14; xxix.
13, 30; xxxv. 15 ; Ezra ii. 41 ; iii. 10 ; Neh. vii. 44;
xi. 17, 22; xii. 35, 46, and many other passages. In
these same passages they testify to David's personal
interest in Sacred song. They testify to the public use
in Israel of a group of songs giving thanks to Jehovah
because his loving-kindness is forever (such songs as
Ps, cvi., cvii., cKviii., cKxxvi., all anonymous) from
the time when David brought up the ark to Jerusalem,
and onward, 1 Chron. xvi. 34, 41; 2 Chron. v. 13; vii.
3, 6 ; xx. 21 ; Ezra iii. 11, etc. In 1 Chron. xvi. 7–
36 it seems to be asserted that Ps. cw.., xcvi., and
cvi. were placed by David in the hands of his singers
at the time when he brought the ark to Jerusalem ;
and in 2 Chron. vi. 41, 42, it seems to be affirmed
that Ps. cxxxii. was used at the dedication of the
temple. These four psalms are anonymous in the
Hebrew ; the Septuagint calls Ps. xevi. Davidic, and
connects it in some way with the building of the
“ house after the captivity;” as we have seen, Ps.
cxxxii. is alluded to in Acts vii. 46, as containing sen-
timents of David.
This evidence is at some points lacking in explicit-
ness, but there can be no doubt that it recognizes
David as the great original writer of psalms, that it
associates Asaph and the others with David, or that
it attributes to them a group of psalms, mostly of
liturgical character, which can be quite plausibly iden-
tified with several of our present psalms that have not
David's name in their titles.
But it is alleged that the books containing this evi-
dence are of late date, and take an uncritical view of
the history of David's time, attributing to it the
characteristics that belonged only to the second temple
and its worship. That the books are relatively of late
date is true, though there is no proof that they are
later than Nehemiah: whether they are untrustworthy
is a different question. So far as their testimony to
the Psalms is concerned, it fits in well with what other
evidence there is in the case. Many conservative
scholars, indeed, admit that Ps. cwi., among those
testified to in Chronicles, cannot be of David's time,
because of its closing lines:
“He made them also to be pitied,
Of all those that carried them captives.
Save us, O Lord, our God,
And gather us from among the nations.”
But if it were sure that these words refer to the
Babylonian exile, it would be easy to regard them as an
addition ; and it is not at all sure that they have any
such reference. At the time when David brought up
the ark, a few years after the close of a series of Phil-
istine invasions that had lasted for a generation, it is
certain that there were yet Israelitish fugitives, both
slaves and sojourners, scattered in the neighboring
countries; on that joyful occasion, why should not
the minds of the people turn to these, their suffering
brethren, just as naturally as if they had lived several
hundred years later?
Other Testimony.—The testimony of the psalm-
titles, the New Testament, and the Books of Chron-
icles is confirmed by many incidental notices in the
earlier books. Psalm cz.xxvii. distinctly presupposes
that Judah, before the time of the exile, had well-
known songs of Zion. The songs giving thanks to
Jehovah because his loving-kindness is eternal are
alluded to as something familiary known in Isa. liv. 8;
Jer. xxxiii. 11. In the times of Amos the name of
David was celebrated among lovers of music and song,
Amos vi. 5. In 2 Sam. xxii. the Eighteenth psalm is
attributed to David, and the habit of lyrical produc-
tion is ascribed to him in 2 Sam. xxiii. 1–7 ; i. 17,
seq.; iii. 33, 34. According to 1 Sam. xvi. 14–23, etc.,
David's first entrance into public life was due to his
celebrity as a skilled musician. Facts like these have
no small value as corroborative evidence.
Considerable additional testimony, dating earlier
than the Christian era, might be drawn from the Sep-
tuagint translation, from the additional titles to the
psalms found in the Septuagint, and from the Apoc-
rypha and the other Jewish-Greek literature, and it
would all be to the same effect with that already cited.
As contradicting the idea that some of the psalms are
later than the Persian period, it may be noticed that
the Septuagint titles often contain the names of Jere-
miah, Haggai, and Zechariah, but no later names. If
the Septuagint translation of the psalms had not been
made till nearly 130 B. C., and a good many of the
psalms had then only just been written, the signs of
this in the Septuagint would certainly be. very differ-
ent from the phenomena actually presented there.
Internal Evidence.—A full consideration would re-
quire us now to take up each particular psalm, com-
paring its internal phenomena with the evidence at
which we have been looking, and reaching a separate
conclusion in the case of each psalm by itself. This
we cannot do, but there are certain general facts of in-
ternal evidence that are worth looking at.
Among the psalms that are attributed to the times
of David, either by their titles or by the notices in the
history, are several that recapitulate the history of
Israel–Ps. lxxvii., lxxviii., assigned to Asaph, cv.,
cvi., called Davidic in 1 Chron. xvi., exxxvi., with the
refrain “his loving-kindness is forever.” In each
case the psalm recapitulates the history as now found
in the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, and Samuel,
stopping with the times of David or a little earlier.
he most natural explanation of this fact certainly is
that the writers lived in the times of David, and
brought the history up to their own times; in proof of
this compare the similar repetitions in Neh. ix, or
Egelus, xliy.-l. ...The view of Israel's past history
taken in, Ps. lxxviii., where the final rejection of the
house of Joseph is co-ordinated with the fall of Shiloh
and the rise of Zion and the Davidic kingdom, indi-
gates a standpoint very near to that of Chronicles.”
But Ps. lxxviii. 60–64 is evidently a description of the
§§pture of the ark and the killing of Hophni and
Phinehas in Eli's time. The refusing of J oseph in the
fºllowing Yerses is not the ultimate casting off of
Northern, Israel, but the transfer of the sanctuary
from Shiloh to Jerusalem, from the territory of
Ephraim to that of Judah. It is true that the passage
indicates a standpoint very near to that of Chron.
icles," in the sense that the psalm takes the same
yiew of the history that is taken in the Books of
Chronicles; but that is to be accounted for by the fact
that both look at the history correctly. It has DO
Weight at, all to shºw that this psalm is of even date
With the Books of Chronicles.
This reasoning is not necessarily vitiated by the fact
2SO
PTOMAINES-PUBLIC LANDS.
that several of the Asaph psalms, notably Ps. lxxiv.,
lxxix., lxxx..., and probably lxxxiii., are evidently later
than the times of David. The account given in the
Bible seems to be that a guild bearing Asaph's name
existed from the time of David's Asaph onward.
From this we might naturally expect that the psalms
bearing this name would be of various dates.
In the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA the psalms just
mentioned, together with Ps, xliv., xlix., lxxiii., and
lxxxvii., are referred to the time of an alleged revolu-
tion in Judaea, in the reign of Artaxerxes Ochus, of
Persia, about 350 B. C. But the very existence of this
revolution is at best a slimly supported conjecture, too
uncertain to be justly described as “an historical situ-
ation which can be very definitely realized.” It is
said of these psalms, “They are post-exile in their
whole tone, and belong to a time when prophecy had
ceased and the synagogue worship was fully estab-
lished (lxxiv. 8, 9).” But the statement—
“We see not our signs:
There is no more any prophet,”
does not necessarily imply that the gift of prophecy
had ceased when the words were written, but only that
there were no prophets just then available (cf. 1 Sam.
xxviii. 6, 15). Further, the statement, “They have
burned up all the synagogues of God in the land,” does
not justify the assertion that the synagogue worship
was then fully established. There is no proof and no
probability that the word moed here means “syna-
gogue; ” it may possibly mean places of religious ser-
vice of Some sort, though this would be a singular
meaning for it; it is ordinarily used to describe the
great annual festivals, and the Septuagint and Vulgate
translators understood that it was so used here. This
meaning makes good sense, for, in the thought of the
Psalmist, the burning of the temple was the burning
up of all the religious solemnities that centred in the
temple. It is an error to say that Ps. lxxiv. is re-
ferred to in 1 Mac. vii. 16. The reference there is to
Ps. lxxix., and this psalm is cited in Jer. x. 25, and
apparently alluded to in several places in Jeremiah.
e suggestion that Ps. lxxxiii. represents Ashur as
“ the satrap of Syria” is quite a feat of exegetical im-
agination. “That it is not of the Assyrian age is ob-
vious from the mention of Arab tribes” is an assertion
which should be compared with the fact that all the
tribes mentioned in the psalm are elsewhere in the
Bible said to have been in relation with Israel in the
times of Saul or earlier. In fine each of these psalms
can be assigned to some date earlier than the death of
Jeremiah, where it will fit some known group of his-
torical facts much more closely than they fit the situa-
tion that has been conjecturally created for them in the
time of Artaxerxes Ochus.
The Collection of the Psalms.-Our present collec-
tion was formed in part from several earlier collections.
So much is evident without accepting all the state-
ments of the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA on this sub-
ject, or taking space to discuss them. The statement
that in “Jewish tradition '' David “was held to have
completed and arranged the whole book '' is unfair to
all the older and better forms of the Jewish tradition.
Fairly interpreted, these simply attribute to David that
re-eminence in psalm-writing which justifies the call-
ing of the collection by his name. There is no reason
for holding that the very ancient collection of “The
Prayers of David,” the subscription of which now ap-
pears at the close of Ps. lxxii., was intended exclu-
sively or mainly for liturgical use. So far as appears
its characteristics were those of a book of lyric and de-
votional poems, rather than those of a public hymn-
book. The testimony we have cited from Chronicles
favors the idea that there was in the hands ºf the tem-
ple singers from the time of David a collection for
hº use, different from the collection known, as
the Prayers of David, and including the psalms that
have the refrain, “for his loving-kindness is for
€Wel’.
The reasons for assigning any part of the work of col-
lecting the psalms to an excessively late date are dis-
proved by the same considerations that disprove the
excessively late alleged dates of the psalms themselves.
Assertions to the contrary notwithstanding, the dox-
ology at the close of Ps. cwi, is naturally to be regarded,
like those at the close of Ps. xli., lxxii., and lxxxix., as
belonging to the book closing with the psalm, rather
than to the psalm itself. This being the case, the fact
that l Chron. xvi. Quotes Ps. cwi., with its doxology,
may be taken as evidence (not, perhaps, as entirely de-
cisive evidence) that the first four books of the psalms
had been collected before that part of Chronicles was
written. In any case the five books of psalms were
complete before the completing of the Old Testament
itself; that is, within the probable time of the life of
Nehemiah. See BIBLE and CANON in this work, Vol.
I., pp. 503, 504, and 708, seq.
Literature.— The Origin and Growth of the Psalms, by Prof.
T. C. Murray, of the Johns-Hopkins University (1880), is a
monograph worth reading. The commentaries on the Psalms
in the Schaff. Lange series, or those of Delitzsch, are thor-
oughly good. Such works as Barnes' Notes or Spurgeon’s
Treasury of the House of David are rich in practical thought
and devotional feeling, however lacking they may be in criti-
cal thoroughness. The purpose of The Psalter a Witness to the
Divine Origin of the Bible, by T. W. Chambers (N.Y.,
1876), is indicated by this title. In the successive numbers
of the Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Ex-
egesis are articles by Professor C. H. Toy, advocating an
extreme late date for the several groups of psalms. Recent
periodical literature abounds in articles on the Psalms.
Quite notable is the article of Prof. Smend in the Zeitschrift
für A. T. Wissenschaft, 1888, on the use of the pronoun of
the first person in the psalms. (W. J. B.)
PTOMAINES. See SANITARY SCIENCE.
PUBLIC HEALTH. See SANITARY SCIENCE.
PUBLIC LANDS. The public domain of the
United States acquired by cession from the several
States and by treaty from France, Spain, Mexico, Texas,
and Russia, amounts to 2,894,235.91 square miles, or
about 1,852,310,000 acres, and its cost was, in round
numbers, $322,000,000. The first sales of these lands
were made in blocks of townships and of 8 sections,
but soon in tracts of 640 and 160 acres, and later of
120, 80, and 40 acres. What is known as a township
is 6 miles square and contains 36 sections, each Sec-
tion being one mile square, and containing 640 acres of
land. A quarter section is 3 mile square, 160 acres.
This system of surveys originated with Judge Oliver
Phelps (q. v.) in 1788. The following is a diagram of
a township, with sections numbered according to gov-
ernment Surveys :
North.
;
South.
The public lands of the United States which are
still undisposed of and open to settlement lie in 19
States and 10 Territories. The following statement
shows the number of thousands of square miles Sur-

PUBLIC
LANDS. 281
veyed in each of the States and Territories : Alabama,
51 ; Arkansas, 52; California, 158; Colorado, 105;
Florida, 59; Illinois, 55; Indiana, 34; Iowa, 55 ;
Kansas, 81 ; Louisiana, 45; Michigan, 56; Minnesota,
S4; Mississippi, 47; Missouri, 65; Nebraska, 74;
Nevada, 1.12; Ohio, 40; Oregon, 95; Wisconsin, 54;
Alaska, 577; Arizona, ) 14; Dakota, 151; Idaho, 86;
Indian Territory, 63 ; Montana, 144; New Mexico,
121 : Utah, 84; Washington Territory, 70; Wyoming,
08: Land strip, 6 ; total of 2,837,000 square miles—
or 1,815,504,147 acres. In each case, except Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Indian Territory, and Alaska, land
offices are established, in charge of an officer known as
register of the land office, where the records of all
surveyed lands are kept, and all applications concerning
lands in each district are filed and inquiries answered.
The public lands are divided into 2 great classes.
The one class has $1.25 an acre designated as the
minimum price and the other $2.50 an acre, the
latter being the alternate sections, reserved by the
United States in land grants to railroads, etc. Titles
to these lands may be acquired by private entry or loca-
tion under the Homestead, Pre-emption, and Timber-
culture laws ; or, as to some classes, by purchase for
cash. In the case of lands which may be purchased
at private sale, or such as have not been reserved under
any law, such tracts are sold on application to the land
register, who issues a certificate of purchase, the re-
ceiver giving a receipt for the money paid, subject to
the issue of a patent, or complete title, if the pro-
ceedings are found regular, by the Commissioner of the
General Land Office at Washington.
The following list comprises the U. S. land offices :
Alabama—Huntsville, Montgomery.
Arkansas–Little Rock, Camden, Harrison, Dar-
danelle. *
Arizona–Prescott, Tucson.
California—San Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt,
Stockton, Visalia, Sacramento, Los Angeles, Shasta,
Susanville, Bodie.
Colorado—Denver City, Leadville, Central City,
Pueblo, Del Norte, Lake City, Durango, Gunnison.
Dakota—Mitchell, Watertown, Fargo, Yankton,
Bismarck, Deadwood, Grand Forks, Aberdeen, Huron,
Greelsburgh.
Florida—Gainesville.
Idaho-Boisé City, Lewiston, Oxford, Hailey.
Iowa–Des Moines.
Kansas–Topeka, Salina, Independence, Wichita,
Kirwin, Concordia, Larned, Wa Keeney, Oberlin, Gar-
den City.
Louisiana–New Orleans, Natchitoches.
Michigan–Detroit, East Saginaw, Reed City, Mar-
Quette.
Minnesota—Taylor's Falls, St. Cloud, Duluth, Fer-
gus Falls, Worthington, Crookston, Benson, Tracy,
Redwood Falls.
Mississippi—Jackson.
Missouri–Booneville, Ironton, Springfield.
Montana—Helena, Bozeman, Miles City.
Nebraska-Beatrice, Lincoln, Niobrara, Grand Isl-
and, North Platte, Bloomington, Neligh, Valentine,
McCook.
Nevada—Carson City, Eureka.
New Mexico–Santa Fé, Las Cruces.
. Oregon–Oregon City, Roseburg, Le Grand, Lake-
view, The Dalles.
Utah—Salt Lake City.
, Washington—Olympia,
akima, Spokane Falls.
Wisconsin–Menasha, Falls of St. Croix, Wausau,
La Crosse, Bayfield, Eau Claire.
W yoming—Cheyenne, Evanston.
The earliest form of grants of public lands was
hose to Çanals, beginning in 1824 and ending in 1866.
The total was 4,424,000 acres, divided as follows:
Illinois (Illinois River and Lake Michigan), 291,000;
Indiana (Wabash and Erie), 1,457,000; Michigan (St.
VOL. IV.-S.
Vancouver, Wallawalla,
Mary's Ship Canal, Portage, Superior, La Belle),
1,250,000; Ohio (Miami and Dayton, and General),
1,100,000; Wisconsin (Milwaukee and Rock River and
Breakwater), 325,000. The next kind of grants was for
river improvements, from 1828 to 1846; and the total
was 1,406.000 acres. This was divided as follows :
Alabama (Tennessee, Coosa, Cahawba, and Black War-
rior), 400,000; Iowa (Des Moines), 322,000; Wiscon-
sin (Fox and Wisconsin), 684,000.
The Pre-emption Act of 1841 was a progressive step,
giving a preference to actual settlers, also permitting
them to pay for their lands with cash or warrants.
According to this act heads of families, widows, or
single persons (male or female), over the age of 21
years, who are citizens of the United States, or who
have declared their intention to become such, under
the naturalization laws, may enter upon any ‘‘ offered
or “unoffered” lands, belonging to the United States.
or any unsurveyed lands to which the Indian title has
been extinguished, outside of the limits of any land
grant, and purchase not exceeding 160 acres under the
pre-emption laws. If the tract is ‘‘ offered” land, the
settler must file his “ declaratory statement’’ in the
U. S. District Land Office within 30 days after making
settlement; and within one year from the date of
settlement he must make proof of actual residence on
and cultivation of the land, and thereupon purchase
the same at $1.25 per acre, if outside of the limits of a
railroad land-grant, and at $2.50 per acre if within
railroad land-grant limits. If the tract is “unoffered”
land, the settler must file his “ declaratory statement”
within 3 months after the approved plat of the town-
ship is received at the U. S. District J and Office, and
final proof and payment must be made within 30
months after the expiration of the said 3 months. A
pre-emptor may submit proofs of continuous residence
at any time after 6 months from the date of settlement
and obtain title to his land. The settler in possession
of a valid pre-emption claim may, at any time, con-
vert his pre-emption claim into a homestead. No per-
son who abandons his residence upon land of his own
§. a town lot) to reside upon public lands in the same
State or Territory, or who owns 320 acres of land in
any State or Territory, is entitled to the benefit of the
pre-emption laws. The Pre-emption Act is now virtu-
ally embodied in the 8th section of the Homestead
Law to be described below. It is urged that it should
be repealed because it is said not to operate uniformly
since it does not apply to lands in the Southern States.
A very peculiar case arose in regard to actual settlers
in what was known as the Territory of Oregon 40 years
ago. At that time the territory north of California,
indefinitely, was claimed by both England and the
United States. In 1846 a treaty designated the par-
allel 49° N. lat. the boundary between British Columbia
and the United States, at which time Oregon contained
about 10,000 people. By 1850 the Territory had been
organized under the United States, and 3000 more
immigrants had arrived. In order to make good titles
to land taken up when the sovereignty of the region was
doubtful, and also to encourage further immigration.
Congress passed what is called the “Donationiaw.”
This perfected titles originating under the previous
provisional government, and gave to every actual new
settler .320 acres of public land ; or, if he were
married, it gave him and his wife 640 acres. This law,
during its brief existence, aided the settlement of the
Country so rapidly that the census of only a decade
later showed over 50,000 inhabitants. *
By far the most important law enacted by the United
States was that of 1865, known as the Homestead Act.
Under its provisions any lº who is the head of a
family, ºr who has arrived at the age of 21 years, and
is a citizen of the United States, or has filed his
declaration of intention to become such, is en-
titled to enter one-quarter section, or less quantity,
of unappropriated public land. The applicant must
make affidavit that he is entitled to the privileges of
282 PUBLIC
LANDS.
the Homestead Act, and that the entry is made for
his exclusive use and benefit, and for actual settlement
and cultivation, and must pay the legal fee and that
part of the commissions required as follows: Fee for
160 acres, $10 ; commission, $4 to $12; fee for 80
acres, $5; commission, $2 to $6 ; within 6 months
from the date of entry the settler must take up his
residence upon the land, and reside thereupon and
cultivate the same for 5 years continuously. At the
expiration of this period, or within 2 years thereafter,
proof of residence and cultivation must be established
by four witnesses. The proof of settlement with the
certificate of the Register of the Land Office is for-
warded to the General Land Office at Washington,
from which patent is issued. Final proof cannot be
made until the expiration of 5 years from date of
entry, and must be made within 7 years. The gov-
ernment recognizes no sale of a homestead claim. A
homestead settler may at any time purchase the land
under the pre-emption laws if desired, upon making
proof of settlement and cultivation for a period of not
less than 6 months from the date of entry to the time
of purchase. The law allows only one homestead
privilege to any one person. A special act covers
soldiers' homesteads. Every person who served not
less than 90 days in the army or navy of the United
States during the War of the Rebellion, and who was
honorably discharged and has remained loyal to the
government, may enter a homestead, and the time of
his service shall be deducted from the period of 5
years, but he or his widow, as the case may be, must
reside upon and cultivate his homestead at least one
year before final proof can be made, whatever may
have been the period of his service. The widow of a
soldier, or, if she be dead, or is married again, the
minor heirs (if any) may, through their guardian,
make a homestead entry, and if the soldier died in the
service, the whole term of his enlistment will be de-
ducted from the time otherwise required to perfect the
title. Neither the guardian nor the minor children
are required to reside on the land, but the land must be
cultivated and improved for the period of time
during which the father would have been required
to reside on the tract. A soldier or sailor as
described above may file a homestead declaratory
statement for 160 acres of land through an agent,
after which he has 6 months within which to make
entry of the land and commence his settlement, and
improvement. This latter entry must be made in
person. *
It has been proposed that the various homestead
acts should be consolidated and that a new law, ap-
plicable to all public lands not mineral or timber,
should make the entry for lands 160 acres; that a
homestead entry should not be considered as consum-
mated until a patent issues; and that the law, requir-
ing settlers to advertise their intention to pay for their
lands should be abolished. Of course the government
expects no revenue from the Homestead Act—the fees
and commissions paying only for the cost of survey
and the sale. But there is a gain, to the nation of
more than money value in filling the lands with set-
tlers. The number of acres entered under the Home-
stead Act for the past 10 years were as follows:
Year. Acres. Year. Acres.
1878...... 4,500,000 1883...... 8,250,000
1879...... 5,250,000 1884...... 7,750,000
1880...... 6,000,000 1885...... 7,500,000
1881....... 5,000,000 1886...... 9,000,000
1882...... 6,350,000 1887....., 7,500,000
There has been a grave abuse of both the pre-emption
and the homestead laws. In 1882 and JS84, 7,300
acres of the public lands in Eastern New Mexico
were taken up under the homestead and prº-emption
laws by one individual for grazing purposes, by ºntries
made in the námes of fictitious persons, . In the
Somestead entries, which comprise the greater por-
tion of the cases, pre-emption declaratory statements
were filed in the names of the supposititious claimants,
alleging a prior residence of more than 5 years required
under the homestead laws. These filings were im-
mediately transmuted to homestead entries and
alleged proofs at once made, not more than a month
or two elapsing from the date the first papers were
filed until the final entries were placed on record.
In the proofs the alleged residence of the parties
was made to relate back and cover the period from
1876 or 1877 to 1882 or 1883. Mexican names were
used to represent claimants, and the papers showed
on their face that they were all prepared by one in-
dividual, the signatures of alleged claimants and wit-
nesses bearing unmistakable evidence that they were
written by the same individual and one other per-
son. The lands were conveyed immediately after en-
try, and the transferree conveyed them to a cattle
company. Reliable persons who had lived near the
lands from 5 to 15 years, and were well acquainted
in the vicinity, testified that they had never seen or
heard of any one of the alleged claimants, and that
no such persons ever lived on the lands. It is esti-
mated that fully 90 per cent. of all the entries made
under the two acts in the Territory of New Mexic)
have been fraudulent. Much of the abuse comes from
large cattle-owners who fenced thousands of acres
without the slightest claim ; or who made claim
without any fencing whatever. The consequence has
been that there has been developed a system of land-
holdings on a scale not known in any other part of
the world. In many instances the holders are aliens
who have no interest whatever in supporting U. S.
laws or institutions. Some of these individuals and
corporations own millions of acres : and many of them
hold areas of several hundred thousand acres.
In this connection the State laws in regard to alien
ownership may be noted. In 1883 land-ownership
was made the subject of special investigations and
it was found that citizens and aliens are on the
same footing in Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colo-
rado, Dakota, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mis-
souri, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Penn-
sylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee,
Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia,
Washington Territory, and Wisconsin. California
and Utah require simply a non-resident alien to whom
an inheritance falls to claim it within 5 years. This is
merely a reasonable statute of limitation. Nevada
prohibits a subject of China from owning real estate.
Pennsylvania limits the right of purchase in an alien
to 5000 acres, but he may hold without limit real
estate by devise or descent. This is the only State in
the Union that limits the amount of land purchasable
by law. In Vermont it was stated in the case of The
State vs. Boston, Concord, and Montreal R. R. Co., that
while no laws prohibit aliens enjoying real estate, and
while the power of escheat may still exist, strictissimi
juris, yet it has always remained dormant, notwith-
standing the frequent occasions for its legitimate ex-
ercise. In other words, the common law, although
unrepealed, is a dead letter in practice. The Indiana
statute of 1881 provides that any non-resident alien
may acquire by inheritance real estate as though he were
a citizen ; but the time during which he may hold,
sell, alienate, and convey expires in 8 years after final
settlement of the decedent's estate from which it was
derived. A resident alien is in all respects in the
same position as a citizen, and it may generally be
remarked that in States in which restrictive laws are
in force the resident has superior rights to the non-
resident alien. In the under-mentioned States and
Territories the following is the state of the law : Con-
necticut: Aliens residing in the United States and
natives of France can hold and transmit land. Other
PUBLIC
LANDS. 283
aliens are restricted to lands for mining and quarrying
only. No doubt exists that a treaty negotiated with a
foreign power by the President can abrogate restric-
tive State land laws in regard to aliens, and this curi-
ous exception in favor of the French was probably in-
corporated in the State laws of Connecticut in deference
to the U. S. treaty with France during the Revolution-
ary war. There are two early Anglo-American treaties
on the same subject. Delaware and Kentucky draw
the line at resident aliens who have declared their in-
tention to become citizens. New York, which has
always been the most progressive in law reform,
strangely holds to the doubtful blessing of the com-
mon law, although many slight modifications have
been made by statute. A declaration to be-
come a citizen is still necessary to make a legal
devise of lands. Up to 1881 the Territories of Arizona,
Idaho, and Montana seem to have enacted no laws
upon the subject, but the practice is undoubtedly in
conformity with all the Western States in granting the
fullest power to the alien. A bill was introduced in
the Senate of the United States, in 1884, limiting
foreign holdings to 30 square miles of land. This
bill was not passed ; but it is evident that Some
restriction of the sort is needed. There can be no
doubt that settlement has been retarded in the regions
affected by the course of the land-thieves. The only
check to the monopoly of the cattle-men in some of
the Territories has been the spread of sheep-farming,
which prevents range-feeding for cattle. The use
of the wire fence, by these corporations, noted above,
was found to be so reckless that, in August, 1885,
Pres. Cleveland issued the following proclamation :
“I do hereby order and direct that any and every un-
lawful enclosure of the public lands, maintained by
any person, association, or corporation, be immediately
removed, and I do hereby forbid any person, associa-
tion, or corporation from preventing or obstructing by
means of such enclosures, or by force, threats, or in-
timidation, any person entitled thereto from peaceably
cntering upon and establishing a settlement or resi-
dence on any part of such public land which is subject
to entry and settlement under the laws of the United
States; and I command and require each and every
officer of the United States upon whom the duty is
legally devolved to cause this order to be obeyed and
all the provisions of the act of Congress herein men-
tioned to be faithfully enforced.''
The Timber Culture Act of 1878 provides that public
lands, naturally devoid of timber, may be acquired by
planting trees thereon and keeping the same in a
ealthy, growing condition for S years. Not more than
160 acres in any one section can be entered, and no
person can enter more than 160 acres or make more
than one entry under these laws. An applicant must
be the head of a family, or 21 years of age, and a citi-
Een of the United States, or he must have filed his
declaration of intention to become a citizen, as required
by the naturalization laws. The Land Office fee for
an entry of more than 80 acres is $14; and for S()
acres or less, $9 ; and $4 when final proof is made.
Land to be entered must be entirely devoid of timber.
In order to acquire 160 acres of land, 10 acres must be
cultivated and planted with trees; 5 acres must be cul-
tivated and planted with trees to acquire any legal sub-
division of S0 acres; and 23 acres to acquire any legal
subdivision of 40 acres or less. The person making
entry of 160 acres is required to break or plow 5 acres
during the first year, and 5 acres during the second
year. The 5 acres broken or plowed during the first
year must be cultivated to crop, or otherwise, during
the second year, and be planted to timber during the
third year. The 5 acres broken or plowed during the
Second year must be cultivated the third year, and
planted to timber during the fourth year. For entries
of less than 160 acres, a proportionate number of acres
must be plowed, planted, cultivated, and planted to
trees. These trees must be cultivated and protected
for not less than 8 years; and at the expiration of that
period, or within five years thereafter, proof must be
made by the claimant and two creditable witnesses, show-
ing that there were at the time of making such proof
at least 675 living, thrifty trees on each of the 10 acres
required to be planted ; also that, not less than 2700
trees were planted on each of the 10 acres. Fruit-
trees are not considered timber within the meaning of
this act. Title cannot be obtained prior to the expira-
tion of 8 years, and final proof must be made within
5 years after the expiration of the said 8 years. While
the object of the act was a good one, the act itself has
been abused quite as much as the Homestead and Pre-
emption Acts. About 10,000,000 acres of agricultural
lands have been located under it as a disguise; and it
is urged that the act should be repealed, on the ground
that the timber is actually necessary for the develop-
ment of the country, since both mining and settlement
are impossible without it. A very grave abuse of the tim-
ber laws was reported early in 1888, more particularly
from California. This report was based upon investi-
gations made during the two previous years. It was
shown that the abuses were committed partially by a
group of capitalists who coveted the choice redwood
forests of Humboldt county. They engaged a group of
timber speculators to get possession of the land and
transfer it to them. The speculators hired 600 persons
to take 160 acres apiece under the Timber Land Act.
each swearing that he applied for the land ‘‘ in good
faith to appropriate it to his own exclusive use and
benefit,” and that he did not intend to transfer the
title to any other person. Records of the county show
that the timber alone on the land seized by these com-
panies had an estimated value of $11,000,000. Since
the exposure many entries have been held for cancella-
tion, and proceedings have been instituted to set aside
patents issued on many such entries.
What are known as the “Swamp Land Grants”
were made under the act of 1854 relating to desert
lands. This act provided that any person who is a
citizen of the United States, or any person of requisite
age who may be entitled to become a citizen, and who
has filed his declaration to become such, may file his
oath with the Register and Receiver of the Land Office
in the district in which any desert land is located, that
he intends to reclaim, not exceeding one section of said
land, by conducting water upon it, within 3 years; and
by paying to the receiver the sum of 25 cents per acre
for all the land claimed, such person may enter said
land under the act. At any time within 3 years a pat-
ent can be obtained by making proof that he has re-
claimed said land, and paying the additional sum of $1
per acre. No person can enter more than one tract of
land, and not to exceed 640 acres, which shall be in
compact form. This act applies to desert land in Da-
kota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, and, Oregon.
Desert lands are defined by this act to be all lands, ex-
clusive of mineral and timber lands, which will not,
Without , irrigation, produce some agricultural crop.
Even this law has been the cause of great abuse; be-
cause many lands have been claimed which were as
fertile as any classed under the other acts for settle-
ment. Nearly 100,000 acres were granted under this
act during the year ending June 30, 18SS ; and the
aggregate reaches 57,000,000 acres. The greater part
ºf these grants have been made in the State of Florida;
Louisiana, Michigan, and Oregon coming next in
order. . The original grants were made for the purpose
of enabling States to construct levees necessary to re-
claim swamp and other lands; but it was required that
the proceeds of such lands should be applied to the
reclamation of the same. The claims of many States
were transferred to counties, and the money realized
Was used in such counties for roads, bridges, and many
other purposes not contemplated by the law. Some of
the lands have even been disposed of to railroads. Con-
sequently only a small part of the proceeds has really
gone to reclaim the lands. Further acts of 1855 and
284 PUBLIC
LANDS.
1857 provided indemnities in such a way that nearly
600,000 acres of good land have been obtained so that
certain agents could draw their percentages. A thorough
investigation has, however, been prosecuted by the
S. Land Office. The United States have also
granted lands from time to time to the several States
for educational purposes. At the present time (1888)
there remain of such lands 1,850,000 acres. The good
or bad use of such lands depends upon the people of
each State respectively.
The most important and far-reaching grants of the
United States have been those to railroads. Until
1850 the development of the Western territory pro-
ceeded gradually and steadily, by normal and natural
methods of growth. Indiana, Michigan, and Illinois
had become prosperous and populous States rapidly,
it is true, but not by any speculative or adventitious
means. As emigration from the East formed here and
there upon the Western prairies, and along the water-
courses of the great Mississippi Valley, the comforts
and conveniences of the Atlantic States soon followed
in its train. Where new railways were needed new
railways were built, by private capital, in the ordinary
way, just as they had been in the East. But, in 1849,
the California gold fever quickened the pulse of the
nation to an unnatural degree. All at once a State of
the Union loomed up in the far West—as far from
New York in one direction as Europe was in the oppo-
site direction—and the country awoke to realization of
the vastness of its domain and its glorious possibilities
in the way of material wealth. Emigration became a
national fever. Everybody who could do so went off to
Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, California, Ore-
gon, and the intermediate Territories. The consequence
was that there was soon a great population in those
parts; but the inhabitants were widely scattered, and
there were few large towns between St. Louis and
San Francisco. The several laws allowing grants to
railroads began in 1850 and ended in 1874. Nearly all
the lands were taken by 1866, and their aggregate now
1888) is about 37,000,000 acres. This has been
ivided among the several States, in round num-
bers, by the thousand acres, as follows: Illinois, 2600;
Mississippi, 1000; Alabama, 3000; Florida, 1760;
Louisiana, 1072; Arkansas, 2517 ; Missouri, 1400;
Minnesota, 8000 ; Kansas, 4638; Iowa, 4708; Michi-
gan, 3229; Wisconsin, 3400. Between 1863 and 1869
a total of nearly 2,000,000 acres was granted for wagon
roads, as follows: Wisconsin, 303,000; Michigan,
221,000 ; Oregon, 1,260,000. The grants for rail-
roads to the several States were applied toward con-
structing the following railroads: Illinois-Illinois
Central; Mississippi—Mobile and Ohio, . Vicksburg
and Meridian, Gulf and Ship Island ; Alabama—Mo-
bile and Ohio, Alabama and Florida, Selma, Rome,
and Dalton, Alabama and Tennessee, Coosa and Ten-
messee, Mobile and Girard, Alabama and Chattanooga,
South and North Alabama; Florida-Atlantic, Gulf,
and West India Transit, Florida and Alabama, Pensa-
cola and theorgia, Florida, Atlantic, and Gulf Central;
Louisiana–North Louisiana and Texas, New Orleans,
Opelousas and Great Western (in 1870, act passed
forfeiting all lands not lawfully disposed of by the
State); Arkansas–St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and
Southern, Little Rock and Fort Smith, Memphis and
Little Rock, St. Louis and Iron Mountain of 1866
(which was declared forfeited in ISS4);, Missouri–
South-west Branch of the Pacific, IIannibal and St.
Joseph, St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and Southgrin, St.
Louis and Iron Mountain (forfeited); Iowa-Burling:
ton and Missouri River, Chicago, Itock Island, and
Pacific, Cedar Rapids and Missouri River, Dubuque
and Sioux City, Iowa Falls and Sioux City, Des Moings
Valley, McGregor and Missouri River, Chicago, Mil-
waukee, and St. Paul, Sioux City and St. Paul; Mich-
igan–Port Huron and Lake Michigan, Jackson, Jian-
sing, and Saginaw, Grand Rapids and Indiana, Flint
and Pere Marquette, Marquette, Houghton, and On-
tonagon, Ontonagon and Brulé River, Bay De Noguet,
and Marquette, Chicago and North-western ; Wiscon-
sin–Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha, and
formerly West Missouri, and formerly St. Croix.
and Lake Superior with branch to Bayfield, Wis-
consin Railroad Farm Mortgage Land Company,
Chicago and North-western, Wisconsin Central;
Minnesota—St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba,
St. Paul and Pacific, Brainerd Branch, St. Vincent ex-
tension, Minnesota Central, Winona and St. Peter, St.
Paul and Sioux City, St. Paul and Duluth, Southern
Minnesota and extension, Hastings and Dakota; Kan-
sas—Leavenworth, Lawrence, and Galveston, Missouri,
Kansas and Texas, Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé,
St. Joseph and Denver City, Missouri River, Fort
Scott, and Gulf. Corporations—Union Pacific, Cen-
tral Pacific, Western Pacific, Central Branch Union
Pacific, Kansas Division of Union Pacific, Burlington
and Missouri River in Nebraska, Sioux City and I
cific, Northern Pacific, Placerville and Sacramento
Valley of 1866 (declared forfeited in 1884), Oregon
Branch of Central Pacific, Oregon' and California, At-
lantic and Pacific, Southern Pacific and Branch Line,
Stockton and Copperopolis of 1867 (declared forfeited
in 1874), Oregon 8. of 1870 (declared forfeited,
as to parts, in 1885), Texas Pacific of 1871 (declared
forfeited in 1885), New Orleans Pacific (formerly New
Orleans), Baton Rouge, and Vicksburg of 187] (de-
clared forfeited in small part and confirmed in large
part in 1887). Of the grants to corporations the certi-
fied acres were as follows, in thousands : Central Pa-
cific, 963 : Central Pacific (successor to Western Pa-
cific), 448 ; Central Pacific, Oregon Branch, 1362;
Union Pacific, 2616; Union Pacific, central branch,
218 ; Union Pacific, Kansas division, 964; Union Pa-
cific, successor to Denver Pacific, 165 ; Burlington and
Missouri River, in Nebraska, 2373; Sioux City and
Pacific, 41 ; Northern Pacific, 746 ; Oregon and Cali-
fornia, 322; Atlantic and Pacific, 959; Southern Pa-
cific, 1040; Southern Pacific, branch line, 188; New
Orleans Pacific, 679; total, 13,985,000 acres.
These land grants had always been given with the
condition attached that the roads must be constructed,
finished, and put into operation before a certain speci-
fied time, failing which the grant would be inoperative.
No attention, however, was paid to this part of the
matter for many years. Grants were made to one
road after another in quick succession, and the time.
had not yet arrived for inquiry as to how the benefi-
ciaries were fulfilling their side of the contract. Then
came the civil war, which concentrated all the care
and energy of the nation to the exclusion of all minor
matters; and it was not until long after the war that
the government bethought itself of the interest it had
in these Western roads. The Forty-seventh Congress,
which began in 1881, was the first Congress to consider
the question of forfeiture. The question arose in this.
way: Some settlers who had established homesteads.
in the upper peninsula of Michigan were suddenly con-
fronted |. the agents of a railway company who
claimed their lands under the provisions of an old land
grant, the terms of which had never been complied
with by the company. . The lands had belonged to the
company at one time by the language of the grant,
but the road had not been built, and the term of years
in which it was ordered to be built had expired. The
settlers took the matter to the courts, including the
Supreme Court, but the decision was against them. In
despair they turned to Congress for relief, and their
petition was referred to the House Judiciary Commit-
tee. Nothing was done by this Congress; but the
Forty-eighth Congress, in 1884, took up the matter
and passed a resolution that all railroad land grants
which have not been earned by the fulfilment of the
conditions specified in the respective acts ought to be
declared forfeited and restored to the public domain ;
and that the whole system of land laws now existing
ought to be overhauled, and so changed as to open the
Pa-
PUEBLOS.
285
agricultural portions to actual settlers only, and tº pre-
vent grabs of public lands of any kind, whether, farm-
ing, mineral, or forest. The question, continued to be
agitated with good results. . The land department of
the Central Pacific Railroad Company decided to sell
no land to any person who would not keep and im-
prove it, making a large reduction, however, to such
persons. The railroad also proposed to retain control
of the land until it had been improved in the manner
agreed upon, and reserved the right to prevent a sale
to speculators. Congress, on the 3d of March, 1887,
passed a law providing that the Secretary of the In-
terior shall immediately adjust, in accordance with the
decisions of the Supreme Court, each of the railroad
land grants made by Congress to aid in the construc-
tion of railroads, and heretofore unadjusted. . In Oc:
tober of the same year the Commissioner of the Land
Office decided that an actual settler on restored rail-
road lands, who holds a deed from the railroad com-
pany, can secure title from the government under the
pre-emption or homestead laws, provided he has not
exhausted his privilege thereunder. The 5th section of
the act of March 3, 1887 (24th Statutes, 5006), pro-
vides that when lands within the limits of railroad
grants coterminous with the constructed portions of
the lines of roads, which lines have not been conveyed
on account of the grants, but were excepted from the
operations of the same, and which have been sold by
the railroad company to citizens, or to persons who
have declared their intentions to become citizens of the
United States, such lands at the date of purchase from
the railroad company not being in the bona-fide occu-
pation of adverse claimants under the pre-emption or
homestead laws of the United States, and where claims
and occupations have been voluntarily abandoned, and
where such lands are not of the class described as set-
tled upon subsequent to the 1st day of December, 1882,
by persons claiming to enter the same under the settle-
ment laws of the United States, then bona-fide pur-
chasers from the railroad company, if qualified as to
citizenship, their heirs or assigns, may make payment to
the United States or such lands at the ordinary gov-
ernment price for like lands, and receive patents there-
for. -
As the result of the agitation relating to forfeitures
it is now stated that the adjustment of the grant to
one wagon-road and 32 railroads has been completed.
This adjustment discloses the fact that 7 railroads and
one wagon-road have had land certified or patented to
them in excess of their respective grants to the amount
of 218,590 acres, and suits are recommended, under
said act, to vacate such illegal patents or certificates.
There are 2000 forfeiture cases pending in the U. S.
Land Office, and lands in the indemnity limits of the
Northern Pacific, the Atlantic and Pacific, the South-
ern Pacific, the California and Oregon, and the Ore-
gon and California roads, to the extent of 17,830,000
acres, are affected by these cases. Of the 25,429,866
acres of land covered by selections pending at the close
of the fiscal year, 1888, 21,660,486 acres were selected
by railroad companies whose roads were not completed
in the time required by their respective grants. It has
been recommended that there should be forfeiture of
all lands coterminous with those parts of the respective
roads which were uncompleted at the expiration of the
limited time for their construction. -
The future of the country depends largely upon the
settlers that will occupy the unoccupied public lands.
Upon the ownership of these lands by small holders
rests the security of the country from internal disturb-
ances. It is stated that in England only 1 person in
20 is an owner of land ; in Scotland, 1 in 25 ; in Ire-
land, 1 in 79 ; and that the great majority of land-
holders in Great Britain own less than one acre each.
From past experience it is not likely that any such rec-
ord as this can ever be made in regard to the public
lands of the United States. But it would seem that
the laws should be so amended that the same settler
ress in education and civilization.
cannot take 130 acres under the Homestead Act; 130
acres under the Pre-emption Act; 640 acres under the
Desert Land Act; and 160 acres under the Timber
Culture Act—a total of 1060 acres. (F. G. M.)
PUEBLOS, an interesting family of Indians, of
New Mexico and Arizona, agricultural in their
habits, and dwelling in very large, single habita-
tions, sometimes capacious enough to contain a whole
tribe. They are also known as Village Indians, vil-
lage being the English rendering of the Spanish
pueblo. The remarkable edifices built by these semi-
civilized tribes are in some cases constructed of stone
laid in mud mortar, but more generally of adobe or
sun-dried brick. They cover a considerable area and
are several stories high, sometimes 5 or 6. They are
in some cases built in the form of a hollow square; in
others on the brow of a high bluff or mountain terrace
of difficult approach. Defence against enemies seems,
indeed, an essential feature in their construction, and
the lower story is invariably without doors or windows,
the only entrance to the house being attained by lad-
ders leading to the second story. . Each story recedes a
few feet from the line of that below it, leaving a ter-
race, which extends round the whole structure, to
which this successive decrease in area of the stories
gives something of a pyramidal aspect. There are no
stairways anywhere in the edifice, all access to higher
stories being attained by ladders. In some of these
extensive edifices whole communities, numbering from
300 to 700 souls, reside, each family having a single
apartment. Should this become overcrowded by in-
crease of the family another apartment is occupied, or
if there be none vacant, a new one is built above, thus
adding to the height of the building. In each edifice
there are reserved one or more large rooms capable of
holding several hundred persons. These form the
council-chambers of the tribe, and are also used for
the tribal dances, of which there are several kinds, ap-
parently connected with religious rites.
There are 19 of these villages in New Mexico, most
of which have been occupied for a very long period,
their inhabitants obtaining a livelihood by the cultiva-
tion of the soil, in which they have considerable skill.
Their occupants number over S000 souls and possess
about 900,000 acres of land, but only 100,000 are
tillable. On these they raise maize, wheat, vegetables,
fruit, and cotton, while they possess considerable herds
of horses, cattle, mules, goats, and sheep. The rain-
less character of the region renders irrigation neces-
sary, and they have a well-devised system of ditches,
many of which have been in use for centuries. They
are economical in their habits and hard workers, each
head of a family having a farm of his own, not well
cultivated according to our ideas, yet sufficiently so to
provide the necessaries of life. As a people they are
quiet, honest, and law-abiding, take good care of the
farming implements with which the government has
provided them, and are making slow but steady prog-
In addition to agri-
culture they possess certain simple industrial arts,
spinning and weaving cotton and wool into fabrics for
clothing and heavy blankets, while they have some
skill in the manufacture of pottery, which they orna-
ment with various designs in color and geometrical
figures. Their warlike habits are of a barbarous
character, approaching those of the Aztecs. It is said
that when an enemy is killed in battle they cut off his
scalp, drink his blood, and bathe their faces and gar-
nents in it. Then they wet their hands in it, believing
it will increase their strength and courage. The scalp
of an enemy is placed in the hands of him who first
took it, even if he was not present at the killing, and
he is afterwards regarded with distinction, as if he had
performed some great deed of valor. It can, fortu-
nately, be said that all this refers to their former cus-
toms, as they have no opportunity or incitement under
present conditions to indulge in hostilities.
In addition to the New Mexican tribes there are a
286
PUEBLOS.
number of related agricultural tribes in Arizona some
of which differ in their building habits from the former,
yet are connected with them in other particulars.
The Moquis tribes, numbering about 2200 and speak-
ing languages of a different family, erect buildings like
those described, these being placed on the summit of
high mesas or isolated hills, which rise abruptly from
the plain to the height of from 300 to 500 feet, and are
SQ steep as to be almost inaccessible to an enemy.
There are seven of these villages in the Arizona agency,
only two of which are accessible by a wagon-road. Of
these that known as Oribi is much the largest. The
houses are all of stone, many of them 3 or 4 stories
high, with flat, dirt roofs, cement floors, and small win-
dows and doors. Lumber is such a luxury that it is
seldom used even for doors. The furniture is very
simple, a sheepskin serving for chair, the floor for
table, while a few baskets, blankets, and pieces of pot-
tery constitute the whole of the household goods.
Nearly every family has a corn-mill, in which the grain
is ground to flour by hand, rubbing with a stone. The
Moquis are pastoral and agricultural in their habits.
Nearly all have a few sheep, and some have large
flocks of sheep, besides horses and barros. They all
cultivate the soil, the farms of some being 15 miles or
more from the village, their field-crops being wheat
and corn, onions, beans, and melons their favorite veg-
etables, while peaches, apricots, and other fruits are
raised. They weave their own belts and blankets and
a coarse kind of cloth, and have some skill in the
making of pottery.
The Pima Indians of the lower Colorado region are
apparently of the same stock and cultivate the ground,
but are of a lower grade of civilization. Their dwell-
ings are the ordinary wigwam of the northern Indians,
rudely built, with a hole on one side, through which
the Savage crawls into his home. They have no
chimney or other means of ventilation, and are too low
to allow him to stand erect, while the smoke is gener-
ally thick enough to stifle a white man. These are
their winter habitations; in summer they live in the
fields under a shelter made of forked sticks, covered
with brush and poles to protect them from the sun.
There are some 4000 in all of these and the related
Mariposa tribes.
The Pueblo Indians have been known for over three
centuries, their habits when first known being the
same as those displayed now, and many of their hab-
itations the same. They were first visited by Alvar
Nuñez during his remarkable journey from Florida to
the Pacific between 1529 and 1538; afterwards by De
Niza in 1539, and in 1540 by Coronado, who visited
and described the villages in much the same language
as would now be applied to them. The “City of
|
Cibola,” called by others Zuñi, visited by him, is still
in existence, and inhabited by one of the most interest-
ing of the Pueblo tribes. . Of the earlier history of
these Indians nothing is known. They have a few
vague traditions, but nothing definite ; yet the ruins of
old pueblos and the remains of ancient pottery, which
are found not only near these ruins but generally over
the plains, indicate a high antiquity and a much more
numerous population than at present. In the Valley
of the Gila, thirty miles above the Pimo villages, are
traces of ancient canals, adobe buildings, and pottery
of a superior clutracter. The same is the case in other
parts of northern Arizona, there being evidences of
extensive irrigating works and a large population,
while numerous remains are found in New Mexico,
some of them more extensive and exhibiting a higher
type of art than in the present villages. Mr. Banda-
lier, who examined these ruins and studied the Indian
habits under the direction of the American Institute
of Archaeology, has determined that the area formerly
occupied by the Pueblo Indians is bounded on the
east by a region 40 miles west of the Pecos River,
New Mexico, and extends west to within about 100
miles of the Colorado. Northward it reaches to nearly
the 40th parallel of latitude, while the limit of south-
ward extension is not well indicated. The pueblos
vary in degree of skill, and indicate a gradual develop-
ment from the Indian lodge to the complex edifice.
He doubts the assertions sometimes made about a for-
mer large population, and thinks that the many build-
ings indicated by the ruins were occupied successively,
and not simultaneously. This seems confirmed by the
traditions of the Zuñis and the Pimos.
There are certain reasons to believe that village life
was in decadence at the period of the first discovery of
these remarkable habitations, and it seems probable
that the industrious Pueblo tribes, after developing a
primitive agriculture by means of irrigation of the soil
of this rainless region, and growing numerous and pow-
erful, were driven south by the hostile tribes of the
nomadic Indians of the north, the strange cliff-dwell-
ings of the river cañons of Colorado being defensive
points occupied in their gradual retreat. Whether
agriculture was original with them, or was derived
from the civilized peoples of lower Mexico, can-
not well be ascertained. All that can be said is that
there seems no linguistic connection with the Aztec or
other Mexican nations.
The process of civilizing these Indians has gone on
ever since their first discovery. Catholic missions were
established among them two centuries ago, and many
of them are Roman Catholics to-day, though their
Christianity is deeply diluted with paganism, and they
still cling to their old beliefs and practices. Among
these is the maintenance of the sacred fire and the wor-
ship of Montezuma, a deity not to be confounded with
the emperor of the Aztecs. The Pueblo Indians were
the citizens of Mexico, and came into the United
States with the rights thus acquired. They thus
maintain a different relation to the government from
any other Indians, and hold their lands in fee under
government patents. The treaty with Mexico, as in-
terpreted by Chief-Justice Slough in 1857, makes
them full citizens of the United States, but they have
not as yet been recognized as such either by the Fed-
eral or the territorial authorities. The internal ad-
ministration of the tribes remains in their own hands,
and is conducted in accordance with their old customs,
each village being controlled by a governor and a
council of three elders.
Under American control the Pueblo Indians are
making promising and substantial progress in civiliza-
tion and education, and will undoubtedly become very
useful citizens in the near future, being self-sustaining,
peaceful, and law-abiding. Large numbers of their
children are at School, and compulsory education is
practised with good results. Seven day-schools and
two boarding-schools are conducted by the Catholic
Board of Missions, and four day-schools and one
boarding-school by the Presbyterian Board. There is
also a government school. The total average attend-
ance is 680. In some of the schools the boys are
taught trades, the girls instructed in housework, while
in the communities at large wagon-roads have been
made, bridges constructed, fields enlarged, irrigation
ditches improved and lengthened, better clothing is
worn, more fruit-trees planted, and many other indi-
cations of growth in ideas and prosperity are shown.
This progress is due to the persistent efforts of the res-
ervation agents, who are working vigorously and in-
telligently for the advancement of their wards. Among
the wigwam-dwelling Pimos many have been induced to
build adobe houses by presents of wagons and harness,
and some of them now possess comfortable and well-
constructed farm-houses furnished with tables, chairs,
beds, and other civilized appliances, their walls even
being adorned with pictures. When we reflect that
these Indians have been under the control of the
United States for only forty years, this degree of ad-
vancement is certainly very encouraging and is full
of promise for their future progress in º )
C. M.
PULASKI–PUMPKIN.
287
f
PULASKI, CASIMIR (1747–1779), a Polish Count
who fought and fell in the American Revolution, was
born in Jithuania, March 4, 1747. His father, Count
Joseph Pulaski, organized the confederation of Bar in
1768, and fell in the revolt against King Stanislaus
Augustus. Casimir had served in the army of Duke
Charles of Courland, and took an active part in the
war in defence of Polish liberty against Russian dic-
tation. After the storming of Bar he sought refuge
in a monastery, where he was besieged for some weeks
and then permitted to depart, on promise to endeavor
to effect a reconciliation. This promise he afterwards
repudiated as extorted by force. From Moldavia he
carried on a restless warfare and in 1771 he even seized
the king at Warsaw, but was compelled to release
him Austria and Prussia united with Russia and ef-
fected the partition of Poland in 1772. Pulaski's
father and two brothers had fallen in the strife ; his
property was confiscated, and he was sentenced to out-
lawry and death. After some service in the Turkish
army he went to France, where he lived in poverty
and obscurity. In 1777 he was brought to the notice
of Franklin, who engaged his services in behalf of
American independence. Soon after his arrival at
Philadelphia, Pulaski's bravery was conspicuous at
Brandywine and Germantown, and he was made a
brigadier of cavalry. In March, 1778, he joined the
main army at Valley Forge and was authorized to or-
infantry. He visited Bethlehem in the spring, and
seems to have had one or more small flags embroidered
there by the Moravian Sisters. But the consecration
of Pulaski's banner, as described in Longfellow's poem,
has no foundation in fact. In six months the Count
had raised a legion of 330 men, chiefly in Maryland,
and then joined Washington's army in New Jersey.
While marching to Little Egg Harbor he was betrayed
by a deserter, and surprised |by the British, and 40 of
his men were killed. In February, 1779, he went to
the South to assist in the defence of Charleston.
Reaching that city in May, he made a bold assault
on the British but was repulsed. Charleston was
relieved soon after, and the French Count d'Estaing
called the Americans to besiege Savannah. Here an
assault was ordered on Oct. 9, and Pulaski, at the
head of the cavalry, received a mortal wound. He
died on board the brig Wasp, Oct. 11, 1779, and was
buried at St. Helen's Island. In 1825 Lafayette laid
at Savannah the corner-stone of a monument, erected
by the people of Georgia. A flag or banner of Pulaski,
20 inches Square, is in possession of the Maryland
Historical Society at Baltimore. Jared Sparks wrote
the Life of Count Pulaski (1845) in his American
Biography.
PULSZKY voN LUBOCZ UND CSELFAWA,
FRANZ AUREL, Hungarian statesman and author, was
born at Eperies, Sept. 17, 1814. After completing
his education he spent some time in foreign travel,
and his Diary of a Journey in Great Britain (1837)
hº his admission to the Hungarian Academy.
He was elected to the Reichstag in 1839. In 1848 he
was secretary of the Hungarian Finance Ministry, and
later held a similar position in Vienna, Toward the
end of that year he took part in the Hungarian revo-
lution and after its failure accompanied Kossuth
in his journey through the United States. Pulszky
described this country in his White, Red and Black
vey, which he organized.
geologist of the archaean division of the national geo-
logical survey.
and contributions to scientific journals he has pub-
lished Geological Researches in China and Japan
(1866), and Across America and the Audes (1869).
or gourd family, genus ('ucurbita.
genus bear large yellow flowers with a bell-shaped
corolla, 5-cleft, its base adherent to the calyx tube,
with 3 long much curved anthers which unite into a
sumall head, and 3 stigmas. -
firm rind. The pumpkin, (' pºpo, bears a fruit often
of enormous dimensions, and is largely cultivated both
in Europe and America, the fruit being fed to cattle
and used in domestic cookery.
corruption of pompion, is very loosely applied in this
country. In some sections it is used to include the
squashes, members of another species ; in others it
but there is good reason to believe that it is indigenous
i to America.
used for food in New England, before the introduction
intendent of the public museums, and libraries. Since
1884 he has again been a member of the Reichstag.
His later works have been his autobiography, My Life
and Times (4 vols., 1882), and The Bronze Age in
Hungary (1884).
His wife, THERESE PULSzKY, (1819–1866), was
married in 1845, and after her husband settled in
England engaged in literary work. Her principal
publications were Memoirs of a Hungarian Lady (2
vols., 1850), and Tales and Traditions of Hungary
(2 vols., 1851). e
PUMPELLY, RAPHAEL, geologist, was born at
Owego, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1837. He received his scien-
tific training at Paris, Hanover, and Freiberg, Saxony,
and returning to the United States in 1860 engaged in
mining in Arizona. §
government of Japan in exploring the mineral re-
sources of the island of Yezo and in 1863 by the
government of China in surveying the coal-fields of
that empire.
mining engineering in Harvard University.
he surveyed the copper region of Michigan, and in
1871–73 was State geologist of Missouri, and published
Reports of his work. -
Survey was organized, Prof. Pumpelly took charge of
the division of economic geology.
agent of the Tenth Census and for its Report prepared
Vol. XV., on Mining Industries. Frou, ISS1 to 18S4 he
ganize an independent corps of lancers and light was engaged
In 1861 he was employed by the
In 1866 he was made professor of
In 1870
When the U. S. Geological
He was a special
in the Northern transcontinental Sur-
Since ISS4 he has been
*— *-->
Besides Reports of his public work
PUMPKIN, an annual plant of the Cucurbitaceae,
Plants of this
The fruit is fleshy with a
The term pumpkin, a
embraces only the few varieties of the common New
| England pumpkin.
The latter is a vigorous, prostrate
plant, running 12 feet or more, with a hairy, almost
prickly stem, the fruit being nearly round or elongated,
of large size, the outer surface ribbed or furrowed,
the internal portion mellow and crossed by pulpy
threads.
foot diameter, though it is often much larger, its color
a clear orange-yellow.
are planted in fields of corn or potatoes, and the plant
left to take care of itself; yet, even with this neglectful
agriculture, it often yields as much as a ton of the
fruit per acre without apparent detriment to the yield
of corn or potatoes from the same field.
The average size of the fruit is about one
As ordinarily grown, the seeds
The native country of the pumpkin is disputed
º
The common field-pumpkin was much
• ºf improved varieties, or of the more edible squashes,
(3 vols., 1853). Having in the meantime been con-
demned to death by a court-martial in Hungary, he
took up his residence in England. In 1860 he went to
Italy, and took part in Garibaldi's expedition, which
ended at Aspromonte, and was for a time a prisoner at
Naples. In 1866, when constitutional self-government
Was granted to Hungary, Pulszky shared in the
amnesty and returned to his native land. He was a
member of the Reichstag from 1867 to 1875, and
attached himself to Deak. In 1869 he was made
director of the National Museum, and in 1872
being made into pies, cooked as squashes are now
Cooked, or baked, the seeds and stringy matter having
been removed. *- : *
and dried in the sun or in a warm room.
it is mainly used to feed farm-animals, which eat it
For winter use it was cut into strips
At present
with avidity, though the seeds, being diuretic in their
action, need to be first removed. This variety is of a
rich orange-yellow color, and round shape with flattened
ends, ayeraging about 14 inches long by l l or 12 inches
wide. The flesh is yellow, generally coarse-grained, and
Super- often stringy, yet still esteemed by many above the
28S
improved varieties for making the favorite pumpkin
pie of New England.
. Of the varieties the Canada or Vermont pumpkin
is one of the best for animal food, and of good quality
for the table. It is of large size, oblate form with deep
ribs, and a deep orange-yellow color. The flesh is
much sweeter and less stringy than the common pump-
kin. The cheese pumpkin is a remarkably vigorous
and productive plant, the fruit large, much flattened,
and deeply ribbed, its color a reddish-orange. The flesh
is sweet and well flavored. There are several other
Sugar Pumpkin.
varieties, the best of which for culinary purposes is the
sugar pumpkin. This is of small size, being S or 9
inches broad and 6 deep, but is an abundant bearer
and of excellent quality, being unsurpassed for pies
and superior to many Squashes for table use. The
flesh of the pumpkin contains much sugar, and during
the Revolutionary War it was boiled and the water
evaporated to syrup by housewives, as a substitute
for sugar. In addition to the diuretic action of pump-
kin seeds, they are employed as an anthelmintic for the
removal of tapeworm. (C. M.)
PURCELL, JoHN BAPTIST (1800–1883), Roman
Catholic archbishop, was born at Mallow, Ireland, Feb.
26, 1800. He had received an academical education
before he removed to the United States. Here he
studied at Mount St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg,
Md., supporting himself partly by gardening. After
theological study at St. Sulpice he was ordained priest
in the church of Notre Dame, Paris, May 21, 1826.
Returning to Mount St. Mary's, he was appointed
professor of moral philosophy and pastor of its congre-
gation, and in 1829 became president. On May 19,
1833, he was appointed bishop of Cincinnati, and was
consecrated in Baltimore cathedral October 13. He
devoted himself with energy to the building and
founding in all the growing cities of Ohio churches,
orphan asylums, ecclesiastical seminaries, convents,
and religious houses. In the city and suburbs of Cin-
cinnati he founded 30 churches. He was also active
in debates with religious leaders, the most noted of
whom was Alexander Campbell (q. r.). In 1850 his
diligence was rewarded by his promotion to the dignity
of archbishop. He was loyal to the cause of the Union
throughout the civil war. He attended the Vatican
Council in 1870, and though he deprecated the pro-
mulgation of the Papal infallibility, he cordially em-
braced the dogma. For a few years longer his career
continued to be one of success and prosperity in his work.
But a great change came when it was discovered
that the financial affairs of his see had been grossly
and recklessly mismanaged. Trusted implicitly by thou-
sands of Catholics, he had used the sums deposited
with him in the buildings and support of ecclesias-
tical institutions, paying interest when asked, but mak-
ing no proper provision for the return of the principal.
His brother, Rev. Edward Purcell, whom he had called
to assist him in his banking operations, had been
i
PURCELL–PUTNAM.
equally careless. In the financial distress which fol-
lowed the crisis of 1873 the archbishop was unable to
meet the numerous demands of his creditors. In
December, 1878, he made a public assignment of his
property for their benefit, endeavoring at the same
time to retain for the church the use of many buildings.
Much litigation ensued, and the civil courts in an
equitable spirit examined the circumstances of the
grants to churches. The claims proved amounted to
$3,672,371 ; large sums were lost by the ignorance of
the depositors. Even after the bankruptcy the assignee
also was found to have squandered part of the funds in
speculation. Archbishop Purcell had retired from
public view, and was succeeded by Archbishop Elder,
of Natchez. He died at St. Martins, Ohio, July 4,
1SS3.
PUTNAM, FREDERICK WARD, naturalist and an-
thropologist, was born at Salem, Mass., April 16, 1839.
His early fondness for natural history led him to be-
come a student under Agassiz, who soon gave him
charge of the collection of fishes in Harvard Museum
of Comparative Zoology. In 1864 he took charge of
the collections of the Essex Institute, at Salem, to
which were afterwards added those of the East India
Marine Society. In 1876 he became director of the
Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Eth-
nology. He had already edited vol. vii. of the Report
of Wheeler's Survey, which treats of these subjects.
Since 1873 he has been secretary of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, and has
labored with great success to increase the number of its
members and the value of its work. In 1886 he was
made professor of ethnology in Harvard University.
He was one of the founders of the American Naturalist
in 1867, and one of its editors till 1875. He has also
taught in Prof. Alexander Agassiz's summer School on
Penikese Island, State commissioner of Massachusetts
on inland fish, and in 1887 was chosen president of the
Boston Society of Natural History. He has published
more than 200 papers on American archaeology and
anthropology. In 1888 he conducted successfully a
movement for the purchase and preservation of the
Great Serpent Mound in Ohio as a public park.
PUTNAM, ISRAEL (171S-1790), general, was born
in that part of Salem now called Danvers, Mass., Jan.
7, 1718. His parents had twelve children, of whom
he was the eleventh. With little education but of
sturdy frame he in 1739 became a farmer at Pom-
fret, Conn. Already noted for courage, he enhanced
his reputation by venturing into a she-wolf's den and
killing the beast. In 1755 he was made a lieutenant of
rangers and served in the expedition against Crown
Point. In 1757 his coolness and courage prevented the
explosion of the powder-magazine during a fire at Fort
Edward. Romantic adventures with Indians marked
his career. In 1758 they captured and bound him to
a tree, and a fire was kindled around, when Marin, a
French officer, intervened and saved him. Taken to
Montreal, he received aid from Col. Peter Schuyler, a
fellow-captive, and was finally exchanged. In 1762 he
commanded a regiment in the expedition which cap-
tured Havana. He afterwards kept a tavern at Brook-
lyn, Conn., served some years in the Legislature, and in
1773 went to explore a tract of land on the Southern
Mississippi supposed to have been granted by Parlia-
ment to the provincial officers. He was an ardent
patriot, and in April, 1775, on learning of the fight at
Lexington, he summoned the militia of his neighbor-
hood and rode in one day 68 miles to Boston. The
Legislature of Connecticut made him a brigadier-gen-
eral, and with a regiment recruited by himself he
joined the American army at Cambridge. This place
he was resolute in holding, and when others advised
falling back he urged an advance. After Col. Prescott
had made intrenchments on Breed's Hill, Gen. Put-
nam sought to do the same at Bunker's Hill, and at
the close of the battle, June 17, rallied some fugitives
and took possession of Prospect Hill. Four major-gen-

289
w-
superintend the fortification of Philadelphia, and after
Shays's rebellion in 1787.
PUTNAM–PYNCHON.
erals were nominated by Congress for the Continental
army, but Putnam was the only one to whom Washing-
ton on taking the chief command delivered the com-
mission. After the evacuation of Boston Putnam Went
with Washington to the defence of New York city. He
was to blame for the defeat suffered on Long Island,
Aug. 27, 1776. In the winter he was called by Congress to
the battle of Princeton was stationed in New Jersey.
In spring he took charge of the highlands of the Hud-
son, his chief duty being to watch the movements of
the British from New York city. The capture of a
lieutenant of a Tory regiment and Sir Henry Clinton's
demand for his treatment as a British officer led to
Putnam's famous letter :
“SIR —Edmund Palmer, an officer in the enemy's
service, was taken as a spy lurking within our lines;
he has been tried as a spy, condemned as a spy, and
shall be executed as a spy, and the flag is ordered to
depart immediately. ISRAEL PUTNAM.
* P. S.—He has been accordingly executed.”
After the loss of Forts Montgomery and Clinton in
October, 1777, a court of inquiry was ordered and,
though Putnam was declared free of blame, Washing-
ton, in deference to popular feeling, removed him from
the command. He was stationed in Connecticut when
Gov. Tryon. with 1500 men. made a raid into the State.
Putnam with but 150 men faced him at Horseneck, and
when obliged to retreat ordered his men to take refuge
in a swamp, while he on horseback rushed down a steep
declivity where the enemy's dragoons would not ven-
ture to follow. He afterwards harassed Tryon's retreat.
In 1779 he returned to command in the Hudson High-
lands and assisted in fortifying West Point, whose im-
portance as a stronghold he had previously pointed
out. In the following winter he was disabled by pa-
ralysis, and thenceforth remained on his farm, where he
died May 19, 1790. His tombstone bears the inscrip-
tion, “He dared to lead where any dared to follow.'"
His Life was written by Gen. D. Humphreys (1790),
by O.W. B. Peabody in Sparks's American Biography
(1842), and by Increase N. Tarbox (1876).
PUTNAM, RUFUs (1738–1824), general, cousin of
Israel Putnam, was born at Sutton, Mass., April 9,
1738. He became a millwright, but served as a soldier
in the campaigns against the French in 1757–60. On
settling at New Braintree, Mass., he became proficient
in surveying. In 1773 he took part in the expedition
under Gen. Lyman to examine lands on the Southern
Mississippi, supposed to have been granted to soldiers
who served in the French war. . On the outbreak of the
Revolution he was lieutenant-colonel and displayed
such ability in constructing defences at Roxbury that
he won the esteem of Washington. In 1776 he was
chief engineer of the defences of New York city, but,
though Congress gave him that appointment with rank
of colonel, he resigned to take command of a Massa-
chusetts regiment. He fought at the battle of Still-
water and in 1778 with his cousin superintended the
fortifying of West Point. At the close of the war he
was made a brigadier-general. He assisted in quelling
Being made superintendent
of the Ohio Land Company which he had been active
in forming, he laid out Marietta, Ohio, in 17SS. He
was appointed a judge of the North-west Territory in
1790, and in 1796 U. S. surveyor-general. In Gen.
Wayne's expedition against the Indians of Ohio Put-
nam was a brigadier-general and afterwards a commis-
Sioner to make a treaty with the tribes on the Wabash,
which was done at Vincennes, Sept. 27, 1792. In ISO3
Pres. Jefferson removed him from office. After serv-
ing in the Ohio Constitutional Convention in that
year he held no public position. He died at Marietta,
May 4, 1 S34. i
PUTTKAMER, Robert VICTOR Vos, a Prussian
Statesman, was born May 5, 182S, at Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, his father afterwards becoming president of the
*
province of Posen. He attended the gymnasium of
his native city and the real-gymnasium of Berlin. In
1846 he entered the University of Berlin and after-
wards those of Heidelberg and Geneva, studying
jurisprudence, political economy, modern languages,
and history. After passing his first examinatiºn in the
court of appeals at Marienwerder in 1850, he prae-
tised as auscultator in the court at Dantzic in 1851
he became court-referendary in 1852 government re-
ferendary, and, after two years in this capacity in the ad:
ministration of Posen, he rose, in 1854, to the post of
government assessor. In the same year he was called
to serve as assistant-adviser in the railroad department
of the ministry of commerce. Here he was employed
four years under the under-secretary of State Von Pom-
mer Esche, whom, in January, 1859, he accompanied,
as adviser-in-chief, to Coblentz. In 1860 he was ap-
pointed councillor of the district of Demmin and, dur-
ing the war of 1866, he was civil commissioner of
Moravia. On the conclusion of peace he entered, as
assistant-minister, the department of the interior;
thereafter he became consulting council in the newly
founded bund-chancery. In 1871 he became govern-
ment-president of Gumbinnen ; in 1875 district-presi-
dent of Lorraine; in 1877 chief president of Silesia.
On the retirement of Minister Falk, in 1879, he under-
took the office of minister of instruction with the pur-
pose of furthering the negotiations between Pope Leo
XIII. and the Prussian government for the promotion of
peace between church and state. With this view he
succeeded in passing a measure through the diet which
empowered the ministry to set aside certain provisions
of the “May laws.” By his ordinance, dated Jan.
21, 1880, a reformed mode of spelling (called “Putt-
kamer's Orthography ’’) was introduced into Prussian
schools. On June 18, 1881, he undertook the minis-
try of the interior, and, in October, was elevated to
be vice-president of the Prussian state-ministry.
His cousin and brother-in-law, MAXIMILIAN WON
PUTTKAMER, born in 1831, at Gross-Rossin in Pomer-
ania, after studying law in Bonn and Berlin, passed
through various offices, till, in 1879, he was named, as
chief of the administration of justice, a member of
the newly appointed ministry of Alsace-Lorraine.
He began his parliamentary career as a member of the
North-German constituent assembly in 1867, and be-
longed to the National-liberal party, but afterwards
withdrew from it on the protective tariff question. In
ISS1 he was defeated as a candidate for re-election to
the imperial parliament, but in the next year the en-
tire administration of prisons and instruction, except
public schools, was intrusted to him.
PYNCHON, WILLIAM (1590–1662), a settler of
Massachusetts, was born at Springfield, Essex, Eng-
land, in 1590. He was of ancient family and well edu-
eated. In the charter of the colony of Massachusetts
Bay, granted by Charles I., March 28, 162S, he is
named as one of the patentees and also as one of the
assistants in governing the colony. In company with
Gov. John Winthrop in 1630 he came to America and
was one of the first settlers of Roxbury. Being weal-
thy, he engaged in the fur-trade with the Indians, and
was made treasurer of the colony. In a few years
many of the settlers desired to remove to the Connec-
ticut River and Pynchon led a colony in 1636 to Spring-
field. The land Was purchased from the Indians and
he was made chief magistrate and so continued till
1551, being also for most of the time a member of the
General. Court, . The change was occasioned by the
publication of his book, The Meritorious Price of Oºr
Redemption (London, 650), in which he maintained that
Christ did not Suffer the punishment due to man's sins
but by his perfect obedience procured man's redemp-
tion. The General Court pronounced the book heret-
ical and called upon Rev. John Norton, of Ipswich, to
answer it, which he did to their satisfaction. Mean.
while Pynchon had stated to the court that his views
were somewhat modified after conference with Norton.
290
PYNCHON-QUAKERS.
However, being removed from the government and
cited again to appear before the court, he left the
gºlony in 1652 and fixed his residence at Wraysbury,
England. In 1655 his rejoinder to Norton appeared
under the title, The Meritorious Price of Man's Re-
demption. In this he admits that the sufferings of
Christ were appointed as a punishment for man'ssins,
but denies that Christ suffered the vindictive wrath of
God or the pains of hell. Pynchon's other publica-
tions were The Jews' Synagogue (1652); The Time
when the First Sabbath was Ordained (1654); Holy
Time; or the True Limits of the Lord's Day (1654);
The Covenant of Nature made with Adam Described
(1661). He died at Wraysbury, Oct. 9, 1662. But
three copies of his first book are known to be in exist-
ence ; one was sold at the Brinley sale for $400. See
Rev. Ezra H. Byington's article on “William Pyn-
chon '' in the Andover Review, September, 1886.
was colonel of the Hampshire regiment.
His son, JoHN PYNCHON (1627–1703), succeeded to
the management of affairs in the Connecticut Walley.
He was for fifty years a magistrate of Springfield and
He was an
'' assistant ’’ under the old charter of Massachusetts.
and a councillor under the new charter.
PYNCHON, THOMAS RUGGLEs, clergyman and
educator, is descended in the seventh generation from
the preceding. He was born at New Haven, Jan. 19,
1823, and was educated at the Boston Latin School.
He graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, in 1841,
and was tutor there 1843–47. He took orders in the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1848 and was rector
of Stockbridge and Lenox, Mass., until 1855, when he
returned to Trinity College as professor of chemistry.
He was made president of the college in 1874. He
has published an Introduction to Chemical Physics
(1872), and several sermons and pamphlets.
Q.
QUAIL. See PARTRIDGE.
QUAIN, RICHARD (1816–1887), physician, was
born at Mallow, Ireland, Oct. 13, 1816. His early ed.
ucation was in the diocesan school of Cloyne, and he
was articled to a surgeon-apothecary in Limerick. In
1837 he went to London and entered the London Uni-
versity, whence he graduated M. B. in 1840, and M.
D. in 1843. He served successively as house-surgeon
and house-physician to the University College Hos-
pitals. In 1846 he became a member of the Royal
College of Physicians and in 1851 was elected a fellow.
He was also elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1871 and has held many other positions of re-
sponsibility and honor. From 1848 to 1875 he was
connected with the hospital for diseases of the chest at
Brompton, and afterwards was consulting physician.
As member of the royal commission of the cattle
plague he was active in directing the investigation, in
determining the plan for its extinction and in Securing
public approval for this plan. His principal work is
the Dictionary of Medicine (1882), and he also con-
tributed valuable articles to medical journals and to the
Transactions of learned societies. He was appointed
in 1863 crown representative in the general medical
council, and was several times reappointed. He died
Sept. 17, 1887.
()UAKERS of FRIENDS IN AMERICA. The ar-
rival at Boston in July, 1656, of the Eng-
See Vol. *:: lish preachers, Mary Fisher and Anne
kº * Austin, was the first appearance of the
“*” Friends in America. The Massachusetts
Colony immediately legislated (first in October, 1656)
to suppress Quakerism. Fines, whipping, mutilation,
imprisonment, banishment, etc., were provided in sev-
eral successive laws, and that of October, 1658, pre-
scribed death as a penalty for those returning after
banishment. Under this, in 1659 William Robinson
and Marmaduke Stevenson, and in 1660 Mary Dyer
and William Leddra. were hanged on Boston Common,
for persistence in remaining in the colony and preach-
ing. Minor persecutions continued, for many years.
(An extensive literature, considerably enlarged in re-
cent years, relates to the history of this subject, as
viewed from the Puritan, the Quaker, and other stand-
oints) All the other early colonies, except Rhode
sland, also persecuted the Friends, but, less severely
than Massachusetts. Their preachers, however, gon;
tinued to arrive from England, and the Society, had
members, by 1660, in Rhode Island, on Long Island,
and in Maryland and Virginia, besides thºse wh9 re-
mained in Massachusetts. The first regular business
meeting of importance is presumed to have been held
in Rhode Island in 1661–an annual gathering. In
1671-72 William Edmundson and John Burnyeat,
preachers of note from Great Britain, travelled through
the Friends' communities, and did much to promote
an organization of their meetings; and in 1672–73
George Fox visited the colonies from Rhode Island to
North Carolina, further advancing this work. About
1670, or somewhat earlier, meetings were established
in New Jersey, at Shrewsbury and elsewhere, and
there were Friends in North Carolina about 1672. The
purchase of West Jersey, in 1674, by the English
Friends, and the grant of Pennsylvania to William
Penn in 1681, brought companies of Friends to both
banks of the Delaware. In 1675 they settled the town
of Salem, and in 1677 Burlington, and in 1682 Phila-
delphia was laid out, and its building begun. Large
immigrations of Friends and those in sympathy with
them, such as the German Mennonites, followed to
Pennsylvania in the next half century. In 1768 there
were in all the North American provinces about 250
meetings for worship, distributed substantially as fol-
lows: Rhode Island and adjoining parts of Massa-
chusetts, 48; Long Island and vicinity of New York
city, 20, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware,
111 ; Maryland, 20; Virginia, 26; and North Caro-
lina, 11. -
The changes in the Society since the colonial period
may be briefly stated as follows: During the Revolu-
tionary war a considerable but not relatively large
loss of members was sustained, by the departure of
those who took part in it from the peace testimonies.
of the Society. In New York and East New Jersey
many of these sympathized with the mother country;
in Pennsylvania and West Jersey the ratio was largely
in favor of the colonies. About the close of the cen-
tury and later, the North-western Territory being
opened, an extensive migration of the North Carolina
Friends took place, whole meetings going together to
Ohio and Indiana. Similar movements of like charac-
ter occurred from Eastern Pennsylvania to Upper
Canada and to South-western Pennsylvania.
There had always been an extensive interchange of
ministerial visits between Great Britain and this coun-
try. Between 1656 and 1818 the religious visits of
British preachers to this country numbered 183; and
the corresponding visits of American Friends to Great
Britain (begun about 1693) numbered 110. About
1800, and from that date to 1825, the English preachers,
influenced at home by the Evangelical movement be-
gun by Wesley, and others, began to find what they
regarded as evidences of unorthodox views in this
country, and they especially condemned the doctrines
of Elias, Hicks (1748–1830), a prominent minister of
Long Island. In 1827 the Yearly Meeting of Phila-
QUARANTINE–QUINCE.
291
delphia (by far the largest of the yearly meetings)
divided, the minority basing their discipline upon
orthodox doctrine. Other divisions followed in the
Yearly Meetings of New York, Ohio, Indiana, and
Baltimore. Those of New England and North Caro-
lina did not divide, remaining with the Orthodox body.
Since 1830 several divisions have occurred among
the Orthodox Friends, and they now form four bodies,
as follows: (1.) Yearly meetings affiliating with each
other and corresponding with London Yearly Meeting.
This body is frequently designated as Gurneyite, from
the fact that it sympathizes, generally, with the views
of Joseph John Gurney, an English Friend (1788–
1847), who visited this country in 1837–38, and whose
views were opposed by John Wilbur, of Rhode Island,
causing a division which extended to several yearly
meetings within the following fifteen years. (2.
Yearly meetings of the “Wilbur' view, correspond-
ing with each other, but not with any other of the
Orthodox bodies, and not “recognized '' by London.
(3.) Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, which has avoided
official commitment to either the Evangelical (or Gur-
ney) views, on one hand, or the Wilburite on the other,
and has sustained no division. It corresponds (1888)
with no other body, though acknowledging the general
relation of other Orthodox yearly meetings to itself,
by receiving their members and ministers (the latter
under carefully guarded rules, recently adopted). (4.)
Smaller bodies, which have separated from the others,
and have called themselves Primitive Friends, etc.
The body which did not disown the ministrations of
Elias Hicks, in the controversy of 1827, remains un-
changed, except by diminution. In the Western States,
especially Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and Kansas, the Ortho-
dox (Class 1, above) have made considerable growth.
They have adopted to some extent the methods of
other churches, including prearranged services, sal-
aried and stationed “pastors,” singing during worship,
etc., and some of their ministers have been baptized
by immersion. They maintain missionaries in the
West Indies, Mexico, and elsewhere. It is these
methods, as well as doctrinal divergencies, which have
caused the separation from them of the “Wilburite ''
and smaller bodies.
Statistics. –The census of 1880 stated the whole
number of Friends in the United States at 95,966, with
roperty valued at $3,202, 142, and 986 meeting places.
These totals were divided as follows:
No. Val. Prop.
1. Orthodox [including Philadelphia
Yearly Meeting] .............. e . * * * * * 66,738 $1,951,847
2. “Hicksite ”................................ 23,56S 1,181,333
3. “Wilburite ” Orthodox............... 4,742 41,2S5
4. Smaller bodies.................... * * * * * * * 618 27,677
The changes since 1880 in Classes 2, 3, and 4, above,
have been unimportant. The Orthodox (Gurneyite)
Evangelical body has made a growth in the Western
States, by bringing in new members, mainly through
{ { e 3 y 11. te • ST
revival” methods. Its number (excluding Phila-
delphia Yearly Meeting) was estimated, 1887, at
72,500. It has ten yearly meetings in the United
States and Canada: New England, New York, Canada,
Baltimore, North Carolina, Ohio, Indiana, Western
Iowa, and Kansas. The body, often called “Hicksite”
(it is proper to say they disown this designation, and
call themselves simply “The Religious Society of
Friends”), has seven yearly meetings: Philadelphia,
New York, Genesee, Baltimore, Ohio, Indiana, and
Illinois. They have no meetings in New England or
south of Virginia. , Meetings have recently been or-
§§nized in, Nebraska, which is the farthest, west.
Their number is estimated, ISSS, at 23,000, of which
about half are in Philadelphia Yearly Meeting.
Several educational institutions of importance are in
gharge of the Friends. In the rank of colleges are
Haverford, for young men, and Bryn Mawr, for young
Women, both near Philadelphia; Wilmington, at Wil-
mington, Ohio; Earlham, at Richmond, Indiana , and
Penn, at Oskaloosa, Iowa–all belonging to the division
called Orthodox. They have also several preparatory
schools of note, the most prominent of which are those
at Providence, R. I., and Westtown, Pa. The other
principal body of Friends have Swarthmore College,
near Philadelphia, for both sexes.
Bibliography.—For details concerning Friends in Amer-
ica, of the first importance is James Bowden’s History
(London, 1850); see also S. M. Janney’s History of Friends
(Phila., 1859); Janney’s Life of William Penn (Phila..
1852); Collection of Memorials (Phila., 1787), and other
collections of later date; T. Gilpin's Eciles in Virgin, ºr
(Phila., 1848); Account of the Conduct of Friends towards
the Fndian Tribes (London, 1844); Michener’s Retrospect of
Early Quakerism (Phila., 1860); Friends' Miscellany, edited
by John and Isaac Comly (12 vols., Phila., 1831–39); Friends’
Library, edited by William and Thomas Evans (14 vols.,
Phila., begun 1837); R. P. Hallowell's Quaker Invasion of
JMassachusetts (Boston, 1883). There are many journals of
ministers, one of the most notable being that of John Wool-
man, of New Jersey (1720–1772), of which many editions
have been issued, one (Boston, 1882) edited by John G.
Whittier. The questions arising out of the several divisions
have given rise to a large number of controversial and doc-
trinal issues. Besides those relating to the division of 1827,
others of interest are John Wilbur's Narrative (New York,
1845); and William Hodgson's Society of Friends in the
19th Century (Phila., 1876). (H. M. J.
QUARANTINE. In the United States, and among
civilized nations generally, this word no
jº, *. longer signifies “forty days’ ” detention
e J.D º O - - * * - - e
- S r . S & *- r - S: * ,-
Am. Rep.). lt imply In eanS Inal It lll) e Sainlta
tion ''—and although still used to de-
note detention for an uncertain period (it may be only
a few hours or at most a few days) it is now practised
in connection with other measures employed by those
in authority for placing the vessel, person, or thing de-
tained in a thoroughly sanitary condition. (See SANI-
TARY SCIENCE.) -
‘‘ Shot-gun '' quarantine is an unscientific if not a
lawless procedure indulged in by panic-stricken inhabi-
tants who, with deadly weapons in their hands, threaten
to shoot any person from an infected district who seeks
to enter or pass through their lines—cordon sanitaire.
Although semi-barbaric and brutal, it exists in some
parts of the United States to this day. (P. H. B.)
QUATREFAGES DE BREAU, JEAN LOUIS
ARMAND DE, a French naturalist, was born at Berthe-
Zeme, Department of Gard, Feb. 10, 1810. He
studied medicine and natural sciences at Strasburg and
received his doctor's degree in 1829. He lived for
Some years at Toulouse, where in 1838 he was made
professor of zoölogy. But he soon went to Paris, and
in 1842 he countmenced a series of scientific voyages
along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. In IS50
he was appointed professor of natural history in the
Lycèe Napoleon, and in 1856 exchanged this post for
the professorship of anatomy and ethnology in the
Museum of Natural History. His extensive investi-
gations in zoölogy, comparative anatomy, and anthro-
pology have afforded subjects for many works. Among
the principal are Etudes sur les types inférieurs de Tem-
branchement des annelés ; Souvenirs d’un Naturaliste
(ISã4); Physiologie comparée, Métamorphose de
| Homme et des Animaur (1862); Histoire de
"Homme (1864); Charles Darwin et ses Précursewºrs
frºmcats (1870); La Race prussienne (ISTI); Cranfºr
ºthºa (1875-79) ; I, Espèce humaine 1877). Miss
F.I. Youmans translated his Natural History of Ifan
º and others of his works have appeared in Eng-
lSI).
T ("NIN º - º
QUINCE. This plant, Cydonia vulgaris, so named
" * - rºl, , , , , , , ".. ‘s “...S.-- - -
See Vol. XX. from C. donia, in Crete, its native place,
p. 1S2 (p. 1ss ... " Well-known, hardy, deciduous fruit-
Am. Rep.). tree, of the order, Pomaceae, being dis-
tinguished from the genus Pyrus by its
leafy calyx lobes and the many-seeded cells of its fruit.
292
QUINCY-QUININE,
It is a low, straggling tree, of from 8 to 15 feet
high, with a crooked stem and twisted branches, a
smooth, blackish bark, and large flowers with five
ºd or White petals and twenty or more stamens.
The fruit is large and globular or pear-shaped,
of a rich yellow color when ripe, with a peculiar
pleasant, odor, which, when strong, many find disagree.
able. The quince now grows spontaneously in the
South of France and
along the Danube. It
was much esteemed by
the ancients, who looked
upon it as an emblem
of love and happiness.
There are several varie-
ties, the most distinct
being pear-shaped,
which is thought the
typical form, and which
bears most abundantly.
The apple - shaped
quince, however, is most
esteemed. The plant
needs a rich, mellow
soil, and well repays manuring. It is readily propagated
from the seeds. Its most dangerous enemies are a
borer, which is very destructive, and a peculiar yel-
low fungus, which attacks the young trees. It is
much used as a stock for the budding of the pear,
the Portugal variety being the best stock. The fruit
is hard, with an austere taste, and is chiefly used
for preserving with sugar and in the making of
marmalades, jellies, etc. In England a wine is made
from the juice. The mucilaginous seeds are employed
in pharmacy and the toilet. The wood is hard, and
is employed in turning.
Of the other species of Cydonia the Chinese
quince is a very handsome tree, twenty feet high
and of arborescent growth. The Japan quince, C.
Japonica, is a low, straggling tree, but is valued as
an ornamental plant, for the rich and abundant
crimson blossoms which it bears in early spring.
QUINCY, a city of Illinois, county-seat of Adams
co., is on the Mississippi River, 160 miles above St.
Louis. It is on a limestone bluff, 125 feet above the
river, and is an important railroad town. While
Quincy Bay gives a fine harbor for steamboats, an
important railroad bridge here crosses the stream.
Quincy has a fine court-house which cost $300,000,
2 opera-houses, 2 armories, numerous public halls,
7 banks, a cathedral and 35 churches, a medical col-
lege, several hospitals and asylums. Five daily and
8 weekly newspapers and 3 monthly magazines
are published here. The industrial works comprise
large flour-mills, saw- and planing-mills, stove-works,
breweries, and factories producing carriages, furniture,
sash, blinds, and tobacco. Quincy is finely laid out,
has gas and electric light, street railways, good water-
works and an excellent fire department. It was settled
in 1822 and was made a city in 1839. In 1880 its
population was 27,268.
QUINCY, the name of a family noted in the his-
tory of Massachusetts. Josſ AH QUINCY, Jr. (1744–
1775), was renowned for his eloquent advocacy of the
rights of the colonists. His son, Josſ AH QUINCY
(1772–1864), in his long life was a prominent leader
of the Federal party, afterwards mayor of Boston
(1822–29), and a promoter of its improvements; then
an able president of Harvard University (1829–45).
The career of these distinguished men has been
sketched in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. Others
of the family deserve mention.
EDMUND QUINCY (1681–1738) graduated at Har-
vard College in 1699. He was a member of the
General Court and of the Governor's Council for many
years. In 1718 he was made Judge of the Superior
Court, and in 1737 went to England to conduct the
case of Massachusetts in a boundary dispute with
3 : : -
Meech's Quince.
New Hampshire. He died at London, Feb. 23, 1738
and the colony ordered a monument to be erected
to his memory there.
Another EDMUND QUINCY (1808–1877), son of
President Quincy, was born at Boston, Feb. 1, 1808.
He graduated at Harvard College in 1827, and was
Secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society. He
published a novel, Wensley (1854), and a biography
of his father (1867), and edited his father's Speeches
(1875). He died May 27, 1877.
His brother, Josia H Quincy (1802–1882), grad-
uated at Harvard in 1821, studied law, and was
active in the public affairs of Massachusetts. He was
oresident of the State Senate in 1842 and mayor of
}. in 1845. In his term the water supply from
the Cochituate was introduced. Other improvements
were also promoted by him. Shortly before his
death he contributed to the Independent sketches
which have been collected under the title, Figures of
the Pust (1882).
His son, SAMUEL MILLER QUINCY, born in 1833,
became a lawyer and edited the Monthly Law Reporter.
Entering the army during the civil war, he rose
from the rank of captain to that of colonel with the
brevet of brigadier-general. He edited the Reports of
the Superior Court of Massachusetts, 1761–72 (1865),
made by his great-grandfather, Josiah Quincy, Jr.
His brother, Josia H PHILLIP ().UINCY, born in
1830, has published dramatic poems, Lyteria (1856),
and Charicles (1856).
QUININE. The history of the manufacture of
Tw ... sulphate of quinine in the United
º, O * States is interesting. The manufacture
Kn Reft. “ ºf this alkaloid was begun by John
Farr, an eminent chemist of Philadel-
phia, in the year 1820. The process was crude though
complicated, and, with the appliances then available,
the manufacture of a few ounces was considered an
important undertaking in chemical laboratory work.
Prior to the date mentioned all the quinine was im-
ported at high cost. The record of the first authentic
sale of quinine in the United States gives the price
realized as $200 per ounce, and Samuel Hart, a drug-
gist of Philadelphia, as the seller. The date is not
known, though believed to be 1815. The first lots sold
by Mr. Farr were at $8 per drachm.
The crude material (cinchona bark) was for many
years received direct from the forests of South America,
where the tree is of indigenous growth. The Peru-
vian government for many years enjoyed a monopoly
of the trade in cinchona bark, and as the price was
gradually advanced the manufacturing chemists ex-
tended their investigations. They soon discovered
that lower grade barks from other sections could be
used, and this resulted in a destruction of the monop-
oly. As the consumption of quinine increased, the
question of future supply of the raw material became
a serious one, as it was feared the supply could not be
increased to keep pace with extending consumption.
Fearing the exhaustion of the supply of bark in South
America, the cultivation of cinchona trees was under-
taken in Ceylon and Java, which, proving successful, an
abundant supply is now assured. (See article CIN-
CHONA in ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA and in this
work.)
The successor to John Farr in the manufacture of
quinine was the firm of Farr, Powers & Weightman,
Philadelphia, which for many years was the only firm
engaged in the business, though latterly the name has
been Powers & Weightman. Two other firms of man-
ufacturing chemists, in the same city, began at a later
date the manufacture of the alkaloid, namely, Rosen-
garten & Sons and Kearby & Mattison. Still later the
firm of Charles T. White & Co., of New York, en-
gaged in the business, and, about 1885, a company was
organized in the city of New York for the manufac.
ture of this alkaloid. At no time, however, have there
been more than four manufacturers of quinine in the

QUITMAN–QUO WARRANTO.
293
United States. After the removal of the duty on for-
eign quinine in 1879 the manufacturers could not com-
pete with the imported article, and one after another
abandoned the business, until, at the present time, but
one firm continues the manufacture of quinine, and
that is the oldest in the business.
About the time of the removal of the import duty
on quinine, cheaper processes for the manufacture of
the alkaloid were discovered, and the new sources of
supply of the crude material furnishing bark of im-
proved quality in unexpected abundance, the price de-
clined steadily, and foreign competition has continued
so active that the business has for several years been
unremunerative. The imports of foreign quinine dur-
ing the six years preceding the removal of the import
duty averaged about 70,000 ounces per year. Since
the removal of the duty the imports have increased
steadily, reaching, in 1887, the enormous amount of
2, 180,000 ounces. The imports of cinchona bark also
show the effect of the competition of the foreign pro-
duct. The total consumption of quinine in the world
at the present time is estimated at 7,000,000 ounces
per annum, and of this 3,000,000 ounces are consumed
in the United States. Fully two-thirds of the quinine
consumed in the United States is therefore of foreign
manufacture, and none of the domestic made is now
exported. Formerly there were considerable annual
exports to Mexico and the South American states.
n the following table are given the highest and low-
est prices of American quinine, per ounce, from 1823
to 1888 :
Year. Highest. Lowest. Year. Highest. Lowest.
1823...... $20.00 $16.00 1856...... $2.60 $2.40
1824...... 14.00 12.00 1857...... 2.00 1.40
1825...... 8.00 8.00 1858...... 1.40 1.25
1826...... 7.00 5.25 1859...... 1.50 1.25
1827 7.50 6.00 1860...... 1.80 1.20
1828...... 6.00 3.25 1861...... 2.10 1.80
1829 2.90 2.25 1862...... 2.90 2.25
1830...... 2.50 1.75 1863...... 3.25 2.70
1831...... 1.50 1.35 1864...... 3.7 2.60
1832...... 1.00 1.75 1865...... 3.40 2.20
1833...... 1.87 1.70 1866...... 2.60 2.25
1834...... 1.80 1.25 1867...... 2.20 1.95
1835...... 1.65 1.60 1868...... 2.35 1.90
1836...... 1.58 1.45 1869...... 2.30 2.00
1837...... 1.40 1.40 1870...... 2.3() 2.10
1838...... 1.90 1.60 1871...... 2.45 2.20
1839...... 3.30 2.75 1872,..... 2.45 2.40
1840...... 3.12 2.87 1873,..... 2.55 2.45
1841 ...... 2.62 2.50 1874,..... 2.50 2.20
1842...... 2.00 1.60 1875 ..... 2.30 2. 15
1843...... 1.80 1.55 1876...... 2,70 2.20
1844...... 3.00 2.00 1877...... 4.50 2.70
1845...... 2.40 2.35 1878...... 3,60 3.40
1846...... 2.40 2.20 1879,..... 3.60 2.60
1847...... 2.40 2.30 1S80...... 3.25 2.25
1848...... 2.70 2.60 1881 ..... 3.25 1,90
1849...... 3.65 2.95 1882...... 2.50 2.00
1850...... 3.7() 3.70 1883 ..... 1.80 1.55
1851...... 3.25 3.25 1884...... 1.75 .90
1852...... 3.00 2.80 1885...... 1.05 .75
1853...... 3.20 2.70 1886...... .80 .65
1854 ..... 2.50 2.50 1887...... .70 .46
1855...... 3.00 2.60 1888...... .56 .47
Over half a century's growth of the business of
manufacturing quinine brought it to a prosperous con-
dition, making it an important chemical industry. The
past eight years has witnessed its decadence, until, at
the present time, it is an unprofitable product among
many in but one chemical manufacturing establish:
ment, yet it is one of the most important articles of
the materia medica, and its consumption continues to
increase from year to year. (H. G. A.)
QUITMAN, JOHN ANTHONY (1799–1858), a South-
ºn general and politician, was born at Rhinebeck,
N ew York, Sept. 1, 1799. He was the son of Rev.
Frederick Henry Quitman (1760–1833), a Lutheran
minister. After becoming a lawyer he removed to
Qhio in 1820, but in 1823 settled at N atchez, Miss.
Having won distinction at the bar he was made
chancellor of the Superior Court in 1828, and took
part in the Constitutional Convention of 1831. For
many terms he served in the Legislature, and in 1835
was acting governor of the State. . The movement for
the independence of Texas received his hearty support,
and, when the Mexican war followed as its consequence.
Quitman was one of the foremost volunteers. He
commanded a division of Gen. Scott's invading army,
and, when the city of Mexico was taken, he was made
its governor until peace was concluded. In 1850 Quit-
man was elected governor of Mississippi, and gave
every possible encouragement to the movement for the
annexation of Cuba to the United States. (See CUB.A.)
But the administration at Washington baffled his
schemes ; by its order he was indicted in the U. S.
Court at New Orleans, whereupon he resigned his gov-
ernorship, to avoid an unseemly struggle between
national and State authority. A new administration
showed evident favor for Cuban annexation, but the
blan remained in abeyance, while the struggle in
Yansas demanded all the strength of the advocates
of slavery extension. Quitman was obliged to forego
the promised command of an army for liberating
Cuba from the Spanish yoke. At the inauguration
of Pres. Buchanan he led the military procession,
and fondly hoped that the time had come for the
realization of his cherished plans. Again disappointed,
he died at Natchez, July 17, 1858.
QUO WARRANTO is the name of a writ by which
See Vol. XX the government commences an action to
Se 1sºp. “ſº recover an office or a franchise from the
Kºkº.). person or corporation illegally in pos-
session of it. Formerly, in England,
the king, by virtue of his prerogative, sent commis-
sions over the kingdom to inquire into all franchises
granted by the crown ; and if those in possession of
them could not show a charter, the franchises were
seized into the king's hands without any judicial pro-
ceeding. The statute of 6 Edw. I. prescribed the
action of quo warranto, in which the writ commands
the sheriff to summon the defendant to appear before
the court and show (quo warranto) by what authority
he claims the office or franchise. . It is a proceeding to
try the mere right to the franchise or office, where the
possessor never had a right to it, or has forfeited it by
neglect or abuse.
In the Ünited States the writ of guo warranto has
been superseded by what is called an information in
the nature of a quo warranto, in form a criminat
though in substance a civil proceeding. The person at
whose instance it is instituted is ealled the relator.
Proceedings referring to the usurpation of the fran-
chises of a municipal corporation must be begun by
the State through the attorney-general. In regard to
the election of a corporate officer, however, the writ
may issue at the suit of the attorney-general or of any
person interested. It has been held in various States
that quo warranto proceedings may be brought against
members of a city council, a county treasurer, a sheriff.
a governor or lieutenant-governor, a judge of probate,
a presidential elector (proceedings being taken in the
name of the United States), militia officers, etc. The
State is not bound to show anything, but the defend.
ant is bound to show a right to the office or franchise
in question. - g
There are two forms of judgment—against an officer
or individuals it is ouster; i. e., that he or they be put
out simply, for there is no franchise forfeited ; against
a corporation, by its corporate name, it is ouster and
seizure of the corporate franchise. This is done on
the principle that the franchise is a trust, of which the
tºrms of the charter are the conditions; consequently,
if any of the conditions be violated, it will work a for.
feiture of the charter. Moreover, the corporate
powers must be strictly construed, and exercised in
the, manner and form as well as by the agents pre-
Scribed in the charter. *-
Forfeitures may be brought about in two cases:
294 * RABBIT-RACINE.
1. In case of perversion—as where a corporation does
an act inconsistent with the nature and destructive of
the ends of the grant; the perversion, however, must
be such as to amount to an injury to the public, who
are interested in the franchise. 2. In case of usurpa-
tion, as where a corporation exercises a power which
it has no right to exercise ; there is in such case no
question as to injury to the public.
In England, corporations are the creations of the
crown, and on dissolution their franchises revert to
the crown ; they may, however, be granted anew to
the old corporators or to others. In the United States,
corporations are the creatures of the Legislature, and
on dissolution their franchises revert to the State. The
Legislature has the same powers with respect to fran-
chises as the English crown. (T. R.)
R.
RABBIT. The derivation of this name is by no
See vol. xx. ºº clear. The old Dutch robbe,
p. 192 (p. 199 the Walloon robette, and a local French
Am. Rep.) form rabette, names for the European
rabbit or the hare, are no doubt allied
to this word. As to whether there is any connection
between these names and the Portuguese rabão,
“short-tailed,’’ or the Spanish rabito, “a short tail,”
from rabo, “a tail,” there is much room to doubt ;
and the rapidly progressing science of strictly histori-
cal and documentary philology can alone settle the
questions.
It is well known that all the so-called rabbits native
to North America are in reality hares. (See HARE.)
The hares live and breed almost entirely in forms or
rude nests, rather than in burrows, like the true rab-
bits. Moreover, the young at birth have a well-de-
veloped coating of hair and can see ; while the true
rabbits are born blind and hairless. The only true
rabbit known in North America is the common do-
mesticated rabbit introduced from Europe. Thus far,
this animal has scarcely become naturalized in this
country. Yet in Australia and New Zealand it has
bred so rapidly in the wild state as to have become an
intolerable pest and nuisance. There are parts of this
country, like the Pacific States and the warmer parts
of the South, where the climatic conditions are such
as would seem favorable to the naturalization, on a
hurtful scale, of the common rabbit and reports
have been printed of places in the Gulf States in
which the animal is to be found in what might be
called a half-wild condition. It is to some extent
naturalized in tropical and South America. Among the
hares miscalled rabbits in our country attention may
be called to the so-called “jack-rabbits’’ or Jackass
rabbits of the Far West. The large and very long-
eared Texan hare (Lepus Tecanus) appears to have
been the first to receive this title. L. callotis of the
South-west, and L. artemisice and L. Californicus of
the Pacific slope, are about equally remarkable with
the Texan hare, in respect to development of the ears.
But at present the name is generally given to L. cam-
pestris, the prairie-hare. Qne of our rabbits, Leº's
Bairdi, from the Rocky Mountain region (probably
only a variant form of the prairie hare) is, according
to very respectable authority, distinguished, among
mammals as the only known species in which both
male and female regularly produce milk and suckle
their young. If this observation be correct, the
anomaly may possibly be due to the scantiness of local
vegetation, and the long duration of the summer
droughts, which might very naturally reduce the Se-
cretion of milk in the female to such an extent as to
call for a subsidiary supply from the male parent.
Many exceptional cases of male lactation, even in the
human species, have been reported ; and there is no
known reason why the male mammary gland, which in
its structural elements is identical with that of the
female, might not, under appropriate, conditions,
afford milk. (C. W. G.)
RABLES. See HYDROPHOBIA. . º e
RAGOOON. This familiar American animal is
2
well described in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,
Besides the true *g. hº there are º
, , in the South-western parts of the
sº **** United States and in Mexico two in:
Am. Rep.). teresting mammals, Bassaris astuta and
B. Summechrasti, to which recent au-
thors give the name raccoon fox. The structure and
other peculiarities of these creatures clearly mark
them off from every other family of carnivorous
mammals, and their true position has been much dis-
puted. At present they are by common consent
placed by themselves in a family, Bassarididae; and
they are generally assigned to a place among the Arc-
toidea or bear-like animals. Among their popular
names are coon-bear and civet. The ringed tail, ar-
boreal habit, and playful, sociable disposition in cap-
tivity all prove a relationship to the raccoons; and in
Some parts of the country the raccoon fox is consid-
ered as a true raccoon—which it very certainly is not.
The head and ears have a decidedly fox-like ap-
pearance. This little animal is easily tamed and
soon becomes a great favorite in the frontiersman's
cabin. The females are very much smaller than the
males, and the males are smaller than the true raccoons.
RACINE, a city of Wisconsin, the seat of Racine
co., is on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, 62
miles N. of Chicago and 23 miles S. of Milwaukee.
It is the second city of the State in population and
commerce. The Chicago and North-western and the
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroads as well as
steamers on the lake in summer afford freight and
travelling facilities. The city is on a plateau about
45 feet above the level of the lake, and is divided
into two sections by Root River, across which there
are five swing-bridges. It has a court-house, a hand-
some post-office building, a fine city-hall, 2 hospitals,
3 hotels, 3 national banks, 28 churches, 2 daily and 6
weekly newspapers. Besides the public schools,
which have 6 large buildings, there are excellent pri-
vate academies and the Church University of the
North-west, which is under Protestant Episcopal con-
trol. This institution was founded in 1852 and was
formerly known as Racine College. Taylor Orphan
Asylum has a fine building about two miles from the
heart of the city. The lumber trade of Racine is
very large. Its manufactures comprise agricultural
implements, pumps, wagons, cordage, furniture, fan-
ning-mills, boots and shoes, rubber clothing, refriger-
ators, baskets, hardware, and wire work. It häs also
flour-, woollen-, and flax-mills, boiler-works, linseed-oil-
works, etc. Racine was settled in 1834 by Gilbert
Knapp, chartered as a village in 1841, and incorporated
as a city in 1848. Its assessed valuation in 1886
was $8,287,400; its public debt $183,500 and its
yearly expenses about $150,000, The city is lighted
with gas and electric light, has street railways, two
parks and water-works and two artesian wells. It
§ twice suffered from large fires, in 1866 the loss
being $150,000, and in 1882 being $800,000. In 1883
a destructive cyclone passed over the northern part of
the city. There is a paid fire department, efficient
and well supplied with apparatus. The population
RADISH-RAILROADS.
295
was 16,031 in 1880, and by the State census of 1885
was 19,636.
RADISH, Raphanus sativus, a hardy annual origi-
nating in China, but now widely grown for its much-
esteemed salad root. The plant when in flower is
from three to four feet high, and bears large white or
urplish flowers, and long smooth seed-pods. In
śn Asia the radish grows at a height of 16,000
feet on the Himalayas. In Norway it is cultivated
beyond the latitude of 70°. All varieties succeed best
in a light, rich, sandy loam, aided by manure rich in
lime. The plant usually suffers in Summer heat and
drought, and when grown then the root is generally
fibrous and very pungent. It is sometimes sown in
beds of asparagus for the benefit of the shade and
moisture. The root of the radish varies in shape
from round or ovoid to a long tapering form. Its ex-
cellence consists in its succulent, crisp, and tender con-
dition, qualities which can only be attained by rapid
growth, so that the plant needs to be copiously watered
in dry weather. Like most of the cruciferous Salad
plants, radishes are pungent and antiscorbutic.
are apt to be indigestible from their excess of
woody tissue. The seeds of some varieties of the
plant yield an oil almost identical with rape and
colza oil. (C. M.)
RAFINESQUE, CONSTANTINE SCHMALTZ (1783–
1842), an eccentric naturalist, was born at Constanti-
nople, Oct. 22, 1783. His father was a French trader,
and his mother, though born in Greece, was of a Ger-
man family. In infancy he was taken to Marseilles
and afterwards to Leghorn. He early developed a
taste for natural science. In 1802 his father sent him
to Philadelphia where he was employed in a counting-
house, but his vacations were spent in rambling on
foot in Pennsylvania and Virginia. In 1805 he went
to Sicily to engage in business and for a time enjoyed
a monopoly of the trade in squills, which he had dis-
covered there. His labors in natural history
are attested by his Flora of Sicily (1810), Si-
cilia), Jchthyology (1810), and Sicilian Crabs
(1814). The English ornithologist, William Swain-
son, paid a visit to Rafinesque in Sicily. In 1815
the latter returned to the United States, but on his
voyage was shipwrecked near New London, Conn.
His collection, manuscripts and drawings, were lost.
He became a tutor in New York, but soon resumed
his wanderings. In 1818 he was made professor of
natural history and modern languages in Transylva-
nia University, Lexington, Ky., but soon quarrelled
with its authorities. He came in contact with Au-
dubon, the ornithologist, who did not disdain to im-
pose on the simplicity of the wanderer. Hence in
}. Icthyologia Ohioemis (1824) appear some strange
fish which have been a puzzle to later natur-
alists. Rafinesque's investigations were not con-
fined to fishes and birds. He studied in his way the
languages and customs of the Indians and projected
various inventions. In 1830 he went to Philadelphia,
and thenceforth published various magazines and his-
tories, a poem called The World : or Instability, and
a meagre autobiography called A Life of Travel and
Researches (1836). He died at Philadelphia, Sept. 18,
1842. Rafinesque rejected the Linnaean system in
botany and anticipated to some extent Darwin's
theory. Between him and the naturalists of his time
there was a strong repugnance, but Agassiz and a few of
his successors have admitted some merit in his work.
Many of his manuscripts are in the U. S. National
Museum, but others are lost, and his publications are
Tal'Q.
RAHIWAY, a city of New Jersey, in Union co., is
on the Rahway River, 4 miles from its mouth, and 19
miles S. W. of New York on the New York division
of the Pennsylvania Railroad. It has 2 national
banks, 2 savings banks, 18 churches, 2 weekly news-
papers, and manufactures of carriages, wheels, axles,
Springs, printing-presses, shoes, and clothing. It was
t
They
settled in 1720, and incorporated as a city in 1858. Its
population in 1880 was 6455.
RAILROADS IN THE º STATES.—The sub-
iect, int. e VéIO €I) rt1C-
sº yol. xx. iś
p. 223 (p. 230 º ication for the colonists .
Knºe.” nal cºmmunicatiºn for the colonists, was
one that received considerable attention
from the fathers of our country. The internal com-
merce of the United States, unlike that of any other
country, has become almost wholly the creation of
public works. The chief markets for its products,
whether for home consumption or for exportation,
are, and always have been, within a narrow strip of
territory skirting the seaboard from Baltimore north-
ward to Portland. The early settlements, from want
of even ordinary highways, were necessarily made
upon the navigable water-courses. When inland set-
tlements were made the lack of suitable avenues for
the transportation of their products to market was
felt to be a serious check to their prosperity and prog-
ress. The subject engaged the attention of Wash-
ington at an early period in his life. He crossed the
Allegheny range of mountains for the purpose of as-
certaining whether a canal could be constructed from
the navigable waters of the Chesapeake to the Ohio.
Before the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, as a
member of the House of Burgesses of Virginia, he
urged the consideration of this subject upon that body.
After the close of the war, and till his election as
President of the United States, he was unremitting in
his efforts to promote the construction of such works.
He was president of the company first formed in Vir-
ginia to execute it. He also visited the State of New
York, passed up the Mohawk to the summit from
which the waters flow into the Hudson River on the
one hand and into Lake Ontario on the other. At
this point the Allegheny range falls off into a vast
lain depressed 145 feet below the surface of Lake
ºrie, and 109 feet below the summit, which, near
Chicago, separates the waters flowing into Lake Mich-
igan from those flowing into the Mississippi. This
physical feature, in one sense so unimportant, has ex-
erted a paramount influence on the destinies, moral,
political, and material, of the continent. It gave to
the North the monopoly of its commerce, which
brought supremacy in wealth, and in the West it made
the lines of the Great Lakes the future seat of empire.
The first attempt to realize Washington's idea of
binding by commercial interests the East and West
was made, not in Virginia, but in the State of New
York. In 1792 two companies—the “Western '' and
the “Northern Inland Navigation (Sompany,” of that
State—were organized, the former undertaking the
work of constructing what was termed a “lock naviga-
tion" from the Hudson to Lake Ontario, and the lat-
ter a similar work from Albany to Lake Champlain.
The former constructed a canal which, being on a
very small scale, proved wholly inadequate to its ob-
ject, Was unremunerative, and was speedily aban-
doned. *
The next attempt of the kind grew out of the pain-
ful sense of the disasters suffered in the war of isle,
and in consequence of the difficulty in moving troops
and munitions of war from the seaboard to the seat of
hostilities in the line of the lakes and the St. Law-
rence. The people of New York, in whose territory
the war was chiefly waged, determined at its close to
construct, with the least possible delay, a canal ex-
tending from the Hudson River at Albany to Lake
Erie at Buffalo, . On April 15, 1817, the Legislature
passed an act, making provisions by means supplied by
itself for the construction of such a canal, and on Nov.
lº, 1825, the completion of the work was celebrated.
(See CLINTON, DEWITT.)
-N F rom the success which followed the opening of the
Erie. Canal, the States of Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Virginia, Ohio, and Illinois at once embarked on elab.
orate systems designed to give to almost every portion
º
296
BAILROADS.
of their respective territories the advantages of canal
Inavigation. n
Earliest Railroads.-The very year that the Erie Ca-
mal went into operation an event, hardly to be matched
for its importance, occurred—the successful application
on the Stockton and Darlington Railway of steam to pur.
poses of locomotion. The railroad first undertaken in
the United States was a short line of about three miles
fºr the transportation of granite to the Neponset
$iver, near Boston. This road was simply a copy of
the tramroads already in use in England. It was im-
bortant only as the pioneer of the great movement
that was then taking place. A similar work was con-
structed about the same time for the transportation of
coal from the pit's mouth to the Lehigh Valley Canal,
near Mauch Chunk. It was not until 1828, however,
that the construction of a railroad was undertaken for
the transportation of freight and passengers on any-
thing like a comprehensive scale. The construction of
the Erie Canal had cut off the trade which Philadelphia
had hitherto received from the West, and as the pro-
ject of a canal from Baltimore to the Ohio was regarded
by many as impracticable, the merchants of that city,
in 1827, procured the charter of the present Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad. On July 4, 1828, its construction
was begun, the first act being performed by the vener-
able Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, the only surviving
isigner of the Declaration of Independence. At the
close of the ceremony of breaking ground Mr. Carroll
Said : “I consider this among the most important acts
of my life, second only to that of signing the Declara-
tion of Independence, if even second to that.” In the
fall of 1829 the laying of the rails within the city of Bal-
timore was begun. On May 24, 1830, the first section
of 14 miles, to Ellicott's Mills, was opened. Like all
others constructed at the time, it was an unsubstantial
structure, with longitudinal sills, on which was placed
a thin bar or strap of iron. Although locomotive-en-
gines had obtained some use in England, this road
continued for nearly a year after its opening to be op-
erated by horse-power. An ingenious but unsuccessful
attempt was made to propel the trains by the use of
sails. As some more efficient power than that of horses
seemed indispensable, the company, on the 4th of Jan-
uary, 1831, invited proposals for the construction of a
steam-engine for its use, “which, when in operation,
must not exceed 33 tons in weight, and must, on a
level road, be capable of drawing 15 tons, inclusive
of the weight of the wagons, 15 miles an hour.” In
response three engines were offered to the company.
Only one was accepted as coming up to the required
specifications. Although this engine was incapable of
surmounting any considerable grades, it served to
assure the officers of the company of the practicability
of their working their railroad by steam-power. In
the annual report of the company for 1831 its presi-
dent, Philip E. Thomas, stated that “by many im-
provements made in the application of working power,
an immense reduction in the cost of transportation and
an increase in velocity had been effected.”
The first locomotive ever used in the United States
was one imported from England in 1829, called the
“Stourbridge Lion.” It weighed six tons. The en-
gine was imported for use on the Carbondale Railroad,
belonging to the Delaware and Hudson Canal Co.,
and extending from their canal to the mines. The
first experimental trip was made by it Aug. 8, 1829.
It was found too heavy for the track, and its use Con-
sequently had to be abandoned. The first locomotive
built in this country, and the second in use in it, was
called “The Best Friend of Charleston,” having been
built for use on the South Carolina Railroad, then in
process of construction. It arrived at Charleston Oct.
23, 1830, and was placed on the rºad Nov. 2, 1830.
The third, also constructed by the West Point Com-
pany, was placed on the Mohawk, and Hudson, now a
part of the New York Central Railroad, in 1831, and
weighed three tons. It was used on the summit be-
tween the two planes worked by the stationary en-
gines, that near Albany having a length of 3102 feet;
that near Schenectady 2046 feet.
As early as 1832 the use of locomotives may be said
to have been fairly established. From that time the
comparative excellence of the engines' improvements.
was the only subject for consideration. Constant and
rapid improvements were made in their construction.
The locomotives first constructed weighed only from
three to six tons, and were hardly capable of drawing
on a level road half of the weight of the improved
machine of the present day. No sooner was the
Superiority of the railroad over the ordinary highway
fully demonstrated, both in this country and in Eng-
land, than a great many schemes were immediately set
on foot.
Following the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the
next important line to be constructed was the South.
Carolina Railroad, extending from Charleston to Ham-
burg, opposite Augusta, Ga. This line was begun in
1830, and opened for traffic in 1833 for its whole
length-135 miles. At that time it was the longest
continuous line of railroad in the world. The con-
struction of the Mohawk and Hudson, now a part of
the New York Central, was begun in 1830. It was
opened (17 miles) in 1831. The Saratoga and Schenec–
tady Railroad (213 miles) was opened in the following
year; the Cayuga and Susquehanna (34 miles), con-
necting the Susquehanna River with Cayuga Lake,
was opened in 1834; and the Rensselaer and Saratoga.
25 miles) in 1835. In New Jersey that portion of
the Camden and Amboy extending from Bordentown
to Hightstown (14 miles) was opened Dec. 22, 1830,
and between Hightstown and South Amboy (47%
miles) in 1834. In Pennsylvania a considerable ex-
tent of line for the transportation of coal had been
constructed previous to 1835. In 1834 the Philadel-
phia and Columbia (82 miles) and the Portage Rail-
road (36 miles), the latter forming a part of the system
of public works undertaken by the State of Pennsylva-
nia, were opened. Their completion gave that State a
continuous line, made up of canal and railroad, from
Philadelphia to the Ohio River at Pittsburg. The
total mileage of railroad constructed in that State to
the end of 1835 was 318 miles, or nearly one-third o
the whole extent of the line then in use in the United
States. In 1833 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
was extended as far west as Harper's Ferry (81 miles).
In Massachusetts, in 1835, the Boston and Worcester
Railroad (44 miles), the Boston and Providence (41
miles), and the Boston and Lowell (26 miles) were all
opened for business. The total extent of mileage in
operation in all the States at the close of the year 1835.
was 1098 miles.
Only a moderate degree of success, either financial
or commercial, attended the railroads first constructed
in this country. They were rude and unsubstantial
structures, involving a heavy outlay for repairs, and
were very inadequate to the service even then required
of them. The superstructure of the lines first con-
structed was a longitudinal sill, the rail or strap of iron
laid upon it serving to prevent the abrasion of the
wood rather than support the train. The change from
wood to iron was a very gradual one. It was not until
1850 that the longitudinal sill and the flat rail were
entirely removed from the Utica and Schenectady, the
most important link in the New York Central line.
Many of the early roads were upon routes having little
traffic, and were consequently almost entirely unremu-
nerative. Nevertheless the construction of railways was
steadily persisted in. The total extent of mileage in
operation in all the States at the close of the year 1835
was 1098 miles.
From 1835 the construction of railroads proceeded
at the rate of about 400 miles annually until 1842,
when the first work of the kind built for the express
purpose of reaching and controlling the internal trade
of the country was opened—the line from Boston to
RAILROADS.
297
Albany, connecting at the latter place with the Erie
Canal. In the same year the last link in the line from
Albany to Buffalo was opened. Nothing, however,
was further from the minds of the parties opening this
line than a competition for the business of the canals.
The most important railroads opened between 1835
and 1842 were the Philadelphia and Reading, to the
coal-fields of Pennsylvania, opened in 1838; and the
New Jersey Railroad, forming, in connection with the
Camden and Amboy, a through line between New York
harbor and Philadelphia, opened in 1840. The Balti-
more and Ohio was opened to Cumberland, 179 miles,
in 1842. At the end of 1848 the total mileage of all
railroads in the country was 5996 miles, the average
annual rate of increase from the date of their intro-
duction being 316 miles.
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION.
First Period.—The history of American railroad con-
struction divides itself into four periods of activity,
with two additional periods of inactivity intervening.
The first period, from 1830 to 1848, may be termed
the experimental period. In the following state-
ment is shown the annual increase of railroad mileage
during these 19 years :
Y Miles in Increase of
€3.r. Operation. Mileage.
1830........................... 23 s • *
1831........................... 95 72
1832.................... ...... 229 134
1833.......................... e 380 151
1834.................. ......... 633 253
1835........................... 1,098 465
1836......... .................. 1,273 175
1837........................... 1,497 224
1838........................... 1,913 416
1839........................... 2,302 389
1840 .......................... 2,818 516
1841........................ ... 3,535 717
1842. 4,026 491
1843........................... 4,185 159
1844......................... .. 4,377 192
1845............................ 4,633 256
1846........................... 4,930 297
1847..... ..................... 5,598 668
1848........................... 5,996 398
Of the total mileage completed in 1848, 1225 miles
were in New England, 2350 in the Middle States, 419
in the Western States, and 1415 in the Southern
States. Pennsylvania led the States with 1048 miles,
New York following with S69 miles, and Massachu
setts coming third with 790 miles.
During this experimental period the progress of rail-
roads was slow and unpromising. Their construction,
maintenance, and improvement had absorbed all the
floating capital of the country. Converting vast amounts
of mobilized funds into fixed capital, it helped to pre-
pare the way for those terrible financial hurricanes
which swept over the country in 1837 and 1847. Small
as was the progress made it imposed too heavy a bur-
den on the financial machinery of the nation; for so
rudimentary was the industry of the country, and so
slow its rates of increase, that the best located lines,
instead of creating as they now do an annual traffic
much exceeding their cost, were a heavy charge upon
their promoters and stockholders.
The discovery in 1848, immediately after its annex-
ation to the United States, of deposits of gold of mar-
Vellous richness in California created an excitement
hardly less universal and intense than that which
followed their first discovery in the New World. The
effect upon the industries and commerce of the country
of the sudden addition of more than $50,000,000
annually to its circulating medium was prodigious. A
new field was opened which absorbed no inconsiderable
portion of the |. of the country at most remuner-
§§lve rates. All sections were proportionately benefited.
"or the newly created enterprise of the nation the
VOL. IV.-T.
railroad offered the most attractive and appropriate
field. Foreigners shared fully with ourselves in the
enthusiasm which prevailed and proffered almost un-
limited sums for the prosecution of our public works.
Second Period.—From the discovery of gold in
California in 1848 dates the second period in the
history of railroad construction. Then began the great
movement, which has since suffered, no considerable
check, and which has resulted in building up, in the
New World, in the incredibly short period of 40 years,
the most powerful, wealthy, and progressive nation in
the universe.
The following statement exhibits the progress made
annually in railroad construction in the whole country
from 1849 to 1860 :
Y Miles in Increase of
€31F. Operation. Mileage.
1849........................... 7,365 1,369
1850......... ..... ........... 9,021 1,656
1851........................... 10,982 1,961
1852,..... ..................... 12,908 1,926
1853........................... 15,360 2,452
1854............ ... ............ 16,720 1,360
1855........, 18,374 1,654
1856............ .............. 22,016 3,642
1857 24,503 2,487
1858........................... 26,968 2,465
1859........................... 28,789 1,821
1860........................... 30,635 1,846
On the first day of January, 1849, a continuous line
of railroad was first formed between Boston and New
York by the completion of the New York and New
Haven Railroad. In the spring of 1851 the Erie
Railroad was completed from the harbor of New York
to Lake Erie—an event of first-rate importance in the
commerce of the country. In the same year a con-
tinuous line of railway was opened between Boston
and the St. Lawrence, by the completion of the Ver-
mont Central and Vermont and Canada Railroad—the
line from Ogdensburg to Lake Champlain having been
opened in 1850. In the fall of 1851 the Hudson River
Railroad was completed, giving to the city of New
York a second line of railway to the great lakes ; but
some ten years after the city of Boston had secured
such a connection.
In 1852 another important extension of the rail-
way system of the country was made by the completion
of the Michigan Central and Michigan Southern Rail-
roads, from Lake Erie to Chicago. The lake served as
a connecting link till 1853, when, by the opening of
the Cleveland and Toledo Railroad, a continuous line
of 1000 miles of railway was formed between New
York and Boston and Chicago.
The preceding sketch has traced the progress
westward of the great trunk lines based upon Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Some prog-
ress had been made, however, in the Valley of the
Ohio, before either of these lines had reached that
river or Lake Erie.
The first, line of railroad undertaken in the great
interior basin of the country was the Mad River and
Lake Erie of Ohio, now a part of the Cincinnati, San-
dusky, and Cleveland Railway. Its construction from
Sandusky to Dayton, 154 miles, was begun in 1835, a
portion of it being opened in 1838. In connection
with the Little Miami, which was opened from Cin-
cinnati to Springfield in 1846, it formed, in 1848, a
part of the first through line opened from Lake Erie
to the Ohio. A second line between the lakes and
river was formed by the Little Miami and the Cleve-
land, Columbus, and Cincinnati, which was completed
between Cleveland and Columbus, 135 miles, in 1851.
The Cleveland and Pittsburg, forming the third line,
Was opened in 1852. These roads opened up the
greater part of the State of Ohio to transportation by
railroads, and supplemented the trunk lines westward,
so soon as the intermediate links could be put in. This
Was accomplished by the completion of the line of rail-
29S
RAILROADS.
road from Buffalo to Toledo, the last link of which,
between Cleveland and Toledo, was opened in 1853.
Of the lines running east and west through that State
the first to be constructed was the Central Ohio, which
was opened from Wheeling to Columbus, 137 miles, in
is34. The Marietta and Cinémati Railroad was
begun in the spring of 1851, and six years later was
completed from Marietta, on the Ohio River, to Love-
land, 173 miles ; entrance into Cincinnati, 6 miles be-
yond Loveland, being made over the tracks of the
Little Miami Railroad. In 1857, the same year that
the Marietta and Cincinnati was completed, the Balti-
more and Ohio reached the Ohio River at Parkers-
burg by the construction of its Parkersburg branch,
and two years later a branch of the Marietta and Cin-
cinnati was built to meet the latter line, thus forming
a through line from Baltimore and Washington to
Cincinnati. In 1858 the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and
Chicago Railroad Company opened its important line
from Pittsburg to Chicago, a distance of 468 miles,
completing the second great trunk line from New York
to Chicago.
As in Ohio there were no railroads of importance
constructed in the other Western States of the Union
previous to 1849. In Indiana the Madison and Indian-
apolis (now a part of the Jeffersonville, Madison, and
Indianapolis), one of the roads first constructed in the
West, was opened in 1847. This line was originally
begun by the State and 26 miles opened in 1841. It
was transferred to a private corporation in 1843 and
completed between Madison and Indianapolis in 1847.
The first line running east and west through the State,
made up of the Indiana Central and the Indianapolis
and Terre Haute, was opened in 1853. The next line,
having a similar direction, was the Ohio and Mississippi,
opened in 1857. The New Albany and Salem, now
the Louisville, New Albany, and Chicago, the first line
connecting Lake Michigan and the Ohio, and lying
wholly in Indiana, was opened in 1854.
In Illinois the first line undertaken was the Sanga-
mon and Morgan, a portion of which was opened as a
State work in 1839. This road now forms a part of
the Wabash line. The second line opened in Illinois
was the Galena and Chicago Union, which was com-
menced in 1849, and opened for a distance of 10 miles
in June, 1850. The railway first opened in this State
from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River was the
Chicago and Rock Island, in February, 1854. This
connection marked a very important extension of the
railway system of the country. The second line to the
Mississippi, made up of the Galena and Chicago and
the Illinois Central, was opened early in 1855. The
Chicago and Alton was opened in 1855; the Chicago,
Burlington, and Quincy to the Mississippi River in
1856; the Milwaukee and St. Paul in 1858; and the
Western Union in 1862. Both of the latter now form
Pºrt of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul system.
The Chicago branch of the Illinois Central was opened
from Chicago to Cairo in 1856. At this time the
Illinois Central, with its 700 miles of road, was con-
sidered the most stupendous undertaking in the world.
The next important extension westward was the
Hannibal and St. Joseph, which carried the railway
system to the Missouri River in 1859.
Of the lines constructed through Central and
Southern Illinois the Terre Haute and Alton was
opened in 1854 and the Ohio and Mississippi in 1857.
From St. Louis, westward, the Pacific Railroad of
Missouri, the beginning of the present Missouri Pacific
system, was completed to Sedalia, 189 miles, in 1861–
before the outbreak of the war.
The railroads whose progress has been here sketched
formed at this date, geographically and commercially,
one system, of which the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road and its connecting lines may be said to constitute
the southern boundary or member. South of Baltimore
there was no important commercial city upon the At:
lantic coast, and the trade of all the interior north of
a line coincident with the lower Ohio naturally sought
eastern outlets through the railways that had been
opened. In consequence, the railroad development of
the Southern States during the earlier periods was slow
and of local importance only.
Several railroads were constructed at an early day
in Virginia, the more important of which were those
now forming the line traversing the State from North
to South, and made up of the Richmond, Fredericks-
burg, and Potomac, completed from Richmond to
Fredericksburg in 1837, and to the Potomac in 1841;
the Richmond and Petersburg, opened in 1838; an
the Petersburg and Roanoke, in 1843. But the great
line of Virginia, prior to the civil war, was the railway
traversing the State diagonally from Alexandria to the
boundary line of Tennessee, 382 miles, made up of the
Orange and Alexandria and the Virginia and Ten-
nessee Railroads. The former of these roads was
opened in 1859 and the latter in 1856. At the boun-
dary it connected with East Tennessee and Virginia,
extending to Knoxville, Tenn., which was opened in
1858. From Knoxville this line was extended to Dal-
ton, on the line of the Western and Atlantic Railroad,
by the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad, opened
in 1856.
From Weldon the Virginia system was extended to
Wilmington, N. C., by the opening of the Wilming-
ton and Weldon Railroad in 1840. It was not till
1853 that a connection was formed with the system
of South Carolina by the opening of the Wilmington
and Manchester Railroad. The South Carolina Rail-
road, as before remarked, was opened to Augusta
Ga., in 1833. From Augusta the Georgia Railroa
was opened to Atlanta in 1839. The Central Railroad
of that State was opened from Savannah to Macon in
1840. From Atlanta the railway systems of South
Carolina and Georgia were extended to the Tennessee
River at Chattanooga, Tenn., by the completion of the
Western and Atlantic Railroad of Georgia, a State
work, in 1850. From Atlanta a line of railway was
opened to Montgomery, Ala., in 1853, and from Mont-
gomery to Mobile, in the same State, in 1862.
From Chattanooga to Nashville the Nashville and
Chattanooga was opened in 1854, and the Memphis
and Charleston in 1857. The Mobile and Ohio Rail-
road was opened to Columbus, on the Mississippi
River, near the mouth of the Ohio River, in 1859.
The line from New Orleans, made up of the New
Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern, and the Mis-
sissippi Central, was opened to a connection with the
Mobile and Ohio, at Jackson, Tenn., the same year.
The Louisville and Nashville was opened to a connec-
tion with the roads last named in 1861, and with Nash-
ville in 1859. - -
In the first period of 19 years there had been con-
structed in the United States, as already shown, 5996
miles of railroad, only 419 miles of which were in the
Western States. In the second period, covering the
12 years from 1849 to 1860, there were added 24,639
miles of new railroad, making the total at the end of
the latter year 30,635 miles, the increase over 184S ex-
ceeding 400 per cent., and averaging annually over
2000 miles, as against an average of 316 in the experi-
mental period.
The third period of the history of railroad construº
tion was the first period of inactivity during the civil
war. From 1861 to 1864 railroad construction was vir-
tually suspended, the total additions during that time
being only 3.273 miles, of which 133 miles were in New
England, 1235 in the Middle States, 1433 in the West-
ern States, 143 in the Pacific States, and 329 in the
Southern States.
Fourth Period.—The next period is that from 1865
(the close of the war) to the panic of 1873. In it the
railroad mileage of the country expanded more than
100 per cent., increasing from 33,90S. miles at the close
of 1864 to 70,268 miles in 1873. This period covers
what may be termed the Pacific Railroad era of the
299
RAILROADS.
United States. The railroads undertaken with the
aid given by Congress were the most important of the
period, or, more properly, the most important enter-
prises of the kind in the country's history. It was due
to their undertaking that such an unprecedented stim-
ulus was given to railroad construction ; and the panic
of 1873 resulted from the same cause as much as from
any other special incident.
THE PACIFIC RAILROADS.
The project of a railroad to the Pacific Coast was first
brought to the attention of Congress by Asa Whitney,
of New York, in 1846 (antedating by two years the dis-
covery of gold in California), in a memorial asking gov-
ernment aid for the building of a railroad from Lake
Michigan to Portland, Oregon. It is a remarkable fact
that this proposed route was substantially that followed
by Lewis and Clarke's expedition to the Pacific, which
was dispatched overland by Pres. Jefferson to examine
and report upon the newly acquired Northwest Terri:
tory, shortly after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, and
that which was later practically adopted by the incor-
$27,236,512 to the Union, and $27,855,680 to the Cen-
trai'Pacific. In consideration of these grants the two
companies were to complete their roads by July 1,
išić, to transport troops, munitions of War, etc., for
the tinited States at rates as favorable as those charged
to individuals; to allow the use of its telegraph, OY]
similar terms; to pay into the treasury ºf the United
States 5 per cent of the net earnings of their respec-
tive roads, and allow the government to retain the
whole of the charges for transportation on its account
the two sums so provided to be applied to the pay-
ment of the principal and interest as it accrued of the
government bonds. At the maturity of these bonds
the companies were to pay them, with such balance .
of interest as might then be due.
The act of 1862 did not secure its objects. The
Union Pacific Company was organized as provided, but
no one was to be found, as matters stood, to venture
money in the construction of this road. Upon such
representation, Congress, on July 2, 1864, amended
the act of 1862, by making provisions more favorable
to the companies, the chief of these being preference,
orators of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company. by way of security, to an amount of bonds to be issued
Whitney's proposition to Congress was for aid in the
- >
form of a grant of land on both sides of the proposed
road. He asked no subsidy or pecuniary guarantees
of any kind, relying upon his ability to dispose of the
land to provide the means necessary for the successful
prosecution of the work. His proposition was dis-
cussed in committee and in Congress, but his persistent
efforts met with no reward beyond these respectful
considerations.
Renewed interest was given to the scheme by the gold
discoveries, yet all efforts to further the project were
unavailing owing to the widespread prejudices of that
time against granting his petition. For 2000 miles
this proposed route lay through the public domain.
According to a prevailing construction of the Constitu-
tion the nation was incapable of aiding such works or
of even granting charters for their construction. Con-
gress, however, yielded to the popular demands so far
as to appoint commissions to survey other routes for
national highways to the Pacific. The project continued
to be a prominent subject of discussion until by 1860
public interest had been so thoroughly enlisted in it
that both political parties at their national conventions
in that year adopted resolutions in favor of granting
government aid to an enterprise of this character. But
the events immediately following the election of 1860
forbade the consideration at that time of any enter-
prise involving so large an outlay of money. The out-
break of the rebellion established emphatically the
positive need of such a road as a war measure if for
no other purpose. The Pacific Slope was loyal and
the North, then in control of the government, deter-
mined to render that loyalty a matter of interest as
well as sentiment.
On July 1, 1862, Congress passed an act chartering |
the Union Pacific Railroad Company, with authority
to construct and operate a railroad and telegraph line
from the Missouri River in the direction of San Fran-
ºise), or to a junction with the railroad of the Central
Pacific of California, a company already chartered and
organized under the laws of that State, and authorized
by the same act to construct a railroad through the
Territories of the United States, so as to form, in con-
nection with the Union Pacific, a continuous line from
the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. The route
thus selected was one of those which had been sur-
Veyed by direction of Congress. The act provided for
grants to both companies of right of way 200 feet wide,
"Yep, the public domain ; of alternate sections of land
Within 20 miles of the lines of the two roads; and of
the bonds of the United States bearing interest at the
rate of 6 per cent., payable in 30 years, and secured by
a first mortgage on the roads, the bonds to be issued in
ratio, to the cost of construction of the several portions
of the two lines;
constructed annually by each company,
mileage for each year:
|
ſ
* yºs -
the amount finally issued being by the Land Department at Washington, equalled
by both companies equal to those to be issued to them
by the United States, and providing that the govern-
ment should pay over to them one-half of the charges
for services on its account. Under such provisions the
two companies entered energetically upon the work of
construction, and united their lines \lay 10, 1869, an-
ticipating by more than seven years the time required
by Congress therefor; the Union Pacific constructing
1034, and the Central Pacific, beginning at Sacramento,
7.43 miles.
The following statement shows the number of miles
and the total
By Union By Central Total
Years. Pacific. Pacific. constructed.
1865........ e 40 56 96
1866......... 265 3S 303
1867......... 245 44 289
1868......... 350 36.2 712
1869......... 134 243 377
Totals... 1,034 7.43 1,777
The road of the Central Pacific was subsequently
extended from Sacramento to San Francisco, a distance
of 140 miles; the total length of line from the Mis-
souri River to that city being 1917 miles; and from the
º, º s
33:22
harbor of New York, miles. Its general direction
is almost exactly east and west, very nearly upon the par-
allel of 40°, or that of New York, Chicago, Salt Lake
º ~ r *
City, and San Francisco.
A connection with the eastern system of railroads
had been provided in 1866 by the completion in that
year of the second line of railroad between the Missis-
sippi and Missouri Rivers, made up of the Chicago,
Iowa, and Nebraska, and the Cedar Rapids and Missouri
River Railroad, which completed the connection be-
tween Clinton, Iowa (the western terminus of the
Galena and Chicago Union), and Council Bluffs, Iowa,
opposite Omaha (the initial point in the Union Pa-
cific line). -
The Northern Pacific Railroad Company, whose line
follows what is known as the Northern or 47th parallel
route, was the second company chartered by Congress
to build a transcontinental railroad. The charter was
granted July 2, IS64, and the company was authorized
to construct a railroad from Lake Superior to Puget
Sound, a distance of about 1800 miles, with a branch
from Puget Sound to the Oregon River. A distance of
about 200 miles.
By the act of incorporation the com-
i. was to receive the odd sections of government
ands lying within forty miles of each side of the line
of its road. With deductions for previous sales, water,
Indian reservations, te., etc., the grant, as estimated
RAILROADS.
TABLE I.—Miles of Railroads in the
United States.

1835. 1840. 1845. 1850. 1855. 1860. 1865. 1870. 1875. 1880. 1885. 1886. 1887.
New England:
Maine.................l.......... 11 62 245 415 472 521 786 980 | 1,005 | 1,136|| 1,150 1,160
New Hampshire............ 53 92 467 657 661 667 736 934 1,015 | 1,044 1,050 1,085
Vermont.............l.......... e & tº ſº s 2 & s is I tº a n e is e º is º e 29() 529 554 587 614 810 914 947 947 940
Massachusetts..... 113 301 567 | 1,035 | 1,264 1,264 1,297 | 1,480 1,817 | 1,915 1,998 2,018 2,066
Rhode Island...... .......... 50 5() 68 108 108 125 136 179 210 210 210 214
Connecticut........l.......... 102 202 402 496 601 637 742 918 923 976 97.6 993
Group I., Total...... 113 517 973 2,507 || 3,469 3,660 3,834 || 4,494 5,638 5,977 6,310 6,350; 6,459
Middle Atlantic :
New York.......... 104 374 721 1,361 2,583 2,682 3,002 || 3,928 5,423 5,991 7,385| 7,481| 7,503
New Jersey......... 99 186 186 206 466 560 864 1,125 | 1,511 | 1,684 1,921. 1,957. 1,954
Pennsylvania...... 318 754 798 || 1,240 | 1,800 2,598 || 3,728 4,656 5,705 || 6,191 7,667| 7,872 8,019
Delaware............ 16 39 39 39 56 127 134 197 272 275 316 334 304
Maryland & D. C. 117 213 259 259 327 386 446 671 929 | 1,040 | 1,211| 1,247; 1,189
Group II., Total..... 654 1,566 2,003 || 3,105 || 5,232 6,353 | 8,174 |10,577 |13,840 |15,181 | 18,500 18,891. 18,969
North Central -
Ohio..................l.......... 30 84 575 | 1,486 || 2,946 3,331 || 3,538 4,461 || 5,792 || 7,338|| 7,456, 7,546
Michigan...................... 59 238 342 474 779 941 | 1,638 3,346 3,938 5,269| 5,636 6,462
Indiana........................l........... 30 228 1,406 || 2,163 || 2,217 | 3,177 3,963 || 4,373 || 5,600 5,711| 5,834
Illinois...............l..........l.......... 22 111 887 2,790 3,157 4,823 7,109 || 7,851 8,905, 9,276 9,601
Wisconsin...........l..........l...........l.......... 20 187 905 | 1,010 | 1,525 2,566 || 3,155 4,418, 4,869| 5,283
Group III., Total...|.......... 89 374 | 1,276 4,440 || 9,583 |10,656 |14,701 |21,445 |25,109 || 31,530 32,948] 34,726
Sowth Atlantic : --
Virginia............. 93 147 223 384 912 1,379 | 1,401 | 1,486 | 1,608 || 1,893 2,693 2,730 2,778
West Virginia..................... & © e º º 97 97 241 352 365 387 615 691 | 1,039| 1,147| 1,230
North Carolina...l.......... 53 87 283 582 937 984 1,178 1,356 | 1,486 || 2,028, 2,202, 2,318
South Carolina....| 137 137 204 289 7.59 973 | 1,007 | 1,139 1,335 | 1,427 | 1,687. 1,814 1,884
Georgia........................ 185 516 643 | 1,020 | 1,420 | 1,420 | 1,845 2,264 2,459 3,116 3,390| 3,490
Florida..............l..........l.... • * e º & # * | * * * * * * * * * * 21 21 402 416 446 484 518 1,603| 1,918 2,178
Group IV., Total.... 230 522 | 1,127 | 1,717 | 3,535 | 5,463 5,593 6,481 7,662 | 8,474 12,166 13,201| 13,878
Sowth Central : pºp
Kentucky........... 15 28 28 78 242 534 567 | 1,017 | 1,326 1,530 2,010, 2,117| 2,275
Tennessee............l........ .l.....................l.......... 466 | 1,253 | 1,296 | 1,492 | 1,630 | 1,843 2,158 2, 199| 2,463
Alabama............. 46 46 46 183 334 7.43 805 | 1,157 | 1,800 | 1,843 2,226 2,280 2,713
Mississippi....................]. ........ 42 75 278 862 898 990 | 1,018 1,127 | 1,920, 2,111| 2,133
Louisiana........... 40 40 40 80 203 335 335 450 466 652 | 1,370. 1,381| 2,249
Group V., Total...... 101 114 156 416 1,523 3,727 3,901 || 5,106 || 6,240 6,995 || 9,684 10,089 10,833
Sowth- Westerm : * &
Missouri.............]..........l..........l..........l.......... 139 817 925 | 2,000 || 2,905 3,965 4,969 5,068| 5,463
Arkansas. ..........l..........l...........l..........l..........]. “ 38 38 256 740 859 2,146| 2,196 2,375
Texas.................l..........l...........l..........'.......... 40 307 465 711 1,685 3,244 || 6,687| 7,295; 7,889
Kansas • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , s , , , , , s e < | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * tº a tº e º 'º e º & 40 | 1,501 || 2,150 || 3,400 || 4,441| 6,119 8,115
Colorado.......................l...........]..........l..........]. ......... [...........]. “ 157 807 | 1,570 2,884] 2,944 3,911
New Mexico........l..........l.....................l........ . . . . . . . . . . . . [...........]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .” ‘’’ ‘’’’ 758 1,195| 1,233| 1,234
Indian Territory.................................|.................... [...........]-...------|- “. 275 289 353 432 880
Group VI., Total....|.................... [.......... [.......... 179 1,162 1,468 || 4,625 | 8,562 |14,085 22,675 25,287| 29,867
North-Westerm ;
º s a s a e º e s e e s = e º e s a s : s a • e º s e e s e i < * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * 68 655 891 2,683 3,850 || 5,400 7,504 7,935, 8,323
Minnesota..........................................l..........l..........]. ........ 213 | 1,092 | 1,990 || 3,151 || 4,331, 4,823 5,065
Nebraska...........l..........l..........l.......... [..........l..... ----|.......... 122 705 1,167 1,953 2,988 3,616 4,892
Dakota...............l..........l...........l.......... [..........l..........l.......... . ..... “ 65 275 | 1,225 | 2,877 8; *;
W ing.............] ....................l.......... .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . ......'... ... “ 459 459 512 617
\!. s e s = e a s , , , | . , s , , s a e s , , , e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e s ] a s e º e º 'º e < * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * e., u = • , s \ , a s e s , e. e. e s ] e s = e º 'º e º e º e s º e e º & " " - 106 | 1,047| 1,062 1,684
Group VII., Total...] .............................|.......... 68 655 | 1,226 5,004 || 7,741 |12,347 | 19,364. 21,912 25,165
P&cific :
&mi, • * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * 8 23 214 925 | 1,503 || 2,195 || 3,044 3,297 3,726
Oregon ..............|..........................................|- “.......... 19 159 248 508 || 1,181| 1,219 1,274
Washington Terr................................ [..........]......... •]. .........|----------|---. 593 º }: § ; lº
Nevada..............l...........l...........l.......... [..........]. “l-...------|- “. 9: * {) 94
A. • a se e s a s a e s e s a se e s e o e s a a |s • * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * | * s & e e º e s e e : * ~ e s s p s e o e ] e º e º e o e º e s e s e º e s a s e º | * * * * * * * * * * 349 906 989| 1,060
Utah..................l..........!..........]..........l..........l..........]. “l. “ 257 506 842 1,139| 1,139| 1,149
Idaho ............... • | < e < e e e o e < e ] , , , a se e s e < * | * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * º e e ] e : ee e e º e s a e e º e e º ºs e e e i is º gº e º e º e º e i e s s a tº º * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 206 798 811 845
Group VIII., Total...............................].......... 8 23 233 | 1,934 2,968 5,128 8,758, 9,307| 10,015
United States,Total. 1,098 || 2,818 4,633 9,021 18,454 |30,626 35,085 |52,922 74,096 98,296 |128,987 137,986 146,912
L - - - - - - - - -------


RAFLROADS.
301
47,000,000 acres, or 73,000 square miles—an area
larger than the States of Ohio and Indiana, and equal
to a belt of land 40 miles wide and 1850 miles long.
The grant was conditioned upon the construction of the
road within a period of 15 years, or by the 4th of July,
1879. Lands, however, in the ratio of the whole grant
to the mileage, were to be certified to the company as
fast as the construction progressed—that is, upon the
completion of sections of 20 miles each.
By act of Congress, approved July 27, 1866, the At-
lantic and Pacific Railroad Company was chartered to
construct a railroad on the 35th parallel route from
Springfield, Mo., to the Pacific Ocean, about 2000
miles, across the Indian Territory, Texas, New Mexico,
Arizona, and California, as a main line, and from Van
Buren, Ark., to the point where the main line strikes
the Canadian River in the Indian Territory as a branch
line. To this company Congress granted lands to the
extent of 12,800 acres per mile of road in the States
and 25,600 acres per mile of road in the Territories.
The land grant to this road called for 42,000,000 acres,
or about 70,000 square miles.
The next Pacific railroad chartered by Congress was
the Texas Pacific Railroad Company, which was incor-
orated by act of March 3, 1871, and authorized to
uild from Marshall, Texas, to El Paso, thence through
New Mexico and Arizona to a point on the Rio Colo-
rado, at or near the south-western boundary of Cali-
fornia, and thence to San Diego. This was the most
southerly route of all lines chartered, and is known as
the 32d parallel route. Its land grant was of the same
proportion per mile as that of the Atlantic and Pa-
cific—12,800 acres in the States and 25,600 acres in the
Territories.
Upon none of these roads was any considerable prog-
ress made in building in the period now under consid-
eration—that is, from the close of the war until the
panic of 1873. A vigorous effort was made toward the
extension and completion of the Northern Pacific, and
in three and one-half years from the beginning of
work, July, 1870, to the date of default on its inter-
est payments, Jan. 1, 1874, there had been completed
and opened for business 424 miles of road on the east-
ern end—from a point 23 miles west of Duluth westward
to the Missouri River in Dakota—and on the western
end 6.5 miles from Kalama to Tenino. The Atlantic
and Pacific Railroad was able to complete only 125
miles of its line—from Springfield west—before the
suspension of work, while on the Texas Pacific work
had been only just begun.
In New England during this period railroad mileage
increased nearly 2500 miles ; in the Middle States the
increase was 6070 miles, about 75 per cent. ; in the
South it increased 4000 miles (44 per cent.), and in the
Pacific States the increase was from 166 miles to 2193
miles. But the great increase of this period was in
the Western and South-western States, as is shown in
the following statement :
1S 3. 1864. 1873. 1S64
Ohio .......... 4,258 3,311 Wyoming..... 459 ......
Michigan.... 3,253 S9S Utah............ 372 ......
Indiana...... 3,714 2,195 Dakota......... 275 ......
Illinois ...... (3,589 3,156 Colorado...... 603 ..... §
Wisconsin...2,360 1,010 Indian Ter... 275 ..... t
Minnesota... 1,950 157 Arkansas...... 700 3S
Iowa........... 3,728 805 Texas...........1,578 451
§. * * * * * * * 2,100 40
ebraska..... 1,107 tº gº - tº in ſº tº ſº
Missouri...... 2.85s 925 Total.....36,189 12,986
At the close of 1873 the total capital investment in
all the railroads of the United States was $3,784,543,-
034, represented by share capital to the amount of
$1,947,638.584, and bonded debts to the amount of
$1,836,904,450. This vast aggregate represented also
the cost of the 70,651 miles of railroad then in opera-
tion, the average cost per mile for the
Country at that time equalling $60,057. In New
whole
England the average cost was $47,850 per mile ; in
the Middle States, $67,737 per mile ; in the
Western States, $52,125 per mile ; , in the
Southern States, $36,994 per mile, and in the Pacific
States, $95,590 per mile. The maximum cost per
mile was in New Jersey, where it averaged $115,829;
the minimum was in Florida, where the average Was
only $18,445 per mile.
Table II shows by groups of States, for 1873, the
number of inhabitants to one mile of railrºad; the
number of square miles of territory to one mile of rail-
road ; the amount of gross earnings of railroad per in-
habitant and per mile of road ; the percentage 9f gross
earnings to cost; the percentage of net earnings, tº
cost; and the percentage of dividend payments to capital
stock.
The increase of mileage from 1871 to 1873 had been
21,623 miles, and the increase of the cost of the roads
$1,119,915,389. One cause for the excessive mileage
built within a few years was the extraordinary effort
to complete roads, in order to save from lapsing the
vast grants made by Congress, on condition that the
roads should be built within a certain time. But the
increase was far beyond the possibility of speedy re-
turns for the capital invested. That much land could
be found unoccupied near the line of a railroad im:
plied a sparse population, and although prairie sºil
could quickly be brought into cultivation, it would be
long before there could be sufficient traffic to pay the
interest on other cost of the roads. Excessive compe-
tition and speculation in railroad building and railroad
bonds and stocks ensued until, in September, 1873, the
great financial storm which has since passed into his-
tory as the “panic of 1873,” burst upon the country.
On the 20th of that month the New York Stock
Exchange was closed by order of the Executive
Committee, so great was the excitement, and was not
opened again until the end of November. During the
period of excessive speculation through which the
country had passed, schemes of the most impossible or
improbable kind had been freely floated, and it ap-
peared as though the majority of people had virtually
parted with all discretion.
Fifth Period.—After this fitful fever had culminated
in the panic, the building of railroads fell off for two
years, but in 1876 there was an evident recovery of
tone. The second period of depression may be con-
sidered as lasting from 1873 to 1 S79. In 1873 the to-
tal mileage of lines constructed in the United States
was 4097 miles. In the next year the total was only
2117 miles ; in 1875 it fell off to 1711 miles ; in 1876
there were built 2712 miles ; in 1877, 2280, and in
1878, 26.29 miles, the total during these five years
being 11,449 miles, an average of only 2290 miles.
Sieth Period.—During 1879 matters began to im-
prove throughout the country, and this feeling soon
ecame reflected through the railroads. In that year
construction increased nearly 100 per cent. over the
preceding year.
The following statement shows the total mileage of
railroads in operation at the close of each year from
1874 to 18S7, with the annual increase in mileage:
Year. Miles Increase. Year. . Miles Increase.
operated. operated.
1874...... 72,385 2,117 18S1...... 103,145 9,796
1875....., 74,096 1,711 1882...... 114,713 11,568
1876...... 76,SOS 2,712 1883 ..... 121,454 6,741
1S77..... , 79,0SS 2,280 1884..... 125,379 3,S25
187 S...... S1,717 2,629 1SS5...... 128,987 3,60S
1879...... 86,463 4,746 1SS6 ...... 137,986 9,000
1SS0...... 93,349 6,876 1887...... 149,913 11,927
During these 14 years there were built 79,645 miles
of new railroad, an increase of over 112 per cent. that
is, in the last fourteen years we built 9400 miles of rail-
road more than we built in the preceding 44 years.
The first five of these fourteen years comprised what
we have termed the second period of depression ; tho
302
RAILROADS.
TABLE II.-Ratios of Railroads and Railroad Earnings in 1873.
New & - - Total
Middle | Western Southern | Pacific -
England S+at oc, * S+o Hoc, ! # n + r. c. United
States. States. States. States. States. States.
No. of inhabitants to one mile of railroad............ 685 772 406 735 3.89 583
No. Square miles of territory to one mile of railroad. 12.9 9.9 30.7 51.4 209.0 35.
Gross earnings of railroad per inhabitant............. $14.50 $18.00 $14.49 $ 4.76 $23.68 $12.80
Gross earnings per mile of railroad...................... $9,687.00 ($12,417.00 $6,421.00 $3,687.00 $9,477.00 $7,947.00
Percentage of gross earnings to cost of railroad..... 19.7 22.5 11.8 10.7 9.9 13.1
Percentage of met earnings to cost of railroad........ 3.35 3.59 3.42 3.38 5.80 3.49
Percentage of dividend payments to capital stock. 6.36 5.60 2.25 0.40 2.00 3.45
next four years were years of unexampled activity;
while the three years of 1883, 1884, and 1885 were years
of hesitancy, in which no new railroad enterprise of
great magnitude was begun, as was natural after the
completion in a single year (1882) of 11,568 miles of
road. The last two years, 1886 and 1887, which close
the record, are memorable for the reason that within
that time there was constructed a greater extent of
mileage than in any two preceding years. In 1886
there were built 83.43 miles, and in 1887, 13, 188 miles,
the latter surpassing the record of any previous year.
In the two years the new construction aggregated
21,531 miles.
Since the revival of railroad construction in 1879
there have been completed three additional through
transcontinental railroads, the Northern Pacific, the
Atlantic and Pacific, and the Southern Pacific, while
the Union Pacific, by the construction of its Oregon
Short line northwest to a connection with a branch of
the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company's
system, has added another route to the Pacific. At
least three of the great western railroad systems are
also stretching westward, with the evident intention
of speedily reaching the same ocean.
A striking feature of the last decade of railroad
building is the large number of speculative and par-
allel lines which were put under way and many of
them completed, notably the West Shore Railroad,
which parallels the New York Central line for its whole
length from New York to Buffalo ; the “Nickel-
Plate ’’ line, which parallels Lake Shore in like manner
from Buffalo to Chicago, and the South Pennsylvania
paralleling the Pennsylvania Railroad between Philadel-
phia and Pittsburg, upon which a vast sum was ex-
pended, but which has not been completed. In some
instances such lines were perhaps undertaken with a
view to forcing their subsequent purchase by the older
companies whose lines they sought to parallel, and in
the case of the two roads first mentioned these plans
met with eminent success. But their fulfilment was
in the main the cause of the depression which existed
during the years 1885, 1886, and 1887.
Railroad construction in the United States practi-
cally dates from 1828, when the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad was commenced. In 1830 there were but
twenty-three miles of railroad in the whole country.
The wonderful growth of this element of modern civili-
zation since that time is shown in Table I., which
gives by States and groups of States, quinquennially
from 1835 to 1885, and for the last two years, 1886
and 1887, the mileage of all railroads in the United
States.
RAILROAD LEGISLATION.
The railroad lines first constructed were all built
under special charters granted by their respec-
tive State Legislatures. As the ramifications of
the system became more extended and its advantages
became more thoroughly appreciated by the pub-
lic, the public was only to eager to encourage its
further extension in every way possible. To this end
it was deemed advisable to remove all obstacles or
legislation that tended to hinder or obstruct the more
speedy formation and inauguration of new railroad
enterprises. In this work the State of New York led
by enacting in 1850 a General Railroad Law which
provided for the organization of railroad corporations
at will by 25 or more persons, without application to
the Legislature, the object sought to be attained being
unrestricted competition in railroads, as well as to re-
lieve the Legislature of much labor. This law served
as a model for all similar laws introduced since then
in the other States of the Union.
The State railroad commissions, which are to-day a
recognized factor in railway administration, have come
into existence and prominence since 1867, although.
there were so-called commissions at an earlier period.
In Some of the New England States at an early
period in the history of railroads such commissions
were established. New Hampshire led in 1844 with a
single head commission. Connecticut and Vermont
followed with similar commissions, 1853 and 1855 re-
spectively. The powers of these boards were very
limited and for the most part advisory. New York
had a short-lived commission in 1855, and after the
civil war several were created for a temporary pur-
pose, distinct from regulation, such as that in Arkan-
sas, which passed upon applications for State aid to
| railroads, and that in Tennessee, in 1870, which was
authorized to sell or lease railroads in default to the
State for loans. There are marked differences in the
plan upon which the existing State commissions are
organized. Of the older ones, those of the New Eng-
land States, with the exception of Massachusetts and
New Hampshire, form a distinct class by themselves,
their duties being mainly limited to the inspection of
the railway equipment and service.
Of an entirely different type were the commissions
of the Western States, which owed their origin to the
widespread “granger '' movement (1870–77). Of
this movement, Prof. Arthur T. Hadley writes in his
work on Railroad Transportation :
“Nowhere had the policy of railroad subsidies been more
recklessly carried out than in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
The spirit of enterprise at the close of the war found full
play here. There was no lack either of national land-
grants or municipal subscriptions. Each community wanted
railroads at any price. Each railroad offered glowing in-
ducements to settlers. The result was that railroads and
settlers both moved too far west; and ran heavily into debt
to do it.
“In the years 1865–71, five hundred million dollars had
been invested in Western railroads. These roads were de-
pendent upon the wheat crop for their revenue. The price
of wheat, which for some years had been high, was at last
affected by the extension of production and the change of
conditions. With transportation charges at their previous
figure, the farmers could no longer pay their debts. With
transportation charges reduced, the railroads could not pay
theirs. There was a loss to be divided, instead of a profit.
It was beyond the power of any law to divide this loss in
such a way as to give a profit to both parties. It was the
result of general industrial conditions.
“Unfortunately the railroads were managed in such a
way that it seemed as if they were directly responsible for
pretty much all these evils. In the first place they were
run recklessly, with a most short-sighted view to present
interests only. Outrageous favors were given in the way
of special rates. Where there was but one railroad it
charged all that it could extort. When the farmer had once
settled so far from any market, he was at the mercy of the
railroad, which furnished his sole means of transportation.
RAILROADS. 303
Table III. shows the area, population, and railroad mileage in the several States, and their relation each to
the other on Jan. 1, 1887 :
TABLE III.—Area, Population, and Railroad Mileage, 1887.
Population. One mile of railroad
Area Miles
States. square of
miles. Per railroad. TO TO
Total. sq. mile. sq. miles. inhabitants.
Maine.............................................. 33,040 648,936 19.64 1,149.51 28.73 564.62
New Hampshire.......................... ... tº º º º 9,305 346,991 37.29 1,050.17 8.86 30.41
Vermont........................... .............. 9,565 332,286 34.74 946.75 10.10 350.98
Massachusetts................................... 8,315 1,783,085 146.03 2,018.46 4.12 883.39
Rhode Island.............................. ..... 1,250 276,531 221.22 209.99 5.95 1,316.81
Connecticut...................................... 4,900 622,700 127.08 975.56 5.02 638.30
New Fingland Group.................... 66,375 4,010,529 60.42 6,350.44 10.45 631.57
New York........................................ 49,170 5,082,871 103.37 7,481.40 6.57 679.40
New Jersey...................................... 7,815 1,131,116 144.74 1,957.41 3.99 577.86
Pennsylvania ..... ................................ 45,215 4,282,891 94.72 7,871.56 5.74 544.09
Delaware.................. ....................... 2,050 146,608 71.50 334.50 6.31 438.29
Maryland......................................... 12,210 934,943 76.57 1,225.09 3.18 755.00
District of Columbia.......................... 70 177,624 76.57 21.61 9.97 8,219.53
Middle Atlantic Group................. 116,530 11,756,053 100.88 18,891.57 6.17 622.30
Ohio................................................ 41,060 3,198,062 77.89 7,456.18 5.51 423.91
Michigan......................................... 58,915 1,636,937 27.78 5,635.82 10.45 290.45
Indiana............................................ 36,350 1,978,301 54.42 5,711.19 6.37 346.39
Illinois ........................................... 56,650 3,077,871 54.33 9,275.69 6.11 3.31.82
Wisconsin ................................. ... e º 'º - - 56,040 1,315,497 23.47 4,869.17 11.51 270.17
North Central Group................... 249,015 11,206,668 45.01 32,948.05 7.56 340.12
Virginia........................................... 42,450 1,512,565 35.63 2,729.83 15.55 544.09
West Virginia.................................. 24,780 618,457 24.96 1,146.82 21.60 539.28
North Carolina................................. 52,250 1,399,750 26.7S 2,201.60 23.73 635.79
South Carolina........................ • e e º e e º e - 30,570 995,577 32.57 1,813.60 16.85 548.95
Georgia................... ........................ 59,475 1,542,180 25.93 3,390.50 17.54 454.85
Florida ..................................... ..... 58,680 269,493 4.59 1,918.18 30.59 140.49
South Atlantic Group.................. 268,205 6,338,022 23.63 13,200.53 20.31 480.15
Kentucky....... ... e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e º 'º e º a s is e º 'º e º a • * * * * * * * * * * * 40,400 1,648,690 40.S1 2,116.78 19.08 778.91
Tennessee.................................. ...... 42,050 1,542,359 36.6S 2,199.10 19.12 701,36
Alabama.......................................... 52,250 1,262,505 24.16 2,280.46 22.91 553 62
Mississippi....................................... 46,810 1,131,597 24.17 2,111.38 22, 17 535.95
Louisiana......................................... 48,720 939,946 19.29 1,3S1.16 35.28 680,55
South Central Group.................... 230,230 6,525,097 27.04 10,0SS.SS 22.S3 646.80
Missouri.......................................... 69,415 2,168,380 31.24 5,06S.32 13.69 427.83
Arkansas......................................... 53,850 802,525 14.90 2,195.68 24.52 365.50
Indian Territory............................... 64,690 |....................|............... 431.87 149.75
Texas.......................................... - - - - - - 265,780 1,591,749 5.99 7,295.27 36.43 21S.19
Kansas ............................................. S2,080 996,096 12.14 6,119.40 13.41 162.77
Colorado.;............................. ........... 103,925 194,327 1.S7 2,943,56 35.30 66.02
New Mexico........................................ 122,580 119,565 0.9S 1,232.96 99.42 96.97
South-Western Group................... 762,320 5,872,642 S.42 25,287.06 30.15 232.23
Iowa ................................................. 56,025 1,624,615 29.00 7,934.80 7.06 205.12
Minnesota........................................... 83,365 780,773 9,37 4,823.11 17.2S 161.88
Nebraska........................................... 76,855 452,402 5.SS 3,615.89 21.25 125.11
Dakota............................................... 149,100 135,177 0.97 3,698.21 40.32 36.55
Wyoming........................................... 97,890 20,789 0.21 777.72 125.82 26.73
Montana............................................. 146,080 39,159 0.27 1,062.48 137.55 36.86
North-Western Group................... 609,315 3,052,915 5.01 21,912.21 27. S1 139.78
Washington Territory......................... 69,180 75,116 1.09 S97.90 77.04 S3,66
Idaho................................................ S4, S00 32,610 1.S2 S11, 2S 7S.7S 40.19
Oregon..........….................................. 96,030 174,768 5.46 1,219.41 4S.03 143.16
California .......................................... 158,360 864,694 0.56 3,296.76 116.04 262.29
Nevada............................................... 110,700 62,266 0.36 954.1S 114.28 65.26
Arizona................................................ 113,020 40,440 1.69 9.SS.95 74.60 40.89
Utah ....: • ‘e 84,970 143,963 0.3S 1,138.97 104.56 126,39
Pacific Group 717,060 1,393,857 1.94 9,307.45 77.05 149.76
United States..................... ..............] 3,019,050 50,155,783 16.98 137,986.19 21.89 363.49

304
RAILROADS.
." A state of feeling was developed through the commu-
nity which only wanted organization to become all powerful.
It found this organization in the Granges. (See GRANGERs.)
“That the movement against the railroads should come,
Was inevitable. That it took this particular instrument to
make itself felt was in some sense an accident. When the
first Granges were formed, the purposes of the organiza-
tion were, first, to render farmers' homes attractive, and,
Second, to make farming more productive. As a means to
this second end they sought to diminish the expenses; and
one of the most important elements of expense was the cost
of getting goods to market. It was thus that they became
interested, as an organization, in questions of transportation
and of railroad control. Their first utterances on this mat-
ter were moderate; it was but gradually that they became
the instrument of popular agitation.
“The first tangible results were reached in Illinois. The
constitutional convention of 1870 made an important decla-
ration eoncerning State control of rates, on the basis of
which a law was passed in 1871, establishing a system of
maxima. This law was pronounced unconstitutional by
Judge Lawrence. The result was that he immediately after-
Ward failed of re-election, solely on this ground. The de-
feat of Judge Lawrenee showed the true significance of the
farmers' movement. They were concerned in seeuring what
they felt to be their rights, and they were unwilling that
any constitutional barriers should be made to defeat the
popular will. They had reached the point where they re-
garded many of the forms of law as mere technicalities.
They were dangerously near the point where revolutions
begin.
“But they did not pass the point. The law of 1873 avoided
the issue raised by Judge Lawrence against that of 1871.
Instead of directly fixing maxima, it provided that rates
must be reasonable, and then further provided for a com-
mission to fix reasonable rates. Similar laws were passed
by Iowa and Minnesota almost immediately afterward. The
Legislature of Wisconsin went even farther, fixing by the
so-called Potter Law the rates on different classes of roads
at figures which proved quite unremunerative. The rail-
roads made vain attempts to contest these regulations in
the courts. They were defeated again and again, and finally,
in 1877, the Supreme Court of the United States sustained
the constitutionality of the Granger laws.
“But a more powerful force than the authority of the court
was working against the Granger system of regulation. The
laws of trade could not be violated with impunity. The ef-
feets were most sharply felt in Wisconsin. The law reducing
railroad rates to the basis which competitive points enjoyed
left nothing to pay fixed charges. In the second year of its
operation no Wisconsin road paid a dividend; only four
paid interest on their bonds. Railroad construction had
come to a standstill. Even the facilities on existing roads
could not be kept up. Foreign capital refused to invest in
Wisconsin ; the development of the State was sharply
checked ; the very men who had most favored the law found
themselves heavy losers. These points were plain to every
one. They formed the theme of the governor's message at
the beginning of 1ST0. The very men who passed the law
in 1874 hurriedly repealed it after two years' trial. In
other States the laws either were repealed, as in Iowa,
or were sparingly and cautiously enforeed. By the time
the Supreme Court published the Granger deeisions, the
fight had been settled, not by constitutional limitations but
by industrial ones.”
The first of the State commissions to attract pub-
lic attention was that of Ohio, which was established
in ISG7, Gen. George B. Wright being the first in-
cumbent of the office. Gen. Wright being a practical
railroad man, his investigations and reports on matters
of practical importance and public interest received
considerable attention from all interested in the prob-
lem of governmental supervision or control of rail-
roads.
The Massachusetts railroad commission was estab-
lished in l Stº, and furnishes the most conspicuous in-
stance of the purely advisory commission, depending
upon investigation, the justice of its conclusions, and
the force of public opinion for the enforcement of
its recommendations ; and by reason of its successful
working under a novel plan and of the ability of its
membership it has always made its influence widely
felt. Since its establishment its career has been closely
watched, and its success is now undisputed. <>
That it
has not been due solely to fortuitous circumstances, or
to its application to a limited local field, is indicated by
the fact that the principle upon which it was organ-
ized has been successfully applied in other States
and has been followed by satisfactory results in the
State of New York, with its concentration of great
and diverse railroad and commercial interests.
The Illinois commission has been the leading expo-,
nent of the other theory of regulation through a
commission. . It was inaugurated by the adoption of
the constitution of 1870, now in force, which declared
railways to be public highways, and free to all persons
fºr the transportation of their persons and property
thereon, under such regulations as may be prescribed
by law. The General Assembly is required to pass
laws establishing reasonable maximum rates of charges
for the transportation of passengers and freight; to
correct abuses and prevent unjust discrimination and
extortion ; and to enforce such laws by adequate pen-
alties to the extent, if necessary for that purpose, of
forfeiture of the property and franchise of the railways.
The consolidation of railroad companies owning paral-
lel or competing lines is prohibited, and sixty days'
public notice of all proposed consolidations is re-
quired.
The railroad legislation of the Southern States has
in the main followed the general features of the Geor-
gia system, which is similar to that of Illinois. The
constitution gives the General Assembly power to regu-
late railroad freight and passenger tariffs, prevent un-
just discriminations, and require reasonable rates, and
it is made its duty to pass laws for these purposes
and to enforce the same by adequate penalties. The
General Assembly is prohibited from authorizing any
corporation to buy shares or stock in any other
corporation in the State or elsewhere, or to make any
contract or agreement with any such corporation which
may have the effect to defeat or lessen competition
in their respective businesses, or to encourage monop-
oly ; and all such contracts are declared illegal and
void. Railroad companies are prohibited from giving
or paying any rebate, or bonus in the nature thereof,
directly or indirectly ; or doing any act to deceive the
public as to the real rates received. Such payments
are declared illegal and void, and the General Assem-
bly is required to enforce these prohibitions by suit-
able penalties.
California is the only State which has adopted
the commission system as a part of the organic law
of the State. The constitution of 1879 is extremely
rigid in its provisions for the regulation of railroads.
It declares all railroad, canal, and transportation
companies common carriers and subject to legislative
control, and requires railroads to receive and transport
each other's passengers, tonnage, and cars without de-
lay and discrimination.
The following statement shows the States having
commissions and the year in which commissions were
first established in each State, arranged in the order
of their establishment :
State. Date. State. Date.
New Hampshire...... 1844 | Virginia ................. 1S76
Connecticut............. 1853 Iowa ................. ..... 1STS
Vermont ................. 1S55 | South Carolina....... | S78
Maine..................... 185S iGeorgia................... 1S79
Ohio.......... * x * g e º e º a s tº $ $ 1867 Kentucky ............... 1SSO
Massachusetts ......... 1869 || Alabama ................. 1SS1
Illinois............ e º me & e º ºs 1S71 New York ............... 1SS2
Rhode Island .......... 1S72 | Ransas ...... e tº º se e is e º a s a tº º 1SS3
Michigan ............... 1873 Mississippi .............. 1SS4
Wisconsin............... 1874 Nebraska................. 1 SS5
Minnesota.............. . 1874 Colorado..... ~......... 1885
Missouri ................. 1875 Dakota...... * * g º e g g g tº a s a g , 1885
California ............... 1S76
Interstate Commerce Commission.--This commis-
sion, the first tribunal organized in connection with the
National government, and clothed with advisory and
other powers to regulate the traffic of railroads, began
its official labors April 5, 1887. The assumption of
RAILROADS.
305
these powers by the National government had been
zealously advocated for many years by a large and in-
fluential class of citizens who held that under the pro-
vision of the Constitution investing Congress with
power to regulate the commerce between the States,
Congress possessed the right to regulate the traffic of
railroads, or other agencies of transportation, between
the States. This proposition was, however, strenu-
ously opposed by those who held contrary views as to
the proper functions of the National government.
As far back as December, 1872, the Senate of the
United States, upon the recommendation contained
in Pres. Grant's message, appointed a committee to
consider the question of transportation routes to the
seaboard and to report to Congress with a view to “its
better guidance in legislating on this important sub-
ject.” In the preamble to the resolution authorizing
the appointment of this committee it was recited that
“ the productions of our country have increased much
more rapidly than the means of transportation, and the
growth of population and products will in the near
future demand additional facilities, and cheaper ones,
to reach tide-water.” The committee began its investi-
gation in September, 1873, and pursued its inquiries in
various parts of the country until the close of the year.
A great mass of testimony was elicited upon all subjects
examined, particularly those affecting the question of
railroad transportation ; but nothing tangible resulted
from its deliberations or conclusions, at least so far as
concerned the assumption of any controlling powers by
Congress. The question of Congressional regulations
of interstate commerce, however, continued to be dis-
cussed and agitated with more or less vigor, particu-
larly during the three years immediately preceding the
final passage of the Interstate Commerce Act.
As a result of the active interest that was being ex-
hibited throughout the country upon this subject, par-
ticularly in the West, the U. S. Senate in March, 1885,
appointed a committee to investigate and report upon
the subject of the regulation of the transportation by
railroad and water routes in connection or in competi-
tion with said railroads of freights and passengers
between the Several States.” . From its chairman,
Senator Shelby M. Cullom, of Illinois, the committee
became popularly known as the Cullom Committee;
and the bill presented by it subsequent to its extended
investigations is known as the Cullom Interstate
Commerce Bill. This bill was reported from a con-
ference committee of both Houses Dec. 15, 1886,
and was passed and became operative April 5, 1887.
A brief synopsis of the bill is appended : By section
1 the railroads and other transportation companies are
|
chief justice of Michigan, being chairman.
required to have just and reasonable rates; section 2
forbids discriminations by special rates, rebates, draw-
backs, etc.; section 3 forbids undue preferences to
individuals or localities, and requires that carriers shall
provide facilities for interchange of traffic ; section 4
requires a uniform rate for all distances, but in special
cases the commission may suspend this rule ; sectiºn 5
forbids pooling of freights and division of earnings
between carriers; section 6 requires schedules of rates,
charges, and fares to be printed and copies kept at
every station for public use, and forbids any increase in
the rates so published without due notice ; section 7
forbids acts interfering with and contracts preventive
of continuous carriage of freight; section 8 makes the
common carrier liable to the person injured for any
damages sustained through any act done or permitted
by the carrier contrary to this law ; section 9 gives the
person damaged the right to make complaint to the
commission or to bring action in his own behalf, but
forbids him the right to pursue both remedies, and in
any such action brought the court is empowered to
compel officers of companies to attend, testify, and pro-
duce books and papers; section 10 imposes a penalty
for disobedience or infraction of the act ; section 11
creates the Interstate Commerce Commission, and
makes rules for its guidance; section 12 authorizes the
commission to inquire into the management of the
business of all common carriers, and to require attend-
ance of witnesses and production of books, contracts,
and documents relating to any matter under investiga-
tion ; Section 13 and those following make provision
for the investigation of complaints, etc.
Pres. Cleveland appointed a commission of the highest
character, Hon. Thomas M. Cooley, who had been
The com-
mission entered upon its important duties in a cautious
and judicial spirit, which has been highly approved by
all parties concerned in the questions submitted to it.
Its labors have proved highly beneficial to the country,
and will undoubtedly result in wise regulations, both by
the National and State governments and by the railroad
companies themselves.
The chief aim of the commission has been to secure
on behalf of the people fixed and uniform charges for
railroad service. The railroad corporations now admit
that their own interest, and the interest of all who
have invested in this species of property, will be sub-
served by effecting this.
RAILROAD OPERATION AND EARNINGs.
Table IV. shows the length of line operated, rev-
TABLE IV.-Railroad Operation and Earnings in the United States.

| |
1SS2. 1SS3 1884. 1885. 1SS6. 1887.
Miles of Line Operated. 98,752.33 106,938.49 113,172.66 122,110.16 125,146.50 136,986.4
Revenue Train Mileage: r \ i
Passenger...................... 165,438,15S 187,903,247 206,516,11S | 211,587,620 210,637,892 23S,755,920
Freight......................... 305,118,035, 350,10s,255 334,814,529, 342 s.19; 349,397.53, 394.191 in:
Mixed........................... |.................... !................... |....................' 6,297,575 9,437,561 11,031.sº
} ; | . -
Total......... * 470,556,193 538,011,502, 541,330,647 500,173,965, 569,772,990 643,97s,sg;
| i i :
| Passenger Traffic: .
Passengers carried........ . .289,030,783 312,686,641 334,570,736' 351,427,6SS 3S2,284,972 42s,225,513
Fr Passenger Miles............. 6,983,059,934 S.541,309,674, 8,778,581,061 9,133,673,956 9,659,698.294 10,570.306;ió
} reight Traffic: y - - :
| £eight Nºyed. Tons)..... ..., 360,499.375 . . 400,453,439 399,074,749 437,040,099 4S2,245.254 552,074,752
3,445 44,725,207,677 49,151,894,469 52,802,070,529 62,051.083395
Gross Traffic Earnings: :
From Passenger $194,060,150 $206,
From Freight 485,77S,331
Total, including Miscell. 733,960,943,
: \
$
* * * * * * * * * * * * *
• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ,
,837,256
539,509, S31
807,112,780
} f |
* w
------
$206,790,701 $200,883,911 $212,929.s37 $240,542.876
302.889,910 509,690,992 550,350,054 635,666,223
753,306,80s, 755,310 is sºiáiº ºssiń.
|
m J
; k l
306 RAILROADS.
TABLE W.-Mileage, Capitalization, and Cost.
Miles of * Cost of Miles of
Fiscal years. railroad º Fº º º railroad and railroad
completed. * * * & equipment. operated.
*
1887................... 147,999 || $4,191,562,029 || $4,186,943,116 $294,682,071 $8,673,187,216 $7,799,471,835 | 136,986
1886. .......... ..... 133,606 || 3,999,508,508 3, SS2,966,330 280,673,814 8,163,148,652 7,254,995,223 125,147
1885................... 127,729 3 sizºsº | 3,765,727,066 259,10S,2S1 7,842,533,179 || 7,037,627,350 | 122,110
1884....... ........... 125,152 3,762,616,686 3,669,115,772 244,666,596 7,676,399,054 6,924,554,444 113,173
1SS3................... 120,552 3,708,060,583 || 3,455,040,383 || 332,370,345 7,495,471,311 5,684,756,045 110,414
1880. ................. 92,147 2,708,673,375 2,530,874,943 162,489,939 5,402,038,257 4,653,609,297 82,147 |
1876............... .... 76,305 2,148,358,375 2,220,233,560 203,504,556 4,572,096,491 3,886,653,178 71,998 |
TABLE VI.-Railroad Earnings, Expenses, Interest, and Dividends.

| Fiscal year Passenger Freight Total Operating Net Interest Dividend
scal years. earnings. earnings. earnings. expenses. earnings. payments. payments.
*= i
1887............... $240,542,876 $636,666,223 $931,385,154 $600,249,478 || $331,135,676 $203,790,352 $91,573,458
1886............... 212,929,857 550,359,054 S22,191,949 524,880,334 297,311,615 189,036,304 80,094,138
1885............... 200,883,911 509,690,992 765,310,419 498,821,426 266,488,993 187,426,035 77,672,105
1884............... 208,300,940 502,925,375 || 763,306,608 || 496,792,697 266,513,911 || 176,694,302 93,244,835
1883............... 206,837,256 539,509,831 807,112,780 515,525,192 291,587,588 173,139,064 102,052,548
1880............... 147,653,003 467,748,928 613,733,610 341,302,945 272,430,665 107,866,328 77,115,371
1876............... 136,120,583 361,137,376 493,233,529 308,075,099 185,158,430 93,559,573 68,039,668
|
enue train mileage, passenger and freight traffic, and Passenger Freight Gross. Net
gross traffic earnings of all the railroads in the United Groups º º: º º º
States for six years, 1882–87, inclusive. . . . |Neº"...and.......... gº gº" Pº Pº:
Tables V. and VI. show the length, capitalization, Middle j.nic. 3.373 '9696 is 560 5'067
debt and cost of the railroads of the United States at Central Northern...... 1.563 A soft 6.479 2,284
the close of recent years; the average length of same | South Atlantic.......... 937 2,431 3,740 1,163
operated during such years, and the earnings, ex- | South Central........... 1,247 3,710 5,274 1,817
penses, interest and dividend payments thereof. South-western........... 1,135 33; 48. 1,676
An examination of the statistics of capitalization Nºwº * * * * g e º $ tº $ tº łº, º: § ;
and debt (see Table V.) shows the following aver-| “” , Osſ; 5'-' -- , ZUO ,4bo
ages per mile of railroad for the past six years: Whole U. S., 1887..... $1,756 $4,649 $6,861 $2,444
United States, 1886.... 1,693 4,397 6,570 2,376
Capital stock Bonded debt Cost of road { { ‘‘ 1885..... 1,612 4,219 6,265 2,185
Year. per mile. per mile. per mile. © g fe
1887.................. $28,321 $28,290 $52,699 During the past six years the relation of passenger
1886. ................. 29,925 29,062 54,301 earnings to freight earnings in the whole country has
1885.................. 29,867 29,453 55,059 varied but slightly; passenger earnings usually aver-
1884..... s........... 30,064 33,317 33,339 aging about 26 per cent. of gross earnings, while
*:::… § § § freight earnings have averaged about 67 per cent.
1882........ ......... ou, y 4; (2. Comparing the groups, however, wide differences are
e shown. In New England passenger and freight ap-
*. 'I’éâS he averag st of road | * gº sº lºvº; • *-
The steady decrease in the average cost of road proach nearest to equality, the former being 43.89
and equipment per mile during the past five years is - * gº tº • R.
Sl-; * e gº per cent. of the gross, and the latter, 50.56 per cent.
the most striking feature of this table. It is due The greatest ..". is in the North-western States
largely to the fact that the new lines of railroad * & " ' . gº
s: “. . .”. e * * and in the Middle States, the proportion for passen-
built within that period for the most part run through ger earnings in the former case being 22.86 per gent.
sections of the country which present no extraordi- *7ſ) tº Q - A - • 4%. , , ; e
nary engineering difficulties; ini in no small degree of gross as against 70.33 per cent for freight earnings,
tº the wonderful improvements that have been made while in the Middle States the respective percentages
- & * reight earni 2
in the manner of constructing railroads—the great : d ºger T." ſº .. t ºws *.
speed secured by the massing of veritable armies of |...ti. e f ng state f freig d of
workmen at various points of the road, and the ex- . proportions of passenger, à reight, an i.
traordinary reduction in the cost of the chief articles||. Fº º jº traing earnings in the
that enter into the construction of such work. several groups of the United States in 1887 :
. A comparison of these statistics by the eight groups Passenger Freight Other
into which the country has been divided shows the earnings. earnings. earnings.
following relative averages for 1887: Groups. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
New England............ 43.89 50.56 5.55
Capital stock Bonded debt Cost of road | Middle Atlantic......... 25.18 2.36 2.46
Groups. per mile. per mile. per mile. Central Northern....... 24.12 69.59 6.29
New England.......... $33,801 $20,931 $52,613 South Atlantic........... 25.06 65.01 9.93
Middle Atlantic...... 57,982 57,451 97,043 South Central............ 23.65 70.34 6.01
Central Northern..... 23,688 24,868 46,536 South-western............ 23.29 69.02 7.69
South Atlantic......... 19,888 19,911 36,014 North-western........... 22.86 70.33 . 6.81
South Central......... 23,739 27,640 48,809 Pacific...................... 27.38 61.56 11.06
South-western.......... 23,470 22,594 43,429 samº-º-º-mºms smsºmºmºsºmsº
North-western......... 22,368 25,485 48,125 United States...... .. 25.82 68.38 5.80
Pacific.................... 30,443 26,881 61,054
In this connection the following statement of pas-
The following statement shows the relative earning |senger traffic, in the several groups, of the gountry
capacity of the railroads in the several groups dur- for 1887 and of the whole United States for the
ing 1887: years 1883 to 1887 is instructive : &
RAILROADS. 307
•)
Number car-
Number of passen- N -
ried one mile.
Groups. gers carried.
New England........ * A it e º sº a 93,483,949 1,482,312,733
Middle Atlantic........... . 176,361,731 3,059,957,868
Central Northern.......... 87,292,882 3,027,621,204
South Atlantic.............. 11,315,150 396,245,486
South Central............... 11,379,600 438,688,840
South-western............... 18,421,275 923,887,906
North-western.............. 13,502,021 614,419,651
Pacific......................... 16,468,905 627,173,022
United States, 1887.... 428,225,513 10,570,306,710
& 4 “ 1886.... 382,284,972 9,659,698,294
& 4 § { 1885.... 351,427,688 9,133,673,956
& & “ 1884.... 334,570,766 8,778,581,061
& & “ 1883.... 312,686,641 8,541,309,674
An examination and comparison of these figures
show that in New England the average distance
travelled by each passenger was less than in any other
group, while the longest trips were made in the
South-western States. In like manner the rates of
fare averaged lowest in New England and highest in
the South-west. This can be best illustrated by the
following tabular statement showing the average dis-
tance travelled per passenger and the average rate
of fare per mile for same in each group in 1887:
Average Average rate
distance per passenger
Groups. per passenger. per mile.
New England.................. 15.85 miles. 1.964 cents.
Middle Atlantic............... 17.35 “ 2.092 “
Central Northern............. 34.68 “ 2.274 “
South Atlantic................. 35.01 “ 2.777 “
South Central.................. 38.55 “ 2.421 “
South-western............ ... tº $ tº it & 50.15 “ 2.824 “
North-western.................. 45.50 “ 2.692 “
Pacific............................, 38.08 “ 2.277 “
In the whole United States the
per passenger was 24.68 miles, and the average rate of
fare per mile 2.276 cents. The tendency throughout
the country in both these respects is toward decreases
in the length of the average trip and in the rates
charged. No better evidence of the , constant and
rapid growth of the country can be furnished than
the statistics of the passenger traffic of its railroads.
By the table of passenger traffic given above it is
shown that within the short space of five years, from
1883 to 1887, the number of passengers using the
railroads of the United States (excluding all elevated
average distance
and surface city roads) increased 115,538,872, or from
312,686,641 to 428,225,513. The rate of increase
within this period of five years was 37 per cent. If
an increase of 333 per cent. in every five years were to
be maintained for fifteen years longer we would have
in 1902 a passenger traffic of more than 1,014,000,000
persons. The following statement shows the steady
decline in the average rate of fare per mile in every
year from 1882 to 1887 (except the latter year, in
which a slight advance was recorded), and the cor-
responding decreases in the average distance per pas-
Senger per mile :
Average rate
per passenger Average distance
Years. per mile. per passenger.
1882.............. * * * * * * * * * * * * 2.514 cents. 28.89 miles.
1883.... . 2.422 “ 27.32 “
1884.......................... 2.356 “ 26.24 “
1885.... .... 2.198 “ 25.99 “
1886.......................... 2.181 “ 25.27 “
1887.......................... 2.276 “ 24.68 “
The constant decrease in average distance is due
to the increase in the number of passengers carried,
which as a country becomes developed will inevitably
reduce the average length of trip for all passengers.
While the country has been undergoing the wonder-
ful and unprecedented material development witnessed
in the past twenty-two years, the inventive genius of
the country has been engaged in bringing to perfection
the details of railroad construction. The result is
shown in the solidity of railroad superstructure of
to-day, its massive bridges and viaducts, its wonderful
tunnels and other great works built to overcome na-
ture's obstructions, in the improved cars and engines
of to-day, and the consequent increase of comfort in
railroad travel. It was to be expected, with all those
forces operating simultaneously, that there would be
a steady increase of use of the improved facilities, but
the results have surpassed anticipations.
Table VII. shows the number of tons of freight
moved each year, the earnings therefrom, the aggre-
gate tonnage-mileage, and the average rate perton
per mile for all roads, yearly, from 1865 to 1887, in-
clusive, on the Illinois Central, the Chicago and Alton,
the Chicago, and Rock Island, the Chicago, Burling-
ton, and Quincy, the Chicago and North-western, the
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroads, with the
aggregate tons moved annually on the same :
TABLE VII.-Freight Business of Sic Principal Western Railroads since 1865.

Year.
i
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
*-* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Rate charge
tonnage moved. of earnings. for each year. per ton per mile.
Tons. Dollars. Tons—Miles. Cents.
4,032,166 1S,703,805 513,421,459 3.642 -
4,803,205 19,957,327 576,8SS,63S 3.459
6,303,783 24,389,631 768,171,050 3.175
7,064,305 2S,198,440 S93,856,974 3.151
S,071,568 31,911,794 1,054,559, S35 3.026 f
S,540,579 29,919,958 1,234,678,291 2.423 i
9,391,684 30,947,254 1,233,058,058 2,509
10,592,414 21,074,669 1,337,038,063 2.324
11,958,467 37,629,776 1,719,496,690 2.188 ;
12,637,729 40,004,035 1,851,645,S25 2. 160
12,662,768 37,699,553 1,904.937,377 1.979 i
13,4SS,204 37,449,705 1,994,712,255 1.S77
13,364,721 36,799,051 2,211,021,475 1.664
15,705,226 41,666,157 2,822.SS5,886 1.476 .
1S,S07,123 44,410,617 3,470, S32,877 1.279
24,212,307 57,551,693 4,167,610, S30 1.3S9 .
27,076,047 63,007,765 4,498,641,431 1.40.5
29,851,86S 6S,792,350 5,040,239,952 1.364
31,663,979 75,565,194 5,768,109,279 1.310 |
32,573,518 74,353,296 6,093,2S2,749 1.220
34,348,684 75,307,6S4 6,500,185,261 1.15S
35,690,547 75,667,342 6,806,148,918 1, 111 |
40,276,909 . 78,890,235 7,776,436,486 1.014
** *-* * ~ *-* **** * —-- —\
308
RAILROADS.
Table VIII, shows the aggregate number of tons of Lake Shore, the Michigan, Central, the Boston and
freight moved, the aggregate freight earnings, and the Albany, the New York, Lake Erie, and Western
aggregate tonnage-mileage, yearly, from 1865 to 1887, Railroads, with the average rate per ton per mile on
inclusive, on the Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg, Fort all the roads:
Wayne, and Chicago, the New York Central, the
TABLE VIII.-Freight Business of Seven Principal Eastern Railroads since 1865.
Year Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Rate-charge
º tonnage moved. of earnings. for each year. per ton per mile.
Tons. Dollars. Tons-Miles. Cents.
1865................................................. • e s e a s e º º 11,151,700 47,832,803 1,649,316,859 2.900
1866.......................................................... 14,049,602 51,876,744 2,044,416,231 2.503
1867........................................................ 15,594,454 52,074,335 2,258,216,174 2.305
1868........................................................ 17,468,693 54,189,263 2,541,578,620 2.132
1869............................. tº e º e s e s e º e º 'º º e º a s a e e º e s e a 20,556,154 58,826,156 3,159,832,219 1.860
1870........................................................ 21,456,135 58,732,642 3,685,824,803 1.593
1871........................................................ 25,098,953 64,168,533 4,340,131,068 1.478
1872.................................................. tº gº tº º 28,634,347 76,469,165 5,081,263,127 1.504
1873,.... .................................................. 32,817,277 85,100,099 5,762,062,724 1.476
1874........................................................ 32,899,152 73,320,227 5,879,662,649. 1.332
1875......................................................... 32,956,655 68,919,790 5,935,242,397 1.161
1876 * ~ * ~ * 36,166,865 66,395,282 6,739,527,502 .985
1877........................................................ 36,133,676 63,509,865 6,536,997,523 .971
1878........................................................ 39,124,614 70,581,816 7,855,222,593 .898
1879.......................................................... 48,585,226 73,383,367 9,594,719,603 .706
1880... e e e 53,937,403 88,792,026 10,313,056,759 .869
1881........................................................ 2,616,114 88,210,592 11,560,001,888 .763
1882......................................................... 64,948,002 84,606,002 11,191,066,104 .761
1883........................................................ 66,695,608 93,913,066 11,326,271,886 .825
1SS4. 64,397,566 79,401,737 10,719,521,813 .740
1885........................................................ 66,521,153 72,138,792 11,331,309,298 .636
1886........................................................ 74,517,207 84,761,134 11,915,435,513 .711
1887........................................................ 84,754,598 97,357,011 13,543,351,451 .718
Table IX, shows the number of locomotive-engines, |cºls in the United States for the years 1877–87, in-
passenger-, baggage-, mail- and express-, and freight-' clusive :
TABLE IX. — Rolling Stock of Railroads in the United States.
Revenue cars.
Y Locomotive
€8, r. engines. º
Passenger. Baggage, mail, Freight. Total.
and express.
1877........................................... 15,911 12,053 3,854 392,175 40S,082
1878........................... e w a s & e º a º a 4 º' e º is a 16,445 11,683 4,413 423,013 439,109
1879.................................... & a e º e º a 17,084 12,009 4,519 480,190 496,718
1880................. ... ...... & e º e s a s e º 'º - a e e a e 17,949 12,789 4,786 539,255 556,930
1881........................ ................... 20,116 14,548 4,976 648,295 667,819
1882........................ ................... 22,114 15,551 5,566 730,451 751,568
1883. 23,623 16,889 5,848 778,663 801,400
1884......... & e º s ºr e º & © e º 'º e is a tº º tº * - e º s tº e º 'º e s a tº a s e 24,587 17,303 5,911 798,399 821,613
1885........................... * a s s a e º e s e e s e e s tº 25,937 17,290 6,044 805,519 828,853
1886... 26,415 19,252 6,325 845,914 871,491
1887............................................. 27,850 20,582 6,582 956,681 983,805
Table X. shows the number of miles of steel | the total track in the United States, for the years
rails and iron rails, also the percentage of steel rails to 1880–87 inclusive :
TABLE X.—Steel and Iron Rails in the United States.
|
y Miles Miles s Per cent.
Year steel rails. | iron rails. Total miles. steel of total.
1880.......................................... ap w e º 'º e º e º 'º º v c e s 33,680 81,967 115,647 29.1
1881........................ ........ e s m e º 'º e ºs e º ºs e s tº e º e º 'º - e º 'º º 49,063 81,473 130,536 37.5
1882........................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66,691 74,269 140,960 47.3
1883..................................... ............ ......... 78,491 70,692 149,183 52.7
1884................................................ . . . . . . . . . . 90,243 66,254 156,497 57.6
1885.................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... “ 98, 102 62,495 160,597 61.0
1886....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105,724 62,324 168,048 62.9
1887.......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128,959 60,388 1S9,347 68.1
i
§
Table XI. shows the relative proportions, for two years, of dividend-paying and non-dividend-paying capital stock.
TABLE XI.-Comparison of Railroad Capital and Dividends.
New England.
Middle Atlantic.
North Central.
South Atlantic.
1882. 1886. 1882. 1886. 1882. 1886. 1882. 1886.
Total capital stock........................................................................ $197,071,108 || $202,673,477 || $957,064,900 $1,035,526,998 || $932,591,770 |$1,054,897,889 || $196,178,025 $249,981,335
A mount dividend-paying............................................................... 137,430,066 | 161,747,912 || 570,056,765 564,555,710 || 462,650,427 | 461,248,593 60,741,814 46,927,666
Amount not paying dividends.................... tº e º a g s s a e º e º e e s a s sº s p → • * a s • * * * * * * * * * * 59,641,042 | 40,925,565 || 387,008,135 | 470,971,288 || 469,941,343 593,649,296 || 135,436,211 203,053,669
| Total amount paid in dividends ..................................................... 8,707,540 9,483,360 36,777,072 27,731,093 31,294,552 27,124,794 3,109,247 2,216,146
Percentage on total capital............. ............................................... 4.42 4.68 3.84 2.68 8.35 2.57 1.59 .89
Percentage on dividend-paying................................................ © e s is e º a 6.34 5.86 6.45 4.91 6,76 5.10 5.10 4.73
Percentage of capital stock producing dividends. ................ e s m ºr e º e º is a tº tº 69.74 79.81 59.56 54.53 49.61 43.72 30.96 18.77
Percentage of capital stock not producing dividends.......................... 30.26 20.19 40.44 45.47 50.39 56.28 69.04 81.23
TABLE XI.-Continued.
South Central. South-western. North-western. Pacific.
1882. 1886. 1882. 1886. 1882. 1886. 1882. 1886.
Total capital stock................................................................”.” ... $180,689,130 $246,484,940 || $480,942,449 || $621,137,039 || $297,058,203 $324,517,223 || $231,365,601 || $266,144,997
Amount dividend-paying................................. ............................. 40,544,045 15,711,582 159,431,980 | 169,947,607 139,076,062 71,847,038 103,859,700 | 183,683,636
Amount not paying dividends......................................................... 140,145,085 230,773,358 327,510,469 || 451,190,032 157,982,201 || 252,670,185 127,505,901 82,461,361
Total amount paid in dividends............................. ........................ 1,232,737 601,595 7,244,192 8,090,406 7,475,981 2,907,004 6,126,239 1,939,740
Percentage on total capital........................ ............................” “. .68 .25 1.69 1.33 2.52 .73 2.11 .73
Percentage on dividend-paying....................... '* * * * s e o e a a 9 º' s ſº e s a e s º e º a s tº a w ś e º 'º º 3.04 3.83 4.55 4.05 5,37 4.05 5,90 1,05
Percentage of capital stock producing dividends....................... e e s tº e º s 22.44 6.37 32.74 27.36 46.85 22.14 55.11 69,02
Percentage of capital stock not producing dividends.......................... 77.56 93.63 67.26 72.64, 53.15 77.86 44, S9 30.98

------,+,-- - ,--. ------...- … . ~:- - - - - - - - --- * * * * * * * * * *-* : - -
310 RAILROADS.
During the six years in which full statistics of pas- In the following statement the statistics of freight ton-
senger, and freight traffic of all the railroads in the nage, tonnage mileage (tons carried one mile), average
Jnited States have been compiled the increase in haul per ton, and average rates received per ton per
freight business has kept pace and in some years has mile on all the railroads of the United States are
largely exceeded the increase in passenger movement. shown for the six years from 1882 to 1887 inclusive:
TABLE XII.-Freight Movement.

Freight Average haul Average
Years. Freight moved. movement. per ton. rate per ton
per mile.
Tons. Miles. Miles. Cents.
1882.................................... • * * * * * * * * * * c e s e e o e º e º e 360,490,375 39,302,209,249 109.02 1.236
1883.................................... e i t e º 'º e o 'º - e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. 400,453,439 44,064,923,445 110.04 1.236
1884........................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 399,074,749 44,725,207,677 112.07 . 1.124
1885.......................................................... 437,040,099 49,151,894,469 112.46 1.057
1886.......................................................... 482,245,254 52,802,070,529 109.49 1.042
1887......... ................................................. 552,074,752 62,061,069,996 108.79 1,063
As these figures show there was an increase in num- Years. Tons. Years. Tons.
ber of tons of freight moved in 1887 over 1882 of 1873 #91; 1881 };
191,584,377 or 53.14 per cent., against an increase in 1. 1449.4 1882 1,460,920
* - a scov, r-on- e Q () I () { *7 Q ſº * 875 290,863 1883 1,295,746
number of passengers carried of 139,194,730 Or 48.16 1876 412,461 1884 1,119,291
per cent. In the aggregate movement of each the 1877 433,169 1885 ió79.400
following showing is made : Number of passengers 1878 559,795 1886 1,768,920
carried one mile in 1882, 7,483,059,934; in 1887, 1879 693,113 1887 2,396,397
10,570.306,710 ; increase, 3,087,246,776, or 41.25 per 1880 960,075
cent. Number of tons of freight moved one mile in
1882, 39,302,209,249; in 1887, 62,061,069,996; in-
crease, 22,758,860,747 tons or 57.90 per cent.
These enormous increases were directly the result
of the rapid extension of the railroad system of the
country which opened up to settlement and commerce
immense tracts of land whose products were previously
comparatively valueless through their inaccessibility to
the markets of the country.
The remarkably rapid and steady decline of freight
rates is shown in Table XII., and more fully in VII.
and VIII. The last two show that east of Chicago
freight rates have declined from 2.9 cents per ton
per mile in 1865 to 0.718 cent in 1887; while west of
the
Total tons of rails, 14,697,171.
An interesting and instructive record of the com-
parative productiveness as investments of the share
capital and bonded indebtedness of American rail-
roads is presented in the edition of Poor's Manual
of Railroads for 1888.
It shows the average rate
per cent, of all dividend and interest payments during
ast six years upon the aggregate capital stocks
and bonded debts of the railroads, and is arrived at by
dividing the total amount of stocks and bonds at t
end of each year into the total amount of dividends
and interest paid within that year.
| in the following statement of percentages :
It is embodied
- - - p * On debt. eneral
Chicago the decline has been from 3.642 , Cent; in Years. On bonds. (inc. bonds). Dividends. *::::::.
1865 to 1.014 cents in 1887. Unquestionably these is............. 4.71 4.55 2.18 3.40
results could not have been attained otherwise than iss6........... 4.75 453 2.04 3.26
by the many improvements in construction methods | 1885............... 4.77 4.62 2.02 3.36
already mentioned. j s & e º a tº e º e º e º e º 'º 4.66 #. #: §
• 'le — .* - i Fr - 883...... ........ ...... . Ot … • f * .68
Rails.-One of the most important items that 1883............... ...... 4.40 2.91 3.65
enters into the cost of a railroad is the rails used.
The style of rails used on the first lines built in the
country have already been described and reference has |ity of railroads.
These averages show clearly the fluctuating prosper-
8-) * 3-y l
In view of this showing for the past
been made already to the gradual substitution of six years it is fair to assume that from the close of the
heavy rails, which, after 1850, came into general use. civil war to the present time the average, return ºn
The first Trails rolled in this country were rolled in bonds per annum has been 5 per cent, and on stocks
October, 1845, at the Montour rolling-mill, Danville, fully 3, per cent.
Poor's Manual of Railroads for 1888 gives also
the Bessemer steel process dates from 1855. The first an interesting comparison of the respective, produç-
steel rails used in this country were imported from |tiveness in the two years 1882 and 1886, of Ameri-
Pa., which was built in that year. The invention of
England by the Pennsylvania Railroad. The first ex-|can railroad stocks and bonds.
It shows that in l SS2.
perimental rails rolled in this country were made at on a total capital stock of $3,478,961,246, dividends
the North Chicago rolling-mill from steel made at aggregating $101,967,560 Wºre paid, the average rate
Wyandotte, Mich., on May 24, 1865. It was not of which per annuin equalled 2.93 per cent of the
until August, 1867, that the making of Bessemer rails | total, while on the remaining $1,805,170,387, or
was fairly established in this country. In that year |5].89 per cent of the total, no dividends were paid.
there were produced 2550 tons of steel rails The Upon this basis the average, rate of dividends paid
superiority of steel rails over iron rails was speedily in 1882 upon productive stocks was 6.10 per cent.
In 1886 the showing is not quite So encouraging ;
was retarded by the great cost of their manufacture. for while the total amount of share capital ingreased
|But within the past fifteen years the price has fallen |$522,498,252, the amount of productive capital in-
established, but for a long time their general adoption
from $120 to $30, and the result is shown in the rapid creased less than $2,000,000, or to $1,615,669,744
substitution of steel rails for iron as set forth in Table (41.88 per cent, of the, total), while unproductive
VIII. The production each year from 1867 to 1887, capital increased more than $520,000,000, rising, to
inclusive, is shown in the following statement : $2,325,694,754, or 58.12 per cent. of the total. For this
reason the total amount paid in dividends averaged in
Yº. ! º Yº; * 1886 only 2 per cent on the total amount of capital
1868 7.335 1871 38.250 outstanding and 4.78 per cent, on the productive cap-
1869 9,650 1872 94,070 ital.
(J. P. M.)
}, , ,
... 1 ºz.
RALE–RANDOLPH.
3.11
RALE, SEBASTIAN (1657–1724), Jesuit missionary,
was born in Franche-Comté, and entered the Jesuit
order at an early age. After holding a professorship
at Nîmes he was sent to Canada in 1689, and stationed
first among the Abenakis. In 1692 he set out for Ill-
inois, but spent the winter at Mackinac on the Way.
in 1694 he returned to the Abenakis and henceforth
had his residence at Norridgewock, on the Kennebec.
When the Indians resumed hostilities against the New
England settlers, the latter blamed Rale for inciting
them and set a price on his head. In 1705 they at-
tacked Norridgewock and burnt the church ; in 1722
they plundered the village, and in 1724, they again
attacked it, and killed Rale at the foot of the . Cross.
The Dictionary of the Abenaki Language, which he
had compiled, was jº in Harvard College and
published by Dr. John Pickering in 1833. n the
same year a monument to Rale's memory was erected
at Norridgewock.
RALEIGH, the capital of North Carolina, and
county-seat of Wake co., is on the Neuse River, in 35°
47 N. lat. and 78° 48' W. long., and 133 miles N. N.
W. of Wilmington. It has now three railroads. At
its centre is Union square, containing the handsome
granite State-house, which cost over $500,000. From
the square radiate the four principal streets, each 99
feet wide. The other State buildings are institutions
for the deaf and dumb, the blind and the insane, the
penitentiary, a geological museum, and the governor's
residence; there are also a U. S. government building,
a county court-house, a normal school and other Schools.
Raleigh has iron-foundries, car-shops, machine-shops,
and manufactories of agricultural implements, carriages,
and clothing. It was settled in 1792, and in 1880 had
9265 inhabitants.
RALSTON, WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN, an Eng-
lish writer and lecturer on Russian subjects, was born in
1828, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
graduating in 1850. In 1853 he was appointed assist-
ant librarian in the British Museum, and continued
there until 1875. His publications include Kriloff and
His Fables (1869); Songs of the Russian People
(1872); Russian Folk Tales (1873); Early History of
Russia (1874).
RAMBAUD, ALFRED NICOLAs, a French historian,
was born at Besançon, July 2, 1842. He was educated
at the Upper Normal School, graduating in 1864, and
receiving the degree of doctor of letters in 1870. He
had spent some time in Russia in literary pursuits.
In 1871 he was made professor of history at Caen, in
1875 at Nancy, and in 1879 was called by Jules Ferry,
then minister of public instruction, to be his secretary.
In 1882 Rambaud became professor of history at Paris.
His principal works are La Domination française en
Allemagne, 1793–1804 (1873); L'Allemagne sons \'a-
poléon I., 1804–ll (1874); La Russie épique (1876),
a study of the songs of Russia; and Histoire de la
Russie (1878). The last two, written in a popu-
lar style, are excellent presentations of Russian
thought and history, and have been translated into
English.
RAMSAY, SIR ANDREW CROMBTE, Scotch geolo-
gist, was born in 1814, and educated at Glasgow Uni-
versity. He was appointed on the Geological Survey
of Great Britain in 1841, and was made Director of it
in 1845. He was appointed professor of geology at
University College in 1848, and lecturer on geology in
the Royal School of Mines in 1851. He became a
member of the Royal Society in 1849, and received
Various marks of honor from universities and learned
Societies, American as well as European. In 1872 he
Was made director-general of the Geological Survey of
the United Kingdom. He was president of the Brit-
ish Association in 1880. In the next year when he
retired from his public offices the value of his services
Was acknowledged by granting him the honor of knight-
hood. Among his publications have been Geology of
Arran, Geology of North Wales (1858); Old Glaciers
of North Wales and Switzerland, (1860): P.hysical
Geology and Geography of Great Britain (1878).
RAMSAY, Eßw ARI, BANNERMAN (1793–1872), a
Scotch clergyman, commonly known as Dean Ramsay,
was born at Balma, in Kincardineshire, Jan. 31, 1793,
He graduated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and
was ordained in the Church of England. After hold-
ing a curacy in Somersetshire for some years, he be;
came minister of St. John's Church, Edinburgh, and
in 1841 was made dean. Already noted in the Scottish
capital for his genial conversation and benevolent char-
acter, he gained in his old age wider appreciation by
his Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character (2
series, 1857–61). He also published Diversities ºf
Christian Character (1858); The Christian Life
(1859); Pulpit Table-Talk (1868); and a Memoir of
Dr. Thomas Chalmers (1867).
RAMIE. See FIBRE.
RANDALL, SAMUEL JACKsoN, Democratic leader;
was born at Philadelphia, Oct. 10, 1828. He received
an academic education and engaged in business in his
native city. For four years he was a member of the
city councils, and in 1858 was elected to the Pennsyl-
vania State Senate. In 1862 he was elected to Con-
gress as a Democrat, and he has served continuously
since that time, being sometimes elected without op-
position. When in 1875 the Democratic party for
the first time after the civil war obtained a majority in
the House of Representatives, Michael C. Kerr was
chosen speaker, and on his death in 1876 Mr. Randall
became his successor. As such he used his influence
in guiding the House through the dangerous crisis pro-
duced by the uncertainty of the Presidential election
in that year. He favored the formation of an electoral
commission to decide the points in dispute, and was
successful in having its judgment accepted by the
House. His ability as Speaker gave him prominence
also as a candidate for the Democratic nomination to
the Presidency in more than one National Convention.
He continued to be Speaker until 1881, when the
House passed again under the control of the Republi-
cans. Financial questions have always received his
especial attention. In 1883 the Democrats were again
in power, but they chose Mr. John G. Carlisle speaker.
The change of leaders indicated the progress of the
party in the direction of tariff reduction. Mr. Randall
has always advocated a tariff for revenue with inci-
dental protection. Mr. Carlisle represents the tendency
towards a tariff for revenue only. Mr. Randall's abil-
ity as a leader was still acknowledged so far that he was
made chairman of the important committee on appro-
priations. In the closing hours of the 48th Congress,
on March 4, 1885, his force of character and parlia-
mentary skill enabled him to secure the placing of
Gen. U. S. Grant's name on the retired list of the
army. In the summer of 1888 he performed a sim-
ilar act in having the rank of general restored in
order that the dying soldier, P. H. Sheridan, might
be promoted to it. After Pres. Cleveland's elec-
tion, towards which Mr. Randall had contributed, he
seemed to have the favor of the administration. When
the increasing surplus in the U. S. treasury demanded
legislative action he prepared a bill for moderate re-
duction in the tariff, and the removal to a great extent
of the internal revenue system. Mr. Cleveland, how-
ever, steadily urged his party toward the single object
of tariff reduction, and Mr. Randall became isolated.
The number of Protection Democrats in the House
was reduced to a handful, and Mr. Randall was silenced
in the party councils. Worn out with labor, he was
attacked with sudden illness in August, 18SS, and com-
pelled to retire to recruit his strength. Yet such was
his hold on his own district that amid the heat of a
Presidential campaign there was no opposition from
either party to his re-election. (J. P. L.)
RANDOLPH. Of the Virginians of this name the
most famous, John Randolph of Roanoke (l773–
1833), is sketched in the ENCYolop. EDIA BRITANNICA.
312
RANGABE–RANKE.
PEYTON RANDOLPH (1723–1775) graduated at Wil-
liam and Mary College, and having studied law at the
Temple, London, was made king's attorney-general in
1748. His sympathies were with the people during
the conflict which soon arose with the British govern-
ment. In the House of Burgesses in 1764 he drew up
the address in opposition to the Stamp Act. When
elected speaker of the House he resigned the office he
held from the king, lest it should interfere with his
duty to the people. But his brother John (1728–
1784) was of a different mind and readily accepted the
place. Peyton was chairman of the patriots' commit-
tee of correspondence in 1773, and when the first
Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia in
September, 1774, was chosen its president. In every
movement in Virginia for the rights of the people he
was foremost. While attending Congress in Phila-
dºia, he died of apoplexy, Oct. 22, 1775.
is nephew, EDMUND RANDOLPH (1753–1813),
suffered for his patriotism by being disinherited by his
loyalist father, who suffered in turn for his loyalty by
being compelled to seek refuge in England. Edmund,
however, succeeded his father as attorney-general, was
delegate to Congress, 1779–82, and governor of Virginia,
1786–88. While holding this office he took part in
framing the Constitution of the United States, though
the draft which he had originally prepared was not
accepted by the convention. (See "CoNSTITUTION
OF THE UNITED STATES.) He refused to sign the
Constitution when completed, but urged its ratifi-
cation in the Virginia Convention. He had been
one of Washington's aides during the Revolutionary
war, and in 1789 was appointed by him attorney-
eneral of the United States. When Jefferson retired
rom the cabinet in 1794, Randolph, who had also
countenanced Genet's projects, was appointed secretary
of state, but in the next year he was compelled to re-
tire in consequence of charges based on a letter from
the French minister Fauchet, which was intercepted.
translated, and published by the British. Randolph's
|Windication (1795) did not suffice to restore his repu-
tation. He died in Frederick county, Va., Sept. 12,
1813. Wirt in his British Spy gives a sketch of his
person and services, and Moncure D. Conway, in his
Omitted Chapters of History Disclosed in the Life and
Papers of Edmund Randolph (1888), makes a strong
effort to retrieve and restore his reputation. In this
work the original of Fauchet's letter was published for
the first time.
THOMAS MANN RANDOLPH (1770–1828) was a son-
in-law of Pres. Jefferson, served in Congress dur-
ing his administration, and was colonel in the war of
1812–15. In 1819 he was elected governor of Virginia.
He died at Monticello, June 20, 1828.
His son, GEORGE WYTHE RANDOLPH (1820–1867),
was educated at the University of Virginia and entered
the U. S. navy, but was afterwards a lawyer at Rich-
mond. He was a brigadier-general in the Confederate
army, and in March, 1862, was made secretary of war
in the Confederate government. In 1863 he went to
France as agent of the treasury. After the war he
returned and died in Albemarle co., Va., April 4,
1867.
RANGABE, ALEXANDER RIzos, a Greek poet and
statesman, was born at Constantinople in 1810, of a
distinguished Fanariote family. His father was noted
as a poet and had translated into modern Greek the
AEneid and some French dramas, and also published
an able work on the geography and history of Greece.
The son was educated in the military school at Munich
and at the end of 1829 went to Greece, where he
served in the artillery. In 1832 he was appointed to a
position in the department of public instruction. In
i841 he was made director of the royal press and in
1842 he was employed in the department of the inte-
rior. In 1845 he was made professor of archaeology in
the University of Athens, and, founded and edited
some literary and political journals. He was minister
of foreign affairs, 1856–59, and in 1867 he was sent as
ambassador to the United States. Afterwards he was
minister to France, Turkey, and finally Germany. As a
representative of the Greek government he attended the
Berlin Congress in 1878. Besides lyrical poems he has
published a number of dramas relating to various
epochs of Greek history, and translations from the
ancient tragedians and Plutarch, as well as from
Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare, and other modern
writers. He has also published in French a History of
Modern Greek Literature (1877).
RANKE, LEOPOLD von (1795–1886), the distin-
guished German historian, was born Dec. 21, 1795, at
Wiehe, in Prussian Saxony. He received his univer-
sity training at Leipsic, where he studied Thucydides
under Hermann and was attracted by the labors of
Niebuhr and Savigny. In 1818 he became an instruc-
tor in the gymnasium at Frankfort, and in 1825 he
was called to the University of Berlin as professor
extraordinary of history. He was raised to the pro-
fessorship in 1834. He had already entered the wider
field in which he won enduring fame, and had pub-
lished one volume of a History of the Romance and
German Nations (1824). He declared his design to
show the fundamental unity of modern European
civilization, while yet tracing the mixture of the Ro-
mance and German elements. This volume covered
the period of the Italian wars from 1494 to 1535. His
original plan was then so far modified that the histories
of the different states were treated independently. In
an appendix to his first volume he had given a critical
estimate of the authorities for the period, and had
pointed out the importance of careful examination of
diplomatic documents. The thorough sifting of
statements previously accepted and the elucidation of
what had remained obscure were the features of the
new method to which he remained faithful through
life. The government of Prussia gave him aid in
carrying out his views and authorized him to make re-
searches in Vienna, Venice. Florence, and Rome. The
first instalment of his new series appeared in 1827,
giving the history of the Turks and Spain in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries. His attention to
the main work was varied with monographs on Servian
and Venetian history and lectures on Italian poetry.
For a few years Ranke was associated with Savigny in
editing a historical magazine, but from 1836 he de-
voted himself to original work. His labors on the
history of the papacy, Die Römische Papste ; ihre
Kirche und ihr Staat (3 vols., 1834–37), gave him fame
not merely in Germany but throughout Europe.
Though not his best work it has been most widely
circulated. It reached its eighth edition in 1885, and
had in the meantime been translated into English by
Miss Austin (1840) and into other languages. Its
effect was to reveal to Protestant Christendom the true
character and extent of what Ranke named the
Counter-Reformation. This effect is graphically pre-
sented in Macaulay's admirable review.
In his subsequent works the historian turned from
the South of Europe, dominated by Catholicism, to
the North, where the Reformation had prevailed. His
work here was even more important, though less
widely appreciated. First came Germany, treated in
his Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitaſter der Reformation
(6 vols., 1839–47), and then more particularly Prussia
in the Premissische Geschichte (3 vols., 1847–48 ; subse-
quently enlarged, 1871–74). Ranke had been appointed
historiographer of Prussia in 1841, and he amply re-
paid the favor which he had ever received from its
royal family. Still pursuing his plan of giving elabo-
rate histories of the several European states, he next
published the history of France (5 vols., 1852–61),
and that of England (6 vols., 1859–67; afterwards
extended to 9 vols., 1877–79). He was allowed to
retire from duty as professor in 1871, and immediately
set about a thorough revision of his works, a collected
edition of which had already appeared in 48 vol-
RANSOM-RANUNCULUS.
313
umes (1867). But the learned and vigorous old man
was not content with this recast of modern history :
at the age of eighty he boldly essayed to tell in his own
thoroughly scientific way the history of the world from
the dawn of civilization. He lived to complete twelve
volumes of his Weltgeschichte, bringing the narrative
down to the Middle Ages. This wonderful work
shows no diminution of his intellectual force.
The celebration of various events in academic career
gave opportunity for the government and others to
bestow on him marks of honor. In March, 1865, he
was raised to knighthood ; in September, 1867, he was
made chancellor of the order pour le mérite ; in Feb-
ruary 1882, he was made a privy councillor with the
title Excellency; in 1885 his ninetieth birthday was
celebrated amid general rejoicings, and the aged Em-
peror Wilhelm gave the special mark of his esteem by
calling upon his illustrious subject. The historian re-
sumed his pen and labored till within a few days of his
death, which occurred on May , 1886.
Besides the works already mentioned, Ranke edited
the Correspondence of Frederick William IV. with
Chevalier Bunsen (1873), and the Memoirs of Count
Von Hardenberg (1876–77), and published several
treatises on important epochs in German history and
a volume of Biographical Studies (1877). The full
list of his works is marvellous, even when his prolonged
studious life is duly considered. He abstained from
controversy and contented himself with silent correc-
tion of proved error. He refused to fritter away his
time in correspondence, though he occasionally indulged
in agreeable relaxation in society. the utmost
importance was his example of patient, indefatigable
investigation as the essential preliminary of genuine
history. He was successful in attracting to this de-
partment the best minds among those who waited
upon his instructions. Nor was his influence in this
regard confined to Berlin or even to Germany. Re-
cent historians in England and France have evidently
been benefited by his guidance. In his earlier works,
since his conclusions were often at variance with those
of his predecessors who had not access to the same
wealth of documentary evidence, he often felt obliged
to fortify his statements by copious citations from
original sources. In his later works such authorities
were weighed more carefully, and somewhat more
Scope was given to the historic imagination which he
had iº, studiously repressed. He avoided as a
plague the generalizations characteristic of French
historians, though his writings exhibit a vivacity be-
yond the usual reach of the German mind. He takes
rank in the highest class of German historians, though
possibly through the necessary limits of his method
he has not attained the yet higher place of the univer-
Sally acknowledged masters of historic art. (J. P. L.)
RANSOM, MATT WHITAKER, general and senator,
was born in Warren co., N. C., Oct. S, 1826. He gradu-
ated at the University of North Carolina in 1847, and
was then admitted to the bar. From 1852 to 1855
he was State attorney-general and in 1858 he was
elected to the State Legislature. He attended the
Confederate Congress at Montgomery, Ala., in 1861,
and soon after entered the Confederate army as
lieutenant-colonel. He served throughout the war
and attained the rank of major-general. He was
elected to the U. S. Senate in 1872, and has since
been twice re-elected.
RANSOM, THOMAS EDWARD GREENFIELD (1834–
1864), one of the bravest generals in the American civil
War, was born Nov. 29, 1834, at Norwich, Vt. He was
educated in that city at the military institute, con-
ducted by his father, Col. Truman B. Ransom, who
Was killed in the Mexican war. The son afterwards
Went to Illinois and became a civil engineer and real
estate agent. On the outbreak of the war he raised
a company of volunteers and was appointed major
ºf the 11th Illinois Regiment. After gallant service
in Missouri he was engaged in the capture of Forts
VOI, IV.-U
Henry and Donelson. Though wounded at the latter,
he took part in the battle of Shiloh six weeks later,
In June, 1862, Gen. McClernand appointed him chief
of his staff and inspector-general of the Army of the
Tennessee. He was appointed brigadier-general in
November, 1862, and his services in Mississippi in the
next year called forth high commendations. In his
Personal Memoirs Gen. Grant speaks of Ransom as
a “most gallant and intelligent volunteer officer,” and
says that after the siege of Vicksburg he was well
qualified to command a corps. Ransom was in Banks
Red River campaign, and for a time had command of
McClernand's corps. He was again wounded at Sabine
Cross-Roads in April, 1864, but he recovered in time
to lead a division in the campaign against Atlanta.
Here he succeeded to , the command of the 17th
corps. His ardor led him to overtask his body, en-
feebled by illness, and he died at Rome, Ga., Oct. 29,
1864. Throughout his brief career he was distin-
guished not only for military ability and energy but for
the highest Christian character.
RANUNCULUS, a genus of plants, comprising the
well-known Buttercup or Crowfoot. The natural or-
der Ranunculaceae consists of plants having a separate
calyx and corolla, the petals usually numerous, hypog-
ynous, with numerous stamens, and the pistils all
distinct and unconnected. Ranunculus has the petals
imbricated in the bud, not valvate as in Anemome, and
is well characterized by the solitary erect seed and a
scale or pore inside the petal at the base. Represent-
atives of the genus are found over the cooler parts of
Europe, Asia, and America and in the mountainous
parts of warmer latitudes, about one-third existing
either as natives or in-
troduced species in the
United States. In moun-
tainous regions the flow-
ers of some species are
larger than the common
field-buttercup, while the
plants are much dimin-
ished in size, as most
Arctic plants are. The
name “Crowfoot '' is
derived from Ranunculus
Asiaticus, which has a
cluster of small black
roots not unlike the foot
of a crow. As often
happens in such cases,
the name has crept over
the whole genus, embrac-
ing those with fibrous
and bulbous roots as well
as those of the original crowfoot style. In the United
States “Crowfoot” is not often used as a common
appellation, “Buttereup” having gained the popular
appreciation. The origin of this common name is un-
certain, but perhaps the butter-colored flower-cup may
have been quite sufficient to suggest the name. The
generic name, Ranunculus, denotes a little frog or tad-
pole, the connection between the two not being appar.
ent, except that this plant, like many others, is found
in marshy places.
Two of the leading Buttercups of Europe have
tourished by introduction to the New World. In the
New England States Ranunculus acris has found itself
gompletely at home, and is one of the worst weeds the
farmer has to contend with. Farther south, Ranun.
culus bulbosis is the prevailing Buttercup. R. repens
is occasionally found. R. sceleratus, named from its
excessiº aerid qualities, as its specific name implies,
the "Cursed Buttercup " or “Crowfoot, is found
only abundantly along water-courses.
Ranunculus.
The acrid, property is a strong characteristic of the
genus. Before cantharides was introduced it was in
general use for raising blisters. Cattle feeding on the
leaves get sore mouths and often ulcerated intestines.

314 RAPHALL–RASPBERRY,
In the hands of careful practitioners the various species
still, serve useful purposes in medicine. In pasture.
lands they cause great loss to the agriculturist from the
amount of ground lost by their occupancy. The plant
loses much of its acridity by drying, so that it is not as
objectionable in hayfields as in pastures. It is easily
destroyed by ploughing up the pasture-ground and
putting it for a season in corn or potatoes. Most of
the kinds growing wholly in water are free from
agridity. R. aquatilis is a favorite food of cattle in
Europe, and they thrive on it. Like most plants of
this acrid character, the bitter property is removed by
boiling; when cooked many species are eaten as
greens in the Old World. None of the truly indige-
nous specimens have obtruded themselves on the no-
tice of the agriculturist in the United States. In Cal-
ifornia, R. Californicus, a species having some affinity
to the R. acris of Europe, is very abundant in the
Coast ranges, so much so that the low grassy hills are
often yellow with the shining flowers in early spring.
T. M.
RAPHALL, MoRRIs JACOB (1798–1868), § *
rabbi, was born at Stockholm, Sweden, in September,
1798. He was educated at a Jewish college in Copen-
hagen, and in 1812 went to England for further study.
After a Continental tour he spent three years at the
University of Giessen, and in 1825 settled in England.
In 1832 he began to deliver in London lectures on the
Post-Biblical history of the Jews, and in 1834 he estab-
lished the Hebrew Review, in which he published
translations from the works of Maimonides and other
celebrated rabbis as well as original poems and
sketches. In 1840 he visited Syria on a mission to
the Jews, and in 1841 he was called to be rabbi of a
synagogue at Birmingham. He was prominent in va-
rious movements for the advancement of his race. In
1849 he was called to New York to be pastor of the
congregation B'nai Jeshurun, and here became noted
for his oratorical ability. He died June 23, 1868.
His most noted work is the Post-Biblical History of
the Jews (2 vols., 1856). He also published some de-
votional treatises.
RAPP, GEORGE (1770–1847), the founder of the
Communistic religious sect of Harmonists, was a na-
tive of Würtemberg, Germany, born in 1770. While
still a youth he believed that he had experienced a
divine call and was charged with the restoration of the
Christian religion to its pristine purity. He did not
long confine his efforts to spiritual instruction, but
formed a plan of a community to be modelled on the
system of the primitive church, all goods to be the
common property of the association. In the realiza-
tion of this project he found himself so hampered by
state interference in Germany that he resolved to
emigrate to America, where he hoped to be able to
carry out his plans without official opposition. He
reached this country in 1803, accompanied by a band
of believers in his religious, social, and political views,
and in 1805 founded the town of Harmony, on Cone-
quenessing Creek, Butler county, Pa., where the
community engaged successfully in agriculture and
manufacture. ‘. 1815 they removed to a new location
on the Wabash River, Ind., where a tract of 27,000
acres was obtained, and a settlement started under the
name of New Harmony. Here the Harmonists be-
came involved in pecuniary difficulties, and in 1824
sold this land and improvements to Robert Owen,
who wished to try a socialistic experiment on a differ-
ent plan. Rapp and his followers returned to Penn-
sylvania, and founded towns called Economy and
Harmony, in . Beaver county, on the banks of the
Allegheny, 17 miles northwest of Pittsburg. Rapp
died here on August 7, 1847, but the community is
still in existence. It owns 3500 acres of land, and in
addition to agriculture is engaged in silk, woollen, and
cotton manufacture. The industry and morality of
the members of the community have gained it general
esteem, and it stands as one of the few communistic
experiments that have had any measure of success.
(See CoMMUNISM.) (C. M.)
RASPAIL, FRANÇois VINCENT (1794–1878), a
French scientist and revolutionary politician, was born
at Carpentras in the department of Vaucluse, France,
Jan. 29, 1794, and attained the chair of philosophy in
the college of his native place. He was called to pro-
nounce the oration there on the anniversary of the
battle of Austerlitz, and this, on being submitted to
Napoleon, elicited the remark : “Surveillez ce jeune
homme, ilira loin.” In 1815 he hailed with joy the
return of the Emperor and composed a song which
Was, sung with enthusiasm everywhere. Removing
to Paris in 1816 he took part in all the plots of the
Restoration-period. In the Revolution of July, 1830, he
was severely wounded. Later he was instrumental in
founding the club of “The Friends of the People,”
and wrote a number of fugitive pieces against the
July government, for which he suffered an imprison-
ment of 15 months. On the compulsory dissolution
of “The Friends of the People” in 1832, he took
K. in founding “The Society of the Rights of
Tan.” For a time he studied law, but, disgusted
with its dry details, he turned from it and gave himself
with enthusiasm to the natural sciences. His scientific
writings of this earlier period were devoted to organic
microscopic chemistry and to vegetable physiology.
Beside general treatises he published Histoire Natur-
elle de l'Insect de Gale (Paris, 1834).
On the outbreak of the riots of April, 1834, he was
again made prisoner, but being released after a short
captivity he founded a revolutionary daily paper, Le
Ičeformateur, which lived about a year. Raspail now
devoted himself with redoubled zeal to science, and mas
tured his camphor-system of medicine, proclaiming
camphor as a specific against the germs of all, or most,
Zymotic diseases. This theory was set forth in his
Histoire Naturelle de la Santé et de la Maladie (3 vols.,
1839–46) and in several medical annuals which had
extensive sale. On Feb. 24, 1848, at the head of a riot-
ous mob, he stormed his way into the council chamber
of the Provisional Government in the Hôtel de Ville,
and compelled this body to proclaim the Republic.
On February 27 appeared the first number of his Ami.
du Peuple, whose teachings he enforced by the estab-
lishment of a revolutionary propaganda through clubs
of the “Friends of the People.” Again, on May 15,
he invaded the sitting of the National Assembly.
Brought for this outrage along with Blanqui and
other ringleaders before the high court of justice in
Bourges, he was sentenced to six years' imprisonment
in the citadel of Doullen. This confinement like the
many others he had to undergo he utilized for the
purposes of science, producing in his cell several of
his most valuable works. In 1853 the Imperial gov-
ernment permitted him to exchange imprisonment for
exile, and he settled in a village in Belgium. Elected
a member of the Legislative Corps in 1869, he at-
tached himself to the party of the extreme left and
associated especially with Rochefort (q. v.). In 1876
he was chosen a member of the Chamber of Deputies.
He died Feb. 8, 1878, at Arcueil near Paris. Besides
almanacs and scientific and medical reviews he pub-
lished Reformes sociales (1872).
His son, BENJAMIN FRANÇois RASPAIL, born at
Paris, Aug. 16, 1823, has trod in his father's footsteps.
In 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly,
but being proscribed in 1851, sought refuge in Belgium
and did not return to France till 1863. In 1876 he
was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, where he
took his place on the extreme left.
RASPBERRY, a member of the botanical genus
Rubus, order Rosaceae. The species of this genus,
commonly known as brambles, are divided into two
sections—the blackberry, in which the receptacle is
non-persistent, juicy, and becomes part of the fruit,
and the raspberry, with a persistent, dry receptacle,
from which the fruit separates when ripe. The genus
315
RASSAM—RATIONALISM.
is made up of shrubs and a few herbaceous, perennial
plants, mostly with compound leaves, the fruit being
one-seeded, pulpy drupes, which cohere in a head or
cluster above the open calyx. The species of Rubus
are very variable, there having been more than 500
described, though there are probably not over 100 good
species. -
The Eastern United States have two very common
species, R. Strigosus, the red, and R. occidentalis,
the black raspberry, which yield favorite fruit in the
wild state, and both of which are cultivated. These
species have biennial, woody, and prickly stems, the
leaves having 3 to 5 leaflets. The red raspberry ex-
tends from Newfoundland to Oregon, and southward
to the Middle States. . It has upright, prickly stems,
and propagates itself by underground runners, which
send up suckers from which new plants rise. These
grow to a height of 5 or 6 feet in one season, bear
fruit the next, and then die. This species abounds in
the North, particularly on new clearings. Its fruit is
of a light red color, and is yielded in profusion all sum-
mer. It is nearly, or quite, identical with R. Idaeus,
the European garden raspberry.
The black raspberry is more southerly in its range,
and extends as far as Georgia. Its fruit is black in
color, ripens in July, and is drier than the red berry.
Its mode of growth is different, as it makes no suckers,
the new shoots springing from the base of the old
plant. Late in summer the branches, which become
very long, bend over till their tips touch the ground,
when they take root and yield new plants. In cultiva-
tion the bending tips are covered lightly with earth.
This species, known as black-cap and thinbleberry, is
common around old stumps and in fence-corners.
When cultivated in deep, loamy soil the fruit increases
nearly one-quarter in size. •
There are several interesting American species be-
longing to another section of the raspberry group, in
which the plants are not prickly, have simple leaves
and large flowers, and the fruit is very broad and flat.
The most interesting of these is R. odoratus, the
rose-flowering, or the Virginia raspberry, as it is called
in England. The flower is of a rich, rose-purple color,
about 2 inches across : the fruit sometimes an inch
broad, dry, but of pleasing flavor. This species is
found in rocky places, from Canada to Georgia. Other
Species are R. Nutkanus, the white-flowering rasp-
berry of the north-east coasts; R. deliciosus, the
Røgky Mountain raspberry, a species with very large,
white flowers, and fruit of indifferent flavor ; and R.
chamamorus, the cloud-berry, a creeping plant of the
Arctic regions of Europe and America.
Of cultivated raspberries, one of the best varieties
is the Hudson River Antwerp, a red variety of sup-
posed European origin, which is grown abundantly
along that river, and supplies the New York market.
The Philadelphia raspberry is another prolific bearer,
not of best quality, yet a profitable variety. Other
favorite varieties of the red berry are the Cuthbert and
the Hansell ; of the black, the Gregg, which yields
large fruit of excellent flavor and in great quantity.
Of the yellow varieties, the Caroline and Brinckle's
Orange rank among the best. In some sections the
raspberry is less hardy than the blackberry, and it is
best to cover the cultivated varieties for the winter
With from 3 to 6 inches of corn-stalks, straw, etc. The
fruit of the raspberry is too well known to need re-
marks. It forms an excellent dessert fruit, of sub-
Acid flavor, and is much used in making conserves, jel-
lies, and other delicacies for the table and sick-room.
and an agreeable summer beverage known as raspberry
Vinegar. (C. M.)
RASSAM, HoRMUZD, an Assyrian explorer, was
born in 1826, at Mosul, on the Tigris, opposite the
ruins of Nineveh. He was of native biji. de-
sºut, but his family became connected by marriage
With that of Rev. George Percy Badger (d. c.). He
assisted Layard in his explorations of Nineveh in isº,
and accompanied him to Fº where Rassam pur-
sued a regular course of study at Oxford. In 1849 he
returned to Mesopotamia to prosecute further the ex-
cavations at Nineveh, and when Mr. Layard withdrew
from the work Mr. Rassam became the superintendent
in behalf of the British Museum. After his return to
England, in 1854, he was employed by the British
government at Aden, and in 1864 he was despatched
to Abyssinia to procure the release of Consul Qam-
eron. He was, however, himself seized by King Theo-
dore, and kept prisoner for nearly two years, until the
close of i. Napier's campaign, in April, 1868. Ras-
sam published a Narrative of the British Mission to
Theodore, King of Abyssinia (2 vols., 1869). After
the death of George Smith, the Chaldaean explorer,
Rassam was chosen, in 1876, to succeed him in his
work under a liberal firman obtained from the Turkish
government. Among his discoveries were the bronze
gates of Balawat, 22 feet high, bearing memorials of
the wars of Shalmanezer II., which, with other treas-
ures, were safely deposited in the British Museum.
Again, in 1878, Rassam was sent to make new explora-
tions in other parts of the Turkish dominions in Asia.
He was engaged in these archaeological researches until
July, 1882, having explored the ruins of Sipar, the
Sepharvaim of the Bible, and of the Babylonian
Certha.
RAT. The two species of rat most common in the
United States are the brown rat and
*...* *. black rat described in the ENCYCLOPE-
Knie'. DIA BRITANNICA. The general char-
acters of the rats, and the relationship
of their genera and specie to each other and to the
other rodents, are stated in the same work in the article
MoUSE. There are, however, native American species
of rat, all of which are sigmodont, rather than strictly
murine, in their dentition. The old-world species, and
especially the brown rat (miscalled Norway rat), are
rapidly displacing the native species. The cotton-rat
of the Southern States (Sigmodon hispidus) is the
best known of our native rats. It is smaller than the
common brown rat, and much less fierce and aggres-
sive. (See CoTTON RAT.) The Florida wood-rat
(Neotoma floridana) is a large and handsome creature,
with soft and delicate fur, which ought to have a com-
mercial value. The squirrel-tailed wood-rat of the
Rocky Mountains is very remarkable for its habit of
building a great nest or house of sticks and brush,
often in some tree or clump of large shrubs. This
creature is a great thief, and is one of the pests of the
frontiersman's life, carrying away to its secret stores
towels, spoons, knives, soap, or any portable article
not too large for it to handle. Its flesh is said to be
Very palatable, more so, than that of any squirrel or
rabbit. Not unfrequently various species of the mouse
kind quarter themselves as guests in the commodious
house of this curious wood-rat, where they appear to
be well received, South America has quite a number
of large rat-like rodents, for the most part little
known to science. (C. W. G.)
RATIONALISM. As intimated in the ENoyoto-
P:EDIA BRITANNICA, this term is capa-
See Vol. XX. * - - º * * •
p. 289 (p. 301 ble of a much wider º than is
Am. Rep.). there discussed. Lecky, whose His-
tory of Rationalism in Europe is one
of the most widely read books of modern times, thus
states his own conception of a proper use of the
term ...” It [rationalism] leads men on all occasions to
subordinate dogmatic theology to the dictates of reason
and of conscience, and, as a necessary consequence,
greatly to restrict its influence upon life. It predis.
poses men in history to attribute all kinds of phenomena
to natural rather than miraculous causes; in theology,
to esteem, succeeding systems the expression of the
Wants and aspirations of that religious sentiment which
| is º in all men; and in ethies to regard as duties
only those which conseience reveals to be such.”
This will be recognized as a marked departure from
316
RATIONALISM.
the definition accorded to the term “rationalism ''
by the earlier writers on the subject. In itself it is an
indication of a modified process on the part of ration-
alists, while the domain of their inquiry and investiga-
tion is enlarged. To its progress is assigned the credit
of sweeping away faith in magic and witchcraft, of de-
stroying fetishism and faith in miracle, anthropomor-
phism, relic-worship, and finally persecution itself.
These beneficent results are ascribed to rationalism,
which owed its power in England largely to the reaction
against Puritanism, the influence of Hobbes, and the
Baconian philosophy, as represented by the Royal So-
Clety.
Rationalism, however, in its proper interpretation
and ultimate analysis, elevates the reason as the sole
arbiter in religion, and, by a necessary consequence,
denies to the historian the use of facts and to the eth-
ical inquirer the use of emotions or of conscience.
Certain a priori truths determine everything else. It
is not difficult to see that such a narrow basis in phi-
losophy or in theology must sooner or later reveal its
insufficiency. Applied to statesmanship, it would de-
mand that in government all the fruits of history
should be ignored ; to political economy it would deny
the records of markets; and to religion everything of
an experimental and emotional character. In short,
its opponents claim that it is equally inconsistent to
relegate the ultimate appeal in matters of religion
solely to reason, as it would be to confine our judgment
of the properties of matter to any one of the five
senses, excluding the others.
Lecky's definition, given above, is an indication of
the extent to which rationalists themselves have de-
arted from the early principles of a rationalistic phi-
osophy, and have attempted to bring to their aid other
powers than those of reason alone.
The root of modern rationalism is probably to be
sought in the Cartesian philosophy. Des Cartes' Syl-
logism of universal doubt could not help, Sooner or
later, invading the realm of theology, and we are not
surprised to find him followed by philosophers of his
own school, who claim for reason a place as infallible
as is accorded to the Divine Creator of reason.
The rationalism of Germany owed its remarkable
prevalence to several concurrent causes. The mysti-
cism of the Pietists on the one hand contributed to
bring the stricter forms of orthodoxy into contempt,
Prominent theologians, like Michael Lang of Altdorf,
J. Lange and Rambach, claimed for the witness of the
Spirit a superior place to the teachings of dogmatic
theology. The “inner spark,” the “inner word,” be-
came a substitute for system and creed, until serious
and devout men began to feel that uncertainty rested
upon all religious conclusions. The Bible itself was
regarded as of so little authority that to the cultured
and learned men of the time it was little better than
a book of fable. tº , tº
This result had been hastened by the demoralization
consequent upon the Thirty Years' war, which debased
the nobles and the masses alike, so that infidelity be-
came almost universal. Then came German Idealism,
with its beautiful but deceptive promise, and under
Kant sought to counteract the method pursued by
Voltaire and Wolney, and the French Encyclopaedists.
It was designed to oppose the deists on the one hand
and the supernaturalists on the other, and to establish
its principles on the basis of the superiority of reason
to revelation, while the fact of the existence of a cred-
ible revelation was assumed. Semler, J. G. Michaelis,
and J. G. Eichhorn were among the early theologians
to apply this philosophy to theology. Of these, Eich-
horn may be regarded as the most important. Writer.
He developed his principles in his Universal Library
of Biblical Literature (10 vols., Leipšic, 1788–1801),
and in his Introduction to the Old and New Testaments,
which appeared in 7 volumes, at Gottingen, in 1824.
Singularly enough, , the philosophers whose meta-
physics furnished the basis for these theological con-
clusions, like Fichte and Schelling, do not hesitate to
Stigmatize the work of these rationalists as common-
place and vulgar. The greatest, and by all means the
most powerful, exponent of the school of rationalism
was Dr. H. E. G. Paulus (1761–1851). He held that
we must discriminate between statements of facts and
of opinions in the Bible. A fact is that which has
occurred within their experience ; an opinion is their
expression of the conditions under which it occurred.
As these are naturally and necessarily confused in Bible
records, it is the duty of the critic te separate them.
Of course, all supernatural or divine interference is
denied and miracles are discredited. Christ, according
to this view, was not divine, but he was a wise and vir-
tuous man. He wrought no miracles—what appeared
such were simple events, easily explained. The heal-
ing of the blind was due to an efficacious powder se-
cretly applied to the eyes. The transmuting of the
water into wine never occurred—Christ simply had his
disciples bring wine, where nothing but water had been
provided. Peter sold a fish, and thus secured the
money for tribute, etc. These are given simply as
illustrations of that form of rationalism which sought
its basis in the ideal philosophy. According to its
theories, truth was to be sought not by empirical pro-
cesses at all, but in the line of certain a priori princi-
ples by which all truth is to be judged. Guided by
these principles, the rationalists sought to explain the
truths of theology. Some doctrines of Christianity
were allegorized, many others were swept away alto-
gether.
The German idealists, of whom Kant was incom-
parably the greatest, were succeeded in their influence
upon theological thought by Frederick Henry Jacobi
(1743–1819), one of the most powerful thinkers of any
time. He insisted that all knowledge communicated
to us by the understanding (reason) is contingent, and
never universal, infinite, or purely philosophical. To
demonstrate any truth we must infer it from another
and so on to an infinite series. All human knowledge,
he insisted, depends at last on faith or intuition.
Sensation itself, he affirms, is a mystery and our
knowledge of it rests on our faith in our memory of its
presence. God, providence, freedom, moral distinc-
tions, are ideas that do not come to us by proofs.
They are ours by intuition. It is by the twofold office
of this faculty therefore that we cognize two worlds—
the whole material of truth comes within the scope of
our knowledge and man is thus prepared to approach
the questions of this world and of the world to come ;
“the immediate certainty of feeling '' was empha-
sized, and it was claimed that every perception proved
something actual present, whose existence and condi-
tions were independent of our internal laws and facul-
ties. He was followed by Bouterwek, Krug, Fries,
Schlegel, Novalis, Schubert, Baader, and others who
pursued his principles with varying success. Greatest
among all those who availed themselves of the fruits
of his philosophy was F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–
1834). This wonderful philosopher and divine, while
he is properly classified as a modified rationalist,
wrought effectively to save theology from the destruct-
ive tendencies of his predecessors. He gave to German
thought an uplifting that prepared it for Hase's Hut-
terus Redivīvus, which was the deathblow to German
Rationalism and so effectively destroyed it that instead
of being recognized as scientific it is henceforth distin-
guished as “Rationalismus Vulgaris.”
The writings of Strauss and Renan seem to proceed
upon the basis of an endeavor to find at the bottom of
the Gospel narrative some veritable history. In the
work of Strauss there is an attempt to explain by what
is known as the mythical theory the prevalent beliefs
of Christianity. According to him Christ really lived
and taught and died, but his disciples innocently poet-
ized his life, and having been rudely shocked by his
dying, were really comforted by the mistaken belief
that he had risen from the dead. These myths which
RATTLESNAKE–RAUMER.
317
constitute the Gospel history were according to Strauss
not invented by any single individual, but were the
offshoot of the collective impression of a community
or communities of people.
According to Renan these accounts were rather the
transfiguration of fact than a pure creation of pious
enthusiasm. Christ's disciples, partly through pious
fraud and partly by blind enthusiasm, secured the ap-
pearance of the miraculous, to which deception Christ
interposed no objection. The resurrection of Lazarus
was a pretended resurrection contrived by Christ's
disciples for popular effect, to which Jesus reluctantly
yielded his assent and pretended agency., .
But these later authors have exercised little perma-
nent influence, and their writings are interesting chiefly
as they relate to the history of rationalism. Theodore
Parker (1810–1860) is the only American of promi-
mence whose name is associated with rationalism, but
his position is so imperfectly defined that such a class-
ification may at least be said to be doubtful. (See
PARKER, THEODORE, in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
NICA.)
The present time seems to be marked by an attempt
to use the word Rationalism in a broader sense than
has been attributed to it in the philosophic movements
of the past. It is neither naturalism, rationalism in its
narrowest sense, nor supernaturalism, all of which have
been included in one classification by some of the
writers on this subject. The claim which is made under
this term in its latest use embraces all progress by
which the world has emancipated itself from supersti-
tion and error and come under the sway of enlightened
TeaSOI).
Whether the attempt to make it synonymous with a
true social economy, which is the essay of Lecky, shall
be successful or not remains yet to be determined.
Literature.—Bockshammer, Offenbarung wºnd Theologie
(Stuttgart, 1822); Cornil, Feuerbuch und seine Stellung zur
Religion whd Philosophie der Gegenwart (Frankfort a. d.
Main, 1851); Henhofer, Der Kampf des Unglaubens (Heid-
alberg, 1861); Hurter, Ueber die Rechte der Perm unft wind
des Glaubens (Innspruck, 1863); Clifford, M., A Treatise of
Human Reason (1675); Plain Dealing by A. M. (anon.), a
reply to above (London, 1675); Draper, J. W., Intel/ectual
Development of Europe (N. Y., 1863); Farrar, A. S., Free
Thought in Reference to the Christian Religion (London,
1863); Hurst, J. F. History of Rationalism (N. Y., 1866),
reviewed in Edin. Rev., v. 121, 1865; Fortnightly Rev., v. 1,
1865; Littell, 1866, v. 2 (by Geo. Eliot); Hedge, Reason in
Religion (Boston, 1865); Mackay, R. W., Tübingen School
and its Antecedents : Mackenzie, G., An Essay on Reason,
in Essays (1713); Mansel, H. L., Free Thinking, its History
and Tendencies, in his Letters, etc. (London, 1873), and
Limits of Religious Thought (N. Y., 1859); Tulloch, John,
Rationalism (Contem. Rev., v. 1, 1866), and Rational Theology
and Christian Philosophy in the 17th Century (Edin., 1874);
Fisher, G.P., Faith and Rationalism (N. Y., 1879); Lecky,
W. E. H., History of Rationalism (N. Y., 1878); Cook, j.
Scepticism and Rationalism (London, 1851); Salvagnini. O.
Cinque Contisti e Razionalisti (Firénze, 1879); 'Rosmini
Serbati, Il Razionalismo che tenta insinuarsi nelle scuole
teologiche additio in opusculi (Prato, 1822). (T. A. R. G.)
RATTLESNARE. See SNAREs.
RAU, CHARLEs (1826–1887), archaeologist, was born
at Vervien, Belgium, in 1826. After finishing his
education in Germany he returned to the United
States in 1848 and engaged in teaching. Becoming
deeply interested in American archaeology during his
residence in the West, he contributed on this subject
first to European periodicals, and from 1863 onward to
the reports of the Smithsonian Institution. For Har.
per's Magazine he wrote a series of articles on the
” Stone Age in Europe,” which afterwards formed the
Volume, Early Man in Europe (1876). In 1875 he
Was appointed a curator in the archaeological depart-
ment of the U. S. National Museum at Washington
and he held this post till his death. Besides some
Jhonographs he published a catalogue of the Museum
(1876), and several of his fifty papers were collected
under the title Articles on Anthropological Subjects
(1882). He died at Philadelphia, July 25, 1887, leav-
ing two works in an unfinished state. His eminence
as an anthropologist was widely recognized, as was
shown by his membership in all the European and
American archaeological and anthropological Societies.
RAUCH, FREDERICK AUGUSTUs (1806–1841), edu-
cator, was born at Kirchbracht, Hesse-Darmstadt,
July 27, 1806. He was educated at the Universities of
Marburg, Giessen and Heidelberg, and was for a
time professor in the last named. In 1831 he
removed to the United States, and entered the min-
istry of the German Reformed Church. He was,
however, chiefly engaged in educational work, bein
professor of German at Lafayette College, an
principal of academies at York and Mercersburg.
When a theological seminary was established at the
latter place he was made professor of Biblical litera-
ture in it, and when Marshall College was founded
there in 1836 he was made president. He died at
Mercersburg, March 2, 1841. His principal English
work is Psychology (1840).
RAUMER, FRIEDRICH LUDw1G GEORG von (1781–
1873), German historian, was born at Wörlitz, May
14, 1781. He studied law at the Universities of Halle
and Göttingen and had entered the Prussian civil
service, but in 1811 was made professor at Breslau and
in 1819 professor of political science and history at
Berlin. As early as 1806 he had published Sechs
Dialoge iber Krieg und Handel, and in 1810 Das
britannische Besteuerungsystem. In 1821 his lectures
on ancient history were published, and they passed
through four or five editions in his lifetime, as did also
his Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit (6
vols., 1823–25; 5th ed., 1878). This noted work
clearly displays his ability as a philosophic historian,
his masterly combination of insight with practical
experience. Von Raumer's interesting essays on the
Development of the Ideas of Law, the State and Poli-
tics first appeared in 1826, and the third edition in 1861.
After some Letters from Paris on the history of the
16th and 17th centuries, he undertook his great work
Geschichte Europas seit dem Ende des 15. Jahrhundert
(S vols., 1832–50). By translations of this work he is
chiefly known outside of Germany. It is second only
to the labors of Ranke in the same field. Von Raumer
was attracted to England by the historical treasures of
the British Museum and other repositories, and while
using these for essays he also published his impressions
of the country and people. He next visited ſtaly and
finally the United States. His description of the latter
of whose political institutions he was a warm admirer.
was published in 2 volumes at Leipsic in is 45. Two
years later he resigned his post as secretary and mem.
ber of the Berlin Academy on account of the unfa-
vorable reception of his address on Frederick II. He
was elected to the Frankfort national assembly in 184s
and joined the moderate conservatives. He had alsº
some diplomatic experience at Paris, of which he pub.
lished an account, and on his return became a mem.
ber of , the Prussian parliament. Although he re-
signed his professorship in 1853, he continued for some
time longer to give lectures. His later writings, be.
sides a Hand-book of the History of Literature (4 vols.
|S64–66), were chiefly letters and reminiscences, Hè
founded the Historische Taschenbuch (Series 1–4, 1830–
67), which was renewed in S71, and continued after
his death. He died at Berlin, June 14, 1873.
His brother, KARI, GEORG von RAuxier (17s5–
1865), scientist, was born April 9, 17S3, in Wörlitz,
near Dessau. He studied lay at Halle and Göttingen and
thereafter attended the Mining Academy at Freiberg,
on leaving which he made geognostic tours in Ger.
\many and France. From 1806 to Isil he filled several
legal offices, and in the latter year was appointed pro-
fessor of mineralogy at Breslau. In the German War
ºf liberation he served in 1813–14 as adjutant on
Blücher's general staff 3 in 1819 became a professor in
Halle; in 1823, a co-director of the Dittmarsch Edu-
3.18
AYLEIGH.
RAWLE–R
eational Institute, in Nuremberg; and finally, in 1827,
rofessor of mineralogy and natural history in the
- Iniversity of Erlangen. His geographical and geolog-
ical writings acquired wide fame. Among his works
may be noted : Geognostische Umrisse von Frankreich
und Gross Britannien (1816); Das Gebirge Nieder-
Schlesiens (1819); Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Geographie
(1832); Palästina (1835); Der Zug der Israeliten
(1837); Geschichte der Fädagogik (1842), which passed
through several editions ; Erinnerungen an die Frei-
heits-kriege (1850); Die Erziehung der Mädchen (1853).
He died at Erlangen, June 2, 1865, and his Autobiog-
raphy was published in 1866. His son, RUDOLF von
RAUMER. (1815–1876), was noted as a philologist, and
was professor of German language and literature at
Erlangen from 1852 till his death.
RAWLE, WILLIAM (1759–1836), jurist, was born at
Philadelphia, April 28, 1759. He was of Quaker
descent and studied law in New York, London, and
Paris. Returning to Philadelphia in 1783, he became
distinguished in his profession. In 1789 he was elected
to the Pennsylvania Legislature, and in 1791 he was
appointed U. S. district attorney. He held this office
eight years, having in the meantime declined the posi-
tion of U. S. attorney-general. He was the first presi-
dent of the Pennsylvania. Historical Society, and
received the degree of LL.D from Princeton Col-
lege, in 1827, after the publication of his excellent
View of the Constitution of the United States (1825).
He was long at the head of the Philadelphia bar, and
students were attracted by his fame from distant places.
He died April 12, 1836. See his Memoir by T. J.
Wharton (1840), and a tribute to his memory in D. P.
Brown's Forum (1856). His son, William Rawle
(1789–1858), published several volumes of Pennsylvania
Reports, and his grandson, William Henry Rawle,
born in 1823, has published the Law of Covenants for
Title, and other legal works.
RAWLINS, JOHN AARON (1831–1869), general,
was born at East Galena, Ill., Feb. 13, 1831. ºff. WàS
brought up to a frontier farmer's life, but showed
fondness for reading. He studied law at Galena and
was admitted to the bar in 1855. He became noted as a
speaker in the exciting political campaigns of the time,
and in 1860 was a candidate for Presidential elector on
the Douglas ticket. On the outbreak of the war he
ardently supported the cause of the Union, and in
September, 1861, U. S. Grant, on receiving his com-
mission as brigadier-general, appointed his fellow-
townsman Rawlins assistant-adjutant-general, with the
rank of captain. He remained in close relation to
Gen. Grant till the close of his life. He was made
brigadier-general in 1863, and chief of staff to the
lieutenant-general March 5, 1865. Gen. Grant fre-
quently bore testimony to his ability, and integrity,
and on becoming President he appointed Rawlins Secre-
tary of War, but after six months' tenure the latter
died, Sept. 6, 1869. A bronze statue of him has been
erected in Washington.
RAWLINSON, GEORGE, an English clergyman
and historian, was born at Chadlington, Nov. 23, 1815.
He was educated at Ealing School and Trinity College,
Oxford, graduating in 1838. He was made fellow of
Exeter College and after holding a tutorship for some
years was appointed classical moderator at Oxford in
1852, and public examiner in 1854. In company with
his brother Henry and Sir George Wilkinson, he pre-
pared an annotated English translation of The History
of Herodotus (1858–60). He delivered the Bampton
lectures in 1859 on The Historical Evidences of the
Truth of the Scripture Records (1860), . In 1861, he
was made Camden professor of ancient history at Ox-
ford and took part in the movement for University
reform. In 1873 Prof. Rawlinson was made a canon of
Canterbury. He had in the meantime continued his
literary labors and had published The Five, Great
Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. (4 vols.,
isé2–67). To this he afterwards added a History of
the Parthian Empire (1870), and finally The Seventh
Great Oriental Monarchy; the Sassanian Empire
(1876). He has published some smaller works on his-
torical and Biblical subjects, and has contributed to
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, the Speaker's Com-
mentary, and other works. Of his later works may
be mentioned The Origin of Nations (1878); History
of Egypt (2 vols., 1881); Religions of the Amcient
World (1882); Egypt and Babylon from Scripture
and Profane Sources (1884).
His elder brother, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAW-
LINSON, was born in 1810, and served in the Bombay
army from 1827 till 1833, when he was sent to Persia,
where he was actively employed until 1839. In the
next year he was appointed political agent at Kandahar
where, amid the troubles of the Afghans, he succeeded
in preserving peace. In March, 1844, he was ap-
pointed consul at Bagdad, and in 1851 consul-general.
In 1853 he resigned this post and was made a director
of the East India Company, and in 1856 K. C. B. In
1858 he was for a short time a member of Parliament,
and in September was made a member of the council
of India. In April, 1859, he was sent as envoy to
Persia. He was again in Parliament 1865–68, and was
then reappointed a member of the council for India.
In 1878 he was made a trustee of the British Museum.
He has published many papers on the antiquities of the
East, and gathered into a volume England and Russia
in the East (1875).
RAY, ISAAC (1807–1881), alienist, was born at
Beverly, Mass., in 1807. He graduated at Bowdoin
College in 1827 and studied medicine. While engaged
in practice at Eastport, Me., he entered on the study
of insanity, the result of which was given in his
Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity (1838). He was
called to take charge of the State Insane Hospital, at
Augusta, and in 1845 was made superintendent of the
newly established Butler Hospital, at Providence, R. I.
In 1866 he removed to Philadelphia, and he died there
March 31, 1881. He published several treatises on
mental health, and contributed on the same topic to
medical journals.
RAYLEIGH, John WILLIAM STRUTT, BARON,
was born at Ferling Place, Essex, England, Nov. 12,
1842. Being of a delicate constitution, he was placed
under a private tutor, and early developed a fondness
for experimental research, his chief amusement while
young being in photography. In October, 1861, he
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was
classed by his fellow-students among the “reading
men.” He took several prizes and graduated with
distinguished honors, being both senior wrangler and
Smith's prizeman. Trinity elected him a fellow, as is
the custom towards students who distinguish them-
selves in the final examination. On June 14, 1872, he
succeeded to his title of Baron Rayleigh, and in the
same year was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,
to whose Transactions he had contributed many im-
portant papers. In 1882 the medal of this society
was conferred upon him, in recognition of the im-
portance of his scientific work. On the death, in
1879, of Clerk Maxwell, professor of Experimental
Physics at Cambridge, Lord Rayleigh was elected to
the professorship, and since then has devoted much
time to the organization of the magnificent Cavendish
laboratory. In 1884 he was president of the British
Association during its session in Montreal.
Lord Rayleigh's writings are scattered through the
roceedings of several of the learned societies of Eng-
and. Some of them have been collected into a vol-
ume and published separately, but the deep mathe-
matical studies involved render them too difficult for
general reading. His only extended work, The Theory
of Sound, is a valuable mathematical treatise in two
volumes. He also wrote the article on “Optics” for
the ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA. His determination
of the ohm was accepted by the Paris Conference of
Electricians (1883–4) as the basis of electrical resist-
RAYMOND)—REBER.
319
ance, and his recent experiments on measuring the
strength of the electrical current by the deposition of
silver promise to result in a method of great accuracy.
Lord Rayleigh is still actively engaged in the study of
optics, electro-dynamics, and kindred sciences, and is a
mathematician of marked ability. (C. M.)
RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820–1869), jour-
nalist, was born at Lima, N. Y., Jan. 24, 1820.
Brought up on a farm, he graduated at the University
of Vermont in 1840 and went to New York city to
study law. Coming into contact, however, with Horace
Greeley, he began to write for the press, and when the
New York Tribune was established, in 1841, Raymond
was associated in the enterprise. He developed special
excellence as a reporter of public addresses and skill
in securing important news. Eventually his more con-
servative character led to some differences with Gree-
ley, and in 1848 he became assistant editor of James
Watson Webb's Courier and Enquirer. He had
already been literary adviser of the publishing firm of
Harper Brothers, and to his suggestion the founding
of Harper's Magazine in 1850 was due. Raymond's
activity reached beyond newspapers and periodicals,
and in 1849 he was elected to the State Legislature as
a Whig. In the next year he was chosen Speaker of
the Assembly, and, after a visit to Europe, he de-
termined to establish a newspaper of his own. The
New York Times accordingly made its first appearance
Sept. 18, 1851, and by his wise management speedily
won success. Raymond was an anti-slavery Whig, and
in the national convention of his party at Baltimore in
1852 he declared the position of the Northern Whigs.
Though his party was defeated in the election following,
he still had such influence in his State that he was
chosen lieutenant-governor in 1854. More than ever
determined to resist the aggression of the Southern
slaveholders, he assisted in forming the Republican
party and drafted the Address to the People, issued by
its first national convention at Pittsburg in 1856. Its
presidential candidate, John C. Fremont, was defeated,
and in the next year Raymond declined a renomination
as lieutenant-governor. In 1859 he went to Europe,
and as a war correspondent accompanied the French
army in its campaign in Northern Italy. In the Re-
publican National Convention at Chicago, in 1860,
Raymond advocated the nomination of Seward, yet
acquiesced in the choice of Lincoln, to whose election
he contributed. In 1861 he again became a member
and Speaker of the New York Assembly. In 1864 he
was prominent in the Republican National Convention
at Baltimore, which nominated Pres. Lincoln for
a second term. He was then elected to Congress, and
in that body, after Andrew Johnson had succeeded to
the Presidency, Raymond followed Secretary Seward's
example in supporting Johnson's new policy towards
the Southern States. In furtherance of this move-
ment a convention was held in Philadelphia in 1866,
for which Raymond wrote the Address and Declaration
of Principles. The movement, however, was a failure,
and he resolved thenceforth to confine his energies to
journalism. Overwork and, perhaps, disappointment
brought his career to a premature end at New York,
June 18, 1869. Apart from his contributions to news-
papers and periodicals almost his only publication was
a Life of Abraham Lincoln (1865). See Maverick's
Henry J. Raymond and the New York Press.
(J. P. L.)
READ, GEORGE (1734–1798), a signer of the Decla-
ration of Independence, was born in Cecil co., Md.,
Sept. 18, 1733. His father had come from Ireland in
1726 and eventually settled in New Castle co., Del.
The son was educated under Rev. Francis Allison and
studied law in Philadelphia. Being admitted to the
bar, he settled at Newcastle, and in 1763 he was made
attorney-general of Delaware. He resigned this office
9n being chosen a delegate to the Continental Congress
in 1774. In 1776, though he did not vote for the
passage of the Declaration of Independence, he after-
wards signed it. He also presided at the convention
which framed the constitution of Delaware, and in
1777 he became its chief executive on the capture of
Pres. McKinley. He was made, in 1782, a judge of
the Court of Appeal in admiralty cases. In 1788 he
assisted in framing the Federal Constitution, and under
it he was elected to the U. S. Senate. At the close of
his term in 1793 he was made chief justice of Dela-
ware and held this office till his death, Sept. 21, 1798.
His Life and Correspondence was published by his
grandson, William Thompson Read (Phila., 1870).
READ, THOMAS Buch ANAN (1822–1872), painter
and poet, was born in Chester co., Pa., March 12,
1822. At the age of 17 he went to Cincinnati and
studied art under the sculptor Clevenger. In 1841 he
opened a studio in New York, but soon removed to
Boston. His first volume of Poems appeared in 1847,
and in the next year he edited The Female Poets of
America. He spent some years in art-study in Rome,
and returned to Cincinnati in 1858. The New Pas-
toral (1885), describing the removal of a farmer's family
from Pennsylvania to the Mississippi Valley, gives many
faithful pictures of American rustic life and scenery.
The outbreak of the civil war stimulated Read's
genius to the production of The Wagoner of the Alle-
ghenies (1862), which was read through the country by
the elocutionist, James E. Murdoch, for the benefit of
the Sanitary Commission. A shorter but more famous
poem, written for Mr. Murdoch, was Sheridan's Ride
(1864), in illustration of which Read afterwards em-
ployed his pencil with success. He died at New
York, May 11, 1872.
READING, a city of Pennsylvania, the county-seat
of Berks co., is on the Schuylkill River, 58 miles
N. W. of Philadelphia, with which it is connected
by the Philadelphia and Reading and the Schuylkill
Valley Railroads. Fourteen different lines of railroad
meet here. The city is regularly laid out, and its site
gradually rises to the neighboring hills, which not only
afford picturesque yiews, but give a copious supply of
pure water. Besides a court-house and city-hall it has
an opera-house, academy of music, public library, 38
churches, , a normal, high, and other public and
private schools. There are also three national banks,
a savings bank, and 5 daily and 12 weekly papers, half
of which are in the German language. Reading is
largely engaged in iron and steel manufactures of all
kinds, rolling-mills, foundries, furnaces, and machine-
shops being numerous. There are also manufactures
ºf hats, paper, cigars, cotton-goods, bricks, etc.
Reading was settled in 174S, was made a borough in
1783, and a city in 1847. Its population in 1880 was
43,278.
REAGAN, John HENNINGER, statesman, was born
in Sevier co., Tenn., Oct. Sºl S18. He received a par-
tial college education but did not graduate. Becom-
ing a lawyer, he went in 1839 to Texas where he was
a deputy-surveyor of public lands for four years. In
1847 he was elected to the State Legislature and in
1852 was made judge of a district court. In is; he
Was elected to Congress and in 1861 he was a member
of the State Qonvention which declared the secession
ºf Texas. . He was sent as delegate to the provisional
Confederate Convention and in March, iséï was made
postmaster-general of the Confederacy. This position
he held till the close of the war, being also for a short
time acting secretary of the treasury. In 1875 he was
a member of the Texas Constitutional Convention and
Was alsº elected to Congress, in which he has since
served by repeated re-election. He has been a promi-
ment advocate of congressional supervision of inter-
State commerce, and the act passed in ISSG sub-
stantially embodies the measures which he has long
urged.
REAL ESTATE. See PRoperty.
REAPING MACHINES. See AGRICULTURE,
Chºº III,
5 in Tini ..i." I' r * 4- º
REBER, FRANz von, German art-historian, was
320
born at Cham, Bavaria, Nov. 10, 1834. He was ed-
ucated at Munich, and in 1863 was made professor
extraordinary and assistant in the Royal Mint-Cabinet.
In 1869 he became professor of art-history and aes-
thetics in the Polytechnic School at Munich. In 1875
the charge of the Royal Galleries was also committed
to him. He has published Die Ruinen Roms und der
Campagna (1863); Geschichte der Baukunst des
Alterthums (1866); Kunstgeschichte des Alterthums
(1871), which has been translated into English as the
History of Ancient Art (1886); Geschichte der neuerm
deutschen Kunst (1876); and Kunstgeschichte des Mit-
telalters (1886). Reber's works are characterized by a
comprehensive sympathy with art in all its develop-
In entS.
RECEIPT in law, as in common language, denotes a
written acknowledgment of payment of money or deliv-
ery of chattels. It is executed by the person to whom
payment or delivery is made. The receipt of one per-
Son is, as a general thing, inoperative against another.
It must acknowledge the payment or delivery, must be
delivered to the debtor, and must be in writing : a
memorandum of payment made by the creditor in his
own books has been held not to be a receipt. The
acknowledgment of payment is presumptive evidence
merely, and is not regarded as binding or conclusive.
For instance, it may be shown that it was obtained by
fraud, or given under a mistake, or that in fact no
money was paid as stated. A receipt acknowledging
payment “in full '' of a specified debt or “ of all ac-
counts’’ or “ of all demands” is of a much higher
and more conclusive nature. It has been held that an
adjustment of the amount due, and a payment of the
specified sum as a final satisfaction, may be inferred
from such an acknowledgment. Generally speaking,
a receipt “in full '' is conclusive when the party giving
it cannot complain of any misapprehension or fraud
with regard to the compromise he was making. Evi-
dence of misrepresentation or fraud in explanation of
such a receipt must be clear and full and to the effect
that there was not in fact an intended and valid com-
promise of the demand.
A receipt given under seal, as a general rule, cannot
be contradicted. There is an exception to this rule,
however, in the case of a receipt for the consideration
money, frequently inserted in a deed of real estate. It
has been generally held that for the purpose of sus-
taining the conveyance as against the vendor and those
claiming under him, the receipt is conclusive : they
are estopped to deny that a consideration was paid suf-
ficient to sustain the conveyance : but in an action for
the purchase-money or upon any collateral demand, e.
g., to recover a debt paid by the conveyance, or for
damages for breach of covenant in the deed, etc., the
grantor may show that the consideration was not paid or
that an additional consideration was agreed upon, etc.
A receipt in a deed may also be contradicted or ex-
plained on the ground of fraud. º -
It has been generally held that a receipt embodying
a contract is not open to explanation or contradiction
as in the case of a simple receipt. For example, a re.
ceipt containing an agreement as to the application of
the money paid cannot be contradicted by parol evi-
dence inconsistent therewith. The receipt for the
goods in a bill of lading, however, may be º
T. R.
RECEIVERS are assignees of insolvent corpora-
tions acting under special directions from a court, and,
therefore, not ºil, within the laws of bankruptcy.
The practice of appointing receivers grew out of the
U. S. Bankrupt Laws, which were enacted soon after
the civil war and held for about 15 years. In the sev-
eral States the laws relating to bankruptcy differed
materially, and in many of them the practice ºf ap-
jointing receivers has obtained. The State of New
ork is taken as a leading example of the whole. , Pre-
vious to 1882 it was not uncommon for savings banks
and life-insurance companies suddenly to become insol-
RECEIPT-RECEIVERS.
vent, and the expenses of closing them were so long
continued and so large that widows and others who
could least afford it were deprived of their means' of
support. The abuse of trusts of that nature became
so marked that the Legislature of 1882, through its
committees on insurance, made a strict investiga-
tion of insurance companies which had been closed
within the previous five years. Strict inquiries were
made of the insurance department in regard to every
insolvent company as a basis of commencing the work.
The first law that compelled receivers to report directly
to the insurance department (passed in 1867) required
the trustees and receivers of such companies not only
to make annual statements of their income, etc., but
also such other statements as the superintendent of the
insurance department might require. Another law,
in 1869, extended these provisions to registered policies
of life-insurance, and it also provided that the compen-
sation of the receiver should be fixed by the superin-
tendent, and should not exceed 5 per cent. of the total
amount of the assets of such company as should come
into his possession. In 1873 it was declared that the
Supreme Court might appoint a receiver of a fire-in-
Surance Company whenever any stockholder had made
a formal complaint to the superintendent, and that
complaint had been neglected for 10 days. In 1880
a law was passed requiring receivers to file duplicate
copies of their reports with the attorney-general or
else such receivers might be removed. It was also re-
quired that receivers of banking corporations must file
duplicates of their reports with the banking depart-
ment. Early in the investigation of the Assembly
Committee it was discovered that the receiver of a sav-
ings bank had been paid over $50,000 for his service
in four years, and that the receivers of insurance com-
panies had absorbed an aggregate of $725,000, and
those of savings banks $1,000,000. Of the 22 broken
banks 18, and of the insurance companies 14, were
still in the hands of receivers. An application had
been made to dissolve the corporation of a leading ele-
wated railroad in New York city; the suit had been
discontinued and another suit admitting the legality of
the company and declaring its insolvency had been
commenced—closely followed by the appointment of
receivers. The Committee of the Assembly examined
13 life-insurance companies—one of which may be
taken as a specimen of all. This company had ab-
sorbed four smaller corporations. In this process not
only had the assets of the policy-holders been trans-
ferred, but even the rights of the policy-holders had
become so confused as to offer but little show of exist-
ence. The receiver was supposed to be capable of per-
forming the duties for which he was so largely paid ;
but his first act was to appoint a “practical man,”
also at a large salary, to do his work. In defiance of
the law which provided that nothing should be drawn
out for expenses without an order of the court, this
receiver, like most others, drew on the collected fund
on his own order. Suits were begun or compromised
by him at his own discretion ; and the expenses of
winding up the 5 companies had aggregated $175,000
in 5 years—with no prospect of a final settlement. In
summing up its report the committee declared that
only one of the 13 companies had been managed by
the receiver on business principles; that receivers were
appointed one after the other—no one appearing to
wish the job completed ; that the same attorneys fre-
quently appeared as counsel for different insolvent
companies. “Interveners” had sprung up to de-
fend the rights of policy-holders, while no such de-
fenders were necessary, because no application could
be made to the court by the receiver except upon five
days' notice to the attorney-general; and that these in-
terveners, while outwardly defending the policy-hold-
ers, were actually in collusion with the receiver and his
Schemes to grasp more money.
The abuses of receiverships having thus been fully
shown, the Legislature of 1883 passed a law providing
RECIPROCITY. 321
that every receiver should be allowed 5 per cent of the
first $100,000 that he received and paid out; and 23
per cent of all sums received and paid out in excess
of that sum. It also provided that reports should be
made semi-annually instead of quarterly ; that the at-
torney-general should examine the receivers' books at
least once in twelve months; and that the affairs of
every insolvent corporation then in the hands of a re-
ceiver should be closed up within one year from that
time unless the court should grant additional time for
that purpose ; that the attorney-general might, at any
time he deemed necessary, take proceedings for the
removal of a receiver and the appointment of another
in his stead, and any appeal should be made to the
general term ; that copies of all papers relating to the
administration of the trust should be served on the
attorney-general ; that no receiver should pay any
money to any person in any action until the expiration
of eight days after a certified copy of the order had
been served upon the attorney-general; that all appli-
cations to the court should be made in the judicial dis-
trict where the principal office of the corporation was
located—to which district was changed the venue of all
actions pending elsewhere ; and that legal proceedings
in receivership cases should be preferred before all
else, on the court calendars, save the cases wherein
the plaintiffs are the people of the State. The
Attorney-General of New York now has a large
share of the responsibility; and the courts no longer
decide whether the receiver has been an executor
or an administrator de bonis. In 1885 the law of
1883 was amended so that every receiver of an in-
surance, banking, or railroad corporation, or trust com-
pany, must present a report every six months to the
Supreme Court of the district wherein his trust is lo-
cated, and must file duplicates with the bank or insur-
ance companies respectively and with the attorney-
general showing all the receipts and expenses of his
trust. It was also provided that it should not be lawful
for any receiver to pay any attorney or counsel until
he had stated the amounts to the court as expenses
already incurred—such expenses to be approved by the
court before being paid to such attorney or counsel.
In 1886 a law was passed providing for the winding up
of corporations which had been dissolved by legislative
enactment. In 1887 it was enacted that no receiver
of a life-insurance company should be appointed if
such company had actual funds invested of a net cash
value equal to its liabilities and a proper reserve fund
on policies and claims not matured. (F. G. M.)
RECIPROCITY, COMMERCIAL. This term is used
to denote an arrangement between nations allowing
Specified classes of articles to pass from one to the
other free of duty. By the treaty between the
United States and Canada made in 1854, natural pro-
ducts of both countries, including agricultural products,
animals, lumber, coal, ores, etc., were to be admitted
into each country free of duty, and the privilege of
fishing in Canadian waters was conceded to the United
States. This treaty expired by limitation in 1866.
Soon after the expiration of the treaty all the provinces
of Canada were formed into a confederation known as
the Dominion. The new state had no especial policy
in regard to customs; but the increasing expenses of
internal improvements compelled the Dominion to
seek new methods of meeting them. In 1873 what
Was known as the Mackenzie (or liberal) government of
Çanada favored such freedom of trade with the
United States as was consistent with levying customs
duties on articles produced or manufactured in the
ºuntry. The proposed treaty was upheld by the
Canadian government on the ground that Canadian re-
Sources would develop so rapidly that its side of the
bargain would be the best. It was contended that
anadian manufacturers did not dread competition
With those of the United States, as the Canadians had
the advantage of cheaper labor, cheaper machinery,
and cheaper materials; that the farming, shipping,
lumbering, and railway interests would all be benefited ;
and that the almost unlimited water power of Canada
ought to turn the scale in favor of the treaty. But
the Dominion Board of Trade, supported by the con-
servative press, strongly opposed the new treaty as
disadvantageous to Canadian interests, and the move-
ment failed.
In 1878 a revolutionary wave passed over Canada.
and swept the Mackenzie government out of power.
The Macdonald government returned with authority
from the people to construct a protective tariff—a step
which was at once taken. The debates in Parliament
at the time showed that the object of the tariff was
not only to increase the revenue but also to pave
the way for a renewal of reciprocity with the United
States, or still further for commercial union. The
fixing of the Canadian tariff brought on a discussion
of the subject with the United States; and the Cana-
dian authorities obtained the consent of Great Britain
for the opening of fresh negotiations. The British
minister at Washington, Sir Edward Thornton, and
Hon. George Brown, a Dominion senator, were accred-
ited as joint plenipotentiaries to negotiate a treaty of
fisheries, commerce, and navigation with the United
States. The result of their labors, in conjunction
with Secretary Hamilton Fish, was a treaty draft which
was rejected by the U. S. Senate after having been
approved by the governments of Great Britain, of the
United States, and of Canada. The negotiators on
the part of Canada had endeavored to make the new
treaty very like that of 1854, but the U. S. govern-
ment demanded that certain goods said to be common
to both countries should be included, and the British
negotiators acceded thereto. The list comprised arti-
cles imported from the United States to the amount
of $3,000,000 in 1878 and paying a revenue of $500,000
to the Dominion. This provision was indignantly
commented on by a portion of the Canadian press,
which declared that reciprocal free trade in natural
products had only been obtained ‘‘ by the sacrifice of
the manufacturing interests in addition to the fisher-
ies.” Hon. J. A. Garfield, then in the House of
Representatives, declared himself, in 1880, in favor of
a customs-union because a reciprocity treaty would
always be a bone of contention between the political
parties, and would not be satisfactory to the whole
people.
Since 1885 the discussion of commercial relations
with Canada has been revived; but the question has
concerned a Commercial union rather than Reciproc-
ity. The suggestion that the relation between the
two countries should take the form of the Zollverein
has received less favor for the reason that, if such a
mutual arrangement were made without annexation,
the fact would be apparent to all that it would be
much more advantageous with annexation, but neither
Canada nor the United States appears to be ready to
take that step. The renewed discussion culminated
in a bill, introduced in Congress early in 1887, pro-
viding that as soon as the government of Canada
should by act of parliament permit all articles of trade
and commerce of whatever name or nature, whether
the product of the soil or of the waters of the United
States, or manufactured articles, live-stock of all kinds
and its products, minerals and coal, the produce of the
mines of the United States, to enter the ports of the
Dominion free of duty, then all articles manufactured
in Canada, and all products of the soil and waters, and
all minerals and goal, the product of Canadian mines,
and, all other articles of every name and description
produced in Canada, should be permitted to enter the
ports of the United States free of duty. This act
provided for absolute reciprocity of trade between the
two countries as to all articles of whatever name or
nature produced in either country. This reciprocity
Was tº go into effect by the proclamation of the
President, whenever the Canadian Parliament and gov-
ernment had taken similar action, and the Secretary
322
RECLUS—RECONSTRUCTION.
of the treasury with the proper officials of the gov-
ernment of Canada should make the necessary rules and
regulations for the purpose of executing the provisions
of this act, and at the same time protecting the two gov-
ernments against the importation of foreign goods
through either into the other. This scheme of com-
mercial union proposed that a tariff uniform with that
of the United States should be adopted by Canada
against the rest of the world ; but that between Can-
ada and the United States there should be no tariff
at all. The result would be that goods from Great
Britain and all foreign countries would be met all
over North America by a protective tariff, while the
merchandise and manufactures of the United States
would have free passage. The present Macdonald
government of Canada opposed this Commercial union,
and it continues to oppose it although it favors re-
ciprocity. But the opposition (or Mackenzie) party
favors the plan and it is sustained by such high au-
thority as Prof. Goldwin Smith and Edward Atkinson.
In the Dominion Parliament the scheme was thoroughly
discussed early in 1888 and was defeated in April. It
has naturally excited less interest in the United States,
but it will undoubtedly be revived. (F. G. M.)
RECLUS, JEAN JACQUEs ELISEE, a noted French
geographer, was born at Sainte Foyla Grande, Gironde,
March 15, 1830, being the second son of a Protestant
astor. He was educated in Rhenish Prussia and at
Tontauban, and studied geography under Ritter at
Berlin. He became familiar with most of the Euro-
pean languages. Leaving France on the establishment
of the empire, in 1851, he spent five years in travelling
through England, the United States, Central America,
and resided for some years further in South America.
His travels and researches furnished the subject of
many articles in periodicals after his return to France.
During the siege of Paris Reclus took part in the bal-
loon observations. He had long held extreme demo-
cratic views, and he belonged to the Workingmen's
International Association. In March, 1871, he joined
the Commune, and on April 5 he was taken prisoner
while making a reconnoissance. Although learned men
interested themselves in his behalf, he was sentenced
to deportation to New Caledonia, but in January,
1872, the sentence was changed to simple banishment.
He went to Italy, but afterwards settled in Switzer-
land, and refused to return to France until complete
amnesty was granted to the Communists. Beginning
in 1860, with simple guide-books to London and the
health resorts of the Mediterranean, he worked his
way upward to his work on La Terre (2 vols., 1867–68),
then his grand, splendidly illustrated work La Terre et
les Hommes (12 vols., 1875–82). The last has been
translated into English by Ravenstein and published
both in London and New York under the title The
Earth, and Man. Three brothers of Elisée Reclus
have been engaged in similar geographical works, and
as many sisters have been active in translating works
from German and English.
RECONSTRUCTION. The surrender of the ar-
mies of the Confederate States to the army of the
United States, in 1865, terminated the active stage of
hostilities between the belligerents, but did not fix the
conditions of peace between them. By that act the
territories of the Confederate States passed under the
control of the military power of the United States.
A state of war had existed through recognition by
Congress, the only authority that could clothe the re-
bellion of the seceding States with that formal char-
acter. . Without such recognition, in every act of hos-
tility during the war the people of the Confederate
States, so far as they individually took part in it,
would have been liable to the penalties for treason
against the government of the United States, and as
they came under its control might have been subjected
to the consequences of that act of treason. But the
fact was presented to Congress that the people of those
States were under the control of a power that they could
not resist as individuals, and to which the resistance to
the authority of the United States was chargeable, and
humane Sentiment demanded that their governments,
rather than their persons, should bear the consequences
of accountability. If, however, the state of war was
admitted to exist, the necessary implication would be
that the seceding States had succeeded in actually sep-
arating themselves from political and civil relations to
the United States, and were in the actual exercise of
independent government over the territories to which
that actual power extended, an act of war being neces-
Sary to reduce them to their former practical relation
to the United States through conquest. Had Con-
gress concluded to continue to treat the resistance of the
seceding States as merely an act of rebellion, upon the
Suppression of that rebellion their status in the Union
might have remained unchanged by the fact of that re-
sistance. On the other hand, if a state of war should be
properly recognized, that recognition would imply that,
for the time being, they were a foreign power, for a state
cannot make formal war with itself. With these con-
siderations fully before it, Congress recognized the state
of war as existing, and that was equivalent to a decla-
ration that the law and consequences of war should
characterize the relations of the parties until the act of
making peace should create new relations between
them. The laws of war thus displaced, for the time
being, all other sources of right and obligation between
the contending parties.
The title then by which the United States took mili-
tary possession of the territories of the Confederated
States was that of conquest, under the laws of war, as it
had no other proprietary right to such territory. The
war as such was directed against the governments of the
Confederacy and of the several States composing it, and
its proper object was the destruction of that govern-
mental authority as inimical to the Constitution of the
United States, and consequently it could be legitimately
claimed at the successful termination of the war by the
military authority of the United States; and until
other methods of government were supplied by Con-
gress, that the military authority was the only legiti-
mate authority within the conquered territories. The
action of the government of the United States in deal-
ing with the territories of the Confederated States after
the surrender of its armies was distinctly placed upon
the principles just stated. It was deemed competent
for the º authority to use the mechanism of the
existing governments, and its officials found in place, or
to change either, and that course was pursued by that
authority. According to the principles of general law,
recognized by the laws of war, the civil relations of the
inhabitants remained unchanged, until modified by the
military authority, while the political system that
united the people for the purposes of government was
for the time being dissolved. The military government
of the territories of the former Confederated States was
developed in accordance with the principles already
stated, and continued to be actually exercised, although
with diminishing rigor, until displaced by the State
governments erected under the acts of reconstruction
enacted by Congress.
The question of the restoration of civil and political
order was one of great complexity and difficulty, and
gave rise to grave dissensions that ultimately brought
the President and Congress into conflict. There were
two theories of the relative attitude of the Confeder-
ated and Constitutional States, one of which treated
the former as unchanged in their relations to the Con-
stitution by the facts of secession, war, and conquest,
and the other regarded them as having placed them-
selves beyond the protection of the Constitution and as
in a condition to be dealt with as in the case of other
Territories of the United States.
Pres. Andrew Johnson, who had succeeded
Pres. Lincoln at his death by assassination at the
close of the war, entertained the view first stated. He
regarded the States that had attempted secession as of
RECONSTRUCTION.
3
23
right in their former constitutional relations from the
moment that their capacity to resist the laws of the
United States was destroyed. Without authority
derived from Congress for that purpose, he assumed
to appoint provisional governors for the States recov-
ered from secession. No provision existed in the laws
of the United States for the appointment of such offi-
cers. All offices, according to the Constitution and
laws of the United States, are created by Congress,
where not previously created by the Constitution
itself. The President has the power to fill the non-
elective offices of the government, but subject to the
approval of the United States Senate. . No such office
as a provisional governor of any Territory was pro-
vided for by law, and the appointment of officers for
the States was clearly beyond the competency of the
President. The appointment was made without the
approval of the Senate, and before Congress had acted
upon terms of pacification and restoration with the
States that had been reduced by the military power of
the government.
There were but two modes in which a state of war
could be converted into one of pacific relationship—the
one by the treaty-making power and the other by
Congress—and neither of these modes had been applied
by the President, for the former depended upon the
assent of the Senate and the latter upon the action of
Congress, and neither of these forms of assent had
been given. If it be assumed that the treaty-making
power can conclude conditions of peace independently
of the legislative authority, which is alone competent
under the Constitution to legalize the state of war,
still it was properly claimed that such power was inap-
plicable to the case in hand, for although the Con-
federated States were for the purposes of war regarded
as a foreign power still at the termination of hostilities,
by the actual reduction of these States under the
authority of the United States, this limited recognition
could have no effect, and the question was simply one
of dealing with territories acquired by conquest, which
was rightfully claimed by Congress.
Under authority derived from the President alone,
the provisional governors assumed to call upon the
people of the States under military authority to send
delegates to enact constitutions of government for such
States. This power was regarded by Congress as being
peculiarly within the scope of the legislative authority,
and its exercise by an executive officer, without the
authority or aid of the proper legislative body, as
without precedent in this country. As the absence of
a proper legislative authority within these States pre-
vented the exercise of that power, Congress remained
to be appealed to, and if the exigency demanded it,
could have been convened for that purpose.
Conventions were held and the ordinances of seces-
sion were repealed and slavery abolished. In most of
the States in which such conventions were held consti-
tutions were framed, some of which were submitted to
the people for ratification, while others took effect
from the authority of the convention alone. The
people who had been emancipated from slavery took
no part in these conventions, nor were permitted so to
do, notwithstanding they constituted a majority of the
population of several of the States. Had the conven-
tions been galled in the manner provided by the pre-
vious constitutions of the various States so as to be af.
fected by the provisions of such constitutions, the
exclusion of the people of African descent could have
been accounted for, but such was not the case. The
conventions had no sanction under the antecedent con-
stitutions, and if called in the manner attempted in the
present instance during the vigor of those constitutions
would have been considered irregular and revolution-
ary. They were in fact original efforts to construct a
government unfettered by antecedent authority, and
in accordance with American principles of government
should have proceeded from the whole population.
By these various constitutions the qualifications of the
elector were that he should be a free white person 21
years of age. The emancipated slaves were ignored
and no political status given to them under those sys-
tems. Under these constitutions governments were
organized and public officers chosen, and, but for the
presence and unwillingness of the military authority to
relinquish the duties imposed upon it until relieved by
Congress, they would have gone into complete opera-
tion. The strange spectacle was exhibited of a complete
civil system, organized under the authority of , the
national executive, suppressed by the military author-
ity of which its author was the head and Source.
The conflict was soon to be transferred, from , the
ground where an irregular civil authority was seeking
to assert itself against the strong military arm, to Con-
gress. Pres. Johnson in his annual message to
Congress in 1866, after referring to the constitutional
duties of the States, says, as follows : . But if any
State neglects or refuses to perform its offices there is
more need that the general government should main-
tain all its authority and as soon as practicable re-
sume the execution of its functions. On this principle
I have acted and have gradually and gently and by
almost imperceptible steps sought to restore the
rightful energy of the general government and of the
States. To that end provisional governors have been
appointed for the States, conventions called, governors
elected, Legislatures assembled, and Senators and
Representatives chosen to the Congress of the United
States.” Pres. Johnson in his message recog-
nized the right of Congress to determine the qualifi-
cations of its members.
Both branches of Congress were by large majori-
ties united in opinion and hostile to the method of
reconstruction actually in course of execution under
the authority of the President. In the first place
the action of the President was regarded as an ex-
cessive exercise of the powers of his office and as an
encroachment upon the authority properly belonging
to Congress. Congress claimed to be the only con-
stitutional power that could change the relations be-
tween the late belligerents from that which was
brought about by the recognition of a state of war
to one of political and civil restoration, and was re-
Solved to sustain its proper authority against such
encroachment. In the second place. Congress deemed
it just and wise that the conditions of reunion
should be adjusted to the nature of the action that
had broken the unity between the States, so as to
express the true principles on which that union was
based, and that such expression should not be con-
fined to words but should appear in appropriate pub-
lic action that should transmit to history the lessons
of the war. It was thought that the mildest form in .
which, in the terms of pacification, the estimation
by Congress of the wrong inflicted upon the nation
could be appropriately expressed would be to dis-
qualify certain of the leaders of secession from re-
suming their former political influence over the peo-
ple of those States for such time as Congress should
deem just and expedient. In the last place Congress
recognized the fact that a large population existed
in those States that had Attº Secession having
neither political nor civil status under the former
laws of those States, and who, through the operations
of the war, had been made freemen, and had the
right to look to Congress to secure to them the
proper consequences of freedom in the future con-
stitutions of the civil society of which they should
form a part.
In addition to these responsibilities to the Consti-
tution, to the perpetuity of the Union, and to the
persons whose condition had been radically changed
by the eventualities of the war, there was another
consideration of importance that affected the political
balance in Congress itself. Should the formel slave
population be excluded from political participation
in their respective States so that public authority
324
RECONSTRUCTION.
would remain exclusively in a portion of the popu-
lation of those States, it was a vital political ques-
tion whether the representation in d. House of
Representatives from such States should be accepted
on the basis of the entire population of those States,
or be limited to that portion of the population
that was admitted to participation in its public au-
thority. To accept representation on the basis of a
population of which a large part was excluded from
political authority was regarded as allowing dispro-
portionate advantages as resulting from principles
that were regarded by the remaining States as in-
consistent with popular government.
The first practical action demanded of Congress by
the attitude of affairs was to determine whether
persons claiming to have been elected as senators and
representatives under the constitutions deriving their
authority from the action of the President should
be admitted to those bodies. The power of Congress
to determine the qualifications of its members was
constitutional and undoubted and was conceded by
the President. In the present case the exclusion of
such persons as claimed election by the recently
constituted States to representation in Congress was
dependent upon the question whether the constitu-
tions under which they claimed election were author-
itative, for unless wanting in validity their right could
not be properly denied. If the authority of Congress
was needed to enable these States to recover their
former places in the Union, it was equally needed to
enable them to establish domestic government, for
that government could only be habilitated as an in-
tegral part of the Union.
Acting upon these principles Congress excluded
the representatives from those States and thus in ef.
fect declared that the method of reconstruction that
had originated with the President was inconsistent
with the Constitution. It became necessary then for
Congress to initiate a plan for restoring those States to
the Ünion and to prescribe the conditions of such res-
toration. Fundamental to such action was the ques-
tion whether the States that had attempted Secession
were to be regarded as having deprived themselves of
the constitutional rights common to the States of the
Union in view of the concession that they could not
without the consent of the remaining States escape
from the obligations incident to such constitutional
relationship. If it was possible for a State by denying
its obligations to the Union to deprive itself of its
rights under that Union, very clearly such a case had
been presented in the act of secession and the inaugur-
ation of war against the United States. . If the
seceding States had lost their rights under the Union
while their obligations remained unchanged, either
the performance of an act of justice or the consent of
the aggrieved party was essential to the restoration of
such rights. If, however, the opposite view was taken
that the States could not by any act deprive themselves
of their rights under the Union, even though an act
of secession and war intervened, then their indepen-
dent right to reorganize their internal governments in
their own way and to claim representation in Congress
unconditionally could not be denied.
Congress was divided upon , these questions, for
although a great majority of both houses concurred in
the view that these States had forfeited their constitu-
tional rights without evading their gonstitutional obli:
gations, yet a small but energetic minority maintained
the opposite doctrine and were unrestricted in its ex-
pression. The position assumed in support of the
action of the President and the right of representation
of the persons elected under this authority was that it
was impossible for a State to déprive itself of its status
in the Únion, whatever might be its conduct or hostility
to the Union, and consequently that at the instant
resistance to the Union ceased it was in a condition to
assume all its rights and functions under, the Constitu-
tion without any new condition being added to its ob-
ligations. This doctrine was opposed as having no.
Sanction in the principles applied to either individuals
or States, and in fact as subversive of the fundamental
principles of justice according to which, as universally
accepted, a legal relation may exist, and yet, through
the conduct of those affected by it, be deprived of all
its proper fruits and consequences, only to be restored
on such conditions as are agreeable to justice or ac-
ceptable to the parties affected by its negation. It
was contended that the principles of justice not only
demanded compensation for repudiated obligations,
but, as applied to vital relationship, such as govern.
ment, demanded security for the future observance of
such obligations, and that Congress could alone deter-
mine the character of the security demanded and
include it in the conditions of restoration.
With a singular fatuity that often appears in the
conduct of men and communities it was contended
now, by those who had held to the right of a dissatis-
fied State to retire from the Union, that such secession
was an impossibility, according to the nature of that
Union, thus conferring upon rights a quality that only
belongs to obligations, and ignoring the fact that the
former are dependent on the facts of conduct, while
the latter persist until dissolved by the act of those
entitled to their benefit.
The conclusion to which Congress arrived as to its
right to ascertain the conditions upon which restoration
should depend opened for discussion the question of
its proper terms and conditions. The prevailing
opinion in Congress was that for some indefinite time
Some of the persons who had been most actively en-
gaged in hostility to the Union should be excluded
from participating in the exercise of public authority,
Congress to retain in its own hands the authority to
terminate this exclusion when in its judgment de-
manded by the public interest. This temporary expedient
appeared to the majority in Congress,to be called for
both upon grounds of justice and prudence. War had
been waged against the United States by a portion of
its citizens, and the very question submitted to the ar-
bitrament of arms was whether that act of war was an
act of treason against the United States. One party
claimed that it was in the exercise of a right inherent
in the conditions of the Union that was unjustly re-
sisted, while the other party insisted that the act was
in violation of the allegiance due to the United States,
and as such, taking the form of war, was an act of
treason against that government. The acknowledg-
ment of the existence of belligerent relations, if it did
not legally shield the actors in rebellion from the con-
sequences of an act of treason as to acts done after that
recognition, had that effect practically. The termina-
tion of the war established the view entertained by the
Union and upon which it was conducted, and left those
who participated in hostility against the Union in the
attitude of having violated their allegiance to the
United States. The question of the sincerity of the
convictions of those engaged in the war in opposition
to the Union being one of morals, could not enter
into the legal and practical solution. To restore at
once and without probation those whom the war had
placed in this attitude to the exercise of the highest
public authority of the nation seemed to the majority
in Congress as equivalent to a declaration that either .
the violation of allegiance to the United States was
not an act deserving of severe condemnation, or that
the surrender of the armies in the field was an act
that obliterated the consequences and the memory of
past actions and conferred a new civil quality upon
those by whom it had been performed.
The majority in Congress also hesitated to commit
the people who had been raised from the condition of
slaves through the eventualities of a war brought on
by the desire to hold them in perpetual slavery to
those who had sought to destroy the Union for the
Sake of perpetuating their slavery. The majority re-
garded Congress as bound by every consideration of
RECONSTRUCTION. - 325
duty to those who had received freedom through the
consequences of war to make provision for their future
welfare as far as could be consistently done in the dis-
positions relative to reconstruction. The responsi-
bility of having removed from the interested protec-
tion of private owners some four millions of people,
separated widely from the residue of the population
by race and condition, could produce no other effect
upon Congress. The future of these people, in view
of their great numbers and the absence of the condi-
tions for unitizing them with the surrounding popula-
tions in a homogeneous society, presented a problem
of the greatest gravity. It was apparent that little
consideration had been given in the States that had
undertaken their own reconstruction under the presi-
dential auspices to this important subject, for the
constitutions that they had framed confined the elec-
toral rights to free white persons and ignored the ex-
istence of a vast population without political recogni-
tion. The American people had not faced the prob-
lem of such exclusion from political right on a scale of
magnitude that challenged attention to the principles
involved, and were for the most part habituated to the
practice of giving to all of domestic birth who mingled
in their populations electoral privileges as essential to
the protection of individual liberty, and had most liber-
ally extended that right to foreign-born persons seeking
their communities.
Notwithstanding the conferring of political as well
as civil privileges upon the emancipated slaves was the
natural outcome of American doctrine and practice,
yet Congress felt the gravity of the question of con-
ferring political rights upon the vast body of emanci-
pated slaves before they were prepared to intelligently
exercise such privileges, and felt disposed to leave the
solution of that problem by gradual steps to the States
most immediately interested in the results of such
policy, but under conditions that would be likely to
induce a liberal exercise of the power of extending the
elective franchise to these people. The Southern
States had always placed a high estimate upon the
value of a full representation in the national House of
Representatives, and had in the framing of the Con-
stitution of the United States secured a provision by
which five slaves were to be enumerated as the equiva-
lent of three free white persons in the basis of com-
puting the extent of their rights to representation. It
appeared to the majority in Congress that if the repre-
sentation in Congress of the States undergoing recon-
struction was limited in proportion to the exclusion
from electoral rights of portions of their populations
on the ground of race and former condition of slavery,
that a sufficient motive would arise out of the desire
for increased representation in Congress to induce a
liberal treatment of the question of conferring political
rights upon the emancipated slaves. The j. just
indicated was finally embodied in Amendment XIV. to
the Constitution.
This amendment, proposed by Congress on June 16,
1866, declared as citizens all persons born or naturalized
in the United States, and prohibited the States from
depriving any person of life, liberty, or property
without due-process of law, or denying to any person
within their jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws. It j that representatives should be ap-
portioned, counting the whole number of persons in
each State, excluding Indians not taxed. It provided
that where the right to vote for any office of the United
States or a State was denied to any male inhabitant,
except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the
basis of representation should be reduced in propor-
tion to the number of such excluded citizens to the
whole number of male citizens of 21 years of age in
such State. It declared that no person shall be a
Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of
President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or
military, under the United States, or under any State,
who having previously taken an oath, as a member of
Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a
member of any State Legislature, or as an executive
or judicial officer of any State, to support the Consti-
tution of the United States, shall have engaged in in-
surrection or rebellion against the same or given aid
and comfort to the enemies thereof. It also validated
the public debt of the United States and excluded the
payment of claims on account of the rebellion or for
the emancipation of slaves.
This amendment was intended and proposed as a
final act of pacification and restoration, which, if rati-
fied by the requisite number of States so as to become
part of the Constitution of the United States, would
leave to the States that had participated in the rebel-
lion entire freedom in constructing their domestic gov-
ernments. As it regarded the civil rights of the
emancipated slaves it went no further than the con-
stitutions adopted by those States under the call of
their provisional governors had gone. As it regarded
the political rights of the emancipated slaves, all was
left to the discretion of the States under the influence
of the motive to liberality arising from the oppor-
tunity of enlarging their representation in Congress by
conferring electoral rights upon the former slaves.
The exclusion of those who had participated in the
rebellion was limited to those who had held official
positions in the United States and in the States, and
who were presumably of leading influence in the
States, and had had the advantages of official position
to enhance that influence, and thus were to some ex-
tent responsible for the public policy of the States that
led them into rebellion. But these exclusions could
be removed by Congress, and, as the sequel will show,
were intended to be removed by Congress as soon as
the main objects of reconstruction should be accom-
plished. The remaining provisions of the amendment
were such as were to be anticipated under the circum-
StanceS.
The amendment was promptly rejected by Georgia
and North and South Carolina and ratification with-
held in all the other States participating in the rebel-
lion, except Tennessee, which promptly ratified it. It
was thus evident that the States directly affected by
the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment would
not accept the tender made by Congress and that some
other course of action was a necessity of the case.
It is necessary here to refer to legislative action that
both preceded and followed the discovery that nearly
all the States that constituted the Confederacy were
unwilling to assent to the terms of pacification and re-
construction, propounded by Congress. By an act
passed April 9, 1866, Congress ascertained the civil
status of the emancipated slaves, declaring that all
persons born in the United States, not subject to any
foreign power, other than Indians not taxed, were
citizens of the United States entitled to the equal pro-
tection of the laws. Authority was conferred upon the
judiciary of the United States to enforce the rights
thus recognized. This act was the first instance in
which the national legislature gave effect to the decla-
ration that permeates all the utterances of fundamental
truths that have been accepted as the basis of ournal
tional system, that “All men are born free and equal.”
a form of expression that would have been more exact
if the statement had been that all men are born to be
free and equal. But this declaration was only the par.
tial embodiment of this fundamental truth, for it ex-
tended only to the civil status of American-born per-
sons and left the political status still lacking in ho-
mogeneity, and was subject to the doubt whether its
provisions could extend beyond the States actually re-
duced by the arms of the United States. *
Amendment. XIII. to the Constitution, that abol-
ishes slavery within the United States, had previously
been prºposed to the States and was proclaimed as
ratified Dec. 18, 1865, but did not have the effect to
ascertain the civil status of the emancipated slaves.
although it dissolved all subsisting relations of master
326 RECONSTRUCTION.
and slave throughout the United States. The declara- whatever color or previous condition, who had resided
tion of equality of civil right to all native-born per-
Sons, as made by Congress, was of limited effect and
could be unmade at any subsequent time by the same
authority, and hence it was necessary, in order to place
it upon an enduring basis, that it should become part
of the Constitution of the United States. In part for
the accomplishment of this object Amendment XIV.
to the Constitution, which has already been discussed,
Was passed for submission to the States in June, 1866.
As already stated, Tennessee was the only State of
those that participated in the rebellion that promptly
ratified this amendment, and thus having accepted the
terms of pacification and reconstruction tendered by
Congress, was, on July 24, 1866, by a resolution of
Congress, admitted to its former place in the Union
and to representation in Congress.
Congress having thus definitely fixed the terms upon
which States and individuals who had participated in
the rebellion should be admitted to full privileges under
the Constitution, and deeming it wise to place beyond
the executive authority any alteration of or interfer-
ence with these terms, withdrew from the President
power conferred upon him in 1862, enabling him by
proclamation to extend to persons who had partici-
pated in the rebellion pardon and amnesty. A failure
of all the States that had formed the Confederate gov-
ernment, except Tennessee, to accept the terms of
pacification and reconstruction tendered by Amend-
ment XIV. was, in the judgment of Congress, ground
for placing those States under some definite régime.
What civil authority existed in them was in the form in
which it was placed by the constitutions adopted under
the sanction of the provisional governors, while the
actual governmental control was in the hands of the
military authority of the United States, notwithstand-
ing such civil authority as existed in those States was
there under the sanction of the President, and the
military establishment by which that civil authority
had been practically displaced was under the Supreme
control of the President. To solve this conflict of
jurisdiction, Congress on March 23, 1867, passed an
act to provide for the government of the rebel States.
This act declares that no legal governments existed
in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and
Arkansas. It divides those States into military dis-
tricts and provides for the assignment of military offi-
cers to their command, placing them under the military
authority. The military authority was to extend to the
protection of rights of person and property, the sup:
pression of insurrection, disorders, and violence, and
to the punishment of disturbers of the public peace.
Military courts were authorized and all interference by
State authority declared null and void. Authority was
conferred upon the enumerated States to form consti-
tutions and choose Senators and Representatives in
Congress, and it was declared that such States should
be readmitted to the Union and their Senators and
Representatives to seats in Congress, when certain con-
ditions should be complied with. These conditions
were as follows: The constitution should conform
to the Constitution of the United States; it should
be framed by delegates chosen by a majority of the
votes of the people of the States having the elec-
toral qualifications prescribed by that act ; it should
be ratified by the same authority; it should be ap-
proved by Congress; that no person excluded from
office by Amendment XIV. should be eligible as member
of the convention to form such constitution or vote
for the same or hold office thereunder; that such
State should ratify Amendment XIV. ; that the
admission of the State and of its Senators and Rep-
resentatives to seats in Congress should take effect
when that amendment should be ratified and becºme
part of the Constitution of the United States. The
Qualification of voters prescribed in the act were that
all male citizens of 21 years of age and upwards, of
one year in the State, should be entitled to vote, ex-
cept where disqualified for participation in rebellion
or for felony at common law. The act further declared
all civil authority within the State prior to admission
provisional and subject to the military authority.
By the act just mentioned Virginia constituted the
First Military District, North and South Carolina the
Second, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida the Third,
Mississippi and Arkansas the Fourth, and Louisiana
and Texas the Fifth Military District. The President
assigned to the command of the respective military
districts, Maj.-Gen. J. M. Schofield to the First, Maj.-
Gen. D. E. Sickles to the ‘Second, Maj.-Gen. G. H.
Thomas to the Third, Maj.-Gen. E. O. C. Ord to the
Fourth, and Maj.-Gen. P. H. Sheridan to the Fifth.
Maj.-Gen. Thomas was at his own request, on the 15th
of March, 1867, relieved from the command of the
Third Military District and Maj.-Gen. John Pope as-
signed to that command.
The second proposed measure of pacification and re-
construction was distinctly made to the enumerated
States and was rejected, or rather wholly neglected.
As the former action by Congress had established, the
civil status of the emancipated slave, at least in all
those States that by engaging in rebellion had lost the
immunities secured by the Constitution, the last-men-
tioned measure sought by the voluntary acceptance of
those States to place his political status on terms of
equality with all other citizens of the United States.
The plan of leaving the definition of those political
rights to the interested States under the influence of a
motive that might lead them to deal liberally with it
having failed, the solution of that grave question was
placed distinctly upon Congress. Seldom in the history
of nations has so grave a responsibility fallen to the lot
of a legislative body. It has been assumed from the
foundation of the government that all native-born male
persons subject to the authority of the United States
as citizens thereof, except such as were held in legal
slavery, were, unless affected by crime, entitled to equal
participation in the exercise of all civil and political
rights. This conclusion was derived from principles
that were regarded as fundamental to our system of
government, and were declared in all our constitutions
and public utterances. The fact that if the slave was
emancipated citizenship and electoral privilege would
be necessarily conceded to him was one of the argu-
ments against emancipation. That contingency had
occurred, the slave having been emancipated, and the
question was pressed home upon Congress whether
any just ground existed for excluding the emancipated
slave from that which under our institutions was the
logical and reasonable consequence of his emancipa-
tion. Was it sufficient to say that it might tend to
public inconvenience in some of the States that had
fostered the institution of slavery to such an extent
that the majorities of their populations were emanci-
pated slaves? If the white citizens should be in the
majority, the anticipated difficulty would not be serious ;
if, on the other hand, the emancipated slaves consti-
tuted the majority of those populations, the question of
expediency was confronted with one of principle,
whether on grounds of inconvenience the majority may
be consistently disfranchised to relieve the minority
from inconvenience. Such had never been the practice
of our country and the case was a new one. If Con-
gress, having the power to fix the political status of the
emancipated slave, should, after removing from him
the protection afforded by the interested protection of
the slave system, decline to extend to him the equal
protection of the laws, its only answer to the question
as to the reason of such course would have to be either
that the emancipated slave was uninformed and un-
skilled in the art of life and government or that he was
an African. The first of these responses would contra-
dict the principles on which º governments are
founded, while the latter would be accepted by no en-
327
RECONSTRUCTION.
lightened people on earth. Congress was confrºnted
by the fact that the former owners of these people, to
whose grace they would be committed in the event that
political rights were denied them by Congress, were
inwillingly deprived of their slaves by the eventualities
of a war waged for the very purpose of perpetuating
the condition of slavery, and regarded that deprivation
as an act of great injustice. As their former masters
held that the rights in society that appertain to the
white man have no application to the black man, Con-
gress hesitated to assent to surren der the career of those
upon whom it had conferred liberty as their due ac-
cºrding to the same principles that form the title to the
white man to liberty, to those who held opinions and
sentiments diametrically opposite to these. In view
of the considerations of State prudence respected by
all governments Congress hesitated to disfranchise, a
population that had every motive to be loyal to the
nation as the author of their liberty, and to commit
the reins of government to those exclusively who
sought the dismemberment of the nation. It has been
said that on grounds of expediency Congress erred in
the judgment that produced these measures of recon-
struction, but the important question is whether the
consideration of expediency was open to Congress in a
case where the principles of liberty were at stake, and
where it had placed itself in an attitude to the eman-
cipated slave that implied a large measure of govern-
mental protection to his condition, present and future.
The solution offered by Congress to the grave questions
thus presented was sustained by the opinion of the
great majority of the people of the loyal States, and
whatever may be said of the expediency of its policy
will command respect for its sincerity of purpose and
justice.
The failure of the former slave States to accept the
terms thus offered called for further action on the part
of Congress, and the acts known as the Reconstruction
Acts of Congress were passed, the first upon March
23, and the second on July 19, 1867. The first of these
acts was a modification of the previous act providing
for the government of the rebel States. It pro-
vided for a registration to be made in each of
the States there enumerated under the authority
of the military officers assigned to them, which
should include the emancipated slaves with all
other classes, excepting only such persons as had been
disfranchised by previous acts. As the exact bearing
of this act upon disfranchisements on the ground of
aiding in the rebellion was in doubt, the second act of
reconstruction was passed to remove such doubt. The
persons excluded for participating in the rebellion were
declared to be persons who, having been members of
the Legislatures or of the executive or judiciary of any
of these States, had engaged in the rebellion, whether
such complicity arose while holding such offices or at a
later time.
Under these reconstruction acts registration of the
voters of those States who possessed the requisite quali-
fications was made ; elections were called for the choice
of delegates to conventions to frame constitutions for
such States; conventions were held and constitutions
framed that were submitted to the vote of the people
of the States who had the proper qualifications as
voters and were ratified. The State offices were filled
by election, the Legislatures convened, and the govern-
ments were placed in operation. The new State
governments promptly adopted Amendment XIV. and
at once were admitted to representation in Congress,
During the proceedings in the Second Military Dis-
trict under the acts of reconstruction, Gen. Sickles was
relieved in August, 1867, and Maj.-Gen. E. R. S. Canby
assigned to the command. In December of that year
Gen. Pope was relieved from the command of the
Third Military District and Maj.-Gen. G. G. Meade
assigned to that command. On July 28, ISIS, the
military government of the Second and Third Military
Districts was terminated, the States composing those
districts having fully complied with the acts of recon-
struction. Gen. Schofield was relieved in 1868 from
the command of the First Military District, having
been made Secretary of War, and Maj.-Gen. G. Stone-
man assigned to that command. Virginia, which con-
stituted that district, was not admitted to the Union
until 1870. A constitution, formed at Alexandria in
1864 by delegates that were within the military lines of
the United States, had not been submitted to the
people for ratification. A constitution was framed in
1868 under the acts of reconstruction, but was not sub;
mitted to the people until July, 1869, a special act ºf
Congress having been passed for that purpose in April,
1869, when it was ratified and the State admitted in
| S7 ().
3en. Ord was relieved in December, 1867, from
the command of the Fourth Military District, and
Maj.-Gen. I. McDowell assigned to that command.
Gen. McDowell was relieved in June, 1868, and Maj.-
Gen. A. C. Gillem assigned to that command. Mis-
sissippi, one of the States of this district, ratified the
constitution framed under the reconstruction acts in
December, 1868, that constitution having been pre-
viously submitted to the people in June of that same
year and rejected. Prior to the ratification by Missis-
sippi Arkansas, also in that military district, had rati-
fied her constitution.
Gen. Sheridan was in August, 1867, relieved from
the command of the Fifth Military District and the
command at first assigned to Maj.-Gen. G. H. Thomas,
but soon after to Maj.-Gen. W. S. Hancock. The
latter was relieved in March, 1868, and was succeeded
by Maj.-Gen. J. J. Reynolds. Louisiana, one of the
States of this district, ratified the constitution passed
under the reconstruction acts in August, lSUS. In
July of that year the Fifth Military District was con-
fined to Texas, under the command of Gen. Reynolds.
This State finally ratified its constitution in March,
1869, and was readmitted to the Union in March, 1870.
It will be observed that by the final conclusion of
Congress the disfranchisement within the States on
the ground of participating in rebellion was limited to
the case of those who had held office under the
United States or in any of those States and while hold-
ing such office or afterwards had engaged in the rebel-
lion. The mere fact that a citizen of those States had
taken part in the rebellion, even if that part was an
important and conspicuous one, did not produce dis-
franchisement. The class thus temporarily separated
from a controlling influence over the new State govern-
ments were presumably those who in former years had
shaped the policy of the State, and were the re-
sponsible authors of the attempt to destroy the Union
of the States. To select them personally would have
been invidious and might, from erroneous information,
have worked injustice in individual cases. To place them
in a numerous class that would necessarily include the
active agents of rebellion seemed to Congress to be
the only mode of distinguishing between the authors
of secession and those who had followed them, whether
Voluntarily or by compulsion, that was not open to
serious objection.
The Congressional reconstruction had the effect to
Write into the constitutions of the States upon which it
acted the language of liberty and equality as it had
been framed through the revolutions of England and
perfected in America, and thus to exhibit an entire
unity in the principles upon which government was
administered among all the States of the Union. That
Congress did not intend that the consequences of rebel-
lion should be perpetuated in the disfranchisement of
those engaged in it beyond what appeared to that body
to be necessary to give to the new governments of
the former slave States principles and forms in har-
| mony, with the general institutions of the country was
abundantly, evidenced by the readiness and rapidity
with which, the disfranchised were relieved from
their disabilities after the habilitation of the States.
328
REDFIELD–REED.
See Wilson's History of Reconstruction, 1865–1868; Mc.
Pherson's History of Reconstruction, 1865-1870. In this
York see SLAVERY, SECESSION, and CóNFEDERATE STATEs.
For discussion of the constitutional questions involved in
Reconstruction, see Bishop's Criminal Law (4th ed., vol.
2, Sec. 1224 in note). (A. J. W.)
REDFIELD, ISAAC FLETCHER (1804–1876), jurist
and author, was born in Wethersfield, Vt., April
10, 1804. After graduating at Dartmouth College
in 1825, he became a lawyer at Derby, and afterwards
at Windsor, Vt. In 1835 he was made a judge of the
Supreme Court, and in 1852 became chief justice.
In 1858 he was appointed professor of medical juris-
prudence in Dartmouth College. In 1861 he removed
to Boston and in 1867 was sent by Secretary Seward
to Europe as special counsel to recover for the U. S.
government the property of various kinds which had
been held in the name or on behalf of the Southern
Confederacy. Two years were spent in this work, with
profitable results to the government. Judge Redfield
died at Boston, March, 1876. His chief publica-
tions are The Law of Railways (1857); The Law of
Wills (3 vols., 1864); The Law of Carriers and Bail-
ment (1869); Leading American Railway Cases (2
vols., 1870). He was also one of the editors of the
American Law Register, and edited several standard
legal works.
REDGRAVE, RICHARD, English painter, was
born in London, April 30, 1804. in his youth he was
employed in making designs for his father, who was a
manufacturer, but in 1826 he began to study at the
Royal Academy. His first success was a picture ex-
hibited at the British Institution, Gulliver on the
Farmer's Table. In 1838 his merit was first recog-
nized by the Academy when he exhibited Ellen
Orford, and in 1840 he was elected an associate.
Among his works in the succeeding years were, The
Poor Teacher ; The Sempstress; The Governess; Sun-
day Morning. In 1846 he turned more to landscapes
and exhibited Happy Sheep ; The Evelyn Woods
(1850); The Forest Portal (1853); An Old English
Homestead (1854). In 1851 he was elected an aca-
demician, and in that year exhibited The Flight into
Egypt. He joined with Henry Cole (q. v.) in form-
ing a museum of ornamental art, which eventually
was enlarged into the South Kensington Museum.
He had charge of the display of British art in the
Paris Exhibition of 1855, and a few years later was
made by Queen Victoria surveyor of crown pictures,
which position he held twenty-two years, resigning in
1880. Among his pictures produced in this period
are Startled Foresters § ; Starting for a Holiday
(1875); Calling the Sheep to Fold (1876); Well-
spring in the fiº. (1877); The Heir Come of Age
(1878). He also joined with his brother in preparing
A Century of Painters (1866), which gives a º of
British art since Hogarth.
RED JACKET, or SA-Go-YE-WATHA (1751–1830),
Indian chief of the Wolf tribe of the Senecas, was
born at Old Castle, near the foot of Seneca Lake, N.
Y., in 1751. His Indian name given above means,
“He keeps them awake,” and was assumed on his
attaining the dignity of a sachem. His name “Red
Jacket '' was derived from a richly embroidered scar-
let jacket, the gift of an English officer, which he
took great pride in wearing. In youth he was re-
markably fleet of foot, and was often employed by
his own people, and, during the Revolutionary war,
by the British officers on the border as a scout and
courier. On the death of Brant (q.v.) Red Jacket
became the leading man among the Six Nations. In
1784, at a council held at Fort Stanwix to negotiate a
treaty for the cession of lands, Red Jacket spoke elo-
quently in opposition to it, but it was nevertheless
ratified. In 1792, on the conclusion of a treaty of
eace between the United States and the Six Nations,
ashington presented him with a silver medal which
he ever after held in high esteem, and which is now
(1889) the property of Gen. Ely S. Parker. In 1809
he gave information to Erastus Granger, the Indian
agent, of attempts by Tecumseh to draw the Six Na-
tions into the Western combination, and in 1810 he
visited Washington and delivered an eloquent speech
on the subject to the Secretary of War. In the
War of 1812 his counsel was often of essential ser-
vice to the American army, in particular on the eve
of the battle of Chippewa. In 1829 he passed
through New York on his way to Washington, and
while in the former city sat for his portrait to Robert
W. Weir. Although then in his 78th year he was
still hale and vigorous. In his later years he was
grossly given to drinking, but was able to restrain
himself on great occasions, as before a council. He
was implacable in his hostility to Christianity and to
missionaries, and despised the white man—his dress,
speech, and customs. His character was marked with
strange contradictions. Largely destitute of physical
courage, he yet possessed tenacity of purpose and
great moral resolution. As a statesman he was saga-
cious; as an orator, of surpassing eloquence. Yet he
could descend to the meanest expedients of the deam-
gogue. In all circumstances, however, he was a patriot
and loved his nation, whose extinction he prognosti-
cated but strove to avert. His form was tall and
erect, his walk dignified, and his oratory, particularly
in council, almost majestic. He died at Seneca Vil-
lage, near Buffalo, N. Y., Jan. 30, 1830. His Life
has been written by W. L. Stone (1867). (J. H.)
REDPATH, JAMES, journalist, was born at Ber-
wick-in-Tweed, England, in August, 1833. At the
age of fifteen he was brought by his parents to the
United States. They settled in Michigan, where the
Son became a printer, and afterwards editor of a news-
paper. He was Kansas correspondent for the New
York Tribune during the troubles connected with the
settlement of that State. He afterwards went to
Hayti, and on his return acted as emigration agent for
the Haytian government. During the civil war he
was actively engaged as correspondent, and also exerted
himself in behalf of the emancipated slaves. After
the war he was superintendent of education at
Charleston, S. C., and founded schools and an orphan
asylum for colored children. In 1868 he established a
lyceum bureau at Boston, and he has since been
actively engaged in supplying lectures as well as in jour-
nalism. #. has published several books relating to
different stages of his career, and a Life of Captain
John Brown (1860).
RED WING, a city of Minnesota, the county-seat
of Goodhue, co., is on the right bank of the Missis-
sippi River, below the mouth of Cannon River, 4.1 miles
from St. Paul by railroad and 58 by river. It is on a
plateau, enclosed by high bluffs. It has a court-house,
national bank and other banks, opera-house and music-
hall, 15 churches, a high-school and other schools, and
1 daily and 2 weekly newspapers. There are flour-, saw-,
and planing-mills, and manufactories of furniture, agri-
cultura implements, wagons, and shoes. In 1880 it had
a population of 5876.
REDWOOD. See SEQUOIA.
REED, SIR EDwARD JAMES, English naval archi-
tect, was born at Sheerness, Sept. 20, 1830. He was
educated at the naval School at Portsmouth, and was
afterwards employed in the dockyard at Sheerness.
He became editor of the Mechanics' Magazine, secre-
tary of the Institution of Naval Architects, and chief
constructor of the British navy. He designed several
iron-clads, including a frigate for the Turkish navy.
He also built steam-transports for India, and numerous
smaller vessels. He resigned in 1870, and engaged in
private business. He was elected to Parliament in
1874, and represented the Pembroke boroughs until
1880, when he was returned for Cardiff. He had in
the meantime visited apan, at the request of the
Imperial government, an. on his return published
Japan : Its History, Traditions and Religions (2 vols.,
REED)—REFORMATORIES.
329
1880). During Mr. Gladstone's brief administration
in 1886 Sir jºi Reed was Lord of the Treasury.
He has been a member of various committees to inves-
tigate subjects connected with naval affairs. His works
on Practical Shipbuilding, Iron-clad Ships, and Coast
Defense, are of high value. ©
REED, Joseph (1741–1785), patriot, was born at
Trenton, N.J., August 27, 1741, graduated at Princeton
in 1757, and studied law at the Temple, London. In
1767 he was appointed deputy secretary of New Jersey,
and while on a visit to England in 1770 he married
Esther, daughter of Dennis de Berdt, the agent for
Massachusetts. On his return he settled in Philadel-
phia, and kept up, a correspondence with Lord Dart-
mouth, English Colonial Secretary. He was a member
of the committee of correspondence in 1774, and Presi-
dent of the Pennsylvania Convention in 1775. He
was elected a delegate to Congress, but accompanied
Washington, at his request, to Cambridge, as, his
secretary. In 1776 he was adjutant-general, and in
1777 was named brigadier-general by Congress, but
declined, though he served at Brandywine and other
battles as a volunteer. Bancroft, on the strength of a
report made by Count Donop in 1776, charges Reed
with disaffection to the patriot cause. On the other
hand, Reed is reported to have replied to offers from
British peace-commissioners: “I am not worth pur-
chasing, but such as I am, the King of Great Britain
is not rich enough to buy me.” He certainly exposed
the misconduct of Benedict Arnold in Philadelphia,
and had him brought to trial. He was President of
Pennsylvania in 1778, and was active in suppressing
the mutiny of the ill-paid soldiers in 1781. He died at
Philadelphia, March 6, 1785. Both his grandsons
wrote his Life, Henry in Sparks's American Biography,
and William more fully with his Letters (2 vols., 1847),
in order to vindicate his character against the attacks
of Bancroft in his History of the United States. The
hºme his position in an essay, Joseph Reed
(1867).
His grandson, HENRY REED (1808–1854), was born
at Philadelphia, July 11, 1808. After graduating at
the University of Pennsylvania in 1825, he studied
law with John Sergeant, but in 1831 was called to a
professorship in his alma mater. He was a devoted
student of Wordsworth, and edited the first complete
American edition of his Poems. In 1854 he visited
England, and on his return voyage went down at Sea
in the steamer Arctic, Sept. 27, 1854. He had ed-
ited various historical and poetical works of English
authors. Of his lectures his brother afterwards edited
English Literature (1855); English History, Illus-
§ from Shakespeare (1856); and British Poets
1857).
Another grandson, WILLIAM BRADFORD REED
(1806–1876), born June 30, 1806, graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1822, and became
Attorney-General of Pennsylvania in 1838. After a
successful career at the bar, he was sent as minister to
China in 1857, and negotiated a treaty with that nation.
After his return, he was strongly opposed to the war
for the Union, lost his fortune and law practice, and
became a journalist. During the civil war he was for a
time the American correspondent of the London Times.
He died at New York, Feb. 18, 1876. Besides various
books and pamphlets in defence of his grandfather, he
published World Essays; Among My Books.
REES, ABRAHAM (1743–1825), a British educator
and encyclopaedist, was born at Llanbrynmair, Wales,
in 1743. He was educated for the Presbyterian min-
istry, and was for over twenty years tutor in the
Hoxton academy. In 1768 he was ordained also
pastor of a Presbyterian church in Southwark, London,
and after holding this post fifteen years, took charge
of another congregation. In 1786 he became principal
of an academy at Hackney. In that year he completed
an edition of Chambers' Cyclopædia, on which he had
been engaged for ten years. His wide learning and
VOL. IV.-y
scientific attainments procured for him, fellowship in
the Royal Society and the Linnaean Society. In 1802
he commenced the Cyclopædia which is known by his
name, and completed it in 1819 in 45 yolumes. This
able work was soon reprinted in Philadelphia. Dr.
Rees died June 9, 1825. -
REEVE, TAPPING (1744–1823), lawyer, was born
at Brookhaven, L. I., October, 1744. . He graduated at
Princeton College in 1763, and settled at Litchfield,
Conn., in 1772. There he practised law and soon had
as a student and an inmate of his family Aaron Burr,
whose sister he had married. Burr left him for the
more adventurous career which the army offered. . In
1784, when peace was established, Reeve instituted the
Litchfield Law School, whose reputation soon spread to
other States. Until 1798 he gave all the instruction
himself, but then being made Judge of the Superior
Court of Connecticut, he called an assistant to his aid
in the school. Reeve held liberal ideas, and was the
first lawyer of eminence to urge reform in regard to
giving married women control of their property. He
published the Law of Baron and Femme; Parent and
Child, Guardian and Ward (1816). He died at
Litchfield, Dec. 13, 1823. After his death his treatise
on the Law of Descents appeared.
REFORMATORIES AND REFORMATORY METH-
vol. xx. º. The term Reformatory, within
º ... the purview of this article, has refer:
Km. iº. .” ence solely to such prisons, or places of
detention for persons, convicted of of
fences against the criminal laws as are set apart for
the express purpose of making the reformation of
their inmates the main object of their creation.
Reformatories are of three classes: (1) for adult
criminals convicted of felonies, of which the reforma-
tory at Elmira, N. Y., is a typical specimen. Aº
prison may be reformatory in its aims, and all
modern prisons, perhaps, have reformation in view
more or less, but convict prisons designated as reform-
atories are such as are specially set apart for the re-
ception of young men convicted of their first offence,
and who are considered corrigible by the court in
which they are convicted and sentenced.
(2.) For adult criminals convicted of offences less
than felony. This class includes houses of correction
and workhouses.
(3.) For criminal youth. This class includes all in-
stitutions for the care of juvenile offenders convicted
of violations of the criminal laws.
Orphan asylums, children's homes, and other insti-
tutions for the care of dependent children, who are
simply unfortunate and not criminal, are not reforma-
tories any more than Sunday-schools or day-schools,
and should not be included in the same category. It
is true, children entirely innocent of any criminal con-
duct are often found in reformatories, but their com-
mitment to such, institutions is a wrong which ought
not to be permitted. Reformatories are for persons
who have attained the age of legal responsibility, and
who have been convicted of actual violations of law,
and their presence there necessarily imposes a taint
which society has no right to impart to such as are in-
nocent or irresponsible, and to do so is to perpetrate a
crime against childhood. Institutions for the care of
dependent children are of the highest value, and for
the prevention of crime their usefulness cannot be ex-
aggerated, but they are not, in any penological sense,
reformatories.
The reformation of criminals, whether old or young,
as a proper object of governmentai action, is an idea of
comparatively recent origin. In the treatment of of.
fenders, for the repression of crime, the dominant idea
of the world has been deterrence by severity. An eye
for an eye; tooth for tooth ; life for life, has been the
established formula of belief, and to a large extent
this idea still prevails, but happily, as Christianity
broadened the influence of its teachings, and experi-
ence demonstrated the efficiency of its regenerating
330
REFORMATORIES."
power upon the lives of men, it began to dawn upon
the minds of legislators that even to prisoners kind.
ness, Sometimes, might be better than cruelty. The
first reformatory, however, actually established, as
such, by governmental action, was the prison of St.
Michael at Rome, in 1704, by Pope Clement XI., and
was for boys and young men. It was conducted upon
a system similar to what is now known as the “Auburn
System ’’-that is to say, of separate cellular imprison-
ment by night and silent associated labor by day—and
its Success was conspicuous and continuous. Howard
visited it and praised it as one of the few prisons in
the world worthy of commendation. He found over
the prison door this inscription : “Clement XI., Su-
preme Pontiff, reared this prison for the reformation
and education of criminal youths, to the end that
those who, when idle, had been injurious to the state,
might, when better instructed and trained, become
useful to it.” Within the prison, on a marble slab
inserted in the wall, he found this (as he terms it) ad-
mirable sentence: “It is of little use to restrain crim-
inals by punishment, unless you reform them by edu-
cation.” As a general principle in the care and disci-
pline of young criminals, this golden sentence from
Pope Clement XI. must commend itself to all right-
thinking people, and in the requirements of modern
penology no prison should be tolerated which does not
make the reformation of its inmates a leading object.
In fact, to discharge a criminal without reformation is
to defeat the only object (the protection of society) for
which imprisonment is ñº.
For sixty years St. Michael's prison at Rome found
no imitators in its reformatory purpose and methods,
but finally, in 1775, another prison, similar in character
and purpose, was established at Ghent, which soon
became a model for all Europe, and was recommended
as such by Howard, who visited it in 1776, and again
in 1778. In fact, Howard found at Ghent, in success-
ful application, nearly all the great principles of mod-
ern penology. They were : (1) Reformation as a priº
mary end, with hope as a great regenerating force.
(2) Industrial labor with a variety of trades to prepare
prisoners for self-support. (3) Education, religious
and literary. (4) Abbreviation of sentence and a par-
ticipation in earnings as incentives to diligence, obedi-
ence, and self-improvement. (5) The exclusion of
cruel bodily inflictions as a means of maintaining dis-
cipline, and the enlistment of the will of the criminal
in the work of his own moral regeneration. In fact,
as a reformatory prison it has rarely been equalled
since, and it still remains a noble monument to the
genius and humanity of Wiscount Vilain XIV, under
whose inspiration and influence it was established.
Through its example all prisons in Belgium are now
distinctively reformatory in purpose and character,
and other Continental countries are adopting similar
methods.
Under the British government the first prisons con-
ducted on reformatory ideas were those of Ireland,
where the system of classification and parole was es-
tablished by Captain Crofton (now Sir Walter) in
1854, and which is now known as the “Crofton
system.” (See CROFTON.) e gº
In England, through the legislation of 1877, uni-
fying prisons and centralizing their supervision, the
whole prison system has been made reformatory in
purpose, and the steady reduction of crime throughout
the kingdom clearly indicates its efficiency. . se
In the United States there are no convict prisons
under State care without some reformatory agencies.
In all religious services are held upon the Sabbath
day, either by a resident chaplain or some clergyman
from the outside. In the majority of these prisons
flourishing Sunday-schools are maintained, chiefly
through the efforts of volunteer workers from outside ;
and in quite a number weekly prayer-meetings are
held, in which the prisoners take an active part.
There are also, in some prisons, night-schools, in
which prisoners have some educational opportunities,
and probably in all prisons there is some kind of a
prison library.
In recent years, however, a few prisons of this class
have been organized and specially designated as re-
formatories, and have for their primary object the
reformation of criminals. Of these the New York
Reformatory, at Elmira, is the pioneer and most con-
spicuous example. Prisoners received at Elmira are
such as are convicted of their first offence and are
under thirty years of age, and are held under what is
known as the indefinite or indeterminate sentence.
The prisoners are classified in three grades, and all
prisoners enter the second grade, with liability to fall
to the third grade for misconduct, or they may rise to
the first grade by good conduct. Promotion to the
first grade is by earning 3 marks for 6 months in, or
nearly in, succession. The marks are earned, 3 for de-
meanor, 3 for labor, 3 for school progress. After en-
trance to the first grade, six months more of good per-
formance is required under somewhat enlarged liberties,
when, if there is confidence and employment, the in-
mate may go out on parole. Six months of good
record on parole usually secures from the managers an
absolute release. Under a similar system of marks
the prisoner may fall into the third grade, but by
good conduct he may work back into the second grade,
and thence to the first, and thence to parole. Each
grade has a uniform peculiar to itself, and the prison-
ers, as they advance, have more privileges and better
fare. The average period of detention is about two
years and a half. If found incorrigible, the prisoner
is transferred to Sing-Sing or Auburn to serve out the
maximum of his sentence.
The Elmira Reformatory was established in 1876,
and the reported results are that 82 per cent. of the
prisoners discharged are thus far reputable and self-
supporting citizens.
}. view of the apparent superiority of this system,
similar reformatories have been recently opened at
Concord, Mass., and at Huntingdon, Pa., and others
are in process of construction in Ohio, Minnesota, and
Kansas, and in several other States similar action is
under legislative consideration.
The Reformatory at Concord, Mass., was opened in
1884. Like Elmira, it has three grades and a marking
system, by which the prisoner rises or falls, but unlike
Elmira, it receives misdemeanants as well as felons, and
there is no limit as to age or number of offences, and
only a part of the prisoners are subject to the indeter-
minate sentence. Larger privileges are allowed than at
Elmira, and religious influences are made more promi-
nent. Then there are other differences of a minor
character, but whether these changes are improve-
ments or not, it is too early yet to determine, but thus
far the results are encouraging to the prison authori-
tleS. - -
The prison for women at Sherborn, Mass., estab-
lished in 1877, is also conducted on a system similar to
that at Elmira, although it has four grades instead of
three, and its inmates are mainly misdemeanants under
definite sentences. It is wholly under the management
of women, and as a prison for women it has no superior.
The Ohio Penitentiary, at Columbus, although not a
reformatory in name, º adopted the grading and
marking system of Elmira, and also maintains might-
schools, in which the elementary branches of a com-
mon school education are taught. A system of parole
has been authorized for the Ohio Penitentiary which is
unlike that of any other American prison, and its re-
formatory influences have been so satisfactory and
promising as to deserve special notice.
The law authorizing this was passed May 4, 1885,
and provides, Sec. 8, “that said board of managers
shall have power to establish rules and regulations un-
der which any prisoner who is now or hereafter may
be imprisoned under a sentence other than for murder
in the first or second degree, who may have served the
REFORMATORIES. 331
minimum term provided by law for the crime for which
he was convicted, and who has not previously been con-
victed of felony, and served a term in a penal institu-
tion, may be allowed to go upon parole outside of the
buildings and enclosures, but to remain, while on pa-
role, in the legal custody and under the control of the
board, and subject at any time to be taken back within
the enclosure of said institution ; and full power to en-
force such rules and regulations, and to retake and re-
imprison any convict so upon parole, is hereby gon;
ferred upon said board, whose written order, certified
by its secretary, shall be sufficient warrant for all offi-
cers named therein, to authorize such officer to return
to actual custody any conditionally released or paroled
prisoner, and it is hereby made the duty of all officers
to execute said order the same as ordinary criminal
process.”
The rules under which this law is operated are as
follows:
1. No prisoner shall be paroled who has not been in the
first id: continuously, for a period of at least four months.
2. No prisoner shall be released on parole until satisfac-
tory evidence is furnished to the board of managers, in
writing, that employment has been secured for such pris-
oner from some responsible person, certified to be such by
the auditor of the county where such person resides.
3. No prisoner shall be paroled until the managers are
satisfied that he will conform to the rules and regulations of
his parole.
4. Every paroled prisoner shall be liable to be retaken and
again confined within the enclosure of said institution for
any reason that shall be satisfactory to the board of mana-
gers, and at their sole discretion, and shall remain therein
until released by law.
5. It shall require the affirmative vote of at least four (out
of five) managers to grant a parole.
The principal requirements of the paroled prisoner are:
That he shall refrain from crime; lead an honorable life;
conduct himself honestly; avoid evil associations; obey the
law; abstain from the use of intoxicating liquors as a bever-
age, and report monthly by mail to the secretary of the
board, for which blanks are furnished.
The following are the tabulated results of the law for
the whole period of its operation prior to Jan. 1, 1888:
Number paroled, 302
Number discharged by expiration of sentence, 115
Number discharged by board of managers,
Number pardoned by governor,
Number whose paroles were revoked, 3
Number violated parole and not returned, 15
Number violated parole and have been returned, 17
Number who have died, 5
Number who refused to accept parole, 1
Number regularly reporting, 133
JUVENILE OFFENDERs.
In the care and reformation of juvenile offenders the
United States has kept pace with the best experience
of the world. The first reformatory in the world for
criminal youth, which became a permanent success,
was that established by John Falk, at Weimar, in
Germany, in 1813. This was followed in 1816 by an-
other near Düsseldorf, and still another at Berlin in
1819. None of these establishments, however, re-
ceived their inmates from the courts, nor held them
upon legal warrants. The relation was voluntary upon
both sides.
To America belongs the credit of establishing the
first reformatory in the world for juvenile delinquents,
by legislative enactment and under legislative control.
This institution, conceived by Edward Livingston, the
reatest of American penologists, and fostered by John
riscom, John Eddy, Cadwallader D. Colden, and
other distinguished citizens and philanthropists of the
city of New York, was authorized by an act of the
Legislature of New York March 29, 1824, and has
since been known as the New York House of Refuge,
and still remains in active and efficient operation.
Its fifth annual report states its powers and pur;
poses as follows: “If a child is found, destitute; if
abandoned by its parents, or suffered to lead a vicious
or vagrant life; or if convicted of any crime, it may be
sent to the House of Refuge. There is in no case an
other sentence than that it shall ‘there be dealt wit
according to law.” That is, it may, if not released by
some legal process, be there detained, if the managers
should think it unfit to be sooner discharged, until it
arrives at age. Parents or guardians, from the time it
is legally sentenced to the refuge, lose all control of its
person. When it is believed that a child is reformed,
the managers have power, with its consent, to bind it
as an apprentice till the age of twenty-one.” .
The success of this institution was so conspicuous,
and its results so beneficent, that similar institutions
were soon established elsewhere, until at the present
time there are between forty and fifty institutions for
juvenile offenders in the United States under State or
city supervision, with an average population of over
12,000.
Under the common law of England a child under ten
years of age is presumed incapable of crime, and that
is the general rule in the United States. In New
York, however, the statute provides that “a child of
the age of seven years, and under the age of twelve
years, is presumed incapable of crime, but the pre-
sumption may be removed by proof that he had suffi-
cient capacity to understand the act or neglect charged
against him and to know its wrongfulness.” *
In England the preservation of a child from a crim-
inal record is considered so important that he is rarely
sent to a reformatory for a first offence. If he has parents
or guardians he is simply reprimanded or birched, for
a first offence, or if homeless is cared for in some in-
stitution where no taint of crime is imposed, and this
treatment in a majority of cases is found entirely suf-
ficient. This method not only saves the child and
preserves his self-respect, but it also saves the State
from a large expenditure of money.
In Boston, for several years past, a system similar
in principle, and applicable not only to minors but to
adult misdemeanants also, has been in successful oper-
ation for a number of years, and is known as the pro-
bation system. It consists in a suspension of sentence,
and a release under the supervision of a probation offi-
cer, to whom the prisoner reports at stated periods,
and by whom he may be recommitted for sentence if
he proves delinquent. The results have been so satis-
factory that English penologists have recommended its
adoption there, and an act for that purpose is now
under consideration by the British Parliament.
In American reformatories, for juvenile offenders,
the treatment is largely educational, although, as a
rule, the inmates are employed at productive labor for
the support of the institution at least one-half of the
time. In recent years, however, in some institutions,
large attention has been given to industrial training,
and with very satisfactory results.
The State Industrial School at Rochester, N. Y.
(formerly the House of Refuge for juvenile delinquents
in Western New York), in 1884 inaugurated a system
of industrial training, which has been so enlarged that
the institution now is practically a school of technology,
and its success has been so great as to attract large
attention, and seems likely to mark the beginning of a
new era in reformatory management. There are six
departments in which trades are fully taught, both the
oretically and practically, viz.: (1) carpentry and join-
ery; (2) wood-turning and pattern-making; (3) black-
Smithing; (4) lathing, plastering, brick and stone-
laying; (3) moulding; (6) painting.
Capt. Levi S. Fulton, the accomplished superin-
tendent of this institution, after many years' experience
in reformatory work, says in his last report: “I would
most earnestly recommend to all interested in the
management of reform schools or similar institutions
that they at once transform their institutions into
332
REFORMED CHURCH.
schools of technology, where they will not only educate
the head but the hands also, and make of their boys
skilled workmen at some trade or calling, sending them
out equipped to fight life's battle honorably and suc-
cessfully, and to become self-reliant, self-respecting,
and self-sustaining citizens.” The increased cost of
the technological system, apparently, will not exceed
$30 per annum, per capita.
Reformatories for juvenile delinquents, throughout
the United States, compare very favorably with the
best in other countries, and in reformatory results have
not been excelled anywhere. The annual conferences
of those engaged in reformatory work, by affording
opportunity for an exchange of experiences, have done
much to improve our reformatory institutions, and a
steady advance is thus maintained.
In recent years much discussion has been had upon
the comparative merits of what is known as the Con-
gregate system, and the Cottage or family system,
which has not yet been settled, although the prepon-
derance of opinion, at present, seems to be in favor of
the latter. Doubtless both have their merits. The
Congregate system is the simplest, and can be managed
the easiest by one controlling mind, but it lacks oppor-
tunity for a classification of inmates. The Cottage
system affords a larger classification, but requires a
superior efficiency in the subordinate control of each
cottage, which is difficult to secure. Evidently, there-
fore, more depends upon efficiency of administration
than upon the system, and upon the ability to obtain this
efficiency this question of superiority must be decided.
Clearly what is needed in all of our American insti-
tutions, whether correctional or charitable, is not so
much a change of system as a higher efficiency in
administration, which can only be obtained by a service
based upon intelligence, experience, and integrity, to-
gether with a tenure in office which shall not be dis-
turbed by political changes. (R. B.)
REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA.—
HISTORICAL SKETCH. — The colonists from the
Netherlands established public worship on the island
of Manhattan soon after they had made their first perma-
nent settlement. As early as 1626 it was conducted
by two “Krankbesoeckers” or visitors of the sick.
In 1628 a church was organized by the Rev. Jonas
Michaelius with about fifty members. He was followed
by the Rev. Everardus Bogardus, who was accompanied
by the first schoolmaster, Adam Roelandsen. The
parochial school then established has continued to the
present day. Bogardus married the widow Annetje
Janse, whose farm became the valuable litigated
property of Trinity Church, New York. The first
church building, a small wooden structure, was erected
during the ministry of Bogardus on Broad street, be-
tween Pearl and Bridge. The second was erected in
1642, during the administration of director Kieft,
within the walls of Fort Amsterdam on the Battery.
By the articles of surrender in 1664 the ecclesiastical
rights possessed by the Dutch at the time were guar-
anteed to them. They continued in possession of the
church in the fort, but courteously allowed the Eng-
lish military chaplains to use it when not occupied by
them. After the completion of their new church in
Garden street they abandoned the one in the fort,
which continued to be used by the English garrison
until 1741. At the time of the surrender New Am-
sterdam contained about 1500 inhabitants, and there
were only five churches and six ministers in the whole
province of New Netherland. . Other churches were
subsequently planted in the various settlements in the
rovince. These churches were provided with pastors
y the Dutch West India Company and the Classis of
Amsterdam, and in a short time they came entirely
under the care of that classis. . They remained in this
state of subordination and without a completely inde-
pendent organization until the year 1794; This long
period was one of struggles with many and great diffi-
culties, and consequently of slow growth.
This body of Christians is at present small amon
the denominations, and surprise is often expresse
that the one that was first on the ground in New York
should have fallen so far behind. But little progress
could be expected when there was a continuous strug-
gle for life. 1. The surrender to the English had its
effect, for it checked immigration and caused it to
cease almost entirely, and many persons returned to
their original homes; it also gave the advantage of
official patronage to the English or Episcopal Church,
which became virtually the “ biº by law estab-
lished,” as was indeed openly claimed. 2. During
this long period of nearly a century and a half the
Dutch language was exclusively used in public worship,
catechizing, etc., and so growth could not be more
rapid than the natural increase of the Dutch popula-
tion allowed. The door was closed against all English-
speaking Calvinists, Scotch and Irish Presbyterians,
and Congregationalists. The delay in the introduction
of the English language in public worship, which was
desired and urged by many, caused numbers of the
young people, who were educated, in English, to joir
the Episcopal and Presbyterian Churches ; the strife
roduced by the agitation of the question drove many
overs of peace into other communions, and when aſ
last the English was introduced, the uncompromising
opponents of it took their leave and joined the Episco.
pal and Presbyterian Churches. 3. The lack of in-
dependent organization was a serious hindrance; for
the final court of appeals in cases of discipline was in
the mother country, and all important matters that
were here agitated had to be reviewed by the Classis of
Amsterdam. 4. The want of institutions for the edu-
cation and of authority for the ordination of ministers
was a great hindrance. Ministers were sent from
Holland to supply the American churches, and young
men in this country who desired the ministry were
sent to the universities of Holland to be educated, and
to be there ordained. Differences of opinion on this
matter divided the churches into two parties, a pro-
ressive and conservative, denominated the Coetus and
§. the controversy between whom on the
question of ecclesiastical independence and ministerial
education brought the church to the brink of ruin. In
1771 these parties were brought together in a conven-
tion held in New York, and a “Plan of Union'' was
adopted to which the ecclesiastical authorities in the
Netherlands assented. r
In 1794 the “Reformed Church in America'' attained
to full ecclesiastical independence by the adoption of a
constitution embracing the church orders of the Synod
of Dort, and articles explanatory of the ways in
which they should be applied in this country. In
this work of reconciliation and of organization the
leader and ruling spirit was Rev. John H. Livingston,
D.D., a young man who had a short time before com-
pleted his studies at the University of Utrecht, and
who was one of the pastors of the Collegiate Reformed
Dutch Church of New York city, and who in 1784
was appointed the first professor of theology. The
efforts of the church were for a long time chiefly de-
voted to the establishment of educational institutions
for the preparation of young men for the ministry. A
charter for Queen's College was obtained in 1766,
which, however, on account of some imperfections
never went into effect. A second charter was obtained
in 1770 and the college was established at New
Brunswick, N. J., where it continues under the name
of Rutgers, given to it in 1825. It is in a flourishing
condition under the presidency of Merrill E. Gates,
LL.D. The theological professorship of Dr. Living-
ston has been developed into a theological school lo-
cated at New Brunswick, N. J., with ample biº
and endowments, a corps of five professors, a valuable
Biblical Museum, and the Gardner A. Sage Library
containing 40,000 admirably selected volumes, an
which is acknowledged by competent judges to be one
of the best working theological libraries in the United
REFORMED CHURCH. 333
States. This school has received for buildings, endow-
ments, and other purposes, from the late James Suy-
dam and Gardner A. §. of New York city, the sum
of $500,000. . The Reformed Dutch Church was
originally confined to the provinces of New York and
New Jersey, with the exception of a few churches in
Eastern Pennsylvania. While extension was for a
long time impracticable, the scattered pastorless
churches were well cared for. Some missionary work
was done quite early, however, and a few churches
were established in Canada which were after a time
abandoned. About 1835 churches began to be estab-
lished in the Western States, and soon a large colony
emigrated from the Netherlands under the lead of the
Rev. Dr. A. C. Van Raalte, and settled at Holland,
Mich., and connected themselves with the Reformed
Dutch Church in America. Immigration has continued
and many churches using the #j language
have been established. The church has made consid-
erable progress farther west, even as far as Dakota.
At Holland, Mich., Hope College and the Western
Theological Seminary have been established. The
j. Synod of Chicago embraces 104 churches
and 78 ministers.
DOCTRINAL STANDARDS. — While this church
strongly insists that the word of God is the sole,
authoritative, and infallible rule of faith and practice,
yet symbols of doctrine have been adopted as expres-
sive of the views entertained of truth, and as bonds of
church fellowship. Subscription to these symbols is
required of all the ministers. They are–1. The Belgic
Confession, composed by Guido de Bres, the Belgian
martyr, consisting of 37 articles, adopted by the Synod
of Antwerp in 1566, and always retained in the Re-
formed Churches of both the Netherlands and Amer-
ica. 2. The Heidelberg Catechism, which was prepared
at Heidelberg by Olevianus and Ursinus in 1563 by
the order of Frederick III., elector of the Palatinate.
This catechism was at once received with great favor
by the reformed of every country in Europe, and was
translated into many languages. It is an experimental
and confessional rather than dogmatical catechism.
An abridgment of it, called “A Compendium of the
Christian Religion,” was made by Rev. H. Faukelius,
of Middleburg, Zeeland, and was adopted by the
Synod of Dort as a manual for the instruction of can-
didates for the Lord's Supper. 3. The Canons of the
Synod of Dordrecht. These were adopted in 1619, and
are explanatory of the statements of the confession of
faith and catechism, touching the five points in contro-
versy between the Remonstrants and Contra-Remon-
strants, or Arminians and Calvinists, and are condem-
natory of the views of the former. The doctrinal system
of the Reformed Church in America may be desig-
nated as Calvinism of the moderate, infra-lapsarian
º of the Synod of Dordrecht.
ORM OF GOVERNMENT.-This is Presbyterian,
that is, the government is in the hands of presbyters
or elders who compose the ecclesiastical bodies of wa-
rious grades. 1. The Consistory is the governing body
in the local church. It is composed of the pastor (if
there be one) and elders and º chosen or ap-
proved by the communicants. Of this body the pastor
is president ex officio, and he has all the rights of a
ruling elder. A church may appoint as many elders
and deacons as it may think expedient, and it is not
necessary that they should be equal in number. ... The
elders with the pastor have sole charge of all the
Spiritual interests of the congregation, and are the
Spiritual court answering to the session in the Presby-
terian Church. In the admission, dismission, and dis-
tipline of members, and in choosing delegates from
their own number to the classis or next higher court,
the elders only have a voice. To them belongs the
QVersight of the flock; they are to assist the pastor in
amily visitations, and they are especially charged to
guard the flock against ministers who teach false doc-
trines or lead immoral lives. It belongs to the
deacons to care for the poor, and especially for the
poor members of the flock. They are to collect and
distribute the alms, and visit and comfort the needy
and the suffering. While these two offices are thus
distinct, yet the elders and deacons are joined together
in one board and as such “have an equal voice in
whatever relates to the temporalities of the church, to
the calling or dismission of a minister, or the choice of
their own successors.” Usually this body is the incor-
porated board of trustees for the holding and man-
agement of all the property of the church. Elders
and deacons are elected for a term of two years, and
half of the places become vacant annually. A person
may be re-elected immediately and repeatedly. This
system of a limited term of office was adopted origi-
nally by all the Reformed churches of the Presbyterian
order in Europe. It is claimed that it has great and
manifest advantages, and many Presbyterian churches
in America and in increasing numbers have adopted
it. There are three modes of electing elders and dea-
cons. a. The consistory chooses and gives opportu-
nity to the members to object. b. The consistory
nominates a double number and the communicants
elect. c. The communicants both nominate and elect.
Elders and deacons who are out of active service form
an advising body called the Great Consistory, who
may be consulted when a minister is to be called, or
when other matters of peculiar importance occur re-
lating to the peace and welfare of the whole congre-
gation.
2. The Classis is the next higher body and corre-
sponds to the Presbytery of the Presbyterian Church.
It is composed of the pastors of the churches in a
certain district, an elder delegated by each church, and
such ministers without charge as have been received
by the classis. The classis examines candidates for the
ministry, approves calls, ordains, dismisses, and de-
poses ministers, forms new congregations, and is a
court of appeal from sentences of the consistory. The
classis meets twice a year, and sends a report on the
state of religion to the Particular Synod. It has a
system of oversight of the churches, and annually
makes inquiry whether ministers and churches observe
certain constitutional requirements.
3, . The Particular Synod is composed of a certain
number of ministers and elders delegated by the classes.
It has power to form new classes and to transfer a con-
gregation from one classis to another. It is a court of
appeal from decisions of the classes. It meets annu-
ally and reports to the General Synod.
4. The General Synod is the highest judicatory and
represents the whole church, meets annually, and is
composed of an equal number of ministers and elders
delegated to it. It is the final court of appeal from
decisions of the lower assemblies; it has supreme con-
trol of the theological schools; it maintains corre-
spondence with the highest judicatories of other denom-
inations, and it exercises a general superintendence
over the spiritual interests and concerns of the whole
church. The powers of all these bodies are fully and
carefully defined by the constitution of the church.
CULTUS. - All the branches of the Reformed
Church in Europe possessed liturgies and used them.
The Reformed Church of the Netherlands has her
liturgy and used it, allowing, at the same time, con-
siderable liberty to the officiating minister. The church
in America, of course, possessed and used their liturgy,
which has in the course of time been somewhat modified.
particularly by the introduction of some new optional
fºrms. The forms of prayer for ordinary public wor-
ship are not used by the ministers except as models
for their guidance in composing their own prayers,
which work eVery one is expected to do to the best of
his ability. The constitution, besides establishing an
order of worship, requires some forms to be used, and
their use, therefore, is universal, viz.: 1. For the bap-
tism of infants. 2. For the baptism of adults, 3.
For the administration of the Lord's Supper. 4. For
334
REFORMED CHURCH.
the ordination of ministers. 5. For the ordination of
elders and deacons. 6. For the excommunication of
an offender. T. For readmission of the penitent.
The liturgy is the growth of time, and has been drawn
from various sources. Calvin's liturgy was its basis. A
liturgy based on this was used by the Church of the
Foreigners worshipping in London under the super-
intendence of A Lasco in the Church of Austin Friars
in the time of Edward VI. In 1566 various forms for
the use of the churches of the Netherlands were col-
lected and published by Rev. Petrus Dathenus. The
liturgy was modified as occasion demanded until fixed
by the Synod of Dort and brought to this country
by the colonists. Of late years there has been an
increasing tendency to introduce more of the formal
liturgical element into public worship. In addition to
the reading of the ten commandments in many
churches the psalter is read responsively, and the
Lord's prayer and apostolic creed are repeated.
There is no desire for what is called ritualism, but a
disposition to give to the people a more active, ex-
pressed participation in the worship of the congre-
gation.
MISSIONARY AND OTHER AGENCIES.–1. Board of
Domestic Missions.—Considerable missionary work was
done in the home field from the beginning. But it was
without a general organization or definite system, was
confined to pastorless churches using the Dutch lan-
guage, and was performed by pastors making mis-
sionary tours among these churches. In 1831 the
Board of Domestic Missions was formed, and a great
impulse was given to the work, resulting in the estab-
lishment of churches in Western New York and in the
Western States, and in new and growing communities
in the East. In the year 1887–8 the board received
$28,737.52 from the churches, Sunday-schools, and
Woman's Executive Committee, and 90 pastors and
108 churches were aided.
2. The Church Building Fund.—From this fund
moneys are loaned to feeble churches to aid them in
erecting houses of worship. During the year 1887–8
the moneys received for this fund amounted to $17,-
061.25, including $6,936.46 received from the Woman's
Executive Committee. -
3. The Board of Foreign Missions.—The first min-
isters labored considerably for the conversion of the
Indians and with some success. From the early part
of the present century the Reformed churches co-oper:
ated with other denominations in sending the gospel
to the heathen in foreign lands. For a number of
years the church was associated in this work with the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions. Since the year 1857 it has garried on the work
independently, and has sustained three flourishing
missions, one at Amoy, in China, a second in the
Madras Presidency, India, and a third in the empire
of Japan. The entire number of ordained mission-
aries connected with all the stations is 25 ; of unor-
dained, 3; of married women, 21 ; of unmarried, 9;
making a total of 58. Besides these there are many
. The missionaries have done their full
share in translating the Scriptures and providing a
Christian literature for the people. The total expen-
diture of the board for the year 1887-8 amounted to
$98,495.61 ; of this sum $19,329.04 were received
through the Woman's Board of Foreign Missions.
4. Board of Education.—Indigent young men are
assisted in their preparation for the ministry, by con;
tributions from the churches and income from invested
funds, chiefly in the form of scholarships. Also
moneys are, to some extent, appropriated for the Sup-
port of educational institutions. During the year
i887–8 eighty students received assistance, and the
ayments of the board for all purposes amounted to
22,013.99. - e •
5. Board of Publication.—It is the aim through
this agency to supply the church with good Christian
literature, and especially literature of denomina-
tional interest and value. It has its benevolent as well
as business department. It has made donations during
the last year amounting to $1380.85.
6. Widows’ Fund and Disabled Ministers’ Fund.—
These provide for families of deceased ministers and
for disabled ministers. An interest in the former
is secured by certain annual payments, but the latter is
a pure charity. The capital sum of the former is
$73,970.99 ; of the latter $53,817.28. . The available
income of both these funds is largely increased by
contributions from the churches.
To these agencies we add that of the press. A
monthly magazine called the Mission Field is pub-
lished, and the Christian Intelligencer is the second
oldest religious weekly in New York. It may be re-
garded as the organ of the denomination, being spe-
cially devoted to its interests. The minutes of the
General Synod of June, 1888, furnish the following
statistics : Churches, 546; ministers, 555; families,
47,520; communicants, 87,015; Sunday-schools, 750;
scholars, 96,019; contributions for religious and be-
nevolent purposes, $284,902; for congregational pur-
oses, $970,856. The churches were at first known as
ow Dutch Reformed churches or simply as Dutch
churches. The title of the denomination afterwards
was the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. In 1867
it was changed to the “Reformed Church in America.”
For further information the reader is referred to Ypey
and Dermout's Geschiedem is de Hervorm de Kerk, Hansen's
Reformed Church in the Netherlands, Corwin's Manual of
the Reformed Church in America (3d edition), Centennial
Discourses (1876), Centennial of the Theological Seminary
at New Brunswick (1884), Gunn’s Life of Livingston, De-
marest's History and Characteristics of the Reformed Dutch
Church, and Acts and Proceedings of the General Symod.
(D. D. D.)
REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED
STATES. This religious body, formerly known as
the German Reformed Church, is directly derived
from the Reformed churches of Germany and Switzer-
land. It may, therefore, claim to be, in a special
sense, the American representative of the German
branch of the great religious movement of which, in
the sixteenth century, Żwingii, Calvin, and Ursinus
were the most eminent leaders. Its standard of doc-
trine is the Heidelberg Catechism, and in government
it holds to the Presbyterian system.
The history of the German Reformed Church in
America properly begins with the dreadful period in
German history which is known as the War of the
Palatinate (1689–1697). The region of the Rhine
had been utterly devastated, and cities like Heidel-
berg, Spires, and Worms were in ruins. Driven from
their desolated homes by successive French invasions,
many thousands of the peasants of the Palatinate
sought a home in foreign lands. Large numbers were
conveyed to America, through the charity of Queen
Anne of England, and small German settlements
were founded in Pennsylvania before the end of the
seventeenth century. Poverty and oppression con-
tinued in the fatherland after peace i. been nomi-
nally declared, and emigration increased with each
succeeding year. The extremely cold winter of 1709,
which, it is said, for a time rendered Switzerland al-
most uninhabitable, started another wave of emigra-
tion, which was largely composed of Swiss elements.
About the middle of the last century it was estimated
that one-half of the German population of Pennsyl-
vania belonged to the Reformed Church. Among
them were many descendants of the Huguenots who
fled from France at the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes. Beginning with 1709 we divide the history
of the Reformed Church in the United States into five
eriods:
p I. 1709–1746.—During this period the records of
the church are very incomplete. The people were
very poor, and religious meetings were often held in
private houses. Congregations were frequently served
335
REFORMED CHURCH.
by unordained ministers. In 1709 John Frederick
Hager was commissioned by the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel to labor .'; among the
Palatines, New York.” Cotemporary with him were
John Jacob Oehl, in New York, and Henry Hoeger,
in Virginia. Samuel Guldin preached in Pennsyl-
vania before 1718, as appears from a volume pub-
lished by him in that year. John Philip Boehm, who
had been a schoolmaster in the Palatinate, began to
preach, without ecclesiastical authority, to the con-
gregations at Falconer Swamp, Skippack, and When
Marsh, Montgomery co., Pa., as early as 1720. He
was regularly ordained in 1729 by the Dutch ministers
in New York, by special permission of the Classis of
Amsterdam. John Henry Goetschius, a native of
Zurich, was in 1730 pastor of eleven congregations, of
which New Goshenhoppen was the most prominent.
In 1727 the Rev. George Michael Weiss, at the re-
quest of the Classis of the Palatinate, accompanied a
company of 400 Palatine emigrants to America,
“in order that they might not be without religious
instruction.” In 1730 he revisited Europe, in com-
pany with Elder Jacob Reiff, for the purpose of col-
lecting money and good books for the Reformed
churches of Philadelphia and Skippack. This mis-
sion led to important results. A considerable sum
of money was collected, and the synods of Holland be-
eame so profoundly interested in the American churches
that they agreed to take them under their special care
and supervision, and to supply them with ministers.
In 1730 John Peter Miller and J. B. Rieger came
to America, under the auspices of the Consistory of
Heidelberg. , Miller afterwards left the Reformed
Church, and became the prior of the convent of
Seventh-day Baptists which had been founded at
Ephrata, Pa., by Conrad Beissel. In 1742 Henry
Antes and others joined with Count Zinzendorf in the
organization of the “Congregation of God in the
Spirit.” They proposed 'i. the various churches
should be united in a higher unity, without sacrificing
their denominational peculiarities. Though the fact
was rather implied than expressed, the Moravians
were to be the controlling power in the whole move-
ment. The “Congregation '' ordained a number of
ministers for service in the Reformed churches. These
declared themselves opposed to the proposed union
with Holland, and professed their adhesion to the de-
crees of the Synod of Berne. On the failure of this
union movement, about 1746, most of these ministers
joined the Moravians.
II. 1746–1793. –The arrival in America of Michael
Schlatter, on the 1st of August, 1746, was an im-
ortant event in the history of the Reformed Church.
e had been sent by the synods of Holland with di-
rections to visit the scattered churches, to establish
pastoral charges, and if possible to organize a Caetus,
or ministerial conference. In this work he was emi-
nently successful. The Coetus met for the first time in
Philadelphia in 1746, and was fully organized in 1747.
It differed from a synod only in the fact that its de-
cisions were not final until they had been approved by
the synods of Holland. At the request of the Coetus,
Schlatter, in 1751, went to Europe for the purpose of
presenting the cause of the destitute German churches
in America. ... His mission was very successful, espe-
cially in Holland. A sum of money, amounting to
£12,000, was collected and invested for the benefit of
the American churches. In 1752 he returned to
America, bringing with him six young ministers.
The success of Schlatter's mission suggested an ex-
tensive educational movement in behalf of the Ger-
mans of Pennsylvania. A large fund was brought
together in England, and a number of schools were
founded which were known as “charity schools.”
Schlatter was induced to become Superintendent of
Schools, but unfortunately this educational movement
Was made to assume a political character, and proved
a failure. Schlatter became disheartened, and with-
4.
drew from active participation in ecclesiastical affairs.
After his retirement the most prominent men in the
Coetus were J. Conrad Steiner, author of several vol-
umes of sermons, and William Stoy, who was also an
eminent physician. Dr. J. Daniel Gross was pro:
fessor in Columbia College, New York, and author of
a work on Moral Philosophy. Philip William Otter;
bein was a warm friend of the early Methodists, and
though himself remaining in the Reformed Church,
organized religious societies, from which sprang the
denomination known as the ‘‘ United Brethren in
Christ.” Rev. Drs. Caspar Weyberg, and William
Hendel were successively pastors in Philadelphia, and
in connection with Drs. J. H. C. Helmuth and H. E.
Muhlenberg, of the Lutheran Church, were especially
prominent in the organization of Franklin, College, an
institution founded in 1787 at Lancaster, Pa., to pro-
mote higher education among the Germans. This col-
lege was named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, who
was at that time governor of Pennsylvania, and who
contributed liberally to its endowment. Unfortunately
its resources were not equal to its necessities, and for
many years it failed to meet the expectations of its
founders.
In 1770 the Dutch churches of New York invited
the German churches of Pennsylvania to unite with
them in the establishment of a single General Synod,
but the Germans declined, on the ground that they
were unwilling to be separated from the synods of
Holland. During all these years the minutes of the
Coetus were sent to Europe for revision and approval.
If the synods of Holland j granted to the Coetus the
privilege of conferring the rite of ordination this inti-
mate relation might i. been indefinitely continued,
but on this point the Hollanders were inflexible. The
assertion of the right to ordain ministers led to the
final separation, which was, however, accomplished
without extended controversy. The Coetus declined, in
courteous terms, to submit its future proceedings to
the revision of “the fathers,” and thus by its own act
became an independent synod.
III. 1793–1820. –The Synod of the German Re-
formed Church met for the first time at Lancaster,
Pa., in 1793. The number of ministers at this time
was about twenty. The condition of the church was
not encouraging. Its earliest pastors, who had been
trained in Europe, had passed away, and many of their
successors had been imperfectly educated. In conse-
uence of the delay in establishing literary institutions
there was a great scarcity of ministers, and many
churches were lost to the denomination. The intro-
duction of the English language into the services of
the church led to serious conflicts. The earliest
Sunday-school was organized in the church on Race
street, near Fourth, Philadelphia, April 14, 1806. A
few books were written, by Drs. C. L. Becker, Samuel
Helffenstein, and others, but there was little literary
activity. The pastors, however, generally attended
faithfully to the duties of their office, as they under-
stood them, and were especially careful to catechize
the young as a preparation for their admission to full
membership in the church. The most hopeful indica-
tion was a general longing for better things, which,
although expressed in abortive synodical resolutions,
was a prophecy of future advancement.
IV. 1820–1863.−At the beginning of this period
the number of ministers was about seventy. The
difficulty of bringing them together to synodical meet-
ings probably first suggested the desirability of estab-
lishing subordinate ecclesiastical bodies. The Classis,
or Presbytery, has always been regarded as of funda.
mental importance to the reformed system of govern-
ment, and its introduction into the German Reformed
Church of this country appropriately marks the time
of its awakening to the nature of its mission.
In 1820 the classes, eight in number, met for the
first time. In the same year the synod, convened in
Hagerstown, Md., adopted a plan for the establish-
º
336
REFORMED CHURCH
ment of a theological seminary, and Dr. Philip Mille-
doler, of New York, was elected professor of theology.
Dr. Milledoler declined the call, and it was not until
1825 that the seminary was formally opened at Car-
lisle, Pa. The first professor of theology was Dr.
Lewis Mayer. In the summer of 1825 Rev. James R.
Reily visited Europe, and collected a considerable sum
for the new institution. One of the most liberal con-
tributors was Frederick William III., king of Prussia.
In 1829 the seminary was removed to York, and in
1837 to Mercersburg, Pa.
Marshall College was founded at Mercersburg in
1835. The first president was Rev. Frederick A.
Rauch, Ph. D. (1806–1841), who is best known as the
author of a work on Psychology, which may be said
to have introduced this science to the attention of
American students. John Williamson Nevin, D. D.,
LL. D. (1803–1886), was professor of theology at
Mercersburg, 1840–51, and president of Marshall Col-
lege, 1841–53. He was a man of great learning and
ability, and to the end of his life his influence was
extraordinary. (See NEVIN.) In 1843 a commission was
sent to Germany to invite a German professor to accept
a professorship at Mercersburg. Their choice fell upon
the Rev. Dr. Philip Schaff at that time professor
extraordinary at Berlin. He accepted the call, and
was installed professor of church history and biblical
literature in 1844. The succeeding years were marked
by intense theological and literary activity. The two
rofessors, Drs. Nevin and Schaff, labored in perfect
armony, and their influence extended far beyond the
limits of the Reformed Church. In 1846 Dr. Nevin
ublished his Mystical Presence, a book which has
een regarded as marking an epoch in the history of
American theology. Soon afterwards he published
The History and Genius of the Heidelberg Catechism,
and a tract, entitled Antichrist, or the § of Sect
and Schism. After 1849 he edited the Mercersburg
Review. During the same period Dr. Schaff wrote his
History of the Apostolic Church and several other
books. e also edited the Kirchenfreund, a monthly
magazine, devoted to the interests of the German
churches. (See SCHAFF.)
German theology and philosophy were in those days
little known in this country, and their introduction at
Mercersburg induced controversy and opposition. Grad-
ually the utterances of the professors came to be
known as “Mercersburg theology”—a term at first
employed by its opponents, but afterwards tacitly
accepted by its friends. It did not properly designate
an organized theological system but a movement in
the life of the church; and consequently left room for
injudicious and extreme utterances on the part of pro-
fessed friends which did it more harm than the attacks
of its most violent opponents.
In 1853 Marshall College was removed to Lancaster
and united with Franklin College, the Reformed
Church having first purchased the Lutheran interest
in the latter institution. The theological seminary
remained at Mercersburg until 1871, when it was also
removed to Lancaster. Since the retirement of Drs.
Nevin and Schaff, theological professorships at Mer-
cersburg and Lancaster have, at various times, been
occupied by the Rev. Drs. Bernard C. Wolff, Henry
Harbaugh, E. W. Gerhart, Thos. G. Apple, and Fred-
erick A. Gast. -
The history of the Reformed Church in the West
begins with the first decade of the present century.
Rev. Jacob Christman began to preach in Ohio in
1803. In the same year Rev. Samuel Weyberg is said
to have preached the first Protestant sermon west of
the Mississippi River, at Cape Girardeau, Missouri.
In 1804 Rev. John Jacob Larose began his labors in
Ohio. The Synod of Ohio was organized in 1824 by
eight ministers, and was for many years independent
of the Synod of the United States. The Western
Theological Seminary, and Heidelberg College were
founded at Tiffin, Ohio, in 1850. fºr;
sorships have been held by the Rev. Drs. E. V. Ger:
hart, Moses Kieffer, J. H. Good, Herman Rust, and
D. Van Horne.
About the year 1853 the work of missions among the
Germans in the West was greatly enlarged. In this
movement the Rev. Drs. Max Stern, # A. Muehl-
meier and H. J. Ruetenik were especially prominent.
Amon #. results may be mentioned the formation of
three German synods, with forty thousand members
sº the institutions necessary to effective church-
WOTK.
W, 1863–1889.—In 1863 the General Synod met
for the first time, having been founded by the concur-
rent action of the two existing synods. The same year
is memorable for the Tercentenary Celebration of the
Heidelberg Catechism, which greatly stimulated the
devotion and benevolence of the church. From 1866
to 1878, there was a serious controversy concerning
liturgical worship, but in the latter year all the ques-
tions at issue were committed to a special commission
which was successful in restoring peace to the churches.
The word “German'' was erased from the church-
title in 1869. The question of organic union with the
Reformed Church in America has recently claimed
renewed attention. The chief obstacle in the way of
union is a difference in doctrinal standards. Though
both churches are equally attached to the Heidelberg
Catechism, the Reformed Church in America holds,
in addition, the Belgic Confession and the articles of
the Synod of j. The German body has
hitherto declined to subscribe formally to the latter
confessions, regarding them as the exclusive possession
of the Church of Holland.
The Reformed Church in the United States, as at
present constituted, is governed by a General Synod,
which meets triennially. There are eight district
synods, of which five are English and three German.
The number of classes is 54. There were, in 1887,
817 ministers, 1481 congregations, and 183,980 com-
municant members. The principal literary institutions
connected with the chººl are Franklin and Marshall
College, Lancaster, Pa.; Heidelberg College, Tiffin,
Qhio; Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa.; Catawba
College, Newton, N. C.; Calvin College, Cleveland,
Ohio, and the German Mission House at Franklin,
Wis. Four orphan homes are under the care of
the church, and twenty-three periodicals are pub-
lished in its interest. The missionary activity of the
Reformed Church has been mostly directed to the
spiritual care of the German and Swiss immigrants who
have formed settlements in the West, but the means at
hand have proved utterly inadequate to this enormous
work. A foreign mission, founded in Japan in 1878,
has proved successful. The Germans have also estab-
lished a mission among the Winnebago Indians.
The Reformed Church has few distinctive peculiar-
ities. It aims to hold the truth in due and harmonious
proportion. Its Catechism, according to its own state-
ment, rests upon the Apostles' creed. It teaches
substantially the Augustinian doctrine of natural
depravity and salvation by free grace alone ; but allows
freedom for more moderate views on the subject of
predestination than are usual in the more strictly Cal-
vinistic Reformed churches. With regard to the sac:
rament of the Lord's supper it teaches the spiritual
real presence of the flesh and blood of Christ in the
Holy Eucharist, for believers only. It regards the
children of Christian parents as proper subjects for
baptism. The church insists that ministers shall
carefully instruct the young in the teachings of the
Catechism, as the best means of preparing them for
the public profession of their faith. Confirmation is
practised, not as a sacrament but as a solemn and
appropriate rite. In worship the church is moderately
liturgical, valuing and using a liturgy without abridg-
ing the liberty which is the privilege of pastors and
people. In brief, the church, like its honored sym-
bol, allows all proper liberty in the development of the
truth ; and withal is full of charity towards other
branches of the Church of Christ.
REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH.
337
Authorities.—History of the Reformed Church, vol. 1, by
Lewis Mayer, D. D.; Harbaugh's Life of Schlatter; Fathers
of the Reformed Church (5 vols.), by Harbaugh and Heis:
ler; Historic Manual of the Reformed Church in the United
States, by Joseph Henry Dubbs, D. D. (J. H. D.)
REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. This
church was organized in the city of New York, Dec.
2, 1873. ... The history of this movement dates back to
the English Reformation. The antagonism of Henry
VIII. was with the papal supremacy. With the
Reformation he had no sympathy. Toward it his
opposition was open and intense. The real work of
church reform in England dated from the reign of
Edward VI. Then for the first time the errors of
the Church of Rome were assailed, and the recasting
of the doctrine, discipline, and worship of the English
church into a Protestant mould began. The work was,
however, arrested before completion by the early
death of Edward. His Prayer Book, set aside by
his successor, was restored by Elizabeth. Changes
were made, but not in the line of Cranmer's re-
vision. Their avowed object was the conciliation of
the Romish party. From that time on there have
been changes and additions in the English Prayer
Book in this same direction. The result has been
a divided church—two parties, the one sympathizing
with Romish views and the other maintaining evan-
gelical doctrines. The daughter church in the United
States, the Protestant Episcopal, inherited the liturgy
and traditions of the mother church, and also its di-
versities of thought. After the Revolution, the Epis-
copal Church in this country needed to be reorganized,
and Bishop White sought to place it on an evangeli-
cal basis. To this end he revised the Prayer Book ;
other influences, however, gained ascendency, and his
“Proposed Book '' was rejected. Consequently the
same conflicts have continued to disturb the daughter
that had so long agitated the mother church. In 1835
a new infusion of life began in high church circles.
The so-called Tracts for the Times, emanating from
Oxford, were immensely popular. The writings of
the Fathers and mediaeval literature were brought into
prominence. The sacramentarian and sacerdotal
theories, and the divine right of Episcopacy, became
the standard of a new movement. The daughter
church in America felt the impulse. The high church
element fell into line, and, cautiously at first, began
to teach and preach the advanced doctrines.
evangelical element took the alarm and rallied at once.
It was by far the dominant partv. Its leaders were
among the foremost men in the church. No less than
three organizations were put in operation to resist the
inroads of these new tendencies. But steadily the in-
novations made headway. Those who advocated them
claimed that the Prayer Book was with them. The
Evangelicals had initiated the fight, confident in right
and in numerical strength. It was not long, how-
ever, before they were on the defensive. Their num-
bers decreased, while their opponents grew stronger
and more aggressive. At last the Evangelicals found
themselves reduced to that extremity that they could
no longer fight, and were necessitated to become pe-
titioners. They asked for such changes in the Book of
Common Prayer as would enable them with a good
conscience to remain in the church. Their appeals
Were unnoticed. On all occasions they were made to
understand that if they could not conform to high
church legislation and Prayer-Book interpretation,
they had better leave.
It was about this time that the Right Reverend
George David Cummins, D. D., Assistant Bishop of
Kentucky, began to show an interest in the ecclesiasti-
cal questions of the day. He had been consecrated
ishop in 1866. Up to this event and for several years
after he was seemingly indifferent to the struggle
that was going on. His views had ever been evan-
gelical, but his conservative tastes had been drawing
The Th
him seemingly closer to the high church men. It was
in the discharge of the duties of his new office that his
eyes were opened. There were practices in Vogue in
his diocese that he could not approve. As assist-
ant bishop he was powerless to command or even
rebuke. emonstrance was all that was left him, and
this was met by appeals to the Prayer Book, which, it
was asserted, authorized what he condemned. This
claim drove him to a study of the questions that were
agitating the church, and he was not long in making
up his mind and taking his stand. He then became
bold and aggressive. In one respect he stood alone
among the evangelical bishops and leaders of the
party. Experience had taught him that the root of
the trouble was in the Prayer Book. Its language in
some instances taught, and in others shielded, the
priestly and sacramentarian theories, and as long as it
remained as it was he saw clearly that the Romanizers
would have the right of way in the church. He there-
fore called for a revision of the Prayer Book, and a
perfecting of the work that Cranmer had so well be-
gun, and that Bishop White had in vain attempted to
carry Out.
In October, 1873, the Evangelical Alliance assem-
bled in the city of New York. Bishop Cummins was
an interested and active worker. On October 12 the
members of the Alliance united in a communion ser-
vice. Bishop Cummins was present, making an ad-
dress and delivering the cup. From within his
church, rebuke, censure, threats of ecclesiastical disci-
pline, were unsparingly showered upon him. Not
only had he united with non-episcopally ordained
ministers in celebrating the Lord's Supper, but as a
bishop in the church he had compromised his office
by taking a subordinate place. So intense was the
hostility aroused by this unchurchly act on his part,
and so bitter was the manifestation both in public at-
tacks and in private communications, that he felt that
his usefulness in his church, and especially in his dio-
cese, was at an end. Prior to this the painful con-
clusion had forced itself upon him that Prayer Book
revision was hopeless within the church ; and without
such revision he felt assured that the evangelical ele-
ment must die out. Constrained by these considera-
tions he determined to withdraw from the church.
His resignation, addressed to the presiding bishop, is
dated October 30. On consultation with friends an
organization was determined upon, and a call issued.
e object was thus stated: “To organize an Episcopal
Church on the basis of the Prayer Book of 1785 (the
Bishop White Prayer Book), a basis broad enough to
embrace all who hold the faith once delivered to the
Saints, as that faith is maintained by the Reformed
churches of Christendom ; with no exclusive and un-
churching dogmas toward Christian brethren who
º from them in their views of polity and church
OTOler.
Eight clergymen and nineteen laymen responded to
this call, and the Reformed Episcopal Church was or-
ganized. It claims to be the church of the Reforma-
tion—the church that Edward VI. and Archbishop
Cranmer and Bishop White would have had, if the
times had permitted, and to the Anglican and Ameri-
can Episcopal Church it stands in the same relation
as these churches do to the churches of Rome and of
the East—a Reformed Church.
Doctrine.-This church plants itself upon “the
Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as
the Word of God, and the sole rule of faith and prac.
tice.’ It declares its belief . . . in the creed, com-
monly called the Apostles' Creed; in the divine insti-
tution of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's
Supper; and in the doctrines of grace substantially as
they are set forth in the Thirty-nine Articles of reli.
gion.” . It is emphatic in its protest against those
errors that necessitated its organization. †
Worship.–It is liturgical, but not exclusively so.
It retains the use of “a liturgy which shall not be im.
338
REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
perative or repressive of freedom in prayer.” In its
constitution it provides that the “Book of Com-
mon Prayer . . . shall be used in this church, at such
times and with such liberty as the canon on this sub-
ject shall provide; but no canon shall make its use im-
perative on all occasions, nor forbid the use of extem-
pore or other prayer at suitable times.” Rejecting
the Prayer Book of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
that of 1785, known as the Bishop White Prayer
Book, was adopted, and has been so amended as to
Suit present needs.
Ministry. —In its ministry it “adheres to Episco-
pacy, not as of divine right, but as a very ancient and
desirable form of church polity.” It holds to two or-
ders—presbyters and deacons. The bishopric is an
office, and the bishop is “primus inter pares.”
Government.—Its government rests in, 1. A Gen-
eral Council that at present includes all its bishops
and presbyters, with lay representatives who shall be
communicants and members of the congregation
they respectively represent. This body represents
and legislates for the churches in the United States
and Canada. Its meetings are now biennial. 2. Sy-
modical Councils. The whole body is divided into
Synods. Each synod is under the jurisdiction of a
bishop with his standing committee. It has its an-
nual council, and legislates on matters that are purely
local. 3. Parish organization, which consists prima-
rily of the congregation. From them, by election,
come vestrymen, wardens, parish council, members of
the general and synodical councils, and, through the
vestry, the pastor.
Church Union.—Bishop Cummins, in his address at
the organization of the church, said: “We regard our
movement only as a step towards the closer union of
all evangelical Christendom. For this we shall labor
and pray. We gladly acknowledge the validity of
the ministerial orders of our brethren whom God
has sent into his vineyard, and whose labors he has
accepted and blessed. We shall invite all ministers
of evangelical churches to occupy our pulpits, and to
take part in our services, and we shall rejoice to meet
them and their flocks as often as may be expedient
around the Lord's table, and acknowledge that we,
being many, are one body in Christ, and members one
of another.’’
The aim of the church has been in this direction.
It has broken down the barrier of Episcopacy “as
of divine right,” and has placed it on the historic
basis, “as a very ancient and desirable form of church
polity.” In adopting the XXXIX Articles of the
Church of England, it has so amended the XXIVth
that it reads: “The doctrine of ‘apostolic succession,'
by which it is taught that the ministry of the Christian
Čhurch must be derived through a series of uninter-
rupted ordinations whether by tactual succession or
otherwise, and that without the same there can be no
valid ministry, no Christian church, and no due minis-
tration of baptism and the Lord's supper, is wholly re-
jected, as unscriptural and productive of great mis-
chief. This church values its historic ministry, but
recognizes and honors as equally valid the ministry of
other churches, even as God the Holy Ghost has ac:
companied their work with demonstration and
ower.” In its canons it provides that—“Any pres-
i. of another church may be received by a bishop
and standing committee as a presbyter of this church,
without reordination.” It reciprocates, “fraternal
greetings” with other evangelical churches. It in-
vites to friendly interchange of pulpits. It receives
communicants by letter from other churches, and on
every communion occasion it invites “fellow-Chris-
tians of other branches of Christ's church '' to the
Lord's table.
Statistics.-The following report was made to the
General Council, May, 1887: Bishops, 7 : ministers,
92; communicants, 8467; Sunday-school scholars, 11,-
811; teachers, 699; contributions, $156,064. Property
unincumbered, $1,083,361. These statistics include
the churches in the United States and Canada. There
is a branch of this church in England, but without
organic connection with the General Council. Its
theological school has graduated its first class of two
students. Its faculty consists of a dean and three
professors. ... It begins its second year with eight
students. . The Episcopal Recorder, published in
Philadelphia, is the Qºşağı of the church. (B. B. L.)
REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN
NORTH AMERICA. This is the formal title of the
body which is commonly termed the Covenanter
Church. The former name by its first part carries us
back to the second reformation of British history, in
the Seventeenth century. By its second part it indi-
cates the form of government, Presbyterian. The
familiar name, Covenanter, belongs to the history of
the Church of Scotland in the seventeenth century.
The restoration of Charles the Second in 1660 marked
the beginning of sore persecution, the “killing times”
for those who held to the Covenants of Scotland,
and became known as Covenanters (see CovKNANTERs,
in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA). It is from
this people the Covenanter Church in America orig-
inated, and correspondence is maintained by it wit
the Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in
Scotland.
I. Early History.—The persecuting times in Scot-
land were marked not only by the martyrdom of many
of the Covenanters, but also by the voluntary and
enforced exile of many more. They were banished to
North America and Jamaica, many sought an asylum
in the New World, many found refuge in Ulster,
whence their children came to these shores. In 1684
thirty were banished to Carolina ; four, the same
year, to New Jersey; one hundred, twenty-four of
them women, were transported to New Jersey. The
first emigrants came mostly to Delaware, Eastern Penn-
sylvania, New York, and South Carolina. In the early
part of the eighteenth century they were found in the
Cumberland Valley, forming “societies” as in Scot-
land—that is, worshipping assemblies without a pastor,
along the tributaries of the Susquehanna. The prin-
cipal Settlements were at Octorara and Paxtang, and
on the Conococheague in Pennsylvania. These kept
up correspondence, and in 1743 organized a “ General
Meeting '' to legislate for the Covenanter communi-
ties. The same year they covenanted at Octorara, re-
newing the Scottish Covenants, and vowing to “keep
their bodies, property, and conscience againstall attacks;
to defend Christ's gospel and the purity of the church ;
to submit to no ruler who would not submit to Christ
and to defend their liberty from fears without and
within.” The first preaching they received was from
Rev. Alexander Craighead (1707–66) in 1743. He
was ordained a Presbyterian, but acceded to the
Covenanters, and remained with them seven years,
and soon after leaving them migrated to North Caro-
lina. The first Covenanter settlement in the State of
New York was on the Wallkill, in Orange co., N. Y.
In the year 1748 Mr. James Rainey removed from
Philadelphia and settled here, and in 1753 a society
was formed. The banishment of Covenanters to
Carolina has already been noted. Chester District, in
South Carolina, early became their centre, and after
Mr. Craighead had gone South some removed from
Pennsylvania, settling along Rocky Creek, and were
soon strengthened by emigration from Ireland. By
the middle of the eighteenth century there were socie-
ties of Covenanters from Connecticut to South Caro-
lina. The Pennsylvania societies earnestly desired
help from the mother church in Scotland, when left
by Mr. Craighead in 1749. The first minister to come
was Rev. John Cuthbertson (1718–91), who landed at
Newcastle, Del., Aug. 5, 1751. He served the scat-
tered societies for 22 years, making his home in Octo-
rara. His diary is extant, and we have a full account
of his extended journeys taken on horseback, in visit-
REFORMED PRESBYTERLAN CHURCH.
339
ing the Covenanters in New York, Vermont, New
Hampshire, Connecticut, New Jersey, Maryland,
Virginia, and Pennsylvania, as far as the Qhio River.
He chronicles the names of the families he visited.
In 1759 Rev. Alexander McDowell left the Presby-
terian Church and joined the Covenanters, being in
sympathy with them in their adherence to the Solemn
League and Covenant and the usages of the Church
of Scotland. He ministered mainly to the New
England societies, but was also in Eastern Pennsyl-
vania, whence returning to New England in 1761 his
further history is not known. In 1766 the Reformed
Presbytery of Ireland sent out Rev. Daniel McClel-
land. He had been in America, but went back and
pursued his theological studies, being ordained in
iT65. He preached for a time among the Societies in
Connecticut and Eastern Pennsylvania, going in the
spring of 1768 to New England and was lost sight of
In 1772 Rev. William Martin (1729–1806) came from
Ireland with a colony, which settled in South Carolina
on Rocky Creek. He graduated at Glasgow in 1753,
and was ordained at Vow on the lower Bann, the first
Covenanter minister ordained in Ireland. In the
spring of 1773 the Paxtang Society sent a commis-
sioner to Ireland to secure ministerial help for Mr.
Cuthbertson. Rev. Alexander Dobbin and Rev. Mat-
thew Linn answered the call and were met at Philadel-
phia Dec. 13, 1773, by Mr. Cuthbertson. These three
ministers constituted the first Reformed Presbytery in
America, March 10, 1774. Each had his field of labor
in Eastern Pennsylvania, Mr. Martin, the fourth
Covenanter minister then in America, laboring in
South Carolina.
This brings us to the eve of the Revolution. The
trials of the fathers in Scotland had led them to nar-
rowly examine the principles of civil government, and
Lea Rec by Samuel Rutherford, the Hind Let Loose
by Alexander Shields, and Jus Populi Vindicatum
show their conclusions. Their children were filled
with democratic ideas and were not only in sympathy
with the rising spirit of the colonies but were in the
van. The covenanting of 1743 at Octorara had chal-
lenged the attention º the provincial governor. Mr.
Craighead spread their principles in Carolina, and the
members of the convention at Charlotte that formed
the first declaration of independence, May, 1775,
known as the Mecklenburg Declaration, were members
of the churches he had founded. Thomas Jefferson
had before him the account of the proceedings at
Octorara when he penned the Declaration of 1776, and
the Mecklenburg Declaration is also reflected in it.
July 2, 1777, Rev. John Cuthbertson and many of his
people, after sermon, swore fidelity to the cause of
the colonies. Rev. William Martin was imprisoned
and brought before Lord Cornwallis in 1780 at Winns-
boro, South Carolina, for his patriotism.
The Covenanters went heartily into the war to
throw off the yoke of Great Britain. War is leaven-
ing. The changed condition of affairs led to discus-
sion and then to assimilation with the body nearest
them, the Associate, made up of members of the
body which rose in Scotland by secession from the
Established Church in 1732. The union was formed
at Philadelphia, Nov. 1, 1782, and the united church
was known as the Associate Reformed (q. v.). The
larger part of the Covenanters of the North followed
their ministers into the union. The Southern Cove-
nanters were not involved in this step. The remnant
in the North, being without a minister, fell back again
to their condition in 1749.
In 1789 the Reformed Presbytery of Scotland
Sent out Rev. James Reid on a missionary tour,
in answer to repeated requests from America. He
journeyed from New York to South Carolina, re-
organizing and encouraging the people, spending less
than a year. His report produced fruit, and Rev.
James McGarragh (1752–1816) was sent by the Re-
formed Presbytery of Ireland, reaching South Caro-
lina in the spring of 1791. Rev. William King (1747-
98) was sent by the Reformed Presbytery of Scotland
and reached South Carolina in the fall of 1792. They
were associated as a committee of the Scotch Presby:
tery. They restored Rev. William Martin, who had
been disciplined for intemperance. In 1793 Rev.
James McKinney (1759–1802) came from Ireland,
having fallen under the ban of the British government
at home, on account of his sympathy with the Irish
cause. On his arrival he favored the formation of a
Presbytery, but acted with the Scotch committee.
He travelled from Vermont to the Carolinas, minister-
ing to the Societies and organizing many congrega-
tions. In the fall of 1797 Rev. William Gibson
(1753–1838) came from Ireland, also John Black and
Samuel B. Wylie, students of theology.
Rev. James McKinney and Rev. William Gibson, with
ruling elders, May 18, 1798, at Philadelphia, reconsti-
tuted the Reformed Presbytery, that had been dissolved
by the union of 1782. June 24, 1799, Alexander Mc-
Leod (1774–1833) was licensed by this Presbytery at
Coldenham, N. Y. He was pastor in New York
city, 1801–33. He was chairman of the committee to
prepare the testimony, and in May, 1806, the “Decla-
ration and Testimony of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church in America” was unanimously adopted by
the Presbytery. In 1807 the “Terms of Com-
munion'' were prepared. The increase of the minis-
try and people now called for the formation of a
higher court and, May 24, 1809, the Synod of the
Reformed Presbyterian Church was organized at Phil-
adelphia. The next year a theological seminary was
*gººd at Philadelphia, and Rev. Samuel B.
Wylie (1773–1852) was chosen professor. He gradu-
ated at Glasgow, 1797, and was ordained at Ryegate,
Vermont, June 25, 1800, the first Covenanter minister
ordained in America. He was pastor in Philadelphia,
1801–52, and for seventeen years a professor in the
University of Pennsylvania. In 1823 the constitu-
tion of the Supremejudiciatory wasaltered, and a Gen-
eral Synod was formed, delegates chosen by the Pres-
byteries. The General Synod met in New York city,
Aug. 2, 1825. The Presbyteries were grouped under
two subordinate Synods, Aug. 12, 1831, those east of
the Allegheny Mountains forming the Eastern Sub-
ordinate Synod, and those west of the mountains the
Western Subordinate Synod. The growth of the
church up to this period had been ºft.
The scattered Covenanters in the British maritime
provinces had been visited by a committee of the North-
ern Presbytery in 1821, Rev. James R. and Rev. Samuel
M. Willson, and organized into societies. Missionaries
came out in answer to appeals. Rev. Alexander
Clarke (1793–1874) came from Ireland to St. John in
August, 1827, Rev. William Sommerville (1800–78) and
Rev. Andrew Stevenson (1810–81), then a catechist, in
1831. All these men were sent out by the Synod of
Ireland, and a Presbytery was formed, April 25, 1832,
under its care.
II. The Division of 1833.−The year 1833 marks a
division in the Covenanter Church. All were united
in their testimony in 1806. The Covenanters who
stood out in 1782 from the union with the Associate
body were justified in their caution when the national
constitution was adopted in 1787. It did not embody
the principles they had sworn to maintain. The Test.
mony of 1806 says of it: “There are moral evils essen-
tial to the Constitution of the United States, which
render it necessary to refuse allegiance to the whole
system. In this remarkable instrument there is con-
tained no acknowledgment of the being or authority of
Gºd, there is no acknowledgment of the Christian
religion, or professed submission to the kingdom of
Messiah. It gives support to the enemies of the Re-
deemer, and admits to its honors and emoluments Jews,
Mahometans, Deists, and Atheists. It establishes that
system of robbing by which men are held in slavery,
despoiled of liberty and property and protection. łł
340
REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
violates the principles of representation by bestowing
upon the domestic tyrant who holds hundreds of his
fellow-creatures in bondage an influence for making
laws for freemen proportioned to the number of his
own slaves. This Constitution is, notwithstanding its
numerous excellencies, in many instances inconsistent,
oppressive, and impious.” Covenanters dissented,
not voting, or holding office under oath to the Consti-
tution, or serving on juries. This position proved
uncomfortable during the war of 1812. Covenanters
deemed the war justifiable and enlisted. Dr. McLeod
preached a series of discourses on the war, vindicatin
the nation, but “many of the people on the .
were aliens, having conscientiously abstained from tak-
ing the oath of naturalization, and the government had
passed an order for all aliens to remove to a distance
into the interior '' (Testimony, ed. 1881). After the
war an inclination to a more charitable view of the
Constitution began to appear. Reformation Principles,
6th ed., 1871, says: ‘‘We have seen that the African
slave-trade was abolished and legally declared to be
piracy , slave laws were repealed and slavery abolished
in the States where most of our people had their
abode ; new States were rapidly organized where
slavery never existed, and was now constitutionally
prohibited ; thus taking away the principal reason
against serving on juries in our courts of law. In
several States the highest courts had declared the
Christian religion to be the religion of the State, and
that to reproach it was a crime against public law, thus
correcting the idea of the government being infidel in
its character; in the meantime the nature of the fed-
eral compact was more perfectly developed and the
character of the bond of union among the States
better understood.” The differences between the
older and newer views came to a head at a meeting of
the Eastern Subordinate Synod, New York, April
25, 1832. A draft of a pastoral letter came from a
committee before the Synod. This argued against
charging infidelity and immorality upon the Constitu-
tion. This part of the letter was stricken out by the
synod. The minority published the original, draft
with notes. This led to the exercise of discipline,
which resulted in the division of the church at the
meeting of the General Synod at Philadelphia, Aug.
7, 1833. The party holding the views enunciated in
1806 are known as the Reformed Presbyterian Church
(O. S.), and their highest court is the Synod. The
party holding the later views are known as the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church (N. S.), and their highest
court is the General Synod. These bodies differ in
the application of their testimony to the civil institu-
tions of the United States.
III. The Reformed Presbyterian Church (N. S.). -
In 1835 a mission was established at Saharanpur,
Northern India, and Rev. James R. Campbell and wife
were sent out. In 1838 a presbytery was constituted
there. In 1848 the Book of Discipline was adopted
and published, and in 1850 directions for the wº
of God, secret, private, and public, together wit
rules and forms of order, were adopted. In 1868 the
General Synod was agitated by the exercise of disci-
pline in the case of Mr. George H. Stuart, of Philadel:
phia, for using uninspired compositions in the praise of
God, the Book of Psalms being taken by the church
as the exclusive manual of praise. Previous to this
the Philadelphia Presbytery had been divided into
the First and Second Presbyteries. The First, to which
Mr. Stuart belonged, now suspended its relations
with the General Synod, while the other approved
the synod's action. The former presbytery, was rep;
resented as an independent body in the alliance of
Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian sys-
tem, at the Philadelphia Council, 1880, but, went
into the Presbyterian Church in 1885. The relation
of the General Synod to the work in India was in-
terfered with during the period from 1868 to 1883,
but was renewed in 1883 by the appointment of
Rev. George Scott, a native, who had been educated
by the United Presbyterian Church of the United
States. The centre of work is Roorkee, with out-
Stations. ... The Theological Seminary of this church
is in Philadelphia.
The terms of communion number six. The sec-
ond names, as the subordinate standards, the West-
minster Confession of Faith, Catechisms Larger and
Shorter, and Reformation Principles, the Testimony
of the Church, as embodying according to the word
of God the great principles of the Covenanted
Presbyterian Reformation, to the maintenance of
which this church is obliged by solemn covenant en-
gagementS.
The minutes of the General Synod, 1888, show 6
presbyteries, 46 congregations, and 24 ministers.
The number of communicants is not given.
IV. The Reformed Presbyterian Church (O. S.).
The arrangement of a General Synod and two sub-
ordinate synods was abolished June 26, 1840. The
synod composed of all the ministers of the church
and a ruling elder from each session was restored
Oct. 6, 1841, and has met annually since 1861, as
the supreme judicatory. The office of the deacon
was long discussed in this church. Though recog-
nized in the form of church government and the
testimony of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, it
had fallen into abeyance. The office was revived in
1857. In 1888 women were adjudged eligible to this
office. The year 1847 witnessed the entrance on for-
eign mission work. Choice was made of Hayti
and Rev. Joseph W. Morton was sent out. Within
two years the work was abandoned, owing to his
change of church relation. In 1856 Syria was chosen
and Rev. Robert J. Dodds and Rev. Joseph Beattie
were sent out. They labored first at Zahleh, but
finally settled at Latakiyeh on the coast, which is
now the centre of a large work among the Nusair-
iyeh. This mission has charge of the work at Suadea,
at the mouth of the Orontes, known as the William
Holt Yates Mission, from its founder, an English-
man, his widow contributing to its support. In 1883
Rev. David Metheny, M. D., removed from the
Latakiyeh field, and took up new work at Tarsus,
Adana, and Mersine in Cilicia, among the Arabic-
speaking population. This church sustains missions
to the Freedmen in Alabama and to the Chinese in
California.
The Theological Seminary of this church is at Al-
legheny, Pa. The denominational college is at Beaver
Falls in the same State, and is known as Geneva
College. A course on political philosophy and Chris-
tian politics forms a special feature.
The terms of communion are six, and numbers 2,
3, 4, 6 specify, as accepted, the Westminster Con-
fession of Faith, Catechisms Larger and Shorter,
Form of Church Government and Directory for Wor-
ship of the Westminster Assembly, the Covenant of
1871, and the Testimony. The Covenant of 1871
was sworn and subscribed by the ministers and elders
at the synod of that year in Pittsburg, Pa., and
was afterwards taken largely, throughout the church
and is given in the last edition of the Testimony.
The statistics of 1888 show 11 presbyteries, 121 con-
gregations, 116 ministers, and 10,970 communicants.
Reformed Presbyterians were one in the Union
cause during the civil war, and many served in
the army as during the war of 1812, . In 1800 it
was decided that “no slaveholder should be allowed
the communion of the church ; ” in 1823 a testimony
was lifted against the oaths of Free Masonry, and
this was enlarged in the Covenant of 1871 as against
all secret oath-bound associations; in 1836, total ab-
stinence was recommended, and this was embodied in
the Testimony in the year 1883.
Literature.—John Howie, Scots Worthies; William M.
Hetherington, History of the Church of Scotland ; Reforma-
REICHENBACH-REINKENS.
341
zion Principles, 1st ed., 1806; 6th ed., New York.1871; Re-
formed Presbyterian Testimony, Philadelphia, 1881; , Re-
formed Presbyterian Advocate, a º Philadelphia;
jºanner of the Covenant, a monthly, Philadelphia; Re-
formed Presbyterian and Covenanter, a monthly, Pitts-
jurg, Pa.; Our Banner, a monthly, New York; Joseph M.
Wilson, Presbyterian Historical Almanac, Philadelphia ;
w. B. Spragué, Annals of the American Pulpit, Vol. ix, ;
W. M. Glasgow, History of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church in America, Baltimore, 1888; Samuel B. Wylie,
if moirs of Alexander McLeod, New York, 1855 ; Life and
Work of J. R. W. Sloane, New York, 1888. (D. B. W.)
REICHENBACH, HEINRICH GOTTLIEB LUDWIG
(1793–1879), German naturalist, was born at Leipsic,
jan. 8, 1793. He studied medicine and the natural
sciences in the university of his native city, and was
made, in succession, doctor of philosophy and of medi-
cine, and professor-adjunct. In 1820 he accepted a
call to the chair of natural history in the medical school
of Dresden, which he held till 1862. He established
the botanical garden there and completely rearranged
the zoölogical museum. He proposed a new system
of plant-classification based on purely genetic charac:
ters, and dividing the whole vegetable kingdom into 8
classes in accordance with the development of the
organs, his system being thus akin, to those of Jus-
sieu and De Candolle. is principal works are: Con-
spectus Regni Vegetabilis (Leipsig, 1828); Flora Ger-
janica Eccursiora with his Handbuch des matiir-
lichen Planzen-System (Leipsic, 1837); and associated
with these his Iconographia Florae Germanice with
2700 colored engravings {. 1 to 22, Leipsic, 1823–
$4). In the department of zoölogy he published Reg-
mum Animale with 79 engravings (Leipsig, 1834–36);
Deutschlands Fauna (2 vols., 1842); and Die Woll-
ständigste Naturgeschichte des In und Aus-landes (Leip-
sic, 1845). He died March 17, 1879. His son, HEIN-
RICH GUSTAv REICHENBACH, born Jan. 3, 1824, also
became professor of botany and director of the Botan:
ical Garden at Hamburg. He is the author of several
monographs on the Compositae and the Orchidaceae.
REICHENBACH, KARL voN, BARON (1788–1869),
German naturalist and technologist, was born Feb.
12, 1788, at Stuttgart, Wurtemberg, where his father
was court-librarian. He studied at Tübingen, where
he received the degree of Ph. D. His project for the
establishment of a German settlement in the South
Sea Islands was suspected by the French to have
some hidden political significance, and he was seized in
Tübingen and committed for some months to the for-
tress of Hohenasperg. On regaining his freedom he
devoted himself wholly to the natural Sciences and
their application to the industrial arts. After visiting
the leading manufacturers in Germany and France, he
engaged in charcoal-making at Vilingen and Hansach.
In 1821, in conjunction with Count frugo of Salm, he
established iron-works and other manufactures at
Blansko, Moravia, by his skilful and economical man-
agement of which he acquired a large fortune. This he
invested in the purchase of large estates at Keisenberg,
interesting himself largely in the rearing of silkworms
and the production of beet-root sugar. In 1839 the
king of Wurtemberg conferred on him the rank of
baron. He is famed chiefly for his investigations into
the compound products resulting from the distillation
of organic substances, and as the discoverer of creosote
and paraffin, and of a supposed new force in nature
which he denominated Od. He died Jan. 19, 1869,
Among his literary productions may be nºted ; Geolo-
ſ. Mittheilungen aus Mähren (1834), the first geo-
ogical monograph published in Austria; Das Kreosot
(Halle, 1833); an edition of the works of Schweigger-
Seidel (Leipsic, 1835); Die Dynamide des Magnetis-
mus (1840); Der Sensitive Mensch (1854); Odisch-
'magnetische Briefe (1855); Odische Erwiederungen
(1856), besides many contributions to scientific periodi-
CàIS. -
REID, SAMUEL CHESTER (1783-1861), the designer
of the present American flag, was born at Norwich,
Conn., Aug. 25, 1783. . He went {0, Sea when only
eleven years old and being captured by a French prº.
wateer was detained for six months. He was afterwards
a midshipman in the U.S. navy, and in the war of
isiº commanded the privateer brig General Arº-
strong, having 7 guns and 90 men. On Sept. 26,
isjºin Fayal Roads, he was attacked by the boats of
a British squadron, but defeated them with a loss 9
over 200 men, while his own was only 2 killed and 7
wounded, though he was obliged, to scuttle, his vessel
to prevent its capture. The attack on the Armstrong
was long the subject of diplomatic controversy, but the
case was finally decided by the arbitration of Louis
Napoleon, when president of the French Republic, in
favor of the British. Capt. Reid was made a sailing
master in the U.S. navy, and in later years was also
warden of the port of New York. For his gonnection
with the U.S. flag see article FLAG. He also in-
vented the signal arrangements formerly in use be-
tween Sandy Hook and the Battery in New York
harbor. He died at New York, Jan. 28, 1861. tº
REID, WHITELAw, journalist, was born at Xenia,
Ohio, in 1837. His father, a strict Covenanter, had
been one of the founders of the town. Whitelaw grad-
uated at Miami University in 1856 and entered the
field of journalism. His brilliant letters to the Cincin-
nati Gazette signed “Agate’’ soon made him widely
known. On the outbreak of the civil war he served as
a volunteer aid in West Virginia, and was War corre-
spondent with the Army of the Cumberland and the
Army of the Potomac. At the close of the war he
travelled throughout the South, and for a few months
tried cotton-planting in Louisiana. . He then became
one of the proprietors of the Cincinnati Gazette, but
in 1868 was called by Horace Greeley to be his asso-
ciate in editing the New York Tribune. As managing
editor he *i. force and skill in gathering news.
When Greeley was nominated for the Presidency in
1872 the control of the paper was placed in Reid's
hands, and there it has since remained through various
changes of ownership. Having renewed cordial rela-
tions with the Republican party, he has made the
paper a leading exponent of its policy. His books
comprise After the War (1866); Ohio in the War
(2 vols., 1868); Memorial of Horace Greeley (1873).
REINISCH, LEO, Austrian Egyptologist, was born
at Osterwitz, Styria, Oct. 26, 1832. He was educated
at Gratz and at the University of Vienna, and devoted
himself to Egyptology. In this department of that
university he was made professor extraordinary in
1868, and professor ordinary in 1872. He has made
several journeys to Africa, and in 1865 with Lepsius
he discovered the bilingual inscription at Tanis. In
1866 Reinisch accompanied the Emperor Maximilian's
expedition to Mexico. Since 1873 he has devoted at-
tention chiefly to the languages of East Africa, and has
prepared several grammars and dictionaries of them
which have been published by the Academy of Vienna.
Besides several monographs on Egyptian subjects
hº º Aegyptische Chrestomathie (2 vols.,
S73–75).
REINKENS, Joseph HUBERT, a German Old-
Catholic bishop, was born at Burtscheid near Aix-la-
Chapelle, March 1, 1821. He was educated at Bonn,
and studied theology at Cologne and Munich, taking
his doctor's degree at the latter in 1849. He began to
teach history at Breslau in 1850, and became professor
of theology there in 1857. He was also preacher in
the cathedral from 1852 to 1858. In 1870, having pub-
lished an essay on The Pope and has Power according
to St. Bernard, he was warned by the Prince-bishop
Förster, who also sought to hinder the publication of
his treatise on Papal Infallibility. On August 26, at
Nuremberg, Reinkens joined with, Döllinger, and
others in a declaration against the Vatican Council. To
the subsequent controversy Reinkens contributed some
six pamphlets, which were collected under the title The
Papal Decree of July 18, 1870 (1871). At the Old-
342
REIS—RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.
Catholic Synod at Cologne in 1873 Reinkens was
elected bishop, and was consecrated on August 11, at
Rotterdam, by the Jansenist bishop Heykamp of
Deyenter. He was acknowledged by Prussia, Baden,
and Hesse, and made Bonn his see. His oratorical
ability was employed in extending the movement for
Some time with marked success. in September, 1876,
he consecrated Bishop Herzog in Switzerland. Among
his publications may be . Revolution und Kirche
(1876); Ueber Einheit der Katholischen Kirche (1877).
He also published some treatises on Clement of Alex.
ºndria (1857), Procopius (1859), Hilary of Poietiers
(1864), Martin of Tours (1866), Aristotle on Art
(1870), Louise Hensel (1877), Lessing on Toleration
(1883).
REIS, PHILIPP (1834–1874), a German physicist,
regarded by some as the inventor of the telephone,
was born at Gelnhausen, Jan. 7, 1834. He was edu.
cated at Frankfort and was employed in a color-factory
there, but pursued with ardor mathematical and sci.
entific studies. In 1858 he became a teacher in an
institute at Homburg, and there constructed an instru-
ment by which sound could be transmitted to a dis-
tance. ... This has been called the first telephone, though
Reis did not use the name, nor did his contrivance
transmit speech. Reis died Jan. 14, 1874, before any
public interest was shown in his work. For a full ac-
CQunt of his career and invention see the Popular
Science. Monthly, August, 1883, and Philipp Reis, by
S. P. Thompson (London, 1883).
RELIGIOUS LIBERTY is a special application
of the general law of personal liberty, which affirms
the right of every man to exert his powers freely at
the dictate of his own sense of duty or self-interest,
restrained only by regard for the rights and just
claims of others. As applied to mental action, the
principle demands freedom of thought and of expres-
sion by speech or writing; and in the sphere of re-
ligion, freedom of opinion, of teaching, and of worship,
implying the right, as before the law, to be of any or
of no religion. But as religion has regard to men's
Supreme duty and interest, calling into exercise the
deepest sense of obligation, religious liberty is the
highest and most sacred form of personal liberty. Out
of the recognition of personal religious liberty grows
by a natural evolution the right of association. Per-
Sons of the same religious faith unite to form a church.
Complete spiritual freedom includes the freedom of
churches not only to maintain public worship but to
establish terms of membership and rules of discipline.
For the state to intermeddle with or impede the ad-
ministration of church discipline would be a depriva-
tion of the just liberties of its members. Religious
liberty differs from toleration, with which it is often
confounded. The power to grant toleration implies
the power to refuse it. Thus the English Toleration
Act, as originally framed, refused toleration to Roman
Catholics and to Unitarians, and it was not till a re-
cent period that those exceptions were removed. It is
also to be distinguished from religious equality. To es-
tablish by law and maintain by general taxation any
form of religion—so long as the free exercise of other
religious forms is permitted—violates equality but is
no invasion of religious liberty. In these definitions
and distinctions, it may be necessary to state, liberty is
viewed as the alternative of restraint imposed under
forms of law. There are moral restraints which in-
fringe no man's rights. One who advocates unpopular
opinions must run the risk of becoming personally un-
opular, involving various degrees of social isolation.
This, however unpleasant to bear, is not persecution.
Nor is it an infringement of any one's liberty to sub-
ject him to ecclesiastical censure according to the rules
of the denomination to which he belongs by vol.
untary adhesion. ... But penalty, privation, or civil
disqualification inflicted by law for the profession of
any form of religion is a denial of religious liberty.
Personal liberty in all its forms, regarded as the
right of every man, is essentially a modern idea, and
its recognition is still far from being world-wide. In
the ancient civilizations all rights of the individual
were held subordinate to the prerogative of the state.
It was found that the absolutism of a popular assem.
bly could be as oppressive as that º an emperor.
Against, the absolute state, whether republican orim-
perial, the individual had no rights. Christianity by
its doctrine of personal duty, of personal redemption,
and of personal responsibility to the divine judgment,
attached an infinite value and dignity to every human
soul, from which the acknowledgment of personal
rights was a necessary though not an immediate infer-
ence, The hierarchical organization of the church, and
its alliance with the empire, tended again to subordi-
nate the individual to the catholic whole. Augustine
gave the weight of his authority in favor of treating
heresy as a crime against the state. The fatal prece:
dent bore its fruit in making spiritual despotism the
law of Catholic Europe. The Reformation carried in
its bosom the spirit of revolt against ecclesiastical
authority, but not positive faith in the freedom of the
soul. The Reformed Churches, in close alliance with
the state, continued the rule of intolerance, which was
affirmed in their confessions of faith. The Formula
of Concord, for example, declares concerning the Ana-
baptists that they “are divided into many sects, of
which some maintain more, some fewer errors. Nev-
ertheless, in a general way, they all profess such a doc-
trine as can be tolerated neither in the church, nor by
the police, nor in daily life (neque in Ecclesia, neque in
politia, meque in aeconomia tolerari potest). The First
and Second Helvetic Confessions fulminate in like man-
ner against all who bring in or follow “strange doc-
trines.” The French jºi. Confessions are equally
explicit.; the Scotch Confession of 1560 goes so far
as to affirm that to kings, princes, rulers, and magis-
trates chiefly and principally pertains the conservation
and purgation of religion, and that they are appointed
for the maintenance of true religion and for suppres-
sion of idolatry and superstition. The Westminster
Confession, with its characteristic fulness of thought
and terseness of expression, declares that “the magis-
trate hath authority and it is his duty to take order
that unity and peace be preserved in the church, that
the truth of God be kept pure and entire, that all
blasphemies and heresies be suppressed, all corruption
and abuses in worship and discipline prevented or re-
formed, and all the ordinances of God duly settled,
administered, and observed.” The Presbyterian
Church in the United States has not received this arti-
cle of the Confession of Faith, but substituted for it
another, more in harmony with the spirit of the later
age. The Church of England was a persecuting
church, with rare intervals, for three hundred years.
From the bosom of the English church came forth
bodies of dissenters, now numerously represented
among the popular forms of ecclesiastical life. The
Independents (or Congregationalists) protested vigor-
ously against the intolerance of the Established
Church. When, in consequence of the Parliamentary
War, Episcopacy was suppressed and the Westminster
Assembly was called to frame a new ecclesiastical consti-
tution for Great Britain, their Confession of Faith and
Form of Government were summarily set aside by the
Independents, aided by the weight of Oliver Crom-
well's sword. Yet, under the Protectorate, though
there was a general toleration, there were significant
exceptions. The lenity of the government did not ex-
tend to Roman Catholics or Unitarians. Nor was this
merely a matter of civil regulation. The Indepen-
dents had no idea of countenancing any doctrine of
complete religious freedom. John Robinson has been
canonized by the descendants of the Puritans as a
Liberal born out of due time. Yet John Robinson,
in several publications, insisted on the duty of the
magistrate to maintain true religion and put down re-
* * e º T
ligious error. “He may ’’—such is his remarkable
RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.
343
|nent of Europe toleration is the general rule, but
statement—“alter, devise, or establish nothing in re-
ligion otherwise than as Christ hath appointed,” but
may “use his lawful power, lawfully for the further-
ance of Christ's kingdom and laws. . . It is true, they
have no power against the laws, doctrine, and religion
of Christ, but for the same, if their power be of God,
they may use it lawfully and against the contrary.”
A government holding what he thought to be the
ài. in his judgment, was authorized to maintain it
by force. Macaulay scarcely caricatured this theory
when he said: “The doctrine which, from the first
origin of religious dissensions, has been held by all
bigots of all sects, when condensed into a few words
and stripped of rhetorical disguise, is simply this :
I am in the right and you are in the wrong. When
you are the stronger you ought to tolerate me; for it
is your duty to tolerate the truth. But when I am the
stronger, I shall persecute you ; for it is my duty to
persecute error.” But the light was struggling with
the darkness. It has been claimed that Robert
Browne, from whom the Independents received the
nickname of Brownists, in 1582 affirmed the doctrine
of complete religious liberty. The language of
Browne is not so unambiguous as could be desired,
and he himself returned to the Established Church,
and his doctrine, whatever it had been, received no
further support from him. . A more decisive and out-
spoken publication was issued in 1614, bearing the
title, Religious Peace : or, a Plea for Liberty of Con-
science, presented to King James and the % Court
of Parliament by Leonard Busher, citizen of London.
Busher was a Baptist, and in this attitude he was not
singular among his brethren, for already in 1611 a
Baptist Confession of Faith had been put forth con-
taining this declaration : “The magistrate is not to
meddle with religion or matters of conscience, nor
compel men to this or that form of religion ; because
Christ is King and Law-giver of church and con-
science.” *
The next representative of the principle is Roger
Williams, who was banished from Massachusetts in
1638 for maintaining it, and who has the honor of
being the first legislator to make it part of the funda-
mental law of a state. Bancroft, in his History of
the United States, represents him as the first asserter
of the doctrine, an honor which cannot be claimed for
him in the light of history. He was a stalwart de-
fender of the principle against Rev. John Cotton, who
assailed it. The growth of the American colonies was
marked by a vigorous growth of sentiment favorable
to the fullest civil and religious liberty and a pas-
sionate attachment to it. Under the lead of Franklin,
whose liberality in several directions placed him in ad-
vance of his age, and of Jefferson, who is justly
venerated as the father of religious liberty in Vir-
ginia, this became the prevailing spirit of American
thought.
The legislative history of religious liberty is a his-
tory of crimes against it, and of painfully slow con-
cessions to its spirit. Holland was the first of modern
states to establish the policy of toleration, which is
the nearest approach to religious liberty known to
Europe. Queen Mary of England, the Roman
Catholic, is sadly immortalized as the “Bloody Mary''
for her sanguinary persecution of Protestants. But
Queen Elizabeth, the Protestant, made a sanguinary
persecution of Roman Catholics; and she and her
Successors until the Revolution of 1688—Cromwell ex-
cepted—kept the Protestant nonconformists under the
pressure of the most abominable penal laws. The
attempt to impose Episcopacy upon Presbyterian
Scotland more than once brought the kingdom to the
brink of civil war. The original Toleration Act, of
1689, grudgingly passed and loaded with invidious
restrictions and exceptions, has been, by gradual
amendment, made so ample in its provisions that,
while its original theory is unretracted, it practically
amounts to entire religious freedom. On the conti-
there are some exceptions. France now tends towards
a complete secularization of the state. The Spanish
constitution provides for toleration, but the adminis-
tration locally falls short of redeeming the promise.
The same is true of Austria and of some of the Ger-
man states. The gloomy autocracy of Russia is as
severe and unbending in the ecclesiastical as in the
civil sphere.
A. §ew World was needed for the full growth of the
new idea. For both the theory and the practice of
religious liberty and of religious equality we must
look to these United States, of which the first to pro-
fess and act upon it was, as we have seen, Rhode
Island. Maryland was founded on a policy of liberal
toleration, but the charter contained no sufficient guar-
anty of it, and the subsequent legislation of the colon
at one time leaned to a contrary policy. Pennsyl-
vania was the next in succession to grant liberty of
conscience, which was essentially involved in the
$º: theory of religion professed by its founder.
irginia had originally an established church with
some of the intolerance of the mother church of Eng-
land at that period, but under the combined action of
religious dissent and of religious indifference its power
was curtailed, and when the State constitution was
formed, its Bill of Rights became the recognized creed
of civil and religious liberty for all the States. It
was copied in other State constitutions and in the first
ten amendments to the Constitution of the United
States. Massachusetts, under her colonial charter,
was as intolerant as any Roman Catholic state. We
have seen Cotton defending a persecuting policy
against Roger Williams. When Gov. Dudley died,
in 1653, there were found in his pocket some lines of
verse, which included the following :
“Let men of God, in courts and churches, watch
O'er such as do a toleration hatch,
Lest that ill egg bring forth a cockatrice,
To poison all with heresy and vice.
If men be left and otherwise combine,
My epitaph's, “I died no libertine.’”
When Cromwell was proposing toleration in Eng-
land, a synod in Massachusetts protested against the
measure as “ligentious.” Nathaniel Ward, pastor at
Ipswich, published in England his Cobbler of Agawam,
fiercely denouncing it. “I lived,” he says, “in a
city where a Papist preached in one church, a Lu-
theran in another, a Calvinist in a third ; a Lutheran
one part of the day, and a Calvinist the other, in the
same pulpit. The religion of that place was but
motley and meagre and their affections leopard-like.”
He insisted on the old maxim, that religion is ignis
probationis—a test of fire. It is an interesting study
to trace the successive steps by which from this condi-
tion of public sentiment Massachusetts became the
home of religious liberty and equality. The principle
is at length rooted in the convictions of the American
people. With eyery advance in popular government,
in the Qld World as in the New, the emancipation of
the intellect and the conscience keeps pace with the
general progress.
The constitutional defences of religious liberty in
the United States are not as complete as they are
§§ supposed to be. The Constitution of the
nited States provides (Article I. of Amendments)
that “Congress shall make no law respecting an estab'.
lishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof.” This, however, imposes no restriction upon
the States, and it is well known that at the time of the
adoption of this article there were in more than one
State religious establishments. Connecticut, in Isis,
disestablished her, Congregational churches. Massa.
chusetts followed, but not till 1833. ... The State consti,
tutions all contain provisions guarding the rights of
conscience and establishing religious equality. But
State constitutions are amended with facility, and, as
344
RENAN.
the question 0- their amendment is local, it is con-
ceivable that in very possible contingencies a State
might efface the provisions that recognize religious
freedom as among the inalienable rights of man. Ex-
perience has shown that political alliances with churches
are more likely to be made by State and city govern-
ments than by the government of the United States.
Payments, might be made from a city treasury to a
favored church without attracting any wide public
attention ; and, on the other hand, a church might
Secure virtual control of local governments, manipu-
lating them for its purposes. As only the State con-
stitutions stand between the people and such betrayal
of their rights, it is worthy of consideration whether
additional security is not possible and desirable. An
amendment to the Constitution of the United States,
to the effect that “No State shall make any law for
the establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof,” thus extending to the States the
restriction now imposed upon Congress, would be a
wholesome preventive of insidious local encroachments
upon the public liberties. The Constitution now pro-
vides that the United States shall guarantee to every
State a republican form of government. A further
guarantee to the people of every State against inter-
ference with the free exercise of religion would put
the essential rights and immunities of the citizen
under the guardianship of the whole nation. But
the most perfect definitions of rights, and the most
precise limitations of power, will be ineffective with-
out an intelligent love of freedom on the part of the
eople, and a firm resolution to maintain it. In the
i. resort, constitutional law expresses only the fixed
determination of the popular will.
On the general subject see Schaff’s History of the Chris-
tian Church, Vol. VI., p. 51, sq.; Jeremy Taylor's Liberty
of Prophesying ; John Stuart Mill's On Liberty. The
treatise of Leonard Busher, above referred to, has been re-
published in the collections of the Hansard Knollys So-
ciety, England. The treatises of Roger Williams have been
reprinted by the, Narragansett Club, Providence. As to
Robert Browne, see Congregationalism as Seen in its Litera-
twre, by H. M. Dexter, p. 101, ; The case of Massa-
chusetts vs. Roger Williams is ably stated in Palfrey’s
History of New England, Vol. I., p. 405, sq. For a striking
view of the fathers of New England, see Bushnell's Work
and Play, p. 124, 8q. (L. E. S.)
RENAN, JosłPH ERNEST, French philologist and
writer, was born at Tréguier, in the Department Côtes
du Nord, Feb. 27, 1823. His parents, pious Catholic
peasants, destined him to the priesthood and sent him
to the college of his native town. His talents at-
tracted attention, and he was invited to pursue his
studies in the Seminary of St. Sulpice, at Paris, then
resided over by Abbé Dupanloup, afterwards Arch-
j. of Bordeaux. He devoted himself with eager-
ness to the Semitic languages, under Abbe Le Hir, to
whom he pays tribute in his Souvenirs. But his philo-
logical studies caused him to lose faith in Catholic
dogmatic theology. In October, 1845, he left the
seminary and sought to support himself by giving
rivate instruction. His sister, a governess, came to
§ aid, and gave him 1200 francs, her entire savings.
In 1848 at an examination for a fellowship in philoso-
phy he took the highest rank, and the Institute
awarded him the Volney prize for a dissertation on
the Semitic languages. In 1849 the Academy of In-
scriptions sent him on a literary mission to Italy, where
he obtained materials for an important work on Arabic
philosophy, Averroès et l'Averroisme º An-
other work of the same time on the Greek of the Mid-
dle Ages was crowned by the Academy. In 1851
Renan was installed in the manuscript department of
the National Library. In 1856 he was chosen a mem-
, ber of the Academy of Inscriptions. Within a few
years he published a translation of the Book of Job,
with an essay on its age and character (1858), and a
similar work on the Canticles (1860). He had been
also a diligent contributor to reviews and periodicals,
and from these he had collected two volumes, Etudes
d'histoire Religieuse (1857); Essais de Morale et de
Critique (1859).
In 1860 the French government sent an army to
Syria and in accordance with precedent sent also a
Scientific commissioner to that ancient land. To
Renan, as the foremost Semitic scholar, was afforded
the opportunity of exploring Tyre, the Lebanon, and
Palestine. On his return he was appointed professor
of Hebrew in the Collège de France, but his intro-
ductory lecture was attended with such disorder that
the course was suspended. In 1864 he was dismissed
after the appearance of his famous book, the religious
result of his visit to the Holy Land, the Vie de Jésus.
The work circulated with astonishing rapidity, but the
outcry against it was most vigorous. Duruy, the
minister of public instruction, tried to conceal the re-
moval from the professorship by appointing him to a
position in the Imperial Library, i. Renan refused
to accept. After the downfall of the Empire he was
restored on the unanimous request of the faculty of
the College and of the Institute. In 1883 he was
made administrator of the college. His wife and
daughter have cheered him in later life as his sister
did at the commencement of his career.
The Vie de Jésus was intended to be the introduction
to a history of the origin of Christianity. This de-
sign was carried out in Les Apôtres (1866); Saint Paul
et sa Mission (1867); L'Amtéchrist (1873); L'Eglise
Chrétienne (1879). He published also official reports
of his mission to Phoenicia, discussions of Oriental
and archaeological subjects, and contributions to the lit-
erature of the day. The latter were partly collected
under the title, $.". contemporaines (1868). In
1878 Renan was elected to the French Academy, and
in his inaugural address in April, 1879, he touched
with trenchant satire certain defects in German schol-
arship and literature. In 1880 he became an officer of
the Legion of Honor, a position from which the ob-
stinacy of Pres. MacMahon in refusing to sign the
decree had excluded him for months. In the same
year he delivered the Hibbert lectures in London,
taking for his theme The Influence of Pagan Rome on
Christianity. Closely connected with these is his
Marc Aurèle et la fin du monde antique (1881).
Renan has written charming autobiographic sketches
under the title, Souvenirs d'Enfance et de Jeunesse
(1883), which have appeared in English as Recollec-
tions of My Youth. §. dramas from his pen in
later years appear to indicate a depraved imagination.
His latest works are 1802, a panegyric of Victor Hugo
(1886), and Discours et Conferences (1887).
The Vie de Jésus totally ignores any divinity in the
Founder of the Christian religion, yet some critics have
regarded it as an elaborate tribute to his character. It
was utterly different from the mythical theory pro-
pounded in Strauss's Leben Jesu, but it was a more in-
sidious attack on Christian belief. Combining his
own youthful experience in Brittany with his mature
study and sympathetic observation of Oriental life
and scenery, Renan presents Jesus of Nazareth as a
Jewish philosopher of mystical tendency; in fact, what
he himself might have been had he lived in
the Roman province of Judaea. The central figure
moves under the brilliant light of a cloudless Eastern
sky. The consummate art of the portrait seems but
the poetic rendering of the truth of nature. Yet the
picture remains French in its idea, its accessories, and
its limitations. It has the feminine tone character-
istic of French emotion. Worst of all, while profess-
ing love for the person of Jesus and reverence for his
character, it taints his moral purity. The intense and
deadly hostility of the attack on Christianity was felt
at once by both friend and foe. All France, and soon
all Europe, was roused, and numerous replies to the
work, of various degrees of ability, were prepared.
Yet outside of France it has had little real effect and
RENO-REPRESENTATION.
345
the later works for which it led the way are but little
known and seldom named. Infidels of other nations
demand a coarser and stronger polemic against Chris-
tianity. But in France the exquisite grace of Renan's
style and the charm of his poetic fancies will enable
him to hold a foremost place among her wº )
J. P. L.
RENO, JESSE LEE (1823-1862), general, was born
at Wheeling, W. Va., June 20, 1823. Appointed cadet
from Pennsylvania, he graduated at West Point
Academy in 1846, and entered the ordnance depart-
ment. He was engaged in the Mexican war, and by
his gallantry won brevets at Cerro Gordo, and Chapul-
tepec, being wounded at the latter. He was after-
ward assistant professor of mathematics at West
Point, and was employed in the Coast Survey and
on other duty. He was ordnance officer in Gen. A. Sid-
ney Johnston's expedition to Utah. On the outbreak
of the civil war he remained faithful in his allegiance,
and in November, 1861, he was madebrigadier-general of
volunteers. He took part in Burnside's expedition
to North Carolina, fought at Roanoke Island, and as-
sisted in the capture of New Berne. In July, 1862,
he was ordered to reinforce McClellan's army, and he
afterward joined Gen. Pope's army. Having com-
mand of the Ninth Corps, he fought near Manassas.
When McClellan was again appointed to the chief
command, Reno was in the advance and engaged the
enemy at South Mountain, Md., Sept., 14, 1862. By
his gallantry and activity he contributed to the victory,
but was killed before the close of the day.
RENOUF, PETER LE PAGE, an English Oriental-
ist, was born on the Island of Guernsey, in 1824. He
was educated there at Elizabeth College and afterward
at Pembroke College, Oxford. In 1842 he became a
Roman Catholic, and when the Catholic University of
Ireland was opened in 1855 he was made professor of
ancient history and Oriental languages. Here he also
assisted in editing Atlantis and the Home and For-
eign Review. In 1864 he was appointed an inspector
of schools, and held this position for many years.
His work on The Condemnation of Pope Honorius
(1868) was attacked by the Roman Catholic press and
was placed on the Index, but Renouf maintained and
defended his position. He had previously published
Some controversial works, but his principal work has
been in Egyptian philology. He delivered the Hib-
bert lectures in 1878 on The Ancient Religions of Eu-
rope. In 1885, on the death of Dr. Samuel Birch,
Renouf was appointed keeper of the Egyptian an:
tiquities in the #. Museum.
RENWICK, JAMES (1790-1863), physicist, was
born at Liverpool, England, May 30, 1790, but was
early brought to New York city. He graduated at
Columbia College in 1807, with the highest honors,
and in 1810 he returned to lecture on natural philoso.
# In 1817 he was made a trustee of the college,
but in , 1822, he resigned that position on being ap:
pointed professor of experimental philosophy and
chemistry. He did much to diffuse in the United
i. the knowledge of natural sciences by his text-
OOKS.
Vols., 1832) was the first important treatise on that
Subject in this country, and his Outlines of Geology
($38) had a similar precedence. He also published
Élements of Mechanics (1832) and Practical Applica.
tºns of Mechanics (1840). His Treatise on the Steam-
Engine (1840) was highly esteemed as a practical
glide. In the field of biography he was also a diligent
§borer, preparing Lives of Fulton, Rittenhouse,
Count Rumford, DeWitt Clinton, j ay, and Hamil-
ton. . In 1838 he was one of the U.S. Commissioners
#PPointed to explore the region of the North-East
oundary. In 1853 he resigned his professorship,
but continued in other w ys his labors for the advance-
*ent of science and its practical applications. He
died at New York, Jan. 13, isé3.
His son, JAMEs RENWICK, born Nov. 3, 1818, gradu-
His Outlines of Natural Philosophy (2|fi
ated at Columbia College in 1836, and became a civil
engineer. He was engaged in work on the Erie Rail-
way and the Croton Aqueduct. Afterwards becom-
ing an architect, he constructed Grace Church, St.
Patrick's Cathedral, the building of the Smithsonian
Institution, the Corcoran gallery at Washington, Was-
sar College, and other buildings. g
REPRESENTATION. Popular governments, in
which the mass of the people of a community partici-
pate in the exercise of public authority, usually ex-
hibit two methods of exercising such popular function.
In small communities the direct participation of the
people in the enactment of laws and the control of
administration, acting together in public assemblies, is
practicable and frequently exists, but where the num-
bers participating in such government exceed what
could be conveniently assembled for such purpose, and
where the distances to a place of common meeting are
too great to admit of the assembling of a considerable
portion of the citizens, the necessity exists for delegat-
ing authority to certain selected persons to perform
such duties in the name and with the authority of
such community. The persons thus selected for the
purpose of enacting laws to regulate the affairs of the
community are designated representatives, and the
relation in which they stand to the citizens from
whom their authority is derived is expressed by the
term representation.
Every agency in which one acts in the name and
with the authority of another is an instance of repre-
sentation, in the general sense of the term, but politi-
cal agencies attended with a delegation of authority to
make laws are properly expressed by the term repre-
sentation in its institutional sense. According to gen-
eral usage, this implies a legislative body consisting of
representatives who deliberate and act together, in one
or more assemblies, by the votes of some predeter-
mined number or proportion.of the whole assembly.
Governments in which the whole body of the citizens
act together directly in the enactment of laws are de-
scribed as pure democracies, while those that have leg-
islative bodies composed of representatives chosen by
the people are designated as representative popular
governments, and very commonly as republics.
While the theoretical origin of representation traces
the institution to the necessities of large and populous
communities sustaining popular institutions, the his-
toric origin is in the causes that transferred the source
from which legislative authority was derived from
phonarchs, dignitaries, and privileged classes to the
§ of the people or some considerable part of that
Ody.
mission of the citizen to the individual right of partici-
In the great governments of Europe the ad-
pating in the choice of representatives is of modern
origin, and was preceded by the indirect exercise of
that right as a member of some municipality or other
political cºmmunity, or of some organization of a
mixed political and industrial character. Popular
representation, owes its establishment largely to the
necessities of the governing classes for money, and the
struggle by which in England it obtained definite and
xed, recognition has associated together the ideas of
taxation and representation as having a peculiar con-
nection, while in an accurate sense all the powers of
government are equally related to representation as the
proper means of their exercise.
. Popular representation in America was directly de-
rived from the English system transferred to this
country and implanted in the first colonial govern.
ments. The condition of the colonies admitted of no
other system conformably to the customs of England,
as the populations of the colonies were scattered over
Wide areas and were homogeneous and without class
differences to serve as the foundation of oligarchical
institutions. From the colonial governments popular
*Presentation passed into the government of the
United States and of the respective States under the
Articles of Confederation, and thence into the existing
346
REPRESENTATION.
governments of the United States and of the States at
the formation of the Constitution.
We find in examining the representative system as
it exists in the United States two modes of representa-
tion, both of which may be termed popular, but differ-
ing from each other as direct and indirect. The rep-
resentation in the House of Representatives of the
Congress of the United States is of the direct kind,
while that in the Senate of the United States is indirect.
In both cases the people of the States are the sources
from which the representation is derived, but in the one
case they exercise a direct choice of the representatives
through a popular election, while in the other that
choice is made by the Legislature of the State, and yet
as that Legislature is the product of popular election,
it may still be regarded as popular in its nature
although indirectly exercised by the people.
The members of the U. S. House of Repre-
sentatives are chosen by the people in congressional
districts, each State being subdivided to make such
districts. The Senators, on the other hand, are
chosen by the Legislatures of the several States. The
congressional districts from which members of the
House of Representatives are chosen are not organ-
ized communities, but merely geographical divisions of
population. As the people of these districts do not
act together as a distinctive community, exercising
municipal power, it is to be concluded that their choice
represents a collective body of individual preferences.
On the other hand the selection of the U. S. Sena-
ators is the act of the agents of government of a
State, chosen by the people of the State for objects
having direct relation to the local interests of such
State. It will be found, when considering the rep-
resentative system of certain of the States, that
the U. S. House of Representatives has a more
distinctly popular character, as proceeding directly
from popular choice, independently of the effects of
local organization, than prevails in the legislative
bodies of the States, and that the Senate of the United
States is the only legislative body in the United States
that is based upon the governmental action of organ-
ized communities.
Of these two methods of deriving representation
that which proceeds from the action of organized com-
munities through their local governmental agencies ap-
pears to be that most intimately related to forms of
government that preceded popular institutions. Such
modes of representation are found in federated states
that have a common administration of such interests
as are in common among them, and indeed prevail
where independent states are represented in consulting
bodies acting in the common interest. This mode of
representation although popular, as based on popular
selection, may be termed federal, for although the
term federal in its origin expressed the idea of author-
ity derived from a compact or contract, still in its
modern use it is applied to relations between organ:
ized communities of a governmental nature bound
together by a national tie. * . . Ø tº -
We find that, in the early constitution of the British
House of Commons, cities and boroughs were distinct-
ively represented as municipal bodies, and that direct
popular representation in that body has been the pro-
duct of the development of liberal ideas in later times.
When the whole people of an organized community
that is part of a more ſº government vote collect-
ively in the choice of representatives to exercise the
powers of such general government, it is evident that
the local interests of such community will be reflected
in the choice made by them to a much greater degree
than where such community is subdivided upon
geographical rather than , upon political lines into
ăistricts, each district exercising independently of each
other a collective choice of such representatives.
While a State or lesser community, may maintain a
certainline of policy as a whole, it is not tº be antici;
pated that that policy will express the preferences of
each of the various geographical subdivisions into
which it may be divided. A choice that rests upon
the action of an organized community through its
governmental agents may be said to be based upon
corporate opinion, while that which proceeds directly
from the people, independent of corporate organization,
may be said to represent individual opinion. That com-
munities in their organic action do not accurately rep-
resent the consequences of individual opinion and sen-
timent prevailing among their people is commonly
observed. Material interests are apt to dominate
social ideas in what is here termed corporate opinion,
while a better opportunity for the expression of social
ideas and tendencies is afforded by direct individual
action.
It is apparent from what has been said that the
tendency, that is observed in popular governments, to
reach a direct expression of individual opinion serves
to enhance the social influences as distinguished from-
those of a material character, while the conservation
of methods intimately connected with corporate opin-
ion tends to give coherence to the system, thus com-
bining together progressive and conservative tenden-
cies to produce that dualism without which society
would be incomplete.
As has been observed, the constitution of Congress
utilizes both of these sources of influence each in its
most vigorous form. In the constitution of the legis-
ative bodies of the States of the Union the same gen-
eral truths are observed, but less distinctly expressed.
In Massachusetts the representation in the House of
Representatives is based upon the towns, while that of
the Senate rests on towns united to form districts, but
the choice of representatives proceeds from the peo-
le of the towns, and not from their corporate author-
ities. While this is an instance of direct popular
choice, the compact organization of the towns, and the
close relation of the action of the town authority to
the interest of the people, tend strongly to color the
popular choice with the qualities of the prevailing cor-
porate opinion. . In New York the legislative repre-
sentation is based upon counties, the counties being sub-
divided for the choice of members of Assembly, and
united to form districts for the election of senators. The
counties of New York are much less compact bodies
than the towns of Massachusetts, affecting the interests
of the people in a much more limited way, and hence it
would follow that individual tendencies would, as com-
pared with corporate tendencies, be more effective in
New York than in Massachusetts. The subdivisions
of the counties in New York for the formation of dis-
tricts for the election of representatives to the popular
branch of the Legislature tend to give expression to
neighborhood interests and opinion, and thus individ;
ual opinion is brought under the influence of limited
local causes.
The instances of Massachusetts and New York may
be taken as the types of the systems prevailing
throughout the United States, the former principally
in New England, and the latter throughout the rest
of the United States. It has already been remarked
that neighborhood opinion is a factor where small elec-
tion districts are created, and this affords the reason for
the statement already made that representation in
the U. S. House of Representatives has a more
direct relation to generalized popular opinion, than in
any of the systems prevailing in the States. . The large
territorial extent of the congressional districts cancels
the influence of neighborhood opinion, while the fact
that such districts have no corporate existence for mu-
nicipal purposes tends to exclude the domination of cor-
porate opinion, and the resultis, or should be, a clearer
approximation, to a fair, generalization of individual
opinion. Methods of selection and the influence ºf
party action may and do change these results, but the
tendencies nevertheless exist and dontinue to act, and in
long periods of time will produce their proper results,
he government of the United States, considere
f º
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
as embracing the systems of the States, generalizes all
the sources of influence that have been described as
corporate, individual, and neighborhood opiniºn;
stated in other language, these include the influ;
ences of organized communities, the tendencies of
popular sentiment and opinion, and, the phase of in-
fluence that arises from small and homogeneous dis-
tricts. Such composite structure of government is
undoubtedly demanded by the nature of popular gov-
ernment to modify the result of popular, activities
without putting restraint upon them. Indeed it is
doubtful whether permanent stability may be at-
tained by popular institutions in large communities
independent of the federal principle that utilizes all
the sources of influence. -
In popular governments the choice of representa;
tives proceeds through some form of election, of
which there are in use two forms, one calling for an
oral expression of choice and the other in which
such choice is evidenced by writing or printing.
The former, of these methods is in limited use and only
suited for small and homogeneous communities, while
the latter, under the name of voting by ballot, is
in most general use, principally for the reason that
it admits of the act of voting being performed
in a secret manner, thus exempting the voter
from responsibility other than to his own sense
of duty or interest. Such acts of election are
habitually supervised by official persons, whose state-
ments of the result are accredited as entitling the rep-
resentative certified by them as elected to claim his
seat in the legislative body to which he is elected.
The ultimate right to determine the sufficiency of such
election is in this country habitually in the legislative
body, while the elections to the English House of
Commons are determined judicially by the courts.
The consequence of the mode of determining such
questions prevailing in this country is that such ques-
tions are more frequently, determined on political
grounds than in a judicial spirit.
The relation of the representative to his constitu-
ents, as it regards his duty of conforming to their
opinions and desires in the exercise of his functions,
has given rise to much difference of opinion, and is
likely to remain a subject of speculative opinion for the
want of tribunals competent to bring it to a final solu-
tion. In many of the States, as already noticed, the
right of the people to instruct their representatives is
directly conferred by the State constitutions. The
construction of these clauses cannot come into the
courts under ordinary circumstances, and they must
remain to be expounded by the slow process of the
formation of public opinion. It is hardly to be sup-
posed that the expression, instruction, as there used
was intended in the sense of a binding requirement,
but rather as an equivalent of information. For the
people to instruct their representatives, in the sense
of laying them under obligations to act in a particular
way, would require that they should act ...
the whole people of the community participating, as in
a convention of the whole people or their selected dele-
gates; but it is not to be presumed that such was the
intention of those constitutions that secure to the
}. the right to instruct, their representatives.
hese clauses are intimately interwoven with others
Very clearly intended to secure individual rights and
the rights of collective bodies of persons less than the
whole community, and associated together merely by a
common opinion, or interest on certain subjects; and
certainly individuals and irregular collective bodies
Were not intended to have a controlling influence on
the action of the representatives of the whole people.
Where the duty of a representative is pointed out by
* Clear obligation to the whole community, it is quite
plain that it should not be controlled by a portion of
that community less than its majority. -
. That the representative should bring to the atten-
tion of the legislative body the sentiments and opin-
3 47
ions of the local constituency represented by him seems
to be generally conceded ; and clearly, where they have
a peculiar interest affected by public measures, that
interest should be represented and protected by their
representatives, unless overborne by superior Interests
affecting the whole community. While it would seem
that so important a feature of a popular system of gov-
ernment as that which relates to the duty of the repre-
sentative in view of the known wishes of his constituents
should be reduced to something like an exact understand-
ing, yet the formation of a common opinion upon the
subjectis by no means an easy matter under the simplest
conditions of such relation, but is seriously compli-
cated through the division of responsibility incident to
party organization, which in popular governments
appears to be the natural consequence of the effort of
opinions and interests to reach the condition of a
public policy. - (A. J. W.)
REPUBLICAN PARTY. The failure of the two
great American political parties, Whig and Democrat,
after earnest efforts for a quarter of a century to settle
the slavery question by such compromises as would be
satisfactory to both North and South, resulted ulti-
mately in the disintegration of the former party and the
formation of a new political organization. All attempts
at conciliation through legislation were fruitless of
satisfactory results, as the Democrats refused to Sur-
render what they claimed as rights under the Constitu-
tion and laws that affected the slavery question. Out-
side of the Abolitionists (q.v.), who had never become
a prominent factor in politics, the legal right to hold
slaves in the several States where slavery existed was
not denied, but the question that agitated the public
mind at the middle of this century was whether the
area of slavery should be extended into the Territories.
The repeal of the Missouri Compromise, which had
interdicted slavery north of latitude 36° 30', made
Kansas the battle-ground, and the friends of either
side exerted themselves to populate and protect that
Territory with those of their own political faith. The
right of the slaveholders to take their slaves with them
into that Territory was denied by the Free State men,
on the ground that slavery was a local institution and
must be confined to the States where it already existed.
On the other hand, the slaveholders claimed the right,
inasmuch as slavery was virtually recognized by the
Constitution, to carry their slaves to any part of the
United States as they could any other property. Thus
this question became a direct issue which in the fulness
of time brought the Republican party into existence.
The Freesoilers of the North formed its advanced
guard, and the old Abolition party fell into its ranks.
Public discussion both in and out of Congress, instead
of quieting the discordant elements, increased their in-
tensity, and party lines became more rigidly drawn
than before. The Whig party won its last national
victory in 1848 through a partial coalition with the
Freesoilers, but after the death of Pres, Taylor in
1850 Fillmore notably changed the policy of the admin-
istration. The Whig party had become effete by its
repeated and futile attempts at compromise, while the
Free Soil party was young and aggressive, and was
founded on a vital issue. When the disintegration
took place, the Southern pro-slavery portion drifted
to the Democrats, while the anti-slavery Whigs in the
North, still opposed its old political foe. The presi-
dential campaign of 1852, the last in which the Whig
party figured in national politics, was only an exhibit
tion of its weakness. In its platform it was silent on
the slavery question, with the exception of an indorse-
ment of the Fugitive Slave law which had been enacted
by the Thirty-second Congress. This absurd silence at
a time when the public mind was absorbed by the
slayery question tended to make its decay more certain
º rapid. It received only 42 out of 296 electoral
WOtéS.
In marked contrast with the Whigs, the Free Soil
party took strong grounds, declaring against any more
348
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
slave States or new slave Territories, or the nationali-
zation of slavery or extradition of slaves. It denounced
the Fugitive Slave law and demanded its repeal. It
alleged further that no permanent settlement of the
slavery question could be had except in the practical
recognition of the truth that slavery was sectional and
freedom national. As an independent party, it re-
fused to coalesce with others, but declared its object
to be to defeat both Democrats and Whigs, which it
said were hopelessly corrupt. Its motto was “Free
Soil, Free Speech, Free fºr, and Free Men.”
The Kansas-Nebraska controversy made a rupture
in the old Whig party that could not be healed, and
the Republigan party, then in its incipiency, was aug-
mented by the anti-slavery Whig elements. This shift
was precipitated by the act of May 25, 1854, which
provided a territorial government for Nebraska, which
then included what is now Kansas. The struggle for
Kansas was the throes of the birth of the Republican
party.
The first national convention of the Republican party
was held at Philadelphia, June 18, 1856. It was com-
posed of delegates selected under a call addressed to
the people of the United States, without regard to
their former political creeds or opinions. It invited
all those opposed to the repeal of the Missouri Com-
promise, to extending, slavery into free territory, and
in favor of admitting Kansas as a free State. It was
intended to consolidate the opposition to the Demo-
cratic party. The personnel of the party was composed
of Whigs with anti-slavery opinions, Abolitionists,
Native Americans, and Independent Democrats—in
short, of all elements opposed to the pro-slavery De-
mocracy. It proposed, to harmonize these elements
in a common cause, to settle the question of the exten-
sion of slavery by an appeal to the ballot-box.
In the platform on which the campaign was con-
ducted appeared the following resolution: “That we
deny the authority of Congress, of a territorial legis-
lature, of any individual or association of individuals
to give legal existence to slavery in any Territory of
the United States, while the present constitution shall
be maintained.” This resolution announced the issue
which called the new party into existence. The plat-
form embodied the first principles of American liberty;
it maintained the doctrines enunciated in the Declara-
tion of Independence; the preservation of the Federal
Constitution ; the preservation of the rights of the
States ; and the Union of the States. It arraigned the
administration of Pres. Pierce for its efforts to thrust
slavery on the people of Kansas, and demanded the
immediate admission of Kansas as a free State. It
called for the extinction of polygamy, then rampant in
Utah. It advocated aiding the construction of the
Pacific railroad; favored liberal appropriations for
improvement of our rivers and harbors; and declared
in favor of restoring the national policies of Washing-
ton and Jefferson. With this creed, the Republican
party started out on its mission.
The convention nominated John C. Fremont for
President, and William L. Dayton for Vice-President.
In November, 1856, more than 4,000,000 votes were
cast, being an increase of about 30 per cent. Over the
previous presidential election. The result showed a
surprising strength for the new party. Although
James Buchanan, the Democratic candidate, was
elected, having received 174 electoral votes against 114
votes for Fremont, and 8 votes for Fillmore, he was in
a minority of 377,608 on the popular vote. Fremont
received 1,341,234 votes, and Fillmore, 874,534 votes.
It is highly probable that without a third party in the
contest the Republicans would have elected their can-
didate.
The elections in 1856 drew party lines more tightly,
and incited both political elements to renewed exertions
for supremacy. Buchanan's election was a present
triumph for the South, but a comparison of the vote
with that of four years previous gave his party un-
easiness and the Republicans hope for the future, for
while the Democrats had a plurality of 60 in the elec-
toral college, the popular vote was against them. In
1852, they had a popular majority of about 59,000,
and had 212 votes in the electoral college. This
change in public sentiment gave the Republicans pres:
tige in their defeat, made them more aggressive, and
gained them new acquisitions. This is #. by the
address issued Nov. 27, 1856, congratulating the Re-
publicans on their work in the past and urging them
to renewed efforts in the future. The address pointed
to the fact that in 1852 the Democratic party carried
all the States, except four, on the popular vote, while
in 1856 they lost eleven States, containing half the
population of the Union, and that the Republican can-
didate received nearly three times as many electoral
votes as the Whig party had in 1852, and that it
already controlled iº, of the State governments.
As the issues still remained, it was evident that the
Republican party would be a formidable antagonist in
1860.
A continuous chain of events favored the new polit-
ical organization, among which the celebrated Dred
Scott case (q.v.) stands prominent. The decision in
this case not only intensified the feeling throughout
the North amongst those already connected with the
Republican party, but it also added to its numbers
many Democrats who had anti-slavery convictions.
This decision denied that which many in the non-slave-
holding States claimed, and which they intended, if
possible, to secure—the right of Congress, and of the
people of a Territory, to control the extension of
slavery. It ordained slavery as an irreversible condi-
tion ; it made slavery national and freedom sectional.
What tended to increase popular feeling was the state-
ment that the final decision of the court was the
opposite of its original opinion. [Justice Benjamin
R. Curtis tendered his resignation to the President
because the court first decided the case upon one
ground and afterwards agreed to reopen it and decide
it on another, which he considered subversive of law.
This action destroyed his confidence in that body, and
he refused to continue on the bench under those circum-
stances.]
This famous decision, which was given only two days
after Pres. Buchanan entered on office, and which was
intended to quench the Kansas struggle, only added
fuel to the flame. As a result, war and bloodshed
marked the attempts of the two parties to control the
incipient State. The election for members of the Legis-
lature was attended with fraud and violence. The
Free State adherents held a convention at Topeka to
frame a State constitution, but Congress after a fierce
struggle refused to admit it as a State. Popular feel-
ing ran high all over the country. The result of the
long congressional struggle was simply this : “That
Congress was neither to legislate slavery into
any Territory or State, nor to exclude it therefrom ;
but to leave the people thereof perfectly free to form
and regulate their domestic institutions in their own
way, subject only to the Constitution of the United
States, and it was specially prescribed that when the
Territory of Kansas shall be admitted as a State, it
shall be admitted into the Union with or without
slavery as the constitution adopted should prescribe at
the time of admission."
What is known as the Lecompton Constitution was
subsequently submitted to Congress by Pres. Bu-
chanan in 1858, with a message saying : “Slavery ex-
ists in Kansas by virtue of the Constitution of the
United States;” and he urged that body to admit it as
a State under that Constitution. At a special elec-
tion the people of Kansas decided by a majority of
10,000 votes not to accept admission under that Consti-
tution. It remained a Territory until 1861, when it was
admitted by a Republican Congress under its “free”
constitution adopted in 1859.
These events with others intimately related to them
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
349
prepared the way for the presidential contest of 1860,
and at the same time consolidated the opposition to
the policy of the Democratic party. The anti-Le-
compton Democracy could not consistently return to
the old party, and they were not ready to unite with
the Republican party, which had refused to adopt the
doctrine of “popular sovereignty” advocated by
Stephen A. Douglas. This was a feeble compromise,
and would have been fatal to the new party. A back-
ward step would have caused a division in the party,
as it would be a surrender of the principle on which it
was founded—the non-extension of slavery. In the
memorable Douglas-Lincoln debate in 1859 it became
evident that popular sovereignty could not be accepted
by the Republicans, for the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise had placed them, in an advanced position.
That celebrated discussion and the Kansas troubles did
more to consolidate the anti-slavery element than
anything which could have happened. The people
recognized the irrepressible conflict between freedom
and slavery and accepted the words of William H.
Seward that “the United States will, sooner or later,
become either an entirely slave-holding nation or an
entirely free-labor nation.”
This was the condition of national politics when the
Democrats met in convention at Charleston, April 23,
1860. The Douglas element stood firmly by the doc-
trine of popular sovereignty, while an almost solid
South stood by the Dred Scott decision. This re-
sulted in a double set of resolutions, and that of the
Douglas wing was adopted by a majority of 27 votes.
After 54 ineffectual ballots the convention adjourned to
meet in Baltimore in June, when Douglas was nomi-
nated after a split in the convention. Subsequently
the Democrats who seceded placed Breckinridge and
Lane on their ticket, and thus the Democracy were ir-
reconcilably divided.
After the adjournment of the convention at Charles-
ton, and prior to its assembling at Baltimore, the Re-
publicans held their nominating convention at Chicago.
}l the Northern States were fully represented, with
partial delegations from Delaware, j Ken-
tucky, Missouri, Virginia, with a few delegates from
other Southern States. The proceedings at Charles-
ton presaged a divided Democracy and a Republican
victory. The elections of 1856 showed such Republi-
can strength, with the accessions of four years, that the
rupture at Charleston made it almost certain that the
nominee at Chicago would be elected.
In their convention the Republicans confirmed the
platform of 1856, and in view of recent events pro-
nounced more decidedly against the extension of
slavery in the Territories. It also advocated a tariff
that would stimulate and protect home industries, and
it embraced other economic questions.
. The platform of 1860 contains the following resolu-
tions or ‘’ planks : ”
7. That the new dogma, that the Constitution, of its own
force, carries slavery into any or all of the Territories of the
United States, is a dangerous political heresy, at variance
with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself, with
contemporaneous exposition, and with legislative and judi-
cial precedent—is revolutionary in its tendency, and sub-
versive of the peace and harmony of the country.
8. That the normal condition of all the territory of the
United States is that of freedom ; that as our republican
fathers, when they had abolished slavery in all our national
territory, ordained that “no person shall be deprived of life,
liberty or property, without due process of law,” it becomes
our duty, by legislation, whenever such legislation is neces.
sary, to maintain, this provision of the Constitution against
all attempts to violate it; and we deny the authority of
Congress, of a territorial legislature, or of any individuals,
tº give legal existence to slavery in any Territory of the
United States.
11. That Kansas should, of right, be immediately admitted
as a State under the constitution recently formed and
adopted by her people, and accepted by the House of Rep.
resentatives.
12. That, while providing revenue for the support of the
general government by duties upon imports, sound policy
requires such an adjustment of these imports as to encour-
age the development of the industrial interests of the whole
country; and we commend that policy of national ex-
changes which secures to the working men liberal wages, to
agriculture remunerative prices, to mechanics and manufac-
turers an adequate reward for their skill, labor, and enter-
prise, and to the nation commercial prosperity and inde-
pendence.
The election of Abraham Lincoln was a still greater
triumph, from the fact that the Republicans secured
both branches of Congress, and this intensified public
feeling in the South. As a final attempt to compro-
mise in the interest of slavery, Congress on March 2,
1861, passed a joint resolution proposing an amend-
ment to the Constitution that “No amendment shall be
made to the Constitution which will give to Congress
the power to abolish or interfere within any State,
with the domestic institutions thereof, including that
of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said
State.” Pres. Lincoln in his inaugural address expressed
his satisfaction at such an amendment. Ohio and
Maryland immediately ratified the measure, but no
other States took action on it. It came too late, for
secession was already sweeping over the Southern
States. -
Lincoln sought to calm the storm by promising pro-
tection to all the States, and by assuring the people
that the security of none should be endangered, but
the bombardment of Fort Sumter was the response,
and its surrender in April, 1861, notified the people
that rebellion and civil war had begun. On the 15th
of April the President issued a call for 75,000 troops,
and the controversy which legislation had failed to set-
tle was to be decided by force of arms. Through the
efforts of the anti-slavery element, compensated eman-
cipation had removed slavery from the District of
Columbia, and Pres, Cincoln in order to keep
the “Border States’’ from joining the South proposed
the same policy to them. But the practicability and
even the constitutionality of the plan was questioned,
and Congress took no action on the proposal.
The President's call for troops was responded to by
all the Northern States, but evaded or refused by the
Border States.” Some complied under certain con-
ditions, such as for home defence. The battle of Bull
Run and the defeat of the Union army in July, 1861,
intensified the war feeling on both sides, and Mr.
Lincoln's administration was sustained by Congress in
providing for the emergency. It then authorized the
enlistment of 500,000 volunteers; in July, 1862, there
was a call for 300,000 and in August following
a draft for 300,000 more was ordered. In June, 1863,
100,000 men were called for to resist invasion of Penn-
Sylvania and other loyal States; in October, a call for
300,000; in February, 1864, a draft for 500,000; in
March following, an additional draft for 200,000, and
in April of the same year 85,000 one hundred days'
men were accepted.
The Republicans were the distinctive war party, and
they gave support to the demands made by Mr. Lincoln
and his cabinet. Southern Senators and Representa-
tives had left their seats in Congress and joined in
the rebellion, and hence a large majority of those
who remained were in harmony with the administra-
tion. As a rule, what the President asked for was
granted. He desired to make the war short and de-
cisive, and when he asked Congress for 400,000 men
and $400,000,000 it added one-fourth to each request.
Thus the Republican party was as fully the war party
during the rebellion as the Whigs were in the Revo.
lutionary war, or the Democrats in the war with
Mexico, and in each instance they were sustained by
the majority sentiment of the country. This truth is
stamped on almost every war measure, and certainly
on every political measure incident to the rebellion.
The Thirty-seventh Congress is of historic note be-
cause of the era it marks, and also because it concen
350
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
trated and crystallized all that formerly was drifting or
doubtful in the Republican party. The emergencies
of the hour required prompt and heroic treatment,
and that Congress had to grasp great and vital ques-
tions as they followed each other in rapid succession.
Hence it changed the creed of many. It made the re-
bellious South still more vehement and determined ; it
separated the Southern Unionists from former friends
and built a wall of fire between them. It changed the
temper of Northern Abolitionists, divesting them of
factious spirit and pride of methods, and compelled
them to unite with the Republicans, who were making
sure advances, from their original declaration that
slavery should remain within present bounds, to eman-
cipation, and finally to arming the liberated slaves. It
brought many Northern Democrats into the Repub-
lican party, and reformed the political parties of the
North. This may be termed the pivotal Congress,
for it defined a policy for the Republican party,
which, in the main, has been followed to the present
day. Prominent amongst the Republicans in that
Congress was Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts,
Scholar, orator, and statesman. Senator Fessenden, of
Maine, was a recognized leader until the impeachment
trial of Andrew Johnson. Thaddeus Stevens, “the
Commoner,” was a leader of the House, an Aboli.
tionist in creed and a practical and brave legislator.
He was a radical of the radicals, holding that the
i. could go outside of the Constitution to
efend itself from destruction. Schuyler Colfax was one
of the rising men in that Congress. He became
Speaker of the next House, and subsequently Vice-
President of the United States. With him in the
House were Justin S. Morrill, the author of the
tariff bill which raised hundreds of millions to support
the army ; Henry L. Dawes, the “man of statistics”
and the “watch-dog of the Treasury.’’. Roscoe
Conkling was then the leader of the New York delega-
tion ; Ohio was represented by Ashley, Bingham, and
Sherman. Illinois gave four prominent anti-Lecomp-
ton supporters of the administration–Douglas in the
Senate, and Logan, McClernand, and Richardson in the
House ; while Lovejoy and Washburne were stalwart
Republicans from that State. At this session Sena-
tor Lyman Trumbull reported a bill from the Judiciary
Committee of which he was chairman, to confiscate
all property and free all slaves used for insurrectionary
purposes.
Pres. Lincoln's proposal for compensated emanci-
pation expressed also the opinion of several leading
Republicans. He sent to the Thirty-seventh Congress a
special message, recommending the passage of the fol-
lowing resolution : “Jęesolved, That the United States
ought to co-operate with any State which may adopt
gradual abolishment of slavery, giving to such State pe-
cuniary aid, to be used by such State in its discretion,
to compensate for the inconveniences, public and pri-
vale, produced by such change of system.’’. At a con-
ference with the Senators and Representatives of the
Border slaveholding States, held at the Executive
Mansion, Pres. Lincoln gave his views on the sub-
ject and in his presentation of it he said : “I do not
speak of emancipation at once, but of a decision at
once, to emancipate gradually.” Two days later,
July 14, 1862, a majority of the representatives of
those States sent an official reply, rejecting the propo-
sition. This closed the conference.
It was, however, evident that the institution of
slavery must share the fate of those in armed rebel-
lion, and that the Union and slavery could not both be
preserved. In September, 1862, the President by his
proclamation served notice on the rebel slaveholders
that if they did not lay down their arms in the mean-
time he would on the following New Year's Day, de-
clare free all persons held as slaves in the rebellious
States. As this preliminary warning produced no
effect, the famous Emancipation Proclamation was is-
sued Jan. 1, 1863, ‘‘ as a fit and necessary war-measure
in suppressing said rebellion.” The border States
that declined the proffer of compensated emancipation
were not included in the proclamation, but in the fol-
lowing year emancipation was made general, without
compensation, and those States or portions of States
lost all consideration for their slaves. In February,
1864, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution
was reported to the Senate, and in May it was passed
by that body. In the House it was voted on in June,
but did not obtain the necessary two-thirds vote and a
motion to reconsider carried it to the next session of
Congress.
The Republican convention met in June, 1864,
and renominated Pres. Lincoln. Its platform as-
serted that slavery was the cause and constituted the
strength of the rebellion, and, “as it must be always
and everywhere hostile to the principles of Republican
government, justice and the national safety demand
its utter and complete extirpation from the soil of the
republic.” It also declared in favor of a constitutional
amendment prohibiting the existence of slavery within
the United States. It pronounced against any com-
promise with those in arms against the government,
except one based on an unconditional surrender, and
a return to an allegiance to the Constitution and laws.
The Democrats at their convention held Aug.
30th, when they nominated Gen. McClellan, made a
direct issue on the above policy by resolving that as
the war had been a failure, “justice, humanity, liberty,
and the public welfare demanded that immediate ef.
forts be made for a cessation of hostilities, with a view
to an ultimate convention of the States, or other
peaceable means, to the end that, at the earliest prac-
ticable moment, peace may be restored on the basis of
the Federal Union of the United States.”
The issue involved was for or against the amend-
ment to the Constitution, or in reality whether slavery
should be forever abolished. The Emancipation
Proclamation of Pres. Lincoln brought forth these
resolutions, and in his letter of acceptance he indorsed
the Republican position.
In Pres. Lincoln's second inaugural address, deliv-
ered March 4, 1865, he spoke the following words,
since often quoted as typical of the kindly disposition
of the man believed by his party to be the greatest
American since Washington : “With malice toward
none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right,
as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to
finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's
wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the
battle, and for his widow and orphans—to do all
which may achieve a just and lasting peace among our-
selves and with all nations.”
He could well afford to show that generosity, which
never comes more properly than from the hands of
the victor. His policy was about to end in a great
and lasting triumph. In less than five weeks from
the day when Lincoln made that utterance Gen. Lee
had surrendered the main army of the Southern Con-
federacy to Gen. Grant at Appomattox on terms at
once magnanimous and so tersely and briefly stated
that they won the admiration of both armies.
Then followed a grave and responsible political work
—the actual reconstruction of the States lately in rebel-
lion. This work gave renewed freshness to the lead-
ing political issues incident to the war, , and also
opened out new issues. . It was claimed that Pres.
Lincoln had a reconstruction policy of his own because
he was so anxious for the admission of Louisiana, and
Arkansas, but it certainly never had taken definite
shape. On April 15th, six days after the surrender
of Lee, the President was shot by J. Wilkes Booth at
Ford's theatre. The entire nation was appalled at the
deed. No man was ever more sincerely mourned by
all classes. Even the Southern leaders believed this
rash act had lost to them the life of one who had
never been harsh, and, while firm, was always gener.
ous. The North had looked upon him as “Father
REPUBLICAN PARTY. 351
*
Abraham,” and all who viewed the result of the mur-
der from sectional or partisan standpoints thought
his policy of keeping with the people would have pro-
tected every proper interest. No man in public life
ever had less pride of opinion, and had he lived to
serve out his term of office it is more than probable
he would have shaped events, as he had during the
war, to the best interests of the victors and without
unnecessary harshness to the vanquished.
The decisive victory at the elections, giving the
Republican candidate 212 out of 233 electoral votes,
gave the Republicans more aggressiveness, because
they had been sustained by such an overwhelming
majority. The anti-slavery amendment to the Con-
stitution, which had failed to pass the House at the
previous session of Congress, received more than
the necessary two-thirds vote. The elections showed
the strong drift of public feeling, and the Republicans
construed the result as a virtual adoption of this
amendment. When it was first suggested it aroused
some opposition, but the majority of the people con-
sidered the amendment a political necessity to settle
forever the question that had so long disturbed the
country; 27 States voted in its favor, and in December,
1865, it was proclaimed a part of the Constitution. (See
RECONSTRUCTION.)
Vice-Pres. Andrew Johnson had succeeded to the
Presidency, and his administration was marked by a
fierce conflict between him and the party that elected
him. The result was that nearly al the Republicans
opposed his policy and nearly all the Democrats ap-
proved it. So radical had this difference become that
i. vetoed nearly all the political bills passed by the
Republican Congress from 1866 until the close of his
administration, but such was the Republican prepon-
derance in both Houses of Congress that they passed
them over his vetoes by the necessary two-thirds vote.
He vetoed the several freedmen's bureau bills, the
civil rights bill, that for the admission of Nebraska
and Colorado, the bill to permit colored suffrage in
the District of Columbia, one of the reconstruction
bills, and finally he made a direct issue with the powers
of Congress by his veto of the civil tenure bill, March
7, 1867, and his subsequent attempt to oust Secretary
Stanton from the cabinet.
The political differences between Pres. Johnson and
the Republicans were not softened by their attempt to
impeach him, which needed only one more vote to
make the necessary two-thirds. It is indeed remark-
able that the failure of their efforts did not weaken the
º as a party. They were so well united,
and so strong in that unity, that the seven Republican
Senators who voted to acquit the President passed at
least temporarily from public life, some of the ablest,
like Senators Trumbull and Fessenden, retiring per-
manently. Pres. Johnson pursued his policy, save
where he was prevented by Congress, until the end,
and he then retired to his native State, but was subse.
quently elected to the Senate.
The presidential campaign of 1868 resulted in the
election of Gen. U. S. Grant by a majority of 134
electoral votes, Schuyler Colfax being elected Vice-
President. At the commencement of his administra.
tion the colored people had not suffrage in some of the
States, and to make it universal the Fifteenth Amend-
ment was proposed and adopted by the State Legisla-
tures. It did not receive a Democratic vote in either
branch of Congress, and it was opposed by that party
in the State Legislatures. On March 30, 1870, it was
proclaimed a portion of the Constitution. Pres. Grant,
1I] 3, . message announcing the ratification of the
amendment, declared it a “measure of grander im-
}. than any other one act of the kind from the
oundation of our free government to the present
gay." Thus the proclamation of Mr. Lincoln, declar.
ing what would be done in a subsequent order, found
its continuation in this amendment, making its primal
object and the resultant a part of the Constitution.
Reconstruction having been completed, a new ques-
tion was brought before the Forty-first Congress by Pres.
Grant, which was the annexation of San Domingo.
The treaty of 1869, looking to that object, was rejected
by the Senate, and a dispute about its negotiation was
the origin of the rupture between Pres. Grant and Sena-
tor Sumner, who had been chairman of the Senate
committee on foreign affairs.
With the exception of Louisiana, Florida, and
South Carolina, the Southern State governments were
under Democratic control, and Pres. Grant was called
on by the Republicans for military aid to prevent the
disfranchisement of the negroes, but he declined to
interfere except to request the U. S. attorney-general
to give them legal advice.
The Fifteenth Amendment did not produce the de-
sired results in the South, because it was evaded or
resisted, and the Republicans insisted that additional
legislation was necessary to enforce its provisions.
On Feb. 28, 1871, such an act was passed, and a sup-
lementary bill became a law a year later. This legis-
ation, enacted through Republican votes, extended
the powers of the Federal supervisors and marshals
and gave the Federal circuit courts exclusive jurisdic-
tion of all cases tried under the provisions of the act
and its supplements. It also empowered these courts
to punish any State officer who should attempt to in-
terfere with or try such cases as in contempt of the
courts' jurisdiction.
The Forty-second Congress, organized in March,
1871, was not so strongly Republican as its prede-
cessor. The most exciting question that came before
that body was the Force bill, as it was called, intended
to enforce the provisions of the Fourteenth Amend-
ment. The act allowed suit in the Federal courts
against any person who should deprive another of the
rights of a citizen. It also provided that inability,
neglect, or refusal by any State government to sup-
press such conspiracies, or their refusal to call upon
the President for aid, should be deemed a ãºf by
such State of the equal protection of the laws under
the Fourteenth Amendment. It further declared such
conspiracies “a rebellion against the government of
the United States,’’ and authorized the President,
when in his judgment the public safety required it,
to suspend the privilege of habeas corpus in any dis-
trict, and suppress any such insurrection by the army
and navy.
The first regular session of this Congress began
Dec. 4, 1871. The Democrats consumed much of the
time in efforts to pass bills to remove the political dis-
abilities of former Southern rebels, and they were ma-
terially aided by the editorials of Horace Greeley in
the New York Tribune, which had long contended for
universal amnesty. At this session all such efforts
were defeated by the Republicans, who invariably
amended such propositions by adding Sumner's sup-
plementary civil rights bill, which was intended to
prevent any discrimination against colored persons by
common carriers, hotels, or other chartered or licensed
servants. . The Amnesty bill, however, was passed,
May 22, 1872, after an agreement to exclude from
its provisions all who held the higher military and
civic positions under the U. S. government pre-
vious to their joining the Confederacy—in all about
350 persons. . Subsequently many special acts remov-
ing the disabilities of these excepted persons were
passed.
During Pres. Grant's second term civil service re-
form became a leading topic. March 3, 1871, an act
was passed empowering the President to commence
said reform, and he appointed a commission with
George W. Curtis as chairman. A section in the
sundry, civil appropriation bill gave the President
authority, to prescribe the rules, and a commission
Was appointed by him to draft them. The committee's
plan was º by the President, and they are sub-
stantially the same as those now in force. In its exe-
352
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
cution or effect it has not met the full expectation of
its advocates.
. The platform adopted in June, 1872, by the Repub-
lican convention at Philadelphia, declared that the con-
stitutional amendments should be sustained; advocated
civil service reform ; opposed further grants of public
lands; favored the abolition of the franking privilege,
and declared the necessity for shaping legislation so as
to give an ample field for capital and labor. It de-
nounced repudiation of the public debts; advocated
a speedy return to specie payments; approved the
amnesty acts, and favored such measures as would
tend to encourage and restore American commerce and
ship-building.
A sensation in political circles was excited during
the presidential campaign of 1872 by the exposure of
the Credit Mobilier, and at the commencement of the
next session of Congress, Speaker of the House
James G. Blaine asked that a committee be appointed
to investigate the charges made. These charges were
that Schuyler Colfax, Vice-President, and several
members of Congress had been bribed in 1867 and
1868 by Oakes Ames, a member from Massachusetts,
to influence their official action for the benefit of the
Union Pacific Railroad Company. The committee
consisted of Poland, of Vermont ; McCreary, of Iowa;
Banks, of Massachusetts; Niblack, of Indiana; and
Merrick, of Maryland. The accusations were made
by Henry S. McComb, of Wilmington, Del., and some
of the most prominent members, principally Repub-
licans, were made the subjects of the investigation.
As Congress was Republican at the time, the responsis
bility of the legislation rested with that party, and
hence it was used against it in the presidential cam-
paign. The proceedings are too voluminous to permit
of even an abstract. The committee reported in each
individual case, and in effect exonerated all from crim-
inal action with the exception of Oakes Ames, who
was at the head of the Credit Mobilier, and Represen-
tative James Brooks, of New York, who was a gov-
ernment director of the Pacific road. They recom-
mended the expulsion of those two members, but the
House modified it to the “absolute condemnation of
the House."
- º the same session the President's salary was
increased to $50,000 per annum, the act to abolish the
franking privilege passed, and Congress voted to in-
crease the pay of members of both houses to $7500
per annum, including the current year. The latter act
proved so unpopular that the old salary of $5000 was
restored, and many of the members either refused to
take or returned the extra compensation to the
treasury.
The closing session of the Forty-third Congress
marked another era in politics—a conflict of State
governments. In order to secure the political rights
of the colored citizens in the Southern States, the Re-
publicans in Louisiana increased the power of its re-
turning boards, so that they had the power to reject
a portion or the whole of a district where frauds were
roven. Two boards had been appointed, each claim-
ing to be legal and this was followed by two distinct
State governments in Louisiana—the McEnery, or
Democratic, and the Kellogg, or Republican. The
latter instituted suit against the former, and the court
issued an order authorizing the Kellogg party to take
ossession of the State-house and oust the Democratic
egislature. Both parties demanded the recognition of
the national government. Congress refused to recognize
directly either governor or Legislature, and a bill was in-
troduced declaring the elections upon which those gov-
ernments were based null and void, and providing for a
new election, but was defeated. In order to ascertain
the actual conditions of affairs Gen. Sheridan was sent
to Louisiana and in January, 1875, he made his re-
port which startled the country. It showed a condi.
tion of anarchy, violence and murder that demanded
immediate action, and March 1, 1875, the House recog-
nized the Kellogg or Republican government by a
strict party vote. Four days later the Senate by a
party vote confirmed the aetion of the House.
In order to ascertain who were entitled to seats in
the State Legislature a special committee of the House
was appointed, which made an award in April, 1875,
known as the “Wheeler Compromise.” This award
was accepted until the election in 1876, when both
parties claimed the election of their candidates for
governor and members of the Legislature. Gen. Grant
requested committees of gentlemen of both parties to
witness the count of the returning board, and com-
mittees of investigation were appointed by both
Houses of Congress. A series of rebellious proceed-
ings ensued, during which the State government was
ractically destroyed, the Packard or Republican
ranch complaining of outrages by the “White
League,” and the Nicholls or Democratic branch
denying the charges, professing to accord rights to all
classes and to obey instructions from Washington
until Congress or the President should decide between
them. No decision was made, as Pres. Grant believed
that belonged to the duties of his successor in office.
The supplementary civil rights bill, known as the
Sumner bill, was passed March, 1875, after the death
of its author. The first conviction under the act was
in 1876, before Judge Cadwalader, of Philadelphia,
when a colored resident of Virginia brought suit for
being refused hotel accommodations.
The platform adopted by the Republican conven-
tion at Cincinnati in June, 1876, was mainly a reitera-
tion of its former principles. It declared the United
States a nation, not a league ; advocated a rigid en-
forcement of the constitutional amendments, and de-
clared it the duty of the party to compel it. It advo-
cated civil service reform, asserted that Congress had
sovereign power over the Territories, and charged the
Democratic party with being the same in character and
spirit as when it sympathized with treason ; with
making its control of the House of Representatives the
triumph and opportunity of the nation's recent foes ;
with reasserting and applauding in the national capital
the sentiments of unrepentant rebellion ; with sending
Union soldiers to the rear, and promoting Confederate
soldiers to the front : with ğ. proposing to
repudiate the plighted faith of the government; with
being equally false and imbecile upon the over-
shadowing financial questions; with thwarting the
ends of justice by its partisan mismanagement and
obstruction of investigation ; with proving itself
through the period of its ascendency in the lower
House of Congress utterly incompetent to administer
the government.
The presidential election of 1876 was particularly
animated, and the excitement was intensified by the
result. Both parties claimed a victory, and up to a
few days before the time to inaugurate the President
the excitement continued. It was claimed that
Hayes and Wheeler carried all of the Northern States
except Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and
Indiana, and Tilden and IIendricks all the Southern
States except Sout'. Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana.
Those three States were claimed by the Democrats, but
South Carolina was soon conceded to the Republicans.
The electoral votes of Florida as stated by the return-
ing board belonged to the Republicans by a majority
of 926, and a second count, ordered by the State
Supreme Court, reduced it to 206. In Louisiana the
Packard Board refused to allow any Democrats to partic-
ipate and certified a majority of 3931 for the Republican
electors. McEnery, who claimed to be governor, re-
pudiated the return of the board, and gave the Demo-
cratic electors the certificate on a majority of 7876.
In Oregon it was claimed that one of the Republican
electors was ineligible, being a Federal office-holder,
and the Democratic governor gave one Democratic
elector the certificate of election, but the three Repub-
lican electors were certified by the secretary of state.
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
353
During the ensuing controversy a sensation was made
by the publication of “cipher dispatches,” which Mr.
Pelton, the nephew and private secretary of Mr.
Tilden, had sent to Democratic “visiting statesmen ''
in the disputed sections. In 1878 the Potter investi-
ating committee subsequently confirmed the “ cipher
j." but Mr. Tilden denied any knowledge of
them.
The second session of the Forty-fourth Congress
met on Dec. 5, 1876, and while by that time all knew
the dangers of the approaching electoral count, yet
neither ii. would consent to the revision of the
joint rule regulating the count. The Republicans
claimed that the President of the Senate had the sole
authority to open and announce the returns in the
presence of the two Houses ; the Democrats disputed
this right, and claimed that the joint body could con-
trol the count under the law. But the impending
danger was avoided by the patriotism of prominent
members of Congress representing both political par-
ties. These gentlemen, after several private confer-
ences, substantially agreed upon a result several days
before the introduction of the Electoral Commission
Act. The leaders on the part of the Republicans in
these conferences were Conkling, Edmunds, Freling-
huysen ; on the part of the Democrats #.
Gordon, Randall, and Hewitt, the latter a member o
the House and Chairman of the National Democratic
Committee. That the Electoral Commission was a
Democratic measure is shown by the character of the
votes cast for and against it. In the Senate there
were 21 Republicans for it and 16 against, while there
were also 26 Democrats for it to only 1 (Eaton) against.
In the House nearly the same proportion was main-
tained, the bill passing that body by 191 to 86.
The Electoral Commission was composed of five
Senators, five members of the House of Representa-
tives, and five Associate Justices of the Supreme Court.
This extra-constitutional body met Feb. 1, and by
uniform votes of 8 to 7 decided all objections to the
electoral votes of Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina,
and Oregon in favor of the Republicans, and while the
two Houses disagreed on nearly all of these points,
the electoral votes were, under the provisions of the
law, given to Hayes and Wheeler, and the final result
declared to be 185 electors for Hayes and Wheeler to
184 for Tilden and Hendricks.
Thus closed the most important crisis that ever at-
tended an electoral count. Had not wisdom pre-
Vailed over partisan feelings it is probable that instead
of a peaceable solution disorder, riot, and bloodshed
would have resulted.
The opening acts of Pres. Hayes' administration
tended to alienate the stalwart wing of his party.
The withdrawal of the U. S. troops from the
South and the overthrow of the Packard rule in Louis-
iana gave his policy a tone too concessive to Southern
demands. Later his efforts to prevent intimidation of
negro votes in the South reunited his party. His
veto of the judicial expense bill for the reason that it
would prevent him from enforcing the election laws,
and his special message asking that the appropriation
bills be passed without the objectionable rider, brought
him into full party favor. At the extra session of
1879, the main business of which was to pass the nec-
essary appropriation bills, the Democrats continued
their former tactics of adding riders to prevent U.
S., supervision of the elections, but the President
still interposed his vetoes. The firm attitude of the
President and the party leaders on that question
roused new spirit among the Republicans and did much
toward giving them a majority in the House at the
next election.
. The most important political action taken at this ses.
Sion, Was the passage, for Congress was still Demo-
cratic, of a law to keep the peace at the polls. To this
Was added the Garfield proviso that it should not be
Construed to prevent the constitutional use of the
army to suppress domestic violence in a State—a pro:
viso which in the view of the Republicans rid the bill
of material partisan objections, and it was therefore
passed and approved. The political, riders” were
again added to the appropriation and deficiency bills,
but were again vetoed and failed in this form to become
laws. Upon these questions Pres, Hayes showed much
firmness. During the session the Democratic opposi-
tion to the general election law was greatly tempered,
the Supreme Court having made an important decis-
ion which upheld its constitutionality.
At the second session of the Forty-sixth Congress
Pres. Hayes suggested the retirement of the legal
tender notes and the maintenance of the policy for the
accumulation of a sinking fund to pay the national
debt. Sixteen days after Congress met gold sold at
par in New York and specie payment became a fact.
The 3 per cent, funding bill was vetoed by Pres.
Hayes for the reason that he and a majority of the
Republicans in Congress did not believe the loan could
be advantageously placed at that rate. Finally a bill
fixing the rate at 33 per cent. became a law. Yet two
years later the loan was successfully placed at 3 per
cent. In reviewing the party for twenty years the
convention at Chicago presented its claims for public
support in the following declarations:
It suppressed a rebellion which had armed nearly a mil-
lion of men to subvert the national authority. It recon-
structed the union of the States with freedom, instead of
slavery, as its corner-stone. It transformed four million of
human beings from the likeness of things to the rank of
citizens. It relieved Congress from the infamous work of
hunting fugitive slaves, and charged it to see that slavery
does not exist. It has raised the value of our paper cur-
rency from 38 per cent. to the par 6f gold. It has restored,
upon a solid basis, payment in coin for all the national obli:
gations, and has given us a currency absolutely good and
equal in every part of our extended country. It has lifted
the credit of the nation from the point where 6 per cent.
bonds sold at 86 to that where 4 per cent, bonds are eagerly
sought at a premium. Under its administration railways
have increased from 31,000 miles in 1860 to more than
82,000 miles in 1879. Our foreign trade has increased from
$700,000,000 to $1,150,000,000 in the same time, and our
exports, which were $20,000,000 less than our imports in
1860, were $264,000,000 more than our imports in 1879.
Without resorting to loans, it has, since the war closed,
defrayed the ordinary expenses of the government, besides
the accruing interest on the public debt, and disbursed an-
nually over $30,000,000 for soldiers' pensions. It has paid
$888,000,000 of the public debt, and, by refunding the bal-
ance at lower rates, has reduced the annual interest charge
from nearly $151,000,000 to less than $89,000,000.
The financial history of the Republican party is one
of its proudest boasts. It took charge of the govern-
ment in its extremity, without money or credit. It
succeeded in negotiating enormous loans and in estab-
lishing a paper currency that finally assumed a gold
value. It established the national banking system,
which has received the commendation of all and which
should be preserved as a firm foundation for the
country's prosperity. The resumption of specie pay-
ments marked an important era, because it was the
fulfilment of a pledge made by the party. The re-
duction of the public debt and the steadily reduced
rate of interest sº the wisdom of a policy which was
adopted in the days of the nation's trial.
The administration of Pres. Hayes tended to awake a
more independent sentiment in his party, and the
divergence of the two wings became more apparent in
the future. Impartial historians must give his
administration the credit of softening party asperities
and aiding very materially in the restoration of better
feeling between the North and South. That his
policy was the best for his party as well as his country
was shown by the result of the following Presidential
election.
The Republican nominating convention of 1880 was
Yery exciting. Gen. Grant was urged by his special
friends as a candidate. As the result showed, the
354
REPUBLICAN PARTY.
field was against what was called a “third term "
and Gen. James A. Garfield was nominated on the
thirty-sixth ballot. So intense was the feeling be.
tween the rival factions that it looked as if a divided
party and defeat would follow, but the friends of
Grant, as a rule, accepted the verdict of the conven-
tion, and former dissensions were put aside for present
success. The Democrats made a strong nomination in
the person of Gen. Winfield S. Hancock. The tariff
became an important issue, the Democrats advocating
“a tariff for revenue only.” That plank was at:
tacked by the Republicans, who favored a tariff for
the protection of American labor. The Republicans
Were doubly successful, electing their President, and
also a majority of the lower House, thus giving them
entire control of the government.
The death of Pres. Garfield, and the induction of
Chester A. Arthur to the presidential chair, caused,
for the time, considerable unrest and division in the
party. No person entered on presidential honors
under more serious difficulties than Arthur, yet by his
manly and conservative course he won the confidence
of his party and the approbation of the whole people.
Practically, there was no administration of Pres. Gar-
field, his official acts being almost entirely confined to
official appointments, in which it was alleged he was
unduly influenced by Mr. Blaine, his Secretary of
State. His selection of William H. Robertson as
collector of the port of New York estranged Senator
Conkling and others, and when the nomination was
confirmed by the Senate, May 17, 1881, Senators Conk-
ling and Platt resigned their seats. This act caused a
serious rupture in the party, and the effect was visible
in the campaign of 1884, when Mr. Blaine lost New
. and through that loss was defeated for the pres-
10 ency.
During the administration of Pres, Arthur the civil
Service act was passed, and the tariff reduction act of
1883; while the merchant marine act, which was
passed, did much to relieve the business interests of
the nation. Legislation against polygamy dated back
to 1862, but it proved inoperative, and the Edmunds
bill, which was signed by Pres. Arthur, was intended
to effect what previous legislation had failed to do.
Though the administration of Pres. Arthur had won
for him public esteem, yet the popularity of James G.
Blaine overshadowed that of all other competitors
for the presidency in 1884. When the National Re-
publican convention met at Chicago in June, he
received the nomination on the fourth ballot. Gen.
John A. Logan was nominated for Vice-President.
The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland and
Thomas A. Hendricks. The issues were, in the
main, a repetition of those since the war, although
the tariff became a more prominent factor. The
Chinese exclusion question also entered into that
campaign. The Republican platform declared : “It
is the first duty of a good government to protect the
rights and promote the interests of its own people.
The largest diversity of industry is most productive of
general prosperity and of the comfort and independ-
ence of the people. We, therefore, demand that
the imposition of duties on foreign imports, shall be
made, not for revenue only, but that in raising the
requisite revenues for the government such duties
shall be so levied as to afford security to our diversified
industries and protection to the rights and wages of
the laborer, to the end that active and intelligent
labor, as well as capital, may have its just reward, and
the laboring man his full share in the national pros:
perity. . It pledged the party to correct admitted
inequalities in the existing schedule of duties without
injuring our industries. . It advocated “retrenchment
and reform,” and in the contest that followed they
became prominent issues. The Democrats demanded
the abolition of the internal revenue as a war-tax.
The charges made by the Democrats, that a long
term of service had corrupted the Republican party,
and that a change was needed, had some effect in de-
ciding the contest. Another element in favor of the
Democracy was the disaffection in New York through
the opposition of ex-Senator Conkling, and the result
of the election in that State showed its decidin
power. That State decided the contest in favor º
Cleveland by a plurality hardly exceeding 1000. Sev-
eral causes may be given for the Republican defeat,
but it is certain the Blaine-Conkling quarrel had suffi.
cient effect to elect Cleveland. The vote in the elec-
toral college stood 218 for Cleveland and 182 for
Blaine. All the Southern States chose Democratic
electors.
When Pres. Cleveland was inaugurated, March 4,
1885, the Republicans resigned the control of the
government which they had held for twenty-four
years. The history of the Republican party during Pres.
Cleveland's administration mainly consists in its efforts
to prevent the passage of measures antagonistic to its
creed through the interposition of a Republican Senate.
The President stood pledged to enforce the civil
Service policy, and for a time he endeavored to keep
it. But his party demanded the fruits of their vic-
tory, and the pressure became so great that he was
compelled to depart from his own convictions. An
outward show of observance was maintained, but the
dismissal of Republican office-holders was the rule,
and their retention the exception. In fact, the pro-
visions of that law and the regulations under it have
not been effectually enforced by either party. It had
been predicted by politicians that its enforcement would
weaken and tend to divide the party in power, and
neither was willing to take the risk.
During the administration of Mr. Cleveland the
House was Democratic, but the Senate remained Re-
publican, and hence no legislation could be had with-
out the consent of the representatives of both parties.
On the important question of the tariff the “pro-
tective '' character of the Senate was a bar to the
House, which favored a sweeping reduction of duties.
On this question the i. was pronounced in
favor of tariff revision. The bill, presented by Col.
W. R. Morrison, known as the ‘‘horizontal bill,” was
opposed by the Republicans, and with the aid of some
Democratic members, led by Mr. S. J. Randall, it
failed to pass that body. The Republicans carried the
issue into the campaign of 1886, but failed to secure a
majority in the next Congress, although Col. Morrison
and Mr. Hurd, two of the leaders in the tariff reform
movement, were defeated.
Pres. Cleveland's message to the new Congress was
confined to the same issue, recommending a revision
of the tariff, and declaring the present tariff “vicious,
illogical, and inequitable.” It gave rise to an earnest
and prolonged party contest in Congress. Mr. Roger
Q. Mills, Chairman of the Ways and Means Com-
mittee, reported a bill, making radical changes in
duties and placing certain articles, including lumber
and wool, on the free list. The Republicans opposed
it as a step towards free trade. All the Democrats in
the House except a very few supported the bill as a
party measure, and after a prolonged discussion it
passed the House. When it came before the Senate,
a committee of that body substituted another bill
protective in its character, which has not yet received
final action. This contest, which resulted in a drawn
battle in Congress, became the issue in the subsequent
presidential campaign.
There was yet another prominent question which
needs to be noted. Since the expiry of the reciprocity
treaty with Canada, in 1881, there have been frequent
serious disputes with regard to the rights of American
fishermen in Canadian waters. To settle these troubles
a treaty was negotiated at Washington in 1887, but
the Senate refused to ratify it as prejudicial to Ameri-
can interests. The President then called for discre-
tional authority to retaliate on Canadians for injury
inflicted on American vessels, but received no response,
REPUDIATION.
355
The tariff message of Mr. Cleveland and the pas-
sage of the Mills bill by the Democratic House, fore:
shadowed the issues on which the campaign of 1888
was to be fought. The Democratic convention at St.
Louis, in June, indorsed that policy and renominated
Mr. Cleveland. Subsequently the Republican con-
vention met at Chicago and placed itself in pro:
nounced opposition to the Mills bill, and in favor of
continuing the present protective features of the tariff
It nominated Gen. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana,
and Levi P. Morton, of New York, for President and
Vice-President. There were minor questions, but the
tariff was the vital issue. The rallying cry of the Re-
publicans was “Protection to home industry;” that of
the Democrats was “Tariff reform.’’
The campaign was one of the most earnest ever
known, especially in what were termed the doubtful
States—New York, Indiana, New Jersey, and Con-
necticut. Of these New York was considered the
pivotal State, and both parties made extraordinary
efforts to secure its electoral vote. Towards the close
of the campaign the injudicious conduct of Lord
Sackville-West, the British Minister, in giving an in-
quirer advice how to vote, gave an international aspect
to the contest, and quickly brought about the undiplo-
matic minister's dismissal.
The result of the election was a decided victory for
the Republicans, who secured the votes of every
Northern State except New Jersey. Gen. Harrison
received 233 electoral votes and Pres. Cleveland re-
ceived 168 electoral votes. The Republican party
not only secured its President for the next four years,
but the Congress chosen gives them a majority in the
House. The Senate being also Republican, the party
will on March 4, 1889, have entire control of the gov-
ernment. As the tariff was the issue, the result of
the election gives assurance that the Republican policy
of protection will be preserved as essential to the
maintenance of national independence and ſº
T. W. C.
REPUDIATION. The repudiation by several of
the States of the American Union of their public
obligations derives interest from the anomalous posi-
tion of the States. Possessing both the legal capacity
and the commercial credit requisite for the purpose,
they are enabled to contract debts and create obliga-
tions, and yet are not subject to the means of enforc-
ing such engagements usually associated with the
capacity of incurring obligations. If their indebted-
ness was merely to their own citizens the case would
not differ from the ordinary one of such relations
between a sovereign and subject, but the obligations
issued by the States are usually largely held by the
people of other States and of foreign countries. If
these States were independent sovereigns they could
be held to accountability upon their obligations by the
owers by whose subjects such obligations might be
eld, but as integral parts of the nation they can only
be reached by foreign powers through the national
government and that practically precludes resort to
either reprisals or war. As it regards obligations due
by a State to the citizens of another State, Amend-
ment XI. of the Constitution prohibiting individuals
from bringing suits against States in the courts of the
United States cuts off judicial remedies of that class.
The absence of means of enforcement tends to give to
the value of the obligations issued by the States a
speculative rather than an intrinsic quality where the
commercial integrity of the State has not been placed
beyond question by habitual good faith towards its
creditors. The circumstance just mentioned will be
found to have an important bearing upon the history
of repudiation in the United States.
The history of repudiation shows two distinct
periods when the public obligations of several of the
States have been violated. The first of these periods
followed the speculative era that preceded 1836, when
both public and private credit was stretched to an ex-
tent that produced with its collapse commercial dis;
aster of a widespread character. While individual
credits were at that time expanded through a Yariety
of causes of a speculative character, the extension of
public credit was mainly due to excesses in the
construction of works of internal improvement pro-
jected in the interest of commercial development.
The second of these periods was at the conclusion of
the civil war, when the waste of war and interrupted
industry had to be made good by an excessive use of
State credits that speedily precipitated a crisis in
public credits. The first of the periods to which ref.
erence has been made was essentially commercial in
the character of its causes, while the second period
was distinctly political. -
In 1842 Pennsylvania failed to meet the interest, on
her funded debt, but finally succeeded in fulfilling her
engagements. Unfortunately for her fame, Rev.
Sydney Smith, who was one of the sufferers for the
time, thought proper to trumpet her failure to the
world in an essay, which is still published without any
notice of the State's subsequent amends. In 1842
Maryland also suspended payment upon a debt of
$12,000,000, contracted for , internal improvements,
but escaped from her situation without repudiation.
Mississippi allowed obligations to be dishonored that
were created in aid º a banking institution that
failed, alleging as the cause of repudiation that the
bonds had been negotiated for less than was per-
mitted by law. In 1837 part of the proceeds of a
loan made by Michigan was lost through the agent for
its negotiation, and that State declined to recognize its
obligation beyond the amount that had been realized
to the State therefrom, giving rise to the serious
charge that it was an attempt to hold the innocent
purchasers of its bonds responsible for the conduct of
the agent of the State. In 1843 Louisiana authorized
debts due to a failing bank, that had operated under
the patronage of the State, to be paid in depreciated
State bonds at par, which, although not strictly an act
of repudiation, approached it closely in principle.
The foregoing instances relate to the first of the
periods already mentioned, and are to be regarded as
part of a general commercial crisis in which both
public and private credits suffered. (See CRISIS,
CoMMERCIAL.) During the second period the failure
of public credits was on the part of most of the States
that participated in the rebellion, including Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas. The
general conditions out of which the repudiation of
their public debts on the part of the States last named
arose were the same substantially in all of those
States. In these States the means and appliances for
carrying on government and commerce were reduced
almost to worthlessness. Public buildings were de-
stroyed or out of repair, the railroads were worn out,
their bridges largely gone, and were crippled for want
of rolling stock. It was an urgent necessity that the
industry of the States should be revived, and for that
purpose that commercial intercourse should be re-
established, and therefore that the existing railroads
should be refitted and new roads constructed, and
without aid from the public credit that restoration of
production must wait an indefinite time. Until State
governments were established that promised some
permanency the work could not be entered upon.
When these governments were put in operation they
were conducted by persons unskilled in public finance
or in public business of any kind, who did not repre-
sent what was left to the States of wealth and com-
mercial credit, and were antagonized by the influence
that up to that time had carried on the operations of
those States and maintained their credit.
. To accomplish what was actually needed by taxation
in the then existing state of affairs was an impossi-
bility, and the only recourse was to the credit of the
States. It was inevitable that bonds of governments
356 REPUDIATION.
thus circumstanced would have to be sold at ruinous
rates not only for the reasons common to all the States
of the Union, and for the special reasons already
stated, but for the additional reason that the perma-
mency of the then existing administration in those
States was not anticipated, and should those govern-
ments come into the hands of those antagonizing
them, the new rulers would not be apt to regard the
honor of the States as involved in the faithful discharge
of º obligations created during such transition
period.
These causes operated more or less throughout all
the States last named, but culminated in the State of
South Carolina, where reckless legislation added to
the embarrassment. Repudiation in Virginia was
chiefly from the fact that West Virginia had been
separated as a State without provision being made for
her contribution to the payment of the debt of Virginia
subsisting at the time of such separation. Virginia
claimed that one-third of the debt should be paid by
West Virginia as her just proportion. Virginia in
1871 funded two-thirds of her debt in bonds and is-
sued certificates for the remaining one-third, redeem-
able when West Virginia should assume her part of
the debt. It was provided in the funding act that
coupons on the bonds should be receivable in payment
of taxes. Subsequently it was enacted that only coin
and currency should be received in payment of taxes,
thus repudiating the obligation as to coupons forming
part of the Funding Act. Again in 1880 the attempt
was made in the readjustment of the debt of the State
to repudiate a portion of the funded debt on the
ground that it represented the capitalization of interest,
which in the depressed condition of the State was
claimed to be unjust.
The most general ground of repudiation throughout
the repudiating States was the consequence of aid
having been given to railroads with no proper return
to the interests of the States. North Carolina repu-
diated upwards of $12,000,000 of debt alleged to have
been oollusively obtained under the pretence of the
building of railroads. Georgia and Florida based
their action upon the decision of their courts against
the validity of the bonds. Louisiana placed her
action upon the ground of the unconstitutionality of
certain issues. Arkansas acted upon the decision of
her courts. Alabama and Mississippi repudiated
large portions on their debts created in aid of railroads.
The case of South Carolina fully illustrates the gen-
eral situation. The inauguration of the new State
government in 1868 found an empty treasury and no
available means of raising money by taxation. Find:
ing that the bonds of the new State could not be sold
except at ruinous rates, temporary loans were made
upon bonds as collaterals in the expectation of funding
at an early day. That expectation was never realized.
The maturity of the loans finally resulted in the for-
feiture of the bonds and their sale at a small per cent.
upon their face value. A scheme for ascertaining the
true indebtedness of the State and Scaling it to 50 cents
on the dollar was matured and carried out and a con-
solidated bond issued to replace the outstanding debt.
In 1880 this scheme was revised and the original va-
lidity of the bonds that entered into the new issue was
submitted to judicial inquiry and resulted in the in-
validating of certain classes of bonds that had pre-
viously been validated and funded.
The cases of repudiation show three modes of ac:
complishing that end, namely, under the decisions of
the courts of the indebted States, under the action of the
Legislature, and by studiously omitting to make pro-
vision for their payment where such a provision was
possible. That the decisions of the courts of a State
should be accredited with authority to dissolve the
obligations of such State is against the principle that
no one can be regarded as a competent judge in his
own case. The legislative authority of a State of the
Union cannot impair its obligations, as that is dis-
tinctly forbidden by the Constitution of the United
States. The act of repudiation by a State of the
Union is therefore one of arbitrary force and not of
law, for such an act cannot take proper effect under
the Constitution of the United States, but it is to be
regarded as simply taking advantage of its exemption
from judicial compulsion. If a State fails to meet its
engagements from absolute inability, its honor is un-
touched, and it may be entitled to sympathy. If, on
the other hand, it denies the obligation when able to
perform it and does not avail itself of the opportunity
it possesses of submitting the question of its indebted-
ness to the judiciary of the United States, its justice
must necessarily be brought under criticism.
The repeal of remedies existing for the enforcement
of an obligation of a State at the time its debts are
contracted is an unconstitutional act that can produce
no proper legal effect, and those remedies still remain
in vigor, although existing under the laws of the State,
and this applies equally to the privileges attached to
coupons. After a State has made a composition with its
creditors, and especially where that composition is in
the nature of a compromise, a question is presented to
which little attention has been given. . It has been
assumed, as in the cases of Virginia and South Caro-
lina already mentioned, that after a compromise and
funding based thereon, it was competent that a State
should reopen the question of the validity of the obli-
gation that was the subject of such compromise. This
cannot be done in the case of individual transactions,
and no reason has yet been pointed out why it should
be available to a State.
The preservation of the honor of the States of the
Union seems to require that where they have reason
to doubt the validity of their obligations and are
satisfied that justice will admit of the solution of
that doubt, they should take measures to have the
question submitted to the judiciary of the United
States, the only impartial tribunals in such cases,
and when their inability to meet their obligations is
confessed that they should readjust them upon consul-
tation with their creditors, which can be done without
loss of dignity and with the saving of their honor.
What effect the early financial history of the coun-
try may have had upon the state of opinion that ren-
dered repudiation possible must remain the subject
of conjecture. Bu, the disposition made of the debt
contracted by the issues of paper-money for the main-
tenance of the Revolution that gave independence to
the States is clearly distinguishable from the idea of
repudiation. The issues during that war constituted
the currency of the country, and thus became dis-
tributed among the people, and, as they lost their pur-
chasing value and finally ceased to perform any useful
function to trade, were subject to vicissitudes tending
to make their distribution still more general. When
in 1790 Congress provided for funding the domestic
debt at a great reduction upon its face value, the real
question presented was whether that domestic debt
should be at once absorbed by taxation, or that some
portion of it should be left to future adjustment. The
power of taxation in the hands of Congress was un-
limited, and could have been extended to absorb the
entire outstanding indebtedness, and that indebtedness
was distributed as broadly as it would be practicable
to distribute taxation for its absorption, and hence the
reduction of the nominal value of the debt was equiv-
alent to taxation for its absorption. The reason why
any portion of that debt was funded must be considered
to have been to postpone the adjustment of a certain
portion of it to a future day, and to afford the holders
of that debt the credit of the government to a limited
extent to facilitate commercial operations. In view of
the fact that the holders of the debt and the persons
subject to taxation to pay it were practically the same,
there cannot be found in the transaction the elements
of repudiation.
The Confederate currency and bonds that were left
REQUISITION.—RESURRECTION.
357
in existence at the destruction of the power upon
whose credit they were issued stand, in the position
of representing no existing source of obligation, and
the effect of the fourteenth amendment in forbidding
the payment of that debt simply Fº beyond the
power of the government of the nited States the
ability to change that status into one representing the
credit of the United States.
See “State Debts and Repudiation,” by Robert P. Porter,
Iºnational Review, Vol. 9; Tenth Census U.S., Vol. 7:
- (A. J. W.)
REQUISITION denotes an official demand by the
executive of one State upon the executive of another
State for the person of an offender against the civil or
the criminal law. The process is often known as inter-
state extradition. The U. S. Constitution provides
that the governor of any State shall, upon the demand
of any other governor, deliver to him any person
charged with treason, felony, or other, crime, who has
fled from justice and is found in that State. The stat:
ute of 1733 requires such demand to be accompanied
by proper affidavits of the indictment, or a warrant
charging him with violation of law. The construction
of this statute was, for many years, exceedingly loose,
because of doubt concerning the definition of “9ther
crime.” Just before the civil war of 1861 the U. S.
Supreme Court, in the case of Kentucky vs. Dennison
(24 Howard, 66), declared that any act made a crime
by the laws of the demanding State was extraditable.
This decision was brought about by the refusals of
Northern governors to surrender parties who were
charged with assisting in the escape of slaves. At
present there is no uniformity in State laws re lating
the return of persons charged with crime to the State
in which the crime was committed, and from which
they have fled. In Pennsylvania, for a number of
years, the executive has followed the rule that in cases
of obtaining money by false pretence, or of embezzle-
ment, where the executive was of the opinion that the
process was to be used chiefly for the purpose of col-
ecting a private debt, a requisition would be declined.
Yet requisitions continually come to the executive of
that State asking for the surrender of persons charged
with offences for which he would not grant requisitions.
Even if criminals do not actually escape capture, States
are often put to great expense and trouble for the
want of uniformity in the laws; and the enforcement
of justice is greatly retarded, if not altogether defeated.
The Legislature of New York passed an act in 1886
which provides that no fugitive shall be taken out of
the State, either with or without his consent, without
a requisition being first obtained, thus preventing kid-
napping and the self-surrender of persons by reason
of intimidation.
In 1887 representatives of nearly all the States of
the Union met in the city of New York to promote
greater uniformity in methods of interstate extradi-
tion. A committee was appointed to draft a bill
embodying the conclusions of the conference, and such
other provisions as upon careful examination they
might deem necessary to make uniform the law and
modes of procedure for the extradition of fugitives
from justice. The committee met in New York city, in
September, 1887, and agreed upon a hill to be submitted
to Congress. In substance the bill provided that a
person arrested in a State other than that in which the
alleged crime was committed may be bailed during
extradition proceedings, but must present himself
within 20 or 30 days for extradition. At the end of
that time he shall be discharged if the agent of the
State in which the crime was committed be not ready
to receive him. Should the accused be not able to
furnish bail he shall be discharged after 30 days' im-
prisonment if the agent, is not ready. The agent
must have written authority from the governor of the
State surrendering the accused. Any official using
violence, threats, or undue influence to compel an
alleged fugitive, to leave the State ſº which he had
removed himself shall be guilty of a felony, punishable
with from 5 to 10 years' imprisonment at hard labor.
The prisoner shall not be arrested upon civil or crim-
inal process in the demanding State until a reason-
able time after the proceedings for which extradition
was made, so that he may have an opportunity, to
return to the State in which he was taken. Should a
demanding governor become satisfied that the extra-
dition proceedings have been invoked for private pur-
poses, he may revoke the same and discharge the
fugitive. The bill awaits the action of º )
F. G. M.
RESURRECTION. This term denotes the revival
of the human body from the grave and its resumption
of existence in a future state. It differs from immor-
tality, which denotes merely the continued life of the
soul after it has parted from its earthly tenement, and
also from metempsychosis, that is, the passing of the
soul of a man after death into the body of a lower
animal or through a succession of such animals. It is
presented in the Scriptures, not as a. philosophical
speculation, or a beautiful, inspiring Vision, but as a
constituent and necessary element in the future life of
the people of God. This article will seek to give
simply an outline of the way in which the doctrine
has been and is considered and treated in the Christian
Church; for the conception is one that has not been
found with any clearness or positiveness in any of the
ethnic faiths.
Scattered intimations of the truth are given in the
Old Testament, as in the translation of Enoch and
Elijah, in certain expressions of the Psalms (xyi. 9,
lxxiii. 24–26), in the striking imagery of Isaiah (xxvi.
19), and in Ezekiel's vision (xxxvii. 1-13) of the re;
animation of the dry bones. In Daniel, the last of
the greater prophets, it is expressly said that “many
that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake.” In
the later Judaism the doctrine became clearly defined,
and was held by the great body of the people, as ap-
fº. from Martha's answer to Christ's promise that
er brother should rise again, “I know that he shall
rise again in the resurrection at the last day.” The
only exception to this view was the sect of the Sad-
ducees, which, however, was neither large nor influ-
ential. In the New Testament the point is everywhere
assumed or expressly asserted, our Lord calling himself
“the resurrection and the life,” and affirming that the
rising again of the dead shall be universal, including
the evil and the good. His apostles reaffirm this
teaching, dwelling however with special emphasis upon
the resurrection of believers, which they connect with
that of Christ as its evidence and earnest and pattern.
The apostle Paul, in what is the classic passage of the
New Testament upon the subject, gives some animating
articulars concerning the future body of the righteous,
ut concerning that of the ungodly neither he nor any
other inspired writer says anything beyond the mere
fact that they also shall rise. In the Epistle to the
Hebrews the resurrection is spoken of as one of the
elementary truths of Christianity, which it is, being
bound up with the future life and the whole purpose
of God respecting his redeemed people. Hence its
general and constant reception among Christians. It
is a distinct article in the Apostles' Creed, the earliest
symbol of faith, and is found in every other confession
of the historic church ; and at this day all divisions of
Christendom, however differing on other points, are at
i. as to the final victory over the grave at the last
But while there is a general agreement as to the
article, “the resurrection of the dead,” there is much
difference as to what it implies. There are some who
make it altogether figurative, as if it meant only a
spiritual resurrection. Others have supposed it to
mean the literal reassembling of all the particles that
have at any one time been in the physical frame.
Others again say that it is the continued preservation
358
RESURRECTION.
of a small portion of these particles, which by divine
power is reconstructed into .. adapted to the soul's
new condition. A fourth view limits this preservation
to what is called a “vital germ,” which, small as it may
be, suffices as a link of connection between the old
body and the new. A fifth opinion is that at or soon
after the moment of death there is disengaged from
the mortal remains a spiritual body which, in union
with the soul, passes into another state of existence.
A sixth view is that the vital principle which now ap-
propriates earthly materials will still continue to exist
and will at the resurrection perform the same office as
before, only upon materials of a higher class. But all
these statements are merely theoretical, for the Scrip-
ture, while it often sets forth the fact of the resur-
rection, says nothing of the manner in which it is
brought about. The only prolonged discussion, that
contained in First Corinthians (chap. xv.), states re-
sults, not processes. It clearly teaches that there is
not the substitution of a new body, but the trans-
formation of the old, and the effects of this change are
set forth with grace and force. “Flesh and blood
cannot inherit the kingdom of God ; '’ that is, our
bodies as now organized are not suited to the new and
exalted state of being. They will therefore undergo
the needed change in several particulars. The .
now is subject to decay and indeed is in a state of cor-
ruption, but hereafter it is to be incapable of decay or
dissolution. It is now a body of humiliation (Phil.
iii. 21), bearing the scars of sin and shame, but when
raised it is to be fashioned anew after the pattern of
Christ's glorified body as he sits at God's right hand.
It is now weak and subject to many trying limitations,
but in the next world it will be instinct with undecaying
energy and endowed with faculties far beyond what we
now conceive. It is now a “natural body,” that is,
one adapted to the present condition of the soul and
the constitution of this world; but it is to become “a
spiritual body,” that is, one adapted to the glorified
condition of the soul and to the constitution of the new
heavens and new earth. The apostle concludes his dis-
cussion in a lofty strain of eloquence showing that in
his view the resurrection of the righteous is not only
of great significance in and for itself, but is also the
final conquest of the redeemed over every form of
evil. Still there is no answer to the many questions
that arise as to the way in which this result is brought
about. There always has been, and doubtless always
will be, much speculation on the interesting subject,
but it is foredoomed to failure. We neither know nor
can know how the dead are raised up, any more than
we know how the grass grows or how God exists. All
that the Scripture is responsible for is the fact, and it
is a very important one. Man here consists of soul and
body, and hereafter he will consist of the same. The
complete personality is to stand before the judgment-
seat and to receive its unending retributions. To make
this possible it is ordained that the dead shall be raised.
The whole historical person that lived on earth is to
live hereafter and to receive the just reward of his
works. It is this fact which takes the tenet out of the
domain of mere sentiment and gives it a place among
the most important factors of human thought. It
does away at once and forever with the undue dispar-
agement of the body which has appeared at time; in
the Christian church, arising from the old heathen
notion that matter is essentially vile, and hence that
the body is the source of all sin and misery to the soul,
or from certain ascetic principles which, regarding, the
body as an incubus or a burden, aimed not at controlling
but at extirpating all natural appetites and passions.
So far from this being the case, the body is an integral
and essential constituent of man's nature, and as such
is to be neither abused nor punished, but fostered and
cared for, since even in a far higher state of being it
will still hold its place in the human economy and be a
fit tourple of the Holy Ghost. - * &
The objections which are made to this doctrine are
founded upon a misconception of its nature and
grounds. It has been said that it is opposed to all the
conclusions of physical science : for, so far as the
most exact observation shows, the human body is when
dead subject to the same laws of decomposition and
dispersion as those which prevail over the remains of
the irrational animals. In no case has there ever been
seen the least sign of a tendency to resurrection any
more than in the abandoned carcasses of the brute
creation. To all appearance the bodies of rational and
irrational beings pass away alike, and are equally and
irrevocably mingled with their kindred dust. Science
therefore, it is claimed, pronounces decidedly against
the possibility of a resurrection. But this conclusion
is much wider than the premises. Chemistry and
physics can tell us what is, but not what may be. The
doctrine is not a deduction from observation and ex-
periment, nor does any one seek to establish it by the
evidence of natural law. It rests wholly Öpon divine
revelation. Whether it is within the power of God to
reconstruct the decomposed body is not a matter of
doubt to any intelligent theist. The same hand that
made the human frame can Surely restore it from any
degree of decay and decomposition. The question is
not one of physical inquiry or scientific analysis, but
simply of revelation. Has God said that this ex-
traordinary event shall occur 2 If he has, the case is
closed, for of the future we certainly know only what
he has declared ; and that the Scripture declares that
this mortal shall put on immortality is beyond doubt.
The statement lies on the face of the record, and is
confirmed by the consentient faith of the church from
the beginning. It is identified with the integrity of
the gospel and the hope of every believer, living or
dying.
A much more serious difficulty turns upon the ques-
tion of identity. The whole value of the doctrine as it
is stated in the creeds, and as it is held in consciousness,
rests upon the view that the same body that is com:
mitted to the grave rises again, so that there is a real
continuity of existence. What is said is not that God
will create a new body, but that he will restore the old
one. But it is asked how that can be when the buried
physical frame is not simply reduced to dust, but re-
solved into elementary principles which become so thor-
oughly mixed and confounded with others of the same
or of a different kind, that it is quite inconceivable
that they should be traced out, and separated and re-
combined into their old connections. To this it might
be said in answer that all things are possible with God,
not even this stretch of power being beyond the re-
sources of the Infinite Mind; but a better answer is
that the objection presupposes what is not the case,
viz., that the doctrine implies the raising again of the
same elementary particles as composed the former body.
The slightest reflection shows that this is not the case.
These elementary particles never have been the same
during the existence of the body on the earth, but
have always been in an unceasing flux. Every few
years or, as some say, every year the old materials pass
away and new ones take their place; indeed, so con-
tinuous is the process that no man's body one day
is precisely identical with what it was, the day be-
foré, or what it will be the day after. Still to all intents
and purposes it is the same body, occupies the same
place, and performs the same functions: the man him;
self feels it to be such and would be greatly surprised
were any one to tell him to the contrary. ence it 1s
clear that the resurrection body by no means requires
to be composed of the identical substance that was
committed to the grave. º
The same consideration disposes of the difficulty
raised by some when they ask if all the defects, and in-
firmities of the corporal frame are to be reproduced in
the future life. Is the infant to be raised up as an in-
fant; the aged man as wrinkled and tottering; the
lame as still a cripple; the leper covered with sores;
the deaf, or dumb, or blind, as still laboring under
RESURRECTION
PLANT—RETZSCH. 359
these misfortunes? The question hardly deserves an
answer. Experience in the present world makes it
plain that all such things are mere accidents, in no
case and in no degree affecting the substance of things.
The human body may undergo the most serious
changes either for the better or the worse without at
all affecting the conscious identity of the person. And
it is fair to conclude that the same fact will hold good
in the future life. The body, the apostle says, is to
be raised in glory, which must at least mean that
whatever in the way of defect or deformity would tend
to unfit it for the activities and enjoyments of the
heavenly state will be left behind, and all its organs
and members be exalted to the highest pitch of excel-
lence. Yet the difference, great as it may be between
the old and the new, the earthly and the heavenly, the
natural and the spiritual, will not at all affect the fact
that it is the same body and belongs to the same person,
any more than the difference between the small acorn
that is planted and the stately and widespreading oak
into which it grows interferes with the identity of their
existence,
The embarrassment which many feel on this point
arises from confusion of thought. They assume that
the same law holds in regard to living organized beings
and to inanimate substances. The identity of a stone
lies in the identity of the particles of which it is
composed. Take away any considerable portion of
those particles or substitute others in their place, and
it is no longer the same stone in any proper sense.
But this is not the case with a plant or a human
body, as all observation shows. In them we neither
seek nor find any numerical sameness of the constituent
atoms. These may differ from time to time in number,
in condition, in quality, but they agree in their mutual
relations, and in their association with one central,
forumative principle. This constitutes the special indi-
viduality of any particular plant or animal. And no
one has any doubt of its identity in any or all stages of
its existence. The same consideration applies to the
resurrection body. Of whatever sort its constituent
particles may be, or whencesoever they are derived,
they stand in intimate vital union with the same for-
mative principle, and so constitute one and the same
individual being. The new body thus constructed is a
fac-simile of the old one. It has the same characteristic
expression. It is recognized by its possessor, and it is
capable of recognition by all who knew him on the
earth. Every man has his personal character—pecu-
liarities of mind and heart which distinguish him from Wºº
every other man, and this character is more or less!
clearly revealed by the form, the features, the air, the
carriage of his body. There seems no reason to doubt
that this will continue in the life to come, and that the
revelation of the outward by the inward will be more
exact and informing in heaven than it has been or can
be here on earth. It was a sight of surpassing splendor
that John saw in Patmos when the glorified Saviour
stood before him with a face shining like the sun, eyes
like a flame of fire, and feet like unto brass burning in
a furnace, but still the apostle recognized the form as
that of the Son of man. Although thus transfigured,
it was still the same Jesus who was born at Bethlehem
and died on Calvary. Herein the Master is the pattern
of the disciple, for it is written that he “shall fashion
*new the body of our humiliation that it may be con-
fºrmed to the body of his glory.” “As we have borne
the image of the earthy we shall also bear the image
of the heavenly.”
The sum of what has been said may be stated in the
following particulars :
1. The resurrection of the dead is a doctrine of rev-
elation, and as such is neither affirmed nor denied by
physical science. 2. Properly understood it involves
nothing that is unreasonable or fanciful. 3. It is of
Very great moment in connection with the remedial
System. 4. It means that redemption is not merely
pardon, or deliverance from spiritual suffering, but
takes in the whole man, the body as well as the soul.
5. It is a constituent part of the great consummation
when Christ comes to wind up the present system of
things. 6. It meets a deep-seated longing of our
nature. 7. It does justice to the dual constitution of
man as composed of both material and immaterial ele-
ments. 8. It lays a basis for the future recognition of
those whom we have known and loved in the present
life. 9. To the bereaved it dissipates the dark shadows
that hang over the grave. 10. It makes more lively
and satisfying the conceptions we are authorized to
cherish concerning the eternal blessedness of the re-
deemed.
The literature of the subject will be found in the Appendix
to W. R. Alger's Doctrine of the Future Life, by the late Ezra
Abbot. This bibliography, which has also been issued
separately, is wonderfully copious and accurate, and leaves
nothing to desire. (T. W. C.)
RESURRECTION PLANT. This name is given
to certain plants possessed of peculiar habits which
seem equivalent to a return from death to life. The
principal of these is Anastatica Hierochuntina, called
fancifully the Rose of Jericho, a plant of the mustard
family which is found in Northern Africa, Syria, and
Arabia. It is an annual, with very short stems and
branches radiating from its summit to the length of
several inches. In the period of dry weather which
follows the flowering season the branches curl inward,
till the plant looks like a curious ball of wicker work,
at the top of the short stem. The root now decays,
and the plant, torn up by the winds, is carried long
distances over the level country. If it reaches water,
or is lodged where rains can fall upon it, the moistured
branches unfold and expand, and the pods open and
disperse their seeds, the whole arrangement being one
of nature's methods for the wide dispersion of seeds.
The phenomena of curling and uncurling may be in-
definitely repeated by successively drying and moistur-
ing the plant : hence its common name.
Closed.
Another plant of similar property is the Selaginella
lepidophylla, a cryptogamous plant allied to the
Lycopodiums, or club mosses. It is found in the
arid districts of Southern California and New Mexico,
and consists of a tuft of flattened branching stems, of
fern-like aspect, which are found clinging to rock
crevices, the stems curled into a nest-like ball. In the
rainy season they uncurl, and the plants appear as beau-
tiful rosettes of brilliant green. When quite dead they
will still expand if moistened, and they are frequently
sold under the name of resurrection plant. (C. M.)
RETZSCH, MoRITZ (1779–1857), a German artist,
was born at Dresden, Dec. 9, 1779. He studied art at
the academy there, and devoted himself to painting
mythological subjects and illustrating the works of the
great poets. His outline etchings of Goethe appeared
first in isig and an enlarged edition in 1834. In
1816 he became a member of the Dresden Academy,
and in 1824 he was made professor there. In 1822
he commenced a series of illustrations of Schiller's
Resurrection Plant, Open.

360
REULEAUX—REVELATION.
Works, in 1827 of Shakespeare, and later of Bürger's
Ballads and other works. His illustrations attained
popularity in England and France as well as in Ger-
many. He died at Dresden, June 11, 1857.
REULEAUX, FRANZ, a German technologist, was
born at Eschweiler near Aix-la-Chapelle, Sept. 30,
1829. At the Polytechnic School of Carlsruhe he
studied machine construction, but he also studied phi-
losophy at Berlin and Bonn. After some service as a
practical engineer he became in 1856 professor of ma-
chine construction at Zurich. In 1864 he was called
to a similar position at Berlin. In 1867 he served on
the jury of award at the Paris Exposition, in 1873 at
Vienna, and in 1876 at Philadelphia. His Letters
from Philadelphia (1877) created a sensation in Ger-
many by their severe criticism of the German manu-
factures displayed, and eventually brought about great
improvement in German workmanship. Reuleaux
attended the exhibitions in Sydney and Melbourne in
1879 and 1881. He has also been connected with the
Imperial Patent Office. He has published Konstruc-
teur (1871), Theoretische Kinematik (1875), and Quer
durch Indien (1884).
REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE, a French
theologian, was born at Strasburg, July 18, 1804. He
was educated in his native city and studied theology at
Göttingen and Halle, and Oriental languages at Paris.
He began to teach Biblical and Oriental literature at
Strasburg in 1829, and became professor there in 1836.
He published Histoire de la Théologie chrétienne aw
siècle apostolique (2 vols., 1852); Histoire du Canon des
Saintes Ecritures dans l' Eglise chretiemme (1863);
Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des Alten Testaments
(1881); Les Epîtres Pauliniemmes (1883). He also
projected a new French translation of the Bible, with
introduction and notes, which was completed in 17
volumes (1874–79). Reuss was instrumental in intro-
ducing German criticism and methods of investiga-
tion among French theologians. He has taken part
in editing a new edition of Calvin's Works.
REUTER, PAUL JULEs, BARON, telegraphist, was
born at Cassel, July 21, 1821. While employed as a
banker's clerk at Göttingen he became interested in
the discoveries in electro-magnetism. The European
revolutions of 1848 suggested to him the importance
of rapid communication of news. In 1849 he at-
tempted to start in Paris a system using lithographic
copies of condensations of daily news. . But when the
Prussian government allowed the public use of the
telegraph from Berlin to Aix-la-Chapelle, he removed
to the latter and sent the news thence to Brussels
by means of carrier pigeons. As fast as telegraphic
lines were extended, he took advantage of them, and
supplied the deficiencies by couriers, steamboats, and
other means, even building, telegraph lines himself
when permission could be obtained. In 1851, he re-
moved his chief agency to London, whence he had
communication with all parts of the world. He was
naturalized as a British subject and formed a partner-
ship with Baron Erlanger. He established close rela-
tions with the newspapers, and the Times called in his
aid during the war in Italy in 1859. His title of baron
was conferred by the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
in 1871.
r REVELATION, Book of. This
º *. book of the New Testament is closely
Äm º ” related in thought, and to some extent
. Rep.). in form, with the discourse about “the
last things,” recorded in Matt. xxiv.; Mark xiii.;
Luke xxi. While it bears some resemblance to the
Jewish “Apocalyptic Literature,” it is as markedly
distinct from writings of that class as are the Cangmi-
cal Gospels from the Apocryphal Gospels. The diffi-
culty of interpreting the book arises in part from its
unique character, and from the avowedly prophetic
nature of its contents. Dr. Harnack, in the article in
the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, speaks of it as
* the most intelligible book in the New Testa-
ment,” but the intelligibility he claims for it is
dearly purchased. It will be impossible to discuss his
views in detail, but the critical method of investiga-
tion he adopts has no right to call itself “historical,”
since it gives little or no weight to historical testi-
mony, and deals in the most arbitrary fashion with the
internal evidence furnished by the Apocalypse itself.
As a result the greatest uncertainty is thrown about
the question of authorship, the one question that is
most readily answered ; while the really difficult ques-
tions of interpretation are regarded as easy of expla-
nation.
1. The Author of the Apocalypse.—External evi-
dence points to the apostle John as the author; the
witnesses on the other side usually show some preju-
dice against the book itself, and hence seek to deny
its apostolic authority. That some other John was the
author seems impossible, and the supposition “that
the name of John was interpolated in the last revision
(after the death of the apostle John)” is without
any support, external or internal. This view scarcely
differs from that which deems the book a forgery.
The objections urged by Harmack against the view
that the apostle John was the author are not con-
vincing. (1). The opinion of the so-called “Alogi’’
cannot outweigh the positive testimony supportin
the genuineness of the Apocalypse. (2). The interna
reasons are invalid ; the apostle in describing his vis-
ions need not designate himself as a personal disciple;
his language about the twelve apostles agrees with the
character of the Apocalypse ; his descriptions of
Christ need occasion no difficulty. The psychological
unintelligibility, alleged in the article in the BRITAN-
NICA, is based upon prejudgment in regard to the theo-
logical position of the assumed author. The main
difficulty is based upon the obvious difference of style
between the Apocalypse and the Fourth Gospel. The
Tabingen school accept the former as the work of the
apostle John, in order to deny the genuineness of the
latter. Some critics who regard the apostle as the
author of both works, accept an early date for the Apoc-
alypse, in order to account for these differences by
the long interval. But this is not necessary; the two
books are totally distinct in character ; one a simple
historical narrative, the other a description of visions,
alleged by the author to be supernatural. This of
itself would account for the difference in style. The
variations in language have been overestimated ; the
doctrinal positions are not diverse; there are, indeed,
positive evidences of a common authorship, in plan,
and thought, and phrase. The difficulty of forming a
consistent theory other than the so-called “tradi-
tional'' one will appear from the variety of opinions
proposed by recent critics; most of them purely conjec-
tural, or at best based upon assumptions respecting the
origin of the New Testament books. In the case of
both books the burden of proof rests with the oppo-
nents of the “traditional 'view. If an early date be
assigned to the Apocalypse the name of John could
scarcely be interpolated, and apostolic authority so uni-
versally admitted. A later date to the Gospel calls for
an author worthy of the book, and the second century
does not reveal any one who could have written that
Gospel. If both were written in the first century, we
may most consistently accept the apostle John as the
author of both.
2. The Date of Writing.—Recent scholarship ac-
cepts a date shortly before A. D. 70. . The grounds
for the opinion are (1) that the book implies that
the destruction of Jerusalem had not yet occurred ;
(2) that the Antichrist is Nero, the number of the
beast (666, chap. xiii. 18) indicating “Emperor
Neron ; ” (3) that the earlier date allows sufficient
time for the change of style noticeable in the Apoca,
lypse and the Fourth Gospel. The last argument is of
course rejected by those who deny the genuineness of
either of these books. Yet the external evidence Sup-
porting the later date (under Domitian, between
REVELATION.
361
A. D. 93–96) is so strong that Harnack is compelled to
resort to the theory of a later revision. But these
arguments are open to objections: (1) The reference
to Jerusalem must be explained in a literal sense, if it
oints to the city as still standing, yet the rest of the
pook can scarcely be interpreted in this way. More-
over, it is difficult to account for the absence of specific
reference to the impending, destruction of that city in
a professedly prophetic book, if that, book, were writ;
ten before the catastrophe, which Christ himself had
plainly predicted. (2) The interpretation of xiii. 13,
as referring to Nero, as well as the assumed reference
to the reigning emperor, in xvii. 7–12, cannot be
deemed conclusive. It is not agreed who this
emperor was ; it is implied that the ideal date of the
vision and the actual date of the book coincide, an ut-
terly unwarranted assumption. Furthermore, the
notion that the Antichrist of the Apocalypse is Nero
come to life is often linked with this argument. That
notion belittles the book and virtually makes the
author a superstitious dreamer, a retailer of heathen
fables. Yet many interpreters who reject all this hold
that the early date is to be preferred as affording a
better theory of interpretation, namely, one that finds
the visions, in part at least, fulfilled in the first cen-
tury. (3) The difference in style between the Apoca-
lypse and the Fourth Gospel can be explained by the
difference of the character of the works. The style of
the Apocalypse is not that of one unfamiliar with
Greek, but rather of one choosing intelligently the
peculiarities of language that he employs. As the
current of opinion now sets strongly in favor of the
earlier date, it is well to note some pºsitive reasons in
favor of the “traditional '' view. The letters to the
seven churches of Asia indicate an intimate relation
with those churches. These churches were mainly
founded by Paul, and up to A. D. 63 there is no hint
sof the presence of the apostle John in that region.
He seems to have gone there to escape the impending
calamities in Judea. Some time would be required
for the establishment of the relations indicated by the
epistles in the Apocalypse. Moreover, these seven
churches are taken as representing the whole church ;
a fact that seems inconsistent with the earlier date,
before Jerusalem had fallen. Other considerations
from internal grounds tend to confirm the well-at-
tested date in the reign of Domitian.
3. The Canonicity of the Apocalypse.—The book
Seems to have been well-nigh universally accepted in
the Second century. The extravagances of some in-
terpreters led to some doubts respecting its authority,
which find expression in Eusebius and other writers.
But Eusebius himself did not reject it. In the fourth
century these doubts were dispelled, and since that
time the book has been recognized well-nigh univer-
Sally, though for a long time ignored in the Eastern
church. -
4. Design and Contents of the Apocalypse.—We
may dismiss at once the notion that the book is a
Jewish-Christian polemic against Paul and the whole
Tübingen theory respecting it. Accepting the apostle
John as the author and the record of the vision as a
transcript of what he actually saw “in the Spirit,”
We must reject all theories of its design that cast
doubt upon the prophetic character it claims for
itself. The article in the BRITANNICA assumes, as do
many critics of this generation, that the author's view
Was “entirely bounded by his own subjectivity and
circumstances '' (Alford). Hence the arguments in
regard to authorship and interpretation are based
upon the assumed standpoint of the author, his per-
sonal hopes and fervid fancies. Its value is made to
consist in the clear view it presents of the aspirations
and inticipations of this unknown author, who though
a Jew had a firm faith in Christ, and yet had not at-
tained to the full freedom of the gospel. Those who
*ºpt the gospel, narratives as historical will find no
difficulty in believing that such visions could be made
VOL. IV.-x
the channel of prophetic revelation to the last surviv-
ing apostle. Those who believe in the Christ of the
Gospels will find it difficult to believe that this apostle
invented this Apocalyptic scenery to give expres-
sion to his own personal hopes. Regarding it as a
rophecy, which it claims to be (i. 1, 2), we need, not,
owever, regard it as a prediction of chronological de-
tails. It certainly sets forth in outline a conflict
between Christ (and his people) and the enemy, but
the constant recurrence of the number seven (the
number of perfection) seems to indicate that this con-
flict extends over the entire period of the church mili-
tant, whether the various details are given in chrono-
logical sequence or not. (See further under 5.). It is
therefore a book for all ages, but especially full of hope
for the persecuted church.
The plan of the Apocalypse is not distinctly marked
throughout, but some of the divisions are very
obvious. The number seven is conspicuous; hence
the effort has been made to find seven distinct visions,
each seven-fold in its details. But it is difficult to
verify this theory of the arrangement. After a pro-
logue (i. 1–8) we find seven epistles (i. 9—iii. 22);
then comes the prophetical portion, as it is termed.
Here a series of seven visions may be accepted, but
there are episodes, and the events signified in one
yision seem to be symbolized in a succeeding one. (1)
The prelude or opening vision in heaven, iv.-v. (2)
The seven seals, vi.-viii. 1. (3) The seven trumpets
of judgment, viii. 2–xi. 19. (4) The seven mystic
figures (the woman, her enemies, the Lamb, the three
angels of judgment), xii. 1–xiv. 20. (5) The seven
bowls of wrath, xv. 1-xvi. 20. (6) The seven-fold
judgment upon Babylon, xvii. 1–xix. 20. (7) The
final triumph, xix. 11-xxii. 5. An epilogue follows
in xxii. 6–21.
Some take the epistolary portion as the first in the
Series of seven visions, and join (1) and (2), while other
variations are advocated by other interpreters. It
should be noted that the numbers four, three, and
twelve are also used with symbolical significance.
The many correspondences between the sets of seven
symbols have suggested the view that the visions,
some of them at least, represent the same periods,
are synchronous, not successive, in their significance;
each series being complete in itself, and probably rep.
resenting some aspect of the conflict, from the begin-
ning to the close. There is, moreover, in each princi-
pal group of symbols a climax represented. All the
imagery is presented with more or less of the charac-
teristics of Hebrew, poetry, parallelism, and contrast,
involving occasionally double representations of the
same theory, the ideal and the actual aspect of the
object being described in close connection. The epi-
sodes which occur are quite obvious, and the writer
frequently uses “prolepsis,” anticipating “in earlier
Sections, by mere allusion, what he is only to explain at
a later point of his revelation ” (Milligan).
5. The Interpretation of the Apocalypse.—Three
leading systems of interpretation have been advocated;
a fourth is now becoming prominent. (1) The prae.
terist system, or theory, applies the revelation as a
Whole to the early Christian ages, either to the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem or to the overthrow of heathen
Rome, or to both. This system has had many advo.
cates in the past, who accepted the Apocalypse as a
real prophecy . At present it is the favorite system in
Germany, but is very often joined with the “Nero
fable.” The earlier date of composition is usually
maintained by the advocates of this system, in order
to antedate the events to which the visions are assumed
to refer. Undoubtedly there is an element of truth
In this, System, since the book itself claims to reveal
the things which must shortly come to pass” (i. 1).
But to limit the meaning to events in the early cen-
turies Seems unwarrantable. For (a) the visions most
obviously cover events that can become actual only at
the end of time; (b) the interpretation of the special
362
REVELATION.
points by this system has not been satisfactory; (c)
this limited view detracts from the permanent value
of the book, and often leads to a denial of its prophetic
character. The strongest argument from a single
detail is that based upon the number 666. It is held
that this must signify the name “Emperor Neron.”
But this is by no means certain. The interpretation
is a recent one ; a dozen others have been advocated
with as great plausibility. (See Schaff. History of the
Christian Church, Vol. I., pp. 841-852, for a full
statement of the various explanations.) Against this
explanation of the number many objections are prop-
erly urged, drawn from the other details with which
the number is connected, most of these being inapplic-
able to Nero. (2) The futurist system explains the
book as referring for the most part to events still future,
closely connected with the Second Advent. The ele-
ment of truth here is obvious : the closing visions,
probably the close of each vision, point to the end of
this dispensation ; but this does not warrant the
limited view peculiar to this system. (a) A number
of expressions in the book itself affirm that some of
the events symbolized were near in time. (b) This
system leads to an excessive literalism in interpreting
the numbers, etc. (c) By removing the prophecies
entirely out of history, it encourages fantastic chilias-
tic views. This school of interpreters is not numerous
at present, though it still has able representatives.
(3) The historical (or continuous) system extends the
fulfilment of the prophecy from the First to the
Second Advent, accepting a chronological sequence in
the visions, either as one series, or as repeated and
synchronous representations of different phases of the
same great conflict. This system was advocated in the
twelfth century, and since the Reformation has been
the view most commonly held by Protestant scholars,
before the “praeterist” reaction in Germany. The
Reformers were wont to identify “Babylon '' with
Papal Rome, and thus a dogmatic support was given
to the system. That it contains more elements of
truth than either of the others is quite probable. The
conflict portrayed in the Apocalypse does cover the
whole Christian dispensation ; its leading features seem
to stand out prominently, and final victory is certainly
assured. . But this method of interpretation, when it
is applied to chronological details, involves serious dif-
ficulties, and has been used in a way alike absurd and
fanatical. Nor has there been any general agreement
as to the detailed interpretation. It is still disputed,
for example, whether the several sets of symbols rep-
resent successive or synchronous series of events :
whether the millennium has already begun or is still
future; when the millennium began, on the theory
that it is not still future. In fact each generation of
historical interpreters is forced to reconstruct the
theory of fulfilled prophecy. Contemporary, events
are magnified, and the attempt made to find allusions
to them in the Apocalypse—the progress of history
proving the special interpretation to be false. This is
the story of the centuries during which this system
has been the dominant one. That it has fostered
fanaticism is obvious enough. We may therefore
expect to find serious objections to it, in so far, as it
attempts to construct a chronological sequence of ful-
filment answering to the visions in detail. These ob-
jections are: (a) The character of the boºk and its
symbolical language point to an ideal rather than a
historical arrangement. (b) The purpose of such, a
book can scarcely be to enable us to forecast the
future with chronological accuracy; yet this is pre-
cisely what this school of interpreters are WQnt to
attempt. Our Lord himself, in the eschatological
discourse with which the Apocalypse is related, for:
bids our calculations by denying the possibility of
knowing the time of that event, about which these
calculations are most busy, his future Advent. . (6)
This theory seems to separate the book from the time
in which it was written, and to deprive it of any great
practical value for the succeeding ages, u * , , time
of complete fulfilment approaches. (d) - addition
to the want of harmony among the interpreters of this
School we must notice the erroneous exegesis com-
monly employed in advocating the various theories;
historical events are selected to suit the theory; some
very puerile selections are to be noticed in nearly every
Scheme; the meaning of the symbols, the meaning of
the Greek words, even the questions of textual criti-
cism, are dealt with in a way that is utterly unjustifi-
able on the principles of scholarly exegesis. But the
effort to discover fulfilment of prophecy has such a
fascination that this system of interpretation includes
among its advocates not only the ignorant mystics, but
Some of the most illustrious and devout exegetes of
recent centuries There can be no doubt, however,
that in modern times the general effect of the elabor-
ate schemes of historical interpretation has been to
weaken the authority of the Apocalypse. The book
itself has suffered from the mistakes of its would-be
interpreters, who make “John a pedant, puzzling his
readers with his superior knowledge of petty details,
instead of a comforter, consoling and strengthening their
hearts by revelation of the true relations and final out-
come of things.” (Warfield.) (4) The ethical and
spiritual system of interpretation had its advocates in
Alexandria in the early Christian centuries. At pres-
ent it finds able supporters. The general principles on
which this method proceeds are : (a) The Apocalypse
covers the whole period from the First to the Second
Advent, but is not designed to indicate the length of
that period, nor the historical sequence of events. Time
is not reckoned, though the beginning and the end,
the conflict and its issue, are distinctly indicated. (b)
The Apocalypse sets forth “the action of great prin-
ciples and not special incidents '' (Milligan). This
gives to it a permanent value for all ages. (c) The
figures of the book, material and local, are to be inter-
preted in a spiritual and universal sense. The visions are
therefore regarded as synchronous, not successive. The
three main principles set forth in the Apocalypse are :
the conflict of Christ's people, the preservation of that
people, and the ultimate triumph. Not only conflict
but apostasy and degeneracy are predicted, and also
final victory. This view does not accept a chronologi-
cal explanation of the “millennium.” The spiritual
lessons of the book, on this view of it, are marked, and .
pertinent to every age. It reiterates the injunction
of the Master in his discourse on the same subject.
It is probable this last theory may be combined
with some features of the historical system ; but until
the great drama is nearly closed, it will not be possible
to prove that the Apocalypse presents a series of pre-
dictions to be historically fulfilled. Meanwhile there
can be no question that the practical value of the book
for the Christian life is furthered by the “ethical”
º: of interpretation far more than by any of the
OtherS.
Literature.—The BRITANNICA fails to notice the immense
British and American literature. The following list is
selected exclusively from this class. The various articles
on the Revelation, in Smith's Bible Dictionary, McClintock
and Strong's Cyclopædia, the Schaft-Herzog Cyclopædia,
each with a bibliographical list; the prolegomena to the Com-
mentaries of Stuart, Alford, Lee (Speaker's), Milligan (In-
termational); Schaff. History of the Christian Church, vol.
i. (1882), pp. 385–390, 416–422,825–853; Godet, Studies on
the New Testament, Eng. trans., pp. 294–398; Farrar, Early
Days of Christianity (N. Y., 1882), vol. ii. pp. 103-352;
Trench, Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches
(2d ed., London, 1861); Wordsworth, Lectures on the Apoc-
alypse (London, 1852); Elliott, Hora: Apocalypticº (5th ed.,
1862); Milligan, The Revelation of St. John, Baird, Lec-
ture for 1885 (defending the ethico-spiritual theory of inter-
pretation).-Commentaries : Moses Stuart, new ed., 1864,
(praeterist); Alford's Greek Testament, vol. iv. (historical);
Lange and Craven, Lange's Commentary, vol. x., New Tes-
tament, 1874; Lee in Speaker's Commentary, 1881 (histori-
cal); Milligan, International (or . Popular) Commentary,
vol. iv. (New York, 1883). The older literature is of im-
REVERE–REVOLUTION.
363
mense extent, but the movement of history has shown most
of the detailed expositions to be false and fanciful.
(M. B. R.)
REVERE, PAUL (1735–1818), immortalized by one
of Longfellow's poems, was born in Boston, Jan. 1,
| 735. e was of Huguenot ancestry, and was trained
in his father's trade as a goldsmith. In 1756 he served
as a lieutenant of artillery at Fort Edward, near Lake
George. After establishing himself as a goldsmith at
Boston he learned the art of copper-plate engraving,
and produced in 1766 a print emblematic of the Repeal
of the Stamp Act. Others of his designs were the
Boston Massacre (1770), Landing of British Troops in
Boston (1774). In 1775 he engraved the paper money
ordered by the Massachusetts Congress. e was also
commissioned by that body to learn the art of making
gunpowder, and to set up a powder-mill. He took
part in the destruction of tea in Boston harbor. Qn
the night of April 18, 1775, occurred his famous ride,
in which he notified the people of the British expedition
to seize the military stores at Concord. He was lieu-
tenant-colonel of artillery in the State service during
the Revolution, and was engaged in an expedition to
the Penobscot in 1779. After the war he was engaged
in copper rolling at Canton, Mass., which business has
long been carried on by the Revere Copper Co. He
died at Boston, May 10, 1818.
His grandson, PAUL Joseph REVERE (1832–1863),
graduated at Harvard College in 1852, served with dis-
tinction in the civil war, rising from major to colonel,
and was killed at the battle of Gettysburg. Another
grandson, E. H. R. Revere (1727–1862), was surgeon
of a regiment and was killed at the battle of Antietam.
RÉVILLE, ALBERT, French author, was born at
Dieppe, Nov. 4, 1826, where his father had been pastor
of a Protestant church. After entering the ministry
he was vicar at Nimes, then pastor at Luneray, and in
1851 was called to the charge of the Walloon church
at Rotterdam. At various times he returned to France
to take part in the religious conferences, at which he
advanced rationalistic and non-Christian views. In
1880 a professorship of the history of religions was
formed in the Collège de France, at Paris, and Réville
was called to the chair. In 1886 he was called to pre-
side over the section of religious studies in the school
of higher studies then established in the old Sorbonne.
Besides translations from the English and German he
has published Essais de critique religieuse (1860); His-
toire du dogme de la divinité de Jésus Christ (1869);
L'Enseignement de Jésus Christ (1870); Prolégomenes
de l'histoire des religions (1881); Les Religions des pew-
ples non-civilisés (2 vols., 1883); Les Religions du Mec-
ique, de l'Amérique centrale et du Pérou (1884).
REVIVAL, RELIGIOUS. It is a historic truth that
the spread of Christian doctrine and Christian life has
not been uniform in its rate of progress. The growth
of the church was much more rapid in the apostolic
age than it has been at any subsequent period. Before
the apostles had passed away Christianity had entered
the imperial palace at Rome, and its doctrines were
taught and embraced in all parts of the empire. In
three hundred years from the death of Christ the
Pagan empire had passed away, and the Christian em-
pire had taken its place. We look in vain to see any
such movement of conquest or of missionary effort on
the part of the church after these early centuries until
the renewed zeal of the Roman church appears in the
16th century, as awakened by the great separation from
that church in the Reformation, and by the discovery
of new continents beyond the Atlantic. Very much of
the growth indicated both in the time of Constantine and
in that of Xavier was superficial, and had no relation to
conviction and to spiritual life, Political agencies and
personal advantage were prominent factors in the estab-
lishment of the nominal church when worldly power
was centred in its hierarchy, which of course cannot be
alleged regarding the progress of Christianity at the
first, when persecution and death attended the Chris-
tian profession, and the doctrines preached antagonized
the natural passions of men.
But it is also historically true that in the growth of
the church there have been periods when spiritual re-
ligion especially flourished in certain localities, where a
new devotion has marked the lives of Christians, and
great numbers have been added to the church from
deep conviction, in true repentance and with sincere
faith.
It is to these movements that the name of Revivals
is generally applied. Two theories obtain concerning
them—one that they are the direct result of human
machinery, if we may use that term in a qualified way,
and the other that they are entirely of divine origin
and production, not dependent in any sense on human
action. Under the former theory a revival can be had
almost whenever the church wishes, and under the
latter no church effort is of any avail. Under the
former theory there is danger of a mechanical process
being inaugurated, and men busy themselves in “get-
ting up '' a revival, as they would a concert or a fair.
In such cases the door is open for all sorts of extrava-
gance, discreditable to the name of religion. Under the
latter theory there is danger of apathy, and men cease
to feel their responsibilities as Christians with a divine
commission to evangelize. The truth lies between the
two theories. The essential power in a revival is un-
doubtedly the Spirit of God, but it is no derogation
from his prerogative that he works through the faith-
ful sons of men, and we may hence believe that a
prayerful state of the church will be accompanied with
spiritual enlargement and numerical growth. If the
church were always equally prayerful (and by that is
implied a true life) we might expect a steady and rapid
growth instead of sporadic starts and ensuing stagna-
tion.
In point of fact, we have the alternations. We find
historically that the beginning of this century developed,
in the churches of Great Britain and America, a zeal
for foreign missionary work. At the same time Bible
Societies and tract societies sprang up and scattered the
written word over the earth in scores of languages.
In America several special seasons of renewed fervor
and large accessions to the church are noted, as the
Great Revival or Awakening in the days of Jonathan
Edwards (1751), and the later ones of 1831 (with which
the name of C. G. Finney is associated) and of 1857.
Some early revivals in Kentucky and other Western
States, and that in Ireland in 1859–60, were remarkable
for many manifestations of a physical character in the
converts, which only a superficial criticism will attribute
to hypocrisy or wantonness. It is not strange that when
suddenly the great realities of the unseen world and
the relations of a holy God to the human soul are made
known, the body should be affected by the shock of
surprise and fear sustained by the spirit. The reality
and sincerity of these bodily affections we cannot doubt,
while we also recognize the fact that such periods of
excitement will induce evil men to ply their hypocrisies,
i. it is often difficult to separate the true from the
3.1S62.
It is because of these evils which attach themselves
to revivals that many Christians have no confidence in
revivals, and dislike both the name and the thing.
But this is hardly consistent with a discriminating piety
that will encourage the true, even though the false is
at its heels. As men are, and as the church is, it
seems that Christians haye to be awakened again and
again to new devotion and zeal, and hence revivals are
to be sought and expected, until the church shall have
been fully consecrated to its evangelizing work as desig.
nated in the Saviour's commission: "Go ye into all
the world, and preach the gospel to every creature.”
H. C.
REVOLUTION, AMERICAN.—At º º
sion of the war with France in 1763 the heavy in-
debtedness of Great Britain induced the consideration
of a plan of laying taxes upon her American colonies.
364
REVOLUTION,
The supremacy of Parliament was regarded as suffi.
<!ent Sanction for this action, but the colonies had
through the exercise of the power of self-taxation come
tº consider that power as of right belonging to them.
Their charters, derived directly from the crown, asserted
for them the same rights that Englishmen enjoyed at
home, and this they construed to mean that as
Englishmen could not be taxed except by the consent
of their representatives, the same right appertained to
the inhabitants of the colonies, and as they had no
representation in Parliament that body could not im-
pose taxes upon them. A resolution of Parliament
passed in 1764 proposed the imposition of a stamp
duty on the colonies. This resolution was followed
by an act providing that the instruments of commerce
should be null and void unless having a stamp, for
which a duty must be paid. To the passage of this
act opposition was made, and among other grounds
upon that of the colonies having no representation in
Parliament, to which reply was made that the colonies
were virtually represented as were certain cities of
Great Britain. The operation of this. Stamp Act
being suspended for a few months, the people of the
colonies were hesitating as to the course they should
pursue when Virginia, in May, 1765, adopted resolu-
tions, offered by Patrick Henry, that denied the right
of the British Parliament to impose taxes upon that
colony, claiming that right exclusively for the legisla-
tive authority of the colony. These resolutions were
Well received throughout the colonies, especially in
New England. The imposition of the stamp duty
was regarded as the assertion of a right of taxation
which if submitted to would lead to still further en-
croachments upon the liberties of the colonies and
would place intolerable burdens upon them. A con-
gress of the colonies was called and representatives
from nine of the colonies met at New York, Oct.
7, 1765, those from Virginia, North Carolina, and
Georgia being prevented from attending by the gov-
ernors of those colonies. This convention asserted
the freedom of the colonies from taxation except that
imposed by themselves, and forwarded petitions to the
King and Parliament.
The Stamp Act was disregarded by the colonies.
The colonists agreed to purchase no goods from Great
Britain and betook themselves to domestic manufact-
ures. Their refusai to purchase articles of luxury
and even of necessity of English manufacture brought
great distress upon artificers in England. The Stamp
Act was repealed in March, 1766, but the absolute
supremacy of “the King in Parliament'' was still
asserted. The people of the colonies from this time
assumed a more independent tone in regard to their
relations with Great Britain.
In June, 1767, Parliament enacted a law placin
duties upon glass, paper, painters' colors, lead, an
tea, in the colonies. Commissioners were sent to
Boston to enforce the collection of this revenue, and
the opposition of the people and their threatening at-
titude induced the sending of troops and vessels of
war to protect the commissioners. Two regiments
were quartered in Boston from September, 1768, until
after the street fight known as the “Boston Massacre''
in March, 1770. The proposition made in Parliament
to take persons charged with treason in the colonies to
Great Britain for trial again aroused the opposition to
the use of manufactured goods of Great Britain. The
British manufacturers being again made to feel the
consequences of “non-importation agreements '' Par-
liament was induced to repeal the tax except as to
tea. The colonists refused to import tea and the ex-
pected revenue from that source, failed. A project in
the interest of the East India Company for the direct
importation of tea into the colonies aroused at the
same time the jealousy of the merchants whose trade
would thus be interfered with and the patriotism of
the people of the colonies at large. The people regarded
attempts to force tea upon them as intended to secure
the recognition of the authority of Parliament to levy
taxes upon America, and became more determined in
opposition. A convention at Philadelphia condemned
the tax on tea and the attempt of the East India Com-
pany to force it on the colonies, and declared those who
should countenance this scheme as enemies of the
country. The opposition of the colonists induced the
return to Great Britain of the ships that were convey-
ing the tea, excepting those sailing for Boston, where
there was a military guard to protect them. They ar.
rived at that city, but the tea was thrown in the
harbor by persons disguised as Indians, Dec. 16, 1773.
Parliament in the following March, indignant at this
outrage, directed the port of Boston to be closed. An
attempt was also made to change the charter of Mas-
sachusetts so as to deprive that colony of popular rep-
resentation in one branch of its Legislature and to
substitute appointees of the Crown. The authority
of the town-meetings and the selection of jurors were
interfered with to secure more perfect subjection to
the authority of Parliament. The governor was al-
lowed to send persons charged with murder or other
capital offences to Great Britain for trial. These
measures excited the indignation of the people of all
the colonies. It was recognized that all the colonies
had a common cause in opposing these laws, as they
were an attack upon American liberty that would finally
embrace all of the colonies.
By the Quebec Act an attempt was made to enlarge
the government of that conquered province so as to
encroach upon the colonies and to promote the interest
of despotic rule in America. Throughout the colonies
the people assembled and expressed in resolutions
their sympathy with Boston and their common inter-
est in the events there taking place. “Committees
of correspondence” were appointed to facilitate inter-
communication throughout the colonies. The situa-
tion was intensified by the exhibition of a greatly
increased military force in Boston. The iniº.
of that liberty-loving town suffered from the closin
of their port, but received assistance from Salem j
other neighboring towns, whose ports derived commer-
cial benefit from the misfortune of Boston. This ad-
vantage to the neighboring ports had been counted
upon in Great Britain as likely to detach them from
the interests of Boston. A league and covenant
against trade with Great Britain was made by the
colonists, and denounced as traitorous by that govern-
ment, and those connected with it ordered to be ar-
rested.
The plan of reorganizing the government of Massa-
chusetts was deprived of practical efficiency, by the
excitement and rising of the people of that colony and
their taking the public authority in their own hands.
A committee of safety was appointed at Boston and
“minute men’’ selected to stand ready at any moment
for such military duty as might be required of them.
Other colonies united with Massachusetts in such
military preparations. Seizures of arms and ammu-
nition took place in various localities. A provisional
Congress in Massachusetts replaced the regular Legis-
lature and sustained the popular rights as against the
Crown. A Continental Congress was convened in
Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774, and twelve colonies were
represented in it. The Congress was loyal to the
Crown, but devoted to the rights of America. In this
Congress controversies as to the relative claims of
large and small colonies to representation led to a
single vote being allowed to each.
Jongress assented to the regulation by Parliament
of the external commerce of the colonies, but declared
the invalidity of attempts to impose taxation without
the consent of the colonies. It demanded the rights
of the common law of England as to trial by a jury of
the vicinage, and insisted upon the immunities se-
cured by ir charters. It claimed the right to as-
semble and petition for the redress of grievances, and
against the presence in the colonies of a standing army.
REVOLUTION. ,
365
It also protested against selection by the Crown of
councillors to take part in the legislation of the colo-
nies. It demanded the repeal of the obnoxious acts as
violations of the rights of the colonies, and enumerated
such acts, including those already mentioned, as open
to such objections. It recommended non-intercourse,
non-consumption, and non-exportation, and the stop-
page of the slave-trade. º &
Upon the report, of these proceedings, Parliament
sanctioned the ministerial plan of increasing the mili:
tary force in the colonies, 10,000 men being provided
for Boston. As a retaliatory measure a bill was passed
in Parliament to prevent intercourse between the colo-
nies and other British possessions in America, haying
special reference to the colonial trade with the West
Indies and the fisheries, which the colonies held in
high estimation.
in the meantime military activity commenced. . A
hasty expedition to destroy military stores that had
been accumulated at Concord first brought the British
troops into conflict with the people, armed and banded.
In the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord, April 19,
1775, the first blood of the impending conflict was
shed. The news of these fights roused to greater in-
tensity the patriotic ardor of the colonists everywhere,
and the battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17, determined
irrevocably the issue as one of arms. The Congress
at Philadelphia had recommended at its adjournment
the calling of another Congress in the following year.
That body, when it assembled in May, 1775, advised a
defensive attitude, but that the building of fortifica-
tions by the royal governors should not be permitted,
and recommended that more rigid provisions should
be made as to non-intercourse with the British posses-
sions. It established a general post-office and made a
declaration of its position as loyal to the mother coun-
try but determined to resist tyranny by force. Wash-
ington was at this time appointed commander-in-
chief of the provincial forces, and provision was made
for raising troops, bills of credit being issued for that
purpose. With all its caution in icº. to estab-
lished forms and its professed loyalty to the Crown, this
º Continental Congress was a purely revolutionary
Ody.
During the year 1775 the King proclaimed the ex-
istence of open rebellion in the American colonies, and
Parliament made the necessary military preparations for
war with them. It passed an act to compel all Ameri-
cans found in captured vessels to serve as seamen in
the British service ; foreign troops were engaged
under treaty with Hesse-Cassel for service in America,
and Sir William Howe was placed in chief command.
These actions of both King and Parliament had their
reaction in the colonies by stimulating the growing
desire for independence until it culminated in the
Declaration of Independence. (See INDEPENDENCE,
DECLARATION OF.) This measure, adopted July 4,
1776, by a nearly unanimous vote in Congress, was the
starting point of American nationality. With this
declaration British sovereignty was denied throughout
the colonies and public authority exercised in the name
of the people. The colonies assumed the title of
States and reorganized their internal governments.
While the Declaration of Independence was under
consideration, measures were being taken to bring
about more definite confederation among the States.
The scheme of confederation was carefully considered
with a view to securing the proper conduct of those
matters of common interest, bearing directly and in-
directly upon the existing state of war, that demanded
a common authority of confederated States. Articles
of Confederation were passed by Congress in 1777 and
ratified in 1778 by all the States, except Delaware
and Maryland, and subsequently by these States,
(See CongBEss.)
The important advantages of an alliance with
France early attracted the attention of Congress, and
in 1776 commissioners, of whom Benjamin Franklin
was one, were sent to negotiate such alliance and to
seek aid from France and the French people. In the
latter part of 1777 proposals were made to the com-
missioners on the part of the French government em.
bracing the acknowledgment of the independence of
the United States and aid towards the maintenance of
that independence, upon the condition that no return
to obedience to Great Britain should take place gn
the part of the States. A treaty was concluded in
1778, one of the motives to which on the part of
France was a desire to diminish the commercial ad-
vantages of Great Britain. This treaty was one of
amity, commerce, and alliance, no special advantages
either political or commercial being conceded to France
as the price of this friendly act on her part. A secret
provision was made for the admission of Spain to the
alliance.
The British Parliament on learning the state of
relations between France and the States promptly
passed conciliatory acts intended to win the States
from this alliance to their former relations to the
British government, but Congress as promptly de-
clined to accede to the terms of conciliation proposed.
A cessation of hostilities was embraced in the propo-
sition on the part of Great Britain, looking to the
restoration of amicable relations under the sovereignty
of Great Britain and tending to place the States in a
federal relation to Great Britain that would secure to
them a large control over their internal affairs. To
this proposition the reply of Congress was, that while
desiring to conclude an honorable treaty of peace the
idea of dependence upon the Crown could not be en-
tertained. The alliance between France and the
States involved that country in war with Great Britain,
to which ultimately Spain became a party, and British
interests suffered from these combined enemies.
The financial condition of the new nation embarrassed
its military operations. As the first preparation for
war had included the emission of bills of credit, so that
source of obtaining the supplies necessary to carry on
the war was resorted to until its exhaustion in 1780.
Congress had no authority to enforce taxation within
the States or to compel them to contribute their just
proportion to the public service, and hence the resort
to the issue of bills of credit was the only available
means of raising revenue within the power of Con-
gress. The credit of these bills was for a time sus-
tained, but at last, as the emission was continued from
year to year, decline in their purchasing value com-
menced, and continued until the issues had reached
two hundred millions, when the depreciation was so
great that necessity compelled a resort to other means.
Resort was had to forced contributions exacted by the
military power as necessary for its maintenance. An
attempt was made to obtain from the States material
supplies in lieu of their quotas of money, but failed.
An attempt was also made to absorb this currency by
taxation and to replace it by new issues, but this was
not successful. (See FINANCE, Revolutionary Period.)
While affairs in the States were apparently ap-
proaching a failure of the resources for maintaining
the war the difficulties surrounding the British posi-
tion in Europe were increasing. The opposition of
the states of Europe to a British monopoly of Ameri-
can trade had already engaged France and Spain in
hostility to that country, and the motive to open com-
merce with America operated upon other powers.
The rigor, with which Great Britain exercised bellig-
erent rights upon the seas interfered with neutral
trade and led to a proposed coalition, termed the armed
neutrality, intended to support more liberal ideas of
neutral rights. Holland became involved with the
American question, and war was declared against her
by Great Britain. The years 1780 and 1781 were the
culminating point in the financial embarrassment of the
country. The failure to pay the troops, their suffer-
ings for want of supplies, and their retention after
their term of enlistment had expired from inability to
366
REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
refill the ranks as rapidly as was required, produced
mutiny in a portion of the army, which, however, was
readily quelled without resort to force and without any
advantage resulting to the enemy therefrom. The
depreciation of the bills of credit which brought on
these difficulties at last caused their withdrawal from
currency. Relief came to the finances of the country
from its friendly relations with European powers,
loans and other transactions being made that brought
gold and silver into the country. Advantage was
taken of this circumstance to place the transactions
of the government upon a coin basis, and this change,
with the accession of Robert Morris to the financial
management, gave partial relief to the overstrained
financial situation. The depreciated currency by com-
mon consent passed out of circulation without popu-
lar commotion, as an expression of the patriotic senti-
ment of the country. Before the close of the year
1781 the tide of military affairs had turned in favor of
the American arms, culminating in the surrender of
the British force under the command of Lord Corn-
wallis, at Yorktown, Oct. 19.
In 1782 a pacific feeling developed not only in Great
Britain towards the States but among the European
belligerents involved in the American question. The
disposition to treat with the States on the basis of in-
dependence appeared in Parliament and a change of
ministry gave an impetus to the movement. Commis-
sioners were received from the American Congress and
negotiations entered upon. John Adams, Benjamin
Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens constituted
this commission. Provisional articles of peace were
agreed upon between Great Britain and the United
States, to be inserted in the future treaty of peace. To
such treaty France was to be a practical party. By
these articles the independence of the United States
was fully recognized, with liberal boundaries, including
the east side of the Mississippi and both sides of the
Ohio, and a right of free fishery secured on the Banks
of New Foundland. The treaty of peace following
the terms of the articles was concluded at Paris, Sept.
3, 1783, thus terminating the American Revolution,
and placing the United States in general recognition
as a sovereign national power.
See Ramsay’s, Hildreth's, and Bancroft's Histories of the
United States. For an outline of the war by which Ameri-
can independence was achieved see the following article.
(A. J. W.)
REVOLUTIONARY WAR, AMERICAN. . This
war began in a revolt of the American colonies of
Great Britain, which colonies soon after constituted
the thirteen United States. The first skirmish between
organized forces took place at Lexington, Mass., April
19, 1775. The preliminaries to peace were signed at
Paris, France, Nov. 30, 1782; so that a state of war
existed for seven years and seven months.
The Causes.—The Declaration of Independence, is-
sued by a Congress of Delegates July 4, 1776, explic-
itly sets forth the grounds of separation from Great
Britain, and these were substantially the causes of the
war. Two expressions therein appear to summarize
the views of those who resisted by arms the forces of
the mother-country. First, “When a long train of
abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same
object, evinces a design to reduce them (the people)
under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their
duty to throw off such government and to provide new
guards for their future security.” The second is :
“The history of the present king of Great Britain is a
history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having
in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny
over these States.” tº
Not only the claims of the tyrannous king, but the
Acts of the British Parliament which sustained him,
were the grievances detailed in that Declaration. The
most vehement protest therein is against attempts
at taxation without representation. £ut long before
;
the Declaration, the home government had undertaken
by its army and navy to enforce its measures and to
çompel its subjects in America to submit to its exactions.
This positive action was resisted by open force till all
the new States became united and put an army into the
field, and so the primary revolt became a bona fide
revolution. The new army is usually named the
American or Continental troops. The central supreme
authority was vested in the general Congress. The
Very existence of this Congress was in the eyes of the
British Cabinet, and Parliament a cause of war, and
continued so till at its close the independence of the
States was acknowledged.
First Campaign, 1775.
The people of Boston and the vicinity had been for-
ward and persistent in their opposition to the unfriendly
acts of the British government until, to withstand
them, several war measures were set on foot. The first
showed itself in the action of Gen. Thomas Gage, the
royal governor of Massachusetts. He brought from
Halifax to Boston two regiments of the fine, and
promised his king “with five regiments to keep Boston
quiet !” Next came the proclamation and enforce-
ment by Gen. Gage of the Boston Port Bill, which
went into operation June 1, 1774, and effectually closed
the port. The custom-house was removed to Salem,
and the Bostonians were subjected to the hardships of
a regular blockade. About this time the British rein-
forcements called for came, raising the forces to up-
wards of 10,000 men, exclusive of the naval squadron
numerous enough for the work assigned to it. With
these troops appear the names of Gens. Howe, Bur-
goyne, Sir Henry Clinton, Lord Percy, and Lord Raw-
don; names which in the war became famous as able
commanders.
Gen. Gage began his operations as if to subdue and
control a riotous city. He encamped his artillery on
Boston Common, crowned Fort Hill with Welsh sol-
diers, and sent a field-battery to hold Boston Neck, the
only land entrance to the city.
Affairs of Leacington and Concord.—Next, in his
double capacity of governor and general, Gage directed
that all the munitions of war within his precincts be
brought forthwith to Boston. To make a beginning
he sent out two companies which in the night removed
a large quantity of powder from Charlestown to the
city and deposited it in Castle William. This act ex-
cited indignation and alarm among the patriots in the
surrounding country, and they quickly armed them-
selves and ran together at their appointed rendezvous.
On April 19, 1775, 800 “ loyalists,” in two detach-
ments commanded by Lieut.-Col. Francis Smith and
Maj. Pitcairn, were marching toward Concord, 16 miles
from Boston, where they were to seize and destroy
sundry military stores which the general's spies had
there found, At Lexington the advance was resisted
by about 70 militiamen under Capt. John Parker.
The British, after short parley, fired upon the patriots,
killing 8, including Capt. Parker, wounding 9, and
scattering the remainder. In this encounter but one
“loyalist” was wounded. The patriots in greater num-
bers next gathered near Concord ; quite a battle took
place ; and the return march of the British, from the
incessant flanking and pursuit of their ever-increasing
foes, who had put themselves under the able Gen.
William Heath, became an annoying and finally a dis-
orderly retreat. On arrival in Boston they found that
they had lost 68 killed, including Lieut.-Col. Smith,
178 wounded, and 26 missing. The patriot loss was
101 put hors de combat. Thus the campaign was
opened.
Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Fort St. Johns.—
Benedict Arnold, who came to Cambridge from New
Haven with a company, proposed plans to committees
of safety of Massachusetts and Connecticut for seizing
Ticonderoga and other forts; having received authority
and commission of colonel he began enlisting men.
REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
367
But the Connecticut people, improperly using his plan,
arranged another expedition. §. of their own men
joined the “Green Mountain Boys,” making in all about
140 soldiers under Col. Ethan Allen. Arnold, without
troops, overtook Allen at Castleton, but not being
allowed to command according to his commission, he
nevertheless went with the expedition. May 10, 1775,
they surprised the garrison. The startled commander,
Capt. Delaplace, yielded to the inevitable, surrendering
2 officers and 48 men, 182 cannon, and an abundance of
public stores. Col. Seth Warner, with a detachment
of these patriots, captured Crown Point, May 12, with
11 prisoners and 111 pieces of artillery. A number
of Col. Arnold's men having come, he and Allen put
on foot, on May 14, two expeditions against St. Johns,
situated near the foot of Lake Champlain. Arnold
surprised the fort, took the small garrison prisoners,
and departed, carrying off a sloop of war manned with
16 guns, and many stores. Allen arriving a little later,
with his 60 men, took possession of the abandoned
fort. But during the ensuing night a British officer
having 200 men and a 6-gun battery arrived, when Col.
Allen with his “Green Mountain Boys” was dis-
lodged.
First Naval Affair.—Meanwhile, on the coast of
Maine, occurred an amateur naval encounter. The Mar-
garetta, a British armed sloop, carrying 4 six-pounders,
20 swivels, 2 wall-pieces, and plenty of small arms,
early in May convoyed two other sloops to Machias,
Me., for lumber. The war news from Lexington ar-
rived Saturday, May 9, Sunday several patriots under-
took to seize the captain, Moore, and his officers at
church. They escaped by the windows. The Mar-
garetta gave the town some parting shots and dropped
down the bay four miles. W. Joseph Wheaton
and several patriots seized one of the sloops and,
armed with fowling-pieces, pitchforks and axes, and
small supplies, gave chase. The sloop, a Swift sailer,
overtook the Margaretta after she had put to sea, en-
gaged her at close quarters, and after a i. but brief
struggle, in which Moore himself was slain, captured
the vessel and all on board, 40 in number. This feat
is called “The Lexington of the sea.”
East Boston was in 1775 Noddle's Island; and Hog's
Island is to the north-east. These were used largely
for stock. To save the herds from capture the com-
mittee of safety sent, the 27th of May, a detachment
to escort them back into the country. Forty British
marines resisted, killing horses and cows and doing
much other damage. Seeing the situation Col. Israel
Putnam and Dr. Joseph Warren brought up reinforce-
ments, drove off the marines, and finally captured
their armed schooner, which Putnam dismantled and
burned. Putnam's rapid advance to the rank of Major-
General in the Continental army is attributed to this
fortunate skirmish.
Bunker's Hill.—By the second week in June, 1775,
there were gathered from different States, in the out-
skirts of Boston, about 15,000 men. “They were sub-
ordinate through inclination . depending for sus-
tenance on supplies sent from their several towns.”
Gen. Artemas Ward, the nominal senior, was at Cam-
bridge with 9000 men ; Gen. Thomas, second in com-
mand, with 5000 more, and 3 or 4 batteries, held the
Tight at Roxbury and Dorchester; while the left, a
thousand strong, principally of New Hampshire volun-
teers, extended to the bay. This force, oddly armed
and strangely clad, were making a partial siege of
Boston. Learning that Gen. Gage intended a series
of operations, beginning with the taking of Dorchester
Heights the night of June 18, these patriots deter-
mined to anticipate his action. So Col. Prescott, with
a thousand soldiers with two pieces of artillery and in-
trenching tools, at 9 P.M. on the 16th marched to seize
and fortify Bunker's Hill ; but Breed's Hill, a little
nearer Boston, was first taken and intrenched ; and
Bunker's Hill afterwards crowned with a redoubt.
About noon the British troops under the immediate
command of Gen. Howe moved up to the assault of
the works on Breed's Hill... He took the right, Gen.
Pigot the left, while Gen. Sir Henry Clinton brought
up the reserves. Thousands of spectators, ºn points
of observation, eagerly watched the splendid, pano;
rama. The British were twice terribly repulsed. At
last, about 4 P. M., Howe succeeded in gaining the
hill, and Col. Prescott slowly drew off his forces, via
Bunker's Hill, across the Neck to his camp of the pre;
vious day. Howe had in action between 3000 and
4000 men; Prescott not to exceed 1500, after the rein;
forcements came to him. Howe's loss, killed and
wounded, was 1054; Prescott's, including the missing,
was 449. Notwithstanding the loss of the field, this
battle was to the patriots in its results equivalent to a
victory. * $º
The Evacuation of Boston.—Washington ...;
been made general-in-chief, arrived and took Comman
July 3, 1775. Discovering the enemy's disciplined
force to be 11,500 strong, and his own mostly raw
levies not to exceed 14,000, he saw that more men
were needed for the siege. He asked for a force of
22,000. Soon fecruits flowed in ; but there were on
hand less than 10,000 lbs. of powder. “The Continen;
tal army’’ was now organized. Two brigades, Thomas'
and Spencer's, made the First division under Maj.-Gen.
Ward. Sullivan's and Greene's the Second division under
Maj.-Gen. Lee, and there was a reserve of six regiments
under Maj.-Gen. Putnam. Gradually, awakening a
few skirmishes and bombardments from the British
redoubts and war vessels, Washington closed in, till
land-egress from Boston was cut off American cruis-
ers, authorized by Congress, began to worry the Brit-
ish squadron. They captured supply vessels en route
to Boston. On Oct. 10, 1775, Gen. Gage gave up the
city to Gen. Howe and sailed for England. Washing-
ton for good reasons threatened but constantly post-
poned a general attack; but by night enterprises he
seized important heights that commanded the city. In
rebuttal, Gen. Howe made ready to assault Dorchester
Heights the night of March 5, 1776, and Washington,
knowing his intention, planned to enter Boston from
the opposite quarter. Providentially a terrific storm
prevented the movement, and, in view of growing
want and harassment, however humiliating, the proud
British general decided to evacuate Boston. By a
tacit understanding Washington was not to fire upon
the retiring army if the city were spared. So, on
March 17, Howe's forces embarked and put to sea,
escorted by the naval squadron, except a small fleet
under Commodore Banks left to keep possession of
the harbor entrance. After enduring for some time
this annoyance, Gen. Lincoln with 1200 troops, includ-
ing artillery and a mortar equipment, was sent to dis-
lodge the fleet. From Long Island and some other
convenient points he at last brought his guns to bear
upon the shipping ; so soon as the commodore's flag-
ship was reached by the shot, he gave the signal of
departure. The fleet left June 18. The spreading
news caused great rejoicing to the patriots and
unstinted praise to Washington and his coadjutors.
Expedition against Canada —The early enterprise
of Allen and Arnold, near Lake Champlain, caused
other northern expeditions. Sir Guy Carleton, governor
of Canada, inaugurated movements to recover his cap-
tured forts. Gen. Schuyler, stationed by Washington
at Albany, and later at Ticonderoga and Fort Edwards,
as a sort of department commander, was watching Car-
leton's operations, effected largely by “Tory'' levies
and hired. Indians. In June, 1775, he was sent to
command in an offensive expedition. He led an army
of some 2000 men to go by the way of Vermont and
Lake Champlain ; but becoming suddenly ill, was
replaced by Gen. Montgomery. The latter captured
Fort Chambly, St. Johns (which Allen had lost), and
Montreal, and then pushed on down the St. Lawrence
to the vicinity of Quebec. Gen. Arnold, with fuller
instructions directly from Gen. Washington, made an
368
REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
extraordinary march through the forests of Maine and
succeeded in forming a junction with Montgomery.
After a partial siege, the works of Quebec were, on
Dec. 31, during a winter storm, simultaneously assailed
by several attacking columns. The patriots were at
last repulsed, Arnold badly wounded and the brave
Montgomery slain.
Arnold, spent the winter a short distance from Quebec.
Arnold's wound, opened afresh by an accident, caused
his relief of command. His successors were finally, by
the middle of June, 1776, forced from Canada by the
famous Burgoyne, who, with large reinforcements to
Carleton, had appeared on the scene. But the main
cause of all disasters in this well-planned campaign
was a continued insubordination. For the patriots it
required time and mutual suffering to allay such sec-
tional jealousies as weakened and at last destroyed
this important expedition.
Great Bridge. —Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia,
declared martial law, pèrpetrated a series of depreda-
tions, began to use Tories and Indians, and spread ter-
ror far and near. His forces assembled near the armed
vessels at Norfolk. He planned the destruction of
military stores at Suffolk. To hinder this, Col. Wil-
liam Woodford led his troops, about a thousand strong,
in that direction. Anticipating patriot Woodford's
design, the governor dispatched about 200 regulars
and some 400 others with artillery to the “Great
Bridge ’’ across the Elizabeth River. Here the com-
mander intrenched impregnably and covered every
approach. But Woodford by a ruse drew an attack
upon his men in position and so completely defeated
his adversary, Dec. 9, 1775. Fordyce, leading the gren-
adiers, lost 60 men and his own life. Woodford seized
Norfolk, but the enemy, taking shipping, burned the
to Wn.
Second Campaign, 1776.
The British ministry planned first to aid their South-
ern colonial governors and then combine all their
powers, military, naval, and diplomatic, to get posses;
sion of New York and make that city their principal
base. Accordingly on Jan. 12, 1776, Lord Cornwallis
set sail from Cork with some six regiments, under
escort of Admiral Sir Peter Parker, with a large naval
contingent. On May 3 the fleet arrived at Cape Fear,
N. C. Sir Henry Clinton assumed command and
moved against Charleston. It was there at Sullivan's
Island, June 28, that Col. William Moultrie with a few
hundred men successfully resisted the combined attack.
Without further effort Sir Henry now joined Gen.
Howe at Staten Island, the Admiral Lord Howe having
there the naval fleet. The incoming Tories gave
Gen. Howe hopes of a speedy peace. The royal land
troops here amounted to 35,000 men, well, supplied.
Gen. Washington had possession of New York with
his army, such as it was, of about 17,000, and, had,
after leaving Boston, been busy fortifying, all ap-
proaches. He put Gen. Greene over the works in the
butskirts of Brooklyn, L. I., giving him between 5000
and 6000 men. Greene on the eye of battle had a
violent fever and was replaced by Gen. Putnam. His
line stretched along the Bedford Ridge. in crescent
shape; his right wing under Lord Stirling and his
jeft, considerably extended, under Gen. Sullivan. For
some unaccountable reason Putnam immediately with:
drew his mounted patrols on the Bedford road which
led beyond his left through Bedford pass. Gen. Howe
first crossed his command to Long Island, togk position
in front of Putnam, and reconnoitred for three days.
He formed three columns for attack, Gen. Grant's
opposite Stirling, Gen. De Heister's breasing Sullivan,
and Sir Henry Clinton's to aim for the Bedford pass,
Clinton commenced his márch at 9 P.M., Aug.20.
He captured a scouting party en rºtté, and by daylight
the pass, being unoccupied, was held secure. . After
akfasting he pushed on through Bedford, driving quantities ºf stores and burnt the village.
brea g he p before him, till he struck 'necticut militia under Sullivan, Arnold, and Worcester
detached patriot regiments
The little army, held together by ||
Sullivan's rear. Gen. Grant, also moving in the night,
began to encounter Stirling's outer lines after mid-
night. Probably Putnam believed this the main at-
tack. De Heister remained quiet till about daybreak.
Hearing that Sir Henry already had the Bedford pass,
he pushed on and furiously assailed the position of Sul-
ivan in front. A terrific conflict ensued throughout
the field. Putnam was dislodged and badly beaten.
Gen. Washington, however, reinforced the Brooklyn
redoubts in time to save a greater disaster. Howe's
loss was about 400, while Putnam's was 1200 at least.
Battle of White Plains.—Gen. Washington stood
on the defensive till the 29th, when he made a safe
withdrawal and for a time posted his army in the
northern part of New York Island, but afterward he
withdrew to White Plains. Here Gen. Howe, much
delayed en route by American detachments, at last
confronted the Continental army. Washington warily
avoided general engagements; but an important
knoll, lying between the main bodies, was contended
for. This gave rise to a lively action, Oct. 28, 1776.
During the night following Washington again retired:
to North Castle, taking a strong position. From this
Howe undertook to manoeuvre him away by attempt—
ing to carry the forts on the Hudson. Divining Howe's
intention Washington, leaving two detachments for
observation and reinforcement, one under Lee at North
Castle, and the other under Heath at Peekskill, crossed
the main body into New Jersey. Without delay the
patriot Col. Magaw, holding Fort Washington, was
now attacked and defeated, but with heavy loss to the
British. Fort Lee on the west of the Hudson was
abandoned on the approach of Lord Cornwallis, who
had taken the field with 6000 men. Washington deem-
ing it unwise, at that epoch, to risk an engagement,
retired before Cornwallis, till on Dec. 8 he passed the
Delaware. It was a time of much discouragement to
the patriots. Congress fled to Baltimore, while Wash-
ington as rapidly as possible gathered in his detach-
ments. Gen. Charles Lee under these orders en-
camped one night in New Jersey far from his com-
mand and suffered capture, but Gen. Sullivan, his suc-
cessor, speedily completed the march to Washington's
position.
Battles of Trenton and Princeton.—Now, feeling a
little stronger, the general, choosing a winter's night,
Dec. 25, recrossed the Delaware, surprised at Trenton
a large force of Hessians under Gen. Rahl and defeated
them. Rahl was mortally wounded and a large num-
ber of prisoners taken.
For precaution Washington again passed the Dela-
ware, but just then getting a moderate accession from
recruits he went back again to Trenton. The delighted
Cornwallis moved at once to Trenton, anticipating an
easy victory. A small stream only was between the
two armies as Cornwallis came into position near night,
Jan. 2, 1777. Washington, hearing of a British division
left back at Princeton, cautiously withdrew. At sun-
rise he struck that division in motion. His militia in
advance acted disgracefully, but the general with other
trusted brigades soon checked the hopeful enemies
and put them to flight. The patriot Gen. Mercer was
fatally wounded j 30 men only put hors de combat.
It was during this spring of 1777 that the patriot
cause began to receive some |help from abroad. The gal-
lant young Marquis de Lafayette from his private funds
prepared a vessel and joined, as a volunteer without
pay, the Continental army. Soon Congress gave him a
commission of major-general. No American forgets his
generous and soldierly assistance. Washington, a mas-
ter of strategy, proceeds to Morristown and Middle-
brook and so threatens Howe's communications till,
weary of fruitless efforts, he withdraws to Staten
Island.
There were several small expeditions on both sides.
In that to Danbury, Conn., Gen. Tryon destroyed
The Con-
REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
369
accomplished wonders, pestering Tryon's return march.
He lost some 300 soldiers before he reached his ship-
ping. The militia suffered considerably, Gen. Wor-
cester being among the slain. :-
The patriot Col. Meigs about, the same time suc-
ceeded in burning the British shipping at Sag Harbor
and large quantities of supplies.
Third Campaign, 1777.
The next project of the British was for Gen. Howe,
co-operating with Admiral Howe, to capture Philadel-
phia and clear out there all obstructions and hºstile
forces; also for Gen. Clinton, left at New York, to
hold that base, open up the Hudson, and finally form
junction with Burgoyne's army coming down from
Čanada. The admiral took on board 18,000 men and
Gen. Howe in command, and set sail. As soon as Wash-
ington ascertained their destination to be the Chesa-
peake and Philadelphia he hurried forward his little
army and offered battle. The position was the eastern
bank of the Brandywine, Chadd's Ford being the centre.
He deployed along the creek. Sullivan commanded
the right wing; Wayne had Chadd's Ford; Armstrong
took the Pennsylvania militia, i. e., the left; while
Greene held one division in reserve. The British com:
mander on Sept. 11, 1777, masked Washington's front
by Knyphausen's command. From a road fork to his
rear, Howe sent the rest of his army under Cornwallis
17 miles around his enemy's right. The attack on
Sullivan's right rear was almost a surprise. There was
desperate fighting; Sullivan was defeated, but Gen.
Greene got to him in time to cover his retreat. Wayne
held his own against Knyphausen till the other opera-
tions forced him to retire with the whole left. Wash-
ington suffered a great discomfiture, but by Howe's
delay he reorganized at Chester. Lafayette, of
Washington's staff, served by request with Sullivan
and was wounded. Congress left Philadelphia that
night for Lancaster. Washington on the 12th succeeded
in crossing the Schuylkill to Germantown. Wonderful
to tell, this defeated army recrossed the Schuylkill Sept.
14, and again confronted Howe for battle ; a fearful
storm of 24 hours' duration alone prevented a desperate
conflict. With ammunition wet, Washington disap-
º drew off. He crossed the river again at Par-
cer's Ford, but sent back Wayne and Smallwood with
about 1500 men to strike Howe's trains. The effort
brought on the affair of Paoli, Sept. 20, 1777, where
the over-confident Wayne allowed himself to be sur-
prised and defeated. Gen. Howe next, on Sept. 21,
pushed . the right bank of the Schuylkill. ash-
ington followed the movement abreast on the other
bank to Pott's Grove. Suddenly, on the night of the
22d, Howe marched back, crossed the Ford and
entered Germantown. This time Washington was
out manoeuvred. On the 35th Howe sent Cornwallis
to Philadelphia, who with much pomp took possession
of the capital city. Meanwhile Gen. Washington
remained in position, drawing in detachments and
giving his army a much needed repose.
Burgoyne's Operations.—Gen. Burgoyne left Can-
ada the middle of June, 1777, with 10,000 men in-
cluding Indians. The American Gen. Schuyler, at
Fort Edward, N. Y., opposed him, and under Schuy-
ler, Gen. St. Clair with 3,000 men garrisoned Fort
Ticonderoga. Burgoyne drawing near seized Mount
Defiance and planted batteries completely dominating
the fort, St. Clair, too late apprised, retreated,
aiming for Fort Edward. Burgoyne pursued and
struck his rear division at Hubbardton and routed it
and secured a large quantity of provisions. Schuyler,
always wary, retired as Burgoyne advanced, obstructing
his way and defeating his detachments. Burgoyne sent
St. Leger with regulars and Indian allies to besiege
Fort Schuyler. The patriot Gen. Herkimer, coming
with relief for the garrison, was mortally wounded an
his men repulsed, but Arnold's approach dispersed the
Indian allies and St. Leger abandoned his effort.
Again Burgoyne detached Col. Baum with a few
hundred men to gather supplies accumulated at Ben-
nington. Gen. Stark, a New Hampshire brigadier,
quickly gathered his brigade and volunteers 2000
strong. #. gave battle near Bennington Aug. 16.
Baum was defeated, as was also a reinforcement
hastening to his support, 1500 in all. Stark's ef-
fort cost him 50 men, while Baum's dead alone were
207.
Battle of Bemis’ Heights.-Gen. Schuyler had ef.
fected his purpose. Having depleted his enemy and
organized against him more than 6000 men; he took
position near the mouth of the Mohawk. Just then
Gen. Gates, sent by Congress, replaced Schuyler,
Arnold chose for him a good position at Bemis’
Heights. Kosciusko, the engineer, fortified it and the
army took possession. Gates kept command of his
centre and right near the Hudson River; the left was
given to Arnold. Burgoyne still had about 7000 men ;
he assaulted with the usual three columns. The right
one under Gen. Frazer sought a ravine on Arnold's
left. Gen. Riedesel led a column on the other flank,
while Burgoyne himself pushed forward the centre;
Early on Sept. 19, 1777, the battle began, and raged
for four hours. Gage had effectually stopped his
enemy's advance, but yielded the field of battle, re-
tiring a short distance without disorder. The British
lost 600, Gates 321. Burgoyne waited for help from
New York as long as he could, but receiving none he
began, on Oct. 7, a tentative movement to cover, a
forage train, but so near Gates' camp that it brought
on another battle, though not very decisive. The
atriots lost 150, with Arnold among the wounded.
}. British lost between 500 and 600. Gen. Frazer
was fatally injured. This is usually called the Battle
of Saratoga. Retiring to Saratoga proper, Oct. 17,
1777, Burgoyne surrendered after his losses an aggre-
gate of 5000 men. Gen. Clinton had sought to
co-operate. He had attacked and captured Forts
Montgomery and Clinton, and had foraged freely upon
the country. After Burgoyne's discomfiture he burned
Kingston and returned to New York. Ticonderoga
and other Northern forts were at once abandoned by
the British.
Battle of Germantown.—Gen. Washington left
Pott's Grove and moved to Skippack Creek, 14 miles
from Germantown. Gen. Howe had detached from
this place quite a force to operate against the forts
below Philadelphia, and another for supplies. Taking
advantage of this, Washington decided to attack the
remainder. A sharp engagement took place Oct. 4,
but Howe, reinforced by Cornwallis, repulsed the
attack. A heavy fog confused a well-planned effort,
causing the loss of 1000 men. The British suffered a
depletion of about half that number. Forts Mercer
and Mifflin, on the Delaware, held by the patriots,
were an annoyance to British transports. They were
both attacked the same day, Oct. 22, 1777. Fort
Mercer, on east bank, was assailed by 2000 men,
Count Donop commanding, and Fort Mifflin, on an
island, by the British vessels. Donop was mortally
wounded, 500 soldiers disabled, and British ships dis-
mantled. Another combined attempt began Nov. 10,
using shore battery and war ships for five days. The
garrison, driven out, fled to Fort Mercer, which itself
was abandoned on approach of greatly increased British
forces. Col. Samuel Smith led the heroic defence of
Mifflin, Maj. Thayer replacing him when disabled by
wounds. Col. Christopher Green, with 400 men,
aided by Col. Hazelwood with two or three galleys,
conducted the defence of Mercer. s
Washington kept his army at Perkiomen Creek up
to Oct. 30, when, reinforced by Varnum's Rhode
Island brigade and perhaps 1000 besides, he again
decided to give battle, advancing to White Marsh.
Howe brought his army from Philadelphia to meet
him, and after skirmishing for position from Nov. 5 to
8, made a precipitate retreat to Philadelphia. Soon
370
REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
Washington's small army moved to Valley Forge for
winter quarters. º
Valley Forge has its own terrible history of priva-
tions and suffering, many officers leaving the service
for want of pay. The patient commander held the
remnant together in spite of rival malice. On the
Whole, the patriot cause had gained during 1777.
British sentiment was changing; the French acknowl.
edged the new government, and was sending naval
help under Admiral d'Estaing. Gen. Howe resigned,
and Sir Henry Clinton took the chief command.
Fourth Campaign, 1778.
The British administration for a time seemed to
weaken. . During the spring and part of the summer
Qlinton planned merely to hold what he had. Foraging | H
detachments from each army had bloody encounters at
Quintin's Bridge, Hancock's Bridge, N. J., and at
Crooked-Billet, Pa. Hearing of the movement of the
French fleet, the British ministry feared that Clinton
and his fleet might be shut in on the Delaware; so,
under instructions, Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and
returned to New York. This movement began June
18. Washington marched directly to intercept the
British en route. He came so near to Clinton at Mon-
mouth, N. J., that Clinton was forced to fight. Gen.
Charles Lee, holding the advance and being already
suspected of disaffection, ordered a retreat contrary to
Washington's instructions. Being on hand, Washing-
ton prevented a disaster, but reprimanded Lee severely,
who after that behaved well during the battle, and sub-
sequently demanded redress. It resulted in his court-
martial and dismissal. The battle of Monmouth was
not decisive ; but Clinton marched off before dawn the
next day. In this retreat Clinton's total loss was 1500
men, and Washington's not to exceed 200. The
former, on arrival at Sandy Hook, found Admiral
Howe already there, and on July 3 he crossed his
command in safety to Staten Island. Washington, on
account of the great heat, halted for some time at
Paramus, N. J. He then pushed up the Hudson and
crossed, encamping again at White Plains : thus at
will could he make junction with troops in the
Highlands, support a projected eastern movement,
or turn southward should Clinton's hostile plans so
require. º
The Rhode Island Operation.—Admiral d'Estaing
at last arrived, but too late for co-operative moves on
Philadelphia. Washington planned others against
Gen. Pigot's command, then holding the island of
Rhode Island and Newport. He was guarding a for-
tified depôt with eight or nine regiments and a naval
squadron. Four or five Continental brigades gathered
at Providence were soon reinforced by the brigades of
Varnum and Glover. Gen. Sullivan was sent thither
to command them. At Washington's Solicitation
d'Estaing left Sandy Hook and went to Sullivan's aid.
He and the general agreed upon a combined assault of
an island. Sullivan's militia not “coming to time,”
he asked of d'Estaing a postponement; after which,
hearing that the island was vacated, he pushed over
and took possession without consulting the admiral.
D'Estaing was greatly offended, and instead of landing
men as per agreement he dropped down where he
could meet Lord Howe's fleet, reported to be coming
from New York. A heavy storm forced both squad-
rons to sea and badly disabled them. Instead of re-
turning after the storm, d'Estaing put into Boston for
repairs. Gen.Sullivan was left to attempt alone what
it plainly required a fleet to aid in doing. A battle at
Quaker Hill was the result, in which Sullivan had the
advantage; but hearing of Sir Henry Clinton's ap-
roach by shipping with large reinforcements, he
astened over the mainland and made good his retreat.
The hard feelings that grew out of this affair caused
great distress to Washington and Lafayette, and for
a time injured the American cause. e
Gen. Grey, a British officer, became as notorious as
did the Tory Gen. Tarleton, for merciless depredations
and massacres, like that at Tappan, N. J.; but proba-
bly those massacres perpetrated by Tories and Indians
$9mbined, at Cherry Valley, N. Y., and at Wyoming,
Pa., during July, 1778, exceed all others in enormity.
Such fearful outrages overleaped their intent and
reacted against the British.
Fifth Campaign, 1779.
Savannah.-Gen. Clinton planned to subjugate
Georgia and the Carolinas. Tories in numbers #.
assembled in East Florida, Gen. Prevost commanding,
and made predatory excursions into Georgia, keeping
the country in alarm. To meet this, Gen. Robert
owe, Continental commander, with 500 men, moved
over from Charleston to Savannah. He was soon
joined by abundant volunteers and militia. An expe-
dition toward Florida was organized and its execution
was hopefully commenced, when it was broken up by
the Governor of Georgia and other officers refusing to
recognize Gen. Robert Howe's Continental commis-
sign. Hearing of this dissension Clinton dispatched
Lieut.-Col. Campbell with 3500 soldiers and a naval
accompaniment. Gen. Prevost was at the same time
marching against Savannah from the south. Campbell
arrived first, and on Dec. 29, 1778, gave battle. Robert
Howe, receiving some accessions from Georgia and
vicinity, made resistance; but the battle was of short
duration. Howe escaped with a part of his command.
The remainder were killed or taken prisoners, or per-
ished in the swamps. Sunbury and Augusta were next
taken, and soon Gen. Prevost held in subjection the
whole of Georgia. He made one effort to make a
permanent lodgment in South Carolina, but Gen. Lin-
coln, through Col. Moultrie using local militia at the
battle of Beaufort, Feb. 3, 1779, thoroughly defeated
him. The patriots under Col. Pickens, but 300 strong,
had another success at Kettle Creek on Feb. 14,
against Col. Boyd, who, with 700 men, was ravaging
the neighborhood. Gen. Lincoln, thus encouraged,
sent Gen. Ashe to recover Augusta, but Prevost sur-
prised him at Briar Creek and nearly destroyed his
command. Again Lincoln with 800 patriots, June 20,
1779, tried his fortune at Stono Ferry, where Maitland
with a force of 1200 men was threatening Charleston.
Lincoln was repulsed with considerable loss.
Admiral d'Estaing, returning from the West Indies
with his fleet, joined Lincoln in an attempt to recover
Savannah. After the failure of the assault, Oct. 9,
1779, d'Estaing left for France.
In December of 1778 Washington's army was occu-
pying winter quarters. Gen. Putnam commanded a
portion at Danbury, Conn.; Gen. McDougal detach-
ments and forts in the Highlands, and a small army
with head-quarters at Middlebrook, N. J. Early in
1779 Sir Henry Clinton undertook but little, except
the sending from his own vicinity predatory and forag-
ing expeditions; and therefore Washington continued
mainly on the defensive. In July, however, he sent
Wayne to recapture Stony Point, then garrisoned by
600 soldiers under Lieut.-Col. Johnson. Wayne at-
tacked at midnight, his followers rushing in two
columns from different sides without firing a shot till
in possession. Wayne secured the entire garrison
with a loss of but 98 men. It was denominated “the
most brilliant assault known.” &
On Aug. 19 Major Harry Lee surprised Paulus
Hook, near New York, and captured 150 of the gar-
rison. Gen. Sullivan, during the same month, had
extraordinary success in almost annihilating a force of
Tories and Indians who were led by the fierce Gen.
Brant in “the battle of Chemung,” tº
The incipient patriot navy did something. Paul
Jones, gained historic renown, commanding a few
American and French vessels, by boldly attacking two
British frigates on the English coast. Both capitu-
lated, September 23, at 10 P. M.
371
REYBAUD.
a surprise to Greene, occurred at Hobkirk Hill. It
Sºcth Campaign, 1780.
Thus far Sir Henry Clinton had almost undisputed
success in the South. He naturally began operations
there for 1780. With a good naval force, under.Com.
Arbuthnot, escorting 7500 troops of the line, Clinton
appeared before Charleston about April 1 and con-
menced a siege. Gen. Lincoln, with some 600 pa-
triots, made a prolonged defence. Col. Huger cow-
ered his communications at Monk's Corner with about
300 more. The terrible Gen. Tarleton, with 800 men,
fell upon this guard April 14, dispersed it, and, so held
incoln's rear. At last, May 12, 1780, the gallant but
unfortunate Lincoln surrendered his entire army.
Sir Henry followed up his victory by expeditions
into the interior. Fort 96 was captured. Tarleton
surprised Col. Buford's 300 Virginians at Waxhaw
and “massacred or maimed every man.” Now be-
lieving South Carolina subjugated, Clinton, leaving
Cornwallis to replace him, returned to New York.
The patriots Sumter and Marion, were not yet con;
quered. They would suddenly gather their clans and
clouds of battle would seem to burst from a clear sky.
Rocky Mount was garrisoned by about 500 New York
and South Carolina Tory volunteers, commanded by
Lieut.-Col. Turnbull. Sumter, with 600 patriots, as-
saulted the works with impetuosity several times, but
could not carry them ; yet a little later, at Hanging
Rock, he was victorious over Col. Brown and a similar
arrison. Lord Cornwallis had come out as far as
à. S. C., with 2200 men. Gen. Gates, re-
placing Lincoln, had gathered 3000 effectives. He
and Cornwallis had both determined to attack at day-
light, August 16, and each began a night march.
They met about 2.30 A. M., skirmishing till dawn and
then engaged. Gates was completely out-generalled
and his army almost destroyed. Sumter, two days
after, was surprised by Tarleton, and of his 700 fol-
lowers only about 200 escaped death and capture.
But already a change had come. One of the most
active of the royal officers was Major Patrick Fer-
uson, 71st Regulars. He had with him at King's
Mountain, N. C., 900 soldiers. The patriots of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina had run together, hoping to
assist Gen. Gates; 1 100 under Cols. William Camp-
bell, Cleveland, and Williams had asked for a general
officer, but Col. Campbell had charge till his arrival.
On the morning of October 7 they rushed upon Fer-
uson's position, slew him, and completely routed his
OTC0.
Seventh Campaign, 1781.
Gen. Greene's Operations in the Carolinas. -Early
in January, 1781, Gen. Greene, who relieved Gen.
Gates of his command, arrived on the borders of
North Carolina. He at once reorganized ; the patriots
flocked to his standard, and he began to control the
partisan leaders. He first sent a detachment of 900
under Gen. Morgan into South Carolina to check
depredations. The ubiquitous Tarleton overtook him
at Cowpens, and the engagement was a sharp one, but
resulted in a thorough victory for Morgan and a loss
to Tarleton of over 800 men. To get clear of Corn-
Wallis' pursuit, Morgan retreated till, he had joined
Gen. Greene in North Carolina. The celerity of
Greene and heavy storms coming in quick succession
kept Cornwallis at bay till the patriot army was suffi-
ciently reinforced to risk a battle.
At Guilford Court-House Gen. Greene took position
With about 4000 men. Cornwallis made an attack
March 15, and finally, after a close contest, dislodged
and defeated the patriots; yet he suffered so great a
loss himself and was so far from his base, that he
began to retreat on the 18th, and bore away towards
Wilmington, N. C., leaving Lord Rawdon to command
What he left behind in South Carolina, a field-force of
about 1200. Taking advantage of the division of
forces. Gen. Greene pushed off in the direction of
Camden, S. C. On April 25 another battle, almost
was only a partial engagement, at the end of which
Greene was compelled to retreat. There was, but one
more important engagement in South Carolina, and
that was the well-known battle of Eutaw Springs,
where Gen. Greene brought to bear 2000 patriots
against 2800 British, mostly regulars, under Lieut.:
Čol. Stewart. This time Gen. Greene gained a signal
victory. His own losses were heavy, but he inflicted a
greater, and caused Stewart's rapid flight to Charleston.
Siege of Yorktown.—Arnold, after his attempt to
betray and surrender West Point, had fled to the
British and been made a brigadier-general in the
English army. Before his desperate raid into Con-
necticut he was sent in charge of a predatory expedi-
tion up the Peninsula as far as Richmond, Va. An-
other British general, Phillips, was also moving to
subjugate the belligerent, Virginians. To form jung-
tion with these forces and keep open their communi-
cations with the sea, Lord Cornwallis marched from
Wilmington into the lower counties of the State.
Washington, knowing of the troubles there, had sent
Gen. Lafayette with a small army to watch the raiders
and do all that he could to hinder them. Early in
May the French minister brought the welcome infor:
mation that another French fleet, under the command
of the Count de Grasse, bringing reinforcements,
would soon arrive. A little later, Washington and
the Count de Rochambeau, the field commander, met
at Wethersfield and arranged for an allied and com-
bined movement against the city of New York. But
learning that de Grasse could not stay long, and that
he was going directly to the Chesapeake, Washington
at once changed his plan, resolving and arranging to
move against tººl. in Virginia.
He executed this movement with wonderful caution :
kept Sir Henry Clinton deceived as to his intentions
till all his divisions except Gen. Heath's, which was
left to threaten New York, were well across the Dela-
ware and the French fleet between Yorktown and the
sea blocking the way. Lord Cornwallis was already at
Yorktown with his main body, where, in view of the
threatening dangers, he was thoroughly fortifying
both banks of the York River.
Washington speedily assembled his army at Williams-
burg, and on Sept. 28, 1781, marched it to Yorktown
and distributed his troops for a siege. The American
forces, resting on the river below the town, deployed
so as to occupy the right, the French so as to hold the
left, the two meeting at a central morass. On the
east, or Gloucester, side of the river, Sieur de Choisey,
with a detachment, completed the land investment.
Cornwallis had in the aggregate, besides his fleet,
7500 men. Washington, beyond his naval help, had
gathered, including the French contingent, about
16,000. Sir Henry Clinton first endeavored to turn
Washington back by diversions. He sent Arnold, re-
called from Virginia, to lead a cruel expedition against
New London, Conn. This failing, he encouraged
Cornwallis with the hope of relief by raising the
blockade and introducing troops and supplies. But at
last, after a closer investment was effected and the im-
possibility of succor became evident, the proud Corn-
wallis, on Oct. 19, 1781, surrendered Yorktown and
his entire army to Gen. Washington, and his shipping,
with all the seamen, to the Count de Grasse.
Though the British held New York and other cities
already in their possession till, the establishment of
N. this surrender substantially closed the war.
Negotiations were soon begun, a truce entered into,
and a preliminary treaty effected and signed the 30th
of November, 1782. The permanent treaty, with full
Specifications, was completed and signed at Paris,
France, Sept. 3, 17S3. (O. O. H.)
REYBAUD, MARIE Roch Louis (1789–1879),
French author, was born at Marseilles, Aug. 15, 1799.
His father being a merchant destined him also for
trade, and the son made several voyages to the Indies.
37.2
REYNOLDS—RHODE ISLAND.
In his thirtieth year, however, he removed to Paris
and began to contribute to the liberal journals. His
satiric pen attacked the reign of the bourgeois under
Louis Philippe. He was also director of the publica-
tion of the Histoire Scientifique et Militaire de l'Ec-
pédition Française en Egypte (10 vols, besides atlas,
1830–36), a work which Napoleon I. had caused to be
prepared at enormous expense. Reybaud also edited
the travels of Dumont d'Urville and º, In
another direction he achieved success by his Etudes sur
les Réformateurs ou Socialistes Modernes (2 vols., 1840–
43), which obtained from the French Academy the
Montyon prize. It discussed freely but fairly the
socialistic schemes of St. Simon, Fourier, Robert Owen,
and Cabet ; but in later years the author expressed
regret that he had not severely denounced “those
destroyers of every social principle.” In 1850, in con-
sequence of this able work, Reybaud was elected to the
Academy of Moral and Political Science. Another
work in a lighter vein long retained its popularity. This
was Jérôme Patwrot d la Recherche d'ume Position
Sociale (1843), in which the manners of French society
were held up to ridicule. A later volume of the same
kind and partly the same name, but having reference
to the Republic of 1848, did not meet the same suc-
cess. Still Reybaud continued to work this vein for
ten or twelve years. Reybaud had been a Liberal, but
the revolution of 1848 made him a Conservative. In
1846 he had been elected to the Chamber of Deputies
as the representative of Marseilles. He supported
Louis Napoleon as president but refused to join in the
coup d'état of 1851. In later years he contributed to
various reviews and encyclopaedias on industrial, econ-
omic, commercial, and marine topics. Among his
works were L'Industrie en Europe (1856); Econo-
mistes Modernes (1862); Moeurs et Portraits du Temps
(1864). Pres. Thiers in 1872 again called him into
public service for a brief period. Reybaud died Oct.
28, 1879. -
REYNOLDS, John (1789–1865), governor of
Illinois, was born in Montgomery co., Pa., Feb. 26,
1789, of Irish parents, who during his childhood re-
moved to Kaskaskia, Ill. In 1812 he joined a company
of scouts in the campaigns against the Indians. Set-
tling at Cahokia, Ill., he became a lawyer, and in 1818
was made a justice of the Supreme Court of the State,
then just admitted to the Union. He was elected to
the Legislature in 1826 and served till 1830. During
the Black Hawk war, in 1832, he had command of a
volunteer company. He afterwards edited a daily
paper at Belleville, served again in the Legislature
i846–48, and was speaker of the house 1852–54. He
died at Belleville, May 8, 1865. He was a Democrat
of strong opinions and strict integrity. He published
a Pioneer History of Illinois § 848), and a bulky volume
called My Life and Times (1855). This work, badly
printed, had but little sale, and nearly every copy was
destroyed in the great fire at Chicago in 1871, but its
importance as a record of facts being recognized by the
Chicago Historical Society, an improved edition was
issued in 1883.
REYNOLDS, John FULTON (1820–1863), general,
was born at Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 20, 1820. He gradu-
ated at West Point in 1841 and entered the artillery.
At the outbreak of the Mexican war he joined Gen.
Taylor's army, and was distinguished at Monterey and
Buena Vista, winning the i. of captain and
major. He afterwards served on the frontier until
1860, when he was appointed commandant of cadets
at West Point. In May, 1861, he was made lieutenant:
colonel of infantry, and in August brigadier-general
of volunteers. He took command of a brigade of the
Pennsylvania reserve corps, and led them in McClel-
lan's Peninsular campaign in 1862 until he was taken
prisoner at Glendale, June 30. He was exchanged in
August, and commanded a division, in Gen. , Pope's
campaign in Northern Virginia. When Lee invaded
Reynolds to command the militia called out for defence
of that State. He was soon after promoted major-
general of volunteers, and the First corps of the Army
of the Potomac was assigned to his command. He
fought at Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, 1862, but at Chan-
cellorsville his corps was held in reserve, though he
requested to be sent to the front. When Lee invaded
Pennsylvania in 1863, Reynolds, with the left wing of
Meade's army, was hastening to overtake him. En-
countering the van of the Confederate army at Gettys-
burg on July 1, he had already selected the ground for
the impending battle, when at the opening of the fight
he was killed by a rifle-shot, while cheering on his men.
He was beloved by his soldiers and distinguished for
ability as a general. A monument to his memory,
designed by J. Q. A. Ward, is erected at Gettysburg ;
a bronze equestrian statue of him by Rogers stands in
Philadelphia in front of the city hall.
RHETT, ROBERT BARNWELL (1800—1876), a noted
secessionist, was born at Beaufort, S. C., Dec. 24, 1800.
He was the son of James Smith, but in 1837 assumed
the name Rhett from an ancestor. He was liberally
educated and became a lawyer. In 1826 he was elected
to the State Legislature, and in 1832 was made attorney-
general. Throughout the nullification movement he
was an advocate of the extreme view of States' rights.
In 1838 he was elected to Congress and there main-
tained the same extreme position on every question
affecting the South. After twelve years in the lower
house he was sent to the Senate in 1850, where he
openly advised a dissolution of the Union. When
these views were disapproved by the people, he re-
signed from the Senate, but ...tº to urge the
political doctrines of Calhoun in the Charleston Mer-
cury, of which he was proprietor. In 1860 he took a
prominent part in the State convention which passed
the ordinance of secession. At the convention in
Montgomery, Ala., he was chairman of the committee
which reported the Constitution of the Confederate
States. #. was also a member of the Confederate
Congress, and at the close of the war retired from
public life. He died in St. James Parish, La.,
Sept. 14, 1876. -
RHODE lsº D. º ºl. º º United
tates, it is also the most densely popu-
*..." *. lated, and in the value per capita of its
Km i.e. ) textile fabrics it exceeds every other.
º is a e In inhabitants to the square mile only
four countries of the world, viz., Belgium, British
India, the Netherlands, and Great Britain, including
Ireland, exceed it.
* Population.—In the last census, taken in 1885, the
population of the State was
304,284, an increase from
1880 of 27,888. The in-
crease since 1885, judging
by the best information that
can be obtained, has been at
a more rapid ratio. There
has been a marked increase
in the immigration of French
Canadians, Swedes, and Ital-
ians.
Education and Illiteracy.
—In 1887 the Legislature of the State enacted a law
requiring, under a penalty not to exceed twenty dollars,
that every person i. under his control a child be-
tween the age of 7 and 15 shall annually cause such child
to attend for at least 12 weeks, 6 at least of which shall
be consecutive, some public day-school in the town or
city where such child resides. To make this law effec-
tive, the same statute requires each town or city to ap-
point a special constable or truant officer who shall see
that the law is complied with ; it also requires each
town and city to provide a suitable place for the con-
finement, discipline, and instruction of truants. The
same statute forbids the employment of any child under
Maryland, Gov. Curtin, of Pennsylvania, selected Gen. 10 years of age “in any manufacturing, mechanical, or

RHODODENDRON.
373
mercantile establishment, or by any telegraph or tele-
phone company” while the public schools are in ses-
sion, and forbids that any child between 10 and 15 years
of age shall be “so employed,” except during the va-
cations of the schools, or under certain conditions
which are minutely specified. Truant officers are also
authorized to visit establishments where children are
employed, and all owners, Cuperintendents, or over-
seers of such establishments shall keep on file certifi-
cates duly authenticated and minutely specifying that
said children have complied with the educational law.
In spite, however, of these and all other provisions for
the enforcement of the law, alien parents with children
born before coming to the State are constantly violating
it, through false statements respecting their children's
ages. Illiteracy (meaning thereby inability to read and
write) in the State, in 1880, was in the ratio of 11.2 to
100 of the whole population ; in 1885 the percentage
was 10.7. Under the operation of the compulsory law
it is hoped and believed it will soon be still further re-
duced.
Cities.—The State now contains four incorporated
cities—Woonsocket, with a population of between
16,000 and 17,000, having in 1888 been added to Prov-
idence, Newport, and Pawtucket.
Amendments to the Constitution.—Several of these
have been made since 1885. According to a provision
of the constitution itself, no amendment to it can be
made which has not first been approved by a majority
of the whole General Assembly (consisting of a House
of Representatives and a Senate), and being submitted
to a popular vote shall have been accepted by three-
fifths of all the voters of the State. The first of the
amendments referred to was madein 1886, prohibiting the
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors to be used
as a beverage. In the May session of the same year
the General Assembly (which holds two sessions a year,
the first in May, at Newport; the second beginning in
January, at Providence), passed a long series of enact-
ments for the enforcement of prohibition. Some of
the enactments, and especially some of the officials ap-
pointed to carry the enactments into execution, gave
great offence to large numbers of citizens of both
º parties. The enactments and appointments
snown as the “May deal '' resulted at the next State
election in a complete overthrow of the Republican
party, under whose administration the “deal” took
Fº The practical result was, that the prohibitory
aw became a dead letter, and intoxicating liquors were
for sale openly and anywhere. During the present
year, 1889, the Republicans are again in power, and
the office of attorney-general is filled by an officer who
is prosecuting offenders against the law with a vigor
and determination that bids fair to secure for it some |
show of respect.
At the May session of the Legislature in 1888 an
amendment was submitted to the people extending the
suffrage to all soldiers and sailors of foreign birth from
Rhode Island who served in the army or navy of the
United States during the late civil war, and, receiving
the requisite three-fifths of all the votes cast, it became
a part of the Constitution.
A proposed amendment in 1887, extending the suf.
frage to women, was submitted to the electors, but
failed to receive the required three-fifths of the votes
polled.
At the January, 1888, session of the General Assem-
bly an amendment was approved and submitted to the
electors, extending the suffrage to every male citizen
of the United States who had for two years been a resi.
dent of the State and for six months a resident in the
$own or city in which he may offer to vote, and who
has been duly registered; provided, however, that he
shall not be allowed to vote in the election of the city
council ºf any city, or for the imposition of any tax,
ºr for the expenditure of any money, unless he shall
during the immediately preceding year have paid a tax
9m property assessed at a valuation of not less than
$134. The assessors of each town or city shall impose
on each registered voter a tax of one dollar, “ or such
sum as with his other taxes shall amount to one dol-
lar,” and said tax shall be paid into the public treasury
for the support of public schools, the General Assembly,
however, retaining to itself the right to prescribe by
law for the remission of this tax under given condi-
tions. This amendment received the required three-
fifths vote at the general State elections in April,
1888.
Industrial Progress.—No satisfactory information on
this point is at present obtainable. The discrepancies
between the State census of ISS0 and that of 1885 are
so great and of such kind as to show that neither one
of them can be relied on for exact information. For
example, in 1880 the capital invested in cotton manu-
facture was said to be $29,260,734, and in 1885 it was
$21,154,255, whereas it is well known that there has
been a large increase in the capital so invested. In
woollen manufactures the capital invested was re-
ported in 1880 as $13,016, 116, and in 1885 as $8,568,-
450, whereas there are good reasons for believing that
there could have been only a fractional difference, if
any, in the two periods. In 1880 the total value of
the products of the State was put at $108,714,671, and
in 1885 at $104,269,773; the product to each person
being in the first $393. 14, and in the second $342.67.
And so on throughout the two censuses. The only
explanation given of these differences is, that in 1880
the estimates of value were made by the census-takers,
and in 1885 the estimates given were those of the
manufacturers themselves. It is the estimate of good
judges that the annual increase in the value of the
products for the past few years has not been less than
five per cent, and probably has been more. (E. G. R.)
RHODODENDRON, a genus of shrubs or small
See Vol. XX. º," º ſº." . beath family,
p. 526 (p. 541 including the Azaleas, compºses
Am. Rep.). the handsomest and, most showy flow-
ering shrubs of both hemispheres. The
species of the genus are widely distributed, America
possessing several, the blossoms of some of which are
unsurpassed for beauty among our wild flowers. These
are locally known as Rosebay trees, but more generally
by their scientific title of Rhododendron (Greek, rho-
dom, rose; dendron, tree; from the rose-colored flowers
of many plants of the genus). R. maacimum, the
common American species, is an arborescent plant,
bearing pale-red, funnel-shaped, wide-mouthed flowers
in umbellate corymbs, studded with green, yellow, or
purple protuberances, the leaves of elongated oval
Rhododendron.
form, smooth, and of thick coriaceous texture, their
length being 5 or 6 ins.
abºut 10 ft. to 20 or 25 ft. in extreme height, and 4 or
5 ins, diameter. . It is an evergreen, renewing its
leaves every 3 or 4 years, and flowering from June to
The plant varies from

374
RHUBARB-RICASOLI.
August. The flowers, though ordinarily rose-colored,
are sometimes pure white, and always occur at the ex-
tremities of the branches in beautiful groups which
derive an added charm from the luxuriant foliage
which surrounds them. The seeds are exceedingly
minute, and are contained in capsules which open in
autumn for their escape. This species occurs sparingly
from Long Island northward along the Hudson to the
Highlands, but is rarely found as far north as Massa-
chusetts. It is very common in the mountain districts
of the Middle and Southern States, particularly those
of Georgia and the Carolinas, and is found almost ex-
clusively on the borders of streams, growing so abun-
dantly on the sides of the mountain torrents of the Al-
leghenies as sometimes to form impenetrable thickets.
It prefers deeply shaded situations, near cool waters,
where the atmosphere is full of moisture. The wood
is hard, compact, and fine-grained, but too small to be
of much use in the arts, and the almost entire use of
the Rhododendron is as an ornamental plant. A
variety of the species, R. m. purpureum, the purple-
flowered rosebay tree, a native of Virginia and the
Carolinas, bears large purple flowers, and grows to a
height of 25 ft., with a stem occasionally as much as
18 ins, diameter.
A second important American species, R. Cataw-
biense, is a shrub from 3 to 6 ft. high, its flowers broadly
bell-shaped, and of lilac-purple hue. It is found on
the higher Alleghenies from Virginia to Georgia. Of
species of less importance may be named R. Lappomi-
cum, the Lapland Rhododendron, a dwarf species be-
longing to the Arctic flora of both continents; R.
punctatum, a small species with rose-colored flowers,
on the mountains of North Carolina and Southward ;
and R. albiflorum, a Rocky Mountain species, with
drooping, cream-colored flowers. R. Californicum is
a plant of moderate size with very showy rose-colored
flowers.
The Rhododendrons have for many years been cul-
tivated as garden flowers, particularly in England and
Europe, very many highly beautiful varieties having
been produced. No other shrubs equal them for
beauty of form and foliage and profusion and variety
of flowers, while they are very manageable and not
easily injured. Their cultivation in this country is
rapidly on the increase, the principal incentive to it
having been a magnificent English display made at the
Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. R. Ponticum, an
Asiatic species, is the basis of most of the cultivated
varieties, but it and other delicate Eastern species
have been largely hybridized with the hardy R. Cataw:
biense, greatly to their improvement, in beauty..and
vigor. From this hybridization has arisen most of the
fine ornamental forms now so extensively cultivated.
R. Maximum has proved less adapted to the produc-
tion of useful hybrids.
The leaves of some species of Rhododendron are
said to be poisonous to cattle, yet they have been used
in moderate doses as remedies for rheumatism. This
poisonous quality is said to pertain ſo, the nectar, of
the flowers of R. Ponticum. In India the natives
eat the flowers of R. arboreum, and the English pre-
pare a conserve from them. The leaves of R. campan-
alatum are powdered and used as snuff by the natives.
Some American Indians are said to employ the dust
which adheres to the petioles of Kalmias and Rhodo-
dendrons for a similar purpose. (C. M.)
RHUBARB. The root and leaf stalk of several
species of the genus Rheum, order
See Vol. XX, B, he root being used as t
ygonaceae, the root being used as a
Kºłº * valuable medicine, and the leaf stalk
as an article of food. All the species
of Rheum have purgative and astringent properties,
this being particularly the case with the roots. It is
not certain which species. yield... the commercial
Thubarb, as they grow in regions of Thibet or Western
China which have not been explored by naturalists.
it has been known as a drug from a remote period,
being long brought to the sports of the Levant, and
thence shipped, whence the name of Turkish Rhu-
barb was given to the best qualities. It is now shipped
directly from China. Rhubarb has a peculiar smell,
and a disagreeable, bitter, astringent taste. In small
doses it acts as a stomach-bitter, but in large ones as
an active purgative. Numerous pharmaceutical prepa-
rations of it are in use.
Several species, including R. Rhaponticum, R.
Tartarium, R. undulatum, and others, all of Asiatic
origin, are now largely cultivated for culinary purposes,
their acidulous leaf stalks and unexpanded flower mass
being largely used under the common name of Pie
Plant. These stalks are from 1 to 3 ft. long and 2 to 3
ins, in diameter in their widest part, of a pale-green color
often tinged with red, and are very succulent, with a
pleasantly acid taste. They are used as a substitute for
fruit in pies, tarts, etc., while the expressed juice
forms a palatable wine. Rhubarb has been used for
this purpose only since 1800. It is now largely raised
by market gardeners, the annual crop being very con-
siderable. It succeeds best in deep and somewhat re-
tentive soil, the richer its condition and the deeper
worked the better. It may be propagated by seeds
or by division of the roots, the latter being the usual
method. It is not usually plucked till the third year,
but a plantation not too greatly cut will bear from ten
to fifteen years. It lends itself well to the forcing
process, and this is practised extensively by gardeners
for early supply of the market. (C. M.)
RIBBECK, Joha NN KARI, OTTO, a German phi-
lologist, was born July 23, 1827, at Erfurt. He was
educated at Breslau, Berlin, and Bonn, enjoying at
the last the instruction of F. W. Ritschl, with whom
he held a life-long intimacy. In 1852 he visited
Italy and was afterwards engaged in teaching at Berlin
and Elberfeld. In 1856 he was made professor extra-
ordinary in the University of Berne, and in 1859 was
advanced to a full professorship, with the direction of
a philological seminary which he had himself founded.
In 1862 he was made professor in the University at
Kiel, in 1872 at Heidelberg, and in 1877 succeeded
Ritschl at Leipsic. Ribbeck's chief works are
Scenicoe Romanorum poesis Fragmenta (2 vols., 1852–
53); Die Römische Tragödie in Zeitalter des Republik
(1875); his critical edition of Virgil with its Appendic
(5 vols., 1859–68), his labors on Juvenal and #.
He also published a memoir of his friend Ritschl (2
vols., 1879–81).
3ICASOLI, BARON BETTINO (1809–1880), an Ital-
ian statesman, was born at Florence, March 9, 1809.
In March, 1847, with some companions he addressed
two memorials to the Tuscan government demand-
ing a constitution and a free press. . During the
revolution following, Ricasoli established La Patria.
He was then chosen gonfaloniere or mayor of Flor-
ence, and in the next year entered the Tuscan Par-
liament. After the battle of Novara he favored
the recall of the Grand Duke in the hope of effectual
resistance to the Austrian domination. But he was
disappointed, and soon abandoning political activity
he devoted his energy to the improvement of a newly
purchased estate in the Maremna. He was induced
some years later to place himself at the head of the
National party, and was the chief founder of the
Biblioteca civile dell'Italiano. In 1859 the Grand
Duke fled and Ricasoli, who was minister of the in-
terior in the provisional government, contributed es-
sentially to effect the union with Sardinia, which was
formally declared March 22, 1860. He was then ap-
pointed governor-general of Tuscany, and was also
elected to the enlarged Sardinian Parliament and to
the first Italian Parliament, which met in February,
1861. After the death of Cavour in June he formed
a new ministry, taking for himself the department of
foreign affairs. Though he was faithful to Cavour's
policy he could not command his followers and in
March, 1862, he retired. He was still the representa-
RICE.
375
tive of Florence in the Parliament, and in 1866 he
was again premier and minister of the interior,
though only for ten months. He died in his castle
Brolio near Sienna, Oct. 23, 1880.
RICE is the common name of Oryza sativa, a
plant of the order Graminaceae or
*...* *: grasses, the seed of which is more
Am iº. ” widely used as an article of nutriment
- * than that of any other cereal. The plant
has been known and cultivated for ages, particularly
in Eastern Asia. Its generic title, Oryza, used by
Theophrastus, and the Arabic aruz are not far
from the modern European riz, reis, or rice. The
rice plant is an annual, with a stem from one to
six feet high, its leaves lanceolate, and flowers borne
in a terminal panicle. In Asia two distinct species of
Oryza are cultivated, the lowland and the upland
rice, of which the latter rots if inundated and perishes
in sea water. The lowland rice, which is the species
cultivated throughout the world, bears more extensive
inundation than almost any other food plant, though it
can be grown without inundation, and is the basis of
both the lowland and upland rice of the United States.
The rice plant furnishes more food to mankind than
any other grain, as it constitutes the principal food
supply of the teeming millions of India and China,
while largely used in other parts of the world. It is
the grain of the intertropical regions, as wheat is of
the temperate and oats and rye of the more northerly
latitudes. It is produced in immense quantities in
most countries of Eastern Asia, in some of the South-
ern countries of Europe, in parts of the West Indies,
Central America, and the United States, and supplies
perhaps one-third of the human race with its main
article of food. Fifty or more varieties of the plant
are cultivated in different countries, the principal dif-
ferences being in the size, shape, and color of the
grain, but these practically resolve themselves into
lowland or aquatic rice and upland or mountain rice.
As regards the extent and methods of the cultivation
of rice in Japan, China, and India, see U. S. Consu-
lar Reports, No. 96, August, 1888.
As an article of nutriment rice falls below wheat,
containing less than half the amount of the gluten. It
has one-fourth more starch, however, and this, with its
cheapness and large yield, renders it a preferable basis
for starch manufacture.
The culture of rice in the United States began in
1694, in which year a vessel from Madagascar, which
put into Charleston in distress, had on board a smail
sack of rice, which was given to the authorities of the
city, and was at once tried in garden culture. It
yielded abundantly, and the seeds were distributed to
planters, which process was continued until it became
the staple commodity of the colony. From South
Carolina its culture extended through other Southern
States, it being now raised extensively in Georgia and
Louisiana. It possessed the advantage that it could
be profitably grown on land too low and moist for other
useful plants, and that its culture required less labor
than the other grains. The swamp lands along the
South Carolina coast proved well iº for its cul-
ture, and yielded excellent returns, but are now re-
Fººd in considerable part by the irrigation of tide
ands, which present decided advantages in the culture.
American rice has long borne a high reputation for its
excellence, its quality being far beyond that of any
other locality. This is perhaps partly due to favoring
conditions of soil, but largely to care in cultivation, the
grain being much sweeter, larger, and better colored
than that from Asia, the Bengal rice most nearly ap-
proaching it.
The culture of rice in Louisiana was begun in 1718, by
Law's French “Company of the West.” Recently its
production there has greatly increased, the levees along
the Mississippi being opened by permission for irriga-
tion of the fields in the adjoining alluvial bottoms.
The principal expense there is the ditching and other-
wise preparing the land for irrigation, the seeding and
cultivation being comparatively inexpensive. . The
process pursued is briefly as follows: The sowing being
completed, the river water is let on profusely, and kept
so until the growing plant appears above its surface.
Then the field is drained, and kept dry until the stem
begins to form joints, when it is flooded again and left
so for about six weeks, till the grain is mature. During
this period it is simply necessary to see that the water
is kept fresh, and to pull up such weeds as the water
fails to kill. Maturity is indicated by the grain turn-
ing yellow. The field is then drained, the grain cut,
threshed, and winnowed, and sacked for mill or mar-
ket. An expensive process, however, is necessary to
get rid of the inner hull of the rice grain, which it holds
more tenaciously than wheat. Special machines are
needed for this purpose, in which the grain is so
broken that after milling little more than half remains
prime rice, the remainder being partly broken rice,
partly flour. The upland rice yields a smaller grain
than the lowland, though with the advantage of being
harder and drier. It is cultivated much like the other
small grains, the crops being remunerative, though
smaller than that of lowland rice. One disadvantage
of the rice culture on the Atlantic is that it proves
very detrimental to the health of white men, from the
dangerous malarial exhalations from the irrigated soil.
The negroes, however, are rarely affected by malaria.
The Louisiana culture seems no more injurious to
health than in the case of any other crop raised there.
The rice crop of the United States has suffered con-
siderable fluctuations during the several recent decades,
as appears by the following statement:
Year. Crop.
1840.......................................... 80,841,422 pounds.
1850.......................................... 215,312,710 “
1860.......................................... 187,140,173 “
1870.......................................... 73,635,021 “
1880......... ................................. 110,131,373 “
The decrease in production is made up by a very
considerable importation. During this period the pro-
duction of South Carolina has j and that of
other States advanced, that State producing, in 1850,
159,930,613 lbs., and in 1880, 52,077,515 lbs., while
Georgia and Louisiana have correspondingly increased.
At present rice is cultivated from near the Southern
Virginia line to Texas, and well back from the coast
lands into the upper country. In 1880, according to
the census reports, 174, 173 acres were under cultiva-
tion for rice, with the following yield in the four prin-
cipal States:
- Acres. Product.
South Carolina...... 78,388 52,077,515 pounds.
Georgia................ 34,973 25,369,687 “
Louisiana.............. 42, 23,188,311 “
North Carolina...... 10,846 5,609,191 “
In Asia rice is used to a considerable extent in the
making of intoxicating drinks, a rice beer or “sake,”
being extensively used in Japan, while a strong spirit,
called “arrack,” is distilled from rice and molasses,
and used throughout the East, Indies. ... Rice sugar
yields in Japan a kind of confectionery called “ame.”
Enormous quantities of rice are now consumed in the
manufacture of starch particularly in Great Britain.
C. M.
RICE, LUTHER (1 IS3–1836), the wº ºf
American Baptist missions, was born at Northbor-
ough, Mass., March 25, 1783. After graduating at
Williams College in 1810, he entered Andover Theo-
logical Seminary, and there joined in the movement
already begun by Samuel J. Mills in advocacy of mis-
sions to the heathen. He was ordained with Judson,
Newell, and two others at Salem, in February, 1812,
and sailed to India. . But on the voyage, from fresh
study of the New Testament, he adopted Baptist
views and was baptized soon after his arrival in Cal-
376
BICE–RICHMOND.
cutta. As Judson, who had sailed in another vessel,
had experienced a similar change of views, it was ar-
ranged that he should stay for mission labor in India,
while Rice returned to seek support for the work from
the Baptist denomination. His return excited a sen-
sation among religious people, and at the General
Convention in 1814 a Baptist Missionary Society was
formed, of which Rice was made the agent to visit the
American churches. After several years thus spent,
Rice projected the Columbian College at Washington,
and devoted himself to similar labors in its behalf.
He died in Edgefield, S. C., Oct. 25, 1836.
RICE, NATHAN LEWIs (1807–1877), Presbyterian
theologian, was born in Garrand co., Ky., Dec. 29,
1807. He graduated at Centre College, Danville, and
was ordained pastor of a Presbyterian church at Bards-
£own, Ky., in 1833. He was pastor in Cincinnati
from 1844 to 1853, and during this time conducted
public controversies with Rev. Alex. Campbell on bap-
tism, with Bishop Purcell on Roman Catholicism, and
with others. In 1853 he removed to St. Louis, and in
1858 to Chicago, where he became professor in the
Theological Seminary of the North-west. In 1868 he
was made president of Westminster College, Mo., and
afterwards became professor in the Danville Theologi-
cal Seminary. He died at Danville, June 11, 1877.
He was an able preacher and conservative theologian.
His writings were chiefly controversial.
RICHARii)S, WILLIAM (1792–1847), missionary,
was born at Plainfield, Mass., Aug. 22, 1792. He
graduated at Williams College in 1819, studied the-
ology and was sent by the American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions to the Sandwich Isl-
ands in 1822. There he gave instruction to the royal
family, and in 1838 was made counsellor and chaplain
to King Kamehameha III. After the Sandwich
Islands were recognized as an independent nation by
England and other powers, Richards was sent on an
embassy to them. In 1845 he was appointed minis-
ter of public instruction. He died at Honolulu, Dec.
7, 1847.
RICHARDSON, BENJAMIN WARD, English phy-
sician, was born at Somerly, Leicestershire, Oct. 31,
1828.
medicine at the University of St. Andrew's in 1854,
gaining there a gold medal for an essay on ante-natal
diseases. In 1856 he won the Astley Cooper prize for
an essay on coagulation of the blood. e then be-
came a member of the Royal º of Physicians
and was elected a fellow of the college in 1867, and
Croomian lecturer in 1873. He has made special ex-
periments in regard to the poison of contagious diseases,
anaesthetics, restoration to life after apparent death,
methods of killing without pain animals intended for
food. His best known researches, however, have been
in regard to the action of alcohol on man. He has
received many marks of honor from learned and scien-
tific societies and colleges, including the degree of LL.D.
from St. Andrew's University in 1877. His medical
brethren presented him in 1868, with a microscope
and 1000 guineasin recognition of his contributions to
science and medicine. -
RICHARDSON, CHARLEs (1775–1865), English
lexicographer, was born in July, 1775. He studied law
but devoted himself to literature. After publishing
Illustrations of English Philology (1815) he undertook
to prepare for the Encyclopædia Metropolitana articles
on lexicography. These served as an introduction, to
his Dictionary of the English Language (2 vols.,
1837), whose peculiarity is that derivative words, are
classified under their primitives and abundantly illus-
trated by quotations. The Dictionary proved popular,
passed through several editions in England and Wa;
reprinted in the United States. Richardson continued
his philological º: a Supplement (1855),
a Historical Essay in English Grammar (1845), and a
work on The Study of Languages (1854). He also
published some comments on Shakespeare and contrib-
He was educated at Glasgow and graduated in
uted to various literary periodicals. He died at
Feltham, Middlesex, Oct. 6, 1865.
RICHARDSON, HENRY Hobson (1838–1886), archi-
tect, was born at Priestley's Point, La., Sept. 29,
1838. His father was a planter of Scotch descent and
his mother a daughter of Dr. Joseph Priestléy (for
whom see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA). After grad-
uating at Harvard in 1859, Richardson went to Paris
to study architecture. The loss of his property through
the civil war compelled him also to exert himself for
his own support. Returning to the United States in
1865, he engaged at once in his chosen pursuit and
formed a partnership in New York city. The city of
Springfield, Mass., was the first field for the display of
his powers; there he erected railroad offices, a bank
and a church, which gave promise of better work to
come. In 1871 his Brattle Street Church, Boston,
first strikingly exhibited his originality of design and
marked an advance toward his grander Trinity Church
in the Back Bay section of the same city. The lead-
ing idea of this building, the tower which dominates
both its exterior and interior, was derived from the
churches of Auvergne. To the decoration of the in-
terior the artist La Farge contributed excellent work.
During the erection of this church Richardson removed
to Brookline near Boston, and his reputation being
firmly established was thenceforth busily occupied with
structures for every variety of purpose, warehouses,
dwellings, libraries, churches, college and public build-
ings. All his works are marked by a grand simplicity
of design and produce their impressive effect by mas-
siveness rather than elaborate detail. Richardson's
artistic sense was not satisfied until he gave each build-
ing an individuality characteristic of its intended ob-
ject. The grand solidity and broad unity of his
works set them widely apart from older American
architecture. Soon a number of younger architects
took him as their master and inspirer, and in all parts
of the country his influence is manifest in the new
edifices. The State Capitol at Albany, commenced by
others, called forth his labor and skill. At the time of
his death he was engaged on two important build-
ings, one for the Board of Trade at Cincinnati, the
other the county court-house at Pittsburg. Yet amid
his abundant work he had a prolonged struggle with
ill health. He died at Brookline, April 28, 1886.
For a fuller account of the genius which in a brief
life did much for American architecture see Mrs.
Schuyler Van Rensselaer's Life and Works of H. H.
Richardson (1888).
RICHMOND, a city of Indiana, the county-seat
of Wayne co., is on the East Fork of Whitewater
River, 70 miles N. N. W. of Cincinnati, at the inter-
section of several railroads. It has a court-house, 3
national banks, 15 churches, a high-school and other
schools, a public library, 4 daily and 4 weekly news-
papers. Richmond is a settlement of the Society of
Friends, whose Indiana Yearly Meeting is held here.
Earlham College, founded by them in 1859, is open
to pupils of either sex. Richmond has manufactures
of agricultural implements, steam-engines, boilers,
flour, etc. In 1880 it had a population of 12,742.
RICHMOND, the capital of Virginia, and county-
seat of Henrico co., is on the N. bank of the James
r River, at the head of tide water, 37° 32'
See Yol; 2. N. lat., 77°28' W. long. Vessels draw-
p. 540 (p. 560 : } -
Am. Rep.). ing 14 feet of water can come up to
Rocketts, at the lower end of the city.
Bridges connect Richmond with Manchester on the
south side of the James and with Belle Isle. Rich-
mond is 100 miles nearly due south from Washington,
but 116 miles by rail. It is built on a group of hills;
the historic capitol, erected in 1796, and noted for its
monuments, archives, and portraits, occupies the sum-
mit of Shockoe Hill. Other public buildings are the
custom-house, governor's mansion, State penitentiary,
ost-office, city-hall, almshouse, and market-houses.
here are 4 national and 8 other banks, 60 churches,
RICHMOND.
377
orphan asylums, and church homes. Besides the public
schools, there are several, educational institutions,
among them Richmond College and Virginia Medical
College. The falls of the James River furnish im-
mense water-power which is abundantly, utilized.
There are over 600 manufacturing establishments,
including iron-works, flour-mills, paper-mills, fertilizer-
works, and tobacco-factories. The Tredegariron-works
are the largest and were of historic note in the civil
war. The formerly extensive trade of the city was
interrupted and dispersed by the war, but it has since
revived and is ;. by flour, tobacco, and other
exchanges. Besides its railroad connections with
North, South, and South-west, Richmond has regular
lines of steamers to New York, Philadelphia, and Bal-
timore. Richmond was founded in 1737 by Col. Wil-
liam Byrd. It was incorporated in 1742, and was made
the capital of Virginia in 1779. It became a political
and commercial centre for the Southern States. When
Virginia passed its ordinance of secession in May, 1861,
the capital of the Confederate States was fixed at
Richmond, which thus became the objective point of
the principal military operations of the Union army in
the East. It was however strongly fortified with earth-
works and bravely defended, so that it resisted the
various attacks until April, 1865, when it was evacuated
and partly destroyed by the Confederates. For Gen.
McClellan's expedition against it in 1862, see PENIN-
sui,AR CAMPAIGN, and for Gen. Grant's operations,
1864–5, see the following article.
RICHMOND, GRANT's SIEGE OF. For the prelim-
inaries of the series of military events in the American
civil war comprised under this title, the reader
is referred to the articles WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN
and Cold HARBOR, which detail the preceding events
from the time that Gen. Grant took command of the
Army of the Potomac. In the spring of 1864 Gen. B.
F. Butler moved up the James River, at the same
time that Grant crossed the Rapidan. On May 6 he
landed at City Point and Bermuda Hundred, and sent
a force to capture Petersburg, but this was turned
back by a report that that town was strongly defended.
Earthworks were then thrown up at Bermuda Hun-
dred, extending from the James to the Appomattox, a
distance of 3 miles. Some fighting took place subse-
quently, and Butler felt himself obliged to remain in
his intrenchments until called to reinforce Grant on his
approach to Richmond.
After the battle of Cold Harbor, June 3, 1864,
Grant having failed in his effort to capture or disperse
Lee's army, and lost very heavily in doing so, decided
to replace battle by siege, and to endeavor to wear out
that army which he had not succeeded in vanquishing.
His new plan was to transfer his army to the south
side of the James, and to endeavor to compel the sur-
render of Lee's army by cutting off its communica-
tions, if it could not be vanquished by direct assault.
This purpose was skilfully concealed, and Grant was
already crossing the river while Lee was awaiting
attack within the fortifications of Richmond. On the
night of June 14 a pontoon bridge was thrown across
the James, over which the whole army had crossed by
noon of the 16th. White House, on the Pamunkey,
was abandoned as a base of supplies, and replaced by
City Point, on the James River, then defended by But-
ler's works at Bermuda Hundred.
The capture of Petersburg was an important part of
Grant's design, as the possession of that city would
give him immediate control of two of the railroads
leading to Richmond. Butler endeavored to take it
by a combined infantry and cavalry attack on June 10,
but Gillmore, who was at the head of the infantry,
halted when in front of the works, and fell back under
the impression that his force was too weak to take
them. Kautz, with the cavalry, meanwhile dashed
into the town, but was driven back by its defenders,
whom Gillmore's retreat had left free to act against
him. Thus, by lack of proper co-operation, this prom-
VOL. IV.—Y
ising effort failed. It was renewed five days after-
ward. By Grant's order Gen. W. F. Smith and his com-
mand crossed the Appomattox to co-operate with Gill-
more and Kautz in a second attack on Petersburg.
There was good reason to expect success from this
movement, but it failed like the former, and from the
same lack of activity and vigor. The troops marched
in three columns, Kautz on the left, Brooks in the
centre, and Martindale on the right. A negro brigade
under Gen. Hinks captured some advanced rifle-pits,
and the troops moved forward with assurance of suc-
cess, until checked by a strong line of works in their
front, apparently well defended.
Despite the formidable show of these works their
defenders were really very few, and a vigorous push
would probably have carried them without difficulty,
but Smith paused and prepared so carefully for the
assault that it was near sunset before he was ready.
Meanwhile Lee's army was rapidly crossing the James,
and troops were streaming down towards Petersburg.
The assault took place at 7 P.M. A part of the force
pushed the enemy from their line of rifle-pits, and
soon had possession of the entrenchments for a length
of 23 miles, having taken 15 guns and 300 prisoners.
Two divisions of Hancock's corps had now come up
and joined Smith's command, when the latter ordered
a halt. He deemed it wiser to hold what he had than
to lose all by attempting more. Yet as Grant after-
wards said, Petersburg was, at that moment, at his
mercy, there being no other works and no troops of
importance. By morning, however, the situation had
decidedly changed. The city was then full of Lee's
veterans, a new line of works had risen as if by magic,
and the coveted prize was lost. The important point,
which might have been taken that night in an hour or
two, was j to defy its foes during a siege of ten
months' duration, in great part devoted to the capture
of the two railroads which ran through the city of
Petersburg.
Both armies now being south of the James, and
once more confronting each other, a bombardment of
the Confederate lines began, which was kept up during
the whole night of the 16th. The Union lines made
a general advance, and captured some important posi-
tions, though at severe i. The battle continued
throughout the 17th, the Confederates regaining some
points, but failing to retake others. On the 18th an
advance in force on the Petersburg works was ordered,
Grant believing that only a portion of Lee's army was
yet upon his front. But morning revealed the fact
that the Confederates had abandoned their weakened
line and retired to a stronger position on an inner line,
defended by strongly constructed works. This change
delayed the attack till afternoon, and then it only
brought disaster to the assailants, who were repulsed
at every point. In these three days of battle nearly
10,000 men had been lost, and nothing of correlative
importance had been gained. It was evident now that
Lee's army was fully before him, and Grant prepared
for a siege of the works which he had failed to take by
St0rm.
. The next day or two were spent by both armies in
intrenghing, the beginning being made of those for-
midable works which for months defici capture from
either side. At the same time the Union left was
extended towards the Petersburg and Weldon Railroad,
being the preliminary step towards breaking Lee's
communications with the south. On the 21st the
Second and Sixth corps were put in motion towards
the left, but on the tº: morning a division of the
Confederate Gen. A. P. Hill's corps projected itself
between the two commands, struck Birney's divisions
heavily on the flank, and drove them back with heavy
loss. A similar attack was made on Wright's corps.
They soon reformed, and by order of Meade advanced
and retºok their ground, Hill retiring with 2500 pris.
oners, the fruits of his impetuous assault. The advance
was resumed the next morning, and the Weldon road
37.8
RICHMOND.
reached, but while the regiments in the van were en-
gaged in tearing up the track, a sudden attack from a
i. of Hill's corps drove them back, many of them
eing taken prisoners. The railroad had been reached
but had not been held, while the army had suffered a
loss of nearly 4000 men, mostly prisoners.
At the same time a cavalry expedition, 8000 strong,
Wassent for the purpose of breaking up the i.
leading southward. They did considerable destruction
to the roads, tearing the rails up for miles, but on their
return found the country full of enemies, and had to
fight their way back. Reaching Reams' Station on
the Weldon road, which they expected to find in the
hands of friends, they discovered it to be occupied by
a strong forge of Confederate cavalry and infantry, and
were defeated with heavy loss in attempting to break
through this line. They finally reached the army, but
had been so severely handled that no similar raid was
attempted for months. The profit proved too little
for the peril and expense.
This southward movement was followed by a similar
one on the north, Butler, on July 10, throwing a
brigade across the James River at Deep Bottom, where
an intrenched camp was formed. This post was con-
nected with the army at Bermuda Hundred by a pon-
toon bridge, and was of advantage in enabling Grant
to throw heavy masses to the north of the James, if
desirable. Lee laid a similar bridge across the river at
º's Bluff, by which counter motions could be
Illa Ole.
And now the use of musket and cannon, and destruc-
tion of hosts of men, which had continued almost un-
interruptedly for nearly two months, was replaced by
the use of the pick and shovel. Several months more
were busily employed in erecting those long and for:
midable lines of earthworks which eventually extended
for nearly 40 miles, from the left bank of the Appo-
mattox around the western side of Petersburg, to and
across the James and to the north-eastern side of Rich-
mond. They consisted of a double series of redans,
redoubts, and infantry parapets, with other defences
of abatis, stakes, and chevaux-de-frise, facing each
other, well mounted with guns, and manned by the
tried armies which for years had confronted each other
on the soil of Virginia. The war had taken on a dis-
tinctly new aspect, and the engineer for the time being
had replaced the field-officer in the conduct of opera-
tlOnS.
The monotony of engineering operations was broken
by brisk field-work at the north. Sheridan early in
June was sent with a large cavalry force to break up
the Central Railroad and cut the Kanawha Canal,
channels of supply to Richmond. He found himself,
however, confronted by Wade Hampton with a strong
body of cavalry, and after a spirited engagement re-
joined the army without having accomplished his
chief purpose. On the other hand, Lee, with the
hope of creating a diversion in his favor, sent, on June
13, Gen. J. A. Early with a force variously estimated
at from 8000 to 15,000 men up the Shenandoah Valley,
to threaten Washington and alarm the Federal au-
thorities. Hunter, who had been advancing on Lynch-
burg, was forced to retreat across the mountains to
West Virginia, and Early, by a rapid march, reached
and crossed the Potomac without opposition on July 5,
defeated Gen. Wallace at the Monocacy on the 9th,
and on the 11th appeared before Washington, his ap-
proach being heralded by wild reports of the magnitude
of the force under his command.
Had Early been a day sooner he might have entered
and captured the city with little difficulty, but the de-
lay occasioned by Wallace's defeat at the Monocacy
saved the Federal capital. The troops ordered to its
defence reached there on the 11th, and when Early,
on the morning of the 12th, prepared to attack, he
found the intrenchments full of men. He at once
began to retreat, and made his way with all haste
back to the Valley. His subsequent career may be
Quickly disposed of. On the 23d he defeated Gen.
Crook at Kernstown. Crossing the Potomac again,
he sent a cavalry force into Pennsylvania, which occu-
F. and burned the defenceless town of Chambers-
urg. Sheridan was now placed in command in the
Valley, and defeated Early in the successive battles of
Winchester and Fisher's Hill. On October 19 Early
surprised the Union force in camp at Cedar Creek,
and drove it back in great confusion towards Win-
chester. Sheridan, who had been absent at Washing-
ton, was on his way to the army from Winchester
while the battle was going on, and heard in the dis-
tance the roar of the cannon. Then took place the
remarkable incident of his dashing ride to the front,
his rallying of the fugitives by the magnetism of his
presence, and his turning of the tide of flight into an
irresistible charge on the hitherto victorious enemy.
Early's force was defeated and almost destroyed, only
a small remnant of the army escaping. This ended
the conflict in the Shenandoah §. Lee's diver-
sion had signally failed.
Returning to the siege of Petersburg, the next oc-
currence of notable interest was the mine explosion of
July 30. This attempt to mine the Confederate works
was originally proposed by Lieut.-Col. Henry Pleas-
ants, of the Forty-eighth Pennsylvania, a skilful min-
ing engineer. The mining operations were placed
under his charge, and were conducted so expeditiously
that by July 23 the mine was finished and charged
with 8000 pounds of gunpowder. It extended under
a Confederate salient that was opposite to Burnside's
position. The early morning of }.uly 30 was fixed for
the explosion, and a large, force gathered for the
charge, while orders were issued to threaten Lee's
right and divert his attention from the real point of
attack. At 4.45 A. M. on the 30th the explosion took
place. The effect was tremendous. An immense
mass of earth was hurled into the air, together with
stone, timber, cannon, muskets, and mutilated corpses;
200 men were killed, and a cavity torn in the 8.
ate lines 135 feet long, 90 wide, and 30 deep. A
heavy cannonade was at once opened all along the
line, to which the astonished and dismayed Confeder-
ates replied but feebly. The way seemed open for the
easy capture of this portion of Lee's works.
The opportunity was lost by delay. The charging
column moved slowly and feebly, halting in the crater
as if seeking shelter. A division of colored soldiers
attempted to storm the hill beyond, but the delay had
enabled the Confederates to recover from their sur-
prise, and these troops were driven back into the
crater. Here were huddled a large body of disordered
troops, on whom the Confederates, hurrying from all
quarters to the spot, poured a concentrated fire of
musketry and artillery. The slaughter was dreadful,
and a disorderly flight began. The result was a loss
to the Union forces of about 4400 men, mostly cap-
tured, and of less than 1000 to the Confederates; all
due, as Grant declares, to inefficiency of the corps
commander and incompetency of the division com-
mander who led the assault. An hour passed before
the Confederate fire was of any importance, and that
hour, if diligently employed, would have sufficed for
complete success.
The leading purpose of Grant's later operations was
to seize and hold the Weldon and Southside Railroads,
the latter of special importance from its usefulness as
a Confederate channel of supply and since its capture
would open the way to the possession of the Danville
#. the remaining channel of communication
between Richmond and the South. The possession of
this road would force the evacuation of Richmond and
the desertion of the formidable line of defensive
works which Lee's army had erected with such toil.
With this object in view Grant steadily extended his
lines south and west of Petersburg, while Lee faced
him at every point with new earthworks covering the
important arteries of travel which his antagonist.
RICHMOND.
379
wished to seize. The work of intrenching, however,
did not yet supersede all active measures of assault.
A vigorous attack was made on the Confederate works
to the north of the James on Aug. 13, and repeated
on the 16th, while on the 18th the Confederates as-
sailed and were repulsed. The result of these opera-
tions was a loss of about 5000 Union soldiers and nearly
as many Confederates, with no advantage in that
quarter beyond that of the depletion of Lee's weak-
ened ranks. ,'
This affair, however, served as a cover to a more
important one. Taking advantage of the absence of
many of Lee's troops, who had been sent to strengthen
the Richmond lines, Grant ordered a vigorous move-
ment, to secure possession of the Weldon Railroad.
On the 18th Warren advanced with the Fifth corps,
and reached the railroad without opposition. Leaving
Griffin to hold it, he moved with his other divisions
towards Petersburg, but ere he had advanced far a
Confederate force suddenly attacked his flank, taking
200 prisoners. The assailing force was soon repulsed,
and Warren held his ground, but with a loss of about
1000 men. On the following day Warren was at-
tacked in flank by a heavy force under Hill, Craw-
ford's and the right of Ayres' divisions being driven
back, with a loss of 2500 men as prisoners. But the
railroad was held, and reinforcements coming up Hill
hastily withdrew, suffering Warren to recover his lost
ground. He at once intrenched his position, satisfied
that Lee would do his utmost to recover the road.
Three days afterwards the expected attack came. A
cross fire of thirty guns was suddenly opened upon his
lines, and then two columns of infantry advanced, one
in his front and the other ön his flank. He was well
prepared, however, and easily repelled the front attack,
while the flanking column was driven back with a loss
of 500 prisoners. In this assault the Confederates lost
1200 men. Warren's total loss in the movement
was 4450 men, but he held possession of the road,
which Lee made no further effort at this point to re-
COV (2I.
On the day of this last battle, Aug. 21, Hancock
moved in Warren's rear and struck the Weldon Raii.
road at Reams' Station, at which point he was vigor-
ously attacked by Hill on the 25th, and after a des-
perate conflict forced to retire, with the loss of 2400
men, 1700 of whom were made prisoners. Hill's loss
was little less, and he also soon after retired. But
this success was of no avail to the Confederates. The
Weldon road was irretrievably lost, and the first step
in Grant's purpose of cutting off Lee's communication
with the South gained.
A month passed in comparative quiet, at the end
of which time another assault was made upon the
Confederate works, this time north of the James, in-
tended, as Grant states, to prevent Lee sending rein-
forcements to Early. Gen. Butler received orders to
cross the river with the Tenth and Eighteenth corps
under Ord and Birney, and Kautz's cavalry, and to
attempt by a rapid movement to capture Richmond
before Lee could move troops to its defence. The
river was crossed on bridges muffled with hay on the
night of the 28th, and on the 29th Battery Harrison,
the strongest fort in that part of the works, was
stormed and carried by Ord's corps, while a strong re-
doubt on Spring Hill was captured by a storming
column of colored troops from Birney's command.
These positions were strongly contested, both sides
losing heavily, and so important did the Confederates
consider Fort Harrison that a desperate effort was
made to retake it, under Gen. Lee's immediate direc-
tion. He massed some of his best troops against it,
but they were repulsed with severe loss, and the cap-
tured intrenchments held. Meanwhile Kautz with
the cavalry had reached a point within three or four
miies of Richmond, when he was attacked and driven
back with loss, his pursuers in their turn encountering
the Tenth corps and being repulsed with considerable
loss. The total Union losses in this enterprise were
2272 killed, wounded, and missing.
The attack on these intrenchments was only a part
of Grant's plan. While the Confederates were strug-
gling desperately in the vain effort to recover their lost
works, a vigorous movement was made by Warren on
the opposite end of the Union lines, in the direction of
the Southside Railroad. This movement took place
Oct. 1–2, the Confederates, who fought fiercely to
maintain their positions, being gradually pushed back
towards the Boydton road. As a result a position was
gained and held about three miles west of the Weldon
road, with a loss of about 2500 men. In this connec-
tion it is also necessary to speak of an effort made by
Gen. Butler to cut a cºf across a narrow neck of
land known as Dutch Gap on James River, which
would shorten the stream six or seven miles and
enable the fleet to flank several important Confederate
works. This effort failed, there not being depth
enough of water gained for the intended purpose, the
bulkhead, which was blown out with gunpowder, fall-
ing back and choking the channel.
The next offensive movement was made by the Con-
federate forces. On Oct. 7, Kautz's cavalry, north of
the James River, was attacked and driven back, losing
heavily in killed, wounded, and missing, and all its
artillery. This was followed by an attack in force on
the Union intrenchments, which was repulsed with
severe slaughter. On the 13th Butler made an assault
on some new Confederate works, and was similarly
repulsed. One further advance movement was made
before the armies went into winter quarters. On Oct.
27, the Fifth and Ninth corps were put in motion
with the hope of flanking the Confederate lines and
seizing the Southside Railroad. Part of the force,
however, soon found itself in swampy ground covered
with dense thicket, which divided and disordered the
several divisions. ... At this juncture a portion of Hill's
corps suddenly fell on an advance brigade and drove it
back in confusion with the loss of two guns. The
triumphant Confederates pursued eagerly, but suddenly
found themselves in presence of a supporting column,
and were repulsed with a loss of 1000 prisoners, while
200 of their men rushed into Crawford's lines and
were also taken. A vigorous push at that moment
might have dispersed or destroyed the whole Confed-
erate division, but night was at hand, the Union com-
manders in ignorance of each other's position, and the
country impracticable. Night fell before anything of
importance could be accomplished. The losses on both
sides were heavy and nothing was gained in position,
the Union column being withdrawn during the night
to its former position.
This ended active operations for the winter. For a
period of nearly six months the armies had confronted
each other, fighting many severe battles, while in the
interval almost daily cannonading and picket-firing,
with occasional sanguinary encounters, took place along
the lines, the total loss from May 1 to Novemberi to
the Army of the Potomac being given at 88,387. If
to this be added the loss of the Army of the James the
grand total would be nearly 100,000. Of these 30,000
subsequently rejoined the army, making the eventual
loss 70,000. The Confederate loss during the same
period has been estimated at 40,000.
In was February, 1865, before further movements
of military importance took place. Grant's army had
been weakened to aid in operations elsewhere, particu-
larly those against Fort Fisher (q. v.), and the troops
lay at rest for months, the only movements being
cavalry raids outside the lines, and an ineffectual effort
on the part of the Confederates to send a squadron
through the canal at Dutch Gap and destroy the pon-
toon bridges below. On Feb. 3, 1865, a conference
was held at Hampton Roads between Pres, Lincoln,
Secretary Seward, and a party of peace commissioners,
including Vice-Pres. A. H. Stephens from the Con.
federacy. Nothing came of this, however, and it was
330
RICHMOND.
decided that the war should go on. Two days after-
wards (Feb. 5), another effort was made to win the
coveted prize of the Southside Railroad. It was
decided to throw a flanking column along Hatcher's
Run to the right of the Confederate works, take them
in reverse, turn north, and seize the road. This move-
ment was led by Warren, and included the Second and
Fifth corps and Gregg's cavalry.
The cavalry were successful in clearing the ground
in front of Reams' Station, and encamped for the night
on Rowanty Creek. Meanwhile the Second corps
crossed Hatcher's Run, and, finding the Confederates
in a strong position, threw up temporary earthworks
which were soon furiously assailed. The assault was
twice repeated, but in vain, and at nightfall the Con-
federates withdrew. During the night the Fifth corps
took position on the left of the Second, and other
corps were moved up within supporting distance.
Severe fighting took place on the 6th. Gregg's cavalry,
which now covered the Fifth corps, was heavily
assailed by Confederate cavalry, and towards evenin
pushed back to Hatcher's Run. Ayres and oj
were successively assailed and driven back, the assault
next falling on Humphreys, who held his ground and
repulsed the foe in disorder. The troops were now
ji. behind the earthworks which had been thrown
up on the previous day and stood firm, the result of
the conflict being the permanent extension of the
Union lines to Hatcher's Run. The Union loss was
nearly 2000, the Confederate about 1000 men.
Towards the end of March Grant prepared for still
more decided and aggressive movements. As a pre-
liminary it was important to destroy the Confederate
power north of the James, and Sheridan was sent
with a strong cavalry force for this purpose. With
about 10,000 men that dashing leader rode up through
the State, the first resistance .# importance being met at
Waynesboro, where Early, with 2500 men, was strongly
intrenched. Yet Custer, in the advance, rode over his
intrenchments and captured 1700 of his men, the re-
mainder being thoroughly dispersed. Custer lost less
than a dozen men. About a million dollars worth of
Confederate property was destroyed at Waynesboro and
in the district to the west of it, and on March 3 Sheridan
entered and took possession of Charlottesville, where
he made a thorough destruction of the railroads and
railroad property for eight miles southward. He now
pushed for the James River. Here he found the
bridges burned and the river too swollen with rains for
his pontoons to be available, so he turned eastward
destroyed the James River canal, an important channel
of supply to Richmond, burned bridges all over that
region, and dashing north-easterly tore up fifteen miles
of the Virginia Central Railroad. This done, he swept
round by the Pamunkey River and White House, and
rejoined the army on March 26. He had ruined 200
miles of railway, destroyed many bridges and great
quantities of stores, and effectually disabled the Con-
federate power north of Richmond, while so alarming
the authorities in that city that they began to,pack up
ready for flight. The field of operations was decidedly
narrowed by this vigorous raid.
On March 24 Grant issued orders for a general
movement on the 29th. Lee, perhaps expecting this,
perhaps in pursuance of some plan which ill success
rendered abortive, had devised a counter movement
against the Union lines, which was put into effect in
the early morning of March 25. It was directed against
Fort Steadman, a strong work in the central region of
the intrenchments, south of the Appomattox. It was
in front of the Ninth corps, and formed a salient about
100 yards distant from the Confederate intrenchments.
Gen. J. B. Gordon had command of the assaulting
column, of 3000 or 4000 men, with strong forces ready in
reserve. At 4 A. M., March 25, the movement began
in a stealthy advance over the intervening ground. In
a few minutes the column, unobserved, was in front of
the fort, and was dashing up its parapets before the
garrison were fairly aware of their danger. No resist-
ance was attempted, those who were not made prison-
ers fled, and the guns of the captured work were turned
upon the neighboring redoubts, compelling their hasty
evacuation. The moment was come for the supporting
column to press forward, disperse the troops in rear of
the fort, seize the City Point Railroad, and force
Grant to some hasty action in defence of his base of
supplies. This was not done. For some unknown
reason the advance was not made, and the promising
opportunity was lost. Gordon was left to bear the
brunt of the assault which quickly fell upon his late
victorious troops. Fort Hascall, to the left of Fort
Steadman, opened on it a terrific fire, under cover of
which a heavy column of infantry advanced, and a
scene ensued not unlike that which followed the mine
explosion. The assailants were in a trap. It was im-
possible to escape, for the space leading to their own
works was swept by artillery fire. Of those that sought
to fly the greater number fell, and the bulk of the
assailants surrendered rather than attempt it. The
attack had failed, Lee's army had been depleted to
the extent of 4000 men, and Meade, surmising that
Lee must have weakened his lines for this move-
ment. ordered a general advance of the Second and
Sixth corps. As a result the strongly intrenched
picket line of the Confederates was seized and per-
manently held.
The attempt to create a diversion in favor of the
Confederates had signally failed, and the preparations
for the designed movement of the Union army went
actively on. A movement in great force was designed,
for the general purpose, as Grant states, of placing
himself in position to check the flight of Lee's army,
which he feared might take place at any moment, and
also for the capture of the works covering the South-
side Railroad, the possession of which would leave Lee
but a single avenue of supply. Lee's intrenched line
now extended south-westward from Petersburg to and
for some distance beyond the junction of Hatcher's
Run with the Boydton road, while four miles westward
was a detached line of works, stretching along the
White Oak road and covering a strategic point at the
junction of several highways known as the Five Forks.
It was against the latter intrenchments, the extreme
right of Lee's works, that the grand turning column
began its march, on the morning of March 29. The
Ninth corps, under Gen. Parke, and part of the Army
of the James, under Gen. Weitzel, were left to hold the
line of Federal intrenchments, and the remainder of
the army was put in motion.
Sheridan was sent with the cavalry with orders to
ride round the Confederate lines and seek to destroy
the contested railroads. He rested for the night at
Dinwiddie Court-House, several miles south of Five
Forks. On the morning of the 30th he received orders
from Grant to change his plan, push round the enemy
to his rear, and co-operate with the infantry column.
The latter, consisting of the Fifth and Second corps,
led by Warren and Humphreys, had met some opposi-
tion on the 29th, Warren losing 370 men, but repulsing
the enemy. They rested for the night in front of the
Confederate works on the line of the White Oak road.
Lee made hasty efforts to protect the imperilled
point, but left the major part of his army to defend his
works, not knowing but the movement might be a ruse
to cover an attack elsewhere. The force sent to Five
Forks numbered about 15,000 infantry, with Fitzhugh
Lee's cavalry. During all day of the 30th it rained
furiously, making the roads almost impassable, and the
Union troops remained in their lines. On the morning
of the 31st the rain had ceased, but the ground was
still so muddy that it was deemed inadvisable to move.
Lee thought otherwise. His situation was desperate,
and he felt it necessary to repel the line before him.
Sheridan was too far distant to cover Warren's left
flank, and on this flank, which was entangled in the
intricacies of a swampy forest, there fell a sudden and
RICHMOND.
381
vigorous Confederate charge. Ayres's division was
driven back in confusion, falling upon and breaking
Crawford's, and for a moment disaster threatened the
Union army. But Griffin's division stood firm, the
broken troops rallied behind it, and soon a counter-
charge was made which struck the Confederates on
their left flank and hurled them back behind their in- e
trenchments with a heavy loss, mostly of men made now evident.
prisoners. At the same time Humphreys tried to
carry the works in his front, but failed. Meanwhile,
Sheridan had advanced part of his cavalry towards Five
Forks. These encountered and drove back the Con-
federate cavalry, but the latter were reinforced with
infantry, and Sheridan's men in turn were driven back
to Dinwiddie Court-House. Here they joined the
main body, the cavalry were deployed on foot, and the
pursuers were in their turn repulsed. Night fell before
they could renew the attack.
Early on the morning of April 1 Sheridan was
reinforced by an infantry division of the Fifth corps,
and at once started in pursuit of his late assailants. As
he advanced he was joined by the remainder of the
corps. Leaving the infantry at the point where they
.# joined him, he pressed boldly on with the cavalry,
and by 2 P. M. had driven the enemy into their works
at Five Forks. Halting here, he ordered Warren to
advance to the White Oak road and attack the Con-
federate works. There was considerable delay in this
movement, and the advancing column met with resist-
ance which threw a part of the line into disorder, but
this was soon remedied, and Ayres made an impetuous
charge on the Confederate right, carrying a portion of
the line and capturing more than a thousand men with
several battle-flags. At the same time Merritt's cavalry
charged the line in his front, and Griffin carried the
works on the left, taking 1500 prisoners. While this
was proceeding Crawford turned the left of the Con-
federate line, cut off retreat in the direction of Peters-
burg, and turning southward struck the enemy in the
rear, capturing four guns. The Confederates were
now in a desperate situation, with the cavalry on their
front and right, the infantry on their left and rear, yet
they continued to fight manfully, until simultaneously
the cavalry charged over the works, and Ayres and
Griffin, turning their flanks, bore down on them in a
furious assault. Defence was no longer possible, many
of the defenders threw down their arms, while the rest
sought safety in a westward flight, in which they were
pursued for miles by Merritt's and McKenzie’s cav-
alry. Thus ended the battle of Five Forks, the Union
loss being about 1000, the Confederate loss about 6000
in prisoners, besides a large number killed and wounded.
It had a much more important result, however. It
opened the Southside Railroad to capture, and reduced
Lee to a single channel of communication with the
South. But Sheridan could not overlook Gen. War-
ren's want of promptness at a critical time, and on
April 2d sent him to Gen. Grant, who approved Sheri-
dan's action and assigned Warren to less arduous duty.
The success at Five Forks was immediately followed
by a bombardment of the works around Petersburg,
which was kept up throughout the night and followed
by a general assault in the morning. This assault was
successful at nearly every point. The works in the
vicinity of Hatcher's Run were taken, and about 3000
prisoners with much artillery captured, while the
Southside Railroad was reached at several points. At
the same time the Ninth corps attacked and carried the
lines in its front, driving back the enemy to the
inner line of works immediately around Petersburg.
Here the Confederates were concentrated and strong,
Longstreet's corps being brought up from the defences
of Richmond. Vigorous efforts were made to regain
Some of the works, which had been carried by the
Ninth corps, Heth charging at the head of his division,
and pressing so heavily that supporting troops had to
be ordered up from City Point. In this movement
A. P. Hill, one of the best of Lee's corps commanders,
was shot dead. Heth was repulsed, and two strong
works close to Petersburg, Forts Gregg and Whitworth,
carried by assault. Meanwhile Sheridan and Miles had
captured an intrenched work at Sutherland Station, on
the Southside Railroad. The prisoners taken during
this series of assaults Grant states at 12,000.
That Richmond must be evacuated, and at once, was
Any delay would have subjected the de-
fending army to the danger of having every avenue of
supply and retreat cut off. The Confederate authori-
ties were advised of the necessity of flight. A wild
panic prevailed in the city, and about 8 P. M. Pres.
Davis left by the Danville Railroad, while by midnight
all the Confederate authorities had departed. The
army had similarly been making preparations for a
hasty departure. Along the north bank of the Appo-
mattox moved long lines of infantry and artillery
through the gloom of the night, over the roads leading
to Amelia Court-House. By midnight the evacuation
was completed. As morning approached the marching
troops saw in the distance behind them a blinding flash
of light, followed by a loud explosion, while a lurid
glare lit up the gloom of the skies. The first was the
blowing up of the magazine at Fort Drewry, the second
the conflagration of the city itself, which had been left
in flames.
This arose from the attempt to destroy certain large
warehouses of cotton, tobacco, and other property,
which Gen. Ewell had been ordered by the War De-
partment to set on fire, despite the remonstrances of
prominent citizens. hen the warehouses were in
flames a fresh breeze carried the fire to other buildings,
while an intoxicated mob, partly composed of soldiers,
reeled through the streets, pillaging stores and commit-
ting other excesses, perhaps firing other buildings.
The fire spread till nearly a third of the city was laid in
ashes. The explosion of the magazine and of several
Confederate iron-clads that were blown up, and the
subsequent glare of the burning city, apprised the be-
siegers of wi. was going on. Early on April 3 Gen.
Weitzel, in command north of the city, marched in and
took possession, and at once endeavored to extinguish
the conflagration and check the excesses of the mob.
On the same morning it became evident that the de-
fenders of Petersburg i. vanished during the night.
They had stolen away so silently as to give no warning
of their flight. The abandoned works were at once
entered, and the whole army started in pursuit. Sheri-
dan, with the cavalry and the Fifth corps, was already
well out to the west, and moved so expeditiously that
by afternoon of the 14th he had struck the Danville
Railroad at Jetersville, seven miles south-west of
Amelia Court-House, and directly across Lee's line of
retreat to Danville.
Meanwhile Lee was in unexpected difficulties. He
had marched directly to Amelia Court-House, at which
point he had directed a provision train to be left, but
some stupid official had sent the provision cars forward
to Richmond with the remainder of the train, and the
much-needed supplies were being consumed in the con-
flagration of that city at the moment when the hungry
troops reached the point where they expected to find
them. This error was fatal to Lee's hopes. Whatever
his plans, whether to reach the mountains or to attack
the detached columns of his pursuers, the need of food
became paramount, and a large part of his force had
to be sent out to forage for supplies.
Not until the evening of the 5th could the retreat be
resumed, and then with a very inadequate supply of
food. , Sheridan was by this time too strongly rein-
forced to be safely attacked, and the line of march was
directed westward, towards the mountain region. On
that evening a Confederate train of 180 wagons, mov-
ing westward, had been destroyed by a party of cav-
alry, and on the 6th the force at Jetersville advanced
upon Amelia Court-House to attack Lee, who, how-
ever, had left that, place, and was marching rapidly
towards Deatonsville. The cavalry followed at full
38.2
RICHMOND.
speed, while the infantry was pushed forward with all
rapidity. Sheridan was seeking to outmarch Lee and
head off his columns. Near Deatonsville he sent
Crook to attack a Confederate wagon train, which was
strongly defended. Crook was repulsed, but mean-
while Custer had reached the line of retreat at Sailor's
Creek, a small stream farther on. Here, being joined
by Crook and Devens, he pierced the Confederate line,
not only capturing 400 wagons, 16 guns, and many men,
but cutting off Ewell's corps, which formed the rear
guard of Lee's army. Sheridan at once ordered this
. to be attacked and detained till additional troops
could come up. Ewell's resistance was vigorous, but
his assailants increased until he was enveloped in a net-
work of charging horse and foot, when his men threw
down their arms and surrendered. About 7000 men
were made prisoners, among them Ewell and four or
five other generals.
At this time Ord was moving rapidly towards Farm-
ville on the line of retreat, and had sent forward a
light column of infantry, under Col. Washburn, to de-
stroy the bridges at this point. Later Gen. Read was
sent with some cavalry to bring him back, but, on the
contrary, he attacked the van of Lee's army and de-
tained it for a considerable time. In the end Read
was killed, and all that remained of his force of 600
men captured, the enemy saving the bridges. But
Read's daring attack had occasioned the Confederates
the loss of much valuable time, during which Ord was
rapidly approaching. During the night Lee succeeded
in crossing the Appomattox over the bridges at Farm-
ville with what was left of his shattered army. He
tried to prevent pursuit by burning the bridges, but
the van of Humphreys' corps saved the wagon-bridge,
and Barlow's brigade was soon across it. Only a weak
rear guard was found, which quickly retreated, aban-
doning 18 guns, which their draught animals were too
weak to draw farther. Of the men numbers had
dropped from the ranks, thousands had let fall their
muskets from sheer weakness, and the half-starved
remnant of the army, worn out with want of sleep and
food and the weariness of the march, dragged slowly
onward over the muddy roads and the streams swollen
with the spring rains.
On the night of April 6 a consultation had been
held by a number of Lee's principal officers, at which
it was decided that further resistance was hopeless, and
that negotiations should be opened for a surrender.
Gen. Pendleton communicated this decision to Gen.
Lee, but the latter declared that all hope was not yet
lost, and that he was still determined to resist. There
were supplies at Appomattox Court-House. Could he
obtain these and cross the Staunton River he might be
able to maintain himself beyond that stream until a
junction could be made with Gen. J. E. Johnston,
then in North Carolina. A slight success in battle en-
couraged him. Humphreys had crossed the Appo-
mattox in pursuit with the Second corps, and came up
in the afternoon of the 7th with the rear of Lee's
army. He found it intrenched, the roads being de-
fended with a line of works extending for a consider-
able distance. An assault was made by Miles's di-
vision, which was repulsed with a loss of about 600
IO €Il.
Meanwhile Sheridan was pushing forward, with all
speed, making every effort to get in Lee's front and
cut off the route to Lynchburg which the fugitive
army was pursuing. In the rear the infantry forces
were moving with the utmost celerity, the whole Army
of the Potomac being on the track of the fugitives, who
were now reduced to about 10,000 effective men,
though they numbered in all about 28,000. Many
were defenceless from having thrown away their arms
in the hurry of flight. On the 8th the retreat, being
uninterrupted, progressed more expeditiously than on
the previous day. Two days' rations had been ob-
tained at Farmville on the evening of the 6th, while
further supplies awaited the retreating army at Ap-
pomattox Court-House, toward which place it now
strained forward.
But Sheridan was advancing rapidly upon the same
point. On the 7th Gen. Crook had attacked a body
of infantry guarding a wagon-train, but was repulsed
and Gen. Gregg made prisoner. On the 8th Gen.
Custer, in command of the advance, made a forced
march of thirty miles to Appomattox Station on the
Lynchburg Railroad, and captured four trains of cars
loaded with the supplies upon which the last hopes of
the fugitives had depended. The vanguard of the
retreating army was just then approaching, and was
pushed back by Custer, who had been reinforced by
Devlin, to Appomattox Court-House, near which was
Lee's main body; twenty-five guns, many wagons, and
a large number of prisoners were captured. Sheridan
hurried forward the remainder of his command, and
on the evening of the 8th the cavalry column stood
directly across the pathway of Lee's army, while the
infantry were advancing by forced marches upon its
front and rear. The last moments of the Army of
Northern Virginia were at hand.
During the last two days correspondence had been
going on between Grant and Lee in reference to sur-
render. Grant at 5 P.M. on the 7th wrote, demanding
a surrender, as further resistance was hopeless. Lee
replied, asking what terms he would offer. Grant
rejoined on the morning of the 8th, insisting upon
but one condition, that the men and officers surren-
dered should be disqualified from taking up arms
again until properly exchanged. Lee replied that he
had not intended to propose surrender, but to ask
for terms only, and did not think the emergency had
arisen for the surrender of his army, but would be
pleased to meet Grant at 10 o'clock on the following
morning, to confer on the question of the restoration
of peace, but not upon surrender. Grant rejoined
that such a conference would be useless, and that only
by the Confederates laying down their arms could
peace be secured and the destruction of life and
property brought to an end.
Lee was well aware that his last hope lay in cutting
his way through Sheridan's lines before they could be
strengthened by infantry. Orders for an advance were
given, and at 3 A. M. on the 9th the Confederate lines
moved silently forward. Gordon commanded the ad-
vancing column, which was supported with cavalry
and thirty pieces of artillery. The charge on Sheridan's
men, who had dismounted to meet it, was made with
such energy that they were driven back. Sheridan,
who had just reached the front, and was hurrying u
the wearied infantry, sent orders to the cavalry to i
back slowly, but to offer resistance at every point
until assistance could reach them. Gordon's line con-
tinued to advance while this movement was being
made, when the cavalry suddenly opened its ranks,
and revealed to the eyes of the dismayed Confederates
a solid line of men in whose hands glittered muskets
and bayonets. The infantry had arrived, and the last
hope of the fugitive army vanished.
§º sent back to Lee, saying that it was impos-
sible to continue his advance without powerful rein-
forcements. No such reinforcements could be sent
and but one course remained—to treat for surrender.
The bugles had sounded and the cavalry again sprung
to their saddles, ready to charge, when a white flag
appeared in token of surrender. At the same time a
reply from Lee to Grant's last note was sent across
the lines, in which he agreed to a meeting in refer-
ence to surrender. Grant, who was hurrying forward
to the front when he received Lee's note, at once
returned an assenting answer, and arrangements were
made for the interview in the parlor of the dwelling
of Wilmer McLean, at Appomattox Court-House.
Here the meeting between the two commanders took
place, at 2 P. M. on Palm Sunday, April 9. The terms
of surrender were discussed and settled, and were
signed about 3.30. Grant's offer of terms was very
RICKETTS-RIEL.
383
kenient. He simply required that Lee, with his officers
and men, should give their parole of honor not to
take up arms against the government until regularly
exchanged. All military material and public property
was to be handed over, but the officers were allowe
to retain their side-arms and private horses and bag-
gage. Officers and men were to be allowed to return
to their homes, and not to be disturbed by United
States authority so long as they observed their paroles
and obeyed the laws. In addition to these written
terms Grant agreed, at Lee's suggestion, to allow all
Confederate cavalry that owned their horses to retain
them, saying that they would need them to till their
farms.
At Lee's request the exhausted Confederates, who
had been living for several days on parched corn,
were granted rations, which were served to them out
of the car-loads of provisions which had been captured
by the cavalry. On Wednesday, the 12th, the captive
soldiers were marched to an appointed place near the
village, where they stacked their arms and gave their
paroles, each company or regimental commander signing
the parole for the men of his command. The total
º: paroled was 2781 officers and 25,450 men,
making 28,231 in all. In addition there had been
taken prisoners, since March 29, 19,132 Confederates,
besides the large number killed and wounded and all
those that had dropped from the ranks during Lee's
headlong flight, so that Lee's army at the time of the
general assault must have numbered considerably over
50,000 men.
Thus ended the career of the Army of Northern
Virginia, whose members at once dispersed, the soldiers
hasting to their homes in all directions, while Gen.
Lee returned alone to Richmond, where for some
months he resided as a private citizen. His surrender
brought the war to an end in all quarters. Johnston,
as soon as he heard of it, at once proposed to surrender
to Sherman, and what troops remained in arms
throughout the Confederacy quickly followed the ex-
ample, the last to surrender being a force under
Kirby Smith, in Texas, who continued to resist till
May 13, when their main body was surrounded and
forced to yield. Smith's formal surrender was made
on May 26, and with it ended the last show of resist-
ance in the great civil war, which for four years had
spread ruin and desolation throughout the º )
C. M.
RICKETTS, JAMES BREWERTON (1817–1887), gen-
eral, was born in New York, June 21, 1817. He
graduated at West Point in 1839 and entered the artil-
lery service. He was engaged in frontier duty until
the Mexican war, in which he served with distinction
at Monterey and Buena Vista. He was again em-
ployed on the frontiers and in 1859 had an engage-
ment with the Mexican bandit Cortinas. At the out-
break of the civil war he was placed in command of a
battery of rifled guns, which i. used skilfully at the
battle of Bull Run. But being severely wounded, he was
captured and for eight months was a prisoner in Rich-
mond. His commission as brigadier-general was made
to date from the battle. He commanded a division in
the Third corps of Gen. Pope's army, and was wounded
in the second battle of Bull Run. At Antietam, when
Gen. Hooker was wounded, Ricketts succeeded to the
command of his corps. He was engaged in the sub-
sequent campaigns against Richmond and in the Shen-
andoah Valley, and reached the rank of major-general.
He was retired from active service in 1867, and served
in courts-martial for two years longer. He died at
Washington, D.C., Sept. 22, 1887.
RIDDLE, MATTHEW BROWN, exegete, was born
at Pittsburg, Oct. 17, 1836. He graduated at Jeffer-
Son College, Philadelphia, Pa., in 1852, and at New
Brunswick Theological Seminary in 1859. After a
year's study in Germany, he became in 1861 chaplain
of a New Jersey regiment, and then held pastorates
of Reformed churches at Hoboken and Newark. After
d Allegheny, Pa.
a second visit to Europe he was in 1871 appointed
professor of New Testament exegesis in the artford
Theological Seminary, and in 1887 was called thence to
the Western Presbyterian Theological Seminary at
Dr. Riddle was a member of the
American Committee on the revision of the New Tes-
tament, translated and edited four Pauline Epistles in
Dr. Schaff's edition of Lange's Commentary (1869),
and contributed to Dr. Schaff's later commentaries.
He also revised Dr. Edward Robinson's Harmºny of
the Gospels, Greek (1885) and English (1886). To the
American edition of the Ante-Nicene Fathers he edited
the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles and Second Clem-
ent, and contributed to the Nicene Fathers. He has
also prepared and edited other works relating to the
New Testament, and has contributed to this work
several articles on New Testament topics.
RIDGWAY, ROBERT, ornithologist, was born at
Mt. Carmel, Ill., July 2, 1850. At an early age he
showed fondness for natural history and a correspond-
ence with Spencer F. Baird (q.v.) in 1864 led to his
appointment a few years later as naturalist in Clarence
King's U. S. geological survey of the 40th parallel.
In the Report of this exploration he edited the depart-
ment of ornithology. e was afterwards connected
with other government surveys, and in 1879 was º:
pointed curator of the department of birds in the U.
S. National Museum. e has published over 200
papers on ornithology, including several catalogues.
He was associated with S. F. Baird and T. M. Brewer
in preparing a History of North American Birds (3
vols., 1874), and has since published Water Birds of
North America (1884), Nomenclature of Colors for
Naturalists (1886), and Manual of North American
Birds (1887). -
RIEDESEL, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH, BARON Von
(1738–1800), Hessian general, was born at Lauterbach,
Hesse, June 3, 1738. He studied at Marburg Uni-
versity, and entering the army was employed iy the
British in the Seven Years' War. Having risen to the
rank of major-general in 1776, he was sent to America
in command of a division of Brunswick troops, hired
to Great Britain. His wife, daughter of the Prussian
minister Massow, accompanied him. After a year spent
in Canada, Riedesel was called to take part in Bur-
goyne's expedition. He fought at Ticonderoga, Still-
water, and Saratoga, and surrendered with Burgoyne
Oct. 17, 1777. With his wife he was taken to Albany,
where Gen. Philip Schuyler handsomely entertained
them until they were ordered to Cambridge, Mass.
He remained a prisoner until November, 1780, havin
spent some time in Virginia. He next had comman
of Long Island, but in 1781 went to Canada and two
years later returned to Germany. In 1787 he became
lieutenant-general and had command of the Brunswick
troops in Holland until 1794, when he was placed in
charge of the city of Brunswick, where he died Jan.
6, 1800. Both Baron Riedesel and his wife wrote
interesting Letters and Journals of their residence in
America, which give valuable side-light on the war of
the Revolution. ... They were translated and edited by
W. L. Stone (Albany, 1867 and 1868).
RIEL, LOUIS (1844–1885), Canadian rebel, was born
at St. Boniface, Manitoba, Oct. 23, 1844. His father
was a leader of an Indian revolt against the rule of the
Hudson Bay Company in 1849. The son was educated
in the Jesuit College at Montreal, and in 1869 was
made secretary of a committee of the Metis, or half-
breeds, of the North-west Territory, to demand from
the Dominion of Canada part of the sum paid to the
Hudson Bay Company for its lands. When this was
refused, he was made president of a provisional govern-
ment at Fort Garry. On the approach of Sir Garnet
Wolseley's expedition, early in 1870, Riel fled from
the country but afterwards returned and was not
molested. In 1873 he was elected to the Dominion
Parliament, but was not permitted to take his Seat,
and after a second election he was expelled. In Feb.
384
RIGGS—RIOTS.
ruary, 1875, he was sentenced to banishment for five
years, and forfeiture of political rights. He removed to
Montana, but in July, 1884, returned to his former
haunts and fomented rebellion. In March, 1885, he
again attempted to form a government and attacked
employés of the Dominion. The rebellion was sup-
F. by Gen. Middleton and Riel was carried to
egina for trial. He was convicted of treason and ex-
ecuted Nov. 16, 1885. There is strong proof that he
was insane, and the French Canadians whº sympathized
with his actions strongly denounced the government
for its harsh measures towards him.
RIGGS, ELIAS, missionary, was born at New Prov-
idence, N. J., Nov. 19, 1810. He graduated at
Amherst College, Mass., in 1829, and at Andover
Seminary in 1832. While here he prepared some
Chaldee text-books. He was then sent by the Amer-
ican Board of Missions to Greece, and in 1838 trans-
ferred his work to Smyrna. In 1853 he removed to
Constantinople, where he has since remained, except
wº visiting the United States in the interest of his
WOTK.
translation of the Bible into the modern Armenian
language stereotyped, and during his stay taught He-
brew in the Union Theological Seminary. He translated
the Bible also into the Bulgarian language and pre-
pared a Bible Dictionary and Harmony of the Gospels
in that language. The translation of the Bible into
modern Turkish, having been thoroughly revised by a
committee of which he was a member, was issued in
1886. Dr. Riggs has also prepared grammatical works
on the Armenian, Turkish, and Bulgarian languages,
and published tracts and hymns in those tongues. He
also published suggestions of emendations for the
English Old Testament (1873) and modifications of the
revised version of the New Testament (1883).
RIGGS, STEPHEN RETURN (1812–1883), missionary,
was born at Steubenville, Ohio, March 23, 1812. He
graduated at Jefferson College, Pa., in 1834, and hav-
ing entered the Presbyterian ministry was sent by the
American Board to a mission near Fort Snelling in
1837. His service was among the Dakotas, for whom
he prepared various books, as well as a Dakota Vocabu-
lary (1852) and Grammar and Dictionary of the Da-
kota Language (1852). During the Sioux war of
1862 Dr. Riggs and his family were obliged to flee.
He then became chaplain of the expedition that
marched against the hostile Indians. is later years
were spent in field-work during the Summer and in
translating the Bible into Dakota during the winter.
This translation was published in 1879. , Dr. Riggs
died at Beloit, Wis., Aug. 24, 1883. Besides ;
works in the Indian tongue, he published Tahkoo
Wakan, or the Gospel among the Dakotas (1869) and
Forty Years among the Siouac (1880). Altogether he
published about fifty books relating to the language
and the people to whom his life was devoted.
RILEY, CHARLES WALENTINE, entomologist, was
born in London, England, Sept. 18, 1843. He was
educated in France and Germany and in 1860 removed
to the United States. Settling in Illinois he became
practically acquainted with farm-life and edited an
agricultural journal. In May, 1864, he entered the
army and served till the close of the war. He then
returned to his editorial work and in 1868 was made
State entomologist of Missouri. His later work is
sketched under AGRICULTURE, chap. ix., at end. He
has contributed several articles to this work.
RINEHART, WILLIAM HENRY (1825–1874), sculp-
tor, was born near Frederick, Md., Sept. 25, 1825.
His early life was spent on a farm, but in 1846 he
went to Baltimore, where he became a stonecutter.
Soon his taste for high art was developed and he
began modelling in clay. In 1855 he went to Italy
and in 1858 he settled at Rome, though he made oc-
casional visits to Baltimore. ... He completed the
modelling of the bronze doors of the U. S. Capitol at
Washington, left unfinished by Crawford. Among
In 1857 he came to New York to have his T
his ideal works were The Angel of the Resurrection,
The Woman of Samaria, Leander, Hero, St. Cecilia,
Latona and her Children, Atalanta, and above all,
Clytie, which he considered his masterpiece. It now
belongs to the Peabody Institute of Baltimore, and in
that city many others of his works have found
owners, Besides numerous portrait busts, he executed
for the State of Maryland the heroic statue of Chief.
Justice Taney at Annapolis. Rinehart was cut off
prematurely at Rome, Oct. 28, 1874. He bequeathed
$45,000 for a lectureship in Baltimore on sculpture
and a fund for needy art-students. -
RIOTS. The general principles of the law in regard
to riots are the same in the United States as in Eng-
See Vol. XX land. The different degrees of crim-
*..." (p. 57; inality on the part of those º:
Knºe!. in a riot are defined in substantially the
º e A to same manner, but the penalties are gen-
erally milder than those imposed by the English stat-
utes. The course to be pursued by the authorities in
suppressing a riot is essentially the same as in England.
he “riot act,” which it is the duty of the sheriff,
mayor, or other officer to read or attempt to read before
proceeding to extreme measures, is almost identical in
words and quite identical in substance with the Eng-
lish statute. The circumstances which justify and
require the summoning of the military to the aid of the
civil authorities are in substance the same, and the
duties imposed upon them and their responsibilities
are the same.
In law as well as in popular language and thought
the chief characteristic of a riot is the sense of insecu-
rity, the terror and distress which it causes among
peaceable and quiet citizens. It is a breach of the
peace on a great scale, aiming at the injury of individ-
uals and the destruction of property in a tumultuous,
disorderly, violent, and unlawful manner. The ulti-
mate cause of a riot may sometimes be found in the ex-
istence of evils which afford just ground of complaint
on the part of large classes º persons. But it almost
invariably happens that an attempt to remedy such
evils, by means of a riot, only ends in their aggrava-
tion. A large majority, however, of riots originate in
pºlice superstition, or ignorance, and are unmixed
GVLIS.
Many riots have become historical from their mag-
nitude and from destruction of property and the blood-
shed by which they were accompanied. We can here
notice only a few, which may serve as characteristic
specimens of such occurrences.
A minute and accurate knowledge of the anatomy
of the human body is the indispensable foundation of
the science of medicine. Such knowledge can only be
acquired by the dissection of the body. But, even in
the most civilized countries, large classes of the people,
especially the more ignorant, have always regarded this
treatment of the human body with aversion and horror,
considering it as a kind of sacrilege. Hence the medi-
cal profession and especially medical students have in
all countries been exposed to outbursts of popular fury.
One of the most noteworthy of these outbursts occurred
in the city of New York in 1788, and is known as the
“Doctors' riot.” In 1785 Dr. Richard Bailey obtained
permission to use some rooms in City Hospital for
delivering anatomical lectures to medical students and
for use in making dissections and preserving anatomi-
cal preparations. Gradually there sprang up among
the working classes a general belief that the medical
students were stealing bodies from the cemeteries. On
Sunday, April 13, 1788, some boys playing about the
hospital found a ladder which afforded access to an
upper window, and one, looking in, saw a student en-
gaged in dissecting a body. He told his father, who
spread the story among his fellow-workmen, and a
crowd armed with their tools and other weapons gath-
ered. The whole city was soon in an uproar; the hos-
pital was surrounded and the doors broken in. The
collection of anatomical specimens was destroyed. The
RIOTS. 385
©
discovery of several “subjects” inflamed the fury of
the mob, who now began to threaten, the whole medi-
cal profession. Physicians took refuge in the jail,
where they were guarded by the hastily summoned
militia. Dr. Cochrane's house was ransacked in a
fruitless search for subjects, while Dr. Hicks escaped
by the roof. During the night bands of rioters marched
through the streets, and the next morning were joined
by some sailors. They now attempted to storm the
jail, threatening to hang all the doctors. Gov. Clinton,
Mayor Duane, Secretary Jay, Baron Steuben, Alexan-
der Hamilton, and other prominent citizens endeavored
to stay the fury of the mob. Appeals and threats were
alike in vain. Finally, after Mr. Jay, Baron Steuben,
and others had been badly wounded by stones, the
governor gave the militia the order to fire. One volley
sufficed. Five of the rioters were killed, seven or eight
º wounded, and the rest fled. The riot was at an
€I) Ol.
Whenever a widely extended abuse has become
interwoven with the apparent interests, the prejudices,
and the passions of large portions of the people, the
early reformers who give utterance to protests against
it are liable to encounter riotous demonstrations.
From 1830 to 1840 riots of which the anti-slavery men
were the victims were frequent in different parts of
the United States. These riots were not, perhaps,
intentionally but none the less effectually stimulated
by the language and conduct of the most respectable
citizens. In the summer of 1834 a mob attacked the
houses of Arthur and Louis Tappan, prominent anti-
slavery men. Having sacked the houses, they made
a huge bonfire of the plundered furniture in the middle
of the street. Mayor Lawrence called out the militia
and they assembled in front of the city-hall. Mean-
time the mob surrounded the residence of the Rev.
Dr. S. H. Cox (q.v.), barricaded the streets, and were
proceeding to demolish the house. The militia, march-
ing to its defence, were assailed with stones and other
missiles, but finally succeeded in dispersing the mob
without firing upon them. -
f riots originating in religious bigotry one of the
most disgraceful that ever occurred in the United
States was that which resulted in the burning of the
Ursuline Convent in Charlestown, Mass., in 1834. The
Ursuline order of nuns of the Roman Catholic Church
was instituted in 1536, for the purpose of administer-
ing relief to the sick and the afflicted and of superin-
tending the education of female youth.
In 1820, with the aid of funds contributed by a
native citizen of Boston, four ladies of this order estab-
lished a school in that city. In 1826 they removed to
Charlestown, where a building erected for them was
enlarged as the fame of the school increased. The
number of nuns varied from four to ten, and the only
restrictions upon their intercourse with outside society
were such as are considered proper in any well-regulated
female seminary. . The number of pupils varied from
40 to 60, mostly children from respectable Protestant
families, and the teaching was entirely free from any
attempt to influence the religious convictions of the
pupils. But the fact that the institution was called a
99nvent and was under the patronage of the Roman
Catholic Church excited the hostility of many people of
Charlestown and the adjoining towns, who gave cre-
dence to absurd rumors. On Aug. 10, 1834, an inflam-
matory handbill was posted in various places. On the
11th the select men of Charlestown applied for permis.
Sion to examine the interior of the building. Accom-
|. by the very lady who, it had been reported,
had been forcibly detained and put to death for attempt.
ing, to escape, they searched every nook and cranny,
and when they left they assured the lady-superintend.
ent that they would the next day in the public press
inform the people that everything about the institution
was of the most exemplary character. Yet, about 9
P. M. a mob began to gather around the building, which
then contained 10 adults and 60 children. Atil
o'clock the rioters commenced their attack. The lady:
superintendent twice appeared upon the piazza and
endeavored to reason with the mob. Finding this in
vain, she and her assistant gathered the children and
led them to the garden, where they remained terrified
spectators of the destruction of their home. Beds,
i. furniture, including costly pianos and harps,
were piled in the middle of the rooms. About 1 A. M.
the torches were applied and the whole was soon in
flames. The mob next attacked the library, or, as it
was called, the Bishop's lodge, which was burned to
the ground. Next they set fire to the farm-house and
barn belonging to the convent. Finally they even
broke open the tomb and wrenched the silver plates
from coffins. While these things were going on thou-
sands of people had assembled from Boston and the
adjoining towns, but the authorities to their lasting
disgrace did nothing to stay the work of destruction.
Scarcity of food i. in all ages and countries, been
a prolific source of riots. Such scarcity in almost all
cases is the effect of natural causes entirely beyond
human control. The immediate result is a rise in
prices, which the poorer classes of society almost
always attribute to the action of speculators, and often
by a riotous destruction of the very thing needed ag-
ravate the evils from which they are suffering. The
iº arising from the great financial revulsion of
1836 was augmented by a partial failure of the crops.
It became necessary to import large quantities of wheat
from Europe. During the winter of 1836–37 the price
of flour in New York city rose to $15 a barrel, and the
distress among the poor was very great. Early in
February placards were posted in streets headed :
“BREAD ! MEAT 1 RENT | FUEL | Their prices must
come down,” and calling a meeting in the park. About
6000 persons, mostly foreigners, assembled, and after
listening to inflammatory harangues, started to attack
the dealers in flour and grain. Mr. Eli Hart was re-
i. to have over 50,000 bbls. of flour in his store,
esides a large quantity of wheat. Thither the mob
proceeded, and though the mayor with a large force of
police endeavored to defend the building, his men were
soon overpowered, the doors were broken in, and hun-
dreds of barrels of flour were pitched into the street.
They were broken by the fall, and the strange spectacle
was presented of men who claimed to be starving
trampling knee-deep in flour. Other stores were at:
tacked, but large numbers of citizens joined with the
police, and by nightfall the rioters were dispersed.
Of riots founded upon personal considerations stimu-
lated by national prejudices, perhaps the most remark-
able that has ever occurred in the United States was
that known as the “Astor Place Riot.” The trage-
dian Edwin Forrest, having met an unfavorable recep-
tion in England, attributed the hostile criticisms of the
English press to the influence of W. C. Macready. In
|S49 the latter came to the United States to play a
farewell engagement, which was so successful that he
undertook a second engagement. Forrest's admirers
determined to prevent this. On the first night of Ma-
eready's appearance in his second engagement, May 7,
he was driven from the stage by the violence of a por.
tion of the audience.....Again on May 10 he presented
himself; before a brilliant audience, among whom a
large nušer of policemen were interspersed. Cham-
pions of Forrest were also present, and when Macready
appeared not only received him with hisses and wells
but hurled at him chairs, eggs, and other missiles. By
the joint efforts of the respectable portion of the audi.
ence and the police, order was restored and the play
Went on. But a crowd of 20,000 persons had gathered
Qutside, many being attracted merely by curiosity.
Some active participants claimed to be defending the
çause of an American against an English actor, but the
larger part of the mob-roughs, rowdies, and thieves-
Were actuated solely by the love of disorder and the
h9pe of plunder. While some were armed with
pistols, others found a supply of weapons in stones




386
RIOTS.
which had been piled up in repairing adjoining streets.
A body of 300 policemen, detailed to defend the opera-
house, were soon overpowered. Stones fell among the
audience, and women in their terror crawled under the
seats. The outer doors of the opera-house were of
iron, very strong, and all opened outwards; now locked
and barred, they withstood the assaults of the mob
until succor arrived. At the request of the civil au-
thorities Gen. Sanford, the division commander, had
kept the Seventh regiment, N. G., in readiness, and
now ordered them to the scene. Preceded by a com-
any of cavalry ten abreast, they arrived at Astor
lace about 9 o'clock ; the cavalry charged through
Astor Place from Broadway to Third avenue, but the
showers of stones rendered the horses unmanageable.
Then the Seventh regiment, under Col. Duryea, charged
through Astor Place from Broadway to Third avenue,
through Eighth street to Broadway, down Broadway
to Astor Place again, and formed in line in front of the
opera-house. The mob returned to the attack, and
Gen. Sandford, Gen. Hall, Col. Duryea, Capts. Shum-
way and Pond were all severely wounded, together with
a large number of the men. The mayor still declined
to give permission to fire, but sheriff Westervelt
assumed the responsibility. Recorder Tallmadge gave
a last warning to the mob, and this being disregarded,
the order to fire was given. The first volley, directed
over the heads of the crowd, produced no effect upon
the mob, but unfortunately resulted in killing and
wounding some innocent persons in other streets.
The next volley was fired point-blank into the midst of
the mob with terrible effect. The regiment then
charged and the mob fled. But their leaders rallied
them again in Eighth street and Lafayette Place and
renewed the conflict. A third volley was enough.
The rioters fled in all directions, and the struggle was
ended. Twenty rioters were killed, and over 50 more
or less severely wounded. None of the regiment were
killed, but 150 were wounded, 70 so severely that it
was necessary to carry them to their homes. Many of
them carried the scars for the rest of their lives. Eye-
witnesses were unanimous in the statement that the
conduct of the regiment throughout was perfect. The
regiment has on later occasions been called upon to aid
in the suppression of riots, but generally all disorder
has ceased the moment it appeared upon the ground.
The ‘‘ Draft Riots '' in New York city in July, 1863,
occupy altogether too large a place in the history of the
civil war to be treated here. But it may be remarked
that the simple love of plunder was far more powerful
than is generally supposed in prolonging the disturb-
ance. Before the Colored Orphan Asylum was set on
fire, all that was portable of the furniture was carried
off uninjured, not only by the rioters themselves but
by their wives and children. -
Nearly all the riots which have occurred in the United
States in recent years have been connected with what are
called “labor troubles.” Most of these disturbances
have been brought to end without any extensive de-
struction of property and without bloodshed. (See
STRIKES.) The great “ Haymarket Riot” in the city
of Chicago was of a different character. The great
and acknowledged political and social evils existing in
Europe have, during the present century, given rise to
multifarious and contradictory schemes ºf reforms.
One class of those who profess to seek the reformation
of these evils regard the accumulation of property by
individuals as the source of all the misery in the world.
Their doctrine may be stated thus: the destruction of
capital and the slaughter of capitalists, is the indis-
pensable preliminary to the removal of social evils.
The name of “Anarchists” has been applied to these
men, and they themselves have accepted the designa-
tion with alacrity and pride. Almost all the Anarchists
have emigrated from Europe to the United States,
some from fear of the law, others because they sup-
posed that the greater freedom of speech and of the
press in this country would afford them a better oppor-
&
tunity to propagate their doctrines. They also quickly
observed the difference in the means available for en-
forcing the law and preserving public order in this
country and in Europe. In Europe not only were the
laws far more severe and the civil authorities more
strict and less scrupulous in their execution, but every
attempt of the Anarchists to carry out their designs
was immediately and relentlessly crushed by a vast and
well-disciplined standing army ever present and always
ready and obedient. In the United States the pres-
ervation of law and order, as the Anarchists saw, de-
ends almost exclusively upon the civil authorities.
The only military force which they in case of necessity
could call to their aid is the militia, composed of citi-
zens who are usually engaged in their ordinary peaceful
avocations. The regular U. S. army, only a handful
when compared with that of any of the great powers
of Europe, is widely distributed in small garrisons,
mostly on the frontiers, and the assistance of any por-
tion of it in the suppression of a riot could only be
obtained after a compliance with tedious formalities.
As a rule no military power is anywhere visible.
Various circumstances had made the city of Chicago
a sort of head-quarters of the Anarchists. There they
established an organ, the “Arbeiter Zeitung,” in which
the advocacy of arson and murder was hardly disguised.
They held frequent meetings and labored vigorously to
excite the enmity of the working people against their
employers. On Saturday, May 1, 1886, about 40,000
laboring men struck work demanding that eight hours
instead of ten should thereafter be considered a work-
ing day. Large processions of workingmen marched
through the streets, visiting the great industrial es-
tablishments and urging those who had returned to
their work to join them. Business was almost entirely
stopped. The railroads were at a standstill. The
freight-houses were closed and barred, and the few
freight-handlers who had not joined in the strike
worked under the protection of guards with revolvers
in their hands. The processions of strikers, especially
those in which Germans, Poles, and Bohemians pre-
dominated, halted at intervals to listen to the inflam-
matory harangues of Anarchist orators. But no actual
violence of any account was committed. On Monday
morning, May 3, a great crowd gathered about the
McCormick reaper-works and endeavored to prevent
the hands from returning to work. They succeeded
in forcing or frightening about 700 of the men into
a compliance with their demands. About the same
number entered the building and resumed work. At
noon the company announced to these that the eight-
hour day would be adopted, and that the men could
also have a half holiday. But the crowd outside, un-
aware of the fact, assailed the men as they left the
building. Some of them escaped by flight, and the
others retreated into the building. The mob then
began demolishing the windows with stones. A volley
fired over their heads by the small guard within was
greeted with shouts of derision, and the mob proceeded
to attack the doors with crowbars. A patrol wagon
filled with policemen drove into the crowd; the police-
men alighted and drew their revolvers. But a large
portion of the mob were also armed, and after dis-
charging a volley of stones, followed it up with a volley
of bullets. The policemen returned the fire. None of
them were hurt but some of the crowd were wounded,
and when a reinforcement of the police arrived the
rioters fled. In the evening handbills printed in
English and German were posted about the city calling
upon workmen to meet on the evening of the next day,
Tuesday, May 4, in an open place known as the
“Old Haymarket,” at the corner of Des Plaines and
Randolph streets. At the appointed time about 1400
men assembled, many of whom had been prominent in
the riot of the previous day. A violent rainstorm com-
pelled some to retire, but the rest remained to listen to
the speeches of the Anarchist orators. A police force
of about 200 men, stationed at a short distance, were
RIPLEY-RIPON.
387
kept informed of the proceedings of the meeting. The
first speaker was quite moderate, the second more
violent, and the third was so outrageous and his advice
was received by the crowd with such marks of approval
that the police captains decided that a serious riot
could only be prevented by dispersing the meeting. A
line of 170 policemen was formed and marched u
Des Plaines street. When near the wagon from whic
the Anarchist orators had been speaking, the police
halted and Capt. Wood ordered the crowd to disperse.
Their answer was as terrible as it was unexpected.
First a dynamite bomb was thrown into the midst of
the police and this was immediately followed by a mur-
derous fire from the revolvers of the rioters. Seven
policemen were killed and more than fifty wounded.
But the well-disciplined force did not quail; drawing
their revolvers, they charged and dispersed the rioters
after killing and wounding a large number.
Eight of the Anarchist leaders were arrested and
tried in the following July. They were all convicted
of murder, and according to the laws of Illinois their
punishment was fixed by the jury which convicted
them. One was sentenced to fifteen years' imprison-
ment, and seven were condemned to death. They
were defended by able counsel and after conviction
every resource known to the law was exhausted in the
endeavor to escape the verdict. The case was carried
to the State Supreme Court and then to the U. S.
Supreme Court. By both these courts the verdict was
affirmed. As a last resort recourse was had to the
pardoning power and the mercy of the governor was
invoked. This was so far successful that the sentences
of two of the criminals were commuted to imprison-
ment for life. One of the others succeeded in obtain-
ing the means of manufacturing a small dynamite bomb,
with which he committed suicide by exploding it in his
mouth. The other four were hanged Nov. 11, 1887.
An impartial examination of the history of a riot
will in almost every case show that it is an unmitigated
evil. By far the greater part of the terror and de-
struction by which a riot is accompanied falls upon
those who are in no way responsible for the causes
which have produced it. For this reason a riot tends
to array the opinions and sentiments of the majority of
peaceable and law-abiding citizens not only against the
rioters themselves but also against the objects the ac-
complishment of which the rioters are striving to
advance. Hence a riot is almost invariably not only a
crime but a blunder. When a riotous assembly assumes
the dimensions of a mob the great majority of the
crowd is, in almost every case, composed of persons
whose presence is due to curiosity alone. There is
abundant evidence to show that many riots which have
appeared formidable in extent, which have been ac-
companied by immense destruction of property, and
which have required the united efforts of large civil
and military forces and the loss of many lives for their
suppression, would have dwindled to ridiculously small
º if all persons who were peaceably disposed
had retired the moment they saw that violence was
contemplated. ' The safest course for the law-abiding
citizen, the most effectual aid he can render to the au.
thorities, and the highest duty he can perform, is
simply to go home. if all good citizens adopt this
course, in nine cases out of ten the riot will end without
the destruction of property and without the shedding
of blood. (W. M. F.)
RIPLEY, ELEAZERWHEELock (1782–1839), major-
general, was born at Hanover, N. H., April 15, 1782,
being son of Rev. Sylvanus Ripley, D.D. (d. 1787),
professor of divinity in Dartmouth College, and nephew
of Rev. John Wheelock, president of the college. He
graduated there in 1800, practised law in Maine, and
was elected to the Massachusetts Legislature in 1810,
and to the Senate in 1812. He then entered the army
as, lieutenant-colonel, and was engaged in Canada,
being wounded at York (now Toronto). In 1814 he
was made brigadier-general and took part in the battle
of Chippewa, and was wounded at Niagara. In the
defence of Fort Erie he was shot through the neck, but
recovered and received from Congress a gold medal.
Resigning from the army in 1820, he settled in Louisi-
ana, where he practised law. In 1835, he was elected
to Congress and was still a member when he died at
West Feliciana, La., March 2, 1839.
RIPLEY, HENRY JONES (1798–1875), Baptist min-
ister, was born at Boston, Jan. 28, 1798. e gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1816, and at Andover Theological
Seminary in 1819. For some years he was a pastor in
Georgia, and in 1826 he was made professor of Biblical lit-
erature in Newton Theological Institution, and in 1839
he became professor of sacred rhetoric in the same.
Resigning in 1860, he again engaged in evangelistic
work in Georgia, but in 1865 he returned to Newton as
librarian, and afterwards was associate professor of Bib-
lical literature. He died May 21, 1875. Among his
publications are Christian Baptism (1833); Notes on
the Gospels (2 vols., 1837–38), and on some other parts
of the New Testament; Sacred Rhetoric (1849);
Church Polity (1687).
RIPLEY, fºil. SABINE (1823–1887), Confeder-
ate general, was born at Worthington, Ohio, March 14,
1823. He graduated at West Point in 1843 and
entered the artillery service. In the Mexican war he
was aide to Gen. G. J. Pillow, and was brevetted for
gallantry at Cerro Gordo, and Chapultepec. . Resign-
ing from the army in 1853, he took up his residence at
Charleston, S. C. During the secession movement he
was active in the military service of South Carolina,
and took part in the siege of Fort Sumter. In May,
1862, he commanded a brigade in defence of Richmond,
and he was wounded at the battle of Antietam. He
returned to the defence of Charleston, and when that
city was evacuated by the Confederates went again to
Richmond. After the civil war he resided in Paris for
Some years, but subsequently engaged in business at
Charleston. He died at New York city, March 26,
1887. His history of the War with Meacico (2 vols.,
1849) is an excellent piece of work.
His uncle, JAMES W. RIPLEY (1794–1870), gen-
eral, was a native of Connecticut and graduate o West
Point. He served in the war of 1812, the Seminole
war of 1818, and the Mexican war. He was thereafter
connected with the ordnance department until his re-
tirement in 1863, having in August, 1861, been made
chief of that department. In March, 1865, he received
the brevet of major-general, and he died at Hartford,
Conn., March 16, 1870.
; RIPON, GEORGE FREDERICK SAMUEL ROBINSON,
MARQUIS OF, was born in London, Oct. 24, 1827. He
is the only son of the first Earl of Ripon, better known
as Viscount Goderich, which title he held while prime
minister for a few months in 1827. The marquis suc-
ceeded to his father's and uncle's titles in 1859, thus
becoming Earl de Grey and Ripon, and in 1872 received
his present title as an acknowledgment of his services
as chairman of the High Joint Commission which ar-
ranged the Treaty of Washington in 1871. He had
entered in diplomatic life as attaché at Brussels in
1849, and in 1852 was elected to parliament from Hull,
but in the next year stood for Huddersfield and won
that seat for the Liberals. In 1857 he was chosen from
the West Riding of Yorkshire. In June, 1859, having
entered the House of Lords, he was made under-secº
retary of war; in 1861, under-secretary for India; and
in 1863, secretary of war. In 1866 he was made sec-
retary of state for India, and in 1868 lord-president of
the council, which office he resigned in August, 1873.
In April, 1870, he was installed as grand-master of the
Freemasons of England, but in September, 1874, he
resigned without assigning any reason. But in a few
days it became known that he had been admitted to the
Roman Catholic Church at Brompton. When Mr.
Gladstone returned to power in Iss), the Marquis of
| Ripon was appointed viceroy of India. The act called
forth much animadversion. The new viceroy's admin-
388
RISTORI–RITTER.
istration was marked by an endeavor to extend the
rights of the natives and to limit the privileges of Eu-
ropeans. When he departed from India the Hindoo
population of Bengal and Bombay testified their regard
by extraordinary manifestations. In 1885, when Mr.
Gladstone returned to power for a short time, Lord
Ripon was made first lord of the admiralty. In 1882
he was chosen president of Yorkshire College, Leeds.
RISTORI, ADELAIDE, Italian tragic actress, was
born at Cividale, in Friuli, in 1821. Her parents
were actors and brought her on the stage when only
four years old. Afterwards she was attached to a dra-
matic company at Turin and received instruction from
Marchioni. At the age of fourteen she was allowed to
act the part of Francesca da Rimini in Pellico's drama.
In 1841 she removed to Parma, playing chiefly in
comedy. In 1846, when she was married to the Mar-
quis Guliano del Grillo, she retired from the stage at
the request of his family. But in 1849 she was in-
duced to appear at Rome for the benefit of one of her
former managers and created such a sensation that her
relatives allowed her to follow her inclination. She
now devoted herself to tragedy, and easily attained the
foremost rank on the Italian stage. Her career was
interrupted by the siege of Rome, and for a time she
was busily employed as nurse in the hospitals. In 1855
she was called to Paris, where Rachel was at the zenith
of her fame. Although the French actress bitterly re;
sented the intrusion of the Italian, Ristori's splendid
genius soon disarmed the national prejudice, and turned
the current of popularity in her favor. For five years
she appeared regularly for a season in the French capi-
tal. Legouve's Medea, written for Rachel, but re-
fused by her, was translated into Italian for Ristori,
and gave her a new triumph. She extended her
tours to England, Germany, and Spain with equal suc-
cess. She passed even to St. Petersburg, Alexandria,
Athens, and Constantinople, winning fresh applause.
In 1866 she crossed the Atlantic and reaped a rich
harvest in the United States. She then visited
South America. She played only in Italian, her chief
characters being Medea, Mary Stuart, Queen Eliza-
beth, Francesca da Rimini, Lady Macbeth, Adrienne
Lecouvreur. In 1873, after an extended and success-
ful tour in the European capitals, she bade farewell to
the English stage, but she visited the United States
again in 1875. Later she took up the study of the
nglish language, and in 1882 she appeared in London,
and afterwards visited the United §. again, acting
Lady Macbeth and Queen Elizabeth in English. She
is accomplished as an artist, and has the gift of beauty.
Her moral character is above reproach, and she is an
excellent mother.
RITCHIE, ANNA, CoRA MowATT (1819–1870),
actress, daughter of Samuel G. Ogden, a New York
merchant, was born at Bordeaux, France, and spent
her childhood in that vicinity. Soon after her removal
to New York she made a runaway match with James
Mowatt, a lawyer. Still a child in years, she was par-
doned by her parents, and varied the instruction re-
ceived from her husband with private theatricals and
the composition of an epic poem which was published
under the title Pelayo. Then her husband lost his
fortune in speculation and Mrs. Mowatt began to give
public readings, though her friends strongly, disap:
proved. Her husband became a publisher and failed
again. Determining to try her fortune as an actress,
she made her first appearance as Pauline, in The Lady
of Lyons, in June, 1845. She also appeared in her
own plays, Fashion and Armand, and achieved success
in England as well as America. After the death of
her husband, in 1851, she returned to the United States,
but continued her professional work until 1854, when
she was married to William F. Ritchie. Her Autobi.
ography of an Actress (1855) is a graceful narrative of
her experience. In 1860 she went to Europe, residing
at first on the continent, and afterwards near London,
where she died July 28, 1870. Among her later
writings were some novels, Twin Roses (1857) and
Italian Life and Legends (1870). -
RITCHIE, THOMAS (1778–1854), journalist, was
born at Tappahannock, Va., Nov. 5, 1778. Deprived
of his father at an early age, he received an academical
education, studied medicine, and taught school, but in
1804 found his proper element in editing the Richmond
Enquirer. During the forty years of his connection
with it as editor and proprietor, it wielded great influ-
ence in the Democratic party. In 1845 Ritchie was
called to Washington by Pres. Polk to edit the Union,
as the organ of the administration. He then trans-
ferred the Enquirer to his sons, Thomas and William.
In 1849 he returned to Richmond, and died there July
12, 1854. His son Thomas had died some weeks ear-
lier, but William lived to fight in the Confederate
army.
RITSCHL, ALBRECHT, German theologian, was born
at Berlin, March 25, 1822. He was educated at the
Universities of Bonn and Halle, and taught theology at
the former from 1846 until 1864, when he was called
to Göttingen, where he still remains. In his early
works he belonged to the Tübingen school, but he
afterwards took his position on the doctrines of the
Lutheran Reformation. His characteristic work is
Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfortigung und Ver-
söhaung (3 vols., 1870–74), translated as A Critical
History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and
Reconciliation. Other works are Die Christliche Poll-
kommenheit (1874); Unterricht in der Christlichen Re-
ligion (1875); Ueber das Gewissen (1876); Theologie
wnd Metaphysik (1881); Geschichte des Pietismus (3.
vols., §º
RITTER, FREDERIC LOUIS, musician, was born in
Strassburg, Alsace, in 1834. He began the study of
music under Hauser and Hans M. Schletterer, later
had some instruction from Georges Kastner in Paris,
and continued his studies in Germany. In 1852 he
received the appointment of professor of music in the
Protestant seminary of Fénéstrange, Lorraine, and
later conducted a series of concerts at Bordeaux.
About 1856 he came to the United States, settling at
first in Cincinnati, where he advanced the cause of
music in many ways. The Cecilia and Philharmonic
societies were organized by him, and many works pro-
duced for the first time in America. In 1861 he re-
moved to New York, and in 1867 was appointed pro-
fessor of music at Vassar College, which position he
still (1888) holds. His compositions include a number
of instrumental works, many of which have been per-
formed in New York, Boston, and other cities, by the
principal orchestras and organizations for chamber-
music, some sacred music, and a large number of Ger-
man songs. He has gained distinction as a writer on
musical topics, and is the author of A History of Mu-
sic in the Form of Lectures (Boston, 1870–74; 2d ed.,
London, 1876); Music in England (New York, 1883);
Music in America (1883); Mamual of Musical History,
from the Epoch of Ancient Greece to the Present Time
(1886); and Musical Dictation (London, 1888). He
edited also The Realm of Tomes (New York, 1883),
and published a Practical Method for the Instruction
of Chorus Classes, and, with Rev. J. R. Kendrick,
The Woman's College Hymnal (Boston, 1887). The
degree of doctor of music was conferred on him by the
University of New York in 1878. He has contributed
to this work on “Music in America.”
His wife, FANNY RAYMOND RITTER, has become
well known through her pamphlets on musical sub-
jects: Woman as a Musician {New York, 1877); Some
Famous Songs (London, 1878); Troubadours and
Minnesingers; Haydn's “Seasons'' (Poughkeepsie,
1881); and Madrigals (1882). She has also written a
volume of poems, Songs and Ballads (New York,
1888), and has translated Louis Ehlert's Letters on
Music to a Lady (London, 1877), and Robert Schu-
mann's Music and Musicians (London, 1877).
(F. L. W.)
RIVES-ROANOKE COLLEGE.
389
RIVES, WILLIAM CABELL (1793–1868), senator
and diplomatist, was born in Nelson co., Va., May 4,
1793. His grandfather, William Cabell, (1730–98),
was noted as a patriot during the Revolution. Riyes
graduated at William and Mary College, and studied
law with Thomas Jefferson. He volunteered in the
defence of Virginia during the British invasion in
1814–15, and was a member of the State constitu-
tional convention in 1816. After service in the State
Legislature, and in Congress from 1823 to 1829, he
was sent as U. S. minister to France. After his re-
turn he was U. S. senator until 1845; was sent again
to France in 1849. Retiring then from public life he
devoted his leisure to his Life and Times of James
Madison, of which three volumes were published
(1859–69), but the valuable work was never completed.
In February, 1861, Rives was member of the peace
conference at Washington, but two months later he
attended the Confederate Congress. He died near
Charlottesville, Va., April 26, 1868. He had pub-
lished a Life of John Hampden (1845), Ethics of
Christianity (1855), and some minor works. His wife
wrote a narrative of her Residence in Europe (1842),
and other books.
His granddaughter, AMELIE RIVES CHANLER, au-
thor, was born at Richmond, Va., Aug. 23, 1863, and
educated by private tutors. She was married in June,
1888, to John Armstrong Chanler, of New York city.
She had already become noted by some short stories
and poems, and a novel, The Quick or the Dead (1888).
Her productions have been sharply criticised as both in
style and contents a startling mixture of the recondite
and sensational.
RIVES, John CABELL (1796–1864), journalist, was
born in Kentucky and received but slight education.
He became cashier of a bank at Edwardsville, Ill., and
in 1824 was appointed clerk in a government office at
Washington. He joined Francis P. Blair in founding
the Congressional Globe for the support of Pres,
Jackson's administration. After Pres. Polk e3tab-
lished the Union as his organ Rives became the sole
proprietor of his paper. He introduced the practice
of full reports of Congressional proceedings. During
the civil war he was liberal in contributions for the
cause of the Union. He died near Georgetown, D.
Cºlº,";
RIV
IERE, BRITON, English painter, was born in Ph
London, Aug. 14, 1840. His first studies were pur-
sued under his father, who was a drawing-master in
London and Oxford, and he afterwards entered the
University of Oxford, and graduated B. A. in 1867. As
early as 1858 he had exhibited rural scenes at the
National Academy, and among his later pictures are,
Strayed from the Flock (1866); The Long Sleep (1866);
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1870); Circe Trans-
forming the Friends of Ulysses (1871); Argus (1873);
Genius Loci (1874). He had now become recognized
as especially successful in pictures of animals, and
many of his works have been made familiar by en-
#. Among his later works are, An Anxious
Moment (1878), representing a flock of geese fright-
ened at a hat on the ground ; The Poacher's Widow
§: A Roman Holiday (1881); Old Playfellows
1883); Actaeon (1884); The King and his Satellites
(1884); The Sheepstealer (1885); Stolen Kisses (1SS6).
| RIVINGTON, JAMEs (1724–1802), Tory, was born
in London, and became a bookseller there. In 1760
he removed to Philadelphia, but soon settled in New
York. The Gazetteer, which he founded April 22,
1773, was a bitter opponent of the patriotic move.
ments, and on Nov. 23, 1775, the “Sons of Liberty"
‘estroyed its press and melted its type into bullets.
Rivington, who had been sent to jail by the Congress,
on his release went to England and obtained appoint.
ment as King's printer for New York. ... Returning he
commenced in October, 1777, to publish the Loyal
azette, or, as he afterwards called it, the Royal Ga-
zette. In 1781, deeming the British cause hopeless,
he began to furnish secret information to Gen. Wash;
ington, and after the close of the war he again changed
the title of his Gazette, but was soon obliged to sus-
pend its publication. He died in New York in July,
1802.
ROACH, John (1815–1887), shipbuilder, was born
at Mitchellstown, Ireland, in 1815, and in 1829 emi-
grated to America. Getting employment in iron-
works he became a machinist, and then started a foun-
dry, which afterwards became known as the AEtna
Iron-works. The demands of the civil war gave him
splendid o portunities, and he constructed many large
engines. j. his own works, and purchasing
others, he engaged largely in construction of iron yes-
sels. In 1871 he purchased shipyards at Chester, Pa.,
and established the Delaware River iron-shipbuilding
and engine-works, which covered 120 acres, while the
lant was valued at $2,000,000. Here he built 63
arge vessels for the U.S. government, and for lead-
ing steamship lines. When the navy department, in
1885, by a strict construction of contract, refused to
accept the despatch-boat Dolphin as being too slow,
Roach made an assignment, and closed his works.
The trouble affected his health, and he died at New
York, Jan. 10, 1887. The vessel was subsequently
accepted and the works reopened.
ROANOKE COLLEGE is an institution of learn-
ing at Salem, Roanoke co., Va. Salem is a town
of 2500 inhabitants, on the line of the Norfolk and
Western Railroad, 240 miles from Washington and 60
miles from Lynchburg. The Roanoke Valley, in which
the college is situated, lies between the Allegheny and
Blue Ridge at an average elevation of 1100 feet above
the sea-level, and is noted for the fertility of its soil,
the healthfulness of its climate, and the picturesque
beauty of its scenery.
The germ of Roanoke College was the Virginia In-
stitute, established in 1842 at Mount Tabor, Augusta
co., Va. This institution was removed to Salem in
1847, Rev. C. C. Baughman being principal. In 1853
it was chartered by the Legislature of Virginia as
Roanoke College. Rev. David F. Bittle, D. D., was
elected first president, and served with untiring energy
for 23 years. Rev. Thomas W. Dosh, D. D., served
as president during the sessions of 1877–78. Since that
year the present incumbent, Julius D. Dreher, A. M.,
. D., a graduate of the college (class of ’71), has
held the office. Prof. S. C. Wells, A. M., Ph. D.,
senior member of the faculty, dates his connection with
the institution to the year 1849, when he was elected
first assistant teacher in the Virginia Collegiate Insti-
tute. Rev. Wm. B. Youce, A. M., Ph. D., next old-
est professor, was elected tutor in 1854. The college
owns 20 acres of land well situated in Salem, the cam-
i. proper being very attractive. There are four large
rick buildings for college purposes, the entire front
being 313 feet. A separate building—Bittle Memorial
Hall—was erected in 1879 for the accommodation of
the library, which now contains 16,000 volumes, in-
cluding many rare and valuable works. The college
owns a collection of more than 12,000 mineralogical
and geological specimens, a numismatic cabinet, and
valuable chemici and philosophical apparatus.
The board of trustees has power to hold property,
elect professors, prescribe courses of study, and con-
fer degrees. The college offers to candidates for de-
grees a choice among the following courses of study:
1. Ancient classical course, with degree of Bachelor
of Arts. 2. Modern classical course, with degree of
Bachelor of Arts. 3. Scientific course, with degree
of Bachelor of Science. In these courses the instruc-
tion is thorough and practical. In mathematics,
students have practical field-work, and learn the use of
instruments; in chemistry and natural philosophy
there are frequent experiments; in geology, excur-
sions. French and German are spoken in the class-
room. The course in both French and German ex-
tends through three years.
390
ROBBINS—ROBINSON.
The college was in operation throughout the war,
but up to 1865 had graduated only 41 men. Its main re-
Sults have been accomplished almost entirely within a
later period, under many disadvantages, and with
very inadequate means. The whole number of gradu-
ates is now nearly 300, the majority of whom are en-
gaged as professors, teachers, clergymen, lawyers, and
hysicians. Graduates of the college may be found
in 28 States and Territories, and in two foreign coun-
tries. Many students at the South pursue only a par-
tial course at college ; of this class Roanoke has re-
ceived fully 1500. The college draws its students from
nearly every Southern State, and from some parts of
the North and West. The first Mexican to complete
the course of study received his diploma in the class
of 1888. For 18 years Roanoke has been educating
Indians. The Choctaws support a small number of
students at the college at the expense of their govern-
ment. Three Choctaw superintendents of schools
have visited the college in the discharge of their offi-
cial duties. In 1883 Wm. H. McKinney graduated
at Roanoke with the degree of A. B., being the first
Indian to take a diploma at a Virginia college, and
also the first one to win that honor at Yale University,
where he was made a bachelor of divinity in 1886. The
number of students in attendance in 1888–89 is nearly
150, coming from 14 States, Indian Territory and Ja-
pan. The students maintain two excellent literary so-
cieties. There is also an alumni association composed
of the graduates. A General Reunion Association em-
bracing former students, as well as graduates, holds
triennial reunions at the college during commence-
ment week. The college has always been noted for
its high moral tone and its positive but not sectarian
religious character. An active Young Men's Chris-
tian Association exerts a strong influence on the moral
life of the college. Candidates for the ministry and
sons of clergymen pay only half the regular tuition fee.
The entire expenses of a student for a session of nine
months range from $150 to $205. The faculty en-
deavor to aid young men of small means in availing
themselves of the advantages afforded by the college.
The Roanoke Collegian, the organ of the graduates
and students, is ºfted monthly during the session.
Prof. F. W. N. Painter, A. M., of the faculty, has
published a History of Education (1885). (J. H. D.)
ROBBINS, THOMAS (1777–1856), antiquary, was
born at Norfolk, Conn., Aug. 11, 1777. He was
of a family which contained many Puritan preachers
of local note. He graduated at Yale College in 1796
and was pastor successively at East Windsor, Stam-
ford, and Rochester, Mass. In 1842 he took up his
residence at Hartford and founded the Connecticut
Historical Society, to which he bequeathed his valu-
able library. An early series of articles from his pen
was collected under the title First Planters of New
England (1815). He also published View of all Re-
ligions (1824) and some other works. He died at
Colebrook, Conn., Sept. 13, 1856. A bulky biography
of him was published (1887).
ROBERTS, BENJAMIN STONE (1811–1875), general,
was born at Manchester, Vt., graduated at West
Point in 1835, and was first lieutenant of dragoons
when he resigned in 1839 to become railroad engineer
in Northern New York. He was afterwards assistant
geologist of that State and in 1842 went to Russia to
assist in railroad construction. In 1843 he settled in
Iowa and engaged in the practice of law, but the out-
break of the Mexican war called him to arms again.
He was made first lieutenant of mounted rifles, and
distinguished himself at Chapultepec and Matamoras.
He was a major of cavalry serving in New Mexico
when the j war broke out and soon was engaged
in defending Fort Craig against Texans under Sibley.
In June, 1862, he went to Washington and was made
brigadier-general and chief of cavalry in Gen. Pope's
army. With that commander he was afterwards sent
to Minnesota, but in June, 1864, he had command of
a division in Louisiana, and afterwards in West Ten-
messee. He retired from the army in July, 1866, and
died at Washington, Jan. 29, 1875.
ROBERTSON, JAMES (1742–1814), pioneer, was
born in Brunswick co., Va., June 28, 1742, and was
brought up on his father's farm. In 1759 he accom-
panied Daniel Boone on his third expedition across
the Alleghenies and discovered the Watauga Valley.
Next spring he led a band of settlers there and ar-
ranged with the Cherokees a treaty on terms of which
the whites and natives lived at peace till 1776.
Troubles then broke out, but Robertson succeeded in
subjugating the red men, and, at the instance of the
governor of North Carolina, took up his residence at
their capital in order to keep them in check. In
1779 he removed with a number of the Watauga.
settlers to the region of the Cumberland, where on
Christmas of that year they founded Nashville, and
organized themselves into a civil and military body
with Robertson at their head. Their conflicts with
the savages who swarmed around them were almost
incessant. In 1781 the fort of Nashville was besieged
by 1000 Indians and Robertson's life was saved by
his wife. Notwithstanding severe losses by the toma-
hawk and desertion, Robertson maintained the settle-
ment. During the Revolutionary war he supported
the patriot cause, and on being later urged by the
Spaniards, with the promise of many advantages, to
establish an independent government west of the Al-
leghenies, he refused their offer. In 1790 he was
made by Washington a brigadier-general and, as such,
commanded the Tennessee militia. During his later
years he was U. S. agent to the Chickasaw Indians,
and died at the Chickasaw Agency, Tenn., Sept. 1,
1814. See A. W. Putnam's Life and Times of Rob-
ertson (1859), and J. R. Gilmore's Advance-Guard of
Western Civilization (1888).
ROBIN, CHARLEs PHILIPPE (1820–1885), French
physician and naturalist, was born at Jasseron, June
4, 1820. He studied medicine at Paris and in 1845
was employed in an exploration of the coasts of Nor-
mandy and Jersey for enriching the museum of natural
history and comparative anatomy in the Paris Ecole
Pratique de Médecine. He obtained the doctor's
degree in 1847, and was made professor of histology
in 1862. His works relate to comparative anatomy,
hysiological chemistry, and parasitism. With M.
}. he thoroughly revised Nysten's Dictionnaire de
Médecime. With M. Verdeil he published Histoire
Naturelle de Végétawa: Parasites (3 vols., 1853).
Among his other works are Les Substances Organisées
(1866); Les Humeurs du Corps de l' Homme (1867);
Anatomie Microscopique (1868). In 1871 he assisted
in founding a sociological Society.
ROBINSON, EZEKIEL GILMAN, President of
Brown University, was born at Attleborough, Mass.,
March 23, 1815. He graduated at Brown University
in 1838 and at Newton Theological Institution in 1842.
He was ordained pastor of the Baptist church in
Norfolk, Va., in 1842, and in 1846 was called to the
theological seminary at Covington, Ky., as professor of
Hebrew. He afterwards had charge of a church in
Cincinnati, but in 1852 was made professor of Biblical
theology in the Baptist Seminary at Rochester, N.Y.,
of which he became president in 1860. While holding
this position he was also editor of the Christian Re-
view for six years. Since 1872 he has filled with
ability the presidency of Brown University.
ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1775–1869), best
known by his entertaining Diary and Correspondence,
published posthumously, was born at Bury St. Ed:
mond's, England, May 13, 1775. He studied law and
at the age of twenty-five went to Germany, where be-
sides attending some of the principal universities he
associated with the most eminent literary men, in-
cluding Goethe and Schiller. When the Peninsular
war began in 1808 Robinson wrote letters from Spain
to the London Times, and afterwards in England was
ROBINSON.—ROCHESTER.
391
an editorial contributor. At the age of thirty-eight he
was called to the bar and for fifteen years practised
his profession with diligence and success. In later life
he was active in promoting the London University and
other_institutions for the benefit of art and literature.
His Diary and Correspondence (1869) is filled with
pleasant gossip and graphic sketches of prominent
men with whom he came in contact. He died at
London, Feb. 5, 1867.
ROBINSON, STUART (1816–1881), Presbyterian
minister, was born at Strabane, Ireland, Nov. 26, 1816,
but in early life he was brought to America. After
graduating at Amherst College in 1836, he studied
theology at Union Seminary, Va., and at Princeton.
He held pastorates in Virginia, Kentucky, and Balti-
IDOre .." edited the Presbyterial Critic, in which he
maintained High Church views of Presbyterian polity
and doctrine. In 1856 he was called to the Danville
Theological Seminary as professor of ecclesiology, but in
1858 he removed to Louisville, where he edited the
True Presbyterian and also ministered to a church.
During the civil war his paper was suppressed by the
Union authorities, but it was afterwards allowed to
appear under the name Free Christian Commonwealth.
He was the leader of the Louisville Presbytery and
in 1866 was expelled from the General Assembly which
met at St. Louis for signing the “Declaration and
Testimony,” which censured that body for making
political deliverances. He afterwards induced the
Synod of Kentucky to withdraw from the Northern
Church and join the Southern. In 1869 he was elected
moderator of the Southern General Assembly by accla-
mation. He died at Louisville, October 5, 1881. His
most important works are The Church of God (1858),
and Discourses of Redemption (1866). Several of his
pamphlets related to controversies between the North-
ern and Southern Presbyterians.
ROBY, FIENRY John, an English educator, was
born at Tamworthy, Aug. 12, 1830. He was educated
at Bridgnorth and at St. John's College, Cambridge,
raduating in 1853, and being made fellow of the col-
ege in 1854, and tutor in 1855. He took part in the
movement for university reform and published a pam-
phlet on the subject. In 1861 he was made under-
master of Dulwich College Upper School, and in 1866
professor of jurisprudence at University College, Lon-
don. He was appointed secretary of the schools
inquiry commission in 1864, and to the endowed
Schools commission in 1869, and was a member of the
latter 1872–74. He has since been engaged in business
at Manchester. Besides preparing the Report of the
commissioners and editing several volumes connected
with it, he published an excellent Grammar of the
ſºon. from Plautus to Suetonius (2 vols.,
ROCHAMBEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE DONATIEN
WIMEUR, COMTE, DE (1725–1807), a French general
noted for his services in the American Revolution, was
born at Vendôme, July 1, 1725. Entering the army
at the age of sixteen, he served in Germany under Mar-
shal Broglie and in 1745 became aide to the Duke of
Orleans. He had reached the grade of lieutenant-
eneral when in 1780 he was sent with 6000 men to the
Inited States. He arrived at Newport in July and
after fortifying Rhode Island he acted in concert with
Washington against Clinton in New York. In the
next year he went to Virginia and rendered important
Service, resulting in the capture of Cornwallis at York-
town, Oct. 19, 1781. Two captured cannons were pre-
Sented to Rochambeau. Returning to France he
received the decoration of Saint Esprit, and was made
governor of Picardy and Artois. In 1791 he was made
a marshal of France, but his conduct in command of
the Army of the North disappointed public expecta-
tion, and he narrowly escaped the guillotine. Thence-
forth he lived in retirement, but Bonaparte in 1804
çonferred on him a pension and the grand cross of the
Legion of Honor. He died May 10, isoſ. His Me.
moirs were published in 1809 and translated into
English in 1838.
His son, DoNATIEN MARIE JOSEPH DE WIMEUR,
VICOMTE DE RochAMBEAU (1750–1813), became a
general in the French service and was chiefly employed
in Santo Domingo, of which he became governor in
1802. On his return voyage in the next year he was
captured by the English and remained prisoner nearly
eight years. He was killed at the battle of Leipsic,
Oct. 18, 1813. e
ROCHEFORT, HENRI, French journalist and poli-
tician, discards the title “Marquis de Rochefort-Luçay”
to which his birth entitled him. He was born at Paris,
Jan. 30, 1830, and early adopted the republican views
of his mother rather than those of his royalist father.
Before devoting himself to journalism he had studied
medicine and had been in employ of the municipality
of Paris. He also composed many popular plays and
vaudevilles, as his father had done before him. To
the journals of Paris he contributed for some years
art and dramatic criticisms and social sketches. While
connected with the Figaro he gradually turned from
social topics to caustic satire of the imperial admin-
istration. These sketches were collected into three vol-
umes, Les Français de la décadence (1866–8). Obliged
to leave the Figaro, Rochefort founded the famous
Lanterne, of whose first number 80,000 copies were
issued. After eleven weekly numbers had been pub-
lished, the proprietor was brought before the tribunals,
and sentenced to fine and a year's imprisonment. But
he had fled to Belgium, where he continued to edit the
offensive paper, which was still circulated in France in
spite of vigorous efforts of the police for its suppression.
In 1869 he was twice a candidate for the Chamber of
Deputies, and having been elected he braved the sen-
tence of imprisonment and proceeded to Paris. Na-
poleon III. granted him a safe-conduct, which Roche-
fort accepted, though many of his supporters had
hoped for a collision with the authorities. He now
founded La Marseillaise, whose attacks on the im-
erial family provoked Prince Pierre Bonaparte to kill
W. Noir, one of Rochefort's assistants. In Jan-
uary, 1870, the journal was seized and the proprietor
was sentenced to six months' imprisonment. The
catastrophe of Sedan restored him to liberty and gave
him a place in the government of national defence.
He kept aloof from the Communists, but tried to induce
the government to make some concessions to them.
When this was not done he resigned his office, though
he still had charge of the barricades. In February,
1871, he founded Le Mot d'Ordre, and was elected
deputy. He instigated some of the worst excesses and
outrages of the Communists. Arrested at Meaux,
May 20, he was sent to Versailles for trial, and in
September was condemned to imprisonment in a
fortress. Victor Hugo interceded for him with Pres.
Thiers, but in vain. His friends declared that his mind
was shattered and his death at hand. He was per-
mitted to leave the prison in order to be married to
Mlle. Renaud, who had borne him several children.
In 1873 he was transported to New Caledonia, but
Some months later he escaped to an American vessel
and was taken to San Francisco. Thence he made his
way to Geneva, where he resided until the general
amnesty of 1880 permitted his return to Paris. There
he established in opposition to Garibaldi's policy of
opportunism a new journal, L'Intransigéant. In re-
cent years less attention has been paid to his utter-
ances on public questions.
ROCHESTER, a city of Minnesota
Olmsted co., is on the Winona and St. Peter Railroad,
15 miles S. E. of St. Paul. It is also on the Zumbro
River, which is spanned by three iron bridges, and fur-
nishes water-power for three flour-mills. Cockle-sepa-
rators (see Vol. III, p. 95) are manufactured here, as
well as wagons, furniture, and agricultural implements.
There are also several foundries. The largest building
is the Insane Hospital, erected at a cost of $325,000,
county-seat of
392
ROCHESTER—ROCHESTER UNIVERSITY.
and having capacity for 700 patients. Besides the
city high-school, which cost $75,000, there are other
Schools, including a Roman Catholic seminary. The
total valuation of property is $1,750,000 and there is a
public debt of $18,000. The city was incorporated in
1858. In 1883 a destructive cyclone levelled the lower
town, causing the death of 27 persons. That portion
of the city has since been rebuilt. The population by
the State census of 1885 was 5313.
ROCHESTER, a flourishing city of New York, the
seat of Monroe co., is on both banks of the Genesee
River, 7 miles from Lake Ontario. The city is about
250 ft. above the level of Lake Ontario, and the river has
here three falls, of 96 ft., 26 ft., and 83 ft., respectively,
which afford immense water-power, abundantly utilized
in all kinds of manufactures. At the Upper fall the
New York Central Railroad crosses the city, and it has
here three branches. The other main railroads are the
Erie; the Buffalo, Rochester, and Pittsburg; the
Buffalo, New York, and Philadelphia ; the West
Shore; and the Rome, Watertown, and Ogdensburg.
There are short roads to Lake Ontario and to Brighton
River. The Erie Canal crosses the river by a stone
aqueduct, 850 ft. in length, and supported by 7 arches.
Among the public buildings are the city-hall, court-
house, which are also surrounded by buildings of fine
architecture. There are also the spacious city-hospital,
St. Mary's Hospital, county-jail, arsenal. Among the
75 churches are several of fine architecture, includin
the First Baptist, First Presbyterian, St. Peter's, j
the Roman Catholic Cathedral. There are many
charitable institutions, including orphan asylums,
homes for the friendless, and church homes. The
University of Rochester, which is under control of the
Baptist denomination, has handsome buildings and
ſº comprising 23 acres. The Baptist Theo-
ogical Seminary has a fine 4-story brick building.
The public school system comprises 31 schools of
various grades, including the Free Academy. There
are also 44 private and parochial schools, the chief of
which is St. Andrew's Seminary. A public library
connected with the public schools, the Athenaeum, has
a large library and reading-room, and the Law Library
in the court-house is of great value. The State has a
House of Refuge for juvenile delinquents, there being
separate buildings for males and females. The grounds
cover 42 acres and there are accommodations for 500
boys and 200 girls. The object of this institution is to
reform the inmates and train them in morality and in-
dustry. Near the city are also Monroe county peni-
tentiary, the almshouse, and insane asylum, which
have well-constructed buildings.
The city has an excellent supply of water for drink-
ing and fire purposes. It is derived partly from the
river and partly from Hemlock Lakes, nearly 30 miles
south. . The receiving reservoir has a capacity of
85,000,000 gallons, and the distributing reservoir a ca-
pacity of 45,000,000. There are two gas companies,
one on each side of the river. There are 9 hotels, 3
national banks, 8 other banks, 7 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers. The leading industry during the most of
the city's history was flour manufacture, and this is
still extensively carried on. There are 11 iron-found-
ries, iron-bridge-works, cotton-factories, and manufac-
tories of clothing, boots and shoes, furniture, cigars
and tobacco, India-rubber goods, carriages, glass, per-
fumery, agricultural machinery, ...; etC.
There are large breweries, fruit-canning establishments.
Coal is largely distributed from this port to other places
on the Lakes. The fertility of the Genesee Valley has
greatly contributed to the prosperity of Rochester, and
the nursery business is extensively carried on. The
city was settled about 1810, and incorporated in 1832.
Its property is valued at $75,514,275; the public debt
is $5,515,000, and the expenses for the year 1886 were
$1,123,460. The population in 1880 was 89,366.
ROCHESTER, UNIVERSITY OF. The move:
ment to establish a University at Rochester originated
with prominent, Baptists of the State of New York,
and first took definite shape in an effort to remove
Madison University from Hamilton, N. Y., to Roch-
ester. An organization was first effected Sept. 16
1850, under a provisional charter granted by the Board
of Regents, at which time the trustees elected the
usual officers, appointed an executive committee con-
sisting of 9 iº. of their own body, created 6 pro-
fessorships, and adopted a course of instruction. No
president was elected. The actual work of instruction
began on the first Monday in November, 1850. The
first catalogue reported 8 instructors and 71 students.
In July, 1851, a class of 10 was graduated. On Feb.
14, 1851, a permanent charter had been granted by the
Regents which wested the control of the institution in
a self-perpetuating Board of Trustees—24 in number
—holding office for life, and which conferred upon the
institution “all the privileges and powers conceded to
any college in this State.”
The executive duties of the president were per-
formed by Dr. A. C. Kendrick, the eminent Greek
scholar and exegete, who had been elected to the chair
of the Greek language and literature. Coming from
Madison University with a reputation already estab-
lished, he gave to Rochester for over thirty years the
full strength of his splendid powers, and, with the ex-
ception of Pres. Anderson, has been more completely
identified with the history of the University than any
other member of its faculty. On April 6, 1853, Martin
B. Anderson, of New York, then editor of the New
York Recorder, the leading paper of the Baptist de-
nomination, was elected president of the institution,
and entered upon his duties in the fall of the same
year. To no one man does the University of Rochester
owe so much as to Pres. Anderson. His moulding and
shaping influence has been constant and pre-eminent in
all the factors of substantial growth, notably in the de-
velopment, expansion, and organization of the course
of study, methods of instruction and discipline, and
the characteristic features referred to below.
One of the most potent influences in determining
the organization and location of the institution was the
fact that the wealthy and populous district known as
Western New York, with a population as early as
1850 of half a million, was at that time almost wholly
wanting in facilities for higher education. This region
contains the immediate constituency of the University;
but it has always drawn a considerable percentage o
its students from the country at large, and its last cata-
logue (1887–88) shows that 11 States and Territories,
as well as Germany and England, are represented
among its students.
The founders of the University acted from the deep-
seated conviction that higher education should be dis-
tinctively Christian—carried on under influences which
would tend to develop and strengthen the moral and
religious life. Most of them were Baptists, and this
denomination has always controlled the institution,
20 out of 24 members of the first Board of Trustees
being connected with it. The movement was, how-
ever, not sectarian in any exclusive sense. From the
first, the enterprise enlisted the hearty and effective co-
operation of eminent citizens of other denominations,
and such have been among its most munificent bene-
factors. Its spirit, management, and instruction have
been entirely free from sectarian influence. Other de-
nominations are liberally represented in its board of
trustees and faculty of instruction, while students of
all faiths, including Catholics and Jews, freely avail
themselves of its privileges.
The limits of this article forbid any but the briefest
reference to its numerous benefactors. The list of
those who have contributed $5000 or upward to its
various purposes includes over 30 names. . A much
larger number have given smaller sums, while many
have given business or professional Services invaluable
to the institution. Full information regarding the
men who have founded, endowed, and administered
ROCKFISH-ROCKFORD.
393
the institution may be found in Gilmore's Outline
History of the University of Rochester.
The University has been characterized by steady
growth in all the features which give strength and
stability to such an institution. It began its work in
1850 in rented quarters in an old hotel. It now owns a
beautiful campus of 23 acres on which are situated 3
large, costly buildings, amply providing for a library
of over 23,000 volumes, one of the best and most com-
plete geological and mineralogical collections in the
country, consisting of over 40,000 specimens, chapel
and lecture-rooms, and a chemical laboratory new and
complete in all its appointments. The value of property
and endowment has grown from $13,000, the amount
raised at the organization of the University, to very
nearly $1,000,000. The faculty has been nearly doubled
in numbers and now consists of 12 members, while the
courses of instruction have been more than doubled in
SCOpe.
There are several features which distinguish the
University of Rochester from most other colleges and
some which are peculiar to it. Among the former
may be mentioned the absence of dormitories, which
are rendered entirely unnecessary by the ample accom-
modations furnished to the students in private families.
Among the former is a system of “ Honor courses,”
which include a wide range of studies supplementing
and extending the regular curriculum, and designed
to develop to the utmost the capacity for independent
study and investigation. They are open to all students
who attain a certain standing in the regular course.
In most of them regular instruction is given, and they
all terminate in a written examination, entitling the
student to honorable mention, if successfully passed.
Another feature consists in Saturday morning lectures,
affording every student supplementary instruction for
one hour per week throughout the course, and includ-
ing elocution and composition, the Greek, Roman,
French, and German literatures, historical geography,
comparative philology, chemical physics, embryology,
Sanitary science, and history of art and principles of
aesthetic criticism. *
Pres. Anderson introduced at the beginning of
his administration a feature which he called “chapel
talks,” consisting in the brief discussion before the
whole body of students of questions suggested by the
events of the day, especially with a view to pointing
out their significance, and exhibiting the historical,
Social, and ethical principles involved.
The University of i. exists primarily to give,
under Christian influences, that general and liberal cul-
ture which is felt to be essential to the highest suc-
cess in life, and to be the best preparation for special
and professional study. In the establishment and
modification of the curriculum, therefore, the aim has
been to secure a natural, logical order of studies;
thorough, continuous discipline; and the greatest pos.
sible symmetry of culture by grounding the student in
the fundamental principles of all the great departments
of human knowledge. Election of studies is permitted
to a limited extent in the junior and senior years, and
even earlier when such election will not interfere with
the objects above mentioned. Of the scope of instruc-
tion Pres. Anderson says: “The organic law of
the University is such as to give free play to all the
elements in education which modern progress has
developed. In our curriculum we have retained the
studies which the world's experience has tried and
proved, and welcomed all new subjects whose promise
justified trial; '' and he has further defined the end
Which the institution seeks to attain for the student
as: “The foundation of correct moral and intellectual
habits through the scientific comprehension of speci-
men portions of the field of organized knowledge.”
Of these Pres. Anderson says: “The true aim of
the teacher is to give breadth, culture, elevation, and
power to the minds of his pupils. This aim we have
set before ourselves in this institution. Each instructor
WOL. IV.-Z -
|
i
|
is expected to bring before his classes the results of
original thought and independent investigation, and
instead of a mere memoriter recitation, the student is
trained and encouraged to raise questions and suggest
difficulties. We have sought to make our instruction
at once historical, comparative, scientific, practical, and
personal ''
The alumni of the university now number about one
thousand, and nearly as many more have taken partial
courses. Of the alumni over 200 have entered the
Christian ministry, about 160 have studied law, 30
have studied medicine, 12 have become journalists,
while more than one hundred have made teaching
their life-work. Of the teachers, above 50 per cent.
have become professors in or presidents of colleges or
professional Schools.
At the close of the college year 1887–8 Rev. M. B.
Anderson, D. D., retired from his work as president,
and Rev. David J. Hill, D. D., LL.D., who had
already discharged with conspicuous ability the duties
of president in the Bucknell University, Lewisburg,
Pa., was chosen his successor. (G. M. F.)
ROCKFISH, the common name given to Roccus
lineatus, a member of the family Percidae, which is
known also as the Striped Bass, and extends from the
Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. From
the New Jersey coast northward it bears the name of
striped bass, but is called rockfish in the Delaware
River and southward. It is a strong, active, and
voracious fish, which annually ascends the rivers to
spawn, and remains in them through a considerable
portion of the season. It is non-migratory, being found
on the coast summer and winter, and caught in all the
rivers of the Eastern United States. Great numbers
are taken during the winter in Chesapeake Bay and
its tributaries. In the rivers of New Brunswick it is
taken in abundance in the winter by spearing through
the ice.
At the time of the spring run of the shad the rivers
are well supplied with rockfish, which are then plump
and well fed, preying on the small river fishes. The
rockfish is said to lay as many as 2,250,000 eggs. The
young grow very rapidly, the mature fish attaining a
weight of 20 lbs., though individuals of 50 lbs. have
been caught, and there is record of one weighing 112
lbs. The rock is one of our most valuable food-fishes,
the flesh being firm and of fine flavor. As a game-
fish it ranks next to the salmon in popularity. It was
formerly very abundant in the waters of Cape Cod
Bay, but has been greatly reduced there, though not
evidently so farther south, from which region great
quantities are annually sent to market. It is taken
largely in the shad seines in the spring. It was intro-
duced by the U. S. Fish Commission into the waters
of California some years ago. A related species,
R. labra.c, is an important European fish. There are
three other North American species of Roccus, of
which I?. Americanus, the white perch, is a favorite
pan or frying fish.
Fishes of several other families are known as rock-
fish, this name being given in Bermuda to all the
species of the subgenus Mycteropercºt, which are large
and important food-fish. The log perch, Percina co-
prodes, little perch-like fresh-water fishes, are also
known as rockfish. On the Pacific coast fishes of the
family §º idae are commonly known as rockfish
and rock-cod. They are enormously abundant, of large
size and brilliant color, and are caught largely, all the
species being excellent food-fish. In average size they
are about 15 inches long, and 2 or 3 lbs. weight, and
their rich and attractive hues give great brilliancy of
color to the San Francisco fish-stalls. (c. M.)
ROCKFORD, a city of Illinois, the seat of Winne-
bago.co., is on both sides of Rock River, 9.1 miles W.
of Chicago, on branches of the Chicago, Burlington,
and Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul.
the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Illinois Central
Railroads. Three railroad bridges and one wagon
394
ROCK ISLAND–RODMAN.
bridge cross the river. The principal buildings are the
court-house and other county buildings, opera-house,
and high-school. There are 7 hotels, 4 national banks,
1 private bank, 2 daily and 4 weekly mewspapers, 20
churches, 12 schools, a female seminary, and a business
college. The industrial works comprise 2 flouring-,
2 paper-, 1 woollen-, and 1 cotton-mill, and many fac-
tories, producing agricultural implements, boots and
shoes, furniture, watches, silver-plated ware, cutlery,
bolts, churns, carriages, pumps, culinary extracts,
wood-engravings, knit-goods, clothing, and soap. The
city is well built, has wide, well-shaded streets, and
two parks. It is lighted with gas and electric light,
and is supplied with water by the Holley system.
It was settled in 1834, and in 1880 had 13,129
inhabitants, while the State census of 1886 gave
19,420.
ROCR ISLAND, a city of Illinois, seat of justice
of Rock Island co., is on the Mississippi River, nearly
3 miles above the mouth of the Rock River. It is 181
miles west of Chicago. A fine wrought-iron bridge,
built by the U. S. government in 1870, at a cost of
$1,300,000, connects Rock Island with Davenport,
Iowa. On the island which gives name to the city the
government has erected a vast armory and arsenal, and
expended large sums of money in its improvement.
The navigable channel of the river is west of the island,
while that on the east has been dammed, and furnishes
immense water-power. The city has a court-house, 3
national banks, 20 churches, a high-school and other
schools, and is the seat of Augustana College, which is
under the patronage of Swedish Lutherans. The in-
dustrial works comprise saw-mills, flour-mills, machine-
shops, stove-foundries, glass-works, and other manu-
factories. The city was incorporated in 1849, and in
1880 it had 11,659 inhabitants. f
ROCKLAND, a city of Maine, is on the west side
of Penobscot Bay, 10 miles from the Ocean, and 60
miles E. N. E. of Portland, with which it has railroad
connection. It has a U. S. government building of
granite, a court-house of brick and granite, 2 national
banks and other banks, 10 churches, graded schools,
a public library, and 3 weekly newspapers. The Water-
supply is from a lake, 23 miles distant. Rockland has
an iron-foundry, brass-foundry, and minor manufact-
ures. The chief articles of export are lime and gran-
ite, the latter being obtained from the neighboring
islands. The town was incorporated in 1848, and re-
ceived a city charter in 1854. Its population in 1880
was 75.99
ROCKVILLE, a manufacturing village of Tolland
co., Conn., is on the New York and New England
Railroad, 17 miles N. E. of Hartford, and 4 miles from
Vernon, from which a branch road runs. Hockanum
River, the outlet of Snipsic Lake, gives abundant
water-power, having here a fall of 280, feet. There
are 5 woollen-mills, and factories producing cotton
goods, spool-silk, and stockinets. There are 3 hºtels,
an opera-house, 2 national banks, 2 savings banks, Š
churches, a high-school and other public schools, and
3 weekly newspapers. It is lighted with gas, and sup:
plied with water by aqueduct from the lake. . It is part
of the town of Vernon, which was organized in 1808.
Its first church was built in 1838. Its population in
1880 was 59()2.
RODES, RoPERT EMMETT (1826–1864), Confederate
eneral, was born at Lynchburg, Va., March 29, 1826.
e graduated at the Virginia Military Institute, in
1848, and was afterwards made instructor there. He
went to Mobile, Ala., early in 1861, to become captain
of cadets, and on the outbreak of the civil war was
made colonel of the Fifth Alabama regiment. He was
soon promoted to brigadier-general, and in 1862 was
wounded at Seven Pines and at Antietam (Sharps-
burg). He fought also at Fredericksburg and Chan-
cellorsville, gaining at the latter his promotion to a
major-generalship. He fought at Gettysburg, and W:\S
afterwards with Gen. Jubal A. Early in the Shenan-
doah Valley. He was killed in battle at Winchester,
Va., Sept. 19, 1864.
RODGERS, John (1771–1838), commodore, was
born at Havre de Grace, Md., July 11, 1771, and en-
tered the U. S. navy in 1798 as lieutenant. He was with
Com. Truxton on the Constellation, when he captured
the French frigate L'Insurgente in February, 1799.
Being then made captain, he cruised in the West
Indies, and in 1802 went to the Mediterranean. In
June, 1803, he made a successful attack on the Trip-
olitan fleet, and in 1804 had command of the Congress
(38 guns). In 1805 he succeeded to the command of
the fleet, and brought the wars with Tripoli and Tunis
to a close. In 1811, while commanding the President,
a 44-gun ship, he engaged in pursuit of a British ves-
sel which had impressed an American sailor off Sandy
Hook. On his coming up with the Little Belt (22
guns), Capt. Bingham, an engagement ensued, in
which the British vessel was crippled. The two cap-
tains give varying accounts of the origin and progress
of the fight. Although war between the two nations
was averted for a time, the action greatly increased the
hostile feeling. At last, in June, 1812, Rodgers
sailed from New York in command of a squadron, but
two days later, while he was chasing a British frigate,
a gun burst, wounding him and others, and killing
some. In the same year he captured some British
merchant vessels. In 1814 he was employed in the de-
fence of Baltimore. After the war he was president
of the board of navy commissioners until 1837, with
the exception of the years 1824–27, when he com-
manded the Mediterranean squadron. He retired in
1837, and died at Philadelphia, Aug. 1, 1838.
His son, John Rod GERS (1812–82), rear-admiral,
was born in Maryland, Aug. 8, 1812, and became a
midshipman in 1828. In 1853–56 he commanded the
steamer John Hancock in an exploring expedition in
the North Pacific. At the outbreak of the civil war
he had risen to the rank of commander, and early in
1862 he superintended the construction of the iron-
clads for service on the Mississippi. In May he con-
ducted an expedition of gun-boats on the James River,
and attacked Fort Darling. In June, 1863, with the
monitor Weehawken, he captured the Confederate
iron-clad Atlanta near Savannah, Ga., after a very
brief contest. For this exploit he was made commo-
dore. In 1866 he made the perilous voyage around
Cape Horn in the monitor Monadnoc. In 1869 he was
promoted rear-admiral and had command of the China
fleet. In August, 1871, he captured the Corean forts,
and put an end to the outrages which Coreans had
committed on American commerce. He afterwards
had charge of Mare Island navy-yard at San Francisco.
He was made superintendent of the U. S. Naval Ob-
servatory at Washington, in 1877, and in the next
year became also chairman of the Lighthouse Board.
He was noted for his scientific attainments and did
much to promote scientific work by the national gov-
ernment. He died May 5, 1882.
RODMAN, THOMAs JEFFERSON (1815–1871), in-
ventor, was born at Salem, Ind., July 30, 1815. He
graduated at West Point in 1841, and entered the
ordnance department. His chief invention was a
method of casting guns hollow and cooling them from
the inside. For its results, and the comparative merits
of his guns, see ORDNANCE. He also introduced the
use of mammoth powder, and was constantly engaged
in making and testing devices for the improvement of
ordnance. During the civil war his guns were used by
the navy as well as the army, and the method of cool-
ing from the inside was applied to shells. Rodman
had command of the Watertown arsenal during the
war, and in June, 1863, was made major, and at the
close of the war received the brevet of brigadier-gen-
eral. In 1865 he was placed in command of Rock
Island, where he constructed, the arsenal. In 1867
he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. He died at Rock
Island, June 7, 187 l
RODNEY-ROGERS.
395
RODNEY, CAESAR (1728–1784), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born at Dover, Pela-
ware, Oct. 7, 1728. From his grandfather, William
Rodney, an early settler of that State, he had inherited
a large estate. In 1750 he was sheriff of Kent co. for
many years he was a member of the colonial assembly,
and its speaker from 1769 to 1774. , Here he zealously
advocated a measure forbidding the importation ºf
slaves, which was negatived by only two votes. In
1765 he was sent as a delegate to the Stamp-act gon-
gress at New York, and, on repeal of the obnoxious
act, was one of three commissioners appºinted to pre-
pare an address of thanks to the king. When the tax
§n tea was proposed in the British Parliament of 1767,
he was again one of three to frame an address to, the
king, in which resistance to oppression was foreshad-
owed. When the colonies entered into correspondence
regarding common defence, Rodney became president
of the Committee of Safety for Delaware. In 1774
popular meetings were held at Dover and Newcastle to
demand the assembling of a convention, whereupon he,
as speaker, summoned the representatives of the peº-
ple to meet at Newcastle Aug. 1. Here, he was made
ęhairman, and he was further sent as a delegate to the
Continental Congress of that year, where he was on
the committee that drew up a statement of the colonies'
grievances and rights. In 1775 he was re-elected to the
Congress, and made at first colonel, and then brigadier-
general, of the State militia. In 1776 he was con;
stantly employed in patriotic activities. Being Warned
by friends, when the vote on the Declaration was immi-
ment, he rode with all speed to Philadelphia, and was
the means of casting Delaware's vote for independence.
Failing in re-election to Congress, he went directly to
Trenton, where Lord Stirling made him post-com-
mander, but soon left to join Washington at Morris-
town. Returning home in 1777, he suppressed an in:
surrection in Sussex, and, when the British advanced
into Delaware, he put himself at the head of some
militia and annoyed the enemy's flank, with the view
of cutting them off from their fleet. For his services
here he was promoted major-general. In December
he was re-elected to Congress, but did not take his
seat, owing to his having been, in the meantime,
chosen President of Delaware, a post he held for four
years. In 1782 and in 1783 he was re-elected to
Congress, but on both occasions declined, as he had
done re-election to the presidency of Delaware in 1782.
He had long suffered from cancer of the face, and died
from it at Dover, June 20, 1784.
His nephew, CAESAR AUGUSTUS (1772–1824), states-
man, was born at Dover, Delaware, Jan. 4, 1772. He
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, studied
law, was admitted to the bar in 1793, and practised in
Wilmington. From 1803 to 1807 he was a prominent
member of Congress, taking Jefferson's side, and from
1807 to 1811 he was U. S. attorney-general, under both
Jefferson and Madison. During the war of 1812 with
England he commanded an artillery corps which
served on the Canadian frontier. In 1817 he went to
South America as a member of the commission to re-
port upon the propriety of recognizing , the newly
formed Spanish-American republics, which course he
strenuously advocated. In 1821 he returned to Con-
gress, and in 1822 was made U. S. senator. In 1823
Rodney was appointed minister to the Argentine
provinces, and while discharging the duties of this
position died at Buenos Ayres, June 10, 1824. With
J. Graham he published Reports on the United Prov-
inces of South America (London, 1819). His memory
is still highly cherished in the Argentine Republic for
the excellent counsel and other aid which he rendered
at a critical time.
ROE, EDWARD PAYSoN (1838–1888), author, was
born at Windsor, N.Y., March 7, 1838. From his father
he inherited a taste for horticulture which clung to him
through life. He studied at Williams College with a
View to the ministry, and after a year at Auburn
Theological Seminary became in 1862 chaplain of the
Second New York Cavalry, whence he was transferred
by Pres. Lincoln to the chaplaincy of Fortress Monroe
hospitals. After the war he accepted a call from the
Presbyterian church at Highland Falls, and here
gathered materials for his Nature's Serial Story. In
isiſ he removed to Cornwall-on-Hudson, and in this
beautiful retreat, surrounded by fruits and flowers,
jof his books were written. On the burning of
Chicago, in 1871, he felt irresistibly drawn to visit the
scene. Here, when sitting on the steps of Robert
Collyer's church, his first story, Barriers Burned
Amºy, began to take form in his mind. It had sale
of 6,000 copies, and, encouraged by the unforeseen ,
success, he now devoted himself to literature, and soon
realized an income larger than any other American
writer. His is works, mostly novels, have had a sale
of 750,000 copies. Among his best-known works of
fiction are: Opening of a Chestnut Buºr; Year to
Namre's Heart; A Knight of the AI.Y. Century;
Pie Fall ºn Love with his Wife. His horticultural pro:
ductions are: Culture of Small Fruits; Success with
Small Fruits; Play and Profit of a Garden. On
July 19, 1888, he suddenly succumbed to neuralgia of
the heart. Roe was pre-eminently a writer for the
people, with whom he was in fullest sympathy, and
whom it was his aim to elevate as well as to please.
His style is simple, direct, and, though somewhat sen-
sational, ever permeated by a strong feeling of morality.
It has been said of him that he never wrote a line he
could not preach.
ROEBLING, WASHINGTON AUGUSTUS, engineer,
was born at Saxenburg, Pa., May 26, 1837. He is the
son of the famous bridge-builder, John Augustus
Roebling (1806–1869), for whom see ENCYCLOPEDIA
BRITANNICA. After graduating at Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute in 1857 he began work under his
father at Pittsburg. In 1861 he enlisted in a New
York artillery company and served in the Army of the
Potomac. He was appointed on the staff of Gen. Mc-
Dowell, and later on that of Gen. Pope, and engaged
as military engineer, bridge-builder, and aeronaut.
After rising to the rank of major in April, 1864, and
winning higher brevets, he resigned in January, 1865,
and resumed work with his father, who was then en-
gaged on the railroad suspension bridge at Cincinnati.
Of these Washington soon took nearly entire charge
till its completion in 1867. In the next year he studied
in Europe the system of pneumatic caissons for founda-
tions, and on the death of his father, July 22, 1869,
he was called to finish his plans for the construction
of the famous Brooklyn bridge. After a severe attack
of caisson fever in 1872, he endeavored, while still so
weak as to be unable to leave his room, to continue
his superintendence of the bridge, but was compelled
in 1873 to recruit his health by a visit to Europe. On
his return he resumed work and finally completed the
bridge in 1883. He has since been engaged chiefly in
conducting at Trenton, N. J., the wire manufactory
established by his father,
ROGERS, CHARLEs, Scotch author and antiquary,
was born at Dunino, Fife, Scotland, April 18, 1825.
He was educated at St. Andrews and was ordained in
the established church in 1846. He was chaplain of
Stirling Castle from 1855 until 1863, and succeeded in
arousing such national interest in behalf of that early
residence of Scotch kings that he was able to effect its
complete restoration and to erect monuments to Wal-
lace and the Bruce. He also induced Dean Ramsay to
take the lead in the movement for the erection of a
statue of Dr. Thomas Chalmers in Edinburgh. The
organization of the Royal Historical Society in 1865
in London was due to his efforts, and he was its secres
tary until 1881, Much of his time, has been devoted
to genealogical investigations. His principal works
are: Scotland Social and Domestic; Monuments and
Inscriptions in Scotland; A Century of Scottish Life;
Traits and Stories of Scottish People. He also com-
396
ROGERS–ROTLING MILLS.
piled Lyra Britannica, a collection of hymns, and
The Modern Scottish Minstrel, edited various frag-
ments of early Scotch poetry, and wrote some popular
religious books. He claims to have suggested to the
British government, in 1868, the use of postal cards.
ROGERS, HENRY DARWIN (1808–1866), geologist,
was born at Philadelphia Aug. 1, 1808, being the son of
Dr. P. K. Rogers, who taught chemistry and physics
Successively in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and at William
and Mary College. Henry was made professor of nat-
ural philosophy at Dickinson College, Carlisle, in 1831.
He conducted a geological survey of New Jersey, and
bublished a Report and Map (1835–40). Meantime he
}. been placed in charge of a similar survey of Penn-
Sylvania, on which he was engaged from 1836 till 1855.
Besides five annual Reports he prepared The Geology
of Pennsylvania (3 vols., 1858, with 5 maps), which was
published at the expense of the State. Having gone
to Edinburgh to supervise the execution of the maps,
he was called to the chair of natural science in the
University of Glasgow, which position he held till his
death, May 26, 1866. He edited the Geological Atlas
of the United States (Edinburgh, 1861).
His brother, WILLIAM BARTON ROGERs (1805–1882),
began to lecture on chemistry in 1827 and succeeded
his father in his professorship in William and Mary
College in 1829. e was made professor in the Uni-
versity of Virginia in 1835, and commenced a geological
survey of that State which was discontinued in 1842.
In 1853 he removed to Boston, where in 1864 he or-
anized the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
#. the presidency of this institution ten years. He
had in 1840 been active in forming the Association of
American Geologists, from which eventually grew the
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
The latter body chose him to be its president in 1876,
when distinguished scientists of Europe were expected to
attend its sessions. He died at Boston, May 30, 1882.
He contributed many important papers to the Scientific
bodies of which he was a member. -
Two other brothers, JAMES BLYTHE ROGERS (1803–
1852) and RoberT EMPIE RogFRS (1814–1884), were
eminent professors of chemistry, and were successively
connected with the University of Pennsylvania.
ROGERS, JOHN (1505–1555), an English martyr,
was born at Deritend, near Birmingham, in , 1505.
Having graduated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, in
1525, he became rector of a church in London. In
1534 he was made chaplain of the Merchant Adven-
turers at Antwerp. He had already embraced the doc-
trines of the Reformation and was intimate with
Tyndale and Coverdale. He edited from Tyndale's
manuscripts a revised English version of the Bible,
which was issued in 1537 under the name of Thomas
Matthew. Returning to England in 1545 he was again
rector in London, and Bishop Ridley made him pre-
bendary of St. Paul's in 1551. His sermon at St.
Paul's Cross after the accession of Queen Mary caused
him to be summoned before the Privy Council. He
was then imprisoned in his own house and afterwards
at Newgate. He was tried for heresy, condemned to
death, and burnt at Smithfield, Feb. 4, 1553. The
rude wood-cuts of Fox's Book of Martyrs and the New
England Primer have perpetuated the scene, J. L.
Chester (q.v.) prepared a careful biography of Rogers
(1861), which disproves the claim of certain New Eng-
land families to be descended from the martyr.
ROGERS, John, statuary, was born at Salem,
Mass., Oct. 30, 1829. After some youthful experience
of mercantile life, he studied civil engineering and af.
terwards became a practical machinist, and had charge
of a railroad repair shop at Hannibal, Mo. But his
desire to study art led him to Paris in 1857, and after-
wards at Chicago he modelled clay groups called The
Checker-Players and The Slave-Auction, which at:
tracted considerable attention. His famous series of
war groups, beginning in 1861 with The Picket-Guard
made his name a household word. This series included
Taking the Oath, The Home Guard, One More Shot,
Union Refugees, The Camp Fire, The Returned Vol.
unteer. Before the close of the war he had greatly
improved the mechanical execution of his works.
Then other phases of American life began to furnish
subjects. Among the most popular have been Uncle
Ned's School, The Country Post-Office, The Town
Pump, The Visit to the Parson, The Doctor's Visit,
School Examination, The Favorite Scholar, and Rip
Van Winkle. His groups are graceful and lifelike,
Sometimes pathetic and often humorous. They num-
ber altogether 64. Rogers has also executed statuary
for lawns and gardens.
ROGERS, RANDOLPH, sculptor, born in Waterloo,
near Auburn, N. Y., July 6, 1825, did not begin the
study of art until twenty-three years of age. He studied
under Lorenzo Bartolini, in Rome, from 1848 to 1850,
then for five years he had a studio in New York, after
which he returned to Italy in 1855. His works include
the ideal busts, Ruth (1851) and Isaac (1865); Nydia
(1856); Boy Skating (1857); Angel of the Resurrec-
tion (1861–2), which is on the monument to Col. Sam-
uel Colt, in Hartford, Conn.; Lost Pleiad (1875);
Genius of Connecticut (1877), on the State capitol at
Hartford ; memorial monuments for Cincinnati (1863–
64), Providence (1871), Detroit (1872), and Worcester,
Mass. (1874), an equestrian group of Indians (1881),
and portrait statues of John Adams (1857), placed in
Mt. Auburn cemetery, Abraham Lincoln (1871), in
Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and William H. Sew-
ard (1876), at Broadway and Fifth avenue, New York.
The bas-reliefs on the bronze doors of the capitol at
Washington, one of his best known works, representing
scenes from the life of Columbus, wore designed in
1858. He also completed the Washington Monument
at Richmond, which Thomas Crawford had left unfin-
ished. Crawford had made no designs for the statues
of Mason, Marshall, and Nelson, and these, as well as
some allegorical figures, were added by º )
F. L. W.
ROHLFS, FRIEDRICH GERHARD, a German ex-
plorer, was born at Vegesack, April 14, 1831. After
studying medicine he went to Algeria in 1855 as a
surgeon in the French army. In 1860 he passed to
Morocco, and in the disguise of a Mohammedan was
the first European to enter the Oasis Tafilet. On his
return journey he was severely wounded. In 1863 he
crossed the Atlas Mountains, visited the Oasis Tuat,
and returned by the way of Rhadames and Tripoli.
In a third expedition in 1866 he reached Lake Tchad
and crossed through Soudan to the Niger and the
Guinea coast. In 1867 he joined the English expedi-
tion into Abyssinia, and in the following year sent
Nachtigal (q.v.) with the king of Prussia's presents to
the sultan of Borneo, while he himself explored Cy-
renaica and went thence to Egypt. In 1873, under
the patronage of the Khedive, he led an expedition
through the Libyan desert. A visit to the United
States in 1875 gave him an agreeable relief from these
African journeys, but in 1878 he resumed his explora-
tions of the Sahara and in 1880 delivered to King
John of Abyssinia a letter from the German emperor.
In 1884 he was made German consul-general at Zan-
zibar, but did not long retain the post. Since 1870
Rohlfs' residence has been at Weimar, when he has
not been engaged on foreign travel. His publications
comprise narratives of his various expeditions and
essays on the exploration of Africa and development
of its resources. The most important are Quer durch
Afrika (2 vols., 1875); Entdeckung und Eºforschung
Afrikas (1876–81); Meine Mission mach Abessiniem
1883).
( fºLIN G-MILLS. For the general history of
the manufacture of iron in the United States see [RON,
of which the present article is a continuation. &
The approved American practice in rolling iron is to
use “three high” trains so that the hot iron passes
through between the lower and the middle rolls in one
ROLLING-MILLS.
397
direction, and returns in an opposite direction between
the middle and the top roll.
While a majority of existing rolling-mill trains are
driven by steam-engines through gearing, new plants
are generally directly connected ; that is, the engine
giving the motive-power has its shaft coupled to the
driving-shaft of a roll train, which revolves at the same
speed as the engine, and in some cases the engine
drives a muck train direct, and is geared to run a mer-
chant train at higher speed, or vice versa. In large
plants a reversing engine is employed which changes
its motion with each pass through the rolls. Some
of the older rolling-mills receive all or a part of their
power from water-wheels. -
Prominent specialties of manufactured iron form the
bulk of business at a number of rolling-mills. Among
these are plate, sheet, skelp, bar, nail-plate, wire
beams and angles, etc., and the practice of making
one or two specialties is becoming more common con-
tinually. Smooth or grooved rolls of various design or
sizes are required for each purpose, and many mills
require a large stock of extra rolls to fill the orders of
different sizes and shapes. For certain purposes chilled
rolls (made of iron cast in chills so as to give a hard
surface) are employed. These are principally used for
cold rolling or finishing, and are often highly polished.
Nail-plate is rolled from 12 to 20 inches in width,
and of thickness required for different sizes of nails, so
that the plate can be sheared transversely into bars
which are fed into machines which cut nails, preserv-
ing the grain of the iron.
Plate-iron for boilers or ships is made in smooth
three-high trains of large diameter, and as the weight
of some of the plates is great the pile is of correspond-
ing size. The best brands of boiler plate-iron are
known as C. H. No. 1,” and “flange ’’ iron—C. H.
being an abbreviation for charcoal hammered, and in-
dicating that the iron was made with charcoal in sink-
ing fires, hammered into blooms, and rolled out into
bars which were piled for plate-iron. The U. S. secre-
tary of the treasury publishes in the rules governing
the construction of boilers for steam-vessels provisions
that the tensile strength shall be stamped on plate, and
that the duetility shall be as follows: “Iron of 45,000
pounds per square inch tensile strength shall show a
reduction of area of 15 per cent., and each 1000 lbs.
tensile strength shall show 1 per cent, additional con-
traction of area up to and including 55,000 lbs. tensile
strength. Iron of 55,000 lbs. tensile strength and up-
Wards showing 25 per cent, reduction of area shall be
deemed to have the lawful ductility.”
Sheet-iron has been rolled to such small gauge as to
be thinner than paper; this was merely experimental
and required a superior quality of iron. Most of the
sheet-iron is made from metal above the ordinary
character. . There is no defining line between sheet.
and plate-iron, the terms being affected as much by
the purpose for which the product is used as by its
thickness; but iron under 3-16th inch is generally
considered as sheet- and above that thickness as
plate-iron.
Skelp-iron is a term applied to long, narrow sheets
of iron rolled for the purpose of making Wrought-iron
tubing or ſlues, of Whigh large quantities are demanded
for plumbing, gas-fitting, water or gas supply, oil or
gas wells, etc. &
f
The manufacture of beams, channels, angles, and
special shapes is rapidly extending, and demands a
plant of large proportions and powerful machinery.
H tº proof construction, bridge-and roof-building, ship-
building, and modern architecture constantly call for
*WShapes and sizes. I beams up to 20 inches in
height haye been rolled. The development of this
Specialty is the growth of but a few years, but it
Pºulses, to continue to increase both in quantity and
Variety of product. --- ** *.
Fºr the statistics of the production of Rolled. Iron in
the United States see the end of article fron.
Wire Rods,--The general features of puddling,
heating, and regenerative furnaces, squeezers, ham-
mers, roll-trains, etc., are given in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA. There are numerous improvements pe-
culiar to American practice which apply to various
specialties, but the advance has been more marked in
the rolling of rails, particularly in connection with the
Bessemer steel-works. . In another specialty American
practice has been remarkably progressive, viz., the rolling
of wire. The requirements of this country are not less
than 350,000 tons of wire rods per annum. Since on
an average 125,000 to 150,000 tons are imported, there
is a balance of at least 200,000 to 225,000 tons to be
provided for by American works. These possess about
30 trains of roll, some of which roll small iron and
merchant shapes during a part of the time. Steel wire
rods are made a specialty by about a dozen firms.
The iron wire rod trains and modern steel rod mills
do not work under the same conditions. For both rapid
rolling is desirable, but for different reasons. With the
first it is aimed at on account of its influence upon the
character of the product; with the second, for the
effect it has upon the cost. In order to reduce the
number of passages through the wire draw-plate, rods
for wire-drawing must be rolled to small dimensions,
while avoiding anything that injures the quality of the
iron. Speed in rolling tends to completely utilize the
welding and to allow of making the small sizes aimed
at before the wire grows too cool. If this temperature
should be reached before the last pass, the transforma-
tion of the previous oval into round cannot be effected
without affecting the molecular structure of the metal
and robbing it of certain properties. The iron will be
hardened, and in cooling will not be covered by the
blue oxide but by reddish oxides. In order to manu-
facture No. 7 and No. 8 B. W. gauge, it is therefore
necessary to increase the speed of rolling and to be
content to roll pieces of moderate length, according to
the softness of the metal treated.
It is a different matter with steel wire rods, which
are rarely smaller than No. 5 B. W. gauge. With
them the question of maintaining quality is not the
ruling one. Steel is more easily rolled than iron, and
in this case high speed is aimed at chiefly to reduce
cost of labor and general expenses.
The oldest wire rod mill, the English train, consists
of five stands of rolls in a line, viz., an 83- to 10-inch
three-high roughing set and four sets of 7- to S-inch
gontinuous rolls. In this system the speed of the rolls
is limited by the skill of the workman. Its defects
have led to its being generally replaced by what the
Almericans call the “Belgian ‘’ system. In it the
roughing train is separate, having a speed below 200
revºlutions, being a set of three 12- or 13-inch rolls,
With the pinions placed at the outer end, in order to
interfere less, with the finishing train. The latter,
placed parallel to it and 40 to 50 feet from it, consists
of a stand of pinions and five to seven two-high sets,
which may be driven at greater speed. *—
In some mills a further step has been taken. In-
stead of increasing regularly the size of all the finish-
ing rolls, those of the two last sets have been
increased half an inch, by which the corresponding
passes, leaving injurious loops of wire between the
last two, have been diminished. -
An essentially American train is arranged to roll
4-inch blooms about 4 feet long, which are directly
converted into rolls of wire several hundred feet in
length. It suppresses one reheating, the loss, the cost
and the waste of oxidation which that implies. This
idea necessitates certain special arrangements. The
passage from one set of rolls to the next must be
prompt. Two to three blooms pass per minute, and
99 to 100 seconds suffice for the complete reduction
of each one of them. +.
A train, resembling the above, running since 1SS4,
ised 4-inch steel blooms weighing from ix3 to isolbs.
In one week, making 11 single turns, the mill rolled
D.
t_)
398 - ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH,
420 gross tons of No. 6 rods direct from a 4-inch
bloom. In one day of 103 hours a record of 111,220
lbs. of No 6. has been made.
use of natural gas at the boilers and two b
A special feature is the
loom re-
heating furnaces. The entire force for the operation
of the mill was 40 men and boys.
The general arrangement and working of the last-
mentioned plant are as follows: The boilers occupy
one corner of the building, the heating furnaces and
shears the front, the ingot-reheating furnaces one side,
and the reels the other side. The blooming, billet,
intermediate and continuous trains are located cen.
trally, the axes of the three trains being parallel.
After the bloom is reduced to the section and length
desired it is heated in the furnaces before undergoing
further work. It first goes through the billet train.
When rolling steel the last set of this train, in which
the billet is generally given only one pass, the rolls
may be flat; when rolling iron, however, they must be
grooved. The bloom is thus reduced to a 1 by 3-inch
rectangular or oval section. It then goes through the
internediate train, where it is given a round, oval, or
square section equivalent to a section of by 3-inch.
It is then finished in the continuous train. The single
set of rolls which constitutes the intermediary is placed
behind the delivery pair of the billet train and in front
of the first set of the continuous train, and in the same
line of feed. The billet is carried from the billet train
and fed to the intermediate train by a guide, and from
this train to the continuous train by another guide tube.
This last train consists of two parts and is composed of
eight sets of rolls through which the billet passes in suc-
cession, conducted from one pair to the other by guides.
In leaving the last pair of rolls the rod goes through
a guide which conducts it towards the reels on which
it is wound. One man handles the reels. He seizes
the end of the rod, attaches it to one of the two reels,
and while one is winding the other is emptied and got
ready to receive the following rod. In this continuous
rod-mill the wire is passing in opposite directions
through different rolls simultaneously, and while the
finished end is being wound on a reel the balance of
the now reduced billet is still passing through several
pairs of rolls.
The following represents the geographical distribu-
tion and general equipment of the rolling-mills of the
United States not connected with steel works:
£ :
•= * . º
º: tſ, aſ ... 3 Gº- -
States. & ## ##| || 4 || #
£ E = | H = | #5 =
Ts c - * F. - #
ſº 2- - p- H *
Maine........................ 2 26 11 6
New Hampshire.......... l O 20 3 11
Vermont..................... I 15 2 ..?
Massachusetts............. 28 8() 155 87 37
Rhode Island........... .. 1 | ......... f 5 8
Connecticut................ 9 12 37 24 3
New York................... 26 280 135 78 20
New Jersey................. 16 159 94 5. 27
Pennsylvania.............. T 69 2,478 1,026 650 139
Delaware.................... 10 38 % 3. 5
Maryland.................... 9 98 59 * 6
District of Columbia..., 1 ......... 2 1 3.
Virginia..................... 5 83 30 16 l
Alabama..................... 4 45 11 1. 3
(*XàS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 | ......... 3 2
West Virginia............. 8 21() 37 27
Kentucky................... 7 105 43 § 6
Tennessee ......... . . . . . . . . . 4 45 22 12 1
Ohio........................... 54 902 204 115 25
Indiana...................... 8 116 51 25 3
Illinois....................... 13 124 G8 Sº I l
Missouri........... . . . . . . . . . . 7 36 39 18 22
Iowa........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ......... 2 !
Michigan.................... 2 3] : * 4
Wisconsin .................. l 3() 2. 7 1
Minnesota.......... . . . . . . ... l ......... 4-1 ! O
Ransas............... . . . . . . . . 1 | ......... I ! : 4-1
Nebraska. ................... 1 ......... 4-d 3
Jolorado............ . . . . . . . . i 12 1. % 1
Wyoming Territory......| 1 | . . . . . . . . . -
§ a • , a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4 4 34 11 18
Total..................... 401 4,907 2,199 1,314 341
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. This article
see vol. xx, º.º.º.
p. 628 (p. 644 :* -ºs. - *
Am. Rep.). coeval with the earliest attempted set-
tlements by the Spaniards at the South,
by the French in Maine, along the Lakes, and down
the Mississippi Valley, and by English Catholics in
Maryland after ineffectual projects in Maine. Ponce
de Leon, after discovering Florida in 1513, attempted
a settlement in 1521, accompanied by priests; and in
1526 Ayllon began a settlement on Jaunes River, Va.,
two Dominican priests, Fathers Anthony de Montesinos
and Anthony de Cervantes, beginning the regular min-
istrations of religion. The expeditions of Narvaez
and Soto were attended by priests, but no settlement
was made. A Franciscan Father, Mark of Nice, on
information given by survivors of Narvaez's force, pen-
etrated to the Zuñis, of New Mexico, and missionaries
with Coronado's expedition, 1540–42, penetrated to
the country near the Missouri and Mississippi, where
Father Padilla and a companion were killed by the
natives. Father Luis Carcer met the same fate in
Florida in 1549, while attempting to found a mission,
unprotected by soldiery or colonists. An expedition
under Luna near Pensacola, 1558–61, failed, the Cath-
olic service being regularly offered there by priests who
accompanied them. The first permanent settlement
at St. Augustine, Sept. 8, 1565, was begun with the
celebration of mass by Rev. Martin Francisco de Men-
doza Grajales, the first parish priest, and the service
of the church has been continued in Florida with brief
interruption (1763) to the present time. The parish
registers of St. Augustine are extant from Jan. 1, 1594.
From St. Augustine Indian missions were extended
north and south, and an attempt was made even on
the Rappahannock, where several Jesuit missionaries
were put to death (1571), as Franciscans were on the
Georgia coast (1597). The Catholic clergy in Florida
were subject to the Bishop of Santiago de Cuba. In
the West the Franciscan Rodriguez and his compan-
ions penetrated to New Mexico to found a mission,
but perished (1581). This led to the occupation of the
country by Don Juan de Oñate in 1595. He began a
settlement at San Juan de los Caballeros, where a
church was erected (August–September) and the reg-
ular services of the Catholic worship begun ; missions
were established among the Pueblo Indians, and as
converts were made churches were established in most
of their towns. These continued till 1680, when the
Indians rose against the Spaniards, massacred most of
the missionaries, and drove all whites from New Mexico.
When the territory was reoccupied by Vargas in 1692
the clergy of the Catholic Church resumed their labors
among whites and Indians, and continue them to this
day. The churches were under the charge of the
I3ishop of Guadalaxara, and subsequently under the
Bishop of Durango. In 1696 the Jesuit Father Kühn
founded the mission of San Xavier del Bac and others
in the present Arizona, and during the eighteenth
century priests of that order pushed their California
missions northward.
At the North, after laboring in Nova Scotia, the
Jesuit Father Biard attempted to found a mission set-
tlement on Mount Desert Island, which was broken up
by Argall §§ As the Jesuit missions in Canada
extended, Dreuillettesfounded a mission among the Ab-
nakis on the Rennebec (1646); Jogues (q.v.) among the
Mohawks (1646); Le Moyne among the Onondagas
(1654); Menard among the Chippewas (1660). The mis-
sions thus founded were followed up with wonderful zeal
and courage. The Indians from the Passamaquoddy
and Penobscot to the Kennebec became and remain
Catholic ; numbers of converts were made among the
Five Iroquois nations, whose descendants are found now
at Caughnawaga, the Lake of the Two Mountains, and
St. Regis. The remnant of the Tionontate Hurons
were gathered on Lake Superior, and finally at San-
dusky, and missions were established among the Ot-
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 399
taWaS, Chippewas, Sacs, Foxes, Menominees, Winne-
bagoes. Father Marquette sought to extend Chris-
tianity to the Illinois, Miamis, and other tribes in the
valley of the Mississippi, and accompanied Joliet on
his exploration of the Mississippi to the Arkansas.
He died after founding a mission in Illinois. These
Jesuit missions under Dreuillettes, Jogues, Lamberville,
Menard, Allouez, Gravier form a remarkable chapter
in American history. The Franciscan Recollects fol-
lowed with missions in Illinois, and churches at Niagara
and Detroit, Father Hennepin reaching the country of
the Sioux and naming St. Anthony's Falls. Priests
of the Foreign Missions from Quebec then established
parishes among the colonists at Cahokia and Mobile,
and attempted Indian missions among the Natchez
and other tribes. When Louisiana was settled, the
care of the settlements was confided to the Capuchin
Fathers and the Indian missions to the Jesuits, several
of whom perished at the hands of the Natchez and
their allies. All these parishes and missions were sub-
ject to the Vicar Apostolic of Canada (1658), who be-
came Bishop of Quebec in 1674. The Indian missions
were annihilated by the hostility of the French gov-
ernment to the Society of Jesus and the loss of the
country in 1763.
The colonies of Virginia, Plymouth, and Massachu-
setts Bay excluded Catholics, and they were not toler-
ated by the Dutch in New Netherland. Projects of
Catholic settlement were attempted by Sir Thomas
Gerard under Sir Humphrey Gilbert and by Lord
Arundell of Wardour under Capt. Weymouth, but
failed. Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, after
being repulsed from Virginia as a Catholic, obtained a
patent for lands lying south of that colony in his own
name and that of Sir Thomas Arundell, and when that
patent was revoked obtained another for Maryland,
lying north. Here his son Cecil founded the colony
of Maryland, most of the landed gentry and many of
the settlers being Catholic, and ministers of no other
religion appearing for years. The services of the
Catholic Church began on St. Clement's Island, on the
Potomac, March 25, 1633, under Revs. Andrew White
and John Altham. This was the nucleus from which
the organization of the church in the British prov-
inces in colonial days grew. The Catholic Church in
Maryland enjoyed a period of comparative freedom till
1645, when Clayborne overthrew the power of Lord
Baltimore, carried off Father White and others to
England, and compelled the rest of the Catholic priests
to seek refuge in Virginia, where they lay concealed,
suffering greatly, two dying soon after. When Lord
Baltimore's authority was restored, other priests came
over, and in 1649, under the impulse of the lord pro-
prietor, a general act of religious toleration was
passed. But in 1652 Clayborne and Bennett in the
name of the Commonwealth overthrew the proprietary
government, excluded Catholics from the Assembly,
which then passed an act disfranchising them com-
pletely. The priests again took refuge in Virginia,
from which they visited their flocks by stealth. On
the Restoration the Jesuit Fathers resumed their work
in Maryland, and in 1672 the English Franciscans
founded a mission in that province which lasted about
half a century. When James, Duke of York, took
possession of New Netherland and made it the English
colony of New York, religious liberty was granted and
Catholic officers and settlers arrived. Jesuit Fathers
came over in 1683, and the services of the Catholic
Church commenced. A Latin school was established
here as one had been in Maryland, the New York As-
sembly in its Bill of Rights establishing religious free-
dom. Penn, in settling Pennsylvania, adopted the
same liberal policy, and Catholics began to settle in that
province. The Revolution of 16SS was followed by
a reaction. Lord Baltimore was deprived of the ad-
ministration of Maryland; Catholics were again distran-
chised there and in most of the colonies; in Maryland
they were compelled to support Protestant clergy and
contribute to the erection of Protestant churches, sub-
jected to double taxes; and in Virginia their testimony
could not be received in any case, civil or criminal.
This state of things continued to the American Revo-
lution. No churches could be erected, and Catholics
had only private chapels connected with houses and
under the same roof. In Pennsylvania alone were
there Catholic churches, at Philadelphia, Lancaster,
Conewago, Goshenhoppen.
The conquest of Canada by England in 1763 crippled
the church in that province, and the churches at De-
troit, Vincennes, and other points in the West suffered ;
the action of the French government against the So-
ciety of Jesus cut off the supply of priests for the
Jesuit missions among the Indians ; and the complete
suppression of the order by Pope Clement XIV. in
1773 left the Catholics in Maryland with no source for
a supply of priests. They had been subject to the
Vicar Apostolic of the London District in England,
who had no means of sending clergymen. Bishop
Challoner endeavored to have a bishop appointed as
Vicar Apostolic for Maryland and Pennsylvania, but
failing in this, sought to have the Catholics there
after 1763 placed under the control of the Bishop of
Quebec. England obtained Florida also by cession
from Spain, but the old population withdrew. Minor-
caps were introduced at New Smyrna by Dr. Turnbull
and they were accompanied by priests. This colony
finally rebelled against their cruel treatment and re-
moved to Saint Augustine, accompanied by the priests,
and their descendants at this day form part of the
bopulation. Mobile also passed into the hands of
}. but the French settlers and their priest re-
mained. This was the position of the Catholic body in
British territory when, in 1774, the Quebec Act recog-
nized the Catholic Church in the country north-west
of the Ohio and reannexed that district to Canada, a
step which precipitated the American Revolution and
gave that movement in its early stages a strong anti-
Catholic character.
When the struggle between the Thirteen Colonies
and Great Britain actually began, the desire of con-
ciliating and winning the Canadians, who actually raised
two regiments, as well as the hope of gaining sym-
pathy, if not direct aid from France and Spain, dic-
tated a more kindly policy, Washington checked in
his camp the celebration of Pope-Day on Nov. 5, and
Congress appointed a Catholic chaplain in the army.
Envoys from France and Spain, the service of the
Catholic Church by French army and navy chaplains,
attended by State and Federal officials, soon made the
once hated church less odious, while the adherence of
Catholics to the national cause secured a degree of
favor. At the close of the Revolutionary war there
were bodies of Catholics scattered through the
country, chiefly in the large ports. The number in
all probability exceeded 50000: the clergy in Mary-
land, who during the war had been disowned by the
Vicar Apostolic of the London District, applied to the
Pope for a national organization and a local superior.
A French intrigue sought to subject American Catho-
lies to a bishop nominated by the French king, but
Pius VI. in 1784 appointed the patriotic Rev. John
Carroll Prefect Apostolic in the United States, and in
1789 erected the see of Baltimore, creating as first
bishop the Rev. Mr. Carroll, who had been nominated
by the almost unanimous voice of the clergy. At this
time there were Catholics not only in Maryland, Penn-
Sylvania, and New Jersey, with a few in Virginia, but
also in Boston, New York, Charleston, and Savannah,
Catholic Indians in Maine and New York, and a consid:
erable body of French origin north-west of the Ohio
and on the banks of the Mississippi. Bishop Carroll,
whose diocese was coterminous with the limits of the
republic, soon asked to have it divided, as the number
of Catholies was gradually increasing by emigration
from Europe. A coadjutor was at first assigned to
him, but in 180S new sees were erected at New York,
400
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
Boston, Philadelphia, and Bardstown, Ky., and Dr.
Carroll was made Archbishop of Baltimore, retaining
jurisdiction over the Catholics in Maryland and the
States to the southward on the Atlantic and westward
to the Mississippi. Some parts held for a time by
England and Spain had eventually come under na-
tional control. The French Revolution sent to the
United States many priests of great learning, zeal, and
piety. The Sulpitians founded a theological seminary
at Baltimore, the members of the old Society of Jesus
founded Georgetown College, and established a high-
School at New York, reorganized in connection with
the body in Russia, and were finally fully restored by
the Pope in 1815. English Dominicans driven from
Belgium founded a province of the order in Kentucky;
a community of Carmelite nuns from Europe was
established at Port Tobacco, Md. ; one of the Visita-
tion order was organized by Bishop Leonard Neale,
the coadjutor and successor of Carroll; the Sisters of
Charity were founded by Mrs. Eliza A. Seton, a New
York lady who entered the Catholic Church, and
similar bodies were founded in Kentucky by Bishop
David and Rev. Charles Nerinckx. A combined
Seminary and college was established at Emmittsburg,
d., and Schools in various parts. The printing of
Catholic books almost impossible in colonial days
began : the Bible was printed in 1790 and 1805, as
well as devotional, instructive, controversial, and apol-
ogetic works.
The cession of the vast province of Louisiana to the
United States in 1803 and of Florida in 1820 added a
considerable Catholic element to the population. These
provinces after being made subject ecclesiastically to
the Bishop of St. Christopher of Havana in 1787 had
been erected into a diocese in 1793, but at the time of
the cession were without a bishop, and in a state of
disorder, with few clergymen and neglected parishes.
Bishop Carroll was appointed Administrator, but could
do little to restore discipline or revive religion. He
finally under authority from the Pope appointed Rev.
William Du Bourg Administrator, who, in 1815, was
consecrated Bishop of Louisiana and the Floridas.
The Catholic population in the United States up to
this time was mainly of native birth, with some ac-
cessions by immigration and the children of those who
reached the country after 1783, but the close of the
wars of the French Revolution was followed by a great
tide of emigrants from Great Britain and in time
from other parts of Europe, a large proportion of
which was Catholic. These new-comers followed the
lines of the great public works, and improved means
of communication and helped to build up the North
and West, where the Catholic body rapidly increased
in numbers and influence, the slave labor at the South
generally excluding them from that section. In the
movement of the older population westward Catholics
were also largely represented. Sees were established
at Richmond and Charleston in 1820; at Cincinnati in
1821. A few years afterwards the great diocese of
Louisiana was divided and sees erected at New Orleans
and St. Louis, while Alabama and Florida were as-
signed to a Vicar Apostolic, who soon became Bishop
of Mobile.
The necessity of concerted action as to discipline
had been felt, and in 1829 the first Provincial Coun-
cil of Baltimore was held, Archbishop . Whitfield
presiding, nearly all his suffragans, and Bishop Rosati
of St. Louis, though not of the province, attending.
Great difficulties had arisen in Charleston, Norfolk,
and Philadelphia, from the action of trustees of
churches, who claimed the right of nominating and
instituting priests, and refused to admit or recognize
priests appointed by the bishop of the diocese. The
trouble in Philadelphia lasted for years and the diocese
was at this time actually managed by an administrator.
The council declared expressly that no right of pa-
tronage vested in the trustees and maintained the
right of each bishop to appoint and remove priests in
his diocese, and directed the interdiction of any church
where the trustees refused to receive the priest ap-
pointed or refused him the usual salary. By this time
the Catholic body numbered about 500,000, under an
archbishop, 9 bishops, about 200 priests, and with as
many churches, several theological seminaries, 8 col-
leges, and 20 academies for young ladies. The strong
prejudice against the Catholic Church about this time
was increased by publications issued in England in op-
position to the emancipation of the body in the British
isles. Similar publications appeared here, like that
fiction ascribed to Maria Monk, and one of the results
was the destruction by a mob of the Ursuline Convent
at Charlestown, Mass., in 1834, resulting in the death of
one of the nuns. (See RIOTS.)
In spite of this movement the growth of the Catholic
Church increased. Bishops were established at De-
troit in 1832, Vincennes, Ind., in 1834, Dubuque, Iowa,
Nashville, Tenn., and Natchez, Miss., in 1837. Each
new see became a centre where a bishop labored to
build up churches and institutions. Aid was afforded
to these struggling churches by the Association for the
Propagation of the Faith, a society established in
France to aid foreign missions, mainly through the in-
fluence of Bishop Du Bourg of Louisiana, and by the
Leopold Verein, a similar organization at Vienna, em-
anating from the appeals of Bishop Résé, first Bishop
of Detroit. Catholic papers, magazines, and books
increased in number and circulation, and attempts were
made to revive and extend the old Catholic missions
among the Indians. Those in Maine had always been
maintained ; that in Northern New York was attended
from Canada; work was renewed among the Ot-
tawas, Chippewas, Pottawatamies, Kickapoos, and
Kansas, by the Redemptorists, Jesuits, and secular
priests like Baraga and De Seilles. Tribes on the Rocky
Mountains hearing of the Catholic faith sent to St.
Louis for priests, and Father Peter J. De Smet became
the apostle of the Flatheads and other mountain
tribes. In 1843 bishops were established at Little
Rock, Ark., and Pittsburg, Pa., and the next year
at Hartford, Chicago, and Milwaukee, and Oregon
Territory was formed into a Vicariate Apostolic in
1843.
About this time a question arose which has often
inflamed the public mind. The early schools of the
country were all under church control, but others
grew up, all aided by the State. In New York frauds
brought church schools into disrepute, and the schools
of the Public School Society at New York alone re-
ceived aid. These were distinctly Protestant in manage-
ment, teachers, books, and tone, and Catholic children
were subjected to constant annoyance. The petition of
the Catholics for the revival of the former aid to their
schools raised the famous school question, never yet
satisfactorily adjusted. Bishop Hughes, of New York,
distinguished himself in a debate before the New
York Common Council, and a system of State schools
grew up and spread to many States, but the original
difficulty remains. The discussion in 1842 roused great
opposition, and a political party, “Native Americans,”
opposed to Roman Catholics, and to the influx of
foreign mechanics, was formed. The attempt of the
party to hold meetings in a part of Philadelphia largely
populated by Irish Catholics led to furious riots
in 1844, in which two Catholic churches, a convent,
and many houses of Catholics were destroyed before
the authorities could restore order. At this time (1844)
the Catholic churches in the United States numbered
21 dioceses, 1 vicariate, 634 priests, 611 churches, with
a population of 1,300,000.
The annexation of Texas in 1845 added an old
Catholic district, and the subsequent war with Mexico
added to the national domain New Mexico, Cali-
fornia, and Arizona, with white and Indian Catho-
lics. Texas had been from 1689 the scene of missions
founded by a remarkable man, the Ven. Anthony
Margil; New Mexico had been directed for two cen-
BOMANS.
401
turies by Franciscan and other priests, and in California
was a series of missions founded by Father Juniper
Serra and other Franciscans; while Arizona had
missions founded by F. Eusebius Kühn, S. J. Texas
was made a prefecture apostolic in 1840, and a see
erected at Galveston in 1847; a bishop had been ap-
pointed for California in 1840, and one was established
at Monterey in 1850, and a vicar apostolic at Santa Fé,
New Mexico, in the same year. In these parts the
church had labored to revive religion in the Spanish
and Indian elements, and to meet the wants of the
new body of Catholics from the older States and
Europe. In the older parts the growth of the Catholic
Church continued, and to meetit Oregon City was made
an archbishop's see in 1846, St. Louis in 1847, New
Orleans in 1850, and San Francisco in 1853; and
bishops' sees were erected in 1847 at Albany, Buffalo,
Cleveland, and in 1850 at Nesqually, St. Paul, Sa-
vannah, and Wheeling. The great province of Balti-
more, which from 1808 included all east of the
Mississippi, was divided in 1850 by the erection of
archbishoprics at New York and Cincinnati; New
York, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Oregon City, and San
Francisco thus became centres, and each archbishop
with his suffragan held provincial councils, and stimu-
lated the erection of churches and institutions, the
establishment of discipline, the care of the religious
education of the young.
To secure uniformity on several points of ecclesiasti-
cal discipline a plenary council of all the archbishops
and biº of the United States was held at Balti-
more in May, 1852, and has been followed by two
others in 1866 and 1884. Sees were erected at Brooklyn,
Burlington, Covington, Erie, Natchitoches, Newark in
1853; Portland in 1855; Fort Wayne and Sault Ste.
Marie in 1857. Progress had been steady although a
political party was formed about 1853, a priest tarred
and feathered in Maine, and churches destroyed in
some parts of the country. In 1861 when the civil
war broke out the Catholic Church in the United
States comprised 7 provinces, 45 bishops, 2317 priests,
2517 churches, 49 theological seminaries, 300 colleges
and female academies, 660 parochial schools, 230
charitable institutions. The war checked immigration
and crippled greatly the feeble churches and institu-
tions in the Southern States. In 1888 the Catholic
Church in the United States numbered 11 archbishops,
one of them a cardinal, 68 bishops, 7596 priests, 6829
churches, 91 colleges, 588 academies, 2606 parochial
Schools, with 511,063 pupils, 472 charitable institutions,
and with a population of nearly 10,000,000.
In promoting and conducting this remarkable progress
of the church the eminent men have been Archbishops
Carroll, Kenrick, and Spalding, of Baltimore, Cardinals
McCloskey and Gibbons, Bishops England and Lynch,
of Charleston; Hughes, of New York; Henni, of Mil-
Waukee; Cheverus and Fenwick, of Boston; Flaget,
of Louisville ; Du Bourg, of New Orleans; Neumann,
the holy bishop of Philadelphia ; O'Connor, of Pitts-
burg; Ireland, of St. Paul; Archabbot Wimmer,
who introduced the Benedictines into the country :
Very Rev. Edward Sorin, founder of Notre Dame,
Ind. ; Prince Demetrius Galitzin, Rev. Charles Ner-
inckx, Kentucky; Bev. Peter J. De Smet, S. J., and
Bishop Baraga, in Indian Missions; Mgr. Corcoran
and Rev. I. T. Hecker, Father Müller, C. S.S. R.; Rev.
Charles I. White, Rev. F. X. Weninger, Rev. C. C.
Pise; Dr. O. A. Brownson, eminent in philosophy; J.
A. McMaster, editor. Among women Mrs. Seton,
foundress of the Sisters of Charity; Teresa Lalor,
of the Visitation Nuns; Mme. Galitzin, of the Ladies
of the Sacred Heart.
. At the present time few countries have so many re-
ligious orders as the United States, where there are
Benedictines, Cistercians of La Trappe, Franciscans,
Dominicans, Augustinians, Carmelites, Jesuits, Re:
demptorists, Passionists, Sulpitians, Sanguinarians,
Oblates, Priests of the Holy Cross, of the Resurrect
tion, of Mercy, Capuchins, Lazarists, Fathers of the
Holy Ghost and of St. Viateur, Paulists, Servites;
Nuns of the Benedictine, Carmelite, Franciscan,
Dominican, Ursuline Orders, Sisters of Charity,
Mercy, the Good Shepherd, the Holy Cross, St.
Joseph, Christian Charity, Felician Sisters, Sisters.
of Providence and of Loretto, School Sisters of Notre
Dame, Bon Secours Sisters, Sisters of St. Agnes,
St. Anne, St. Clare, of the Holy Child, of the Holy
Name of Jesus and Mary, of the Immaculate Heart,
Incarnate Word, Presentation, Alexian Brothers,
Brothers of the Christian Schools, Brothers of Mary,
Franciscan Brothers, Brothers of the Holy Cross.
Xaverian Brothers, Brothers of Charity, Brothers of
Good Works. The communities of Sisters and Broth-
ers are engaged in teaching, or the direction of hos-
pitals, asylums, and other charities.
The latest step has been the foundation at Washing-
ton, D. C., of a great Catholic University, of which
Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, D. D., Bishop of Richmond,
has been appointed rector. The leading periodicals of
the church are the American Catholic Quarterly, the
Catholic World (monthly), Ave Maria, Messenger of
the Sacred Heart, the Freeman's Journal, Catholic
Universe, Warheits Freund, Propagateur Catholique,
Revista Catolica, Catholic Standard, Catholic Re-
view. (J. G. S.)
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. The article in the
See Vol. XX ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA on the
p. 727 (p. 743 Epistle to the Romans presents few
Am. Rep.). points open to censure, though opinions.
necessarily differ in regard to some of
the positions taken. The present article proposes.
to treat of the two earlier groups of Pauline epistles,
indicating some of the questions which arise in discuss–
ing them, whether from the historical or exegetical
point of view.
The general view taken of the epistles, the order of
writing, purpose, etc., may be found in the article
PAUL.
I. The earlier group of Epistles.—The first written
were 1 and 2 Thessalonians. These stand by them-
selves in some respects, while the four other epistles,
written during the third missionary journey, are closely
related to each other. The genuineness of 1 Thessa-
lonians is accepted in the BRITANNICA, but doubts are
cast upon 2 Thessalonians. These doubts arise en-
tirely from exceptions taken to the contents of the
epistles, especially the admonition against the expecta-
tion of the speedy coming of the day of our Lord (2.
Thess. ii. 1-3, etc.). But the second epistle seems a
very natural sequel to the first, and the external testi-
mony supporting its genuineness is conclusive to those
who duly weigh such evidence. -
The four other epistles, written within one year (A.
D. 57–58), are Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Ro-
mans. They are frequently spoken of as the “un-
doubted Pauline epistles, since the genuineness of
all is undisputed. -
The Epistle to the Galatians.—There is a difference.
of opinion as to the chronological position of Galatians;
Some place it before 1 Corinthians, regarding Ephesus
as the place of writing ; others think it was written at
Corinth, shortly before Romans (Conybeare, Light-
foot, and others). In favor of Ephesus we may urge
the nearness to Galatia, the strong emotion showing
that the news of the defection had come to the apostle
quite recently. In favor of Corinth it is urged that
the epistle resembles 2 Corinthians in tone and Ro-
mans in thought, and that the later date accords better
with the history of Paul's conflicts. But the differ-
enee between the tone of Galatians and that of Romans,
in spite of the similarity of thought, seems to indicate
a longer interval between the two. We therefore pre-
fer the earlier date, at Ephesus, which is usually ac-
cepted by German and American scholars.
The contents of the Epistle to the Galatians are
readily analysed. Chaps. i., ii., the apostle's defence
402
ROMANS.
of his apostleship; chaps, iii., iv., a defence of his
preaching (justification by faith, life by the Spirit, not
according to the flesh); chaps, v., vi., practical exhor-
tation, to stand fast in the freedom for which Christ
freed us.
The Epistles to the Corinthians.—In these we also
discover the apostle attacking error and defending
himself. But the error is by no means so fundamental.
There is no evidence of Judaizing opposition. The
evils in the Corinthian Church were mostly practical ;
party spirit prevailed, some sexual sins were tolerated,
disorders were allowed in the public assemblies, and
among the believers there were erroneous views re-
specting the resurrection. News of all this having
come to Ephesus, the apostle writes thence his first
letter, probably just before the riot spoken of in Acts
xix. This letter deals first with the party divisions
and Paul's mode of teaching ; chaps, i.-iv. (It is not at
all certain that these parties were fully developed di-
visions in the church, though some attempt to prove
this.) In chaps. v.-vi. he alludes to the sin of un-
chastity, and to the habit of going before heathen
magistrates. Them follow replies to questions that
had been submitted to him about marriage, and meat
that had been offered to idols; chaps. vii.-viii. A di-
gression of a personal character then occurs; chaps.
ix.-x. A direct censure of the disorders in church as-
semblies (chap. xi.) prepares the way for a discourse
about spiritual gifts (chaps. xii.-xiv.), in the midst of
which (chap. xiii.) is placed that remarkable eulogy on
“love'' as “a still more excellent way.” The discus-
sion about the resurrection (chap. xv.) is the only por-
tion of the epistle that is distinctly doctrinal, and the
latter part of it assumes a prophetic character. In-
junctions respecting the collection for the Saints at
Jerusalem, a matter which the apostle was now press-
ing upon many of the churches, and personal notions
and greetings make up the conclusion in chap. xvi.
After writing this epistle Paul left Ephesus, and
passing through Troas (2 Cor. ii. 12) sailed to Mace-
donia (Acts xx. 1, 2). From some point in this prov-
ince he wrote 2 Corinthians (2 Cor. viii. 1, ix. 2-4).
It is possible that he wrote a brief letter previous to
this, but nothing can be proven on this point. Some
have thought that he made a brief visit to Corinth be-
fore writing 2 Corinthians, but this also lacks sufficient
proof. Yet the occasion of the second letter preserved
for us was evidently intelligence received from that
city (chap. vii. 7–16), and this, too, not altogether re-
assuring. The larger part of the Corinthian Church
seems to have accepted the admonitions given in the
first letter, but Paul's opponents were embittered.
The second epistle, in its abrupt changes of style, tone,
and topic, shows the conflicting feelings of the apostle.
He strives to win the malcontents, but evidently in-
tends to exercise severe discipline upon them, should
they remain refractory. Hence no one letter of Paul's
reveals the man more fully; none of his writings show
greater tact, power, and eloquence. The epistle is
usually divided into three parts: chaps. i.-Vii., a rep-
resentative of the apostle's character and labors, but
with constant appeals to the Corinthians themselves;
chaps. viii., ix., further directions about the collection
for the poor saints at Jerusalem ; chaps x-xiii., a de;
fence of his apostolic dignity, varied in tong and
method, full of tenderness, yet very forcible in its ap-
peals. This defence differs greatly from that in Gala-
tians; the defection at Corinth was not doctrinal, but
practical and personal. Hence, he seeks far more to
win by personal appeals. To the Galatians he speaks
as by direct authority, making known the one revealed
gospel; to the Corinthians he speaks as the pastor,
clothed with authority, but desirous to win back those
who have erred. It is, therefore, difficult to analyze
this epistle, which for this very reason remains, the
most interesting picture at once of the apostle and of
the early Gentile Christian Church.
The Épistle to the Romans.—1. The purpose. Com-
ing to Corinth the apostle remained there three
months (Acts xx. 3), and during this time wrote the
Epistle to the Romans; a fuller, more didactic set-
ting forth of the same great truths of salvation which
formed the theme of Galatians. But the polemic
tone has largely disappeared. This would indicate
that the state of things in Corinth was more satisfac-
tory. At all events it enables us to determine more
certainly the purpose of the epistle.
The article in the BRITANNICA, while clearly right
in maintaining that the church at Rome was made
up mainly of Gentile Christians, attempts to show
that the purpose of the epistle was largely polemic,
that is, directly in opposition to the false views of Jew-
ish believers, if not of Judaizing teachers. No doubt
there are abundant indications of such opposition.
The conflict in Galatia was quite recent, and indeed
there was a permanent antagonism between the uni-
versal scope of the gospel as maintained by Paul and
the narrower view. But in this epistle the positive
statement of the universal aim of the gospel is domi-
nant ; the polemical purpose is incidental. The
apostle sets forth his own views, knowing that most of
the Roman Christians are in sympathy with him. Be-
ing unable to visit them on account of the collection he
is to carry to Jerusalem, he writes to them by Phoebe,
xvi. 1, in order to strengthen and instruct them. It is
the comparative freedom from a polemic purpose that
makes the epistle what it is, the fullest statement of
Paul's soteriological views. On the other hand it is
a letter, not a theological treatise, and as a letter
adapted to the needs of the church it includes refer-
ences to the tendencies that were likely to penetrate
wherever Jewish influence was felt. Moreover, as a
letter it deals with the great matter of Salvation by
faith, not abstractly, but in vital and personal fashion.
2. The theme of the epistle, so far as its doctrinal
contents (chaps. i.-xi.) are concerned, is given in
chap. i. 16: The gospel “is the power of God unto
salvation to every one that believeth ; to the Jew
first, and also to the Greek.” The next verse shows
that justification by faith is an essential part of this
statement; but the theme is a wider one ; Salvation
by faith to all classes. The three leading ideas, pre-
sented in varied order and relations, are these : univer-
sality, grace, and faith. Salvation is for all classes,
therefore, it must be of grace, and hence is accepted
by faith ; or being of faith, it is of grace, and hence
universal. The three ideas enter everywhere, and al-
ways in vital relation, distinguishable, but not divisi-
ble from each other.
3. The contents of the epistle. Accepting the usual
division into didactic (i.-xi.) and hortatory (xii.-xvi.)
portions, it is only necessary to indicate the leading
parts of the former. After the address, introduction,
and theme (i. 1–17), we find four main divisions : (1)
All men, Gentile and Jew, need salvation, for all are
sinners; i. 18–iii. 20. Hence (2) righteousness from
God (justification) is by faith, as the Old Testament
indicates; iii. 21—iv. 25. (3) Thus men are saved ;
this is the power of God unto salvation ; v.-viii. (4)
Historically, it was for the Jew first, but also for the
Greek, and despite the unbelief of the former, God's
promise stands; ix.-xi. (It is to be noted that accord-
ing to another analysis, chaps. iii. 21-y, may be
regarded as treating of justification by faith, and
chaps, vi.-viii. of sanctification by faith.)
It is clear to every one who accepts the exegetical
method that Paul in the earlier part of his letter lays
stress upon the way God accounts men righteous, and
that he afterwards meets the objections arising from
the ever recurring notion that such justification fails
of resulting in actual righteousness. Midway between
these two points the apostle inserts the remarkable
parallel and contrast between Adam and Christ as
representations of fallen and saved humanity. The
relation in both instances is at once representative and
vital. Hence chap. v. 12–21 is not an episode, but
ROMANS.
403
leads the way to the discussion in chaps. vi.-viii., in
which the gospel is shown to be the power of God unto
salvation, over against sin (chap. vi.), over against the
powerless law (chap. vii.), and as introducing a new
life of the Spirit over against the life of the flesh. The
term “flesh,’’ here and in Galatians, is readily shown
to be ethical, not merely referring to the physical side
of man's nature; mistakes on this point have led to
asceticism and to misapprehensions of Paul's anthro-
pology. It is implied, though not directly asserted,
that the life in the flesh stands related to Adam, the
life in the Spirit to Christ. Human nature as a whole,
turned away from God, constitutes the ‘‘ flesh.” The
Holy Spirit renews this human nature and it becomes
“spirit.” Hence it is sometimes difficult to determine
whether Paul refers to the personal Holy Spirit or to
the renewed spirit in which the Holy Spirit dwells.
This Holy Spirit is given to the justified believer, and
thus he triumphs; nothing can separate him from the
love of God. Chaps. ix.-xi. discuss with profound
pathos the unbelief of the Jews, and rest the difficult
problems on the sovereignty of God in chap. ix., but
in chap. x. on the unbelief of the Jews. The pros-
pective solution of the dark mystery is given in chap.
xi.; the triumph of the gospel will yet be universal,
ever of grace and by faith.
The practical exhortations have some reference to
special matters, notably the scruples about eating
(chaps. xiv.–xv. 13), which divided the Roman
believers into “strong '' and “weak,’’ the former
having no scruples, the latter disposed to judge their
freer brethren. The principles here laid down remain
of permanent validity. The conclusion of the epistle
(xv. 14-xvi.) reverts to the apostle's plans of visiting
Rome, and then follow (in chap. xvi.) a number of
somewhat detached passages; greetings and doxolo-
gies. It is this chapter that has occasioned the main
critical question respecting the Epistle to the Romans.
4. The integrity of the epistle. The doxology (xvi.
25–27) is found at the close of chap. xiv. in one uncial
MIS, and in many cursives, and in both places in
the Alexandrian M.S. and a few others. No authorities
omit chaps. xv., xvi., though Marcion rejected them.
This variation in position, despite Schürer's assertion,
is not sufficient to prove that the doxology is not genuine.
The objection of Baur to chap. xv. is of no weight. That
Paul wrote chaps, XV. and xvi. is well-nigh certain. But
did they form a part of the Epistle to the Romans?
Certainly this is by far the most probable view, No
Serious objection arises from the names occurring in
chap. xvi. Priscilla and Aquila travelled a great deal,
and the great number of acquaintances in Rome need
occasion no surprise. The view that this chapter was a
postScript addressed to Ephesus, intended for Phoebe,
or as an appendix to a copy of the Roman epistle sent
to that city, is plausible, but lacks proof. Bishop
Lightfoot thinks a briefer form (without chaps. xv.,
xvi.) was sent to other churches, probably by the
apostle himself. Other theories have been suggested,
but the Roman destination of the entire epistle is in
every Way most probable, however the phenomena in
the Greek text are accounted for.
II. The Epistles of the Roman Imprisonment.—This
group consists of four letters: Ephesians, Colossians,
Philemon, and Philippians; three of them undoubt.
edly written about the same time, and sent by the
Salme person or persons,
...]. The three epistles, Ephesians, Colossians, and
Philemon, have been fully and fairly discussed in the
BRITANNICA. The genuineness of all is defended;
the place of writing has been assigned to Rome, not
Caesarea, and the questions of similarity, etc., handled
With fulness and candor. The main perplexity grows
ºut of the reference in Col. iv. 16 to the epistle from
Laodicea,” and the absence of the phrase in Ephe-
fills” from the text of important MSS. in Eph. i. 1.
The current opinion now is that the Ephesian letter
was intended to be circulated in other churches, and
that this letter is referred to in Col. iv. 16. But that
it was designed for Ephesus first seems on the whole
most probable. These epistles give no indication of
the previous conflict with Judaizers, and reveal a
higher stage of theological thought, dwelling more on
Christological and ecclesiastical truths. This would
favor the view defended by Bishop Lightfoot, that
they belong to the later period of the Roman imprison-
ment (see below), but the views here presented by the
apostle do not of themselves prove this. e
2. The Epistle to the Philippians.—The occasion,
purpose, and contents of this epistle are fairly set forth
in the BRITANNICA, but on two points supplementary
statements seem called for.
(1) The date. Until recently this epistle was regarded
as the last one written during the first imprisonment
at Rome. But the influence of Bishop Lightfoot has
made a change in the opinion of English Biblical
scholars. He reverses the order, basing his argument
mainly upon the resemblance of Philippians to
Romans, and the advanced development in the church
implied in the other epistles. On this we may remark,
as in the similar question respecting Galatians, that
the presence of the same thoughts and language does
not establish nearness of date. The Epistle to the
Philippians indicates a more fully developed church
organization than do the others, and it is this, rather
than the development (if it may be so termed) of the
apostle's thought, that gives the most positive argu-
ment in regard to the time of writing. Bishop Light-
foot himself has shown the importance of this epistle
for questions of church polity. (See his Dissertation
on the Christian Ministry, Commentary on Philippians,
pp. 181-269.) In favor of the usual view, despite his
exceptions, there may still be urged the following
reasons: (a) the enlarged condition of the Christian
community at Rome; (b) the length of time called for
by the various journeys alluded to in the epistle; (c)
the companions of Paul at the time of writing; (d) the
tone of the epistle, indicating a sense of weariness in
captivity, etc. It is impossible to do more than name
these reasons, which have been regarded by most schol-
ars as convincing.
(2) The important Christological passage in chap. ii.
5-11 is deprived of much of its force in the BRITAN-
NICA. The meaning is fairly given in the revised
version, and most of those who are not prejudiced
against the view commonly taken of the Person o
Christ will accept the following paraphrase of Light-
foot (vers, 6,...), as fairly explaining the apostle's
statement : ... Though existing before the worlds in the
Eternal Godhead, yet he did not cling with avidity to
the prerogatives of his divine majesty, did not ambi-
tiously display his equality with God; but divested him-
self of the glories of heaven, and took upon him the
nature of a servant, assuming the likeness of men.”
This paraphrase of Lightfoot accords with the render-
ing (and marginal notes) of the revised version, as can
readily be perceived. The question respecting the
phrase emptied himself' (ver, 7) has been very fully
discussed, and the phrase has given rise to the terms
”. Yenosis,” and “Kenotists” as applied to certain
views of the Incarnation. So far as the statement of
Yer, t is cºncerned, if we are in doubt as to the apos-
tle's view here, we can searcely trust the results of his-
torical exegesis. It is quite unfortunate that the
authorized version, by its faulty rendering (“thought
it not robbery to be equal unto God”), has made it
more difficult, to explain the full force of the apostle's
argument. The divinity of the pre-incarnate Word is
far more fully set forth by the correct rendering:
Qunted it not a prize to be on an equality with God.”
We may add, that the genuineness of this epistle
cannot be denied with any good reason.
The pastoral epistles have already been discussed
(see PASTORAL EPISTLEs). The present article has
been made to cover, only those epistles and questions
that seemed to require supplementary remark.
404
ROME–ROSA,
Literature.—The BRITANNICA in the earlier volumes gives
due attention to English and American works on the Pauline
epistles, but the more recent volumes almost entirely ignore
these. The fullest discussions will be found in the American
edition of Lange’s Commentary, New Testament (vols. v.–
viii.). The articles in Smith's Bible Dictionary (Am. edi-
tion) are quite full on all the historical questions, and con-
tain valuable lists of commentaries; P. J. Gloag, Introduc-
tion to the Pauline Epistles. For English readers there have
been published a number of commentaries of a popular char-
acter, aiming to bring out the exact meaning of the epistles
and to set forth the historical questions. Among them the
Speaker’s and those of Schaff and Ellicott rank high. An
explanation of Romans by the present writer, based on the
revised version, was published as a part of International
Revision. Commentary (N. Y., 1884.)—For students of the
Greek Testament may be recommended the Commentaries
of Ellicott (1 Corinthiams, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians,
Thessalomiams, and Pastoral Epistles have already appeared);
Lightfoot (Galatians, Colossians, Philippians); Godet (Ro-
mams, 1 Corinthiams); C. Hodge (Romans, Corwythiams,
Ephesians); Vaughan (Romans), and many others. (M.B.R.)
ROME, a city of New York, half-shire of Oneida
co., is situated on the Mohawk River, 15 miles west
of Utica, at the junction of the New York Central, the
New York, Ontario, and Western, and a railroad to
Ogdensburg. Here, also, is the junction of the Erie
and Black River Canals. It has a fine court-house,
opera-house, 4 national banks, 1 daily and 3 weekly
newspapers, 16 churches. The industrial works com-
prise iron, brass, copper, knitting, lumber, and other
mills and factories. The town is handsomely laid out,
with wide, well-shaded streets and flagged sidewalks.
it is lighted with gas and has water-works. The total
valuation of property is $6,000,000. Rome was first
settled in 1765, being at the portage between the Mo-
hawk River and Wood Creek, which gave an outlet to
the St. Lawrence. Here was Fort Stanwix, of Revo-
lutionary fame, whose successful defence prevented St.
Leger's division of Burgoyne's army from invading
the Mohawk Valley. During the siege the battle of
Oriskany (6 miles east) was fought August 6, 1777,
in which Gen. Nicholas Herkimer was killed. Rome
received a city charter in 1870. Its population in 1880
was 12, 194.
ROMERO, MATIAs, Mexican diplomatist, was born
at Oaxaca, Feb. 24, 1837. After commencing the study
of law there he was admitted to the bar in 1857 in the
city of Mexico. He attached himself to the party of
Juarez, who employed him in the office of foreign
affairs. In December, 1859, he was made secretary of
the Mexican legation at Washington, and afterwards
became chargé d'affaires. In May, 1863, he went to
Mexico on the French invasion, and became chief of
staff to Gen. Porfirio Diaz, but returned to Washing-
ton a few months later. After the defeat of Max-
imilian's attempt to establish an empire Romero nego-
tiated several important treaties with the United
States. In August, 1868, he was made minister of
finance in Juarez's cabinet, but was obliged to retire
from this post by ill-health. After some service in the
Mexican Congress he resumed charge of the finances
in 1876 under Pres. Diaz, but retired again in 1879.
He was afterwards postmaster-general for a brief
period, but in 1881 he became general superintendent
of the Mexican Southern Railway, and accompanied
Gen. Grant in his visit to Mexico. Romero was soon
sent again as minister to Washington, especially to ad-
just boundary disputes, and in 1884 was reappointed
by Pres. Diaz. During his long diplomatic service he
has prepared many valuable reports on important pub-
lic questions.
RONGE, JOHANNES (1813–1887), leader of a Ger-
man Catholic movement, was born Oct. 16, 1813, at
Bischofswalde, Silesia. He was educated at the Uni-
versity of Breslau and studied theology there. In
1841 he was made chaplain at Grottkan, but was soon
removed from this post on account of some publica-
tions in Saxon papers. He then became a teacher, but
in 1844 he wrote a letter denouncing the exhibition of
the Holy Coat of Treves. The controversy excited by
this caused Ronge to withdraw from the Roman
Church and attempt to establish a German Catholic
Church. His most effective supporter at first was
Czerski, who was, however, less radical in views than
Ronge, so that eventually they separated. Ronge's
movement assumed a political aspect, and in 1849 he
was compelled to flee to London, where he busied him-
Self in introducing Fröbel's new ideas on education.
In 1861 he was permitted to return to Breslau, but
Soon went to Frankfort, where he issued many pam-
phlets in behalf of a Reform-Union, in which Protestant.
rationalists were to be included. In 1873 he removed
to Darmstadt and established Neue Religiöse Reform
to propagate his views. He died Oct. 27, 1887.
ROON, ALBRECHT THEODOR EMIL, Count VON
(1803–1879), German general, was born April 30, 1803,
and after receiving a military education entered the
Prussian army in 1821. He pursued the higher mili-
tary studies from 1824 to 1827, and then became
teacher of the cadets. Regularly advanced from grade.
to grade he became colonel in 1851, major-general in
1856, lieutenant-general in 1859. He had then charge
of the mobilization of the army when Prussia was
making ready to interfere in the war of Italian inde-
pendence, though the work was cut short by the treaty
of Villafranca. In December, 1859, he was called to
the ministry of war, and in April, 1861, to the minis-
try of the marine, to which, in December, the former
was joined. In the long struggle which ensued be-
tween the government and the Landtag Gen. von
Roon supported with vigor the plans of King Wil-
helm, and co-operated with Count Bismarck in carry-
ing through the reorganization of the army. The
Schleswig-Holstein campaign of 1864 and the Austro-
Prussian war of 1866 gave full proof of his abilities,
and the king honored him with the cross of the Black
Eagle. Again in 1870 he displayed the same signal
ability in the war with France, and the fiftieth anniver-
Sary of his entrance into the military service was cele-
brated with pomp at Versailles in 1871. On his re-
turn to Berlin he was made a count, but he resigned
the ministry of the marine at the close of 1871. He
had been for some time opposed to Bismarck's policy,
by which Prussia, so long the leader of Germany, was
to become simply a large state in a grand empire.
Count von Roon was not disposed thus to sacrifice the
position of Prussia, but the current of events was too
strong for him. His military eminence was still recog-
nized when he was made field-marshal, Jan. 1, 1873,
and he was soon after made president of the Prussian
cabinet, but in November he resigned his post and re-
tired from public life. He died at Berlin, Feb. 23,
1879.
ROSA, EUPHROSYNE PAREPA (1836–1874), singer,
was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, May 7, 1836. Her
father was a Wallachian nobleman, and her mother
Elizabeth Seguin, who afterwards became a noted
singer. The daughter was trained for the operatic
stage in Italy, and began her professional career at
Malta in 1855. After tours in Italy and Spain she
went to London in 1857, where her talent was found
best suited to oratorio and concert. In 1863 she was
married to Capt. H. D. Carvell, of the British army,
but after his death, having lost her property by an un-
fortunate investment, she made an engagement with a
concert company to perform in the Ünited States.
Her first appearance was at Irving Hall, New York, in
September, 1865. In February, 1867, she was mar-
ried to Carl Rosa, violinist and member of the same
company. With him in 1869 she organized an English
opera, which for three seasons made tours of the chief
American cities. In 1872 she joined the Italian opera
company formed at Cairo by the IXhedive of Egypt.
With her husband she afterwards made a tour in Eng-
land, and, when about to return to the United States,
she died at London, Jan. 21, 1874. Parepa Rosa was
large in person and handsome in countenance. Her
--- ROSCHER—ROSEBERY.
405
voice was a soprano, with a compass of two and a half
}{3|Wes. s
"ºsCHER WILLIELM, German political economist.
was born at Hanover, Oct. 21, 1817. His university
training was received at Göttingen and Berlin, and
after habitating himself at the former he was in 1843
made professor extraordinary, and in 1844 professor
ordinary there. In 1848 he was called to Leipsig, and
has there continued to lecture. . He was the originator
and leading advocate of the historical method of na-
tional economy, which has steadily, gained on the
“ philosophical” or a priori method long in Vºgue.
This system is well described under POLITICAL ECON-
oMy in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, and its
method is indeed the basis of that article. Economics
are by it regarded as but one department of the larger
science of sociology, but in vital connection with the
other departments. The state and its industrial, com:
mercial, and political development are but one side of
the life of the people, while the other includes their
art, literature, and other products of their civilization,
and the study of the whole is essential to scientific in-
vestigation of any part. On entering his professorship
in 1843 Roscher issued an outline of his views, which
he afterwards developed in numerous publications of
various kinds. These include Umrisse zur Naturlehre
der Staatsformen (1847); Geschichte der englischen
Tolkswirthschaftslehre im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert
(1851); Kolonien, Kolonialpolitik und Auswanderung,
of which several editions have appeared ; Amsichten
der Tolkswirthschaft aws dem geschichtlichen Stand-
punkte (1855); Die deutsche Nationalókonomik an der
Grenzscheide des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderfs (1862).
His most important work, however, is his System der
Tolkswirthschaft, which began to appear in 1854, and
was completed by the third volume in 1881, while in
the meantime several editions of the earlier volumes
had been issued, and the author had supplemented it
with his Geschichte der Nationalókonomiſe in Deutsch-
lunt/ (1874).
ROSCOE, SIR HENRY ENFIELD, English chemist,
grandson of the historian William Roscoe, was born in
London, Jan. 7, 1833. From an early age he evinced
an inclination for the physical sciences. When he
graduated at the University College, London, in 1852,
he took the prize in chemistry and became assistant to
I’rof. Williamson. In 1854 he went to Heidelberg
and studied with the famous chemist, R. W. Bunsen.
His most in portant research at this time was his
measurement of the chemical action of light, for which
he finally devised an automatic method. In 1857 he
was made professor of chemistry in Owen's College,
Manchester, where he succeeded in forming excellent,
well-equipped laboratories. In 1870 he was made
president of the chemical section of the British Asso-
ciation at its meeting in Liverpool. He has been an
earnest advocate of technical education, and for many
years delivered in Manchester a course of popular lec-
tures on science. In 1878 the University of Dublin
conferred on him the degree of LL.D. In 1880 he
was chosen president of the Chemical Society, London.
In 1881 he founded the Society of Chemical Industry.
In 1882 he was made president of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester. In 1884 he re-
ceived the honor of knighthood. In 1885 he was
elected to Parliament from South Manchester as a Lib-
eral. His publications include Lessons in Elementary
Chemistry (1S66), Lectures on Spectrum Analysis (1869;
4th ed., 1885), and a Chemistry Primer, which has been
translated into many languages. His most important
work is the Treatise on Chemistry (4 vols., 1877–85),
in which he was assisted by Prof. Schorlemmer.
ROSE is the common name of a genus of bushy and
S ... prickly shrubs, the type of the natural
*...Y.". *Y., order Rosacca, which comprises many
p. Sºo (p. 53 ºr lºgº, Willº ºn prisº, many
Alu. Rep.). useful and ornamental plants. The cul-
tivated rose, of which there are very
numerous varieties, is the most highly esteemed of
garden plants for beauty and fragrange. All its varie-
ñes were formerly supposed to be derived from one
species, but it is now believed that they represent sev;
eral species. North America has many species of
native roses with single flowers, as is generally the
case with wild roses, but some of them of much
beauty. One of the most interesting ºf these is R.
setigera, the climbing or prairie rose; This sends up
shoots of io to 20 feet high in a single season, and
bears flowers of a deep rose color, and leaves with from
3 to 5 sharply serrated leaflets. . The stems are armed
with stout, nearly straight, prickles. It is the only
American climbing rose, and is found on the borders
of prairies and *~
thickets from
Ohio to Illinois,
a n d southward
to the Gulf
States. In cul-
tivation it has
yielded many
double - flowered
varieties, known
as Prairie roses,
of which may be
named the Queen
of the Prairies
and the Balti-
more Belle.
The Swamp
rose (R. Caro-
lina) is a com-
mon species in
low grounds from
Florida to North
Carolina a n d
westward. It
grows from 4 to
S feet high, the .
stem be a ring
stout, hooked
prickles. The
rose-colored flow-
QTS 3 l'è Illlll) QT-
ous, b or n e in
c or y m bs, R.
lucida, the dwarf
w ill d rose, is
a not he r very
common species,
it being found
in dry soils and
Prairie Rose.
on swamp borders from the Gulf States north-
ward. R. blanda, the early wild rose, extends from
Vermont to Pennsylvania, and westward to the
Rocky Mountains. Its stem is nearly unarmed, its
flowers of a light rose color. R. lorrigata, the
Cherokee rose, has a long, trailing, smooth stem, the
branches being armed with stout, eurved prickles. The
flowers are large, solitary, and white. This species
is common in eultivation, and is valued as a hedge
plant from its quick growth, strength, durability, and
beauty. The Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast region
has six or seven species of native roses. Our natural-
ized roses include R. rubiginosa, the European sweek
briar, a high-climbing plant, which affects road sides
and thickets, and R. micrantha, the smaller-flowered
Sweet briar, which is found in eastern New Engiand.
The principal rose pests of the United States are the
thrips, the rose-bug, the aphis, and the red spider.
They may be eradicated by a strong solution of soap in
Water of 100° temperature, applied by syringing twice
a week.
ROSEBERY, ABCHUBALD PHILIP PRIMRose,
EARL, a British statesman, belonging to an ancient
Scotch family, was born May 7, 1847. When he was
four years old his father died, and he succeeded to his
title in 1S6S on the death of his grandfather. He had

406
ROSECRANS-ROSS.
been educated at Eton and Christ Church College,
Oxford, but left without graduating. He had indulged
in racing and other sports, and spent some time in
travelling on the Continent. On entering the politi-
cal field as a Liberal he became noted as a speaker.
He took special interest in the educational affairs of
Scotland, and he advocated a reform of the House of
Lords. In 1871 he was lord rector of the University
of Aberdeen, in 1874 he presided at the social science
congress held at Glasgow, and in 1880 he was chosen
rector of the University of Edinburgh. In August,
1881, he was made under-secretary of state for foreign
affairs, and he held this office until June, 1883. In
the Gladstone cabinet in 1886 he was secretary of
state for foreign affairs. On March 20, 1878, he mar-
ried Hannah, only daughter of Baron Rothschild.
ROSECRANS, WILLIAM STARKE, general, was
born at Kingston, Ohio, Dec. 6, 1819. His father had
served as an adjutant in the war of 1812. The son
graduated at West Point in 1842, and entered the en-
gineer corps. He was assistant-professor of engineer-
ing for some years, and in 1847 he took charge of the
repairs at Fort Adams, near Newport, R. I. Resign-
ing in 1854 he became a civil engineer at Cincinnati,
and was engaged in coal-mining and kerosene-manufac-
ture. An explosion of kerosene caused such injuries
that he was confined to bed for eighteen months. In
April, 1861, he offered his services to Gen. McClellan
as Volunteer-aid, but in June, just after being ap-
pointed chief engineer of the State of Ohio, he took
command of the Twenty-third Ohio Volunteers. He
led a brigade into West Virginia, and fought at Rich
Mountain, July 11. His commission as brigadier-gen-
eral, U. S. army, was made to date from May 16. He
had command of the department of Ohio until Sep-
tember, when, by a new arrangement, his command
was called the department of West Virginia. In April,
1862, he joined Gen. Buell's army, and at the siege
of Corinth he commanded a division. After the cap-
ture of Corinth he had command of the Army of the
Mississippi, and defeated Gen. Sterling Price at Iuka,
Sept. 19, but let him escape. Price united with Van
Dorn, but Rosecrans successfully defended Corinth
against their joint attack. (See CORINTH.)
In October, 1862, the command of the Army of the
Cumberland, then gathered around Murfreesboro,
Tenn., was assigned to Rosecrans. On Dec. 31, 1862,
his camp at Stone River was attacked by Gen. Bragg
as a prolininary to an invasion of Kentucky. For a
time the attacking force gained great advantages, but
Rosecrans by great personal exertions rallied his shat-
tered troops, and finally on Jan. 2, 1863, repulsed the
Confederates, who had well-nigh achieved a victory the
day before. (See STONE RIVER, ) In the spring fol-
lowing Rosecrans was slow to take the field against
Bragg, who was then at Shelbyville. Precious time
was lost in making preparations, far beyond what the
occasion required, against dangers in front and rear.
But the real danger that the Confederate force then
employed in watching and resisting Grant's operations
against Wicksburg should be released to reinforce
Bragg was comparatively neglected. It was not until
the end of June, after frequent orders and remon-
strances from Washington, that Itosecrans advanced
to Tullahoma. Bragg had retreated rapidly, and a
month later Rosecrans took Bridgeport on the Tennes-
see. The month of August was frittered away, and
on Sept. 4 Rosecrans crossed the Tennessee to engage
the large Confederate force, which had now been gath-
ered near Chattanooga. The operations in this vi-
cinity have been described under CHICKAMAUGA (q.v.).
In consequence of this defeat Gen. Rosecrans was
relieved of his command by Gen. Grant, Oct. 16. In
January following he was placed in command of the
department of Missouri, during which the invasion of
Gen. Sterling Price was repelled. After the close of
the war Rosecrans received the brevet of major-general,
but he resigned from the army March 28, 1867. In
the next year he was for some months U. S. minister
to Mexico, and was afterwards Democratic candidate
for governor both in California and Ohio. In 1881
he was elected to Congress from California, and served
two terms. He was made register of the U. S. treas-
ury in June, 1885.
Gen. Rosecrans' campaigns in Tennessee have been
the subject of much military criticism, but the fair
conclusion seems to be that, though he is a strategist
of high order, and capable of drafting beforehand ex-
cellent plans of a campaign, he is deficient in the neces-
Sary force to carry them through in spite of moral and
physical obstacles, and in the mental quickness to in).
provise new movements required by emergencies. I
his subsequent political career he took several oppoi-
tunities to windicate his cause without materially alter-
ing the popular judgment. His character and career
bear a marked resemblance to those of McClellan.
His brother, SYLVESTER HoRTON RosBCRANs
(JS27–1878), graduated at Kenyon College in 1845,
and became a Roman Catholic through William's ex-
ample. He graduated at St. John's College, Ford-
ham, N. Y., and received a doctor's degree at Rome
in 1851. Returning to the United States with priest's
orders he conducted a college at Cincinnati, and there
edited the Catholic Telegraph. In March, 1862, he
was consecrated and became assistant to Bishop Pur-
cell, and in 1865 bishop of Columbus, Ohio. There he
built St. Mary's cathedral, and carried on the ecclesi-
astical work with great vigor.
ROSENKRANZ, JOHANN ISARL FRIEDRICH
(1805–1879), a German philosopher, was born at
Magdeburg, April 23, 1805. IIe studied at Berlin,
Halle, and Heidelberg, and became professor extraor-
dinary at Halle in 1831. Two years later he was
called to the University of Königsberg as professor,
and he held this position until his death, June 14,
| S79. He was a member of the ministerial council at
Berlin in 1848. His literary activity was very great,
and his field extensive. He began with a History of
German Poetry in the Middle Ages (1830), and an
Eucyclopædia of Theological Science (1831). In ex-
planation and support of Hegel's philosophy he
published many works, of which the princi-
pal is his Psychology, or Science of the Subject/re
Spirit (1837). He also published Pot dagogik als Sys-
tem (1843), which has been translated as Philosophy
of Education. Other works are Poetry and its History
(1855); Science of the Jogical Idea (2 vols., 1858–59);
Life and Works of Diderot (2 vols., 1866); a History
of Kantian Philosophy (1840), which was the conclud-
ing volume of an edition of Kant's Works; and a Life
of Hegel (1844) as a similar supplement to Hegel's
Works. His latest work was Neue Studien (1877).
His Diary, extending from 1833 to 1846, was pub-
lished in 1854.
ROSENMULLER, ERNST FRIEDRICII KARL
(1768–1835), German Biblical commentator, was born
at Hessburg, near Hildburghausen, Dec. 10, 176S.
His father, Joha NN GEORG ROSENMüLLER (1736–
1Slă), was a noted Lutheran professor of theology,
and published Scholia in Novum Testamentum (6 vols.),
which passed through several editions. The son was
professor of Oriental languages at Leipsic, and pub-
lished Scholia in Tetus Testamentum (23 vols., 17SS—
| S35). He afterwards assisted in the preparation of a
Latin abridgment of this work (5 vols., 1828–35). He
had also prepared a work on Biblical antiquities (4
vols., 1823–31). He died at Leipsic, Sept. 17, 1835.
ROSS, ALEXANDER MILTON, naturalist, was born
at Belleville, Ontario, Canada, Dec. 13, 1832. While a
boy he went to New York, and was a compositor in
the office of the Evening Post. In 1851 he began to
study medicine, and obtained the degree of M. D. in
1855. He then took an active part in anti-slavery
agitation, and on the outbreak of the civil war in 1861
he was for a time a surgeon in the Union army. Later
he served at Montreal as a confidential correspondent
ROSS—ROWAN.
407
of Pres. Lincoln. He afterwards became a member
of the College of Physicians and Surgeons there, but
devoted his attention chiefly to the natural history of
Canada. In 1881 he was one of the founders of the
Society for the Diffusion of Physiological Knowledge.
He is now treasurer and commissioner of agriculture
of the province of Ontario. His publications include
Pecollections of an Abolitionist (1867); Birds of Can-
ada (1872); Butterflies and Moths of Canada (1873);
Flora of Canada (1873); Forest Trees of Canada
(IS74); Mammals, Reptiles and Fresh-water Fishes
of Cºtnada (1878).
ROSS, GEORGE (1730–1779), signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence, was born at Newcastle, Del. , in
1730. He became a lawyer, and was chosen to the
Pennsylvania Legislature in 1768. While still holding
this position he was chosen to the First Continental
Congress in 1774. He retired from Congress in 1777,
and in April, 1779, was made a judge of the Pennsyl-
vania court of admiralty, but died in July.
ROSS, JOHN (1790–1866), a Cherokee chief, was
a half-breed, born in Georgia. He had acquired an
English education, and rose to be principal chief of
the Cherokees in 1828. The State of Georgia was then
endeavoring to dispossess the tribe of their lands, and
Ross stoutly resisted this movement, but a small ini-
nority of the tribe led by a Major Ridge were induced
to consent to a treaty binding all to remove west
within two years. Ross and over two-thirds of the
tribe protested, and appealed to the President, but in
vain. They were compelled to submit, and Gen.
Winfield Scott succeeded in effecting the removal with-
out bloodshed. The factions in the tribe continued,
but Ross retained his position as principal chief. In
1861 he made a treaty with the Confederate States,
and the Cherokees fought at Pea Ridge. But after-
wards Ross joined the Union side. He died at Wash-
ington, D. C., Aug. 1, 1866.
ROSSI, GIO WANNI BATTISTA DE, an Italian archae-
ologist, was born at Rome, Feb. 23, 1822, and was
educated at the Roman College. He studied archae-
ology under the learned Jesuit Marchi, and devoted
himself especially to Christian antiquity. To Rossi's
labors is due the exploration of the catacombs, the
results of which appeared in his Roma Sotteranea
Cristiana (3 vols., 1854–77), and in his Bullettino di
archeologia Cristiana. He also published Inscrip-
tiones Christiance urbis Romae septimo scretlo an-
tiquiores (1861), and a handsomely illustrated work,
Musaici Cristiani e Saggi di Puviment delle Chiese
di Roma. He is the president of the Papal Academy
of Archaeology, and is a member of many learned so-
cieties. He has contributed also to the department
of classical archaeology. His monographs and minor
publications are numerous.
ROTHERMIEL, PETER FREDERICR, painter, was
born at Nescopack, Luzerne co., Pa., July 18, 1817. He
was originally a land-surveyor, but went to Italy in 1836
and became a portrait-painter. Still later he devoted
himself to historical painting. Among his works are
Columbus before Queen Isabella, The Christian Mar-
tyrs in the Colosseum, De Soto discovering the Missis-
sippi, Patrick Henry in the Virginia House of Bur-
gesses. For the State of Pennsylvania he painted on
a large canyas The Battle of Gettysburg.
ROUGE, OLIVIER CHARLES CAMILLE EMMANUEL,
VICOMTE DE (1811–1872), French Egyptologist, was
born at Paris, April 11, 1811. His father, a colonel,
had intended him for a career in governmental service,
but the revolution of 1830 broke up his plans. The
Sqn then resided on the family estate in Anjou until
his love of philological study brought him back to
Paris. After a general excursion in the field of Ori-
lished a catalogue. In 1854 he was obtained a position
in the department of public instruction, and in 1860 he
was made a professor of archaeology in the Collége de
France. He died at Bois-Dauphin, Dec. 27, 1872.
His chief work is Rituel funéraire des ancien8 Egypt-
tens (4 vols., 1861–68). He published also a Chresto-
mathié egyptienne (3 vols., 1867–73), Recherches sur les
monuments qu' on peut attribuer aux sic premières
dynasties de Maméthon (1866) and various monographs.
He maintained the Egyptian origin of the Phºenician
alphabet in a memoir which was published by his son
in 1874.
ROUSSEAU, LovELL HARRISON (1818–1869),
major-general, was born in Lincoln Co., Ky., Aug. 4.
1818. His father was first cousin to Pres. W. H. Har-
rison, and died when Lovell was but thirteen years old.
He had already left school, but afterwards studied law
at Louisville, and was admiuted to the bar at Bloom-
field, Ind. In 1844 he was elected to the Legislature
in that State and on the outbreak of the Mexican war
he became captain in a regiment which fought under
Gen. Taylor. On his return he entered the State
Senate as a Whig, but he soon removed to Louisville,
where he became conspicuous as a criminal lawyer. In
1S60 as a member of the Kentucky Senate he took a
firm stand against all movements tending to secession,
and later against the proposed neutrality of the State.
physical strength and chivalrous coura
|
i
Raising two regiments of Union men, he formed
“Camp Joe Holt'' in Indiana, and wher: the time for
action came led them into Kentucky. Having been
appointed brigadier-general U. S. volunteers, Oct. 1,
1861, he marched in Buell's army to the battle of
Shiloh, where he distinguished himself, April 7, 1862.
For gallantry at Perryville, Ky., Oct. 8, 1862, he was
prolnoted major-general, and at Murfreesboro, Dec. 31,
JS62, he was again conspicuous. He fought at Chat-
tanooga and Chickamauga, and in November, 1863, was
appointed to command the district of Tennessee. Re-
signing two years later, he was elected to Congress,
where he supported the reconstruction policy of Pres.
Johnson. In 1867 he was commissioned brigadier-
general in the regular army, and was assigned to the
newly purchased Alaska, but in July, 1868, he was put
in command of the department of Louisiana. He died
at New Orleans, Jan. S, 1869. He was noted for his
ge.
ROUTH, MARTIN Joseph (1755–1854), English
divine, was born at South Elmham, Suffolk, Sept. 15,
1755. He graduated at Oxford in 1774 and held
Various college positions, becoming finally president of
Magdalen College in 1791, and retaining that office for
sixty-four years. He edited some of Plato's Dialogues,
Burnet's History, and Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum
Opuscula (1832). His chief work was a collection of
the fragments of the Christian writers previous to the
Council of Nice, Reliquia Sacrae (4 vols., 1814–ls;
revised ed., 5 vols., 1846–48). He died in his hun-
dredth year, Dec. 22, 1854.
RQWAN, STEPHEN CLEGG, admiral, was born near
Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 25, 1808. He was brought to
the United States at an early age and received appoint-
ment as midshipman in the navy in 1826. He became
lieutenant in 1837 and was engaged in the coast survey
in 183S-40. During the Mexican war he had command
of the sloop Cyane on the Pacific coast and took part
in the capture of Monterey and San Diego in Califor-
nia, as Well as capturing and destroying Mexican ves-
sels. Under Com. Stockton he led a naval brigade in
an expedition to the interior and received a slight
Wound. At the outbreak of the civil war he held the
Tank of commander and though his residence was at
Norfolk, Va., where he had married, he remained
faithful to the Union. With the steam-sloop Pawnee
ental literature he devoted himself to the investigation he performed efficient service on the Potomac and
9f Egyptian hieroglyphics for eight years. In 1844
his first publication attracted the attention of Letronne
and Biot.
Egyptian Museum of the Louvre, of which he pub-
In 1849 he was made keeper of the brought securely under Union control.
afterwards on the coast of North Carolina, where he
conducted several expeditions until its waters were
He was made
commodore in July, 1862, and afterwards had com.
408
RUBINSTEIN–RUSK.
mand of the New Ironsides off Charleston until the
Spring of 1864, when he was relieved. In 1866 he was
made rear-admiral and took command of the Norfolk
navy-yard. In 1868 he was made commander of the
Asiatic squadron and received the rank of vice-admiral.
He afterwards had charge of the navy-yard at New
York, the naval asylum at Philadelphia, and the naval
observatory at Washington. Since ISS3 he has been
chairman of the Lighthouse board.
RUBINSTEIN, ANTON, Russian pianist and com-
poser, was born at Wechwoty.netz, Roumania, Nov. 30,
1830. He was taken to Moscow in childhood and early
appeared in public as a performer. At the age of Sen
he went to Paris for instruction, but also performed at
concerts, Liszt giving him advice and encouragement.
Rubinstein visited England, Sweden, and Germany, and
for a time studied composition in Berlin. Then he
began to teach, and having returned to Russia was ap-
pointed pianist to the Grand Duchess Helena and
director of the concerts of the Russian Musical Society.
In 1868 he again visited Paris and London, achieving
a brilliant success both as pianist and composer. In
1872 he made a tour in the United States and he has
since devoted himself to composition. Among his
operas are Dimitri Domskoi, Les Chasseurs Sibériens,
Lalla Rookh, and Nero. His oratorio, Pºtradise Lost,
has been performed with great success. The Maccabees,
a sacred drama, was performed in 1878.
RUFFNER, HENRY (1788–1861), Presbyterian min-
ister and educator, was born in 1788, and entered the
ministry in 1813. After holding various pastorates he
was made president of Lexington College, Va., in 1837.
He exerted himself for the advancement of education
and in 1860 he advocated the abolition of slavery in
Virginia. He died at Kanawha, Dec. 17, 1861. He
wrote a romance called Judith Bensaddi, and The
Origin and Practice of Monkery (2 vols., 1850).
RUMSEY, JAMEs (1743–1792), machinist, was born
at Bohemia Manor, Cecil co., Md., in 1743. He was
employed in the construction of flour-mills and made
various improvements in machinery. After the Revo-
lutionary war several ingenious men directed their
attention to this subject and soon there was discussion
about the application of steam. Oliver Evans (q. v.),
who had made great improvements in mills, invented
the high-pressure steam-engine and endeavored to
make a steam-wagon for ordinary roads. John Fitch
(see ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA) invented a steam-
boat, but by want of means was long delayed in bring-
ing it into practical operation. Rumsey had in Septem-
ber, 1784, exhibited on the Potomac a boat moved by
mechanical devices up-stream. Gen. Washington is said
to have been present at the exhibition, but does not
appear to have given it serious thought. . Afterwards
Rumsey introduced steam-power into his boat and ob-
tained in 1787 a patent from the State of Virginia for
steam-navigation within its waters. Evans obtained a
similar patent from Maryland, and Fitch from Penn:
sylvania and other States. State jealousy and political
feeling were greatly excited over the rival. claims.
Rumsey enlisted the aid of Franklin and published at
Philadelphia a treatise on the application of steam. A
Rumsey Society was formed at Philadelphia in 1788 in
his behalf, and Fitch, rough in speech and ..
ance, lost public favor. Rumsey went to England,
where he received some attention and built a steam-
boat, which made a successful trip on the Thames.
A few days afterwards he died at London, Dec. 23,
1792. Rumsey had obtained patents for steam-navi-
gation from England and France, but his prºjects
&xpired with him. It remained for Robert Fultºn
with the generous aid of Livingston to put in successful
operation the ideas of his unfortunate. predecessors.
Rüşti, BENJAMIN (1746–1813), is appropriately
recognized in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA as
the Svdenham of America. • -->
His son, JAMEs Rush, born at Philadelphia, March
1, iſs6, graduated at Princeton in 1805, and adopted
his father's profession. According to the custom of
the time, after receiving his degree from the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania in 1809, he pursued further study
of medicine in Edinburgh. After entering on practice
in Philadelphia, he married the daughter of Thomas
Ridgway, and thus acquired a princely fortune. His
wife was long a brilliant leader of society, while he in
later years preferred the seclusion of his library. His
work on the Philosophy of the Human ſoice (1827)
was the first thorough discussion of its subject, and
still has great value. His other writings were Hamlet,
a Dramatic Prelude (1834); an Auſlysis of the Human
Intellect (2 vols., 1865); and Rhymes of Contrast on
Wisdom and Folly (1869), a satirical dialogue. He
died May 26, 1869. By his will he left his estate to
the Philadelphia Library, yet on such peculiar condi-
tions that the wisdom of accepting it was doubtful.
He had spent the bulk of the bequest in purchasing a
full square of ground on Broad street and erecting a
massive granite building, leaving a comparatively small
sum for the purchase of books. The building is oc-
cupied by the Ridgway branch of the library, but the
inconvenience of its location has prevented it from
being of real benefit even to students. Dr. Rush's
will requires the library to issue every ten years in the
next half century an edition of his own writings to be
sold at cost-price.
RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859), diplomatist, brother
of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia, Aug. 29,
1780. Graduating at Princeton in 1797, he entered in
the study of law. His first noted case was his defence
of William Duane who was charged with libel on Gov.
Thomas McKean. In January, 1811, he was made
attorney-general of Pennsylvania, and before the close
of the year comptroller of the U. S. treasury. In
1814 he was appointed U. S. attorney-general, and he
served for a time as secretary of state under Pres.
Monroe, by whom he was sent as minister to England.
There he negotiated several important treaties, espe-
cially that of 1818, relating to the North Atlantic
fisheries and the North-eastern boundary. After eight
years spent in this capacity, Rush was recalled by his
friend, John Quincy Adams, who had risen from the
secretaryship of state to be President, and wished to
employ his services in the treasury. Three years later
their names were joined on a presidential ticket, which
failed of acceptance by the people. Rush then used
his influential foreign acquaintance to obtain loans for
the city of Washington and other places. In 1836,
being appointed by Pres. Jackson to secure from the
British courts the legacy of James Smithson to the
United States, he obtained the full amount, $515, 169,
which has been the basis of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. In 1847 he was sent by Pres. Polk as minister
to France, and remained until 1849. Returning to
Philadelphia, he died there ten years later, July 30,
1859. In early life he edited the Laws of the United
States (5 vols., 1815) and wrote many political articles.
In 1833 he published his Narrºtfire of a Residence at
the Court of St. James, to which he added a second
volume in 1845. A new edition appeared in 1873. He
also published Washington in Domestic Life (1857)
and his executors issued a volume of his Occasional
Productions (1860). e - © e
RUSK, THOMAs JEFFERSON (1802–1856), politician,
was born in South Carolina, but early removed $o
Georgia, where he became a lawyer. Full of restless
energy, he joined in 1835 the movement for attaching
Texas to the United States. He took part in the con-
vention which in March, 1836, declared Texas inde:
pendent of Mexico, and became its first secretary of
war. He fought at San Jacinto and on him devolved
Gen. Sam Houston's command, when the latter was
wounded. After leading some expeditions against the
Indians, Rusk was made chief justice of the Supreme
Court, but resigned in 1842. He presided in the con-
vention which ratified the annexation of Texas to the
United States and was then elected to the U. S. Senate.
RUSKIN.
409
Of this body he was a member for ten years, being also
its president pro tem., when he died by his own hand at
Nacogdoches, Texas, July 29, 1856.
RUSKIN, JOHN, the most eminent English art critic,
was born in London, Feb. 8, 1819. His father was a
London wine-merchant, who accumulated an ample
fortune, which John, his only son, inherited. The
elder Ruskin was a man of considerable culture, with
much love for and taste in art, which artistic sense
early manifested itself in his son. He was in the habit
of making commercial journeys throughout England,
often taking his son with him, and in these excursions
spent much time in seeking attractive scenery, studying
fine architecture, and visiting notable collections of
paintings, pointing out their excellencies, and doing his
utmost to cultivate the intense love of nature and art
which these teachings awakened in the boy. To the
teaching of his mother, a strict Evangelical, Ruskin
owed the strongly religious tendency of his mind, and
also his love of literature, which she took every pains
to develop. These careful instructions of his parents
in art, literature, and morais went far to develop in
early life his naturally artistic and devout inclinations,
and laid the foundations of his later career. He re-
marks, concerning his early love of nature : “In such
journeyings, whenever they brought me near hills, and
in all mountain ground and scenery, I had a pleasure
as early as I can remember, and continuing until I was
eighteen or twenty, infinitely greater than any which
has been since possible to me in anything. . . . Al-
though there was no definite religious sentiment min-
gled with it, there was a continual perception of sanc-
tity in the whole of nature, an indefinable thrill
such as we sometimes imagine to indicate the presence
of a disembodied spirit.” He spent much of his
time in communion with nature, having no inclination
for playmates, and describes, in a poem written at 9
years of age, the effect produced on him by a striking
natural scene. His early literary inclination, indeed,
was towards poetry, and he continued to write verses
till his thirtieth year, but never excelled in this direc-
tion. His poems manifest fine imaginative and warmly
sympathetic powers, but are deficient in the equally
necessary qualities of form and expression.
In 1833 Ruskin entered college at Christ Church,
Oxford, whence he graduated in 1842. While at Ox-
ford he won the Newdigate prize (1839) by a poem
entitled Salsette and Elephanta, describing the dawn
of Christianity in Hindustan. During the same period
he wrote, at the age of 16, some articles on geology,
which were followed by a series of anonymous articles
on “The Poetry of Architecture.” His artistic studies
while at college, in connection with his life-long study
of mature, led him to the conception that art, as then
cultivated in England, had been led aside from nature
by blind dependence on classic models. To this was
added the conception that the landscape paintings of
Turner, which he had deeply studied, indicated the
opening of a new and natural school of art ; that this
great painter had been treated with gross injustice by
his contemporaries, and that he formed the proper
model for the correction of the vitiated public taste.
'hese views, adopted with impassioned earnestness,
were to some extent incorrect. The powers of Turner
had been appreciated by many, and for that purpose
he cannot justly be said to have needed such a prophet
as Ruskin. To defend his favorite painter against his
critics the young enthusiast began a review article,
which the native fluency of his pen quickly expanded
to a volume. This was published in 1843 under the
title, Modern Painters: their Superiority in the Art of
Landscape Painting to all the Ancient Masters. By a
Graduate of Oxford.
This anonymous work created an immediate and im-
mense sensation in art circles, and among lovers of liter-
ature in general. While devoted largely to an ardent
advocacy of the artistic merits of Turner's paintings,
with a fervent espousal of the claims of this artist to
VOL. IV.-2 A
high consideration, it broadened out into a general
criticism of modern art methods, and displayed a
knowledge of the subject, and a deep study and intense
appreciation of the beauties of nature, couched in a
rich and flowing style, which could not fail to attract
widespread attention. The work, indeed, did not be-
come an authority with critics and connoisseurs, but its
rhetorical brilliancy of style and eloquent descriptions
gained it a host of admirers, while the summary manner
in which it set aside the distinguished masters of the
past in favor of Turner stirred the world of art to its
depths. The hollowness of much that had been gen-
erally accepted was laid bare, and at one stroke it was
made evident that a new departure must be made. As
Wordsworth had inaugurated the era of naturalism in
poetry, so Turner, under Ruskin's championship, was
about to do so in art.
The publication of this initial volume was followed
by several years of residence abroad, during which
Ruskin devoted himself to the study of art in Italy,
and especially in Venice, and greatly enlarged that wide
knowledge of the subject which is manifest in all his
writings. The first fruits of this extended study was a
second volume of JIodern Painters, entitled Of the Im-
aginative and Theoretic Faculties, in which he gives
an elaborate critical survey of the works of the old
masters, who are compared with the modern English
landscape painters, much to the advantage of the latter.
These volumes displayed acute analysis of the elements
of truth in painting, with abundant examples drawn
from ancient and modern art, that went far to cause a
complete revolution in the creed of artists, and to send
the devotees of the brush to nature for their inspira-
tion. At intervals during the succeeding years three
more volumes of Modern Painters appeared, the third
being entitled Of Many Things; the fourth, Of
Mountain Beauty; and the fifth, published in 1860,
Of Leaf Beauty, of Cloud Beauty, of Ideas of Re-
lation, etc. The author continued his study of the
several elements of landscape art and his fervid cham-
pionship of Turner, writing with a lucidity and brill-
iancy of style that went far to atone for many defects
of his literary work.
During the publication of these volumes his art
studies in Italy led to other works of great literary
merit and artistic value. In 1849 appeared The Seven
Lamps of Architecture, these lamps indicating the
character that good arehitecture should possess, the
spirit in which it should be produced, and the moral
perfection it should illustrate. Then followed his elo-
quently written Stones of ſenice (3 vols., 1851–53),
which for poetical richness and vividness of expression
forms one of the prose masterpieces of the century.
In this, the era of development of Gothic architecture
in Venice is upheld as that of domestic faith and
national virtue ; that of Renaissance architecture as a
period of domestic corruption and national vice. Sev-
eral minor works on art subjects appeared in this era
of Ruskin's life, including a pamphlet on Pre-Ra-
phaelitism (1851); a series of Lectures on Architecture
and Painting (1853); The Opening of the Crystal
Palace and The Elements of fº, (1857), with a
story for children, The King of the Golden River.
Qf these works, The Elements of Drawing is one of
the most practically useful that has appeared from his
pen, and while not altogether safe in its teachings is
of the greatest value as a sketcher's companion.
Modern Painters has been characterized by an able
Writer as “undoubtedly the greatest critical treatise
ever written on art,” and to a degree on literature and
nature, Ruskin is unquestionably at the head of
English writers on art, despite his conceits and idio.
syncracies, and his lack of philosophical generalization.
No other English writer compares with film for extent
of knowledge in this field of study, or for vividness and
value of art criticism. The skill, erudition, zeal, hon-
esty of purpose, and emotional earnestness displayed
in his works are worthy of all praise, and though his
410
RUSE IN.
judgment is not infallible, hisreputation as a critic has
steadily increased, and his decision on an art subject is
of the highest value. He declares that the laws of
painting are as unerring as those of music and chem-
istry, and that any one who masters them has all that
is necessary to make a capable critic. In his view a
painter is great if by any means he has laid open noble
truths or aroused noble emotions, and it matters not
what he paints so that he paints honestly and truly,
with love of virtue and hatred of vice ; while the sum
of all the qualities needed to the highest production in
art is the sum of all the best powers of man.
Few writers have put their mental personality more
fully into their works than Ruskin. Sympathetic and
confidential, touched with egotism and responsive to
every inward influence, it is impossible for him to stand
outside his works, and his passing moods and changing
convictions are expressed without thought of the con-
tradictions which they frequently involve. For ease
and beauty of style he has few equals in English prose
literature, his sentences being stately in manner, richly
ornate, musical, and eloquent, while an intensity of
feeling and expression manifests itself in everything
he writes. Yet in giving free vent to his emotional
imagery he is heedless of logical consistency, so that
there is much less of reasoning than of impassioned
sentiment in his works. As a consequence there is
great lack of system and of orderly unfolding of pur-
pose, his matter often losing power by too many words,
while his habit of putting down whatever enters his
mind at the moment, however irrelevant, makes his
books discursive and to some extent tiresome, despite
all their charms of style. In the language of one
of his reviewers his merits may be summed up in a
few words. He is the critic, rather than the philos-
opher of art. He has the keenest sensibility, to the
influence of nature, observes with accuracy and at the
same time with strong poetic feeling, few men being
more alive to beauty or having studied its manifesta-
tions more diligently. His knowledge of the beauties
of nature is applied to the study of works of art, and
enables him to judge their comparative merits with
rare taste and warm sympathy. As a judge he is pos-
itive and severe but enthusiastic, praising and blaming
alike from the heart, yet apt to decree from momentary
impulse instead of criticising from well-digested study,
yielding to instinct rather than to reason in forming his
judgments. Fortunately his instinct is usually apt to
be correct, and his opinions as a rule defensible, but by
no means always so, his works being full of extrava-
gances both of thought and expression, and of opinions
whose lack of cogency is covered up with grace, of
rhetoric. Despite his faults he is an active and fearless
thinker, strong in his likes and dislikes, and an eloquent
exponent of refined tastes and noble Sentiments.
The Pre-Raphaelite school of art, developed by such
British artists as Millais, Hollman, Hunt, and the
Rossettis, about 1850, was largely instigated by Rus-
kin's early works, and aroused his deep interest. The
• title of this school is hardly a correct one, . Its pur-
pose was not to blindly copy the methods of the artists
preceding Raphael, but like them to gº to nature for
inspiration, and escape that tyranny of the old masters
which so long had prevailed. It was the inevitable
revolt against the conventionalism of the schools, and
the spirit of naturalism, rather than of mediaevalism,
that instigated these artists as it had instigated Ruskin
before them, though some degree of a new mannerism
arose in both cases from the too close study of mediaeval
art. Yet the revival of interest in Gothic art, so
strongly helped forward by Ruskin, was the necessary
step of escape from the prevailing classic convention:
alism, and of progress into that devotion to nature as
the only true basis of art which has grown and is still
growing therefrom. Ruskin is the prophet of this
new dispensation in art, and has been undaunted in
teaching and developing it. . . e * : *
Only a portion of Ruskin's contributions to art
study have here been mentioned. Other works and
pamphlets on the subject, both before and after 1860,
flowed from his pen, besides many review articles,
while his numerous lectures have also been collected
into book form. He gave a course of lectures on
Gothic art at Edinburgh in 1853, was appointed pro-
fessor at the Cambridge school of art in 1858, Rede
lecturer at Cambridge in 1867, and held the Slade pro-
fessorship of Fine Arts at Oxford from 1869 to 1879;
in 1883 he was re-elected to the last-named professor-
ship, but resigned in 1885 in consequence of the intro-
duction of vivisection into the Oxford schools. In
addition to his writings on art, Ruskin practised draw-
ing and painting, and illustrated several of his own
books, such as Stones of Venice, but as a painter dis-
played no special merit.
The new phase of Ruskin's life, which began in
1860, has subjected him to severe criticism, while his
enthusiasm has not been tempered with worldly wisdom.
Turning from the study of art to that of society, he
came forward as a reformer in social science and polit-
ical economy, and has since worked in this field with
all the force and earnestness of his older labors in art,
but with less of knowledge and judgment. His
writings in this direction began with a series of articles
on “Political Economy,” contributed to the Cornhill
Magazine in 1860. These have been followed by nu-
merous works, many of them with fantastic titles, on
the same general subject. Of these may be named
Sesame and Lilies (1864); The Ethics of the Dust
(1865); The Crown of Wild Olive: Three Lectures on
Work, Traffic, and War (1866); The Queen of the
Air : Being a Study of the Greek Myths of Cloud and
Storm (1869); Frondes Agrestes (1875); Fiction Fair
and Foul (1881); and Arrows of the Chace (1883). Mag-
azine articles on political economy have since been
published under the titles Unto this Last, and Mumera
Pulveris, while two lectures on the “Political Economy
of Art ’’ have been published as A Joy for Ever.
Ruskin began in 1871 a series of monthly letters, to
workingmen, under the title of Fors Clavigera, with
the declared purpose of establishing a fund to rescue
British workmen from the tyranny of machinery.
This series of letters continued till 1884. The most
interesting of his later publications is his frank and
garrulous autobiography, Praeterita (2 vols., 1886–87).
it must be said that Ruskin's labors in behalf of
workingmen has called forth no ardent response from
the class they were intended to benefit, and that his
crusade against machinery and desire to bring back
the happy days of hand-work has met with contumely
rather tº assistance from the world of industry. The
fact is that Ruskin's principles of political economy,
while containing much that is wise and sensible, contain
much also that is impractical and chimerical, while the
new ideas which he has sought to instil into the minds
of workingmen have roused fierce opposition among
employers, who look upon him as a dangerous radical,
seeking to break down the existing industrial relations.
His contributions on political, economy to the Cornhill
Magazine, indeed, raised such a fierce outcry that the
editor was compelled to refuse their further publica-
tion. Fraser's Magazine then accepted them, but was
likewise compelled to cease publishing them.
Ruskin, finding that his published utterances were
not having the effect upon the political and industrial
world that he desired, attempted next to put his own
theories in practice, and demonstrate to the world that
his views were well founded and capable of practical
realization. He built a number of model houses for
the poor in London, and in 1871 established St.
George's Guild, an industrial society of which he
became grand master. Its purpose was to reclaim, a
tract of waste land on which his views of labor might
be realized, develop education and culture among agri-
culturists, and help the industrial poor to better their
lot in life. The ordinary relations of capitalist and
laborer, master and tenant, were here discarded, and
RUSSELL.
411
the views adopted were those in vogue in Florence in the
fourteenth century, with some necessary modifications.
They were largely communistic, and took in charge
the health and education of the people, with special
arrangements of supply and demand, accumulation and
distribution of wealth. It is presumable that the laws
and industrial conditions of St. George's Guild are
those which Ruskin believes should be applied to the
whole nation. If they were adopted every man,
woman, and child, would be a ward of the state,
trained and compelled to move in the lines for which
nature and education fitted them ; food and clothing
would be dispensed by state agents and sold at an es-
tablished price ; communistic relations would exist
among the people; the mode of building houses and
cities would be prescribed, and no city, permitted to
contain more than 25,000 persons; and co-operation
of all for the good of each would be the ruling prin-
ciple of society. In addition a fixed creed of religious,
social, and political duties would be taught and enforced,
in which all laws and orders of the monarch must be
obeyed except such as appeared inconsistent with what
each subject in his own conscience supposed to be the
law of God
There is much more of the same chimerical and im:
practicable tenor in Ruskin's theory of Society, and
though his purposes were instigated by a nobly un-
selfish desire for the good of man, his schemes have
necessarily proved failures. They were based on, an
ignorance of human nature and a disdain of the
practically established laws of society, and while in some
of their conditions seeking to lead man forward cen-
turies into the future, in others they sought to take
him back centuries into the past. In his treatises on
political economy Ruskin, in fact, writes as a moralist,
not as a scientist, and is guided by feeling, not by
reason. He cares little about the established laws of
the science of society, but much for men and women,
attacks existing conditions blindly, and proposes an
order of society which it would be impossible to estab-
lish. He attacks, for instance, the principle of usury,
and declares that ioans should be simply repaid, to de-
mand interest being in his view to take an unjust and
immoral advantage of the borrower. He would have
luxury and the possession of great riches forbidden by
the state, and is particularly opposed to the prevailing
theory of demand and supply, claiming that human
duties and sympathies make such a law void. Man
is in his view more than a figure in a sum, and he per-
mits sentiment to set aside the principles of natural
law. He abhors democracy, and follows Carlyle in his
belief of the saving efficacy of a strong government.
He wants a strong man to rule, and the masses to be
taken care of by a paternal government, believing that
the ballot in their hands is worse than misapplied, and
is the cause of many of the evils that have come upon
the working class. As one of his reviewers says, “he is
trying with Mrs. Partington's broom to sweep back the
ocean.” Feudalism and absolutism are of the past,
and the world has moved and is moving far beyond
them to better and higher conditions. Ruskin sees
the gorgeous show and knightly pretence of feudalism,
not its baseness and corruption. He looks with the
eyes of the poet only, not with those of the historical
Scientist, and sentiment in him is far more dominant
than reason. The conditions of the modern world
therefore meet with his strong disapproval; those of the
past with his strong approbation. He finds serious
fault with the railway system for its defacement of the
Sgenery of England, and with the factory system for
the blurring and blasting effects of its smoke. For
similar reasons all modern industrial improvements
meet with his reprobation, and the preservation of
Scenic effects and artistic conditions holds an im-
portant place in his ideas of political economy. In a
ike spirit he objects to go to America because it has
no castles, and demands that there should be a special
dress for each class in society. Ruskin's mental charac-
teristic of poetical sensibility and emotional enthu-
siasm, in fact, while consonant with success in art
criticism, unfits him decidedly for scientific investiga;
tions, and in his social studies he has only perceived
that something is wrong with the world, while quite
incapable of reasoning out the true causes and proper
cure for the malady. º
Opposition and failure have made him petulant and
querulous, and he has lost much of his influence
by his fault-finding and spirit of contempt for what
displeases him. He has grown, indeed, wrong-headed
and wilful in little things, has criticised painters in
such a spirit as to be brought into court to answer, and
in many directions he has departed from reasonable
moderation. In art he carries his zeal as a critic too
far, makes the moral aim unduly prominent, and in-
sists too strongly that only an artist of pure character
and conduct can accomplish a great work. He is
similarly too uncompromising a realist, and , finds
strong fault with external details, such as Raphael's
clothing his apostles in the dress of Greek philosophers,
unmindful of the fact that if they are made apostles
in face and mien the dress is of minor consequence,
These are faults, yet they detract little from Rus-
kin's merits as an art critic. In spirit he is intensely
and sincerely religious. The natural world is to him
the divine world, and he loves nature not for its beauty
alone, but as the tabernacle of the Divine Spirit. He
is always true to his highest conceptions, always at
war with the evils of a materialistic and money-loving
age, and in all he writes a deep appreciation of the
innate goodness and beauty of man and nature ap-
pears. Though he may not be a safe critic in the
technical points of art, he is genuinely so in its under-
lying spirit, having a breadth of vision, a range of
sympathy, and a just conception of truth in art which
have enabled him to overthrow conventionalism and
bring art back to nature for its inspiration.
In literature Ruskin has been much too diffuse for
the reputation of his works. He has written so pro-
fusely that few have the time to follow him. His
books need sifting, and few of them will live, Though
his later works contain many of his best and maturer
thoughts he will be probably known to the future by
Modern Painters, Stones of Tenice, and The Seven
Lamps of Architecture alone. Yet he has had
and will have an influence on thought not to be
measured by the number of his readers, and like all
great thinkers has done much to mould the thoughts
of his generation and of those to follow.
For more than half a century Ruskin resided on the
Herne Hill and Denmark Hill estates of his father.
In 1875 he bought an estate at Brantwood, on Coniston
Lake, on which he has since chiefly resided. His
father left him the large fortune of $785,000, of which
he has, but $50,000, or $60,000 left. Immediately on
his father's death he distributed $35,000 among rela-
tives whom he deemed his father had overlooked, and
the remainder of his vanished fortune has been spent
in various plans for ameliorating the condition of the
P90ſ, As a man, and an author he has lived up to
his ideas, and well deserves even more than the appre-
ciative remark from Charlotte Bronté : “Mr. Ruskin
appears to me one of the few genuine writers, as dis.
tinguished from book-makers, of this age.” (C. M.)
RUSSELL, WILLIAM How ARD, War-correspondent,
was born at Lily Vale, near Dublin, Ireland, May 28,
1831. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin.
and became a lawyer at London. He had already
done good work for the London Times, and in is;
Wassent to report the condition of the British army in
the Crimean War. He was the first war-correspondent
and received little favor from the military authorities.
His faithful exposures of the short-comings in the
Commissary, and hospital departments produced a sen-
sation in England, and led to important changes in
their administration. . Afterwards his graphic sketches
of the battles and incidents of the long siege of Sebas-
412
RUSTOW–RUTGERS COLLEGE,
topol established his fame in the field. He went to
India during the Sepoy mutiny, and came to America
in 1860 when secession was imminent. He travelled
through the Southern States and reported fully their
spirit and preparations for war. Taking up his resi-
dence in Washington he noted the outburst of North-
ern sentiment in behalf of the Union, and the for-
mation of the Army of the Potomac. After Gen.
McDowell had advanced to the field of Bull Run,
Russell set out from Washington to join the army, but
was overwhelmed with the dense mass of soldiers and
civilians in full retreat. Instead of reporting the battle
he reported the rout so graphically that when his pub-
lished letter reached the United States he was dubbed
“Bull Run Russell.” He continued to report the
movements of the war as he saw them at Washington,
and was for a time with Gen. McClellan in camp. But
as his reports seemed to give aid and comfort to the
enemy, Secretary Stanton refused him permission to
accompany McClellan in the Peninsular campaign and
he returned to England. He was again employed in
reporting the war between Austria and Prussia in
1866 and gave an excellent account of the battle of
Sadowa. The German invasion of France in 1870,
the visit of the Prince of Wales to India in 1875, the
Russo-Turkish war of 1877, and the Berlin Conference
of 1880 also employed his pen. He founded in 1858
the Army and Nary Gazette. His books are chiefly
collections from his correspondence. They include
History of the Crimean War (2 vols., 1857); My
Diary in India (1860); My Diary North and South
(1863); Canada, its Defences, Condition and Resources
(1865); My Diary in the East (1869); Mu Diary dur-
ing the Last Great War (1873), and Hesperothen :
Notes from the West (1882). He has also written a
novel, and some minor works. e
RÚSTOW, WILHELM, German military writer, was
born in Brandenburg, May 25, 1821. Having entered
the army in 1838 he rose to be an officer of engineers.
In 1850 he was indicted for publishing a work on the
military condition of Germany and fled to Zurich. He
was made a major in the Swiss.army and in 1860 he
took part in Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily. . He
translated the Greek military writers and was associated
with Köchly in his history of Greek military art. He
also discussed the campaigns of Caesar and Napoleon,
the Crimean and the Franco-German war of 1870. He
published many technical works on military art of
recent years, including a Military Dictionary (2 vols.,
1859). His brothers, Alexander and Caesar, also wrote
military works of value. e
RU'ſ GERS COLLEGE. The establishment of this
institution, originally called Queen's College, has been
usually dated from a royal charter of 1779. Recent in-
vestigation, however, shows that ‘’ his M ajesty's Letters
patent and Charter or Royal grant for Queen s Col-
jege was secured from his excellency William Franklin,
Esq., governor and commander-in-chief in and over the
frovince of New Jersey, on Nov. 10, 1766.” . Owing
to certain injurious discriminations, between the frus.
tees residing in New Jersey and those in New York,
authorized in this first charter, a second one was ob-
tained in 1770; and the college went into actual opera-
tion at New Brunswick in 1771. It was the outgrowth
of a desire on the part of its Dutch founders to perpet-
uate their distinctive theology and forms of worship,
and was for many years under the #. of the
(;eneral Synod of the Reformed Protestant Dutch
Church of America. Its object was tº aid in preparing
young men “for the ministry and other good offices.
juring the Revolutionary struggle the British took
possession of New Brunswick, burned the college
5uilding, and scattered the teachers, and students.
After a migratory existence, now at Millstone and now
at North Branch, with a commencement held in 1788
... New Brunswick, the college was clºsed for a period
of six years. Rev. Dr. J., R. Hardenburgh, who had
from the beginning labored with indefatigable zeal to
Secure subscriptions, became its first regular president
in 1785, and continued in office until 1790. William
Linn, D. D., an impassioned preacher in the Collegiate
Dutch church, of New York city, assumed the presi-
dency pro tempore from 1791 to 1794. Owing to finan-
cial embarrassments the exercises of the college were
suspended from 1795 to 1805. At the latter date Rev.
Dr. Ira Condict, who acted as pro-tempore president
from 1794 to 1810, was instrumental in reviving the
college and in securing the erection of the noble brown
stone edifice now standing in the centre of the campus.
John H. Livingston, D. D., a man of noble character,
accurate learning, and commanding influence, was the
second regular president, from 1810 to 1825. He was,
however, mainly interested in the theological professor-
ship which he held in connection with the presidency;
so that he did little more in the college than “to pre-
side on public occasions and sign diplomas.” Financial
distress and divided counsels led to a third suspension of
literary exercises from 1816 to 1825. Philip Milledoler,
D. D., L.L. D., now became president, and the name of
Queen's was changed to Rutgers College “in consider-
ation of the character and services of Col. Henry
Rutgers,” a revolutionary patriot who contributed
towards its endowment $5000, at that time considered
a large amount. Dr. Milledoler was distinguished for
his fervent piety, catholic sympathies, and above all
for his unction in prayer that seemed akin to inspira-
tion. The number of professors was increased, and
the endowment enlarged to $50,000. The kind of work
done by the college during this period may be judged
from the fact that in the class of 1836 occur the names
of Joseph P. Bradley, L.L. D., Associate Justice of
the U. S. Supreme Court; George W. Coakley, LL.D.,
professor of mathematics in the New York University ;
Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, U. S. Senator, and Secre-
tary of State ; William A. Newell, M. D., member of
Congress and Governor of New Jersey and Washington
Territory; and Hon. Cortlandt Parker, L.L. D., an
eminent and successful lawyer.
From 1840 to 1850 the presidency was filled by Hon.
Abraham B. Hasbrouck, whose lectures on Constitu-
tional Law, genial manners, and generous hospitality
contributed greatly to the prosperity of the college. A
residence for the president was erected on the campus,
and also a little later Van Neste Hall for the use of the
literary societies and recitation-rooms. The latter
structure was so named in honor of Abraham Van
Neste, a liberal trustee. At the same time additions
were made to the permanent fund.
Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen succeeded to the office
of president in 1850. He was a man of unusual
wisdom and guilelessness; his disposition was natur-
ally gentle and always pervaded by a thorough
Christian spirit; his manners were conciliatory and
his intellect was as discerning as his heart was upright.
His influence, therefore, in settling a controversy that
had been bitterly waged as to the relations of the
trustees to the Synod of the Reformed Church was
of the happiest nature. The feeling of loyalty to the
institution extended through the entire denomination ;
students increased, and many $500 scholarships were
disposed of, making the endowment $75,000. A year
before Mr. Frelinghuysen's death the civil war broke
out, causing a great decrease by enlistments and other
distractions in the number of students; and at the
same time as the income did not meet the salaries of
the professors and the current expenses the principal
of the endowment began to be seriously diminished.
With the accession of Rev. Wm. H. Campbell,
D. D., LL. D., to the presidency in 1863, the college
took a new departure in prosperity. By the payment
of $12,000 to the Synod of the Reformed Church the
college regained its title to the campus and buildings,
and became an independent literary institution on the
condition that henceforth its president and three-
fourths of the trustees should be members in full
communion of the Reformed Church. Dr. Campbell
RUTH,
413
with an energy that overleaped all obstacles presented
the claims of the college in the pulpits of the de-
nomination and to individuals until he raised the sum
of $144,758; and on the occasion of the centennial
celebration he made another great effort which re-
sulted in subscriptions amounting to $140,000. During
his administration six new professorships were estab-
lished, the number of students doubled, reaching at
one time 200, and the following buildings erected :
a large geological hall, an exceptionally beautiful
chapel and library under one roof, an astronomical
observatory, an addition to the grammar School more
than doubling its accommodations, and certain useful
structures on the experimental form. These works
tell their own story of diligent wisdom and render a
well-earned fame secure. When Dr. Campbell re-
signed the trustees generously gave him an annuity
of $3000 for life.
The State College of New Jersey “for the benefit
of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts” was organized
as a department of Rutgers College in 1865. It
originated in a provision of Congress granting to the
several States a certain quantity of the public lands to
enable them to establish colleges, the leading object
of which shall be to “teach such branches of learning
as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts,
in such a manner as the Legislatures of the States
may respectively prescribe, in order to promote
the liberal and practical education of the industrial
classes in the several pursuits and professions of life.”
The sale of the public lands allotted to New Jersey
amounted to $116,000, now invested in State bonds
under the care of the State treasurer, and the income
of which is paid to the trustees. Great credit is due
to Dr. George H. Cook, the vice-president of the col-
lege, and who for many years had rendered invaluable
services to the State, as the State geologist, for his
energy and influence in securing the location of the
State College at New Brunswick as a part of the
scientific school of Rutgers already in existence.
farm of 100 acres is used with great success for con-
ducting experiments in agriculture, the results of which
are published for the benefit of farmers. Fifteen pro-
fessorships ably manned afford instruction in four
courses of study, viz.: one in engineering and mechan-
ics, one in chemistry and agriculture, one in electricity,
and one of two years in agriculture.
study and discipline are under the management of the
faculty and trustees of Rutgers, subject to the super-
vision of a board of visitors appointed by the gov-
ernor, and consisting of two from each Congressional
district. It provides fifty free scholarships, which are
distributed among the counties according to popula-
UlOD.
In June, 1882, Merrill Edwards Gates, Ph. D.,
LL. D., L. H. D., was inaugurated president of Rut-
gers College. Dr. Gates took this position with the
prestige of unusual success as an educator while prin-
cipal of Albany Academy. Since his accession the
endowment has been still further increased by $115,000
besides annual subscriptions pledged for a period of
years amounting in all to over $30,000, making the
total income of the college about $50,000; the library
has received 14,000 additional volumes; the standard
of scholarship has been raised both by new require-
ments for admission, and by a rigid insistence upon
faithfulness in study and the maintenance of a high
moral character as necessary to graduation; certain
subjects in science treated in German and French text-
books have been introduced ; physical development by
appropriate gymnastic exercises have been made com-
pulsory ; the classical department has been reorganized
and improved; new emphasis and impulse have been
given to the pursuit of modern languages; several new
professorships have been created, affording wider in-
struction in scientific subjects, such as electrical engi-
neering, biology, mineralogy, etc.; more laboratory
work with greater facilities of room and teaching has
A
been assigned to special students; and the number ºf
students has grown from 116 to 193. In addition to
his fruitful college labors Dr. Gates takes much interest
in public affairs .. as a speaker and a worker. . .
By act of Congress in 1887 an annual appropriation
of $15,000 was authorized for the agricultural colleges
of each State, to be expended in carrying on and pub-
lishing investigations in the interests, ºf agriculture;
and by an act of the New Jersey Legislature in 1888
the sum of $30,000 was appropriated for a laboratory
for the agricultural experiment station located on the
college grounds. The services of Dr. George H. Cook,
who has always been devoted to the agricultural and
industrial interests of the State, deserve in connection
with these two acts the heartiest recognition. . Rutgers
College has a faculty of eighteen professors, but, not a
tutor affording instruction in all subjects taught in
other best American colleges. Its students, besides
having their own society libraries and the college library
at command, enjoy full privileges in the Sage Library
belonging to the theological seminary, making alto-
gether over 70,000 carefully selected volumes open for
their consultation.
The trustees of the college have also an excellent
grammar school fully equipped with teachers and a
boarding department where sanitary arrangements re-
ceive special attention. (T. S. D.).
RUTH, Book OF. The article on this subject in
... the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA is
º sº mainly an argument to prove that... the
K. R} * Book of Ruth does not offer itself as a
“” document written soon after the period
to which it refers,” but was written at some unknown
date, “long after the time of Ezra.'" In proof of this
it is argued that Jewish tradition classifies Ruth, not
among the prophetic writings, but among the Hagi-
ographa as one of the Megilloth. But if this were
fully admitted it would not prove that the tradition
regarded Ruth as either late or non-prophetic in its
origin: for the Jewish tradition attributes the larger
part of the Psalms to David, Canticles and most of
the Proverbs to Solomon, certain other Hagiographic
writings to the times of Hezekiah, and, indeed, re-
gards most of the Hagiographa as pre-exilic, and all
of them as of prophetic authorship. The notion that
the Hagiographa are mostly a collection of writings
The courses of
that were produced too late to be included in the legal
and prophetic canons is wholly untenable. (See BIBLE
and CANON.)
But the statement that Jewish tradition classifies
Ruth among the Hagiographa, while partly true, does
not convey the whole truth in the case. ‘’ The Septu-
agint, the Vulgate, and the English version make
Ruth follow Judges.” As a mere matter of classifica-
tion, Ruth fits very well either of the two positions
assigned to it. Which position is the correct one de-
pends on the principle of classification followed. But
there is no room for reasonable doubt that the arrange-
ment that connects Ruth with Judges is the one which
really represents the Jewish tradition as to the date
and authorship of the book. The average reader
would probably understand from the article in the
BRITANNICA that the evidence of this is solely con-
jectural—that it depends upon the fact that by count-
ing Ruth with Judges and Lamentations with Jere-
miah the 24 books of the Hebrew canon “can be re-
duced to 22, the number assigned by Josephus and
other ancient authorities.” But this understanding
of the matter is a mistake. The opinion that Ruth
was counted with Judges and Lamentations with
Jeremiah is not a mere conjectural way of accounting
for the phenomena, but is supported by explicit testi-
mony, Jerome specifically testifies to it, and evidently
regards it as the preferable view, though he mentions
the other classification of the books as being held by
some. Origen directly and unequivocally says that
the Hebrews counted Judges and Ruth as one book,
and he recognizes no other view. The Baba Batra
414
RUTH.
informs us that Samuel is the responsible author of
Ruth, as well as of Judges, and the books of Samuel.
Josephus not only counts the books as 22, but he uses
the Book of Ruth as a source of the history, in pre-
cisely the place where it stands in the versions, Ant.
... }X.
In opposition to this it is said: “It has been show
in the article on LAMENTATIONs that the argument for
the superior antiquity of this way of reckoning breaks
down on closer examination.” But the only proof
offered in the article referred to for the purpose of
breaking down “this way of reckoning '' is the fact
that Origen also ascribes “the epistle '' to Jeremiah.
It is alleged that, by this indefinite term “the epistle,”
{)rigen probably meant a certain book that Jeremiah
surely did not write, and that Origen's testimony is,
therefore, not to be credited. But as this touches only
the testimony of Origen, and not that of the other wit-
nesses, and as no one would hesitate to believe Origen
in the main, even if he is incorrect in a specification
here and there, the attempt to “break down '' the
evidence is not a success. It is certain that all ancient
tradition concerning the Book of Ruth connects that
book with Judges and Samuel.
But several critical reasons are urged against accept-
ing this tradition. It is said, for instance: “While it
was very natural that a later rearrangement should
transfer Ruth from the Hagiographa to the historical
books, . . . no motive can be suggested for the op-
posite change.” On the contrary, the character of
the book, and the use made of it in the reading lessons,
might very naturally suggest the placing of it among
the Megilloth, with the other short books somewhat
similar to it in character and use.
It is further alleged that the Book of Ruth shows
no traces of “prophetic” or “Deuteronomistic '' edit-
ing, and “has no affinity with the point of view which
looks on the whole history of Israel as a series of ex-
amples of Divine justice and mercy in the successive
rebellions and repentances of the people of God.”
Hence it is inferred that the book cannot have been
known “at the time when the history from Judges to
Kings was edited.” These assertions need modifying :
but so far as they are true of Ruth they are equally
true of each of the five stories, (Jud. xiii. 2-xvi; ;
xvii.-xviii.; xix.-xxi.; 1 Sam. i. 1–iv. 10; ix. i-
x. 16) that are grouped with Ruth in this arrangement
of the historical books. The reason is evident in re-
gard to them all. These stories are a different sort of
literature from the narratives of public history with
which they are connected. In them the interest lies
chiefly, not in the facts of public history which they
contain, but in the pººl experiences of their he-
roes and heroines. This accounts for the relative in-
frequency of that class of authors' comments, which
would refer to the whole nation, rather than to the per-
sons whose experiences are being sketched.
The statement that “the very designation of a pe:
riod of Hebrew history as ‘the days of the judges'
. . . does not occur till after the exile,” and the in-
ference from it that Ruth i. 1 is post-exilic are alike
incorrect. Neither this phrase nor any phrase fairly
equivalent to it occurs in the post-exilic Hebrew of the
Bible, save in 1 Chron. xvii. 10, where it is in a pas-
sage repeated from 2 Samuel. The phrase occurs sub-
stantially in the account given of King Josiah, 2 Ki.
xxiii. 22, and the same idea is found in 2 Sam. Wii. 11,
and less sharply in many places in Judges and Samuel.
The idea that by using the phrase the Book of Ruth
“presents itself as dealing with times far back" is un-
critical ; the phrase would be appropriate at any time
after the monarchy had been a few years in existence.
It is an overstatement to say that the book “takes ob:
vious delight in depicting details of antique life and
obsolete usages.” There is nothing to show that the
writer thought of these details as either antique or ob-
solete. From the Biblical accounts it appears that
David's conquests led to a sudden and considerable
change in the civilization of Israel—a change which
exhibited itself in architecture, music, literature, and
luxury of living, as well as in the revival of prophecy
and of the ancient Mosaism. Especially when we have
this fact in mind we see that all the details of old
usages in the Book of Ruth are such as might natur-
ally have been put on record by a writer who lived not
later than the last years of David.
It is said that the author of Ruth views the period
in which his story is laid ' ' through the softening at-
mosphere of time, which imparts to the scene a gentle
Sweetness very different from the harsher colors of the
old narratives of the Book of Judges.”
nature of things there must have been peaceful, pas-
toral events in the times of the judges, as well as
events of war and violence; and a skilful writer would
picture each in the colors that properly belong to it.
The circumstances that compelled Elimelech and his
sons to live and die in exile have no “gentle sweet-
ness” in them. Whatever difference there is in this
respect between Ruth and the other stories of the
times of the judges can be accounted for by the differ-
ences in the subject-matter. There is no need to sup-
pose a long interval of time between the event and the
author in order to account for them. -
In fine all the external evidence goes to show that
Ruth belongs to the group of writings, concerning
which the Baba Batra testifies that Samuel the
prophet wrote them, but that Gad and Nathan fin-
ished them. To this group belong also the Books of
Samuel and Judges. These books, taken together,
form a quite peculiar historical work, largely made by
the process of putting together previously written
parts, which is, in literary character, as distinct from
the Books of Kings as it is from the Hexateuch. The
tradition that Samuel wrote it is certainly capable of
being understood in a sense in which it would be evi-
dently untrue, but it is also capable of being so under-
stood as to be consistent with probability. (See JUDGES.
KINGS, and especially SAMUEL.) According to this
evidence, therefore, Ruth was written within the life-
time of these three prophets, probably in the reign of
David.
All the phenomena that appear in the book are con-
sistent with this view. It would be difficult to estab-
lish by instances the statement that the language of the
book is ‘’ post-classical.” And in regard to its con-
tents, Ruth, like Jud. xvii., xviii., xix.-xxi., etc., is a
story of Bethlehem Ephrata, the home of David. It
alludes to events up to the time when David reigned,
and no later. It is written in the interests of mon-
archy, showing that the pre-monarchical times were
often times of calamity even for good citizens. The
motives for writing just such as work never would b
stronger than they were in David's lifetime. *
Similar considerations show that the book is to be
regarded as historical, and not as a mere romance,
however fit a romance like this might be to form a
art of the Scriptures. Josephus certainly counted it
historical, Amt. R. . ix. So does the Book of 1 Chron-
icles in its genealogical lists, and so does the evangelist
Matthew, Matt. i. 5. The historical character of the
events also connects itself with the fact that David
took his parents to sojourn in Moab, 1 Sam. xxii. 3,
and with his acknowledgment of obligation to the Am-
monite king, 2 Sam. x. 2.
The idea that the genealogical statement with
which Ruth closes was borrowed from Chronicles, and
added to Ruth by a later hand, is contrary to all the
analogies of the relations of Chronicles with the other
books, and is not sustained by the facts cited to prove
it. It is, of course, true that the author of Ruth, iv.
5, 10, “clearly recognizes that Obed was legally the
son of Mahlon,” but it does not follow that he was not
also the son of Boaz, nor that “from this standpoint
the appended genealogy is all wrong.” If Boaz had
no nearer and preferred heirs of his own blood (and
this seems to be the implication of the whole account),
But in the
RUTLAND–RYLE.
415
then Obed was by the law his son as well as Mahlon's ijn 1784 was made State chancellor.
son, and the genealogy is consistent with the rest of
the story.
Literature.—Good commentaries on Ruth are those of Dr.
P. Cassel, translated by Dr. P. H. Steenstra, in the Schaff-
Lange series, and of Dr. James Morison in the Pulpit Com-
mentary series. (W. J. B.)
RUTLAND, a city of Vermont, county-seat of Rut-
land co., is at the junction of the Otter and East
Creeks, at the foot of the loftiest peaks of the Green
Mountains, Killington and Shrewsbury. It is 67 miles
from Burlington and 84 miles north of Albany. Three
railroads enter the town and have their repair-shops
here. Rutland contains a U. S. court-house, the State
work-house, 7 hotels, 4 national banks, 4 other banks,
2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 7 churches, 7 Schools.
The most important industry is the quarrying and
working of marble, for which there are 4 mills and 7
finishing-works in Rutland besides those in West Rut-
land. There are also 3 foundries and railroad car-
shops. Rutland was settled in 1770, and during the
Revolutionary war, being on the frontier towards
Canada, was protected by two forts. It was one of
the capitals of Vermont from 1784 to 1804, and the
State-house then erected is still standing. It was in-
corporated in 1847, and in 1887 the “towns” of
Procter and West Rutland were formed out of part of
the original “town’’ of Rutland. The village is
lighted with gas and has water-works and a park. Its
roperty is valued at nearly $10,000,000. The popu-
ation of the village in 1880 was 7502 and of the
“town '' 12, 149.
RUTLEDGE, EDWARD (1749–1800), signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born at Charles-
ton, S. C., Nov. 23, 1749, being a son of Dr. John
Rutledge, who had emigrated from Ireland about
1735. He studied law with his brother John, and
afterwards at the Temple in London. On his return
he was chosen to the First Continental Congress, and
in i776 he was appointed a member of the Board of
War. When the British began hostile operations in
South Carolina Rutledge took command of a company
of artillery. In 1780 he was captured at Charleston
and remained a prisoner at St. Augustine for a year.
After the evacuation of Charleston, in 1782, he re-
turned home and served in the Legislature. He drew
up the act abolishing primogeniture and advocated the
adoption of the Federal Constitution. In 1798 he was
elected governor of his State. He died Jan. 23, 1800.
His elder brother, HUGH RUTLEDGE (1741–1811),
was judge of admiralty, member of the Legislature,
and from 1791 till his death chancellor of South
Carolina.
RUTLEDGE, JOHN (1739–1800), chief justice of
the United States, brother of the preceding, was born
in Charleston, studied law at the Temple, London, and
began practice in Charleston in 1761. His devotion to
liberty is attested by his being a leading member of
the Stamp-Act Congress in New York in 1765, and of
the First Continental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774.
In the latter he was pronounced by j Henry the
ablest orator. He was chairman of the committee
which prepared the State constitution for South
Carolina and became its first governor. By his orders
Fort Moultrie was supplied with ammunition against
the British attack in 1776. Though he had resigned
in 1778, he was recalled to power the next year when
the British invaded the State. When Charleston fell
he retired to North Carolina, yet exerted himself to
keep up the spirit of opposition and to aid the South-
*rn army. In 1782 he was sent again to Congress, and
He took a prom-
inent part in the convention which framed the Federal
Constitution, and in the State Convention which rati-
fied it. In 1789 Washington appointed him an asso-
ciate justice of the U. S. Supreme Court, but he re;
signed this position when elected chief justice of
South Carolina, Washington showed his high regard
for his ability by appointing him chief justice of the
United States in }. 1795, and as such Rutledge
presided at the next term. But on account of his
action in the agitation concerning Jay's treaty with
England, the Senate in December would not confirm
his appointment. It soon became known, also, that
his mind was impaired by disease. He died July 23,
1800.
RYAN, ABRAM JOSEPH (1839–1886), poet, was
born at Norfolk, Va., Aug. 15, 1839. He was edu-
cated for the priesthood in the Roman Catholic
Church, and after his ordination was a chaplain in the
Confederate army. To the cause which that, army
represented he was passionately devoted, and when it
was lost his lyric, The Conquered Banner, found an
echo in the hearts of thousands in the South, while it
elicited a response from Lord Houghton in England.
Father Ryan went to New Orleans in 1865, and there,
besides clerical duty, edited a religious paper. After-
wards he removed to Knoxville, to Augusta, Ga., and
to Mobile, where he had charge of a church for some
years. In 1880 at Baltimore he published a volume
of his Poems, Patriotic, Religious and JMiscellaneous,
which had already separately had wide circulation.
Thereafter he wandered restlessly from place to place
in the South, sometimes lecturing and at intervals
writing a Life of Christ, which was left incomplete at
his death. He died at Louisville, Ky., April 22, 1886.
RYDBERG, ABRAHAM VICTOR, Swedish author,
was born at Jönköping, Smaland, Sweden, Dec. 18,
1829. He graduated at the University of Lund in
1852, and became literary editor of a daily paper at
Gothenburg in 1855. He published numerous ro-
mances which have been translated into English, and
also various works relating to the Bible, in which he
shows extreme rationalistic views. In 1870 he was
elected to the Swedish Parliament from Gothenburg.
In 1884 he was made professor in the high-school at
Stockholm. Among his romances are Freebooter of
the Baltic (1857); The Last Athenian (1859); Adren-
tures of Little Wigg (1874); Roman Legends (1874).
Among his other books are Doctrine of the Bible on
Christ (1862); Jehovah Worship among the Hebrews
(1864); Pre-ºristence of Man (1S6S); Eschatology
(1880). He has also translated Goethe's Faust into
Swedish and published Poems (1SS2) and investiga-
tions in German Mythology (1SS6).
RYLE, JOHN CHARLEs, English bishop, was born
near Macclesfield in 1816. His father was a member
of Parliament and he was educated at Eton and Christ
Church, Oxford, graduating in 1836 with honor. He
was ordained in 1841, and became curate of Exbury,
then rector of Helmingham in 1844, and vicar of
Stradbroke in 1861. Although these obscure places
seemed little fitted to give him reputation he soon be-
came widely known as the writer of pithy, forcible
tracts, of unmistakable evangelical sentiment. In
1869 he was made rural dean of Hoxie, and in 18so
Lord Beaconsfield called him to be bishop of the
newly founded diocese of Liverpool. He is an ex-
treme Low Churchman. Besides his tracts, which
have circulated by thousands, he has published Erpos-
{{?ry Thoughts on the Gospels (6 vols., 1856–59); Plain
Speaking (1861); Christian Leaders, Hinárºl rºars
Ago (1865); Bishops and Clergy of Other Days (1869);
Church Reform-Papers (1870).
SABATIER—SABBATH.
S.
Sº, LOUIS AUGUSTE, a French Protes-
tant theologian, was born at Vallon, Oct. 22,
1839. He studied theology at Montauban, and
thereafter visited several German universities. In
1868 he was made professor of French literature in
the normal school at Strasburg, and lectured there
in the Protestant theological faculty. In 1873 he
removed to Paris, and became professor in the
newly-erected. Protestant faculty. His writings
include Le Témoignage de Jésus-Christ sur sa per-
some (1863); Les Sources de la vie de Jésus (1866);
L’Apôtre Paul (1870); Guillaumele Taciturne (1872);
De l'Influence des Femmes sur la Littérature française
(1873); La motion hébraique de l'esprit (1879); De
l'origine du péché dans la théologie de l'apótre Paul
(1887).
SABBATH is the name in common of sundry
|periodic times of rest ordained in the
Mosaic economy. A Sabbath of the
land was appointed for every seventh
year, when fields were not to be sown
nor vineyards pruned (Lev. xxv. 4).
See Vol.
XX. p. 124
(p. 133,
A m. Rep.).
The yearly Day of Atonement, the yearly Feast of
Trumpets, the first and the eighth days of the
yearly Feast of Tabernacles were severally distin-
guished as Sabbaths (Lev. xxiii. 24, 32, 39).
But the name most frequently indicated the
weekly rest of the seventh day, which had been
earliest appointed, and by God himself, in commem-
oration of his own resting from the work of creation
(Gen. ii. 3) ; and to this weekly rest-day of the
Mosaic Scriptures the name “The Sabbath” is, in
ordinary usage, applied. The name covers literally
only the idea of rest. But the usage, as defined in
the Mosaic law, included also the practice of relig-
ions duty, “Remember the Sabbath day to keep it
holy” (Ex. xx. S) ; and particularly of the great
duty of public worship, “The seventh day is the
Sabbath of rest, a holy convocation” (Lev. xxiii. 3).
This Biblical institution of a weekly religious rest-
day has awakened immense interest and voluminous
discussion, in regard to its origin, its ancient design,
its history down to the time of Christ, and its stand-
ing with Him and His apostles. Yet its chief inter-
est lies in a fact so important and so manifest that
it supersedes all discussion : namely, that the ob-
servance of a weekly day of rest and religion has
developed into one of the foremost factors of human
welfare. Only the family and civil government are
more conspicuously distinctive of Christian civiliza-
tion. The ways in which this notable observance
contributes to the advantage of individuals, of fam-
ilies, of communities, and of nations have been the
subject of clear statement, and often of very exten-
sive exposition, by a multitude of writers as diverse
in their views concerning the divine claims of the
usage as Luther, Hooker, Grotius, Paley, Thomas
Arnold, Domville, Hessey, Dr. Norman McLeod,
and P. J. Proudlion, socialist and atheist.
more formal attestation of the fundamental import-
ance of the usage has been given by that long array
of the acts of legislatures and courts, especially in
Great Britain and America, which is noticed below.
It is in these two unquestionable relations of the
weekly rest-day, namely, to the Mosaic Scriptures
on the one hand, and to the fundamental and endur-
ing interests of mankind on the other, that writers
have found the motives of that eager and sustained
discussion of which the Sabbath has been the sub-
ject. Inasmuch as the developed importance of the
But far
divine prevision and ordainment of such a day, two
things would have attended upon the bare fact of
the Sabbath institution : a most obvious and un-
answerable argument for the divine origin of the
Old Testament Scriptures , and equal argument for
the permanent authority of an ordinance that was
seen to have been aimed of God at such lasting
effect. Upon both of these arguments, as absolutely
fair and conclusive, a very large class of Christian
Writers have elaborately and confidently insisted.
Their opponents have had no resource but to deny
the existence of any proof that the Old Testament
rest-day was appointed by God as a usage necessary
for men. Of such opponents there have been two
chief classes. One of these, being truly reverent
toward the Scriptures, have admitted the divine
Origin of the ordinance, but have claimed that it
was a part of the ceremonial intended only for the
nation of Israel and done away in Christ ; so that
the useful elements of the modern rest-day, how-
ever analogous to similar elements in the Sabbath
of Moses, are held to be enjoined in no law of God.
Of this representation it is an essential part that the
early statement of the institution of the Sabbath,
made Gen. ii. 3, where it fairly describes an appoint-
ment for the whole race, is nothing else than an
anticipation by the historian, quite out of its date,
of the narrow appointment to be long afterward
made for Israel.
The other class of objectors have adopted more
radical methods. As much of Old Testament text
as connects the institution of the Sabbath with any
choice of God, they set aside as unauthentic. Even
then, however, the institution remains inwrought
with writings so ancient that a philosophical ob-
jector feels bound to give some account of its pres-
ence there. This explanation is claimed to lie in
the united facts that the Hebrews kept a festival of
the New Moon ; and that the intervals between the
new moons (of 294 days), when divided into quar-
ters according to the successive “quarterings” of
the moon would, most frequently, furnish periods
of seven days. This theory has not attempted to
show how lunar phenomena, thought to be distinct
enough to effect the observance, now of a seventh
day, now of an eighth, could have trained a people
while still religiously intent on the phenomenon of
the new moon, to override all phenomena in behalf
of a strictly seventh sacred day. Such a substitute
for the divine command being admitted, it would
follow, of course, that the relation of the weekly
rest-day to Christian worship and the world’s ad-
vantage is a happy chance, involving no suggestion
of the inspiration of Moses or of the authority of
the Sabbath law.
In this relation of the opposing sides an element
of the debate, as yet unnoticed, becomes of chief
importance. The Mosaic Scriptures gave to the
Sabbath so signal a preeminence above every other
usage which they named as to predict and require
its unexampled career. The Decalogue is by its
form and contents marked off from all other writings,
not only of Moses, but of all men. To moralists
and philosophers of every class it stands as a foun-
tain of law. Of the ten precepts that gave it name
nine are accepted on all hands as of the essence of
fundamental morality ; the remaining precept being
the law of the Sabbath. This collocation is the more
remarkable by the fact that the Sabbath at that
date, if viewed apart from its history and intended
usage has, with thinking men, admitted no question, development, had no intelligible claim to be so ad-
if no more question had been raised concerning the
vanced beyond all other Jewish usages.
Nothing
SABIN.
417
short of the experience which the world has since
had of its intrinsic relation to all practical morality
and piety could ever have solved the wonder of its
Then, when the
introduction into such a place.
ancient preface to the code asserts with unexampled
formality and solemnity that God himself both
framed and uttered it, and the subsequent narrative —t & gº * = &
began to be enacted by the Saxon kings in Britain.
recites that God by a miracle recorded it, the cotem-
poraneous assertion of a divine intent in the exalta-
tion of the Sabbath law becomes complete.
showing, however, response has been made, as by
Paley in the statement: “That there are various
passages in Scripture in which duties of a political,
or ceremonial, or positive nature, and confessedly ~
"American States.
of partial obligation, are enumerated, and with9ut
any mark of discrimination, along with others which
are natural and universal.”
Philosophy, Book V., Chap. 7).
the unexampled symmetry, precision, and solemn
majesty of the Decalogue is held by the believers in
a divine and enduring Sabbath law to be trivial.
In the time of Christ the Sabbath had come to be
encumbered with such formalistic additions as to
give great value to the example and instructions, by
laws.
which he swept them away. He taught that “ The
Sabbath was made for man and not man for the
Sabbath,” a saying which could never have been
fully understood, but for the world’s continuous and
enlarging experience of those adaptations to hu-
manity that lie in the Sabbath usage.
In harmony with this lesson of their Master, the
apostles were careful to relieve all Christians, both
Jewish and Gentile, from every element of Sabbath
observance that savored either of Jewish formalism
as later times had developed it, or of Jewish cere-
Mosaic appointment. The ceremonial seventh day,
whether of Pharisaism or of Judaism, manifestly
maintains no warrant under the explicit Words of
Baul, Rom. xiv. 5, 6, “Let every man be fully
persuaded in his own mind. He that regardeth the
day” (evidently the seventh day still kept supersti-
tiously by Judaizing Christians), “regardeth it unto
the Lord ; and he that regardeth not the day, to the
Lord he doth not regard it.” No more did that cere-
monial sacredness pass into any other day ; but the
“Sabbath made for man”—the ordinance of the
weekly day of rest and worship which was never
abolished, not even when side by side the seventh
day of Judaism and the Lord's day of Christians
respectively waned and waxed—stands to this day,
sustained by these consistent and abiding sanctions:
of God's first appointment of the Sabbath after the
creation (afterward sufficiently, though incidentally,
attested in patriarchal history); of his reinstate-
ment of the ordinance after the abode in Egypt,
first by the miracle of the manna, and then by his
own voice and finger from Sinai; of the example of
Christ in behalf of the Sabbath, so long as the
Jewish institutions lasted, and of Christ and his
apostles in behalf of the weekly Lord's day, so soon
as by his accomplished atonement Jewish ceremonies
were all stripped away, leaving the indestructible
substance of God’s law for the race proclaimed in
the Ten Commandments. In the double light of
that law and of experience the Sabbath is a positive
conscience, but binding to duty which is found to
be so related to men's highest advantage of every
sort that the appointment is a special attestation of
God’s rightful and loving government, and the obli-
gation to obey is not formal but moral.
For the Jewish nation the Sabbath law was civil
as well as religious. In Christian times the first
civil recognition of the weekly rest-day was made
by the Emperor Constantine, A. D. 321. To his
To this
He gives an example
out of Ezekiel and another out of The Acts (Moral
The offer of such
an offset to the force of a document organized with
however, these American legislatures, especially,
have given very noticeable attention to the oppor-
tunity which a weekly arrest of work offers to those
nated.
and recitals as concern the civil and secular aspects
of the observance it is commonly known as “Sun-
day,” or “the first day of the week.”
tians. notably the members of the Society of Friends,
prefer to call it “First day.
has attached to it a name of obvious and peculiar
rare works.
valuable libraries that were sold at auction in his
first statute additions were made by himself, and by
Theodosius, A. D. 386.
These laws prohibited such
work as was not thought to be necessary, arrested
military spectacles and heathen shows, and closed
the courts. Additions were still made to them in
the sixth century by the Eastern emperors. As
early as the close of the seventh century similar laws
These met with additions and modifications under
successive monarchs, until in 1676 was enacted
under Charles II. the statute which, in substance,
continues to be English law. From this sprang the
laws of the several American colonies; out of which
in turn have grown the present laws of the several
These, avoiding the mistake of
requiring acts of worship, into which the spirit of
their day led some of the colonial legislatures, are
intent chiefly on forbidding unnecessary labor and
traffic and the noisy annusements which would dis-
turb public worship. In addition to these things,
businesses which supply temptation to dangerous
appetites. Of the thirty-eight States now consti-
túting the American Union thirty-six have Sunday
While all these provide against the sale of
intoxicating drinks in so far as they are kinds of
merchandise sold in shops, twenty-seven States
make further express provision against the Sunday
sale of intoxicants. The constitutionality of the so-
called “Sunday laws” has been abundantly estab-
lished in British courts and American.
Some protection of the weekly day of rest has
been offered by French law, especially under the
early emperors and by a statute of 1814, repealed in
1SS0.
mony as it had unquestionably entered into the
The rest-day of Christendom is variously desig-
In civil legislation and in such discussions
Some Chris–
s )
* *
The New Testament
significance—“ the Lord’s day” (Rev. i. 10)—a
name which forbids all superstition or legalism, but
doubly binds to essential duty. Since the enduring
observance with its priceless advantages is to be
traced straight back to the unchanging purpose and
law of God, the ancient name lasts as long as the
law, and now that the Judaizing superstitions that
troubled the early, Church have perished, the “Lord's
day” is with all propriety called the “Sabbath.”
(H. D. G.)
(For fuller discussion of the relations of the Sab-
bath to the Pentateuchal worship and institutions,
see TABERNACLE.)
SABIN, JOSEPH (1821–1881),
bibliophile, was
born at Braunston, Northamptonshire, England,
Dec. 9, 1821. tº
in Oxford, but in 184S he came to the United States.
He was for some years a bookseller
and ultimately settled in New York as an antiqua-
rian bookseller and publisher. From 1856 to 1861
he pursued his calling in Philadelphia, but at the out-
break of the civil war returned to New York. As
a bibliographer he had scarcely an equal, and such
& * f * tº º was his devotion to his specialty that he crossed the
appointment of God, beyond invention by natural
ocean twenty-five times in his hunt after old and
He prepared catalogues of most of the
time in New York, among which may be specified
those of Dr. Samuel F. Jarvis (1851), E. B. Curran
(1856), G. B. Hazewell (1856), W. E. Burton (1861)
Edwin Forrest (1S63), John Allan (1864), and T. W.
Fields (1875).
limited editions of various old works illustrative of
American history, and edited and published for sev-
*
Sabin republished on large paper
418
SACO-SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANIES.
eral years the American Bibliophilist commencing in of erection, will cost $250,000. There are also 12
1869. In 1867 he undertook the publication in parts
of a Dictionary of Books relating to America, from its
Discovery to the Present Time, of which he completed
13 volumes. He died at Brooklyn, June 5, 1881.
SACO, a city of Maine, in York co., is on the
left bank of Saco River, six miles from its mouth,
and 14 miles west of Portland. A bridge connects
|
|
|
i
being separated in 1762, it attained the dignity of a
city a century later (1867).
It has two national and
|
|
two savings banks, an athenteum, a high school, ten
churches, a public library, and a weekly newspaper.
The industrial works comprise several large cotton
factories, saw mills, machine shops, shoe factories,
etc., which obtain water power from the falls of the
river, which exceed 50 feet. The population in 1880
was 6389.
SACRAMENTO, the capital of California, and
the seat of Sacramento co., is in 38° 33' N. lat.,
121° 20' W. long., 33 miles by rail from San Fran-
cisco. The city is located on an extensive plain on
the east bank of the Sacramento River, immediately
south of the mouth of the American River. The
streets are wide and cross at right angles. Those
running east and west are designated by the letters
of the alphabet, and those crossing them north and
south are numbered, commencing at the Sacramento
River. The business portion is built of brick, and
the residence portion of wood. Shade trees are
abundant, and almost every residence has a lawn
and is surrounded with Orange trees, palms, orna-
mental plants, and flowers.
The first railroad in California, extending from
Sacramento into El Dorado co., was formally opened
on Feb. 22, 1856. Work on the Central Pacific
Railroad was commenced at Sacramento Jan. 8,
1863, by Gov. Leland Stanford, and this first over-
land road was completed May 10, 1869. Sacramento
is on the line of the California and Oregon, Western
Pacific, Central Pacific, California Pacific, and Sac-
ramento and Placerville railroads. All of these
roads are of the Southern Pacific system, whose
shops here cover 25 acres of land and furnish con-
stant employment to about 1800 men. The com-
pany’s hospital is also located in the city. A line
of steamboats runs to San Francisco on the Scra-
mento River and the bays, and another up the same
stream to Red Bluff. The Sacramento River is
spanned opposite the city by a railroad and Wagon
bridge, connecting it with the town of Washington,
Yolo co., and the American River is crossed by two
bridges. All the bridges in the county and all roads
are free.
The capital of California was permanently located
at Sacramento on February 25, 1854, and in 1869
the present capitol building, the finest in the State,
was completed at a cost of about $2,000,000. In
the Capitol Park are the exposition pavilion of the
State Agricultural Society and the State printing
and electrotyping office, in which are printed, in
addition to the usual work for the State, the text-
books for use in the public schools. The State
Agricultural Society has also an extensive park...for
the exhibition of stock and a fine race-track. The
State fairs are annually held in September. The
Masons and Odd Fellows have each imposing tem-
ples. The United States Government has a post-
office building which cost $100,000. The County
Court House (formerly used as the State, Capitol)
cost $200,000, and a brick and iron Hall of Records
cost $50,000. The County Hospital, built on the
pavilion plan, cost $75,000, and can accommodate
175 patients. º
There are in the city 1 national and 3 commercial
and savings banks, 3 daily, 1 semi-weekly (German),
4 weekly newspapers, and 3 monthlies, and 17
churches. The Catholic Cathedral, now in course
by a small city tax.
public-school buildings, 2 colleges, 4 private schools,
and 1 art school.
The State Library contains 63,300 volumes; the
Free Public Library of 12,000 volumes is maintained
The order of Odd Fellows
maintain a library of about 8000 volumes. The
Crocker Art Gallery is a brick and iron building
with Biddeford, to which it originally belonged, but
three stories high, costing over $100,000. It be-
longs to the city and contains some of the finest
paintings in the State, together with an extensive
cabinet of minerals, the property of the State. The
paintings are valued at Over half a million dollars.
The State Capitol Park embraces 25 acres of land
and the City Plaza 2% acres. Both parks are
lawned and planted with the choicest varieties of
trees, shrubs, and flowering and ornamental plants,
and fountains are appropriately placed. During
the summer months semi-weekly open-air concerts
are given at these parks by brass bands.
Sacramento is lighted with gas and electricity,
most of the street lighting being furnished by the
latter means. The water-works are the property of
the city, and the Water is supplied at a moderate
charge.
The total valuation of property in the city is
$26,000,000, and the municipal debt on Jan. 1,
1889, was $1,500,000. The municipal expenses for
the year ending April 1, 1888, were $517,555.78.
The city has 4 flouring mills, 4 planing mills, 2
box factories, 1 broom factory, 1 cannery, 2 wine-
ries, 7 carriage manufactories, 2 Spice mills, 3 potte-
ºries, and 5 foundries.
As in all cities in California, the population is cos-
mopolitan. At present (1889) it contains 30,000
inhabitants.
In 1839 Captain John A. Sutter established a fort,
now included within the city limits, but the city
was not laid out until 1848, after the discovery of
gold. The thousands of gold-seekers who arrived
in the country came up the river to Sacramento in
steamers and sailing vessels, and from that point
proceeded by land to the mines. A canvas town
was at first established on the river bank, and soon
substantial buildings were erected. In 1849 the
high waters overflowed the city, and levees were
made. These however proved insufficient in the
winter of 1861–2, when they were broken in the
great flood and the city was again inundated. On
Nov. 2, 1852, most of the business portion was
burned, and again on July 13, 1854, a great fire
swept over the same ground and destroyed all that
had been rebuilt. The city is now protected with
substantial levees against floods, and a paid fire de-
partment is maintained. The city was incorporated
by the first legislature Feb. 27, 1850; on April 24,
1858, the governments of the city and county were
consolidated ; and on April 25, 1863, the present
charter, providing for a city government only, was
passed.
Sacramento is the commercial centre of a rich
agricultural district, specially adapted to grape and
orange growing. ... Its geographical position, and
transportation facilities enable it to command the
trade of the entire northern half of the State.
(W. J. D.)
SACRIFICE. See TABERNACLE.
SACS AND FOXES. See FOX INDIANS.
SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANIES. Corporations
for the safe keeping of valuable personal property,
though of comparatively recent origin, are in ope-
ration in many of the large cities throughout the
United States. Except in the State of New York,
where their organization is provided for by general
laws, they usually are created by special legislative
acts, as was also the custom in that State until 1875,
when a statute was enacted, authorizing the forma-
tion of stock companies for the purpose of taking
SAGINAW-ST. CLAIR. 419
and receiving upon deposit as bailees, for safe keep- may be agreed upon. ... Among others, by a person
ing and storage, jewelry, plate, money, specie, bul-in his own name and for his individual account—in
lion, stocks, bonds, securities and valuable papers of the name and for the account of another or others,
any kind, and other valuables, and guaranteeing of another or others with himself, deliverable wholly
their safety on such terms and for compensation to or in part, only to the party in whose name and for
be agreed upon between them and their patrons. whose account deposited, or also to another; or if
They were also authorized to construct and let out coupon bonds, and so desired, the bonds to himself
safes, vaults, and other receptacles necessary for the alone and the coupons to another, or to either of
purposes of their business. Their affairs are man- several others as well as to himself, and then, if de-
aged by trustees, elected annually by the stockhold-sired, only in the joint presence of two or more of
ers, the latter being jointly and severally liable for them : a deposit may be made, delivery contingent,
all debts to an amount equal to the par value of as “in escrow.” A married woman may make, or
stock held over and above such stock. In the State have another make for her, a deposit in her own
of New York these corporations are under the su- name, deliverable to herself only, or as she may
pervision of the bank superintendent, to whom they direct ; or a deposit of securities or valuables may
iuake semi-annual reports and are subjected to an- be made under guaranty, the corporation assuming
nual examinations by him. full and absolute liability for their value, guarantee-
The Safe Deposit Company of New York, char: ling safe keeping and delivery wholly or in part in
tered April 15, 1861, with capital of one hundred accordance with the terms of agreement, whenever
thousand dollars, is said to have been the first dis- called for by the depositor or his legal representa-
tinct corporation formed for the sole purpose of tive. Safe-renters have access to the vaults as often
safely keeping valuables and personal securities, as desired during business hours, and are furnished
under guarantee, and the renting of fire and burglar with private rooms in which papers or securities
proof vaults. January 1, 1888, the combined capi- may be examined without fear of molestation. As
tal of the safe deposit companies of New York State a rule the officers and all employés of this class of
alone was nearly three millions of dollars. corporations are pledged not to impart any informa-
Prior to the organization of safe deposit com- tion respecting their patrons, or of transactions had
panies, the vaults of banks of deposit and discount, with them, except under compulsion of law. -
particularly those located in cities, were burdened The convenience and security combined with
with boxes and valuable packages of stockhold- privacy and seclusion afforded by safe deposit com-
ers and dealers to so great an extent as to be a panies has secured to them large and rapidly increas-
source of serious inconvenience. Where such ser- ſing patronage. (E. A. W.)
vice was rendered by banks it was at best a disagree- SAGINAW. See EAST SAGINAW.
able and unwilling one, involving risk without com- ST. CLAIR, ARTHUR (1734–1818), pioneer and
pensation, and the acceptance of trusts without general, was born at Thurso, Caithness, Scotland,
responsibility. For this reason the forming of in 1734. He was a grandson of the Earl of Roslyn,
separate companies for the erection of substantial and was educated at the University of Edinburgh.
fire and burglar proof vaults on an extensive scale He had entered on the study of medicine with the
became necessary. The large capital employed by celebrated surgeon, John Hunter, of London, when
these corporations, ranging as it does from one hurn- his receiving a large sum of money from his mother's
dred thousand to five hundred thousand dollars, estate in 1757, caused him to change his purpose
admits of securing expert workmanship and the best and seek adventures in a military life. Purchasing
of materials together with all improvements me- an ensigncy in the 60th Foot he sailed with that
chanical skill has devised for insuring strength and regiment for America. Here he took part in the
security in the construction of safety vaults, which capture of Louisburg, and in 1759 being made lieu-
are mostly built of combinations of metals such tenant, distinguished himself under Wolf at Quebec.
as welded plates of steel and iron, and homogeneous In 1760 he married at Boston Phoebe Bayard, a
plates of hard and soft steel, Franklinite and chro- lady of Huguenot descent. He resigned his com-
mic steel, etc., the quality of resistance, lacking in mission in 1762, and led a colony of Scotch settlers
one being supplied by the others. Not alone are the to the Ligonier Valley, Pa., where he had purchased
vaults securely built, but they are generally so con- a large tract of land. Here roads were cut, farms
structed that they may be examined on all sides laid out, mills erected, and other improvements
externally. The interiors are fitted up with tiers made. Besides holding various local offices, civil
of safes and deposit boxes of sizes suitable for all and judicial, St. Clair was a member of the pro-
requirements, enabling these corporations to offer prietary council of Pennsylvania, and in 1775 he
their patrons not only a safe, but a safe within an was made colonel of militia. Early in the next
impregnable fire-proof vault under surveillance of ; year resigning his civil offices, he led the Second
armed watchmen both day and night. Pennsylvania Regiment in the invasion of Canada.
In books kept for the purpose are entered minute | In this unfortunate campaign St. Clair's skill was
personal descriptions of their patrons together with displayed in helping to save Sullivan's army from
mutually agreed upon private passwords to be used icapture. He was rewarded by promotion to be
for identification. A person on renting a safe is brigadier-general, Aug. 9, 1776. The rank of
furnished with the only key that will fit its lock, no major-general was conferred Feb. 19, 1777, for his
two being alike. A safe-renter is not permitted to services at Princeton, and later when Burgoyne's
enter the vault until identified, nor can he open his army was threatening Northern New York St.
safe without the assistance of a vault attendant, Clair was placed in command at Ticonderoga. But
who first partially unlocks it to admit the key ; he was compelled to evacuate this stronghold OIl
various systems are employed by the different com- July 4, since the British engineers had found means
panies, such as the master-key and locked escutcheon to gain the crest of Mount Independence and thus
covering keyhole. A safe-renter has the option of command the fort below. A clamor was raised
appointing a deputy to act in his stead, or of making against him, especially in New England, where the
one or more persons joint owners with himself. In importance of Ticonderoga was greatly overrated.
the event of the death of a safe holder, no access is St. Clair was suspended from command until a court
permitted to his safe, except on the production of of inquiry could examine the case, yet he retained
legal authority, thus affording protection to the in- Washington’s favor, and was a volunteer aide at the
terests of lawful heirs. battle of Brandywine. The military court in Sep-
Deposits may be made with these corporations in tember, 1778, declared that “Maj.Gen. St. Clair
many forms and deliverable on such conditions as 'ls acquitted with the highest honor of the charges
420
SAINT GAUDENS-ST. LOUIS.
against him.” He was a member of the court-
martial which condemned Major André as a spy,
and was thereafter in command of West Point.
He also assisted in quelling the mutiny of the Penn-
Sylvania line, caused by their not receiving pay.
St. Clair participated in the crowning glories of the
siege of Yorktown and the capture of Lord Corn-
wallis. He remained in the South on military duty
for two years later. On his return to Pennsylvania
he again took part in the government, and in 1785
was sent to Congress, of which body he was presi-
dent in 1787. In the next year he was appointed
governor of the Northwest Territory. After making
a treaty with the Indians at Fort Harmer in 1789,
he established the capital of the Territory at Cim-
cinnati, to which place he gave its name in honor
of the society which had been formed by the officers of
the Revolutionary army. Early in 1791 St. Clair was
made general-in-chief of the army, and in the
autumn he set out against the Indians of the Miami
and the Wabash. He was, however, crippled with
gout and had to be carried in a litter. Gen. Butler,
second in command, was apprised on Nov. 3d of the
approach of Indians, but did not communicate the
fact to St. Clair, nor make any preparation. On the
next morning the camp was surprised, and out of
1400 men 600 were lost. Congress investigated the
case, and again St. Clair was pronounced the victim
of circumstances beyond his control. He resigned
his commission as general March 4, 1792, but con-
tinued as governor till November, 1802, when he
was summarily dismissed by Pres. Jefferson. He
retired to a small log-house on the summit of Chest-
nut Ridge, overlooking the valley of which he had
once been proprietor. In vain he pressed the
government for a settlement of his claims. The
Pennsylvania legislature in 1813 granted him an
annuity of $400, and finally the U. S. government
granted the veteran pioneer a pension of $60 a
week. He died at Laurel Hill, Pa., Aug. 31, 1818.
He published a Narrative of the Campaign ºf 1791
(1812). The publication of The St. Clair Papers:
Life and Public Services of Arthur St. Clair (2 vols.
1882), edited by W. H. Smith, has placed in clearer
light the merits of this general and the difficulties
against which he had to struggle. (J. P. L.)
SAINT GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS, sculptor, born
in Dublin, Ireland, March 1, 184S, was brought to
New York when six months old. During 1861–66
he was a student, first at Cooper Institute, and then
at the Academy of Design. He then went to Paris,
where he studied for three years at the Ecole des
Beaux Arts under François Jouffroy. After a year
spent at Rome, where his first work, Hiawatha, Wąs
produced, he returned to New York in 1872. He
inas since executed a number of notable works, of
which the most important are The Puritan, a statue
of Samuel Chapin (1887) in Springfield, Mass. ; bor-
trait statues of David G. Farragut (1880) in New
York, Robert R. Randall (1884) at Sailor’s Suug
Harbor, Staten Island, N. Y., and Abraham Lin-
coln (1887) in Chicago; and portrait-busts of Wm.
M. Evarts (1872–3), Theodore D. Woolsey (1876),
and Gen. Wm. T. Sherman (1888). His statues are
noted for vigorous and realistic treatment and their
freedom from all conventionality. (F. L. W.)
SAINT JOSEPH, a city of Missouri, county-seat
of Buchanan co., is on the E. bank of the Missouri
River, 110 miles above Kansas City, and 133 miles
S. S. E. of Omaha.
ton, and Quincy Road, which has branches hence to
Kansas City, Council Bluffs, and other points. The
Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railroad, St. Joseph
and St. flouis, St. Joseph and Grand Island, which
connects with the main line of the Union Pacific a battalion, and also 1 troop of cavalry.
Moines (narrow the officers of the U. S. government usual in large
Railroad, and St. Joseph and Des º º
guage) are the other principal roads. The MissOuri
fiver is here crossed by a fine iron railway and foot
It is on the Chicago, Burling-
bridge, built in 1873 at a cost of $1,500,000. It has
5 spans, one being a pivot-draw span of 365 feet. A
few miles north another railroad bridge crosses the
Missouri at Rulo, Nebraska. Among the principal
buildings are the court house, city hall, high school,
opera house, State Asylum for the Insane, and St.
Joseph College. There are 32 churches, some hav-
ing fine edifices ; connected with the Roman Catho-
lic churches are convents, parochial schools, and
asylums. The see of the Roman Catholic bishop,
formerly at St. Joseph, has been transferred to Kan-
sas City. There are 21 public schools, including.4
for colored children. Five daily and 9 weekly news-
papers besides other periodicals are published here.
The streets have been greatly improved in recent
years, $158,600 being spent for this purpose in 1886.
There is an efficient fire department. St. Joseph
has 2 national, 1 savings, and 2 State banks. There
are manufactories of stoves, architectural iron work,
galvanized iron work, hardware, guns, wagons, car-
riages, brooms, furniture, beer, syrups, and cloth-
ing. The total value of the manufactures in 1886
was $17,939,000. The wholesale trade for the same
year was $110,538,651. Pork-packing is largely
carried on. St. Joseph was first settled by Joseph
Robidoux, an Indian trader, who laid out the town
in 1843. It was incorporated as a city in 1851, hav-
ing already become noted as the starting point for
the journey over the plains to the gold region of
California. In 1859 the first railroad, the Hannibal
and St. Joseph, reached this point. The outbreak
of the Rebellion destroyed for a time the prosperity
of the city. After the war the overland traffic,
which had been diverted to other points, was slow
in returning, but since the completion of its bridge,
St. Joseph has regained a share of this commerce.
Its population in 1870 was 19,565, and in 1880 it had
increased to 32,431.
ST. LOUIS, the chief city of Missouri, is on the
right bank of the Mississippi River, 20
Rºss miles below the confluence of the Mis-
ºp. iº. souri. It is 17 miles long by 64 in its
Rep.). greatest width, and its municipal limits
include 623 square miles. It is laid out
with generally straight streets, and in naming and
numbering them the Philadelphia system has been
followed. The U. S. census of 1880 showed a pop-
ulation of 361,704. Since that time no census of
any kind has been taken, but the estimates for the
past five years, from the most reliable sources, have
given the following figures: 1884, 389,676 ; 1885,
406,530; 1886,423,029 ; 1887,428,358; 1888, 444,160.
The increase is marked also by the number of new
dwellings. In 1884 there were 2609 erected, valued
at $7,316,685 ; in 1885, 2070, valued at $7,376,519;
in 1886, 2223, valued at $7,030,819 ; in 1887, 2490,
|valued at $8,162,914.
The government of the city is still in the form of
a municipal assembly, composed of a council of 13
members elected on a general ticket, and a house of
delegates elected one from each of the 28 wards.
The chief officer of the latter is the speaker. The
elective officers of the city are the mayor, comp-
troller, treasurer, auditor, register, collector of rev-
enue, marshal, coroner, sheriff, recorder of deeds,
public administrator, the board of public improve-
ments, and 11 assessors. The appointive officers
consist, for the most part, of commissioners of water,
streets, parks, sewers, health, and the harbor. The
department of justice comprises, besides the Supreme
court of Missouri, the St. Louis court of appeals, a pro-
bate court, a circuit court, a criminal court, a court
of correction, 2 police courts, and 14 justices of the
forming
Besides
peace. The militia consists of 4 companies,
cities, St. Louis has a quarter-master’s department,
i
an assayer, a Mississippi River commission, and the
ST. PAUL–SALEM.
421
cavalry depot at Jefferson barracks. The fire de;
partment consists of 26 steam engine companies, 4
chemical engine companies, and 7 hook and ladder
companies. These are supplemented by an under-
writer's salvage corps and the fire and police tele-
graph. The police department is controlled by the
mayor and 4 commissioners; the State is divided into
6 districts, and the city police department is, Virtu-
ally, a constabulary for the whole State of Missouri.
28 railroads centre at this point. The regular lines
of steamboats up the Mississippi River number 4 ;
to the lower Mississippi, 3 ; to the Missouri River, 2.;
and the Illinois River, 1. The number of Street
railroads in the city is 17. There are 3 hospitals,
a morgue, an insane asylum, poor-house, Work-
house, house of refuge, 10 markets, 31 asylums
and homes, 21 convents, 32 cemeteries, 8 boards
of trade and exchanges, 23 banks and banking
associations, 65 building associations, and 18
insurance companies, 2 of which are life Com-
panies. Besides the Public Library there are 14
libraries. The academies and colleges number 30 ;
the public schools about 75, and the parochial
schools about 80. The number of parks has in-
creased to 22. The churches of the religious denom-
inations number as follows: Baptist, 27 : Christian,
4; Congregational, 14: Episcopal, 15 ; German
Evangelical, 14; English Lutheran, 1 ; German Lu-
theran, 12 ; Hebrew, 8; Methodist Episcopal, 15 ;
Methodist Episcopal (South), 9; New Jerusalem,
(Swedenborgian), 3 ; Presbyterian, 26; Cumberland
Pyesbyterian, 2.; Reformed Presbyterian, 1 ; United
Presbyterian, 2.; Roman Catholic, 47 ; Unitarian,
3 ; miscellaneous, 19.
ST. PAUL, the capital of Minnesota, and county
seat of Ramsey co., is on the Missis-
See Vol sippi River, 208.2 miles from its mouth."
[XI. D. 18. * * * *- -
* A. It is built on both sides of the river,
Rep.). which are connected by a fine iron
bridge. The main part of the city is on
the second and third terraces from the river, but it
occupies also the bottom lands along the river, as
well as the upper plateau. The total area is nearly
14,000 acres. The estimated population in 1888 is
155,577, although as much as 185,000 is claimed.
The new charter of 1888 gives the city 11 wards, and
allows each to elect an alderman. A board of park
commissioners has been created ; and a board of ed-
ucation, consisting of 4 members, is appointed by the
mayor to serve for two years. In 1887 $12,000,000
were invested in new buildings, and the real estate
sales were $75,000,000. The assessed valuation of
real estate is $84,000,000. The bonded debt is
$4,162,421. During the year 1887 there were laid
55 miles of wooden sidewalks, 2 miles of stone side-
walks, 10 miles of asphalt pavement, and 14 miles of
sewers. The fire department consists of 12 steam
engine companies, 9 chemical engine companies, and
6 hook and ladder companies. The number of rail-
roads is 12, of which the chief are the Chicago,
Burlington, and Northern, the Chicago, St. Paul,
Minneapolis, and Omaha, the Northern Pacific, the
St. Paul and Duluth, and the St. Paul, Minneapolis,
and Manitoba. The number of passenger cars trans-
ferred in the year is 260,000, and 20,000 passengers
are in transit daily. Upon the Mississippi River the
steamers carry 20,000 passengers, and 60,000 tons of
ºreight annually. The jobbing trade has largely in-
greased—the sales for the year 1888 being over
$100,000,000. Manufactures to the amount of $35,-
000,000 are produced annually, giving employment
to 20,000 men.
Over $3,000,000 are invested in the
slaughtering and packing of meats. The enrollment
of school children is over 12,000, and the number of
teachers is 270; there are 25 public schools. and 3S | tories,
Select schools and academies. The nucleus of a pub- neries, a foundry, flour and planing mills
lic library has been established. The new city and gas J } tº e
county building will cost $1,000,000, and the new I
opera house and hall of the Young Men's Christian
Association are among the prominent features of
the city. Many of the State institutions of Minne:
sota are located here. There are 12 asylums and
hospitals, 17 banks and institutions, 8 boards of
trade, and 3 regiments of State militia have their
headquarters in the city. The cemeteries number
7. Nearly 70 newspapers and periodicals, daily,
weekly, monthly, and quarterly, are published in St.
Paul. The churches of the religious denominations
number as follows: Advent, 1 ; Baptist, 11 ; Breth-
ren, 1 ; Roman Catholic, 13; Christian, 1 ; Congre-
gational, 1 ; Episcopal, 9; Evangelical, 3 ; Hebrew,
3; Lutheran, 14; Methodist Episcopal, 20; Presby-
terian, 10 ; Reformed Episcopal, 1 ; New Jerusalem,
1 : Swedenborgian, 1 ; Unitarian, 1 ; United Evan-
gelical, 2. -
SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTU's, English writer, was
born in London in 1828, being the son of an Italian
gentleman. Although he studied art, he has de-
voted himself to journalism and magazine writing.
After being a contributor to Household Words and
Cornhill Magazine, he established Temple Bar in
1860. As the correspondent of the London Tele-
graph he visited the United States in 1863, accom-
panied Napoleon III. to Algeria in 1864, reported
the Paris Exposition of 1867, the German invasion
of France in 1870, and Northern Africa in 1875.
He travelled in Spain in 1875, in Russia in 1876,
and in the United States in 1880. Among his books
are A Journey due North (1858), relating to Russia ;
Twice Round the Clock (1859), sketches of London
life : Breakfast in Bed (1863): From Waterloo to the
Peninsula (1866); Rome and Venice (1869); Cookery
in its Historical Aspects (1875); America Revisited
(1882) ; various books of travel, and a novel or two.
SALEM, a city of Massachusetts, county-seat of
Essex co., is on a peninsula in Massachusetts Bay,
15 miles N. of Boston, with which it is connected
by the Eastern Railroad. Branch railroads run to
Lowell, Lawrence, and other places. The harbor
is good, but the trade is almost exclusively COaSt-
wise, and limited to coal and ice. Among the note-
worthy institutions are the East India Marine Hall,
Salem Athenæum, Essex Institute, and Peabody
Academy of Science. The city hall, the court-
house, and Plummer Hall are important buildings,
and there are many fine mansions erected in the er:
of commercial prosperity. There are 6 national
banks, 2 sayings banks, 2 weekly and 2 daily news-
papers, 20 churches, good public and private schools,
including a high School and a normal school. The
industrial works comprise cotton mills, jute fac-
tories, tanneries, iron foundries, and shoe factories.
Salem is lighted with gas, and has water-works and
a park. Its property is valued at $25,000,000, and
its debt exceeds $1,000,000. It was founded in
1628 by John Endicott, and in 1692 was the scene of
the famous Salem witchcraft. After the Revolu-
tionary war the enterprising merchants of Salem
established connmercial relations with India and
China, and these were soon flourishing, but the war
of 1812 deranged them, and Salem's foreign com-
merce thereafter steadily, declined. The city was
chartered in 1836. It is closely connected with the
towns of Beverly and Peabody. Its population in
1880 was 27,563.
-y SALEM, a city of New Jersey and county-seat of
Salem co., is on Salem Creek, 32 miles S. of Phila-
delphia. It is on a branch of the West Jersey
Railroad, by which it is 44 miles from Camden. It
has a court house, 3 hotels, 1 national bank, 3 weekly
meWspapers, S churches, 7 schools, and a collegiate
institute. º Its industrial works comprise 4 glass fac-
1 oil-cloth works, 4 carriage factories, 5 can-
It has
3 and water-works, and many beautiful residences.
It is surrounded by a rich farming country, the pro-
422
SALEM-SALMON.
duce of which is shipped here for Philadelphia,
With which it has communication by steamboat as
Well as by railroad. The village was settled in 1673
by John Fenwick. In 1880 it had 5056 inhabitants.
SALEM, the capital of Oregon and county-seat
of Marion co., is on the E. bank of the Willamette
River, here crossed by a fine wagon bridge built in
1886 and costing $50,000. It contains the State
house, penitentiary, insane asylum, 12 churches, an
Orphanage, and schools for the blind, deaf, and
dumb, which receive aid from the State. A good
system of graded schools, an academy and the
Willamette University, a Methodist institution,
make provision for education. There are 4 news-
papers, 3 of which issue both daily and weekly edi-
tions. The city has waterworks, electric lights,
and an efficient fire-department. Wide streets,
handsome houses, and several parks give it an at-
tº active appearance. Two miles from the city are
the State fair grounds. The adjacent country is a
rich agricultural section, containing many garden
and berry farms. Salem in 1880 had a population
of 2538, but this is now estimated to have reached
(5000.
SALISBURY, EDWARD ELBRIDGE, Orientalist,
was born in Boston, April 6, 1814, and graduated at
Yale College in 1832. After taking the theological
course at New Haven, he went abroad and spent
several years in studying Eastern languages, in
Paris under DeSacy and DeTassy, and in Berlin
under Bopp. Appointed in 1841 to the new chair of
Arabic and Sanskrit at Yale, he devoted another
year to study at Bonn before assuming his office.
His Inaugural Discourse was privately printed in
1843. He endowed the professorship of Sanskrit
and resigned it to W. D. Whitney in 1854, but con-,
tinued to teach Arabic till 1856. His fine Oriental
library, including part of that of DeSacy, was pre-
sented to Yale. He has been a member of the
Asiatic Society of Paris since 1838, of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences and Belles-Lettres at Constan-
tinople since 1855, and of the German Oriental So-
ciety since 1859. He has actively served the Ameri;
can Oriental Society as corresponding secretary and
editor of its Journal for some years ; he became its
president in 1863. He has contributed to the New
Fnglander, and privately printed a monograph on
the Diodati family (1875); a lecture before the Yale
art school on Principles of Domestic Taste (1877); and
three volumes of Genealogical and Biographical Mono-
graphs (1885–88). In the latter he has been assisted
by his wife. His degree of LL.D. was conferred by
Yale in 1869 and by Harvard in 1886.
SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GAS-
coign E CECIL., MARQUIS OF, prime minister of
Great Britain, was born at Hatfield, in 1830. . He
was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
graduating in 1853. He was elected a fellow of All
Souls’ College and entered Parliament in the same
year as member for Stamford, being then knºwn
is Lord Robert Cecil. On the decease of his elder
brother in 1865, he assumed the title of Viscount
Cranborne, and in 1868 he succeeded to the mar-
quisate of Salisbury. He was an earnest defender
ºf the Established Church, and a frequent contrib-
utor to the Quarterly Review and other periodicals.
In July, 1866, he was appointed Secretary of State
for India, but resigned in the following March, being
unable to accept the Reform Bill proposed by Lord
Ijerby. He returned to the same, office, however,
in Disraeli’s cabinet in March, 1874. He was sent
in November, 1876, as special ambassador to Turkey
to arrange the difficulties respecting the Christian
subjects of that empire. Although the ambassadors
of the great powers united in proposals which were
urged upon the Ottoman Grand Council, that body
almost unanimously rejected them. The ambassa-
dors then left Constantinople, and the Russo-Turk-
ish war soon began. In April, 1878, Lord Salisbury
succeeded the Earl of Derby as Secretary of State,
and Soon accompanied the Earl of Beaconsfield to
the Congress of Berlin in which the new division of
the Sultan’s dominions was settled. The two Brit-
ish negotiators shared in the ovations which followed
their return to England from their diplomatic vic-
tory. But they went out of office together in April,
1880, after Mr. Gladstone's Midlothian campaign.
In May, 1881, Lord Salisbury was chosen as leader
of the Conservative party in the House of Lords.
In 1886, when Mr. Gladstone's bill for an Irish Par-
liament at Dublin was rejected and his ministry
came to an end, the government passed into the
hands of the Conservatives, and Lord Salisbury
became premier. Although his majority in the
House of Commons was obtained only by the sup-
port of Liberal dissidents who regarded Mr. Glad-
stone's movement as threatening the integrity of
the empire, he succeeded in maintaining a longer
lease of power than seemed possible at first. The
breach in the Liberal party has proved permanent,
the two branches being known as the Gladstonians
and the Unionists. Parnell and his followers act
with the former, while the latter still give their sup-
port to the Conservatives.
SALMON. The Salmonidae, as now restricted,
is not a large family of fishes, embracing
less than 100 species, but in beauty,
activity, gaminess, food qualities, and to
some extent in size of individuals, cer-
tain members of the family stand first
among fishes. The group embraces several genera,
of which we are here concerned with two only, Sal-
mo, the salmon of the Atlantic, and Oncorhyncus,
the Pacific salmon. Of the genus Salmo the most
important species, economically considered, is S.
salar, the common Atlantic salmon, which frequents
alike the coasts of Europe and America, and is one of
the most esteemed of all food fishes. Individuals of
this species are commonly from 10 to 12 pounds
weight and about 30 inches long, but often grow
much larger, a salmon weighing 83 pounds having
been brought to London in 1821. The color of
adults is a steel blue above, the sides and under
parts being of lighter hue, the dorsal and caudal
fins dusky, the ventrals and anal white, while a few
rounded spots are scattered above the lateral line.
In rivers the color darkens, the males being known
as red fish, the females as black fish.
This species spends half its life in the ocean,
though quite capable of remaining during all its life
in fresh water, as is proved by its existence in land-
locked lakes. The salmon of Lake Ontario are
thought never to migrate to the ocean. The land-
locked salmon is known as variety Sebago, and differs
somewhat from the migratory form. S. Salar
ascends the rivers annually to spawn. In the
ocean it subsists on crustacea and their eggs, small
shrimps, young crabs, etc.; in the rivers on small
fish. It is supposed to eat little during its river re.
sidence, yet bites eagerly at the bait of anglers, alº
forms a favorite sportsman’s fish. It ascends to the
head waters of streams, leaping cascades and other
impediments with great energy and persistence, and
depositing its spawn in the sands or gravels at the
river's head. For this purpose it digs deep furrows
which it covers up after the eggs are deposited. A
fish of 8 pounds is estimated to lay about 6000
eggs; one of 40 pounds, 15,000. The salmon are
lean and unwholesome after spawning, but gene-
rally survive and return to the ocean. The young
fish, which are known as parr, remain in the rivers
from one to two years, and weigh but a few ounces
when they pass out to sea.
S. sala) is found in all the rivers of northern Eu-
rope, in America from Labrador to the Delaware
River, and in the Great Lakes as far as Niagara. It
See Vol.
XXI. p. 221
(p. 231 Am.
Rep.).
SALMON.
Salmon (Salmo Salar).
was formerly exceedingly abundant in all the rivers
of the Atlantic slope north of the Potomac, but has
been killed out by over-fishing and other causes, and
is now practically unknown throughout that region.
In early colonial days salmon were found in profu-
sion in the Connecticut River, but by the injudicious
devices of man they have been completely extermi-
nated. A dam built in 1798 about 100 miles above
the mouth of the river was the apparent cause of the
extermination. The fish were unable to pass this
obstacle and reach their spawning ground, and after
a few years’ despairing efforts abandoned the stream.
The same has been the case with other rivers, and
the salmon fisheries of the Atlantic coast are ex-
tinct. In 1850 the catch of Maine was valued at
nearly $21,000, that of Massachusetts at $33,000,
while not a fish is recorded as caught in any other
Atlantic State. Measures are at present being taken
to restock the rivers of those States, though with
what success remains for the future to decide. In
British America the catch is larger. New Bruns-
wick’s annual catch is estimated at a value of $800,-
000. As many as 40,000 fish have been caught in
one season at the mouth of the St. John River. The
most of the salmon of this region are sent fresh to
the United States. At the entrance to the Mira-
michi 400,000 pounds are annually put up for ex-
port. The yield here has greatly increased through
protection to the fish during the spawning season.
Salmon formerly abounded in Lake Ontario. In
1836 two men took 230 fish in 4 hours by spearing.
Since then there has been a rapid decrease through
the effects of factory waste thrown into the rivers.
Salmon were formerly very abundant in the rivers
of the British Islands, but have been killed out of
the Thames and other streams by sewage. The
greatest yield now is from Ireland.
The most valuable salmon fisheries now existing
are those of the Pacific coast region of North
America, where salmon were formerly so extraordi-
marily abundant that the rivers occasionally became
choked with the multitudes of ascending fish. Man’s
injudicious industry has succeeded in greatly reduc-
ing the numbers of migrating salmon, though the
fisheries are still of great importance and the annual
catch of high value. The Pacific fish comprise
several species of the genus Oncorhyncus, of which
the largest and most valuable is O. tchawytcha, the
quinnat or king salmon, as it has been well named.
This species is the largest of the family, averaging
in weight on the Columbia 22 lbs., on the Sacra-
mento 16 lbs., but occasionally attaining a weight
of from 60 to 90 lbs. It is found along the coast
from Lower California to Kamtchatka, but most
abundantly in the Columbia, where it is commonly
known as the Chinook salmon.
The quinnat is a beautiful fish, its body being
silvery in hue, the back, with the dorsal and caudal
fins, being marked with round black spots. In the
fall it becomes black or dirty red in color. As a
food fish it is of unsurpassed excellence, its flesh
closely resembling that of S. salar in flavor. It does
not feed in fresh water and dies after spawning, ex-
cept perhaps in some of the shorter rivers. At the
upper waters of the Columbia and other long streams
the bodies of the fish appear bruised, the fins muti-
lated, the eyes injured, patches of white fungus or
the body, while numerous parasites sap their
strength. It is probable that all die immediately
after spawning.
Eifty years ago this fish was hardly known ; now
it is eaten all over the world, being carried in cans
and otherwise to all ports. The embryo fish are
being transported to the principal northern countries
of Europe, to Australia, and New Zealand, with
the hope of adding this species to the food fishes of
those regions. In its native habitat the annual
catch is enormous. The Columbia River alone,
during the six years ending in 1880, yielded nearly
200,000,000 lbs., with no serious diminution of stock.
Yet that river is being fished with so little thought
of the future that if the rate of destruction is con-
tinued its fisheries must become valueless before many
years. Among the murderous devices adopted is
that of the fish wheel, which throws the fish ashore in
shoals, and permits scarcely an individual to escape.
It is only the August and September run which now
keeps up the supply. This is not molested, but the
spring run is almost totally destroyed. It is doubt-
ful if this amount of protection is sufficient, and
other means need to be adopted to prevent the ex-
haustion of the fish. An efficient salmon hatchery
is important for this purpose, and active efforts to
restock the river in this way are now being made.
In 1880 more than 1,500,000 fish were canned, being
the largest number taken to that time. The Sacra-
mento also yields abundantly, while the smaller
rivers along the coast add to the grand total, the
economic value of the quinnat fisheries exceeding
that of all others combined on the Pacific coast.
The total product of the salmon fisheries of the
United States in 1880 is given at 52,000,000 lbs., of
which Oregon yielded 39,500,000 lbs. . To this may
be added the catch of British Columbia, estimated
in 1881 at 7,448,000 lbs., of a gross value of £894,-
000. The value of the United States canned sal-
mon is given at $3,255,365, this covering 31,453,000
pound cans. , Since 1880 over-fishing has rendered
the salmon industry much less profitable. (Fol
some further particulars, see OREGON.)
In addition to their human enemies it may be
Stated that the Salmon are destroyed in great num-
bers by foes of their own kind. In the rivers chubs,
Suckers, and other small fish devour the eggs and
young, while in the ocean the mature fish find a
dangerous enemy in the seals, which destroy them
in multitudes.
There are several other species of Oncorh Uncus, in-
eluding O. ketº, the dog salmon, which averages
10 to 12 lbs. in weight; O. gorbuscha, the hump-
backed salmon, a small species; O. kisatch, the silver
Salmon, averaging 7 to 10 lbs. ; O. merka, the blue-
backed Salmon, averaging about 8 lbs. These all
range along the coast from California to Kant-

424
SALMON.—SALT.
chatka, the last named reaching to Japan. O. merka
has a considerable run in the Columbia, and is the
principal spring salmon of the Frazer River. It is
the most graceful in form and handsome in color of
all the salmon, and is an excellent food fish, its
flesh being similar to that of the quinnat, but less
firm and more watery.
The artificial propagation of salmon has been pro-
secuted actively of late years under the direction of
the United States Fish Commission, which has es-
tablished hatching stations at several localities.
Probably the most important of these is that on the
McCloud River, California. This hatchery, estab-
(ished in 1873, had by 1884 taken 67,000,000 eggs,
most of which were distributed through the Union,
though several millions were sent to foreign
countries. About 15,000,000 were hatched at the
station and placed in the several rivers of that
region. As a probable result it is stated that the
Sacramento catch has increased 5,000,000 lbs. annu-
ally for several years past.
fry were hatched at this station and placed in the
Colorado and the shorter rivers of Oregon and
California.
At the Bucksport station, Maine, about 2,500,000
eggs of the Atlantic salmon, S. salar, were taken in
1884, the fry being placed in the tributaries of the
Hudson, Delaware, etc. About 1,000,000 eggs of
the landlocked or Schoodic salmon (S. salar var.
Sebago) were taken and variously distributed. This
activity in propagation cannot fail to have highly
important results, and if in common with it efforts
are made to provide proper fish-ways in our rivers
and to prevent the influx of sewage, there is no
reason why our salmon fisheries should not regain
their former value. (For a consideration of other
species of genus Salmo, see article TROUT.)
(C. M.)
SALMON, GEORGE, Irish clergyman and mathe-
matician, was born at Dublin, Sept. 25, 1819. IIe
was educated at Cork and at Trinity College, Dub-
lin, graduating in 1839, and being chosen a fellow
of the college in 1841. He had studied theology as
well as mathematics and was ordained in 1844, but
retained his fellowship until 1866, when he was
made regius professor of theology in Dublin Uni-
versity. His mathematical works on Comic Sec-
tions, The Higher Plane Curves, Geometry of Three Di-
nensions, and Modern Higher Algebra, have been
translated into several languages and have obtained
for him the doctor’s degree from both Oxford and
Cambridge, as well as other marks of honor fron)
scientific societies. In 1878 he presided in the
mathematical and physical section of the British
Association at its meeting in Dublin. His religious
works consist of three series of College Sermons
(1861, 1873, 1881), and an Introduction to the New
Testament (1885).
SALT. This highly useful mineral substance is
the chloride of sodium, being cº-
See Vol.
pounded of 60 parts by weight of chlo-
rine and 40 of sodium. It is exceedingly
abundant in the waters of the Ocean,
which contain in every 1000 parts 33.8
parts of saline substances, of which 26.8 parts are
common salt. The ocean is estimated to contain in
all 3,000,000 cubic miles of this substance, which has
probably been washed from rock deposits during the
iong geological ages, its easy solubility facilitating
this process. In its solid state it forms colorless,
transparent, anhydrous crystals of the isometric
system and with very perfect cubical cleavage,
which generally displays itself in the great masses
of rock salt. It occurs in the rocks most frequently
in the condition of brine, though great deposits of
rock salt are known, some of which have been mined
for many centuries. The origin of rock salt is not
very well understood. Some beds have been pro-
XXI. p. 22.
(p. 239 Am.
Rep.).
In 1888 about 5,000,000
*
duced by the drying up of bodies of Salt water cut
off from the Ocean, but in cases where the salt forms
a perpendicular vein its origin cannot so easily be
accounted for. As beds occur, however, in early
geological strata this effect may have been due to
rock-tilting forces. Lakes of brine yet exist in
many regions of the earth, some of them doubtless
due to cut-off bodies of sea water, others to salt
springs, or the flow of underground water over de-
posits of rock salt, as in the case of the Great Salt
Lake. Some of these lakes surpass the ocean in
their percentage of Salt, probably through the effect
of evaporation.
The countries of Europe, with the exception of
| Norway, Denmark, and Holland, are supplied with
salt from domestic sources, some of it being obtained
from evaporation of sea water, while more generally
the supply comes from salt springs and the mining
of beds of rock salt. Of the latter the mine of Wie-
liczha, near Cracow, Austria, is the most notable in-
stance. This mine is two miles long and one broad,
and 1000 feet deep. Elsewhere in the Eastern Hem-
isphere, as in Russia, India, and China, salt exists
$o great abundance, the salt mines of the latter
country being of great depth and very great number.
Africa also is well supplied with salt, and the same
is the case with South America, in which country
the salt of Patagonia is largely exported to the re-
mainder of the continent, it being of unusual purity
and requiring no preparation for use. As a rule salt
is vitiated by more or less impurity, sulphate of
lime, oxide of iron, clay, and several other substan-
ces reducing the purity of rock salt, which needs
considerable preparation to fit it for table use.
Salt abounds in the United States, ordinarily as
brine, though several deposits of rock salt are known.
Originally the supply of the colonies was obtained
by evaporating the waters of the ocean, let in to
shallow places along the coast and exposed to solar
heat. What is now used is principally obtained
from the waters of Saline springs and wells, evapo-
rated by solar heat or by boiling. The earliest
worked and one of the most important of the brine
deposits of the United States is that of the Onon-
daga district of Central New York, extending for a
considerable area around the city of Syracuse. The
whole middle portion of the State, indeed, seems
underlaid by salt in some form, the wells being un-
usually rich both in the quality and quantity of
their brine. This district has yielded salt from an
early period in the history of the country, and is
worked to-day on an extensive scale, the salt water
being pumped from numerous wells, and run into
large vats or shallow reservoirs, where it is exposed
to the evaporating action of the solar rays. There
are more than 40,000 of these vats in use, besides
several hundred factories in which the salt is ob-
tained from the brine by boiling. The finest grades
of New York sait are considered equal to the famous
Ashton salt. of the nines of Cheshire, England. In
several places beds of rock salt have been discovered
during the boring of artesian wells. One of these,
found in 1887 near Ithaca, at a depth of 2600 feet, is
250 feet thick. Such beds may be the origin of the
brine elsewhere found. The salines of New York
belong to the State, which at one time charged a
considerable royalty for their use. At present the
royalty is one cent per bushel, which no more than
pays the expense of pumping, which is done by the
State. The maximum product of the Onondaga
Wells was in 1862 9,053,874 bushels. It has since
fallen off through the effect of severe competition
from other States. The product in 1887 was
5,695,797 bushels. In the Warsaw district there
were also produced in that year 6,072,000 bushels.
The salt deposits of the United States extend
widely through the geological strata. Those of New
York are in the Upper Silurian, most of those from
C
SALT LAKE CITY.
Pennsylvania to the Mississippi in the Lower Coal
measures, while in Louisiana beds of rock salt occur
in the Tertiary. The salt district of Pennsylvania
is found along the Allegheny and other rivers of the
western part of the State. The yield of those wells
was over 1,000,000 gallons in 1860, but has declined
since. West Virginia has important deposits in the
valley of the Great Kanawha, which in 1870 yielded
4,633,750 bushels, though the yield here too has
fallen off. In 1887 it was estimated at 1,125,000
bushels. In Southwest Virginia beds of rock Salt
occur, and there are brine wells of no great import-
ance in this State and North Carolina. Ohio pos-
sesses some important wells, which in 1887 yielded
1,125,000 bushels.
salt-yielding States is Michigan, whose salines are
of remarkable richness. The wells of this State lie
in the vicinity of Saginaw Bay. They seem inex-
haustible in supply, and have been opened in con-
siderable numbers, many of them being sunk to a
depth of more than 1000 feet below the surface 'i. |
The
of Lake Michigan, and some to 1900 feet.
425
cent. This remarkable outcrop is of a pale green
color and ice-like transparency. Further up the
river, on its west side, is a less extensive salt hill of
a dazzling while color. These beds are not yet
worked, the salt needed being obtained from saline
springs and from an extensive saline marsh which
deposits an incrustation of impure Salt as fast as it
is removed, several crops being obtained in a year.
This is used in metallurgical processes. In Eastern
Arizona is a shallow salt lake whose Salt is precipi-
tated by evaporation at one season, while salt water
accumulates again at another season. The inhabi-
tants bring their wagons here and help themselves
freely. California has saline springs and Salt
But the most important of our marshes nearly as extensive as those of Nevada,
but obtains its principal supply from the evaporation
of sea-water in lagoons along the coast. The lagoons
of the Bay of San Francisco yield not less than
25,000 tons annually. There is a very large demand
for salt in this State as an aid in the reduction of
silver ores and similar operations, which consume
about 30,000 tons annually. The remaining States
Michigan wells yielded in 1870 3,106,760 bushels, and Territories of the Pacific slope have abundant.
in 1880 12,425,885 bushels, and in 1887 19,721,545 salt within their borders for local purposes.
This very rapid development is due to United States indeed has an inexhaustible quantity
bushels.
the great strength of their brine, which is twice
that of the New York wells, and more than twice
that of the other States mentioned. The cheapness
of fuel is also an important item. It is to this
unequal competition with Michigan, and with the
equally rich brines of Goderich, Canada, that the
falling off in the produce of New York, West Vir-
ginia, Ohio, and other States is due.
Saline springs and salt wells are common in the
valley of the Mississippi, being found in Illinois,
Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. West of the
river they occur in Missouri, Arkansas, Nebraska,
and Kansas, the latter State having valuable saline
The
of this important and necessary mineral, while the
coast region affords many facilities for the obtaining
of abundant supplies by the evaporation of sea
water. The total product of salt in this country in
1880 was 29,805,298 bushels. Of this the great bulk
came from four States, Michigan yielding 12,000,425 ;
New York, 8,742,203 ; Ohio, 2,650,301 ; and West
Virginia, 2,679,438 bushels. The total product for
1887 was 39,159,810 bushels, of which Michigan
produced 19,721,545, New York 11,767,845, Ohio
1,815,000, Louisiana 1,705,465, Utah 1,625,000, and
West Virginia 1,125,000. (C. M.)
SALT LAKE CITY, the capital of Utah Terri-
springs, rich in salt, in the valley of Solomon River. tory, and capital of Salt Lake co., is at the base of
In Louisiana Salt is also abundant.
from the habit of forest animals to resort there to
lick the salt. They consist of springs of weak brine.
Near the Gulf border of the State, on an island in
a sea marsh near New Iberia, named Petite Anse or
Avery’s Island, is an immense deposit of rock salt
of unusual purity. This salt is mined by the aid of
a shaft sunk to the depth of 190 feet, and passing
through 165 feet of solid salt. From the shaft
chambers extend in various directions, they being
35 to 40 feet wide, and 65 feet high. Above them
is a roof of rock salt 55 to 60 feet thick which is
supported by columns of salt 42 feet square. The
area of the mass is 144 acres, and its quantity of salt
is estimated at 28,600,000 net tons. The production
has increased from 25,550 tons in 1882 to 47,750 tons,
valued on the spot at $118,735, in 1887.
Through Kansas, Western Arkansas, Indian Ter-
ritory, Northwest Texas, New Mexico, and Utah,
extends a vast plain of Cretaceous age, in nearly
every part of which salt lakes and incrustations
appear along with vast masses of gypsum. Of these
lakes much the most extensive and famous is Great
Salt Lake, about 75 miles long and 30 wide, its
Waters containing 20.2 per cent. of common salt and
2 per cent. of other salts. Northward from this
region, in the Rocky Mountain district, salt springs
occur, and beds of rock salt of great extent and
purity are reported in the Yellowstone Valley. In
the southern part of Utah large deposits of rock salt
are said to exist, their supply practically unlimited.
Nevada is credited with deposits of extraordinary
extent. On Virgin River, in the southeast part of
the State, there is a bed of rock salt resting on
granite which is said to extend as a bluft for more
than 25 miles along the river, being in some places
several hundred feet high. More than 60 per cent.
of the entire cliff is rook salt of a purity of 90 per
VOL. IV.-2 B
In the north- the Wahsatch Mountains, 11 miles from Great Salt
western part of the State are the “licks,” so named
Lake. The area of the city proper is about 12
Square miles, but the corporate limits include about
50 square miles. Through it runs the Jordan River,
and besides the water derived from City Creek
Canyon and other streams for household purposes, a
canal 25 miles long brings water from the upper
part of the river for irrigation. The streets are i37
feet wide and the blocks 40 rods square. There are
13 miles of main water pipes, and about 12 miles of
gas mains. The city is lighted by both gas and elec-
tric light. Places have been reserved for four or
five large parks, but they have not yet been improved.
The Utah Central, and the Denver and Rio Grande
Railroads connect the city with the Union Pacific
and the Central Pacific Railroad at Ogden. The
Utah and Northern Railroad runs into Idaho and
Montana. The other railroads are the Utah and
Nevada, the Salt Lake and Western, the Bingham
Çanyon (narrow gauge), the Wahsatch and Jordan
Valley, Street cars run to all parts of the city.
The Western Union Telegraph Company gives coni-
munication with all the world, and the Deseret Come
pany with the territorial towns.
The city government is vested in a Council, com-
posed of the mayor, five aldermen, one for each of
the Wards, and nine councillors, elected triennially.
Great Salt Lake City was incorporated by the As-
sembly of the provisional State of Deseret, Jan. 19
1851, and this Act was adopted by the legislature
of Utah Territory in October of that year. Its
bounds were enlarged in 1867 to include the district
West of the Jordan, but in 1872 they were diminished
on the southern side. In 1868 the name was short-
ened to Salt Lake City. It has been the seat of the
territºrial government since 1856, and has always
been the most important city in the Territory com-
mercially. It was settled by the Mormons under
J3righam Young in July, 1847, after they had been
as
426
SALVINI–SAMARIA.
driven from Nauvoo, and was originally governed
by an ecclesiastical council. The Mormon influence
is still great, and the city is divided into 21 eccle-
siastical wards. The finest public buildings are re-
ligious, including the Mormon temple, the taberna-
cle, a peculiar huge oval-shaped structure, ac-
commodating over 7000 persons, and containing an
organ, second in size only to that of Boston.
There are also fine churches of various denomina-
tions, including St. Mark’s Cathedral. The build-
ing of Deseret University was finished in 1887, and
there are other educational structures. St. Mary’s
Hospital is a handsome building. There are many
places of public amusement, the chief being Salt
Lake Theatre and the Walker Opera House. The
Deseret Museum and Salt Lake Mining Institute
show the vast mineral resources of the Territory.
Manufacturing has only recently been commenced
in Salt Lake City.
The Mormons have been industrious and their
patient labor has effected a wonderful change in the
natural condition of the city and vicinity. The ex-
clusive policy which they pursued for many years
has ceased, and the adherents of other religions are
increasing in number. Evidences of the difference
in religious belief abound on every side. The news-
papers are ranged as Mormon and anti-Mormon.
There are four daily papers which issue also weekly
and semi-weekly editions, and there are two Swedish
weekly papers. Some religious periodicals are also
issued.
SALVINI, TOMMAso, Italian tragedian, was
born at Milan, Jan. 1, 1830. He was educated
chiefly by his father, who was professor of literature
at Leghorn. His youthful predilection for the stage
received encouragement, and he was trained for a
time by the celebrated tragedian, Gustave Modena
(1803–1861). Both his parents died when he was 15
years old, and in consequence he gave up theatrical
study for two years. . Then he entered the Rºyal
Company at Naples, but left it to fight for Italian
independence. He was afterwards engaged in the
troupe of Domenico, with whom he spent six years.
Then he retired for a year from the stage to give
himself to serious study of the dramatic classics.
His principal characters in Italian, tragedy have
been Egistó in Alfieri's Merope, Paolo in Francescº
di Rimºni; in French, especially Orosmane in Vol-
taire's Zaire; and in Italian versions of Shakespeare,
Romeo, Hamlet, and Othello. In 1865 on the 600th
anniversary of Dante's birth the four greatest actors
of Italy were invited by the city of Florence to perform
in Silvio Pellico's tragedy, Francescº di Rºvini.
The parts assigned were, to Madame Ristori; Fran-
cesca ; to Salvini, Paolo ; to Rossi, Ilancelotto ; to
Majeroni, Guido. Rossi feared, however, that he
would not be able at short notice to do justice to the
part of Lancelotto, and Salvini, his senior, cour-
teously assumed that part, and gave, to, Rºssi the
more important rôle of Paolo, in which he was
already famous. The result was that Salvini played
Lancelotto with such astonishing force as to attract
marked attention to himself. The grateful city of
Florence presented him with a statuette of Dante.
Salvini visited the United States in 1874, and again
in 1881. His personation of Othello especially was
received with great enthusiasm. He played it at
times in connection with Edwin Booth’s rendering
of Iago in English, and both actors shared the
triumph of impressing an audience under such un-
usual difficulties. Salvini's last appearance in Eng-
land was in 1884. The elements of his success may
be summed up in his splendid physique, noble bear-
ing perfect elocution, dramatic power, and vehement
passion. When in 1868 he performed in Madrid in
ºn Morte Civile, the audience carried away With the
intense realism of the death enacted before them
rushed upon the stage to see if the actor Were yet
alive. Salvini received the honor of knighthood
from King Victor Emmanuel.
SAMARIA AND SAMARITANS. Samaria was
See WOl the capital of the Northern kingdom of
§,'9": o, ., Israel, but Prof. W. Robertson Smith's
XXI. p. 243 2 l- > 4- 4 ( ~~~ l- > 1 > * $º
ò.35; Å. statement that “while it stood, Samaria
Rep.). and not Jerusalem was the centre of
Hebrew life” needs modification. The
Northern kingdom was larger than the Southern in
territory and population, but its political innportance
and its position as to wealth and civilization varied
at different periods. With the accession of Jehu, it
became tributary to Assyria, while, so far as appears,
Judah maintained her independence for some gem-
erations longer. Place as high an estimate as we
may upon such kings of Israel as Omri, Ahab, and
Jeroboam II., they do not make more of a figure
than Asa, Jehoshaphat, Jehoash, and Uzziah. Ac-
cording to the Biblical accounts (and there are no
accounts at all to the contrary), Jerusalem steadily
maintained from the days of David a magnificence
to which her northern rival never attained. The
Northern kingdom had, indeed, distinguished proph-
ets, but so had the Southern, and the Northern
prophets paid a respect to the kings of the line of
David such as we have no account of their own soy-
ereigns receiving from the Southern prophets, e. g.,
2 Kings iii. 14, Hos. iii. 5, cf. Am. ix. 11. At
various points in the history, and notably in the
reigns of Jeroboam I., Baasha, Jeroboam II., and
Hoshea, we have intinuations that citizens in the
Northern kingdom regarded Jerusalem as the re-
ligious centre of the worship of Jehovah, while
there is no intimation that Samaria was ever so re-
garded even by her own citizens.
It is doubtless true that among the people and the
religious sect that, in later times, were called SA-
MARITANs, there was a stronger admixture of the
blood and of the traditions of the ancient Northern
kingdom than such Jewish writers as Josephus are
willing to admit ; but this fact contradicts instead of
sustaining certain conclusions drawn from it by
Prof. Smith in the article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA. That article teaches that the priestly
law in the Pentateuch “was first published by Ezra
as the law of the rebuilt temple of Zion ;” that the
completion of the Pentateuch was later than this ;
that the Samaritans, hitherto knowing nothing of
the Pentateuchal institutions, and at this time being
at bitter feud with the Jews, yet “ derived their
Pentateuch from the Jews after Ezra's reforms, i.e.,
after 444 B. C. ;” and yet that in 432 B. C. this
“foundation of a community of the Law in the Sa-
maritan country, among the mixed population whom
the Judaean leaders did not venture to receive into
fellowship,” “a community bitterly hostile to the
Jews, and yet constituted in obedience to Ezra's
Pentateuch,” was an accomplished fact. The au-
thor is conscious that this “must appear a very re-
markable exploit ;” that among these people who
did not accept the historical and prophetic books,
and who, therefore, could not, like the Jews, be
reasoned with by arguments drawn from those
books, “the acceptance of the Pentateuch implied
a tremendous breach of continuity ;” especially
since, sudden though it was, yet “having got the
Pentateuch, they followed it with a fidelity as loyal
and exact as the Jews themselves, save in the one
matter of the change of the sanctuary.” He is cor-
rect in this. On the basis adopted by him, the ex-
ploit is so remarkable as to be impossible ; the breach
of continuity is too tremendous to be credible. We
must look for some more satisfactory account of the
matter.
The statement that the breach between the Jews
and the Samaritans was made absolute by “the ex-
pulsion from Jerusalem in 432 B. C. of a man of
high priestly family who had married a daughter
SAMSON.
427
of Sanballat” is correct, save in two particulars :
the date should be in or after 432 B. C., and this
daughter of Sanballat may have been of a younger
generation ; there is just the same reason for de-
scribing her as a woman of the Sanballat family that
there is for calling her husband a man of high
priestly family. The statement that probably “this
priest is the Manasseh of Josephus, who carried the
Pentateuch to Shechem, and for whom the temple of
Gerizim was built” is correct, Save that the alleged
fact that Manasseh took the Pentateuch to Shechem
is not drawn from the Bible or from Josephus, but
is made to measure, to fill an otherwise vacant place
in the theory. But it does not follow that Josephus
testifies falsely when he says that the Manasseh in
question was the brother of Jaddua, the high priest,
and that the Gerizim temple was built in the time “he having judged Israel twenty years.”
SAMSON. As regards the name of this judge of
Israel, the statement in the BRITANNICA
sº that the Masoretic pronunciation Shim-
(p. # A. shon is more modern than that followed
Rep.). by the Septuagint, whence comes our
“Samson,” is not a well-settled fact, but
only a conjecture.
As regards his history, attention to the compara-
tive syntax of the closing verses of Jud. xv. and
xvi. will throw light on these accounts. Jud. xv.
20 begins with Waw consecutive, and may easily
be understood to mean that Samson judged Israel
twenty years, beginning with the battle at Lehi,
and as the sequel to that battle. The concluding
statement of Jud. xvi. 31, on the other hand, is a
circumstantial clause, retrospective in its effect :
With
of Alexander the Great, though it must be admitted this agrees everything in the narratives concerning
that the Sanballat whom Josephus makes to have Samson. In chaps. xiv., xv. we have stories in re-
been associated with Manasseh in the time of Alex- gard to his wild youth, and in xvi. two stories in
ander the Great cannot have been the Sanballat of regard to the latter months of his life, while the
Nehemiah. twenty years during which he was judge of Israel
It is not unlikely that the head of the Sanballat come between the two.
family may have had successors of the same name. That the twenty years were with him years of
The expulsion of the priest who married into that more serious purpose than those concerning which
family occurred, according to Neh. xiii. 28, after details are given, that in them he actually accom-
432 B. C. and before the death of Nehemiah. The plished the deliverance for Israel which it had been
date of Nehemiah's death is unknown, but as the promised he should accomplish, may fairly be in-
accounts make the impression that he was a very ferred from a certain characteristic difference be-
young man in 445 B. C., he would not be extraordi- tween the two parts of the narrative.
marily long-lived if he lived long enough to witness
the marriage of a youth who was still living, in a
vigorous old age, when Alexander captured Tyre,
B. C. 332.
This correction of the data of the article in the
BRITANNICA, while fatal to the general theory with
which that article is connected, might yet help out
that part of the theory directly used in the article,
for it allows a century instead of a decade for the
differentiation of the Samaritan religion. But even
with this extension of time, the eager acceptance of
the Pentateuch by the Samaritans cannot fairly be
explained, if the Pentateuch is of post-exilic Jewish
origin.
The Samaritan traditions are, of course, to the
effect that the Pentateuch came down to them
from ancient times, and while there is here a lack
of proof, there is nothing unreasonable or contrary
to any known fact in the supposition that the tradi-
tion is to this extent true. That “the Samaritan
character is an independent development of the old
Hebrew writing” is a fact, but that indicates noth-
ing as to “the time when they first got the Penta-.
teuch ;” at most, it only points to the time when
they and the Jews began to use different alphabets
in writing the Pentateuch.
As to the text of the Samaritan version, the as-
sertion that “the Samaritans had no opportunity of
revising their text by Judaean copies” is, of course,
gratuitous, though not important for any point now
under consideration. “That from the first their
text ran a separate course” is probable, and shows
that this text has some independent value as a
Source of text criticism ; but the assertion that “in
Judaea also there were important variations between
MSS. down to the time of the Septuagint and even
later” stands on a different footing. See SEPTUA-
GINT. In fine, there is much in the relations be-
tween the Jewish text, the Samaritan text, and the
Septuagint, which needs no other explanation than
the following statement of fact excerpted from the
article in the BRITANNICA : “Samaritans as well
as Jews were carried to Egypt by Ptolemy Lagi;
the rivalry of the two sects was continued in Alex:
andria (Jos. Ant. XII. i. 1), and Hellenized Samar-
itans wrote histories and epic poems in Greek with
exactly the same patriotic mendacity which charac-
terizes Jewish Hellenism.” (W. J. B.)
In his youth,
before he was judge, in the part of his career cov-
ered by xiv.–XV., the Philistines are represented as
lords of Israel, coming up into the country at their
pleasure ; in his last months the narrative in xvi.
represents them as keeping on their own side of the
frontier, and making no attempts on Samson except
as they can catch him across the border. The dif-
ference between the two situations is wide, and is
doubtless to be regarded as due to the ability of
Samson the judge. It was after these years of good
service that he allowed himself to relapse into fol-
lies like those of his youth.
With this view of the case there is no reason for
counting Jud. xv. 20, and xvi. 31, last cl., as mere
“ editorial notes which belong to the chronological
scheme of the book of Judges;” it is at least equally
appropriate to regard them as part of the narra-
tive itself. There is no contradiction between these
Verses which call him judge and the rest of the nar-
rative. The representing of him “as a popular
hero of vast strength and sarcastic humorº is not
inconsistent with his being also judge and “the de-
liverer of Israel.” No one who calls to mind how
mixed are the motives from which men usually act
has a right to say that the narrative represents Sam-
son as “inspired by no serious religious or patriotic
purpose,” and acting “only from personal motives
of revenge ;” if he was like other men, he is likely
to have been under the influence of both sets of no-
tives, Doubtless, however, the serious aspects of
his character are less fully brought out than they
would have been had the narrator given us fuller
accounts of what he did as judge.
The most common traditional opinions make Sam-
Son a Contemporary of Eli. The author of the ar-
ticle in the BRITANNICA is in accord with this when
he says that the narrator “conceives of his life as
a sort of prelude to the work of Saul (xiii. 5). But
this author rightly notices also that the affiliations
of the narrative are decidedly with the times of
Gideon, and that is equivalent to saying they are
not with the times of Eli. We have seen that Sam-
Son is represented to have accomplished the deliver-
ance promised through him, and this can hardly be
regonciled with the idea of his living in the times of
Eli. As he is said to have been judge of Israel, it
is a Somewhat violent device to limit hisjudgeship to
| Some narrow locality, as those who defend the tra-
,428
SAMUEL.
ditional view are obliged to do. On the whole it is
more in accord with the evidence to regard the Phil-
istine oppression, with which he was concerned, as
that mentioned in Jud. x. 7, distinguishing it, on
the one hand, from the earlier oppression of Jud.
iii. 31 and x. 11, and, on the other, from the later
oppressions of the times of Eli and Saul. See Is-
RAEL and SAMUEL. On this view the exploits of
Samson, recorded in Jud. Niv.–XV., occurred while
Jair the Gileadite was judge, a generation later
than Gideon, and Samson’s aduministration was
followed by the eighteen years of oppression by the
Ammonites.
As to the conjecture “that originally his Nazi-
rite vow was conceived simply as a vow of re-
venge,” it should be noticed that the Nazirite
obligation, in Samson's case, is not said to have
been of the nature of a vow taken by him, but of
the nature of a command laid upon him. On the
difference between the Nazirite for life and the
Nazirite by vow, see WOWs and OATHS.
(W. J. B.)
SAMUEL. Doubtless the genealogies in 1
Chronicles make this enminent judge of
sº ess Israel a Levite, not, as the BRITAN-
(p. § A. NICA states, “because a post-exile fam-
Rep.). ily of singers traced their stock from
him,” though that may have been the
case, but simply because he was a Levite. The
statement that in 1 Samuel “ the story certainly
implies that it was not by birth but only by his
mother’s vow that he was dedicated to the Service
of the sanctuary” needs modification. It may have
been both by birth and by his mother’s vow ; the
latter does not exclude the former, but rather pre-
supposes it. His mother would not have made
the vow unless she knew that he was by birth eligi-
ble to the service. On the supposition that only
Levites were then eligible, the fact of her, making
the vow shows that the family was Levitical. That
such was the case is borne out by all the evidence
there is. There is nothing in the recorded history
to prove that “at that early date the priesthood WaS
by no means confined to the Levites,” but much to
prove the contrary. . . . .
The English Palestinian survey maps, are doubt-
less correct in locating Arimathaea, that is the
Bamathaim-Zophim of 1 Sam. i. 1, in the Ephra-
thite country, near Bethlehem-Judah. The author
of the article on SAMUEL in the ENCYCLOPAEI) (A
BRITANNICA is also correct in assuming, that the
itamah of Samuel is the same with Ramathaim. It
fºllows that the district of Zuph (the Zophim of the
name Ramathaim-Zophim) was not of “the tribe of
Ephraim,” but of Judah, south of Benjamin, where
it is correctly located, 1 Sam. ix. 5; X. 2, the loca-
tion of the grave of Rachel being stated here as in
Gen. xxxv. 19, 20, not “on the frontier between
Ephraim and Benjamin,” but south of Benjamin,
near Bethlehem-Ephratah. The altering of the
Hebrew text of 1 Sam. i. 1, either by dropping the
word Ephrathite, or by changing it to Ephraimite,
is needless and against the facts. There is no con-
tradiction in saying that Elkanah was at once a Le:
vite, an Ephrathite, and of the mountain country of
Ephraim ; and the account says that he was all three.
In regard to the work of Samuel as judge and
prophet, see the following article and also ISRAEL
and PROPHETs in this Encyclopædia. -
SAMUEL, Books of. The statement made in
the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA that these books
have been “freely handled by copyists down to a
comparatively late date, as the variations between
the iHebrew text and the Septuagint show,” ought
not to be accepted without verification, and it is a
statement which it would be difficult really to verify.
See SEPTUAGINT.
and still are, for certain purposes, counted as
one book, and that the same thing is true of the two
books of Kings, is indisputable ; that for other pur-
poses they are now counted as two books each, and
have been so counted as far back as we can find in-
formation on the subject, is equally indisputable,
though this fact is often ignored. There is no
ground for arguing as if at some time the books of
Samuel have been “divided from?” those of Kings,
or 1 Samuel divided from 2 Samuel.
That the books of Kings, though they continue the
history from about the point where the books of
Samuel leave it, are yet written from a different
point of view, and constitute an entirely separate
piece of composition, has been briefly shown in the
article on KINGS. The literary affiliation that exists
between the earlier chapters of 1 Kings and chap-
ters, ix.-XX. of 2 Samuel does not disprove this,
for it may be accounted for by the fact that the
author of Kings used materials from the same
Sources whence came these chapters of Samuel.
The books of Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, as they
stand in the versions (in regard to the place of Ruth,
See article on RUTH), form a continuous and unique
work, whose analysis, within certain limits, is
marked on the face of its contents. First come
certain prefatory statements, of a rather miscella-
neous character, Jud. i.-ii. 5. Second, we have a
compacted history, Jud. ii. 6–xiii. 1, which begins
by repeating several of the last verses of Joshua,
then states the generic process of the history of the
times of the judges, and then narrates the events up
to the last year of Eli, the account which is begun
in Jud. xiii. 1, being directly continued in 1 Sam. iv.
1b. seq. (For the chronology, see ISRAEL.) This
section has full chronological data. Third, we have
five stories, constructed on a common model, each
complete in itself, and differing in literary character
from the narratives of public history that precede
and follow : the story of Samson, Jud. xiii. 2–Xvi.,
the story of the capture of Laish by the Danites,
xvii.-xviii., the story of the civil war with Benja-
min, xix,-xxi., the story of Ruth, and the story of
the birth and training of Samuel, 1 Sam. i.-iv. 1a.
The five follow one another with no comment or in-
terval. There is a sixth story of the same sort, the
story of Saul and the asses, 1 Sam. ix.-x. 16. Each
of the six begins with a certain formula, introduc-
ing the characters of the story, and this formula oc-
curs nowhere else in this part of the Bible. Each
of the six stories is complete in itself. Any one of
them, or any number of them, or all of them might
be removed without leaving any gap in the main
narrative. This has actually been done with the
story of Ruth, and might equally well be done with
the others. The incidents recorded in the stories
are omitted in the connected narratives that pre-
cede and follow. The stories themselves have
chronological numbers only occasionally. The first
three are grouped with the others at the cost of be-
ing removed from their proper chronological con-
nection. Fourth, beginning with 1 Sam. iv. 1b,
and omitting the story, ix.-x. 16, we have a series
of narratives of the public history from the fortieth
year of Eli (Jud. xiii. 1; 1 Sam. iv. 18), through the
reign of David. For the reign of David these nar-
ratives are dated, 2 Sam. V. 4–5; ii. 10–11 ; xiii. 23,
38; xiv. 28; xv. 7 ; for the earlier period, the dates
are incomplete, 1 Sam. vii. 2; xiii. 1; xxvii. 7.
The narratives are arranged mainly in the order
in which the events occurred, but, according to 1
Chron. xiii. 5, the events narrated in 2 Sam. vi.-vii.
belong after those narrated in viii. and X. —xii., and
although this testimony has commonly been ignored
by scholars of all schools, we may yet, by accepting
it, find a continuity in the history of David such as
will otherwise be sought in vain. Further, viii. is
That the two books of Samuel anciently were i a sequel to V., Summarizing the events of David's
SAMUEL. 429
<)
4s.
conquests, and x. explanation of 1 Sam. xiii. 1, is not that “one of the
detailing certain numbers has been left blank and the other has been
specific events. And fifth, we have the six appen- falsely filled up by a mere error of the text,” but
dices found in 2 Sam. XXi.-xxiv. that we have here an earlier use of the phrase “in
As to the order in which these parts were written, his reigning” than that which prevails in the later
it is natural to suppose that the prefatory sections writings. Later, the phrase is restricted to the
in jud. i., ii. 5, and the appendices, 2 Sam. xxi.- meaning when he began to reign,” but here, as
xxiv., were added after the rest of the book had the King James’ translators correctly held, it means
reign, up to the completion of his
—xii. is a different sequel to V.,
been put together, though some parts of them may
have been actually written earlier. There is no
ground for the statement that “the appendix, 2
Šam. xxi.—xxiv., must have been added after the
books of Kings had been separated from the context
to which 1 Kings i., ii. originally belonged,” for
there is no proof that these books ever existed
otherwise than separate, and consequently no proof
that any separation was ever made. A perfectly
natural account of the phenomena is that the ap-
pendices were added when the earlier historical
series was collected, and that later, the compiler of
Kings, when he entered upon his work, used an
early narrative similar to those used by the compiler
of Samuel. Two of the appendices, namely, 2 Sam.
xxii. and xxiii. 1–7, are explicitly attributed to
David, in the context, and there is no reason for
minimizing this testimony into a mere expression
of a late opinion on the subject.
It is probable that the narratives of David's reign
and the continuous history in Jud. ii. 6–xiii. 1,
with perhaps the continuation of that history in 1
Sam. iv. 1b-vii., the sections where the chronologi-
cal data are full, were written later than the stories,
and later than the narratives of the times of Samuel
and Saul, where such data are lacking.
The account of the books of Samuel in the ENCY-
CLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA is largely made up of an
attempt to discredit those sections of the books
which cite from the Pentateuch, or allude to it; it
represents these to be the work of a later narrator
or redactor, and to be inconsistent with what are
assumed to be the older and more trustworthy parts
of the books. Largely, though not entirely, these
alleged later sections correspond with the parts of
the book that seem to be latest, by the analysis just
given. But there is nothing to indicate that these
later parts are very much later than the other parts,
and there are no contradictions between them.
That “these two books, together with Judges, are
made up of a series of extracts and abstracts from
various sources,” is partly true, as any one can see
by reading the books with this question in mind.
That they “ have been worked over from time to
time by successive editors” is a different proposi-
tion, and one which, in the nature of things, is
incapable of proof. Given the original documents
and a single editor, and the phenomena are as well
accounted for as by any hypothesis of additional
editors.
That “the main redaction of Judges and Kings
has plainly been made under the influence of the
ideas of the book of Deuteronomy,” and that “the
Deuteronomistic hand” is clearly recognizable in
the books of Samuel is true, and it is therefore clear
that Deuteronomy antedates all these books; but we
need not infer the late date of Judges and Samuel
in order to account for these facts; they are better
accounted for by inferring the early date of Deu-
teronomy.
Since the song of Hannah, 1 Sam. ii. 1–10, and
the prophecy, ii. 27–36, are incorporated into the
story that occupies i.-iv; 1a, and not merely into the
Whole book of Samuel, the supposition that they are
later insertions by some redactor of the book is less
likely than that they are original materials, used by
the writer of the story. - *
On the view that the narratives of the times of
Saul were written earlier than those of the times of
David and of the earlier judges, the most natural
that Saul was one year old in his new position as
king, and that, at the beginning of his second year,
he made the arrangements described in the next
verse. The statement that “the similar note in
2 Sam. ii. 10, seems also to have been filled up at
andºm ; it contradicts and disturbs the context,”
is not well considered. There is here no contradic-
tion with the context, but simply a presentation of
the fact that although it was seven and a half year:
after Saul’s death before David became king of all
Israel, only two years of that time were occupied by
the reign of Ishbosheth.
The assertion that “chapter vii. with . . . . its ac-
count of a victory at Ebenezer . . . . which deliv-
ered Israel from the Philistines all the days of Samuel,
is inconsistent with the position of the Philistine
power at the accession of Saul” is based on a care-
less idea, very commonly held, of the reign of Saul.
This particular careless idea will be banished from
the mind of any one who will take the trouble to ob-
serve that, if this account is in any sense historical,
1 Sam. xiii. 1, 2, must be regarded as a paragraph
by itself in the history, the event mentioned in it
being separated by an interval of a good many years
from the events narrated in the following verses.
In proof of this, notice that the acgounts certainly
make the impression that Saul, at his accession, was
so young as to be immature ; this being the case,
the crown prince, Jonathan, was a little child when
the arrangements of xiii. 2, were made. Saul placed
one-third of his guard in charge of his home and his
young heir, and with the other two-thirds estab-
lished a military camp near by ; but when the
events of verse 3 take place Jonathan has become a
Warrior grown. It follows that the first recorded
trace of Philistine invasion in the times of Saul was
not at the beginning of his reign, but many years
afterward. That Samuel's administration left the
Country with large resources, and free to concentrate
them, appears from the numbers who gathered at
Saul’s first call for troops, 1 Sam. xi. 8.
The narrowness of the circuit of the four cities, 1
Sam. vii. 16, 17 (the circuit was not narrow if the
Mizpah in it was the Mizpah east of Jordan), does
not imply that, Samuel’s position was correspond-
ingly narrow ; it shows rather that his going from
one city to another may have had some other object
than that of bringing his court locally near to those
Who had business with it ; the fact remains that he
is said to have been judge of Israel, and not of any
one region merely.
The great instance of alleged inconsistency in the
Statements of the books of Samuel is that of their
accounts of David and Goliath. In regard to this
See article DAVID. The other alleged unhistorical
elements in these books are no more difficult to deal
With than those which have been thus considered.
The article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
dates the books of Judges and Samuel, in their pre-
sent shape, as later than the reform of King Josiah.
Probably a majority opinion of living scholars would
assign them to a date two or three centuries earlier
than this, but later than the division of the kingdom
under Rehoboam. The Jewish traditions say that
the prophet Samuel wrote these books, and Gad
and Nathan completed them. If this be understood
to mean that Samuel personally wrote Judges and
Ruth and the parts of Samuel that record events
Preceding his death, it is subject to grave objections.
But if it be understood to mean that Samuel gave
430
SAN ANTONIO SAN FRANCISCO.
the literary impulse that led to the production of
the books, himself writing some of the stories and
narratives ; and that all the parts were written and
collected before the death of Nathan, and by these
three prophets, or under their influence, it is an
Opinion that cannot be successfully overthrown by
evidence.
Decidedly in favor of this opinion is the testimony
of 1 Chronicles, both in its use of the books of Samuel,
1 Chron. X. —xxi., and in its description of the
sources of the history, xxix. 29. Note that for the
history of David, Nathan is associated with Samuel
and Gad, while for the history of Solomon, 2 Chron.
ix. 29, he is associated with two later prophets.
The likeness between parts of Samuel and the first
chapter of Kings naturally connects itself with these
two references to Nathan.
The principal argument brought against this view
is the alleged existence in these books of allusions to
events later than the reign of Solomon, but if any
one will carefully examine the instances adduced,
he will find them insufficient. The very strongest
group of these instances is made up of the places
where Judah is mentioned as distinct from Israel;
but there is not one of these places where it is neces-
sary to understand that the reference is to the di-
vided kingdom, after the death of Solomon, and in
most of the places it would be unnatural to under-
stand this. The most extreme instance is in 1 Sam.
xxvii. 6: “Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of
Judah unto this day,” and this might apply to Da-
vid and Solomon as well as to the later kings. They
held Ziklag by a peculiar title, not in virtue of their
being kings of all Israel but in virtue of their being
kings of Judah: There are few instances, or none
where it would be necessary to resort to the hypothe-
šis of a gloss in order to defend the view that these
books were completed within the lifetime of Nathan.
On the contrary, the absence of elements clearly
later than Nathan’s time is sufficiently marked to
be a reason of positive weight in favor of this theory
of the early origin of this group of books.
Many assertions to the contrary notwithstanding,
the Biblical accounts certainly represent the times
of Samuel, Gad, and Nathan to have been times of
literary activity and times of historical research,
that is to say times in which such a work as this
might very naturally be produced ; 1 Sam, X. 25 ;
xxi. 13 ; ii. 1–10 ; 2 Sam. xi. 14, 15 ; XXii.; xxiii. 1–7 ;
1 Chron. xxvii. 24; xxiii. 27 ; 2 Chron. ii. 11, etc.,
and 2 Sam. xi. 20, 21 ; cf. Jud. ix. 53 ; 2 Sam. vii.
6, 8–11; viii. 16, 17; 1 Sam. ii. 27, 28 ; iv. 8 ; xii.
6–11, and many other passages.
Literature. For general use, the best English Commen-
tary on Samuel is perhaps that in the Cambridge Bible for
Schools series. That by Dr. R. Payne Smith, dean of Can-
terbury, in the Pulpit Commentary, is one of the best works
in that series. The two volumes by Dr. W. G. Blaikie, in
the Expositor’s Bible (New York, 1888), are attracting at-
tention. The work of Prof. August Klostermann on
Samuel and Kings, in Kurtzgefasster Kommentar, edited by
Strack and Zöckler (Nördlingen, 1887), is admirable. The
books of Samuel are treated in the inductive Bible studies
in the Old Testament Student, Sept. and Oct. 1887. Certain
topics in the books are handled in Dr. R. S. Green's Jowa-
than and Absalom (Phila. 1887). (W. J. B.)
SAN ANTONIO, the county seat of Bexar Co.,
Texas, is on the San Antonio River, 216 miles W.
from Houston, on the Southern Pacific, and two
other railroads. It has a county court-house, U. S.
government building, opera-house, 6 hotels, 5
national banks, 6 other banks, 4 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers, a large cathedral, 20 churches, and seve-
ral schools. The city is lighted with gas, and has a
large park. Its property is valued at $16,300,000.
It dates from 1673, and when a mission was founded
on the opposite side of the river. The chapel after-
wards became Fort Alamo, and was the scene of a
massacre in the Texan war of independence. (See
ALAMO.) The city retains some picturesque features
indicating its Spanish origin, but is rapidly assum-
ing a modern American appearance. The present
inhabitants are chiefly of American, German, and
Spanish origin. Its population in 1880 was 20,550,
but it has greatly increased.
SANDERSON, JOHN (1783–1844), author, was
born at Carlisle, Pa., and studied law in Phila-
delphia, but was chiefly engaged in teaching. He
warmly defended the study of the ancient classics.
Of the Lives of the Sigmers of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence (9 vols.) he wrote two volumes, the rest
being prepared by his brother, J. M. Sanderson. A
later edition, revised by Robert T. Conrad, was
issued in 1865, and a centennial edition in 1876.
Sanderson in 1835 was obliged to go Europe for his
health, and wrote home some pleasant papers,
which were gathered as Sketches of Paris (1838).
Similar sketches of England were contributed to the
JKnickerbocker Magazine. After his return he was
professor of Greek and Latin in the Philadelphia
High School till his death, April 5, 1844.
SANDUSKY, a city and county seat of Erie co.,
Ohio, is on the south shore of Sandusky Bay 5 miles
from Lake Erie, and 56 miles W. of Cleveland. It
is in 41° 27' N. lat., and 82° 45' W. long. It is the
Lake terminus of the Baltimore and Ohio, the In-
diana, Bloomington, and Western, and the Lake
Erie and Western Railroads, and is on the Lake
Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad. The har-
bor is the best on Lake Erie, and admits to wharf
the largest vessels used in lake commerce. In the
season there are regular daily lines of steamers to
Detroit and other lake ports. The average entries
for the season, in recent years, have been coastwise,
1800 ; foreign, 375 ; clearances, coastwise, 1825;
foreign, 300; tonnage, 380,000. The site of the city
rises gradually from the shore, giving a beautiful
•view of the bay. It is on a limestone bed, which
furnishes good material for building. It has a court-
house, custom-house, 3 national banks, 22 churches,
a public library, a high school, and 5 other school
buildings, 3 daily and 6 weekly newspapers, one of
these being German. It has several machine shops,
car-works, manufactures of cutlery, hardware,
wheels and wood-work. In the last it exceeds any
other American city. It is the largest fresh-water
fish market in the world, shipping 12,000 tons of
fish annually. There is also large trade in lime, lime-
stone, lumber, salt, coal, ice, grain, and fruits.
About 1,200,000 gallons of native wine are shipped
here annually. Erie county produces large crops
of wheat, Indian corn, potatoes, and fruits. There
are several noted summer resorts in the vicinity
of Sandusky, such as Put-in-Bay, Lakeside, and
Kelley's Island, and the city itself is so used. The
population in 1880 was 15,838.
SAN FRANCISCO, the chief city of California,
“Y - is on the end of a peninsula between the
Rºose Pacific Ocean and the Bay of San Fran-
(p. 37'ſ Am. Cisco. It is the chief seaport of the Pa-
Rep.). cific coast, having, about 50 steamers
running on regular lines to China, Japan,
Honolulu, Australia, and South America. There
are also numerous steamboats using the bay and its
affluents. The public buildings comprise the city
hall, commenced in 1871, and costing over $4,000,-
000, the U. S. Mint, custom-house and other gov-
ernment buildings, the merchants’ exchange, stock
exchange, which cost $900,000, house of correction,
Masonic temple, and several theatres and opera
houses. There are many stores and warehouses
solidly built, and six or more stories in height. The
industrial works comprise sugar refineries, woolen
mills, flour mills, glass works, canneries, wire
works, iron-ship works, and large establishments
for making heavy machinery. There are also man-
ufactories of clothing, shirts, shoes, and jewelry.
SANITARY COMMISSION. - 431
The city has an area of 42 square miles. The gas-
works, which belong to private companies, are val-
ued at $6,625,000, and have a capacity for 4,000,000
cubic feet daily. The fire department comprises 15
engines, 1 fire boat, 8 hose carts, 5 hook and ladder
trucks, and 325 men. The city has, however, suf-
fered severely from fire. The fire of May 4, 1851,
when the buildings of the city were chiefly of wood,
caused a loss of several millions of dollars. On Aug.
21, 1886, there was a conflagration, the loss in which
was estimated at $1,000,000. The street railroads
have about 35 miles used by horse cars and an al-
most equal amount on which cable cars are used.
For education the city appropriates nearly $900,000
annually. The total revenue is about $3,750,000,
and the yearly expenditure $3,555,000. The city
debt is $1,457,000, and the rate of taxation 1.57 per
cent. -
The population in 1880 was 233,859, including 20,-
000 Chinese. It is now estimated to exceed 320,-
000, and the Chinese number about 25,000. The
latter have six large Joss houses and many smaller
ones. Besides the large and enterprising journals
and periodicals in English, there are daily and
weekly papers in French, Italian, German, Spanish,
and Chinese.
SANITARY COMMISSION, the UNITED STATEs,
was created June 9, 1861, by an order of the secretary
of war; its board, appointed by that officer and the
United States Medical Bureau, consisted of H. W.
Bellows, D.D., Professors A. D. Bache and Wolcott
Gibbs, Drs. Jeffries Wyman, W. H. Van Buren, S.
G. Howe, and R. C. Wood, U. S. A., with two army
officers, G. W. Cullum and A. E. Shiras. This or-.
ganization had been preceded by several of local and
unofficial character, called forth by the intense inte-
rest felt by the people of the loyal States in the welfare
of those who had gone forth to represent them in the
field and to fight for the Union and human freedom.
April 15, 1861, President Lincoln issued his call for
75,000 men ; on that very day societies were formed
by the women of Bridgeport, Conn., and Charles-
town, Mass., to furnish aid and relief te the volun-
teer troops. Within a few days similar action was
taken at Lowell, Mass , and Cleveland, O. The
Women's Central Relief Associations of New York,
organized at the Cooper Union, April 29, at a meet-
ing called by ninety-one prominent ladies of
the city, became the chief source whence the
Sauitary Commission sprang. It presently sent
to Washington a committee, consisting of Drs.
Bellows, Van Buren, Harsen, and Harris, to
consult with the War Department and the Medi-
cal Bureau, and secure, if possible, the appointment
of a consumission such as had rendered eminent ser-
vices to the British army in the Crimean war. The
government, fearful of lay intermeddling and collis-
ion with its officers, refused to grant similar powers
without the consent of the Medical Bureau, which
could not be obtained, and the commission when
created had but a semi-official character, no author-
ity, and the privileges merely of visiting the troops,
consulting with the Bureau, and recommending san-
itary regulations and reforms to the War Depart-
ment. Not the active support of the government
and its officers, but the warm sympathy of the people
at home, enabled it to grow rapidly from feeble in-
fancy to vigorous life, and to render those noble
services which made its name blessed throughout
which was prevention rather than cure, were embar-
rassing. The first volunteers were very young, more
than half under twenty-four, and many mere boys.
Their parents, sisters, and friends had a vague but
strong feeling that they ought to be supplied with
comforts in the way of food and clothing, beyond
what the government provided ; and this, with min-
istration to the sick and wounded, was popularly
supposed, throughout the war, to be the main work
of the Commission ; but its leaders held far wider
views. Few things in modern history are more
creditable than their management of the vast inte-
rests doubtfully and grudgingly committed to their
care, combining as it does statesmanlike foresight,
careful prudence, and rigid integrity, with humane
and patriotic zeal. Its officers deserve an honorable
place in American remembrance. Dr. H. W. Bel-
lows, of New York, was president and the soul of the
organization ; A. D. Bache, LL.D., of Washing-
ton, vice-president ; G. T. Strong, of New York,
treasurer; Drs. Van Buren, Agnew, and Gibbs the
medical committee. The general secretaryship at
Washington was held most efficiently by F. L. Olm-
sted, 1861–3, Dr. J. F. Jenkins, 1863–5, and J. S.
Blatchford, 1865. Prof. J. S. Newberry, as Western
secretary at Louisville, was equally emergetic ; these
gentlemen, in charge of the two great depots of sup-
plies and distribution, ably discharged a heavy re-
sponsibility. To the original board were soon added,
besides those just named, Dr. Elisha Harris, Bishop
T. M. Clark, of Rhode Island, Horace Binney, of Phil-
adelphia, and several others. The board held twenty-
three lengthened sessions at Washington, and during
the intervals a standing committee, composed of Drs.
Bellows, Van Buren, Gibbs, and Agnew, with Mr.
Strong, and afterward C. J. Stillé, met almost every
day in New York. None of these officers received
pay, except those who gave their whole time to the
work ; but it was soon found better and eheaper to
employ salaried persons in the field, thus establish-
ing a system of accountability, discipline, and pro-
motion ; volunteer help was then acsepted only as
supplemental in special cases. Method and subordi-
nation were necessary to success, and won the tardy
respect of the medical and military officers of the
government.
The finances of the Commission were for over a
year very limited, money coming in much less freely
than goods. June 21, 1861, aid was asked from the
people and from the life insurance companies. By
Sept. 1 only $13,630 had been received, and by
Mar. 28, 1862, but $53,720. Under these dis-
couraging circumstances, only the faith and zeal
of its leaders prevented its dissolution. By Sept.
10, 1862, the amount had reached $158,501, chiefly
from New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, and the
embarrassments were great. But within the next
twenty-three days California had sent two contribu-
tions of $100,000 each. This was the beginning of
a new era; the services of the Commission began to
be appreciated, and money to flow in more freely.
Considerable sums came from Buenos Ayres, the
Sandwich Islands, and branches in London and
Paris. The famous “Sanitary Fairs,” held early in
1864, reached the popular purse ; that of New York
yielded $1,184,487; Philadelphia, $1,035,39S : Brook-
lyn, $305.513, while smaller amounts came from
lbany, Boston, and other cities. Of all the con-
tributions to Jan, 1, 1866, that of California was the
the land.
It had many difficulties to contend with and over-
come. The natural jealousy and suspicion of the
surgeons and other officers proved beneficial, as af.
fording the stimulus of criticism, and holding the
employés of the Commission to a strict account.
The lack of any general appreciation of the dangers
of camp diseases, and the inability of the public mind
to enter into the main object of the Commission,
gº §2. 3,977; New York followed With
$229,328 ; Massachusetts With nearly $122,000 ; Ne-
Vada with $107,642, and Oregon with $79,406. The
total of cash receipts was $4,924,480 : and at least
$2,000,000 more, was raised and expended by
the branches. The estimated value of goods was
$15,000,000. *-
These gifts—provisions, drinkables, dry goods of
all sorts—came from every part of the land ; from
432
SANITARY COMMISSION.
cities, villages, and farms, often bearing the marks
of loving self-denial. The cost of their transporta-
tion was diminished full two-thirds by the generosity
of railroad and express companies, whose services
(as also those of the telegraph lines) were in most
cases gratuitous. Depots of supplies were estab-
lished Sept. 5, 1861, at Boston, New York, Phila-
delphia, Washington, Cincinnati, and Wheeling ;
central aid associations had previously been formed
also at Columbus, Cleveland, Chicago, and else-
where in the West. The boxes sent to these places
were opened, their contents sorted, recorded, and
sent where they were needed. The Commission
received nothing meant for any particular person or
place, and recognized no distinctions of State or
regiment, but aimed to minister to all soldiers of
the Union alike. The government was unable to
provide adequately for the sick and wounded ; the
efforts of affection or charity in the North, whether
individual or local, to send help to the camps and
battle-fields were perforce in large measure confused
and futile ; the Commission, with its carefully de-
vised system, its admirable administration, and its
army of earnest and disciplined employés, stepped
in as an intermediary, and distributed the loving
bounty of those at home to their defenders through-
out the South.
The relief bestowed was of two classes, general
and special. An inspector and staff of agents, with
four-horse wagons or steamboats loaded with sup-
plies, were usually attached to each army corps and
to each expeditionary force. The inspector (always
a physician) visited the hospitals, was in frequent
conference with the surgeons, and on their demand
furnished from his stores food, clothing, wines,
medicines, etc. So far as was possible, battles were
anticipated and provided for ; at 600 out of 700
during the war, the agents and stores of the Com-
mission were present. After Antietam, e. g., it
cared for near 10,000 wounded during four days, in
which no government supplies were accessible. An
auxiliary relief corps, some 150 members, was or:
ganized in May, 1864, to minister to the wounded
left in hospitals when the army continued its march.
Feeding-stations on the route of the ambulances
was part of its work. Among those who fell in this
dangerous service were the wife of Gen. Barlow
and Prof. Hadley, of Union Theological Seminary in
New York. *
The Special Relief Service was intended mainly
for the sick of new regiments, and for Soldiers dis-
charged or dismissed from hospitals; the latter were
aided on their way home, protected from sharpers
and from their own weaknesses, and their arrears
of pay collected for them. . Forty homes and lodges
were established and sustained throughout the land,
from Boston to Brownsville, Texas. Over one mil-
lion nights’ lodgings, and nearly five million meals,
were thus supplied, and $2,500,000 of pay obtained.
A pension bureau and war claim agency was
founded, which after the war took charge of some
57,000 claims, and collected $7,500,000 gratuitously.
A convalescent camp near Alexandria, Va., long
directed by Miss Bradley, rendered various services
to very many. The special relief service was orga-
nized and controlled by Rev. F. N. ISnapp.
But these labors, however useful to the soldiers,
and however effective with the popular mind, were
not the only work of the Commission, nor, in the
view of its leaders, the most important part thereof.
They never lost sight of the ideas conveyed by their
title. “Sanitary.” Had they loudly proclaimed the
scientific and far-reaching nature of their views,
and confined themselves to the effort to prevent
rather than to assuage suffering, they would have
lacked popular sympathy and support. Brain bore
as large à part in their work as heart and hand.
Nothing that they did received more praise than
the Hospital Directory, which aimed to keep and
follow up the record of the sick or wounded. A
central office at Washington was opened Nov. 27,
1862, and branches followed at Philadelphia, Louis-
ville, and New York. Agents took the names of
the wounded after every battle, and 233 general
hospitals sent frequent reports ; thus a list of over
600,000 was kept, with the latest facts known as to
each. The worst horror of war to those at home
was the frequent uncertainty as to the fate of rela-
tives or friends ; in such cases inquiries after the
missing were prosecuted, and the facts learned in
seven out of every ten cases. The archives of the
Commission, preserved in the Astor Library, include
a large row of folios of this Directory.
The Bureau of Vital Statistics, inaugurated by Sec-
retary Olmsted, and carried on by Dr. B. A. Gould,
did work of great scientific value and repute, em-
bodying inspections of some 870 regiments, and
tabulating statistics concerning “the effects of ap-
plied or neglected hygiene, of diet, of long marching
and heavy equipment, of tent and fixed hospitals;
the mortality of young recruits; the influence of
climate, drill, nationality, of previous occupations,
or state of education upon soldiers ; the height,
weight, strength, and force of the enlisted men,”
and other matters bearing upon life insurance,
anthropology, etc. This the president of the Com-
mission considered ‘‘ one of the most creditable and
faithful portions” of its work. Mr. Olmsted’s report
of the statistics of the battle of Bull Run, in the be-
ginning of these collections, was “the first scientific
attempt to generalize the causes of our disaster.”
In ways more immediately affecting the physical
welfare of the soldiers, the Commission by no means
confined itself to the supply of food and clothing.
A corps of sixty well-known medical men was or-
ganized under Dr. H. G. Clark, of Boston, to visit
and inspect the general hospitals throughout the land,
and report to the medical committee. These reports
by May, 1863, covered 2500 folio pages, and on their
basis suggestions were made to the surgeon-general
for improvements in the hospital system, which
thus reached a degree of excellence nowhere at-
tained before, and unhappily not kept up in the
|United States since the war. The Medical Bureau
also was closely watched from an early period, with
a view of weeding out ignorance and incompetency.
In this task much jealousy and opposition was
aroused, and the existence of the Commission was
for a time endangered ; but a reform was at length
accomplished, disorders and deficiencies in the main
removed, and a system of promotion for services and
merit substituted for that under the old rule by
mere seniority.
The inventions of the Commission were of great
benefit in assuaging suffering and saving life. The
pavilion hospitals, built from its models, and in-
tended to minimize the dangers of contagion and
pestilence, were widely adopted. Its hospital cars.
and steamboats aimed to lessen the horrors attending
the transportation of the sick and wounded by land
and water with merely the ordinary government
facilities. After the capture of Fort Donelson
several States attempted to transport their own
men, and yielded this service reluctantly to the
Commission, whose organization was more complete
and its facilities greater. Its steamers, provided
with surgeons, nurses, and all necessaries, carried
multitudes of sick and wounded men from the posts
adjacent to camp or battle-field to the nearest hos-
pitals. The hospital car, devised by Dr. E. Harris,
of New York, was hung on gutta-percha springs to
prevent jolting, and turned the stretchers on which
the wounded were borne into hanging beds; supplied
with comforts and attendance it did much to
diminish for the wounded the torments of travel by
the common modes of conveyance.
-
SANITARY SCIENCE. 433
fighting against scurvy, which attacked the tin basinº and cups, 2300 sponges, 1500 combs, 250
a. *; the Tennessee a the Cumberland in lbs. castile soap, 300. **. silk, º i. i.
išč, the Commission found a congenial field for its In this humane activity º ing jº. tici *d €62D.
beneficent energies. An appeal to the farmers of overlooked, every need * COIIl º ...; eq.,
the Northwest brought within a month Fº In the battles of the W illernº: () relief agents
bushels of vegetables, when the government had were busy with the wounded, and 200 tons of º:
been able to procure none. Hospital gardens were conveyed by two steamboats, tWO barges. and
jon established at Murfreesboro, Nashville, Chat- wagons. . In two months $515,000 *. and
tanooga, and Knoxville,Tenn., and at Newberne, expended for the army in Vºl. i. º i.
N. C.’; these proved of great value as producing resisted on the lower coast, and the #. º ne
a supply near the points where it was needed. troops before Charleston fortified. At Fort Wagner
Grantºs forces at Vicksburg received vast quantities the troops saluted the Sanitary flag, in recognition
of supplies from Louisville by the Zeal of Drs. New- of benefits derived from supplies of ice and anti-sºor;
berry and Warriner, and the health of the troops, butics. At Olustee, Fla., the #. .
was largely improved thereby. After the fall of made no adequate provision Of medical supp les, .
vicksburg various branches of the Commission in the Commission filled the gap. At Newberne an
the Northwest were active in sending boat-loads of Beaufort all the agents except Dr. Page, the in-
stores. The hospitals along the Mississippi Were spectºr, Were attacked by yellow fever, but he and
supplied from Cairo by the steamer Dunleith. While Dr. Hand, the medical director, battled successfully
the army was blockaded at Chattanooga, the Confed- with the pestilence. Drs. Crane and Blake rendered
erates took seventeen wagons of the Sanitary train in great services at N ew Orleans, and distributed far
the Sequatchie Valley; but seven succeeded in reach: and wide the supplies sent down the river by Dr.
ing their destination, and the loads of these, and of Newberry. Messrs. Ingraham, and Root were
three which arrived later, furnished the chief supplies visitors in the hospitals at Nashville, through which
of the hospitals for some time. A depot was estab- 100,000 men passed in six months.
lished at Stevenson, Tenn., and a feeding-station on The agents of the Commission Were themselves
the route of the ambulances half-way between that exposed to the evils they sought to counteract OI’
point and Chattanooga. During the winter of 1863–4 mitigate, to the direct or indirect perils of war, to
the ordinary food of the troops brought on attacks of contagion, hardship, expºsure, and often to capture,
scurvy and chronic diarrhoea, which the Commission wounds, or death on the field of battle. Their faith-
combåted by means of its gardens and of contri- ful humanity and patriotic devotion, in ministering
butions from the North. In January, 1864, the depot | to the comfort, health, and life of the defenders Of
at Nashville sent out 3423 bushels of potatoes and the nation shall not be forgotten. By their means
157 of onions, 8742 gallons of sauer-kraut and 1969 thousands who might also have filled unknown
of pickles, with 13,662 lbs. of dried fruit, and other graves were restored to home and friends, and
articles. The dissemination of these anti-scorbutics multitudes enabled longer to serve their country in
did much to diminish illness and keep our forces up the field. In nothing does our Christian civilization
to their work. The vegetables distributed in seven contrast more happily, with the brutality and in-
months of 1864 reached an estimated value of over difference of former times than in its efforts to
$66,000. Burnside's men at Knoxville were like- mitigate the horrors and assuage the sufferings of
wise cared for. Sherman’s march to the sea was war; and of these noble endeavors none have been
anticipated with 3000 barrels of vegetables and more illustrious than those of the United States
quantities of condensed milk, stimulants, beef, Sanitary Commission.,
bandages, etc., and followed by 24, wagon-loads of . Its voluminous archives are preserved in the
stores. The 300 temporary hospitals, along the Astor Library, New York. Many of its reports
route were all visited by agents of the Commission, possess historical and scientific value. Its official
and 17,000 meals were given at feeding stations in §4.ºp º . (1866) º º: £º. J.
the rear. Stillé, .D., afterwards provost of the Universit
This sanitary work in the Western armies received of Pennsylvania, and more briefly by its tºº.
much more favor and aid from the military officers, Dr. Bellows, in Johnson's Cyclopædia. See also
high and low, than did the corresponding labors in Katharine P. Wormley's The Other Side of the War
the East. The army of the Potomac was better (1888), and Gen. P. R. De Trobriand’s Four Years
supplied, but the help of the Commission was wel- with the Army of the Potomac (18SS). For the work
come in frequent emergencies. After Fredericksburg of its kindred association, The U. S. Christian Com-
a relief station, opened at Acquia Creek, cared for mission, see that title. (F. M. B.)
600 men the first night. After Chancellorsville bºth SANITARY SCIENCE is a knowledge of the
the regular and the sanitary supplies were inter- laws for the preservation of health, and practical
cepted. Immense preparations were made for the hygiene is the art of so applying those laws as will
battle of Gettysburg, and great services rendered. best attain that end. This art has been practised
Competent agents, stationed at convenient points in from time immemorial : the ancients worshipped at
Maryland and Pennsylvania, were in constant com- the shrine of the goddess Hygeia, the alchemists
munication with those who accompanied the army sought for the “elixir of life,” Moses gave to the
on its march, and whose wagons were kept supplied Jews a hygienic code, and Hippocrates, the father
from Washington ; during the battle these were of medicine, summed up the knowledge of his day
filled and returned from Fredericksburg, and much in the following six articles: “Air, aliment, exer-
help given to the field hospitals. Two of the lead- cise and rest, sleep and wakefulness, repletion and
ing agents were caught by the enemy's cavalry, evacuation, the passions and affections of the
taken to Libby Prison, and there confined for some mind.” But in more modern times the study of
months : the Confederates rarely spared the Com- physiology and pathology opened new fields of re-
mission, though their wounded prisoners were cared search, and as knowledge was gained of the func-
for like Union soldiers. In the long list of articles |tions of the various organs of the human economy,
distributed during ten days after the battle, some the scientific investigation of the laws for the pre-
of the items are 11,000 lbs. of poultry and mutton, servation of health was made possible. In still
6430 lbs. of butter, 20,000 lbs. of ice, 12,900 loaves, later years chemistry and microscopy have greatly
8500 dozen eggs, 12,500 lbs, condensed milk, 3800 lbs. added to this knowledge, until now we have a more
beef-soup, 7000 lbs. farinaceous food, 6800 lbs. white thorough understanding, not only of the laws which
sugar, over 7500 drawers, over 10,000 shirts, nearly govern the life and health of the individual, but also
5000 pairs socks, 10,000 towels and napkins, 7000' of the invisible yet potent agencies which cause
434
SANITARY SCIENCE.
pathological changes resulting in wide-spread dis- and internal sanitary measures, recommending
ease and death. *
Scientific investigation into the means for preserv-
ing health in the United States is of quite recent
growth, although fragmentary laws for the preven-
tion of the introduction from foreign ports of con-
tagious and infectious diseases were early enacted
by the colonies. The colony of Massachusetts Bay,
in 1648, through the general court, passed quaran-
time laws “for the prevention of a disease (yellow
fever] so fatal in its character as was then prevailing
in the Barbadoes and other islands in the West In-
dies.” The province of South Carolina in 1698 en-
acted a law that “ All vessels are forbidden to pass
to the east of Sullivan’s Island one mile, without
permission of the governor, under penalty of being
fired on by the gunner and paying a fine. The pilot
is required to ascertain from the captain, before
passing that limit, if any contagious disorders are
on board, under penalty of £50.” Pennsylvania in
1699, Rhode Island in 1711, New Hampshire in
1714, and New York in 1755 enacted quarantine
laws to prevent the foreign importation of disease.
Similar laws were enacted by seaboard States or
municipalities after the Union was formed, and
stimulated by the great yellow fever epidemic of
1793–5 the question of governmental control of quar-
antine was largely discussed in the fourth Congress
(1795). The precedent set by the Congress of that
day has been followed (after similar discussions) ever
since, viz: The civil and military officers of the
government are only empowered to aid in the exe-
cution of the health and quarantine laws of the sev-
eral States. (Sec. 4792, Revised Statutes.) The
ravages of yellow fever in 1817, at New Orleans, led
the city and State authorities to enact very strin-
gent quarantine laws in that year, but the recur-
rence of the disease the year following resulted, be-
cause of their inadequacy, in a “repeal of the laws for
the prevention of the introduction of pestilential,
malignant, or infectious diseases,” directed the sale
of the lazaretto and all its property and invested the
governor with authority to establish quarantine at
his discretion. Time and again the quarantine laws
were re-enacted and repealed, until 1855 the present
law was established and the detention, fumigating,
and cleansing of vessels required. Since 1884 the
plan adopted for maritime sanitation has. been
greatly improved upon-machinery being substituted
for manual labor—and a steam tug is now used for
forcing sulphurous acid gas into every part of a ves-
sel's hold : this is followed by sprinkling and cleans:
ing the decks, etc., with a solution of bichloride of
mercury through hose connected with the steam en-
gine, so that the detention of vessels at New Or-
jeans may now be expressed in hours instead of
days. (See FUMIGATION.)
During the first half of the present century no
united effort was made in this country to prevent
the occurrence or spread of disease, although in-
dividuals here and there discussed the subject of
“preventive medicine,” and tried to obtain recog-
nition of the great principle that “prevention” Was
more scientific than “curing” disease. The question-
able efficacy of quarantine was being agitated abroad,
and the action of the first International Sanitary
Convention, held in Paris in 1850, where the chief.
feature of the convention was the abrogation of
useless quarantine restrictions and inculcating mu-
nicipal hygiene in their stead, had a great effect upon
the thoughtful minds of this country, Delegates
from France, England, Austria, Spain, the two
Sicilies, the Roman States, Greece, Russia, Por-
tugal, Šardinia, Tuscany, and Turkey were present
at this convention, their interest in which led to sub-
sequent international congresses. Sanitary reform
had also begun in England. The ancient fallacies
of quarantine (forty days’ detention) were
destruction of fomites and all sources of infection in
town or country, and the sanitary inspection of
habitations substituted. The result of these public
discussions of the inadequacy of quarantine restric-
tions alone, and the beneficial effects of sanitary
measures, led the American Medical Association
(instituted in 1847) to appoint a committee to in-
vestigate, the sanitary condition of large cities.
About this same time (1850) the legislature of Massa-
chusetts printed a Report of a General Plan for the
Promotion of Public and Personal Health, which had
been prepared by a committee appointed for that
purpose. This report was prepared with great care
by Samuel Shattuck, a layman, and was filled with
details relating to sanitary measures necessary for
the prevention of disease ; it also recommended the
establishment of a State Board of Health with pow-
ers to effect the reforms so fully set forth. That re-
port is bearing fruit after many years, and fore-
shadowed much that is now accepted as hygienic
truth. After the great yellow fever epidemic of
1853 the New Orleans Board of Health appointed a
Commission with special instructions:
1. To inquire into the origin and mode of transmission of
the late epidemic of yellow ſever.
2. To inquire into the subject of sewerage and common
drains, their adaptability to the situation of our city and
their influence on health.
“3. To inquire into the subject of quarantine, its uses
and applicability here, and its influence in protecting the
city from epidemic and contagious maladies, and,
“4. To make a thorough examination into the sanitary
condition of the city, into all causes influencing it in pres-
ent and previous years, and to suggest the requisite sani-
tary measures to remove or prevent them, and to the causes
of yellow fever in ports and other localities having inter-
communication with New Orleans.”
Circulars were issued by the commission to all
parts of the country where yellow fever occurs, and
the committee sat as a “court of inquiry” for three
months gathering information far and wide, and
stating that “prevention of an epidemic was the
basis of the work to be done.” The conclusions ar-
rived at by the commission were that a combination
of terrene and meteorological conditions was abso-
lutely essential for the development of an epidemic,
(heat and moisture combined with filth,) that polic-
ing is the remedy, that “sanitary reform is the tal-
isman” and “hygiene the science of life,” and re-
commended a thorough sanitary survey of the city,
including every house, lot, and back-yard ; every
cause of disease should be abated, vaccination looked
after, and a record of inspection kept of every
square in the city, and finally the commission pre-
pared an ordinance for establishing a health depart-
ment for New Orleans “with ample powers to effect
the reform suggested.” \
The first “Quarantine (sanitary) Congress” in the
United States was held in Philadelphia May 13,
1857, called together by the Board of Health of Phil-
adelphia, for the purpose of establishing a uniform
system of quarantine in the maritime cities. Its
members were not confined to the medical profes-
sion ; commercial and municipal departments were
invited and no less than 26 different authorities from
nine Atlantic States were represented by 73 dele-
gates; a three days’ session was held in which the
question of making uniform the quarantine regula-
tions of the several States was fully discussed and 23
propositions were laid down in regard to quarantine.
A permanent organization was effected and the
congress adjourned to meet in Baltimore, April 29,
1858. The name of the congress was changed to
“The Quarantine and Sanitary Convention.”
Twelve States represented by 86 delegates were
present at the second meeting. Two committees
were appointed—one on “external hygiene or quar-
attacked, antine” and the other on the “sanitary arrange-
SANITARY SCIENCE. 435
ment of cities.” Third meeting of the convention many of the brightest minds in sanitary work—
was held in New York, April 27–30, 1859, at which | doctors; lawyers, editors, executive officers of cities
the report of the committees appointed at the sec- and towns, sanitary engineers, sanitary plumbers,
ond meeting was discussed. The fourth meeting of and house-builders, etc. Its reports and papers are
the convention was held in Boston, June 14–16, 1860, teeming with information of the most valuable and
at which sanitary science, “State medicine,” quar- varied character, and its annual meetings continue,
antine and the management of epidemics, vaccina- as from the first, to stimulate the formation Of
tion, vital registration, etc., were discussed, and boards of health, sanitary associations, and publica-
cleanliness of cities declared to be more important tions diffusing useful knowledge throughout the
than quarantines. The efficacy of Steam as a puri- | country. One of its members, Mr. Henry Lomb,
fier and preventive was here first suggested. The of Rochester, New York, has for several years past
next meeting was appointed for May, 1861, at Cin- given prizes aggregating some $1500 for the best
cinnati, but the civil war intervening caused it to be essays upon sanitary subjects, such as “Healthy
abandoned. In May, 1861, three associations of Homes and Foods for the Working Classes,” “The
New York (the Woman’s Central Association for Sanitary conditions and necessities of school-houses
the relief of the sick and wounded of the army, the and school life,” “The preventable causes of dis-
Advisory Committee of the Board of Physicians and ease, injury, and death in American manufactories
Surgeons of the hospital of New York, and the New ºld Workshops, and the best means and appliances
York Medical Association for furnishing, hospital for preventing and avoiding them,” etc.
supplies in aid of the army) proposed to the secre- . In 1875 the disinfection of houses and premises
tary of war the “Sanitary Commission” with the by means of carbolic acid spray or steam atomizer,
“object of bringing to bear upon the health, comfort and of streets by cart-tank and sprinkler, was pract
and morale of our troops the fullest and ripest teach- tised in New Orleans. Ship’s holds were disinfected
ings of sanitary Science,” to inquire into the sub- by means of burning brimstone and a blower
ject of diet, cooking, cooks, tents, company grounds, (similar to a blast furnace) forcing the sulphurous
transports, and everything pertaining to outfits, gas into every part of the vessel. At New York City
etc.; cleanliness, precautions against dampness, the sanitary inspection and disinfection of vessels
cold, heat, malaria, infections, crude or ill cooked and care of the sick arriving in them had long been
food, etc.”. The commission was ordered by the substituted for detention or “quarantine.” In 1876,
secretary of War, approved by the President, June during the “Centennial International Medicai
9, 1861; and organized June 13, 1861. (See SANI- Congress,” held in Philadelphia, hygiene was some-
TARY COMMISSION.) Similar organizations also ex- What discussed, but no great progress was made in
isted in the South during the war. popularizing sanitary work, though the “general
In 1866 a great stride was made in municipal subject of quarantine, with particular reference to
health legislation by the establishment in New York cholera and yellow fever,” was presented in an
City of the Metropolitan Health Board ; an organi- address by Surgeon General John M. Woodworth,
zation modelled after the English Sanitary Act, with of the Marine Hospital Service, who in conclusion
ample powers to make such reforms as would secure submitted six propositions for the consideration of
the health of the people. Its first practical work the section on Sanitary science, which, after a
was an apparently , successful contest with the lengthy discussion, were adopted, as follows:
Asiatic cholera, which occurred that year, thereby
allaying apprehension at the time, if not for the
future. Town or city boards of health (generally for
quarantine purposes) had existed for many years in
the large maritime cities, and more or less effort
was made to suppress nuisances, obtain vital statis-
tics, etc., but no State board of health was created
till Massachusetts, in 1869, took the lead followed by
California and Virginia, 1871; Minnesota, 1872 ;
Louisiana and Michigan, 1873; Alabama, Georgia,
and Maryland, 1875; Colorado, New Jersey, and
Wisconsin, 1876; Illinois, Mississippi, and Tennes-
see, 1877 ; Connecticut, Kentucky, Rhode Island,
and South Carolina, 1878 ; Delaware and North
Carolina, 1879; Iowa and New York, 1880; Ar-
kansas, Indiana, New Hampshire, and West Vir-
ginia, 1881; Texas, 1882; Missouri, 1883; Kansas,
Maine, and Pennsylvania, 1885; Ohio, 1886; Ver-
mont, 1888. Several of the earlier boards have been
reorganized and made more efficient. A board of
health for the District of Columbia was authorized
by Congress in 1871.
The public agitation of the preservation of health
by hygienic measures, and the interest taken in the
subject by those in authority, led to the organiza-
tion of the American Public Health Association in
1872, whose object as stated by its constitution
“shall be the advancement of Sanitary Science and
the promotion of organizations and measures for the
practical application of public hygiene,” and its
“ members shall be selected with special reference
to their acknowledged interest in, or devotion to,
Sanitary studies and allied sciences, and to the
practical application of the same.” After its third
annual meeting its success was assured, and its
influence has marked the progress of sanitary work
beyond the most sanguine hopes of its projectors.
Its membership numbers over 1000, comprising
I. The supervision of ocean travel ought to be directed to
Securing good Sanitary conditions for vessels at all times
out of as well as in port.
II. A system of port-sanitation should be adopted and
administered for each country or place, Separately, and
should be modified in particular cases by taking into account
the liability of the port to infection, the period of incubation
of the disease, the length of time consumed in the Voyage,
the measures enforced by the vessel en route.
III. In some countries the detention of passengers and
crews of ships hailing from infected ports is warranted, but
for such time only as is neeessary to complete the period of
incubation of cholera or of yellow fever, counting from the
date of departure from an infected port, or of landing from
an infected vessel ; in no instance should passengers Ol'
sailors be held for observation on board an infected vessel,
and such yessel should not be detained beyond the period
required for inspection, and for thorough disinfection and
cleansing.
IY. Recognizing the fact that the morbific causes of in-
fectious diseases may sometimes elude the most Vigilant
Sanitary supervision of shipping, the importance of Wisely
directed internal sanitary measures can scarcely be over-
estimated. *
V. As far as America is concerned, it is desirable that
Prompt and authoritative information should be had of the
Shipment of passengers or goods from districts infected with
cholera or yellow fever, thereby insuring the thorough dis-
infection of infected articles. &-
VI. The endemic homes of cholera and yellow fever are
the fields which give the greatest promise of satisfactory
results to well-directed and energetic Sanitary measures ;
and, to this end an international sentiment should be
awakened, so strong as to compel the careless and offending
people to employ rational means of prevention, S.
These propositions, submitted twelve years ago
are the basis upon which sanitarians are now work.
ing to advance sanitary science at home and abroad.
At this congress the subject of “germ diseasº
Was, considered in an address by Dr. Thos. E. Sat-
terthwaite, of New York, who stated that there
were three theories: (1) The Vegetable-germ theory;
436
SANITARY SCIENCE.
(2) That disease-germs were degraded parts of
animal tissue which divided and subdivided “as
live matter alone divides.”
On March 3, 1879, after much public discussion
and outside pressure, Congress created a National
(3) The physico-chemi- Board of Health. The Board was composed of seven
cal theory. He explained these different theories members appointed by the President, and confirmed
at length, and stated that attention was first called
to the “cholera-fungus” in 1849; that Hallier and
“cholera micrococcus,” in
others described the
1867, as a granular mass which underwent a variety
of changes in form, but that no agreement had been
reached by investigators as to the specific form, and
that experiments made by himself in 1873 failed to
find microscopic changes in molecular matter. He
then submitted the following “conclusions:”
I. As far as inquiry has been made as to the nature of the
active principle in infective diseases it is probable that in a
certain number the matter is particulate or molecular in
form.
II. That in regard to the causes of septicaemia, pygemia,
puerperal fever, erysipelas, and hospital gangrene, and those
of cholera, vaccine diseases, the carbuncular diseases of
men and animals, typhoid and relapsing fevers and diph-
theria, there is not satisfactory proof that they are
necessarily connected with minute vegetable Organism.
III. That the real nature of these causes is still uncertain.
Dr. John L. Atlee, in a report on the cholera
epidemic of 1854, made the following year to the
sanitary committee of Lancaster County, Pa., states
that microscopical examinations of the rice-water
discharges from both the stomach and bowels dis-
closed minute bodies differing in appearance from
epithelial cells, and from known physiological and
pathological, histogenic, and phytogenic elements.
(Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of
Pennsylvania, 1855, vol. v. p. 108.) . He is re-
ported to have lately said (1888) that these “ minute
bodies” are identical with the now well-known
comma-bacilli of Koch, but that he does not believe
they are the cause of cholera, and “so far, no con-
vincing proof of the germ theory of disease, as ap-
plied to living tissues and living phenomena has been
produced.” (Annals of Hygiene, Aug. 1888, p. 310.)
The progress of sanitary science in the United
States was again stimulated and advanced as a re-
sult of the ravages of yellow fever in Memphis,
Tenn., in 1878–79. Many bills were introduced in
Congress at that time with a view to preventing
future epidemics by national sanitary legislation,
and on April 29, 1878, “An Act to prevent the in-
troduction of contagious or infectious diseases in
the United States” became a law. It provided that
no vessel coming from a foreign port where con-
tagious or infectious disease may exist, or carrying
persons, merchandise, or animals affected with such
disease, shall enter any port of the United States,
contrary to the quarantine of such State, except in
the manner to be prescribed by regulations ; re-
quired consular officers or other agents of the govern:
ment to immediately notify the surgeon-general of
the Marine Hospital Service of the departure of such
vessel from an infected port, and also notify the health
officer at port of destination ; required, consular
officers to make weekly reports of the sanitary con-
dition of their respective ports. Rules and regula-
tions were to be framed by the surgeon-general,
and when approved by the President, medical
officers of the Marine Hospital Service and custom
officers were directed to aid in enforcing the same.
Weekly abstracts were to be made by the surgeon-
general of consular sanitary reports and other per-
finent information received by him. It provided
further, that officers or agents of State or municipal
quarantine systems, on application, may be author-
ized to act as officers or agents of the national
quarantine system. No appropriation was made by
Congress to carry out the provisions of the law,
though a Public Health Bulletin containing a weekly
abstract of consular reports was published by, the
Marine Hospital Service in accordance therewith.
by the Senate, and one medical officer each of the
Army, Navy, and Marine Hospital Service, and one
officer from the Department of Justice. As defined
by the law its duties “shall be to obtain information
upon all matters affecting the public health, to ad-
vise the several departments of the government, the
executives of the several States, and the commis-
sioners of the District of Columbia on all questions
submitted by them or whenever, in the opinion of
the Board, such advice may tend to the preservation
and improvement of the public health.” It also
directed that the Board, with the assistance of the
Academy of Science, shall prepare a plan for a
national public health organization after consulta-
tion with the principal sanitary organizations and
sanitarians of the several States, special attention to
be given to the subject of quarantine, both maritime
and inland, and as to the regulations which should
be established between State or local systems of
quarantine and a national quarantine system, and
appropriated $50,000 to carry out the purposes of
the act. An additional act was passed and approved
June 2, 1879, temporarily suspending the act of
April 29, 1878, and enlarging the duties of the
National Board of Health to cover the provisions
of that act. The Board having organized, at once
commenced investigations into the causes of dis-
ease, into the sanitary condition of cities, etc., pre-
pared rules and regulations to be observed in case
of epidemics, established refuge stations at the fol-
lowing points: Ship Island, Gulf of Mexico, Sapelo.
Sound, Ga., Norfolk, Va.; appointed a commission
to visit Havana, and investigate yellow fever in
Cuba ; secured the presence of an International
Sanitary Conference in Washington in 1881, and
stimulated the formation of State Boards of Health.
It employed sanitarians and experts in various in-
vestigations, and made many valuable contributions
to sanitary science. (See Reports National Board
of Health, Vols. I.-W., 1879–83.) The law creating
the Board is still on the statute book, but the act of
June 2, 1879, having expired by limitation in 1884,
and no appropriation having been made for its
maintenance, it is now a board only in name. By
the expiration of said law, that of April 29, 1878,
was revived, and is now in active operation, having
been recently perfected (Aug. 1, 1888) by addi-
tional legislation establishing national quarantine
stations at the following points: Chandeleur Island,
Gulf of Mexico, near Key West, coast of Georgia,
entrance Chesapeake Bay, mouth Delaware Bay,
San Diego, Cal., San Francisco, Port Townsend,
Oregon. It is made a misdemeanor punishable by
fine or imprisonment, or both for the master, pilot,
or owner of any vessel entering a port of the United
States in violation of the act or regulations framed
under it.
This chronological history of the progress in sani-
tary science in the United States has been neces-
sarily very brief, and it will be observed that
“quarantine” (which as now conducted is a sani-
tary institution) has been included. At the present
time, and for ten years past, the “germ theory of
disease” has commanded much scientific attention,
and given to the subject of sanitary science an ex-
haustless field for research and speculation. (See
BACTERIA and GERM THEORY.) It may here be
stated that the theory is that a living germ, micro-
scopical in size and of almost infinite self-multipli-
cation, invades the human organism and by its pres-
énce gives rise to pathological changes, resulting in
different manifestations of disease depending on the
species that is migrating—to the alimentary canal
(especially the intestines) in cholera, to the lungs in
SANITARY SCIENCE.
437
tubercle, etc.
It is not generally believed that this to those subsequently discovered in articles of im-
germ arises de novo, but that it is transmitted | pure food. Briefly stated, distinguished chemists
from person
to person through the medium and Scientists have for over half a century endea-
of air, food, or water, and finds its lodgment with vored to isolate the poisonous principle of putrefying
an unerring instinct of “selection,” dependent,
as is above stated, upon the species that is migrat-
ing.
Organic matter. Prof. Panum demonstrated that
the poison of decomposing flesh is not volatile, is
But there are those who believe that these not destroyed by boiling, is insoluble in alcohol but
germs are the result and not the cause of disease, soluble in water, and that its intensity is comparable
and that while germicides may destroy the bacteria to that of the venom of serpents, of curare, and
they have little or no influence in arresting disease certain vegetable alkaloids, and that it contains no
or limiting the progress of an epidemic.
ing that if
Contend- living organism.
it can be proved that living organisms that ptomaines are the result of putrefactive decom-
It has further been demonstrated
(microbes) are the cause of contagious, infectious, or position, and that bacteria are the active agents of
other diseases, and that each disease can be diag- this process (Pasteur), also that it depends on the
nosed by the presence of a particular species of bac-
{
|
kind of bacteria, the degree of putrefaction, and
teria, it only remains to find and be able to apply a perhaps the atmospheric conditions, whether the
suitable germicide for each species and its spores in ptomaine is poisonous or inert.
order to banish all such diseases from the face of the
earth.
- ing is a list of the “recognized” pathogenic & g g * &
The following is a list o g patnog a poisonous ptomaine when cultivated in beef tea, it
germs (micro-organisms) :-
Bacillus anthracis (Chaveau and Davaine), malignant
pustule ;
Bacillus coli communis (Hueppe), cholera nostras;
Bacillus leprae (Danielson and Boeck);
Bacillus mallei (Loeffler), glanders;
Bacillus tuberculosis (Koch, 1882) ;
Bacillus typhi abdominalis (Eberth and Gaffky), typhoid
fever ;
Diplococcus, pneumonia (Frankel) (first discovered by
Surgeon Sternberg, U. S. A.) ;
Micrococcus gonorrhea (Neissen) ;
Micrococcus pyaemia (Koch);
Plasmodium malaria (Laveran, Councilman, etc.);
Spirillum cholerae Asiaticae (Koch, 1884);
Spirillutm Obermyeri, relapsing fever ;
Staphylococcus pyrogens aureus, staphylococcus albus,
staphylococcus citreus (osteo-myelitis);
Streptococcus erysipelatis;
Streptococcus phlegmon ;
The following is a list of germs claimed by some to exist,
but not yet established as causing disease :—
Bacillus malariae (Tommasi and Crudeli) ;
Bacillus scarlatina ;
Bacillus of syphilis;
Bacillus of tetanus;
Micrococcus of yellow fever (Freire);
Micrococcus of beri-beri ;
Micrococcus of dengue;
Micrococcus of diphtheria;
Micrococcus of parotitis (mumps);
Micrococcus of scarlatina;
Micrococcus vaccina ;
Micrococcus variolae.
The foregoing lists were prepared by Dr. J. J. Kinyoun,
Assistant Surgeon, U. S. M. H. S.
Whether or not germs are the cause or propaga-
tors of certain diseases, it has been pretty well es-
tablished that thorough disinfection and cleansing
of a room in which smallpox, scarlet fever, or diph-
theria has occurred appears to render it safe for oc-
cupancy by a person who has never suffered with
these diseases; but on the other hand anti-germ
theorists claim that it has not yet been clearly de-
monstrated that disinfection alone will prevent the
Spread of yellow fever or cholera.
Before leaving this interesting subject it may be
stated as the consensus of opinion among scientists
that the “germ theory of disease” has been clearly
demonstrated, and that the “microbe” is the mid-
ºries morbi which must be sought for and destroyed
in all so-called zymotic diseases.
Ptomaines.—This name was given by the Italian
chemist and toxicologist, Francesco Selmi, to cer-
tain chemical compounds, basic in character, result-
ing from the putrefactive decomposition of organic
ºnatter...What concerns the sanitarian more particul
larly is that they are found in poisonous Quantities in
impure milk, cheese, ice-cream, meats, fish, etc. The
name is derived from the Greek word arºua (cada.
Ver), as experiments upon decaying human bodies
‘disclosed alkaloids, both poisonous and inert, similar
Prof. Brieger, of
Berlin, obtained a toxic ptomaine from cultures of
typhoid bacillus which had the composition of C,
Hiſ NO, ; and, although this bacillus would produce
did not produce any ptomaine when cultivated in
solution of peptone, where it grew equally as well.
The following ptomaines, among others, have been
isolated, and their composition determined : from
putrid flesh, neuridine (C.H.N.) and neurin (C.
His NO), the former inert and the latter poisonous;
from decomposed fish, muscarine (C.H.N. O.) and
gadanine (C5H11NO,1), the latter inert ; rotten
cheese and decomposed glue gave neuridine ; the
cadaver gave six different inert and three highly
poisonous ptomaines, depending upon the different
stages of decomposition of the cadaver; from mus-
sels, mytilotoxine ; from putrefying yeast, Sepsin ;
from impure milk, cheese, and ice-cream, tyrotoxi-
Con... The latter poisonous ptomaine was isolated
by Victor C. Vaughan, Ph.D., M.D., of Ann Arbor,
Mich., in 1885–86; the numerous and heretoforé
incomprehensible poisonings from these articles
leading him to make a thorough and exhaustive
examination into their cause, resulted in this brill
liant discovery, which has since been confirmed by
a number of other distinguished chemists. It is
quite pºssible that the great poisoning of the guests
at the National Hotel in Washington, D.C., many
years ago, Was caused by ptomaines in the milk. It
has also been suggested that ptomaines are the
active agents in septicæmia.
*Joods in which poisonous ptomaines are found
according to Vaughan, are mussels, Sausage, hams.
Canned meats, fruits and Vegetables, cheese, milk.
and ice-cream. 2 y
1. Mussels, of which there are three Varieties, one
kind producing gastro-intestinal irritation ; in the
second and most frequent Variety the symptoms are
of * nervºus character, with a sensation of heat and
itching, followed by an eruption and distressing
asthmatic breathing; the third kind produces an
intoxication similar to alcohol, followed by paralysis
COma, and death. y
2. Sausage.—Poisonous Sausage, also known as
botulismus and allantotoxicum, gives Symptoms of a
diversified character. There is difficulty of breath-
ing and of swallowing, nausea, vomiting, vertigo,
dilatation of the pupils, Small, rapid, and thready
pulse, nervous prostration and debility, delirium
and coma, resulting in a mortality of over fifty per
Cent. - y p
3. Hams.-The ptomaine in
not yet been isolated, but the “ Wellbeck poisoning”
a few years ago demonstrated that it exists and is
potent in energy.
4. Cammed meats, fruits and vegetables.
ºutline may be developed after the c
its contents are not immedi
tion may be in progress when canned, or it may be
completed When it reaches its destination.
* Cheese.—After many attempts Prof. Vaughan
putrefying ham has
:—The pto-
an is opened if
ately used, or putrefac-
438
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Succeeded in isolating the poisonous ptomaine of
cheese. From sixteen kilograms of one cheese he
obtained 0.5 grain of the poison and the individual
crystals were plainly visible to the eye. Some 300
cases of poisoning occurred in Michigan from eat-
ing twelve different cheeses, nine from one factory
and one each from three others. Prof. Vaughan
says: “The cheese was in good condition, and there
was nothing in the taste or odor to excite suspicion.
However, from a freshly cut surface there exuded
numerous drops of a slightly opalescent fluid which
reddened litmus instantly and intensely.” Surgeon
Sternberg, U. S. A., found numerous micrococci in
this fluid, “but inoculation of rabbits with these
failed to produce any results.” Wallace and Wolf
have each, more recently, detected tyrotoxicon in
cheese, the one in Jeansville, Pa., and the other in
Shamokin, Pa. The symptoms of poisoning are
dryness and constriction of the throat, vomiting of
thin watery fluid, with diarrhoea and watery stools,
pulse feeble and irregular, countenance pale with
marked cyanosis, tenderness over the stomach, and
other symptoms similar to those of arsemic poison-
ing.
6. Milk.—Following Vaughan's discovery, New-
ton and Wallace obtained poisonous ptomaines from
milk used at the hotels at Long Branch when fifty-
four persons were poisoned at two hotels in that
place in 1886. Their report is of great value, but
lack of space forbids its reproduction here. In
Corning, Iowa, the same poison was recently found
by Shearer in milk used at a hotel, and in the vom-
ited matter of those who drank it. The symptoms
of poisoning are similar to those from cheese poison-
ing.
Ice-cream.—Vaughan obtained tyrotoxicon from
cream which poisoned many persons at Lawton,
Mich., in 1886; so also did Novy. It was at first
thought that vanilla caused the trouble, but this
was soon proved to be a mistake, and the poisonous
ptomaine (tyrotoxicon) was isolated from , the
cream. An interesting account is given by Allaben,
of poisoning by lemon ice-cream, and by Shearer of
poisoning by both lemon and vanilla cream: , The
symptoms of poisoning are similar to those of cheese
and milk poisoning.
Stale fish.—The London Lancet of Feb. 20, 1886,
gives an account of poisoning by stale fish, in which
ptomaine was found both in the fish and the con-
tents of the stomach, intestines, liver, blood, brain,
and urine of the victims.
Certain diseases, it is believed, may be caused by
ptomaines : . Anthrax, cholera, tetanus, typhoid
fever, and cholera infantum : there would seem to
be good ground for believing that cholera infantum
may result from tyrotoxicon, which, as Vaughan
says, is strengthened by “the fact that infants nour.
isfied exclusively from the mother’s breast are most
wholly exempt from this disease.”
As ptomaines are the result of putrefactive
decomposition, and as bacteria are the cause
of the latter (Pasteur), it is necessary to de-
stroy the germs to prevent the formation of
the former particularly as nearly all ptomaines
are indestructible by the most powerful dis-
infectants, and are not rendered harmless by boiling.
Vaughan however states that, “in exceptional cases,
as in milk containing tyrotoxicon, boiling the milk
will destroy both the germ and the , ptomaine.”
The sanitarian, however, will avoid being poisoned
by ptomaines by obtaining his meats and fruits
fresh, his cheese, milk, and ice-cream pure: this he
will do by knowing where the meats are cured or
canned, and the condition of the dairy from which
his cheese and milk are obtained.
The value of the discovery of ptomaines as a Cause
of poisoning will lead to a more careful inspection
of our foods, particularly of cheese, milk, and cream,
and at the same time remove the suspicion which
may have hung over many communities that their
people were subjected to wholesale poisoning by
some Secret enemy. In a medico-legal investigation
its importance is evident.
Domestic hygiene is the fundamental principle un-
derlying public health—the family is the unit of the
nation—the fountain must be pure, or they seek in
vain who try to purify the stream. Sanitary science
then should be taught at home, in the school-room,
the college, and the university, commencing with
the care of the infant and continuing to that of the
child and adult. Personal cleanliness, attention to
the secretions and excretions, bodily exercise, proper
food, drink, apparel, and domicil should each be
considered.
Public hygiene, or the conditions necessary for the
health of communities, includes the
; Vºl. go above; and in addition the study of 1.
º sº ... The climate and how to rendre its vicis-
Rep.); also situdes less dangerous. 2. The telluric
voi. 'xx. p. conditions and surroundings and how to
96 (p. 101 render the land and air dryer by drain-
Am. Rep.). age. 3. The site or location of dwellings,
the material of which they are built,
their heating, lighting, and ventilation. 4. The
arrangements of streets and alleys, their paving,
cleansing, and repair. 5. The water supply, where
and how obtained and distributed, its quality and
quantity, and the disposal of house-waste and sew-
age. 6. The food supply, markets, slaughter-houses,
bakeries, canned and condensed-food factories. 7.
The effects of trades, manufactures, and other pur-
suits or employments. 8. The location, construc-
tion, internal arrangement and condition of tene-
ment-houses, and public buildings, including
churches, school-houses, hospitals, and prisons. 9.
The management of contagious and infectious dis-
eases, vaccination, isolation, disinfection, and house-
to-house sanitary inspection. 10. Vital statistics,
registration of births, marriages, and deaths. , 11.
Disposal of the dead, inhumation, cremation, coking,
embalming, and electro-plating.
Probably the most important factors in the propa-
gation of disease may be found in the water supply
of cities and in the disposal of their sewage. The
pollution of rivers and other sources of supply has
long engaged the attention of sanitarians and
others, and plans for the disposal of sewage in some
other manner than by depositing it in the adjacent
water-courses have from time to time been tried.
When it is remembered that in the large cities of the
United States the present plan for the disposal of
sewage not only pollutes the water-supply of its own
or of neighboring towns, but involves the whole city
in a network of filthy sewers which underlie the
streets, enter the dwellings, and contaminate the
very air we breathe, it would seem that the time had
arrived for adopting some other plan for its disposal
than that of emptying it into the water we drink,
and having its filthy emanations infecting our dwell-
ings. Sanitary science has pointed out the remedy,
but the general adoption of it is difficult to accom-
plish, perhaps will not be attained for many years.
It is simply to collect the excrementitious products
(faeces and urine) in suitable vessels and either use
them as a fertilizer, or destroy them by cremation.
The former plan is much the cheaper and is said to
be almost self-supporting. In Japan it is done at a
3rofit to the householder who is paid for the deposit.
The latter is safer on account of the possible propa-
gation of such diseases as cholera and typhoid fever
by the “germs” finding their way back into the
drinking water of out-lying villages or farms where
the fertilizer is used. Ömitting the pneumatic sys-
tem of Liernur, which requires water-closets, soil
pipes, and faecal reservoirs, there are two plans which
have been approved by Sanitarians as Satisfactory
SANITARY SCIENCE.
439
for securing the faecal deposits for fertilizing purpo-
ses, the “pail” system, better known as the “Roch-
dale,” and the earth or ash-closet system (“com-
mode”), first introduced by Rev. Henry Moule of
England. Both of these systems are in use to a
moderate extent in this country and are rapidly
growing in favor. Heap's patent dry earth or ashes
closet, with its automatic urine separator and self-
acting hopper, requires less earth for deodorizing
purposes and therefore is better adapted for use where
earth or ashes cannot readily be obtained. Both of
these systems have been extensively used in Eng-
recommends : 1. Fire ; complete destruction by burn-
ing. 2. Boiling in water for ten minutes. 3: Dry
heat, 110° C. (2300 F.) for two hours. 4. Chloride
of lime, a 2 per cent. solution. 5. Solution of chlo-
rinated soda (containing at least 3 per cent of avail-
able chlorine), a 10 per cent. Solution. , 6. Mercuric
chloride, a solution of 1:2000. 7. Carbolic acid, a
5 per cent. solution. 8. Sulphate of copper, a 5
per cent. solution. 9. Chloride of zinc, a 10 per
cent. solution. 10. Sulphur dioxide, which will re-
quire the combustion of between three and four
pounds of sulphur for every 1000 cubic feet of air
land. Manchester (including Salford), with a popu- space. There should be exposure for twelve hours
lation of nearly 800,000 souls, is said to contain but to an atmosphere containing at least 4 volumes per
11,000 water-closets against 66,000 pail-closets, not-cent...of this gas in presence of moisture. e
withstanding the fact that it is thoroughly sewered, “The committee would make the following re-
has an abundant water supply, and the Irwell commendations with reference to the practical ap-
river courses through it. The other plan, crema-' plication of these agents for disinfecting purposes:
tion, includes the destruction, not only of the feces, For excreta: (a) In the sick-room : 1. Chloride of
but of all kinds of house refuse, garbage, broken lime in solution, 4 per cent. In the absence of
crockery, street sweepings, dead animals, etc., spores: 2. Carbolic acid in solution, 5 per cent.
which are dumped into a “destructor” where all is 3. Sulphate of copper in solution, 5 per cent. , (b)
reduced to ashes except the old pots, pans, crockery, In privy vaults: 1: Mercuric chloride in solution,
glassware, etc., which becoming fused together are 1 : 500. (The addition of an equal quantity of potas-
broken up and used for making roads, or ground and sium permanganate as a deodorant, and to give
made into bricks, etc. For the disposal of sewage color to the solution, is to be recommended.) 2.
by water and a description of earth-closets see EN- Carbolic acid in solution, 5 per cent. (c) For the dis-
CYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, Vol. XXI., p. 717 (p. infection and deodorization of the surface of masses
745, Am. Rep.). The filtration of water by the of organic material in privy vaults, etc. : Chloride
“Hyatt pure water system” is regarded as satisfac- of lime in powder. e
tory where it is found that any impurities exist in “ For clothing, bedding, etc. (a) Soiled under-
, the general water supply. For domestic purposes clothing, bed linen, etc. : 1. Destruction by fire if of
there are many kinds recommended. little value. 2. Boiling for at least half an hour.
FHeating and Ventilating of houses, public and pri- 3. Immersion in a solution of mercuric chloride of
vate, are now regarded as most important problems the strength of 1:2000 for four hours. 4. Immer-
by the architect in preparing his plans. (See “Heat-sion in a 2 per cent. solution of carbolic acid for four
ing” in the BRITANNiCA, and VENTILATION in this hours. (b) Outer garments of wool or silk, and
work.) Many experiments have been tried, all sys- similar articles, which would be injured by immer
tems having for their object the introduction of pure sion in boiling water or in a disinfecting solution
air properly heated, and the expulsion of the vitiated 1. Exposure in a suitable apparatus to a current of
air resulting from the respiration and the emanations steam for ten minutes. 2. Exposure to dry heat at
of its occupants, this interchange must be imper- a temperature of 110° C. (2300 F.) for two hours.
ceptible or a feeling of discomfort arises from the (c) Mattresses and blankets soiled by the discharges
draught created. . . Gouge's system of ventilating of the sick : 1. Destruction by fire. 2. Exposure to
and heating,” and the Ruttan-Smead system, based superheated steam, 105°C. (221° F.) for ten minutes
on Scientific principles, are commended as among the (mattresses to have the cover removed or freely
1
}
best. The general subject is too extensive to con- opened). 3. Immersion in boiling water for half an
sider here. hour.
Disinfectants. (See this title in the ENCYCLo- “Furniture and articles of wood, leather, and por-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA, and in this work.) These celain. Washing, several times repeated, with : 1
are agents used for destroying the infectious mate- Solution of carbolic acid, 2 per cent.
tº
rial (germs) of infectious diseases, and should not be
confounded with deodorizers or antiseptics which
simply destroy bad odors or arrest putrefactive de-
composition. Admitting the “germ theory of dis-
case” to be correct, the exhaustive exposition of the
present knowledge on this subject, made by the 'Mercuric chloride, 1:1000.
chairman of the committee on disinfectants ap-
pointed by the American Public Health Association,
Major George M. Sternberg, Surgeon U. S. A., is a
contribution to Sanitary Science of incalculable
value, as in fact is the entire report of the com-
mittee. (See Public Health Papers and Reports of the
American Public Health Association, Vol. XIII., pp.
64 to 201. Concord, N. H., 1888.)
Space can here be given only for the “conclu-
sions” of the committee, as follows:–
“The most useful agents for the destruction of
spore containing infectious material are: 1. Fire ;
complete destruction by burning. 2. Steam under
pressure, 1059 C. (2219 F.) for ten minutes. 3. Boil-
ing in water for half an hour. 4. Chloride of lime
(which should contain at least 25 per cent. of avail-
able chlorine), a 4 per cent. solution. 5. Mercuric
chloride, a solution of 1:500. -
“For the destruction of infectious material which
owes its infecting power to the presence of micro-
organisms not containing spores, the committee
ride in solution, 1 : 1000.
( , ". • * *
|tion will usually be sufficient.
“For the person. The hands and general surface
of the body of attendants of the sick and of conva-
lescents should be washed with: 1. Solution of
chlorinated soda diluted with nine parts of water,
1 : 10. 2. Carbolic acid, 2 per cent. solution. 3.
“For the dead. Envelop the body in a sheet
º saturated with : 1. Chloride of lime in
Solution, 4 per cent. 2. Mercuric chloride in solu-
tion, 1 : 500. , 3. Carbolic acid in solution, 5 per cent.
“For the sick-room and hospital wards. (a) While
occupied wash all surfaces with : 1. Mercuric chlo-
2. Carbolic acid in solu-
tion, 2 per cent. (b) When vacated, fumigate with
Sulphur dioxide, for twelve hours, burning at least
8 pounds of sulphur for every 1000 cubic feet of air-
Space in the room ; then wash all surfaces with one
of the above-mentioned disinfecting solutions, and
afterwards with soap and hot water ; finally throw
open doors and windows and ventilate freeiv.
“For merchandise and the mails. The disinfec-
tion of merchandise and of the mails will only be re-
Quired under exceptional circumstances; free aera-
If disinfection seems
necessary, fumigation with sulphur dioxide will be
the only practicable method of accomplishing it
without injury. Sº
440
SAN JACINTO—SARATOGA.
“Rags. (a) Rags which have been used for
wiping away infectious discharges should at once be
burned. (b) Rags collected for the paper-makers
during the prevalence of an epidemic should be dis-
infected before they are compressed into bales by :
1. Exposure to superheated steam of 105° C. (2219
P.) for ten minutes. 2. Immersion in boiling water
for half an hour.
“Ships. (a) Infected ships at sea should be
washed in every accessible place, and especially the
localities occupied by the sick, with : 1. Solution of
mercuric chloride, 1:1000. 2. Solution of carbolic
acid, 2 per cent. The bilge should be disinfected
by the liberal use of a strong solution of mercuric
chloride. (b) Upon arrival at a quarantine station
an infected ship should at once be fumigated with
sulphurous acid gas, using 3 pounds of sulphur for
every 1000 cubic feet of air-space ; the cargo should
then be discharged on lighters ; a liberal supply of
the concentrated solution of mercuric chloride (4
ounces to the gallon) should be thrown into the
bilge, and at the end of twenty-four hours the bilge-
water should be pumped out and replaced with pure
sea water ; this should be repeated. A second fumi-
gation, after the removal of the cargo, is recom-
mended ; all accessible surfaces should be washed
with one of the disinfecting solutions heretofore re-
commended, and subsequently with soap and hot
Water.
“For railway cars. The directions given for dis-
infection of dwellings, hospital wards, and ships
apply as well to infected railway cars. The treat-
ment of excreta with a disinfectant, before they are
scattered along the tracks, seems desirable at all
times in view of the fact that they may contain in-
fectious germs. During the prevalence of an epi-
demic of cholera this is imperative. For this pur-
pose the standard solution of chloride of lime is re-
commended.”
References. Hygiene in America, Bowditch ; State Board
of Health Reports, Louisiana, 1882–3; American Public
Health reports and papers; U. S. Marine Hospital Service
reports and papers; U. S. Statutes at Large; ; Park's Prac-
tical Hygiene; Text Book of Hygiene, Rohé; Report of Sani-
tary Commissions (New Orleans, 1854); Transactions Cen-
tennial International Medical Congress; Transactions Ninth
International Medical Congress, Vol. IV. ; Reports and
papers National Board of Health : State and Municipal
iłoards of Health reports, New York ; The Sanitary Era ;
Annals of Hygiene; and various sanitary publications
throughout the United States. (P. H. B.)
SAN JACINTO, a battle fought on April 21,
1836, between a force of Texans under Gen. Sam
Houston (for whom see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
NICA), and a Mexican army under Gen. Santa Aña.
The latter on hearing of the independent movement
in Texas led an army of 5000 men, determined to
crush the opposition to his despotism. He first
wreaked his vengeance on the garrison of the ALAMO
(q.v.). Houston’s men were greatly agitated on
hearing of the massacre, and of a second at Goliad
where Col. Fannin with 500 men had capitulated on
March 27th. Houstom sought a position near the
mouth of the San Jacinto, where there was a ferry,
and there Santa Aña came up with him on April
20th. The Texans, numbering 783 men, all told,
had two small cannon. On the morning of the 21st
Houston ordered a charge on the Mexican host of
2000, and with shouts of.” Remember Alamo l’”
4. Remember Goliad l’” the Texans carried all before
them. Of the Mexicans 630 were killed and the
rest captured. The Texan loss was 8 killed and 25
wounded. Although the Texans clamored for Santa
Aſia's life, Houston, who had been wounded
severely, spared him on condition of his acknowl-
edging the independence of Texas. The treach-
SAN JOSE, a city of California, seat of Santa
Clara co., is 50 miles south of San Francisco, with
which it is connected by three lines of railroad. It
has a fine court-house, city hall, 2 national banks, 3
other banks, 4 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 15
churches, 13 schools, the State Normal School, Uni-
versity of the Pacific, and College of Notre Dame.
The Leland Stanford, Jr., University, founded here
by Leland Stanford, president of the Central Pacific
Railroad, in memory of his son, has been endowed
with $20,000,000. Lick Avenue, 28 miles long,
leads to Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton.
San Jose was established as a mission by Spanish
Franciscans in 1777, but Americans came in 1847
and the city was incorporated in 1850. It is lighted
with gas and numerous electric lights, has water-
works, and three parks. There is a paid fire de-
partment with good apparatus and an automatic
fire-alarm system. The property is assessed at
nearly $18,000,000, and the only debt is bonded in-
debtedness of $500,000 for the city hall and other
improvements. The yearly expense in 1887 was
$371,572. The city has 5 foundries, a woollen mill,
flour mill, furniture factory, 3 fruit canneries, and a
few factories. . The surrounding country produces
abundance of grapes, prunes, and other fruits.
Wine-making is extensively carried on. The cli-
mate of the vicinity is very salubrious, the extreme
annual range of the temperature being from 280 to
939, and the average from 429 to 70°. The popula-
tion in 1880 was 12,567.
SARATOGA, BATTLE OF. This battle, in vir-
tue of its results, has been classed among the fifteen
decisive battles of the world. . The British ministry,
irritated at the failure of their attempts to crush out
the American movement for independence, resolved
to effect this by a supreme effort in 1777. So long
as the communications between New England and
the South remained free this seemed impracticable.
It was determined, therefore, to sever these by
pouring an army from Canada through the half-
open gateway of Ticonderoga, whence they should
sweep Southward, and, by effecting a junction with
Howe, who held New York, interpose a barrier be-
tween these sections of the Union.
Gen. John Burgoyne, who was entrusted with
the carrying out of the Scheme, stood, on June 1st,
at the foot of Lake Champlain with an army of 7000
English, Germans, Canadians, and Indians, while
Col. St. Leger was sent up the St. Lawrence to Os-
wego to penetrate the country from that point,
capture Fort Schuyler, and them march down the
Mohawk to join Burgoyne in Albany. On Bur-
goyne’s appearance before Ticonderoga, St. Clair,
the commander, conscious of his inability to hold
the fort, fled towards Fort Edward, the place of ren-
dezvous for the patriots. The British pursued, in-
flicting a defeat on him at Hubbardton, and Gen.
Schuyler, commander of the patriot army of the
North, fell back from Fort Edward to Cohoes Falls.
Meanwhile St. Leger was besieging Fort Schuyler,
but Arnold, who was dispatched with 800 men to its
relief, scattered the royalists like autumn leaves.
Such were the circumstances under which the
main army of the North was placed at the mouth of
the Mohawk in August, 1777. Here Schuyler was
superseded by Gates, while Burgoyne, discouraged
by the disaster at Bennington and the loss at Fort
Schuyler, was halting at Fort Edward in hopes of
hearing from Howe. This gave Gates time to ad-
vance up the Hudson to Bemis Heights and fortify
them for his encampment. By Sept. 15th he stood
prepared to receive the foe.
Burgoyne ascended the river by the left bank,
crossed it on the 13th and 14th at Saratoga, and, on
the 18th, was within 2 miles of Gates and making
ready for battie. On the morning of the 29th the
vºus Mexican afterwards tried to repudiate * & g
rival hosts stood confronting each other posted in
word, but the war was not renewed.
SARDOU–SARGENT. 441
similar order, each stretching from the river over
the hills westward. The main body of the Ameri-
cans was on the right under Gates; the left was
under Poor; the centre was mainly made up of
Learned’s brigade. Morgan’s riflemen and Dear:
born's infantry stood under Arnold on the heights,
nearly a mile from the river. At 10 A. M. Burgoyne
advanced his army in three columns, the left con-
sisting of artillery under Phillips, and Germans
under Riedesel, the centre and right under Bur-
goyne himself, but covered by Fraser and Bregman.
The Canadians and Indians were sent forward to
occupy the Americans in front. Gates remained
passive till, urged by Arnold, he gave the word for
the Indians to be driven back. Taking this as a
permission for a general charge, the Americans
rushed like a mountain torrent on the foe. Arnold
with Morgan held Fraser while he was straining to
reach the Annerican rear. Here the fighting was
desperate, but the patriots encountering the British
under Burgoyne, and played on by Phillips' guns,
were, at 3 o'clock, forced back into their line. For
four hours Arnold had maintained the fight with the
choicest English regiments. A lull occurred during
which both parties drew breath. The English
again advanced. The Americans kept within their
camp till their foe was on the point of charging,
when, springing forth, they drove it back over the
intermediate clearing. Night put an end to the
conflict. The Americans retired to their intrench-
ments ; the British lay on the battle-field. The
loss of the former was 64 killed and 217 wounded,
that of the latter rather more than 500. Both
claimed the victory, but the British had failed to
force their way to Albany.
The two armies lay for several days inactive. On
Sept. 29th Gen. Benjamin Lincoln joined Gates
with 2000 men, while Burgoyne’s army melted
away through desertion. In vain did he call on
Howe and Clinton. His provisions began to fail;
he must fight or flee. On Oct. 7th he determined
to make a reconnoissance in force and replenish his
stores by foraging. His foragers were discovered
and, at 2.30 P.M., the struggle was recommenced.
Arnold and Morgan were the inspiring spirits for
the patriots, Fraser for the British. At length the
last was struck down, and panic seized the royalists,
which was augmented by the appearance of 3000
fresh troops under Gen. Tenbroeck. The British
Were driven within their lines. Both armies were
exhausted, the Americans being as incapable of fol-
lowing up their advantage as the British of repair-
ing their discomfiture. The American loss was 150;
the British, 700.
The 8th was spent in heavy skirmishing, till, at
evening, Burgoyne, leaving his baggage and
wounded, set out on a night march for Saratoga.
9n the 9th, he encamped on the heights north of
Fishkill. Gates pursued on the 10th and reached
the heights between Saratoga church and the Fish-
kill in the afternoon.
Burgoyne now saw no means of saving his army
Save by a precipitate flight to Fort Edward, which
he hoped to capture. With this view he sent a
Working-party in advance. Gates, supposing this
to be the whole British army in retreat, ordered a
general advance over the Fishkill. Burgoyne ap-
preciating his mistake, leaving a guard in his camp,
aided by a fog, ambushed his main force in an ad-
joining thicket. The Americans on crossing were
received by a heavy fire. Gates now learned the
truth from a deserter and recalled his men to their
positions. Burgoyne saw that there was no longer
hºpe of escape, His position was exposed to fire on
all sides; the roads to the north were impassable
and the woods swarmed with patriots; he had bread
9mly for three days and water was inaccessible. On
the 18th he called a council of war and it was
WOL. IV.-2 c
resolved to treat with Gates for honorable surrender.
After negotiating, terms were agreed to on the 16th,
and, on Sept. 17th, articles were subscribed whereby
the British were permitted to march out of the camp
with the honors of war, surrendering their artillery,
arms, and ammunition, and engaging not to serve
again during the war. Burgoyne, in presence of the
two armies, in the afternoon, surrendered his sword
to Gates who promptly returned it. The British
troops then filed off to Boston, whence they were to
embark for England. But Congress afterwards re-
fused to carry out the terms of surrender, and the
British prisoners were taken to Pennsylvania and
Virginia, where they mostly remained till the close
of the war. (J. H.)
SARDOU, VICTORIEN, French dramatist, was
born at Paris Sept. 7, 1831. The son of a classical
professor, he had in early manhood a severe struggle
with poverty. He gave lessons in various branches,
wrote for reviews, dictionaries, and newspapers,
and even composed a play which failed miserably.
It was not until his marriage with Mlle. de Bré-
court, in 1858, gave him access to the theatre
manager Déjazet that he entered fairly on the field
in which he achieved a flattering success. His play
Candide (1860) was soon followed by a shoal of
others, produced at various theatres. Among them
may be noted Nos Intimes, Les Pattes de Mouche, La
Perle Noire. Offenbach contributed the music to his
comic operas. Sardou's career was interrupted for
a while by the overthrow of the Empire, but early
in 1872 he brought out Rabagas, a political comedy,
in the style of Aristophanes, aimed at Gambetta. Its
representation excited serious disturbances in Paris
and in the provinces. His noted caricature, L'Oncle
Sam, was actually prohibited for a time at Paris
lest it should produce diplomatic complications with
the United States. But when produced in New
York, in March, 1873, it caused more astonishment
than anger. A later noted comedy, Daniel Rochat
(1880), turned on the question of religious marriages,
various views of which were presented by characters
easily recognized. Sardou was chosen a member of
the French Academy in June, 1877, and his recep-
tion took place May 23, 1878. His most noted later
works are Fédora and Théodora, both written for
Sarah Bernhardt. They have proved as popular on
the English and American stage as in Paris. Sar-
dou's comedies, struck off rapidly, are full of spirit,
and reproduce vividly on the stage the movements
of the world around him. With Shakespearean di-
rectness and confidence in his right to whatever he
finds worth taking he has not hesitated to make use
of situations and scenes already employed by others.
His popularity has not been in the least affected by
this open plagiarism. Sardou was married in 1872 to
Mlle. Soulier, daughter of the keeper of the museum
at Versailles.
SARGENT, EPES (1812–1880), a prolific author
of popular books, was born Sept. 27, 1812, at Glouces-
ter, Mass., where his family had resided for more
than a century. In boyhood he visited Russia and
for two years he studied at Harvard College. He
became gonnected with the Boston Daily Advertiser
but he and his elder brother, John Osborne Sar!
gent, who was afterwards noted as a lawyer, assisted
S. G. Goodrich (for whom see ENCYCLop EDIA BRI.
TANNICA), in the preparation of the popular series
issued under the name of “Peter Parley.” Epes
Sargent was for many years engaged as a journalist
sometimes in New York and Washington, but mostly
in Boston. He and his brother were active in the
interest of the Whig party. Epes also wrote for the
stage but without marked success, his chief plays
being The Bride of Genoa (1836), and the tragedies
Velasco (1837) and The Priestess (1855), in his
later years his chief occupation was the preparation
of readers, speakers, and other school books, whieh,
442
SARGENT—SASSAFRAS.
by their excellence, obtained wide circulation. He
also edited some books of adventure and wrote
Planchette (1869), an account of spiritualism, in
Which he was them a believer. At various times he
had published volumes of verse, and his Songs of the
Sea (1849) included the popular song “A Life on
the Ocean Wave.” His latest poem was The
Woman Who Dared (1869). Among his novels
may be noted Peculiar (1863), a tale of the over-
throw of slavery. He died at Boston, Dec. 30, 1880.
SARGENT, LUCIUS MANLIUs (1786–1867), tem-
perance advocate, was born in Boston June 25,
1786, being a grandson of Col. Epes Sargent (1690–
1762). He studied at Harvard College and was
admitted to the bar but did not practice, being
possessed of ample fortune. He was a frequent con-
tributor to the Boston Transcript, and his antiqua-
rian sketches, Dealings with the Dead, by a Sexton of
the Old School, were republished in 1856. His Tem-
perance Tales, at first issued separately, had exten-
sive circulation in Europe and Australia, as well as
at home, and were afterwards collected in various
editions. He married a sister of Horace Binney, the
eminent lawyer of Philadelphia, and his sons were
distinguished in the war for the Union. He died
at West Roxbury, June 2, 1867.
SARGENT, WINTHROP (1753–1820), a cousin of
the preceding, was born at Gloucester, Mass.,
graduated at Harvard College in 1771, and after
some experience of naval life entered the American
army in 1775. He served in the artillery throughout
the Revolutionary war and attained the rank of
major. After the war he took part in the enterprise
of the Ohio Company, and in 1786 was appointed by
Congress surveyor of the Northwest Territory. He
was adjutant general in St. Clair's army in 1791 and
again in Wayne’s in 1794, and was first governor of
Mississippi Territory, 1798–1802. . He died on a
voyage from Natchez to Philadelphia, June 3, 1820.
His grandson, WINTHROP SARGENT (1825–1870);
was born in Philadelphia, Sept. 23, 1825, graduated
at the University of Pennsylvania in 1845, and at
the Harvard Law School in 1847. He published a
History of Braddock's Expedition (1855), Loyalist
Poetry of the Revolution (1857), with a supplemen-
tary volume in 1860, Journal of the Meeting ºf the
Cincinnati in 1784 (1851), Life of Major André
(1861), and Letters of John Andrews, 1772–6 (1866).
He also contributed to the North American Review
and other periodicals. He practised law in Phila-
delphia and afterwards in New York, and died in
Paris May 18, 1870.
SARMīENTO, DON DOMINGO FAUSTINO, Presi-
dent of the Argentine Republic, was born at San
Juan in 1811. He was one of the opponents of the
Dictator Rosas and was banished, but returned in
1836, and established a school for young ladies. . He
became editor of a newspaper and was again ban:
ished by Rosas. He then entered the service of
Chili and was sent to Europe to examine and re-
port upon educational institutions and systems. In
i851 he returned to Buenos Ayres, and was colonel
of a regiment in the battle of Monto, Casseros, by
which ihe power of Rosas was overthrown. Sar-
miento them took a prominent part in framing the
new constitution of the Argentine Confederation.
He was minister of instruction, and afterwards of
the interior. He also served as governor of San
Juan. In 1865 he was sent as minister to the
United States and in 1868 he was peacefully elected
president of the Argentine Confederation. An un-
ioned by the assassination of
fortunate war, occasione * *
Gen. Urquiza, greatly injured the prosperity of his
ly in 1873 in the wic-
administration. It ended ear * *
tory of the national troops., , Sarmiento has pub-
lished several works on the history of his º
Mrs. Horace Mann's translation of. his Life in the
Argentine Republic (1868) gives his biography.
SARTAIN, JOHN, who has been called the
founder in America of mezzotint engraving, was
born in London Oct. 24, 1808, and came to the
United States in 1830. He was originally an en-
graver in the line manner, but in 1828 commenced
to practise mezzotinto, and afterward usually min-
gled line, mezzotinto, and stippling in his plates.
For some years he was also engaged in painting por-
traits in oil and miniatures on ivory. Later he
abandoned painting and devoted himself entirely to
engraving and literary work. Always exceedingly
industrious, he has produced an enormous amount
of work for various periodicals, annuals, and illus-
trated books. Of his large framing prints the best
known are Christ Rejected, after West ; The Iron
Worker and King Solomon, American Inventors,
and Zeisberger preaching to the Indians, after
Schussele ; John Knox and Mary Queen of Scots,
after Leutze ; and the Battle of Gettysburg, after
Rothermel. In 1843 he became proprietor and
editor of Campbell's Foreign Semi-Monthly and Maga-
zine, and at the same time he had an interest in the
Eclectic Museum. During some years after 1848 he
was part-owner and editor of Sartain’s Union Maga-
zine (formerly the Union Magazine). He has held
office in the Pennsylvania Academy and in various
artistic and other societies in Philadelphia, and in
1876 had charge of the art department of the Cen-
tennial Exhibition. He has also been the recipient
of numerous medals and other honors from various
European countries. Three of his children have
also chosen art as a profession. His son, SAMUEL
SARTAIN, born Oct. 8, 1830, in Philadelphia, is well
known as an engraver. His work consists princi-
pally of portraits and other illustrations for books,
but he has also executed a number of large prints,
notably Clear the Track, after Schussele; Christ
Blessing Little Children, after Eastlake, and portraits
after Neagle, Sully, and other painters. . Another
son, WILLIAM SARTAIN, born in Philadelphia, Nov.
21, 1843, also began his career as an engraver, but
later turned his attention to painting. His art
studies were begun under Schussele and continued
in Paris under Léon Bonnat. In 1877 he returned
to the United States and became an associate of the
National Academy three years later. As a teacher
he is widely known, having been instructor in va-
rious art schools in New York and Philadelphia.
Among his paintings, many of them Oriental or
Italian subjects, are Italian Boy’s Head (1876);
Narcissus (1878); and Nubian Sheik (1879). His
daughter, EMILY SARTAIN, born March 17, 1841,
in Philadelphia, has also practised both engraving
and painting. She studied under Schussele and
Luminais, and paints principally portraits. From
November, 1881, to February, 1883, she was art
editor of Our Continent, and she has been principal
of the Philadelphia School of Design for Women
Since 1886. (F. L. W.)
SASSAFRAS, a genus of plants, order law.raceae.
Nearly all the plants of this order possess aromatic
properties, which are due to the presence of volatile
oils. The typical genus is laurus, the laurel, but it
embraces also cinnamon, cassia, Camphor, and sas-
safras. Sassafras is a corruption of the word Saxi-
frage, which now denotes a widely different family
of herbaceous plants. It has but a single species
S. officinale, which is common throughout the United
| States, forming a small tree in the North, of about
S inches diameter of trunk, but in favorable situ-
ations southward sometimes reaching a height of
50 or 60 feet, and from 1 to 2 feet diameter. The
sexes are dioecious, the leaves and flowers produced
from the same buds, the younger branches and
under surfaces of leaves downy, the flowers in short,
slender racemes, of a pale-green color, antlers with
4 unequal cells. The female flowers possess, in ad-
dition to the pistils, six gland-like bodies, an-
SAULCY-SAWANNAH. 443
swering to the stamens of the male flowers. ºn the classification of Byzantine coins won a prize
The trée has a greyish and deeply furrowed trunk, from the French Institute, and he was soon enrolled
but the young branches are of a beautiful reddish- as a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. But
green hue. The true bark when cut into is of a his duties as military instructor were also diligently
ãark red color like that of Peruvian bark. The pursued, and in 1838 he became professor of me-
tree when old gives rise to many suckers which chanics in the school at Metz. Then he was trans-
spring up at a short distance from the trunk, grOWing ferred to Paris to be keeper of the Military Museum.
to a height of 6 or 8 feet. The leaves of the Sassa- In 1850 he made a visit to Palestine and explored
fras are remarkable for their varying forms on the the Dead Sea, of which he published a popular ag-
same tree. Those first produced from the bud are count (2 vols. 1852–54). Though his book had wide
oval and entire ; the next series are lobed on one acceptance, as had also his later work on the Holy
side; the last and most numerous have regularly, Land (1865), many Of his statements were contro:
three lobes. The flowers protrude from the sides of verted. His researches in the Holy Land are said
the branches below the leaves, the sexes being con- to have converted him to belief in Christianity. In
fined to different trees. The fruit or seed is oval 1870, on the downfall of the French empire, he ac-
in form, of deep blue color, and contained in small companied the Empress Eugenie to Chiselhurst, but
bright red cups, supported by peduncles from 1 to 2 afterwards returned to his labors in the Academy of
inches long. The seeds when ripe are eagerly de- Inscriptions. Several of his numismatic works had
voured by birds. reference to the Jews and to Palestine, but he had also
The sassafras tree is indigenous to every part of essays on the coins of the Seleucid kings (1872), the
the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and Nabateans (1874), the Roman Republic (1874), and
extends far into the Dominion of Canada, where it of various French kings. He published treatises on
dwindles to a tall shrub. Every part of the tree has a Caesar's expeditions to Britain (1860), on Herod
pleasant fragrance, and a sweetish aromatic taste, (1867), the siege of Jerusalem (1866), Seven Centuries
which is strongest in the bark of the root. These of Jewish History (1874), and a Dictionnaire Topo-
qualities depend upon an essential oil, which may be graphique de la Terré Sainte (1877).
obtained by distillation and has been highly valued in SAVAGE, JAMES (1784–1873), antiquarian, was
medicine. The sassafras early attracted the atten- ; born in Boston, July 13, 1784. He graduated at
tion of Europeans from the peculiarity of its foliage Harvard College in 1803, and was admitted to the
and its medicinal properties. One writer called it bar in 1807. In 1812 he was elected to the State
the ague tree, and its value as a medicine was once legislature, in 1820 was a member of the State Con-
held so high that its products commanded an ex- stitutional Convention, and afterwards held various
travagant price. It is said that its strong fragrance municipal offices. He was one. of the editors of the
was one of the indications borne to Columbus and Monthly Anthology, 1806–11. He founded the first
his followers of the nearness of land, so that it may savings bank in Boston in 1817, and was treasurer
be claimed to have borne a part in the disco very of and president of the Massachusetts Historical Soci-
America. ety. In 1825 he edited with notes Gov. Winthrop's
The wood of the Sassafras is white and tender in History of New England (2d ed., 1853). His princi-
young trees, reddish and more compact in older pal work was A Genealogical Dictionary of the First
trees. While of little value as timber the wood Settlers of New England (4 vols. 1860–62). It was
resists decay and has been used for posts, rails, pronounced by the North American Review “the
joists, and rafters, also for trunks, bedsteads, etc., most stupendous work on genealogy ever compiled.”
under the belief that its odor drives away in sects. The author died at Boston, March 8, 1873.
Sassafras poles have long been used as poultry roosts SAVAGE, MINOT JUDsoN, preacher and author,
for the same reason, the odor being supposed to be was born at Norridgewood, Maine, June 10, 1841.
disagreeable to hen lice. Another use is for fishing He gratluated at Bangor Theological Seminary in
rods, from the toughness and lightness of the sea- 1864, and went as a Congregational home missionary
soned wood. The bark has been used for dyeing, to California. Afterwards he supplied a church at
and gives wool a very durable orange color. The Framingham, Mass., and became pastor at Hanni-
young shoots and leaves are highly mucilaginous, bal, Mo., in 1869. His theological views having
and the pith, which is light and spongy and very changed he became pastor of a Unitarian church in
mucilaginous when chewed, is kept in shops and Chicago in 1873, and in the next year took charge
sold for this purpose. It is also used in water as a of the Church of the Unity in Boston. He now be-
drink in inflammatory diseases and as an eye-wash. longs to the extreme left wing of Unitarianism, and
In Louisiana the leaves are sometimes used as a is a bold exponent of its views. He has been a
substitute for okra in making gumbo soup. They frequent contributor of both prose and poetry to
are also used in making home-made beer known as journals and magazines. Among his books are
root beer, and in some sections as a seasoning for Christianity the Science of Manhºod (1873), The
S3. UlOeS. | Religion of Evolution (1876), Talks about Jesus (1880)
The Indians have long used the sassafras bark Belief in God (1881), Beliefs about Man (1SS2), The
medicinally and it is still used for this purpose, the Modern Sphina (1883), The Religious Life (1886)
root bark being preferred for its strong aromatic Social Problems (1886). * tº: y
properties. It is kept in small fragments for flavor- SAVANNAH, a city and port of entry of Georgia,
ing officinal preparations, for which purpose also the county-seat of Chatham co., is on the south bank of
oil is extracted to the extent of 15,000 or 20,000 the Savannah River, 18 miles from the Atlantic
pounds annually, Medicinally Sassafras is con- Ocean, 32° 5' N. lat., S1& 8 W long. By rail it is
sidered an excellent stimulant and sudorific, and '90 miles from Charleston and 6s2 miles from Wash.
Was formerly much used in the cure of such com- ington. Situated partly on a bluff about 40 feet
plaints as rheumatism, dropsy, and cutaneous erup- above the river, it extends 3 miles along the river
tions. The fruits of the Sassafras are much used by and over a mile inland. The city is regulariv laid
perfumers, who powder them and put them up in out with wide streets Crossing at right Tangies and
small Sachets for their agreeable odor. (C. M.) lined with trees. There are 34 smail parks and in
SAULCY, LOUIS FELICIEN JOSEPH CAIGNARD the centre Forsyth Place, a park of 30 acres. thickly
PP, French orientalist and numismatist, was born planted with forest trees has a handsome fountain
* Lille, March 19, 1807. He was educated at the and a monument with bronze sº the ºn:
ſº School, and entered the artillery service. federate dead. Johnson Square contains a granite
\{eanwhile his leisure was taken up with archae-lobelisk commemorating Geº. Nathaº.) Greene, and
ology and especially numismatics. In 1836 his essay Monterey Square a marble shaft with a stafue of
444
SAVINGS BANKS.
Liberty, erected to the memory of Count Pulaski,
who fell here Oct. 9, 1779. Among the conspicuous
buildings are the Custom House, City Exchange,
Cotton Exchange, Hodgson Hall, used by the
Georgia. Historical Society, Masonic Temple, Odd
Fellows’ Hall, Savannah Hospital, the Catholic
Cathedral, the Independent Presbyterian Church,
St. John's (Episcopal) Church, and the synagogue
of Mickva. Israel.
State banks and some private banks, a Board of
Trade and Cotton Exchange, 2 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers. There are altogether 30 churches,
13 of which are used by colored people. Besides
Some private academies of high reputation, the
county provides public schools, in which instruc-
tion is given to whites and blacks separately.
The city has street-railways, gas, and electric
lights, a good system of water supply, and a paid
fire department. The buildings are chiefly of brick,
and many private residences are of handsome archi-
tecture. The industrial works comprise iron foun-
dries, saw and planing mills, rice and flour mills,
cotton compresses, a cotton mill, paper mill, ice
factory, furniture factory, and a lithographic estab-.
lishment.
The railroads are the Central of Georgia with
2050 miles, and the Savannah, Florida and Western,
634 miles, the latter connecting at Tampa, Florida,
with a steamship line to Cuba. Steamships also
ply regularly from Savannah to New York, Phila-
delphia, Baltimore, and Boston. As a cotton port
Savannah ranks second in the Union, first in the
rosin and turpentine trade, and second in the rice
trade. It also ships largely lumber, fruit, and iron
ore brought from Alabama. The exports in 1885
amounted to $45,100,000, and the total trade was
estimated at $90,000,000.
Savannah was founded in 1733 by Gen. James
Oglethorpe. It was incorporated as a city in 1789.
In the Revolutionary war it was captured by the
British Dec. 29, 1778, and evacuated July 11, 1783.
In the civil war it was captured by Gen. W. T.
Sherman, Dec. 21, 1864. Its population in 1880 was
30,709, and in 1886 by a city census 45,482, of whom
18,817 were colored. (J. H. E.)
SAVINGS BANKS. The first savings bank in
the United States was organized in
Philadelphia under the title of the “Phi-
(p. 342 Am ladelphia Savings Fund Society.” It was
kº a voluntary non-corporate association,
* - - composed of a few benevolent and phi-
lanthropic gentlemen who associated together for the
purpose of receiving and caring for the small accu-
mulations of surplus moneys of poor persons. This
society commenced the receiving of deposits in De-
cember, 1816; subsequently, in the year 1819, it was
granted a corporate franchise by the State of Penn-
Sylvania.
The State of Massachusetts, however, was first to
give legislative sanction to the organization of Sav-
ings banks; this it did in the year 1817. Other
States that at early dates granted charters for such
institutions were Maryland in 1818, New York,
I’ennsylvania, Maine, Connecticut, and Rhode Isl-
and in 1819, New Hampshire in 1823, Ohio in 1831,
Delaware in 1832, New Jersey in 1839 and Vermont in
the year 1846. At subsequent periods charters were
granted to savings banks by most of the other States.
For many years all such institutions were created
by special acts of the respective State legislatures,
but the tendency of recent legislation has been to
provide for their organization and management by
general laws. º *
Excepting the so-called capital stock savings
banks, the main features of those institutions are
very similar—strikingly so, considering the fact
that the savings bank system of the United States
See Wol.
XXI. p. 329
is not a connective system, subject to the super-
Savannah has 2 national and 3
vision and control of a central authority, but rather
a multitude of systems, each regulated by its own
Special source of authority, a State legislature. As
Savings banks had their inception in the Middle
and Eastern or New England States, they are now
most numerous and have reached their highest per-
fection in those localities.
The most reliable data.
obtainable, from both official and unofficial sources,
show the number of savings banks in operation in
1886–1887 to have been 684. The number in each
State, together with their aggregate capital, sur-
plus and deposits, is given in Table I.
TABLE I.—SAVINGs BANKs, 1886–87.
Surplus and
STATES, etc. Nº. Capital.” #. Deposits.
Profits,
Maine ............... 54 ...... $2,199,862 $37,215,072
New Hampshire. 66 ...... 4,604,680 50,822,762
Vermont............ 28 $460,000 776,112 15,587,050
Massachusetts.... 172 ...... 12,928,350 291,197,900
Rhode Island...... 37 ...... 2,797,248 53,284,821
Connecticut........ 85 ...... 4,845,631 97,424,820
New York.......... 115 ...... 85,633,329 || 482,486,730
New Jersey ........ 25 ! ...... 2,412,877 27,482,135
Maryland .......... 2 30,105 14,879 204,125
Dist. of Columbia 1 ...... 11,464 834,524
North Carolina ... 1. 5,991 374 11,307
Ohio ................. 4 ...... 388,326 15,065,659
Indiana.............. 6 ...... 212,550 2,312,013
Iowa ................. 37 2,128,693 492,204 9,969,019
Minnesota.......... 7 150,000 138,908 3,891,653
California .......... 24 4,216,377| 2,731,089 70,077,893
Total ............. 664 6,991,166|120,187,883 |1,157,867,483
Unofficial.
Philadelphia....... 5 || $444,700 $3,811,224 || $42,219,099
Delaware........... 2 ...... 269,740 2,771,392
Maryland .......... 8 ...... 1,142,697 18,816,837
Chicago ............. 5 2,655,000 1,488,699 14,061,258
Total ............. 20 |3,099,700 6,712,360 77,868,586
* Only 84 savings banks report capital.
While it was purely in the spirit of philanthropy
that savings banks were originally organized and
operated for many years after their introduction
into the United States, they no longer are confined
in their operations and influences to the limited
field first assigned to them. In late years they have
proved attractive depositories for the surplus mon-
eys of all classes, and every effort by legislation or
otherwise, to restrict them to dealings with the
poor alone, has failed. The widening of the area
of their operations so as to embrace a higher order
and greater number of beneficiaries has had a salu-
tary effect; yet in many States measures have been
adopted tending to prevent such expansion and
\
more closely confine them to their original purposes,
but the interests of the banks have proved stronger
than restrictive laws, and the Savings bank systems
of the several States have grown and become strong
largely through the patronage of those whom it was
sought to exclude. Experience has demonstrated
that those institutions lose none of their efficiency as
promoters of industry, sobriety and thrift among
the poorer classes for the reason that others more
favored are allowed to share in their benefits. As a
consequence they came to be regarded less as depos-
itories than as organized mediums through which
investments in clearly defined securities may be ad-
vantageously made.
In the year 1834 the State of Massachusetts en-
SAVINGS BANKS.
445
acted a general law for the organization and super-
vision of savings banks. At that date there Was
probably not more than $7,000,000 on deposit with
all of these institutions in the United States.
From 1835 savings banks have occupied the pub-
ſic attention to a greater or less degree and the sub-
ject has been a fruitful source of legislation; the
earlier of which in most States embraced provisions
for the making of reports to disclose the condition
of the banks in respect to resources and liabilities;
such returns though imperfectly showing their Con-
dition were the subject of criticism that resulted in
the enactment of laws designed to make them more
secure by limiting and restricting the scope of their
investments and methods of business.
made in accordance with the requirements of law.
Though legislation was neither regular nor uni-
form, the more important subjects were embraced in
that of most States during the twenty years succeed-
ing the passage of the Massachusetts general law
in 1834. The attention savings banks attracted as
affording desirable places of deposit for surplus
moneys, practically subject to repayment on de-
mand, was the primary cause of their being gene-
So large patronage Soon
rally used by the public.
lifted well-conducted banks located in cities and popu-
lous centres of manufacture and trade out of their
previous semi-charitable conditions.
a few hours of gratuitous service weekly being
insufficient for the transaction of their business.
ment followed.
by decades in the following table:—
Year Number Number of Amount of
& of Banks. Depositors. Deposits.
1825 ............... 15 16,931 $2,537,082
1835 ............... 52 60,058 10,613,726
1845 ............... 70 145,206 24,506,677
1855 ............... 215 431,602 84,290,076
1865 ............... 317 980,844 242,619,382
1875 ............... 771 2,359,864 924,037,304
1885 ............... 684 3,158,950 1,141,530,578
Prior to the year 1870 the estimated loss to de-
positors with savings banks throughout the United
States, by reason of failures, was but a small frac-
tion of a mill on the dollar of aggregate deposits
held by such institutions. During the seven succeed-
ing years, however, savings bank failures were of
Common occurrence. In the State of New York
alone 29 of these banks failed, involving a loss to
depositors approximating $5,000,000. In the other
States failures were not so numerous, yet they were
Comparatively frequent. The inherent weakness of
the unsound banks was soon developed by the sus-
pension of industries, the depression of trade, and
the depreciation of property and securities gene-
rally incident to the monetary panic of 1873, coupſed
With unusually heavy withdrawal of deposits at so
Critical a time. The conservatively managed solvent
banks were little affected by the strain that forced
many of the weak ones into liquidation. The failure
of one sayings bank after another in rapid succes-
Sion produced great excitement in the localities
affected and public attention was directed to the
dangers to arise from the reckless incorporation of
Such institutions. In the year 1855 only 215 savings
banks were in existence throughout the United States,
in 1875 the number had reached 771. Within that
period the war of the Rebellion occurred, producing
At later pe-
riods provisions were made for their supervision by
designated State officials and examinations were pro-
vided for to ascertain whether investments had been
lent appropriation of deposits.
The greater
demands made on the resources of the banks neces-
sitated the employment of competent salaried clerks
and managers and the extension of business hours,
and sometimes without it, but usually with the pur-
pose in view of promoting the advantage of their
The increased facilities afforded early met with
public favor and a phenomenally rapid develop-
The growth of savings banks in
the United States for the past sixty years is shown
tions. The abundance of money and the activity of
every branch of industry materially aided the rapid
accumulation of deposits. The National government
was then a large borrower and its bonds were avail-
able for investment by savings banks on the mºst
advantageous terms. In seconding the efforts of the
government in its struggle for existence, the cities,
counties and towns became borrowers of large sums
at high rates of interest ; those securities also were
generally taken by savings banks. Such conditions
produced all elements conducive to prosperity for
financial institutions: industries active in every
department, an abundant currency and facilities for
speedy and profitable investment. The seeming
prosperity created and promoted by the war did
not of course subside immediately on its termina-
tion, and the evil effects of the ill-advised multiplica-
tion of savings banks were not made fully apparent
until the coming of the panic of 1873, when finance,
trade, commerce and industries all became unset-
tled and the manufacturing districts idle, making
necessary the withdrawal of savings wisely accumu-
lated for such a time of trial. The strong banks
withstood the depletion of their resources, while the
weak and unsound ones were swept away.
In connection with past savings bank failures in
the United States, it is a noteworthy fact that but
very few failures have been caused by the fraudu-
For the most part
they have resulted from extravagance and a disre-
gard of the plainest principles of prudent business
management, as shown by injudicious loans and
investments; made sometimes under sanction of law
ºnditiºns exceptionally favorable to such institu.
|
depositors, by securing for them higher rates of
interest than strictly first class loans and invest-
ments would yield.
The weaknesses in the system disclosed by the
crisis through which they passed have been provided
against for the future by remedial legislation. In
nearly all of the States laws have since been enacted
to provide more effectual safeguards for the protec-
tion of savings banks’ depositors, and legislators have
responded to urgent demands for more stringent
and carefully considered laws for their government.
Many States have repealed the special laws under
which savings banks previously operated and made
provisions for their organization and supervision by
general law.
Owing to the numerous failures in New York the
Constitution of that State was amended by a vote of
the people in 1874, so as to require its legislature by
a general law to conform the charters of all savings
banks or institutions for savings to a uniformity of
powers, rights and liabilities, and require that banks
thereafter organized should conform to such general
law and amendments made thereto. The organiza-
tion, of savings banks with capital stock was pro-
hibited and the power to pass special charters for
banking purposes was taken from the legislature.
Trustees of savings banks were prohibited from
having any interest, direct or indirect, in their
profits or from being interested in any loan or use of
any money or property of savings banks with which
they were connected. In obedience to the constitu-
tional, mandate the legislature of 1875 repealed all
Special privileges contained in savings bank charters
and enacted a stringent and very complete general
law for their management, many of the salient fea-
tures of which have since been engrafted into the
laws of other States. As the New York law con-
tains more features common to the laws of all States#
a synopsis of its provisions are given.
* In most of the Eastern States savings banks are au-
thorized to invest in bank stock, railroad, and corporation
446
SAVINGS BANKS.
. Savings banks are by law declared to be corpora- the agent or partner of others, can borrow the funds
tions possessed of the powers and functions of cor- or deposits of the bank, or in any manner use the
porations generally and as such may have perpetual
Succession, Sue and be sued, complain and defend in
any court of law or equity, appoint such officers,
managers, or agents as the business of the corpora-
tion, requires, provide for the management of its
property and the regulation of its affairs, contract
and be contracted with, receive money on deposit
and invest the same and exercise any additional
powers incidental to the business of a savings bank.
Not less than thirteen persons can organize, each of
whom is required to make a written declaration that
he will accept the responsibilities and faithfully dis-
charge the duties of a trustee of the institution if
the same shall be authorized by the bank superinten-
dent. This officer has discretionary power in regard
to the creating of new banks, being required to deter-
mine from the best sources of information at his
command, whether greater convenience of access to
a savings bank will be afforded to any considerable
number of depositors by opening a bank at the place
designated, and if the density of the population in
the neighborhood and in the surrounding country is
such as to afford a reasonable promise of adequate
support to the enterprise, and also whether the re-
sponsibility, character, and general fitness for the
discharge of the duties appertaining to such a trust
of the persons named as trustees are such as to com-
mand the confidence of the community in which the
savings bank is proposed to be located. On au-
thority to transact business being granted the per-
sons designated as trustees have the entire manage-
ment and control of the affairs of the corporation.
Residents of the State alone are eligible as trustees,
and whenever a trustee of one bank becomes
a trustee, officer, clerk, or employé in any other
savings bank, or upon borrowing, directly or in-
directly, any of the funds of the bank of which he is
a trustee, or becoming a surety or guarantor for
tºoney borrowed of or a loan made by the bank, or
upon failure to attend regular meetings of the board
or to perform any duties devolved upon him as a
trustee for six successive months, without having
previously been excused by the board, his office be-
comes vacant. But in the discretion of the board
such trustees are eligible for re-election. The board
of trustees elect from their number a president and
two vice-presidents; and from their number or
otherwise, elect or appoint such officers and clerks,
whose salaries are fixed by the board, as they may
see fit. Vacancies in the office of the trustee are
filled by the board, which has power from time to
time to make such by-laws, rules, and regulations as
may be thought proper for the election of officers,
for prescribing their respective powers and duties
and the manner of discharging the same ; for the
appointment and duties of committees, and gene-
rally for transacting, managing, and directing the
affairs of the corporation. Regular meetings of the
board of trustees are required to be held as often as
once in each month, at which at least Seven trustees
must be present. Trustees are prohibited by law
from having any interest whatever, direct or in-
direct, in the gains or profits of their banks, or from,
directly or indirectly, receiving any pay or emolu-
ment for their services, except that trustees acting
as officers, whose duties require and receive their
regular and faithful attendance at the bank, may re-
ceive such compensation as in the opinion of a ma-
jority of the board of trustees shall be just and rea-
sonable ; such majority to be exclusive of any trustee
to whom compensation is voted ; but it is not lawful
to pay trustees, as such, for attendance at board
meetings. No trustee or officer, for himself or as
stocks and bonds, bonds of cities, and personal Securities.
In some few States the banks deal in commercial paper.
Same, except to make current and necessary pay-
ments authorized by the board of trustees, nor can
any trustee or officer become an indorser or surety, or
in any manner an obligor for moneys loaned by or
borrowed of his bank.
Savings banks are authorized by law to receive on
deposit such sums of money as may be offered by
individuals, corporations, or Societies ; invest the
same and pay interest or dividends thereon. On
making first deposit, banks furnish to each depositor
a pass-book in which all deposits and withdrawals
are required to be entered. Such pass-book contains
the rules and regulations of the bank, and is legal
evidence between the corporation and the depositor
as to the terms on which the deposit is made. The
sums deposited together with accumulations are
required to be repaid to depositors or their legal
representatives, after demand, in such manner and
at such times and after such previous notice, and
under such regulations as the board of trustees may
prescribe. The usual provision is for sixty days’
notice, which is only demanded in time of panic to
allay excitement. While depositors are not restricted
as to the number of banks with which they ma
have accounts, the aggregate amount a single tº:
can hold to the credit of an individual is limited to
$3000. Such limitation does not apply to deposits
made by order of a court of record or a surrogate.
Banks may refuse to receive deposits, or at any time
return all or any portion thereof. Deposits made
by minors or females are held for their exclusive
benefit, free from the control or lien of all persons
whatsoever, except creditors.
It is made the duty of trustees to regulate the rate
of interest or dividends on deposits not to exceed 5
per cent. per annum, in such manner that depositors
shall receive, as nearly as may be, all profits of the
corporation after deducting necessary expenses, and
reserving such amount as may be deemed expedient,
as a surplus fund for the security of depositors,
which to the amount of 15 per cent. of deposits the
are authorized to gradually accumulate and hold,
to meet any contingency or loss in business from the
depreciation of securities or otherwise. When sur-
plus exceeds 15 per cent, of deposits extra dividends
may be declared. Savings banks are prohibited
from declaring, crediting, or paying dividends or
interest except on authority of a vote of the board
of trustees. When dividends are declared and
credited in excess of the earnings of a savings bank,
trustees voting therefor are jointly and severally
liable to the bank for the excess so declared.
The securities in which investments may lawfully
be made are stocks or bonds or interest-bearing
notes or obligations of the United States, or those
for which its ſaith is pledged ; 3.65 bonds of the
District of Columbia ; interest-bearing stocks or
bonds of the State of New York and those issued by
cities, counties, towns, or villages thereof, and the
stocks or bonds of any State in the Union that has
not, within ten years, defaulted in the payment of
any part of either principal or interest of any debt
authorized by any legislature of such State to be
contracted. In bonds and mortgages on unincum-
bered real estate, situate in the State, and worth, at
least, twice the amount loaned thereon, but not to
exceed 60 per cent. of deposits can be so loaned.
In case the loan is on unimproved and unproductive
real estate the amount is restricted to 40 per cent.
of actual value. No loan on bond and mortgage can
be made except upon the report of a committee
charged with the duty of investigating the same,
who certify the value of the premises according to
their best judgment, which report is filed and pre-
served among the records of the institution.
Trustees are required to invest the moneys de-
447
SAVINGS BANKS.
posited with them, in the Securities enumerated, as
soon as practicablé, except that, for the purpose of
meeting current payments and expenses in, excess
of receipts, there may be kept an available fund of
not exceeding 10 per cent. of the whole amount of
deposits, which may be kept on hand, or on deposit
with banks or trust companies to an amount not
exceeding 25 per cent. of their paid up capital and
surplus; or such available fund or any part thereof
may be loaned on the pledge of such securities as
savings banks are by law authorized to invest in.
The real estate that they may hold and convey is
such as may be requisite for a banking-house, the
cost of which is limited to 50 per cent. Of the surplus
of the bank, and such as may be purchased at sales
upon foreclosure of mortgages owned by the bank,
or upon judgments or decrees obtained for debts due
to it or in settlements effected to Secure such debts.
Trustees are prohibited from loaning the moneys
deposited with them, upon notes, bills of exchange,
drafts, or other personal securities, and it is unlaw-
ful for savings banks to deal or trade in any goods,
wares, merchandise, or commodities whatever, ex-
cept as expressly authorized; or in any manner to
buy or sell exchange, gold or silver, or to collect or
to protest promissory notes, or time bills of ex-
change. And no savings bank can lawfully make
or issue any certificate of deposit, payable either on
demand or at a fixed day, nor pay any interest ex-
cept regular quarterly or semi-annual dividends
upon any deposits or balances, nor pay any interest
or deposits, or portion of a deposit, or any check
drawn upon itself by a depositor, unless the pass-
book of the depositor be produced, and the proper
entry be made therein at the time of the transaction.
Every savings bank is required to make a full
report in writing of its condition at least twice in
each year, verified by the oaths of the two principal
officers of the bank. The reports made for January
and July are based on examinations of assets and
liabilities made by a committee of not less than
three trustees; the accuracy of the examinations is
required to be verified by the oaths of the trustees
making the same. An accurate balance of the de-
positors’ ledgers is also required to be taken semi-
annually, and if there be discrepancies between
them and the general ledger of the bank the fact
must be stated in the semi-annual report.
TABLE II.— 684 SAVINGS BANKS, 1886–87.
RESOURCES. LIABILITIES.
Loans on real estate.............................. $457,441,666 || Capital stock paid in ........................... $10,090,866
Loans on personal and collateral Security 145,553,135 | Surplus fund....... .............................. 119,695,310
Other loans and discounts ..................... 37,904,817 | Other undivided profits........................ 7,204,933
º • * * * * * * * * * * * c e º e º 'º - e º 'º e º e º e º ºr e º e º e º 'º & © tº e º & & 180 § }. "... - e º 'º e º e - G - e º a c e e º a º ºs e s - a 193,386
U. S. bonds.......................................... 248,75. ndividual deposits.............................. 1,235,736,069
State, county, and municipal bonds ...... e 21576i sis Due to other banks and bankers........... y --~ ; gö iss
#. ; 5. and stocks......................... §§ Other liabilities........ e - e º 'º o e º e G e sº e º e º 'º c e s - e. e. e. e. e. 4,649,372
ank Stocks......................................... ,067,68
Other stocks, bonds, and mortgages....... 56,654'327
Due from other banks and bankers........ 55,109,727
Real estate, furniture, and fixtures......... 29,639,750
Current expenses and taxes paid............ 1,761,450
Cash ........................ .'• • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . . 18,005,235
Other resources......... • * * > e º e º e º e º & s e e º e º e º e s e e s s 70,980,412
Total...................................... .... 1,377,660,724 Total......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * c e e º e o e e s e s e e e © tº º º 1,377,660,724
TABLE III.—DEPOSITS OF SAVINGS BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES.
1S85–86. 1SS6–S7.
STATES.
Depositors. Amount. Average. Depositors. Amount. Average.
Maine ............................... 109,398 $35,111,600 $320.95 114,691 $37,215,071 3.24.47
New Hampshire............... tº $ tº 131.31% § $9.5 133.4 50 sº *::::::
Sº • e º a e e º e e - e º ºs e º 'º e e * G - sº sº 75 º .07 3,810 - 15,587,050 289.67
R j . . tº a g º 'º º & © tº º tº e º 'º - © & © & © 1 § º 98.413 3.3% 906,039 291 ,197. ,900 3.21.40
-C O º º e e s e º e º e º e º e º e º e º 'º e º e º . 6,381 º ###3 º 53,284,821 447.1S
§.". ºut........................ º, §§ §§§ º 97,424,820 365.04
N. }. & e º e º 'º e º e - e s e e º e - e º 'º e º 'º e s tº lº 4;º §§ 1,2,4,535 4S2,486,730 381.55
T ºw. #. tº a tº a e º & © tº e º e º 'º º e º e º 'º e º 'º º *. 1,681 §§§sº #3; §13. 27,482,135 280.04
5. * º, a e º 'º e a s tº e º 'º is tº e º e º 'º e e 143,645 37,530,370 261.27 1%, 722 42,219,099 269.89
’8 l'e , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ...... 2.74. o 7. ** ſha * 4 tº
Maryland........... to e º e º e º 'º e º e ...... *77,212 30,542,992 395.57 ; 1éº: §
Rºº, º * * * * * - e º 'º tº º 7,605 793,943 104.40 § $34,531 i01.33
No. 8. TOll Llº . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sº, or , sº *377 11,307 30.00
º::::::::::::::::::::: *34,553 12,823,374 371.12 *41,059 15,065659 sº
# i lana ....................... * * * * * * | * * * * * * | a e e s is a e º e s a e - 9,933 2,312,013 232.75
tºº • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * * s • * | * * * * * * | * * * * * * º 44,061 ,258 501.51
Minnesºta..................... iſ 361 3.65ſ 52S 25i. $9,638 9,989,019 251.50
Califo i • * * * * * * * * * * * * * e e º g c e - e º e º e *S 5* •; v. 5 ºr- Kº) º 15,474 3,402,950 219.91
TD 18 ........ º e º e º e º ºs e º 'º - © - e º e º e 80,489 60,435,919 750.86 *90,245 70,077,899 776.53
Total........................... 3,158,950 1,141,530,578 361.36 3,418,013 1,235,247,371 361.39
* Estimated.
The bank superintendent makes annual reports least once in two years, either personally or by some
to the legislature of the condition of all of the sav-
ings banks in operation in the State ;
Competent person, visits and examines each savings
he also, at bank transacting business in the State. S->
The super-
448
SAXE—SCHAFF.
intendent may cause special examinations to be made
whenever he deems it necessary or expedient. On
such examinations, persons whose testimony is re-
Quired may be compelled to appear and testify. If
at any time it appears to the superintendent, from
examinations or reports, that any savings bank has
committed a violation of its charter or of law, or is
conducting business in an unsafe or unauthorized
manner, he is required to direct the discontinuance
thereof, and whenever such corporations refuse or
neglect to comply with his order, or whenever it
appears that it is unsafe or inexpedient for any such
corporation to continue to transact business, or that
any trustee or officer of a savings bank has abused
his trust, or been guilty of misconduct or malversa-
tion in his official position injurious to the bank, or
to its depositors, the superintendent communicates
the facts to the attorney-general, who institutes such
proceedings as the mature of the case requires.
The proceedings instituted by the attorney-general
may be for the removal of one or more of the trus-
tees, or for the transfer of the corporate powers to
other persons, or the consolidation and merger of
the corporation with any other Savings bank that
may be willing to accept of the trust, or for such
other relief or correction as the particular facts
communicated to him shall seem to require. In the
event of a savings bank being put into liquidation,
its assets are required to be distributed within
eighteen months. The advertising as savings banks,
by individuals or corporations, without lawful au-
thority, is prohibited under heavy penalties,
In Table II. are given the aggregates of the seve-
ral items of resources and liabilities of the Savings
banks throughout the United States in 1886 and
1887, as shown by the most reliable data obtainable
from both official and unofficial sources. (E. A. W.)
SAXE, John GoDFREY (1816–1887), wit and
poet, was born at Highgate, Vt., June 2, 1816. He
graduated at Middlebury College in 1839, became a
lawyer, and in 1851 was made State attorney at
Burlington, where he also conducted a Democratic
newspaper until 1858. He was in much request as
a lecturer, especially at college commencements and
before literary societies. For these occasions his
longer poems were specially adapted, while his
mirth-provoking shorter ones appeared in the Knick-
erbocker Magazine and various journals. From them
collections were made : The Money King and other
Poems (1860); Clever Stories of Many Nations (1863);
The Masquerade (1866); Fables and Legends of Many
Countries (1872); The Proud Miss McBride (1873);
Leisure Day Rhymes (1875). Editions of his Com-
plete Works followed; but the poet who once was
able to evoke mirth from the gravest themes became
a victim to confirmed melancholy. He lived in
seclusion at his son’s house, in Albany, refusing to
receive any company, and died there, March 31,
1887.
SAY, THOMAs (1787–1834), naturalist, was born
at Philadelphia, July 27, 1787. He was the son of a
druggist and was trained in the same business, but
injudicious indorsements caused the failure of his
firm. When the Academy of Natural Sciences Was
formed in his native city, in 1812, he was made
curator and devoted himself with such ardor to Sci-
entific investigation that he grudged to spend time
in eating. In 1818, he joined Maclure and others in
exploring the islands and coast of Georgia and
Florida, until hostilities with the Indians inter-
rupted the work. Say was chief geologist in Major
Long's exploring expeditions, the first in 1819–20, to
the Rocky Mountains, to the second, in 1823, to the
sources of St. Peter's River, now called the Minne-
sota. Robert Owen drew Say and Maclure into his
socialist scheme at New Harmony, Ind., in 1825.
They were to conduct a university for the scientific
training of the community. The entire experiment
failed within two years, but Say remained as the
agent of the property, and died there, Oct. 10, 1834.
His chief work is American Entomology (Phila. 3 vols.
1825; new ed. by Leconte, 1859). Of his American
Comchology, only a few numbers were issued. A list
of his scientific articles is given in the American
Journal of Science, vol. 27.
SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY, English orien-
talist, was born at Shirehampton, Sept. 25, 1846.
He was educated at Grosvenor College, Bath, and
Queen's College, Oxford, when he graduated and
became fellow in 1869, and tutor in i870. He took
orders but continued his college work, and in 1876
Was made deputy professor of comparative philology.
He took part in the English revision of the ği
Testament, from 1874 till 1884. Besides numerous
articles relating to Assyriology and kindred subjects
he has published Principles of Comparative Philology
(1874); Astronomy and Astrology of the Babylonians
(1874); Introduction of the Science of Language (2
vols. 1880); Monuments of the Hittites (1881); Cunei-
form Inscriptions of Van (1882); Ancient Empires of
the East A. ; Fresh Light from the Monuments
(1884); Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther
§: Assyria; its Princes, Priests, and People
( &
SQAMMELL, ALEXANDER (1747–1781), colonel
in the American Revolutionary army, was born at
Mendon, now Milford, Mass., March 24, 1747. He
was the son of a physician of English birth, and
graduated at Harvard in 1769, . He taught school
and assisted in surveying for Holland's map of New
Hampshire. He had commenced the study of law
with John Sullivan, and when the latter was made
brigadier-general in 1775, Scammell became his
brigade major, and served in the siege of Boston
and on Long Island. In 1776 he was made colonel
of the Third New Hampshire Regiment, and fought
at Trenton, Princeton, and Saratoga, being wounded
at the last. He was then made adjutant-general of
the army, but in 1781 he resumed service as colonel.
At the siege of Yorktown he was surprised while
reconnoitering, and after surrendering was wounded
so that he died at Williamsburg, Oct. 6, 1781.
SCARLET FEVER. See FEVER.
SCHAFF, PHILIP, a native of Switzerland, mas-
ter of German theology, has become a foremost
representative of American Protestantism. He
was born at Coire, Jan. 1, 1819, and was educated
at Stuttgart, and at the Universities of Tübingen,
Halle, and Berlin, receiving from the last the de-
grees of Ph.D. in 1841. During his early college life
he travelled extensively on the continent, and in 1842.
he began to lecture on theology at Berlin. About
that time the German Reformed Church of the
United States was seeking to obtain closer contact
with the life and thought ofthefvan gelical Churches.
of Continental Europe. For this purpose the study
of German philosophy, and theology was promoted
and an effort was made to obtain from Germany a
thoroughly trained expounder of those branches.
Neander, Hengstenberg, Tholuck, and others,
whose advice was asked, concurred in recommend.
ing the łºś lecturer, and he was accordingly
called in 1843 to the professorship of church history
and exegesis in the Theological Seminary at Mer.
cersburg, Pa. After some months spent in travel
on the continent and in Great Britain, he sailed
for America and entered on his new work. In the
Seminary and in Marshall College, with which it
was closely connected, Rev. John W. Nevin, D.D.,
was the chief director. Prof. Schaff became an
efficient coadjutor, teaching in both Seminary and
College, and contributing valuable articles to the
Mercersburg Review, which they started in 1849.
His first separate publication was The Principle of
Protestantism (1845), which had been written in
German, and was translated into English, with an
SCHAUFFLER—SCHEM.
449
introduction by Dr. Nevin. In opposition to the
extreme individualism which had prevailed in the
New England Churches, Prof. Schaff insisted on the
historic development of the Church, as an organism.
His views provoked a controversy even in the Ger-
man Reformed Church, and he was tried for heresy
but acquitted. His History of the Apostolic Church
(1851), appeared first in German, was soon trans-
lated into English, and finally expanded into his
valuable History of the Christian Church (6 vols.,
1859–88). Meantime had appeared his Life and
Labors of St. Augustine (1853), and numerous essays
and articles, by no means confined to theology. In
1854 Prof. Schaff paid a visit to his friends in Europe,
and received from his Alma Mater the degree of D.D.
He took occasion to publish for the benefit of Ger-
mans, America: The Political, Social, and Religious
Condition of the United States (Berlin, 1854). This
was translated into English, and after his return he
prepared a somewhat similar book on Germany: its
Universities, Theology and Religion (1857), giving
graphic sketches of its most prominent theologians.
Dr. Schaff's mastery of the department of church
history was now universally acknowledged. He
was a contributor to several theological quarterlies
and to other periodicals. In 1862 he was appointed a
lecturer in Andover Seminary, and afterwards in
other institutions. In 1863 the seminary at Mer-
cersburg having been closed in consequence of the
civil war, Dr. Schaff removed to New York city,
which has since been his residence. He was secre-
tary of the New York Sabbath Committee from
1863 to 1869, and visited Europe in 1865 to promote
Sabbath observance and Sunday schools. After
settling in New York, he joined the Presbyterian
Church, and in 1870 was chosen professor of apolo-
getics and symbolics in the Union Theological
Seminary. In 1872 he was transferred to the chair
of Hebrew, and in 1875 to that of sacred literature.
He was the chief American organizer of the Evan-
gelical Alliance and superintended the arrangements
of its meeting in New York city in 1873. He was
also a delegate to its conferences at Basle in 1875,
and at Copenhagen in 1884. In like manner he took
part in forming the Alliance of the Reformed
Churches in 1875, and he has been prominent at its
meetings at Edinburgh (1877), Philadelphia (1880),
Belfast (1884), and London (1888). This Alliance is
often called the Presbyterian Alliance.
In 1865 there appeared under Dr. Schaff’s editorial
supervision the first volume of an American revised
and enlarged edition of Dr. J. P. Lange's Commen-
tary on the Bible. In this edition twenty prominent
American scholars contributed to improve the ela-
borate original. Such was the value of their labors
that this work was accepted in England as the
Standard translation. The association thus exhibited
in Biblical work easily prepared the way for the
Organization of an American committee to assist in
revising the English version of the Bible. This
work was commenced in 1871, and successfully and
harmoniously completed under the direction of Dr.
Schaff, who published an Introduction on the Revision
of the Bible (1873). The Revised Version of the
New Testament was issued simultaneously in May,
1881, in England and America ; the Old Testament
was similarly issued in 1885.
Another notable work by Dr. Schaff is The Creeds
of Christendom (3 vols., 1877), being a collection of
the authorized symbols and confessions of the prin-
cipal Christian Churches, with notes and introduc-
tion. In his efforts to popularize the latest results
of German research, Dr. Schaff became editor of an
American edition of the Religious Encyclopaedia,
prepared by Drs. Herzog and Plitt. This was
translated, revised, and condensed, while extensive
articles pertaining to American topics were added.
The whole was published under the title, The Schaff.
| Herzog Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (3 vols.;
1884). A supplemental volume, giving biographical
sketches of living divines, has since been issued
(1887).
Besides the various works already mentioned, Dr.
Schaff has prepared collections of hymns, both Ger-
man and English ; Christ in Song (1868), an illus-
trated Bible Dictionary (1880), and with Arthur
Gilman, a Library of Religious Poetry (1881). In
1886 he became editor of the Select Library of the
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, to be completed in
25 volumes. In his prodigious literary activity he
has been assisted by various helpers, notably Rev.
S. M. Jackson, and his son, Rev. D. S. Schaff.
(J. P. L.)
SCHAUFFLER, WILLIAM GOTTLIEB (1798–
1883), missionary, was born at Stuttgart, Würtem-
berg, Aug. 22, 1798, but was taken by his father to
Odessa in childhood. In 1826 he was taken by Rev.
Joseph Wolff, Constantinople, to be prepared for mis-
sionary work. Afterwards he went to America and
studied theology at Andover. Being appointed a
missionary of the American Board in 1831, he re-
turned to Constantinople and there devoted himself
with the utmost diligence to mission work, including
the translation of the Bible into the Osmanli-Turkish
dialect. He was conversant with nineteen lan-
guages, and able to preach in several of them. His
scholarship and labors obtained for him degrees.
from German and American universities. He died
at the residence of his son in New York city, Jan.
26, 1883.
SCHEFFEL, Joseph VICTOR voN (1826–1886),
German poet, was born in Carlsruhe, Baden, Feb.
16, 1826. He was educated in the Lyceum of that
city and afterwards studied science, philology, and
literature in Munich, Heidelberg, and Berlin.
From 1848 to 1852 he was referendary at Sackin-
gen, and then abandoning the service of the State,
spent 1852–53 in Italy. Later, he lived occasion-
ally in Munich and Heidelberg. For a time he was
librarian to the Prince of Fürstenberg, at Donaus-
chingen, and he also enjoyed the patronage of the
Grand-Duke Alexander of Weimar. From 1866.
till his death in Carlsruhe, April 9, 1886, he lived
partly in that city and partly on his estate near
Radolfzell on the Lake of Constance.
His first greatly successful epic poem – The
Trumpeter of Sackingen—had its origin in 1853, in
Sorrento, on the island of Capri, where he lived in
friendly intercourse with Paul Heyse. His Poems
(1886), illustrated by A. von Werner, comprise
fresh German and Italian genre pictures and
Cabinet-pieces recalling the humor of Hoffmann.
The historical romance Ekkehard (Frankfort, 1855;
Stuttgard, 1886, illustrated by von Werner), as weli
as the novel Juniperus, the History of a Crusader
(Stuttgard, 1833), present vivid pictures of mediae-
Val life. His collection of poems, Frau Aventiure,
Songs of the time of Heinrich von Osterdingen, seems
like an echo of the old German minnesingers, while
his Gaudeamus, Songs from far and near, delight by
their genial humor and strike the genuine popular
note. Qther productions are his Bergpsalmen; Wal-
deinsamkeit, and Waltarilied Verdeutscht. Scheffel
Was an original poet, not free from mannerism, but
of sound judgment and genuine fancy. In 1876
º grand Duke of Baden made him a hereditary
I\O Ole.
SCHEM, ALEXANDER JACOB (1826–1881), ency-
clopædist, was born in Widenbrück, Westphalia,
March 16, 1826. He was educated at the Universiº
ties of Bonn and Tübingen, and was ordained in
the Roman Catholic Church. Having become a
Protestant, he emigrated to the United States in
1851, and was made professor of modern languages
in Dickinson College in 1854. Having become a
contributor to Appleton’s New American Cyclopaedia
450
SCHIENCE SCHILIEMANN.
in 1859, he removed to New York, and was there
diligently employed in editing and contributing to
newspapers and cyclopaedias until his death at West
Hoboken, N. J., May 21, 1881. From 1874 he had
been also assistant superintendent of public schools
for New York city, and with Henry Kiddle he edited
the Cyclopaedia of Education (1877).
SCHENCK, ROBERT CUMMING, general, was
born at Franklin, Ohio, Oct. 7, 1809. His father
served as an officer in Gen. Harrison's army. He
graduated at Miami University in 1827, and became
professor there. After being admitted to the bar
he settled at Dayton, and was soon elected to the
legislature. In 1843 he was elected to Congress as
a Whig, and gained reputation for his pungent
speeches. In 1851 he was sent as U. S. minister
to Brazil. After his return he practised his pro-
fession until the outbreak of the civil war, when he
was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers.
In June, 1861, while his command were being trans-
ported by railroad to Vienna, Va., they were fired
upon and sustained severe loss. Gen. Schenck was
engaged at Bull Run, and served in West Virginia,
and in the Shenandoah Valley.
battle of Bull Run, he commanded a division and
had his right arm shattered by a rifle ball. He was
promoted major-general, Sept. 18, 1862, and ap-
pointed to the command of Baltimore, which he
protected during Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania.
In 1863 he returned to Congress and took a prom-
inent part throughout the reconstruction period.
He was latterly chairman of the committee of ways
and means. In 1871 he was sent as U. S. minister
to England and discharged his diplomatic duties
well, but on the failure of a silver-mining company
in which he was a director he resigned in 1876, and
afterwards practised law at Washington.
SCHENECTADY, a city of New York, county-
seat of Schenectady co., is on the South bank of the
Mohawk River, 17 miles N. W. of Albany. It is on
the N. Y. Central, the Albany and Susquehanna,
and the Rensselaer and Saratoga railroads, and on
the Erie canal. It is the seat of Union College, now
enlarged into Union University by the addition of
law and medical schools at Albany. (See UNION
UNIVERSITY.) Schenectady has a city hall and
court-house, a national bank and other banks, 2
high schools, 20 churches, 2 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers. Its industrial works comprise woolen
and flour mills, machine and boiler shops, locomotive
works, stove foundries, broom factories, and other
manufactories. It was an Indian trading post in
1620, and was chartered in 1684. As a frontier
settlement, it was a place of interest in the French
and Indian War, and in the Revolution. In 1798
it was made a city. In 1880 its population was
13,655.
SCHENKEL, DANIEL (1813—1885), a Swiss theo-
logian, was born at Dägerlen, near Zurich, Dec. 21,
1813. He studied theology at Basel and Göttingen,
his instructors being De Wette, Hagenbach, Gieseler,
and Lücke. He began to lecture at Basel in 1837,
and in 1841 was made pastor at Schaffhausen. Upon
the death of De Wette in 1849, Schenkel, who was
his closest follower in spirit and method, was chosen
to succeed him as professor of theology at Basel, but
in 1851 he was called by the grand-duke of Baden
to be chief university preacher and church council-
lor. His noted work, Das Wesem des Protestantismus
(3 vols. 1846–51), while aiming at a reconciliation Of
modern rationalist criticism with the spirit of the
Reformation, yet marked a wide departure from the
orthodox theology and its views of the inspiration
of the Scriptures. Schenkel contributed to Lange's
Bibelwerk commentaries on Ephesians, Philippians,
and Colossians, but as he swerved more widely from
orthodoxy, this place was afterwards, supplied by
Dr. Braune's commentaries. Schenkel also edited
At the second:
the Allgemeine Kirchenzeitung, and strenuously sup-
ported the liberal movement both in theology and
in church constitution. He endeavored to introduce
the congregational principle into the Hessian
Church. Schenkel's free thinking culminated in his
Das Charakterbild Jesu (1864), which passed through
several editions, but against which 118 pastors in
Baden published a protest. In reply Schenkel issued
Die protestamtische Freiheit in ihrem gegenwärtigen
Rampfe mit der kirchlichen Reaktion (1865). He was
one of the most active promoters of the Protestan-
tenverein (for which see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
NICA). This movement he advocated in Christen-
thum wind Kirche in Einklang mit der Kulturent-
wickelung (1867) and various other publications.
At the approach of the Vatican Council Prof.
Schenkel was vigorous in his denunciation of the
new pretensions which were proposed to be put
forth by the Roman Church and its head. At the
great Protestant reunion at Worms Schenkel was
the chief orator and his report was adopted by
20,000 adherents. The most important of Schenkel’s
literary labors was his Bibel-Leasikon (1867–75), in
which he was aided by a numerous corps of
scholars. Among his later works was Das Christus-
bild der Apostel wind der machapostelischen Zeit (1875).
He was always an active contributor to periodi-
cals, and he published many pamphlets on theologi-
cal and polemic subjects. After a long illness he
died at Heidelberg, May 20, 1885.
SCHERER, EDMOND HENRI ADOLPHE, French
liberal theologian and journalist, was born at Paris,
April 8, 1815. His father was a Swiss by birth and
a banker by profession. The son studied at the
Collége Bourbon, spent two years in England, and
after his return studied law at Paris and theology
at Strasburg. He was appointed professor of exe-
gesis at Geneva in 1845, but when his views of the
inspiration of the Bible changed, resigned his post
and published La Critique et la Foi (1850). Then
he became a leader of the liberal party in the
French Reformed Church. After the overthrow of
the Empire he entered into political life and was
elected to the national assembly in July, 1871.
He was a leader among the republicans and en-
deavored to promote the union of their various
groups. He was active in his efforts against the
ministry of the Duc de Broglie and assisted in
effecting its overthrow. He was a correspondent
of the London Daily News and a regular contribu-
tor to Le Temps until 1879, when he withdrew on
personal grounds. He was also connected with Cola-
ni’s Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie chrétienne.
From his contribution to periodicals he gathered
Mélanges de Critique réligieuse (1860), which passed
through several editions. . He also published
Alexandre Vinet (1853); Etudes critiques sur la lit-
térature contemporaine (5 series, 1863–78); Mélanges
d’histoire réligieuse (1864).
SCHIAPARELLI, GIov ANNI VIRGINIUS, Italian
astronomer, was born at Savignano, March 5, 1835.
He pursued mathematical studies at Turin until
1856, when he went to Berlin and afterwards to
Pulkowa for observatory work. In 1860 he was
employed in the observatory at Milan and in 1862
was made director there. His work has given him
high rank among living astronomers. He has dis-
covered an asteroid, and has published treatises on
comets and various stars, on the planet Mars and
some satellites. He has also published an historical
work on The Precursors of Copermicus in Antiquity
(Milan, 1873).
SCHLATTER, MICHAEL.
CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES.
SCHLIEMANN, HEINRICH, archaeological ex-
plorer, was born Jan. 6, 1822, at Neu-Buckow in
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. His father was a poor
clergyman, and the son leaving school at the age
See REFORMED
SCH MUCKER—SCHOFIELD. 451
F-
of 14 was apprenticed to a shopkeeper in Fürsten- father's denominational activity and prominence.
berg. At the end of five years overwork had He held pastorates at Martinsburg, Va., Allentown,
rendered him useless to his master, and he went to Easton, Reading, and Pottstown, Pa. He Was 9ne
Hamburg. He obtained a place as cabin-boy on a of the founders of the Lutheran General Council in
ship bound for Venezuela, but the ship was wrecked | 1867, and devoted much attention to the liturgy and
on the island Texel, and the unfortunate youth was hymnology of the church. -
sent to hospital at Amsterdam. In this city he ob- SCHNAASE, KARL (1798–1875), German art-
tained mercantile employment and diligently im- historian, was born at Dantzig in 1798. After
proved his leisure in the acquirement of modern studying philosophy and jurisprudence at the Uni-
janguages. After he had learned Russian, his em- versity of Heidelberg, he made a tour in Germany,
ployers sent him to St. Petersburg, where he spent in the course of which the art-gallery of Dresden
eleven years in business. Having learned Modern | awakened his innate love for the fine arts. After
Greek, he took up the study of the ancient language having filled several offices in Dantzic and Königs-
and was soon enraptured with Homer. In 1858 he berg, he set out, in 1825, for Italy and there became
set out on travels which extended through Sweden, deeply interested in the study of the architectural
Denmark, Germany, Italy, Egypt, Syria, and chefs-d'oeuvre of the middle ages and antiquity, the
Greece. In 1863 he resumed his business activity history of which, in after-life, occupied all the
intending to acquire the means of devoting himself hours he could spare from his public administrative
to Greek archaeology. In 1864 he set out on a functions. He was appointed assessor at Königs-
journey around the world which was completed in berg, 1826, councillor of the superior provincial
1866, and furnished material for his first publication. court of Marienwerder, 1829, councillor of the High
Two years later he went to Greece and Asia Minor Court of Berlin, 1845, from which last office he
to visit the scenes of Homer's poems. He had retired into private life in 1857. Among his nume-
married a Greek lady, who had attracted him by rous works are Letters from the Netherlands (Stutt-
her devotion to the same poet, and her sympathy gard, 1834), in which he treats the study of art
and assistance were of great benefit to his researches. from a historical and philosophical point of view ;
Having come to the conclusion that the site of the Introduction to the work of Schwantaler, en-
ancient Troy, was at Hissarlik, he determined in titled The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa (1840);
1870 to explore the place. He employed 150. History of the Fine Arts (Düsseldorf, 7 vols., 1843-
laborers, whose excavations revealed the ruins or 1864; 2d ed., 1866), the last being his most impor-
traces of no less than six successive settlements. tant work. Beside this he has been one of the
One of these, which had been burnt, he pronounced most active collaborators on the German Art
Homeric Troy. Treasure enough was obtained to Magazine, and the Art Magazine of Tübingen.
repay all the outlay, but the greater part has been In 1858 he founded the Journal of Christian Art,
deposited in the Schliemann Museum, a part of the which he edited for many years in conjunction
Ethnological Museum in Berlin. The publication with Gruneisen and Schnorr von Carolsfeld. In
of his researches provoked great, controversy, as 1867 he settled in Wiesbaden and died there May
classical scholars had generally been adverse to 20, 1875.
admitting Hissarlik as the site of Troy. But the SCHOFIELD, JoHN MCALLISTER, major-gene-
positive results of his explorations were too great' ral, was born in Chautauqua co., N. Y., Sept. 29
to be gainsaid. In 1876 he undertook the explora- 1831. He graduated at West Point in 1853 and was
tion of the site of Mycenae, and obtained from its professor of natural philosophy there until 1860
tombs an enormous amount of treasure. Again in when he took a similar position in Washington
1881–82 he excavated the treasury of Orchomenos, University, St. Louis. When the secession move.
and discovered many remains of praehistoric art. ment began in Missouri, he was appointed major of
Finally in 1884–85 he explored in the same way the the First Missouri Volunteers and was chief of staff
site of Tiryns and brought to light the praehistoric to Gen. Nathaniel Lyon until the death of that
palace of its kings. These discoveries were set be- commander. Schofield was commissioned brigadier-
fore the world in a succession of splendid volumes, general in November, 1861, and had command in
of which may be mentioned here Trojanische Alter-i Missouri. He was commissioned major-general of
thimer (with atlas, 1874); Mycence, with introduc- | volunteers Nov. 29, 1862, but remained West of the
tion by Gladstone (1878); Ilios, with introduction by Mississippi until January, 1864. He was then
R. Virchow (1881); Orchomenos (1881); Troja, with placed in command of the Army of the Ohio, reliev-
introduction by A. H. Sayce (1883); Tiryns, with ling Gen. J. G. Foster who had been holding Rnox-
introduction by F. Adler and essays by W. Dörpfeld ville, Tenn. He led the 23d Army Corps in Gen
(1886): Most of these issued simultaneously in Sherman’s campaign, taking part in most of the
English, French, and German. Among the marks fighting until the capture of Atlanta in September
of honor bestowed on Schliemann were the degree In November he was sent in pursuit of Gen. J B.
of doctor of philosophy by the University of Rostock Hood, who had left Georgia to invade Tennessee
in 1869, the degree of doctor of civil law by the and capture Nashville, which was held by Gen º
University of Oxford in 1883. He has since 1871 H. Thomas. After some fighting along the road
resided chiefly at Athens, Schofield defeated Hood's army at Franklin. Ten.
SCHMUCKER, SAMUEL SIMON (1799–1873), Nov. 30, and joined Thomas. For this jºvić.
Lutheran minister, was born Feb. 28, 1799, at was made brigadier-general in the regular {l ITD). r
Hagerstown, Md., where his father, Rev. John G. After Hood's army was dispersed, Schofield in isé5
Schmucker, D.D., was pastor. He studied theology was ordered to Annapolis, Md. and thence sent by
and in 1820 was ordained pastor of a church at sea to North Carolina. He occupied Wilmington
Newmarket, Va. In 1826 he was made president Feb. 22, fought again at Kingston and joined G en
9f the theological seminary, then begun at Gettys- Sherman at Goldsboro March 23, wher. Gen . E.
burg, and held this position until the institution Johnston surrendered his command Gen Schofield
was closed by the civil war. He died July 26, 1873. was appointed to ca rry out the terms of the con.
He contributed to theological reviews and published vention. He had command of the military district
Seyeral works on Lutheranism and other subjects. of Virginia 1866–67. When the attempted im each.
His son SAMUEL Mosh EIM SMUCKER (1823–1863) ment of President Johnson had failed in \º.
became a Lutheran clergyman, then a lawyer and Stanton was obliged to resign his position as sº
finally a prolific author of popular biographies and tary of War, and the President appº.
similar books. Another son, BEALE MELANCII- Schofield Secretary ad interº. The position º
THON SCIIMUCKER (1827–1888), succeeded to his just been the object of a fierce conflict between the
452 SCHOLTEN SCHURZ,
President and Congress, but Schofield accepted and
discharged the dangerous duty in such a masterly
way as to offend neither party. He retired when
Gen. Grant was inaugurated in 1869 and was pro-
moted to be major-general U. S. A. He was
assigned to the department of Missouri, but a
year later was transferred to the division of the
Pacific. In July, 1876, he was made superintendent
of the Military Academy at West Point. In 1882
he was again made commander of the Department
of the Pacific with headquarters at San Francisco.
After the death of Gen. Hancock Gen. Schofield
succeeded in April, 1886, to the command of the
division of the Atlantic, with his headquarters at
Governor’s Island, New York harbor. On the
death of Gen. Sheridan he became commander of
the United States army in August, 1888, but con-
tinued at New York until December, when he
removed to Washington.
SCHOLTEN, JOHANNES HENDRIK (1811–1885),
Dutch rationalist theologian, was born at Leuten,
near Utrecht, Aug. 17, 1811. His father was a
minister, and his uncle professor in the University
of Utrecht. Scholten after a brilliant academical
career in that institution received the degrees of
doctor of philosophy and of theology and was for
some time a pastor at Meerkerk. In 1843 he was
made a professor of theology in the University of
Leyden and soon gave a remarkable impulse to his-
torical, critical and dogmatic studies not only in the
Netherlands, but throughout Europe. He was
rector of the University at various times and finally
retired in 1881. Among his works are those on the
Doctrine of the Reformed Church (2 vols., 1848–50);
Historical and Critical Introduction to the New Testa-
ment (1853); Comparative. History of Religion and
Philosophy (1853); Free Will critically examined
(1859): The Gospel of John (1864); Supernaturalism
in relation to the Bible (1867); The Pauline Gospel
(1878); and several critical treatises on the four
Gospels. On retiring from his professorship he
delivered an address reviewing his theological
development. He died in 1885.
SCHOMBURGK, SIR. Rob ERT HERMANN (1804–
1865), German-British explorer and naturalist, was
born at Freiburg, Prussia, June 5, 1804. He en-
tered on a mercantile career at Leipsic and after-
wards removed to Virginia, where he was partner
in a tobacco factory, which failed. He went to the
island of St. Thomas, W.I., in 1829, and in the next
year made a scientific exploration of Anegada,ºne
ôf the Virgin Islands. On the publication of his
report of this exploration the Royal Geographical
Society commissioned him to explore British Guiana.
He spent four years in the work, and among other
curiosities discovered the great water-lily which he
named “Victoria regia.” He published a Descrip:
tion of British Guiana. Geographical and Statistical
(1846); The Fishes of Guiana (3 vols.; 1841–3), and
other books relating to the country. For his Report
to the Royal Geographical Society he received itS
gold medal, and to the German translation of it by
àis brother Otto, Alexander von Humboldt contri:
buted an introduction. Schomburgk was employed
on the survey of the boundary between British
Guiana and Brazil until 1844, and was knighted
soon after. He was appointed British consul and
chargé d'affaires in the Dominican Republic in 1848,
and in 1857 was sent to Siam as consul general.
He retired in 1864, and died at Schöneberg, near
Berlin, March 11, 1865. Besides the works already
mentioned he published a History ºf the Barbadoes
(1847) and Discovery of Guiana by Sir Walter Raleigh
48).
(iii. brother, Moritz Richard Schomburgk, who
had assisted in exploring Guiana, Went to Australia
in 1849, and was made director of the botanical
garden at Adelaide in 1865.
SCHOOLS. See COMMON SCHOOLS and EDU-
CATION.
SCHULZE, FRANZ EITLARD, German zoologist,
was born at Eldena, near Greifswald, March 22,
1840. He studied at Rostock and at Bonn, where
Max Schultze influenced him. In 1865 he was made
professor of comparative anatomy at Rostock and
took part in a Prussian scientific expedition to the
North Sea. In 1873 he was called to Gratz as pro-
fessor of Zoology, and in 1884 to Berlin, where he
was made a member of the Royal Academy. His
Writings relate chiefly to histology and the develop-
ment of the lower animals. Among his noted essays
are Die Hautsinnesorgane der Fische whd Amphibien
and Codylophora lacustris and some on sponges.
SCHULZE-DELITZSCH, HERMANN, German
economist, was born at Delitzsch, Saxony, Aug. 29,
1808. He was educated at the Universities of Leip-
sic and Halle and entered on a judicial career.
Devoting his leisure to economical studies he be-
came noted by his efforts for the improvement of the
working classes. In 1848 he was elected to the
National Assembly at Berlin and was made chair-
man of a committee of inquiry in regard to their
needs. He opposed both the old system of guilds
and the Socialistic schemes of State organizations.
Instead he advocated self-reliant associations of
workingmen. Eventually his ideas took shape and
gained great popularity. In 1851 he founded the
first Credit-Union or People's Bank, whose plan
closely resembled that of American building as-
sociations (q.v.). In 1878 there were in Germany
948 Credit Unions with 480,507 members, while
Belgium, France and other countries had many
associations of the same kind. Dr. Schulze-De-
litzsch has been elected to the Chamber of Deputies
at Berlin in 1861, and afterwards to the Reichstag,
where he still urged his favorite idea of perfect free-
dom of association. Among his publications are
Das Associationsbuch (1862); Die Arbeitenden Klas-
sem und das Associationswesen (1863); Die Worschuss-
wnd Creditverein als Volksbanken (1864); Die Ent-
wickelung des Genossenschaftswesen (1870), and
treatises on political economy.
SCHURZ, CARL, politician and journalist, was
born at Liblar, near Cologne, Prussia, March 2,
1829. He was educated at Cologne and at the Uni-
versity of Bonn. Here in 1848 he conducted a
liberal journal, and in the following spring was
concerned in an attempt at insurrection. Failing
in this he became adjutant of a revolutionary army
in South Germany, and after the surrender of
Rastadt fled to Switzerland. He afterwards assisted
Gen. Kinkel, the leader of the revolt in Bonn, in
escaping from Spandau. After a year’s residence
in London, Schurz came to America in 1852, and
spent three years in Philadelphia. In 1855 he
removed to Madison, Wisc., and there soon became
a political leader. He was active in rousing the
German element of that State to opposition to the
extension of slavery. In 1857 he was candidate for
lieutenant-governor of Wisconsin on the Republican
ticket, but was defeated. In the famous campaign
in which S. A. Douglas and Abraham Lincoln con-
tended for the U. S. Senatorship for Illinois, Schurz
delivered his first political speech in English. Thence-
forth he was conspicuous as one of the most effective
speakers of the Republican party. In the National
Convention of that party at Chicago in 1860 he was
influential in shaping the platform adopted. Pres.
Lincoln sent him as U. S. minister to Spain, but
before the close of 1861 he resigned to enter the
army. In April, 1862, he was made a brigadier-
general of volunteers and in June he took command
of a division in Gen. Sigel’s corps. He fought in the
second battle of Bull Rum, and in the battle of
Chancellorsville, where his troops were surprised
and routed by “Stonewall” Jackson. At Gettys-
SCHUYLER—SCHWELNFURTH. 453
burg and at Chattanooga his division retrieved its
repütation. After the war Schurz remained in
Washington for a time, and in 1865 was sent by
Pres. Johnson on a special tour through the South-
ern States. His report of their condition showed a
general acquiescence in the results of the War.
Śchurz had now entered on a journalistic career,
and after establishing a paper at Detroit, Went to
St. Louis as editor of the Westliche Post. His in-
fluence with the German-American element of the
population seemed unbounded. In 1869 he became
U. S. Senator from Missouri, and though he had
been an ardent supporter of Gen. Grant as a candi-
date for the presidency, he soon joined with Senator
Sumner in opposing some favorite measures of the
President. Among these was the attempt to acquire
Santo Domingo for the United States. An alleged
sale of arms to the French nation also became the
subject of animadversion. In 1872 the opposition
to Pres. Grant's renomination resulted in a Liberal
Republican Convention at Cincinnati. Horace
Greeley was here nominated for the presidency,
though the originators of the movement had pre-
ferred Charles Francis Adams. Greeley was en-
dorsed by the Democratic Convention, but was
completely defeated. Many members of the Liberal
party thenceforth remained with the Democrats,
but Schurz in 1876 gave his support to the Republi-
can nominee ; and Pres. Hayes called Schurz into
the Cabinet as Secretary of the Interior. His
administration of this office was marked by
energy, integrity and a determination to en-
force the laws. His treatment of Some Indian
tribes, however, provoked adverse criticism. After
retiring from this office Schurz was connected
with the New York Evening Post until a change
of proprietorship caused his withdrawal. At
this time he declined the offer of a pecuniary
testimonial from the admirers of his political
course. In 1884 he was again conspicuous for
his opposition to Mr. Blaine, the presidential nomi-
nee of the Republican party, and was a leader of
the “Mugwumps.” In 1886 a fall in the street
caused him severe injury, from which he but slowly
recovered. He afterwards went to Europe, where
he had cordial meetings with Prince Bismarck and
other political leaders of Germany. Besides his
political speeches, which have been widely circu-
lated, he published in the series of American States-
men the best biography of Henry Clay (1887).
SCHUYLER, PHILIP (1733–1804), general in
the American Revolution, was the great grandson
of Philip Pieterson von Schuyler, who emigrated
from Holland and settled at Albany, N. Y., in 1650.
Members of his family were prominent in Indian
affairs and held various local offices. Philip was
born at Albany, Nov. 22, 1733. He inherited from
his father and uncle large estates, and his wealth
was increased by his marriage with Catharine Van
Rensselaer. He was early employed in military
affairs; in 1755 he was captain in an expedition to
Crown Point ; in 1756 he was major and commissary
to the expedition to Oswego ; in 1758 he had similar
duties in the expedition for the invasion of Canada.
Before the close of that war he visited England,
being captured on the voyage by a French privateer,
but released by a British frigate. Afterwards he
was a member of the colonial assembly and he took
part in the disputes respecting Vermont. When
the conflict with Great Britain began Schuyler took
the patriotic side. Such was his prominence that
in 1775 Congress first appointed him as Gen. Wash-
ington’s associate in prescribing the regulations for
the American army, and a few days later commis-
Sioned him as major-general with command of the
Northern Department. He set out for the invasion
of Canada by way of Lake Champlain, but in Sep-
tember was compelled by ill health to return to
Albany while Montgomery went on to meet his fate
at Quebec. Schuyler's withdrawal gave rise to
charges against his loyalty, and when Congress sent
Gen. Gates to be his associate in command, he of
fered his resignation, but it was not accepted. Then
he demanded a court of inquiry, which was granted.
The court approved Schuyler’s conduct, but did not
advise the removal of Gates. Schuyler then had
himself chosen to Congress in 1777, and pleaded his
cause in person with such effect that he was restored
to full command. He set out from Albany to oppose
Burgoyne’s invasion, but found that St. Clair had
already been forced to abandon the strong fortress
of Ticonderoga, and had to return. A fiercer
clamor now arose against Schuyler, especially from
New England, which was now open to attack.
Congress, yielding to the pressure, sent Gates to
supersede him. But Schuyler, thoroughly acquaint-
ed with the country and trusted by its inhabitants,
was then using every exertion to prepare suitable
defence by rallying the troops and erecting fortifica-
tions. His earnest patriotism was still more signally
displayed in his giving to his rival the full benefit of
his services. He was present at Burgoyne’s sur-
render, which his own wise arrangements had greatly
helped to bring about. During the following winter
another court of inquiry approved his conduct, but
in April, 1779, after he had been elected a member
of Congress, he resigned from the army. He aided
the public treasury by liberal advances from his
private resources. From 1780 to 1784 and again
from 1786 to 1790 he was a State Senator. In 1789
the New York legislature elected him to the U. S.
Senate for two years, after which he returned to
the State Senate. In 1797 he was again elected U.
S. Senator, but was unable to serve on account
of ill health. He died at Albany, Nov. 18, 1804.
Though Gen. Schuyler’s military career was marked
by various misfortunes, he always had the confidence
of Washington. See Lossing's Life and Times of
Philip Schuyler (1872).
SCHWATKA, FREDERICK, explorer, was born
at Galena, Illinois, Sept. 29, 1849. He graduated
at West Point in 1871, but soon resigned from the
army, studied law and was admitted to the bar in
New York in 1875. Still not satisfied with his ac-
Quirements he studied medicine and received his
degree in 1876. In June, 1878, he sailed to the
Arctic regions in command of a Franklin search
expedition, and returned in Sept. 1880, having dis-
covered and buried the skeletons of several members
of Sir John Franklin's party. In 1884 he explored
the great river Yukon in Alaska.
SCHWEINFURTH, GEORGE AUGUST, German
explorer and naturalist, was born at Riga, Sept. 29,
1836, Educated there and at the University Of
Heidelberg, he devoted himself to the study of
botany, and made scientific excursions in Russia,
France and Italy. In 1863 he resolved to visit
Central Africa by way of Khartoum, and returned
thence in 1866 with rich collections of natural history.
With the approval of the Berlin Academy, he start-
ed again in 1869 with the escort of an ivory trader
and the favor of the governor-general of Soudam.
He explored the country of the Dinkas, Bongos,
Niam-Niam and Monbutto, and discovered the
Akkas, a pygmy race. In Dec. 1870, he lost by
fire his baggage, instruments and journal, but his
collections had been previously transmitted to
Europe. He arrived at Suez in Aug. 1871, and was
received in Germany with great enthusiasm. In
1873–74 he explored the great oasis in the Libyan
desert and was appointed by the Khedive director
ºf the museum of natural history at Cairo. In
1S76–78 he explored the country between the Nile
and the Red Sea, and in 1881 took part in an ex-
ploration of the island of Socotra. He has since
been engaged in promoting German colonization in
454
SCHWEINITZ–SCUIDDER.
equatorial Africa. He has published Im Herzen von
Africa (1870), translated into English under the
title The Heart of Africa. He also published many
botanical treatises before and since his African ex-
plorations, and a valuable map of Dr. W. Junker’s
travels in those regions (1887).
SCHWEIN ITZ, EDMUND ALEXANDER DE
(1825–1887), Moravian bishop, was born at Bethle-
hem, Pa., in 1825. He was educated in that town
and at the University of Berlin. After being
ordained to the ministry he settled in Philadelphia
as pastor of a church, and also edited the Moravian,
a weekly paper. He also published The Moravian
Manual (1859); The Moravian Episcopate (1865); a
Life of Zeisberger (2 vols. 1870), and a History of the
Unitas Fratrum (1884). In 1870 he was made bishop
and president of the Northern Conference of the
Moravian Church in America. He died at Bethle-
hem, Dec. 18, 1887.
His uncle, LEWIs DAVID von SCHWEINITZ (1780-
1834), was also a Moravian minister, but was noted
chiefly as a botanist. He was born at Bethlehem,
Pa., and received his early education there. In
1798 he went to Germany and while there published
a treatise on Lusatian fungi. He returned to
America in 1812 and settled as pastor in Salem,
over 1400 new species of American plants, chiefly
fungi. He published catalogues of the fungi of
North Carolina (1818), and afterwards of North
America (1832). His other publications were bota-
nical monographs. From 1821 he resided at Beth-
lehem, and died there Feb. 8, 1834.
SCLATER, PHILIP LUTLEY, English ornitho-
logist, was born at Hoddington House, Hants, in
1829. He was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford, graduating in 1849, and being made fellow
of the college. In 1855 he was called to the bar at
Lincoln's Inn. In 1859 he was made secretary of
the Zoological Society at London.
articles on ornithology and the distribution of ani-
mals have been published in the Transactions of that
Society, in the Ibis, and in the Natural History
Review, both of which he edited. From 1875 to
1877 he was private secretary to his brother, Right
Hon. George Sclater-Booth, who was then President
of the local government board. Afterwards he was
general secretary to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science until 1882, when he was
made Vice-President of that Association. Among
his publications are Zoological Sketches, Catalogue of
American Birds, and Guide to the Gardens of the
Zoological Society of Londom.
SCíOPIS, FREDERIgo, COUNT (1798–1878),
Italian jurist, was born in Turin, in 1798. He
studied law at the university of his native city ;
took his degree in 1818; and gained distinction by
compiling, in 1837, the civil code of the Kingdom
of Sardinia, as well as in various departments of
jurisprudence. In 1845 he was elected correspond-
ing member, and, in 1869, foreign member of the
French Institute. In 1848 he became minister of
justice and ecclesiastical affairs, and was president
of a commission for framing more liberal press laws.
In 1849 he was named Senator, and was president
of the Sardinian Senate till 1861, when he became
president of the Senate of Italy, which, office he
jeld till 1864. In 1868 he was decorated by Victor
Emmanuel with the order of the Annunziata, and,
in 1872, was appointed by him, Italian arbitrator at
the Congress of Geneva for the settlement of the
Alabama claims (q. v.). There he was further
honored by being made president of the court, and
as a token of its sense of the ability and tact with
which he performed the functions of his high office,
the American government presented him, in 1874,
with a valuable service of silver plate. He was the
principal of academies in Tennessee.
became pastor at Tuscaloosa, Ala., and in 1843.
N. C. By his indefatigable researches he discovered
His numerous
La Storia della Legislazione Italiana (3 vols., Turin,
1840–57). He died at Turin, March 8, 1878.
SCOTT, THOMAS (1747–1821), English Biblical
commentator, was born at Braycroft, Lincolnshire,
Feb. 16, 1747. In his early life he was a farm-
laborer, yet in spite of poverty obtained a good
education and took orders in the Church of Eng-
land in 1773. Through the influence of Rev. John
Newton, Cowper's friend, he became a Calvinist,
as related in his Force of Truth (1779). He suc-
ceeded Newton as curate of Olney in 1781, but a
few years later removed to London, where he was
chaplain of a hospital. In 1801 he became vicar
of Aston Sandford, and here he died April 16, 1821.
His chief work is his Family Bible with Notes (5.
vols., 1788–92), which has passed through many
editions both in England and America. His son
edited his Works (10 vols., 1823).
SCOTT, WILLIAM ANDERSON (1813—1885), Pres-
byterian minister, was born at Rock Creek, Tenn.,
Jan. 31, 1813. He graduated at Cumberland Col-
lege, Kentucky, in 1833, and studied theology at
Princeton. Entering the Presbyterian ministry
he was missionary in Louisiana, and afterwards
In 1840 he
took charge of a church at New Orleans. He went
to San Francisco in 1854 to be pastor of Calvary
Church, and was conspicuous for his opposition to
the Vigilance Committee as afterwards for his sup-
port of the Secession movement. In 1858 he was
moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly.
In 1861 he went to England, becoming for a time
pastor of a church in Birmingham. In 1863 he
took charge of a church in New York city, and in
1870 returned to San Francisco. There besides
being pastor of St. John’s Church he was professor
in the Theological Seminary and editor of a
religious magazine. He died at San Francisco,
Jan. 4, 1885. His publications were volumes of ser-
mons, including Acham in El Dorado (1855); Trade
and Letters (1856); The Giant Judge (1858); The
Church in the Army (1862); The Christ of the
Apostles' Creed (1867).
SCRANTON, a city of Pennsylvania, county
seat of Lackawanna Co., is on the Lackawanna,
river at the mouth of Roaring Brook, 18 miles N.
E. of Wilkesbarre. It is an important railroad,
coal mining and iron-manufacturing town. Loco-
motives, steam-boilers, railroad and mining machi-
nery, cars, stoves, wagons and carriages, and edge
tools, are produced in large numbers. Scranton,
has 12 banks, an opera-house, theatre, hospital, a
cathedral and 40 churches, academies, and public
schools, and a public library. Three daily and 12
weekly newspapers are published here. The town.
was founded in 1840, taking its name from its
founders. It became a city in 1856. It is well
built with wide streets and handsome edifices. Its
population in 1880 was 45,850, making it the third
in rank in Pennsylvania.
SCRIVENER, FREDERICK HENRY AMBROSE.
English scholar, was born at Bermondsey, Sept. 29,
1813. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1835, took orders, and was engaged in teaching.
While rector of Falmouth from 1846 until 1861 he
also conducted a school there. He was afterwards
rector of St. Gerrans, Cornwall, and in 1876 became
vicar of Hendon. He was one of the company of
revisers of the New Testament from 1870 to 1882.
His publications relate chiefly to the Greek New
Testament; besides valuable editions of this work,
they comprise Plain Introduction to the Criticism of
the New Testament (1861); Collation of the Codeac
Sinaiticus (1863); Codec Bezae (1864); Cambridge
Paragraph Bible (1873).
SCUDDER, John (1793–1855), missionary, was
author of several works, but his principal one is born at Freehold, N. J., Sept. 13, 1793. He gradu-
SCUDDER—SCULPTURE.
45.5
ated at Princeton in 1811 and at the College of Physi-
cians and Surgeons, New York, in 1815. After a
few years' practice of medicine he was convinced of
his duty to carry the Gospel to the heathen, and
was licensed in the Reformed (Dutch) Church in
1819. He sailed for India and was ordained there
by missionaries of other denominations. At Jaſ-
napatam he opened a hospital and a college, which
were highly successful. In 1836 he removed to
Madras to superintend the printing of the Scrip:
tures in Tamil. In 1842 he returned to the United
States and spent three years in pressing on Ameri-
can churches the claims of foreign missions. Re-
turning to his labors in the Arcot mission, he
wrought with such zeal that his health was injured.
He was ordered by his physicians to the Cape of
Good Hope, and died at Wynberg, near that cape,
Jan. 13, 1855. His Life was written by J. B. Water-
bury, D.D. (1870).
His seven sons and two daughters all served as
Of them may be noted
HENRY MARTYN SCUDDER, who was born at
Panditeripo, Ceylon, Feb. 5, 1822, graduated at the realistic strength.
missionaries in India.
University of the City of New York in 1840, and
at Union. Theological Seminary in 1843. Sent out
by the American Board, he labored at Madras, Ar-
cot, Vellore and other places, organizing schools
and churches. He also studied and practised medi-
cine and established a dispensary at Arcot. He
prepared several religious works in the Tamil,
Telegu and other languages. In 1864 he returned
to the United States and became pastor of a Presby-
terian Church in San Francisco, and in 1871 removed
to Brooklyn, where he was pastor of a Congrega-
tional Church until 1882, when he removed to Chi-
cago. After five years’ pastorate there he resigned
to resume missionary work in Japan.
SCUDDER, SAMUEL HUBBARD, naturalist, was
born at Boston, April 13, 1837. He graduated at
Williams College in 1857 and at Lawrence Scientific
School in 1862. He then served as assistant to Prof.
Louis Agassiz in the museum of comparative Zoology,
and in 1864 was made custodian of the Boston Soci-
ety of natural history, of which he had already been
secretary. He devoted himself chiefly to entomology,
and has published reports on the insects of New
Hampshire and on those collected in several U. S.
Government surveys as well as the Canada geologi-
cal survey. From 1879 to 1885 he was assistant
librarian of Harvard University, and in 1886 he
was appointed pantologist of the U. S. Geological
Surveys. Among his publications are Fossil Butter-
flies (1875); Catalogue of Scientific Serials of all Coun-
tries, 1633–1876 (1879); Butterflies (1882); Nomencla-
tor Zoologicus (1882); Winnipeg Country (1886), the
last being a sketch of his adventures with a solar
eclipse expedition in Manitoba.
His brother, HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER, author,
was born Oct. 16, 1838. He graduated at Will-
iams College in 1858 and for a few years engaged in
teaching in New York city.
dren, Seven Little People and their Friends (1862)
y
Richmond.
has proven extremely useful to many of our native
sculptors of a later date.
nation first finds expression. In this country the
opposite may almost be said to be the case.
America had produced a number of respectable
portrait and figure painters, and a few who pos-
sessed real genius, before the plastic art became
a recognized phase of our art-development.
The art of sculpture can hardly have said to have
existed here before the Revolution, if we except the
efforts of Deacon Shem Drowne, who executed some
quite elaborate weather-vanes, and Patience
WRIGHT, whose clever miniature heads in relief,
modeled in wax, gained her considerable repute.
One of the first to show the latent capacity of
our art in this direction was William RUSH (1756-
1833), an artist of undoubtedly great talent. He
first became known as a carver of figure-heads for
ships, in which line he produced much excellent
work. His works are all in wood or clay, which
latter material he began to use in 1789. Various
ideal figures and portrait busts of Linnaeus, Wil-
liam Bartram, Lafayette, and others are among
his works, which show much originality and
His statue of Washington is in
Independence Hall, Philadelphia.
Shortly after Rush had begun work, several
foreign sculptors visited America. John Dixey, an
Irishman, who same over in 1789, produced several
ideal works, among them Hercules and Hydra,
Ganymede, etc. Giuseppe Ceracchi, a Corsican,
visited Philadelphia in 1791, and executed busts of
Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other pro-
minent Americans. Having returned to Paris, he
was detected in a plot against Napoleon, and was
guillotined in 1801. Jean Antoine Houdon (1740–
1828) came over in 1785 to execute the statue of
Washington which now stands in the capitol at
His cast of the head of Washington
Washington has always
been a popular subject with our artists, and just as
most of the portrait-painters of his time tried to
obtain sittings from him, so nearly every one of our
sculptors of portrait-statues has, at some period
of his career, produced his statue of the great
American.
As late as 1816, Trumbull told Frazee, who ap-
plied to him for assistance in studying sculpture,
that it would not be wanted here for a century.
Yet even there were signs of the awakening of a
taste and talent for this branch of art. The before-
mentioned John FRAZEE (1790–1850), a stone-cut-
ter, produced a number of portrait busts, John
Wells, said to be the first portrait in marble from
a native hand, John Marshall, Daniel Webster,
Andrew Jackson, John Jay, and others. With al-
most no art-education, and but few opportunities
for developing his undoubted ability, he yet showed
in his works much feeling for the ideal and a power
that might have produced greater results under
more favorable circumstances. . His contemporary,
His stories for chil- Hezekiah AUGUR (1791–1858), is also one of those
- e - artists, frequently met with in the history of this
having proved highly successful, he removed to
country’s art, who began their careers in trades
Boston and devoted himself to literature. He edited and occupations quite different from the art to
the Riverside Magazine from 1867 to 1870, the series which they later devoted their lives. As one critic
of “American Commonwealths” and collections of
American prose and poetry. Among his most suc-
cessful books for children are The Bodley Books
(8 vols. 1875–87); Dwellers in Fire Sisters Court (1876);
Children’s Book (1881). He contributed Noah Web-
ster (1882) to the series of “American Men of Let-
ters,” and published a History of the United States
(1884). Among his other works are a biography
of his brother, i)avid Coit Scudder (1864), who had
been a missionary in India.
SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. The feeling for
form, as evinced in sculpture, is naturally one of
the first directions in which the art-instinct of a
has observed, his work is less notable for its in-
trinsic value, than as an evidence of what may be
accomplished by untrained talent, with no educa-
tional advantages.
The first ten or fifteen years of this century wit-
nessed the birth of some of the most noted of our
earlier sculptors, among whom Powers and Craw-
ford held a commanding position.
Hiram POWERS (1805–73), born in Vermont, early
emigrated with his family to the West, settling in
Cincinnati. After following various occupations for
a While, he found opportunity first to exercise his
talent for modeling in executing wax figures for a
456
SCULPTURE.
museum. Subsequently a German artist taught
him the art of modeling in plaster. Aided by Mr.
Nicholas Longworth, who showed so much libe-
rality towards our artists, he soon found ample
employment in modeling the features of many pro-
minent public individuals, notably Andrew Jackson,
Webster, Calhoun, Chief-Justice Marshall and Ed-
ward Everett. In 1837 he went to Italy, where he
remained until his death. During his long career
he executed a number of well-finished and merito-
rious ideal works, in which he showed much
Sentiment and considerable technical skill. His
statue of the Greek Slave, of which a duplicate was
exhibited in the United States, aroused much
enthusiasm. Many have praised it for its pure and
noble sentiment, and as representing a high type of
beauty. Of the adverse criticism that by Jarves in
his Art Idea is especially severe. Six copies in
marble were made of the Greek Slave as well as in-
numerable reduced copies in parian, casts, etc.
The Eve before the Fall and Eve after the Fall are
considered by some his best ideal statues, and Il
Penseroso, Fisher Boy, Proserpine and California
are also among his more important works. Though
perhaps best known to the general public by these
ideal works, notably the Greek Slave, he seems,
however, to have achieved his greatest success in
portraiture, and his portrait busts are excellent in
the portrayal of character and in execution. His
mechanical talent enabled him to invent various
appliances for facilitating the labors of the sculp-
tor’s art.
Thomas CRAWFORD (1814–57) was a man cast in a
large mould. There is something grand and earnest
in all of his works, and his versatility, enthusiasm and
untiring industry were quite remarkable. His first
studies were made under Frazee and Launitz, and
in 1834 he went to Italy, where he entered the
studio of Thorwaldsen. Of his works best known to
the public, the majestic and Spirited equestrian
statue of Washington, at Richmond, and the statue
of Beethoven are the most important. Both were
cast in Munich, where they attracted much atten-
tion. The works ordered by the United States
government are also important. They include the
panels for the bronze door of the Capitol at Wash-
ington, illustrating the American Revolution, the
fine statue of Liberty surmounting the dome of the
Capitol, and a marble pediment, with symbolical
figures delineating the progress of American civil
lization. The Orpheus and Cerberus, his first ideal
group, executed in 1839, is considered by some the
work in which his power and ability are best shown.
Another well-known statue by him, the Indian
Chief, won the admiration especially of the sculptor
Gibson.
Another sculptor of this period who must be
reckoned among the first of our artists, is Horatio
GREENOUGH (1805–52). He was a man of fine in-
tellectual attainments and had, in fact, like several
of our prominent artists of the time, a decided lite-
rary vein in his composition. His Chanting Cherubs,
ordered by J. Fenimore Cooper, was, according to
Tuckerman, the first group in marble executed by
an American. He is best known by the Bunker
Hill Monument, which he designed, and the statue
of Washington at the National Capitol. The latter
has been the subject of much criticism and ridicule.
Its nudity has been objected to as incongruous, and
in condemning him for imitating the antique, com:
parisons have been drawn between this work and
Benjamin West's Death of General Wolfe. Yet
the statue is withal a noble piece of work. Besides,
is must be remembered that Greenough intended it
to be placed indoors, in which case the half nude
figure would have seemed less incongruous, and
gained considerably in impressiveness. -
Joel T. HART (1810–77) was a Kentuckian who
first earned a livelihood by chimney-building and
later in a stone-cutter's yard. He began to model
in clay, and his likenesses soon attracted attention ;
thereafter, his services were frequently in requisi-
tion. Among his portrait busts are those of Jack-
son, Taylor, and Governor Crittenden, all characte-
ristic and truthful likenesses. It has been said that
in Some of them the look of flesh is remarkable.
His statue of Clay is in Louisville, Ky. In ideal
works, like Angelina and the graceful Woman
Triumphant, he shows a delicate, refined fancy.
Another, who, like not a few of our earlier sculp-
tors, began his career as a stone-cutter, was Shobal
Vail CLEVENGER (1812–43). The success which he
had in Some of his artistic efforts encouraged him
to attempt portraiture. He soon left Cincinnati,
where he was working, for the East, and found
ample employment in modeling busts of numerous
prominent men, among them Clay, Everett, Web-
ster, Allston, Van Buren. In these he gave us a
valuable series of remarkably truthful and realistic
portraits.
Henry K. BROWN (1814–86) was at first deter-
mined to become a portrait-painter, but his atten-
tion having been drawn to sculpture he adopted
that as a profession. To the general public he
will always be known as the sculptor of the equestrian
statues of General Scott, at the National Capital,
and Washington in New York. The latter, though
open to criticism, is, on the whole, good technically,
the horse spirited and graceful, and the general
effect grand and noble. It is, moreover, the first
statue in bronze wholly made in America.
Some writers have, perhaps with justice, pointed
to the works of Clark MILLs (1815–83), as the re-
sult, in a measure, of the complete ignorance in art-
matters so frequently displayed by the people. His
statue of Gen. Jackson, in Washington, is notable
especially for the dexterity with which the sculptor
has succeeded in so balancing the prancing charger
that it needs no support but its own weight. fiis
ability is unquestioned, but he shows in his works
rather dexterity and skill, than true genius or a
higher art-feeling.
In Benjamin Paul AKERS (1825–61) we find one
of the most gifted of our sculptors. His art-instinct
was awakened at an early age, and he attempted
painting. But this failed to satisfy him, and it was
the sight of a plaster cast that first revealed to him
his true vocation. He unfortunately died too young
for a complete unfolding of his talents or the pro-
duction of works that would have been rather fitted
to perpetuate his memory than simply to give pro-
mise of greater success to come. But in his best
statues, like that of the Pearl Diver, an exquisitely
beautiful creation, his strong imaginative faculty,
his tender, sympathetic, and strongly asthetic
nature as well as his thorough knowledge of the
principles of art, are revealed to us. We find in him,
again, that taste for literary pursuits, referred to
previously as not uncommon among our earlier
artists.
A sculptor of rare natural talent was Edward S.
BARTHOLOMEW (1822–58). His early life, owing
to his unencouraged love for art, was a struggle
with adversity. Like Akers he tried his hand first
at painting, but having discovered that he was
totally color-blind, he turned his attention to sculp-
ture. He produced a number of classic and scriptural
subjects, in which he showed much fancy and in-
ventive power. It has been said of him (Tucker-
man quotes the remark), that his most prevalent
talent was “an intuitive perception of the strongest
and most statuesque aspect of a theme.” A large
number of his works are in the Wadsworth Gallery,
Hartford, Conn.
Thomas BALL (b. 1819) also turned his atten-
tion first to painting, attaining some pro-
SCULPTURE.
457
ficiency in portraiture. About 1852 he took up
modeling. He has produced a number of portrait
busts and several statues. That of Webster, in
New York, and the equestrian statue of Washing-
ton, in Boston, are perhaps his noblest works.
Other sculptors there are of this period, whom
limited space prevents us from giving more than
passing notice. Among these are Henry Dexter
(1806–76), specially successful in his portrait busts;
Richard S. Greenough (b. 1819), a brother of Horatio,
and whose best-known work is the statue of Frank-
lin, in Boston, and Ball Hughes (1806–68).
Leo- ||W
nard W. Volk (b. 1828), best known, perhaps, by
his monument to Stephen A. Douglas, in Chicago;
Charles Calverley (b. 1833); Moses Jacob Ezekiel
(b. 1844), who made the group of Religious Liberty,
in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and has won
many honors abroad ; C. B. Ives ; Barbee ; J. W.
A. Macdonald (b. 1824); James H. Hazeltine (b.
1833), and Edward V. Valentine (b. 1828), who
has executed many statues of Confederate heroes.
Valentine’s Lee Recumbent is in the Mausoleum
of Washington and Lee University, Lexington,
à.
VALENTINE’s “LEE RECUMBENT.”
William Wetmore STORY (b. 1819) possesses to
a high degree that delicate and noble sentiment,
without very great power, which characterizes the
works of not a few of our sculptors. His versatility
is quite remarkable. Originally a practising lawyer,
he published several legal works. Poetry next
claimed his attention, and he finally went to Italy
to devote himself to sculpture, still, however, occa-
sionally exercising his pen. He holds a prominent
position in art, although he has at times been rather
indiscriminately praised. His sculpture is not
strikingly original, but it is carefully finished, well
thought out, severe and classic, and inspired by
noble and elevating sentiments. In works like
Jerusalem Lamenting, Cleopatra, and the Sibyl, his
talents are conspicuously shown.
One of the most truly idealistic sculptors we have
had is William H. RINEHART (1825–74). Working
at first in a stone-quarry, his evident talent soon
attracted attention, and in 1855 he went to Italy
to continue his studies. Latona and her Infants,
the Sleeping Babes, a Nymph, and Clytie, which
he himself pronounced his masterpiece, are among
his works. He also completed the bronze doors of
the Capitol at Washington, left unfinished by
Crawford at his death. Another unfinished work
by Crawford, the Washington monument, at Rich-
mond, was completed by Randolph Rogers (b.1825).
Besides Ruth and various ideal figures Rogers has
executed statues of Lincoln for Philadelphia and
Seward for New York, and is favorably known by
the eight panels for the bronze doors of the Capitol at
Washington, delineating scenes in the life of Colum-
bus. Larkin G. MEAD (b. 1835) first gave evidence
VOL. I.W.—2 L
º 3) * * ->
of his talents by modeling a figure of an angel in
snow. He speedily won recognition, and has exe-
cuted several public monuments, among them
RANDOLPH Rogers’ “RUTH.”
a statue of Lincoln for the monument in Spring-
field, Ill. Martin MILMORE (1844–83), like Volk,
executed several very creditable monuments erected
to the sºldiers and sailors of the Civil War, notably
that in Boston. The subjects of monuments of this
class have probably much to do with the fact that
they are seldom works of art of a very high order.
Franklin SIMMONS (b. 1842) has shown talent and


458 SCULPTURE.
portraiture equalled by few of our sculptors. Dr.
William RIMMER (1816–79), whose life was devoted
mainly to teaching, exerted a decided influence on
the art of our younger sculptors. He was a most
profound student of art anatomy, on which subject
he published a valuable work. He modeled several
emergetic works, of which the Gladiator, especially,
is remarkable for the thorough knowledge of the
human figure which it betrays. -
In John ROGERS (b. 1829) we find an artist whose
Work is quite unconventional. He has chosen most
of his subjects from the every-day life around him,
and in delineating its humorous and pathetic
aspects he is quite unrivalled. In illustrating in-
cidents of military life—the life of the common
Soldier—he first struck a sympathetic chord. There
may be no “high art” in his groups, but they ap-
peal to popular feeling and have undoubtedly had
a considerable share in elevating the artistic tastes
of the people.
The number of women who have turned their
attention to sculpture has always been linited, but
there are a few American ladies who have gained
a certain reputation in this branch of art. The
most prominent, Harriet HOSMER (b. 1830), went to
Italy in 1852 to study under Gibson. Although her
works are perhaps not all satisfactory from an artis-
tic point of view, yet in statues like Puck, the
true art-feeling in statues like those of Roger Wil-
liams and Longfellow. The Ghost in Hamlet, the
West Wind, and similar works, by Thomas R.
GOULD (1818–81), show fancy and ideal feeling
rather than technical knowledge.
Originally a carpenter, Erastus D. PALMER
(b. 1817) did not turn his attention to art until his
29th year. Beginning as a cutter of cameo portraits,
he soon sought a broader field for his talents, and
in 1850 exhibited his first piece of sculpture, the
Infant Ceres. Like Rinehart, he was a true idealist,
with a clear perception of the beautiful. There is,
moreover, a vein of domestic sentiment, and a
depth of religious feeling shown in many of his
productions. is more notable works include The
Indian Captive, representing the dawn of Christi-
anity on the Savage mind ; the purely beautiful
White Slave; Spring ; The Angel of the Sepulchre,
and the exquisite bas-reliefs Morning and Evening.
It is a fact worthy of note that, unlike most of our
sculptors, he did not acquire his knowledge of art
and its technique abroad, but in his native land.
Some of the finest of the statues that adorn our
public places are the work of J. Q. A. WARD (b. 1830),
One of the most vigorous and original of our sculp-
tors. His work is thoroughly national in subject
and spirit, for he has never been unduly influenced
by foreign models. Of his portrait statues the most
successful are those of Gen. Thomas (one of the
best of our equestrian statues), and Washington
(at Newburyport). The latter, a noble and majes-
tic work, is a notable addition to the very limited
number of really commendable statues of Wash-
ington which we possess. Several of Ward’s best
works are in New York, among them the noble
statue of Shakespeare, and the Indian Hunter, one
WARD’s “INDIAN Hu NTER.”
ef his earlier productions, which, though its entire
anatomical correctness has been questioned, is yet
a characteristic and sprited piece of work, and
one of the most notable examples of American
plastic art. &
Another sculptor whose work ranks with the
best produced in this country is Launt THOMPSON
(b. 1833), a pupil of Palmer. He early developed
an extraordinary talent for medallion portraits, and
became one of the strongest and most successful of
our portrait sculptors. In works like the bust Of
Edwin Booth, the statue of Gen. Sedgwick, that of
Napoleon, the well-known and excellent one of
President Pierson, at Yale, and the cquestrian
statue of Gen. Burnside, he has shown a talent for
Sleeping Faun, and the colossal and majestic Zeno-
bia, she has been very successful, and all her works
bear the stamp of a strong and decided individuality.
Emma STEBBINs (1815–82), the friend and bio-
grapher of Charlotte Cushman, produced, among
other works, a statue of Horace Mann for Boston,
and a large fountain for Central Park, New York.
Miss Anne WHITNEY also gained distinction as an
earnest and thoughtful artist. Others who have
gained repute in this branch of art are Mrs. H. A.
L. Freeman, wife of the artist James E. Freeman,
Winnie Ream Hoxie and Edmonia Lewis.
In reviewing the work thus far accomplished in
American sculpture, we find that, as in painting,
there has been much that is merely imitative. We
have seen much “classic ’’ work, which, though
often inspired by pure and noble sentiments, and
at times executed with considerable technical
ability, yet naturally lacked the spirit which per-
vades the sculpture of antiquity. As in painting,
so here some of the best efforts of the earlier artists
were exerted in portraiture.
The ignorance in art-matters frequently shown
by those who made it their business to select artists
for the many national monuments that have already
been executed here, has resulted in producing not
a few monstrosities that should never have been
erected to disfigure our public places. Still, our
few really able sculptors have produced some works
of lasting merit.
To continue the comparison with painting, the
new, progressive movement that has taken place
there is also strongly felt here. There have arisen a
number of younger sculptors all more or less in
sympathy with the strongly realistic tendencies of
this new movement. Though much of their work
is yet immature and not wholly satisfactory, yet
some of them have already attained lasting fame,
One of the most prominent is Augustus ST.
GAUDENs, who received his technical training under
Jouffroy in Paris. He has executed a very beautiful
bas-relief, the Adoration of the Cross by Angels, in St.
Thomas’ Church, N. Y., and in his statues of Pres.
Lincoln (see p. 459), Admiral Farragut and Robert
R. Randall, and the bust of Gen. Wm. T. Sherman, we
have excellent examples of powerful, realistic and
unconventional style in portrait sculpture. Wm.
R. O’DONov AN has also been very successful in his
portrait busts, among which is the masterly one of
William Page. The monument to the captors of

SEABURY-SEARCH.
459
|
|
André, at Tarrytown, and the statue of Wash-
ington, for the Newburg monument, are also his
works. Frank DENGLER ; Daniel C. FRENCH,
ST. GAUDENs’ “ABRAHAM LINCOLN.”
sculptor of the Minute Man, at Congord, and the
statues of John Harvard and Lewis Cass; Howard
ROBERTs, known best by the exceedingly bold and
striking statues of Lot's Wife and Hypatia; J. S.
HART.LEY, at one time professor at the Art Students’
League, and Olin L. WARNER, are among the other
important representatives of the new School.
The work of these young men, though, as said
before, not by any means entirely faultless, gives
promise of a bright future for the plastic art in this
country. (F. L. W.)
SEABURY, SAMUEL (1729–1796), first bishop of
the Episcopal Church in America, was born at Gro-
ton, Conn., Nov. 30, 1729. He graduated at Yale
in 1748, and studied theology under his father, then
rector at Hempstead, L. I. After taking a year’s
medical course at the University of Edinburgh, he
was ordained deacon by the Bishop of Lincoln Dec.
21, 1753, and priest two days after by the Bishop of
Carlisle in London. Returning home, he did mis-
sionary work at New Brunswick, N. J., 1754–56,
was rector at Jamaica, L. I., 1757–67, and then at
Westchester, N. Y. As was the case with most of
the Episcopal clergy at that time his sympathies
were with the royalists : he became obnoxious to the
Whigs through his “ Farmer’s Letters” reflecting
on the Continental Congress, Nov. and Dec. 1774.
Withdrawing to New York city, he practised medi-
cine for a time and acted as chaplain of the King’s
American regiment, 1778. Oxford gave him the
degree of D.D., 15 Dec. 1777. The Episcopal min-
isters of Connecticut, in session at Woodbury on
March 25, 1783, elected him bishop ; but grave diffi-
culties stood in the way of his consecration. The
English bishops feared to act without the consent
of Parliament, which could not be procured in the
case of a foreigner who could not take the oath of
allegiance prescribed by law. After long delay he
applied to the Scottish bishops, who were not state
officials, and was privately consecrated by three of
them at Aberdeen, Nov. 14, 1784, thus procuring
the succession for America. Drs. White, Provoost
and Madison having afterward been consecrated in
England, he joined them in consecrating Dr. Clag-
gett, who thus represented both the Anglican and
Scottish lines, and in organizing the American Epis-
copal Church in the General Convention of 1789.
Seabury was an active and efficient prelate, much
respected for his character and talents. Two Vol.
umes of his sermons were published 1791 (again 1793
and 1815), and a third volume 1798. He died at his
home in New London Feb. 25, 1796. Rev. E. E.
Beardsley, D.D., published his Life and Correspond-
ence (1881).
SEALSFIELD, CHARLEs, was the assumed name
of KARL POSTEL (1793–1864), whose true history
was not revealed till after his death. He was born
at Poppitz, Moravia, March 3, 1793, and after being
educated at Znaym, entered the convent of the
Knights of the Cross, and was ordained a priest.
His unruly spirit and lively imagination brought
him into trouble, and in 1822 he escaped from the
convent and found refuge in Switzerland. Under
his assumed name, he soon emigrated to the United
States and was employed on newspapers in New
York city. In 1826 he visited Germany and En-
gland, publishing, in the former a description of
America and in the latter Austria as it is (1828),
which was translated into several languages. In
1827 he returned to the United States and after ex-
tensive journeys in the Southwest and Mexico,
bought a plantation in Louisiana. But the failure
of his banker ruined his prospects and he returned
to the North. He then published at Philadelphia
a novel, Tokeah, oh' the White Rose (1828), which he
afterwards enlarged in a German edition, Der Legi-
time und der Republicaner (3 vols., 1833). Meantime
he had been employed in journalism at London and
Paris and settled in Switzerland, where he is said
to have had intimate relations with Queen Hor-
tense. His American experiences furnished him
with material for many books, which were mostly
written in German, but soon translated into French
and English. Among these were Transatlantic
Travelling Sketches (1834); The Cabin Book, or
Sketches of Life in Teacas (1835); The Viceroy and
the Aristocrats, or Meacico in 1812 (2 vols. 1835), which
is his best work; Pictures of Life in both Hemispheres
(2 vols. 1837); North and South (1848); and Morton,
or the Grand Towr (1846). A collection of his
works in German comprising T8 volumes was pub-
lished at Stuttgard in 1846. He visited America
again in 1850 and 1859. His plantation in Louis-
iana had then become very valuable, but the war
interrupted his returns from it. His last years
were spent in Soleure, Switzerland, where he lived
like a peasant, yet remained a mystery to his peas-
ant neighbors until his death March 26, 1864. After
his history was revealed by a clergyman of Zurich,
a monument was erected to his memory in Poppitz
in 1875. His story has been told by Kertbény in
Erinnerungen an Sealsfield (1864).
SEARCH, RIGHT OF. The controversy as to th
See Wol right of maritime visitation and search
XXI., p. 60s between the United States and Great
(p. 638 Am. Britain was the natural outcome of the
Rep.). change of relationship that they under-
Went as a consequence of the war of the
Revolution. Long after the colonies had asserted
their independence of that power Great Britain
claimed that their citizens were her subjects and
liable to such demands as she might make upon
their property or personal services. The treaty of
peace of 1783 changed this relation, but left Great
Britain disinclined to yield to the Americans any-
thing that could possibly be claimed in virtue of
international rights. On the other hand it was to
be expected that the United States would take that
view of international obligation that would give the
largest freedom from intrusions upon her commerce
by the powerful navy of her rival, who had been
foiled in the effort to make a monopoly of the com-
merce of America.

460
SEARCH.
The maritime police of the high seas was inter-
nationally recognized as in the navies of the respec-
tive powers, but the power that maintained the
largest naval force necessarily had a preponderating
influence in that important administration, and
naturally was, inclined to enhance the measure of
authority due to that function. The terms upon
Which the cruisers of the various nations could
inquire into the national character of vessels upon
the seas, so as to suppress piracy, were not in dis-
pute. It was conceded that during war the cruisers
of the belligerents could visit and search the vessels
of neutral powers for the property of any enemy or
for contraband of war, and for the purpose of ren-
dering blockades effectual, provided this power was
exercised in a reasonable manner and no demand
Was made except of passive submission to the exer-
cise of such right, but the existence of such a right
in time of peace was strenuously denied by the
powers at large and reluctantly yielded by Great
Britain.
In the relations between the United States and
Great Britain an exceptional use of the power of
visitation and search was claimed as a right in one
Case and insisted upon as a concession in another.
Great Britain claimed the right to search American
ships for the purpose of taking from them the subjects
either claimed as deserters from her marine or
needed for that service, and with a view to impress-
ment for that purpose. At a later time Great
Britain pressed the recognition of a right of search,
encroaching upon the principles of international
law, for the purpose of suppressing the African slave
trade.
As it regarded the right claimed over American
vessels with a view to furnish the British navy with
seamen, the United States stoutly resisted the
claims of Great Britain as not covered by internatio-
nal recognition and as an encroachment upon the
sovereignty of the United States, that was not to be
tolerated, and was particularly liable to abuse in
view of the close relations between the people of the
two countries and their habits of national and local
interchange. The United States claimed that the
right of visitation and search was merely a bel-
ligerent right that could exist only as an incident
of war; they also claimed that even as a belligerent
right it could not be exercised against a neutral vessel
as an assertion of proprietorship over her cargo in
behalf of a belligerent or her subjects, as that would
be the exercise of a sovereign function under the
flag of another sovereign. Much less could that
belligerent right be made to cover the exercise of
authority over persons under the protection of the
sovereign under whose flag they were.
Great Britain relied upon the strength of her navy
rather than upon the established usages of nations,
and persisted in a course that ultimately brought
on war between the two countries. During the
Napoleonic wars in 1807 it was charged that British
seamen, deserters from her naval service, were
harbored at Norfolk, Va. Some British vessels of
war were in that vicinity. The American frigate
Chesapeake was at this port fitting for sea. She at
length sailed, but the British man-of-war Leopard
preceded her and arrested her progress, demanding
the right to search her for British deserters. This
demand being refused, the British ship opened fire
upon the Chesapeake and the latter, not being pre-
pared for such unexpected an attack, hauled down
her colors. Search was made and Several persons
were taken from the Chesapeake as deserters and
carried away by the Leopard, which now asserted
against the Chesapeake none of the rights of the
capture. &
Congress and the country at large were incensed
at this flagrant violation of sovereign right. Con-
as a Consequence of this act. A British commis-
Sioner sent to this country in the latter part of the
Same year to treat in regard to the affair of the
Chesapeake, was disposed to negotiate as it regarded
the question of the right to make search in national
Vessels for deserters. The United States were un-
Willing to discuss that question apart from the
general question of the right to search merchant
Vessels, and nothing came of the attempt to nego-
tiate. The Embargo law was repealed upon the
accession of Mr. Madison to the Presidency, and a
non-intercourse law substituted in its place.
Aggressions having in the meantime been made by
France on American commerce both England
and France were included in this non-intercourse
act, their armed vessels being excluded from th9
ports of the United States, until the violations of
neutral rights by those nations should cease. The
exclusion of armed vessels was soon revoked as
against France upon assurances that the objection-
able Milan decree would be revoked, but was con-
tinued against Great Britain. British ships were
Stationed upon the American coast that searched
all American vessels and made captures.
In 1811 Congress made military preparations in
view of the anticipated hostilities with Great Brit-
ain and declared war against her. The hostilities
that ensued exhibited, in June, 1812, both in their
character and duration, the absence from the policy
of Great Britain that led to them of any principle
worthy of being vindicated by war. (See WAR of
1812.) The war was terminated in 1814 by the
treaty of Ghent. The remarkable feature of this
treaty is that it did not adjust in terms the matter
of difference between the two countries, although in
effect it produced that result. Since that time Great
Britain has made no assertion against the United
States of any right to search American vessels for
deserters from her navy.
The international efforts to suppress the African
slave trade reopened the subject of visitation and
search in its application to the detection of slave
ships, but the differences that existed between the
two countries as to the limit of that right were
confined within the limits of negotiation. Great
Britain urged the necessity of treaty provisions that
would open to search by the national vessels of each
country the merchant vessels of the respective
countries. The United States, while sympathizing
with the object of the effort to suppress the slave
trade, were unwilling to create a precedent that might
lead to complications tending to impair their mari-
time interests.
After a prolonged effort to arrive at some mode
of exercising maritime police for the purpose of
suppressing the African slave trade a treaty was
concluded with Great Britain in 1862, by which a
limited and regulated right was conferred by each
nation upon the armed vessels of the other to exa-
mine its merchant vessels when reasonable ground
existed for a suspicion that they were engaged in,
or fitted for the slave trade. This right was only
to be exercised by vessels of war duly authorized
for that particular service and carrying instructions
that formed part of the treaty, and was to be exer-
cised against merchant vessels only. The right of
visitation was to be exercised only within 200 miles
of the coast of Africa, south of 32° N. lat., and
within 30 leagues of Cuba. It was required that
when a vessel should be visited, the instructions car-
ried by the visiting ship should be exhibited, and a
certificate of the fact and ground of search given to
the commander of the vessel visited, stating the
vessel making the Search, and the name and rank
of its commander.
Mixed courts were established in the United
States and at points within the jurisdiction of
gress placed an embargo on trade with Great Britain Great Britain, on the African coast, in which both
SEARS. 461
nations participated for the trial of cases arising to it secured to the State, a very complete system
under the treaty, and the vessels of each country of public schools. For this service he was specially
subjected to detention were to be sent to the tribu- fitted by the intimate acquaintance he had acquired
nal of the country to which they belonged for trial. while in Germany with the Prussian system of
The features of the outfit of a vessel that should be public instruction. In 1855, on the resignation of
regarded as indicating , an intention that she Dr. Francis Wayland as president of Brown Uni-
should be employed in the slave trade were care- versity, Dr. Sears was chosen to succeed him. This
fully detailed in the treaty. Provision was made office he held with distinguished ability for twelve
for awarding damages where the detention was not years. During his presidency, which covered the
justified by the treaty, and also for the liberation troublous period of our civil war, some marked im-
of negroes found in condemned vessels. provements in the finances and appliances of the
In the next year, 1863, this right of search was college, as well as changes in the courses of study,
territorially extended. In 1870, by treaty, the took place. Dr. Wayland had introduced in 1850
mixed courts were abolished, and the proper courts the “new system,” as it was called, which opened
of the respective nations substituted therefor, a much wider range of studies in Science, and
American vessels to be sent to American courts specially in applied science, than had before been
and British vessels to British courts. offered, and which, withal, introduced the new de-
The right of search thus organized between the gree of Bachelor of Philosophy, and made the
United States and Great Britain as it regarded the degrees of A. B. and A. M. obtainable in a shorter
slave trade was assimilated to that which exists time than had previously been possible. This system
under international recognition in the case of piracy, was gradually modified until 1862, when with the
but subject to specific regulations that have been de-, exception of a three years’ course for the degree of
scribed. This treatment of the subject is expressive Bachelor of Philosophy, the old curriculum of four
of a close relation between the two classes of cases years, with a few electives, as a condition for receiv-
as depending upon the same principles. ing the degree of A. B., was restored. The first
The honorable career thus begun by the United centennial of the University occurring in 1865, the
States, in the interest of the liberties of commerce, occasion was celebrated with a discourse by Dr.
has in later years developed an effort to place a Sears on the history of the University and the work
more clear and just interpretation upon neutral it had accomplished.
rights in which effort she has happily been brought When in March, 1867, the trustees to whom Mr.
into relations to Great Britain more becoming na-. George Peabody had committed the care of the
tions advanced in civilization than those which were great fund given by him for the education of the
the subject of past differences between them. children of the Southern and Southwestern States
(A. J. W.) which had suffered from our civil war were about
SEARS, BARNAS (1802–1880), educator, was the to organize a plan for the distribution of the income
son of Paul and Rachel (Granger) Sears, and was of this fund, the Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, with
born at Sandisfield, Mass., Nov. 19, 1802. His whom rested the chief responsibility of devising a
earlier education was received in his native town, plan, chanced to meet Dr. Sears in Boston, and
and his immediate preparation for college at the asked him to favor the committee with his views
University Grammar School in Providence, R. I. of what their best plan would be. He complied
He graduated at Brown University in 1825, and with this request, furnishing the written statement
then became a student in the Theological Institu- of a plan which made so favorable an impression on
tion at Newton Centre, Mass. In 1827 he was the minds of the trustees that they adopted it, and
ordained pastor of the first Baptist Church of Hart- immediately and unanimously elected him as the
ford, Conn. This pastorate lasted only two years, general agent by whom the plan should be carried
as in 1829 he was chosen a professor in the Lite- into execution. To accept this agency he resigned
rary and Theological Institution at Hamilton, N. the presidency of Brown University and entered on
Y., now known as Madison University. This pro- its duties in the fall of 1867. And of all the posi-
fessorship he held for four years, resigning and tions which he occupied that of general agent of the
going to Germany in 1833, where he remained Peabody Educational Fund was the one for which
nearly three years engaged in the earnest prosecu- nature, training, experience and tastes seem to have
tion of various studies, chiefly historical, philoso- preéminently fitted him. He held it longer than
phical and theological, at Several noted German any other, and had life and health been spared
Universities. In 1836, on his return from Germany, would have continued to hold it. He died at Sara-
he was elected professor of ecclesiastical history in toga Springs, July 6, 1880. His decease was deeply
the Newton Theological Institution, and in 1839 deplored by the trustees of the fund, and called forth
he was made professor of Christian Theology and a warm eulogium from the Hon. Robert C. Win-
president of the Institution. When he became pro- throp on his character and services. His success
fessor at Newton the number of men in the col- in the discharge of the difficult duties of the agency
leges. and theological schools who could make had been complete. Entering on those duties at a
intelligent and effective use of German learning and time when the Southern mind was naturally very
criticism was by no means large. Becoming editor sensitive towards everything and every person
of the Christian Review in 1838, his free use of coming from the N orth, he yet won for himself
what his long stay in Germany had made available, and his work the confidence and support of all
speedily gave to that Quarterly its distinctive kinds of people. -
characteristics among the Quarterlies of the country. Dr. Sears received the honorary degrees of
Abandoming this editorship in 1841, he afterwards, Doctor of Divinity from Harvard College in isqi e
When the Bibliotheca Sºcra was started, continued and of Doctor of Laws from Yale College in 1863. In
for many years to use his knowledge of German as a addition to many contributions to Quarterlies pub-
contributor to its pages. In 1848, after twelve years lished addresses and educational reports he was
of distinguished service, he resigned his position also author (with Edwards and Felton) of Cºss.
at the Newton. Theological Institution to become Studies (1843); The Ciceronian, which set forth the
the successor of Horace Mann as secretary of the Prussian method of teaching Latin (1844) : The
Massachusetts Board of Education. Mr. Mann had Life of Martin Luther (isºo). He alsº 'editºl
accomplished a great work in creating popular Nöhden's German Grammar, with additions (1842) e
interest in public instruction in Massachusetts ; ; Select Treatises of Luther, in German with notes
that work, Dr. Sears carried forward with great (1846), and Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and
energy, and in the seven years which he devoted Phrases (1854). * (E. G r ) !
462
SEATON, WILLIAM WINSTON (1785–1866), jour-
Iºlist, Was born in King William Co., Va., Jan. 11,
1785. He was of Scotch descent, and his mother
Was a cousin of Patrick Henry. He was educated
at Richmond, where he became a printer and at an
early age engaged in political journalism. He was
connected with a newspaper at Petersburg, and
OWned one at Halifax, N. C. Joseph Gales edited
the Register at Raleigh, and Seaton joined him in
the work, and afterwards married his daughter.
In 1812 in company with his brother-in-law he
SEATON.—SEDGWICK.
tucky and Virginia that produced the celebrated
Resolutions of 1798, but awakened no heroic senti-
ment in South Carolina. The reason of this is
obvious. The government of South Carolina per-
mitted the least degree of popular intervention in
public affairs that was reconcilable with the exis-
Stence there of popular government. Until the
close of the rebellion the only officers in the State
chosen at popular elections were the members of
the Legislature and of Congress, the sheriffs, and
delegates to conventions. The majority of the
moved to Washington, where they founded the
National Intelligencer, a journal long conspicuous
for its ability, fairness and courtesy. The publish-
ers also compiled a Register of Debates extending from
1824, to 1837, and Annals of Congress from March 3,
1798 to May 27, 1824. These valuable works are of
the highest authority in American history. Gales
died in 1860 and Seaton survived him until June 16,
1866. He was honorably connected with the growth
of the city of Washington, and was its mayor for
twelve years, 1840–51. -
SECESSION. The effort of several of the slave-
holding States of the Union to separate themselves
from those that adhered to the Constitution of the
United States is the event to which the term seces-
Sion has been applied. In 1860 South Carolina as-
Sumed to dissolve her connection with the United
States and was followed by several of the slave-
holding States who together formed a government
styled the Confederate States of America. This
movement was the natural outcome of the accept-
ance of the doctrine of States’ Rights, that had
grown up subsequently to the adoption of the Con-
stitution of the United States, under the influence
of local causes peculiar to the condition of the
Southern States of the Union. The nature and
development of this school of opinion are given un-
der STATES’ RIGHTS.
In South Carolina this doctrine had received an
interpretation that assumed for it a philosophical
basis, that had been supplied by the abstract studies
of her great thinker, John C. Calhoun. Conscious
that the massing of political powers rendered possi-
ble great abuses of such power, detrimental to indi-
vidual liberty, and fearing the consequences of such
abuses, Calhoun overlooked the law of social growth
that demanded the existence of highly integrated
powers, even though such condition let in the possi-
bility of many evils, and claimed to have found the
line of safety in reducing the strength of federated
governments to a point that would disable them
from committing great wrongs, although the process
was one that equally deprived them of the capacity
of accomplishing any thing notably good. His idea
was that the States of this Union should be united
in a way that would make their combined action
depend upon diplomatic intercourse between them.
Deprived of the power of acting independently of
the consent of all the States, hasty and oppressive
action would be avoided. In a community of States
thus loosely united every step in public affairs would
be the product of a compromise painfully worked
out of discordant elements. The aspect presented
by the States of such a Union would be that of a
chain-gang, hobbled and crippled, incapable of in-
telligent action, and needing a task-master to direct
its steps.
While South Carolina was the niglus of disunion
she did not assume the leadership of the movement
depending on that principle until her institutions
people of that State were a caste, admitted to no poli-
|tical privileges and under a civil regime that
Separated them as to their rights and obligations
from the residue of her people. Under such cir-
cumstances active sympathy with advanced politi-
cal ideas was not to be expected. The phase of
States’ Rights agitation induced by opposition to the
Alien and Sedition laws was characterized by the
presence of a democratic tendency hostile to caste
and political monopoly. .
The Second great upheaval from that same source
was in the interest of industries intimately inter-
Woven with slavery. This was the occasion of the
attempted nullification by South Carolina of the
tariff laws of the United States, and is treated
under NULLIFICATION (q.v.).
The third and final effort commenced under the
leadership of South Carolina, and distinctly pro-
pounded the perpetuation of slavery as its object.
Thus from fellowship with the most advanced
conception of the equal rights of mankind under
government, the States’ Rights dogma passed into
sympathy with, and support of the aristocratic regime
of caste, the institutional denial of all that is im-
plied by the term democracy, and the source of
oligarchic tendencies. Both nullification and seces-
sion united in the support and perpetuation of
slavery, the former dealing with slavery through
industries of which slavery was regarded as a
necessity, and the latter propounding distinctly the
perpetuation of that institution as its end. For the
steps that were taken by the seceding States in
| attempting disunion and establishing a confederate
government, see CONFEDERATE STATES AND RE-
CONSTRUCTION. (A. J. W.)
SEDALIA, a city of Missouri, county-seat of
Pettis co., is at the intersection of the Missouri
Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Rail-
road, 189 miles W. of St. Louis. It contains a
court-house, 2 opera-houses, 2 national banks, a
savings bank, 10 churches, a high school with fine
building, a public library, 3 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers. Its industrial works comprise car-
works, machine-shops, woolen mills, manufactories
of agricultural implements, wagons, machinery,
soap and furniture. It was founded in 1860, and
in 1880 had a populatio.1 of 9561.
SEDGWICK, CATHARINE MARIA (1789–1867),
novelist, was the daughter of Judge Theodore
Sedgwick, and was born at Stockbridge, Mass.,
Dec. 28, 1789. After her father's death, in 1813,
she took the management of a school for young
ladies, which she conducted for fifty years. In 1822
she published A New England Tale, which had grown
under her hand while she was preparing a religious
tract. Its success led to a second venture, Redwood
(1824), which attained even greater popularity.
Then followed a long series of tales, letters, histori-
cal sketches, and a biography of Lucretia M.
Davidson (1841). Hope Leslie (1827), Clarence
and interests were touched by conflicting national
interests. The first occasion, that brought, º
activity the consequences of the theory of States
Rights was furnished through sympathy with politi- |
cal aspirations deriving their inspiration from the
principle of the equality of man in civil society.
The French Revolution found a response in Ken-
*
(1830), and the Linwoods (1835), take rank as her
best. Her last book was . Letters to My Pupils
(1862). She died at Roxbury, Mass., July 31,
1867. The Memoir was published by M. E. Dewey
1871).
( SEDGWICK, John (1813–1864), general, was
born in Cornwall, Conn., Sept. 13, 1813, and
SEDGWICK–SEDITION. 463
graduated at West Point in 1837, in a class com- - - - - st Point i
prising Gens. Hooker, Bragg and Early. He was memory at the Military Academy at West POint in
appointed 2d lieutenant of artillery, and served 1868. y- p- tº * * (J. H.)
against the Seminoles in Florida and subsequently SEDGWICK, THEOD9RE (1746–1813), jurist, was
on the frontier during the Canada border troubles. descended from Robert Sedgwick, one of the settlers
Having been made 1st lieutenant in 1839, he took of Charlestown, Mass., in 1635, who afterwards,
part in the Mexican war, at the siege of Vera Cruz, while engaged in the expedition against Jamaica
the battles of Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino in 1656, received a commission as major-general
del Rey, and Chapultepec, and in the assault on from Cromwell. Part of the family had gone to
and capture of the City of Mexico. He was brevetted Hartford, Conn., and here Theºdore was born in
successively captain and major for gallantry and May, 1746. He entered the Yale College, and
meritorious conduct. In 1849 he was promoted to having been rusticated for some offence did not
captain, and, in 1855, to major of the 1st cavalry, return. In 1766 he was admitted to the bar. and
with which he served in Kansas, being subsequently practised at Great Barrington and afterwards at
transferred to the 2d cavalry, of which he was Sheffield, Mass. He was an ardent patriot. and
lieutenant-colonel at the outbreak of the civil war. served in the expedition to Canada as an aid to
In April, 1861, he was appointed colonel of the Gen. Thomas. He frequently represented Sheffield
4th cavalry, and in August was commissioned a in the State Legislature, and in 1785 was a delegate
brigadier-general of volunteers and assigned for to the Continental Congress. His services in up.
service in the army of the Potomac. In McClel- pressing Shay's Rebellion were important. In 1788
lan's Peninsular campaign of 1862, he commanded the Massachusetts Convention, under his guidance,
a division of Sumner's corps, and took part in the ratified the Federal Constitution. In the same year
siege of Yorktown and in the pursuit of Johnston. he was speaker of the assembly, and was elected a
He especially distinguished himself at the battle of member of the first Congress under the new consti-
Fair Oaks, arriving, after a toilsome march, just in tution. Here he was conspicuous as a Federalist
time to decide the day. He took part in all the and a laborious statesman. In 1796 he was elected
engagements of the Seven Days’ fight, and again to the U. S. Senate, of which he was made president
won honor at Savage's Station and Glendale. At pro tem. in the next year. In 1799 he returned to
Antietam he bore a conspicuous part, leading a the lower house, where he was chosen speaker. At
division and exposing himself fearlessly. Though the close of this term he was made judge of the
severely wounded, for two hours he would not allow Supreme Court of Massachusetts, and so continued
himself to be taken from the field. Returning to till his death at Boston, Jan. 24, 1818. Sedgwick
duty in December he was promoted major-general rendered excellent service in Congress, but his
of volunteers, and, in Feb. 1863, put in command fame rests upon his work in the interpretation of
of the Sixth corps. At the head of this corps, on the State laws in behalf of liberty. In 1780 in a
May 3, he stormed the heights of Fredericksburg, fugitive slave case he obtained from a State Court
but with the heavy loss of 5000 men. Continuing a decision which practically brought slavery to an
his march to effect a junction with the main army, end. Afterwards while judge he strengthened the
under Hooker, at Chancellorsville, he was decision by pronouncing that “one man could not
|ººl by the Sixth corps, was erected, to his
checked in the afternoon at Salem Heights by the have legitimate property in another.”
troops that Lee was able to detach after repulsing
Hooker, and on the next morning when Lee further re-
inforced these it was only by determined fighting Sedg-
wick could hold his ground. When darkness fell he
withdrew across the Rappahannock. (See CHANCEL-
LORSVILLE.) In the subsequent return into Mary-
land Sedgwick commanded the left wing of the Army
of the Potomac, as he did at the ensuing battle of
Gettysburg, which he reached on the second day of the
fighting, after making a forced march of 35 miles in
20 hours—a feat nearly unparalleled. So severe was
the struggle that his corps was brought into action
without being allowed time to rest. It was engaged,
also, in the third day’s fight and in the pursuit on
July 5. During the passage of the Rapidan, Nov.
7, 1863, he succeeded by adroit movements in cap-
turing an entire Confederate division. This service
Gen. Meade acknowledged in a general order. At the
battle of Rappahannock Station, Nov. 7, he com-
manded the Union right wing, and in the Wilder-
ness campaign, held the same position, under Grant,
exhibiting conspicuous gallantry in the sanguinary
battles of May 5 and 6, 1864. At Spottsylvania
Court House (May 9), while placing some pieces in
position in the entrenchments, in front of the Court
House, he was struck in the head by a bullet fired
by a Confederate sharpshooter and instantly killed.
His loss caused the most profound grief not only
in his own command by which he was especially
beloved (and which in respect of discipline and
morale he had made one of the most efficient in the
field), but throughout the whole army to which his
many noble qualities had endeared him. He had
been offered the command of the Army of the Poto-
mac just before it was conferred on Gen. Meade, but
his modesty led him to decline it. He commanded
it, however, more than once temporarily in Gen.
Meade's absence. A monument, cast from cannon
His son, THEODORE SEDGWICK (1781–1839), was
born at Sheffield, Mass., Dec. 31, 1781. He graduated
at Yale College in 1798, and having studied law
with his father, was admitted to the bar in 1801.
He practised at Albany, N. Y., for many years
and in 1822 removed to his father’s estate at Stock-
bridge, Mass. He was elected to the Massachusetts
legislature and earnestly advocated the construction
of a railroad from Boston to Albany. He was a
Democrat in politics, opposed to slavery, and an
advocate of free trade. Soon after completing a
political speech he died of apoplexy at Pittsfield,
Nov. 7, 1839. His published works were Hints
to my Countrymen (1826), and Public and Private
Economy (3 vols., 1836–39). The later volumes con-
tain his observations on the continent of Europe in
1836. His wife, Susan Ridley Sedgwick, was a
daughter of Gov. William Livingston of New Jersey,
and wrote many works of fiction for the young.
Their son, THEODORE SEDGWICK (1811–1859), was
born at Albany, Jan. 27, 1811. He graduated at
Columbia College in 1829, and was admitted to the
bar in 1833. He then became an attaché of the U.
S. Legation at Paris. Returning in 1835 he practised
law in New York city, was president of the Crystal
Palace Association in 1852, and in 185S was U. S.
district attorney. He died at Stockbridge, Mass.,
Dec. 8, 1859. He published a Memoir of Gov. Wil.
liam Livingston (1833); a Treatise on the Measure of
Damages (1847), and many legal, literary and polit-
ical addresses.
SEDITION. The distinctive recognition of the
See Vol principle that the people of the com-
XXI, p. 610 munity have a right to mould its govern-
op. 650 Å. ment to their interests and desires, which
Rep.). existing as a political tendency in the
early colonial institutions of this country,
came to a distinct expression at the Revolution,
464
SEDITION.
had a necessary tendency to displace the ideas of the
duty of popular submission to authority that were
derived from monarchical institutions. The enun-
ciation of a measure of popular right in excess of
what had been regarded as compatible with govern-
mental stability, and which had never been reduced
to an exact statement by actual political experience
left an important political problem for experimental
Solution.
This principle, affirming the popular origin of
political authority, was the reason of the Declara-
tion of Independence and the sanction of the armed
struggle that established its affirmations. In
America the ultimate consequences of the tendencies
inherent in this new and bold doctrine were coun-
teracted by inherited English tendencies that
estimated political institutions according to historic
rather than philosophical interpretations. In France
a prepared intellectuality that had appealed from
history to reason, and popular aspirations intensi-
fied under the pressure of dynastic interests had
assured the acceptance of the advanced conception
of popular right. The displacement of the historic
government of that country opened its institutions
to the chances of a conflict between reason, rapacity
and revenge that soon demonstrated the instability
of government not properly related to antecedent
experience.
Profound apprehensions were felt by the conser-
vative portion of the American people for the safety
of our own government which was thought to be
exposed to the influences that were producing the
instability of French institutions to a condition that
threatened constitutional order in government. It
was apprehended that emissaries of ultra-revolu-
tionary ideas would foment among our people
dissatisfaction with their government and with
established social order and would embarrass if not
overthrow the government. The Federal party
then in power sought to relate the institutions of
the country to past governmental experiences, while
a growing sentiment demanded an unshackled
advance to certain ideal conditions that attracted
the popular enthusiasm. e -
The apprehensions excited by the condition of poli-
tics in France, induced the enactment by Congress
in 1798 of the Alien and Sedition laws. The latter
prescribed punishment for seditious libels against
the government and its officers and for seditious
conspiracies, but the law was a temporary expedient
expiring by its limitation in 1801. While this law
cannot be regarded as an attempt to establish in
this country the common law doctrines in regard to
sedition it certainly was a reactionary step that
failed through its want of adjustment to the prin-
ciples of government. As regarded the penalties
attached to seditious conspiracy the law is not open
to the same criticism, but as an attempt to stifle
criticism upon the conduct of the government, it
certainly misconceived the tendencies that gave
direction to thought and action in America.
The policy of the Federal party in this respect had
its roots in distrust of popular institutions that did
not contain a reserve of governmental authority
that in the end could set a limit to popular tendencies.
The theory of popular sovereignty was not freed
from the influence of the long prevalent notions of
personal sovereignty, and it seemed to many gifted
minds that the mechanism of government with its
inherent conservative tendencies might still supply
a check to popular tendencies. If the idea of pop-
ular liberty was not clear at that day the instinct
associated with that idea was fixed and potent and
was the cause of the overthrow of the policy of re-
pressing popular agitation.
In our colonial life we imported the common law
of England that thus became the point of depart-
ure for whatever might be the distinctive product
of our peculiar conditions and tendencies. The law
of England regarded the raising of commotion and
disturbance in the State for the purpose of chang-
ing, the government or its measures as a revolt
against legitimate authority and clothed such con-
duct with the qualities of a public wrong under the
name of “sedition.” It is more accurate to say
that Sedition was a parent stock from which a va-
riety of crimes branched out than to say that it
Was in itself a distinctive crime. While as affect-
ing the life or security of the person of the sove-
reign, Seditious conduct on the part of a single
individual might be of consequence, it was only
When numbers united for seditious purposes that
the stability and authority of the government could
be regarded as in jeopardy, and hence the develop-
ment of the consequences of sedition dealt mainly
with the conduct of associated persons. Viewed
on this side sedition implied the assembling to-
gether of persons from the motive of hostility to the
government or its measures and the conduct at-
tending and resulting from such assembling. An
unlawful assembly as punished by the law of Eng-
land was measured by a very vague standard that
in its application left much to the state of the
times and to the temper of those administering it.
A definition of an unlawful assembly as “any meet-
ing whatever of great numbers of people with such
circumstances of terror as cannot but endanger the
public peace and raise fear and jealousies among
the King’s subjects,” is a net that can be made to
catch great or little fish as circumstances might
require. If the object of such an assembly was to
enforce some personal right or to redress some per-
sonal wrong, without any direct bearing upon the
government, the most that would result from an
attempt to execute its purposes by force, would be
to involve the actors in the consequences of the
crime of riot. But, if the object was the redress of
public grievances, and force was employed, the re-
sponsibility was for the consequences of treason.
As the discussion of radical changes in the structure
and policy of government must produce those con-
sequences above described as indicating an unlaw-
ful assembly it is evident that the system that gave
rise to such definitions of the limitations of popular
action was essentially based upon the idea that
such changes could not properly originate with the
mass of the people. Such a system could have no
place in the doctrines of America, and the attempt
to graft it upon our institutions was a serious error
that had a large share in revolutionizing the state
of parties and opinions in the United States. At
the present day the term “sedition ” hardly has a
place in the law language of this country. Its only
use in the statutes of the United States is in con-
nection with the regulations for the government of
the army and the navy, where sedition is named as
a military offence.
The attempt to change the structure or to control
or resist the operations of the government by force
has not lost the character derived from the institu-
tions of England, for the principles of popular
government while giving the utmost liberty to
rational methods find no place for brute force. It is
true that we have limited the scope of the crime of
treason to the case of armed hostility to the govern-
ment, but in various forms penal consequences have
been attached to applications of force to antagonize
the operations of the government.
The right of the people to assemble and delibe-
rate upon public grievances is fixed in the constitu-
tion of the United States and those of the States,
so that the popular assembly, whether deliberating
upon changes in the structure or operations of the
government or on the conduct of those administer-
ing it, is placed upon highest ground of privilege
beyond the control of the law-making authority so
SEELEY-SELBORNE.
465
*
long as its deliberations are confined to rational
methods to the exclusion of turbulence and vio-
lence.
What has been done by constitutional authority
to conserve the formation and expression of collec-
tive opinion as affecting the government has also
been done for the protection of individual opinion.
The liberty of speech and of the press secured by
all of our Constitutions assures to the individual im-
munity in the free expression of his opinions, though
involving in condemnation the conduct of the gov-
ernment or of its officers, placing such expressions
upon the ground of privilege and freeing him from
responsibility except for the truth of statements
Pºlº to personal character.
hese constitutional rights preclude the applica-
tion of the principles upon which the doctrine of
sedition rests to the relations between the citizen
and his government so long as force is absent. As
the doctrine of bygone times sought to shield the
government from popular criticism the modern con-
stitutional liberty distinctly invites that criticism
and bestows upon it the highest immunity. (See
STATES’ RIGHTS.) (A. J. W.)
SEELEY, JoHN ROBERT, English author, was
born in London in 1834. He graduated at Christ's
College, Cambridge, in 1857, and became fellow in
1858. He was made professor of Latin in Univer-
sity College, London, in 1863, and professor of
modern history at Cambridge in 1869. To him is
attributed Ecce Homo (1865), a work which pro-
duced a profound sensation throughout the English-
speaking world. It professed to be a survey of the
life and work of Jesus Christ. Discarding all theo-
logical systems, the author, took the narrative of
the Gospels, and endeavored to prove the influence
of Jesus to be due to an “enthusiasm of humanity,”
of which he was the exemplar and advocate. So
great was the effect of the book that the author
seems to have recoiled from pursuing the plan an-
nounced in his preface. Instead of issuing a work
on the religious system of the Gospels, he waited
till 1882 before publishing Natural Religion, a work
which has attracted much less attention than his
former. In the field of modern history Prof. Seeley
has treated with marked ability the themes he has
handled. His Life and Times of Stein (3 vols., 1879)
has made known in English the true source of the
recent greatness of the German empire, while the
Eacpansion of England (1883) is a graphic presenta-
tion of the growth of the British empire. His
Short History of Napoleon I. (1886) is a severe in-
dictment of the French emperor as a selfish char-
latan.
SEELYE, JULIUS HAWLEY, educator, was born
at Bethel, Conn., Sept. 14, 1824. He graduated at
Amherst College in 1849, studied theology at An-
dover, and went to Germany for further study. In
1853 he was ordained pastor of the first Reformed
Church at Schenectady, N. Y. In 1858 he was
recalled to Amherst College as professor of moral
and mental philosophy. In 1872 he visited India
and delivered lectures to educated English-speaking
Hindoos on the truths of Christianity. These were
afterwards published at Bombay and Boston under
the title The Way, the Truth, and the Life (1874). In
1874 the people of his Congressional district, dis-
contented with previous political management, no-
minated and elected him to Congress. He served
but one term, and was chosen president of Amherst
College in 1876, while still retaining his professor-
ship. His earnest Christian character has served
to raise the standard of education, of public opinion
and political action. Besides contributions to reviews
and many sermons and addresses, he has published
Christian Missions (1875).
His brother, LAWRENCE CLARK SEELYE, born at
Bethel, Conn., Sept. 20, 1837, graduated at Union
College in 1857, studied theology at Andover, and
afterwards at Berlin and Heidelberg. Returning
after a tour extended to Palestine, he was ordained
pastor of a Congregational Church at Springfield,
Mass., in 1863. He was made professor of English
literature and oratory in Amherst College in 1865,
and in 1874 was called to be president of the newly
founded Smith College for Women, at Northamp-
ton, Mass. He has contributed to periodical litera-
ture on educational topics and has prepared Some
articles for this work.
SEGUIN, EDou ARD (1812–1880), physician, noted
for his success in training idiots, was born at
Clamecy, France, Jan. 20, 1812. He was educated
at colleges of Auxerre and of St. Louis, Paris.
While studying medicine with Itard, who had given
some attention to the treatment of idiots, Seguin
was induced to pursue the subject more thoroughly.
In his first experiments he was associated with É.
D. Esquirol, and in 1838 he opened a school for
this class of patients in the Faubourg St. Martin,
Paris. His system received the approval of the
French Academy of Sciences in 1845, and he then
published Traitement morale, Hygiène et Education des
Idiots (1846). The revolution of 1848 having inter-
rupted his work at Paris, he visited the tinited
States, where some institutions had already been
founded to carry out his ideas. He assisted Dr. H.
B. Wilbur in starting the school which grew into
the New York State Asylum at Syracuse. In 1851
he settled in Ohio, but he afterwards taught at
Sº, and then practised as a physician at Mt.
ernon, N. Y. At intervals he was engaged in
founding asylums for idiots in other States. In 1863.
he settled in New York city, and there enjoyed high
repute as a specialist in nervous diseases. In 1873
he was U. S. Commissioner of Education at the
Vienna Exposition, 1873, and he prepared the offi-
cial report on that department. He died at New
York, Oct. 28, 1880. To him the medical profession
owes the physiological thermometer. Among his
publications in English were Idiocy and its Treatment
by the Physiological Method (1866); Medical Thermo-
metry (1871), and several other treatises on these
subjects.
SEISS, JOSEPH AUGUSTU's, Lutheran minister,
was born near Graceham, Md., March 18, 1823. He
was educated at Pennsylvania College, but did not
graduate, though be afterwards received the degree
of D.D. from this institution. Having studied theology
privately, he became pastor at Martinsburg, Va.
in 1843. He afterwards had charge of churches at
Cumberland, Md. (1847), Baltimore (1852), and in
Philadelphia first of St. John’s (1858), and later
of the Church of the Holy Communion (1874).
In 1858 he took part in forming the General Council
of the Lutheran Church. He edited the Prophetis
Times, a monthly, 1863–75, and the Lutheran 1873–
79, having previously been associate editor for some
years. He has published lectures on the Epistle to
the Hebrews (1846), on Leviticus (1860), on the
Apºcalypse (3 vols., 1870–84), on the Gospels (2 vols.,
1876), on Daniel (1879), and many other sermons.
His millenarian views of prophecy are set forth in
these and in Last Times (1856). His Miracle in
Stone (1877) adopts the views of Prof. C. Piazzi
Smyth in regard to the great pyramid of Egypt and
pronounces, it to be a record and attestation of
divine revelation. In The Gospel in the Stars (1SS2)
he considers the constellations to be a typical dis.
play of Christian truth. His Ecclesia Lutherana
(1897), Luther, and the Reformation (1883), and
Various manuals relate chiefly to his own denomi-
nation. *
SELBORNE, ROUNDELL PALMER, EARL or
was born at Mixburg, England, Nov. 27, 1st 2, his
father being rector of that parish. He was educated
at Rugby and Winchester schools, and at Trinity
a- SELMA–SEMINOLES.
College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1834. He World (1855), and a Verbal Analysis of the Bible
had won prizes for Latin and English verse. He (1855). He died at Lichfield April 11, 1878; his
became fellow of Magdalen College, and in 1837 || Memoir was written by H. W. Tucker (2 vols.
was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. He was 1879). His son succeeded Patteson as Bishop of
made Queen’s Counsel in 1849, having been already Melanesia, and his brother, WILLIAM SELwyN
elected to Parliament from Plymouth. In 1852 he (1806–1875), was divinity professor at Cambridge
was defeated, but in the next year he regained his from 1855, author of several books, and a reviser
seat, which he held till 1857. He was then classed as of the translation of the Old Testament.
a Liberal Conservative, but afterwards became | SEM.INOLES, a tribe of Indians, whose name is
distinctly liberal. In 1861 he was appointed solici- associated with the history of Florida, now reside
tor-general in Lord Palmerston’s administration chiefly in Indian Territory. They belong to the
and was knighted. He became a member for Rich- Creek, or Muscogee family, and having separated
mond and represented this borough until he was ele- from the main body in 1750, were called Seminoles
wated to the peerage in 1872. He was made attorney- or “wanderers.” Parts of other tribes joined with
general in Oct., 1863, under Lord John Russell, and them, and during the American Revolution they
retired with him in June, 1866. When Mr. Glad- gave much trouble to the people of Georgia. In 1784
stone came into power in Dec., 1868, he offered to the Spaniards, having recovered Florida, made a
make Sir Roundell Palmer chancellor, but the latter treaty with the Tallapoosas and Seminoles. The
being unable to approve fully the course proposed latter claiming to be a distinct tribe, repudiated
in regard to the disestablishment and disendowment the treaty made in their behalf with the United
of the Irish Church, then declined the office, States by the Creeks in 1790. They soon began to
though he continued to support the Government make raids into Georgia and afforded refuge to
policy on most public questions. He was counsel fugitive slaves. The Creek war of Northern Georgia
for Great Britain before the Geneva tribunal of arbi- extended to them, and one of their forts bein
tration in 1871. In October, 1872, he was appointed destroyed they took revenge by the massacre o
Lord Chancellor of England, and was raised to the Lieut. Scott and others. Gen. Gaines drove them
peerage by the title Baron Selborne of Selborne. from Georgia, and Gen. Jackson pursued them into
IIe retired with Gladstone in February, 1874, and Florida and destroyed their towns. In 1819, when
returned to his former office when the liberals were Florida was purchased by the United States, the
victorious in 1880. In December, 1882, he was were found to number less than 4000 Indians with
created Viscount Wolmer, of Blackmoor, and Earl about 800 negroes. As they roamed over the whole
of Selborne. He retired again with Mr. Gladstone in country efforts were made to dispossess them. By
1885. Sir Roundell Palmer was noted not only for the treaty of Fort Moultrie, Sept. 18, 1823, but
his legal labors, but also for his literary attainments. somewhat modified in the following January, the
His Book of Praise (1862) is an admirable selection gave up most of their lands for annuities whic
from the best English hymn writers. In 1863 he would amount to $100,000, agreed to deliver up fugi-
received the degree of D.C.L. from the University tive slaves, and accepted small reserves of land. But
of Oxford, and in 1877 he was elected Lord Rector the white settlers pressed for their complete removal,
of the University of St. Andrews. and in 1832 Seminole chiefs were deluded into
SELMA, a city of Alabama, county seat of Dallas making a treaty for this purpose at Payne's Land-
co., is on a bluff on the right bank of the Alabama jing. Although this treaty was rejected by nearly
river, 160 miles N. of Mobile. It is at the intersec- all the tribe President Jackson and the U. S. Senate
tion of several railroads leading to Mobile, New determined to enforce it. When the chiefs opposed
Oregon, Memphis, and Atlanta. It has a court- the attempt, Gen. Thompson, the U. S. agent,
house, a national bank, savings bank, 2 academies, undertook to depose them, and arresting Osceola,
20 churches, and 1 daily and 2 weekly newspapers. put him in irons. On Dec. 28, 1835, Osceola killed
The industrial works comprise iron works, cotton | Thompson, and inaugurated a bloody war which
factories, planing mills, car shops, and other manu- cost the United States over $10,000,000, and 1500
factories. A large trade in cotton is carried on. lives. Though the Seminoles struggled bravely,
The town is lighted with gas. In 1880 it had a most of them early in 1837 agreed to emigrate.
population of 7529. Osceola, however, still fought until he was treacher-
SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUs (1809–1878), an ously seized in October. In 1839 there had been
English missionary bishop, was born at Richmond 1900 Seminoles removed to the Indian Territory,
in Surrey, being son of William Selwyn, Q. C., of where they were handed over to the Creeks. Many
some repute as the author of a work on The Law of of them dissatisfied With their treatment Went on
Nisi Prius (1806–8). George was educated at Eton to the Rio Grande, and their descendants are still
and at St. John's College, Cambridge. After being to be found in Mexico. ... In 1845 and 1856 better
for a time tutor at Eton and curate at Windsor, he treaties were made with those in Indian Territory,
was consecrated first bishop of New Zealand in giving them 8, separate reservation. Those who still
1841, and in this post, which he filled for 26 years, stayed in Florida had sought refuge in the Ever-
won' great reputation for apostolic zeal and, effi- glades, under their chief Billy Bowlegs, but finally
ciency. In his own small vessel, The Southern Cross, most of these also emigrated in 1858. . All told,
and often at great personal risk, he visited the South |2254 Seminoles were then found in Indian Terri-
Sea Islands, and thence brought to New Zealand |tory. The tribe divided on the outbreak of the
native youths whom he instructed and sent, back as civil war, and the Confederate government made a
missionaries. J. C. Patteson, afterwards bishop and treaty with the larger portion, assuming all the
martyr (for whom see ENCYCLOPAEPIABRITANNIGA), obligations of the United States towards them. The
became his assistant in this part of the work in 1855. loyal Seminoles were defeated in a severe fight on
His jurisdiction was divided in 1857. He was re; Dec. 25, 1861, and retreated into Kansas. In 1865
called to England in 1867, having been appointed they rejoined the main tribe, and their old reserva-
Bishop of Lichfield and administered his diocese |tion being purchased by the U. S. government, they
with great energy and success. On a visit to the obtained a new one from the Creeks. A census
United States in 1874 he was received with much showed their number 2959, including some negroes.
attention, as one of the most eminent and beloved There Were others in Florida and Texas. Those IIl
British prelates. His publications include Are Indian Territory haye made considerable improve-
ºñedral Institutions Useless 2 (1838), Remarks on ment under the training ºf Presbyterian missionaries.
Cathedral Reform (1839), Sermons (1842), a Charge Under the treaty of 1866, they receive an annuity
to his clergy (1849), The Work of Christ in the of $25,000, besides $2500 for schools and $1000 for
SEMMES_SEPTUAGINT. 467
government expenses. In 1887 they were reported
as numbering 3000, who all wear citizens’ dress;
1200 use English sufficiently for ordinary conversa-
tion and 800 can read. There are 8 churches with
500 church members. They have about 6000 acres
under fence and cultivated. Efforts have been made
in recent years to set apart homesteads in Florida
for those still remaining there, but no land has been
found unlocated which the Indians are willing to
accept. These are said to number 892.
J. P. L.)
SEMMES, RAPHAEL (1809–1877), Confederate
naval officer, was born in Charles county, Md.,
Sept. 27, 1809. He entered the U. S. navy in 1826,
but afterwards resigned and engaged in the practice
of law in his native State. In the Mexican war he
again entered the service, and when his vessel was
lost during the siege of Vera Cruz, he joined Gen.
Scott’s army as a volunteer. His experience then
furnished material for his Service Afloat and Ashore
(1851), and Campaign of General Scott (1852). In
1855 he attained the rank of commander, and he
was made secretary of the Lighthouse Board. When
the Southern Confederacy was organized he resigned
and went to New Orleans. Taking command of
the sidewheel steamer Sumter, he dashed through
the blockading squadron at the mouth of the Mis-
sissippi. His career of destruction has been nar-
rated under ALABAMA CLAIMS (q. v.). Before the
war closed he had returned to Mobile, and on its
capture he was imprisoned for some months, but
was released without trial. He was afterwards an
editor at Memphis, then a professor in New Orleans,
and a lawyer in Mobile. He published Cruise of
the Alabama (1864), and Memoir of Service Afloat
during the Wur between the States (1869). He died
near Mobile, Aug. 30, 1877.
SENECA FALLS, an incorporated village of
Seneca co., N. Y., is on the Seneca River, 10 miles
from Seneca Lake, and 2 miles W. of Cayuga Lake.
It is 16 miles from Auburn and 62 miles from
Rochester, on the Auburn Branch of the New York
Central Railroad. It has short railroads to Water-
loo and to Cayuga Lake. It contains an opera-
house, a national bank and 2 other banks, 4 hotels,
7 churches, 5 schools and has 2 weekly newspapers.
The river here falls 50 feet and furnishes motive
power for 4 flouring mills, 1 woolen mill, 1 knitting
mill, 5 foundries, and manufactories of steam fire
engines, pumps and agricultural implements. The
village is lighted with gas and has waterworks and
a park. Its property was valued at $30,000,000 ;
the public debt is $30,000 and the yearly expenses
$25,000. It was settled in 1787 by Job Smith, and
was incorporated in 1831. The population in 1880
was 5880.
SENECAS. See IROQUOIs.
SEPTUAGINT. A few years ago, it was custo-
mary among scholars utterly to discredit
§Nº. gas the traditional accounts of the origin of
(p. §§ A. the Septuagint, and to assign very late
Rep.). dates to the making of the successive
. . . parts of this translation. Of late years,
there has been a decided and healthy reaction
against this extreme opinion. A majority of living
scholars, probably, would agree with Prof. J. Well-
hausen, in his statement in the ENCYCLOP.EDIA
BRITANNICA, that the letter of Aristieus, the prin-
cipal source of information concerning the origin of
the Septuagint, was written as early as the earlier
half of the second century B. C., and that the trans-
lation itself may probably have been begun in the
times of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was certainly
finished, so far as the canonical books are concerned,
some time before 130 B.C. When, however, he
says that the Septuagint “was in great part com-
posed before the close of the canon–nay, before
some of the Hagiographa were written,” his impli-
cation as to the lateness of the date of Some of the
Hagiographa, and of the closing of the canon would
not be so widely accepted.
Beyond certain general facts, no statements now
made concerning the Septuagint can be regarded as
final. Good preliminary work is now being done
on it in the way of textual criticism, but ripe results
in regard to the text are still an affair of the future.
And any one who has read the statements currently
made as to the external testimony to the Septuagint,
and has dipped somewhat into the original sources
of this testimony, knows that a wider and better
induction of facts is as much needed in this field as
in that of Septuagint textual criticism.
The article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
avoids the very common mistake of attributing to
Aristaeus or Josephus the statement that the Sep.
tuagint had miraculous sanctions. An account of
these alleged miracles is given by Philo, and a
different account by Epiphanius, and the miracles
are alluded to by other Christian writers, but there
is nothing of the kind in Aristaeus. Our author
further mentions certain guarantees of its own an-
tiquity and of trustworthiness in at least some
points, found in the letter of Aristaeus itself—the
ante-Seleucid character of what it says about the
Jews, for example, and its peculiar correctness in
details, as confirmed by papyri and inscriptions of
the times of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He regards it
as not intrinsically improbable “ that the scholarly
taste of the Alexandrians, personified in Demetrius
Phalereus as the presiding genius of the Alexandrian
library, could have furnished the stimulus to reduce
the translation to writing.” That this was actually
the case, however, he seems to deny, holding that
Demetrius died so early in the reign of Philadelphus
that he cannot possibly have done this work. But
the epistle of Aristaeus does not so much as mention
that the king of whom it, speaks is Philadelphus,
though the reader may gather this fact by inference.
In some of the other traditions, the name of Ptolemy
Lagus is connected with the Septuagint. Remember-
ing this, and remembering that Ptolemy Lagus
lived perhaps two years after he placed Philadel-
phus on the throne, 285 B.C., we see that it is not
improbable that Demetrius may have had some-
thing very important to do with the actual placing
of the Judaean sacred books in the Alexandrian
library. So far as appears from all known sources of
evidence, he may have remained in Alexandria, and
may have been employed in literary work there, till
after the death of Lagus; and this fact must be
allowed to limit the statement that he “fell out of
favor at the very beginning of the reign of Phila-
delphus.” The statement of Aristaeus that when
the interpreters had agreed upon a section, Demet-
rius Wrote, it down, may naturally mean, as some
of the Christian Fathers seem to have understood
it to mean, that he furnished professional writers to
do the writing. On the whole, it is hardly fair to
the letter of Aristeus to call it a forgery and spu-
rious and accuse its author of mendacity. The letter
seems to be a professed fiction based on fact
designed largely to place the philosophical questions
it discusses in an interesting light. The problem is
to distinguish, if possible, the historical basis of
fact from the fiction based upon it.
From various Jewish and Christian sources there
may be gleaned a few statements of fact in regard
to the origin of the Septuagint, that are indepen-
dent of Aristaeus. In the Rabbinical writings may
be found the mention of the five scribes who wrote
for Ptolemy, and various other allusions to the
translation, coupled with a most scrupulous ab-
Stinence from directly recognizing it by citing from
it. In Philo and in Justin Martyr, Epiphanius, and
other Christian Fathers, we have details of circum.
stances, especially dwelling upon the division of
468
SEPTUAGINT.
translators into pairs, and upon the miraculous
cºrrespondence of their Greek with the original, or
of the changes made by some of the translators with
those independently made by others. Not to dwell
upon these, two passages out of many may be cited,
as containing matters of special interest. The first
is the testimony of Aristóbulus, as given to Euse-
bius, Praep. Evang., XIII. xi. (See Migne's Patr.
Graec., Vol. xxi., col. 1098. Also the Stromata
of Clement, I. xv., xxii., in Migne, Vol. viii. 781,
889–893):
“It is evident that Plato followed our law, and he was
evidently a careful student of everything in it. For there
had been translated before Demetrius Phalereus, through
Others, before the conquest of Alexander and the Persians,
the matters pertaining to the going forth of the Hebrews,
Our fellow citizens, from Egypt, and the manifestation of
all that happened to them, and the conquest of the land
and the detailed account of the whole legislation. g
But the whole translation of all things pertaining to the law
was in the time of him called King Philadelphus, thy an-
cestor, . . . . . Demetrius Phalereus being active in these
matters.”
j
These words are addressed to Ptolemy Philometor,
who reigned B. C. 181–146. The other passage is from
the Stromata of Clement of Alexandria, who lived,
say, A. D. 160–215. (Migne, Vol. viii. 894):
“They say the Scriptures, both of the law and the pro-
phetical, to have been interpreted from the dialect of the
Hebrews into the Greek tongue in the time of King
Ptolemy Lagus, or, as some say, of the one called Philadel-
phus, Demetrius Phalereus bringing to this the greatest
ambition, and providing the things concerning the inter-
pretation.”
Probably no one doubts that the conclusions of
Clement, though he was a Christian, fairly repre-
sent the Alexandrian Hellenistic traditions.
There is no room in this article to exhibit a col-
lection of the numerous items of evidence of which
these are specimens, or to discuss their text, or their
relative historicity ; but attention should be called
to certain statements of fact which are greatly
neglected, but which are a part of the evidence as
it stands. To the extent to which these différ from
opinions commonly received, they are here pre-
sented rather as questions for inquiry than as final
facts.
It is generally agreed, on the basis of the interal
character of the Septuagint, and in opposition to
most of the external testimony, that the translation
is certainly the work of Alexandrian Jews, and not
of men whose education was Palestinian. It is
further agreed that the translations of the different
parts of the canonical books are not all by the same
groups of men, or of the same date.
On the strength of the external testimony, uncon-
tradicted by any of the internal marks, or by any
of the probabilities of the case, we ought to hold
that about 285 B. C., the date at which Ptolemy
Philadelphus succeeded Ptolemy Soter, some
arrangement was made for putting the Jewish
sacred books in the Alexandrian library, and some
correspondence was had with the Palestinian Jews
for this purpose. Very likely much that is said of
the agency of Demetrius in the matter is fabulous;
but he seems to have had something to do with it,
and that fixes the date, as we have seen, to a time
when Lagus was yet living. Perhaps Lagus really
had as much to do with it as Philadelphus, though
the latter, surviving Lagus and Demetrius, got the
credit. Any possible use to which these books were
put, in the synagogues, or the schools, would of
course not interfere with their availability for the
library. " &
In a great variety of ways, both directly and by
implication, the testimony affirms that portions of
the Jewish sacred books were accessible to Greek-
speaking people, in Egypt, before this translation
was made, and that Greek philosophers and literary
men actually used them and drew from them as
sources. We have found Aristobulus asserting that
this was the case even before the conquests of Alex-
ande: and the Persians. This statement is very
generally regarded as unreasonable ; critics on one
side ridicule it as discrediting the whole passage,
While those on the other side offer explanations of
it. But recent explorations confirm the statements
of the Hellenists in regard to Greek elements in
Egypt as early as the times of Nebuchadnezzar, and
show it to be not unlikely that Jeremiah and his
fellow exiles in Egypt may there have come into
contact with Greeks. But laying all this aside, there
is every probability that for a generation or more
before the accession of Philadelphus, the Greek-
Speaking Samaritans and Jews in Alexandria, with
Greeks who were interested in foreign literatures,
had made some progress in turning the Scriptures
into both oral and written Greek.
Among the neglected points, in the testimony is
the statement, often repeated, that Ptolemy had the
Sacred books transcribed, as well as translated.
Demetrius said to the king : “It has been told me
that there are laws (váutua) of the Jews worthy of
being transcribed and placed in the library.” In
reply to the king's question as to what difficulty
there was in the way of acquiring them, Demetrius
mentioned, among other things, their being written
in a peculiar character, like that of the Syrians,
though not the same with it, Aristopus in Hody,
page ii. Later, Demetrius says: “For the laws
(vouo?éowa;), whiclí we wish not only to transcribe
but to interpret, concern all the Jews,” page iii.,
and Jos. Amt. XII. ii., 2. And so the account pro-
ceeds throughout Aristaeus and Josephus. Epiphan-
ius says substantially the same thing, and Light-
foot has shown (in several places, see index of his
works) that the Talmudic passages referring to
what was done by Ptolemy contemplate a trans-
cription ; the more natural understanding. Light-
foot's inference is that the Talmudists recognize no
translation, but only a transcription ; the more
natural understanding of the whole testimony is
that there was both a transcription (perhaps a trans-
literation of the Hebrew in Greek letters) and a
translation, and that the traditions have largely
confused the two, occasionally asserting of the
one something that would be true of the other. In
this way, for example, the tradition concerning the
participation of the Jerusalem Jews in the affair
might be plausibly accounted for. It is certain that
they had not much to do with the translation, but
their assistance may have been very important in
preparing the transcription.
This becomes the more important when we notice
that, according to the testimony, the great care
taken by Ptolemy was for the purpose of securing
a correct text, Hody, page V., Jos. Amt. XII. ii., 3,
10 (4, 11), etc. So far as appears, the king might
have ordered a copy of the Jewish books for his
library from any large vendor of books, but what he
wanted was not some copy or other, but a perfectly
authenticated copy. There is nothing to contradict
the idea that the transcription, supposing it to be
true that there was a transcription, may have
been such a copy. The idea of taking pains to
secure such a copy, even at very great cost, is quite
in accord with other things that were done in Alex-
andria in those days. And if the Jewish scribes of
the law were then as painstaking as they were a
few centuries later, and had here an opportunity to
show their highest skill, it must have seemed to the
appreciative courtiers of the king so wonderful as
to attract attention ; it would be a plausible theory
that this fact of the wonderful accuracy of the trans-
cription was the nucleus around which, later,
gathered the fables transmitted by Philo and the
SEPTUAGINT.
469
Christian Fathers, as to the miraculous accuracy of
the translation.
Contrary to the opinion now commonly held, the
books which it was proposed to put in the king’s
library were, if the testimony in the case is to
be believed, not the books of the Pentateuch merely,
but the books of the Jewish law in the wider sense
of the term. In the article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA it is said that the author of the letter
of Aristaeus “limits canonicity to the law, and
knows of no other holy book already translated into
Greek.” Now it is true that the author of the letter
designates the books that were to be translated as
the law, but he nowhere gives any hint that he
means by the term the five books of Moses as dis-
tinguished from other works of prophetic origin.
Throughout the Old Testament, the word law is
used in a sense wide enough to include all divine
requirements made known through the prophets,
and therefore, of course, all requirements so made
known in writing.
frequently used in the same wider meaning. There
is no presumption against its having this same wide
meaning in the accounts of the origin of the Sep-
tuagint, as given by Aristaeus and Josephus. We
are not now inquiring, let us remember, whether
the testimony is to the effect that the plan was
actually carried out, so that the other books were
translated at the same time with the Pentateuch :
nor are we directly inquiring whether the Old Testa-
ment canon was then complete in the shape in
which it is now accepted. Whatever be the answer
to either of these questions, it is evident that the
Aristaean account may supposably mean, by the
term law, not the Pentateuch by itself, but the
whole range of writings that were then regarded as
having been divinely given through the prophets,
the Pentateuch being of course included.
It is not only true that this may be the meaning,
but that this is the most natural meaning. No one
disputes that most (not to say all) of the Old Testa-
ment books had then been written and were well
known ; or that they were attributed to prophets,
and therefore regarded as of the nature of prophe-
tic Torah. The Alexandrian library was an affair
of tens of thousands of volumes. The king proposed
to gather into it all the literature of the world. It
is not natural to hold that he would be content
with only a small section of the Judaean sacred litera-
ture, unless the evidence distinctly specifies that this
was the case ; and there is no such specification. On
the contrary, the language currently employed both
in Aristaeus and in Josephus is such as constantly
to suggest that the books spoken of are a consider-
able number of volumes—a more extensive litera-
ture, certainly, than the five books of the Penta-
teuch. Among the expressions employed are : “The
books of the law of the Jews, with some few others,”
“the books of the legislation of the Jews, with
others,” “many volumes of their usages (roxxâ . . .
tºv rap' autots vowtucov ovyypauara),” “make a collec-
tion of them,” “the Jewish books.” When the
seventy come to the king, they bring, not the one
roll of the Pentateuch, but several volumes, made
each of skins so closely joined that the king could
not find the seams; and when the king had inspected
them, they restored the various documents (reuxn)
to their proper order. In view of the advice of
Demetrius to take measures for obtaining these
Judaean writings, it is represented that the king
“ thought that Demetrius was very zealous to pro-
cure for him the multitude of the books.” It needs
no pressure upon these and similar phrases to
make them justify the inference already drawn from
them. Indeed, if by the law we understand the Old
Testament canon, then the phrase “the books of
the law of the Jews, with some few others,” is an
accurate description of the Septuagint as it has
In the New Testament, it is
|
actually existed since the Second century B. C.,
while it would be difficult to give a precise definition
to the phrase, on the supposition that by the law it
means the Pentateuch. :
But it is sometimes alleged that Josephus has
testified to his own opinion of the proper interpreta-
tion of this testimony, in the following passage in
the Preface to the Antiquities, sec. 3, where he says
of Ptolemy :
“For he did not succeed in obtaining all the record
(āvaypá$n), but those who were sent to Alexandria in the
matter of the exegesis transmitted only what was of the
law, while the affairs published through the sacred lite-
rature (ypaſzka &raw) are myriads.”
Many take it for granted that by the law Josephus
here means the Pentateuch, and by the records and
the sacred literature he means the other Old Testa-
ment books. But if this were the case, his position
would be too evidently false to be plausible. He says
that the one reason for writing his Antiquities is
that he may place within the reach of the Greeks
Such of the contents of this “record” and “sacred
literature” as had not been rendered accessible by
the translation of Ptolemy ; but when he penned
this, all the Old Testament and some of the Apoc-
rypha had been thus accessible for two centuries or
more, whether Ptolemy made the translation or not.
Unless this passage in Josephus is mere nonsense,
the other sacred literature which he here proposes
to open to the Greeks must be the secondary sacred
books which he uses in different parts of his narra-
tive, and the law, whose translation he here ascribes
to Ptolemy, is the Old Testament, and not the Pen-
tateuch alone.
The extra-Aristaean testimony to the same effect
is explicit and abundant. We have found Aristo-
bulus testifying that the history of the exodus and
of the conquest and all the legislation, that is, ap-
parently, the contents of the Hexateuch, had been
translated before Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that,
in contrast with this, the work of Philadelphus was
the whole translation of all things pertaining to the
law. Clement held that the works translated under
Demetrius were “the Scriptures, both of the law
and the prophetical.” The whole line of the Chris-
tian patristic testimony is to the same effect, with
great abundance of details. Philo and the other
earlier Jewish witnesses are simply silent ; their
testimony occurs in passages where only the Penta-
teuch is under consideration, and nothing at all is
either said or implied concerning the other books.
Among the great questions now under discussion
by scholars there are two in regard to which the
testimony of the Septuagint is of especial import-
ance : the question of the canon of the Old Testa-
ment, and the question of its text.
The fact that copies of the Septuagint contain
Writings not found in the Hebrew is sometimes urged
in proof that the Alexandrian canon of the Öld
Testament, differed materially from that accepted
in Palestine. That the truth of this view depends
partly on the definition given to it, and that it is
untrue in any sense that would justify the inference
that the canon of the Old Testament was still un-
Settled among the Jews of the century before Christ
and later has been shown in the article on CANoN
in this work. }
Among the groups of scholars who formerly most
insisted on the alleged differences between the
Alexandrian and the Palestinian canons, there
seems to have been some change of opinion during
the years since the present edition of the ENoyor of
PAEDIA BRITANNICA began to appear. Prof. Well-
hausen, in the article on the SEPTUAGINT, distinctly
says that “in some measure the widening of the
Old Testament canon in the Septuagint must be laid
to the account of Christians ;” and he is speaking
468 SEPTUAGINT.
translators into pairs, and upon the miraculous
cºrrespondence of their Greek with the original, or
of the changes made by some of the translators with
those independently made by others. Not to dwell
upon these, two passages out of many may be cited,
as containing matters of special interest. The first
is the testimony of Aristóbulus, as given to Euse-
bius, Prºtep. Evang., XIII. xi. (See Migne's Patr.
Graec., Vol. xxi., col. 1098. Also the Stromata
of Clement, I. XV., xxii., in Migne, Vol. viii. 781,
889–893):
“It is evident that Plato followed our law, and he was
evidently a careful student of everything in it. For there
had been translated before Demetrius Phalereus, through
Others, before the conquest of Alexander and the Persians,
the matters pertaining to the going forth of the Hebrews,
Our fellow citizens, from Egypt, and the manifestation of
all that happened to them, and the conquest of the land,
and the detailed account of the whole legislation. . . . .
But the whole translation of all things pertaining to the law
was in the time of him called King Philadelphus, thy an-
Cestor, . . . . . Demetrius Phalereus being active in these
matters.”
These words are addressed to Ptolemy Philometor,
who reigned B. C. 181–146. The other passage is from
the Stromata of Clement of Alexandria, who lived,
say, A. D. 160–215. (Migne, Vol. viii. 894):
“They say the Scriptures, both of the law and the pro-
phetical, to have been interpreted from the dialect of the
Hebrews into the Greek tongue in the time of King
Ptolemy Lagus, or, as some say, of the one called Philadel.
phus, Demetrius Phalereus bringing to this the greatest
ambition, and providing the things concerning the inter-
pretation.”
Probably no one doubts that the conclusions of
Clement, though he was a Christian, fairly repre-
sent the Alexandrian Hellenistic traditions.
There is no room in this article to exhibit a col-
lection of the numerous items of evidence of which
these are specimens, or to discuss their text, or their
relative historicity ; but attention should be called
to certain statements of fact which are greatly
neglected, but which are a part of the evidence as
it stands. To the extent to which these différ from
opinions commonly received, they are here pre-
sented rather as questions for inquiry than as final
facts.
It is generally agreed, on the basis of the interal
character of the Septuagint, and in opposition to
most of the external testimony, that the translation
is certainly the work of Alexandrian Jews, and not
of men whose education was Palestinian. It is
further agreed that the translations of the different
parts of the canonical books are not all by the same
groups of men, or of the same date.
On the strength of the external testimony, uncon-
tradicted by any of the internal marks, or by any
of the probabilities of the case, we ought to hold
that about 285 B. C., the date at which Ptolemy
Philadelphus succeeded Ptolemy Soter, some
arrangement was made for putting the Jewish
sacred books in the Alexandrian library, and some
correspondence was had with the Palestinian Jews
for this purpose. Very likely much that is said of
the agency of Demetrius in the matter is fabulous;
but he seems to have had something to do with it,
and that fixes the date, as we have seen, to a time
when Lagus was yet living. Perhaps Lagus really
had as much to do with it as Philadelphus, though
the latter, surviving Lagus and Demetrius, got the
credit. Any possible use to which these books were
put, in the synagogues, or the schools, would of
course not interfere with their availability for the
library. º
In a great variety of ways, both directly and by
implication, the testimony affirms that portions of
the Jewish sacred books were accessible to Greek-
speaking people, in Egypt, before this translation
was made, and that Greek philosophers and literary
men actually used them and drew from them as
sources. We have found Aristobulus asserting that
this was the case even before the conquests of Alex-
ande: and the Persians. This statement is very
generally regarded as unreasonable; critics on one
side ridicule it as discrediting the whole passage,
While those on the other side offer explanations of
it. But recent explorations confirm the statements
of the Hellenists in regard to Greek elements in
Egypt as early as the times of Nebuchadnezzar, and
show it to be not unlikely that Jeremiah and his
fellow exiles in Egypt may there have come into
contact with Greeks. But laying all this aside, there
is every probability that for a generation or more
before the accession of Philadelphus, the Greek-
Speaking Samaritans and Jews in Alexandria, with
Greeks who were interested in foreign literatures,
had made some progress in turning the Scriptures
into both oral and written Greek.
Among the neglected points, in the testimony is
the statement, often repeated, that Ptolemy had the
Sacred books transcribed, as well as translated.
Demetrius said to the king : “It has been told me
that there are laws (váutua) of the Jews worthy of
being transcribed and placed in the library.” In
reply to the king's question as to what difficulty
there was in the way of acquiring them, Demetrius
mentioned, among other things, their being written
in a peculiar character, like that of the Syrians,
though not the same with it, Aristorus in Hody,
page ii. Later, Demetrius says: “For the laws
(vouo&#ovas), whiclf we wish not only to transcribe
but to interpret, concern all the Jews,” page iii.,
and Jos. Amt. XII, ii., 2. And so the account pro-
ceeds throughout Aristaeus and Josephus. Epiphan-
ius says substantially the same thing, and Light-
foot has shown (in several places, see index of his
works) that the Talmudic passages referring to
what was done by Ptolemy contemplate a trans-
cription ; the more natural understanding. Light-
foot's inference is that the Talmudists recognize no
translation, but only a transcription ; the more
natural understanding of the whole testimony is
that there was both a transcription (perhaps a trans-
literation of the Hebrew in Greek letters) and a
translation, and that the traditions have largely
confused the two, occasionally asserting of the
one something that would be true of the other. In
this way, for example, the tradition concerning the
participation of the Jerusalem Jews in the affair
might be plausibly accounted for. It is certain that
they had not much to do with the translation, but
their assistance may have been very important in
preparing the transcription.
This becomes the more important when we notice
that, according to the testimony, the great care
taken by Ptolemy was for the purpose of securing
a correct text, Hody, page v., Jos. Amt. XII. ii., 3,
10 (4, 11), etc. So far as appears, the king might
have ordered a copy of the Jewish books for his
library from any large vendor of books, but what he
wanted was not some copy or other, but a perfectly
authenticated copy. There is nothing to contradict
the idea that the transcription, supposing it to be
true that there was a transcription, may have
been such a copy. The idea of taking pains to
secure such a copy, even at very great cost, is quite
in accord with other things that were done in Alex-
andria in those days. And if the Jewish scribes of
the law were then as painstaking as they were a
few centuries later, and had here an opportunity to
show their highest skill, it must have seemed to the
appreciative courtiers of the king so wonderful as
to attract attention ; it would be a plausible theory
that this fact of the wonderful accuracy of the trans-
cription was the nucleus around which, later,
gathered the fables transmitted by Philo and the
SEPTUAGINT.
469
Christian Fathers, as to the miraculous accuracy of
the translation.
Contrary to the opinion now commonly held, the
books which it was proposed to put in the king's
library were, if the testimony in the case is to
be believed, not the books of the Pentateuch merely,
but the books of the Jewish law in the wider Sense
of the term. In the article in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA it is said that the author of the letter
of Aristaeus “limits canonicity to the law, and
knows of no other holy book already translated into
Greek.” Now it is true that the author of the letter
designates the books that were to be translated as
the law, but he nowhere gives any hint that he
means by the term the five books of Moses as dis-
tinguished from other works of prophetic, origin.
Throughout the Old Testament, the word law is
used in a sense wide enough to include all divine
requirements made known through the prophets,
and therefore, of course, all requirements so made
known in writing.
frequently used in the same wider meaning.
is no presumption against its having this same wide
meaning in the accounts of the origin of the Sep-
tuagint, as given by Aristaeus and Josephus. We
are not now inquiring, let us remember, whether
the testimony is to the effect that the plan was
actually carried out, so that the other books were
translated at the same time with the Pentateuch :
nor are we directly inquiring whether the Old Testa-
ment canon was then complete in the shape in
which it is now accepted. Whatever be the answer
to either of these questions, it is evident that the
Aristaean account may supposably mean, by the
term law, not the Pentateuch by itself, but the
whole range of writings that were then regarded as
having been divinely given through the prophets,
the Pentateuch being of course included.
It is not only true that this may be the meaning,
but that this is the most natural meaning. No One
disputes that most (not to say all) of the Old Testa-
ment books had then been written and were well
known ; or that they were attributed to prophets,
and therefore regarded as of the nature of prophe-
tic Torah. The Alexandrian library was an affair
of tens of thousands of volumes. The king proposed
to gather into it all the literature of the world. It
is not natural to hold that he would be content
with only a small section of the Judaean sacred litera-
ture, unless the evidence distinctly specifies that this
was the case ; and there is no such specification. On
the contrary, the language currently employed both
in Aristaeus and in Josephus is such as constantly
to suggest that the books spoken of are a consider-
able number of volumes—a more extensive litera-
ture, certainly, than the five books of the Penta-
teuch. Among the expressions employed are : “The
books of the law of the Jews, with some few others,”
“ the books of the legislation of the Jews, with
others,” “many volumes of their usages (roxxâ . . .
rºw rap' airous vowtudy ovyypduara),” “make a collec-
tion of them,” “the Jewish books.” When the
seventy come to the king, they bring, not the one
roll of the Pentateuch, but several volumes, made
each of skins so closely joined that the king could
not find the seams; and when the king had inspected
them, they restored the various documents (rsuzn)
to their proper order. In view of the advice of
Demetrius to take measures for obtaining these
Judaean writings, it is represented that the king
“ thought that Demetrius was very zealous to pro-
cure for him the multitude of the books.” It needs
no pressure upon these and similar phrases to
make them justify the inference already drawn from
them. Indeed, if by the law we understand the Old
Testament canon, then the phrase “the books of
the law of the Jews, with some few others,” is an
accurate description of the Septuagint as it has
In the New Testament, it is
There
actually existed since the second century B. C.,
while it would be difficult to give a precise definition
to the phrase, on the supposition that by the law it
means the Pentateuch. -
But it is sometimes alleged that Josephus has
testified to his own opinion of the proper interpreta-
tion of this testimony, in the following passage in
the Preface to the Antiquities, sec. 3, where he says
of Ptolemy :
“For he did not succeed in obtaining all the record
(āvaypáqºn), but those who were sent to Alexandria in the
matter of the exegesis transmitted only what was of the
law, while the affairs published through the sacred lite-
rature (ypapapaétan) are myriads.”
Many take it for granted that by the law Josephus
here means the Pentateuch, and by the records and
the sacred literature he means the other Old Testa-
ment books. But if this were the case, his position
would be too evidently false to be plausible. He says
that the one reason for writing his Antiquities is
that he may place within the reach of the Greeks
such of the contents of this “record” and “sacred
literature” as had not been rendered accessible by
the translation of Ptolemy ; but when he penned
this, all the Old Testament and some of the Apoc-
rypha had been thus accessible for two centuries or
more, whether Ptolemy made the translation or not.
Unless this passage in Josephus is mere nonsense,
the other sacred literature which he here proposes
to open to the Greeks must be the secondary sacred
books which he uses in different parts of his narra-
tive, and the law, whose translation he here ascribes
to Ptolemy, is the Old Testament, and not the Pen-
tateuch alone.
The extra-Aristaean testimony to the same effect
is explicit and abundant. We have found Aristo-
bulus testifying that the history of the exodus and
of the conquest and all the legislation, that is, ap-
parently, the contents of the Hexateuch, had been
translated before Ptolemy Philadelphus, and that,
in contrast with this, the work of Philadelphus was
the whole translation of all things pertaining to the
law. Clement held that the works translated under
Demetrius were “the Scriptures, both of the law
and the prophetical.” The whole line of the Chris-
tian patristic testimony is to the same effect, with
great abundance of details. Philo and the other
earlier Jewish witnesses are simply silent ; their
testimony occurs in passages where only the Penta-
teuch is under consideration, and nothing at all is
either said or implied concerning the other books.
Among the great questions now under discussion
by scholars there are two in regard to which the
testimony of the Septuagint is of especial import-
ance : the question of the canon of the Old Testa-
ment, and the question of its text.
The fact that copies of the Septuagint contain
writings not found in the Hebrew is sometimes urged
in proof that the Alexandrian canon of the Öld
Testament differed materially from that accepted
in Palestine. That the truth of this view depends
partly on the definition given to it, and that it is
untrue in any sense that would justify the inference
that the canon of the Old Testament was still un-
Settled among the Jews of the century before Christ
and later has been shown in the article on CANON
in this work. }
Among the groups of scholars who formerly most
insisted on the alleged differences between the
Alexandrian and the Palestinian canons, there
seems to have been some change of opinion during
the years since the present edition of the ENCYCLoſſ
PAEDIA BRITANNICA began to appear. Prof. Well-
hausen, in the article on the SEPTUAGINT, distinctly
says that “in some measure the widening of the
Old Testament canon in the Septuagint must be laid
to the account of Christians;” and he is speaking
470
SEQUOIA.
of the canon in Hebrew when he says: “Learned
Hellenists were quite well aware of the limits of the
canon, and respected them.” One cannot logically
* say this without admitting that the Septuagint, as
existing, gives its evidence in favor of the accepted
Hebrew canon.
But what does the evidence of the Septuagint
amount to in regard to the Old Testament canon
of 285 B.C. and earlier *
First, as we have already seen, it is not a witness
in favor of the proposition that canonicity was
then limited to the Pentateuch. On the contrary,
the whole body of the external testimony is to the
effect that there was then a clearly recognized body
of Jewish sacred law, having its own limits, and
much wider than the Pentateuch. There is nothing
in the internal phenomena to contradict this. To
what extent certain parts of the translation Were
later than others is a matter yet to be determined ;
precisely what plans were formed in the times of
Philadelphus in regard to the Jewish Scriptures, and
how far these plans were carried out, may be mat-
ter of doubt ; but in this there is nothing to contra-
dict the testimony that attributes to the men of
those times the holding of a distinct idea of this
body of writings concerning which it was possible
for them to form their plans. They knew of a body
of Jewish sacred writings described as the law. This
law was not the Pentateuch, but a larger body of
writings, including the Pentateuch. If our present
Old Testament was then in existence as a collection
of books, the term law is a natural term for them to
apply to it. What they proposed to translate was
thé law and a few other Jewish books; from about
the time when the letter of Aristaeus was written,
the translated part of the Septuagint has consisted
of the Old Testament and a few other books.
These facts are of some weight as indicating that
our present Old Testament canon was recognized
at the beginning of the third century B.C. If they
are compared with facts drawn, from other sources,
they will gain force, instead of weakening.
The remaining question is as to the value of
the Septuagint for testing or correcting the Masoretic
text of the Old Testament. In reaching conclusions
upon this, a few undisputed facts should be kept
steadily in mind. From a date earlier than the ear-
liest existing copies of the Septuagint, the Masoretic
text has been handed down with a scrupulous care
not paralleled in the history of other writings. It is
traditionally claimed that this care in transmission
goes back to the times when the books were written
and collected. There is considerable evidence that
might be gathered in support of this claim. Apart
from the Septuagint variants, there is no strong
proof against it. The variants in the duplicated pas-
sages in the Old Testament are not proof of this
sort, for they are ordinarily to be regarded as edito-
rial, and not as transcriptional. Prof. Wellhausen
in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA urges the
occasional infelicities of the Hebrew text as proof.
with commendable piety, he speaks of “the design
of Providence, which has permitted the Old Testa-
ment text to reach us in a form that is often so Cor:
rupt as to sin against both the laws of logic and of
grammar–of rhetorical and poetical form.” . But
really, the instances of a false use of language in the
Old Testament are relatively very few ; they are not
more numerous or more important than are to be
expected in such a literature; there is no need of
regarding most of them as transcriptional errors, for
they are sufficiently accounted for by the state Of
literary culture existing amºng their authors. If
a collection of writings like these, Written by many
different men, most of them men whºse peculiarities
and native vigor have not been polished away by
special training, presented no difficulties to one who s •
| Monterey Bay into Oregon, but is most abundant
would parse or translate them, that very circum-
stance would justify a suspicion that some one had
corrected the text, and edited out the original pecu-
liarities of it.
If the character of the Masoretic text as a standard
text scrupulously, transmitted has actually come
down to us from the centuries before Christ, then it
is of the highest possible order of trustworthiness:
and among those who deny it this preeminence no
One would hesitate to say that it is a text of high
character, as compared with other texts. when
men apply to it such terms as bad and corrupt, they
use language relatively ; as a text it is not to be
classed somewhere from low to medium, nor even
from medium to high, but somewhere between high
and highest. On the other hand, the different copies
of the Septuagint, by universal admission, have
rather a low value for trustworthiness. Whether
we inquire into the Hebrew scholarship of the trans-
lators, or their Greek scholarship, or their probable
faithfulness in following whatever text they had,
the best that can be said of them is that they did
as well as could be expected. Their work is partly
translation, partly paraphrase, partly comment,
partly abridgment. Doubtless it was originally of
this character, and these original variations have
been augmented by copyists. The existing copies
differ greatly among themselves.
Provided these admitted facts be kept in mind,
and allowed their due weight in every process, no
one need hesitate to regard the Septuagint as an
important aid in the study of Old Testament textual
criticism. One need not even hesitate to use the
extreme rule laid down by Prof. Wellhausen in the
BRITANNICA, that in looking up variants for the
Masoretic text, “we must not confine ourselves to
one recension, but use all recensions that our MSS.
offer.” Rut when we come to estimate the value of
one of these variants, as compared with the reading
of the Hebrew, and ask the question whether we
should substitute the variant for the Masoretic read-
ing, we have no right to forget the immense differ-
ence in trustworthiness between the two witnesses;
and if we remember this, the cases will be very few
indeed in which any Septuagint variant is preferred
to the Masoretic reading.
The fact that a Greek phrase in the Septuagint
can be translated into a Hebrew phrase by no
means proves that the Greek translator found that
particular Hebrew phrase in his copy. The rule
that “the proof that a reading is good is simply
that it necessarily carries us back to the Hebrew
variant, and cannot be explained by looseness of
translation” is a good enough rule for these cases,
provided it be strictly construed ; but the cases in
which it is strictly necessary to suppose a false read-
ing in the Hebrew, in order to explain the pheno-
mena of the Septuagint, are not numerous.
Literature. The articles on the Septuagint in the leading
Bible Dictionaries are full, and give the literature of the
subject. That in Smith's Bible Dictionary is especially
elaborate. The Old Testament in Greek according to the
Septuagint, by Dr. Henry Barclay Swete, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, is a particularly valuable edition of the text
(Vol. I., Genesis to 2 Kings, 1887).
(W. J. B.)
SEQUOIA, a genus of coniferous trees, of the
Capressinece or cypress family, their
nearest alliance being the Tacodium, the
bald cypress of the Southern United
States and Mexico. They differ from
the cypresses proper in having the scales
of the cones arranged in spirals, like those of the
pines, instead of in pairs, or whorls of three. There
are two species only, both remarkable for
their size, and both mainly confined to Cali-
fornia. S. sempervirens, commonly called Redwood,
is found only on the Coast Ranges, extending from
See Vol.
XX. p. 673
(p. 705,
Am. Rep.).
SEQUOIA.
471
north of the Bay of San Francisco. Here it forms
trees of the Pacific slope region.
small, oval cones, each of the wedge-shaped scales
usually containing 5 seeds with wing margins. The to the height of 116 feet for the purpose of exhibition.
The greatest tree is one which was found prostrated
and broken off at a height of 300 feet. At this point
The bark of the it is 18 feet diameter, and is said to have been 112
leaves, unlike those of the cypress, are spirally
arranged on the branch, and densely clothe the twigs
with their bright green foliage.
Sequoia is of a peculiar fibrous texture and of
great thickness. Externally it is of a rich dark-
brown color. S. Sempervirens, where it abounds,
does so almost to the exclusion of other trees, and
forms extensive forests. A magnificent spectacle
is presented by these forests, extending as far as the
eye gan reach, of thickly grouped trees 8 to 12 feet
in diameter, and 200 to nearly 300 feet high, their
trunks of arrow-like straightness, and without a
branch till they reach a height of 100 to 150 feet,
then spreading into a dense canopy of deep green
glossy foliage. Individuals have been observed of
from 50 to over 75 feet circumference, and 275 feet
high, while there are stories of still larger ones.
The redwood is the most valuable of California
timber trees, and is rapidly disappearing before the
axe of the Woodman.
straight grained, of a handsome red color, and
polishes well. It is valuable for interior decoration,
and as durable as red cedar for posts. The tree
is very tenacious of life, old stumps long retaining
their vitality, and sending out fresh shoots. It has
been tried in the Eastern United States, but does
not flourish ; yet it grows well in England, where it
forms a handsome park tree.
The remaining species, S. gigantea, is a tree of
surpassing interest, not for its beauty, it being
much less attractive in appearance than S. semper-
virens, but for its immense size, and its position as
the unquestioned giant of the vegetable world. This
species is still more contracted in range than the
former, being confined to the western slope of the
Sierra Nevada, and to a range of 29 or 3C in lati-
tude, occurring only between elevations of 4760 to
about 7000 feet. It bears small, awl-shaped leaves,
paler in color and less graceful in arrangement than
those of the coast redwood, its branches are short,
and its head of foliage lacks the spreading grace of
the other species. The cones are thrice as large,
the color of its bark and wood similar, but the latter
a duller red. It is much less abundant, occurring
generally in detached groves, mingled with other
coniferous trees. Its claim to distinction lies in its
immense height and bulk. Individuals now stand
of 325 feet in height, and there is reason to believe
that others known attained from 400 to 450 feet.
This height is equalled, and perhaps exceeded, by
the giant Eucalypti of Australia, but the latter are
immensely surpassed in bulk by the “Big trees”
of California, some of which are certainly over 90
feet, while others are said to have measured over
100 feet in circumference at base.
The most northerly of the Big trees are two groves
in Calaveras county. These were the first known,
being discovered in 1852 by a hunter named Dowd,
Who led a party of miners thither. The earliest
scientific description was published by Dr. Lindley
in 1853, who named the tree Wellingtonia giganted.
The California botanists, with patriotic sentiment,
changed this name in 1854 to Washingtonia gigantea.
Meanwhile Dr. Torrey had obtained some of the
flowers, and determined that the tree was of the
Same genus as the coast redwood, which had been
named Sequoia by Endlicher in 1847. It there-
fore has since borne its proper name of Scquia
gigantect.
The most important of the Calaveras groves has
still four trees of over 300 feet, the tallest being 325
feet high, and 45 feet girth at 6 feet from the
The wood is light but firm,
ground. The stump of one which has been cut down
extensive forests, being, with the exception of its measures 23 feet diameter, and 24 feet in one direc-
related species, the largest of the many immense tion.
This species bears about 1300 years.
Its rings of annual growth indicate an age of
One tree, 327 feet high and 90
feet circumference at base, was stripped of its bark
feet in circumference at base. This, as it tapers
regularly, would indicate a total height of about
450 feet,
Sequoia Gigantea.
(Stripped of bark to the height of 116 feet.)
South of this grove are two or three others, but
none of special importance till the Mariposa grove
is reached, 16 miles south of the Yosemite Valley.
There are two patches here, the lower one at a
height of 5500 feet. This contains 125 trees of over
40 feet circumference. One, known as the Grizzly
Giant, is over 93 feet circumference at base, and

472
SEQUOYAH-SERRANO Y DOMINGUEZ.
over 64 at 11 feet from the ground. Remains of still
larger trees lie on the ground. Many have been
sadly injured by fire. The tallest is only 272 feet
high, and thus not equal to those of the Calaveras
grove. The Mariposa grove has been set apart by
Congress as a national park, and is under the
charge of a government guardian. About 12 miles
south of this is the Fresno grove, which is said to
have about 600 trees, the largest being 81 feet in
circumference. From this place south to the Tule
River the Big trees seem more abundant, and more
generally dispersed throngh the forest. Some trees
are supposed to be over 2000 years old, but botanists
doubt if this age is much exceeded. The timber of
this species is of no great value, though the heart
wood, varying from reddish to deep brown, has been
used in cabinet work.
S. giganted, like its congener, S. Sempervirens,
seems to thrive in England. The genus can be
traced to a remote geological age, fossil traces of it
being found in the older Cretaceous. It is repre-
sented by 7 or 8 species in the Tertiary, and seems
to have grown all round the Arctic zone, extending
in Europe as far south as Greece, and in western
America at least to Oregon. One Tertiary species
closely resembles S. gigantea. (C. M.)
SEQUOYAH, Indian chief. See GUESS.
SERGEANT, JoHN (1779–1852), lawyer, was born
at Philadelphia, Dec. 5, 1779. His father, Jonathan
Dickinson Sergeant (1746–1793), also an eminent law-
yer, had been a New Jersey delegate to the Conti-
nental Congress, but settled in Philadelphia before
the close of the Revolutionary War. The son gradu-
ated at Princeton in 1795, had a brief experience of
mercantile life, then studied law and was admitted
to the bar in 1799. In 1801 President Jefferson ap-
pointed him a commissioner in bankruptcy, and he
served some terms in the Pennsylvania legislature.
Entering Congress in 1815 he took part in the struggle
which resulted in the Missouri Compromise, and
thenceforth was closely attached to Clay. He re-
tired from Congress in 1823, but was again a member
iš27–39 and 1837-42. In 1826 he was appointed one
of the envoys to the abortive Panama Congress and
in 1832 he shared Clay’s defeat, being the National
Republican candidate for vice-president. In 1837
he was chosen to preside over the Pennsylvania
Constitutional Convention. Honorable and learned,
he was a leader in his profession, and was engaged
in the most important cases before the U. S. Supreme
Court. His last public service was as arbitrator in
settling a long pending controversy, between the
Federal Government and the State of New Jersey.
He died at Philadelphia, Nov. 23, 1852. His Select
Speeches were published in 1832.
SERPA, PINTO, ALExANDRE ALBERTO DA
ROCHA, a Portuguese explorer of Africa, was born
at the Tendaes, in Douros, Portgual, April 20, 1846.
IHe was educated at the Royal Military College, Lis-
bon, and entered the infantry in 1863. He served
as lieutenant in the Zambesi war in 1869, and dis-
tinguished himself at the battle of Massangans,
Nov. 23, where he had command of a native troop.
He became major in 1877, and then crossed Africa
from Benguela to Durban. . His explorations ob-
tained for him high honors from the principal geo-
graphical societies of Europe and from the King of
Portugal. In 1884 he undertook with Cardoso an
expedition for the exploration of the country between
Mozambique and Lake Nyassa. Their journey
though interrupted by sickness was rich in geo-
graphical discoveries, and extended the Portuguese
protectorate over many tribes of the interior. In
1887 Serpa Pinto was dispatched on diplomatic
missions to East Africa. His chief work is How I
crossed Africa (1881).
SERRANO Y DOMINGUEZ, FRANCISCO, DUKE
DE LA Torre (1810–1885), Marshal of Spain, was
born at Arjouilla, Andalusia, Sept. 17, 1810. His
father, General Serrano y Cuenca, distinguished
himself in the war against Napoleon. The son
early, entered on a military career, and having
joined the party of Queen Maria Christina, was by
her influence made general at the age of 30. He
Worked for the downfall of Espartero in 1843 and
after the queen-mother’s restoration assisted Nar-
vaez in his opposition to Olozaga. In 1845 he was
made lieutenant-general and senator and soon after
minister of war. After the marriage of Queen
Isabella in 1846 Serrano obtained such influence
With her that trouble arose in the royal household.
The ministry which supported him was overthrown
by public indignation. Serrano soon after became
a Liberal and in his endeavors to thwart N arvaez,
procured the recall of Espartero and Olozaga. He
Was obliged, however, to accept the captaincy-gene-
ral of Granada, which withdrew him from the court.
In February, 1854, he was implicated in an insurrec-
tion at Saragossa and was banished. He returned
however in July and supported the O’Donnell-Es-
partero ministry, until there was a rupture between
iis leaders. He then took sides with O’Donnell
and was made captain-general of New Castile, which
put Madrid in his power. He supported O’Donnell
in his coup d’état of July, 1856, and quelled more
than One insurrection. In the next year he was
made ambassador to Paris, butt the fall of O’Donnell
in September occasioned his recall. In 1859 he was
made captain-general of Cuba, and his attempts to
procure the restoration of Santo Domingo to Spain,
though finally abortive, served to obtain for him the
title of Duke de la Torre and the rank of grandee of
the first class. In the Senate he steadily opposed
Narvaez, and in June, 1865, when that minister was
temporarily driven from power, Serrano became cap-
tain-general of Madrid. But Narvaez returned in
1866 and soon prorogued the Cortes. Serrano, as
president of the Senate, presented to the queen a
protest against this act as illegal, but was prosecuted
therefor by the ministry and for a time imprisoned.
When the revolution . September, 1868, drove the
queen from the country Serrano hastened to Cadiz
and with Gen. Prim seized the direction of the
government. He became president of the council
of ministers and commander-in-chief of the army.
While the modern ideas of human rights and free-
dom were proclaimed and introduced into the laws,
the Cortes decided in favor of a constitutional mon-
archy in June, 1869. But it was not easy to get a
king to take the uncertain position, and on the
16th Serrano was declared regent by a vote of 193
against 45. The Republicans had earnestly resisted
the return to monarchy and now rose in insurrection
in various places, but the marshal readily overcame
them and on Oct. 17th, Valencia, their last strong-
hold, surrendered. Cuba took advantage of the
troubles of Spain to declare its independence, and
it was even rumored that the marshal was negotia-
ting the cession of that island to the United States
as the shortest way out of the difficulty. But on
the contrary the American government by prevent-
ing the infringement of neutrality gave the Spanish
government time to recover its hold on its most
precious possession “the ever faithful isle.” A Car-
list conspiracy at Barcelona caused alarm, but was
overcome. Meantime the offer of the Spanish throne
to a Hohenzollern prince was made a pretext for
the declaration of war by France against Prussia,
with its disastrous results to the aggressor. Finally
Prince Amadeus, son of the King of Italy, was
elected King of Spain Nov. 16, 1870, and was pre-
vailed upon to accept the throne. During his troub-
lous reign of fourteen months, Serrano was the
most prominent figure, exerting himself in every
way to preserve order among the restive parti-
sans, Carlists and Republicans. The latter suc-
* SETON.—SEWALL. 473
ceeded so far that Amadeus abdicated the royal 1811 he was elected to Congress and he served on
ower and the republic was proclaimed Feb. 11, the committee on military affairs during the war of
isis. Serrano, who had remained quiet meanwhile, 1812. In 1815 he accepted a commission to negoti-
was on Feb. 27, 1874, appointed president of the late with the Creek Indians and while engaged 1 Il
executive power and took the field against the Car- this business died near Fort Decatur, Ala., Sept. 24,
lists of the north. In May he returned triumphant 1815. His memory is honored by a monument at
and received a splendid ovation. In December, Nashville. See Ramsay's History of Tennessee and
however, he again marched against the Carlists, J. R. Gilmore's John Serier, the Commonwealth-
but learning that Alfonso, the son of Queen Isabella, Buildé (1885). * = r^ -- a-v º e º
was to be proclaimed King, and believing that this SEWALL, SAMUEL (1652–1730), Puritan, chief-
course would restore peace to Spain, he withdrew justice of Massachusetts, was born at Bishopstoke,
for a short time to France. On Feb. 1, 1875, he re- England, March 28, 1652. He was brought by his
turned to Madrid and soon became a member of the father to Newbury, Mass., in 1659, and was educated
new Spanish Senate. He objected to the terms of at Harvard, graduating in 1671. He remained
the Constitution of 1876, but sought their amend- there as librarian, and studied theology, but his
ament by legislative methods. In 1882 he proposed marriage in 1676 with the daughter of the mint
the formation of a new party to be called the Dy- master, John Hull, diverted him from preaching to
nastic Left. His opposition however gradually sub- become assistant in his father-in-law’s business. In
sided and in November, 1883, he was appointed 1684 he was made assistant-governor and as such
ambassador to France. He died at Paris NOV. 26, in 1686 he surrendered the colonial charter to Sir
1885. * (J. P. L.) Edmund Andros. During his visit to England in
SETON, ELIZABETH. See CHARITY, SISTERS OF. 1688–9 the people overthrew Andros’ government.
SEVEN DAYS' FIGHT. See PENINSULAR Sewall in 1692 was made a judge and also a member
CAMPAIGN. of the executive council. In that year he presided
SEVENTH DAY BAPTISTS. See BAPTISTS, at the trial of some of the victims of the Salem
SEVENTH DAY. witchcraft delusion. A few years later, convinced
SEVEN PINES, Battle. See PENINSULAR CAM- of his error, he made a public confession in the
PAIGN. church, asking pardon of God and men for his offence.
SEVIER, JOHN (1744–1815), first governor of His conscience was also touched by the sin of slave
Tennessee, was born in the Shenandoah Valley, dealing, and he published a tract, The Selling of
Virginia, in 1744. He was of French Huguenot Joseph (1700). He was also an advocate and sup-
parentage and was early noted for his agility and porter of Indian missions. In 1718 he was promoted
daring. In 1769 he joined the party which built a to be chief-justice of the colony and held that office
fort on Watauga River, supposing it to be in Vir- ten years. He died at Boston, Jan. 1, 1730. He had
ginia territory. In 1773 he was commissioned by published Answers to Queries respecting America
Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, as captain (1690); Accomplishment of Prophecies (1713); De-
and took part in an expedition against the Shaw- scription of the New Haven (1727). For full under-
nee Indians. . In the next year he fought at Point standing of his life and times see his Diary, edited
Pleasant on the Ohio. In 1777 he was chosen as by Joseph Sewall and published by the Massachusetts
delegate from the Watauga settlement to the North Historical Society (1878).
Carolina legislature and obtained a district orga- His son, Joseph SEwALL (1688–1769), was a fer-
nization and local courts for the territory west of vid orthodox preacher, known as “The Weeping
the mountains. His activity in holding in check | Prophet.” He graduated at Harvard College in
the Indians whose war-path had been obstructed 1707, and in 1724 was called to be its president, but
by the new settlements, endeared him to the whites. declined. He had been assistant pastor of Old
Commissioned as lieutenant-colonel in 1779 he pun- | South Church since 1713, and was a member of the
ished the Indians severely at Boyd's Creek. Still Society for propagating the Gospel in New England.
more important was his leading his hardy followers He gave his approval to Whitefield in 1740 and con-
over the mountains and gaining a signal victory tributed to the support of students at Harvard. He
over the well-disciplined loyalists at King's Moun- died at Boston, June 27, 1769,
tain, Oct. 7, 1780. This stemmed the British pro- Samuel's nephew, STEPHEN SEwALL (1704–
gress, northward and revived the patriot cause in 1760), also became chief justice in 1752, after hay-
North Carolina. The legislature therefore acknow- ing been judge of the Superior Court since 1739.
ledged his bravery by a vote of thanks and a sword. Stephen's nephew, JONATHAN MITCHELL SEW-
In 1784 however North Carolina made a conditional | ALL (1745–1808), though a prominent lawyer, was
cession of her territory beyond the mountains to more famous as the writer of patriotic and political
the General Government, and the settlers finding songs. During the Revolution his “War and
their interests neglected, assembled in convention | Washington had great vogue. In his “Epilogue”
at Jonesborough, organized a separate State to be to Addison's Cato, written in 177s, occurs the once
called Franklin, and chose Sevier its governor. The famous couplet :— -
North Carolina authorities, roused by this action,
retracted their own proposal. They renewed their
claims to the territory, and supported some disaf-
fected settlers in their opposition to Sevier and his A collected edition of his Poems was published ir
government. His representatives appealed to Con-|1801 at Portsmouth, N. H., where he died March
gress at Philadelphia, but they met with little favor. 29, 1808.
When Seyier's term of three years expired, no elec- Stephen's grandnephew, JoWATHAN SEwALL
tion was held for a successor, and the inchoate State (1728–1796), was a loyalist, and died judge of the
lapsed into its original condition. Sevier was still admiralty in New Brunswick.
the leading man of the region and was commissioned SAMUEL SEWALL (1757–1814), great-grandson of
by Washington in 1790 as brigadier-general of the first-mentioned, attained to the same high
the “Territory South of the Ohio River,” which judicial position. He graduated at Harvard in
had been formed from the lands relinquished by 1776, and having engaged in the practice of law at
Virginia and the Carolinas. The part ceded by Marblehead, was frequently elected to the State
North Carolina was in 1796 erected into the State legislature, and in 1797 to Congress. In 1800 he
of Tennessee, and Sevier was elected its governor. was made judge of the Superior Court and in 1813
He served for two terms, then retired, but in 1803 chief justice. He died June 8, 1814, at Wiscasset
was again chosen and served six years more. In Maine, where he had gone to hold court }
WOL. IV.- 2 E
“No pent-up Utica contracts your powers,
But the whole boundless continent is yours.”
474
SEWERAGE.
SEWERAGE. Until within recent years American
Sewerage Systems have been modelled
*Nº, after European examples and based
Am. Rep.). upon the experience of other countries,
using very much the same material and
employing the same methods of workmanship. Later
experience, however, has shown the need of new
methods to meet the special conditions peculiar to
certain localities, as, for example, at Chicago, Mem-
phis, and Boston, or in summer sea-side settlements.
It has also been found that the data regarding rain-
fall and population derived from European experi-
ence did not apply equally to this country, where
the climatic conditions are entirely different, as well
as the habits of our people in respect to the more
general use of plumbing appliances, fondness for
bathing, and the enormous consumption of water for
manufacturing purposes.
The rainfall of London averages 24 inches per
annum, only one-half as much as that of Boston,
while the consumption of water per head in London
is but one-third as much as in Boston. Again, the
rainfall in America is much heavier than in England,
Sometimes amounting to nine inches in a single
month or two inches in twenty-four hours, in con-
trast to the ‘‘perpetual drizzle ’ of Great Britain.
In Pullman, Ill., the average discharge into sewers
from each dwelling amounts to 100 gallons per day.
In New York City the total water-consumption per
head is nearly as large.
There are still many towns without any sewerage
systems, though they have a public water-supply ;
while, owing to their rapid growth, many other cities
have found their sewers wholly inadequate. The
population is frequently scattered over large areas, so
that the section to be drained is so great that the
cost of laying sewers becomes enormous. Again, in
most large cities a considerable population of ignor-
ant foreigners who live in tenement-houses are not
accustomed to modern Sanitary conveniences, and,
being careless and filthy in their habits, they throw all
sorts of rubbish into drains and sewers, and conse-
quently make the cost of maintenance excessive.
Recent Changes.—The most notable recent devel-
opments in American engineering practice have
been : (1) In the substitution of much smaller
sewers than were formerly used, and having them
constructed of such a shape and material, either
brick or tile, carefully laid with proper grade and
alignment, as to prevent any deposits and to Secure
a uniform and constant flow of the waste mate-
rial. (2) In the employment of flush-tanks, where
sewers are laid with but slight grade, so placed at
their upper ends that they will be thoroughly
scoured and kept free from all deposits. The au-
thorities of Paris have lately advised the expenditure
of $520,000 to supply no less than 3166 flush-tanks,
to discharge once or twice every twenty-four hours.
They have been used with great benefit in many
other places, notably in Memphis, Tenn., under the
direction of Col. G. E. Waring. (3) In the syste-
matic ventilation of sewers by perforated man-holes,
located at the street level, and always kept open.
(4) In the use of improved appliances for clearing
catch-basins and removing deposits of silt or other
material when necessary; and (5) In superintending
and regulating plumbers and other mechanics when
making connections from buildings with the sewers
as a security against careless workmanship.
Formerly sewers were often built of sufficient area
to contain a hay-cart or a row-boat ; now the prefer-
ence is given to much smaller conduits, and the cost
of construction has been thereby much reduced.
According to Prof. Parkes, the total amount of
excreta from a mixed population would not exceed
twenty-five tons of solid and 91,250 gallons of fluid
matter for each 1000 inhabitants, every twenty-four
hours, and as this is delivered into the sewer through
the entire day, it can be carried off through a very
Small drain. In Paris the sewage from a barrack
building containing 1000 soldiers was readily con-
veyed through a four-inch drain. Experiments at
Saratoga demonstrated that the entire waste pro-
ducts from a hotel with over 2000 occupants did not
fill a six-inch pipe. It is therefore entirely unnec-
essary and merely a great source of expense to build
Colossal Sewers like the Cloaca Maxima in Rome, and
which were formerly deemed indispensable; but
Sewers are now proportioned to the actual needs of
a given locality.
In European practice it is usual to connect house-
drains directly with sewers and to allow the former
to ventilate through the latter. Where sewers are
properly constructed, well laid, and properly venti-
lated and flushed, there is no objection to this prac-
tice. American sewers, however, are so frequently
defective from bad construction, breakage, or the
accumulation of deposits that it is deemed wise to
place an intercepting trap between each house and
the sewer with an air-inlet opening at the ground
level, and this rule is now generally enforced by all
boards of health.
The recent introduction of public steam-heating
apparatus in many American cities, and the discom-
fort and damage caused by constantly turning up
street pavements to repair steam pipes, together with
the necessity of laying telegraph and telephone
wires underground, is steadily preparing the way for
the adoption of the Parisian system of laying all
sewer, gas, and water mains in an underground tun-
nel or conduit, where they will be easily accessible
without disturbing street pavements, and this im-
provement will undoubtedly be brought about be-
fore long in many cities.
There has been considerable discussion of late in
this country as to whether it is best to construct
small sewers to receive house-drainage alone, and to
make separate provision for rain-water, instead of
building sewers of sufficient capacity to receive both
forms of waste material. The former method has
advantages on the score of economy, and is adapted
for localities where there is sufficient grade to the
streets to carry off the surface water promptly and
where a suitable and safe outfall can be secured. It
is charged that large sewers are more apt to be foul
from the difficulty of flushing them, that they create
more gases, and that they are more expensive both
to construct and to maintain. The opponents of the
so-called “separate system ’’ claim that surface water
will usually be so contaminated as to be unfit for
discharging into an ordinary river or stream, and
therefore it must be treated as house-waste and re-
moved to a distance. The cost of the two systems
of drains, it is claimed, will be greater than one set
of pipes, while the rain-water is essential to flush
and clean the sewers. Col. Geo. E. Waring has been
the principal advocate of the separate system, but
conservative engineers like Sir Robert Rawlinson
take an opposite view. The general verdict seems
to be that no system is applicable to all conditions,
and that local considerations must have chief weight
in deciding what form of sewerage is to be adopted.
The unsatisfactory results which have followed in
London and Paris from discharging the Sewage of
these great cities into the Thames and Seine rivers
have led to the consideration of some other method of
sewage disposal, and the irrigation system has been
widely advocated instead. Elaborate experiments
have been made at Berlin, Edinburgh, and near Paris
for disposing of sewage by irrigation. No nuisance
has been created and, notwithstanding the popular
apprehension, the health of the neighborhood has
not been injured, while very extensive crops have
been grown on the sewage farms, and have helped to
SEWERAGE.
475
reduce the expense of their maintenance. Similar
experiments have been tried in many English towns
with very satisfactory results. The general conclu-
sion, however, has been reached that none of these
enterprises can be made profitable and that they
must always be viewed as sanitary rather than eco-
nomical undertakings.
In Great Britain more than 150 towns have intro-
duced the system of sewage disposal by sub-surface
irrigation, and the same system has been successfully
introduced in the United States though not on a
large scale as yet. At Pullman, Ill., with a popula-
tion of 9,000, most of the sewage is disposed of upon
a farm of 140 acres, and the same system has been
applied at Lenox, where there is only a small perma-
ment population, and at a number of public and oth-
er institutions, as at Lawrenceville, Princeton, and
Morristown, N. J., at Sherborn, Danvers, and Wor-
cester, Mass., and at Bryn Mawr, Pa. It has also
been utilized at Orange, N. J., and in other places,
to drain detached villa residences, and under most
conditions has given satisfactory results. It is now
proposed to adopt the irrigation system on a larger
scale at East Orange, .N. J., Brockton, Mass., Los
Angeles, Cal., and at Providence, R. I. The latter
undertaking will cost in the neighborhood of $3,700,-
000, and the result of the experiment will be awaited
With interest.
The Sanitary Engineer sums up the advantanges
and disadvantages of the irrigation system as follows:
“It would seem that the application of sewage to
land, under proper precautions, is the least dangerous
and most useful way of disposing of it; that precipi-
tation processes are in some cases useful and even
necessary preliminaries to the land filtration; that
the disposal of sewage can rarely, if ever, be effected
without expense ; and, especially, that each case is a
problem of itself, to be worked out by a skilled and
experienced engineer.”
Where a number of towns are situated along a
river and discharge their sewage into the stream
which is also used as a source of water-supply, as in
the case of the Hudson and Passaic rivers, there is
great risk of pollution of the drinking supply. A
commission appointed by the State of Massachu-
setts in 1885 has recently presented a plan for drain-
ing the valleys of the Mystic, Blackstone, and Charles
rivers, and at the same time protect the water-sup-
ply of Boston and adjacent towns and cities. The
scheme of a united system of drainage for several
neighboring towns is considered here for the first
time in this country, and it is therefore of special
interest. Wherever practicable the sewage is to be
carried by intercepting sewers to Boston and dis-
charge into the main drainage system of the latter.
For towns too remote from Boston and too far apart
to warrant any combination for a sewage disposal,
separate areas for intermittent filtration are recom-
'mended.
| Among the sewerage works constructed of late
years in American cities are the following: At
Memphis 40 miles of sewers planned by Col. Geo.
E. Waring are now in operation at a total cost of
$275,000. Pittsburg, Pa., is said to have over 100
miles of new sewers. At Charleston, S. C., $230,000
is to be spent on 43 miles of sewerage. At East
Orange, N. J., a nearly equal amount is to be ex-
pended. Omaha, Neb., has expended $98,493 on sew-
ers. New York City has increased her sewers within
a very few years from 360 to 414 miles. Boston has
200 miles of sewers, just double the area of 1869,
and has spent $2,000,000 upon a great intercepting
sewer, which is a model of engineering. The city
of Providence, R. I., is considering the expenditure
of a large sum for drainage works, upon plans pro-
posed by City Engineer Gray. The Chicago drain-
age and water-supply commission reports that an
!
outlay of more than $30,000,000 will be required,
and an annual expenditure of $2,000,000, to meet
the needs of its growing population. Newark, N. J.,
has spent $550,000 on a new system of sewers. Al-
bany, Trenton, Newport, New London, Norfolk (Va.),
and Baltimore, are all contemplating taking sim-
ilar action or have actually begun the work. Bar
Harbor, Coney Island, Nahant, Atlantic City, Cape
May, Asbury Park, and other summer resorts
have wisely made provision for drainage and Water-
Supply. º
Domestic Sewerage.—Within a few years, and chiefly
since 1879, an entire revolution has taken place in
the methods of domestic sewerage, and the greatest
advance in this direction has been made in the
|United States. This has been due to the wide dis-
cussion of sanitary questions in the press and in
official reports, at sanitary conventions and public
health associations, and on the lecture platform, to-
gether with the interest created by repeated out-
breaks of disease traceable to bad drainage, which
have sometimes assumed epidemic proportions. It
has been accompanied by the passage of laws, in
many States, regulating the manner in which plumb-
ing should be executed in new buildings in all large
cities and towns, and also requiring that plumbers
shall be licensed after passing an examination, as to
their qualifications. These regulations were first
adopted by the cities of New York and Brooklyn,
but they have since been widely copied in other
places, and as a result great improvements have
been effected. A plan of the drainage in all new
buildings must now be submitted to the local board
of health, and be approved before the work can go
on, while the work itself must be subject to inspec-
tion during its progress and after completion. As
a result, there has been a notable advance both in
the quality of the plumbing recently executed and
in the intelligence and skill of architects, builders,
and plumbers alike.
Hitherto most of the plumbing, especially in
buildings in large cities, has been performed un-
der contract for speculative builders and in a reck-
less manner ; such parts of the work as are vis-
ible may be properly done, but the hidden and most
important portions are usually scamped, so that
sickness and death frequently result from the es-
cape of sewer-gas into the dwellings.
Among the most common defects to be found in
Ordinary dwellings, even of the better class, are the
following : Brick or earthenware drains laid under-
ground with imperfect joints, so as to leak into the
soil and create foul odors which are liable to rise
into living rooms.
Soil pipes constructed of lead instead of iron, so
that they sag or are eaten by rats or corroded
by sewer-gas at bends or angles; or on the upper
side of pipes when laid horizontally, so that foul air
may escape without there being any leakage to in-
dicate a defect.
Soil pipes of iron, but with defective joints or
lacking in ventilation to the outer air. These pipes
are often used as rain-water leaders, and when
gorged with rain they cannot serve as ventilators,
and foul air is forced into living rooms. Again,
they may be connected with chimney flues with a
view to securing an upward draught to assist ventila-
tion. In such cases there is danger of sewer-gases
penetrating through the cracks in the chimney into
living rooms or of a down-draught when the chimney
is cold.
Soil pipes connecting with unventilated cesspools
or sewers, without any barrier to prevent back press-
lile,
Insufficient or improper traps, which either be-
come so foul as to be miniature cesspools or lose
their seals by siphonage or evaporation.
476
SEWERAGE.
Refrigerators connected with drains, so that the
food-supply is poisoned by foul gases.
Water-tanks with their overflows leading into the
Cesspools or sewer so as to pollute the drinking
Supply.
Uncleanly water-closets and other fixtures with
deficient water for flushing purposes, and with im.
proper drip-trays, safe wastes, and other connections.
When to these inherent defects, due to ignorance,
cupidity, or carelessness, are added the effects of
neglect on the part of householders and domestics,
the Wear and tear of time, and of occasional patch-
ing where pipes have become choked or damaged,
or where eertain portions are abandoned or cut off,
a state of things will be found which is far from
Sanitary or safe. Yet such is the condition of hun-
dreds of houses occupied by the most intelligent
and prosperous people. When such buildings, where
people may have lived for years without suspicion
that anything was wrong, are tested with peppermint,
or in other ways, great surprise is manifested at
their condition, but the heavy mortality from pre-
Ventable disease in all settled communities affords
ample evidence of the dire effects of so much bad
plumbing.
Under the rules and regulations now enforced by
boards of health the following features are insisted
upon in all the plumbing of new dwellings:
1. The materials must all be of the best ; extra-
heavy cast-iron pipe, tarred inside and out, and lead
pipe and sheet lead of proportionate weight and
thickness. 2. All pipes and drains must be con-
centrated as far as possible, so as to be easily ac-
cessible for examination, and so far as possible open
to view, the drain pipe in the cellar being carried
along the side wall wherever possible and not under-
ground. 3. All joints must be carefully calked with
lead, and it is now becoming customary to test them
by Water-pressure, or with an air-pump, to insure
that there are no flaws or leaks. 4. In each house
the drains must be disconnected from the sewer or
Cesspool by a running trap with an opening for foot
ventilation carried to the ground level or the edge
of the sidewalk so as to create an upward current
through the soil pipe, which must be carried up
through the roof of full size and usually with the
upper end enlarged and left wide open without any
cowls, caps, or return bends, but simply protected
by a wire basket strainer.
No soil pipe should be used as a leader or con-
nected with a chimney.
Each and every fixture must be separately trapped
by an S- or P-trap placed as close to the fixture as
possible and ventilated as a security against siphon-
age by a back-air pipe of ample size connecting at
the crown of the trap. All water-closets must be
flushed by a separate cistern, and not connected with
the same pipes which supply the inmates with
drinking-water, nor must any tank overflow or any
refrigerator connect directly with a drain. Where
the water does not rise at all times to the upper
fixtures in a house, then a tank must be provided
with a pump to keep it filled.
The English practice of using lead soil pipe has
been entirely abandoned in the United States, while
the custom of carrying soil pipes outside the build-
ing and of separating the drainage from baths and
basins from that of water-closets and conveying it in
a distinct waste pipe has not been deemed necessary
here.
The regulations enforced by boards of health do
not affect the choice of fixtures in houses. Great
improvement, however, has been made in this direc-
tion. With the remarkable-advance in the design,
decoration, and furnishing of modern dwellings, due
to the recent rapid growth in aesthetic taste, there
has been a proportionate improvement in the line of
country.
plumbing fixtures. Lavatories and bathrooms are
now constructed in the most costly and luxurious
manner, the floors and walls being covered with
tiling, heavy porcelain-lined baths exposed without
Superfluous wood-work, and the water-closets and
basins fitted up in a most elaborate manner with
brass pipes, marble flooring, nickel-plated traps,
and other fittings of the most elaborate description.
The kitchens and laundries in many private and
public buildings are no less expensively furnished,
With porcelain sinks and wash-tubs and with the walls
and floors protected from moisture by marble or
tiling, so that it may be said that modern plumbing
has become an aesthetic art as well as a science.
(C. F. W.)
In this connection it may be stated that two new styles of
water-closets (both American inventions) have recently been
introduced—the “Wash-out ’’ and the “Tip sanitary closet.”
The former consists in a receiving bowl connected by an S-
trap with the soil pipe without valves or moving mechanical
parts of any kind, Water is supplied from a tank placed
high above the closet, which, coming down with a rush,
carries everything before it through the trap and into the soil
pipe. Being made of one piece and devoid of all forms of pan,
valve, P. and siphon attachments it cannot get out of or—
der and is an improvement on former inventions; it requires a
large amount of water, which is probably no great objection
when the city supply is abundant. The “Tip sanitary closet"
is a new departure, or an old one revived. It consists in a
receiving bowl and reservoir balanced on trunnions over a
hopper ; both bowl and reservoir are automatically filled with
water from a storage reservoir over the closet and are in one
piece, separated by a low water-fence or dam. The receiving
bowl is narrowed in front and opens, spout-shaped, into a de-
tached hopper and trap through which its contents are dis-
charged into the soil pipe whenever the closet is “tipped,”
which can be done by pressing on a stirrup beneath the foot.
The water at the back of the receiving bowl, which is regulated
by a ball-cock, follows the previous contents of the bowl when
tipped and cleanses it of any remaining impurities. The
claims made for this closet are saving of water, noiseless ac-
tion, and simplicity of construction, the only mechanism be-
ing the ball-cock and trunnions for tipping.
The ultimate disposal of sewage, including street
sweepings, ashes, garbage, and kitchen waste, is now
receiving the earnest consideration of sanitarians,
and although no plan has yet been perfected, scien-
tific experiments are being made throughout Eu-
rope and the United States with a view to destroy-
ing by fire, or its equivalent, all refuse of cities. In
1870 Paddington, England, first experimented with a
“garbage destructor,” which proved a complete fail-
ure ; a few years later Manchester attempted a simi-
lar enterprise, with little better success, though in
later years it has accomplished much in this direc-
tion. Birmingham, in 1877, met with like reverses
at first. Bradford was more fortunate with the
“Healey Patent Destructor ; ” but the one most
successful, now in use in England, is the “Beehive
Destructor,” which was first introduced in Rich-
mond, England, and is now extensively used in that
In the United States, the first “crema-
tory” for the destruction of garbage was constructed
at Governor's Island, New York Harbor, in 1885,
for the purpose of disposing of the waste material of
the post. Allegheny City, Pa., followed, the same
year, with a small “destructor.” Two years later a
small furnace was built for the use of Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Md. Probably the first ex-
tensive “destructors ” were the “Engle patent,”
put up at Des Moines, Iowa, and the “Forristal
furnace,” erected at Milwaukee, Wis., in 1886. The
“Rider garbage furnace" followed, the next year, at
Pittsburg, Pa., and the “William Mann patent "
was erected at Chicago about the same time. In
1888 Minneapolis, Minn., adopted the “Engle pat-
ent,” with improvements, and was followed by Mil-
waukee, Wis., and Coney Island, N. Y.
Dr. S. S. Kilvington, president of the board of
health of Minneapolis, in speaking of the four prin-
cipal crematories which have been in use during the
SEWERAGE.
477
past three years in the United States, says: “The
Forristal furnace, which has been operated until re-
cently in the city of Milwaukee, consists of a two:
story building. Teams drive into this building and
dump their loads into a hopper, from whence it is
carried by elevators into the drying-room above.
Here it is treated by steam-heat, and the liquid resi-
due is drained off. It is then shovelled through a
tubular shoot to the floor below, where it is depos-
ited in front of the furnace doors. Thence it is
shovelled into the fire, and kept constantly stirred.
The fire itself is operated on the principle of a
blacksmith's forge, with the aid of a blast fan. The
latter, together with the refuse-elevators, is run by a
small steam-engine, which also furnishes steam for
the drying-room. The furnace is of brick, with
square form and arched top. It contains a single
fire, which is relighted every day. A single row of
doors on each side of the furnace serves for the ad-
mission of fuel, for the supply of refuse, and for
stirring or stoking the fire. Smoke and gases are
carried out directly into the chimney shaft. An en-
gineer and four laborers are required to run the
plant. ”
The “Rider garbage furnace" has been largely
used in Pittsburg for the destruction of spent tan-
bark and has performed this task, as also that of the
destruction of garbage, to the apparent satisfaction
of its owners and the public. Its construction re-
quires the primary investment of a large sum, but
its patentee claims for it great economy in the ex-
penditure of fuel, of which it is said to require an
amount equal to less than five per cent. of the ma-
terial cremated, this being used as an initial supply
to bring all parts of the furnace to a proper temper-
ature; after which it is claimed that the garbage it-
self, if furnished in sufficient quantity, will provide
all the fuel necessary to maintain its operations.
This furnace consists of a front chamber 12% by 6%
feet, which is surmounted by a dome containing
S circular openings, 15 inches in diameter. In the
rear of this is another chamber, 9% by 64 feet, floored
with a tile hearth and separated from the first cham-
ber by a bridge wall, 3 feet in thickness, and having
in its rear a second bridge wall over which the pro-
ducts of combustion pass to enter the chimney. The
second chamber is also surmounted by a dome in
which are 6 circular openings, of the same size as the
first. The products of complete combustion are said
to be innocuous, while the solid residue is valuable
as a fertilizer.
The ‘‘ Mann destructor'
patent the beauty of simplicity of structure. As
built in Montreal, Canada, where its operations are
reported as being very satisfactory, its combustion
chamber is quadrilateral, with dimensions 16 by 9
feet, and 10 feet high. This is fitted with a grate of
approximately same dimensions, laid with a slight
incline upward in the direction of the chimney-flue.
At the lower epid of this grate is its single fireplace.
On each side are three tiers of three doors each ; the
upper tiers are at the level of a staging floor upon
which the loaded refuse-carts are driven, the refuse
being emptied directly into the furnace through
these doors, or placed upon the floor in front of them.
The second tier of openings is situated just above
the line of the grate, and these are used for stirring
the fire. The lowest tier is at the level of the ash-
pit and are for the removal of the ashes. The grate
bars are two inches apart.
The “Engle crematory" has a brick chamber 33
feet long by 5 feet wide, and 7 feet high from grate to
dome; at the end of the furnace grate nearest the
chimney, but not opening into it, is the primary fire-
place ; at the further end of the furnace grate, and
communicating with it, is a second grate four feet
below the level of the primary one. Here a sec-
y
shares with the Engle
ondary fire burns, and with it the chimney flues are
connected by a superheated tiled roof conduit, run.
ning beneath the primary fire-grate for a length of
28 feet to the chimney shaft, 100 feet high. The
building in which the furnace is enclosed is three
stories in height; at the level of the first floor, is a
double row of doors, the upper of which is used for
feeding the primary fire and for stoking the burning
material, while the lower opens into the ash-pit and
permits the removal of ashes. On the same floor, at
the farther end of the furnace, are doors for supply-
ing the secondary fire and removing its ashes. . The
second floor is on a level with the top of the brick
furnace, and upon this floor the bodies of dead ani-
mals are delivered through a large tubular shaft, by
means of pulley attachments, to the furnace below
near the primary fire. The third floor is on a level
with three tubular shafts, 15 feet in length, rising
from the dome of the furnace and into which the
miscellaneous refuse-wagons immediately discharge
their contents from the upper floor upon which they
drive. The capacity of this furnace is very great,
and the expense of operating is said to be very mod-
erate. Three men operated it five days, consuming
33 horses, 59 dogs, 103 barrels of hotel and commis-
sion house refuse, 12 loads of market offal, and 70
loads of manure, weighing in all over 200 tons, at a
cost for labor and fuel of $38.25, or 19 cents per ton.
An analysis of the ash from this crematory demon-
strated that it was valuable as a fertilizer.
The most recent and novel invention has lately
been erected in Buffalo, N. Y., and is called a “gar-
bage extractor.” It is thus described by Dr. Ed-
i ward Clark, health officer of that city, who says it is
a wonderful piece of mechanism : “The garbage is
first of all put into dryers, which consist of a large
iron cylinder within a cylinder; the space between
the two cylinders is filled with superheated steam,
which drives over 60 per cent. by weight in the
shape of moisture and organic gases from the gar-
|bage. The internal cylinder contains a number of
revolving arms, filled also with superheated steam ;
these arms keep the garbage constantly stirred, so
that all moisture is driven off at a temperature of
over 300° F., and by means of a powerful suction fan
is forced into a column condenser from which it
i emerges as a perfectly clear and odorless water.
After the moisture is all driven off, in the form of a
distillate, the dryers are emptied of their contents,
and instead of resembling garbage the mass looks
like soft brown earth containing a certain quantity
of grease. It has very little odor. This mass is
then elevated into what is known as the “extractor,”
where, by means of a chemical solution, all the grease
is extracted and drawn off into barrels. This, of
course, has a commercial value. The residue is then
taken from the extractor and used as a fertilizer,
after removing all the pieces of bones, glass, iron,
rags, etc. The final product is perfectly dry, free
from oil and odor, and no more offensive than dry
earth, which it very closely resembles.”
It would seem, from the description of the various
kinds of “cremators,” “destructors,” and the “ex-
tractor,” that the disposal of all manner of sewage is
in process of being solved without the use of drain
and sewer-pipes. House and hotel crematories are
also coming into use quite extensively in the larger
cities, and some families even depend upon their
kitchen range to destroy the greater portion of the
garbage and kitchen refuse, rather than rely upon the
uncertain movements of the garbage collector, while
the dry earth or ashes and the pail-closet system of
disposing of excrement emphasizes the practicability
of dispensing with the dangerous water-closet and
sewer-pipe.
Dry-air Closets.-Another system of disposing of
fecal and urinary deposits is rapidly coming into
478
SEWING MACHINES.
favor. This is known as the “Smead system of dry-
air closets.” It consists in passing the dry air of a
properly ventilated house through the closets and
into a ventilating shaft. The manner of doing this
is unique and the result is remarkable : A “down-
draught.” from the various rooms in the building,
created by flues connecting with a heated ventilating
shaft Outside, carries the vitiated air of the ventilated
rooms into a “gathering room " which communicates
directly with the closets and thence with the shaft
—the fecal and urinary deposits are thus subjected
to a constant current of dry air, which not only de-
stroys all Odor and evaporates all moisture but ren-
ders the night-soil so dry and earth-like as to no longer
resemble fecal discharges; it can then be burned
where it lies or used as a fertilizer. Many school-
houses throughout the United States are supplied
with this system of “sewerage,” thus dispensing
entirely with water-closets, the tests having proved
satisfactory both in winter and summer.
(P. H. B.)
SEWING - MACHINES. Of modern inventions
... there are few of more importance, or
sº *:: that have done more for the comfort
Kº. R; and convenience of civilized com-
munities than the sewing-machine. In
its various applications to the making of clothing,
shoes, etc., it has greatly added to the abundance and
cheapness of these necessaries of life, and aided in
enabling the poorest of the laboring classes to dress
warmly and respectably. The sewing-machine is
usually claimed as an American invention, and justly
so, if regarded as an effective instrument, though the
idea originated in England, where efforts at machine-
sewing were made as early as the middle of the last
century. No satisfactory English machine was pro-
duced, however, though that of Thomas Saint (1790)
possessed many of the features of the successful
modern machines. A French inventor, M. Thimo-
nier, produced in 1830 a machine which worked with
some efficiency, and was patented, in an improved
form, in the United States in 1850. America, how-
Wilson, of Pittsfield, Mass. His machine also re-
placed the shuttle by a rotating hook device. Other
machines quickly followed. That of Isaac M. Singer,
the first that proved satisfactory to manufacturers,
is said to have been produced in 12 days’ time on a
promise to make an efficiently working machine for
$40. In 1851 William O. Grover, of Boston, invented
a machine that made a double loop stitch by means
of a circular rotating needle. All these machines
used the leading features patented by Howe several
years before, and a lawsuit arose which ended in his
being paid a royalty on all machines manufactured.
This royalty continued in force till 1867, and brought
him in nearly $2,000,000. Singer, by obtaining con-
trol of other patents, accumulated a large fortune.
The Weed, the Florence, and other new machines
came into the market about 1854, the Willcox &
Gibbs in 1857, and since that period the application
for patents for sewing-machines and devices con-
nected there with have averaged about 50 per year.
The last mentioned, invented by James E. A. Gibbs,
of Millpoint, Va., is the most popular of the single-
thread machines. It makes a twisted loop stitch by
means of a rotating hook under the cloth, and, hav-
ing the advantages of noiselessness, speed, and ease
of running, has sold largely. Of the more recent
machines we may name the Remington, Domestic,
American, and two Howe machines (the Elias and
the Amasa B. Howe). An important event occurred
on the 8th of May, 1877. At noon of that day the
last of the essential patents held by the sewing-ma-
chine manufacturers expired, and the devices nec.
essary to the making of a workable machine were
open to all. Prices at once fell 40 or 50 per cent.,
the $60 machine being reduced to $30, and the $70
to $40. This was a highly desirable result to the
general public, and has greatly added to the number
of machines in domestic use. The Wilson feeder
was the most important of the expiring inventions,
others being the vibrating needle, the reciprocating
shuttle, and the rotating hook. There are perhaps
a thousand patents still in force, but the above-
ever, has the honor of producing the first practicable named were the foundation patents, without which
machines for sewing cloth and leather.
John Adams Dodge, of Monkton, Vt., invented, in
1818, a machine which, like the earliest English
machine, used a double-pointed needle with the eye
in the middle. It made a back Stitch, and Sewed a
good seam straight forward, but would not let the
cloth be turned. This machine was not patented,
and the professional duties of the inventor forced
him soon to abandon his experiments.
The earliest effective machine of the modern pat-
term was invented in 1832 by Walter Hunt, of New
York. It was the first machine to use two threads,
one being carried by a curved needle, with the eye in
the point, the other by a shuttle. It formed what is
lºnown as the lock stitch. Other inventors followed,
from time to time, and in 1846 Elias Howe, of Cam-
bridge, Mass., took out a patent for a machine which
was in its more important appliances similar to the
unpatented Hunt machine, though with several
novel devices. This is looked upon as the parent
sewing-machine, all the more recent inventions
being, in the main, simply improvements upon it.
It had defects which the inventor did not succeed in
overcoming, and which prevented it from working
satisfactorily and being accepted by the public or
by capitalists. These defects were removed by
later and better mechanics. John Bradshaw, of
Lowell, Mass., patented in 1848 a device to regulate
the tension. Others improved the feeding arrange-
The Rev. no first-class machine could be made.
In addition
to the patents for machines, many have been taken
out for devices necessary to perform certain kinds of
sewing, such as basting, folding the cloth for hem-
ming, button-hole making, etc. Some of these de-
vices are remarkable for the intricacy and accuracy
of their achievements, and machine work is now
done of a character that would seem impossible to
be performed otherwise than by hand. By the use
of the sewing-machine, sewing can be done with at
least five times the rapidity of the fastest hand-sew-
ing, and with greatly decreased labor. The treadle
motion, which has hitherto been the most exhaust-
ing part of the work, is being avoided by the use
of steam, and by spring and electric motors suitable
for house use, which, when generally introduced,
will be a great saving of labor. It is questionable:
if much further improvement can be made in the
efficiency of the sewing-machine ; it is almost per-
fect in its running and its performance now, and is
a notable example of the great advance in modern
machinery.
In addition to the machines in use for Ordinary
sewing, there are many inventions adapted to the
performance of special work which in some cases is
seemingly beyond the power of machinery, yet is
done with extraordinary accuracy and rapidity. A
very important one of these is the cylinder sewing-
machine, which possesses a cylindrical feed arrange-
ment, and still others invented a lock stitch differing ment adapted to sew seams on sleeves, water-hose,
from Howe's, though the same in principle.
lack of a satisfactory feeding device, a defect in all articles.
The leather buckets, boot-legs, and similar cylindrical
It is adapted for all grades of shoe-work,
the earlier machines, was overcome in 1850 by the but especially for vamping, and is also used largely
effective four-motioned feeder invented by Allen B. by manufacturers of gloves, pocket-books, travelling
SEWING-MACHINES. 479
and the special button-hole stitch. The lock-stitch
is made by all shuttle machines and by those em-
ploying a rotating or revolving hook. Of all stitch-
making devices the shuttle is now most extensively
used, though it is replaced in some machines by
other devices yielding the same general result. In
bags, and many other articles of this general charac-
ter. Other machines adapted to special work are
the carpet sewing, the book sewing, the shoe sewing,
the sail making, etc. The
most useful among these
are the shoe-sewing ma-
chines, their importance
being almost equal to that
of the ordinary cloth-sew-
ing machines. By their aid
Cylinder Sewing-machine. Bobbins and Bobbin-attachments.
many millions of boots and shoes are annually pro-
duced, with a cheapness and rapidity unapproachable
by hand-work. Of the various machines used in this
industry the McKay, invented about 1858, is that
principally employed. For statistics of the factory
work produced by the aid of these machines, see ar-
ticle, SHOEs.
Another instrument of remarkable character is the
automatic button-hole machine, of which we give an
illustration. There is no department of Sewing-ma-
chine work in which greater progress
has been made. A few years ago it was
considered an excellent performance to
make 1000 button-holes in a day of ten
hours by machine labor, yet to-day from
3000 to 6000 holes per day can be made
—the number varying with the fineness
of the stitch and length of the button-
hole—and with less fatigue to the oper-
ator than in the old process. The
machine here illustrated is an instru-
ment of almost magical efficiency. It
can be run to make from 1000 to 1200
stitches per minute ; it will make a
straight button-bole of any length up
to one inch ; it cuts the hole in the
material, winds its own
bobbins, stitches or cords
the hole as desired, and
stops automatically, with-
out aid from the operator,
when the stitching is com-
pleted. It seems almost
possessed of conscious in-
telligence.
Various
stitches have
the Wheeler & Wilson, for instance, the bobbin is
made to do the duty of the shuttle, and presents the
advantage that the lower and upper parts of the
machine can be driven at the same speed, instead
of the lower having to be driven at double speed, to
achieve the backward and forward movement of the
shuttle. The figure above gives an illustration of this
bobbin, the case in which it is confined, and its po-
sition in the machine. It is capable of holding ‘‘ over .
100 yards of No. 70 cotton, having about twice the
Button-hole Machine.
from time to time been used in sewing-machine | capacity of the largest bobbin heretofore in success-
Work, but at present the lock-stitch is employed in ful use in any lock-stitch machine.”
fully four-fifths of all machines made.
Baker double loop, the Willcox & Gibbs single chain,
Of other
º . | g e e
Stitches now employed may be named the Grover & sewing-machines in the world, no other
iing so many or so large factories.
The United States is much the largest producer of
country hav-
Some of these


























4S0
SEYFFARTH.
factories, as the Singer, the Wheeler & Wilson,
and the Howe, are of great extent, and turn out an-
nually vast numbers of machines. As to the number
of sewing-machines made, we have no record pre-
viously to the “Albany agreement" of 1856, but
from that year to 1869 the sales amounted to 1,500,-
000 machines. From 1869 to 1878 the sales were
4,800,000, making a total of 6,300,000 machines,
worth $360,000,000, produced in the United States
in 22 years. In 1880, as per the census returns, there
were 106 establishments in operation, with a total
capital of $12,501,830, and an annual product of ma-
chines valued at $13,868, 188, and of cases valued at
$2,064,837. This is below the average of the 22
years preceding, but is based on a fall in price of
nearly 50 per cent., so that the number of machines
sold must have been considerably above that average.
In the manufacture of sewing-machines only the
finest material and the best workmanship are em-
ployed, and the interchangeable system is carried
out to the fullest extent, the parts of the cases and
the smallest parts of the machine being made exactly
of the same size and pattern, so as accurately to fit
in all work turned out from the same factory. This
interchangeable system of parts is an American idea
which is now widely adopted, and saves vast labor
and expense in repairing fire-arms, Watches, sewing-
machines, etc., there being no longer occasion to re-
turn a broken instrument to the factory for repair,
as of old. Some of the large factories perform the
whole process of making cases, needles, and ma-
chines, even owning their own forests, and getting
out the raw material of their operations. They have
also extensive transportation facilities, and ramifica-
tions of sales agencies throughout the World.
The work on sewing-machines, at first, was com-
paratively coarse, but there has been a continual im-
provement in this respect, and these machines now
rival fire-arms in accuracy of workmanship. Family
machines are manufactured “which will make Over
2000 stitches a minute, which will sew 600 stitches a
minute with No. 60 cotton, using the same cotton as a
driving belt for the machine, and which will sew either
the finest gauze and tissue-paper or many thicknesses
of the heaviest goods, such as leather, heavy duck,
beaver, and even tin, and will execute other Work re-
quiring a combination of delicacy, accuracy, easy ac-
tion, strength, and speed probably unapproached by
any other class of ordinary machines.” Sewing-ma-
chines are ordinarily tested, both by sewing muslin
and by sewing several thicknesses of duck or beaver.
As to their accuracy, it is said that “cams, which in
1870 were machined with a variation from exactness
of .0015 inch, are not now allowed a discrepancy of
.0005 inch,” and that the work which was formerly
coarse, as compared with gunwork, is now sometimes
the more accurate of the two, this being the result of
many improvements, not only in the design of the
mechanism but in the accuracy of the machine tools.
The development of the sewing-machine, in fact, is
one of the most remarkable achievements of Ameri-
can inventive genius. C. M.)
SEYFFARTH, GUSTAVUs (1796–1885), a noted
Egyptologist, passed the last twenty-nine years of
his life in the United States, and was during these
years probably the most conspicuous representative
of his department in America. He was born at
Uebigau, near Torgau (then in the electorate of
Saxony), July 13, 1796, the son of a Lutheran clergy-
man. Having received a thorough classical training
at the famous “Fürstenschule” of St. Afra, at
Meissen on the Elbe, he entered the University of
Leipzig. Besides divinity, he studied not only
philology and philosophy but acquired wide knowl-
edge invarious scientific departments; He gained the
degree of Ph.D. and later of D. D. Having finished
his academic course, he fitted himself for the career
of an academic teacher, and in 1823 received permis-
Sion to lecture as privat-docent. One of his earlier elab-
Orate works, De Sonis Literarum Graecarum, etc.
(1824), was honored with an introduction written by
the renowned Gottfried Hermann. The only Egyp-
tologist of note at Leipzig in those days was F. A. W.
Spohn, and when he died, in 1829, Seyffarth was in-
trusted by the university with the continuation of
his researches. This commission suggested to him
the necessity of going more deeply into the subject.
Consequently, in 1826–28, he made a tour of the
principal museums and collections of Europe, to
study and copy on the spot the most important
Egyptian papyri and kindred archaeological remains.
He visited Berlin, Vienna, Munich, Turin, Milan,
Venice, Leghorn, Florence, Rome, Naples, Paris,
London, Leyden, Amsterdam ; he filled fourteen
folios with copies of exquisite perfection (which he
subsequently bequeathed to the Historical Society
of New York). His method of interpreting hiero-
glyphs was fundamentally different from that of
Champollion. Seyffarth held that the hieroglyphs
designated the consonant elements of a syllable ; e.g.,
klil (sacrifice), might be designated by a basket (kalil),
the image of an Owl (mulak) could be read as melek
(king), whereas Champollion taught that the hiero-
glyphs were symbols standing for definite letters of
the alphabet. A few years after his tour, Seyffarth
was made professor extraordinarius of archaeology
(at Leipzig), and held this position from 1830 to
1854. He did not succeed, however, in gaining
academic followers of distinction, for Lepsius,
Drugsch, Müller of Göttingen, Ebers, and others
followed the system of Champollion. Uhlemann and
Wuttke were the most noted of his own adherents.
After 1840 he began to experience great difficulty in
finding avenues for publication. Academic advance-
ment also seemed to be cut off.
As a Biblical scholar Seyffarth was uncompro-
misingly conservative, and undertook in all chrono-
logical questions to fix dates to the day. He had
developed the idea that all the chief deities, not
only of the Greek Olympus but also of other pagan
systems, were to be derived from the seven planets
and the twelve constellations of the Zodiac, and that
the position of the planets at certain dates was
designated on many monuments of antiquity, thus
affording data for chronological computation. He
taught also that the Hebrew alphabet of twenty-five
letters was not only the invention of Noah, that it
contained a representation of the Zodiac and of the
seven planets, but also that the Hebrew was the
mother tongue of human speech. Vast as was the
erudition of Seyffarth, these extreme chronological
speculations and assertions, coupled with the abstruse
and involved character of his presentation, as well as
his uncompromising hostility to Champollion's sys-
tem, tended to isolate him more and more from kin-
dred scholars. Finally he took a step which he had
contemplated for a number of years—he resigned
his position at the University of Leipzig in 1854,
and two years later came to the United States. For
three years he was professor in a Lutheran theologi-
cal seminary, the Concordia College at St. Louis.
In 1859 he severed his connection with this institu-
tion, induced in part by his uncompromising hos-
tility to slavery. Thereafter, with the exception of
a few years' sojourn at Dansville, N. Y., where he
made a vain effort to establish a Lutheran theologi-
cal seminary, he made New York City his residence,
determined largely by the desire to avail himself of
the Astor library and other literary facilities. He
wrote very many papers and larger works during
this period, largely relating to biblical chronology.
Of these many were published in Lutheran period-
icals, others in the Transactions of the St. Louis
Academy of Science; he was also an active member
SEYMOUR SHAD.
481
of the American Oriental Society. Some of his last
labors were concerned with the interpretation of the
hieroglyphs on the obelisk in Central Park, New
York, erected there in 1881 by Commodore Gorringe
through the munificence of Mr. Wm. H. Vander-
bilt.
ticket obtained over 2,709,000 popular votes, in the
electoral college he received but 80 votes, and Gen.
Grant was elected by 214. He declined thereafter
to be a candidate for office, but, owing to his wealth,
culture, and genial manners, still exerted powerful
political influence. He was also active in the pro-
in the winter of 1881–82 Seyffarth, then in his motion of agriculture, education, and philanthropy.
86th year, delivered a lecture on this subject in a He was president of the National Dairymen's Asso-
public hall, speaking for nearly three hours. This ciation, and delivered many valuable historical ad-
excessive exertion, undertaken against the advice of dresses. He died at Utica, Feb. 12, 1886.
his friends, caused the bursting of a blood-vessel in His uncle. HoRATſo SEYMoUR (1778–1857), was
his brain. This misfortune incapacitated the aged born at Litchfield, Conn.; May 31, 1778, being son
scholar for all work and soon deprived him of many of a Revolutionary soldier. After graduating at
of the normal faculties. To this was added rapid Yale College and studying law, he removed to Ver-
deterioration of his eyesight, so that during the last mont and settled at Middlebury in 1799. He was a
three years of his life he was a physical wreck. He member of the council, 1809–17, U.S. senator, 1821–
died in New York, Nov. 17, 1885, and was buried in 33, and in 1847 was made judge of probate. He
the Lutheran cemetery on Long Island. The words died at Middlebury, Nov. 21, 1857.
chosen by himself for his epitaph from Horace are SHAD. The fish commonly known by this name
characteristic : is a member of the Clupeidae, or herring
- - - - - - - See Yºlº family, and is classed by the more re-
Mulla fecit tulitgue puer, sudarit et alsit. º *º,” cent writers in Clupea, the herring
(E. G. s.) genus, though for many years past it
SEYMOUR, HoRATIo (1810–1886), twice governor has been separated as a distinct genus, Alosa, on ac-
of New York, was born, May 31, 1810, in Pompey count of certain peculiarities of form. The herrings
township, Onondaga Co., N. Y. His father, Henry have the body scaled, the head naked, are destitute
Seymour, had moved thither from Litchfield, Conn., of barbels, and of the adipose fin of the Salmonidae,
as one of the earliest settlers. His childhood was though they have many points of analogy to the lat-
spent in Utica, and he was educated at Geneva Col-ter. The shad is distinguished from the herrings by
lege and at Capt. Partridge's military school. In having a deep notch in the middle of the upper jaw.
1832 he was admitted to the bar, and, as his fatherland by the lack of teeth on the tongue and roof of
had belonged to the “Albany
Regency,” he was soon active as
a Democratic politician. Besides
the estate he inherited, he ob-
tained a large fortune by his
marriage to Miss Mary Bleecker.
He was elected to the State As-
sembly in 1841, and in the next
year was mayor of Utica. Re-
turning to the legislature, he
was elected speaker in 1845 as
candidate of the “Hunker” fac-
tion. In 1850 he was Democratic
candidate for governor, but was
defeated by Washington Hunt,
the Whig competitor. In 1852,
however, he overcame Hunt for
the same position, but having
during his term vetoed a prohib-
itory liquor law, he was in 1854
defeated by the Whig candidate,
M. H. Clark, whom the Prohibi-
tionists had indorsed. Seymour
was influential in the councils of the Democratic the mouth. The teeth are small and deciduous,
party during the years preceding the civil war, al- occurring in the jaws only ; the air-bladder is sim-
ways urging a policy of overtures and concessions to ple, opening from the stomach. There are, in all,
the South. When war was begun he was active in over 20 species, of which the only ones of much
sending New York troops to the conflict, and soon commercial importance are Clupea (Alosa) sapidis–
after he was elected governor, in 1862, was thanked sima, the American shad, and C. Reevesii, the Chi-
by Secretary Stanton for his services. But soon the nese shad, a highly esteemed food-fish of China.
more vigorous war measures of the national adminis- There are two common European species, C. culgaris,
tration encountered his opposition. In New York which is found in all the principal rivers, but is lit-
City, when troops were drafted in July, 1863, a riottle esteemed as food, and C. finta, with which the
broke out, and the mob drove off the Federal offi-American shad was formerly thought identical, but
cers, overpowered the city authorities, killed some which has little commercial value.
The American Shad.
negroes, and destroyed much valuable property.
Gov. Seymour endeavored to allay the passion of the
mob, and made some effort to enforce order, but the
riot was only quelled by the arrival of veteran troops
from Washington. In 1864 Seymour was president
of the Democratic National Convention at Chicago,
which declared the war a failure, but he was defeat-
ed for re-election as governor in November of that
year. He presided also in the next Democratic con-
vention in New York City in 1868, and was eventually
nominated by it for the presidency; but though his
The American shad, on the contrary, is one of the
choicest and most esteemed of food-fishes, and
ranks highest, in the estimation of many, among
American fish. It is about 20 inches in extreme
length, and averages about 4 lbs. weight, ranging
from 2 to 6 lbs. The maximum weight at present is
about 8 lbs., though shad were formerly caught of
from 12 to 14 lbs. weight. Overfishing has caused
a steady reduction in size and numbers. This species
º of a bluish hue on the back, shading into a cop-
pery color on the upper and a silvery hue on the

482 • SHAD.
lower sides, while the abdomen is pearly in hue.
The quadrangular dorsal fin shuts into a groove, and
the amal is partly received in a groove. The pecto-
rals and ventral are small; the caudal, deeply forked.
The scales are large; the abdominal ridge, serrated.
The shad is found all along the Atlantic coast of
the United States, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to
St. John's river, Florida, and is found everywhere
Within this range in sufficient quantities to make the
fisheries valuable. It is not found native in the
rivers that empty into the Gulf of Mexico, though
recent efforts to artificially stock those rivers have
met with some success. The same is the case on the
Pacific coast, where artificially propagated shad have
been introduced into some of the streams.
In its migratory habits the shad resembles the
Salmon, though it probably does not venture so far
from the coast, and is supposed to be generally dis-
tributed along the coast regions of the ocean at all
times. Its feeding grounds and food are probably
much the same as those of the salmon. As soon as
the river temperature is sufficiently high, the shad
enter the streams on their spawning run, appearing
in the rivers in the latitude of Charleston as early
as January, and successively later up the coast un-
til the middle of May, when they are found in the
Bay of Fundy streams. The mature fish return to
the Ocean in August, the young in September, they
being then 3 or 4 inches long. The shad is of rapid
growth, and some suppose that it does not survive
beyond its second year, though this is not known.
The general theory that the shad always returns to
the river of its birth is also speculative. It has sim-
ply some probabilities in its favor. One thing, how-
ever, seems certain, that the shad eats nothing dur-
ing its river run. The stomach is invariably found
empty. Yet the instinct for food is merely over-
come by the stronger reproductive instinct, and the
shad will occasionally rise to a fly, and afford excit-
ing sport to anglers. The eggs of the shad number
from 20,000 to 40,000, and occasionally as high as
100,000. In former times the spawning took place
in the head waters of the rivers, but artificial Ob-
structions now prevent the shad from reaching their
former grounds, and the eggs must be laid lower
down the streams. The mature fish return to salt
water after spawning, though some seem to remain
in the rivers until late in the season, and have been
taken in the autumn months. The new-born shad
is said to swim vigorously as soon as it breaks the
shell, and to make its way at once to the mid-stream
where danger from its foes is reduced. This habit
gives it a better chance for survival. The young
feed on small crustaceae and insect larvae in fresh
water, and, unlike the salmon, make their way with
considerable haste to the sea.
The shad is caught in drift and seine nets in the
I)elaware, Hudson, and other rivers, and in these lo-
calities is eaten fresh, its flesh being of delicious
flavor, though the numerous small bones are a detri-
ment. The fishery is of considerable importance in
the rivers of the British Provinces, where the bulk
of the catch is salted. In most of the coast rivers
of the United States it is also important, though
the shad has been driven from some, and is greatly
diminished in most others by injudicious damming
and overfishing. Thus, from being a food-staple,
it has become to some degree a luxury, and alarm is
entertained lest this important fish may suffer the
fate of the Atlantic salmon. Its spawning habits,
the vigor of the young, and their quick descent to
the sea have enabled the shad to outlive the condi-
tions which have deprived us of the salmon. Efforts
were made, therefore, to assist nature in the preser-
vation of this valuable food-supply: First, by the con-
struction of fish-ways over dams, by the aid of which
the shad might ascend to their native spawning
grounds, and the removal of the fish-wears, which
destroy the young shad by the thousands. Secondly,
efforts were made to restrict fishing by regulations,
in which the size of the net meshes is prescribed, so
that young fishes may escape ; Sunday fishing is
prohibited, leaving the fish free to make their run
on that day; and a day is fixed on which the fishing
season must end—this being June 10 on the Del-
a Ware.
But both the natural preservatives and these at-
tempts to assist nature have proved of little avail
against persistent overfishing, stimulated by com-
mercial greed.
In the lower reaches of our rivers, which are still
accessible to the shad, the restricted spawning
grounds are industriously and assiduously swept
with drift net and seine, and innumerable tyke nets
and pounds effectually bar all approaches, so that
natural reproduction is in a great measure imprac-
ticable even for the shad that find their way into the
rivers and to the vicinity of their spawning grounds.
More serious than all, however, has been the trans-
fer of the shad fisheries to the estuaries of the riv-
ers, and the substitution of the pound net for gill net
and seine. In consequence of this change in the
location of the fishing grounds the larger proportion
of the shad captured are now taken in Salt or brack-
ish water, in which matural reproduction cannot be
accomplished. Indeed, so small is the proportion of
the seasonable run of shad which succeed in making
their way into and up our rivers and reaching their
spawning grounds, that natural reproduction has
ceased to be a material factor in influencing the con-
ditions affecting our shad fisheries.
Resort has therefore been had, finally, to artificial
shad-culture, planting the streams with multitudes of
fry and young shad. This has been the work chiefly
of the U. S. Fish Commission. In 1875 it began
operations with a view to introducing shad in those
river basins in which that species was not indige-
nous. But the census of 1880 and other investiga-
tions having proved that the shad fisheries of the
Atlantic coast rivers were rapidly declining, the
commissioners advanced to the further work of arti-
ficial propagation and distribution of young shad in
those very rivers. They undertook to rescue from
waste the eggs taken from the shad captured by the
fishermen, to impregnate, hatch, and return these to
their native waters. The conditions were shown to
be highly unfavorable, but the commission attacked
the problem resolutely, and the remarkable results
in 1885 and succeeding years are shown in the fol-
lowing table :
Catch
Y in salt and Catch in Total
€8).I. brackish the rivers. catch.
waters.
1880. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,549,544 1,591,424 4,140,968
1885. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,267,497 1,906,434 5,172,931
1886. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,098,768 2,485,000 5,584,368
1887. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,813,744 2,901,661 6,715,405
|ISSS... ......... 5.010,101 || 9,650,373 || 7,600,474
As the average weight of shad is four pounds, this
table shows an addition to the food-supply, in 1888,
of 3,519,506 pounds over that of 1880, and the money
value of the increase is estimated at $704,101. The
increased production of this fishery is to be attrib-
uted to the piscicultural work of the United States
Fish Commission. The increased value of this
fishery is a measure of the economic value of this
work to the people of the country.
In addition to the white shad there is a second
species on our coast, known as the Hickory shad
(C. mediocris). This has been given several local
names, and is distinguished from the former by
having a row of spots on its side. It does not oc-
SHAMOKIN–
SHEBOYGAN. 483
cur in any considerable numbers in the rivers north
of New York, but is rather abundant in some of the
southern streams. It is lean, and of little value as
a food-fish, being ordinarily sold at about half the
rice of the white shad, (C. M.).
SHAMOKIN, a borough of Pennsylvania, in
Northumberland Co., is on a branch of the Philadel-
phia and Reading Railroad, W. of Ashland, and on
a branch of the Northern Central Railroad, 19 miles
S. E. of Sunbury. It has a national bank, 2 other
banks, 12 churches, a high school, and other schools.
It is a mining town, being in the anthracite coal re-
gion. It had in 1880 a population of 8184.
SHARON, a borough of Mercer Co., Pa., is on
the Shenango river, near the Ohio boundary, 21
miles N. W. of Newcastle and 70 miles N. N. W. of
Pittsburg. It is on the New York, Pennsylvania
and Ohio, the Erie and Pittsburg, and the Shenango
Valley Railroads. It has 2 national banks, 1 other
bank, 14 churches, 5 schools, 1 daily and 2 Weekly
newspapers. It is largely engaged in coal and iron
working, and has 3 rolling mills, steel works, chain
factory, boiler works, machine shops. There are
also planing mills, flouring mills, and soap Works.
It has water-works and gas-works. Natural gas is
largely used. Sharon was settled in 1815, and in-
corporated as a borough in 1843. Its property is
valued at $3,500,000; its public debt is $41,500, and
its yearly expenses are $37,000. Its population in
1880 Was 5684.
David Everett. In 1804 he was admitted to the bar,
and began practice in Boston, gradually, rising to
eminence. He was a member of the State legisla-
|ture from 1811 to 1815, and again in 1819, and of the
| convention for revising the laws of the State in 1820.
In 1821–22 he was State senator, and also in 1828–
30. In 1830, though never holding any previous
judicial position, he was made chief justice of the
supreme court of Massachusetts, holding the office
till his resignation in 1860. Here he acquired a rep-
utation as a jurist second only to that of Theophilus
| Parsons. His reported decisions are to be found in
the reports of Pickering, Metcalf, Cushing, and
Gray, constituting in all 50 volumes. He was an
overseer of Harvard College for 22 years, and re-
ceived the honorary degree of LL.D. from it in 1831, .
and from Brown University in 1850. Probably his
most important writing, apart from his decisions, is
the charter of the city of Boston, draughted by him
in 1822. He died in Boston, March 30, 1861.
SHAYS, DANIEL (1747–1825), from whom the re-
bellion in Massachusetts in 1786 takes its name, Was
born at Hopkinton in 1747. He was an ensign at
the battle of Bunker Hill, and afterward a captain.
At the close of the Revolutionary war the people of
western Massachusetts found themselves burdened
with debt and taxes, and laid the blame on the leg-
islature. They dermanded the removal of the Gen-
eral Court from Boston, the reduction of salaries of
officials, the relief of debtors, and the issue of paper
SHARSWOOD, GEORGE (1810–1883), jurist, was
born in Philadelphia, July 7, 1810. His grand-
father, by whom he was brought up, owing to the
early death of his father, had been a captain in the
Revolutionary army, and was active in local politics.
The grandson, after graduating at the University of
Pennsylvania in 1828, studied law with Joseph R.
Ingersoll, to whom he dedicated his treatise on
Professional Ethics (1854). In 1837 he served in the
State legislature and again in 1841–42. The report
money. Parties of armed men interrupted the ses-
sions of several county courts. Capt. Shays was
chosen as a leader, and in December, 1786, prevented
the courts from meeting at Worcester and Spring-
field, and then made an unsuccessful attempt to
capture the arsenal, Jan. 25, 1787. His men, poorly
clad, had already suffered severely from the intense
cold, and were thoroughly alarmed at the vigorous
measures taken against them by the State govern-
ment. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln surprised and dis-
made by him at this time as secretary of a commit- persed them at Petersham, and Shays fled, to, Ver-
tee of stockholders to examine the affairs of the U. mont. He was afterward pardoned, and finally
S. Bank may be found in Benton's Thirty Years' even pensioned for his services in the Revolution.
View (II., 370). His mastery of numerous branches He died at Sparta, N. Y.; Sept. 29, 1825.
of law was well displayed in his editions of various SHEA, JOHN GILMIARY, historian, was born in
English text-books, including Blackstone's Com- New York City, July 22, 1824. Educated at the
mentaries, and in the American Law Magazine, grammar school of Columbia College, he was ad-
which he conducted for three years. In 1845 he mitted to the bar, but has been chiefly engaged in
was nominated by Gov. Shunk associate-judge of literature. He spent six years in the Society of
the district court of Philadelphia, and soon became Jesus, and devoted much attention to the history of
president of the court. When the judiciary was Jesuit missions in America. His publications in-
made elective, in 1850, Judge Sharswood was nom-
inated unanimously in the conventions of five polit-
ical parties. After serving in the district court for
twenty-two years, he was in 1868 elected to the
State supreme court. He then resigned the pro-
fessorship of law in the University of Pennsylvania,
which he had held for eighteen years. When he
retired from the Supreme bench, at the close of his
term in 1883, he was honored with a public testi-
monial in which the highest tribute was paid to his
judicial ability. Throughout his career he had
maintained the Democratic view of strict construc-
tion of the Federal Constitution ; in particular, he
i clude Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi
Talley (1853); Catholic Missions among the Indian
Tribes (1854); Bibliography of American Catholic
Bibles (1859); Early Toyages up and down the Mis-
sissippi (1862). He edited several works relating to
colohial New York and to the American Indians.
From 1859 to 1865 he was editor of the Historical
Magazine, and he has since been connected with va-
rious journals and monthlies. To American Cath-
olic literature he has been a liberal contributor of
translations and editions of foreign works, as well as
original publications. Besides correcting and edit-
ing English Catholic Bibles, he issued a Bible Dic-
had denied the constitutionality of making green-
backs a legal tender. Besides his works already
mentioned, he published Lectures on Commercial
Law (1856) and Law Lectures (1869). His edition of
Blackstone's Commentaries is accepted as the standard
in America, and his annotations on other works were
republished in England. He died at Philadelphia,
May 28, 1883.
SHAW, LEMUEL (1781–1861), jurist, was born, Jan.
tionary (1873); Child's History of the United States
(3 vols., 1872–73); and various school text-books.
He contributed to this work the article on ROMAN
CATHOLIC CHURCH.
| SHEBOYGAN, a city of Wisconsin, seat of She-
boygan county, is on Lake Michigan at the mouth
of the Sheboygan river, 52 miles north of Milwaukee.
It is on the Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western,
and the Chicago and Northwestern Railroads. It
9, 1781, at Barnstable, Mass. ; graduated at Har- has a court-house, 2 hotels, German bank, 5 churches,
vard, 1800; served for a year as usher in the Frank- 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, two of which are
lin (now Brimmer) school, Boston ; was assistant German. There are 3 foundries, 3 planing mills,
editor on the Bostón Gazette, and studied law under and factories manufacturing chairs, toys, furniture,
484
SHEDD SHEEP.
and shoes. There are also tanneries and breweries. rious, timid, and defenceless, and has become thor-
Sheboygan has a good harbor, is lighted with gas, oughly adapted to life on level plains.
There
and has street cars, parks, and water-works.
is an artesian well 1700 feet deep, whose waters are
medicinal. The population is chiefly of German
Origin, and in 1880 was 7314, but is now estimated
to be twice as great.
SHEDD, WILLIAM GREENough THAYER, theologian,
Was born at Acton, Mass., June 21, 1820. He grad-
uated at the University of Vermont in 1839, and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1843. After a
brief pastorate in the Congregational church at
Brandon, Vt., he was made professor of English lit-
erature in the University of Vermont in 1845.
Thence he passed in 1852 to Auburn Theological
Seminary as professor of sacred rhetoric, and in 1854
became professor of ecclesiastical history in Andover
Seminary. In 1862 he was called to be associate
pastor with Rev. Dr. Gardiner Spring in the Brick
Presbyterian Church, New York City. In 1864 he
Was made professor of Biblical literature in Union
Theological Seminary, and in 1874 became professor
of systematic theology there. He edited Coleridge's
Works (1853) and Augustine's Confessions (1860);
translated some works from the German, published
Discourses and Essays (1862), Lectures on the Philos-
ophy of History (1862), and a valuable History of
Christian Doctrine (2 vols., 1864). Dr. Shedd edited
the Gospel of Mark, in Dr. Schaff's edition of Lange's
Commentary, and has since published Homiletics and
Pastoral Theology (1867) and Sermons to the Natural
Man (1871); Commentary on the Epistle to the Rom-
ans (1879); Sermons to the Spiritual Man (1884); Doc-
trine of Endless Punishment (1885); Dogmatic Theol-
ogy (2 vols., 1888).
SHEEP. OvIs, the genus of the sheep, is by some
authors considered to represent a group
*...* x: of three or four genera, embracing in
*m. #. ). * all, according to a recent systematist,
about 21 species. The more general
opinion, however, makes but one genus and a much
Smaller number of species. In the wild state both
sexes of the sheep are horned. The horn is large,
angular in form, and spirally twisted, curving in such
a manner that the tips point forward. It is trans-
versely striated or ridged, and in some species is
very large. The hair is of two kinds, a woolly inter-
nal coat, and an exterior covering of closer and
harsher hair.
In its native state the sheep closely approaches the
goat in energy and activity. It is of larger size and
equal muscular power, and is, like it, a mountain
dweller, leaping from rock to rock with the greatest
swiftness and agility. Of the wild species the most
important are the Musmon (O. musimon) of Euro-
pean Turkey and the mountainous islands of the
Mediterranean ; the Argali (O. ammon) of the moun-
tains of Central Asia ; the African bearded sheep
(O. tragelaphus) of Egypt and Barbary; and the
Rocky Mountain sheep of America (O. montana).
The latter species, called Big Horn, is found from the
hills of western Nebraska to the coast ranges of the
Pacific, and from the Rio Grande far to the north.
It is said to range to 68° north latitude, but is not
found in the hills of the Hudson Bay region. In the
mountains of its range it occurs in flocks of from
three to thirty, and is remarkably agile and daring.
IFrom which of these species the domestic sheep
(O. aries) originated is not known. It has been so
long domesticated that no close resemblance to any
wild species remains. It differs from the wild sheep
in its more massive trunk, slender legs, and less
graceful aspect of body, and in the great predomin-
ance of its woolly over its hairy covering. The
horns have varied or disappeared, the ears and tail
lengthened, and other modifications taken place.
In a state of captivity the sheep is markedly grega-
In these re-
spects it has changed much more than the goat.
The domestic sheep has deviated into a great
variety of breeds, several of them with extraordinary
peculiarities. One of these is the fat-tailed sheep of
southwestern Asia, in which the tail is so loaded with
fat as to sometimes weigh twenty pounds; another,
the tailless fat-rumped sheep of the deserts of Tar-
tary 3 and a third, the Fezzan sheep of Africa, distin-
guished by its arched forehead, long ears, and mane
on neck and shoulders. In the modern breeding of
the sheep two distinct purposés have been kept in
View, the production of wool of superior quality and
quantity and that of choice and fine-flavored meat.
No breeder has yet succeeded in uniting these
qualities perfectly in a single breed, and wool and
mutton producers are obliged to pursue opposite
courses. The growth of fine mutton has long been
closely attended to in England, and several of the
breeds of that island, notably the Southdown, are
celebrated throughout the world for their excellence
in this particular. Of wool-producing sheep the
best of all known breeds is the Merino, which in re-
cent times has been brought to great perfection in
Spain. It is probably the descendant of an ancient
breed of western Asia, from which all the fine-wooled
sheep have been derived. From Spain the Merino
has been introduced into France, Saxony, and other
countries of northern Europe, where it has been
crossed with the native sheep. It has also been
largely imported into the United States, and forms
the basis of much the greater percentage of our
sheep. The Merino differs from the English sheep
in having wool on the forehead and cheeks. It is a
large breed, with heavy horns, and fine, long, soft
wool, curling in close tendrils, and so oily naturally
that the dust adheres to it and gives it a dingy ap-
pearance, though it is perfectly white when washed.
The average weight of the fleece is four to five
pounds. Iłecent breeding, however, has much in-
proved the qualities of the Merino, and the wool
clip of American sheep sometimes reaches a much
greater average than this.
The first sheep brought into the present limits
of the United States were landed at Jamestown in
1609. Sheep were introduced into New York and
Massachusetts albout 1625. These increased into
considerable flocks, and America was well provided
with sheep in 1801, the year in which the first Mer-
inos were brought to this country. These were
imported by Mr. Seth Adams to Dorchester, Mass.
He afterward took his flock to Ohio, where its de-
scendants were lost in cross breeding. In 1802
Col. David Humphreys brought from Spain to
Derby, Conn., 90 choice Merinos. Of this flock
one ewe was bought by David Atwood, of Wer-
mont, and became the basis of the famous Atwood
flock, the finest flock of pure-blooded Merinos in
this country. Merino sheep were for a time highly
popular, and were imported in large numbers, more
than 15,000 being brought over in 1810 and 1811.
After the war they fell greatly in price and most of
the flocks were dispersed and lost, though they have
undoubtedly greatly benefited the sheep of the
United States by crossing with the older breeds.
The careful breeding of Merinos has mainly been
prosecuted in Vermont, where there are several cele-
brated flocks, while the yield of wool has greatly
increased. In Spain the best rams yield only from
6 to 8 lbs. In America the yield has increased until
20 lbs. and, in extreme cases, much beyond this is
obtained. The heaviest fleece yet cut from an
American Merino was 44 lbs. 4 oz. Such sheep,
however, generally lack vigor, and the forcing proc-
ess by which such yields are produced is not profit-
able. One unfavorable result of very high breeding
SHEEP. - 485
is to augment the constitutional lack of fertility of its stock from the prairie region. Throughout this
the Merinos. § whole western country, which has abundant pastu-
We have spoken particularly of the introduc- rage admirably adapted for sheep culture, the in-
tion of the Merino to America, from the fact that crease of sheep flocks within recent years has been
very great. In Texas the wool
clip increased from 7,000,000
lbs. in 1870 to 22,000,000 lbs.
in 1880, and the increase else-
where has been equally prom-
ising.
Of the English breeds in-
troduced into this country the
principal are the Southdown,
Leicester, and Cotswold. Of
these the Southdown is pre-
ferred by many to the Merino,
5 * : being one - third
§§ larger, hardier,
much more proli-
fic, and yielding
better mutton. Its
wool is large in
quantity and fair
in quality. The
Leicester breed
has a heavier fleece
and carcass than
American Merino Sheep. the Merino, but
needs more food.
this breed now forms the basis of the American Its wool is long staple, but, like English Wools gen-
sheep industry. In the words of a recent authority: erally, is deficient in felting properties and therefore
“England is a mutton, America a wool country; unsuitable for cloths. As a combing wool it stands
the sheep of the United States are 95 per cent. Me- first, and is used to manufacture the finest Worsteds.
rino.” Of English sheep there is only one breed, The Cotswold is also much esteemed, yielding excel;
the Southdown, whose wool is comparatively fine. lent mutton and fair wool. As a rule the fine-Wooled
On the other hand, the mutton of the mature Ameri- sheep, like the Merino, are less profitable as mutton
can Merino is often excellent, and occasionally ap- producers than the coarse-wooled, no satisfactory
proaches the Southdown in quality. On the Atlan- combination of excellence in mutton and fineness in
tic slope of the United States the Merino sheep has wool having yet been produced. Sheep generally
no pre-eminence, except in limited localities, as in produce finer wool in cold than in Warm countries,
Vermont. There is a greater proportion of the old though in the latter the yield is greater, probably
American stock, described by Youatt as a mongrel | from the greater abundance of nutritious food.
Southdown with Leicester and Cotswold. In most The principal breeds of sheep now raised in the
of the southern States there has been little careful United States are the (so-called) Natives, the Span-
breeding, the sheep being left to care for them- ish and the Saxon Merinos, the New Leicester or
selves. In the West the breeds are better defined | Bakewell, the Southdown, the Cotswold, the Cheviot,
and more improved. Much attention has been given and the Lincoln. The common sheep of Holland
to the breeding of the Merino in western Pennsyl- were early imported by the Dutch settlers of New
vania, West Virginia, and Ohio, and more recently York, but do not now exist as a distinct variety.
in Michigan and Wisconsin, in which States wool The broad-tailed sheep of Asia and Africa has been
predominates over mutton production. Less care several times imported from Persia, Tunis, Asia
has been given to the Merino in the prairie region, Minor, etc. The United States, on the other hand,
and there has been much cross breeding. The Eng- has done little in the way of producing distinctive
lish long-wooled sheep appear to do better in this breeds, perhaps from lack of efforts at selection.
region, they being less affected by its characteristic The miscalled Native is in no sense indigenous, but
disease of foot rot. In Texas and New Mexico, is the outcome of indiscriminate crossing of the ear-
among the most important of our sheep-raising dis- lier importations, mostly of English varieties. Two
tricts, the original sheep was the Mexican, a de- races of distinctive character have arisen, the Otter
scendant from the Chowrro of the Basque provinces of and the Smith's Island breeds, but no trace of them
Spain. This is a long, lank, light sheep, with little is now known to exist. The Otter made its appear-
and poor wool, but with the advantage of being very ance in Massachusetts in 1791. A lamb was born
hardy and prolific. The Merino was introduced into with longer body and shorter legs than usual, and
Texas in 1852, and has greatly increased in that State, as this promised to check the tendency to leap over
its constitutional defects being overcome by crossing fences, it was carefully bred from ; but the breed
with the Mexican stock. The sheep stock of Texas has been allowed to die out. ... *
is now said to be , Mexican, ; half-Mexican, and A very great variety of crosses have been made
the remainder half to pure Merino. In New Mexico between the Spanish, English, and Natives, this
the great bulk of the sheep are Mexican. Califor- having been practised to such an extent that few
nia, which is now one of the most important of our United States flocks are now of pure blood. This
sheep-raising States, began this industry in 1852. has not been wholly the result of carelessness, but
The sheep there are said to be 75 per cent, pure Me- was done in many cases advisedly for the purpose of
rino, but, having been grafted on the old Mexican or combining the advantages of separate breeds. And
Mission stock, are very hardy and prolific, while ex- even where efforts to preserve purity of blood have
cellent wool-bearers. The remainder of the Pacific been made, certain variations have arisen incident to
States and Territories have derived their sheep from a new country and new management. Thus the
California, their stock being mostly Merinos. Colo- American Merinos have diverged into varieties pre-
rado, an important sheep-raising State, has obtained senting marked differences from each other and from












486 SHELEY.
the original Spanish. These may be classed under
three heads. The first is a large, short-legged,
strong, and exceedingly hardy sheep, with heavy
fleece, ranging in quality from medium to fine, free
from hair in well-bred flocks, the wool being longish
on both back and belly, and exceedingly dense.
The yield of fleece is heavy, averaging from 8 to 12
lbs. The second is a smaller and less hardy variety,
the wool usually finer, and covered on its extremi-
rties with a black, pitchy gum. The fleece is about
One-fourth lighter than that of the above. The third
Variety is still smaller and less hardy, with lighter
but finer fleeces, which are free from gum. It
closely resembles in form and wool the Saxon Me-
rino, and may have some Saxon blood. The first
Variety is a larger and stronger sheep than the orig-
imal importation from Spain, and in well-selected
flocks yields much heavier fleeces and of much bet-
ter quality than those obtained in Spain. The
Merino, though native to a warm climate, becomes
readily acclimated to cold regions, and flourishes as
far north as Sweden without degeneration. It is
patient and docile, and of great longevity, retaining
its teeth and breeding 2 or 3 years longer than the
common sheep, and at least 6 years longer than the
improved English breeds.
What are known as the Saxon Merinos originated
from a flock of 200 Spanish sheep imported to Sax-
ony in 1765. They were bred with great care, and
improved over the original in quality of wool,
though hardiness and other important qualities have
been sacrificed by the German shepherds in their
too exclusive attention to wool product. There are
two distinct breeds of the Saxon, one with shorter
legs and stouter body than the other. The first
Saxons were imported to America in 1824, with the
exception of a small flock of 6 or 7 brought earlier.
Many were brought later. These have been mixed
with natives and Spanish Merinos, to the advantage
of their hardiness. The American Saxons yield a
fleece of 2 to 3 lbs. They are comparatively tender,
need regular and good food, and good shelter. They
resemble the Merinos in docility, longevity, and
lateness of maturity, and yield a fleece not so fine as
that of Saxony, but usually much finer than that of
the American Merino.
Of the English breeds the Leicester was intro-
duced into the United States about 1825. Its mut-
ton has deteriorated in quality from that of England,
being too fat, and the fat and lean too little mingled,
for the American taste. Its wool is not in much de-
mand here, from the dearth of worsted manufacturers
in America. It is comparatively short-lived and,
being a lowland sheep, does not stand our winters so
well as the Southdown, which is of upland origin,
and is quite hardy and healthy. . Like the Leicester,
it is short-lived. Of the broad-tailed sheep there
are some of pure blood within the United States,
but they are as yet of no industrial importance.
The celebrated Improved Kentucky breed was
formed by a general crossing of the Native, Merino,
and the English breeds, but is considered one of the
most permanent of American breeds, propagating
with the certainty of the average thoroughbred.
Crosses between the distinct varieties of Merinos
have been highly successful, and the American Me-
rino of to-day is the result of a fusion of several
Spanish flocks. The “Victor-Beall Delaine,” the
“Elacktop,” and the “Improved Saxony,” all ex-
cellent American breeds, are the result of crosses
between Spanish and Saxon Merinos. Similar
crosses of American with French Merinos have not
resulted advantageously in the eastern States, but
have proved successful in California. In Oregon
and California the American and Australian sheep
have been bred together, with very satisfactory re-
sults. It is said that the cross between a Merino
ram and a Southdown eve, and vice versa, yields the
best mutton known, with the exception of the little
Welsh mountain sheep. It is claimed to be supe-
rior to pure Southdown mutton.
In the far West the question of food-supply for
sheep is a very important one. Those vast regions
are widely adapted to pastoral pursuits, and seem
destined to become the future home of the American
Merino, but some system of shelter and artificial pro-
vision of food is necessary to guard the flock against
the occasional heavy snows. The prairie hay is
generally excellent, and the grass known as alfalfa
has proved well Suited to sheep pasture in Califor-
nia. The Bermuda grass, so common and dreaded
by the cotton planters of the South, has been found
to succeed well in the alkaline soil of the West, and
is admirable for sheep. Festuca, a large genus of
grasses, follows sheep and cattle everywhere ; F.
ovina, one of the best of sheep grasses, having fol-
lowed the sheep around the world. There are sev-
eral species of the bunch grass of the western plains
which are also excellent, and by a system of gather-
ing sufficient of these grasses to carry the flocks
over the dangerous periods of the winter the sheep
industry may be almost indefinitely extended in the
West. Sheep are excellent scavengers, and thrive
where most other animals would starve. They bite
the grass much closer than the other domestic ani-
mals, and are fond of plants which the latter will
not eat. They soon clear fields of weeds, briers,
and bushes, and by their droppings, which have ex-
cellent fertilizing properties, they aid greatly in pre-
paring the land for the plough. Where briers are
too thick and high they need to be burned ; yet this
does not deter the sheep, which crop down all the
young shoots which appear on such burned-over
ground, with an apparent preference, as if the ashes
gave a relish to their food. Their close cropping,
indeed, is fatal to certain species of grass, and in
sheep pastures it is necessary to select grasses which
will bear this. (See FoRAGE CROPs.) -
Sheep are subject to many diseases which inter-
fere seriously with their profitable raising. The
most troublesome of these is the foot rot. This
arises from the suppression of the peculiar glandu-
lar secretion which exudes between the toes of the
sheep. Moist ground promotes this suppression,
which is followed by dangerous inflammation. They
suffer also from insects, and particularly from a bot-
fly, whose larva is introduced into their lips and mos-
trils, and makes its way inward to vital regions. There
are other parasites and diseases which add greatly
to the cares and risks of the shepherd.
The number of sheep in the United States in
1880 was 42,192,074, of which 35,192,074 were on
farms, and 7,000,000 estimated on Tanches and
ranges. In 1888 the number was 43,544,755. The
wool clip of the former-named year was 240,681,751
lbs., of which the principal quantity came from
Ohio, California, and Michigan. The price of sheep
advanced steadily from 1879 to 1883, after which a
decline set in, the price in 1888 being $2.05, and the
total value of sheep, $89,276,026. Of this value
Ohio and California return over $10,000,000 each ;
Texas, nearly $7,000,000; New York and Michigan,
over $5,000,000; Oregon, nearly $5,000,000; and the
other States in rapidly diminishing wº )
C. M.
SHELBY, ISAAC (1750–1826), soldier, and governor
of Kentucky, was born near Hagerstown, Md., Dec.
11, 1750. His father, Evan Shelby, was of Welsh
descent and local prominence. In 1774 Isaac fought
in his father's command against the Indians at
Point Pleasant, Va. In the Revolutionary war he
served as captain, commissary, major, and finally
colonel, in Virginia and the Carolinas. . His most
noted exploit was his gathering a force of hardy
SHELTON.—SHENANDOAH WALLEY. 487
riflemen from the Watauga settlements, and leading the other streams of the region are the North river,
them across the mountains against the disciplined an affluent of the James, on which Lexingtºn stands;
Tories under Major Patrick Ferguson, whom he
completely defeated at King's Mountain, Oct. 7,
1780. This unexpected blow greatly revived the
patriot cause in the Southern States. In the next
year Shelby assisted Marion, and led 500 men to the
aid of Gen. Greene. He was then elected to the
North Carolina legislature, and received from that
body a vote of thanks and a sword. In 1788 he re-
moved to Kentucky, and took part in framing a con-
stitution for that State, on its separation from Vir-
ginia. He was chosen its first governor, 1792–96,
and was again called to this post in 1812, when the
second war with Great Britain was declared. He
led a force of 4000 to Gen. Harrison's army, and
fought at the battle of the Thames. His term as
governor expired in 1816, and he was invited by
Pres. Monroe to become secretary of war, but de-
clined on account of his age. Yet in 1818 he was
joined with Gen. Jackson in making a treaty with
the Chickasaw Indians. He died at Traveller's
Rest, Lincoln Co., Ky., July 18, 1826.
SHELTON, FREDERICK WILLIAM, clergyman and
author, was born at Jamaica, L. I., in 1814. The
son of a physician, he graduated at Princeton in
1834, and employed his pen in writing for the
Knickerbocker Magazine. His rhymed satire, The
Trollopiad; or, Travelling Gentlemen in America, was
published anonymously in 1837. After being or-
dained in the Episcopal Church, in 1847, Shelton
ministered to parishes at Huntington, L. I., Fish-
kill, N. Y., and Montpelier, Vt. He died at Car-
thage Landing, N. Y., June 20, 1881. His books,
The Rector of St. Bardolph's (1852), Up the River
(1853), and Peeps from a Belfry (1855), exhibit his
experiences and reflections as a rural clergyman.
His Salander and the Dragon (1850) and Crystalline
(1854) are fairy tales with a moral.
SHENANDOAH, a borough of Schuylkill Co., Pa.,
is on the Lehigh Valley, and the Philadelphia and
Reading Railroads, 13 miles N. of Pottsville. It has
i
a national bank, 12 churches, several schools, 2 daily
and 3 weekly newspapers, and a foundry. The busi-
ness is almost exclusively mining and shipping anthra-
cite coal. (See ANTHRACTTE under CoAL.) The col-
lieries in the vicinity produce to the value of $2,500,-
000 yearly. Shenandoah was settled in 1852, and
incorporated in 1866. The inhabitants are chiefly of
foreign birth. The borough has gas and water-
works. Its property is assessed at $1,600,000 ; its
public debt is $75,000, and its yearly expenses are
$40,000.
SHENANDOAH WALLEY owes its historic inter-
est to the American civil war, and is here described
with reference to the campaigns which have rendered
it memorable. It takes its name from the Shenan-
doah river, which is formed by the junction of two
forks—the North and South—at Front Royal. These
forks are separated for 40 miles by the isolated range
of the Massanutten. The South Fork, or the Shem-
andoah proper, rises by three branches a little south
of the parallel of 38° N. lat. From Front Royal the
river skirts the western base of the Blue Ridge, till
it falls into the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, after a
total course of 170 miles. The valley between the
Blue Ridge, on the east, and the North mountain, on
the West, has an average breadth of 20 miles, and
stretches from the Potomac beyond the sources of
the Shenandoah, and into North Carolina. Its di-
rection is from N. E. to S. W. The valley divides
itself, by a line drawn through Lexington, into two
parts—the southern, mountainous, rugged, and unfit
for military movements; and the northern, rich and
fertile, affording an army a natural avenue of com-
munication, while furnishing an inexhaustible gran-
ary for its commissariat. Besides the Shenandoah,
the Kanawha, whose main branch, New river, flows
N. W. across the valley from its S. E. angle, until, it
enters West Virginia; Cedar creek, falling into the
South Fork at Strasburg; and the Opequan, a small
stream, rising in Frederick Co. and flowing N. into
the Potomac near Williamsport. & ºr -
When Virginia seceded, in May, 1861, the civil war
had already begun. From its proximity to the na–
tional capital, this State was plainly indicated as the
field of the struggle for the nation's life. The cap-
ital of the Southern Confederacy was promptly trans-
ferred to Richmond, and the ground between the
two capitals became, for four years, the scene of the
most momentous American conflicts. The valleys of
Virginia, as grand military avenues, were the favor-
ite field of strategy for both parties, and their rail-
roads were a main object of attack and defence. The
main Union line was the Baltimore and Ohio, trav-
ersing the north of the valley. The Confederate
lines were the Virginia Central, whose chief valley
station was Staunton, and the East Tennessee, which
connected Lynchburg and Knoxville. Military op-
erations were facilitated by the fine roads connecting
the towns, while the gaps of the Blue Ridge gave ac-
cess to East Virginia. Through one of these gaps—
Manassas—there was a railroad, but it was broken
up early in the war. The valley was the scene of
the operations of the Confederate generals, Jackson,
Ewell, Stuart, and Early, on a large scale; and of
the romantic enterprises of Ashby, Mosby, Imboden,
and Gilmor. -
The initial campaign of the war in 1861 turned on
the effective use made of the military advantages of
the valley by the Confederate general, J. E. John-
ston. Gen. Robert Patterson had crossed the Poto-
mac to watch his movements and prevent his joining
Beauregard, whose army was threatened by McDow-
ell's advance from Washington. But Johnston, with
the main body of his “Army of the Shenandoah,”
slipped through Ashby's Gap and took the railroad
to Manassas. This re-enforcement caused the defeat
of the Union army on July 21. (See BULL RUN.)
At the beginning of the campaign of 1862 Gen.
Johnston, still in command, sustained a check from
Gen. James Shields; but for this he indemnified
laimself a few months later when he fell on Shields
at Port Republic, defeated Fremont at Cross Keys,
captured the garrison of Front Royal, drove Gen.
N. P. Banks across the Potomac, and, by alarming
Washington, prevented the intended junction of
McDowell's army with McClellan's, and thus, in the
judgment of some military critics, averted the capt-
ure of Richmond at that time. It was there in the
Shenandoah Valley that Gen. “Stonewall ” Jackson
began to practise in his unique and masterly way
the game of war. From it he hastened to turn
McClellan's right in his Peninsular campaign. At
the close of that campaign the command of the Con-
federate army had devolved on Gen. Robert E.
Lee.
When the safety of Richmond was assured by the
withdrawal of the Union army from its vicinity
and the defeat of Gen. Pope at the second battle of
Bull Run (q.v.), Gen. Lee determined in the autumn
of 1862 on a counter movement—the invasion of the
North, and transfer of the conflict to Maryland and
Pennsylvania. The Shenandoah Valley was his line
of communication, and at Harper's Ferry he captured
11,000 men, 73 guns, and 13,000 stands of arms.
He was repulsed, however, at Antietam (see SouTH
sº and was obliged to seek rest again in the
valley.
In the next year, after defeating Hooker at Chan-
cellorsville (q.v.), Lee used the valley again as his
route for the invasion of Pennsylvania. In it Gen.
488
SHENANDOAH VALLEY.
Ewell captured several thousand Union troops and
over 20 guns from Milroy. After the defeat of his
army at Gettysburg Lee fell back again by the way
of the valley and posted his forces along the Ope-
Quan. The importance of the Shenandoah Valley
had now been thoroughly tested and proved. Yet
the events of the succeeding campaigns gave it still
greater prominence. Not until this granary and
highway could be wrested from the Confederate
Control could the Union designs against Richmond
be brought to a successful close.
In March, 1864, Gen. U. S. Grant was promoted
to the command of the entire Union army. When
he crossed the Rapidan, in the beginning of May,
three movements were in progress in the Shenan.
doah Valley—those of Crook and Averell down the
Kanawha from West Virginia, and that of Sigel up
the Shenandoah, the common objects being the
breaking up of the Virginia Central and Tennessee
railroads and the destruction of the works at Wythe-
Ville and Saltville, and then marching their united
troops under Sigel to Lynchburg in support of
Grant. The scheme miscarried in its main object.
Sigel, in particular, was defeated by Breckenridge
at New Market, and the command of the Depart-
ment of West Virginia was transferred from him to
Gen. Hunter. Crook and Averill returned to West
Virginia.
The second attempt to effect these ends was
made in the end of May under Gen. David Hunter.
Moving up the valley he, on June 5th, encountered
the enemy under Jones at Piedmont, and drove it
back to Staunton with loss of guns and 1500 pris-
oners. , Jones was killed. On Crook's approach
from the west the remainder of Jones' force, aban-
doning Staunton, fled, pursued by Hunter to
Waynesboro’. At Staunton, the factories and stores
were destroyed, the railroad broken, and a junc-
tion effected with Crook and Averell. On June
10th Hunter's consolidated force, 18,000 strong, set
out to follow the enemy farther up the valley. On
reaching the New river, opposite Lexington, he
found the bluff on the farther bank occupied by the
enemy under McCausland. The resistance was ea-
sily overcome, and Lexington occupied. Here con-
siderable damage was inflicted, and a statue of Wash-
ington carried off.
Hunter now directed his march on Lynchburg,
and on the 17th touched the enemy's first line within
six miles of the town. Here he encountered Breck-
enridge, while on the same day Early, whom Sheridan
should have detained, arrived at Lynchburg from
Charlottesville. Severe fighting occurred on the 18th,
but Hunter found the enemy so strong that, 9 P. M.,
he commenced a retreat which was to continue day af-
ter day, with Early in close pursuit, till, on the 27th,
his exhausted and half-famished soldiery found sup-
plies and rest, within a day's march of Ganley Bridge,
W. Va. Next day Hunter retired to Loup Creek,
near Ganley Bridge, and the retreat was at an end.
Hunter's retreat to West Virginia left the valley
open to the enemy. Early seized the opportunity to
make his famous raid into Maryland and advance on
Washington. On July 11th he stood within view of the
capital, but, re-enforcements arriving from all quar-
ters, he had no alternative but to withdraw, followed
on his retreat by Wright.
tered the valley through Snicker's and Ashby's Gaps.
At Snicker's Ferry he crossed the Shenandoah, and,
repulsing Crook in his endeavor to cross in pursuit,
he moved leisurely on to Winchester and finally to
Strasburg. But in the meantime Hunter's forces
from the west were coming on the scene. On the
19th Averell moved from Martinsburg, and on the
20th, encountering Ramseur three miles north of
On the 14th he re-en-
Winchester, put him to flight with loss of guns and
prisoners. At Kernstown, on the 22d, Averell was
joined by Crook, who took the command. Next day
they were attacked and defeated by Early, Crook re-
treating into Maryland.
Early was now again master of the valley, and be-
gan afresh to destroy the B. & O. Railroad at Mar-
tinsburg. Grant, perceiving that the valley, domi-
nated by Early, would be a permanent menace to the
North, determined to accumulate an overwhelming
force against him. With this view a “Middle Mili-
tary Division ” was created, and Gen. Phil. H. Sher-
idan, on August 7th, named to the command of it. His
army—afterward to be known as “The Army of the
Shenandoah "-consisted of the 6th and 19th Army
Corps, Crook's infantry, Torbert's division of cavalry,
and four brigades of Hunter's cavalry—amounting
in all to 45,000 men, with 22 batteries of 6 guns
each. Some of these, however, had yet to report.
Sheridan at once selected a strong position (to
Which he repeatedly returned) stretching from Clif-
ton to Berryville, near the line of the Harper's Ferry
and Winchester Railroad. Opequan Creek ran along
its front on the east. Early stood in the vicinity of
Bunker Hill, to the northwest of the Union lines.
Observing, on the 10th, that Sheridan was in move-
ment to interpose between him and Winchester, he
moved rapidly southward, and covered that town.
Next day, in order to be nearer the re-enforcements
that he knew to be approaching him from Lee, he
moved farther south, through Strasburg, and on the
12th took up a strong position on Fisher's Hill, two
miles to the south of Strasburg. Sheridan followed
him as far as Cedar Creek, and considerable fighting
took place. At Fisher's Hill Early was joined by
Gen. Anderson, bringing with him Kershaw's infan-
try, Fitz Lee's cavalry, and Cutshaw's artillery, and
also by McCausland's infantry, whereby his force
was brought close up to 40,000 men, with 14 batter-
ies of 6 guns each. Sheridan, now considering the
enemy too strong to be assaulted in such a position,
retired on the 17th by way of Winchester to the po-
sition whence he had moved a week previously.
Here he was re-enforced through Snicker's Gap, and
Averell had reported at Martinsburg and Duffie at
Charlestown. To impede pursuit Sheridan destroyed
all the crops and provisions south of Winchester, and
drove off all the cattle. On the 19th Early moved
his forces to Bunker Hill, and on the 21st he and
Anderson determined to assault Sheridan, whose
main force now lay near Charlestown. The Opequan
was easily crossed, and a sharp conflict ensued,
which resulted in Sheridan moving back to a posi-
tion before Halltown, the strongest in the valley.
After delaying three days before the Halltown lines,
Early, leaving Anderson and Cutshaw to watch these
in front, moved north to Shepherdstown, repeated
conflicts with Torbert's cavalry taking place on the
way. Discovering here that it was as impossible to
effect anything against Sheridan on his flank as on
his front, he withdrew across the Opequan to his
old position at Bunker Hill and Winchester, while,
on Sept. 3d, Sheridan returned to his familiar Clif-
ton-Berryville lines. Meanwhile Lee had recalled
Anderson to himself, and on the same day that Sher-
idan made his movement he started for Berryville,
to cross the Blue Ridge on his way to Richmond.
The consequence was he came into collision with the
Eighth Corps, just going into camp. After a stôut
fight Anderson returned to Winchester, to take, later,
a more southerly route. For ten days after this there
was constant manoeuvring and skirmishing along
the Opequan, Gen. McIntosh on the 13th capturing
the Eighth South Carolina Infantry. Nothing deci-
sive, however, was effected, and on the 14th Ander-
son, with Kershaw and Cutshaw, left to join Lee.
Sheridan saw that the moment he had waited for
had come, and proceeded at once to seize it. Early
was not only weakened by Anderson's and Kershaw's
SHENANDOAH WALLEY. 489
withdrawal, but he further depleted his ranks by struction was thoroughly carried out and the whole
sending a large section of his army to Martinsburg. region, which, as far up as Staunton, had abounded
Thus on the eve of a day destined to witness a great in food and forage and enabled Early's army to sub-
and decisive battle, the Confederate forces, instead i sist, became desolate. * &
of being concentrated, were strung along the pike. But this very want of supplies in the upper val-
The centre of the position was Bunker Hill, while iſley, as well as Early's increased strength, determined
Winchester was strongly held by Ramseur, and there Sheridan to retire down the valley, laying waste the
the fighting was most severe. By a rapid advance region through which he passed so as to make it un-
along the Winchester pike Sheridan saw that he tenable by, and unprofitable to, the enemy. He
could gain the rear of the Bunker Hill position. writes from Woodstock, on Oct. 7th :, “I have de-
The 6th and 19th Corps began to move at 3 o'clock, stroyed over 2000 barns and 70 mills filled with
morning, followed in three hours by Crook, who wheat and flour.” He continued his devastating
joined the main column at the crossing of the Ope- course down the valley, closely followed by the Con-
quan. The enemy resisted the Union advance Ob-
federate cavalry under Rosser, with the infantry
stinately, and near mid-day its left was so seriously farther in the rear. Skirmishing between Rosser
shaken that the whole attack felt the effect. But by and Torbert, covering the Union rear, was almost con-
the advance of Russell's division the line was re- |tinuous. On Oct. 9th, as the head of the Union
established, and the struggle renewed. At length
the Confederates began to give way, and as day
ended Early's forces broke through Winchester in
full retreat. The conflict was a bloody one. The
Union loss was from 4900 to 5000; Early's was from
3900 to 4000, and of his casualties 2000 were prison-
ers. By promptly recognizing his defeat, Early was
enabled to save his trains and stores, but he left be-
hind him as trophies five pieces of artillery and nine
battle-flags. The fight had been a long and hard
One, and there was no attempt at infantry pursuit.
The cavalry followed up the pike only to Kernstown,
where Ramseur covered the retreat, which, under
the shelter of darkness, was continued toward
Strasburg. Such was the Battle of Opequan, of
which the moral effect in the North was all the
greater that, hitherto, it had heard of nothing save
discomfiture within the valley, so that it had come
to be known as “The Valley of Humiliation.”
Next day Early continued his retreat to his old
position at Fisher's Hill. Here the valley, through
the interposition of the Massanutten, narrows from
20 miles to four, so that the hill offers a strong de-
fensive position—the first that a force advancing
from Winchester meets with. At daylight on the
20th Sheridan set forth up the pike in pursuit, and
during the afternoon the main body of his army
crossed Cedar Creek and went into position on the
heights fronting Strasburg. By evening the north-
ern part of that city was occupied by Union pickets,
and the southern by Confederate. The 21st was
spent by Sheridan in positioning his infantry, his
purpose being to repeat the tactics of the Opequan
by again turning the enemy's left. On the 22d the
assault was delivered just before sunset. Crook, who
had been all day moving toward and along Little
North Mountain, under cover of the woods, till he
had gained the Confederates' flank and rear, rushed
across the intervening space, and before they could
recover their surprise was over their intrenchments.
The other divisions joined in with Crook and took
up the charge. Sheridan and his staff were every-
where, shouting : “Go on ; don't stop ; go on.” The
column of infantry was entering Strasburg, move-
ments in the rear led Torbert to despatch Custer and
Merritt to attack Rosser. The Confederate horse-
men yielded to the onset, and a stampede ensued to
7 miles south of Fisher's Hill, their loss amounting
to 330 men with eleven pieces of artillery. Torbert
characterized this engagement—the battle of Tom's
Run, as it was called—as, “among the long list of
the cavalry's victories, the most brilliant one of
them all.” Sheridan then continued to fall back as
far as Cedar Creek, fixing his camp on the left bank
of the stream just above its junction with the North
Fork. While in position here, on Oct. 19th, his
force was suddenly attacked before daybreak, the
enemy's advance being further concealed by a dense
fog. Bewildered by the unexpectedness and vigor
of the onset, the left flank of the Eighth Corps was
turned and the whole army driven back for miles,
with the loss of 24 pieces of artillery and not less
than 1300 prisoners. And now occurred the most
dramatic incident in the annals of the valley. Sheri-
dan had been absent on business in Washington, and
the morning of the 19th found him in Winchester
on his return. An officer reported sounds of artil-
lery. Mounting his horse, he rode through Win-
chester, and then the noise of guns put a battle be-
yond question, while within a half-mile of the town
he met men and trains streaming from the field.
Realizing the true condition of affairs, he dashed up
the pike With an escort of 20 men, and on reaching
the army, 114 miles from Winchester, he was hailed
“With a tempest of joy.” “I hastened from Win-
chester,” he writes to Grant at 10 P.M., “and found
the armies between Middletown and Newtown, hav-
ing been driven back four miles. I here took the
affair in hand, and quickly united the corps—formed
a compact line of battle just in time to repulse an
attack of the enemy.” At 4 o'clock Sheridan ordered
an advance, and the whole Union line responded.
His onset was irresistible. Division after division of
the Confederates gave way, and the repulse became
a rout than which none so complete had been seen
since the day of Bull Run. The 24 guns lost in the
Whole. Confederate line broke from the trenches, morning were retaken, and 24 Confederate pieces
and Fisher's Hill was carried, with the additional Con- captured. Ambulances, caissons, and a number of
federate loss of 6 guns and 1235 men, of whom 1000 battle-flags were among the spoil, the only trophies
Were prisoners. Early fled in disorder, and Sheridan retained by Early being 1429 prisoners whom he had
pushed after him the same evening as far as Wood- despatched toward Richmond. But this victory
stock. Early made a halt at Port Jackson, but, be- plucked, as it were, out of defeat, was purchased at a
ing attacked by Averell's cavalry on the 23d, he re- great price. The Union loss in killed, wounded, and
tº eated agross the North Fork to Reede's Hill near missing summed up to no less than 5764. Early’s
New Market, and thence to Brown's Gap, where he loss was less—about 3100—of whom over 1000 were
Was rejoined by the cavalry of Lomax and Fitz Lee, as prisoners. The pursuit was kept up by the Union
Well as by Kershaw. Rosser joined a few days later. cavalry to Mount Jackson, about half-way between
Here his retreat came to a close. Edenburg and New Market. tly
Sheridan, with his main force, followed as far as Cedar Creek constituted the crown of Sheridan's
Harrisonburg. His cavalry he sent on under Torbert campaign, for, with the exception of a few Compar-
as far as Staunton and Waynesboro’, with instruc- atively unimportant affairs, this closed operations
tions to burn barns, forage, mills, and whatever for the Year, Gen. Early's force took up a position
might §: º to the Confederacy. This in- farther up the valley, while Gen. Sheridan's 8. IIMY
OL. IV.-2 F
490
SHEPARD-SHERIDAN.
Was in detachments widely scattered. Congress a
few months after the battle passed a resolution tend-
ering its thanks to Sheridan and his troops for the
gallantry, skill, and courage displayed in the brilliant
series of victories achieved in the valley. The Presi-
dent also thanked him by letter, in the name of the
nation, and a few weeks later appointed him a major-
general in the army.
Throughout his campaign. Sheridan had been
much annoyed by the operations of the guerilla
leader Mosby, whose headquarters were to the east
of the Blue Ridge in Loudon county. Toward the
end of November, by way of retaliation, he sent a
division of cavalry into the county to “consume and
destroy all forage and subsistence, burn all barns
and mills and their contents, and drive off all stock.”
The commission was executed with ruthless severity.
With the coming of spring, movements in the
Valley were renewed. On Feb. 27, 1865, Sheridan
moved up the river from Winchester at the head of
10,000 Sabres, his orders being to destroy the Cen-
tral Railroad and the James River Canal, capture
Lynchburg, and then join Sherman or return to
Winchester. Early was found posted on a ridge
west of Waynesboro’, with two brigades of infantry, a
battalion of 6 guns, and Rosser's cavalry. The posi-
tion was carried in an instant. All Early's wagons,
stores, seventeen flags, and eleven guns (including
five found in the town), with 1600 prisoners, fell into
the victor's hands. Early and the other Confeder-
ate generals fled toward Richmond; Sheridan re-
turned to Winchester.
The victory at Waynesboro’ left him complete
master of the valley. His lieutenants now set about
the destruction of the Central Railroad and the ca-
nal. This accomplished, the Valley War was at an
end. Early was with Lee, and on March 27th Sher-
idan joined Grant before Petersburg.
SHEPARD, CHARLEs UPHAM (1804–1886), physi-
cist, was born at Little Compton, R. I., June 29,
1804; graduated at Amherst College in 1824; studied
botany and mineralogy at Harvard under Nuttall,
and subsequently taught these branches at Boston.
For two years he was Prof. Silliman's assistant in the
laboratory of Yale College, and was for one year in
charge of the Brewster Institute at New Haven for
diffusing a knowledge of science through popular
lectures. In the winter of 1832–33 he was employed
on a government commission to investigate the cult-
ure of the sugar-cane and the manufacture of sugar
in the Southern States, the results being embodied
in Prof. Silliman's Report to the Secretary of the
Treasury in 1835. From 1830 to 1847 he was lect-
urer on natural history at Yale, and was associated
with Dr. J. G. Percival, in 1835, in the State geo-
logical survey of Connecticut. From 1845 to 1852
he was professor of chemistry and natural history at
Amherst, and on the chair being divided in the lat-
ter year, was continued as lecturer on natural his-
tory till 1877, when he was made professor emeritus.
From 1834 till the outbreak of war, in 1861 he filled
the chemical chair in the college of Charleston, S. C.,
and in 1865 resumed its duties for a few years. To
him is due the discovery of the rich deposits of
phosphate of lime near Charleston, which have
proved of great value as fertilizers. Prof. Shepard
formed at Amherst the finest collection of meteorites
and minerals in the country, which was purchased
in 1877 by the college, but partially destroyed by
fire in 1880. He was the author of a Treatise on
Mineralogy (1832; 3d ed., 1855) and a Report on the
Geology of Connecticut (1855), as well as of numerous
papers, appearing chiefly in the “ American Journal
of Science.” The degree of LL.D. was conferred
on him by Amherst in 1857, and he was member of
many scientific societies, home and foreign. He
died at Charleston, S. C., May 1, 1886.
His son, CHARLEs UPHAM SHEPARD, JR., was born at
New Haven, Oct. 4, 1842; was prepared for college
at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. ; graduated at
Yale, 1863, and at Göttingen, in medicine, 1867. On
his return to the United States he was appointed to
the chair of chemistry in Charleston, S. C., which
he held till 1883, since which time he has been en-
gaged as an analytical chemist, largely in develop-
ing the chemical resources of South Carolina as re-
lating to agriculture, first disclosed by his father.
In 1887 he presented to Amherst a second cabinet
of minerals left by his father, while his own cabinet
of meteorites is deposited in the National Museum
at Washington.
SHEPLEY, GEORGE FosTER (1819–1878), judge
and general, was born at Saco, Maine, Jan. 1, 1819.
His father, ETHER SHEPLEY (1789–1877), had been
prominent in the political affairs of Maine from its
separation from Massachusetts, serving in the U. S.
senate, 1833–36, and afterward in the State Supreme
court, of which he was chief justice from 1848 to
1855. The son graduated at Dartmouth College in
1837, studied law at Harvard, and began practice at
Bangor. He removed to Portland in 1844, and was
U. S. district attorney from 1853 to 1861. He had
been delegate to the National Democratic Con-
vention in 1860, but on the outbreak of the civil
war he was commissioned colonel of the Twelfth
Maine Volunteers, and took part in the expedi-
tion against New Orleans. In the capture of that
city he led a brigade, and was afterward military
commandant. His administration was character-
ized by judicious firmness, which preserved order
amid turbulent elements. In June, 1862, his rule
was extended over Louisiana ; when a loyal civil
government was established there, in 1864, and
Gen. Butler's army went to Virginia, Gen. Shep-
ley was transferred to the command of the mili-
tary district of Eastern Virginia. On the capture
of Richmond, he was appointed its military gover-
nor. He resigned from the army in July, 1865, and
in 1869 was appointed U. S. circuit judge for Maine,
which office he held till his death at Portland, July
20, 1878.
SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY (1831–1888), by mili-
tary ability eminently deserved the high rank to
which he attained—General in the United States
Army, a rank previously held only by U. S. Grant
and W. T. Sherman. In the last year of Sheridan's
life a curious controversy arose as to the place of his
birth. His mother settled the matter by stating
that “Phil was born, March 6, 1831, in the little
frame house still standing in South Street, Somer-
set, Perry Co., Ohio.”
Philip was the second son of John and Mary Sher-
idan, who emigrated from County Cavan, Ireland, in
1828, and who, after residing a short time in Albany,
drifted to the village of Somerset in 1829. Here the
father found employment in road-making, bettering
himself till he eventually was able to take contracts.
Sheridan had two brothers, of whom the younger,
Col. Michael V. Sheridan, was, in his later years,
on his staff. Philip spent his boyhood Working
on the homestead and attending the village school,
on leaving which he got situations in the village
stores successively, each change bringing increased
pay. The rollicking Irish boy is yet spoken of in
Somerset as ever ready for a frolic or a fight, and yet
without an enemy in the place. From his early
years he was a lover of soldiers and used to organize
the village boys into a company, over whom he was a
strict disciplinarian but a good drill-master. He
was fond of reading biography and history, especially
histories of wars. The victories of Taylor and Scott
in 1846–47 probably stimulated his military instincts,
and a fortunate application to the congressman of
the district gained him in his 17th year a cadetship
SHERIDAN.
491
in West Point Military Academy, which institution
he entered in 1848. Here, for the first six months,
he had Henry W. Slocum (afterward major-general)
as a room-mate, who helped him materially with his
initiatory studies, especially in mathematics. Young
Sheridan should have graduated in 1852, but an un-
fortunate quarrel with a fellow-cadet, who was an
officer in the corps, as well as his general propensity
for breaking rules, led to his suspension for a year.
In 1853 he graduated No. 84 in a class of 52 mem-
bers. Commissioned as brevet 2d lieutenant, he
reported for duty at Newport barracks, Sept. 30, and
was next year assigned to the First Infantry in Texas.
In November, 1854, he received his commission as
2d lieutenant in the Fourth Infantry. With this
regiment he served for six years in Washington Ter-
ritory and Oregon, at the time when the encroach-
ments of the gold-seekers had provoked the animosity
of the Indians. Against these Sheridan was almost
constantly engaged, for a time on detached duty in
scouting, and this chiefly in command of a detach-
ment of the First Dragoons. In April, 1856, the
Indians attacked the blockhouse at the Cascades on
the Columbia, W. T., when he at once embarked his
dragoons and, after some fighting in conjunction with
a few companies of the Ninth Infantry, drove the
Savages off. For gallantry in this affair he was com-
plimented in orders and promoted to the command
of the Indian Reservation. Recalled to the East in
September, 1861, by the progress of the civil war,
he expressed the modest wish that he “might get a
captaincy out of the thing.” His aspiration was
gratified, June 18, when he received his commission
as captain in the Thirteenth Infantry, of which regi-
ment W. T. Sherman was colonel, and the promotion
took him to St. Louis. There his first duty was pre-
siding over a court for auditing claims. Next he was
appointed quartermaster and commissary on the
was less vigorous, and on the 3d Bragg withdrew,
leaving Murfreesboro’ to Rosecrans. For his gal:
lantry here Sheridan was created a major-general of
volunteers. Next came the Tullahoma campaign, in
which Sheridan's division led the advance, with com-
bats at Fairfield, Cowan Station, and University.
This campaign was followed, a few months later, by
Rosecrans' advance on Chattanooga and the disas-
trous battle of Chickamauga, Sept. 19 and 20. Here
Sheridan's division suffered from a misunderstanding
of orders, and became separated from the rest of the
army, and, after desperate fighting, was driven from
the field. Sheridan's chagrin at his repulse was
brief. Thomas got command of the Army of the
Cumberland, whose retreat to Chattanooga he had
covered, and when Grant arrived with re-enforce-
ments and undertook to dislodge Bragg, Sheridan's
division formed the centre of the column which
fought in the conflicts of Lookout Mountain and
|Missionary Ridge on Nov. 23, 24, and 25, and on the
last day carried Missionary Ridge, pierced the Con-
federate lines, and finally won the fight. His men
were the first to cross the crest and press the ene-
my’s rear-guard till long, after dark, capturing
wagons and artillery. Sheridan continued in West
Tennessee through the winter of 1863.
When Grant was called to the command of the
Army of the Potomac, in March, 1864, he declared
to Pres. Lincoln the urgent need for an ener-
getic leader of cavalry. “I said,” Grant reports,
“I wanted the very best man in the army for that
command. Halleck, who was present, spoke up,
saying, “How would Sheridan do?' I replied, ‘The
very man I want.'” Accordingly, on April 4, Sheri-
dan took command of the cavalry corps of the Army
of the Potomac, and his Organizing power quickly
brought the corps into the best fighting trim. In
the battles of the Wilderness it covered the front
staff of Gen. S. R. Curtis, in command of the Army and flanks of the infantry, and on May 8 Grant di-
of the Southwest, then concentrating in Missouri.
In this office he had not the fortune to satisfy his
commanding officer and was, in consequence, sent to
report to Gen. Halleck, who, after the battle of
Shiloh, had taken the command in the advance on
Corinth. On May 25, 1862, he was, on the recom-
mendation of Halleck—who had served in California
and knew that Sheridan had had command of dra-
goons—appointed to the colonelcy of the Second
Michigan Cavalry, then lying near Corinth.
His active career now began. He led his regi-
ment to Booneville, Miss., where, after taking part
in several skirmishes, he was put in command of a
brigade composed of his own regiment and the
Second Iowa. In command of this he fought the
brilliant battle of Booneville, July 1, 1862, for which
he was commissioned brigadier-general of volun-
teers. In the following autumn Sheridan was trans-
ferred to the command of the Eleventh Division of
the Army of the Ohio (afterward known as the Army
of the Cumberland), under Buell, and on Oct. 8
took part in the battle of Perryville against Bragg,
where he distinguished himself for resolution, dis-
creet judgment, and ability in handling troops.
The army now marched to the relief of Nashville,
where its command was transferred to Rosecrans,
under whom Sheridan first gave full evidence of his
ability as a commander. On Dec. 26 he marched
with Rosecrans from before Nashville to the desper-
ate contested two days' fight of Stone River (q.v.).
Here for three hours his division of McCook's corps
held the key of the position, losing all its three
brigade commanders killed, and seventy other offi-
cers and nearly half its men killed and wounded.
His stubborn resistance on this day, coupled with
that of Thomas with his gallant corps in the cen-
tre, enabled Rosecrans to form his new line of battle
for next day. The fighting on the succeeding days
rected its commander to cut himself loose from the
army, attack the enemy’s cavalry, cut his communi-
cations and line of supplies, and sweep round Lee's
force to Butler's position on the James at Haxall’s
Landing. The course he took was directly on Rich-
mond, and involved, on the 10th, the destruction of
the Confederate stores at Beaver Dam and recapture
of 375 prisoners on their way to Libby prison; on
the 11th, the hottest cavalry fight in the war, name-
ly, that with Gen. J. E. B. Stuart at Yellow Tay-
ern, in which the gallant Confederate leader fell;
a dash on the defences of Richmond, with the fore-
ing of the Chickahominy, and a fight at Meadow
Bridge on the 12th. On the 14th he recrossed the
Chickahominy and went into camp on the James,
where he rested three days. “Sheridan,” says
Grant, “in this memorable raid passed entirely
around Lee's army, encountered his cavalry in four
engagements and defeated them in all, recaptured
400 Union prisoners, and killed and captured many
of the enemy, destroyed and used many supplies
and munitions of war, destroyed miles of railroad
and telegraph, and freed us from annoyances by
the cavalry of the enemy for more than two
weeks.” *
Resuming the advance with Grant, Sheridan fought
at Hawes' Store, May 28 ; Matadequin Creek, May
30; and at Cold Harbor, May 31 and June 1.
Qn the 6th of June he was despatched to cut the
Virginia Central Railroad near Charlottesville, and
to escort the Shenandoah forces of Gen. Hunter to
those of Grant. In marching to execute this, his
advance was disputed on the 11th at Trevillian Sta-
tion by Gen. Wade Hampton, whom, after severe
conflict, he succeeded in repulsing. The march,
however, had not been executed with Sheridan's
usual vigor, and on the 12th, though within 30 miles
of Charlottesville, he withdrew after breaking the
492 SHERIDAN. §
railroad at Trevillian, leaving the main object of the servation on the Rio Grande to watch the war in
expedition unaccomplished. Mexico.
Gen. Sheridan was now transferred to another' in his Personal Memoirs Sheridan asserts that, go-
§§ene of action, in which he was to win new fame as ſing beyond the letter of his instructions and per-
the leader of an independent command. Early had jhaps even beyond their spirit, he made such demon-
assumed a threatening attitude in the Shenandoah strations of hostility against the Austrian Archduke
Valley, and on Aug. 7 Sheridan Was put in command Maximilian, whom the French emperor was thrust-
of the Middle Military Division, consisting of some ing upon a reluctant people, as compelled the with-
30,000 men, including 8000 cavalry. His career here drawal of Marshal Bażaine." The disma, tragedy of
has been described in the article SHENANDoAH WALLEy Querétaro, on June 19, 1867, brought to a terrible
(q; t):... After engagements on the Opequan, at Fish- end the vain dream of the European adventurers.
er's Hill, and on Cedar Creek—at which last place Sheridan returned to New Orleans to take up the
Early had victory in his grasp, to be snatched from task of supervising and directing the reconstruction
it and converted into a Union triumph by the famed of civil government among a people still infected
“ride from Winchester" which made Sheridan a with rebellious notions. The President and Con.
*jºr-general in the regular army—he finally drove gress were at hopeless feud over the methods of re-
Early up the valley, and, after scattering the rem- storing civil order. Though the former was his mili-
nant.of the Confederate forces at Waynesboro' and tary superior, Sheridan's love of the Union for which
holding the valley for some months, he made his he had dared and Wrought so much made him in-
Way to Grant's army at the White House on the stinctively recoil from aiding to restore power to
Pamunkey, which he reached, March 19, 1865. those who had sought to divide the nation. He
With Sheridan's cavalry at his disposal, Grant therefore obeyed the directions of Congress, and
now began his final campaign. Sheridan crossed ruled with a rigid hand. He removed from their
the Peninsula to the James and occupied Dinwid- offices the mayor of New Orleans, the governor of
die Court-house. Immediately on his arrival there | Louisiana, and the governor of Texas. Finally, in
Grant sent him word that, instead of raiding on rail- August, 1867, Pres. Johnson, finding his policy
roads, he should “push round the enemy and get thwarted by his subordinate, removed Sheridan
on his right rear.” “I now feel,” he added, “like from the command of the Fifth Military District,
ending the matter.” So soon as Lee detected this and transferred him to the Department of the Mis-
purpose, he gathered up all available forces from souri, with headquarters at Leavenworth. Here
his intrenched line and placed them under Pickett Sheridan was brought into contact with another prob-
and Johnson, who on March 31 attacked Sheridan lem of government, of which he had had some experi-
at Dinwiddie with a heavy infantry force. Next day, ence at the outset of his military career—the Indian
having been re-enforced by Warren's corps, he, by a question. He solved it in the way which has com-
masterly tactical movement, entrapped and com- mended itself to the judgment of most military men
pletely routed Pickett and Johnson at Five Forks, —by insisting on the complete submission of the
capturing several thousand prisoners, 4 guns, with Indians. The tribes on the plains had been left
many colors. This overthrow of Lee's right, i. much to themselves during the long civil war, and
lowed immediately by the carrying of all the outer were greatly disturbed by the rapid westward move-
line of intrenchments at Petersburg, made the evac- ment of white adventurers at its close. Conflicts
uation of this place and the abandonment of Rich- were frequent, and both parties were in the wrong.
mond imperative, Lee's only line of retreat being But Sheridan, after a year's experience, determined
that of the Appomattox river. Next morning the on the most effective course to settle the troubles.
blowing up of the Confederate iron-clads and the In October, 1868, calling to his aid the gallant cav-
firing of the tobacco warehouses by Ewell's rear- alry general, George A. Custer, he sent him against
guard gave intimation to the Union troops of “the the villages of the Cheyennes and other tribes on
beginning of the end.” Lee now began his retreat the Washita. There, on Nov. 27, Custer, with the
to Appomattox, Grant pursuing on the South of the Seventh Cavalry, amid a heavy snow-storm which
river, with Sheridan on the van. On April 6 Sher- impeded the movement of the Indians, almost totally
idan, supported by the Second Corps, struck Ewell annihilated their bands. This expedition, though
at Sailor's Creek, capturing 16 guns and 400 wagons, sternly denounced by many, put a stop to the Indian
and detained him till the Sixth Corps came up, when troubles for a time.
a combined attack resulted in the capture of 6000 | Sheridan continued in command at Leavenworth
prisoners. This was the last serious fight in the till, on Grant's inauguration, March 4, 1869, he was
war. On the 8th he captured four supply-trains at promoted to lieutenant-general, and given com-
Appomattox Station, and at the Court-house the ad- mand of the Division of the Missouri, with head-
vance of Lee's army was resisted till dark. On the quarters at Chicago. During the Franco-Prussian
morning of the 9th the enemy endeavored to break war. Sheridan visited Europe and was received with
through his dismounted cavalry, when, drawing aside, high distinction by King William, witnessing several
he disclosed the infantry behind. Mounting his battles, including Gravelotte and Sedan. In Chi-
men, Sheridan was about to charge, when the white cago, in 1874, he was married to Miss Jane Rucker,
flag was displayed, and the war in Virginia was at daughter of Maj. Gen. Rucker, who had just left
an end. her convent-school in Philadelphia. During the po-
Sheridan was not permitted to participate in the litical disturbances in Louisiana, in 1875, Sheridan
pageant of march and review of the Union armies was ordered to New Orleans, where he exhibited the
at Washington on May 30. Immediately on Lee's same courage and prompt decision which charac:
surrender he was despatched with a cavalry and in-ſterized his whole career. On quiet being restored
fantry force to Sherman in North Carolina, but was he returned to his command at Chicago. º
recalled on Johnston's capitulation. He was next | On Nov. 1, 1883, Gen. Sherman was, by his own
put in command of the forces west of the Mississippi, request, relieved of the command of the Army of
and despatched to Texas, where Kirby Smith was the United States, and General Sheridan, being ap-
keeping up a show of resistance. Here Smith's pointed to succeed him, removed to a home in
surrender did away with the need of his services. Washington purchased for him by Chicago friends.
In 1865 he was appointed to the command of the In May, 1888, Congress passed a bill reviving the
Military Division of the Gulf, embracing Florida, rank of General, thus enabling the President to con-
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, with headquar-ſfer this rank on him, which was forthwith done.
ters at New Orleans, with command of a corps of ob- || Already in that month the illness, heart-failure,
SHERIFF SHERMAN. 493
which was to carry him off, showed itself on his
return home from a tour of inspection in the West. - - -
he also summons the jury which tries the cause, and
In the end of June, to evade the intense heat of
Washington, he embarked on the U. S. steamer
Swatara, and was by it conveyed to Nonquit, Mass.
Here he died, Aug. 5, 1888, leaving a widow and
four children. His remains were brought back to
Washington, and, on Aug. 9, interred in the National
Cemetery of Arlington, “under the shadow of the
home of the Lees,” with the solemn ritual of the
Catholic Church, of which he was a member, and
with every manifestation of public respect. -
Of Sheridan, almost more than of any general in
the war, it may truthfully be said that he was “a
born soldier.” His aptitudes were all essentially
military. He was daring, enterprising, self-reliant,
prompt, resourceful, and no man was more highly - te
county of his State, e.g., making out a jury panel or
gifted with the faculty of inspiring his men with an
enthusiasm akin to his own. The affection with
which they regarded him found expression in the
sort of pet name by which they spoke of him—“Lit-
tle Phil.”. Yet no man could be more stern on occa-
Sion, and none was more stringent in enforcing dis-
cipline. With all his Irish ardor of heart, he never
omitted to provide for emergencies, nor ever en-
tered into an engagement without looking out for
means for securing a retreat. His tactical ability
!
such as serving of writs, etc.; should he be a party
to the proceeding, the coroner acts as his substitute;
executes the judgment of the court. In criminal
cases, also, he arrests and holds the accused, STIII) -
mons the jury, and executes the sentence imposed
by the court. He has power, generally prescribed
by statute in the several States, to summon juries
for special purposes, such as the execution of writs
of damages, or of partition of lands, etc., referred to
him by the courts.
His authority is confined to his own county, though
when commanded by a writ of habeas corpus he may
convey a prisoner out of his county; a prisoner who
has escaped from his custody may also be pursued
by him into another county and retaken there; he
may also perform merely ministerial acts in another
assigning a bail bond, etc. - -
He may appoint deputies to assist him in the per-
formance of his duties, and is responsible for their
acts in so doing. They may perform all ministerial
duties, such as the service and return of writs, etc.,
but any quasi-judicial duty, such as the execution of
a writ of inquiry, cannot be performed by deputy.
The sheriff is generally the custodian of the county
jail, and is responsible for escapes therefrom ; he is
was evidenced by the high state of efficiency to
i from attacks by mobs, etc.
which he brought every body of troops intrusted to
him ; and the independent engagements he fought,
and especially his conduct of the campaign in the
Shenandoah Valley, abundantly testify to his skill
and ability as a general. “As a soldier,” Grant said
of him, “there is no man living greater than Sheri-
dan. He belongs to the very first rank of captains,
not only of our army but of the world. I rank him
with Napoleon and Frederick, and the great com-
manders of history.”
Toward the close of his life Sheridan, following
the example of his chief, spent much time in pre-
paring his Personal Memoirs, which appeared in
November, 1888. They are marked in a striking
degree with the same characteristics as Grant's Me-
moirs—straightforward simplicity and terseness of
thought and style, entire freedom from vanity or
envy, just appreciation of the merits of others, and
intense love of his country and its institutions.
J. EI.
SHERIFF. A county officer, wº h
executive or administrative power of
ºl. º, the state within his county. In Eng-
Åm ke; *" land the sheriff was formerly elected
by the inhabitants of the county, ex-
cept in some counties where the office was heredi-
tary, and in Middlesex, where the office is vested in
the City of London by charter. Since the statute
of 22 and 23 Vict., c. 21, 342, the sheriffs are nomi-
nated by the Lord Chancellor and judges of the
courts at Westminster, and appointed by the Crown.
In the United States they are usually elected for a
term of three years, subject, however, to removal by
the governor of the State for cause. Like other
officers of the States, they are required to give bonds
to the commonwealth conditioned for the faithful
performanée of their duties, without fraud, deceit, or
oppression. The sheriff must preserve the peace of
the county, and in so doing may apprehend and
commit to prison all persons breaking the peace,
or may bind them over to keep the peace; he must
pursue and take all murderers, felons, and rioters;
must keep the county jail, and defend it against
rioters. To all these ends he may summon the in-
habitants of the county, or posse comitatus, to his
assistance ; all persons over fifteen years of age are
bound to answer this summons under pain of fine
and imprisonment. He is bound to execute, within
his county, all civil process issuing from the courts,
bound to have a sufficient force at hand to protect it
Civil process, writs, etc., are, as a general thing,
served by his deputies, though it is not absolutely
necessary that they should be, if the deputy is pres-
ent. In serving civil process, he may not break into
a man’s house, though in the execution of criminal
process he may, after demanding admittance. Pro-
cess of any description may not be served on Sunday,
except in cases of treason, felony, or breach of the
peace ; nor may he on that day retake a prisoner who
has escaped. (T. R.)
SHERMAN, a city of Texas, county seat of Gray-
son Co., is on the Houston and Texas, the Texas Pa-
cific, and the St. Louis, Arkansas and Texas Railroads,
65 miles north of Dallas. It has a fine court-house
(costing $85,000), a jail (costing $95,000), a fine
opera-house, and two large hotels. There are 2
banks, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 9 churches,
7 schools, some of which have fine buildings. There
are 2 iron foundries, 4 planing-mills, and some small
factories. The buildings are chiefly of brick. The
city has water-works, and a park, and is lighted
with gas and electric light. It was settled in 1846
and incorporated in 1853, and its prosperity has been
increased by the railroads, which transport hence
grain and cotton. The population in 1880 was 6093,
and it is now estimated at 10,000.
SHERMAN, JOHN, statesman and financier, was
born, May 10, 1823, at Lancaster, Ohio, being the
eighth child of the Hon. Charles R. Sherman, judge
of the Supreme Court of Ohio, who in 1810 had mar-
ried Miss Mary Hoyt, of Norwalk, Conn. When John
Was but six years old his father died, leaving his wid-
ow with eleven children in straitened circumstances.
In boyhood John was adopted by a relative of the
Same name living at Mount Vernon, Ohio. Here
the boy received an education which he himself
characterized as “the foundation-training of his
life.” At the age of 12 a sister took charge of him,
and placed him at an excellent school in Lancaster,
which he left in 1837, reasonably prepared to enter
the sophomore class in college. Circumstances did
not permit his carrying out this plan and after
serving as a rodman in the corps of engineers en-
gaged on the Muskingum and as superintendent of
the section of the work at Beverly (whence he was re-
moved in 1839 on account of his being a Whig), he
entered the law-office of his brother, the Hon. C. T.
Sherman, at Mansfield, who took him, after four
494
SHERMAN–SHERMAN.
years' study and practice of law, as a partner. Here
he practised for ten years, acting as attorney for all
the railroads centring in Mansfield. In 1848 he
married the daughter of the Hon. James Stewart, of
that city, and in the same year attended the Whig
Convention at Philadelphia that nominated Gen.
Zachary Taylor for President. In 1852 he was dele-
gate to the Baltimore convention that nominated
Winfield Scott. In 1855 mainly in consequence of
his attitude on the Missouri Compromise question,
he was elected to the 34th Congress in the interest of
the Free Soil party. , Here his familiarity with af.
fairs and readiness in debate made him a power
both on the floor and in committees. He was re-
elected to the 35th Congress, and here, as in the
34th, he took a leading part in questions affecting
finance, the extension of slavery to Kansas, the navy.
yard abuses, etc., so that at the end of his second
term he was recognized as the foremost man in the
House. In 1858 he was re-elected to the 36th Con-
gress, and in 1859 was made Republican candidate
for Speaker, but yielded, after 8 weeks' balloting, to
Mr. Pennington. He was then made chairman of
the ways and means committee, where his zeal in
the cause of the unity of the country and of sound
finance, as well as against the spread of slavery,
brought him into collision with Pres. Buchanan.
In 1860 he was again chosen to Congress, but on
the resignation of Senator Chase he was elected to
his place, and took his seat in the Senate in 1861,
being acknowledged as a leader from the first.
On the fall of Fort Sumter he tendered his services
to Gen. Patterson, and remained as his aide-de-
Camp, with the Ohio regiments, till Congress met in
July. On the close of the extra session he raised
a brigade of 2300 men, largely at his own expense,
which was known during the war as the “Sher-
man Brigade.” During the war he was mainly
engaged on questions of finance, his speeches on
State and National banks being the most important,
while he powerfully aided the Union by steadily
contributing to supply the means for continuing the
struggle. After its close, Thaddeus Stevens and
Sherman were the authors of the bill for the re-
construction of the Southern States which Congress
enacted in the winter, 1866–67. In the latter year
he introduced a refunding act, which was adopted in
1870, without the resumption clause. In 1874 he
was chairman of a committee of nine, appointed by
a Republican caucus, that agreed upon a bill for
the resumption of specie payment on Jan. 1, 1879.
In March, 1877, Senator Sherman was appointed
by Pres. Hayes secretary of the treasury, and six
months before the date fixed for resumption he had
accumulated $140,000,000 in gold, and saw the legal-
tender notes so rival gold in value that on the day
fixed for resumption there was no demand for gold
in exchange for them. In 1880 he was a candidate
for the presidential nomination, his vote ranging
from 90 to 97, when his supporters combined with
those of Blaine to nominate Garfield. In 1881 he re-
turned to the Senate, and was re-elected in 1887, and
served as chairman of committees on foreign rela-
tions, finance, expenditure, and rules. In 1888 his
name was presented to the Chicago Convention as a
presidential candidate, and he continued to be the
leading nominee until the last day, when Gen. Har-
rison was nominated.
Without being a great orator, John Sherman is
largely indebted for the eminent position which he
has attained to his conscientious mastery of every
matter with which he undertakes to deal, and to the
power of lucid statement which such a mastery en-
ables a man of vigorous, clear, and well-ordered
mind to attain. Among the services rendered by
him to his country may be enumerated : The re-
form of the abuses in New York custom-house and
in the National navy-yards, the resumption of spe-
cie payment, and the funding of the public debt.
His whole career in Congress was conspicuous for
Scrupulous care for the public credit, and the econ-
omy of its funds. See Rev. S. A. Bronson's John
Sherman : What he has Said and Dome (1880). In
1879 Mr. Sherman himself published his Selected
§he and Reports on Finance and Taa’ation, 1859–
878.
SHERMAN, RogFR (1721–1793), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born at Newton,
Mass., April 19, 1721, and taken to Stonington,
Conn., two years later: his great-grandfather had set-
tled at Watertown, Mass., about 1635. With little ear-
ly education, he eagerly sought knowledge, and man-
aged to overcome great disadvantages. He is said
to have kept an open book before his shoemaker's
bench for the utilization of spare moments. At
nineteen he was obliged to take his father's place,
and become the chief support of a large family. At
twenty-two they removed on foot to New Milford,
where he exchanged his trade for business enter-
prises. His industry, ability, and integrity won a rap-
id and steady rise from his humble condition. Hay-
ing been early attentive to mathematics, he became
county surveyor in 1745, and in 1748 began to fur-
nish the astronomical calculations for a New York
almanac. He studied law in his leisure hours, was
admitted to the bar, 1754, and the next year was
made justice of the peace and sent to the Connecticut
assembly. In 1759 he was appointed judge of the
Litchfield county court. Removing to New Haven
in 1761, he became a county judge in 1765, treas-
urer of Yale College the same year, and in the next
an assistant or member of the Upper house. This
post he held till 1785, and that of judge of the su-
perior court, 1766–89. His character and position
made him a leader in the struggle for liberty. Sent
to the Continental Congress in August, 1774, he was
a member of many important committees, including
that which drafted the Declaration. He was no ora-
tor, but his business ability, good sense, uprightness,
and solidity made him respected and useful, and
his congressional career lasted to the end of his life.
During the war he was active on the Connecticut
committee of safety, and in 1783, with Judge Rich-
ard Law, revised the State statutes. He was mayor
of New Haven from 1784 to his death. As a member
of the constitutional convention of 1787 he rendered
very important services, taking a prominent part in
the debates, and offering suggestions which were in-
corporated in the document. He expounded and en-
forced the Constitution in papers signed “Citizen,”
and urged its ratification in the Connecticut conven-
tion assembled for that purpose, of which he was a
leading member. In Congress, February, 1790, he
supported an address presented by Quakers against
the African slave trade, and secured its reference to
a committee. He was elected to the U. S. Senate,
1791, and died at New Haven, July 23, 1793. Ma-
con credited him with supreme common-sense, and
Jefferson declared that he “never said a foolish
thing.” Senators G. F. Hoar and W. M. Evarts are
descended from him.
SHERMAN, THoMAs WEST (1813–1879), general,
was born at Newport, Rhode Island, March 26, 1813.
In 1836 he graduated at West Point Military Acad-
emy, and was appointed to the Third Artillery, with
which he served in Florida till 1842, having been
appointed 1st lieutenant in March, 1888. He was
then assigned to recruiting and garrison service till
1846, when he was engaged as captain in the Mexi-
can war, and for “gallant and meritorious conduct
at Buena Vista" was brevetted major, Feb. 23, 1847.
From 1848 till 1861 he was again on garrison and
frontier duty, being specially employed in quelling
the Kansas border disturbances, and in the com-
SHERMAN. 495
mand of an expedition to Kettle Lake, Dakota. On resigned his commission in September, 1853, and
the outbreak of the civil war, in 1861, he was pro- accepted the position of managing partner of the
moted to major, and to lieutenant-colonel of the branch of the banking house of Lucas, Turner & Co.,
Fifth Artillery, May 14, and to brigadier-general of then opened in San Francisco. The disordered con-
volunteers, May 17. Till the end of June he was dition of that city in 1855–56 tended to paralyse busi-
chief of light artillery in the defence of Washington. ness, and Sherman took active part in the V igilance
His next employment was organizing an expedition Committee. After spending some time in New York,
for holding Bull's Bay, S. C., and Fernandina, Flor- and subsequently in San Francisco, in winding up
ida, for the use of the fleet blockading the southern the business, he returned to his family in Lancaster.
coast, when he was assigned to the command of the As a means of living he in 1858 entered a law firm in
land forces in the Port Royal expedition. With a Leavenworth, Kansas, but, as the business was not
division of the Army of the Tennessee he took part in sufficiently profitable, he made application in June;
the siege of Corinth, Miss., and commanded a divi- 1859, to the War Department for occupation, and
sion in the Department of the Gulf till May, 1863, was appointed superintendent of the Louisiana
when he joined the expedition to Port Hudson, La., Military Academy. In 1861 Louisiana seceded from
where he commanded the left wing of the besieg- the Union, and Sherman threw up his office and re-
ing force. Here, while heading an assault on May turned to St. Louis, where he accepted the presis
27, he lost his leg and was invalided till February, dency of a street railroad. *
1864, but in the meantime was made colonel of the On the capture of Fort Sumter Sherman offered
Third Artillery, June, 1863. He served afterward his services to the government. These were ac:
in the command of a brigade in the Department of ſcepted and, June, 1861, he was appointed colonel of
the Gulf, and in the southern and eastern districts the 13th Infantry. In the disastrous battle of Bull
of Louisiana. He was in 1865 brevetted brigadier- Run Col. Sherman commanded the third brigade in
general U. S. army, and major-general for “gallant Tyler's division, and the vigor with which he fought
and meritorious services during the war.” Subse- his four regiments and battery is demonstrated by
quent to the war he commanded the Third Artillery their loss—namely, 609—the total for the whole army
at Fort Adams, at Newport, and the post of Key being computed at only 1590. The Ohio delegation
West, Florida. In December, 1870, he was retired in Congress urged Sherman's promotion for gallan-
from active service for disability, and died, March 13, try, and, Aug. 3, he was made brigadier-general of
1879. volunteers.
SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH, the general whose When Gen. Robert Anderson, late commander of
operations, more than those of any other save Gen. Fort Sumter, was assigned to the Department of the
Grant, contributed to bring the American war for the Cumberland, Gen. Sherman was attached as his sec-
Union to a successful issue, was born in Lancaster, Ond in command, and was soon thereafter despatched
Ohio, Feb. 8, 1820. He is the son of Judge Charles R. to occupy Muldraugh's Hill, south of Salt River.
Sherman, of the Supreme Court of Ohio, and brother | Here his “home guards” deserted him, and he found
of Hon. John Sherman (q.v.). Judge Sherman's fancy himself, with barely 5000 men, confronting Brecken-
was captivated by the famous Shawnee chief, Tecum- ridge with 25,000. When Anderson was relieved
seh, for he insisted on giving this name to his second Sherman was appointed to succeed him. His posi-
son, and on this being overruled by the mother, he en- tion was far from enviable. Most of the young men
grafted it into that of his third son, William Tecum-
seh. The father died in 1829, leaving his family in
poor circumstances, and William was brought up in
that of the Hon. Thomas Ewing, of Lancaster, till
his 16th year, receiving his education in Lancaster
Academy, where he studied French, Latin, and
Greek. In 1836 he entered West Point Military
Academy, where he graduated, June 30, 1840, sixth
in a class of 43. “At the academy,” says Sherman
himself, “I was not considered a good soldier, for
at no time was I selected for any office, but remained
a private throughout the whole four years.” He
was commissioned 2d lieutenant of the Third Artil-
lery, and served in Florida against the Seminole
Indians through the winters of 1840–41. In Novem-
ber, 1841, he was promoted to 1st lieutenant, and
was shortly thereafter stationed at Fort Moultrie,
S. C., where he remained for five years, having,
among others, Bragg and Keyes for companions till
the Mexican war. In 1846 he was sent to Califor-
nia, where he found a companion in H. W. Halleck,
and remained through the war as acting assistant ad-
jutant-general till 1850, having in the meantime
obtained, for meritorious services, a brevet of cap-
tain in the regular army, dated May, 1848. In 1850
he returned East, with despatches to Gen. Scott in
of Kentucky had joined the Secessionists, and the
mon-combatants were usually unfriendly. He ear-
nestly demanded re-enforcements, and in a personal
interview with Secretary Cameron at Lexington, in
presence of Gen. Thomas, explained the exigencies
of the situation. On Nov. 3 he telegraphed to Gen.
McClellan : “Our forces are too small to do good,
and too large to be sacrificed.” All representations
proving vain, he asked to be relieved ; Gen. Buell
was appointed to succeed him, and at once re-en-
forced. Gen. Sherman, for his importunity, was
Set down as “crazy,” especially for having stated to
the secretary of war: “That to make a successful
advance against the enemy, then strongly posted at
all strategic points from the Mississippi to Cum-
berland Gap, would require an army of 200,000
men ;” and this charge clung to him till events justi-
fied his view. In the meantime he was relegated to
the command of a recruiting rendezvous at Benton
Barracks, near St. Louis.
But Halleck now succeeded to the Department of
the West, and Sherman was ordered to Paducah,
With the charge of forwarding re-enforcements and
supplies to Grant, who was moving on Fort Donel-
Son. After the capture of this stronghold, Sherman
was put in command of the Fifth Division of Grant's
New York, and, having obtained leave of absence, army at Pittsburg Landing. In the battle of Shiloh
Visited his mother in Lancaster, and was married, on (q.v.) Sherman's division held the key of the position
May 1, to Ellen Boyle, daughter of his benefactor, around the little church, and his conduct during all
the Hon. Thomas Ewing, then secretary of the in- the fiercely contested conflict proved him to be pos-
terior. In 1851 he took up his residence as com- sessed of genius of a high order. His division—
missary of subsistence in St. Louis, where his father- consisting of 12 regiments infantry and 4 batteries—
in-law had a property, rendered valuable by being lost 2034 men. Gen. Halleck, who took the com-
included in the city survey, and where he himself mand-in-chief immediately after the battle, reported :
made some purchases, which he still retains. In “It is the unanimous opinion that Brig.-Gen. Sher-
1852 he moved in the same capacity to New Orleans. man saved the fortunes of the day; he was in the
Finding his pay inadequate to support his family, he thickest of the fight, had three horses killed under
496
SHERMAN.
him, and was twice wounded.” Gen. Nelson said:
“During eight hours the fate of the army depended
on the life of one man. If Gen. Sherman had fallen,
the army would have been captured or destroyed.”
And Grant himself said: “Sherman, with raw
troops, held the key-point to the Landing; to his
individual efforts I am indebted for the success of
the battle.” Of his achievements in the Subsequent
pursuit and advance on Corinth, Grant writes : " His
Services as division-commander in the advance on
Corinth, I will venture to say, were appreciated by
the new general-in-chief beyond those of any divi-
Sion-officer.” For his services at Shiloh Sherman
Was appointed major-general of volunteers, to date
from May 1, 1862.
In December, 1862, commenced that series of
9perations which culminated in the capture of
Vicksburg. . Sherman having been assigned to the
Command of the Fifteenth Corps, he embarked at
Memphis on Dec. 20. The plan of operations was
for Sherman to advance directly on Vicksburg and
assault it, while Grant should follow and move
on Jackson by railroad, engaging and holding the
enemy's force there. Just as Sherman started,
Holly Springs was attacked and surrendered, with
the supplies on which the expedition partly de-
pended ; Grant was brought to a halt, and the en-
emy on his front hastened to re-enforce Vicksburg.
Sherman, ignorant of the conditions, hurried on to
play his part, and, disembarking at the mouth of the
Yazoo, made, on Dec. 27, a general advance on
the city, and carried the outer defences. For two
days the attacks were renewed, but Wicksburg was
impregnable to so small a force. Under a flag of
truce Sherman buried his dead and cared for his
Wounded, and then re-embarked. At this juncture
Gen. McClernand arrived, and superseded Sherman
in the command of the right wing, which the latter
announced to his men in a proclamation closing:
“All good officers and soldiers will give the new
commander the same hearty support and cheerful
Obedience they have given me. There are honors
enough in reserve for all, and work enough too.”
The work was not long delayed. Seven days later
Sherman, with the Fifteenth, and McClernand, with
the Thirteenth Corps, stormed Arkansas Post, capt-
uring 7000 prisoners, with guns and supplies. Of
this achievement Grant says: “The conception was
Gen. Sherman's ; his part of the execution was as
good as it could have been.”
In March Admiral Porter made an attempt to
reach the city by the intricate and artificially imped-
ed navigation of the bayous and creeks leading into
the Yazoo, and was entrapped and would have been
captured but for Sherman hurrying to his relief and
cutting him out. In the successive assaults till the
city surrendered, on July 4th, to a regular siege,
Sherman’s corps bore its full part. Even after the
capture its labors were not at an end. A fortnight
before the surrender, Gen. Jos. E. Johnston threat-
ened the rear of the besieging army with a large im-
provised force. Sherman was commissioned to deal
with him, and on his approach Johnston withdrew
to Jackson, Miss. This town was invested, and
captured by Sherman, July 13, Johnston having
evacuated it. Of Sherman's whole conduct before
Vicksburg, Grant says: “The siege of Vicksburg
and last capture of Jackson, and dispersion of John-
ston's army entitle Gen. Sherman to more credit
than usually falls to the lot of one man.”
After some weeks’ rest for him and his men he
received, on Sept. 22, a telegram from Grant
calling on him to hasten to the help of Rosecrans,
who had been defeated at Chickamauga. On the
23d he started with his corps, and, despite diffi-
culties all but insurmountable and the constant op-
position of the enemy, arrived on Nov. 15, where he
found Grant, now in command of the department
and of the Armies of the Ohio, Cumberland, and
Tennessee. Sherman was put in command of the
last, and ordered to effect a lodgement on Missionary
Ridge, which was held by Bragg, who was besieg-
ing Chattanooga. By incessant labor, night and
day, Sherman got his army ready for action on the
23d, and, despite the position of the enemy on steeps
naturally and artificially so unassailable that Bragg,
deeming himself secure, had despatched Longstreet
to besiege Burnside in Knoxville, the bloody ridge
Was carried on the 25th, and the Secession army
flung back into the valleys of Georgia. Pursuit
followed victory. All three armies pressed onward
–Hooker and Thomas sharing with Sherman in the
marching and fighting—till the Confederate army
Was driven out of Tennessee, when Sherman re-
turned to Chattanooga. No sooner had he arrived
than Grant ordered him to the relief of Burnside,
beleaguered with 12,000 men, 84 miles off. Sherman
instantly set out, but, on his approach to Knoxville,
Longstreet raised the siege.
Sherman with his wearied men once more re-
turned to Chattanooga, after a three months' cam-
paign unparalleled in the war. His official report
summarized his work as follows: “The men had
marched for long periods, without regular rations or
supplies of any kind, through mud and over rocks,
Sometimes barefooted, and without a murmur.
Without a moment's rest after a march of over 400
miles, without sleep for three successive nights,
they crossed the Tennessee river, fought their part
in the battle of Chattanooga, pursued the enemy out
of Tennessee, then turned more than 100 miles north,
and compelled Longstreet to raise the siege of
Knoxville, which had been the source of anxiety to
the whole country.”
Sherman now returned to Wicksburg, and at the
close of January, 1864, Organized a raid into Central
Mississippi, setting out, Feb. 3d, and reaching
Meridian, where he waited for General Smith to join
him with 8000 cavalry. But Smith did not come.
Instead of starting on Feb. 1, he did not move till
the 11th, and the object of the expedition was foiled.
After capturing large quantities of stores and dam-
aging this hostile region, Sherman returned to
Vicksburg. On March 12, 1864, Grant was put at
the head of all the forces of the Union. The same
Order gave Sherman command of the Department of
the Mississippi, and of the Armies of the Ohio, the
Cumberland, and the Tennessee, under Schofield,
Thomas, and McPherson, respectively. Soon the two
parallel campaigns, with Richmond and Atlanta as
their immediate objective, were set on foot. On
April 10, 1864, the headquarters of Sherman's three
armies were at Chattanooga, Huntsville, and Knox-
ville, and all were to be directed against Gen. Jos.
E. Johnston, then lying intrenched at Dalton, Geor-
gia. “Neither Atlanta, Augusta, nor Savannah,”
says Sherman himself in his Memoirs, “was the ob-
jective, but the ‘Army of Joe Johnston,’ go where it
might.” -
On May 5 the general movement commenced,
concentrating on Dalton, whence, on Sherman's ad-
vance, Johnston retreated—Parthian-like, striking as
he retired. The fighting thereafter may be said to
have been continuous, Johnston impeding the march
at almost every step through a country broken,
densely wooded, and entangled with brush, and by
roads or tracks (where such were found) of the most
miserable description, which became in wet weather
—and it was often such—mere quagmires. Engage-
ments took place at New Hope Church, Kenesaw
Mountain (the hardest fight in the campaign, involv-
ing a Union loss of 2500 men), and Marietta, about
which two places it was really a continuous battle
from June 10 till July 3, when the enemy fell back
SHIELDS. 497
to Chattahoochee river. July 4 was celebrated by latter granted to Johnston the same terms that had
a battle of Thomas at Smyrna; on the 17th the been granted to Gen. Lee. Johnston surrendered on
Chattahoochee was crossed, and on the next day April 26 at Durham's Station, N. C., and the brilliant
Sherman learned that Johnston, had relinquished campaign, as well as the war, was at an end. On May
his command and Hood assumed his place. On the 23, at Washington, Gen. Sherman witnessed the re-
20th came the battle of Peach Tree Creek, and view of the Army of the Potomac under Gen. Meade,
on the 22d the battle before Atlanta, when the gal- and on the 24th his own army was similarly reviewed.
lant Gen. McPherson was killed. On Aug. 12 Sher- “It was,” says Sherman in his Memoirs, “in my judg-
man learned that he was commissioned a major-gen-
eral in the regular army, and heard of Farragut's
success in entering Mobile Bay, which he regarded
as a valuable auxiliary for future operations. On
Sept. 1 Hood evacuated Atlanta, which was forth-
with taken possession of by the Union troops. Here
Sherman received the thanks of the nation commu-
nicated to him in a letter from the President, as well
as warm complimentary letters from Grant and Hal-
leck. The total loss of the Union Army for the
campaign, from May 6 to Sept. 15—that is, on the
march from Chattanooga to Atlanta—amounted to
31,687 killed, wounded, and missing ; the loss of
the Confederates was 34,979. By order of Gen.
Sherman the civil population of Atlanta were re-
quired to leave the city, and this was in a great
measure carried out by the exodus of large numbers
to Hood at Rough and Ready—whence they were
conveyed to their destinations southward.
In the beginning of October Hood began a move-
ment westward, thus removing himself from Sher-
man's front. This movement was soon converted
into a northerly one, Hood's object being to draw
Sherman back from Georgia by assailing his line of
communications and threatening Tennessee and
Kentucky. The device was unavailing. Sherman,
on satisfying himself of Hood's purpose, thought
it sufficient to send Thomas back to Nashville to
defend the line of the Tennessee and check Hood
from troubling his rear, and himself prepared for
his southward march to the sea. On Nov. 16 the
movement began, his army numbering 62,000 men,
With Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard in command of the
right wing and Maj. Gen. H. W. Slocum of the
left. The immediate objective point was Savannah,
but the ulterior point was Grant's army before Rich-
mond. Hood's withdrawal had left the way open to
Sherman. On Dec. 13 Fort McAllister, at the mouth
of the Ogeechee river, was captured, and Savannah
invested by sea and land. Gen. J. B. Hardee, who
Occupied the city, evacuated it on Dec. 21, and next
day it was formally occupied by the Union troops
and the “March to the Sea” accomplished.
Savannah was now made the Union base, and
preparations were made for an advance through the
Carolinas to Richmond. On Feb. 1, 1865, the move-
ment began and was continued without noticeable
incident to Columbia. This beautiful town, taking
fire from some burning cotton, was more than half
reduced to ashes. Sherman was in no way respon-
sible for the fact, though the citizens laid the blame
on him. Hardee evacuated Charleston, Feb. 18.
Sherman, on March 21 had a sharp action at Ben-
tonsville, N. C., with Gen. Johnston commanding
the Confederates, resulting in the retreat of the lat.
ter with a loss of 2343, the Union loss being 1604,
When at Smithfield, on April 11, in pursuit of Gen.
Johnston, who had retreated on Raleigh, Gen. Sher-
man received news of Lee's surrender on the 9th at
Appomattox Court-house.
A truce was at once arranged between Gens. Sher-
man and Johnston, and a convention agreed to in re-
gard to the terms of peace. This convention, how-
ever, being political as well as military, required the
assent of the government. Meantime Pres. Lincoln
was assassinated, and Pres. Johnson and his cabinet,
thinking that Sherman had exceeded his author.
ity, peremptorily countermanded his action. Gen.
Grant quietly visited Gen. Sherman, and then the
ment the most magnificent army in existence–65,000
men in splendid physique who had just completed a
march of nearly 2000 miles in a hostile country.”
Gen. Sherman on leaving Washington returned
to his native place in Ohio, where he rested for
a time in the bosom of his family. On the parti-
tion of the whole country into five military divi-
Sions he was appointed to the command of the
second, or that of the Mississippi (afterward the
Missouri), with headquarters at St. Louis. Under
the act of Congress, July 28, 1866, Grant was made
general, and Sherman succeeded him as lieutenant-
general, in the regular army. In October he was
Ordered to escort the newly appointed U. S. minister
to Juarez, recently elected President of Mexico, as a
significant protest against the occupation of that
country by the Emperor Maximilian and French
troops. Nov. 10, he embarked with the minister for
Vera Cruz, and, after considerable search for the
headquarters of the patriots, having, as he thought,
put him en rapport with Juarez, returned to his duties
in St. Louis. In January, 1868, Sherman was pres- .
ident of a board to compile a code of Articles of
War and Army Regulations, the other members be-
ing Gens. Sheridan and Auger. On Grant's inaugu-
ration as President in March, 1869, Sherman was
appointed general of the Army of the United States.
This office he held till he reached the age prescribed
by law for the retirement of army officers. He was
relieved, at his own request, Nov. 1, 1883, and was
| Succeeded by Gen. P. H. Sheridan (q. p.). He then
took up his residence in St. Louis, but afterward re-
moved to New York City.
| Gen. Sherman's qualities as a soldier have been
thus tersely summed up by one well competent to
judge. “Above all his other excellences shone his
promptitude, celerity, and immeasurable activity.
What for some commanders were winter-quarters
were to him a bivouac. Always ready for the start,
indefatigable on the march, omnipresent in battle,
relentless in pursuit, Gen. Sherman made himself
not only more feared but more respected by the
enemy than any general in the national armies save
perhaps, the one who commanded them all.”
J. H.
SHIELDS, CHARLEs WooDRUFF, Pºiº hi.
vine, was born at New Albany, Ind., April 4, 1825.
He graduated at Princeton in 1844 and studied the-
ology there. After a brief pastorate at Hempstead,
L: I., he became pastor in Philadelphia in 1850,
Where he remained until, in 1865, he was made pro-
fessor in Princeton College. His department was
the relation of religion to science, and to this was
afterward added modern history. He has been an
advocate of liturgical worship and of the union of
Christian churches. He published Philosophia Ul-
tima (1861), and several works, historical and critical,
on Presbyterian liturgies.
SHIELDS, JAMES (1810–1879), general, was born
in 1810 in Dungannon, County Tyrone, Ireland, and
game to this country when 16 years old. In 1832
he settled at Kaskaskia, Ill., and began practice as
a lawyer ; and was elected, in close Succession, mem-
ber of the legislature, auditor, and, in 1843, judge
of the supreme court. In 1845 he was made commis-
Sioner of the U. S. land office. When war was be-
gun with Mexico he was appointed a brigadier-gen-
eral and given command of the Illinois contingent;
Was shot through the body at Cerro Gordo, and
y
498
won the brevet of major-general. He took part in
the operations in the Valley of Mexico, and was
again severely wounded at Chapultepec. Mustered
out in 1848, he was offered the governorship of Ore-
gon Territory, but declined it on being elected U. S.
Senator from Illinois. After serving from 1849 till
1855 he removed to Minnesota, and, on its being
Constituted into a State, returned to the senate as its
representative. In 1860 he settled in California.
Cn the outbreak of the civil war he was nominated
brigadier-general of volunteers, and in 1862 com-
manded at the battles of Winchester and Port Repub-
lic, in the Shenandoah Valley. Resigning his com-
mission in 1863, he settled first in California, but
Soon after at Carrollton, Mo., where he resumed his
law-practice. He was also a member of the State
legislature in 1874 and in 1879. He died at Ot-
tumwa, Iowa, June 1, 1879.
SHILOH, city of Israel. See TABERNACLE.
SHILOH, BATTLE OF. This battle was fought,
April 6 and 7, 1862, between the Union forces under
Gen. U. S. Grant and the Confederates under Gen.
Albert Sidney Johnston, the object being the capt-
ure by the latter of Pittsburg Landing, on the west
bank of the Tennessee river, the base of Grant's
contemplated operations. The battle takes its name
from a log meeting-house, named Shiloh, near which
the heaviest fighting took place.
On the loss of Fort Donelson, Feb. 16, 1862 (see
ToRT DONELSON), Gen. Johnston determined to
abandon the line of the Cumberland and to con-
centrate his forces at Corinth, Miss., the point of in-
tersection of the two principal Southern railroads—
the Memphis and Chattanooga, and the Mobile and
Ohio. At Murfreesboro’ he made connection with
Gen. George B. Crittenden, who brought with him
the remnants of his force which had been defeated
by Gen. G. H. Thomas at Logan Cross Roads, Jan.
19. On the fall of Fort Henry, Johnston had as-
signed the district west of the Tennessee to Beaure-
gard, with instructions to concentrate all available
forces also at Corinth, and this general, On the fall
of Donelson, evacuated Columbus and constructed
defences at Island No. 10 of the Mississippi and at
Memphis, to check the advance of the Union forces
by way of the great river.
Immediately on Clarksville's being evacuated by
the Confederates it was occupied by Gen. Grant and
Commodore Foote, who set about making prepara-
tions for an assault on Island No. 10 and Mem-
phis. But Grant appeared to move with less alac-
rity than Halleck required, and the result was an
episode that threatened to check a brilliant career.
Irritated at a seeming disregard of his orders, Hal-
leck reported to Washington that Grant had left his
post without leave, and the consequence was that he
was ordered to remain in arrest in Fort Henry and
give over his command to Gen. C. F. Smith. The
arrest lasted but a week, whereupon Grant pro-
ceeded to Savannah to resume the leadership of his
command, which had advanced hither under Smith.
He found himself at the head of six divisions—the
three he had with him at Fort Donelson, increased
by those of Gens. Sherman, Prentiss, and Hurlbut.
On the 14th Smith (then in command) had sent
Sherman up the Tennessee to Eastport, to destroy
the railroad communications there, but he, finding
this impracticable, returned and landed at Pittsburg
Tanding on the west bank of the river, and found
Hurlbut already there. This landing is 8 miles above
Savannah, and had been indicated by Halleck as a
place of rendezvous whence to make raids on the
railroads. Corinth lay 26 miles S. W. Grant, judg-
ing it unsafe that his forces should be thus divided,
assembled three other divisions around the landing,
and stationed the sixth, that of Lew Wallace, 5
miles down the river at Crump's Landing. Nelson,
SHILOH.
with the advanced division of Buell's force, arrived
at Savannah on the evening of the 5th, but did not
arrive opposite the landing till the evening of the
first day of battle, when it had to be ferried over.
Before the battle Grant had at the landing a force
of some 33,000 men. His neglect to intrench Pitts-
burg Landing in the face of a more powerful enemy
has been severely criticised.
We turn now to the proceedings of the Southern
commanders. The delay of four weeks, due to the di-
vided ambition and hesitation of the Union generals,
had enabled them to revive their men's courage and
regather and re-enforce their dispersed armies. On
March 23 Johnston and Beauregard had effected a
junction at Corinth, and their united forces amounted
to over 40,000. Johnston's plan of campaign was to
concentrate his whole force before the great bend of
the Tennessee, and, this effected, to crush Grant be-
fore the arrival of Buell. When he heard on the 3d
of April that Buell was in motion from Columbia, he
at once decided to strike the crushing blow ere the
junction could be effected. The following letter to
Jeff. Davis, written on the 3d, explains not only his
motive but the disposition of his troops : “General
Buellis in motion, 30,000 strong, rapidly from Colum-
bia . . . to Savannah . Confederate forces,
40,000, ordered forward to offer battle near Pittsburg,
all converging to-morrow near Monterey or Pitts-
burg. Beauregard second in command ; Polk, left ;
Hardee, centre ; Bragg, right wing ; Breckenridge,
reserve.” The Confederate advance was carried out
as projected, except that the difficulties of the roads
caused the loss of a day. On the evening of the 5th
they bivouacked in the forest, in front of and within
two miles of their enemy. No suspicion of their prox-
imity dawned on the mind of any Union general.
General Grant himself, who was at headquarters at
Savannah, wrote on this same 5th to Halleck : “The
main force of the enemy is at Corinth.”
The Union position was strong. It had the Ten-
nessee on its left flank, which was further protected
by gun-boats. The ground was easy to defend, con-
sisting of undulations intersected by numerous
streamlets and ravines, and—save for a few clearings
of from 20 to 80 acres—covered with wood, partly
brush and partly forest trees. It is bounded on the
south by †. Creek, which enters the Tennessee 2+
miles above the Landing, and on the north and
partly on the west by Owl Creek, an affluent of
Snake Creek, and then by that stream till it falls into
the river a half-mile above the Landing. From the
swampy nature of the banks an attack could be
made only in front. The rivers and creeks enclosed
a high triangular plateau with sides three or four
miles in length. Two roads from Pittsburg to Cor-
inth run along the main ridge, and from these a
net-work of minor roads diverged to various points.
Two miles from the Landing, on the western Corinth
road, stood Shiloh meeting-house, which marked the
centre of the battle-field and was the key to Grant's
position. The disposition of the Union troops was
as follows: Sherman held Shiloh ; Prentiss was to his
left, with McClernand to his right somewhat in the
rear. Half-way back toward the Landing were the
divisions of Hurlbut and of Smith (the last com-
manded by W. H. L. Wallace, Smith lying sick at
Savannah). On the extreme left was Stuart, with one
brigade of Sherman's division. Gen. Lew Wallace's
division was at Crump's Landing. Grant had thus
33,000 men in line between Owl Creek and Lick
Creek. Accounts indicate somewhat of a gap be-
tween Sherman's left and Prentiss' right.
The Confederates stood deployed for the attack
in three lines. The Third Corps and one of Bragg's
brigades formed the advanced line, reaching from
Sherman's right to beyond Prentiss' left, and num-
bered 9024 men. Bragg's remaining five brigades,
499
SHIP-BUILDING.
numbering 10,731, stood about 800 yards behind
Hardee and leaning more to the right, as far as
Stuart. Polk's four brigades and Breckenridge's
three were disposed right and left as reserves. In
all Johnston had about 40,000 men.
At 5 o'clock on Sunday morning, April 6, the Con-
federate lines moved to the attack. The time re-
quired to pass the two intervening miles, and skir-
mishes between the pickets and a reconnoitring
regiment, put the Union front on the alert, and when
the lines came together the divisions of Sherman,
McClernand, and Prentiss were in position to offer
stubborn resistance. It would be vain to attempt
to follow the vicissitudes of the fight, which, begin-
ning at dawn, lasted till sunset. It has been charac-
terized by Grant as a conflict between Southern
dash and Northern pluck and endurance. There
were onset and repulse without cease, but through
all fluctuations the Confederates won their way
northward, in accordance with which, Beauregard, to
whom Johnston had committed the general direction
of the fight, advanced his headquarters from point
to point. Early in the day the divisions of Hurl-
but and W. H. L. Wallace had been brought for-
ward to sustain Prentiss, Sherman, and McClernand.
It was in the afternoon that the most noteworthy in-
cidents occurred. First occurred the death of the
Confederate commander Johnston, who fell heading
the charge of a brigade. About 3 o'clock the with-
drawal of troops produced gaps both on left and
right of Prentiss and Wallace, and the enemy were
not slow in seizing the advantage. They enveloped
them. Wallace was mortally wounded and Prentiss
was captured, along with the fragments of both di-
visions to the number of 2200.
This capture left a break in the Federal line, and,
but for one compensating circumstance, would prob-
ably have given the victory to the Confederates.
The Union lines had been swept back a mile and a
half, and the attack was advancing on the Corinth
road running along the principal ridge. Col. Web-
ster, of Grant's staff, foreseeing that the enemy were
on the eve of gaining the ridge, gathered what guns
i. along the ridge, manning it with cannoneers
argely extemporized from stragglers. The guns on
the boats co-operated with those on the ridge. The
turning-point was now reached. Before Webster
had succeeded in beating back the last desperate on-
set, Nelson's division was mounting the bank from
the river and deploying in line. All chance of a
Confederate victory vanished. The attack ceased
over all the line.
During the night Crittenden's division, of Buell's
army, was placed in position, and McCook's reached
early on Monday morning. Buell, who had arrived
On Sunday evening in advance of his vanguard, di-
rected the posting of his divisions, which amounted
in all to 20,000 men. Lew Wallace, with his divi-
sion, numbering 6500, had arrived from Crump's
Landing, and was stationed on the right. -
Grant and Buell now agreed to take the offensive
next morning, and by a simultaneous onset drive the
enemy from the field. The two wings of the com-
bined army advanced steadily, and by 3 P. M. were in
possession of all the ground they had lost, while the
enemy was in full retreat on Corinth. The Union
generals made no attempt at pursuit, but contented
themselves with an advance sufficient to assure them
the enemy had disappeared. Thus ended, after a
struggle of two days, the bloodiest battle that had
yet been fought on American soil. The Federal loss
was 1754 killed, 8408 wounded, and 2885 missing.
Gen. Beauregard reported a loss of 1728 killed,
8012 wounded, and 957 missing. Both sides claimed
the victory; but the Confederates failed in the ob-
ject they aimed at. (J. H.)
SHIP-BUILDING. The vessels in which Colum-
bus made his first voyage to America
See Yol. XXI were the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and
K *...; * the Nina. The Santa Maria was about
* * 100 feet long, 29 feet wide, and 12 feet
depth of hold, with a single deck. The Pinta and
Nina were much smaller, open like boats, but with
cabins and quarters built at the stern and bow for
the officers and crew. They had two masts, the for-
ward one carrying a square sail, and the after one a
triangular sail, attached to a yard, hanging by its
middle at an angle of about 45° with the horizon.
Ship-building in America, as with all other coun-
tries, was brought about by the fisheries. Cabot, in
1497, having spread the news that the shores of
North America were teeming with fish, many ex-
peditions were sent out, and in a few years both
France and England had hundreds of fishing vessels
catching fish off the banks of Newfoundland, and
curing and salting them on the island. By 1600
England was sending more than 200 vessels annually,
and fully 10,000 persons were employed in catching
and curing fish, and as explorers pushed in toward
the shores of what are now Massachusetts and
Maine, they found that better fish could be caught in
shallower water than off the Banks, and the desire to
found fishing colonies was one of the strongest mo-
tives leading to the grant by James I., in 1606, to
the Plymouth Company.
The vessels sent to fish were very small as com-
pared with the vessels of the present day which
cross the Atlantic. Not more than 15 per cent. of
the vessels of England, in 1582, were more than 75
feet long by 23 feet wide by 10 feet depth. In 1603
England had few vessels of more than 400 tons
burden.
The coast from Newfoundland to Virginia was
soon dotted with little fishing villages. The Eng-
lish merchants did not wish to go to the expense of
carrying a large number of men on their vessels,
and these fishing villages were places where the men
could be left permanently to dry the fish, and by
their numbers be secure against attacks from the
he could, and posted a line of artillery of 35 to 50
Indians.
The colonists soon began to build boats and fish
for themselves. This was not at all relished in the
mother country, and in 1670 orders were issued to
capture and burn the boats and break up the boat
fisheries of New England. This was not effectual,
and soon vessels were carrying fish for sale to Vir-
ginia and the West Indies, and finally to Europe,
and whalers were penetrating to the icy regions
north and south. The vessels taking out cargoes of
fish came back loaded with the commodities of the
countries visited, and vessels gradually were drawn
into regular trade, the fishing fleet being at hand to
furnish masters and men. A valuable commerce
was in this way brought about, and the demand for
vessels stimulating ship-building, it became a fixed
and prosperous industry within a hundred years of
the time of the first permanent settlement.
The first ship built in this country was the Vir-
ginia, built at the mouth of the Kennebec River, in
1607. A party came to found a fishing settlement,
and the two ships bringing them over returned,
leaving 45 persons behind. The winter being very
severe, they were discouraged and built the Virginia
to take them home again. She was a well-built
little vessel with two masts, about 60 feet long by 17
feet beam by 10% depth of hold, and made several
voyages across the Ocean. The next vessel built was
the Onrest, 444 feet long and 11 feet beam. She
was built by Adrian Blok at New York, in 1615–16,
to replace one of the Dutch vessels that had been
burnt. She was used for several years in exploring
the Atlantic coast.
No other vessels except boats appear to have been
500
built until 1631, when, on July 4, the vessel Blessing
of the Bay was launched at Medford for the use of
the Massachusetts colony. Gov. Winthrop wished
to send a vessel to open communications with the
Dutch at New York, and for trading with other
places. She was used for some time, and then was
probably wrecked.
The fact that timber was rapidly being exhausted
in England was a strong inducement to British mer-
chants to import timber and, later, to build vessels in
America. Matthew Craddock located a claim and es-
tablished a ship-yard on the Mystic River. Several
large vessels were built there and sent to England.
The ship-building industry seemed to thrive in Salem
from the first, and the village soon became noted for
its ship-yards and the vessels built therein. Before
1640 the transatlantic trade was mostly carried on in
European vessels, but in that year a vessel of 300
tons was laid down at Salem for a company, with the
Rev. Hugh Peters at its head, and a vessel of 150
tons Was begun at Boston, both vessels being
launched the following year; and in 1641–42 three
Vessels were building at Salem, three at Boston, and
one at Dorchester. The success of these vessels
started a ship-building industry, a number of New
England towns began to build vessels for foreign ser-
vice, and the merchants of Barbadoes, Antigua, and
Jamaica sent to New England for their vessels.
Ship-building was early engaged in by the settlers
of Connecticut, and sloops and other small vessels
were built along the Connecticut River, especially at
New Haven, from the white-oak, chestnut, and pine
which abounded in that vicinity.
The Dutch West India Company encouraged ship-
building at the mouth of the Hudson by granting
special privileges to take timber from the forests to
build ships, though most of the work was done at
the ship-yard of the company. After New York
passed into the hands of the English, ship-building
was continued. In 1669 a vessel of 120 tons was
built at New York, and one of 65 tons at Gravesend,
L. I. In 1700 there hailed from New York 124 ves-
sels of 100 tons and under, and from Boston 194,
among them vessels of 300 tons. About this time
the shipping of New York was much injured by the
war then waging between France and England, and
for many years after the ship-yards only turned out
small sloops, the main Ocean carrying being in Eu-
ropean bottoms.
Most of the building during colonial times was
done in New England. In 1698 an act was passed
providing for the inspection and registry of vessels
of 30 tons and upward. The colonial archives in
Boston show that of the vessels registered from 1698
to 1714, 1332 were American built, 239 of them for
foreign owners.
The vessels of those days, while small, carried large
crews and usually were armed ; thus the ship Rich-
ard, of 100 tons, carried 14 men and 12 guns; the Pru-
dent Sarah, 100 tons, 14 men and 10 guns. The
magnitude of the ship-building industry just prior to
the Revolution can be understood from the follow-
ing : In 1769 the Colonies built and launched 389 ves-
sels, 113 square-rigged, and 276 sloops and schoon-
ers, of an aggregate burthen of 20,000 tons. Of
these Massachusetts provided nearly one half, New
Hampshire and Rhode Island the next largest num-
ber, while New York had only 5 square-rigged
vessels and 14 sloops and schooners. Pennsylvania
owned 1344 tons, Virginia 1249 tons, North and
South Carolina 1396 tons, Connecticut 1542 tons,
and Georgia one sloop and one schooner whose com-
bined tonnage was 50 tons.
In this same year the entrances to the ports of the
TJnited States amounted to 332,146 tons, and the
clearances to 339,302 tons, of which 99,121 tons
cleared for England, 42,601 for Southern European
SHIP-BUILDING.
and African ports, 96,382 for the West Indies, and
101,198 for the rest of America. The aggregate
Value of all the imports was £2,623,412, and of the
exports £2,852,441, of which Great Britain sent
#1,604,975, receiving in return £1,531,516.
During the revolution the fishing and whaling
fleet was nearly annihilated by the British cruisers
lying off the coast, and ship-building was suspended.
The idle fishing and merchant fleets were employed
in privateering. The first privateer built was by a
Newburyport merchant, and she took 23,360 tons of .
shipping, and 2225 men, the vessels and cargoes sell-
ing for $3,950,000.
Four frigates and three sloops-of-war were built
for Congress, familiarizing our people with the build-
ing of large, powerful vessels, and these were followed
by large privateers as private ventures of the mer-
chants of Philadelphia, New England, and Baltimore.
In consequence of this, there were many vessels at
the end of the war that were too large for the coast-
ing trade, and they entered into competition with
the rest of the world, especially for the East Indian
trade. The first ship carrying the new flag to enter
Canton was a Baltimore vessel, and she sailed thence
with a cargo of teas, china-Ware, and silk. In 1788
the ship Atlantic, of Salem, displayed the American
flag in Surat, Bombay, and Calcutta.
When in 1814 peace was declared, after the war of
1812, it was at once realized that after so long a .
stagnation in commerce there would be great profits
to those first in the field with ships and cargoes, and
within a few days after the receipt of the news all
the idle yards were full of busy workmen, and from
this time till 1861 our maritime career was most
prosperous. *
Forty years of war had led the American to design
ships for speed and handiness, and our builders
carefully studied the models and rigs to attain these
qualities. Clumsy shapes and looks were discarded,
and our vessels were models of beauty and were
capable of developing great speed.
While ships naturally took the shapes best fitted
for their special trades, the tonnage law also had an
effect on them, as the tonnage was computed from the
length and breadth measured on deck, and the depth
was taken as one-half the beam. In consequence of
this the length and breadth on the upper deck were
kept as small as possible, the bow was lengthened
out on deck, and the sides bulged out at the water-
line, so that the tonnage, estimated from the deck
measurements, was less than the actual tonnage.
Roomy ships were obtained, but the government did
not get its just dues, as ship-builders courted the
reputation of building the roomiest ship on the least
official tonnage measurement.
A special class of ships, carrying both freight and
passengers, came into existence just after the War of
1812, to meet the demand of the great ocean travel
then beginning, and to carry the great number of
emigrants to America. Such vessels, usually barques
and ships, were most luxuriously fitted up, and would
carry from 600 to 1000 people and 1000 tons of
freight. New York was the centre of the packet
business, and the Black Ball Iine was started by
Isaac Wright & Co. just after the War, sailing twice
every month to Liverpool. This line was soon fol-
lowed by others sailing to London and Havre.
There was a strong spirit of rivalry among the vari-
ous lines, and this led to a study of the principles of
ship design and construction. Our builders not
only studied all that was to be learned from foreign
books, but conducted experiments with models.
The shape of swift fishes was studied, and the be-
havior of water and the influence of different dispo-
sitions of sails were fully investigated. Such study
and experiment placed our ship-builders ahead of
others, and our models were copied the world over
SHIP-BUILDING. 501
by ship-builders. As a result of the years of study week, and the Sovereign of the Seas once made 437
from 1812 to 1850 the American sailing-vessel miles in 24 hours. The average time was about 7
reached perfection, and practically no advance has knots per hour. (See CLIPPER SHIPs.) -º-º:
been made since then. | In 1847 a first-class vessel cost here about $80 per
Till 1849, the packet was a one- or two-decked ves- ton against $90 in England. - re
sel, with poop and topgallant forecastle, of an aver- Many new appliances were due to the clipper-ship
age register of 1000 tons. Freight was stowed in the competition, such as double topsails and various
lower hold. Between decks the cabin passengers devices to save labor, such as steam saw-mills,
were stowed aft, the middle portion was devoted to derricks, etc. Labor was divided, too, as the early
cooking and pantries, and the steerage passengers ship carpenter was a Jack-of-all-trades and would
and crew were quartered forward. do all the work, from hewing out the frames to
The first three-decker, the Guy Mannering, was caulking the seams. But this practice was not
built at New York in 1849, by Wm. H. Webb. She found to yield the best results, and separate gangs
was about 190 feet long, 40 feet beam, and 29 feet of men did the carpentering, caulking, fastening,
depth of hold, and of 1419 tons register, and would painting, etc., leading to better and quicker work.
carry 2400 tons of freight on a draught of 20 feet. About 1835, when the supply of oak timber grew
This noble ship set the fashion, and the three- small in New England, Southern timber began to
decker was from this time the popular type of find its way into the Northern yards. Forests of
packet ship. Our ships carried the finest officers magnificent white oak were growing In the peninsu-
and crews of any vessels afloat, were well built and las of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. The
well sailed, and being fast and comfortable, they moulds or patterns were made for the frames of a
drove the vessels of other nations from the field and vessel, and parties of men were sent into the woods
had a practical monopoly of passenger, mail, and in the winter, where they camped, and felling the
express traffic. Excellent time was made. The trees, hewed the frames from them and carried them
James Baine sailed from Boston to Liverpool in 12 by rafting or other means to some place where they
days and 6 hours, and the Red Jacket from New York could be loaded upon schooners, to be taken to the
to Liverpool in 13 days 7 hours; but the average Northern ship-yards. The frames of vessels, built
time was, of course, greater, about 20 days to Liver- along the New England coast are still obtained from
pool and 32 to return. i the forests in the States named.
English steamers began to compete with the pack- | Southern pitch-pine was used for beams, decks, and
et lines about 1840, the Cunard line beginning that waterways, clamps, etc., and in time came to be used
year, supported by a subsidy of £90,000 a year, soon for the ceiling and planking of vessels. For the
increased to £145,000. The United States started |masts and spars white pine and spruce are preferred,
the Bremen line in 1847, and the Collins line in though lower masts are made up often of oak, maple, or
1850, but in 1857 all subsidies were withdrawn, and yellow pine, dowelled, bolted, and hooped with iron.
ships of these lines were taken off. The civil war of
The coasting trade and the California wheat trade
1861 was the final blow to our packet ships. This
packet period is noted for the great increase in size
of vessels. In 1714 ships were in the China trade of
only 200 tons burthen, and our present lumber
schooners would have been considered immense
Vessels; but about 1812 large vessels began to be
built, and from that time on the increase in size is
most remarkable. About 1825 the Washington, of
1000 tons, drew crowds of people to the wharves in
all the ports she visited. In 1841 the largest mer-
chantman in the world was built and launched at
Bath, by Clark & Sewall. She was called the Rappa-
hannock, and though of light scantling, lasted twenty
years.
The packet ship was followed by the clipper, since
cargoes that deteriorated on the voyage had to be
carried, and the changing character of the markets
made speed as important for freight as for passenger
traffic. . The clippers of 1840–50 sat low in the water,
With sharp bow, fine water-lines, tall masts, with
enormous spread of canvas. The first clipper ship
was built by Wm. H. Webb in 1841, for the China
trade. She was the Helena, of 450 tons. She was
built for speed, and fully realized the expectations
of her builder. The discovery of gold in California
gave a great boom to the clipper ship, as everything
that could be bought in the East was sent to Califor:
nia by freight, and our yards turned out vessels the
largest and finest that the world had ever seen.
The years 1854–5–6 are noted for the number and
'beauty of the vessels built in the United States. In
these first years of the California gold fever $40 per
ton of 40 cubic feet was paid from the East to New
York, and ten years later it was $25.
The first clippers had sharp floors, considerable
drag, with a full forward and a lean after-body.
This was gradually changed, the vessels of 1840
being made fuller on the floor, and with a more even
keel, but the hollow water-line and long bow were
retained. These clippers made excellent speeds.
. The Red Jacket once made 325 miles a day for a
to Europe still employ a large number of sailing
ships. Sailing ships are still more profitable for
long voyages with certain classes of cargo than
steamers, and many such are built, though the num-
ber of large vessels will gradually reduce each year,
as the steam engine becomes more economical in
coal consumption.
The tonnage and number of sailing vessels built
during the last five years is as follows:
Number Tons.
1884. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 134,187
*... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5S2 74,723
Sºº. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 50,986
1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 50,376
1&. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 5S4 76,0S0
Before 1861, the schooner had come to stay as the
coasting vessel. Fewer men are required with this
rig, and it can be worked in and out of harbors
more easily than the square-rigged vessel. On ac-
count of the shallow harbors and sand-bars of the
eastern coast the greater number of the Atlantic
coasting schooners have flat bottoms, and are fitted
with centreboards. The lines are free, the beam
large, and the bow sharp and long. For ocean voy-
ages and for the Pacific waters most of the schooners
are built with keels. In our coasting trade schoon-
: ers are used to transport lumber, coal, ores, and ice,
lººd for fishing purposes. The yards in Maine stili
ºurn out a number of large schooners each year.
The Governor Ames, built in 18SS at Waldeboro, is
one of the largest schooners afloat. The length on
the keel is 232 feet, over all 265 feet, beam 50 feet,
depth 21 feet, lower hold 13 feet, between decks
8 feet. She has a tonnage registry of about 1800,
and Will be able to carry about 3000 tons of coai
ºn a draught of 20 feet. In her construction 460
tons of Virginia white-oak are used in the fram-
ing. The planking is 6 inches thick, at the gun-
Wale 74 inches, the heaviest planking ever put on a
schooner. The centre board is 33 feet long, 15 feet
deep, and 9 inches thick, made of white-oak. One
502
SHIP-BUILDING.
hundred and fifty tons of bolt iron are used in her
fastenings. She has nine cargo hatches, 25 feet
across. The most striking point about this great
Schooner is her rig of five towering masts, desig-
nated respectively the foremast, mainmast, mizzen-
mast, jiggermast, and spankermast. The five lower-
masts are each 115 feet long and 30 inches in di-
ameter. The topmasts are 56 feet in height. The
jibboom is 75 feet long and 22 inches in diameter
at the bowsprit-cap. She will spread 63,000 square
feet of canvas.
The building of whaling vessels, now almost dis-
continued, was once a great industry in New Eng-
land. These vessels were not large, as a rule not
exceeding 400 tons register. The largest whaler
Was the George Washington, of 600 tons. The
earlier whalers, built for use and not for show, were
clumsy to look at above water, but under water the
model was usually very good, being sharp on floor
and ends, deep, and with the greatest beam forward
of amidships. Of late lighter sterns and more
shapely bows have been introduced, and the whaler
looks as neat as any of her sister vessels of the mer-
chant fleet. No material except the very best, and
that without flaw of any kind, was put into a whaler
by the builders of New Bedford, New London, and
Sag Harbor. Every detail was carefully looked out
for with a care not known in any other branch of
ship-building. Especial care was taken in calking
the seams, and the vessel was often hauled down on
One side to open the seams on the other for calk-
ing. The George Howland and the Roman, calked
in this way, sailed for eighteen years without re-
calking. The result of careful building is shown
in their longevity, vessels being serviceable seventy-
five years after building. The scantlings and fas-
tenings of whalers are in the main heavier than are
required by underwriters for insurance in the mer-
chant navy.
Steam-whalers have lately come into use. In
1879 the Mary and Helen was launched at Bath,
Maine. She is 138 feet long, 30+ feet beam, regis-
ters 420, carries a full spread of canvas, and has a
screw engine capable of driving her from 6 to 8
miles an hour. She is built of oak, yellow pine, and
hackmatack, and cost $65,000. Since then several
others have been built.
The sailing fishing fleet of the United States is
large, and many different classes of vessels are used,
which cannot all be described here. The rig and
shape of boat is such as is best adapted to the pe-
culiar conditions of service required, ranging from
the Chesapeake Bay canoe and bug-eye to the fish-
ing schooners of the North.
Steam Navigation. — After the invention of the
steam-engine, efforts were made to use it for locomo-
tion on land and sea. The greatest need at that time
was to tow vessels when entering or leaving harbors,
and to propel boats on canals and against river cur-
rents. Jonathan Hulls patented a stern-wheel boat in
England in 1736 to be used for harbor towing. In
America John Fitch built a vessel to run on the Del-
aware in 1786–87. This was fitted with banks of
vertical oars on each side, a beam carrying the oars
being attached to a crank from the engine situated
in the boat, dipping the oars in the water, moving
them aft, lifting them out and forward, to repeat the
first motion. This was America's first steam-boat,
and a speed of from 4 to 7 miles was obtained.
James Rumsey tried forcing a current of water from
a pipe at the stern by steam-power. Fitch in 1793
made the first experiment with the Screw propeller.
The boat used was about 18 feet long by 6 feet wide,
with a screw wheel at the stern, worked by a hori-
zontal, walking beam engine with a wooden cylinder
at each end of the beam. The cylinders were made
like barrels and the boiler was only an iron pot with
a Wooden lid. A speed of 6 miles an hour was ob-
tained. e
The men, however, who made steam-navigation a
success were John Fulton, with his partner Living-
ston, and John Cox Stevens, of Hoboken. Fulton
and Livingston made their first experiments on the
Seine, at Paris, building two small boats in 1803 and
Satisfying themselves as to the feasibility of steam-
propulsion. &
Stevens worked on screw propulsion for thirteen
Years, and in 1804 built a boat, the Phoenix, 25
feet long, driven by a Watt's engine and screw, ob-
tained a speed of 4 miles an hour, and finally took
the vessel by sea from Hoboken to the Delaware,
the first Ocean steam-voyage.
Fulton bought a 20 horse-power engine in 1806,
and came to America to start steam-navigation, his
original idea being to build boats for the Western
rivers; but when he, with Livingston, obtained exclu-
sive rights for steam-vessels on the Hudson, all their
efforts were then made in that direction. His boat,
the Clermont, was built on the East River, in
1807, by Charles Brown. She was at first 133 feet
long, 163 feet wide, and 7 feet deep, but was after-
Ward made 141 feet long by 22 feet wide. She had
a flat bottom, straight sides, a full bow, and a
straight stem. A bottom was laid of 14 inch yellow
pine, tongued and grooved and set with white-lead,
and floors laid across this, 24 inches apart, made of
oak of 8-inch square section under the machinery,
but at the ends of spruce, 4 by 8 inches in section.
The boat was decked only at the ends, and the boilers
were in full view. The paddle-wheels were 15 feet
in diameter, with buckets 4 feet long and with 24
inches dip. The shaft was of cast iron, 4% inches in
diameter. A heavy fly-wheel was at first carried, 10.
feet in diameter, but as this extended down into the
water it was inconvenient in shallow water, and was
afterward removed.
The boiler was 20 feet long, 7 feet deep, and 8 feet
wide. The engine cylinder was 24 inches in diameter
by 4 feet stroke. The boat drew 28 inches of water.
On the first trip 110 miles were made in 24 hours,
and 150 miles in 32 hours; or, deducting stops, in
283 hours, an average of 5 miles per hour.
While the first trial of this vessel was looked upon
with the greatest interest, the satisfactory introduc-
tion of steam-navigation brought about the en-
mity of the numerous packet lines carrying the
freight and passenger traffic. Sloops would make
the trip from New York to Albany in 27 hours, the
passenger fare being $5, and they lost no oppor-
tunity to annoy the Clermont, even going so far
as to wilfully run against her to smash the paddle-
wheels. However, after being lengthened, in 1810,
as stated above, she made many successful trips, al-
ways running full of passengers. In 1808 Charles
Brown built the Raritan and the Car of Neptune.
In 1812 a ferry-boat was built to run to the Jersey
shore. The double-ended ferry-boat, drooping at
each end, so familiar to the American travelling
public, was designed by Fulton and has been but
little modified since.
Steam-boats quickly sprang into existence in other
parts of the world, after being proven a success by
Fulton. One was built on the St. Lawrence in 1809,
and another in 1811. The British built their first
steam-boat at Glasgow in 1811, and boats were soon
building all over the kingdom. Builders were en-
abled to put in the necessary plant to build marine
engines on account of contracts for steam men-of-
war, and by 1839 England had 96 such vessels.
The war of 1812 did not interfere with the devel-
opment of the steam-boat in this country. Fulton
proposed to the government to build a steam war-
ship, the first in the world, to steam at 4 knots per
hour and to carry guns pointing in every direction,
SHIP-BUILDING. 503
P-
for $320,000. The offer being accepted, the vessel
was built in 1814. She was 156 feet long, 56 feet
wide, and 20 feet deep, drawing 10 feet of water.
The paddle-wheel, for protection, was hung in the
middle of the hull ; it was 16 feet in diameter, the
buckets 14 feet long, with 4 feet dip. Her ton-
nage was 2475. The boiler was 22 feet long by 12
feet broad by 4 feet deep, the cylinder 4 feet in di-
ameter by 5 feet stroke. She made a speed of 5%
knots an hour, and was a most formidable vessel.
Her magazine blew up in 1829, destroying the vessel.
In 1809 the first race on the Hudson took place be-
screw. One of these, the Robert F. Stockton, was
launched in 1838. She was 70 feet long by 10 feet
beam by 63 feet draught. She had two propellers
in line, 64 feet in diameter. She made 12 knots an
hour. The vessel was rigged as a schooner and sent
to America under sail under the command of Capt.
Crane, with a crew of four men and a boy, being the
first iron vessel to cross the Atlantic. She was sold
in 1840 to the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company,
and her name changed to the New Jersey. She was
used as a tug for several years.
Capt. Stockton having introduced the screw into
tween rival boats, Fulton's boat beating. For many America in this way, and its advantages being recog-
years nearly all the steam-boats were built by Charles |nized, it at once sprang into favor, and in less thal,
Brown, but the industry soon spread, and vessels ten years 150 screw vessels had been built in Amer-
were built at Newburg, Philadelphia, and Balti-jica. It was through Stockton that Ericsson gave up
II) OI’62. his engagements in London and came to America.
To Robert L. Stevens the Hudson is principally The government concluded to fit one of the war-
indebted for its steamers, as he carefully studied ships authorized in 1839 with an Ericsson propeller,
the conditions of river navigation and led off in en- and the Princeton was so fitted, the machinery being
gine improvements and in making the ends of ves- placed below the water-line, the first war-vessel of
sels long and sharp. Old boats were lengthened and this class in the world. She was 164 feet long, 30+
some had false bows put on ; while some of the ves- feet beam, and drew, with Outfit and 200 tons of coal,
sels built after 1830 had solid ends, so sharp and so 193 feet. She had flat floors amidships and a sharp
well designed that they parted the water with scarcely bow and stern. The stern post was 26 inches thick
a ripple, and lately such vessels as the Mary Pow- where the screw shaft passed through it, tapering
ell have attained speeds of 25 to 28 miles an hour. above and below. The stern overhung 15 feet, and
To traverse Long Island Sound boats were built hanging from it was a wrought-iron rudder-post,
broader and deeper than the river boats, as they ex-heeling on an oak extension of the keel, leaving a
perienced rougher weather. The Rhode Island, space of 6 feet between the stern and rudder-posts.
built in 1836, was 212 feet long and 28 feet wide.
Fulton started with the paddle-wheel, and it is
used to this day for river navigation, but the screw,
being much better adapted for deep-sea service, has
entirely superseded the paddle-wheel in Ocean-going
steamers. The invention of the screw is directly
connected with the story of the advance of ship-
building.
As our earlier boats built for river traffic used the
paddle, developments were in that direction, and but
little attention was given to the valuable experiments
of Fitch and Stevens. But in England they needed
Something different from the paddle, as the paddle,
being often out of the water during rolling and
pitching, was not suited to ocean work, and in 1825
a premium was offered for the best device for pro-
pelling vessels other than by paddles.
officer invented a screw with two blades, and one or
two boats were fitted with it. This caused more at-
tention to be devoted to the subject, and in 1836
patents were taken out by F. P. Smith, of London,
and John Ericsson. Smith's screw was a spiral
Wrapped about an axis, and having been tried on a
Small boat, a larger vessel, the Archimedes, 125 feet
long, was built, fitted with a screw 5 feet 9 inches in
diameter and 8 feet pitch, the blade making a com-
plete turn round the axis, this being shortly replaced
by two blades making half-turns. The Smith screw
Was not commercially successful, but the world owes
to John Ericsson the development of a new and suc-
cessful method of propulsion.
The first practical screw vessel was the Francis B.
Ogden, built in 1837, and named after the U. S. con-
Sul at Liverpool, who had perceived the advantages
of Ericsson's screw. This boat, 45 feet long, was
fitted with two screws, 5 feet 3 inches in diameter,
consisting of a hub of iron around which were
placed several plates having a spiral twist. This lit-
tle boat, drawing 23 feet of water, developed a speed
of 10 miles an hour, and towed a schooner of 170
tons at 7 miles an hour. The Admiralty refused to
encourage Ericsson, however, as it was held that
vessels could not be steered with such an arrange-
Inent.
Capt. Robert F. Stockton took a trip on the
Thames in the Ogden in 1837, and at once gave an
order for two iron boats fitted with the Ericsson
A naval
in the position where it is placed to this day.
The screw was made of a brass drum 8 feet in diame-
ter, fitted with six brass blades having a helicoidal
twist, extreme diameter 14 feet, pitch 35 feet, length
in direction of the axis 2 feet, and weight 12,000 lbs.
The vessel made 13 miles an hour. The cost was
$212,000.
The iron tug R. B. Forbes was built at Boston in
1845. The first tug fitted with screws, built at Phil-
adelphia, was built by Wm. Cramp in 1849, the en-
gine being made by Jacob Neafie. This tug was of
wood, 80 feet long by 17 feet wide by 8 feet deep.
The screw up to this time had been placed below
the keel, but Mr. Cramp, seeing the disadvantage of
this, gave the tug Sampson a six-foot screw, extend-
ing 3 feet below the hull, with a keel built down aft
to protect, and in a short while he made another
step in advance and placed the screw above the keel
The English still adhere mainly to the paddle-wheel
tug, but the handy American screw tug-boat is un-
doubtedly superior. The average tug is about 90 feet
long by 18 feet wide by 93 feet deep. They are sharp
and deep, draw about 8 feet of water, having low
free boards and considerable sheer forward. The
machinery is covered by a house, with a pilot-house
at the forward end. Strong towing bitts are placed
forward and aft. -
The first steam-vessel to cross the Atlantic was the
Savannah, built by Crockett and Fickett, at New
York, in 1819. Originally intended as a sailing
packet, she was rigged as a ship, a 90-horse-power
engine placed between decks, with boilers in the
hold, and was fitted with paddle-wheels. In May,
1819, she was taken by Capt. Moses Rogers to
Savannah, and on May 25 started thence to Liver-
pool, making the passage in 25 days, during 18 of
Which she was under steam. The Savannah was not
a fast boat, and her machinery was finally taken out,
and she was wrecked on Long Island. However,
she showed to the world what could be done in
Steam-navigation, and England at once began to de-
Yelop this part of her mercantile marine and navy.
She granted subsidies to lines to various points, and
by giving contracts for a number of steam men-of-
War enabled ship and engine builders to put in the
expensive plants necessary for this sort of work.
The screw propeller made its first appearance in
504
SHIP-BUILDING.
the coasting trade in 1841, on the Clarion, built for
the service between New York and Havana. Phila-
delphia, however, was much more energetic in de-
Veloping the screw than New York. The fact that
our builders did not develop the screw but kept to
the paddle was one of the reasons that our merchant
marine suffered with the coming in of the steam-ves-
gel. The greater part of the capital was then in
New York. The engines of the larger vessels, like
those for the Pacific Mail, were built at the Novelty
Works in New York, and having the patterns for the
engines and all the necessary drawings of paddle-
ships, they were naturally averse to building screw
Steamers. These works passed into the hands of the
Brown Brothers, the bankers, who controlled a large
interest in the Pacific Mail, and in this way the
building of large paddle-steamers for ocean naviga-
tion was kept up. The immense paddle-shafts that
had to be imported from England were constantly
breaking, making the expenses of such vessels be-
yond their earnings.
On March 3, 1847, Congress authorized the secre-
tary of the navy to contract for a mail steam-ship
service once in two months, or oftener, from New
York to Chagres, on the Isthmus of Panama, and
from Panama to Astoria, touching at Monterey, San
T)iego, and San Francisco. The Atlantic branch
was called the United States Mail, and the Pacific
branch the Pacific Mail. Three ships were built for
each line, all wooden paddle-wheel steamers, with
wheels from 33 to 36 feet in diameter. While the
three ships of the Pacific Mail, the California, Pan-
ama, and Oregon, were on their way to the Pacific,
the news of the discovery of gold in California reached
the East, and when the California arrived at Panama
an excited crowd of people was there waiting to be
taken to the north.
While the gold fever brought into existence the
great clipper ship, it also gave an impetus to the
construction of steamers, as the trade on the Pacific
reached in one year a magnitude beyond twenty
years' ordinary development, and, a steam-fleet being
needed, steamers were built one after the other. In
the course of the next ten years the two lines spoken
of above had alone built 29 fine vessels of 38,000
tons registry, costing about $8,300,000, and in those
ten years the vessels of these lines carried 175,000
persons to California, and brought back $200,000,-
000 in gold. The vessels became larger and larger,
wooden vessels attaining sizes up to 3300 tons regis-
ter in 1861; the Golden City, of 3373 tons, built in
1864, was 343 feet long and 45 beam.
The steamers of the two principal lines were built
in New York, and ship-yards lined the East river.
Wm. H. Webb having as many as a thousand men in
his yard. The New York builders attained a world-
wide reputation, and obtained orders for war-ships
from Russia, France, Italy, Portugal, and Turkey,
among them being the General Admiral, the iron-
clad frigates Re d’Italia and Re Don Luigi de Por-
tugallo, each of 3700 tons, and the iron-clad ram
Donderberg, of 5090 tons, 380 feet long and 75 feet
beam.
In the four cities of New York, Philadelphia, BOS-
ton, and Baltimore there were built from 1830 to
1861 about 80 sea-going steamers, with an aggregate
tonnage of about 120,000, and costing about $29,000,-
000. Five-sixths of this tonnage was built in New
York. The first large American ocean steamer was
the Massachusetts, sent out from Boston in 1844,
with a screw propeller as an auxiliary power.
The United States, built in 1847 by Wm. H. Webb,
was intended to be a New Orleans packet, but was
eventually sold to the German Confederation for War
service. She was 256 feet long by 40 feet beam by
304 feet deep. For 50 feet at each end, the frames,
deadwood, and keelsons were of live-oak, locust, and
cedar; amidships the lower timbers were of Southern
white-oak. There were five rows of yellow-pine
keelsons amidships, 3 feet deep, and four rows 16
inches deep. The bilge streaks were 12 inches
Square. This boat throughout was exceptionally
strong, and the manner in which the large structure
of Wood was tied together, in this and similar vessels,
gives evidence of the great skill and experience of
the ship-builders of this date. This vessel had full
floors with but little dead rise, and a sharp bow and
run. Her model is about that of the sea-going
American steamers of to-day, though a longer,
sharper bow is built with iron vessels.
In 1845 the postmaster-general was authorized to
contract with Mr. Edward Mills for 20 trips a year
to Europe for the sum of $400,000, and in 1847 the
Washington and the Hermann began to compete with
the English steam-ship lines, which were rapidly
obtaining the advantage over our sailing vessels.
Those vessels were long, square-sterned three-deck-
ers, with side paddle-wheels about the middle of the
length, bark rigged, and with a full allowance of
sails. They were very good sea boats, but were
beaten in time across by the Cunarders from two to
three days.
In 1850 the Franklin and Humboldt were built
for the same service, but were put on a line to Havre.
About this time the idea of a line to Liverpool took
shape, as our capitalists and ship-builders, who had
so easily kept in the lead in the days of the fast
packets and clippers, did not like to see the English
absorb our carrying-trade, and only asked to be put
on an equal footing with the English shipping men
that they might again take the lead. Mr. Edward
R. Collins originated and carried through the idea
of placing American ships on a line to Liverpool, to
surpass the English vessels running to that port from
America. Under the laws of 1845 a contract was
made with Mr. Collins whereby he was to build and
run four steamers from New York to Tiverpool, to
make twenty trips a year and to carry the mails, the
line to receive $385,000 a year. These vessels were
to be suitable for war purposes. The Cunarders
then running were from 1140 to 1500 tons register.
All the Collins boats were about 2800 tons, each of
the best materials and workmanship, and supplied
with unusually powerful machinery. They were the
pride of America, being the largest and fastest
steamers then afloat. The four steamers first built
were the Arctic and Atlantic, built by Wm. H.
Brown, of New York, under the inspection of George
Steers, and the Baltic and Pacific, built by Brown
& Bell, of New York. The machinery was built by
the Novelty and Allaire Works, of New York.
The details of construction of the Arctic and Bal-
tic are as follows :
Length on main deck, 282 feet; depth under spar
deck, 32 feet ; beam, 45 feet. The frames were white
oak and chestnut with tops of locust, live-Oak, and
cedar ; stanchions and timber-heads of white Oak ;
apron, breast hooks, and inner stern-post of live-Oak;
keel of white oak, 18 by 20 inches. The frames were
double-sided 24 inches and moulded 21 inches over
the keel; the lower futtocks were sided 12 inches; all
other timbers, 10 inches. The spacing was 30 inches
amidships, increasing to 36 inches at the ends, with
the floors filled in solid to the turn of the bilge.
The ceiling-clamps and water-ways of the lower decks
were of yellow pine, the fine bilge streaks, 12 inches
square, bolted through the edges every 4 feet ; the
clamps of the lower deck, 8 inches; upper deck, 7
inches. The garboards were white oak, 15 inches
wide, 9 inches thick, copper-bolted through the edge
with 1-inch bolts every 3 feet and with two bolts
through each timber. The rest of the outside plank-
ing was of yellow pine, 5 to 7 inches thick and 6 to 8
inches wide. The main keelson was white oak, 32
SHIP-BUILDING. - 505
by 34 inches. The side keelsons under the engines
were white oak, 22 by 42 inches; elsewhere, of yellow
pine. The beams were mainly yellow pine, except-
ing some white pine in the spar and orlop decks;
the lower and main deck beams, side 12 to 14 inches,
and moulded 13 inches at the centre and 10 inches
at the ends; the spar deck beams, 64 by 8 inches at
the centre. The decks were of white pine : Orlop
deck 3 inches, lower deck 3}, main 4, and spar deck
3. The bulwarks were 3-inch white pine. The
knees were white oak and hackmatack. The hull
was square, fastened with two 4-inch copper bolts and
two locust treenails to a draught of 20 feet; above that,
galvanized iron and treenails were used. The frame
was strapped with iron crossing amidships like lattice-
work, with a spacing of 4 feet. There were two side
lever engines; cylinders, 95 inches in diameter, 10
feet stroke. There were four tubular boilers, 22 feet
long by 144 feet high, two of them 14 feet wide and
two 15 feet wide. The hull weighed about 1525
tons, and masts and rigging 34 tons. On a draught
of 194 feet forward and 20 feet aft 2000 tons of
freight and 250 passengers could be carried.
The service began with these vessels in 1851, and
they beat the Cunarders from the start by about one
day. They enjoyed the confidence and the patron-
age of the travelling public, and in eight years from
the time they began passenger traffic increased five-
fold. From January to November, 1852, they carried
4306 passengers to the 2969 who went by the Cunard
Line, and their competition reduced the cost of
freight to Liverpool from £73 to £4.
The Cunard Line at once began to put on larger
and faster steamers. Collins' mail allowance Was
made $858,000, and greater speed was required of
him, and he met the requirements. Unfortunately,
the Arctic was lost in 1854 and the Pacific in 1856.
In 1855 the Adriatic, of 4144 tons, was built, at a cost
of $1,100,000. She was 345 feet long by 50 beam
by 33 feet depth. She made a trip in 1861 from
Saint John's, N. F., to Galway in 5 days 194 hours.
Beginning in 1853, the feeling against subsidies
was awakened, and it continues to this day; while, as
a matter of fact, the granting of subsidies is a busi-
ness-like application of statesmanship, and its con-
tinuation would have kept us in the front rank in
the transatlantic trade, and could not have failed to
have been of the greatest value to our ocean com-
merce, our ship-builders and ship-owners, our people
and our country. In 1857 the Collins mail contracts
expired, and the government refused to renew them ;
Mr. Mills suffered in the same way.
The English were then paying $866,700 a year to
the Cunard line, and smaller sums to other lines,
and as Mr. Mills and Mr. Collins could not compete
with England's treasury they were forced to with-
draw and sell their ships, and the United States de-
liberately turned over the vast mail, express freight,
and passenger business of this country with Europe
to foreign ships. In 1856 Mr. Vanderbilt started a
line to Havre, but soon gave it up. During the
civil war the foreign lines got a very strong foothold.
In 1866 an American line was formed in Boston, and
two large oak-built screw steamers, the Erie and
Ontario, were started to run between Boston and
Liverpool. The English steamers immediately cut
rates, and soon the American ships had to be with-
drawn. A line was afterward started from Balti-
more in connection with the B. & O. R. R., but had
only a brief existence.
An American steamship line was started in 1873 to
run from Philadelphia to Liverpool, and it still lives;
but few American lines have been started at other
points. The coasting lines, such as the Clydes and
the Red D, have extended their trade to Cuba and
Mexico. Commodore Garrison ran a few wooden
steamers from New York to Brazil after the war, aided
WoL IV.-2G
by a subsidy, and John Roach ran a line of steamers
from 1878 to 1881. The Pacific Mail has sent steam:
ers to the Sandwich Islands, Japan, China, and
Australia.
America is renowned for nothing more than for
her river steam-boats, the necessities of internal nav-
igation developing this class of vessels earlier, than
ocean steamers. As the Mississippi and its tributa-
ries drain a region of 1,250,000 square miles in ex:
tent, embracing nineteen States rich in products of
every kind, and several growing Territories, using the
streams as commercial highways, it is natural that
there should be a great demand for vessels to trav-
erse them. Certain restrictions were put upon
builders by the character of the rivers to be navigat-
ed, owing to the light draughts necessary. The
western boats are marvels in the way of light-draught
construction, as there are vessels which on six feet
draught of water carry 2000 tons of freight. These
boats, to ascend the river against strong currents and
to tow a large number of barges, must be fitted with
engines of great power, and the weight of the engine
has been greatly reduced on this account. The
walking beam and the condenser was soon dispensed
with, the engines being so placed as to act directly
on the paddle-shaft. The earlier steamers were
mostly side wheelers, but after 1850 the stern wheel-
er came into favor, and they now outnumber the
side wheelers three to One.
Fulton and Livingston in 1811 built at Pittsburg
the stern-wheel boat Orleans, of 200 tons, rigged
with masts and sails. She used wood for fuel. She
was strongly framed, but had no guards or upper
works. She arrived at New Orleans, Jan. 10, 1812,
for the first time. She made about three miles an
hour. After running as a packet between New Or-
leans and Natchez for about two years she was sunk
by a snag in 1814. Before this the navigation had
been by flat-boats, pushed along with poles or long
sweeps, or by small sail-boats. The availability of the
steamer was at once apparent, and they were built
rapidly from this time on. The stern-wheeler Comet,
with vibrating engines, was built in 1813, and ran to
New Orleans, where her machinery was sold to a cot-
ton factory. The Vesuvius was built at Pittsburg by
IFulton in 1813, and a small steamer of 50 tons was
built at Brownsville, on the Monongahela, in 1814,
and the same year the Etna, of 300 tons, was built at
Pittsburg. The Washington, the first boat with
two decks, was built at Wheeling. The machinery,
which in previous boats was in the hold, was in her
brought up on deck, where it is still placed in the
boats now in use on the western rivers.
Preceding boats had such low-power engines that
they could only be employed on the lower Missis-
sippi and Ohio when the current was less than three
miles an hour, and they could never get up the swifter
rivers after having once gone down. The Washing-
ton, however, was a powerful boat for her day, and
was able to make a round trip from New Orleans to
just below the falls at Louisville and back in 45
days. Her success started the building of a number
of steam-boats along the Ohio, where nearly all the
earlier boats were built, and where about five-sixths
of the boats of the Mississippi Valley are built now.
In 1818 the General Pike was built at Cincinnati for
passenger traffic. She was 100 feet long on the keel,
25 feet beam, and had a handsome cabin built on the
deck between the engines. The central hall was 40
by 18 feet, with 8 state-rooms at one end and 6 at the
other. She ran as a packet between Louisville,
Cincinnati, and Maysville.
There were but few Eastern boats used on the West-
ern rivers. The Maid of Orleans, of 100 tons, was
sent from Philadelphia in 1818 and went up the river
as far as Louisville, being the first vessel to reach that
city from an Atlantic port. She was a two-masted
506
SHIP-BUILDING.
schooner, with auxiliary steam-power for use on
l'IVēl’S.
Up to 1818 the fastest trip from New Orleans to
Louisville was made by the Shelley, the time being
19 days. She carried 51 passengers, a cargo of
groceries and dry goods, and stopped at ten places en
route. The usual time was from 25 to 30 days. The
fast steamer Cincinnati made the round trip in about
40 days. After 1830 determined efforts were made
to improve the speed, and in 1838 the Diana ran
from New Orleans to Louisville in less than 6 days,
winning a premium of $500 from the Post Office De-
partment for doing so.
The passenger boats were side-wheelers, built of
Oak, framed and planked much the same as sea-going
vessels. They had flat floors and sharp bows, and
drew from 4 to 6 feet, and were from 400 to 600 tons
register. The cabin was between the engines, the
upper cabin becoming popular later.
When fast boats became the rage there was a
fierce rivalry, and racing was very common. Boats
were sent over the course stripped of every possible
weight that could be dispensed with, and without
cargo of any kind, driven at the full power of the
engines, simply to beat previous records and estab-
lish a reputation for speed. Until legislation regu-
lated the strength and pressure of boilers, this pas-
sion for fast time led to great loss of life and property
on account of explosions.
From 1830 to 1840 the favorite size was about 150
tons, but after 1840 larger boats began to make their
appearance, and a departure was made in the use of
lighter scantling and different construction from sea-
going vessels. The Sultana, built in 1843, was 250
feet long, 35 feet beam, and 8 feet hold. There
were seven boilers, 32 feet long and 42 inches in di-
ameter. The engines were 30 inches by 10 feet
stroke, the paddle-wheels 30 feet in diameter, with 14
feet buckets. She developed a speed of 15% miles
an hour, and made one trip from New Orleans to
Touisville in 4 days 22 hours.
In 1852 the Eclipse, one of the largest boats built
in the West, was built at New Albany just below the
falls. She cost $300,000 and was sumptuously fitted
up with a richly furnished saloon, with a steerage
cabin on top. There were 8 boilers, 32% feet long by
42 inches in diameter, and two engines : cylinders, 36
inches by 11 feet stroke. The paddles were 41 feet
in diameter. Her light construction will be seen
from the size of her scantlings. The frames were
single, and were cut from 4 and 4; inch flitch-oak,
moulded 13 inches on the floor, 10 inches at the
bilge, and 5% inches at the head. The main keelson
was 12 by 16 inches, the bilge log 7 by 11% inches,
and there were 18 floor keelsons, ranging from 3% by
10 inches to 4 by 11 inches. Fore and aft wooden
bulkheads were put in to strengthen her. She was
planked with 3} to 44 inch oak, . She was for many
years the most popular and fashionable boat of the
West. Her greatest speed up the river was 16 miles
an hour, and she often made 25 miles an hour down
Stream.
The Shotwell was built in the same year. She
was a sharp boat, built for racing, and in 1853 she
raced the Eclipse. Both vessels were stripped for
the race and carried neither passengers nor freight.
Furniture, landing stages, and fenders were left be-
hind, and even the bulkheads in the wheel-houses
and parts of the decks were removed. The Shotwell,
on account of being shorter, could turn the bends
more quickly, but she ventured too close and got
aground, losing 24 hours, and thereby the race. The
Eclipse made the trip from New Orleans to Louis-
ville in 4 days 9 hours and 30 minutes, having lost
35 minutes during the race by blowing out the pack-
ing of a piston. A number of large, swift steamers
followed those boats, ranging from 250 to 300 feet in
length, fitted up in the most comfortable and beauti-
ful manner. These boats were usually owned in
Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Louisville.
The civil War interrupted the river traffic, and a
good many of the older vessels disappeared. But
after the war new steamers appeared, superior even
to the old. Two of these were the R. E. Lee, built
in 1866, and the Natchez, in 1869. The Lee was 300
feet long, 44 feet beam, and 10 feet deep, with en-
gines 40 inches by 10 feet stroke, the paddle-wheels
being 38 féet in diameter, with 164 feet paddles.
The Natchez was 3013 feet long, 42% feet beam, and 94
feet in the hold. Her engines were 34 inches by 10
feet stroke, paddle-wheels 42 feet in diameter, with
16 feet paddles. In 1870 these two boats raced
from New Orleans to St. Louis, 1200 miles. They
were stripped for the race and ran at about 17 miles
an hour, were in sight of one another most of the
way, and only an hour apart at Memphis and Cairo.
The Lee arrived at St. Louis in 3 days 18 hours and
14 minutes, and the Natchez arrived 6 hours and 33
minutes later.
A great number of boats have been built of late
years. A description of the City of New Orleans
will give a very good idea of the construction gener-
ally in use. She is 300 feet long, 48 feet beam, 83
feet over the guards, and 9 feet hold. Her draught,
with machinery, coal, and water on board, is 30
inches forward and 42 inches aft. The frames are
single, 9 by 4 inches, spaced 15 inches ; main keelson,
21 by 9 inches; eight floor keelsons, 9 by 4 inclies;
four wing keelsons, 7 by 12 inches, to receive the
heels of the stanchions and the hog chain braces;
bilge keelson, 6 by 12 inches ; planking, 4 inches on
the bottom, and 4, 34, and 3 inches on the sides.
The beams are 4 by 6 inches, spaced 21 inches, with
heavier beams 12 by inches at the end of the boiler
deck ; stanchions, every other beam 6 inches square,
in seven rows, with thirty extra stanchions 10 by 34
inches under the cylinder timbers and paddle-shaft.
There are three stringers on the top timbers, each
side, 9 by 2% inches. The clamps are 13 by 3} and
12 by 3 inches. The five boilers are on deck, for-
ward, and are 30 feet long, 44 inches in diameter,
with five flues each. There are two engines, one on
each side amidships, 26 inches in diameter by 10
feet stroke. The paddle-wheels are 35 feet in diam-
eter, with 15 feet paddles. The cabins and pilot-
house stand up to a great height above the water.
The saloon is 220 feet long, 17 feet wide, and 13 feet
high. There are forty-five staterooms, 12 feet long
by 10 feet wide. This boat is for the passenger and
cotton trade of the Mississippi, and on 9 feet draught
will carry 250 passengers and 2300 tons of freight.
With a light-draught boat of this sort the girder
formed by the structure is a shallow, and there being
but little buoyancy at the sharp ends, a most elab-
orate system of hog and cross chains is carried out.
These are long iron rods stretching from end to end
and from side to side of the boat. A hog frame,
such as is seen on so many of the boats around New
York, is hardly ever seen in the West. The fore and
aft arrangement of these hog chains is shown in the

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Hog Chains of the City of New Orleans.
SHIP-BUTLDING,
507
accompanying sketch. They fasten under the main
and floor keelsons, and run up over the ends of long
rows of square pine masts, set up perpendicular
amidships, but inclined at the ends.
The main chain is 24-inch bar iron, carried on 9-
inch square pine braces, rising 14 feet above the main
deck. The centre chain is 14-inch bar iron, the for-
ward end descending to the main keelson just under
the after end of the boilers, the chain running back
over the main braces and being brought down to
the keelson again about 15 feet from the stern-post.
The stern chain is 14-inch iron, passing over One
Cross Chains of the City of New Orleans.
brace. The boiler deck and bow chain is 13-inch iron
on short braces forward, as shown.
There are seven cross chains of 13-inch iron rest-
ing on seven of the main braces, with struts as
shown, giving support to the bilge of the boat ; and
under the boiler deck and forward there are nine
more such chains of 13-inch iron ; 48,000 pounds of
wrought iron are made use of in this system, and by
it the guards are made sufficiently strong to carry
any number of bales of cotton, the hull is kept from
breaking down at the ends, and the light scantling
of the West is rendered possible.
On the upper part of the Ohio, the Mississippi, and
the Arkansas, and the other tributary streams of
the West, the passenger, freight, and towing boats
are stern-wheelers. The boats are not so wide, and
for shallow-water traffic are superior to the side-
wheelers. Naturally, the boats are different from
the side-wheelers. The wheel-houses and guards are
dispensed with, the cylinder timbers are carried aft
and project about 25 feet abaft the hull proper,
having a slight sheer upward. The paddle-wheel
shaft rests on these timbers, and the system of hog
chains is carried aft to support and distribute the
weight of the wheel. The lines of the boat aft are
completely changed, as there is no taper to the after-
end. The after-body is carried back square, and the
floor is brought up at the stern, giving an appear-
ance of two hulls when looked at from the stern.
Three or four rudders are used, the side ones hung
On the upright stern-posts, while the middle ones are
hung on stout rudder-posts and project partly under
the boat, being balanced rudders. The passenger
and freight boats of this class are handsome boats,
from 200 to 265 feet long and from 35 to 40 feet
beam.
The towing boats are not so large and have small
cabins, but are built with very strong bows. The
way in which tows are made up on the western
rivers is different from the methods of the seaports,
as the tow is not towed but pushed. The barges
are arranged in groups, often eight or ten boats
wide and four boats long, strongly lashed together,
and arranged ahead and alongside the forward end
of the steamer, about one-fourth the steamer being
buried in the group. The deck is carried out square
to the bow, ending in a strong chock for pushing.
To steer such a fleet around the bends of swift rivers
requires a great deal of experience and judgment.
The stern-wheeler Jos. B. Williams, built at Pitts-
burg, went south from Louisville last year with
a mammoth tow of 30 coal-barges, and six bargº
and three additional vessels, amounting to 798,434
bushels, or 33,340 tons; including fuel, 31,388 tons.
This tow was 789 feet long—including the steamer,
1015 feet long—and 262 feet wide. To transport this
tow by rail would require 60 trains of 25 cars each,
20 tons to the car, and would extend over a con-
tinuous line of track of ten miles.
There are four classes of barges in use on the
Western rivers. The smallest is the flat-boat, about
90 feet long, 16 feet wide, and from 5 to 7 feet deep,
used on small streams for short trips for carrying
about 110 tons of coal, stone, or other rough
freight. Next, the coal-barge, which is an open boat,
strongly built, with raking ends, about 125 feet long
by 25 feet wide by 8 feet deep. They are mainly
employed between the coal mines in Pennsylvania
and West Virginia and the markets along the river
as far as New Orleans. The coal-boat or broad horn,
is a flat-bottomed, square-ended boat, with a strong
bottom but light sides, about 175 feet long by 25
feet wide by 93 feet deep. The fourth is the model
barge, having hulls built like steamers, sharp at both
ends, decked, and sometimes having a house.
Flat-boats are built up on the sides of four or five
tiers of solid white-pine logs, 6 to 8 inches thick,
laid one above the other, and strongly bolted through
the edges with square iron spikes, with sheer pieces
on the top at each end. A number of cross timbers,
about 6 by 12 inches and 12 feet apart, with the
ends tenoned into the lowest log, form the side.
Under these are fastened fore and aft streaks, and
the bottom is then planked across with 2- and
3-inch hemlock, white pine, or oak. Iron straps are
placed at the corners. Uprights are let into each
end of the floor-timbers and bolted to the sides, and
bitts are provided for towing. These boats cost
from $500 to $650, the labor on one of them amount-
ing to about $100, using from 13,000 to 18,000 feet of
lumber and 1450 lbs. of iron. -
The coal-barge is simply a large barge, the side-
pieces being in several pieces about 20 to 50 feet in
length. It requires about 34,000 feet of lumber and
3000 lbs. of iron for one. They cost from $1000 to
$1200, about $190 of this being for labor. They
weigh about 45 tons net, and draw about 5 inches of
water light.
The coal-boat or broad horn has a barge-bottom,
with one side-log about 9 by 16 inches, strengthened
at the scarples by a piece inside 18 feet long, about
4 by 16 inches, fastened on with 10 large treenails,
7 or 8 screw-bolts, and a number of spikes. A row
of uprights, 6 by 2% inches, is set up perpendicularly
from the side or bilge-log all around the boat, and
the side planking is fastened to those. It is usually
14-inch hemlock. A couple of threads of oakum is
driven into the seams. A light clamp is nailed around
on the inside of the uprights to support light beams
or braces, about 4 by 4 inches, which are put in about
8 feet apart. These boats cost from $800 to $900,
and, while having about twice the capacity of a barge,
contain about the same amount of lumber.
These three classes of boats were originally pro-
pelled with huge paddle-wheels or sweeps, consist-
ing of a heavy pole with a stout board at the end.
This is no longer done, on freight barges, though
the sweep-propelled boat is still met with on the
Southern bayous and sluggish rivers, in the shape of
flats that have been decked over and housed, and are
fitted up as travelling tin-shops, blacksmiths' shops,
and trading vessels.
Of the model barges there are four sizes, carrying
600, 800, 1000, and 1200 tons of cargo respectively.
They are sharp at both ends, and are built about like
the steam-boat hulls, but have but one hog chain,
which hooks under the main keelson at the bow and

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SHIP-BUILDING.
509
stern, and is supported on four or five pine posts;
Light collision bulkheads are built at the bow and
stern, and when the hold is intended for grain or
packages it is ceiled up in such a manner as to form
a cargo box, with an air-space of as much as two feet
between the ceiling and the frames. A barge, 200
feet long, 36 feet beam, and 6% feet hold, with a
cargo box. 169 feet by 33 feet by 11 feet, costs about
$9000.
The great highway of travel and trade in Oregon
is the Columbia river, ocean steamers from San
Francisco ascending the river as far as Astoria and
Portland, numerous small steam-boats carrying
freight and passengers farther into the interior.
Steam-boat building was begun about 1850. The
Eliza Anderson was built at Portland in 1858, and
by her longevity showed the advantage of using
properly seasoned yellow fir for boat-building. The
earlier boats were side-wheelers, but the later ones
are stern-wheelers, which are better adapted to
shallow waters. The Columbia river stern-wheelers
are not similar to those of the Mississippi Valley
described above. The keel, forward, begins to rise
15 or 20 feet from the bow and runs into a rocker
stem; aft, the stern is not separated into two parts,
but the bottom begins to rise 20 or 30 feet from the
rudder and nearly reaches the surface at the stern,
which is cut off square above the water. Sagging
is prevented by iron rods hooking into the keelsons
forward and aft, running up to a line of masts, and
these are screwed up till they take the weight off the
bow and stern. The hulls are made of fir, the
houses of white cedar and fir. The central masts
are carried high up, as there are no bridges to in-
terfere.
ones described above, nearly all, however, having
small houses on deck. There are small schooners
on the river dealing in butter, eggs, and produce,
that are fitted with small auxiliary propellers for go-
ing against tide and current.
The pioneer of the lake steamers was the On-
tario, of 232 tons, built at Sackett's Harbor, in
1816, a side-wheeler, 110 feet long. The next vessel
built on the American side was the Walk-in-the-
Water, of 342 tons, built at Black Rock in 1818.
In the following ten years twenty steamers were
built on the lakes of Ontario and Erie, mostly on
the American side, all side-wheel boats.
The Welland Canal was opened in 1829, and
stamped a special character on lake vessels. The
smallest locks were 110 feet long, 22 feet wide, and
8 feet deep. The sailing vessels were thereafter
made with bluff, full forms, with round bows, flat
bottoms, and straight bodies, in this way securing
the greatest capacity ; and steamers intended to pass
through the canal approximated to the same form.
The steamers intended for local traffic kept a sharp
form, and were never shallow as the eastern river
boats. Many of the steamers were side-wheelers,
ranging from 250 to 600 tons, occasionally larger.
The engines were of the low-pressure walking-beam
type, and were fitted with masts and sails for use in
case of injury to the machinery. &
The Walk-in-the-Water went to Detroit as early
as 1818, and by 1830 steam-boats were running regu-
larly to Chicago. The number of boats increased
rapidly after the opening of the canal, and the size
began to increase rapidly after 1844, a number of
long, fast sharps being built from that time on.
They were built mainly of oak, the decks, houses,
and spars being of white pine. They had very high
and sumptuously furnished cabins. The Plymouth
Rock, built in 1854, 310 feet long, and the City of
Buffalo, built in 1857, were among the last of the
large side-wheelers built. About 300 side-wheelers
were built in all, but now not more than 3 or 4 are
produced yearly, and these not above 800 tons; and
The barges are somewhat similar to the
many of the old side-wheelers were converted into
propellers, and others into floating docks and barges.
The Welland Canal being impassable by the large
side-wheelers, and many important harbors being on
rivers and canals, screws came into favor. g
The first propeller on the lakes was the Vandalia,
of 138 tons, built at Oswego, N.Y., in 1841, . She
was fitted with a mast and sail, with machinery
well aft, the smoke-stack being nearly in the stern.
In ten years 53 screw vessels were built, ranging in
size from 150 to 700 tons. The vast freight traffic
of the lakes has called for larger vessels, and the
canal has twice had the sizes of the locks increased.
The vessels employed exclusively for freight are
called steam-barges. These have small houses for-
ward and aft, and sometimes as many as four masts.
These barges carry coal, grain, iron ore, and lumber.
The machinery is placed aft in the lake propellers,
and when not loaded the bow sits high up out
of the water. This is convenient when loading, but
the rough weather of the lakes strains the vessel
when unloaded; so the hog frame was early adopted,
and it was given the form of an arch sweeping in a
long curve from end to end of the ship, the top
chord made of several thicknesses of 6- or 8-inch oak
breaking joints. These arches being in the Way, es-
pecially in handling lumber, they have been dropped,
and strength is now secured by strapping the hulls
on the outside of the frames and ceiling them
heavily with oak, broad arches often being bolted to
the inner side of the hold timbers.
IRON SHIP-BUILDING.
The first iron boat known to have been built in
the United States was the Codorus, built in Penn-
sylvania for service on the Susquehanna. New York
led in the early iron building. In 1836 an iron yes-
sel of 600 tons was built there. In 1838 an iron
boat was built at Pittsburg, and in 1841 a revenue
cutter was built at Boston, and by 1842 Philadelphia
had built a line of small iron steam-boats to trade
with Hartford, Conn. The iron hulls were first
built by boiler-makers; there was but little shape
given to the vessel, the bottom being built on a
platform and the sides brought up vertical, the
frames being put in last. However, the ship-builders
in wood were appealed to and they soon began to
put in tools for building the iron hulls; and they
were not contented with box-like shapes but soon
brought the lines of the iron vessel up to those of
the wooden vessel. While the greatest ingenuity
and mechanical skill and knowledge were shown in
binding together and strengthening the hulls of
wooden vessels, the great horse-power and lengths
required for high-speed vessels called for a stronger
material than wood, and the iron ship became a ne-
cessity. The earlier vessels were framed much in
the same way as the wooden vessels, but very soon
the iron vessel took a distinctive character very dif-
ferent from the wooden vessels. A history of iron
ship-building is mainly the history of the well-known
ship-yards of this country. Wm. H. Webb stands at
the front as a wooden ship-builder, and the names of
Cramp and Roach are known the World over as
builders of steel and iron vessels. The United
States has furnished many vessels to foreign govern-
ments. Wnn. H. Webb built the Re d’Italia and the
Re Don Luigi de Portugallo for the Italian govern-
ment, the former making 14 knots on her first trial,
using only four boilers out of six. Webb also built
the iron-clad Rochambeau, now owned by France.
In Boston the Atlantic works built vessels and ma-
chinery for a great many different nations and dur-
ing the War turned out a number of monitors. In
1858 there was quite a movement in the direction of
iron ship-building in New York. The side-wheel
steamer Suchil was launched from Bell's yard in 43
510
SHIP-BUILDING.
days after the keel was laid. The Novelty Iron
W orks built a large iron steamer the same year, and
four iron screw vessels were begun at the Morgan
Iron Works. Prices, wages, and taxes are now
against the building of iron ships at New York,
though there are a number of large machine shops
devoted almost entirely to marine-engine work. The
home of the ship-builder is the Delaware—the Clyde
Of America. Here there is the water-front, railroad
facilities, trained labor, good climate, and fresh water,
With coal and iron almost within reach. It is but
natural that here we should find the best ship-yards
of the country. One of the earliest iron boats, after
the Codorus, was a small barge built by Jesse Starr,
half a mile from the river and hauled down to the
water. The work was mainly done by the large
boiler-makers, the hulls being designed and laid
down on the mould-loft floor by practical ship-
builders. With the earlier vessels there was a great
Waste of material, the plates being ordered from the
girth at the greatest section, considered as carried to
the ends, and the first to suggest and carry into suc-
cessful execution the measurement of the sizes of
each plate from a model of the vessel, upon which
the plates were drawn out, was Charles H. Cramp, of
Philadelphia ; a great saving was effected, and this
method of ordering material was at once adopted.
It was not till the beginning of the civil war, how-
ever, that Philadelphia began to forge ahead of
At Camden a number of iron tugs are built each
year. At Chester is Roach’s ship-yard, covering sev-
enty acres and having a frontage of 2500 feet.
Roach first bought the Morgan Iron Works of New
York, and in 1872 bought the property at Chester,
the first ship being launched at Chester. Wessels
have been built here for the Pacific Mail, the Bra-
zilian line, and the coasting trade ; also a number of
vessels for the U. S. government, a number of the
small single-turreted monitors, the double-turreted
monitors Puritan and Miantonomoh, and the Chica-
go, Boston, Atlanta, and Dolphin.
At Wilmington is the Harlan & Hollingsworth
Company, which built the first iron coasting steamer
in the United States. This yard has turned out
many fine vessels, among them the monitors Amphi-
trite, Patapsco, Saugus, and Napa. All sorts of
vessels, from yachts to iron-clads, have been built,
among the former the victorious Puritan.
The Pusey & Jones Company, of Wilmington, has
turned out over a hundred iron vessels, of all types,
a feature being made of vessels for river traffic.
There is an iron ship-building yard at Locust Point,
Baltimore, the Columbian Iron Works and Dry Dock
Company. This yard does a great deal of repair
work, and has built several large ferry-boats, and is
now building the gun-boat Petrel for the govern-
ment.
The Union Iron Works have lately been estab-
New York; but, large ships being then needed, Wm. lished at San Francisco, under the management of
Cramp fitted up his wooden ship-yard with machi- Irving M. Scott. They are thoroughly well equipped
nery capable of making iron plates and frames. The
first vessel was the New Ironsides, an iron-clad
wooden ship (see IRONCLADs). When first contracted
for, her timbers were still growing in the woods, but
she was completed in six months; and, due to the
foresight of her builders, she was able to carry a
much heavier battery than was first intended. The
monitor Yazoo was built at this yard, and a great
deal of other government work. The plant was
gradually improved, and in 1872 a contract was en-
tered into for the construction of four steamers for
the American line for $2,400,000. These were most
excellent specimens of American workmanship, and
were so well built as to obtain the most favorable
rating in the English insurance companies.
After the completion of these vessels wooden ship-
building was given up by the Cramps, and since that
time they have built four fast cruisers for the Rus-
sian government and a number of large steamers and
yachts, the best known of the latter being the Ata-
lanta, Corsair, and Stranger. One of the finest
freight steamers afloat, the Herman Winters, was
built by this firm ; and the twin-screw passenger
steamer Monmouth is the first of her class, and by
her success will probably cause the paddle to give
place to the screw in many cases. The large coast-
ing steamer Iroquois is an excellent example of a
well-built, comfortable, and speedy vessel. Dur-
ing Pres. Cleveland's administration the secretary
of the navy, Wm. C. Whitney, awarded the con-
tracts for five vessels to the Cramps. Three of these
are large, protected steel cruisers, supplied with
every modern appliance in construction and arma-
ment. These are the Newark, Baltimore, and Phila-
delphia. The Yorktown is a fast steel, cruiser of
about 1700 tons displacement. The fifth vessel is
the Vesuvius, a dynamite-gun cruiser, armed with
three 15-inch dynamite guns capable of throwing
projectiles containing 500 pounds of dynamite a dis-
tance of two miles. Twenty knots speed were guar-
anteed, and the vessel attained on her official trial
trip 21.65 knots, or about 25 miles an hour. º
The firm of Neafie & Levy has been engaged in
the construction of iron vessels for a number of
years. They have turned out many ships and a vast
number of marine engines.
|
H
with the best modern tools, and have already en-
tered into competition with the older yards of the
East for government work, and have obtained con-
tracts to build two large steel-protected cruisers, the
Charleston and San Francisco.
There are iron ship-yards at Pittsburg and St.
Louis, and on the great lakes at Buffalo, Cleveland,
and Wyandotte, the lake steamers comparing favor-
ably with vessels built in the yards on the coast.
The machinery costs much less in the lake steamers,
on account of being used in fresh water.
The United States has now the educated labor
and the necessary plants, in private yards, to turn
out vessels second to none in the world. The lib-
eral spirit of Congress has provided the money, and
the Navy Department, by insisting upon having only
the best, in material, design, and workmanship, has
advanced the art of ship-building in this country to
such an extent that we lead the rest of the world in
everything except the construction of heavy-armored
vessels. -
The government has ship-building yards at Ports-
mouth, N. H., Boston, Mass., New York, Philadel-
phia, Norfolk, and Mare Island, Cal. The yards at
New York, Norfolk, Philadelphia, and Mare Island
are to be fitted up to build iron vessels, the first two
already having armored vessels to construct.
The building of the vessels for the navy comes
under the cognizance of the Bureau of Construction
and Repair. The head of this bureau is Chief Naval
Constructor T. D. Wilson, U. S. N. The machinery
comes under the Bureau of Steam Engineering, pre-
sided over by Engineer-in-Chief Geo. W. Melville,
TJ. S. N.
The capital required in wooden ship-building is
not great. Most of the workmen bring their own
hand-tools, consisting of broad axes, adzes, saws,
bevels, chisels, calking iron mallets and rules, the
builder furnishing the large tools, such as cross-cut
saws, augers, and belt cutters. In case the yard is
supplied with steam, a saw-mill and planer are added.
There are yards where large wooden vessels are
built where the tools would not bring $500.
With iron ships it is different; here nearly all the
tools are furnished by the builder, and many of
them are very expensive and require to be run by
SHIP. BUILDING.
511
power. A yard to build the hull of a ship of about
2500 tons in a year could be established for about
$60,000, including buildings, but a first-class modern
ship and engine building establishment, capable of
turning out about 70,000 tons of shipping and 50,-
000 horse-power, fitted with the latest and most
improved labor saving machines, will cost about
$1,200,000. *
Ships cannot be built, even with the necessary
plant, without plenty of money. The weekly pay-
roll of a large establishment on the Delaware is
about $30,000, and when, with this, the large amounts
spent for material, insurance, and other purposes are
taken, it will be seen that a great deal of ready
money is required.
Much judgment and business ability is required
in handling a large ship-yard ; often a slight modifi-
cation in a method of securing a small part may re-
sult in the saving of thousands of dollars, and natu-
rally only those succeed in ship-building who attend
strictly to business.
When the price of the ship has been settled upon
and the design elaborated, the latter being, as a
rule, left to the builders in the case of merchant-
vessels, they being given the number of passengers
and amount of freight to be carried, together with
the speed and character of service, the preparation
for building at once begins.
The lines of the vessel, showing the shape on the
outside, are drawn out at full length on a large floor,
called the mould loft.
Taking the skeleton of a herring and turning it on
its back will give an idea of the construction of a
vessel ; the ribs are called the frames of the ship, and
they come down to the backbone or keel as on the
fish. Sections are drawn out to full size, showing the
shapes of all the different frames, and wooden moulds
are made to these shapes. The iron or steel angles
that form the frames are heated in long furnaces and
drawn out on a large iron floor, called a bending
slab, having a number of small holes in it. Upon
this slab the mould to the frame has been previously
laid and the shape drawn in chalk, and then a num-
ber of pins stuck in the holes along the chalk line.
The hot angle bar is then forced against these pins
and held by clamps, so attaining the proper shape.
While bending it is also bevelled, or one side is so
shaped that it will conform with the outside plating
coming against it. The angle is then taken in some
cases to a scrive board, where the curve of the frame
has been drawn out and the shape checked, and any
corrections necessary are made by bending the frame
cold in a setting machine.
An ordinary frame consists of three parts:
1. What is known as the frame angle bar, ex-
tending from the keel to the upper part of the side of
the vessel.
2. A floor plate, extending across from bilge to
bilge, riveted to the frame at its lower edge.
3. A reverse frame angle, riveted to the upper
edge of the floor upon the side opposite to the frame
angle, and at the terminations of the floor is carried
on up on the frame angle to heights varying with
the size and type of vessel.
The holes in the frame angle are punched before
bending ; those in the reverse angle are marked from
the frame angle and punched after bending.
The keel is laid upon blocks extending down to
the water's edge, the blocks being high enough to
allow the workmen to get under to rivet on the bot-
tom plates. The keel blocks are laid on an incline
of about 3 of an inch to the foot. They are spaced
about 4 to 5 feet apart and have on each side two sets
of standards for supporting the staging upon which
the workmen stand.
Keels are of three kinds : The bar keel, side bar
keel, and flat plate keel.
The keels are the first part of the vessel laid upon
the blocks. In the case of the flat keel the vertical
keel plate is next placed, and then the frames are
Bar Keel.
raised at points marked upon the keel. The frame,
reverse angle, and floor are riveted together on stag-
ing about level with the blocks. The complete
Side Bar Keel
frame is then lifted by means of tackles leading
from the ends of uprights, which can be moved
along abreast of the position of the frame, and the
Flat Keel.
frame is bolted in place. Usually one or more
beams are bolted to the frames and raised with them,
the beams being the cross pieces upon which the
decks rest. The stem and stern posts, made of
forged iron or cast steel, are raised in place when
the framing is well started amidships.
The lines of the edges of the plates forming the
Outer skin of the ship are marked on the frames, and
these spots are faired by long pieces of wood called
battens, and wooden templets or skeleton shapes are
put up where the plates are to go. Upon these are
marked the holes that are to be punched in the plates
and the exact sizes of the plates. These are light
and easily handled, and are taken down, laid on the
plates, and the positions of holes transferred to the
plate. The plate is then sheared nearly to size, and
is then planed on the butts and the edges of the
outer streaks, the holes are punched and counter
sunk, so that the rivet may be hammered down flush
on the outside. The plates overlap on the edges,
the most common system being that known as the
raised and sunken system.
The ends butt against one another and are held by
butt straps on the inside. When in place and riveted
up the edges and butts are carefully calked, and so



512
SHIRLAW.
made water-tight. In some cases the beams are
plated over to form the deck, the deck plank being
laid on the plating, but in other cases plates are car-
ried along the sides of the vessel and wood only used
on the rest of the deck.
When all the plating is on the outside, and enough
of the inside of the vessel completed to give her
the requisite stiffness, she is ready for launching.
Launches are usually times of enjoyment, and great
crowds turn out to see them. While launches are,
as a rule, successful, and the ship glides most easily
and gracefully into the water, rarely failing to make a
bow to the lady who christens her, it must not be
forgotten that to transfer a mass of thousands of tons
from supports on land to the buoyancy of the water
is one of the greatest of engineering feats, and there
are few ship-builders who do not heave a sigh of re-
lief when they see their vessel well water-borne.
The vessel rests on the keel blocks, and on each
side of the keel blocks is placed a track or ground
Way, at an inclination of about +% of an inch to the
foot. These extend well out into the water. On
top of these are placed the sliding ways, forming a
carriage or slide to support the vessel.
The sliding ways are built up to the vessel, and when
all is ready for launching wedges are driven in above
the sliding ways. In this way the weight is taken
on the slidings and the keel blocks are knocked out,
and the vessel, held in place by a trip of some sort
or a plank bolted to sliding and ground ways, is re-
leased and slides into the water. The machinery is
then put in, and the vessel completed in every re-
spect. The fittings of vessels are now very elaborate
and costly. The drainage system of a large vessel is
far more complicated than that of a house, as every-
one of the numerous compartments must be pumped
separately, if necessary. There are water-alarms
which tell when a compartment is leaking, and
alarms to show when a dangerous temperature has
been reached in the coal-bunkers. Provisions are
made for exhausting foul air from below and for Sup-
plying fresh air.
Payments are made in various ways. In private
contracts there are various methods, instalments
being paid when certain portions of the work are
completed, as when the first frame is raised. Under
government contracts the payments are made in ten
instalments, with a reservation which, together with
the last payment, is kept a certain number of months
after the vessel has been turned to the govern-
ment. A 4000-ton merchant steamer is built in about
ten months, while the same size man-of-war will
take about two years in building—the former costing
about $300,000 and the latter $1,200,000.
With a merchant vessel, when everything is com-
pleted, a run at full power is usually made for several
hours, but with a man-of-war an official trial trip
must be made on which a guaranteed horse-power
or speed must be attained. As speed is the object
to be attained in men-of-war of certain types, it
would seem most natural to require a certain speed
rather than a certain horse-power, though this is not
always done.
In beginning the design of a vessel, it is first nec-
essary to know the conditions of service, the load to
be carried, and the speed. It is known approximate-
ly what ratio the load will bear to the total displace:
ment in the particular service, and, knowing the total
volume of displacement, this volume must be en-
closed by a shape which will best attain the given
speed and suit the conditions of service and give
the required room. When what is known as a model
tank is available for experiments, a model is towed
at various speeds, and the resistances obtained ; and
from these the horse-powers required to drive the
vessel at various speeds can be computed. From these
data the engines are designed. Engines can now be
designed that are very light for the horse-power de-
veloped, the engines and boilers of the Vesuvius
weighing, when the boilers and condenser are full of
water, only 250 tons, and developing on this weight
4200 horse-power, giving a speed of 21.65 knots per
hour. When a tank is not available for model ex-
periments, the performance of some vessel already
built is taken as a basis from which to estimate the
required horse-power. The resistance to be over-
come is of three kinds: The frictional resistance of
the water, which forms the greater part of the resist-
ance at low speeds; the eddy resistance, due to sudden
changes of shape or projections; and the wave resist-
ance, which increases most rapidly at high speeds.
These are all studied by the naval architect, and
every care is taken to keep the bottom clean and
well painted to diminish the friction, to get the fair-
est lines to decrease the eddies, and to choose
properly the general dimensions so that the waves
raised at the required speed may require the least
expenditure of power.
The outlook for the ship-builder in America is ex-
cellent. With our large and constantly increasing
coasting fleet, wherein the cheap iron ship with
economical engines is rapidly becoming a necessity,
with excellent rates for freight, and with the wooden
vessels fast disappearing, there must be for many
years to come a great demand for iron and steel
steamers for our coasting trade; and with the uniform
cheapening of iron in the United States we shall, in
a few years, enter into competition with Great Brit-
ain and other European countries in ship-building
for the rest of the world.
A bounty bill is to be urged upon Congress pro-
viding for the payment, to sail or steam vessels en-
gaged in the foreign trade and built and owned
wholly in the United States, of 30 cents per registered
ton for each thousand miles sailed, and pro rata for
any distance less than 1000 miles on any voyage be-
tween this and any foreign country or countries.
This is excellent, so far as it goes, but our first ef-
forts should be to secure trade, to build up agencies
in every large shipping centre where business could
be secured for American vessels. Such a method of
payment would probably bring about vessels with an
exaggerated tonnage measurement and, with econom-
ical engines, the voyage would be the main thing and
the ports at the greatest distances and with the low-
est dues would be visited, and the great object of all
—an increased tonnage—would be lost.
A better system, it seems, would be to pay 30 cents
perton of freight carried, and there would then be the
decided efforts to get freights and trade which are used
at home. Great Britain's vast trade enables her mer-
chants to have agents in every port, and Germany, by
sending men to offer her goods, is getting control of
what little trade we have in Africa. Europe's cheap
money is as much to be feared as her cheap labor,
and while we are helping the ship-owner we should
likewise help the ship-builder, and pay $5.00 per
horse-power on the engines and $20 per ton weight
of hull when of steel and $10 when of iron.
In the preparation of the above article the following publica-
tions have been freely drawn from : The Shipbuilding Indus-
try of the United States, by Henry Hall; Reports of the Sec-
retaries of the Navy; Reports of the Chief Constructor of the
Navy, Reports of the Commissioner of Navigation. )
L. N.
SHIRLAW, WALTER, artist, was born in º,
Scotland, Aug. 6, 1838, and was brought to the
United States in 1840. He worked for a time as a bank-
note engraver, but later took up painting, exhibiting
first at the National Academy in 1861. In 1868 he was
elected an academician of the Chicago Academy, and
two years later he went to Munich, where he spent
seven years in study. While there he painted the
Toning of the Bell, and; later on, his best-known
SHIRLEY_SHOES.
513
work, Sheep-shearing in the Bavarian Highlands,
which received honorable mention at the Paris Ex-
position of 1878. Among his works notable for
breadth of treatment, and often possessing much dec-
orative quality, are: Good Morning, owned by the
Buffalo Academy; Very Old, Gossip, and Jealousy,
in the New York Academy. He has also executed a
large frieze for the house of Darius Q. Mills, New
York. He was one of the founders of the Society of
American Artists, and has been instructor at the Art
League, N. Y. In 1888 he was elected to the Na-
tional Academy. (F. L. W.)
SHIRLEY, WILLIAM (1693–1771), colonial governor
of Massachusetts, was born at Preston, Sussex, Eng-
land, and became a lawyer. His literary proclivity
was shown by his tragedy Electra and the masque,
The Birth of Hercules. In 1734 he removed to Bos-
ton, where he practised his profession. He was em-
ployed as commissioner in settling the boundary be-
tween Massachusetts and Rhode Island, when in 1741
he was commissioned as royal governor. He planned
the expedition against Cape Breton in 1745, in
which Louisburg was captured. He afterward went
to England, and was a commissioner at Paris in 1750
to settle the northeastern boundary of New England.
He returned to Massachusetts in 1753, and treated
with the Indians in Maine. In 1755, when the war
with the French was renewed, he was made com-
mander-in-chief of all the British forces in North
America. He planned the expedition against Niag-
ara, and led it as far as Oswego, where it was stopped
by lack of provisions. His son was killed in Brad-
dock's expedition of the same year. In 1756 Gen.
Abercrombie superseded Shirley, who was, how-
ever, made lieutenant-general in 1759, and afterward
governor in the Bahamas.
Massachusetts, where he had built a spacious mansion
at Roxbury. There he died, March 24, 1771.
SHOES, as now made, comprise two parts, a sole
of thick, solid leather, and an upper of
sº *; thin and soft leather, often of cloth in
*... #. ladies' shoes. These parts are fastened
together in various ways, usually by
sewing or pegging. Until recently the shoe was
made outright by a single person, but most of the
shoes now made are produced in factories in which
there is a well-developed division of labor, a con-
siderable number of workmen being employed on
each shoe, while the common use of machinery
has replaced much of the old hand-work. No small
percentage of the shoes worn in this country are still
made in small shops, as custom-work, but even in
this branch of the trade labor-saving machinery is
employed to a considerable extent. There are more
persons employed to-day in the United States in the
preparation and the various manufactures of leather
than in the manufacture of cotton, linen, and woollen
goods, and more than three-fourths of the leather
product is used in the making of boots and shoes.
Shoemaking was one of the earliest trades estab-
lished in the American colonies, and as early as 1648
the shoemakers were legally incorporated as a trade
guild. They were most numerous in the town of
Lynn, Mass., which has continued to the present
day the centre of the American shoe industry. At
that time ladies wore mostly stuff shoes, gentlemen
boots and shoes made of cowhide, there being few
or none made of calfskins till after the Revolution.
In 1662 the business of tanning, currying, and shoe-
making existed in Virginia, yet as late as 1681 only
a few hides were tanned, and most shoes of all
grades were imported from England till some time
in the 18th century. The legal price of shoes in
Virginia at that early date was fixed at 30 or 35 lbs.
of tobacco for large sizes. New York also displayed
Some activity in tanning and shoemaking, but Penn-
Sylvania was more tardy, doing little in this line till
In 1770 he returned to
sometime in the 18th century. Toward the middle
of the 18th century every new town north of Vir-
ginia started its tannery, and shoemaking soon fol-
jowed ; but the bulk of the business continued in
New England, while the Southern colonies obtained
most of their shoes by purchase.
In 1731 the English parliament, incited by the
small demand for shoes from the colonies, ordered
the Board of Trade to inquire into the American man-
ufacture, which inquiry resulted in the discovery that
the colonists were almost completely supplied with
shoes of home manufacture. The family stock of
leather was worked up by itinerant shoemakers,
who went from house to house, and were followed
by itinerant cobblers to repair the worn shoes. In
Massachusetts, however, the art was conducted on a
larger scale, and considerable exportation of shoes
took place to the other colonies and the West Indies.
The British effort to lay duties on American imports
in 1764 gave a special stimulus to the shoe trade,
which continued active till the Revolution. During
that struggle for independence the trade was re-
stricted by the great scarcity of hides, and the army
suffered greatly for want of shoes. On a requisition
from Ticonderoga for shoes to supply over 12,000
men, only 900 pairs could be sent. One-third of the
Ticonderoga force was obliged to do duty, shoeless
in the winter season of 1776. Similar conditions ex-
isted in later campaigns. The business revived after
the peace, but in 1789 it became necessary to impose
a tariff charge to check importations.
As we have already stated, Massachusetts led in
the shoe business, and still holds the Supremacy.
This is particularly the case in the towns near Bos-
ton. There are records of shoemaking in Lynn as
early as 1635, and in 1650 that town made more
shoes than any other in the country. It made a
specialty of ladies' shoes, mostly of cloth. By 1750
it had a surplus for export, and sent shoes to New
York, Philadelphia, and the South. The business
of Lynn largely developed after the Revolutionary
war. In 1788 it exported 100,000 pairs; in 1795,
300,000 pairs; and by 1877 its product had increased
to 14,000,000 pairs.
The shoes made in the early period were rough,
ill-fitting, and imperfect. The workmen were un-
skilled, and many of the shoes were made by me-
chanics of other trades, who worked at home at this
art in the winter. It was not till 1750 that the
knowledge of the art improved. At that period a
skilful Welsh shoemaker settled in Massachusetts,
who quickly gained a great reputation in the trade
by his superior workmanship. The general style of
shoes greatly improved under the incitement of his
example, and by 1764. Lynn had gained the reputa-
tion of making shoes equal to those of London.
After the Revolutionary period, other towns came
into competition with Lynn for a share of the shoe
trade. Haverhill and Danvers early engaged in the
manufacture of ladies' shoes, while other towns near
Boston successively engaged in the business. Mar-
blehead was one of these, incited thereto by the de-
cline of its fisheries. It now makes about 4,000,000
pairs yearly. The shoes of Lynn are still nearly all
women's shoes, the uppers being made principally
of lasting or serge, though many are of leather.
The work of this town embraces all the light, cheap,
machine-sewed styles. Haverhill, which comes next
in importance, produces a better quality of shoe, and
turns out sewed and pegged work of every kind.
Many other places in Massachusetts, Maine, and
New Hampshire are extensively engaged in the bus-
iness, Boston being their commercial centre.
New York is second to Boston as a shoe distribut-
ing centre. It has long been famed for the quality
of its shoes. Only fine goods are made there, and
| the city turns out the best factory-made boots and
514
shoes in the world. Only the finest grades of Eu-
ropean calf and kid skins and the best domestic mo-
rocco leather are used, with oak-tanned soles. Phil-
adelphia has an equal reputation for the quality of
its shoes, while the business has developed in other
towns in the interior of Pennsylvania and New York.
At present the value of the Massachusetts product is
said to be 60 per cent. of that of the entire country,
New York about 12, Pennsylvania about 8, and the
other States in much lower proportions.
As the shoemaking business increased, workmen
began to divide their labor, and each to confine him-
Shoe Pegging Machine.
self to some department, such as crimping, bottom-
ing, heeling, and finishing. Much work was done
by associations of journeymen. This system proved
advantageous, and has made Boston the principal
centre of such Operations and the largest shoe mar-
ket in the world. There have been great improve-
ments in the American manufacture of shoes, due
largely to new methods of splitting and currying
leather, by which softer and finer material is pro-
duced. Remarkable progress has been made in
methods of manufacture, the invention of labor-Sav-
ing machinery greatly increasing the rapidity and
cheapness of production. In old times all shoes
were hand-sewed. In 1818 the shoe peg was in-
vented by J. W. Hopkinton, of Massachusetts. The
SHOES.
pegs were at first made by hand, afterward by ma
chinery, and at present some 30 establishments are
engaged in this branch of the business. There is a
shoe-pegging machine in use that is remarkable in
its operation, making the pegs and driving them
into the shoes at one operation. A shoe can be
pegged in ten seconds by this machine. A narrow
ribbon of wood, of the thickness of a peg and as
Wide as the length of a peg, is reeled on a machine
to the length of 100 or more feet. One end is pared
sharp by the machine. A strong awl worked by the
machine pierces holes in the leather, and at the
same time a sharp knife splits a peg from the end of
the ribbon of wood. The point of the peg is guided
to the hole, and as the awl comes out the peg goes
in, and is driven home while the awl makes the next
hole. . The operation goes on with great rapidity,
the shoe needing only to be guided and turned.
Many other machines are in use, no industry being
more benefited in this particular. The sewing-ma-
chine was utilized in shoemaking soon after its in-
Vention, it being operated by steam, and used in all
the large shoe factories. There are other machines
for smoothing and rounding the soles after pegging,
for last making, and for other departments of the
business, the necessary labor on each shoe being
much lessened and greatly divided. About
1000 cords of wood are used annually in making
shoe pegs, but many of these are exported.
One thousand seven hundred pegging machines
were in use in the United States in 1873, and
where formerly only the coarsest boots and
shoes were pegged, now great quantities of fine peg-
ged work are made. The pegging machine described
was invented in 1851 by A.
C. Gallahue, but has been
much improved by others.
Equally important is the
McKay sole sewing-ma-
chine, invented about 1858
by L.R. Blake, but perfected
and introduced by Gordon
McKay. By this machine
soles can be sewed on nearly
100 pairs of women's shoes
in an hour ; 800 pairs in 10
hours is a fair day's work. -
This machine is in very /
general use in the United ſº
States, and many are used ||
in England and Europe. Wºº
There are two other sole
sewers, the Goodyear welt
machine making an almost perfect imita-
tion of handsewed work. There are sev-
eral machines for stitching, chief among
them being the Elias Howe and the
Wheeler & Wilson. Other machines in
extensive use are the cable screw wire
and the wire-tacking machines. There
are also machines to set and burnish the
edges, to make and trim the heels, and
for various other purposes, while there are scores of
minor inventions, all of American production. No.
other country except, perhaps, England is so well pro-
vided with factory-made shoes as the United States.
In Europe hand-made shoes are still in the ascendant.
The wooden shoes so generally used by the peas-
antry of Europe are cheap and durable, and, though
clumsy, are said to be comfortable. An attempt was
made to manufacture them in the United States on
a large scale in 1863, but with very little success in
sale. A few are now made. .
A highly important branch of the shoemaking in-
dustry, of 19th century introduction, is the India-
rubber shoe, now deemed almost indispensable in
cities for wet weather and winter wear. The first
º
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º
z
Ayººl
|
Shoe Sewing-machine.












































* SHOES_SHOSHONES. 515
of these were clumsy waterproof shoes imported small shops sums up to a considerable amount. In
from Para, but no shoes of any desirable value were | 1880 there were 16,013 such shops, employing 22,-
made till after the perfection of the Goodyear vul-|667 hands, and producing $30,870,127 Worth of boots
canizing process The India-rubber shoe industry and shoes. The total product of the country has
has since then grown to large proportions, and, wide- increased from $54,000,000 in 1850 to $196,920,481
spread as are the uses of vulcanized rubber, the shoe in 1880, while to this must be added a production of
and boot manufacture forms one of the largest rubber boots and shoes to the value of $9,705,724,
branches of its employment. making the complete annual product of the boot
The manufacture of boots and shoes is at present and shoe industry over $206,000,000. (C. M.)
among the most important of those industries car- SHOSHONES, the name of a family of Indians,
ried on at once in large factories and in a vast num- also known under the name of Snakes, belonging to
ber of petty shops. The boot and shoe factories re- the California group, and inhabiting a wide range of
country, which extends from Idaho into Utah, and
from the Rocky Mountains to the Sierra Nevada.
| As at present known, they are divided into the Sho-
shones proper and the Utes or Utahs, but seem
Frºme-ºs-
;
§º
:i.
§i
i º
..-|º
º
.
º&
ported in the census of 1880 numbered 1959, with a
product valued at $166,050,354. The material con-
sumed included 6,831,661 sides of sole leather, 21,-
147,656 sides of upper leather, and 32,960,614
pounds of other leather, with a total product of
30,590,896 pairs of boots, and 94,887,615 pairs of
shoes. Of the factories, Massachusetts has more
than half, 982, with a total product of $95,900,510;
New York, a product of $18,979,259; Pennsylvania,
New Hampshire, and Maine, each over $5,000,000;
the remaining product being divided among many
States.
In addition to the factory production, that of the
connected linguistically with the Comanches, the
Moquis, and several tribes of California. Their lan-
guage, indeed, is the type of a family of Indian lan-
guages which seems at one time to have been widely
extended. When first seen, by Lewis and Clark, in
1805, they were west of the Rocky Mountains, but
had traditions pointing to the east and south
as an earlier habitat, they having apparently
been driven over the mountains by hostile
tribes.
The Shoshones proper include the Ban-
nacks (though some class this as a separate
tribe) and several independent bands which
bear special names. Most important of these
are the Koolsati-Rara or Buffalo Eaters, of
Wind river; the Tookarika, Mountain Sheep
Eaters, of Salmon and Snake rivers; and the
Shoshocos, White Knives or Diggers, of the
Great Salt Lake basin. Some of these bands
are fierce and warlike, others mild and inof-
fensive. They became hostile to the whites
about 1849, and continued so, at intervals,
till 1863, some of the bands suffering se-
verely in consequence. The Diggers of Salt
Lake were nearly exterminated by California
volunteers in 1862. Peace was made with
most of the bands in 1863, and with others in
1864 and 1865, but the government failed to
properly observe its treaty stipulations, and
many of the bands resumed hostilities. In
1867 Gen. Steele conducted a campaign
against the Shoshones, killing a number of
them and destroying their large stores of pro-
visions. Since that date they have been
peaceful.
The government set aside reservations on
which it sought to gather the scattered bands
of the tribe, there being three of these reser-
Vations, the Fort Hall, established in Idaho in
1867 for the Bannacks, and several bands of
the Shoshones ; the Shoshone, established in
Wyoming in 1868; and the Lemlie agency in
Idaho. The first contains about 1530, the
second something over 870, and the third
has about 600 Indians. In addition, there
are Shoshones in Nevada and Utah estimat-
ed at 1000, and a band of 400 in northwest
Idaho.
The Shoshones of the several bands differ widely
in character of food and modes of life. Most of
those of the south live on roots and small animals.
In the north they live largely on the fish of Sho-
shone river, and on large game taken by hunting, in
which they are skilful. They are fond of barter and
personal adornment, and of games of chance, dress
in buffalo and deer skins, and live in skin tents.
Among their customs is that of burning or burying
with the dead his property, the wife or horse being
formerly killed over the corpse. On the reservation
Episcopalians, Catholics, and other denominations
are making efforts to convert and educate these











516
SHUBLICK-SIBLEY."
Indians, and are meeting with some success. Voca-
bularies have been made from the speech of various
bands, but no critical study of the Shoshone lan-
guages has yet been made.
SHUBRICK, WILLIAM BRANFORD (1790–1874),
rear-admiral, was born at Charleston, S. C., Oct. 31,
1790. His father,
1810) had served as aide to Gens. Greene and Lincoln.
William, with his elder brother, John Taylor Shu-
brick (1788–1815), left Harvard College to enter the
navy in 1806. They served on the Constitution
under Stewart and took part in several noted ex-
ploits. John was lost at sea while bearing to the
United States the treaty concluded with Algiers
in 1815. William had the command of a squad-
ron in the West Indies in 1838, and in the Pacific in
1847, at which time he captured Mazatlam and as-
sisted in establishing U. S. authority in California.
In 1858 he had command of the Brazilian squadron,
and in 1859 conducted the expedition against Para-
guay.
rear-admiral. He died at Washington, May 27,
1874. His . brothers, Edward Rutledge Shubrick
(1794–1844) and Irvine Shubrick (1797–1849), were
The former attained the rank
also naval officers.
of captain, and had command of the Brazilian
Squadron when he died, March 12, 1844. The lat-
ter had served under Decatur and was captured
He became
commodore in 1841, and died at Philadelphia, April
with him in the President in 1815.
5, 1849.
SHUFELDT, ROBERT WILSON, naval officer, was
born at Red Hook, Dutchess Co., N. Y., Feb. 21,
1822. Entering the navy as a midshipman, May 11,
1839, he had risen to the rank of commander in 1853,
but in 1854 he resigned from the navy and was for
several years in responsible positions in the mercantile
He was for two years chief officer on the
Collins line of Liverpool steam-ships, and thereafter
in command of steamers plying between New York
When the civil war broke out
he was commander of the steamer Quaker City on the
New York and Havana line, and during the first year
service.
and New Orleans.
of the rebellion was U. S. consul-general for Cuba,
a situation of high importance, which he filled with
eminent tact and ability. He resigned this office in
1863 and was appointed commander, his commission
In the blockade of
dating back to November, 1862.
Charleston he commanded the steam-ship Conemaugh,
and took part in the engagements on Morris Island.
In 1864 he was in the Gulf blockading Squadron.
sioned commodore in 1876.
with these countries. In 1883 he was advanced to
rear-admiral, and retired from the service, Feb. 21,
1884. While he was on the African expedition he
was presented with a sword by Said Burgash, Sul-
tan of Zanzibar.
SIAM See INDIA.
SIBLEY, HENRY HASTINGS, pioneer, was born at
Detroit, Mich., Feb. 20, 1811, his father being a
judge of the Supreme Court of Michigan. He re-
ceived a classical education, and for a time studied
law. This, however, he abandoned for mercantile
pursuits, becoming first a servant and subsequently
a partner of the American Fur Company, having its
stations at Mackinaw and Fort Snelling. His em-
ployment led him to make frequent excursions into
the unexplored regions of the Northwest, in one of
which he reached the mouth of the Minnesota
river. He was so charmed with the country that
he fixed his home at Mendota, there erecting for
-
Col. Thomas Shubrick (1755–
In 1862 he was retired with the rank of
In
1865–66 he commanded the flag-ship of the East
India fleet, and that of the Mediterranean from 1871
to 1873. From 1875 to 1878 he was chief of the bu-
reau of equipment and recruiting, and was commis-
In 1879–80 he sailed
on a special mission to Africa and the East Indies to
report on the best means of reviving American trade
himself the first stone house within the bounds of
what has since become the State of Minnesota. Most
of his time here was devoted to frontier sports. In
November, 1848, he was chosen a delegate to Congress
to represent a district cut off from Wisconsin when it
was admitted into the Union and had its boundaries
fixed. Here he secured the passage of a measure
constituting this district, along with a vast ad-
ditional tract west of the Mississippi, into the Terri-
tory of Minnesota, and from this he was elected con-
gressional delegate in 1849 and 1851. In March,
1858, it was admitted into the Union as a State, and
he was chosen its first governor. When the Sioux
made their great rising, in 1862, he raised and com-
manded a white volunteer force which, at the de-
cisive battle of Wood Lake (Sept. 23, 1862), broke
the power of the hostile savages. For his skill and
gallantry here he was made brigadier-general of
Volunteers, and was afterward brevetted major-
general. During Pres. Grant's administration
he was appointed a member of the board of Indian
commissioners, and in 1871 was chosen to the
legislature, where he vigorously resisted repudia-
tion of the State railroad bonds, and was thus in-
strumental in restoring the credit of his State. In
1888 Princeton College created him L.L. D. Gen.
Sibley is president of the chamber of commerce
of St. Paul, Minn., of the board of regents of
the State university, and of the State historical
Society. p
SIBLEY, HENRY HoPKINs (1816–1886), general,
was born, May 25, 1816, at Natchitoches, La. He
graduated at West Point in 1838, and was appointed
2d lieutenant of the Second Dragoons, serving in the
Florida war. Promoted 1st lieutenant in 1840, he
served in the Everglades expedition against the Sem-
inoles, and acted as adjutant of his regiment from
1841 to 1846. In 1847 he was made captain, and served
in the Mexican war, taking part in the siege of Vera
Cruz, in the battles of Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Chu-
rubusco, Molino del Rey, and the capture of the
City of Mexico, and gaining the brevet of major.
For several years he served on the Texas frontier
against the Indians, and afterward in Kansas, during
the Free Soil conflict, and in the Utah expedition,
and the Navajo expedition of 1860. On the out-
break of the civil war he was in New Mexico,
where he was promoted major, May 16, 1861, but the
same day resigned his commission to enter the Con-
federate service, in which he was made brigadier-
general. Being unable to shake the allegiance of
his troops, he raised a brigade of nearly 2500 men in
southwest Texas, and at its head left Fort Bliss,
January, 1862, to effect the conquest of New Mexico,
appearing before Fort Craig on Feb. 16. On the
21st he fought the action of Valverde with Col. E.
R. S. Canby, commander of the fort, which resulted
in the withdrawal of the Union troops within its
shelter. In March he occupied Albuquerque and
Santa Fé, but in April he was compelled to evacuate
these places and leave the territory for Fort Bliss.
After this he commanded his brigade under Gens.
Richard Taylor and E. Kirby Smith. At the close
of the war he entered the service of the Khedive of
Egypt and took part in the construction of coast and
river defences. After a stay of 5 years he returned,
broken in health, to the United States, and support-
ed himself by lecturing on Egypt. He died at
Fredericksburg, Va., Aug. 23, 1886. Gen. Sibley
was the inventor of the tent known by his name and,
while in the U. S. service, received letters patent
for it, but forfeited his rights by his disloyalty.
After his death, a claim for compensation was
brought before Congress by friends of his family,
but it was rejected in February, 1889, and his widow,
who is said to have always manifested loyalty to the
Union, expired on receiving the news.
SICFOLES_SIGEL. - 517
sº DANIEL EDGAR, general, was born in voted himself to the perfecting of electro-telegraphy,
ew York City, 1823. He attended the university and in 1848 laid at Kiel the first wires for the ex-
there, but left it to learn the printer's trade. After plosion of submarine mines by electricity. In 1849
pursuing this for some years, he studied law, and in he left the army, and formed in Berlin the tele-
1844 began practice in his native city. In 1847 he graph-building establishment of Siemens & Halske.
#. the Legislature and became a leader of the This establishment has built the principal telegraph
emocrats, and in 1853 accompanied James Bu-' lines of Russia, Spain, Brazil, North Germany, and
chanan to London as secretary of legation. On his elsewhere. Siemens has been an active inventor,
º in 1855, he was elected to the State senate, and has greatly advanced the science of telegraphy
and next year, to Congress, where he served two by his achievements in this direction. Among the
terms. In 1859, discovering a guilty connection be- most important of his inventions are a method of
; hi. *::: tº: * sº F. i. *...*. the determining the position of injuries in subterranean
istrict of Columbia, he shot the latter dead on and submarine cables, a method of examining in-
the street in Washington, Feb. 27, 1859, for which sulated wires, and a method of charging under-
he was tried for murder, but, after a trial of twenty ground and submarine cables by which the disturb-
days, acquitted. On the outbreak of the civil war ing effects of induction may be reduced. In addi-
he raised in New York City the Excelsior brigade, of |tion to these he has taken part with his brother, Sir
..","...","...": ..."...","...º.º.
3. - rigadier- PAEDLA DRITANNICA) II) IQ3DY Of D1S 11]] OOTI3D
É. Of º #. which capacity he served inventions, among them an imºi tº:
under General Josep ooker, distinguishing him- an air-pump, a water-meter, a regenerative steam-
self at Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, and ‘Maiverſ. Hiii. º a regenerative º: the latter
º * sº * IIl º * *. i. i* à th *::::: value i. ..";
- us part at Antletam. e Was He also iOlned Wit is brother in buildi the
appointed to succeed General Hooker in command #iº. telegraph in 1868–69. g
of the division, and fought bravely at Fredericks- STEMERING, RUDOLF, German sculptor, was born
..º. *...* º º W3S i ; at º ". 1835, º Y. ... *:
* 2 ~, IO) all OI’-Qſe D 61°3.1 a.C3. CleIll V [D.62Te. -
and assigned to the ..º. #. dis-i Berlin, he tºm. †. j i. :
tinguishing himself again at Chancellorsville. His ments to Schiller and to Goethe. Though l] I, SU1C-
* º pººl. at $."; # i;. º º drew attention to his merits.
ence of its position between Cemetery and He completed a memorial of Albert the Great, and
Little Round Top, but was forced to yield to supe- later, a #; figure of King William †. #.
rior numbers, and here General Sickles lost a leg. ilin Exchange. The statue of Germany which was
Nº. he continued in active service till erected at Berlin to commemorate the mustering of
3. ....”. * was, º: OD 8. i. to tºº. º º * º from his hand.
- e Jolne e regular army as His greatest work is the Luther-M ial. º
colonel and next year was brevetted brigadier-general Was j on the 400th sº º".
for gallantry at Fredericksburg, and major-general former's birth, Nov. 10, 1883, at Eisleben. The
i.;;..."; nº. ...". "..."..."...º.º.º.º.
** - r ***. : .5x P 3 J Ull i. OUIT - ºit.
where he carried out the work of reconstruction with int from the liºn. ...r. "...";
such º º lº relieved him of his Siemering had erected at Marienburg a statue of
Command. In April, 1869, he was placed on the re- Frederick the Great. H • * ºr ºx-
tired list of the U.S. Army with #. full rank of memorial for thºse º tºº. O #".
major-general. In May of the same year he was ap- noted for their realistic truth. He especially excels
pointed minister to Spain, which post he resigned in relief work. sº
in 1873, when he resumed his residence in New York SIGEL, FRANz, a general of the American civil
City. There he holds the positions of president of war, was born at Sinsheim, Baden, Nov. 18, 1824.
º º º º º and He graduated at the military school of Carlsruhe,
º lº, ur e erection of New York monu- i. served as an officer in the army of the Grand
sijówick, #º, an English philosopher, was : º º *.*.*.*.*.*.*is:
born at Skipton, Yorkshire, in 1838. He was edu-'broke out, he resigned from the army and ioned
* º * º º College, Cambridge. the insurgent forces, being appointed is: of
e was fellow of the latter from 1859 to 1869, and war by th ti - a - -
in 1881 was elected an honorary fellow of the same. 1848. He tº:
... .º.º.º.º.º.º.º.º.
:...' - \ tº . . º. º. ºf r: po- erosławski Sigel skilfully led back the beaten and
.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*, *.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.
* * . . ." * . º - 3 StåClt. A. - - isi
women at Cambridge, and especially in the founda- ºt lº jº."...º".
. * of Newnham College. He has not permitted to remain there by the Swiss º:
Contributed to the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, and ment, and sailed for the United Stai so ea u-
row-. rov-, e e 4- y ººº-ºº: Saº : ates, reaching
i."...i. * }}.º. º: He New York in 1850. Here he taught mathematics fºr
'...}. Econom Methods of Ethics, Principles of some years in the academy of Dr. Rudolph Dulon,
ŠišMÉNs. fºss, WERNER, a German electrici Nº. he afterward married, interested
was born at Leuthe, In 63 I’ Hanover, j*; º. Imajor ... he
1816. He entered the gymnasium of Lubeck, and St. Louis, became a teacher in i. i.
afterward the School of Artillery and Engineering of city, and on the outbreak of the civil §...",
..","..."º ºrd Missourisdiº
t • • -* - - 4. * Leers, Stationed at Camp Jaekson.
the study of chemistry and electro-metailurgy and The c * in Misson ri º -
in 1841 took out a patent for electro-plating º n.º.º.º.º. wº º:
gilding. In 1844 he was placed in charge of the camp at Jackson, took possession of ‘. º;
government artillery Works at Berlin. He also de-, States arsenal at St. Louis, and defeated Colonel
518 SIGNAL SERVICE.
Marmaduke at Booneville, thus checkmating the
governor, who was planning to carry the State out of
the Union. Sigel was sent on June 23d to south-
West Missouri, where Price had collected a strong
body of Confederate militia, and on July 5th met the
enemy at Carthage, his 1200 men being opposed to
5000. A severe conflict ensued, ending in his re-
pulse, but he conducted the retreat so skilfully as
to check pursuit and inflict heavy loss upon the
enemy. This repulse rendered it necessary for
Lyon to take some decisive action, or to abandon
that portion of the State. He preferred the former
course and advanced rapidly to Sigel's support with
about 5000 men, meeting the enemy, with more than
twice that number, at Wilson's Creek on August
10th. In the engagement that followed Lyon was
killed, and Sigel (now acting-general), who had been
sent to gain the enemy's rear, met with a disastrous
repulse. He conducted the retreat from Spring-
field, the Confederates having been too severely
punished to make any vigorous pursuit. He now
received a commission as brigadier-general, to date
from May 17th. No further engagement of impor-
tance took place in Missouri, but the armies on both
sides increased in numbers, and General Price, in
command of the Confederate forces, was eventually
obliged to retreat to Arkansas, whither he was foi-
lowed, in February, 1862, by General Curtis with a
Union army. On March 7th the armies met at Pea
Ridge, the Confederates then under Van Dorn, and
a severe battle followed, Van Dorn attacking with
great energy before the Union lines had completed
their formation. Curtis, however, held his ground,
and gradually brought his men into position, Sigel,
with the left wing, not reaching his designated
ground until late in the night. The battle was re-
newed the next morning, and the victory was due to
Sigel's skilful manoeuvres. He pushed forward his
line by alternate movements of batteries and infan-
try supports, pressing back the enemy's right until
the Union lines formed a curve enclosing the enemy,
when by a heavy concentrated artillery fire the lat-
ter were forced to retreat, and were finally com-
pletely routed. In this engagement the Union force
was under 10,000; the Confederate, perhaps twice as
strong. This was the last engagement of importance
in that section of the Union.
Sigel's energy, skill, and success had now brought
him into high repute with the German element of
the population, and when in May, 1862, he resigned
bis position in consequence of unpleasant relations
with General Halleck, the authorities at Washington
showed their recognition of the value of his services
by appointing him major-general, to date from
March 21st. On June 2d he was placed in charge
at Harper's Ferry, and on the 26th succeeded to the
command of Fremont's army corps. He took part in
the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 29–30, 1862, and
on Sept. 14 was made commander of the Eleventh
army corps. In March, 1864, Sigel was placed in
command of the department of West Virginia, and
on Grant's advance against Lee he took part in the
several co-operative movements ordered by the com-
manding general. His duty was to advance with
the 10,000 men under his command, march up the
Shenandoah Valley, and threaten the railroad com-
munication with Richmond. In the accomplish-
ment of this movement he was met by the Confeder-
ate General Breckenridge at New Market, on May
15th. Breckenridge made an impetuous charge
upon Sigel's columns, and a sharp fight ensued,
which ended in the Union forces breaking and fly-
ing in disorder up the valley, the Confederates pur-
suing and inflicting severe loss in men and materials
during the 30 miles retreat. This ended Sigel's
military career. He was immediately relieved of
his command, and succeeded by General Hunter.
Since the war Sigel has resided in New York City,
taking some interest in politics. In 1871, he was
elected register of the city of New York. In 1886
he was appointed a pension agent.
SIGNAL SERVICE. Before the American Civil
War General A. J. Myer, at that time a surgeon in
the army, had already conceived a simple plan of
Communicating by signals between the soldiers and
distant stations when the electric telegraph was not
available. His plan was a modification of the
Morse alphabet, and in place of dots and dashes he
used a flag held in the hand of the signal-man, who,
by waving it to the right for a dot and to the left
for a dash, was thus enabled to spell out the letters
of any word by signals that could easily be seen
from one to twenty miles away, according to the
clearness of the sky and the location of the observers.
At night-time the waving of a lantern answered the
same purpose; in fact, on special occasions, any sig-
nal whatever, such as a tap, an ejaculation, a wink
given singly or doubly, and arranged in groups ac-
cording to some previously concerted plan, afforded
the means for distant communication. This simple
idea, which was at first designed for immediate use
between military parties scattered on the plains of
the West and Southwest, found important applica-
tion during the war which soon after broke out.
On the 21st of June, 1860, the Act making appro-
priations for the support of the army added to the
staff of the army one signal officer, with the rank
of major of cavalry. Subsequently, in recognition
of the great services rendered by General Myer,
the Act of June 30, 1864, gave him the title of
Chief Signal Officer of the Army, with the rank of
colonel, which rank was subsequently raised to
brigadier-general (June 16, 1880), at which it still
remains. During the war the important services of
the many officers and men engaged under General
Myer were freely acknowledged. At the close of
the War, however, his staff was cut down to a small
number, barely sufficient to maintain a school of in-
struction at what was then called Fort Whipple, now
Fort Myer, on the Arlington estate near Washington,
D. C. In the subsequent development of the work
of the military signal office, General Myer properly
and successfully maintained that the working of the
electric telegraph for military purposes, the use of
balloons and pigeons, and all other methods of
communication at a distance were the proper work
of his corps. The methods of building rapidly tele-
graph lines on the Western plains were so modified
as to apply to the hilly and mountainous regions of
the country, and when it became necessary to build
such lines along the sandy sea-shore over the greater
part of the distance from Boston to Key West, con-
necting together life-saving, lighthouse, and meteoro-
logical stations, the wooden pole was successfully
replaced by iron tubes with a broad flange, which
latter buried itself in the sand, forming a base for
the whole. The field telegraph train, ready at a
moment's notice to build ten miles of telegraph line,
was the characteristic rallying point of the telegraph
corps, as the kit of flags and torches was the emblem
of the signal corps in general.
General Myer has often told the present writer
of his various schemes for developing the further
usefulness of the signal corps in times of peace as
well as of war. Thus, at the time of the extensive
riots of 1877, he kept the President informed by
regular three-hour reports of the state of the coun-
try at each of the 150 signal-stations. As his code
and methods applied to the ocean as well as the
land, he recommended its introduction into the
Navy, and contributed greatly to the general intro-
duction of the International Code. But his greatest
triumph consisted in the utilization of the signal
corps for the transmission of weather-reports to the
519
SIGOURNEY.
central office, and the dissemination thence of
weather-predictions and signals that gave public
warning of storms and daily weather-changes ; it is
this work that has made the Signal Service widely
known throughout the civilized world. The im-
portance and possibility of weather-predictions by
means of the telegraph had been foreseen from the
very first success of Prof. Morse on the line between
Washington and Baltimore in May, 1884; reports
had been collected and maps sent out daily by Prof.
Henry at the Smithsonian Institution in 1854.
European governments had then taken up the work
and issued storm-warnings in Holland, France, and
England. After peace had been restored in the United
States Prof. C. Abbé, during 1868–69, had organized a
system of reports and predictions for the benefit of
the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, and, based
upon his success, in the latter year Prof. Lapham, of
Milwaukee, had caused memorials for a general
national system to be endorsed by all Chambers of
Commerce and Boards of Trade, which were then
presented to Congress with a proposed bill by Gen-
eral H. E. Paine. As soon as the matter had been
referred to the proper committee, General Myer ap-
peared before it and explained convincingly the
appropriateness of putting the work of weather-pre-
dictions and storm-signals in the hands of the Signal
Service, which was officially done in February, 1870.
The first bulletin of observations was issued by tele-
graph, Nov. 8, 1870, and occasional predictions were
afterward made, it is said, by Prof. Lapham and
General Myer, but systematic tri-daily weather-pre-
dictions began to be made by the present writer,
February 12, 1871, and have continued unbroken
from that day forward, excepting only that on July
1, 1888, reports and predictions began to be made
twice instead of thrice daily. The scope of the work
and duties of the Signal Service was at first confined to
storms and floods, but has been successively extended
to cover every important feature of the weather that
can affect human industry, and it would be belittling
its work to say, as has been said, that the agricult-
ural interests receive the greatest benefits from it.
Neither is its usefulness confined to the United
States, since it exchanges reports by telegraph with
Canada and the West Indies, and by mail with every
civilized nation. The service has not merely a
practical financial field of usefulness, but has also
done good service in educating the people to a truer
appreciation of science and the laws of nature. It
has had to combat with the prejudices of the
ignoraut, who clung to the predictions of almanacs,
astrologers, Sun-Spot men, and sensationalists like
Wiggins; there is every evidence that at the present
time the people look to the weather-signals, the
Weather-predictions, the weather-maps, the clouds,
and the barometer, when they wish to foresee the
Weather, and have rid themselves of most of the su-
perstitions that were formerly in vogue among the
ignorant. Probably the most important feature of
the service has been the remarkable promptness and
rapidity with which it lays before the public its re-
ports and predictions. A series of observations is
made, for instance, as formerly, at 11.00 or 11.35 P.M.,
Washington time, simultaneously throughout the
Country; all necessary telegraph wires are put at the
signals displayed. In general, two hours, or two
and a half suffice for the whole work of observing,
predicting, and disseminating. Besides the tri-daily
map, General Myer instituted the weekly weather-
chronicle, the monthly weather-review, the tri-daily
bulletin of observations, and the international bulle-
tin of simultaneous observations taken throughout
the world, accompanied by a daily map of the weather
over the entire northern hemisphere, on the land and
sea. After his death, August 24, 1880, a short in-
terregnum occurred during which Adjutant-General
R. J. Drum was acting chief, and Brigadier-General
W. B. Hazen was then appointed Chief Signal Officer.
During the latter's administration much attention
was given to the enlistment of a better class of Ob-
servers; to the introduction of civilian scientific ex-
perts; the improvement of instruments and of their
exposures; the general inspection of the stations;
the observation of atmospheric electricity; co-opera-
tion in international polar meteorological research ;
the introduction of uniform standard time ; in-
struction in meteorology; the regulation of the
finances of the service ; the utilization of the hom-
ing-pigeon for military purposes; the initiation of
cold-wave signals, and of weather crop-bulletins.
During General Hazen's sickness, and after his
death, January 16, 1887, General A. W. Greely,
who had returned from his Arctic expedition, was
temporarily in charge, and on March 3, 1887, was
confirmed as Chief Signal Officer. His administra-
tion has thus far been signalized by remarkable en-
ergy in reducing unnecessary expenses, by his advo-
cacy of at least a partial civilian organization under
civil service rules, and by the securing of a new,
convenient, and commodious building for the office
in Washington in place of the disreputable, incon-
venient houses hitherto rented for that purpose. .
Notwithstanding the general success of the Weath-
er Bureau as conducted by the Chief Signal Officer,
there has been a long struggle over the question as
to whether it would not be more appropriate as a
civilian rather than a military organization : the
general argument being that the young men who
have enlisted as privates in the signal corps, expect-
ing to devote themselves therein to meteorology,
have been intellectually and socially too far above
those ordinarily enlisting as privates in the army to
justify holding them at the same rank; and again,
that the work done is a practical and beneficent ap-
plication of science, such that men who have de-
voted themselves to the study of science should be
brought into the signal service more freely than is
practicable so long as the strictly military organiza-
tion is maintained. As the outcome of this long
agitation of the subject the sundry civil appropria-
tion bill, signed by Pres. Cleveland, Oct. 4, 1888, en-
acted that a very large proportion of those who have
hitherto been carried on the rolls as privates and
Sergeants shall receive civilian appointments, a
change which has immediately resulted in infusing
a new spirit of ambition among those who have for
so many years given their days and nights to the
Work of a service that is really an applied science,
and not necessarily of a military nature. A further
step is still urged by many members of Congress by
|
disposition of the service for 20 or 30 minutes until
these observations are collected at Washington, they
having meantime been also “dropped ” at numerous
other stations on their way.
finished before midnight, and before 1 A.M. all pre-
dictions, signals, and other orders have issued to
received the morning paper with the predictions, or Norwich, Conn., Sept. 1, 1791.
which the Signal Office will remain as formerly a
military branch of the army, while the Weather Bu-
reau will become a bureau of the proposed Depart-
ment of Industry, Commerce, and Agriculture.
Being translated and
put upon a map as soon as received, this work is
| poet whose writings,
(C. A.)
SIGOURNEY, LYDIA HUNTLEY (1791–1865), was a
by their religious tone and do-
: mestic sentiment, obtained an extensive but fleeting
the observers and to the Associated Press. By day- popularity. She was the daughter of Ezekiel Hunt.
light of the next morning the public everywhere has ſley, a veteran of the Revolution, and was born at
She was well edu-
noted the storm-signals flying, or the cold-wave cated, and at the age of nineteen began to teach. In
520 R
SITE.
1814 she removed to Hartford, where she conducted letter in 1770 strongly encouraging the silk-worm
a school for young ladies. In 1819 she was married culture, and the planting of the mulberry. Silk
to Mr. Charles Sigourney, a merchant of Hartford. manufacture in Connecticut became active after
From her early contributions to periodicals her first 1760, and for many years was carried on there more
volume, Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse (1815), was extensively than anywhere else in the United States.
collected. More ambitious were her poems, Traits During the colonial period, and for many years after
of the Aborigines (1822); Zinzendorf (1836); Poca- the Revolution, the manufacture was chiefly of sew-
hontas (1841), which showed an earnest effort to pre- | ing silk, and was largely a household art. The
sent the poetical aspects of American scenery and methods of reeling and twisting were very primitive,
history. Pleasant Memories of Pleasant Lands (1842) and much of the silk became tangled and wasted.
was the record of a tour in Europe, during which In 1790 the manufacture of silk laces began at
some of her poems were published in London. In Ipswich, Mass., , where it continued many years.
1848 a collected edition was issued in New York, with Silk shoes are said to have been made. The making
illustrations by Darley. Altogether, as shown by of fringes, coach laces, and tassels began at Philadel-
her Letters of Life (1866), she wrote fifty-six books, phia in 1793, and in 1815 silk trimmings were made
Some of which were intended for children, and sev- in that city by William H. Horstmann. The manu-
eral were biographical. She died at Hartford, June facture of sewing silk by steam-power began in 1810.
10, 1865. About 1825 the interest in the silk industry greatly
SILK. This article is confined to silk culture increased. There was at that time a large importa-
and manufacture in America. The ef- tion of silk goods, and Peter S. Duponceau (q.v.),
iº º: fort to produce silk in America began president of the American Philosophical Society,
ł. very early in the ‘history of the coun- brought the subject of the encouragement of Amer-
try. Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, ican silk manufacture to the attention of Congress,
had eggs of the silk-worm brought to that country in established a small filature in Philadelphia, and
1531; he had previously planted mulberry-trees, to exerted himself somewhat successfully for the ad-
furnish food for the worms. The experiment was suc- vancement of the industry. Silk societies were es-
cessful. Silk was produced, woven, and sent abroad. tablished in several States, books on silk culture pub-
The industry, however, did not long flourish, and had lished, new machinery for silk manufacture invented,
almost vanished by the end of the century. Silk- and a general interest in the subject awakened.
worms were sent to the English colonies in 1619. This interest led to an extraordinary development
James I. had been foiled in his efforts to establish of speculation, which ended in checking the Amer-
the rearing of silk-worms in England, and sent eggs ican silk industry for years. The worms had, up to
to Virginia, with an expert in their culture. He this time, been fed on the leaves of the white mul-
earnestly urged that silk should be produced instead berry (Morus alba), and some other plants. After
of tobacco, against which he issued his famous Coun- 1830 a vigorous effort was made to introduce the
terblast, bounties were offered to farmers who should Chinese mulberry (Morus multicaulis), on the ground
produce silk, and penalties laid on those who should of its rapid growth and abundant production of
fail to plant mulberry-trees. The experiment at first leaves. It was objected that it was not hardy, and
promised well, but was soon neglected in favor º not relished by the silk-worms like the white mul-
tobacco-raising. Some little silk was sent to Eng- || berry, yet a fever of speculation broke out, and the
land, but before the end of the century the industry price of the tree went up rapidly, until cuttings
died out in Virginia. The French Huguenots of the reached an extravagant price. The excitement
Carolinas were the first to introduce the silk manu- reached its height in 1839. People grew wild in
facture into this country. They made silk-mixed their hopes of riches from the new tree, slender cut-
goods, importing the raw silk for that purpose. tings of 2 feet in length sold at from $2 to $5
Some silk was produced in the Carolinas, but no im- each, and one nurseryman ordered 5,000,000 young
portant quantity. John Law sought to introduce trees from France, sending over $80,000 as advance
silk culture into Louisiana, as a part of his vast payment. In the autumn of 1839 the bubble burst.
scheme for the improvement of that country, but | Thousands of the speculators were ruined. By the
the effort was unsuccessful. In 1732 the culture of spring of 1840 trees could not be sold for 2 or 3
the silk-worm was introduced into Georgia, and with cents each. In 1844 most of those that remained
more success than elsewhere in the country, under were destroyed by a violent storm, and the White
the stimulus of vigorous encouragement from Eng- || mulberries were widely blighted. Thus ended one
land. In 1735. Oglethorpe took 8 lbs. of silk to of the most extraordinary outbursts of speculation
England, which was woven into a dress for Queen in America. *
Caroline. In 1750 a filature, or reeling establish- || Meanwhile the manufacture of silk goods was
ment, was founded in Savannah. . The exportations growing. Raw silk began to be imported from
of raw silk grew until 1772, averaging 500 lbs. yearly, China, Turkey, and Italy in considerable quantities,
though rarely over 1,000 lbs, in any one year. In improved machinery was invented, and by 1850 sev-
1766 the culture reached its highest point, 20,000 lbs. eral firms had built up a good business in the manu-
of cocoons being produced, these yielding some- facture of sewing silk and twist, some dress trim-
thing less than 2,000 lbs. of raw silk. During the mings, and a few ribbons. From 1850 to 1860 the
revolution the product was made into sewing silk, demand for sewing silk and twist increased, and it
and sold at home. The industry vanished soon after was found that the best American surpassed the best
the war. Italian in quality, evenness, strength, tºº. color.
Siik culture began early in Pennsylvania, and silk | The production of the machine twist in 1852 gave
was sent to England in 1726. It seems to have been a great impetus to the sewing-silk industry, which
somewhat active in Connecticut in 1732, and there is has so advanced since that date as to free itself from
evidence that silk was woven there to some extent. foreign rivalry. The manufacture of woven silk
The first coat and stockings manufactured from New goods now revived, and soon became of importance.
England silk were worn by Governor Law in 1747, About 1855 the manufacture of spun silk (now in-
and the first silk dress by his daughter, in 1750. |cluding almost every kind of silk goods) began at
Efforts at manufacture were made elsewhere. In South Manchester, Vt. Silk ribbons began to be
1765 it was stated that within four days 100 silk- made in 1861. The industry was much stimulated
throwers had left England for New York and Phil- during the war by the protective duty on manufactured
adelphia, with the purpose of establishing silk | silk and the free entry of raw silk. º N.J.,
manufacture in those cities. Dr. Franklin Wrote a “the Lyons of America,” had 40 or 50 silk factories,
521
SILO_SITIVER,
and others started in many places. Plain gros-grain
dress silks were made by 1866, and brocaded silks
and satins were attempted on a large Scale even
earlier. The manufacture of silk laces was estab-
lished at Brooklyn in 1871. That of handkerchiefs
was of slow growth till 1876, when it received a re-
markable impetus from the Centennial Exposition,
which indeed aided the silk industry generally. The
manufacture of various other kinds of silk goods
was attempted ; silk trimmings became a very large
branch of the industry, while silk tapestry and vel-
vets were introduced as new branches of manu-
prise of prospectors, were found vast deposits of ore,
which quickly dispelled the formerly prevailing
theory that silver exists in the United States only in
small quantities in connection with other ores.
facture. A great advance was made in the produc-
tion of dress silks of every color and variety, the
American goods of this kind surpassing French
goods of the same grade, and selling at lower prices.
ver alloy. The main sources of the world's supply
of silver for two hundred years after the discovery of
America were Mexico and South America, but the
mining enterprise of the United States within re-
cent years has developed vast deposits in the moun-
tains of the Pacific slope, and the yield of this coun-
try is now considerably in excess of that of any other.
Of the silver-producing fields of the United States
the valuable mines of Nevada are situated on the
eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, nearly
opposite to the centre of the California gold de-
posits on the western slope. Here, much to the sur-
In
In 1874 the silk goods manufactured in the United 1859 two prospectors, Comstock and Jenrod, found
States were valued at $16,269,157.
By 1880 they on Mount Davison, near the shelf on which Virginia
had increased to $34,519,723. There has been a City is now built, what seemed “a vein of very dark
steady increase since.
The production of raw silk in this country by no
means kept pace with this progress.
Jſorus multicaulis excitement the silk product has
not been an observable element in the manufacture.
Silk culture began in California in 1854, and gradu-
ally grew until it became a mania, but has died away
again and is now almost extinct. In the census
year 1880, the amount of silk produced in the
United States was too small and scattered to be
estimated, while the importations of raw silk reached
2,562,236 lbs. The Woman's Silk Culture Associ-
ation of Philadelphia was founded during the Cen-
tennial Exposition, and has made active efforts to
arouse interest in the industry, but as yet with slight
success. Other associations are the Kansas State
Silk Culture at San Francisco, each of which is en-
deavoring to awaken interest in the industry at their
respective localities. It has also been actively taken
up by the Agricultural Department at Washington,
where a filature for the reeling of silk from Amer-
ican cocoons was established in 1886. Cocoons were
purchased from the three associations above named,
but so far the cost of the experiment has been
greater than the value of the product. It is con-
tinued, however, with the hope of more success.
Eggs of the large Milanese variety of silk-worm are
being distributed by the department, from which
good results have been obtained. The history of
silk production in America, however, is not one to
encourage any extravagant hopes in that direction,
the industry never having proved sufficiently profit-
able to largely enlist American interest. (C. M.)
SILO. See ENSILAGE.
other, is found in combination with dif-
69 (p. 76 Am. ferent substances, as sulphurets, oxides,
#ep * and other metals. It occurs in several
e - sº geological formations, widely separated
in age and locality, and is therefore very generally dif-
fused. Of mineral ores experiment has proved that
only one in seventeen is free from silver, while minute
traces of it exist in sea-water and in organic sub-
stances. Gold never occurs in nature unassociated
with silver, and the latter is said to be never wholly
free from gold. It is, indeed, more commonly found in
connection with gold and lead than with any other
minerals. Yet, despite this combination, there is a
natural distinction between the veins of the several
metals. In Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico, for
instance, the prevailing ores of precious metal are
distinctively silver, the gold usually occurring in
minute particles entangled in the sulpho-salts of sil-
ver and other metals, the weight of silver being
greatly in excess of that of gold. On the other hand,
in the California gold-belt gold occurs as flakes
or even masses with only a small percentage of sil-
WOL. IV.-2 FI
See Vol. XXII,
Ore.” Specimens of this were sent to San Francisco
for assay, and proved to be quartz rich in silver. The
Since the news of this discovery quickly spread, and miners
flocked to the new silver locality in multitudes, the
whole mountain being soon staked out in claims.
Of the several veins that were opened, the richest
was that since so well known as the Comstock.
Here the dip of the ore is almost perpendicular, and
the expense of working the vein has proved very
great. Other veins of silver ore run parallel to this
along the eastern slope of the mountain, there being
several such belts of ore which are nearly one thou-
sand feet long and have been traced nearly four
! miles in different directions.
veins have been reached by horizontal drifts in the
mountain-side, their great dip rendering this feasible.
Silk Station at Peabody, and the State Board of
In some cases these
During the period since the opening of these
mines about $300,000,000 in value of silver have
been taken from them, though recently there has
been a decided falling off in the output of the
Comstock lode. As the depth of the workings made
the requisites of ventilation, pumping, and raising
the ore very expensive, it was decided to excavate a
draining and ventilating tunnel to the several veins.
This has been accomplished by the remarkable Sutro
tunnel, which enters the mountain-side 2000 feet
below Virginia City, and is 14 feet wide, 12 high,
and nearly 5 miles long, with numerous lateral gal-
leries. Along it passes a double-track tramway to
carry out the Ore, with water-drains on each side,
While the mines, once almost unbearable in temper-
ature, are now cooled and ventilated. There are
Several other silver-mining localities in Nevada, Eu-
reka being an important one, and the silver yield of
- - - the State is about three times its production of gold.
SILVER, a precious metal which, more than any
150 years ago by adventurous priests who brought to
The mines of Arizona were first discovered about
Mexico marvellous tales of the wealth of native sil-
Ver in the mountains of the North. Multitudes of
Spanish adventurers flocked to this locality, and
Worked the mines for nearly a century, at the end of .
which time the Indians, whom they had forced to
Work for them, rose and drove them off. When the
United States obtained possession of Arizona there
Were no mines in operation, the Apache Indians
having full control of the country. hese savages
gave great trouble to the early American miners, yet
the old Mexican mines were gradually opened, and
Worked successfully, while new discoveries of rich
deposits, often of almost pure silver, were made.
The richest deposits of Territory are near the town of
Tombstone, where high-grade and easily worked ores
exist abundantly. The mineral belt of Tombstone is
about 8 miles wide, from east to west, and 25 miles
long, embracing an area of nearly 200 Square miles.
Hither miners have flocked in numbers, and the
Veins have been extensively worked. About 200
miles easterly from Tombstone, in the Lake v.alley
522
º SIMON.
mining district of New Mexico, exists another re-
markable deposit, whose ores are said to be very
rich and abundant. At various points in the Valley
of the Rio Grande are other silver-ore veins, and the
indication is that the whole region of Western New
Mexico and Eastern Arizona is rich in metallic veins.
Nearly due east from the rich silver deposits of
Nevada, and about eight hundred miles distant,
ductive silver mines yet opened in the United States.
These are in the Rocky Mountain region, and the
Ore differs from that of the Sierra Nevada by being
associated with lead instead of gold. The lodes
here are comparatively horizontal, and operations
much less expensive than at Virginia City, so that
the mines are worked to a much greater extent by
individuals and by companies of small capital. The
product of the United States hitherto has been prim-
cipally from these two regions, though of late years
the Nevada yield has fallen off and that of new
regions grown into great importance.
Of these newer localities may be particularly
named Utah and Montana. The latter Territory is
now second in product to Colorado, it having several
valuable mining districts, the richest in silver being
the Granite Mountain, the Anaconda, and the Alice
mines. In Utah, which now comes third in silver
product, the veins are scattered over the Territory,
though much the richest deposits are in Summit
County, the Ontario mine being now the principal
producer, the Horn Silver mine, once a strong rival,
having dropped from competition. The silver here
is in connection with lead, as in Colorado. Idaho
has rich silver deposits, in combination with gold.
In Wyoming the gold is more promising than the
silver, in one locality the silver being connected with
copper, below which are veins of native silver, and
still farther down silver and gold combined. There
is probably very little silver in Oregon and Wash-
ington, and no promising show in California, nearly
all the silver from that State coming from the mines
of San Bernardino County. One-third of all the
gold and one-half of all the silver annually produced
in the world are supplied by the mines of the United
States. The mining laws of the United States per-
mit miners to go upon the public domain and work
mines without restriction or payment of royalty.
This is different from the custom of other govern-
ments, and unfair to the interests of the remaining
people of the country, yet it has had much to do
with the remarkably rapid development of our rich
mineral resources. .
The value of the output of the principal silver-
producing States and Territories and of the whole
United States for the year 1886 was as follows:
Colorado. . . . . . . . . $18,209,406 California. . . . . . . . $1,610,625
Montana. . . . . . . . . 13,849,920 Dakota. . . . . . . . . . . 422,581
Nevada. . . . . . . . . . . 6,051,596 Idaho. . . . . . . . . . . . 94,022
Utah. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,539,940 Other States and
Mew Mexico . . . . . . 2,701,741 Territories. . . . . 110,873
Arizona. . . . . . . . . . 2,305,420
Total United States product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $50,896,124
The following table gives the production in the
silver-yielding countries of the world for 1887:
United States . . . . $51,600,000 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . $646,424
Mexico. . . . . . . . . . .32,111,778 Argentine Repub-
Bolivia. . . . . . . . . . . 16,000,000 lic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478,075
Chili. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,649,000 Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . 432,140
Germany. . . . . . . . . 5,915,600 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . 362,218
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,258,163 Great Britain.... 316,021
Austria-Hungary. 2,090,900 Norway. . . . . . . . . . 299,232
Peru. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,987,500 France. . . . . . . . . . . 245,412
Australia. . . . . . . . . 1,048,279 Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . 100,500
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . 959,413 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . 96,667
Colombia. . . . . . . . 760,000 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . 55,420
Total world's production . . . . . tº a e º e º e s a e e s s & $124,422,342
(C. M.)
Normal School at Paris in 1833.
exist the mines of Leadville, Colo., the most pro-
SIMON, JULES, a French statesman and philoso-
pher, was born at Lorient, Dec. 27, 1814. His family
name was Suisse, but from childhood he bore the
name Simon, by which his father had come to be
known. His early studies were at the college of his
native town and afterward at Vannes, and he had
already taught at Rennes before he attended the
Having taken his
degree in philosophy in 1833 with a thesis on Proclus,
he taught at Caen and Versailles. Then he was re-
called to Paris by his former master, the distin-
guished Cousin, whom he succeeded at the Sorbonne
in 1839. For twelve years his lectures were attended
by enthusiastic students, till the coup d'état of 1851
caused them to be suspended. To this early period
of his career belong his treatises on ancient philoso-
phy, La Théodicée de Platon et d’Aristote (1840), and
Histoire de l'Ecole d’Alexandrie (2 vols., 1844–45); his
editions of the French philosophers, Descartes, Bos-
suet, Malebranche, Arnauld ; and a Manuel de Phi-
losophie (1847). Denied under the Empire an op-
portunity of teaching, he began in 1855 to conduct
courses in philosophy in the principal cities of Bel-
gium. These proved highly successful and gave him
a wide reputation. His visits to Belgium also had a
favorable effect on his mind, by showing him the
practical effects of religious liberty. His lectures of
this time furnish the material of his books, Le De-
voir (1854); La Religion naturelle (1856); and La
Liberté de Conscience (1859). A larger work, La
Liberté (2 vols., 1859), he subsequently divided under
the titles La Liberté de Penser and La Liberté civile.
When the Empire seemed to have become estab-
lished the government's pressure was relaxed. In
1863 Simon was elected to the Corps Législatif, and
soon became the leader of the Republican party.
This position was due not merely to his ability as an
orator but to his intellectual force. He sought to
base political acts on philosophical principles. These
he commended to the people in a number of treatises,
in which he discussed the questions of labor, com-
pulsory education, and the various elements of the
radical policy. The general elections of 1869 showed
the advance of his popularity and of the Republican
party. His name was proposed in several depart-
ments, and he was elected in two. The Republican
opposition to the declaration of war against Prussia
could not prevent Napoleon III. from rushing on his
fate. After the downfall of the Empire, Simon took
part in the government of the national defence, the
ministry of public instruction being appropriately
assigned to him. Too moderate to suit the commu-
mistic tendency of Paris, he failed of election there
in February, 1871, but was chosen from Marne. In
President Thiers' cabinet of that year he was again
minister of instruction. His wise measures gave a
beneficial impulse to both primary and higher edu-
cation. When in May, 1873, Marshal MacMahon
succeeded to the presidency, Simon, in the Corps
Législatif, became the leader of the Constitutional
Republicans. To him may be ascribed the defeat of
the combined attempts of Bonapartists, Orleanists,
and Legitimists for the restoration of monarchy in
the following autumn. In 1875 he was elected a
senator for life, and on the same day a member of
the Academy. Thus, as the witty French expressed
it, “One day rendered him irremovable and immor-
tal.” His aim at this time was to unite all the Re-
publican groups, but the Radical tendency was too
strong. In December, 1876, Marshal MacMahon
yielded so far as to call Simon to form a cabinet. In
this he had the portfolio of the interior. The mar-
shal again yielded so far as to dismiss from office
some who were obnoxious to the Republicans. But
in the severe struggle which soon arose with the
clericals, the Marshal-President favored them, and
found in a trifling accident an opportunity to ad-
523
SIMPSON.—SIOUX.
minister a public rebuke to Simon. The latter there-
fore resigned, May 16, 1877. In the following Sep-
tember, after the death of his friend Thiers, Simon
pronounced his eulogy. The reactionary MacMahon
resigned and the true Republican Grévy succeeded
to the presidency. Simon was selected to lead the
movement for the transfer of the seat of legislation
from Versailles to Paris. Still a firm but moderate
Republican, his prudent conservatism brought him
into conflict with the progressive Radicals. He re-
sisted the effort to exclude the religious orders from
the work of education, and to banish the non-au-
thorized bodies from France. He also resisted the
movement for complete amnesty to the Communists
of 1871. The Academy chose Simon in 1880 a mem-
ber of the supreme educational council. In 1882 he
was made permanent secretary of the academy of
moral and political science.
Simon's philosophic works and his earlier po-
litical and economic writings have already been
mentioned. After the establishment of the Repub-
lic he published some treatises on education and
historical memoirs. These comprise Souvenirs du
4 Septembre (2 vols., 1874), relating to the downfall
of the Empire and the government of the National
Defence ; and Le Gouvernement de M. Thiers (2 vols.,
1878). Besides a manual of civics for schools, Le Li-
vre du Petit Citoyen (1880), he published Dieu, Patrie
et Liberté (1883), in which he set forth, with charac-
teristic eloquence, the great moral ideas which have
ruled his life.
SIMPSON, MATTHEw (1810–1884), a bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, was born at Cadiz,
Ohio, June 21, 1810. After graduating at Madison
College, Hamilton, N. Y., he taught there for a time.
In 1837 he was called to be professor of natural
the War of 1870, he organized an ambulance Corps:
He returned to New York soon afterward, and died
there Nov. 13, 1883. His publications were chiefly
professional, and after his death a volume called The
Story of My Life appeared, edited by his son (1884).
SíOUX, the principal tribe of the Dakota family
of Indians, were called by Father Hennepin (1680),
Nadouwessians, and by Captain Carver (1766), Na-
douessioux. This was the name given to them by
the Algonquins, and meant “enemies.” Their 9Wn
name, I)akota, meant “confederates.” For their
general character and customs, see DAKOTA INDIANs.
Ín 1815 the U. S. government first negotiated with
them, making three treaties with three separate bands.
In 1825 four treaties were made. The Ojibways, or
Chippewas, were then steadily forcing the Sioux
southward and westward. In 1830 the latter made
to the U. S. government their first cession of lands,
between the Mississippi and Des Moines Rivers, and
were to receive certain annuities, to be divided be-
tween the different bands. Soon after this the artist
Catlin visited them, and painted portraits of their
chiefs. He speaks of them in terms of high praise.
In 1837 thirty Sioux chiefs visited Washington and
ceded all their lands east of the Mississippi for the
sum of $300,000, the interest of which was to be paid
annually, while other sums were devoted to paying
the debts of the tribe and giving them an outfit for
civilized life. The effort to turn the Sioux from
hunters into farmers was not successful, probably
owing to the agents employed as well as the character
of the Indians themselves. They were demoralized
by the introduction of whiskey, and were constantly
attacked by other tribes. gº &
their lands in Minnesota, west of the Mississippi, was
In 1849 a new cession of
made. At this time arrears of interest due them by
science in Allegheny College, and in 1839, after he treaty amounted to $50,000. The half-breeds made
had entered the ministry, he was made president of efforts to have assignments of land made to them in
Asbury University, Indiana. As a delegate to the severalty and in fee-simple, but the government re-
General Conference of 1844 he took part in the contro- fused. Treaties, however, were made in 1851 by
versy on slave-holding which divided the Methodist which many millions of acres forming “the garden-
Church. At the Conference of 1848 he was made spot of the Mississippi Valley" were relinquished for
editor of the Western Christian Advocate, and at the a few cents per acre. The largest part of the price
next Conference, in 1852, was chosen bishop. His was to be held in trust, and the interest paid to the
residence was fixed at Philadelphia, but he spent Indians for fifty years. Governor Ramsey, of Min-
much time in foreign journeys, one of which ex-' nesota, estimated the actual cost to the government
tended around the world. His visit to the British to be $575,000. The four great bands of the Sioux,
Wesleyan Conference in 1863 gave him an opportu- then numbering about 8,000, were to be brought to-
nity to plead effectually abroad the cause of the U. gether on one reservation, and a brilliant future was
S. government in regard to the civil war, as he had promised them. They had already made some prog-
already done at home. In this cause his oratorical ress in agriculture and education. It soon appeared
abilities received wide recognition, yet he never that the government intended to remove them to
neglected his work as bishop and preacher of the other places at the end of five years, and hence their
Gospel. President Lincoln treated him with marked disposition to improve the land of the reservation
cordiality, and the Christian Commission had in him was checked. In 1854, however, this impediment
a warm advocate. In 1881 he was one of the leaders was removed and they were assured of a permanent
in the Methodist CEcumenical Conference at Lon- home. In 1857 serious trouble was threatened and
don. He died at Philadelphia, June 17, 1884. He with difficulty avoided. Some Sioux who had been
published a Hundred Years of Methodism (1881),
Lectures on Preaching (1883), and a Cyclopedia of
Methodism.
SIMS, JAMES MARION (1813—1883), physician, was
born in Lancaster district, S. C., Jan. 25, 1813. He
graduated at South Carolina College in 1832, studied
medicine in Charleston and Philadelphia, and began
practice at Montgomery, Ala. Having made a spe-
cialty of diseases of women, he established a private
hospital for the purpose, which proved eminently
successful. In 1853 he removed to New York City,
where he urged the necessity of such a hospital, and
had the satisfaction of seeing it opened in 1855. Dr.
Sims had already invented the vaginal speculum and
made improvements in surgery which gave him in-
ternational fame. On his first visit to Europe, in
1857, his professional brethren showed their respect
by asking him to perform important surgical opera-
tions.
For some years he resided in Paris, and in |
driven out of the tribe long before got into a quar-
rel with a few whites, attacked a settlement, and
killed the inhabitants. The great body of the tribe,
though discontented on account of the non-payment
of the annuities, and regarded with suspicion and
hatred by the whites, pursued and killed or captured
the offenders. The excitement passed away, and
soon most favorable reports were received of the
progress made by the Sioux in learning civilized
ways. But their annuities were still delayed until
in August, 1862, some desperate, famishing men
broke into a government warehouse. In a few days
their numbers increased, and they began to massacre
white settlers. Friendly Indians were threatened
with death if they did not join the savages. Never-
theless, many of them rescued white families, and
gave shelter to women and children. The hostile
bands roamed over the country and compelled the
abandonment of a district 200 miles long and 50
SIOUX CITY –SLAVERY.
miles wide. A thousand whites were killed in the
War and millions of dollars' worth of property was
destroyed. Gen. Sibley conducted a successful ex-
pedition against the Indians. Hundreds of them
Were captured, and many voluntarily surrendered. A
military commission sentenced 300 to be hung, but
only 39, were executed. The friendly part of the
tribe, who had to be protected from the indiscrimi.
nate fury of the whites, had been placed in a barren
district in Dakota, where they endured privations
for three years. . Many of the hostiles escaped into
the British dominions and settled there. The cam-
paign had cost the government $40,000,000. In 1865
resort Was had again to peaceful negotiation, and nine
treaties were made with as many different bands of
Sioux. In 1866 the friendly Indians were removed
from Dakota, and carried about almost every year to
a new locality. For ten years the policy of the
government Wavered between severity and kindness,
While the Indian and the War Departuments disputed
Where the blame should rest. About 1870 the San-
tee Sioux began that change for the better whose re-
sults are shown in the article on INDIANs, Vol. II.,
p: 401. Near the northern border of Dakota, Sitting
Bull and others had remained in hostility. The
failure of the government to send Supplies to the
agencies caused many young men to join the hostile
camps. In 1876 war began again, and its most ap-
palling incident was the massacre of Gen. G. A.
Custer and his command on June 26th. In October
Col. Miles had effected a complete defeat of the
Sioux, but Sitting Bull escaped into Canada, and
Scornfully refused to return when invited. The
government then decided to re-establish the Sioux, to
the number of 14,000 souls, on the Missouri River.
became pastor in New York City.
made professor in the Union Theological Seminary,
and held this position until his death, Feb. 1,
ciety. Other works followed, and Mr. Skeat began
to prepare a glossary for the various works he had
examined. He also edited Barbour's The Bruce,
Chatterton, and the Anglo-Saxon Gospels. He
founded the English Dialect Society in 1873 and di-
rected its labors for three years. His most impor-
º º is the Etymological English Dictionary
1880).
SKENE, WILLIAM For BES, a Scottish historian,
was born at Inverurie, Kincardineshire, June 7, 1809.
He was educated at the Edinburgh High School and
at the Universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrew's.
He became a writer to the signet, and devoted much
attention to historical and antiquarian research. Be-
sides several monographs, he has published The
Highlanders of Scotland : their Origin, History, and
Antiquities (2 vols., 1837); Celtic Scotland, a History
of Ancient Alban (1876–80). The latter is in 3 vol-
umes, treating respectively of the History and Eth-
nology, Church and Culture, and Land and People.
Mr. Skene also edited the early Scotch historians.
His labors have thrown much light on what was for-
merly obscure and confused in the history of Scot-
land.
SKINNER, THOMAS HARVEY (1791–1871), Presby-
terian minister, was born in North Carolina in 1791.
He graduated at Princeton in 1810, and was made
copastor with Dr. T. L. Janeway, in Philadelphia,
in 1812. Four years later he withdrew with part of
the congregation and formed the Arch Street Pres-
byterian Church. He was afterward professor of
Sacred rhetoric in Andover Seminary, and in 1835
In 1848 he was
Between 1863 and 1879, the Ogallalla Sioux were 1871. Among his publications, besides sermons, were
moved eight times. Their present condition is
shown in the article INDIANs. See also the Reports
of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for various
years; Mrs. H. H. Jackson's A Century of Dishonor.
(1881); Col. G. W. Manypenny's Our Indian Wards.
SIOUX CITY, the county seat of Woodbury Co.,
Iowa, is on the east bank of the Missouri River, be-
tween the mouths of the Floyd and the Big Sioux
Rivers, 125 miles above Omaha. Five trunk-line
railroads pass through the city, and several branches
start from it. A railroad bridge 2000 feet long here
crosses the Missouri. Sioux City has a court-house,
city hall, hospital, 2 large hotels, 8 banks (3 National)
with combined capital of $2,000,000, 27 churches,
and good public Schools. It has a linseed-oil mill,
2 flouring mills, vinegar works, spice mills, soap
factory, planing mills, and sash and door factories.
With the Union stock-yards are connected large
packing-houses, capable of packing 14,500 hogs and
2000 cattle daily. The total trade of the city for
1887 was $8,500,000. The city is 1,100 feet above
the sea-level and has a total area of 30 square miles.
It has 60 miles of graded streets, 15 of which are
paved with cedar blocks. There are 12 miles of
street railway, and a good system of sewerage. The
property is assessed at $8,000,000; the public debt
is $486,000, and the yearly expenses exceed $135,000.
The city, laid out in 1854, was made the county seat
in 1856, and was incorporated in 1857. Sioux City
in 1880 had a population of 7336, but has since grown
rapidly.
SIX NATIONS. See IROQUOIs.
SKATING. See SPORTS.
SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM, an English etymolo-
gist, was born in London, Nov. 21, 1835. He was
educated at Highgate School, London, and at
Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in
1858. He studied theology and was ordained in
1859, and held two curacies. In 1864, being laid
aside from clerical work by diphtheria, he edited
Launcelot of the Laik for the Early English Text So-
Preaching and Hearing and Discussions in Theology.
His son, bearing the same name, was born at Phil-
adelphia, Oct. 6, 1820. He graduated at the Uni-
versity of the City of New York in 1840, and was or-
dained pastor of a Presbyterian Church at Paterson,
N. J., in 1843. He afterward held charges in New
York City, Homesdale, Pa., Stapleton, L. I., Fort
Wayne, Ind., and Cincinnati. He was called thence
to be professor of didactic and polemic theology in
the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the North-
West.
SLANG. See AMERICANISMs.
SLAVERY, in the most general sense, implies a
relation between persons under which
the conduct of one is subject to control
by another in a manner unlimited, ex-
cept under some source of authority
or necessity external to the relation. Where the
form and qualities of that relation are prescribed by
a system of laws to which the parties to the relation
are subject, the term slavery expresses an institu-
tional idea that transfers the sanction of the rights
and obligations incident to it from what is involved in
the relation itself to the system of laws under which
it exists. It is in this institutional sense that the
term is ordinarily used, and is here employed. We
are to consider slavery as a civil institution, either
intended to advance the general social objects for
the sake of which governments are organized, or re-
maining as a survival of antecedent unorganized
conditions, and in this light to examine the char-
acteristics of that type of the institution that became
domesticated in America, but which has now disap-
peared from the United States, and from nearly the
entire continent of America.
The slave relation is, according to the general
estimation of the law of Europe and America, based
upon an obligation on the part of the slave to exer-
cise his entire capacity of labor and service for the
benefit of the master, and under his direction, with-
out compensative return. On the other hand, the
See Vol. XXII.
p. 129 (p. 137
Am. Rep.).
SLAVERY. 525
master was regarded as bound to supply to the slave merchandise. As, then, the same principles of jus-
the simplest and least costly means of supporting tice that Were recognized in the relations existing
his capacity for labor, in the form of shelter, cloth- between the members of the superior º
ing, and food, while under no obligation to promote Were not extended to the intercourse with the infe-
the conditions for the development of those higher rior, it was against natural tendencies to expect that
powers that are dependent upon mental culture. the relation between the civilization of the master
The means for compelling conformity on the part of and the unstratified social condition of the slave
the slave with his obligations were abundantly pro- should produce other than small results for good
vided by the law, as the master was permitted to ex- upon the condition of the latter.
ercise the fulf extent of the coercive and punitive Slavery as it existed in America Was not a general
power required for that purpose. On the other system such as might be applied equally to all per-
hand, the means afforded by the law for compelling sons standing in like conditions, but was what might
the master to perform the obligations incumbent be called a personal System, being a relation between
upon him, as incidental to the relation, were wholly the White, man and a particular race of people,
inadequate to satisfy the idea of justice as applied by namely, those of African descent. Although the
those systems to all other classes of persons. In the spirit of our laws was dictated by the spirit of lib-
most advanced communities that recognized the erty that all mankind should stand together in the
system, only the most aggravated disregard of his same civil society. In der laws affecting all alike, who
obligations, on the part of the master, and such acts were in like conditions, yet for some reason we have
as shocked the sense of the community, as gross de-, excepted from the benefits of that system the African
partures from what was sanctioned by its common people of this country who were held as slaves, and
jabitudes, were the subjects of legal inquiry, or have given no satisfactory reason for that exception,
redress. Taking the life of a slave, or subjecting although, in order to commend that system in the
him to tortures tending to impair his capacity for estimation of peoples who have not accepted it, it
labor, was clearly not means appropriate to secure would seem to be required that such reasons should
from the slave the proper application of his powers be given in a satisfactory, form. We can say that
to the service of his master, and accordingly such certain facts did not afford the reason of such excep-
acts were discountenanced and frequently punished. tion. For instance, it was not the fact of difference
But, although the law thus intervened for the protec- from our race and color, for other races differing in
tion of the slave, the wrongs done to the community these respects from us were not excluded frºm the
were the only ones redressed, the slave receiving no benefits of our system of Jaws. It was not the un-
compensation for what was unlawfully denied or in- developed condition of the African, for other peo-
flicted upon him. Had the systems maintaining ples equally undeveloped have been admitted to the
such relations between the master and slave regarded privileges of our laws. It was not that the African
the slave as a mere object of property, such as a had thrust himself into our society unfitted for asso.
domestic animal, the absence of any attempt to ex- ciation with us, and to be isolated as a means of
tend the principles of justice to ameliorate the con- compelling him to withdraw from us, for We had
ditions of the slave might be accounted for ; but such brought him here against his Will, and had paid for
was not the case, for slaves were regarded as persons, the privilege of so doing. There is no other mode
and although not entitled to the privileges that were of accounting for the anomaly but on the ground
enjoyed by all other persons, were frequently held that the African was procured as a profitable invest-
accountable for their conduct, as bound by the same ment of money in a cheap instrument of industry.
obligations that affected all others. The African slave first came to the soil of the
The most striking feature of the slave system is United States from the West Indies, where he had
the fact that it removed from the social mass of the been introduced as an object of traffic. No doubt,
slaves the germ from which all institutional forms when the opportunity presented itself for supplying
and organisms spring—the family. The uncertain with labor a country that abounded with natural
tenure by which the slave family cohered, being resources but lacked laborers, a humane as well as
liable to dissolution at the caprice of the master, or a thrifty motive affected the people of our country,
as his necessities or interests might require, pre- prompting them to accept the advantages of the
vented that stability in domestic relations without system. The deplorable condition of the African
which social development is believed to be impossi- slave, both in his own country and in the West In-
ble. The family may be regarded as the organic dies, appealed to the humane sympathies of our
unit of society from which all other institutional ancestors, who saw an opportunity of getting gain
forms are derived by differentiation, just as the leaf and doing a godly act for the oppressed in getting
supplies the same function to vegetal growth, and if them better masters, and a chance for attaining to
the bud, which is the incipient leaf, is suppressed, a higher condition of manhood.
development is impossible. When slavery theorized From being a convenience the slave became a ne-
at all it regarded the family of the master as includ- cessity, in a semitropical region, especially as con-
ing all the persons subject to his authority, and as nected with the rice-culture, that was fatal to the
displacing all subordinate family groups, referring white laborer. By the time that the convention of
the idea to the patriarchal practices. The effect of 1787 was held to frame the Constitution of the
this was to remove the conditions of development United States the sentiment as to the status of the
from the inferior mass, and to leave only the possibil- slave had changed somewhat. Where he was not a
ity of advance as an adjunct of the superior system. necessity of industry the old humane feeling pre-
It appears, then, that the characteristic feature of vailed, as evidenced in the debates in that conven-
slavery was that it deprived the social mass, repre-'tion, but where climatic causes made him a neces-
sented by the slave, of the capacity of development sity the humane sentiment had been largely displaced
from its own internal conditions, while at the same by economic ideas. This consequenee follows
time it placed that mass in such imperfect communi-, wherever thrift and humanity are combined motives
cation with the superior civilization that the benefits to action, the dominant force remaining invariably
possible from such contact could not be realized. in the hands of the former. These two motives, the
It is observed, of all relations between social bodies, one derived from the force of humane ideas, and
that the first step toward interchanging whatever the other from economic promptings, were destined
either may possess to the advantage of the other is to be arrayed against each other in a prolonged
to establish justice between them, and this is as true struggle in which the higher principle would ulti-
of the interchange of ideas and habitudes as it is of mately prevail.
526
At the foundation of the government of the
United States the conflict was already formulated
in its , incipient, stages. England had already,
through her judiciary, declared that slavery could
not exist under the laws of that country, thus em-
phasizing that aspect of slavery that concerned its
relations to the principles on which the higher form
of organized government depended. The question
of its humanity became involved with that of its
effect upon the condition and objects of government,
as interpreted from the principles of liberty.
The history of the development of American sla-
Very is the history of its territorial extension, for as
a social system it exhibits no progressive steps of
advance toward anything that may be esteemed as
the ideal of the system. Had there been any possi-
bility of its taking on a character in harmony with
advancing conceptions of society, American faculty
would doubtless have found the means of advancing
toward that result. The inability of American
ingenuity to raise the institution of slavery from a
lower to a higher plane emphasizes the conclusion
that it is to be regarded as a survival of savagery
capable of no permanent place in the scheme of
civilization, but destined for elimination. The his-
tory of slavery in the United States exhibits a dual
Contest, on the one hand for its territorial exten-
Sion in order to entrench it in popular interest and
favor, and on the other to eliminate it from the sys-
tem of the country.
The cession by Virginia to the United States of
the territory northwest of the Ohio River brought
the subject of the extension of slavery over the
territories into active discussion. This cession was
followed by the ordinance for the government of
the Northwest Territory, that declared that sla-
very should be forever excluded from that terri-
tory. This ordinance, speaking as it does the
sentiment of the people of the United States, con-
demns in effect the institution of slavery as un-
suited to harmonize with the spirit of American
liberty, and as justified where it should continue to
exist by local causes alone. Unless the ordinance
can be interpreted in this sense it cannot be ration-
ally interpreted at all.
The Constitution of the United States, framed in
the same year with the ordinance just mentioned,
1787, declares that Congress should not interfere
with the migration or importation of such persons
as the States should see fit to admit prior to the
year 1808.
It has never been questioned that this had refer-
ence to interference with the African slave-trade,
but was masked under this form out of decent re-
gard for the opinions of mankind. This provision
was clear authority for Congress, after the year des-
ignated, to prevent the introduction of slaves into
the United States and to prevent their migration
from State to State and into the territories. That
Congress had after that time such authority as to
the importation of slaves was never seriously ques-
tioned, but that Congress could prohibit the owners
of slaves within a State from migrating with his
slaves into the territories of the United States
was resisted so long as the slave-holding States
could influence the course of public action. The
necessary implication from this clause is that the
slave-trade was regarded as a necessary evil that
must be endured for a time for economic reasons,
after which it would be regarded as a crime to do
that the doing of which was the occasion of the ex-
istence of slavery in this country. There was also
in the provisions relating to migration a clear impli-
cation of a policy of limiting the area of slavery,
which could only be extended by such migration.
The Constitution also contained a provision mak-
ing it the duty of some public authority to return
SLAVERY.
slaves escaping from one State into another to the
State from which they came, but the authority by
which such return was to be accomplished was not
pointed out. Upon the principles of strict con-
struction for which the slave States always contend-
ed, this duty devolved upon the States, as no express
authority was conferred upon Congress for that pur-
pose, and as Congress, according to that view, could
not take substantive powers by implication but only
Such as are in aid of the enumerated powers, as nec-
éssary to their exercise. The power of rendering
fugitive slaves was not in the class of the enumer-
ated powers, and was not in aid of any enumerated
power. Although inconsistent with the principles
which they applied to the construction of the Con-
stitution, the party of strict construction in later
years claimed that this power and duty devolved
upon Congress, and actively procured the adoption
of a fugitive-slave law in conformity with that view.
The first Congress assembled under the Constitu-
tion re-enacted the ordinance for the government of
the Northwest Territory with the same exclusion as
to slavery that existed in the previous ordinance,
reiterating the implications already pointed out.
North Carolina in 1787 ceded her Western lands to
the United States, with a provision that the slaves
within that territory, should not be emancipated.
The cession by Georgia of her lands west of her
boundaries followed in 1802, without any clause ex-
cluding slavery.
The condition attached to the cession of North
Carolina tied the hands of Congress as it regarded
slavery within the region ceded, but not more effect-
ually than they were tied by the state of parties in
the Union through the large influence of the slave-
holding States, making the absence of such a condi-
tion in the Georgia cession a fact of no importance.
The purchase of Louisiana, consummated by Pres-
ident Jefferson in 1803, opened wide the door of con-
troversy to the parties that respectively supported
and antagonized slavery. The territory thus acquired
supported the institution of slavery, and was large-
ly subject to the same climatic conditions that had
caused slavery to become deeply rooted in some of
the Southern States.
Slavery was taking a new phase, and assuming
definitely an aggressive rôle in the interest of its ter-
ritorial extension. The invention of the cotton-gin
had rendered the separation of the fibre of cotton
from the seed an inexpensive process, instead of a
laborious and expensive one, as it had theretofore
been. The culture of cotton in the United States,
from being an experiment, passed into a great indus-
try that revolutionized not only the industry of the
Southern section of the Union, but its political con-
dition as well. Slave labor was regarded by the cot-
ton States as indispensable to the success of that
industry, and the perpetuation of slavery was the
leading tenet of the new doctrine. The advocates of
slavery found it necessary to strengthen the position
of the slave interest on two sides, the moral and the
political. It was habilitated as a patriarchal insti-
tution commended by the sacred writings, held in
the highest estimation by Christianity, just as at a
later time was contended in behalf of polygamy. The
ideal of slavery was traced in the relations between
a beneficent and just master and a faithful and lov-
ing slave, just as monarchy has been idealized in the
charming picture of a just and generous king hav-
ing no interest but the interests of his loving sub-
jects, who thrive under his genial sway as plants in
the sunlight.
Whether this line of speculation was intended as
apologetic or to dominate the thought of the nine-
teenth century, it was insufficient to provide the Se-
curity that slavery needed. The country was be-
coming populous and spreading over a vast area.
SLAVERY.
527
It was foresean that popular support in favor of
slavery could not be relied upon, unless the majority .
had a stake in its perpetuation, and this could only
be secured by its territorial expansion.
In the meantime the sentiment hostile to the in-
stitution was passing toward definite crystallization.
Respect for the Constitution and for the rights of the
States under it retarded the action of causes that
looked to the elimination of slavery. The scheme
of colonizing the African in Africa, as means of pre-
paring the way for more energetic measures, was
conceived and put in course of execution, and the
colony of Liberia established on the West African
coast. The difficulties attending the emancipation
of the slaves, from the fact that they could neither
become assimilated with the populations of this
country in their new condition, nor find a refuge
suited to their condition elsewhere, was foreseen
and attempted to be guarded against by this expe-
dient. But the scheme of colonization failed to dis-
cover that the chief difficulty in the way of the eman-
cipation of the slave did not lie in the question of
his disposition after emancipation, but in the unwill-
ingness of his master to part with him.
The ultimate disposal of the territory derived
from the Louisiana Purchase caused great agitation
as bearing upon the question of the extension of the
area devoted to slavery. Louisiana and Arkansas
were carved from this territory without precipitating
any serious conflict, as the institution had already
become firmly fixed upon them. The geographical
position of this region was recognized as creating a
political necessity that no interference should take
place with the condition of labor then existing
there.
Missouri was admitted as a State in 1820, after a
conflict that tested the relative strength of the op-
posing factions. Missouri approached the southern
border of the region that antagonized slavery, and
brought the conflict to its doors. A long-continued
struggle between the parties seeking the admission
of Missouri as a slave State, and those who sought
to exclude from her limits that institution, ended in
the famous Missouri Compromise, by which slavery
was forever inhibited north of the line of 36° 30',
except from the territory then constituted as the
State of Missouri. The line of 36° 30' corresponded
very nearly with the southern line of Missouri, so
that the allowance of slavery within that State was
an infraction of the uniformity of the geographical
partition between the free and the slave States.
Thus Missouri became the northern boundary of
that part of the Union devoted to slavery that lay
west of the Mississippi. Part of this compromise
Was a provision for the return of fugitive slaves es-
caping into the free States, that was to be regarded
as a pledge binding the policy of those opposing the
institution. Indeed, the entire compromise was in-
tended to place the dispositions accomplished by it
upon the good faith of the respective parties that had
taken part in its enactment, for no one entertained
the idea that the constitutional powers of Congress
were in any way limited by it.
The Missouri Compromise, sustained for thirty
years through the genius and labors of Webster,
Clay, and Calhoun, deferred the inevitable conflict
between the slave-holding and free regions, which
finally arose with the first serious infraction of
its provisions, until the Northern States had out-
stripped the Southern States in population and
Wealth, and were able to maintain in arms the in-
dissoluble nature of our Union.
This important step taken in 1820 appears to have
been the turning point in the development of the
opposition to the institution. The agitation in be-
half of the emancipation of the slaves throughout
the Union, and as a preliminary to that step the
emancipation of the slaves within the territory that
constituted the seat of government, soon after the
event just referred to took on an organized form. In
1823 the first abolition convention met in Philadel-
Dhia. *
I That which had existed as a humane sentiment
largely diffused through the free States began to
crystallize into a conviction and policy, that fore-
shadowed an aggressive movement for the extirpa-
tion of the entire system of slavery. That which
had been nursed by humane sentiments struck its
roots deep into conceptions of the principles that
should govern the relations of mankind in their as-
sociations, and gave rise to utterances the intensity
of which expressed not only the depth of the con-
victions from which they arose, but the passionate re-
actions from the barriers whose strength resisted the
progress of the movement. The Constitution of
the United States placed the internal economy of
the States beyond the control of Congress, and thus
the institution as it existed within the States could
not be reached by the national power, even if that
power could be wielded in the interest of free labor.
Within the District controlled by Congress this
power existed, but was in the hands of the partisans
of the slave system and their political friends of the
North.
The policy of agitation was the only course open
to the advocates of emancipation, and that policy
was pursued with vigor and industry that was untir-
ing. Speeches, pamphlets, appeals and petitions to
Congress for emancipation disseminated the ardent
thoughts and feelings of the advocates of freedom,
intended to fire the hearts of the people to a new
crusade. These utterances were not confined to the
people of the free States, but were delivered in the
very midst of slavery and communicated through the
press. Advocates of freedom were found with con-
victions so strong that they did not shrink from the
dangers that attended personal contact with the ad-
herents of the slave system. Retaliatory violence
intensified the situation, firing the zeal of those who
acted from enthusiasm, and alarming the timid and
cautious. In Congress debate became altercation,
especially when petition after petition poured in
upon that body for some relief looking to the eman-
cipation of the slave. The right of petition to the
representatives of the people, that was part of our
inheritance from England, seemed for a time in
jeopardy. The threat of disunion came from the
slave-holding States in an undertone that produced
its effect upon many of the people of the Northern
States.
The necessary consequence of such energetic
movements, in a form that many could not distin-
guish from incipient revolution, was to produce a
conservative reaction at the North, and to divide the
sentiment of that section, thus complicating the sit-
uation, and for a time retarding the progress of the
general feeling in favor of freedom to the slave.
Apprehension for the safety of the Union, respect
for the Constitution and the compromise that had at
least served the purpose of separating combatants
who might otherwise have met in dangerous collision,
Were part of the causes of a reactive tendency at the
North, while political considerations looking to the
solidity of party action had a large part in the re-
sult.
In this instance, as often happens, the conserva-
tism of the North prevented the final issue of the
conflict from being the direct consequence of ag-
gressions on the part of the advocates of freedom,
and the disaster to the Union that might have fol.
lowed an aggressive policy of public action on the
part of the Northern States at that time.
In the midst and heat of the conflict a train of
causes was laid that tended by inevitable steps to the
528 SLAVERY.
final contest that eliminated slavery from the insti- to the local authorities that should be thereafter in-
tutions of this country. Texas, largely peopled from stituted over those territories.
the Southern States, had asserted her independence The struggle to colonize Kansas in the interest of
9f Mexico, and was regarded as an acquisition to the the respective sections of the country was maintained
Union that Would strengthen the political power of by both parties in a desperate conflict that assumed
the slave States. Texas, although free from slavery the character of partisan warfare rather than that of
under Mexican rule, soon became the recipient of a civil competition. In the end the party of freedom
Slave immigration that fastened the institution upon prevailed, and Kansas and Nebraska came into the
her. The admission of Texas as a State of the Union as free States. Of this conflict history must
Union was the result of the policy of extending the say that the party of slavery was contending for
area of slavery, and was accomplished in 1845, after economic advantages, while the party of free labor
a struggle that laid the foundation of a recast in po- was striving to vindicate a principle that was be-
litical parties that was destined to divide the politics lieved to be fundamental to all free society among
of the country upon lines of difference between the men. Such conflicts are apt to produce that type of
advocates and opponents of slavery. heroism that combines audacity with the spirit of
The Mexican War, that was a not uninvited conse- self-sacrifice, even in the absence of the ability to
Juence of the annexation of Texas, terminated with measure enterprises by the means possessed for
the acquisition of a vast territory that carried the their accomplishment. Such a hero was John Brown,
western boundary of the United States to the Pa- the product of the bitter strife, the passion, and the
cific. A new field was opened for the contest in be- aspiration that mingled in the Kansas conflict. The
half of the extension of the area of slavery. This project of organizing a band of slaves near the bor-
acquisition came to us as free territory, and an early der of the free States to make their way to Canada
effort was made to have it so declared in perpetuity carried John Brown to Harper's Ferry, where he
by Congress, under the name of the Wilmot Proviso. paid with his life the penalty of grave miscalcula-
This effort failed, and soon the question of the or- tions as to the aptitude of the negro to execute dan-
ganization of this vast territory was pressed upon gerous exploits in the interest of freedom.
Congress. The election of Abraham Lincoln to the Pres-
In 1850 the compromise offered by Henry Clay idency in 1860 was the culminating point of the
was adopted, which ignored the question of a deter- controversy. This event was interpreted by the
mination by Congress of the character, as it regarded slave-holding States as a presage of a change in the
slavery, of the States to be formed from the terri- balance of power that would secure to the free States
tory acquired from Mexico by the treaty that con- a controlling influence in the public affairs of the
cluded the war with that country, such action being nation. The political ascendency possessed by the
based upon the idea that as slavery did not exist in Southern States from the formation of the Govern-
that territory any declaration upon that subject was ment, and which had been perpetuated through
unnecessary. The South disputed this assumption their political affiliations at the North, was serious-
that slavery did not exist there, claiming that when ly threatened through dissensions arising among
the slave-holder from the States carried his slaves these political friends. The aggressive character
into that region the guarantees of the Constitution of the Abolition movement, as demonstrated in Kan-
went with him, thus creating there the rights inci- Sas and in the hardy enterprise of John Brown,
dent to the slave system. The compromise of 1850 alarmed the slave-holding interest. The resolution
did not bring these opposite contentions to a test, of the leaders of Southern opinion was soon taken,
and can only be regarded as an armistice before the and a policy of disunion was formed, and steps
great conflict that was soon to arise. That contest | taken to bring the people of the Southern States to
assumed a definite form when Kansas and Nebraska its acceptance. Popular acquiescence in this plan
were organized as territories of the Union. was by no means to be anticipated without effort
The assumption by Congress, as a federal duty, of and adroit management, as the mass of the people
the capture and return of fugitive slaves escaping had not the motives impelling in the direction of
into free States, by an act for the rendition of such disunion that affected the great slave-holders. A
slaves, intensified the bitterness of the contest that disposition was general to avoid independent State
was raging through the country, north and south. action, and to fix the policy of the Southern States
Upon the question of the right of Congress to exer- in consultation among those States. Those who at
cise this prerogative the interests of the parties were heart desired to adhere to the Union, and yet feared
reversed. The party of strict construction insisted to fall under suspicion of disloyalty to Southern in-
that Congress should claim and exercise it as a con- terests, took the moderate position that whatever
stitutional power, although not in the class of enu- action was taken should be with the co-operation of
merated powers, and incapable of being regarded as all the slave States, and therefore upon consultation
a necessary incident to such powers. The party of with them. The leaders of the movement in South
liberal construction opposed it, both parties acting | Carolina were not willing to trust the question to
from their respective views of its policy rather than the hesitation and delay incident to such formal
their view of its constitutionality. The attempt to action, but desired to precipitate a condition of
execute this law produced a profound impression affairs that would make the strongest appeal to the
upon the Northern mind by acquainting it with the friends of Southern interests. Accordingly South
repulsive features of the slave system. Carolina passed in convention an ordinance of seces-
The organization of Kansas and Nebraska as terri- |sion from the Union, and proceeded to arrest the
tories, in 1854, was the pivot on which the fate of exercise of the public functions of the National Gov-
slavery turned. The Missouri Compromise was dis-, ernment within her territories, and to appropriate
regarded and the subject of the establishing or ex- the public property of the United States. Ten
cluding slavery was left to the decision of the people States followed South Carolina, and united with her
of these territories. To this proposition, made by in the constitution of the government of the Confed-
Stephen A. Douglass, the expression “squatter erate States of America. º
sovereignty” was applied at the North as expressing | The war that ensued tested the relative value of
the uncertain character of the population to whom the economic systems of the two sections. At the
this important question was submitted. South the producing class, consisting of the slaves,
This disposition was a logical consequence of the carried forward the industries of the country almost
compromise of 1850, which, by withholding action without interruption. Food-supplies were abundant
on the part of Congress, necessarily left the matter at the points of production, but were not available
529.
SLAVERY.
to the armies in the field for want of transportation
and system. At the North, on the other hand, large
drafts were made upon the producing classes to Sup-
ply men for the armies, and yet the industry of that
section was maintained and its resources made
available for the support of the War.
The first direct and important effect of the War
upon the institution of slavery was accomplished by
the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lin-
coln, issued Jan. 1, 1863. This proclamation, the
product of the disasters of the early stages of the
war, assured the emancipation of all slaves that
should be within territory acquired by the arms of
the nation. The end came at last when the entire
territory of the seceding States was brought under
the military power of the United States. According
to the laws of war it was for the captor to determine
the effect of conquest upon the persons and property
found within the conquered territory. The terms of
the proclamation indicated the course of military
action toward the slave, and in accordance with its
provisions the right of the slaves to their liberty was
recognized and secured by the military authority.
This action, while sufficient to change the status of
all slaves upon whom it took actual effect, could not,
and did not, change the local laws of the places sub-
jected to the military power so as to prevent the
future acquisition of slaves, those laws, according to
the principles of international law everywhere re-
spected, remaining in force until repealed by Com-
petent authority, and a military command was not
competent to change them, except for the time of
actual military occupancy.
In those States that adhered to the Union and in
which slavery existed, the proclamation of the Presi-
dent and action in accordance with it could not pro-
duce the effect of emancipation.
The final act that terminated the existence of
slavery in the United States was the Thirteenth
Amendment of the Constitution, adopted by two-
thirds of the States, that declared that neither sla-
very nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish-
ment for crime, whereof the party shall have been
duly convicted, shall exist within the United States
or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
The estimation in which the institution of slavery
is entitled to be held, as a social factor, must depend
upon the solution of the question whether it is capa-
ble of being brought into harmony with advanced
social conditions. If thus capable, that fact must
arise from the possibility of developing the slave re-
lation into a condition in which it will harmonize
with the principles upon which advanced conditions
of social order depend. What is implied by develop-
ment, as applied to that institution, cannot admit of
doubt. If the slave, separated as to his condition
by a wide interval from that of the society that sur-
rounds him, is found advancing so as ultimately to
cancel that interval, if his relations with others,
especially his domestic relations, are advancing in
stability, and if the service and discipline to which
he is subjected are, by progressive steps, allowing to
its subject more favorable conditions of development,
then it may be affirmed that the relation is capable
of development in the normal sense. But if, on the
other hand, the slave appears to remain stationary
or to retrograde, and no indication appears of in-
creased stability and organization in his domestic
and other relations, and if the regimen to which he
is subjected grows more and more repressive, then
it may be affirmed that the institution, if fairly
represented in the instance supposed, is incapable of
healthful development, and that its presence in an
advanced community is an evil the magnitude of
which is measured by the extent to which it prevails.
Examining the history of the institution as it
existed in the United States in the light of these
principles, it is possible to place upon it its proper
estimation. For the purposes of such an examina-
tion neither the instances that exhibit slavery in the
most favorable light nor those that display its Worst
features must be taken in view, but attention should
be given to the mass and the system as a whole.
In the early days of slavery in this country eman-
cipation was quite common, but during the later
years of slavery the instances of that kind were very
rare, in part through repression by law and popular
sentiment in the slave States, and in part through
the increased value of slave property. Emancipation
and even removal from the State for the purpose of
emancipation were in some instances forbidden by
law. -
The inability of the slave to hold property under-
went no relaxation, but on the contrary there Were
instances where masters were prevented by the opera-
tion of law from making provision for the support of
slaves. When it is considered how large is the
civilizing influence resulting from the responsi-
bilities attendant upon the ownership of property, it
will readily appear that if any annelioration of the
system was to be anticipated it would be in the re-
spect just named.
So far from there being any indication of any in-
creased stability in the domestic relations among
the slaves, the contrary appears. In the early days
of slavery in this country it was possible that gen-
eration after generation of slaves born in a particular
locality might spend their lives in that locality, and
thus produce the semblance of domestic stability,
but in later years this feature had to yield to com-
mercial necessity, and the slave population was in-
creasingly mobilized from year to year.
In early times it was no offence against law or
public sentiment to instruct slaves, and especially to
teach them to read and write, but in later years that
practice was discontinued either as contrary to law
or to public opinion.
Without going further, it is manifest that slavery
in America, although having abundant time to mani-
fest its tendencies, did not give indications of any
possibility of reaching a condition in which it would
be but a single step for the slave to pass into fair re-
lation with the civilization that surrounded him. It
is likely to be said that the responsibility for this
condition of affairs is with those who, by agitating
the question of emancipation, forced the slave-holder
into a defensive attitude that entailed these disad-
vantages upon the slave ; that it was simply a matter
of self-protection to exclude the slave from contact
with the feelings that prompted the aggressions upon
the institution, and to accomplish this it was neees-
sary that he should be kept incapable of reading.
But these disturbing conditions of environment
were the necessary consequences of the existence of
the slave institution in the midst of a community
animated by the spirit of liberty and addicted to
modern habits of thought. Call the aggressor by
what name you will, Abolitionist, or what may better
describe him, and after all he stands merely as the
type of a tendency, inherent in every healthful organ-
ization, to eliminate such elements as are unsuited
for assimilation, and impede its functional activities.
The very question as it regards the social quality of
slavery is whether it is of such a nature as to pro-
duce such conditions in advanced communities sur-
rounding it. Organisms that have any vital power
must act in that way. Physiological laws demon-
strate the principle as its acts in communities. If a
Substance is intruded in the animal organism that
cannot be assimilated and that interferes with the
performance of function, violent and inflammatory
methods of elimination are set up, proportionate in
their energy to the vigor of the system. Commu-
nities of men act from the same tendencies, produ-
530 SLIDELL–SLOAT.
°ing for the purpose instruments of elimination not their political rights, their interests will remain
always of an attractive character. The failure of separate and distinct from those of the residue of
slavery in America to assume forms consonant with the social body.
the Principles of our civilization must be attributed In all these States the political power is in the
to its inherent. character and not to the accidental hands of one of these masses, even in States where
means of its elimination. they are in the minority. The white people have
The mere fact that a mass of human beings was to been trained by the institution of slavery to believe
be held in a condition of servitude in a community that the principles on which social liberty is based
permeated by the spirit of liberty rendered it neces- have no application to the negro. They have never
sary. that the slave should be isolated from the grasped the truth, that is the highest commendation
$ºntinent of such community, and for that purpose of popular government, that although the unedu.
that his mind should be kept closed against its cated and undisciplined are the majority in such a
literature and habits of thought and action, and community, such is the influence of developed mental
also that freedom of intercourse between the two power that it is able to cancel the advantage of su-
classes should be excluded. It was therefore a perior numbers in an elective system, and to exer-
necessity of the institution that the conditions of cise the preponderating influence. To remove the
development for the slave should be suppressed, if causes that tend to separate the two great sections
it was to be indefinitely perpetuated. of the populations is the proper means of testing
Concluding then, as we must, that the institution the sufficiency of the principle just stated to secure
of slavery is irreconcilable with social conditions of good government. Mutual fear is the cause of Sep-
an advanced type, the aggressions upon it are aration, and mutual confidence will be the means
accounted for by its nature. The necessities of of inducing a higher social order. (A. J. W.)
slavery entailed changes upon the political institu- || SLIDELL, John (1793–1871), politician, was born
tions of that section of the country, not only by in New York in 1793. He removed to New Orleans
Weakening confidence in the principle of popular and entered successfully into the practice of law,
government, but by encouraging the use of irregular serving as District Attorney of the United States
means, of maintaining the domestic police, tending from 1829 to 1833. He was frequently elected to
to undermine respect for regular government, and the State Legislature, in 1843 was elected to Con-
thus to open the door to unrestrained popular vi-|gress, and in 1845 was appointed by President Polk
olence. It was impossible for the isolation of the Minister to Mexico. In 1853 he became a member
slave to be accomplished to the extent necessary to of the United States Senate, to which he was re-
maintain the institution by the regular means sup- elected in 1859. He spoke rarely in the Senate, but
plied by government. It was not practicable to em- served on important committees and exerted great
body in laws all the requirements of such isolation, influence. In politics he was a strenuous supporter
and nothing less than a militia on constant duty, of the Southern State-rights party, and after the
and irregular bands of citizens daily and nightly on secession of Louisiana, in 1861, he withdrew from
Watch and guard, with their humanity as the only the Senate. In the autumn of this year he was sent,
measure of their authority, could secure the con- in conjunction with J. M. Mason, of Virginia, to
ditions under which the institution could be per- | France as a commissioner from the Confederate
petuated. States. They embarked from Havana in the British
The reasons that have been stated sufficiently mail steamer Trent, which vessel was stopped by the
account for the observed fact that the influence of United States frigate San Jacinto, Captain Wilkes,
slavery upon the political institutions of the country on November 8th, the commissioners being taken off
was greater and more effective than that of these in defiance of the protest of the commander, and
institutions upon the conditions of slavery. confined in Fort Warren, Boston Harbor. This in-
Slavery has entailed upon the United States a defensible action was enthusiastically received in
social problem of the greatest magnitude and diffi- the North, but Great Britain sternly demanded the
culty. In all of the old slave States a very large immediate release of the prisoners, with threats of
portion of the population consists of the former war in case of refusal. The feeling of the people was
slaves and their descendants, and in several of them not shared by the President and Secretary of State,
that population exceeds the residue. Tor all pur- who recognized that the demand of England was a just
poses of estimating the nature of this social problem One, and that the capture was in opposition to the rules
these populations must be regarded as composed of of international law, as interpreted by the United
two distinct social masses, separated by their in- States itself in the events that led to the War of
terests, by their habits of life, by the broadest race- 1812. The commissioners were accordingly set free,
differences, and by the fact that one exhibits civil and sailed from Boston for England, January 1, 1862.
organization of which the other is destitute. They Slidell did not return to America, but resided in
have in common a language and necessary relations | London till his death, July 26, 1871.
of industry. The utmost conceivable departure SLOAT, JoHN DRAKE (1780–1867), naval officer, was
from homogeneity exists in the case. It is not | born in New York City in 1780; entered the navy as
possible that within the same State two systems of a midshipman in 1800, and was honorably discharged,
social organization can coexist; one must give way 1801. In 1812 he re-entered the service as a sailing-
to the other, or they must blend to form something master, serving on the United States, in which ship
distinct from each. The last condition named evi- he was engaged in the action with the British frigate
dently cannot take place, and the organized condition Macedonian, Oct. 25, 1812, when the latter was capt-
cannot give way to that which is without organization. ured. For this he received a vote of thanks and
If a community of interest could be brought about a silver medal, and was promoted, lieutenant. In
the other points of difference would cease to be of 1824–25 he served in the expedition against the
importance. To unite these interests it is necessary | West Indian pirates and participated in the capture
that the civil and political rights of the weaker of the pirate brig Palmyra. In 1824, as commander
party should be fully respected, and in that event, of the schooner Grampus, he took part in the de-
in certain States, the population consisting of the struction of the town of Foxhardo, Porto Rico, the
former slaves and their descendants would have pirates' headquarters, and afterward captured a brig
the preponderating political influence. Until such on which was their chief, Colfrecinas, who was after:
unity of interest occurs they would naturally use ward executed. For his services he was promoted
their political power to advance their own separate in rapid succession master-commandant and captain,
interests. While discriminations are made against and had charge of the Norfork navy-yard from 1840
H
l
531
SLOCUM-SMALL-POX.
to 1844. He next commanded the Pacific squadron, atmosphere and by inoculation, and transportable in
and on the outbreak of the Mexican war occupied fomites.
The dark races of mankind are affected
Monterey, and secured San Francisco and other with greatest severity.
places on the Californian coast. In 1847 he returned
to the Norfolk navy-yard, where he was in command es e
| lowed by a high fever, severe pain in head, back, and
till 1851, when he went to Hoboken to superintend
the construction of the Stevens battery (see STEVENS,
JoHN). On July 16, 1862, he was made commodore
(retired list), and rear-admiral July 25, 1866. He
died at New Brighton, Staten Island, Nov. 28, 1867.
SLOCUM, HENRY WARNER, general, was born in
September, 1827, in Delphi, Onondaga Co., N. Y.
On his graduation from West Point, in 1852, he was
appointed 2d Iieutenant in the 1st artillery, and pro-
moted to 1st lieutenant in 1855. Next year he re-
signed his commission and engaged in the practice
The period of incubation is about twelve days.
Its access is rather abrupt, a brief rigor being fol-
extremities, vomiting and constipation—sometimes
delirium and convulsions. On the third day a mot-
tled-red eruption appears, more abundantly upon
the face and hands than the covered parts of the
body, and extending also to the mouth, pharynx
and larynx. The eruption is at first papular, feeling
like small shot embedded in the skin, gradually be-
comes vesicular with a central depression, which
about the eighth day fills up, and the pock matures
as a pustule. The fever declines on appearance of
of law at Syracuse, and in 1860 was elected to the the rash, but reappears in the pustular stage, always
legislature. On the outbreak of the civil war he
volunteered his services, and in May, 1861, received
his commission as colonel of the 27th N. Y. volun-
teers, which regiment he commanded at Bull Run,
where he received a severe wound. Commissioned
in August, as brigadier-general of volunteers, he
was assigned to the command of a brigade in Frank-
lin's division of the Army of the Potomac, and took
part in McClellan's Peninsular campaign of 1862.
On Franklin's assignment to the 6th corps in May,
Slocum succeeded to the command of his division,
and, being sent to re-enforce Gen. Fitz-John Por-
ter on the east of the Chickahominy, rendered signal
service at the battle of Gaines' Mill, June 27, 1862,
as also at Glendale and Malvern Hill, in both of
which engagements his division occupied the right
of the main line. Promoted, in July, to major-
general of volunteers, he took part in the second
Bull Run fight, as also in the battles of South Moun-
tain and Antietam, in the Maryland campaign, and in
October was appointed to the command of the 12th
Army corps. In this position he fought bravely at
Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and Gettysburg,
commanding, in the last of these battles, the right
wing of the Union Army, and contributing in no
Small degree to the victory. His corps was thereaf-
ter transferred to the Army of the Cumberland, in
which it served till April, 1864, when, on its being
consolidated with the 11th, Gen. Slocum was as-
signed to a division and the command of the district
of Vicksburg. Having, in August, succeeded to the
command of the 20th corps, he was the first to occupy
Atlanta, Ga., on Sept. 2d, in Sherman's march to the
Sea. In this grand progress, as well as in the march
through the Carolinas, he commanded the left wing
and took part in such actions as occurred up till
Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's surrender at Durham
Station.
In September, 1865, Gen. Slocum, for a second
time, resigned from the army and again betook him-
self to the practice of law in Brooklyn, and was in
the same year democratic candidate for the State of
New York, but was defeated. In 1866 he was offered
a commission as colonel in the regular army, but
declined it. In 1868 he was presidential elector, and
also in this year was sent to Congress, to which he .
Was re-elected in 1870, and again in 1884. In Brook-
lyn he has held several prominent offices, having
been president of the board of city works, and one
of the commissioners of the Brooklyn bridge.
SMALL-POX (Variola): Cow-pox (Vaccinia),—
Records of a disease identified as small-pox date
before 1100 B. C. in China. Its progress westward
was slow, for its first authentic appearance in Europe
Was in the sixth century A. D. It is known that
the domestic animals, horned cattle, horses and
sheep, are in some degree liable, each having a form
of the disease varying from that of mankind and of
every other. Monkeys are also somewhat suscepti-
ble. Small-pox is highly contagious through the
!
|
in proportion to the irritation produced by the ma-
turing pustules. The eruption is known as discrete
when the pustules are distinct from each other, and
confluent when they coalesce, and is often confluent
on the face and hands and discrete on the body. The
gravity of the case is according to the extent of the
eruption. Scabs form on the discharged pustules,
which leave, on falling, permanent depressions in
the true skin. The duration of a natural case of
discrete small-pox, from the initial rigor to the end
of desquamation, is about four weeks; but the con-
fluent form, in case of recovery, lasts longer and
convalescence is tedious. The hemorrhagic form of
Small-pox is characterized by an eruption resembling
at first that of measles or scarlatina, soon developing
into small blisters filled with blood. Hemorrhages
take place from various mucous surfaces. The tem-
perature is lower than in other forms. The end is
always fatal, and is reached from the fourth to the
sixth day.
The most remarkable feature of small-pox is con-
trol over its severity by artificial production of a
mitigated form. This was practised in Eastern
countries from an unknown period, by inoculating
the virus of human variola. On the second day a
pimple appears which becomes vesicular on the
fourth and pustular in three or four more. On the
eleventh day a general eruption appears, but this is
discrete, and recovery is almost uniform. Such a
case is just as liable, however, to become a focus of
infection as one of natural small-pox. Inoculation
was introduced into England early in the 18th cen-
tury, and was extensively practised in Europe and
America until it was superseded by vaccination
about the beginning of the present century.
A variolous disease prevailed extensively among
horned cattle in Europe before the middle of last
century, and it was known among farmers that
milkers of variolous cows sometimes had pustules
on the hands and were thenceforward insusceptible
to small-pox. Artificial production of vaccine vali-
Ola Was proposed as a prophylactic against natural
small-pox by Dr. Edward Jenner in 1798, who lived
to Witness its triumph over neglect, ridicule, and
powerful opposition. The advantages over small-
pox inoculation are its greater mildness and the
avoidance of atmospheric infection. The vaccinated
Spot passes through the usual stages of the vario-
lous eruption, and the scab falls from the fifteenth to
the twenty-first day, leaving a peculiarly dotted
scar. During the pustular stage there is a moder-
ate fever, and the axillary glands are sometimes en-
larged. As secondary attacks of small-pox occasion-
ally take place, so many persons are susceptible to
repeated vaccination after the lapse of years; and so,
likewise, the protection against small-pox is often
lost by neglect of vaccination. (See WACGINATION.)
The control of small-pox by vaccination is shown
by the fact that this disease caused 96 deaths in 1000
in England from 1750 to 1800; from 1800 to 1850
532
SMET_SMITH.
the ratio was 35 in 1000, and has been much further
reduced since vaccination became compulsory. In
Germany, before vaccination was practised, the
deaths from small-pox were 66.5’ in 1000 from all
Causes, and after vaccination came in use, only 7.26.
Among those partially protected by vaccination, and
Who still contract the disease, its severity is so miti-
gated that the average mortality is 5.24 per cent.,
While in the unvaccinated it is nearly 50 per cent.
CHICKEN-POX (Varicella). —This is a trivial con-
tagious affection, from which children rarely escape
in cities and towns, but to which adults are equally
liable. An access of moderate fever is followed in
a few hours by a vesicular eruption, which matures
in 4 or 5 days and dries up with the formation of
Small scabs. Two or three crops of these vesicles
may occur without an interval. The vesicles are
easily broken, and often leave small depressions
permanently in the skin.
The chief importance of this affection arises from
the liability of confounding it with varioloid, or
Small-pox modified by previous vaccination. The
points of distinction are as follows:
Varioloid.—Eruption appears on 3d day, and fever
declines.
Eruption first papular, then vesicular, finally
pustular.
Eruption most abundant on face and hands.
Fever violent.
Chicken-poc.—Eruption and fever occur together.
Eruption vesicular throughout.
Eruption most abundant on trunk of body.
Fever moderate. (S. S. H.)
SMET, PETER JOHN DE (1801–1873), Jesuit mis-
Sionary to the Indians, was born at Dendermonde,
Belgium, Dec. 31, 1801. He was educated at Mech-
lin, and in 1822 was sent to Maryland. In 1824
he was appointed a teacher in the University of St.
Louis, and labored there until 1839. An embassy
sent from the Flathead Indians about 1834 to ask
for religious instruction had created a profound sen-
sation. Father De Smet was then sent out and es-
tablished missions both among the Flatheads in
Oregon and among the Blackfeet on the Upper Mis-
souri. To obtain assistance in the work and support
he visited France and Belgium three or four times,
and gave accounts of his work in English, French,
and German. He was said to have more influence
with the Indians of the Northwest than any other
person. He died at St. Louis, May 23, 1873. His
chief publications were Letters and Sketches of a
Residence in the Rocky Mountains (1843); Oregon
Aſissions (1847); Western Missions (1863); New Ind-
ian Sketches (1868).
SMELTING. See IRON.
SMILLIE, JAMEs (1807–1885), engraver, was born
in Edinburgh, Scotland, Nov. 23, 1807. He was
apprenticed in 1819 to a silver engraver, and later
worked with an engraver of pictures. His family
came to Canada in 1821, and young Smillie worked
there for some years. In 1827 he went to London,
and after studying for five months under one An-
drew Wilson in Edinburgh he returned to Quebec.
He made his permanent residence in New York in
1830, and was there elected a National Academician
in 1851. In 1874 he retired to Poughkeepsie, where
he died, Dec. 4, 1885. The engraving after R. W.
Weir's Convent Gate first drew attention to the young
engraver, and it was followed by a series of plates,
many after Weir's paintings, executed for the New
York Mirror during 1832–36. Other important plates
from his hand, all executed in the line manner, are
Dream of Arcadia (1850) and the Voyage of Life
(1853–54), after Cole; Dover Plains (1850), after A.
IX. Durand ; Mount Washington (1851), after Ken-
sett; American Harvesting (1851), after Cropsey :
and Bierstadt's Rocky Mountains (1865–66). After
1861 his time was devoted mainly to bank-note en-
graving, and he is regarded as the pioneer in that
line. His artistic reputation, however, rests on his
landscape work, and he probably had no equal here
in that branch of engraving.
His son, JAMES DAVID SMILLIE, born in New York,
Jan. 16, 1833, is well known both as engraver and
painter. The best productions of his burin are per-
haps the illustrations for Cooper's novels, after
Darley's designs, although much of his work was on
bank-note vignettes. In 1864 he turned his atten-
tion to painting, and has since then produced The
Lifting of the Clouds; Dark against Day's Golden
Death ; Evening Among the Sierras; The Adiron-
dacks, The Cliffs of Normandy, and other important
works. He became a member of the National Acad-
emy in 1876, was one of the original members of the
Water Color Society, and one of the founders of the
New York Etching Club. His brother, GEORGE
HENRY, born in New York, Dec. 29, 1840, studied
under his father and James M. Hart, and is well
known as a painter. Among his works are A Lake
in the Woods, A Florida Lagoon, A Goat Pasture,
Merrimack River, and Light and Shadow along
Shore, in oil, and Under the Pines of the Yosemite,
Near Portland, Maine, and September on the New
England Coast. He became a National Academician
in 1882. (F. L. w.)
SMITH, CHARLEs FERGUSON, a distinguished sol-
dier of the civil war, was born April 24, 1807, in
Philadelphia, son of Dr. Samuel Blair Smith, assist-
ant-Surgeon in the U. S. army, his maternal grand-
father (from whom he had his middle name) having
been Ebenezer Ferguson, a colonel in the Revolu-
tionary war. In 1825 he was graduated at the U. S.
military academy and entered the service as 2d lieu-
tenant in the 2d artillery, being promoted to 1st
lieutenant, May, 1832, and captain in July, 1838.
From 1829 to 1842 he filled several posts in the mili-
tary academy—instructor of infantry tactics, adjutant,
and commandant of the corps of cadets. In the Mexi-
can war he served under Gen. Zachary Taylor with
such distinction that the four companies of artillery
he commanded became famous as “Smith's light
battery,” while he himself received, in rapid succes-
sion, the brevets of major, lieutenant-colonel, and
colonel for “gallant and meritorious conduct ’’ at
Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, Contreras,
and Churubusco. He took part in the storming of
Chapultepec and in the capture of the City of Mexico,
and was again honorably mentioned. From 1849 to
1851 he was member of a board to devise a course of
instruction for siege, garrison, Sea-coast, and moun-
tain artillery which was adopted, May, 1851. In 1854
he was promoted major of the 1st artillery, and in
1855 was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the 10th
infantry. He commanded the Red River expedition
in 1856, the Utah expedition in 1857–61, and was, for
a time, in command of the Department of Utah. On
the outbreak of disturbances preceding the civil war,
he was appointed to the charge of the city and de-
partment of Washington. In August, 1861, he was
promoted brigadier-general of volunteers and sent
to Kentucky, where, next month, he became colonel
of the 3d infantry, and took command of the forces
at Paducah. His conduct at the capture of Forts
Henry and Donelson acquired him the reputation of
a skilful tactician as well as of a gallant soldier. In
the fight for possession of Donelson he commanded
the division holding the left of the investing lines,
and led in person the assault that stormed the high
ground commanding the fort. Of his exploit here
Gen. W. T. Sherman says in his Memoirs : “Gen.
C. F. Smith was a very handsome and soldierly man
of great experience, and at the battle of Donelson
had acted with so much personal bravery that to him
many attributed the success of the assault.” He
SMITH_SMITH. 533
next conducted the new movement up the Tennessee of his life he had completed the New Testament and
River, and, arriving at Savannah with a considerable the greater part of the Old. He died at Beyrout,
fiest in March, 1862, took command of the city and Jan. 11, 1857. The Arabic translatiºn, of the Bible
made ready the advance on Shiloh. On March 21 was finished by Rev. Dr. C. C. Van Dyke. . .
he was promoted major-general of volunteers, but SMITH, ERASMUS PESHINE (1814–1882), jurist, was
chronic disease, contracted in Mexico, was so aggra- born in New York City, March 2, 1814, but at an
wated by the exposure to which he had been sub- early age Was taken to Rochester. He graduated at
jected that he died on April 25, 1862, at Savannah. Columbia College in 1832, and at the Harvard Law
SMITH, EDMUND KIRBy, Confederate general, was School a year later. He entered on practice, at Ro-
born, May, 1824, in St. Augustine, Florida. On his chester, but was also engaged in journalism until 1850,
graduation from West Point, in 1845, he was ap- when he was appointed professor of mathematics in
pointed 2d lieutenant of infantry, and in the Mexican the University of Rochester. In 1852 he was made
war for gallantry at Cerro Gordo and Contreras was State superintendent of public instruction, and in
twice brewetted. From 1849 to 1852 he acted as as-' 1857 reporter of the State court of appeals. In 1864
sistant professor of mathematics at West Point. In he was called to Washington to be U. S. commission-
1855 he was appointed captain in the 2d cavalry, er of immigration, but soon was appointed examiner
and served with distinction on the frontier, being of claims in the Department of State. In 1871. Sec-
wounded in May, 1859, in an engagement with the retary, Hamilton Fish, having been asked by the
Comanche Indians, for his services against whom he Mikado of Japan for an adviser in international law,
received the thanks of the legislature of Texas in selected Prof. Smith. The latter spent five years in
1861. In January, 1861, he was promoted major, but Japan in preparing treaties and directing the foreign
on the secession of his native State in May of this
year, he resigned his commission, and was appointed
lieutenant-colonel in the cavalry corps of the Confed-
erate army. His subsequent promotion was rapid.
On June 17 he was made brigadier-general ; on Oct.
11, major-general ; on Oct. 9, 1862, lieutenant-gen-
eral; and on Feb. 19, 1864, full general. He was
present at the first battle of Bull Run, and was se-
verely wounded early in the engagement. In 1862
he was assigned to the command of the Department
of East Tennessee, Kentucky, North Georgia, and
Western North Carolina. In the Kentucky campaign
he led the advance of General Bragg's army, and,
Aug. 30, 1862, defeated the Union forces under Gen.
W. Nelson, at Richmond, Ky. Having been as-
signed in February, 1863, to the Trans-Mississippi
Department (comprising Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas,
and Indian Territory) he, in accordance with his in-
structions, organized a government there, making
his communications with Richmond by running the
blockade at Galveston and Wilmington, N. C. By
a similar process of blockade-running he shipped
large quantities of cotton to Europe, receiving back
machinery, by the aid of which he was successful in
establishing factories and furnaces, in opening mines,
and in manufacturing powder and castings, so that
by the time the war closed he had made his depart-
ment self-supporting, his forces being the last to
surrender. In 1864 he was largely instrumental in
baffling Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks in his Red River
campaign. Since the war Gen. Smith has been
president of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Com-
pany, chancellor of the University of Nashville, and,
since 1875, professor of mathematics in the University
of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., which last position
he continues to hold.
SMITH, ELI (1801–1857), missionary, was born
at Northfield, Conn., Sept. 15, 1801. He graduated
at Yale College in 1821 and at Andover Seminary in
1826. He was immediately sent by the American
Board as a missionary to Malta, but soon removed to
Beyrout, Syria, which was the chief scene of his
labors. His visit to the Nestorians of Persia in 1830
is related in his Missionary Researches in Armenia
(1833). In 1838 and again in 1852 he was the com-
panion of Rev. Edward Robinson (for whom, see
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA) in his journeys in Bible
lands. The JBiblical Researches which have estab-
lished the fame of Robinson owe much of their ac-
curacy to Dr. Smith's help. As a proper foundation
for missionary work Dr. Smith exerted himself to
establish at Beyrout an Arabic press, and for it he
had cast at Leipsic, under his own supervision, an
improved font of Arabic type. His great work of
translating the Bible into modern Arabic was com-
menced in 1847, and within the remaining ten years
born at Utica, N. Y., March 6, 1797.
Peter Smith, had been associated with John Jacob
around him a thriftless lot.
relations of that empire. During this time a Peru-
vian ship with a cargo of 230 Chinese coolies was
wrecked on the coast of Japan, and that government,
by the advice of Prof. Smith, detained them until
the question of their destination was settled by the
arbitration of the Russian government. The coolies
by its decision were sent back to China, and this
affair broke up the coolie trade. Prof. Smith re-
turned to Rochester in 1876 and died there, Oct. 21,
1882. His chief publication was a Manual of Politi-
cal Economy (1853), in which he advocates protection.
SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874), philanthropist, was
His father,
Astor in the fur trade, and had purchased vast tracts
of land in northern New York. Gerrit, after gradu-
ating at Madison College in 1818, settled at Peterboro,
and devoted himself to the management of his estate.
In 1825 he joined the American Colonization Society
and contributed liberally to its funds until he be-
came convinced of its inefficiency as an aid to the
colored people. In 1835 he turned to the Anti-
Slavery Society and became prominent in its work.
He gave away to actual settlers, whether white or
black, small farms from his estate, and thus gathered
In 1852 he was elected
to Congress, but served only one session. To every
assault on the slavery system he was a willing con-
tributor, and hence gave aid to the Free Soil settlers
in Kansas and to John Brown's project in Virginia in
1859. The war for the Union enlisted his sympathies
and active support, but at its close he was in favor
of universal amnesty. Originally trained in orthodox
belief, he became a Universalist and extreme rational-
ist. He wrote and spoke against revealed religion,
yet in the church he had built at Peterboro he fre-
quently preached. He died at New York City, Dec.
28, 1874.
SMITH, GoLDWIN, an English historical and polit-
ical writer, was born at Reading, Berkshire, Aug.
13, 1823. He was educated at Eton and Magdalen
College, Oxford, graduating with high honor in 1845.
He was chosen fellow and tutor of University College,
and in 1847 was called to the bar at Lineoln's Inn.
In 1850, and again in 1854, he was secretary of a
Royal commission of University reform, and from
1858 to 1866 he was a member of the Education
commission, whose labors resulted in the Education
bill of 1870. He was also appointed regius professor
of modern history at Oxford in 1859, and held this
position till 1866. He had always been an advanced
Liberal in politics, and during the American civil
war was conspicuous for his defence of the Union.
Among his publications of this time are The Founda-
tion of the American Colonies (1861); The Morality of
the Emancipation Proclamation (1863). In 1864 he
534
SMITH_ SMITH.
Visited the Northern States on a lecturing tour, and
on his return published England and America (1865)
and Civil War in America (1866). He was called in
1868 to Cornell University to be professor of English
history, but in 1871 he settled at Toronto, Canada,
Where he became a member of the senate of the uni-
versity. He edited the Canadian Monthly until 1874,
and then became editor of the Bystander, a political
Weekly. After this was discontinued he was editor
of The Week, but in 1887 he finally separated from
it. In that year he returned to England, where he
has continued his literary activity, discussing public
questions affecting England, Ireland, Canada, and
the United States. Besides his works already men-
tioned he has published Irish History and Irish
Character (1861); Three English Statesmen, sketches
of Pym, Cromwell, and Pitt (1867), Short History of
England (1869); William Cowper in the English Men
{{* (1880); Conduct of England to Ireland
2).
SMITH, HENRY BoyNTON (1815–1877), Presbyterian
theologian, was born at Portland, Maine, Nov. 21,
1815. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1834,
and studied theology at Andover and Bangor. After
some time spent in study at the Universities of Halle
and Berlin, he was in 1841 acting president of Bow-
doin.
1847 he was made professor of moral and mental
In 1842 he became pastor of the Congrega-
tional Church at West Amesbury, Mass., and in
Louisville gas-works. In 1867 he was U. S. Com-
missioner to the Paris Exposition, and in 1873 to
that of Vienna, and in connection with these pre-
pared valuable reports on industrial chemistry. In
1876 he was one of the judges at the Centennial Ex-
hibition at Philadelphia, and wrote the report on
Petroleum. In 1874 he had been chosen president
of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. He had the best collection of meteorites
in the United States, having purchased that of Dr.
Gerard Troost (q.v.), and greatly enlarged it. This
collection is now in possession of Harvard Univer-
sity. Dr. Smith was active in religious and philan-
thropic movements. He endowed the Baptist Home
at Louisville. He died, Oct. 12, 1883. He had pub-
lished more than 70 scientific papers, and many of
these were gathered in his Mineralogy and Chemis-
try, Original Researches (1873), of which an enlarged
edition, with biographic sketch, was issued after his
death.
SMITH, PERSIFOR FRASER (1798–1858), general,
was born in Philadelphia in November, 1798, both
his grandfathers having served with honor in the
war of the Revolution. After graduating at Prince-
ton in 1815, he studied law in Philadelphia and, on
his admission to the bar, removed to New Orleans.
His passion was, however, for arms, and at the out-
break of the Seminole war, being adjutant-general
of Touisiana, he raised some regiments of volun-
philosophy in Amherst College. In 1850 he was teers, marched to the scene, and there conducted
called to the professorship of church history in himself so as to attract the special attention of Gen-
Union Theological Seminary, New York, and in 1854 erals Gaines, Scott, and Taylor, and insure their
he became professor of systematic theology. After lasting confidence. On the conclusion of this war
holding this position twenty years he resigned on he returned to his judicial functions in New Orleans,
account of ill-health, and died, Feb. 7, 1877. He was but in the spring of 1846, hearing of Gen. Tay-
a promoter of the Evangelical Alliance and of the re- lor's straits on the Rio Grande, he again raised a
union of the Presbyterian Churches. He had be- body of volunteers and hastened to his assistance,
longed to the New School branch, and as moderator remaining in command of a brigade till the close of
of its General Assembly in 1863 he welcomed the the war with Mexico. He distinguished himself
first delegation from the Old School body. He was especially in the fierce battle of Monterey, for which
one of the editors of the New York Evangelist and of he was brevetted brigadier-general in the U. S.
the American Theological Review, which afterward Army. Gen. Smith then joined the army under
He translated and Gen. Winfield Scott, and his conduct at the battle
edited Gieseler's Church History and Hagenbach's of Contreras elicited the warmest praise of that
History of Doctrines. From his writings have been commander. For his services here, and at the im-
collected volumes, published posthumously, on Faith mediately subsequent battle of Churubusco, he was
and Philosophy, Apologetics, and Introduction to The- brevetted major-general, Aug. 20, 1847. On the
ology. resumption of hostilities, after an intervening ar-
SMITH, John LAWRENCE (1818–1883), chemist, mistice (for which he was a commissioner), he par-
was born near Charleston, S. C., Dec. 17, 1818. He ticipated in the affair of Chapultepec and was in
was educated at Charleston College and the Univer- active service at the capture of the city of Mexico.
sity of Virginia, and became a civil engineer. After At the conclusion of the war he was ordered to
some service on the Charleston and Cincinnati Rail- California, where he held command of the Military
road, he studied medicine and graduated at the Department, and afterward held a similar command
Medical School of the University of South Carolina. in Texas. In December, 1856, he was appointed to
After three years' further study in France and Ger- the full rank of brigadier-general and ordered to
many, he began practice at Charleston in 1844. Two Kansas. In April, 1858, he was assigned to the com-
years later James Buchanan, then U. S. Secretary of mand of the Department of Utah. This he held only
State, was requested by the Sultan of Turkey to for a month, dying at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas,
became the Presbyterian Review.
recommend some person for the purpose of instruct-
ing the people of that empire in the cultivation of
cotton. Dr. Smith was selected and went to Turkey,
but the original purpose of his mission was not car-
ried out. He was made mining engineer to the
Turkish government, and spent four years in examin-
ing the mineral resources of the empire. One result
was his publication on the Thermal Waters of Asia
Minor (1849). Returning to the United States, Dr.
Smith discovered emery and corundum in North
Carolina. He completed his invention of the in-
verted microscope, which he had commenced in
Paris in 1850. He was appointed professor of chem-
istry in the University of Virginia, but, having mar-
ried the daughter of James Guthrie, U. S. Secretary
of the Treasury, removed to Louisville, Ky., where
he became professor of chemistry, in the Medical
School. He was afterward superintendent of the
whither he had gone for his health, May 17, 1858.
SMITH, SAMUEL (1752–1839), general and states-
man, was born at Lancaster, Pa., July 27, 1752.
His father, born in Ulster, became a successful mer-
chant in Baltimore, took part in the patriotic move-
ments at the outbreak of the Revolution, Was a del-
egate to the Maryland constitutional convention in
1776, and afterward State senator. Samuel, after a
business-training in his father's counting-room, Went
to Europe in 1772, and travelled extensively. Re-
turning in 1775, he became a captain in a regiment
of the Maryland line, fought in Long Island, and at
White Plains, where he was wounded. In 1777 he
was promoted to be major, and fought at Brandy-
wine. Ordered by Washington to Fort Mifflin, near
Philadelphia, he sustained a siege by the British
from Sept. 26 to Nov. 11, and then, being wounded,
retired to New Jersey. For his defence Congress
SMITH_SMITH.
535
gave him a vote of thanks and a sword. He was af-
terward at Valley Forge and Monmouth, then re-
signed his commission, though acting as colonel of
militia at Baltimore.
f
!
In 1783 he was made a port
warden there and in 1790 was elected to the legisla-
ture.
He commanded the quota of Maryland troops
called out to suppress the Whiskey insurrection in
Pennsylvania. For ten years from 1793, he was a
representative in Congress, serving also for a short
time in 1801 as secretary of the navy. In 1803, he
was elected to the U. S. Senate, and was one of the
prominent supporters of Jefferson's policy. He was
major-general of the Maryland troops in defence of
Baltimore in 1814. He was active in promoting the
interests of Baltimore, helping to found the Bank
of Maryland in 1790, to establish a library, and to
adorn the city with the monuments which long gave
it the name “Monumental City.” At the age of 83,
|
long after he had retired from public work, he was *
by his brother-in-law, Dr. David Ramsay,
called to suppress a mob, and did the work so effect-
ually that he was elected mayor and served for three
Presbyterian minister and educator, was born at
years. He died at Baltimore, April 22, 1839.
His brother, ROBERT SMITH (1757–1842), also born
at Lancaster, graduated at Princeton College in
1781, studied law, and practised at Baltimore.
He
served in many public capacities, was a presidential
elector in 1789, state senator in 1793, delegate, 1796–
1800, and member of the city council, 1798–1801.
Pres. Jefferson made him secretary of the navy from
January, 1802, till 1805, and U. S. attorney-general
from March till December, 1805. He was appointed
chancellor of Maryland soon afterward, and Pres.
Madison called him into his cabinet as secretary of
vival preacher in the Valley of Virginia.
professor of moral philosophy at Princeton, and 1I]
its 3 he was made professor of theology. In 1786 he
became vice-president, and finally, in 17 95, president,
of the college, retaining this position till 1812. (See
NEw JERSEy, CoLLEGE OF.) In the Presbyterian
Church he was almost equally influential with his
predecessor, Rev. Dr. John Witherspoon (q.v.) whose
daughter he had married. In the organization of
that church, in 1786, he took part in drafting its
form of government. Dr. Smith was noted for his
dignity, courtly manners, and eloquence—trained on
the French models. He died at Princeton, Aug. 21,
1812. Besides separate sermons, he had published
a volume in 1798, and after his death two Imore
volumes appeared with a memoir. He had also pub-
lished Lectures on the Eridences of the Christian Relig-
ion and on Moral Philosophy (1809), a System of Nºt-
wral and Revealed Religion (1816), and had brought
down to a later date the History of the United States
His brother, JoHN BLAIR SMITH (1756–1799), also a
Pequea, Pa., June 12, 1756. He graduated at
Princeton College in 1773, and studied theology
with his brother, then president of Hampden-Sidney
College, and succeeded him in this position in 1779.
Also gifted with eloquence, he became a noted re-
In 1791 he
was called to the Third Presbyterian Church, Phila-
delphia, and after four years' service was made
president of Union College, Schenectady, N. Y.; but
in May, 1799, he was induced to return to his former
state in March, 1809, but in November, 1811, when
the faction clamorous for war with Great Britain
name “Major Jack Downing,” was born at Buck-
gained the upper hand, Smith retired, though Madi-
son offered him the embassy to Russia. In 1813 he
was made provost of the University of Maryland, and
he held other posts of honor. He died at Baltimore,
Nov. 26, 1842.
SMITH, SAMUEL FRANCIS, minister and hymn-
writer, was born at Boston, Oct. 21, 1808.
ing at Harvard in the famous class of 1829 with Dr.
O. W. Holmes, Rev. James Freeman Clarke, and
others of note, he studied theology at Andover, and
in 1834 became pastor of a Baptist church at Water-
ville, Maine.
Graduat-
charge in Philadelphia. This later service was cut
short by his death on Aug. 22, 1799.
SMITH, SEBA (1792–1868), best known under the
field, Maine, Sept. 14, 1792. He graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1818, and became a journalist at
Portland. His humorous political letters, satirizing
President Jackson, were in 1833 collected in a vol-
He died at Patehogue, L. I., July 29, 1868.
Before this he had written for the
press, had translated for Dr. Lieber's Encyclopaedia
Americana, and had edited the Baptist Missionary
Magazine. In 1842 he removed to Newton, Mass.,
where besides pastoral work he conducted the Chris-
tian Review for seven years. Religious and secular
journals and magazines welcomed his contributions.
His national hymn “America,” “My country, 'tis of
ume which passed through many editions. A later
work of a similar character was his Thirty Years out
of the Senate (1859). Smith also published several
poems, the longest of which was Powhatan (1841),
and a volume of sketches called Down East (1855).
He had
married Elizabeth Oakes Prince, who contributed
many poems to periodicals, at first anonymously,
but openly after her husband had become embar-
rassed in business. Her first collection was called
The Simless Child and other Poems (1843). Then
came tragedies, The Roman Tribute and Jacob Leis-
ler, or Old New York, and, after a long interval, Des-
tiny.
thee,” was written at Andover in 1832 and first sung
publicly in Park Street Church, Boston, July 4,
1832. Another of his hymns is “The morning light
is breaking.”
periodicals of the Baptist Missionary Union. He
Meantime she had published several novels
and tales and some works on woman's rights. After
her husband's death she resided for many years in
In 1855 he became editor of the
contributed to Sprague's Annals of the American
Pulpit, and to the Baptist Jubilee. The Psalmist, a
standard Baptist hymn-book, contains 27 of his
hymns. Among his later publications are Mission-
ary Sketches (1879); a History of Newton, Mass.
(1880); and Rambles in Mission Fields (1884).
SMITH, SAMUEL STANHOPE (1750–1819), educator,
Was born at Pequea, Pa., March 16, 1750. His
father, Dr. Robert Smith, had emigrated from
Ulster, and settled in Pennsylvania as pastor of a
Presbyterian church, conducting also a classical
academy, which became famous. The son studied
in it, and, after graduating at Princeton College in
1769, returned to teach.
be a tutor at Princeton, and was ordained to the
Sidney College. In 1779 Samuel was called to be
|
i
i
New York City, but afterward in North Carolina.
SMITH, WILLIAM (1726–1803), the first provost of
the University of Pennsylvania, was born in Aber-
deen, Scotland, in 1726. After graduating at the
university of that city, in 1747 he emigrated to
America and became tutor in the family of Col.
Martin, on Long Island. He was called by Franklin
and others to Philadelphia to take charge of the
projected college. His General Idea of the College of
Mirania gave his view of what was to be aimed at
in the new institution. To obtain help for it and to
receive episcopal orders he visited England in 1753.
The academy which was opened in that year be-
came in 1754 the College of Philadelphia. His loyal
adherence to the Penn family provoked political
controversies, and at one time he was thrown into
But he was soon called to
On
prison, where his classes came for instruction.
º - - e his second visit to England, in 1759, the University
Presbyterian ministry in 1774. He went to Virginia,
and in 1775 became the first president of Hampden-
of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D. D., and
on a third, in 1762, he collected for his college £6,000.
He took the patriotic side in the crisis of the revolu-
536 SMITH_SMITH COLLEGE,
had taken part also in the siege of Yorktown, and
the battles of Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, Savage
Station, Glendale, and Malvern Hill. In July, 1862,
he was advanced to major-general of volunteers, but
this promotion was not confirmed by the Senate.
In the Maryland campaign he led his division in the
battles of South Mountain and Antietam, receiving
of Congress. Yet at the close of the war a factious
opposition was made against him, and the legislature
chartered the University of Pennsylvania to super-
sede the college. Smith resisted, and in 1789 was
again recognized as provost of the college. In 1791
A compromise was effected, the college was merged
tion, and his oratorical powers were enlisted in favor
in the university, but Dr. Smith retired from office.
He died at Philadelphia, May 14, 1803. His publi-
cations comprise various sermons and orations, some
political tracts, and a history of Bouquet's Expedition
against the Western Indians. A selection of these
Was published in 1803.
His grandson, RICHARD PENN SMITH (1799–1854),
the brevet of colonel in the regular army for the
latter engagement. In November, 1862, he was as-
signed to the command of the Sixth Corps and took
part in the battle of Fredericksburg. In February,
1863, he was transferred to the Ninth Corps and, on
March 3, became major in the Corps of Engineers.
In June and July, 1863, he commanded a division
obtained some note as a dramatist. He was born in
March, 1799, and admitted to the Philadelphia bar
in 1821. He edited the Aurora for the next six
Years and then wrote for Edwin Forrest two trage-
dies, Caius Marius and The Venetian. Besides
other successful plays, he wrote some novels and a
Life of David Crockett (1836). He died, Aug. 12,
1854. His son, Horace Wemyss Smith, born in
1825, has edited his Works, written a Life of Will- H. Thomas, in his report, says: “To Brig.-Gen. W.
tºm Smith (4 vols.), and compiled Patriotic Songs of F. Smith should be accorded great praise for the
America. ingenuity which conceived and the ability which
Another grandson, William Rudolph Smith (1787– executed the movement at Brown's Ferry. When
the bridge was thrown at Brown's Ferry, on the
1868), went to Wisconsin in 1837, and became at-
torney-general of that State in 1853. He was also morning of the 27th Oct., 1863, the surprise was as
great to the army within Chattanooga as it was to
president of its Historical Society and published
History of Wisconsin (4 vols., 1854). the army besieging it from without.” In April, 1865,
SMITH, WILLIAM, has been highly successful in the House committee on military affairs unanimously
uniting the labors of scholars in his dictionaries of agreed to a report that, “as a subordinate, Gen.
biblical, classical, and early Christian literature. William F. Smith had saved the army of the Cum-
He was born in London in 1813, and graduated at | berland from capture, and afterward directed it to
its university, being a layman and originally a Dis- victory.” In March, 1864, his rank as major-general
senter, though he afterward entered the Church of of volunteers was confirmed, and in May he was placed
England. From 1853 to 1869 he was classical ex- in command of the Eighteenth Corps, which he led
aminer for London University, and afterward a mem- at Cold Harbor and at Petersburg till July, when he
ber of its senate. Since 1867 he has been editor of was assigned to special duty. On March 13, 1865,
the Quarterly Review. His chief Dictionaries are he was brevetted brigadier-general of the U. S. army
those of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1840–42); for his services at the battle of Chattanooga, and
Greek and Roman Biography (1843–49); Dictionary major-general for services in the field during the
of the Bible (3 vols., 1860–63), the American edition war. In November, 1865, he resigned his volunteer
being enlarged and improved by Profs. H. B. commission, and, in 1867, that in the U. S. army.
Hackett and E. Abbot (4 vols., 1869–70); Christian In 1865 he became president of the International
Antiquities (2 vols., 1875–80), in which Prof. Cheetham | Telegraph Company; in 1875, police-commissioner
assisted ; and Christian Biography (4 vols., 1877–86), of New York City, and soon thereafter was chosen
in which Dr. Henry Wace assisted. The last two president of the board. Since 1881 he has practised
works come down only to the age of Charlemagne. as a civil engineer.
Dr. Smith's son Philip has been associated with him in SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON, British theologian,
the preparation of the numerous works of reference was born at Keig, Scotland, Nov. 8, 1846. He grad-
above mentioned, and has published a History of the uated at Aberdeen University in 1865, and studied
Won-loſſ. also at the Universities of Bonn and Göttingen. In
SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR, a general of the civil | 1868 he began to teach physics at Edinburgh, but
war, and known in the army as “Baldy” Smith, he was already noted for his acquaintance with
was born in St. Albans, Vt., Feb. 17, 1824. He | Oriental languages, and in 1870 was made professor
graduated at West Point in 1845, was made brevet of Hebrew in the Free Church College at Aberdeen.
2d lieutenant of topographical engineers, and, after | His course of instruction roused some opposition by
a year's service in this department, became assistant- its rationalistic tendency, and this was brought to a
professor of mathematics at West Point, which post| height on the publication of his article on the Bible
he filled for two years. His next service was in in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. A series of trials
Texas for the Mexican boundary commission and in in the Church courts for heresy ensued and, though he
Florida till, in 1855, he was reinstated in his former was not convicted, he was suspended from teaching,
office at West Point, being then 1st lieutenant. In and finally removed from his professorship in 1881.
1856 he was assigned to light-house construction | The controversy had not prevented his contributing
service, and in 1859 was made engineer-secretary of other articles of a similar kind, and he now became
the Light-house board. In June and July, 1861, associate editor of the BRITANNICA. In 1883 he was
he served on the staff of Gen. B. F. Butler at made Lord Almoner's professor of Arabic in Cam-
Fortress Monroe, and then became colonel of the bridge University, and in 1886 librarian to that uni-
3d Vermont Volunteers. He was engaged in the versity. His separate publications are The Old Testa-
first battle of Bull Run on the staff of Gen. Mc- ment in the Jewish Church (1881); The Prophets of
Dowell. Commissioned, Aug. 13, brigadier-general | Israel (1882); and Kinship and Marriage in Early
of volunteers, he continued to serve on the defences Arabia (1885). - * * * * * º
of Washington till March, 1862. In McClellan's SMITH COLLEGE, an institution for the higher
Peninsular campaign he was brevetted lieutenant- education of women, was founded by Miss Sophia
colonel in the regular army for gallant and meritori- Smith, of Hatfield, Mass., who bequeathed the bulk
ous service at the battle of White Oak Swamp, and of her property for that purpose ; stated the char-
of the Department of the Susquehanna ; in October,
became chief engineer of the Department of the
Cumberland, and, in November, of the military divi-
Sion of the Mississippi. In October he directed the
throwing of a pontoon-bridge over the Tennessee at
Brown's Ferry, below Chattanooga, and the capture of
the heights above it, and participated in the battle of
Missionary Tidge. Of his services here Gen. George
SMITH COLLEGE
537
acter of the education which should be given; ap- larger number in any single house:
and selected Northampton these dwelling-houses is the natural outgrowth of
The market value of the funds which the the design of the college, as expressed in its official
circulars: “It is a Woman's College, aiming not
pointed the first trustees;
as its site.
college received from the estate of Miss Smith after
her death, June 12, 1870, was estimated at $387,468.
To this sum the town of Northampton added $25,000,
to comply with a condition of her will concerning the
site.
The plan of
only to give the broadest and highest intellectual
culture, but also to preserve and perfect every chal-
acteristic of a complete womanhood.” . . *
The physical culture of the students is provided
The college was incorporated by the Common- for by a gymnasium, and by a specialist in that de-
wealth of Massachusetts, March 3, 1871, and a char-
ter was granted empowering it : “To grant such g s a tº º
its religious character the college is Christian in its
honorary testimonials, and confer such honors, de-
grees, and diplomas as are granted or conferred by
The trustees
held their first meeting at Northampton, April 12,
1871, when the Board was organized. The same year
any university in the United States.
13 acres in the centre of the town were purchased
as a site; but it was decided not to build until the
funds could accumulate and a president be obtained.
A circular issued by the trustees, Sept. 10, 1872,
stated: “It is the design of the trustees, as it was
evidently of the founder, not to add to the number
of such schools, seminaries, or academies, as now ex-
ist for young ladies, but to realize completely and
truly the idea of a Woman’s College. They would
secure to young women a culture fully equivalent to
that afforded to young men by our best New Eng-
land colleges, and yet differing from that as woman
differs from man in her physical and mental consti-
tution, and in the sphere of her active life. The re-
quirements for admission will be substantially the
same as at Harvard, Yale, Brown, Amherst, and other
New England colleges.”
Rev. L. Clark Seelye, D. D., was elected president
of the college, June 17, 1873, while professor of
rhetoric and English literature at Amherst College.
He entered immediately upon the duties of his office,
and under his direction the first academic building
was erected, and formally dedicated, July 14, 1875.
the second Thursday in September, 1875. Those
only were received who were able to meet the same
requirements in Greek, Latin, Mathematics, and
IEnglish, which were demanded in the New England
colleges for young men. There was no prepara-
tory department. A four years' course of study
was adopted, corresponding in extent and thor-
oughness with the collegiate courses in the leading
American colleges. The trustees decided to receive
at the opening only those who were qualified to enter
the First Class, and to add each year a new class and
the requisite teachers, until the four classes and the
Faculty were formed. Sixteen were admitted to the
First Class and eleven teachers were provided for
them. There were no commencement exercises un-
til June 18, 1879, when eleven graduates received the
degree of A. B.
A distinctive feature of the college was the adop-
tion of the plan of comparatively small dwelling-
houses, entirely distinct from the academic build-
ings, and arranged as far as possible like private
houses. Each was to be presided over by a lady who
should act as the “house mother,” and whose spe-
cial duty it should be to direct its social and domes-
tic life. Students were permitted to choose between
residence in these college homes or families in the
town which were approved by the Faculty. One
dwelling-house was provided at the opening of the
College, and others were afterward erected to meet
the wants of successive classes. These dwelling-
houses are separate establishments; each has its
own kitchen, dining-room, parlors, and bedrooms,
and each is located apart so as to lessen the danger
from fire, and to give free access of light and air to
the other buildings. The largest will accommodate
fifty students, and the smallest twenty-one; and the
present policy is to provide accommodations for no
Wol. IV.-2 I
partment, who prescribes, after personal examina-
tion, exercises adapted to the individual need. In
aims, but undenominational in management and in-
struction. There is no college church, and students
are expected to attend churches in the city, accord-
ing to individual preference.
For some years Smith College gave academic de-
grees only to those who completed the usual colle:
giate classical course, but in 1886, two additional
courses of study were arranged, called the Literary
and Scientific.
These also extend through four
years, and graduates from the Literary course re-
ceive the degree of Bachelor of Literature ; from the
Scientific course, the degree of Bachelor of Science;
while graduates from the classical course continue
to receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The dis-
tinctive peculiarity of these courses in Literature and
Science is the requirement of a greater amount of
modern languages or of the natural sciences, in
place of the classics or mathematics. The design
of all the various courses is thus stated : “The
college is not intended to fit woman for a particular
sphere or profession, but to perfect her intellect by
the best methods which philosophy and experience
suggest, so that she may be better qualified to enjoy
and to do well her work in life, whatever that work
may be.”
In 1880 a school of music and a school of art were
established in connection with the college, for the
The college was opened for the reception of students
purpose of providing the best facilities for the study
of Music, practical and theoretical, and of Drawing,
Painting, and Sculpture; and the following year a
Music Hall and Art Gallery were erected for their
accommodation. These schools have separate corps
of teachers, and regular courses of study extending
through four years. Members of the academic de-
partment can take a part of any of these courses as
electives, and students of approved age and attain-
ments can pursue them exclusively as specialties.
Post-graduate courses are provided for those who
wish to pursue advanced studies in Music, Art, Phi-
losophy, Language, Literature, and Science.
Additional gifts have been made to the college.
The most important of these are: $30,000 for an Art
Gallery, and $50,000 for an Art Fund, by Mr. Win-
throp Hillyer; $50,000 as a bequest from Mr. George
W. Hubbard; $32,500 for the Lilly Hall of Science,
by Mr. A. T. Lilly ; $20,000 to purchase works of art;
$15,000 for an Observatory; 10,000 for additional
studios to the Art Gallery; $12,000 for scholarships;
and $5,000 as a bequest from Gov. W. B. Washburn.
From its general fund the college gives annual
scholarships of $100 to all deserving students who
are unable to complete a collegiate education with-
out such aid. The present value of the college funds
is $469,283, and of its real estate, $400,000.
Since the opening of the college the number of
students has steadily increased, and in 1888 it was
435. The various classes number as follows: First
Class, 155; Second Class, 98 ; Junior Class, 60; Senior
Class, 48; Music School, 37; Art School, 31; Resi-
dent Graduates, 6. The Faculty, aside from lect-
urers and non-resident teachers, numbers 23, and
includes both sexes in about equal proportions.
Miss Smith in her will appointed only men as trustees,
but in June, 1888, the trustees requested the associate
alumnae of the college to nominate three candidates
5:38 SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION.
to fill existing vacancies in the Board, and that re-
quest Will doubtless be complied with. (L. C. S.)
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. This highly
important American scientific institution has been
already partly considered under ACADEMIEs of Sor.
ENCE (J. o.). It was founded in accordance with the
terms of a bequest made by James Smithson, of
England, of whose life and services to science we
may fitly here give a brief résumé. He was born
about 1765, being a natural son of James Smithson,
first duke of Northumberland, by Elizabeth Macie,
and long bore the name of James Lewis Macie,
adopting that of Smithson somewhere between 1791
and 1803. He studied at Oxford, and graduated from
Pembroke College in 1786, becoming a Fellow of
the Royal Society the next year. He devoted him-
Self to the study of science, particularly of chemis-
try, and became an associate and friend of Sir Hum-
phry Davy, Sir Joseph Banks, and Dr. Wollaston.
The results of his scientific observations were pub-
lished in Philosophical Transactions, Annals of Phi-
losophy, and other scientific periodicals, and included
treatises “On the Composition and Crystallization
of certain Sulphurets from Huel Boys in Cornwall,”
‘Facts Relating to the Coloring Matter of Vegeta-
bles,” etc. He died at Genoa, Italy, on June 27,
1829, leaving by will the whole of his property to
the United States, for the purpose of founding at
Washington an institution, to be known under his
name, “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men.”
This bequest, amounting to more than $500,000,
Was one of the first of those far-seeing gifts to man-
kind which have been of such great service to the
progress of human knowledge, and the example of
which is now being somewhat frequently followed.
The bequest was accepted by Congress, June 1,
1836, and was placed under interest immediately on
reaching the treasury, Sept. 1, 1838. It is now
invested in the 6 per cent. gold interest bonds of
the United States, and has been managed so skil-
fully and economically that the building has been
erected solely from the interest, while the residue
Over that used for this and other purposes has been
added to the principal until this has increased
nearly $200,000. The ultimate limit of the princi-
pal sum has been fixed by law at $1,000,000.
The Smithsonian Institution was established by
act of Congress, Aug. 10, 1846. It was to be ad-
ministered by a Board of Regents, composed of the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, three Senators
appointed by the Vice-President, three Representa-
tives chosen by the Speaker of the House, and six
citizens chosen by Congress. The Representatives
were to serve 2 years, the Senators for term of office,
the citizens for 6 years, the services of all to be gra-
tuitous. This Board meets annually in January, and
receives and transmits to Congress the report of its
Secretary, who is also Secretary of the Institution.
In addition to the Board of Regents, the President,
Vice-President, Cabinet Officers, and such honorary
members as they may elect are by law constituted
an “establishment,” or board of visitors, which is
entitled the Smithsonian Institution. The Regents
and the honorary members of the “establishment"
hitherto chosen have been men of eminence and
uprightness as statesmen, the citizen members from
the several states being selected for their high char-
acter and position, and literary or scientific reputa-
tion.
The building which has been erected for the pur-
poses of the Smithsonian Institution is an imposing
edifice, of the order of architecture known as Nor-
man, or Romanesque. Its material is a red sandstone
from the quarries of Seneca Creek, near Washington,
the stone being rather soft when quarried, but hard-
ening and developing great resisting qualities when
exposed to the atmosphere. The edifice consists of
a main central building of two stories, with two wings
connected by intermediate ranges. The dimensions
of the main building are 205 by 57 feet and 58 feet
high, with two towers in the centre of the principal
front, the higher of which is 140 feet in elevation.
On the south front is a massive tower 37 feet high,
and the building in all possesses 9 towers. The en-
tire length is 447 feet, and the greatest breadth 160.
The first story of the main building is one large
room, 200 by 50 feet in dimensions and 25 feet high,
With a row of columns down the centre. The second
story has a room of equal area without supporting
columns.
The corner-stone of this edifice was laid, May 1,
1847, with Masonic ceremonies, in the presence of
Pres. Polk and his cabinet, the oration being de-
livered by the Vice-President, George M. Dallas.
On Jan. 4, 1865, it took fire from a defective flue
and was partly destroyed, the west end and part of
the centre being burned. Much valuable material
was destroyed by this fire, among it the Stanley gal-
lery of Indian paintings, an irreparable loss. Its
only counterpart is the Catlin gallery, now in the
care of the Institution. The building has been
slowly restored from the income, without detriment
to the scientific work of the Institution, and is now a
fire-proof structure, situated in the park reservation
and thus removed from all danger of conflagration.
By law the Smithsonian Institution is the deposi-
tary of the United States National Museum, which
was at first partly supported by its funds, but is now
Sustained at the sole expense of the government.
This museum, beginning with the scientific material
collected by the Wilkes exploring expedition, and
designed to contain “all objects of art and of for-
eign and curious research, and all objects of natural
history, plants, and geological and mineralogical
species belonging or hereafter to belong to the
United States,” has greatly augmented, and become
So rich in many departments that the building of the
Institution is quite insufficient to contain it, and an
adjoining edifice of very extensive floor-space has
been erected for that purpose. The Smithsonian
building now contains only natural history and other
strictly scientific material, while much of this, to-
gether with a vast accumulation of objects of human
art, has been removed to the new edifice. The art
collections are now deposited in the Corcoran Gal-
lery, while the library, of 75,000 volumes, has been
added to the Library of Congress, and forms the Nat-
ural Science section of that library.
..In this way the extraordinarily large collection of
materials made within forty years has been disposed
of, and the Institution left to its legitimate functions
of ‘‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men.” In the furtherance of this purpose, the In-
stitution has from time to time taken upon itself
functions from which it has been since relieved by
act of Congress. Thus for a number of years it con-
ducted a series of meteorological observations, and
began that systematic study of the weather which is
now performed by the Weather Bureau of the gov-
ernment. In like manner, its herbarium and ento-
mological collection has been transferred to the De-
partment of Agriculture, which now conducts, the
important study of insect-ravages upon agriculture.
Thus one by one departments of study adopted by
the Institution have been removed from it, and its
income is now used for strictly scientific purposes,
without special regard to economic considerations.
It is, in fact, now restricted to its original purpose of
“the increase and diffusion of knowledge,” the first
being achieved by scientific study of the material
which is constantly flowing in from government
and private exploring parties in all parts of the .
country ; the second, by its useful work of receiving
SMYTH_SNARES.
#539
and distributing to learned bodies and individuals
at home the publications of similar bodies and in-
dividuals abroad, and by the highly valuable pub-
lications which it issues from time to time.
The publications of the Institution comprise three
series, the first and most important being Smithso-
wian Contributions to Knowledge, embracing records of
original investigation which have resulted in what
appear to be new truths and constitute positive addi-
tions to the sum of human knowledge. Of this series
25 volumes have been issued. Second, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, containing reports of the
state of knowledge in particular branches of Science,
lists and synopses of species, reports of explorations,
instructions for collecting, etc. This series now
numbers 33 volumes. Third, Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution, in which, in addition to the
business report, interesting foreign and American
scientific treatises have been published, and of late
years an annual report of the general progress of
science in all its branches. The publications of the
National Museum, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and
of the Philosophical Society of Washington are also
published under the auspices of the Institution, while
with its work has of late years been associated the
scientific observations of the United States Fish
Commission, which is now under the control of the
Secretary of the Institution, and much of whose
studies in development, artificial fertilization, etc., has
been done within its walls. The vast mass of mate-
rial, indeed, which has steadily poured in from every
direction and many sources, has proved beyond the
ability of the scientific corps of the Institution to
handle, and much of it remains in an inchoate condi-
tion, the more perishable portion slowly becoming
useless for want of prompt handling. This is a state
of affairs for which the governing powers of the In-
stitution are not responsible, but which sadly needs
remedy, either by a decided increase of the scientific
corps, or a check to the inflow of material until that
now accumulated can be studied and disposed of.
Scientific material which cannot be promptly handled
would, as a rule, be far better left to its natural hab-
itat and condition.
The Smithsonian Institution has, almost since its
inception, been under the control of two of our
prominent scientists, men remarkably well adapted
to develop the important interests committed to
their care. The first Secretary, elected at the foun-
dation of the Institution in 1846, was Prof. Joseph
Henry, the eminent electrician, than whom no man
stands higher in the ranks of American scientists.
Prof. Henry was strictly conservative in his direction
of the important trust confided to him, and aimed
rather to diffuse knowledge and stimulate research
than to make large collections of material. In 1850
Spencer F. Baird was elected Assistant Secretary,
and to him was committed the control of the Na-
tional Museum, which Prof. Henry had regarded
rather as a departure from the original design of the
Institution. Prof. Baird took active measures to de-
velop the museum by enlisting in the service the
leaders of government explorations, providing them
with materials and instructions, and organizing nat-
ural history parties in connection with all important
expeditions. His annual report constitutes the only
Systematic record of the national explorations ever
prepared. In 1871 Prof. Baird was appointed Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries, and in May, 1878,
on the death of Prof. Henry, was made full Secretary
of the Institution. He died, August 19, 1887, and
has been succeeded in the Secretaryship by Prof.
Samuel P. Langley, the eminent astronomer, re-
cently director of the observatory at Allegheny City,
Pa. George Brown Goode, who has for years been
employed in the National Museum, has been ap-
pointed Assistant Secretary, the management of the
tion.
Sept. 9, 1865.
National Museum being placed in his hands. . There
is every reason to believe that the Smithsonian In-
stitution, under this new management, with the ex-
perience and material gained during its former his-
tory, and its release from functions not directly in
its designed line of work, will rapidly advance in
usefulness and assume a position in the world of
science on a level with that of the best equipped
scientific institutions of foreign lands. (C. M.)
SMYTH, CHARLEs PLAZZI, English astronomer,
was born Jan. 3, 1819, being son of Admiral William
Henry Smyth, and grandson of J. B. Palmer Smyth,
of New Jersey, a loyalist in the American Revolu-
W. H. Smyth (1788–1865) entered the British
navy in 1805, and, after honorable service in the wars
of Napoleon's time, was appointed to make a hydro-
graphical survey of the coasts of Sicily, afterward of
the Adriatic, and finally of the entire Mediterranean.
He became rear-admiral in 1863, and devoted much
time to astronomy. He erected private observator-
ies at Bedford and Cardiff, and was president of the
Royal Astronomical Society. He died at Aylesbury,
His son, Charles Piazzi, had been
trained in his father's observatory, and afterward
was employed in the observatory at the Cape of Good
Hope under T. Maclear. He made a valuable series
of observations from the peak of Teneriffe in 1856,
which were published in his book Teneriffe, an As-
tronomer's Experiment (1858). This was the first
work illustrated by stereoscopic views. In 1843
Prof. Smyth was made astronomër royal of Scot-
land, and he has pursued scientific work in other
countries. His most notable research was in regard
to the Great Pyramid of Egypt, which he came to
regard as built under Divine inspiration to fix a
standard of weights and measures. This extravagant
theory received some favor with a portion of the
public, but not among the best scientists. The
author defended it in three works: Our Inheritance
in the Great Pyramid (1864), Life and Work at the
Great Pyramid (3 vols., 1867), and Antiquity of Intel-
lectual Man (1868). He published also Three Cities
of Russia (1862), and some other works.
SMYTH, NEWMAN, Congregationalist pastor, was
born at Brunswick, Maine, June 25, 1843. His full
name was Samuel Phillips Newman Smyth, but in
recent years he has discarded the two first. He
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1863, and at An-
dover Seminary in 1867. He travelled in Europe in
1868, and in 1870 became pastor of the First Church
at Bangor, Maine. In 1876 he accepted a call to the
First Presbyterian Church, Quincy, Ill., whence in
1882 he was called to a professorship in Andover
Seminary, but his views in regard to the future state
having provoked a controversy, he was not installed.
He then became pastor of the first Congregational
Church, New Haven. His publications are The Re-
ligious Feeling : a Study for Faith (1877); Old Faiths
in New Light (1879); Orthodox. Theology of To-day
(1881); Reality of Faith (1884). - *-
SMYTH, THOMAs (1808–1873), Presbyterian min-
ister, was born in Belfast, Ireland, June 14, 1808.
He was educated at Belfast College, and studied
theology at Highbury College, London, and after-
Ward at Princeton. He was ordained pastor of the
Second Presbyterian Church in Charleston, S. C.,
Dec. 29, 1834, and held this position until his death,
Aug. 20, 1873. He was a firm upholder of the faith
and practice of his church, and advocated its cause
in several popular treatises.
SNARE-BIRD. See ANHINGA.
SNAKES. This article has regard chiefly to the
more noteworthy of the numerous species of snake
found in America. *
The Hopoterodont serpents, or “blind-worms,”
are worm-like creatures, generally Very small, nearly
all living underground, and with the eyes as a rule
540
SNARES.
scarcely discernible. India and Australia abound in
species some of which (like the earth-
Worms they so much resemble) come
above ground at certain times, and are
then surprisingly active. Tropical
America and Mexico have quite a number of species.
Stenostoma dulce is a species found in Texas, having
the eye tolerably conspicuous.
The Colubriform snakes constitute a suborder
embracing nearly all the harmless snakes (other than
the blind-worms), as well as a certain number of
Venomous species. Many of our common non-
Venomous snakes are exceedingly useful as destroy-
ers of noxious insects (such as ticks and beetles), as
Well as rats, mice, and gophers. The Uropeltidae,
or shield-tails (all South Asiatic), are noteworthy as
having the habit and appearance of “blind-worms.”
The small family Tortricidae are also burrowers;
and they are remarkable for the rudimentary pelvis,
With a pair of small claw-like hind limbs. Tortrio:
Scytale, from the Amazon valley, is handsomely col-
ored, and, even while alive, it is often used by the
natives as a necklace.
To the family of Calamariidae, or “dwarf-snakes,”
are assigned a very large number of small, semi-
Subterranean larva-devouring species of many gen-
era. They are generally to be found under loose
Stones and logs. Among our common American
kinds is the timid and inoffensive Pirginia striolata,
With the back of a brownish tint, and the belly of a
Salmon-red; it is common southward. Carphophis
amoena is the “ground-snake” or “thunder-snake,”
familiar to every ploughboy, a subterraneous snake,
perfectly harmless, and very awkward and slow in
its movements. It is also brown, with a salmon-
colored belly. There are a good many other Ameri-
can forms, especially in the tropical regions.
To the great family of the Coronellidae belong sev-
eral of the largest and best known serpents in the
country, such as the Ophibolus triangulatus, known as
the milk-snake, house-snake, or “checkered adder,”
and the chain-snake or king-snake of the South, the
O. getulus, and the well-known ring-snake, Diadophis
punctatus. Here also belongs the hog-nosed snake,
or sand-viper, Heterodon platyrhinus, rather num-
erous in Sandy regions. It is a slow creature, of
repulsive appearance and fierce aspect, hissing loud-
ly when disturbed ; but it is perfectly harmless.
There are several others of its genus in this country.
Among the members of the great, yet not fully spe-
cialized, family of the Colubridae, many North Amer-
ican snakes are placed. The green-snake or grass-
snake, Cyclophis vernalis, of the United States is
very common, especially in New England. It is
very often found in the tall grass, or even among the
branches of shrubs. It is generally very gentle in
its habits, but will occasionally show fight, inflicting
trifling wounds with its teeth. The members of this
genus, like the more strictly arboreal bush-colubers,
are more frequent in America than in the old world.
The mountain black-snake, Coluber obsoletus, having
keeled scales, is a large snake found chiefly along
the Alleghanies. C. guttatus, the brightly colored
See Vol. XXII.
p. 189 (p. 199
Am. Rep.).
corn-snake of the South, is most active after dark.
C. quadrivittatus, called chicken-snake, often enters
human dwellings of the humbler sort, and does good
by killing rats and mice; like others of its genus it
often destroys young chickens. C. pulpinus, the
fox-snake, has a rather wide range. The common
black-snake, Bascanion constrictor, has one of the
widest geographical ranges of any known species.
The swift, bold, and active creature will fight bravely
if brought to a pass whence there is no easy escape,
and many stories are told of its fierceness and intre-
pidity, some of which, like too many snake-stories,
are no doubt exaggerations. Though not venomous
|
gish rattlesnake. B. flagelliformis, the long, swift,
and harmless, though much dreaded, coach-whip
Snake, is very common in the South-eastern States.
B. teniatum has a wide Western range. A green spe-
cies of Bascanion is mentioned as occasionally shar-
ing the hospitalities of the prairie-dog's burrow, to-
gether with the rattlesnake and the burrowing-owl.
The Fresh-water colubrine snakes are exceedingly
well represented in North America. Tropidomotus
sipedom is one of our commonest water-snakes, if, in-
deed, it be not the commonest of North American
Serpents. There are a dozen other American species
of this genus. They feed largely on fish, frogs, and
tadpoles. Country-people usually consider them
venomous, probably on account of their belligerent
Spirit when captured. The garter-snake genus (Eu-
taenia) is represented here by some 20 recognized
species. E. saurita and E. sortalis are our common-
est garter-Snakes. The latter has little fondness for
the water. It is often found near piles of decaying
chips and saw-dust, where it feeds upon larvae and
Wood-ticks. It is harmless, but will sometimes
fight bravely. Storeria occipitomaculata and S. dekay?
are small species and not uncommon northward.
The so-called Hoop-snake, Abastor erythrogrammus,
is a common species in the Southern and Western
States. The prevalent belief that it can take its tail
in its mouth and roll along the ground like a hoop
is entirely incorrect. The horn-snake of the South
is Farancia abacura, a species much resembling the
hoop-snake. The water-snakes of the family Ho-
malopsidae are represented in the U. S. by the genus
Helicops, one species of which has been found in
Florida.
Of the “night tree-snakes" (Dipsadidae), one
species of Dipsas is found in Texas and Arizona, rep-
resenting a remarkable and widely disseminated
genus. The species are generally long and slender.
The name Dipsas is Greek, and signifies “thirsty”;
the ancients believed that the snake of this name had
an unquenchable thirst which it imparted to those
who were bitten by it. It is needless to add that
this belief was not founded upon facts. The great
black gopher-snake, or indigo-Snake of the Southern
cotton-belt (Spilotes couperi), is said to attain the
length of 12 feet. It is bold and active and is be-
lieved occasionally to occupy the same burrow with
one or more of the larger tortoises (also locally
called “gophers” or burrowers). This genus is
chiefly South American. The common pine-snake
or bull-snake of the east (Pityophis melamolurcus) is
a large and very swift creature, common in pine-
forests. P. belloma is a very common and important
Western form, which is not only harmless but ex-
ceedingly useful as a vermin-destroyer. The swift
and spiteful snakes of the genus Dromicus are com-
mon in tropical America, and D. flavilatus is spar-
ingly found in the cotton-growing States. It is
grouped with the semi-arboreal colubrines. The true
tree-snakes, or Dendrophidae, are very abundant in
tropical America, and a few species are Mexican.
The Dryophidae, or whip-snakes, are very slender
tropical forms, some of them American. A few of the
Scytalidae are Mexican, and others are South Amer-
1C3, Ol.
The family of Amblycephalidae, or blunt-heads
(chiefly East Indian), has several South American
representatives. X -
To the Erycidae, or sand-snakes, mostly old-world
desert forms with some boa-like features, belong
several American genera ; and Charina, Wenoma, and
Lichanura are strictly North American forms, pre-
senting many points of interest to the naturalist.
The very remarkable old-world family Pythonidae
has but a single known American representative—a
little known and very singular species of Loacocemus.
the black-snake fights and destroys the more slug- On the contrary, the Boidae (excepting a few Poly-
SNARES.
541
nesian and Australian species) are all American. Boa
imperator, the emperor-snake of Mexico, approaches
closely to the well-known B. constrictor of S. America.
Closely allied are B. mercicana and B. isthmica. , Here
belongs the anaconda (q. v. ) of literature, though
the original anaconda was East Indian or Ceylon-
ese. Xiphosoma caninum is the dog-headed boa of
Brazil, with a generally greenish hue, varied with
bands and spots of lighter tint.
Epicrates cenchria is one of the species called
aboma (which is strictly the name of an African
snake). The ancient Mexicans used to worship this
serpent with bloody rites.
The venomous snakes of America are very numer-
ous. The great family Elapidae has many genera—
one of which, Elaps proper, has many South Ameri-
can species. E. fulvus is the showily variegated lit-
tle harlequin snake of the Southern States. It is
singular that this little reptile, though undoubtedly
venomous, is regarded by almost all who know it as
perfectly harmless. At Ordinary times it is not easy
to provoke it to bite.
Of the exceedingly venomous Hydrophidae, or sea-
snakes, so common in the Indian Ocean, only one
species, Pelamis bicolor, ranges eastward across the
Pacific to tropical America ; and the same or some
other has been reported, perhaps incorrectly, from
the Atlantic waters of Central America. The ex-
ceedingly venomous family, Causidae, chiefly Afri-
can, has one Venezuelan representative, a Dinodipsas.
A characteristic family, though one not peculiar to
America, is that of the Crotalidae or pit-vipers. The
common copper-head, Ancistrodon contortria, has a
wide range in N. America, and is exceedingly veno-
mous. Still more dreaded is the water-moccasin,
A. piscivorus, of the Southern States. The terrible
fer-de-lance, Trigonocephalus lanceolatus, is found in
some of the West Indian Islands.
For a description of the Rattlesnake the reader is
referred to the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. Besides
southerly latitudes.
ful.
ing to the return of the rattlesnake to districts where
he has long been a stranger. It is asserted that the
rattlesnake of New England is especially dangerous,
and that the proportion of deaths following from its
bite is much larger than that observed in more
Much more certain is it that
the largest species of rattlesnakes are as a rule the
most deadly; the bite of the little “massasauga.”
being not nearly so dangerous as that of Crotalus
horridus, or the South American C. durissus, or the
great diamond rattlesnake that haunts the swamps
and hammock-lands of the Gulf States.
The one remedy, and the only one worth consider-
ing for rattlesnake-bite, is whiskey or its equivalent.
The Snake-poison is a tremendous heart-depressant,
and the only remedy is the direct counter-poison (or
“ physiological antidote") of alcohol, a heart stimu-
lant ; for there is no known and available chemical
antidote. The amount of stimulation the patient
will generally bear after a snake-bite is very wonder-
The remedy should be pushed vigorously, but
not inconsiderately. As a rule, when signs of in-
toxication begin to be discernible the stimulus
must be given with greater moderation. If spirits
of ammonia, or pure ethylic ether, be at hand, it is
well to begin the treatment with a large dose of one
or both, by reason of their speedy action; but the
slower alcoholic stimulation is much more effective.
It is well known that savages everywhere, at least
when pushed by hunger, will eat the flesh of ser-
pents. It is equally well known that in Europe
asp's flesh was regarded (as it still is locally) as
a Sovereign remedy for various ills and diseases;
and one theory of the derivation of the name aspic
as given to a favorite made-dish of the European
cuisine is that it originally contained stewed asps.
It is, however, much less generally known to the
reading public that the rattlesnake is eaten by white
people, not only in Lower Canada but also as far
south as the Gulf of Mexico. At a time not yet dis-
the species named we may mention as noteworthy tant the flesh of the rattlesnake was served up upon
the well-appointed tables of wealthy and not unre-
| fined planters and prosperous towns-people in the
Gulf States. By way of euphemism the serpent's
flesh was called “musical squirrel,” or by some other
# similar disguise. All the recorded testimony confirms
sº Y the statement that rattlesnake-meat is tender and
§§§ delicate and of good flavor. Rattlesnake's oil is
NT$8 regularly kept for sale in many drug-stores. Thou-
Žiš sands of country-folk believe that it has singular
㺠f Virtues as a remedy ; and along with skunk’s-grease,
£º opossum-fat, dog-fat, and raccoon-tallow, it meets
%iº 㺠With a ready sale at good prices. Its virtues are, in
*=#:###º fact, much the same as those of lard or goose-grease.
==##5.
There is no reason to believe that it has any special
qualities which give it a value above that of any
other animal-oil. *
The name “blind-worm,” applied in the early
part of this article to snakes of the genus Typhlops
and the allied forms, is in English literature given to
47 guis fragilis, “which is neither blind nor a worm,”
but a snake-like lizard, mentioned here solely as one
of a rather numerous group of limbless lizards, pop-
ularly confounded with true snakes. One of the
most interesting of these creatures is the “glass-
snake,” Ophiosaurus centralis of the Southern States,
so called from the brittleness of its tail, which is
very readily broken off. Very similar are the Euro-
pean glass-snake, Pseudopus pallasii, P. gracilis of
India, and the African Hyalosaurus. Australia has
a great number of limbless and snake-like lizards,
and there are several in the Californian region.
Among other limbless vertebrates are the Caeciliidae,
chiefly tropical and subterraneous in their habits,
often eyeless or nearly so. They are batrachians,
and not true reptiles. The Amphisbaenidae, also ser.
pent-like and nearly blind, are true lizards, They
THE RATTLE-SNARE.
Crotalus molossus of New Mexico and Arizona; C.
confluenta, the common prairie-rattlesnake; C. lucifer,
the black rattlesnake of the Pacific States; C.
cerastes, the horned rattler, or side-winder, of New
Mexico. The small rattlesnakes of the genus Cau-
disona are very commonly designated by the abori-
ginal name of Massasauga. There has been described
a species of rattlesnake called Aploaspis lepida, from
Western Texas, which has been considered the most
highly specialized of all the group, if not of all ex-
isting snakes.
It is probable that every state and territory of the
Union is at least locally infested by rattlesnakes of
one or more species. In the New England States
they are for the most part limited to very rocky and
thinly settled tracts—the finely splintered trappean
surfaces on the sunny sides of such ridges as that of
Mt. Holyoke and Mt. Tom being especially adapted
to their habits. The abandonment and reforestation
of old farm-lands in New England seems to be lead-
|



542
SOAP STONE–SOCIALISM.
are mostly South American, but Rhineura floridana,
the “thunder-worm " of Florida, may be assigned
to the same family. (C. W. G.)
SOAP. The manufacture of soap has for many
* years been an American industry of
jº, considerable importance, its ºw.
Am. Rep.). being such that the United States has
- long ceased to be a considerable market
for European soaps, and now competes with Eng-
land and France in exportation to foreign countries.
Marseilles, long the market of the finer toilet-soaps,
no longer enjoys a monopoly in this direction, large
quantities of such soaps being now made in this
country, both for home consumption and for export.
Soap and candles (formerly made at the same fac-
tories) were imported largely into the United States
until about 1824, when, under the encouragement of
a protective tariff, their manufacture became active
in this country. Up to that time only soft soap
(largely as a domestic manufacture) and common
laundry and toilet soaps had been made here, but
better qualities were now manufactured, and on a
Scale that greatly reduced importations. In 1864
the duties were increased from 3 to 10 cents per lb.,
Since which time the finest grades of perfumed toilet-
Soaps have been manufactured in America in quan-
tities sufficient not only to supply the home market
but to sell extensively abroad.
The primitive American soaps were made with
potash instead of soda, potash being then derived
from the forest-refuse in much greater quantities
than at present. This is still the case with home-
made soaps where potash continues a common pro-
duct, as in Canada and several of the States, but the
cheap production of caustic soda during the present
century, by what is known as the Le Blanc process,
has in most places replaced potash by soda as the
alkali of soap. The kitchen fats, chiefly those of
beef and mutton, were Saponified with crude potash
to form the soft soap of the early American house-
hold. The recipe ordinarily used, and which has
become traditional in country-kitchens, is the follow-
ing : 12 lbs. of fat and 9 lbs. of potash are steeped in
boiling water in a cask, the water being added 3 gal-
lons at a time every 24 hours until 12 gallons have
been added. Saponification soon begins, but takes
many days for its completion, the mixture being fre-
quently stirred. When completed all the fat lumps
have disappeared, the soap has a silky lustre when
stirred, and is of the consistency of a jelly. It is a
powerful detergent for coarser household purposes,
and is preferred to hard soap for scrubbing floors,
washing crockery, and the like. It is not a true
soap, chemically considered, but a solution of a pot-
ash soap in caustic lye, with free glycerine. In im-
proved processes the potash lye is boiled with kitchen
fats and other oily substances until the mixture be-
comes a clear, transparent, slimy liquid. The de-
tergent powers of this are very great, from its
strongly alkaline condition, and it is much esteemed
for such processes as scouring wool, coarse linens,
etc. The hard bar-soaps of America are made in a
very similar manner, but of choicer materials, to
which are added 25 to 30 per cent. of powdered
rosin. At the present day the manufacture of soap
is an American industry of considerable importance,
several of the factories confining themselves to the
choicest grades of fancy and toilet soaps, in the pro-
duction of which they are on a level with the best
European manufacturers. In 1880 there were 629
establishments engaged in this business in the United
States, employing 5,589 hands, and yielding a pro-
duct valued at $26,552,627. Nearly one-fourth of
the whole product was made in the State of New
York; Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and
New Jersey coming next in order. We have no later
statistics of manufacture, but the importations and
exportations for 1886 were as follows: Toilet soaps
imported—value, $178,673; other grades, $258,623 ;
total value, $437,296. Exportations of toilet and
fancy soaps, $60,646; of other grades, $772,131; total
value, $832,777—the exportations of soap thus ex-
ceeding the importations about $400,000. This,
then, is one of the industries in which the United
States not only can stand alone, but is able to com-
pete successfully with Europe for a foreign market.
(C. M.
SOAP STONE. See TALC. )
SOCIALISM. No movement of modern times has
awakened or deserved greater attention
than the one indicated by this title.
Its accurate definition is exceedingly
difficult, owing to an entire lack of
agreement concerning the true limits of the word
“Socialism.” In general, it may be described as
that movement which seeks by economic changes
to destroy the existing inequalities of the world's
Social conditions. For convenience of discussion
it may be best to divide the Socialists of Amer-
ica into two classes : First, those who believe
the necessary changes can be secured only by the
early or immediate employment of force; and,
Second, those who believe in more conservative
methods, such as agitation and peaceful combina-
tion. Into all socialistic schemes the idea of
governmental change enters, with this radical differ-
ence, however : some Socialists rely upon the final
abolition of existing forms of government and seek
the establishment of a pure democracy, while others
insist upon giving to government a paternal form,
thus increasing its function and power instead of
diminishing it. Of course, its paternal functions are
to be exercised in the interest of the wage-toilers of
the country.
1. The more radical wing of the Socialists of
America has given expression to its life and views in
the several platforms and declarations of the Inter-
national Working People's Associations and the
International Workmen's Association, sometimes
designated as the “Blacks” and “Reds,” respec-
tively. The latter are regarded as the more moderate
and conservative wing, and have probably the larger
constituency in America. The International Work-
ing People's Association (“Blacks"), in a manifesto
issued a few years ago in New York, after reciting
the grievances under which the laboring classes rest
by reason of the oppressions of capital, proceeds to
declare “that they (the oppressors) will not resign
these privileges voluntarily we know, that they will
not make any concession we likewise know. Since,
we must then rely upon the kindness of our masters
for whatever redress we have, and knowing that
from them no good may be expected, there remains
but one recourse—ForCE. Our forefathers have not
only told us that against despots force is justifiable,
because it is the only means, but they themselves
have set the immemorial example.” They avow,
among others, the following demands: 1. Destruction
of the existing class-rule by all means, i.e., energetic,
relentless, and international action. 2. Establishment
of a free society, based upon co-operative organiza-
tion of production. 3. Free exchange of productions
of all sorts. 4. Secular education. 5. Equal rights
for all sexes and races. 6. Public affairs to be regu-
lated by free contract. This section of Socialists
believes in the use of dynamite and other explosives
as means to the end of social regeneration. The
International Workmen's Association published in
1884 a Declaration of the Rights of Man, which is
given to the world in a brief treatise on Socialism,
by A. J. Starkweather and S. Robert Wilson. This
manifesto was issued in San Francisco, Cal. It
declares that liberty is the power which belongs to
a man of exercising all lis faculties at pleasure.
See Vol. XXII.
p. 205 (p. 216
Am. Rep.).
543
SOCIALISM.
Every individual is entitled to an equal proportional
share of all the natural advantages of earth. The
whole people should hold the land, light, air, and
water, together with other of nature's resources, as
the natural heritage in common of all mankind.
Every individual is entitled to an equal proportion-
ate share of all accumulated wealth created by past
generations, and that wealth should be held by
society as the natural heritage in common of all
mankind. Debt, profit, interest, rent, and the com-
petitive system of industry are declared instruments
of degradation and tyranny, and cancers upon the
social body. So, also, are the present methods of
punishing crime, the present monetary system, the
present methods of suffrage, education, jurispru-
dence, church and military. The right of property
is substantially limited by the rights acquired by
production. So long as members of Society fulfil
their portion of the social contract they have a right
to demand of society the means necessary to provide
for their subsistence. Society is bound also to in-
sure the means of existence to those who are inca-
pable of labor. Every act against the imprescriptible
rights of man, by whomsoever exercised, even in the
name of the law itself, and within the forms it pre-
scribes, is arbitrary and void. The very respect due
to law forbids submission to it, and if the attempt
be made to execute such act by violence or by
artifice, it is not only permitted, but enjoined upon
every individual to repel such assaults even by force.
Government should be as nearly as possible pure
democracy. Governments, as at present constitut-
ed, are simply means of enslavement. Appended to
this Declaration is an explanation of the method of
organization of the I. W. A., in which the individ-
ual workman is invited to gather a group of seven
others, and, after a series of educational conferences,
the members of this group are to become individually
the leaders of other groups of eight, and so on—
the object of these gatherings is stated to be educa-
tion—in rights and in chemistry ! O
2. Next should be named that class of Socialists
seeking immediate social renovation by sweeping
and revolutionary changes, but by methods which
are conservative. The Socialist Labor Party most
distinctly represents, this class; it proposes to ac-
complish its ends gradually, but seeks as present
possibilities: 1. The establishment of a Bureau of
Labor in connection with the U. S. government. 2.
Beduction in the hours of labor. 3. Abolition of
convict labor. 4. The enactment of an employers'
liability law. 5. The prohibition of child labor. 6.
Compulsory education. 7. Factory, mine, and work-
shop inspection. 8. Inspection of food and dwell-
ings. 9. Payment of all wages in cash. |
3. A still more modified form of socialism has
arisen in connection with the adoption of the theories
of Henry George as expressed in his work Progress
and Poverty. This has given rise to the formation
of the Anti-Poverty Society, whose work for the
present is mainly educational, but which aims at a
final enforcement of its views by political action. It
declares: “That all men are created by Almighty God
with certain inalienable rights; that these inalien-
able rights are rights to life, liberty, and the pur-
suit of happiness; that life cannot be had without
proper access to the materials of which this earth is
made, and that therefore God has given an equal
and indefeasible right to each and everyone of his
children of access to these materials; that no pre-
scription, no vested right, no law can deprive the
child of a beggar of the same right as the child that
of all, the wealthy landholder is enriched by an in:
crease of value in his land which is an “unearned
increment; ” and the population which caused the
increase ought to be rewarded with what itself has
created. All private ownership in land should be
abolished, and the community should take in taxa-
tion its rental value. es
4. Christian socialism. Recognizing the manifest
wrongs and burdens concomitant to our present
economic conditions, a large number of Christian
writers have addressed themselves to this subject.
Their labors have been confined to seeking ameliora-
tions rather than radical changes at the present, and
to emphasizing the idea of human brotherhood, in
response to which, it is claimed, men should seek
more nearly to equalize the conditions of human life
by justice that is kind rather than to repair the
ravages of injustice by charity. This form of so-
cialism, which is claimed to grow out of the life of
Jesus and from the very spirit of the gospels, is a
powerful factor in the life of America to-day, and
cannot fail of a favorable reaction on the violent
spirit of discontent excited by philosophic socialism.
American Socialists, with the possible exception
of many in the last-named class, are generally agreed,
according to Prof. R. T. Ely, on four points: the
first of these is that it is desirable to abolish private
property in instruments of production, not in in-
come, so far as this consists simply in articles of use
and enjoyment and which cannot serve as a further
basis of production. 2. Not to abolish capital, but
the distinct class of capitalists. 3. They believe in
the use of the best machinery and in improved
methods of production, and in the organization of
production on a vast international basis. 4. They
believe in co-operation as a substitute for the wage-
system.
The growth of socialism in this country has been
rapid and will probably keep pace with the just
causes of discontent. The centralization of wealth,
the rise of monopolies, the control of many of the
necessaries of life by gigantic “trusts,” accompanied
as they often are by combinations on the part of
employers to restrict the wages and restrain the lib-
erty of the employed by means of “ironclad oaths"
and “black lists "–these are denounced as artificial
forms of oppression which are superadded to the
natural disadvantages arising for the laboring classes
by reason of the use of improved means of produc-
tion and the rapid increase of laborers by unre-
stricted immigration. The Republic of Plato and
the Utopia of Sir Thomas More were early expres-
sions of human yearning to which Christian prophecy
responds in the promise of a millennium. It is not
improbable that a gradual advance in liberal legisla-
tion, whereby the powers of avarice shall be limited
and the rights of the toiling masses shall be restored,
may avert the use of violence, and that in the orderly
advance of a Christian civilization there shall come
at last to the people of this country an equitable and
universal distribution of those advantages which our
possession of nature's gifts and our inheritance of
centuries of advance in intelligence and power shall
afford. r
The socialism that is linked to materialism is
threatening and violent; its only hope of ameliorat-
ing the condition of the oppressed is in the use of
force. Those forms of socialism which are affected
by Christian thought are hopeful of a solution of
existing difficulties by methods that are educational
and peaceful. That the wrongs complained of are
real, that they are becoming more burdensome with
is born of an imperial throne possesses to equal com-' the advance of time, and that they will become un-
mon ownership of the bounties of nature.” Proceed-i endurable if left to go on unchecked, is apparent to
ing upon this assumption, it is claimed that the pain- every thoughtful mind. The cure by violence is full
ful inequalities of existence are due to the infraction of suggestions of horror. It may be avoided if, in-
of a natural law. Land being the common property stead of ignoring these wrongs, men will address
544
themselves to the remedy,
to the idea of human brotherhood, secure such con-
cessions to the world's toilers as shall bring greater
possibilities of happiness to all.
Literature: W. H. Fremantle, The World as the
of Redemption (London, 1885);
and Poverty (New York, 1883); R.
tion (New York, 1886):
Wilson, Socialism (New York, 1884). A brief list is also ap-
pended of periodicals devoted to the dissemination of socialist-
ic ideas. Trºth, monthly, San Francisco, Burnette G. Has-
kell, editor; The Labor Enquirer, weekly, Denver, J. R.
Buchanan, editor; Examiner, weekly, Hartford; Sociologist,
monthly, Knoxville, Tenn. ; New-Yorker Volks Zeitung,
daily, New York; Arbeiter Zeitung, daily, Chicago; Tage-
blatt, daily, Philadelphia; Freiheit, weekly, New York;
Mºrbote, weekly, Chicago; Die Fackel, weekly, Chicago;
The Free, Soiler, monthly, New York; Journal of United
Labor, Philadelphia; The Protest, Exeter, N. H. : Man,
Weekly, New York; The Truth Seeker, weekly, New York ;
The ſtadical ... Review, Chicago; Lucifer, weekly, Valley
Falls, Kan. ; The Non-Conformist, daily, Haverhili, Mass.;
Mail,...daily, Stockton, Cal. : Labor Herald, Pittsburg; Lal
bor Standard, Paterson, N. J.; Labor Free Press, Balti-
more ; Advertiser, Trenton, N.J.; Irish World, New York;
Union, St. Louis ; Vidette, Salem, Oregon. All the last
named are weekly papers. (T. A. K. G.)
SOCIETIES, MUTUAL AID. Man is a gregari-
Ous animal in a far more comprehensive sense than
any of the lower animals. Each community not
only combines as a whole for mutual aid and assist-
ance, but within every civilized community are
numerous minor aggregations, wheels within wheels,
combined for more specialized purposes of mutual
benefit, and designed to cover almost all the needs
and wishes of man which can be helped by associa-
tion. There are numerous societies for political,
literary, scientific, social, and recreative purposes,
whose object is to aid each other in amusement, the
acquisition of knowledge, the gaining of public
rights, etc., but none of these are included within
Our present purpose, which is confined to the con-
sideration of Societies organized to aid their mem-
bers in gaining the means of livelihood, and in most
of which pecuniary help in case of sickness or death
is a leading feature.
Societies of this character have existed from a re-
mote period. In ancient times they can be traced
in Greece and were numerous in the Roman Empire,
their methods and aims being not unlike those of
modern societies. In the mediaeval period the prin-
ciple of mutual benefit association was active. The
trade guilds, the most important of the associations
of that era, were numerous and powerful, and in cer-
tain localities went so far beyond their original
function as to exercise a controlling influence upon
government. These associations differed radically
from the trade unions of to-day. They were organ-
ized not against capital but against labor compe-
tition. Labor in those days was its own employer,
the masters had begun life as mechanics, and the
interest of one was the interest of all. The guilds
established rigid rules to prevent an overflow of
labor from without into their organizations, and
with such effect as to divide the lower rank of soci-
ety into two classes: one of masters, mechanics, and
apprentices in the trade guilds; one of laborers,
tramps, and beggars who were refused admittance
to these guilds. It was an artificial state of society,
but it long held its own in opposition to the force
of the natural law of industry. The guilds were im-
portant institutions in that era, and accumulated
property, much of which still exists, though the so-
cieties themselves have been reduced to mere shad-
ows, and exist simply to take care of this property.
Pecuniary aid in case of distress was a feature of
the guilds, and was a leading characteristic of cer-
tain charitable and social societies which existed at
the same time, and which approached our modern
beneficial societies in character and purposes, the
Henry George, Progress
Subject
T. Ely, The Labor (jues-
A. J. Starkweather and S. Robert
SOCIETIES.
and, by giving emphasis supply of a burial fund being one of their leading
features.
There is, however, a definite line of division
between mediaeval and modern times in respect to
the principles of labor association. The rise of the
factory system, and the employment of great sums
of money in single manufacturing enterprises, gave
the death-blow to the guilds. They vanished as
vital organizations, and have been succeeded by the
trade unions, in which the principle of exclusion of
outside labor still exists, but only as a minor object,
the major object being that of preventing the en-
Croachments of capital. The contest is now for an
equitable division between labor and capital of the
profits arising from manufacturing enterprise, this
being one of the most difficult questions to settle
that has arisen in modern history.
By the side of these trade unions have arisen many
mutual aid, or “friendly societies” as they are called
in England, which have no connection with the labor
question, but limit their purposes to the single one
of pecuniary assistance in the case of accident, sick-
ness, or death. In these societies the members
make Weekly or monthly contributions to a common
fund, accumulating a sum which is paid out again
in definite weekly amounts in case of sickness or
accident to any member, and to aid in the burial of
members in case of death. In other cases there is
no payment except a given sum for burial, while
Some mechanics' societies have a fund to pay for loss
of tools by accident or otherwise.
As the trade unions are all new societies, none of
them being continuations of the guilds, so the same
may be said of the mutual aid societies, with one ex-
ception, that of the Free Masons, which alone has
come down to us from mediaeval times. (See articles
On FREE MASONRY in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
and in this work.) The Free Masons is the strong-
est and most influential of modern secret societies
and possesses, a very intricate organization, the main
body being Šupplemented by higher “degrees,”
Some of which are almost distinct societies in them-
selves.
Next in importance comes the Independent Order
of Odd Fellows, a society of English origin but
which, like the Masons, has become very strong
within the United States. The exact date of its ori-
gin is not known, the first trace of its existence being
in 1745, when it seems to have constituted a secret
society for convivial purposes, with a small fund for
the relief of poor and burial of deceased members.
About the same time another important English so-
ciety, the Ancient Order of Foresters, came into exist-
ence. This is to-day of considerable strength in
England, and has established itself to some extent
in the United States. The Order of Druids is an-
other English society of some strength, while several
others might be named of minor importance. In
the last century these societies had not the definite
organization and purposes of more recent times,
their beneficial feature being of secondary impor-
tance. It was in 1812 that the Odd Fellows Society
reorganized itself for the purpose of mutual assist-
ance in prescribed sums in case of sickness and in
the defraying of funeral expenses. In imitation of
the Free Masons, it devised pass-words and signs for
the mutual recognition of members and to prevent
imposture, established new rules of order and better
defined conditions of management, and assumed its
present name of “The Independent Order of Odd
Fellows.” This new departure was a distinct ad-
vance on the informal workings of the preceding
benevolent and charitable institutions, and gave the
cue to the organization of the more recent societies.
The Free Masons alone retain the generalized condi-
tions of pecuniary aid of the earlier period, other so-
cieties binding themselves to the payment of fixed
SOCIETIES.
545
sums in case of sickness or death. The first govern-
mental recognition of these associations was made
in England in 1793, when an act was passed de-
signed to place them on a firm footing, by giving
them a legal status, permitting them to hold prop-
erty, and to sue and be sued in courts of law. This
act was repealed in 1829 and a new law passed, which
has been succeeded by several others, the latest be-
ing that of 1875.
Of the English societies the Masons and the Odd
Fellows are both largely represented within the
United States. The first lodge of American Masons
was organized in Boston in 1733, and in the follow-
ing year one was instituted in Philadelphia, with
Benjamin Franklin as its Worshipful Master. There
are more Masons in the United States to-day than in
any other country in the world, their strength here
being over 600,000. The order of Odd Fellows was
brought to America in 1819, when a lodge Was
founded in Baltimore by some members of the Man-
chester Union. It grew rapidly, and in 1842 the
American branch cut loose from the parent society
of Great Britain, in consequence of certain differ-
ences in their working rules. Since that period the
society has flourished in the United States, and is
strong numerically and financially at the present day,
its membership in this country being over 600,000
with nearly 10,000 lodges.
In addition to the societies of English origin there
are a considerable number of American institution,
some of them of national importance. The Knights
of Pythias was founded in Washington in 1864, its
expressed object being “peace on earth and good Will
toward men,” and to disseminate the “great princi-
ples of friendship, charity, and benevolence.” It
became a popular order and has grown rapidly, hav-
ing in 1885 more than 2000 subordinate lodges and between labor and capital had begun:
These societies are conducted on the life
insurance principle, and some of the older Societies
have adopted a similar principle, permitting their
members to insure their lives for fixed sums by mak-
ing payments in accordance therewith. One recent
society which combines the payment of sick benefits
with life insurance is that known as the “Iron Hall,”
whose working principle has been adopted by other
organizations known as the “Order of Tonti.” and
the “Sexennial League.” Numerous other societies,
of local interest, might be named, all based on the
useful principle of aiding their members in seasons
of distress. Each new society seeks to afford the
most help for the least payment, and it must be con-
fessed that much progress has been made in the
beneficial management of society funds. &
In addition to the mutual aid societies organized
expressly for charitable and insurance purposes,
there are numerous associations which add to this
aim others of equal importance. There are two par.
ticular classes of these societies, the labor unions and
the temperance associations, both of which call for
some consideration. With the growth of the factory
system of labor, as we have already said, trade unions
took the place formerly occupied by the guilds,
which had long ceased to be vital organizations. The
combination of working-men in opposition to capital
began in England in the latter part of the last Cen-
tury, particular opposition being shown at that time
to the introduction of new labor-saving inventions.
There is no evidence that any such societies existed
in America during the colonial period. Home labor
deaths.
was then the rule, and there were no large collections
of mechanics in industrial centres. But by the
opening of the 19th century the modern conditions
of labor were well established, and the long conflict
Something
over 160,000 members. A society of earlier origin like a strike took place in New York in 1802, when
is the “Red Men,” in whose lodge-meetings the cus- the sailors of that port quit work to enforce an ad-
toms and dress of the American Indians are simulat- 'vance of wages from $10 to $14 a month. Organ-
ed. This has not grown in later years as rapidly as izations of labor appeared at the same time, begin-
some other societies, but is to-day in a prosperous
condition.
ties is the “Order of American Mechanics.”
societies of more recent institution, however, have
surpassed in popularity those older ones, and nota-
bly “The Knights of the Golden Eagle,” which has
at present 281 “castles’’ or lodges in Pennsylvania
alone. Of recent years the disposition to found new
societies has been active, and many have come into
being, among which may be named “The Knights
of Malta,” “The Senate of Sparta,” “The Knights
of the Mystic Chain,” “The Legion of the Red Cross,”
“The Royal Arcanum,” “The Brotherhood of the
Union,” “The United Workmen,” “The Patriotic
Sons of America,” “The Knights of Friendship,”
“The Universal Order of Security,” and “Order
of the Iron Hall.” This is not offered as a full list.
Other societies could be named, while there are
many which are as yet of local importance only.
But in the list of important mutual aid societies of
the United States must be included “The Grand
Army of the Republic,” an organization composed of
the veteran soldiers of the civil war, and one that is
Mºthy of the highest respect of the American peo-
ple.
These various societies are differently constituted,
and have different methods of beneficial procedure.
In some, new members are examined by a competent
physician ; in others, the dues vary in accordance
with the age of the member ; in certain societies of
recent origin benefit payments are made only in case
of death, a sum being paid sufficient for the burial
of the deceased member and the temporary support
of his family. In these the members are assessed
for dues only when the death of a fellow-member
takes place, and the dues vary with the number of
The
ning in local combinations of single trades.
Another of the older American socie- New York Society of Journeymen Shipwrights Was
Sqme formed in 1803, and a society of House Carpenters
in 1806. In 1817 the New York Typographical
Society is spoken of as a strong institution. Yet up
to 1825 there is little trace of such societies outside
of the State of New York.
After 1825 labor showed a disposition to combine
on a larger scale. The local unions increased in
number, and the idea of national unions arose. The
two cities most prominent in this movement were
Boston and New York. In 1833 an address was
made before “The General Trades Unions of the
City of New York,” the first indication we have of
the effort to combine all the workmen of one locality.
A premature attempt to form a national trades union
was made in 1835, though with no definite result,
and it was not till after 1850 that any efforts to or-
ganize national unions became successful. Of these
the earliest was the National Typographical Union,
traceable to 1850, but not permanently organized
till 1852. In 1869 its name was changed to “The
International Typographical Union,” with the pur-
pose of including the printers of Canada. This is
the oldest American trades union now in existence,
all the earlier ones having vanished. The hatters
combined in 1854 ; the iron and steel workers in
1858 ; the iron moulders, and the machinists and
blacksmiths, in 1859; and it is said that 26 trades
had national organizations in 1860. These national
unions were followed by the so-called international
societies, most of which, however, are international
only in name. In 1864 the Grand International
Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers was formed,
and that of the cigar-makers in the same year. So-
cieties of this national character were formed with
546
SOCIETIES.
rapidity after that period, until to-day there is
Scarcely a distinct trade without such an organiza-
tion. -
The next step in the process of combination was
the effort to form a national organization of all the
trades. This was taken in 1866, when the National
Labor Union was formed. It grew rapidly in num-
bers for a few years, and then declined and died out.
A more successful effort was made in 1869. On
Thanksgiving day of that year Uriah S. Stevens, a
Philadelphia tailor, called a meeting which proved
the initial step in the organization of the Knights of
Labor, a society which in 19 years has grown into
the most powerful labor organization of modern
times. It differs from all previous labor societies in
including all branches of skilled and unskilled
labor in its organization, its expressed purposes be-
ing mutual aid of members, protection against the
encroachments of capital, and the attainment of re-
forms in industrial relations. This society admits
all men to membership except bankers, brokers,
professional gamblers, lawyers, and liquor makers
and sellers, and is the first of such societies to rec-
Ognize the claim of unskilled labor to the same pro-
tection which skilled labor has so long possessed.
Other general societies on a different basis have been
instituted from time to time, constituting federa-
tions of labor unions, delegate bodies to which each
subordinate union sends a representative. Such
labor congresses now exist in all the large cities of the
Union. In 1881 there was organized in Pittsburg,
on a national basis, a “Federation of Organized
Trades and Labor Unions,” on the model of the
trade-union congress of England.
Just how many persons are included in these
American trade societies is not known. It cannot be
less than a million, and may be much more. In
1880, according to the Census Report, there were
2440 such societies in the United States, represent-
ing 132 industries. Of these one-quarter of the
whole (620) were located in the State of Pennsyl-
vania, while no other State had much over 200. This
is a natural result of the great importance of Penn-
sylvania in the mechanical industries. The same
State leads in benevolent and beneficial Organiza-
tions—probably from the same cause. The societies
above described, the strictly beneficial, and in Some
cases the labor associations, are often the only Sav-
ings banks of working-men, being accident, sick,
and life insurance companies in which the small
weekly dues paid by the members are frequently
their sole provision against future want. These
dues are usually from 12 to 15 cents per week. The
trade societies protect their members against reduc-
tion of wages and pay them benefits during strikes,
thus serving a doubly useful purpose. In this con-
nection it is necessary to mention the socialist so-
cieties which have gained so unenviable a reputation
in recent years. Of these there are three in the
United States: “The Socialistic Labor Party,”
“The International Working People's Association,”
and “The International Workmen's Association.”
It is the last named of these which has rendered
itself so objectionable by its open advocacy of an-
archical violence, and by the murderous use of dy-
namite as an exemplification of its principles. It
is chiefly composed of the most turbulent element
of European labor, disposed to put in practice here
methods devised against the oppressive governments
of their native soil, but in no sense applicable to
American institutions. The others named are to
some extent anarchical in their principles, but have
not yet proved so in their practice. (See SOCIALISM.)
Of the remaining societies in which the mutual
aid of members is a prominent feature, that of the
Grangers, or Patrons of Husbandry, has been already
treated (see GRANGERs). Its purposes are largely
social, but mainly protective, including the purchase
of goods and machinery at producers’ prices and
mutual defence against railroad discrimination.
have yet to mention the temperance societies, in
which a crusade against liquor is the principal feat-
ure, though in some cases combined with financial
aid to members. The associated temperance move-
ment began early in the century, and grew very
active after 1825, but the existing orders of temper-
ance did not come into being until 1842, when the
“Sons of Temperance " society was organized. In
the same year there was introduced into the United
States an English society, “The Independent Order
of Rechabites,” which had existed since 1835. It
spread with great rapidity in this country, and had
at one time more than 100,000 members, but has
now but a small fraction of that number. The Sons
of Temperance grew with yet greater rapidity, and
in 1850 had 232,233 members. It declined greatly
during the civil War, but it is now growing again,
and in 1888 numbered 78,913 members. It is a
secret Society, admits to membership women as well
as men, and colored as well as white men, and is
beneficiary in its workings. This pioneer society
was followed in 1851 by the “Order of Good Tem-
plars,” which left out the mutual aid principle, and
made temperance reform its sole purpose. This
society grew very rapidly, extended, like the Sons of
Temperance, to England and other countries, and
has lodges now in every country of the civilized
world. In 1875 it had in all 735,000 members. Since
then it has declined in numbers, its strength in 1888
being 483,103 members. Women are eligible to
membership, and there is a juvenile branch having, in
1888, a membership of 139,951. Juvenile temperance
has made great progress in other Societies, as the
“Cadets of Temperance,” and the English “Band of
Hope Union,” which is said to have over 800,000
members in Great Britain and Ireland. Other
American societies are the “Templars of Honor and
Temperance,” organized in 1845; the ‘‘Independent
Order of Good Samaritans and Daughters of Sa-
maria,” organized in 1847; the “Royal Templars of
Temperance,” organized in 1869; and a considerable
number of smaller societies of local interest only.
Temperance societies exist in many churches, the
most publicly prominent of these being the Catholic
Total Abstinence Beneficial Society, which lias done
great good in its crusade against strong drink. Of
recent societies, however, the most important is the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union, which has
been exceedingly active in the cause of temperance
reform, and has very recently combined many of the
juvenile temperance organizations into a single so-
ciety, “The Loyal Temperance Legion,” whose
membership is estimated at 500,000. There are
other temperance societies of recent Organization,
such as the “Law and Order Society,” “The Re-
form Clubs,” etc., but as these last-named Societies
do not belong to the beneficiary class they need not
be further mentioned.
What has been above said is sufficient to show
that the idea of association for mutual benefit has
had a remarkable development in the United States
during the nineteenth century, and that at present
the membership of such societies includes a very
considerable portion of our population. It might
be shown also that these societies have made no less
progress in their methods of beneficiary procedure,
and the skilful handling of their funds, the expe-
rience of life insurance companies having proved
highly useful to the mutual aid societies. As at
present constituted, in fact, every degree of progress
in this direction can be traced in the workings of
the several societies. In the Free Masons, for in-
stance, we have a retention of the mediaeval general
and non-obligatory system of charity. Other socie-
We
SODA. 547
/
ties retain the early methods of sick benefits, while The materials for making carbonate of sºda are of
still others have introduced life insurance as an im- unlimited abundance in this country, yet the cheap-
portant feature of their beneficial methods, though ness of foreign labor has hitherto prevented success-
the legality of this attempt has been seriously ques- ful competition. Soda is made in limited quantities
tioned. Óthers add to the mutual aid idea purposes at Philadelphia from the cryolite of Greenland,
of self-defence against the encroachments of capital, while caustic soda is manufactured somewhat largely
and of aggression against the liquor interests and in that city and elsewhere, though the main supply
the ravages of intermperance. The mutual aid feature is still obtained by importation. Soda for baking-
of these societies is of the utmost importance and
value to the industrial portions of our population,
they forming, in a majority of cases, the only bul-
wark of their members against want in case of Sick-
ness and accident, and assurance of relief to their
families in case of death. (C. M.)
SODA. Of all the chemical products used in hu-
man industries soda is far the most im-
§eº, portant, and the increase in its con-
p. 240 (p. 253 º * > * t -
Kn, i.e...)" sumption has borne an intimate relation
to the progress of civilization. For-
merly, of the two salts soda and potash the latter
was the more important, being most abundantly and
cheaply produced. The chief source of soda at that
time was the ashes of certain sea and sea-shore
plants.
In 1791 the Le Blanc process of producing
powders is also extensively produced in American
factories. One San Francisco concern is manufact-
uring soda for this purpose from the native Salts of
| Nevada, while great progress is making in the pro-
duction of carbonate, bicarbonate, and other Salts of
soda from these western alkaline deposits.
These deposits are perhaps destined in the future
to become the world's great source of soda. In the
rainless region of the far west is a broad “alkaline
belt ’’ in many parts of which the earth is deeply im-
pregnated with alkaline salts, principally those of
soda, while there are many lakes whose waters con-
tain a considerable percentage of soda Salts, and in
certain places crystallized soda occurs in, thick de-
posits. This varies from nearly pure carbonate in
some instances to chloride and sulphate in others,
carbonate of soda directly from common salt was while the quantity is abundant beyond any possible
perfected, and since then the use of soda has grown demand. The alkaline belt lies in the least explored
enormously. In this process salt is decomposed by region of the United States, its lack of rain render-
the aid of sulphuric acid, and sodium sulphate or ing it unfit for agriculture, while its prospectors are
“salt cake” produced. Sodium carbonate is then mainly in search of minerals, and pay little atten-
produced by mixing the salt cake with limestone and ſtion to its aſkali beds. Yet some of these are coming
charcoal, or small coal. This process has never
been employed in America, except on a small scale.
In 1866 Ernest Solvay, of Brussels, devised what is
known as the ammonia process. In this a solution
of bicarbonate of ammonia is mixed with common
salt, and decomposes it, yielding a bicarbonate of
soda precipitate and a solution of ammonium chlo-
ride. This process is growing in favor, and is em-
ployed in the soda manufactories now existing in
the United States. Of recent years the American
production of this substance has largely increased,
though it is yet far below that of Europe. About
one-fourth of the soda now used is made by the am-
monia process. A factory employing this process
was established at Syracuse, N. Y., in 1881, using
the salt of the wells of that state, and has now a ca-
pacity of about 40,000 tons annually. Another fac-
tory has been recently started at Syracuse, to make
fine sulphate of soda for glass-makers' use. Yet the
soda used in this country continues to be in large
part imported from England, the proportions being,
in 1885, 167,083 tons imported to 15,000 manufact-
ured. The importation of the various salts of soda
in 1886 amounted to 368,766,594 lbs., while about
10 per cent. of this quantity was produced in the
United States. In the manufacture of soda, it is in-
teresting to observe how greatly the industry has
been diverted from its original object, Soda, orig-
inally the only valuable product of the Le Blane
process, has now become but a by-product. The
hydrochloric acid yielded in the process first became
valuable through the growing demand for chlorine,
and more recently the production of soda and chlo-
rine have both become unprofitable, and the chief
profit comes from the utilization of the process in
the wet method of extracting copper from its ores.
The growth of the ammonia process comes from the
growing abundance and cheapness of ammonia,
which is now obtained commercially from coke-ovens
and from the gases of blast furnaces. It appears
possible, indeed, to collect and utilize a portion of
the nitrogen of nearly all fuels, and it has been sug-
gested that the soda-maker shall cease to use raw
coal as fuel, but coke it, collect for sale the oil and
ammonia evolved, and use for heating the gases
yielded in coking and the coke itself; thus obtain-
ing his fuel virtually without cost.
into use as sources of commercial soda, and others
are likely to do so with the development of railroad
facilities of transportation. Up to a recent period
the only natural deposits worked to any extent were
those situated in the Carson Desert, Churchill Co.,
Nevada. Here there are two lakes, their beds evi-
dently the craters of extinct volcanoes. The soil is
Saturated with soda, which is leached by the springs
and streams flowing into the lakes, and, as the waters
of these lakes evaporate during the summer, the
soda is deposited in crystalline form. This crystal-
line mass, containing a considerable percentage of
carbonate of Soda, is collected, dried, and sent to
market. Several smaller deposits in Nevada have
been worked to some extent for the San Francisco
market. The lakes in this region have no outlet,
and all are more or less Saturated with the alkaline
leachings of the soil, which vary from nearly pure
carbonate in some cases to sulphate and chloride in
others. Large deposits of nearly pure sodium sul-
phate occur in Nevada near the California border-
line, where the crystalline mass is said to be from 2
to 8 feet thick over an area of 100 to 200 acres.
Wyoming Territory possesses numerous small soda
lakes, some of which are now worked for commercial
purposes. ...About 13 miles nearly due south from
Laramie City lie the “Union Pacific Lakes,” to
Which a branch railroad has been extended. There
are here five lakes, while the soil is everywhere im-
Pregnated with sulphate of soda. In wet years the
soda in these lakes, is almost fluid. In dry years,
from large evaporation, it becomes solid in four of
the lakes, and a saturated solution in the fifth. The
Soda of these lakes has been worked since 1885, over
60 tons of caustic soda being produced in that year.
It being the sulphate salt, the first step in the Le
Blanc process can be dispensed with, but the trouble
and delay in getting rid of its abundant water largely
negatives this advantage. The deposit is practically
inexhaustible, it being now more than 9 feet thick
Over an area of more than 100 acres, and annually
added to by the inflow from saturated springs. It
is estimated to contain about 50,000,000 cubic feet
of chemically pure sulphate of soda. The Donney
Lakes, about 18 miles southwest of Laramie, com-
prise three lakes, covering about 520 acres. In one of
these the deposit is 11 feet thick, in the others 5 to
548
6 feet. The Dupont Lakes in Carbon Co., Wyo-
ming, are four in number, varying in area from 4 to
2000 acres, their waters saturated with sulphate and
carbonate of soda. One of these lakes is covered
SOILS.
but their utility is far in excess of their quantity.
Many of the most important food-plants feed largely
upon them, and exhaust them from the soil at a rate
that requires their annual restoration. Human agency
by two claims, known as the New York and Phila- assists also in the making of soils by the addition of
delphia claims, the former including 160, the latter
80 acres. One bore-hole, sunk 50 feet from the
shore, showed a bed of 4 feet of soda ; another, 230
feet out, went through 14 feet of solid soda without
reaching its bottom. This is over 70 per cent. sul-
phate of soda. The percentage of carbonate of soda
is much greater in the Dupont than in the Domney
and the Union Pacific Lakes, amounting, in some of
the deposits made by evaporation, to 59.24 per cent.
Near Morrison, Colorado, the soil, over an area of
80 acres, is impregnated with soda salts to a depth
of 52 feet. There is another large deposit near Cro-
ton Springs, Arizona, where a thick bed of the sev-
eral Salts of soda covers an area of several square
miles.
them unavailable at present.
As for the uses to which soda is applied, they are
manifold. One of the most important of these is
the glass industry, which consumes about half the
soda used in the United States. In 1885 the con-
Sumption in this industry was : Soda ash, 60,050
tons ; salt-cake, 23,419 tons; nitrate of soda, 2987
tons ; common salt, 2323 tons—making a total of
88,779 tons. The use of salt cake or sulphate of
soda in this industry has largely increased of recent
years, its percentage increasing from 14 in 1880 to
Another large soda-consuming industry
28 in 1885.
is the soap manufacture, while soda is an important
requisite in paper making, in dyeing and bleaching
of cotton and woollen goods, in boiler cleaning, etc.
It is used in considerable quantities in the making of
baking-powders, which now replace yeast in most
Bicarbonāte or sesquicarbonate
American kitchens.
of soda is an essential element of these powders,
the purpose being to develop carbonic-acid gas in the
interior of the dough, a result similar to that which
is attained by the use of yeast. Soda bicarbonate is
also used as one of the constituents of Soda-powders
and seidlitz-powders. These are but a few of the
uses to which the salts of soda are put. They are
used also in the starch, sugar, glucose, oil refining,
candle, aniline dyes, wood-pulp, earthenware and
pottery, dynamite, and many other industries, the
number and diversity of which are sufficient warrant
for the statement made at the beginning of this ar-
ticle that soda is far the most important chemical
product used in human industries. (C. M.)
SOILS. Soils are the results of two active and in-
cessant terrestrial influences, the disintegration of the
rock materials of the earth's surface, and the deposit
in the abraded material of organic substances, the
product of animal and vegetable life processes, and
of the decay of dead organic matter. To the former
the great bulk of all soils is due ; to the latter, much
of their fertility. The breaking down of the rocks is
a slow but incessant process. It is effected by the
agency of rains and running water, of frosts and
sunshine, of atmospheric action, and other less im-
portant influences; the small rock particles thus pro-
duced and scattered through the soil being grad-
ually reduced to a finer stage by minor influences,
among them the action of plant-roots and of the
small animals which burrow in the earth's surface.
The influence of earthworms, ants, and other small
creatures upon the constituents and conditions of the
soil has of late years been shown to be considerable
and important. Organic materials are deposited in
the soil largely by natural processes, and to an im-
portant extent through the agency of man. These in
iyulk constitute but a small percentage of the soil,
Few of these deposits have been examined
with a view to their utilization, the distance from
railroads and high cost of transportation rendering
fertilizing mineral substances, such as lime, the min-
eral phosphates, etc., thus adding to imperfect soils
Some important element of fertility, or modifying
the character of the soil so as to adapt it to the pro-
duction of certain crops. Through these agencies
of man and other animals, and through the disinte-
grating processes of nature, soils of greatly varied
composition are produced, their character often
i changing considerably within a few miles of distance,
and occasionally within the limits of a single farm.
Soils, considered in reference to their degree of
Openness and closeness, lie between two extremes,
the Sandy and the clayey. Their degree of fertility,
however, does not conform to this division, the sandy
soils, for instance, while frequently barren, being by
no means always so, since the composition of sand
may very greatly vary. The distinction of these
two extremes is that of degree of comminution of
material and retention of moisture, and of compara-
tive permeability, rather than of fertility, the latter
quality being by no means dependent on the above
characteristics. Austere barrenness, as a rule, is con-
fined to the silicious sands, and to rainless and
streamless regions, there being scarcely any other
condition of soil and climate that is not adapted to
the free growth of plant forms. Of the sands and
gravels that cover such vast spaces in the Eastern
Hemisphere, the infertility is due rather to lack of
rain than to native barrenness. The sands of the Sa-
hara and of Arabia show no lack of fertility where
watered by springs and wells. These vast stretches
of sandy soil are paralleled in other parts of the earth
by other homogeneous deposits of great extent. In
Southern Russia, for instance, there is a vast tract,
200,000,000 acres in extent, of “black earth,” which
i is of extraordinary and persistent fertility. In the
highlands of Scotland and Bavaria, as also in Prussia
and elsewhere, are great stretches of moorland, bear-
ing only a nearly useless growth of heath or moss.
In the United States we have similar great homo-
geneous surfaces, as in the alluvial bottom lands of
the Mississippi, the compact, deep, widely extended
soil of the prairies, the broad reaches of alkali
lands in the western mountain region, the sands of
New Jersey and some other localities, the vast
swamp regions along the southern Atlantic coast,
and other less extended instances. But as a whole,
the soils of this country as of other regions are
heterogeneous in distribution, depending largely
upon the character of the underlying rock, and in
many cases differing greatly within limited areas—
clay, sand, gravel, vegetable mould, and unlike mix-
tures of these, occurring often in close proximity to
each other. -
The agencies and methods by which the hard rock
surfaces are broken into fragments and ground down
into soils, have been sufficiently considered in the
article on AGRICULTURE, Chap. II., in this work, and
we need here but consider some further aspects of
the subject. There are two broad classes into which
soils may be divided, the sedentary and the trans-
ported. Of these the sedentary soils, or soils in
place, are those in which the materials of rock dis-
integration have not been moved by natural agencies,
but remain where produced. They have arisen from
the weathering of exposed rocks, which they still
cover or lie contiguous to, and with which they are
identical in composition. Such soils have usually
little depth, their presence protecting the rocks which
they cover from further disintegration. The inspec-
tion of the underlying rock usually gives valuable in-
formation as to their composition and agricultural
SOILS.
549
value, the mineral elements visible in it not being so
readily observable in the finely comminuted soil.
Soils of this character are not abundant in New Eng-
land and the regions north of the Ohio, and east of
the Missouri, nor in the river valleys of the country.
Here they occur only in small patches, as where the
friable outcropping red sandstone of the Connecticut
valley has crumbled into soil, or where trap bluffs
have made soils at their bases. In the more southern
and western regions, away from the river valleys,
sedentary soils are the rule.
Transported soils are those in which the material
has been removed to a distance from its place of far.
Origin by moving agencies, principally ice and
water, and deposited elsewhere as sediment. Of
these those known as drift or diluvial soils are char-
acterized by the rounded edges and surfaces of their
larger fragments, and by their lack of stratification.
They embrace soils proper and collections of stones,
varying in size from grains to great rock boulders,
which are scattered indiscriminately through and
over the soil. These soils are supposed to be the
product of ice action, the work of the great glacial
movement which, there is satisfactory reason to be-
lieve, took place during the glacial age of geology,
affecting the whole country from the Arctic zone to
about the latitude of 40°, its effects on the soil ex-
tending to southern New England, to nearly the
southern boundary of Pennsylvania, and to the Ohio
River, and extending from the Atlantic to the States
west of the Mississippi. The whole of this region is
more or less covered with the rock débris moved by
the glacier, the material being as a rule transported
20 to 40 miles from its place of origin, and in some
cases from 60 to 100 miles. Drift soils are often of
the most diversified character, including rock ma-
terials of great variety, which have been mingled
and carried in the ice flow. Of those only the hard
granite and silicious rocks occur in large fragments,
the softer ones being ground to powder, the fine soil
and stones of varied size being often indiscriminately
commingled. Drift surfaces are usually irregular
and hilly, the hills being conical heaps or long
ridges of mixed sand, gravel, and boulders, often of
great depth. South of the boulder line is a region,
occasionally of considerable width, of much finer
material, and partly stratified. This is supposed to
have been the mud and sand carried by the waters
of the melting glacier, and deposited by the streams
Over a broad area farther south. The sands of
Southern New Jersey and Long Island may have
been due to this process, as well as the fertile soil
of southern Pennsylvania. Drift soils greatly vary
in productiveness, in consonance with their variety
of materials. The soils of New England, for in-
stance, are lacking in fertility, while those of Penn-
Sylvania and Ohio are of unsurpassed excellence.
Another form of the transported soil is that known
as alluvial. This consists of the worn materials
transported by running waters, and deposited along
the course of overflowing rivers. These are always
more or less stratified, the coarser materials on the
bottom, the finer on top. The coarser are also de-
posited most abundantly along the upper reaches of
the rivers, the finer farther down, impalpable mud
being carried much farther than sand or gravel.
Such soils occur in the valleys of streams, and in
silted-up beds of old rivers, lakes, and gulfs. In the
United States, much the most extensive deposit of
alluvial soil is that laid down in the bottom lands of
the Mississippi River and its western tributaries, the
Ohio cutting too narrow a channel to leave much
Space for such deposits. The bottom lands of the
Mississippi, covered everywhere with finely com-
minuted materials abraded by the river and its tribu-
taries from the head-water and bordering regions of
the streams, and deposited along the more level
lower reaches of the river, average 40 miles in
breadth, and extend for a distance of 500 miles, the
stream winding through them with a length of 1,100
miles. Their total area is about 32,000 square miles,
much of it of great depth of soil and almost inex-
haustible fertility, though comparatively little of it
is yet cultivated. -
Soils in which drift and alluvial are mingled with
sedentary materials, , have been named colluvial
soils. They are distinguished by the presence in
transported material of sharp-angled fragments of .
original rock, that have evidently not been carried
Such soils are of comparatively small extent.
Of other distinctive American soils, may be mentioned
those of the prairie States, which are distinguished
by the absence of trees and the great depth of their
fertile material. They probably belong to the allu-
vial class, being produced by the gradual silting up
of great, shallow lakes, which formerly may have
occupied this whole region. Their productive powers
seem to be increased by the processes of cultivation,
and seem almost inexhaustible, many years of cereal
production without manuring showing little percep-
tible diminution in abundance of crops. In the
western borders of the prairie region fertility is
diminished by the lack of rain. In respect to its
rainfall, the United States may be divided into two
nearly equal portions by the meridian of 100°. The
region east of that meridian has a sufficient and
pretty regular distribution of rain ; that westward is
irregularly and insufficiently supplied, except a nar-
row belt on the Pacific coast. Part of the latter is
abundantly supplied ; part of it irregularly but in
fair sufficiency ; while in part of it the rain is insuf-
ficient for agriculture. Much of this region is, and
must remain, essentially pastoral in its uses, though
through a considerable portion of it irrigation has
taken the place of rainfall, and abundant crops are
raised from the highly fertile soil. The specially
arid region of the United States is that known as the
Great Basin, a vast district with an area of about
225,000 square miles, which constitutes an elevated
plateau between the Rocky and the Coast mountain
ranges, which, from its rainless character and the
impossibility of irrigation, must remain permanently
useless in an agricultural sense. (See GREAT BASIN.)
We may conclude with a brief consideration of the
Several varieties of soils, and their distinctions of
physical and agricultural character. Plants derive
their food from the fine, and particularly from the
finest particles of the soil, of which a very small per-
centage is available for plant-food at any one time.
But the larger particles are equally useful, from their
aid in keeping the soil open and permeable, while
through their gradual disintegration they furnish
new plant-food. Gravelly soils are so named from
their abundance of small stones or gravel. Such
soils may be poor or rich, in conformity with the
character of their fine material, and also the com-
position of their gravels. If there be many pebbles
of felspar, the soil will probably be well supplied
With alkali; if of limestone, with lime ; if of quartz,
the soil will be poor. Sandy soils are those which
contain 90 per cent. or more of sand, or small grains
of rock of any kind. If the sand be composed of
nearly pure quartz grains, the soil will be barren, but
generally other minerals, such as felspar and mica,
are present, and iron compounds exist where the
Sand is red or yellow. These minerals, by their de-
composition, often give considerable fertility. The
green-sand of New Jersey is used as a fertilizing
material, it containing much organic substance. The
term Sandy soil is, therefore, very indefinite as re-
gards fertility. Coarse stndy soils are usually un-
ºuble but fine sand is often agriculturally valu-
§, Olé.
Clayey soils, physically considered, stand at the
550
opposite extreme from sand. They are those in
which clay or impalpable materials predominate.
The extreme fineness and close compacting of their
Substance render them very retentive of water, which
Sandy soil is almost incapable of retaining, and when
dry they break into cracks and rifts through shrink-
age. Soils may be clayey in texture without being
composed of clay, since other substances than kaolin
and the other clay compounds may give them ad-
hesiveness and impermeability.
Intermediate between clayey and sandy lie the
loamy soils, or soils composed of a mixture of sand
and clay, or of coarse and impalpable substances.
These are less tenacious than clay, more so than
Sand, and exist in many degrees between sand and
clay, being known by the various titles of clay loam,
loam, Sandy loam, light sand loam, etc. The physi-
cal condition of these soils is that best suited to or-
dinary agriculture. Calcareous or lime soils are
those that contain carbonate of lime in predominat-
ing quantity. They are not uncommon in Europe,
but are rare in the United States, and scarcely oc-
cur at all in the Northern and Middle States. In
general, the lime is subordinate to Sand or clay,
yielding calcareous sands, calcareous clays, or cal-
careous loams. Marls are composed of a mixture
of clayey material with finely divided carbonate of
lime. The green-sand of New Jersey is of this char-
acter. Of other soils may be named peat or swamp
muck, composed of humus arising from the decay of
vegetable substance in bogs and marshes. Where
much organic matter has decayed out of Water, as
leaves of trees, grasses, etc., it forms a soil of vege-
table mould. Ochrey or ferruginous soils are those
containing much iron oxide or silicate. They are
yellow, red, or brown in color. The portion of the
soil usually wrought is that near the surface, and
which is directly exposed to sunlight, rain, and
atmospheric influences, and which contains humus
from decaying roots, etc. Beneath it lies the sub-
soil, unmodified by these agencies, yet often con-
taining much fertilizing material. . This is fre-
quently brought to the surface in the deep plow-
ing of recent farming. Under this, in certain re-
gions, is a dense, almost impenetrable, crust known
as “hard pan.” It is composed of clay or gravel
cemented by iron or other compacting material, and
may be considered as soil on its way back to become
rock. Hard pan often forms the bottom of marshes
or peat-swamps, in a thin impermeable layer beneath
which may lie porous soils. (C. M.)
SOLA, ABRAHAM DE (1825–1882), rabbi, was born
in London, Sept. 18, 1825. He was carefully trained
in Hebrew learning, and in 1847 accepted a call to a
Portuguese-Hebrew congregation in Montreal. Here
he became prominent as a pulpit orator and advocate
of orthodox Judaism. In 1853 he was made profes-
sor of Hebrew in McGill University, and afterward
lectured there on Spanish literature. He also taught
Hebrew in the Presbyterian College of Montreal,
and was president of the Natural History Society of
that city. He died while on a visit to New York
City, June 5, 1882. He published a History ºf the
Jeſús of Persia (1848); Scripture Zoology (1848);
Jewish Calendar System (1854); Sanitary Institutions
of the Hebrews (1860); Shabbatai Lepi, the False Mes-
siah (1869); History of the Jews of Poland (1870);
History of the Jews of France (1871).
SOLOMON, and the Book of PROVERBs. The all-
thor of the article on SOLOMON in the
See Vol. XXII, ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA speaks of
p. * (p. 265 ... the many floating and fragmentary
Am. Rep.). notes of various dates that have found
a place in the account of his reign in the Books of
Kings.” Dr. A. B. Davidson in the article on PRøv-
pºps, in the same work, says of the times of Solo-
mon, that “life in the civil sense began in this age.
SOLA—SOLOMON.
Then the tribes were consolidated into one
community, the state rose into existence.” One who
holds that there was properly no Israelitish nation,
and no united Israel, until the time of Solomon, and
that the institutions described in the Pentateuch
mostly originated during the successive centuries
that followed Solomon, must necessarily hold that
the history of Solomon, as given in the Bible, is
disjointed and largely inconsistent with fact. But
if we accept the statements of the Bible to the effect
that Israel had been a people from the times of
Abraham, and a nation from the times of Moses; that
Solomon received from his ancestors the law that
Moses wrote, the ark and tabernacle that Moses
made, and the institutions that Moses founded ;
that the building of the temple was a fulfilment—
up to that date, the most notable fulfilment—of
the ancient promise to give Israel rest ; that the
religious ordinances and seasons of the Pentateuch,
including the three great annual festivals, were ob-
served in connection with the temple, in Solomon's
time, then “the account of his reign in the Books of
Rings” is consistent and intelligible. It presents
itself as having been compiled from different sources,
and as a record of only a part of the events of the
times, but it is a coherent record.
On the whole, the accounts in Kings and Chroni-
cles attribute to Solomon neither the highest type
of moral and spiritual character nor the highest
type of statesmanship. It is not likely, however,
that his reputation as a builder, a man of culture,
successful in commerce, and living magnificently,
will ever greatly dwindle.
In the article PALMYRA, in the ENCYCLOPEDIA
BRITANNICA, Prof. W. Robertson Smith adduces con-
siderations to show that the traditional reading of
1 Ki. ix. 18 is incorrect, that this passage does not
mention Tadmor in the wilderness, and that the
author of 2 Chron. viii. 4 is therefore mistaken in
his reading of the passage in Kings. If these were
conclusive they would go to show that Solomon's
overland commerce was less extensive than has com-
monly been supposed. But they are not conclusive ;
they prove at most that the alleged understanding
of the matter might be possible, if there were evi-
dence in support of it, but they do not furnish the
required evidence. For Solomon's purposes, the
commercial route through Palmyra would not be a
rival to that by the Red Sea, provided he controlled
both routes, as the Biblical narratives certainly rep-
resent that he did. The opinion that Solomon
founded Palmyra is more tenable than the conject-
ure that certain unknown Arabs founded it at some
unknown later time. t
For the times of Solomon in their relations to the
rest of the history, see ISRAEL.
The Biblical accounts represent that there was a
revival of literary culture in Israel in the reign of
David, and that Solomon was especially distinguished
in certain departments of science and letters. It is
in accord with this that the Book of Canticles and
most of Proverbs have been commonly attributed to
him. In proof that Canticles is not an “unfriendly
picture of Solomon,”, drawn by some , northern
israelite, but is probably a genuine work of Solomon
himself, see CANTICLEs in this work. As to the Book
of Proverbs, no one disputes that it contains some
genuine sayings of Solomon. From the titles at
the beginning of the book, and in X: 1 and XXV. 1, it
is most natural to understand that the sayings here
found are prevailingly (perhaps not exclusively) Solo-
monic ; that chaps, i.-xxiv. are an earlier collection,
including previous smaller collections; and that
chaps. xxv-xxix. are a supplementary collection of
Solomonic proverbs, made in the days of Hezekiah:
In extreme opposition to this, certain scholars hold
the proverb-collections to be among the latest of the
SOPHOCLES-SOULE. 551
ºf ºf
post-exilic books. Differing from both these views, jerbs, cannot have existed in Israel till the Israelites
Dr. Davidson's article on this book holds that prob- had come in “contact with the great empires of the
ably chaps. xxv-xxix. are the oldest part of the book, world.” But wide ideas of God and providence do
and are a genuine collection made in Hezekiah's not necessarily depend on contact with great political
time by combining several earlier collections; that powers; and if they did, Israel's contact with these
chaps. i.—ix were written “not very long anterior to powers was as real at certain earlier periods as during
the destruction of Jerusalem, possibly about a cen- the later invasions by Assyria and Babylonia. tº sº º
tury after the men of Hezekiah made their col- The alleged proofs that Prov. xxx. is post-exilic
lection;" that chaps. x.—xxii. 16, and the two are its likeness to Job xxviii. and Ecclesiastes, and
smaller collections, xxii. 17—xxiv. are likewise, per- the suggestion that ver, 6 may perhaps contain, an
haps, pre-exilic; and that xxx. and xxxi. are very allusion to “canonical writings.” The proof that
likely post-exilic. xxxi., is of late origin is that some of the products
There is no reason directly connected with the mentioned in this chapter are not mentioned in Ezek.
question of the divine authority of the Scriptures to xxvii. 17, and also that the alphabetic arrangement
prevent our accepting views like these, provided of the verses, beginning with ver. 10, is regarded as
they are well grounded ; but the question whether a late style of writing. Of course, none of these
they are well grounded is itself important. The
grounds urged for them are such as the following :
“The headings cannot be absolutely relied upon.”
It is sufficient to reply that there is no proof
that the headings in Proverbs are unreliable. Dr.
Davidson regards the heading in XXV. 1 as trust-
worthy, and observes that it presupposes the col-
lection of proverbs in the previous chapters. Hence
he infers that the heading cannot have been written
by the men of Hezekiah who made the collection,
but must have been added by the later editor who
put the several collections together. The alterna-
tive inference is quite as probable, namely, that the
heading was written by the men who made the col-
lection, and that the collections in the previous
chapters had then already been made. But it is said
of these men: “They can hardly have been acquainted
with x.-xxii., otherwise their code would not have
contained so many duplicates of maxims in that col-
lection.” But, if these duplicated maxims prove that
the first of the two collections was written later than
the second, they equally prove that the second was
written later than the first ; that is to say, they prove
nothing. 4. *
It is said that the general preface, at the open-
ing of the book, “extends at least to xxii. 16 ; but
g º a new inscription ‘The Proverbs of Solo-
mon,’ heads x. This implies that i.—ix. were not con-
sidered Solomonic.” But this implication is not dis-
tinct enough to compel recognition from most minds.
It is said that “the conjecture that Solomon himself.
put forth any collection of his proverbs has little to
support it.” But the conjecture that he did not put
forth such a collection has still less to support it.
It is argued that neither the whole nor any part of
Prov. x.-xxii. 16 can have been collected in its pres-
ent shape by any person who was the author of any
great number of the proverbs contained in it, be-
cause the collection is confused, one of the proverbs
being repeated, while there are several instances in
which one member of a proverb also does duty in
another proverb. But it is difficult to see that repe-
titions or confused arrangement are impossible for
an author of proverbs any more than for any other
Iſlöll.
It is further said, in regard to Solomon : “Such
maxims cannot be regarded as wholly or even in a
very large degree the production of an individual
mind. Though the stream of wisdom began
to flow in his day, its beginnings were then compara-
tively small ; as the centuries advanced it gathered
volume.” But the Book of Proverbs is not a very
extensive work, if compared, for example, with Poor
Richard's Almanac, or with such a collection as
might be made of the pithy sayings of Matthew
Henry or John Bunyan. Why should not most of
the proverbs have come from Solomon himself 2
Why should it require centuries to accumulate the
rest ?
It is also argued that the “universalistic ideas of
God and providence,” so characteristic of the Prov-
considerations have any decided strength.
On the whole, it is safe to affirm these two things
in regard to the Book of Proverbs : Its contents are
mainly Solomonic ; the strongest evidence as to
when the collections were made is that found in the
titles, the order of the parts, and the presumption
that a man like Solomon would have something to do
with editing his own published works. (W. J. B.)
SOPHOCLES, Evange:LINUs Apostol LDEs (1807–
1883), classicist, was born near Mount Pelion, in
Thessaly, March 8, 1807. He was educated in the
convent on Mount Sinai, but afterward came under
the influence of American missionaries at Athens.
In 1829 he came to Massachusetts, entered Amherst
College, and afterward taught Greek at Hartford
and New Haven. In 1840 he was made a tutor at
Harvard College, in 1849 assistant professor of
Greek, and in 1860 professor of modern and Byzan-
tine Greek. He was an excellent teacher, and ren-
dered valuable service to scholarship in the United
States by his grammars both of ancient and modern
Greek, and various text-books. His most important
work is his Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzan-
time Periods (Boston, 1870). In his modest apart-
ments at Harvard he lived like a hermit, seeming
to the youth of the Western Republic himself a
picturesque fragment of the ancient civilization he
strove to elucidate. He died at Cambridge, Dec.
17, 1883.
SORGHUMI. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. W. 4.
SOULE, PIERRE (1801–1870), senator, was born
at Castillon, France, in 1801. His father had been
a lieutenant-general in the French republican army.
The son was educated at Toulouse and Bordeaux.
While at college in the latter city he joined in a
conspiracy against the Bourbon government. On
its discovery he fled, and concealed himself in the
guise of a shepherd for a year. Going to Paris, he
became a journalist, and soon was prosecuted and
imprisoned for an attack on the government. He
escaped to England, thence went to the West In-
dies, and soon removed to the United States. In
1825 he began his career at New Orleans, and was
Soon prominent as a lawyer and politician. He was
sent to the U. S. Senate in 1847, and there advocated
eXtreme Southern views. In 1853 he was sent as
U. S. minister to Spain, where his conduct was
marked throughout with insolence to the govern-
ment and his fellow-diplomats. He fought a duel
With the French ambassador, encouraged a revolu-
tionary outbreak, withheld a trade-treaty which had
been negotiated, and joined in the Ostend mani-
festo which declared the purpose of the U. S. gov-
ernment to take Cuba, if not by purchase, then by
force. He returned in 1855, and was interested in
the Tehuantepec canal project. Though he op-
posed the secession craze in 1860, he went with his
State, and in 1861 was a Confederate agent in
Europe. In 1862 he was captured in New Orleans
by the Union troops, and was sent to Fort Lafayette.
Being released on condition of leaving the country,
552
SOUND SOUTH, MOUNTAIN.
he went to France, but in 1869 he returned.
died at New Orleans March 16, 1870.
SOUND. See ACOUSTICS.
SOUTHARD, HENRY (1749–1842), patriot and con-
gressman, born on Long Island, N. Y., October, 1749,
his father's name being Southworth. When he was
He medanism in Turkey and Persia.
After three years'
absence he returned, and was ordained priest in New
York, Oct. 3, 1839. The next year he was sent back
as missionary at Constantinople and delegate to the
Oriental churches, remaining four years. From these
experiences came his first books, Narrative of a Tour
but 7 years old, his father removed to Baskingridge, through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia
N. J., where, after receiving an ordinary school (2 vols., 1840), and Narrative of a Visit to the Syrian
education, Henry worked on the home farm and as a
day-laborer, till he earned money enough to pur-
chase a farm for himself. An excellent memory and
Sound practical judgment fitted him for public
Work. He was active as a patriot during the Revolu-
tionary war, was for nine years a member of the
State legislature, and sat in Congress from 1801 to
1811, and from 1815 to 1821. In the latter year he
met as a member of a joint committee of the U. S.
Senate, his son Samuel Lewis, and voted with him
on the Missouri Compromise. Till he had passed
his ninetieth year he neither wore glasses nor used
a staff. He died at Baskingridge in June, 1842.
His son, SAMUEL LEwis SouTHARD (1787–1842),
judge and senator, was born at Baskingridge, June 9,
1787. He received a sound education and graduated
at Princeton College in 1804. After teaching school
in his native State, he went to Virginia as tutor in
the family of John Taliaferro, during his residence
with whom he studied law, and was admitted to the
Virginia bar. In 1811 he settled as a lawyer at
Hemington, N. J., and in 1814 was appointed by
the legislature law-reporter. In 1815 he became
associate-judge of the Supreme court of the State,
was a presidential elector in 1820, and United States
Senator from 1821 to 1823, during a considerable
part of which time he was pro tem. president of that
body. In 1823 he was appointed by Pres. Monroe
secretary of the navy, and held the office till 1829,
acting also as secretary of the treasury from March
to July, 1825, and for a short time as secretary of
war. Immediately on his giving up the portfolio of
the navy he was chosen attorney-general of New
Jersey, and, in 1832, governor of the State. In
1833 he was again returned to the U. S. Senate, and
on Pres. Harrison's death, in 1841, he became for a
second time president pro tem. Of that body. In
1822 he was made a trustee of Princeton, and LL.D.
by the University of Pennsylvania in 1833. He died
at Fredericksburg, Va., June 26, 1842. His publi-
cations comprise, Reports of the Supreme Court of
New Jersey, 1816–1820 (2 vols., 1819–20), a Centen-
nial Address (1832); and a Discourse on William
Wirt. His son, SAMUEL LEWIS SOUTHARD (1819–
,1859), was born at Trenton, N. J., in 1819, graduated
at Princeton, 1836, took orders in the Protestant
Episcopal Church, and was author of The Mystery
of Godliness (1848), and other theological and mis-
cellaneous publications.
SOUTH BEND, a city of Indiana, county seat of
St. Joseph Co., is on St. Joseph river, and on the
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad and the
Chicago and Lake Huron Railroad, 85 miles E., of
Chicago. It has a fine court-house, 3 national banks,
a savings bank, 20 churches, a high school, St.
Joseph Academy, St. Mary's Academy, and the Uni-
versity of Notre Dame. Three daily and six weekly
newspapers are published here. The manufactures
comprise agricultural implements and machinely,
wagons, furniture, paper, woollen goods, etc. . Its
population in 1880 was 13,280, having almost doubled
in ten years.
SOUTHGATE, HoRATIO, missionary bishop, was
born at Portland, Maine, July 5, 1812. After gradu-
ating at Bowdoin College, 1832, he spent two years
at Andover, but entered the Episcopal Church, and
was ordained deacon at Boston, 1835. The Foreign
Committee of the Board of Missions sent him abroad
in April, 1836, to investigate the condition of Moham-
(Jacobite) Church of Mesopotamia (1844). On Oct.
26, 1844, he was consecrated in Philadelphia as mis-
Sionary bishop for the dominions and dependencies
of Turkey. [This was the only case in which the
American Episcopal Church sent a bishop to lands
having native clergy of that order, and it was after.
ward regarded as a step of doubtful wisdom.] In
1849 Dr. Southgate came home and offered his resig-
nation of the office, which the House of Bishops ac-
cepted in October, 1850. He published, in Greek, at
Constantinople, A Treatise on the Antiquity, Doctrine,
Ministry, and Worship of the Anglican Church, 1849.
He declined the bishopric of California, 1850, and
that of Hayti twenty years later. He organized St.
Luke's Church, Portland, Maine (now the cathedral),
1851, was rector of the Advent, Boston, 1852–58, and
of Zion, New York, 1859–72. Since then he has
lived at Ravenswood, L. I. His later books are, The
War in the East (1855); Parochial Sermons (1859);
and The Cross above the Crescent (1877).
SOUTH MOUNTAIN AND ANTIETAM. These
battles were fought on Sept. 14 and 17, 1862, be-
tween the Union forces under Gen. McClellan and
the Confederates under Gen. Lee, near the village
of Sharpsburg, on the banks of the Antietam Creek,
Maryland. After defeating the Union Gen. Pope in
the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30, 1862, Gen.
Lee in the beginning of September crossed the
Potomac into Maryland, with the immediate objects
of gaining over that State to the Confederacy
and capturing Washington and Baltimore. Pres.
Lincoln instantly called on Gen. McClellan (who
was then in Washington) to take command of the
Army of the Potomac, with which Pope's forces had
been merged, and the general forth with set his troops
in motion to meet the inroad. On his arrival on the
12th at Frederick, which Lee had left three days
previously, he came into possession of the latter's
plan of campaign, which, with the view of leaving
no enemies in his rear, comprised an order for Jack-
son to recross the Potomac, capture the forces at
Martinsburg, and co-operate in the capture of those
at Harper's Ferry; for McLaws to march on Harper's
Ferry; and for Longstreet to halt with the trains at
Boonesboro’. Walker was to invest Harper's Ferry
from the Maryland side, while D. H. Hill's division
was to form the rear-guard. On learning Lee's plans,
McClellan set about a movement to pass his army
through Turner's and Crampton's Gaps in South
Mountain, and, by interposing it between the sepa-
rated divisions of Lee's force, to destroy them in de-
tail. But McClellan was, as usual, not sufficiently
prompt, and when the Union army reached the gaps
it found them beset by Confederates under Long-
street, Hill, and McLaws. There was stubborn
fighting all day of the 14th ; in the evening the
Confederates withdrew, and next morning the vic-
torious Unionists passed through the gaps to the
western side of the range. But Lee, by delaying
the Union advance, had gained time to concentrate
his dispersed forces and to capture Harper's Ferry,
with 11,000 men and 73 guns.
When Lee withdrew his left from Turner's Gap
he took up an elevated position between the An-
tietam and Sharpsburg. His right, under McLaws,
on the capture of Harper's Ferry, came promptly
into line, and on the 16th Lee had his army concen-
trated there to the number of 40,000 men—a force
ragged, indeed, and shoeless, and reduced by strag-
SPALDING—SPARKS. 553
ºf...º.º.º.
inured to War, and COnfidently a Walt1.In € COInteSt, O€CallS *> 3. º º
that it knew to be decisive º º in a po- had suffered so severely º . diº
sition chosen by its leader. McClellan's army num- renew it. The reason . y ii * , W a great
bered over 70,000, but the Confederate army was pro- vast superiority in numbers, failed to ºd gr
tected on both flanks by the Potomac, on which they victory is self-evident. The corps º . ãº
rested respectively, while the Antietam flowed along rather, some of them, did not act in concer an d €
its front, the ground consisting of meadows, corn- attack was made in driblets. º º prepon i
fields, and patches of forest. The creek was crossed ance in force was thus neutralized. any one poin -
by four bridges, all save the northernmost strongly Lee was able to meet an attack with a force as Strong
guarded. McClellan's plan of attack was to throw as that making it. - - t 12
his right over the unguarded bridge, upon the ...Gen. McClellan reported his entire loss * '.
enemy's left, and, when he had thus drawn their 469, of whom 2010 were killed ; Lee's may be se
main force to that flank, to cross with his centre and down at 13,533. McClellan says, “about 2700 of
left and fall upon the enemy's right. Toward even- the enemy sdead were counted and buried upon the
ing Hooker led his corps across the upper bridge, battle-field.” Three, Confederate generals were
but little more than a skirmish ensued till the lines killed and 8 wounded. Of regimental and brigade
rested. He had, however, developed McClellan's losses may be cited that of the 16th Connecticut
plans and thus given Lee time to make his disposi-
tions to meet it. The only change he thought it
necessary to make was to place Jackson's fresh troops
in the position on his left. McClellan during the
night sent Mansfield's corps across the creek to join
Hooker and had Sumner in readiness to follow in
the early morning.
The dawn of the 17th saw the two armies standing
ready for a great conflict in which there could be no
strategy, but which must be decided by sheer fight-
ing. The battle began at Sunrise in the woods bor-
dering the Sharpsburg road to Hagerstown by an
attack by Hooker on Jackson's position in front,
which was also enfiladed by artillery from across the
creek. Jackson's lines at length broke, but when
Hooker attempted to follow he was met by masses
of troops and artillery fire, and forced to halt.
Mansfield was mortally wounded when advancing to
support him, but his corps moved on. Hooker him-
self was severely wounded and borne from the field.
Sumner's corps came next on the field, and with
comparative ease drove back the half-defeated Con-
federate divisions, and took possession of the ground
they had held around a little Dunker church. His
whole line now moved forward as if to sure victory,
when two divisions brought from the Confederate
right wedged themselves into a gap in his lines.
Sedgwick's division, which formed the right of the
line, was flanked on its left and driven out of the
woods across the clearing into the eastern woods.
The Confederates, satisfied with this, failed to pur-
sue farther but retired to their position. Fighting
of a similar character went on all forenoon. One
striking episode was a race between a New Hamp-
shire and Confederate regiment for the occupation
of a commanding piece of ground, the two running
in parallel lines and firing at each other as they ran.
The New Hampshire men won the prize. Franklin
did not participate in the fight till noon, having just
then arrived from the southern (Crampton's) gap of
South Mountain, and was at once despatched across
the creek to aid Hooker. He came just in time to
check an advance of fresh troops from the Confeder-
ate right.
But while both parties thus strove gallantly on the
Union right, Porter and Burnside, in command of
the centre and left, remained unaccountably supine.
So early as 8 A. M., the latter had been ordered to
carry the bridge on his front and assail the Confed-
erate right. Though the command was more than
once and urgently repeated, he did not succeed in
crossing till 1 P.M., and, even after effecting this, two
more hours were lost before he carried the ridge
Sommanding Sharpsburg and captured the enemy's
battery there. Then A. P. Hill's division, 2000
strong—Lee's last reserve—came up from Harper's
Ferry and, uniting with the Confederate forces on
the left, retook the battery and drove Burnside from
the height. This concluded the battle. The strug-
WOL. IV.-2 K
(which here saw service for the first time), which
went in 940 strong and came out 508, and that of
McLaws’ Confederate brigade, which went in with
1150 men and came out with 596, losing 5 out of
its 6 regimental commanders. Hay's brigade lost
even more in proportion. McClellan reported over
6000 prisoners taken, 13 guns, and 39 flags, while he
himself had not lost a gun or a color.
Sept. 18th, there was no fighting, and when, on
the 19th, McClellan prepared to renew the strug-
gle he found that Lee had left the field and with-
drawn into Virginia by the ford at sº
(J. H.
SPALDING, MARTIN JoHN (1810–1872), Roman
Catholic archbishop, was born in Marion County,
Ry., May 23, 1810. He graduated at St. Mary's
College, Lebanon, Ky., in 1826, studied theology,
and went to the Propaganda College in Rome. He
was ordained priest in 1834, and was made pastor of
the cathedral at Bardstown. In 1838 he took charge
of St. Joseph's theological seminary there, and in
1840 he removed to Lexington, Ky., but in the next
year returned to his original post. In 1848 he was
made coadjutor to Bishop Flaget of Louisville, and
in 1850 succeeded to the bishopric. While coad-
jutor he introduced some religious orders, and while
bishop built a handsome cathedral at Louisville.
He attended the plenary council at Baltimore in 1852.
In 1864 he was promoted to be archbishop of Balti-
more, and he died there, Feb. 7, 1872. Archbishop
Spalding was noted for his literary activity. In 1835
he began to publish the Catholic Advocate and was
connected with it till 1858, when he established
the Louisville Guardian. His review of Dr. Merle
D'Aubigné's History of the Reformation, issued in
1844, was enlarged into a History of the Protestant
Reformation (2 vols., 1860). He also published Early
Catholic Missions in Kentucky (1846); Evidences of
Catholicity (1847); Life of Bishop Flaget (1852);
Papal Infallibility (1870).
SPARKS, JARED (1789–1866), noted for his ser-
vices to American history, was born at Willington,
Conn., May 10, 1789. After getting a common
school education he worked on a farm, then learned
carpentry, and at times taught school. His eager-
ness to learn procured him friends, especially among
the ministers, who helped him forward in pursuit
of knowledge. At the age of 20 he entered Phillips'
Exeter Academy, and two years later went to Har-
vard College. Though his student-course was inter-
rupted by teaching in Maryland, where he also saw
Service in the militia against the British invasion, he
graduated in 1815. Again he taught school at Lan-
caster, Mass., and then returned to Harvard to study
theology. In 1817 the college authorities made him a
tutor in mathematics and natural philosophy, and he
also assisted in editing the North American Review.
In May, 1819, being now thirty years of age, he was
ordained pastor of a Unitarian church in Baltimore,
554
SPEAR–SPENCER.
Dr. Channing preaching on the occasion. An ear-
nest defender of Unitarianism, he engaged in ani-
imated controversies with Dr. Wyatt of the Episcopal
Church and Dr. Samuel Miller of the Presbyterian
Church. In 1821 he was chosen chaplain of Con-
gress, but two years later ill-health compelled him
to abandon preaching. After travelling through the
Western States he settled in Boston, and there be-
came editor and proprietor of the North American
Review. While in Baltimore he had been indus-
trious in Writing, editing, and compiling, but rather
On religious topics. He now turned to American
biography and history, his first publication being a
Life of John Ledyard (1828), though he had already
been working on his edition of the Writings of
Washington. This work, as finally published in 12
volumes (1834–37), contained both official and pri-
Yate papers, with notes, illustrations, and biography.
Its value was attested both by elaborate reviews and
by its republication in abridged form in England,
France, and Germany. Its accuracy has been as-
Sailed, but on insufficient grounds. It must be un-
derstood, however, that Sparks did in some instances
modify not only the spelling but the language of the
original further than would now be thought proper.
Before this work had appeared, Congress had "au-
thorized Sparks to edit the Diplomatic Correspondence
of the American Revolution, which appeared in 1829–
30 in 12 volumes. Another valuable work was his
Life of Gouverneur Morris (3 vols., 1882). After
this, calling to his aid a number of literary asso-
ciates, he projected his Library of American Bi-
ography. The first series of 10 volumes appeared
between 1834 and 1838; the second, of 15, between
1844 and 1848. Of the sixty lives here presented
Sparks wrote eight : Ethan Allen, Benedict Arnold,
Father Marquette, De la Salle, Count Pulaski, John
Ribault, and Gen. Charles Lee. Meantime his edi-
tion of The Works of Benjamin Franklin (10 vols.,
1840) had taken its place by the side of his Writings
of Washington. Over 250 letters contained in it were
printed for the first time. Another companion work
was The Correspondence of the American Revolution
(1854), which contains the letters addressed to Wash-
ington by nearly two hundred of his eminent contem-
poraries. Dr. Sparks had been in 1839 made McLean
professor of history in Harvard College, and in 1849
was made president of that institution. In 1853 he
was compelled to resign on account of ill-health. He
continued to reside at Cambridge and was engaged
on a History of the American Revolution until his
death, March 14, 1866. Rev. George E. Ellis, D.D.,
published his Memoir in 1869. His library and
manuscripts are in possession of Harvard University.
SPEAR, SAMUEL THAYER, Presbyterian editor and
author, was born at Ballston Spa, N. Y., March 4,
1812. He studied both medicine and theology, and
was ordained in 1835 pastor of a Presbyterian church
at Lansingburg, N. Y. In 1843 he removed to
Brooklyn, where he held a pastorate until 1870. In
1887, on account of infirmities of age, he retired from
the Brooklyn Presbytery. He was for many years
one of the editors of the Independent, and he also con-
tributed to various reviews. Among his works are
Family Power; Church and State; The Bible Heaven.
SPENCE, HENRY DONALD MAURICE, English cler-
gyman, was born in Pall Mall, London, in 1836. He
was educated at Westminster School and at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, graduating in 1864. He
was made professor of modern literature in St.
David's College, Lampeter, in 1865, and rector of St.
Mary de Crypt, Gloucester, in 1870. He also be-
came principal of the Theological School of Glouces-
ter and canon of the cathedral in 1875. He was
made rural dean of St. Pancras in 1877. He has
been noted for his exegetical labors. With Dean
Howson he prepared a Commentary on the Acts of the
Apostles. He assisted in Bishop Ellicott's Commen-
taries, and was editor of the Pulpit Commentary on
the Old and New Testaments. He has also prepared
Some treatises on the Talmud.
SPENCER, AMBROSE (1765–1848), jurist, was born
at Salisbury, Conn., Dec. 13, 1765. He graduated
from Harvard University in 1783, studied law, and
began practice at Hudson, N. Y., where he was ap-
pointed city clerk in 1786. In 1793 he represented
Columbia County in the State assembly, and from
1795 to 1802 he was a State senator. In 1796 he was
appointed assistant attorney-general of Columbia and
Rensselaer counties, and in 1802 was made attorney-
general of the State. In 1804 he was raised to the
bench of the Supreme court, and from 1819 till 1823
Was chief justice, being also meantime a member of
the State constitutional convention of 1821. On re-
suming the practice of law, in Albany, he held va-
rious local offices, including that of mayor of the
city from 1824 to 1826. Elected to Congress in 1829,
he used his efforts to arrest the injustice of the gov-
ernment toward the Cherokees. In 1839 he retired
to Lyons, N.Y., where he occupied himself mainly
With agricultural pursuits. In 1844 he was presi-
dent of the Whig national convention at Baltimore.
He was author of a measure for abolishing capital
punishment in all cases except treason and murder,
and of another authorizing the erection of a State
prison near New York City. He died at Lyons,
March 13, 1848. The degree of LL. D. had been
conferred on him both by the University of Pennsyl-
vania and by Harvard College.
His son, JoHN CANFIELD SPENGER (1788–1855),
jurist, was born in Hudson, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1788. He
graduated at Union College in 1806, and in 1807
became private secretary of Gov. Tompkins. In
1809 he was admitted to the bar at Canandaigua, and
in 1811 became master in chancery. He was ap-
pointed in 1813 judge-advocate-general in the army
on the northern frontier, and in 1815 assistant at-
torney-general for Western New York. From 1817
to 1819 he represented his district in Congress; in
1820–21 he was a member of the State assembly, in
the former year serving as speaker. From 1824 to
1828 he was a State senator, serving in 1827 as a
member of a board for the revision of the statutes of
New York. He was appointed special attorney-
general to prosecute the murderers of William Mor-
gan (see ANTI-MASONRY), but resigned in May, 1830.
From 1839 to 1841 he was secretary of state and
superintendent of common schools. In October,
1841, he was appointed secretary of war under Pres.
Tyler, and in March, 1843, was transferred to the
treasury department. He resigned office in May,
1844, Owing to his opposition to the annexation of
Texas. He then returned to the practice of his pro-
fession. He served on many State commissions.
New York was largely indebted to him for the or-
ganization of its asylum for idiots and the improve-
ment of its common School system. From his alma
mater, Union College, of which he was made a regent
in 1840, he received, in 1849, the degree of LL. D.
In 1838, he edited, with a preface and notes, De
Tocqueville's Democracy in America. He died in
Albany, May 18, 1855. A painful and deplorable
event in his family cannot be omitted. While he
was secretary of war his son was a midshipman on
the naval school-ship Somers, commanded by Capt.
A. S. Mackenzie. While off the coast of Africa the
midshipman headed a mutiny, but the mutineers
were overpowered and brought to trial before a
council of officers. In accordance with their sen-
tence Spencer and two others were hanged at the
yard-arm, Dec. 1, 1842. Capt. Mackenzie's conduct
was subsequently approved by a board of inquiry.
SPENCER, HERBERT, an eminent English philos-
opher, whose system, based on the facts and theoret-
SPENCER.
555
ical views of modern science, is still in process of
development and publication. Spencer was born on
April 27, 1820, at Derby, England. His father was
a teacher of mathematics at that place, and a man of
wide culture and marked character, and by his fre-
quent discussions on radical social questions with
his brothers, men of the same type, did much to de-
velop the growing spirit of inquiry in his son. The
tendency to scientific study in the boy was early
shown in a fondness for keeping insects and watch-
ing their transformations, and for years the seeking
and rearing of caterpillars, and the catching, press-
ing, and drawing of winged insects were his regular
occupations. He assisted his father also in physical
experiments. At the age of 13 he was sent to study
with his uncle, Rev. Thomas Spencer, rector of the
parish of Hinton. Here he remained for three years,
making special progress in mathematics. Returning
home he studied perspective with his father, and at
the age of 17 was articled to a civil engineer, and
was employed on the London and Birmingham Rail-
way. In 1841 he returned home and spent two
years in study, during which he collected botanical
specimens, practised drawing and modelling, and
showed strong inventive inclinations, manifested by
improvements in the arts of watchmaking, type
manufacture, etc. In 1843, after some attempts to
obtain literary employment in London, he returned
to engineering labors. But the railroad-building
mania which had long prevailed suddenly abated,
and the demand for engineers fell off.
Spencer's earliest essay in literature was in the
form of professional papers contributed to the Civil
Engineer and Artisan's Journal; but his career in this
direction fairly began in a series of letters “On the
Proper Sphere of Government,” which appeared in
the Nonconformist in 1842. The influence of the de-
bates to which he had listened in his boyhood, and
his own reflections on similar subjects, had given
him decided and radical opinions on the nature and
limitations of civil authority, which were indicated
in these articles. His theory was that the govern-
mental function should be limited to the protection
of life, property, and order, the settlement of the
general relations of society being left to individual
social action. These letters were reprinted in pam-
phlet form, and constituted the basis of his later
published views on the same subject, in which he
has persistently advocated the contraction of the
sphere of government and the leaving of the princi-
pal questions of social science and political econ-
omy to outwork themselves under the influence of
natural law and without governmental interference.
He believes that all wrongs will right themselves if
left alone, and that political tinkering but checks
the growth of true remedial influences.
Spencer, soon after ceasing the practice of his
profession, took up his residence in London, and
from 1848 to 1852 was engaged in literary work on
the Economist, the Westminster Review, and the Edin-
burgh Review. At the house of the editor of the
Westminster he met G. H. Lewes and Miss Evans
(“George Eliot ”), both of whom became his life-
long friends. In 1851 appeared his first important
work, Social Statics, or the Conditions Essential to Hu-
man Happiness Specified and the First Developed.
This remarkable essay advocates a theory of society
widely different from any prevailing one. It is full
of radical and original views, and, while following
the line of argument of his pamphlet of 1842, is a
far more complete and well-digested study of social
science. It is still widely popular, especially in
America, and though it does not fully represent the
author's later views, and is probably impractica-
ble in many of its suggestions, it remains a most
wºule text-book of democratic political philoso-
phy.
science.
In 1855 appeared from his pen another work of
great originality and value, The Principles ºf Psy-
chology, a philosophical endeavor to analyze the rela-
tions between mind and matter, in which he first
showed his strong inclination to the hypothesis of
evolution. His thoughts had been led in this di-
rection by his studies of social law, his writings on
which are full of evolutionary conceptions. As his
views took a wider range than the theory of society,
he began to look upon the whole development of
nature from an evolutionary stand-point, and gradu-
ally to organize in his mind that philosophy of evo-
lution which it has been the work of all his later
life to develop. According to his view old cosmo-
logical and scientific ideas were giving way and
others taking their place, and it was evident that
science must be reconstructed on a broader and
more general basis than had satisfied the minds of
preceding thinkers. The idea of the unity of nature
and the interdependence of the sciences was stead-
ily growing, and several writers had advocated the
developmental hypothesis as applied to the world
of animals. The mind of Spencer was full of this
new philosophy, which shows its influence in
everything he wrote. The period from 1850 to 1860
was with him one of great mental activity, during
which he produced numerous review articles in ad-
dition to his published volumes. Among these were
essays on “The Philosophy of Style; ” “Manners
and Fashion; ” “Progress, its Law and Cause ; ”
“The Development Hypothesis; ” “The Theory of
Population,” “The Genesis of Science,” “The
Nebular Hypothesis,” etc. These papers have been
republished in the United States in several volumes,
entitled Illustrations of Universal Progress; Essays,
Moral, Political, and Æsthetic; Education : Intellect-
wal, Moral, and Physical ; and Recent Discussions.
They all show the evolutionary tendency of his
thoughts, which were steadily advancing to the con-
ception of evolution as a universal law and the sole
principle of development in the universe. In his
Principles of Psychology he dealt with the mind in
all its manifestations as a product of development,
holding that as the body was evolved by insensible
stages from the germ to the complex organism, so
was the mind. He took the ground that the mental
faculties have gradually developed through the
whole range of animal life, under the influence of
experience and the long-continued moulding of en-
vironing nature. This was the first attempt to apply
the theory of evolution to psychological phenomena.
Spencer's step forward was a bold one, which met
with but little acceptance from zoölogists, and was
decried by the world at large. The doctrine has
Won a much wider audience since then, however,
Spencer's views having been adopted by several
succeeding writers on psychology, while many stu-
dents consider the Principles of Psychology, as finally
revised, his greatest work. -
By 1858 Spencer had completed his mental study
of the principle of evolution as applied to the phe-
nomena of nature, and had fully outworked in his
thoughts the conception that evolution is a universal
process, dependent on the laws of matter and force,
and affecting and controlling all that takes place in
nature, from the genesis of the atom to that of the
human soul. In this year appeared his treatise on
The Nebular Hypothesis, and while writing it his
views of evolution unfolded till it expanded in his
mind to a universal law, while all branches of knowl-
edge appeared to him to be mutually dependent,
and to be underlaid by this single principle. These
views were not reached, like those of Darwin, through
original scientific observation. Spencer's early ten-
deney to scientific study made but little progress,
and he did not become a specialist in any branch of
Yet through persistent reading he became
556
SPENCER.
deeply versed in the general facts and philosophy
of the sciences, the biological branches in particu-
lar, and stored his mind with a much greater mass
of data than he could have gained by original ob-
Servation.
This course of wide study and independent thought
next led to the resolution of developing a new sys-
tem of philosophy, with the principle of evolution as
its underlying basis and the discoveries of modern
Science as its supporting walls and columns. In
1859 he drew up in detail the plan of a series of
Works in which his philosophical system was to be
embodied. This plan embraced ten volumes, to the
completion of which he proposed to devote twenty
years. It included studies of the principles of nat-
ure considered generally, and in their special appli-
cation to the phenomena of life, of the mind, of
Society, and of ethics, the whole subject being elab-
orated at this early period in the author's thoughts,
divided into topics, and projected in the prospectus
published in 1860 almost precisely as it has been
carried out in his subsequent works. He saw it all
at a glance. It has taken half a lifetime to explain
it to the world.
Spencer's prospectus appeared in the same year
as Darwin's celebrated contribution to the evolution-
ary hypothesis, and the view which many entertain,
that Darwin devised this hypothesis and that Spen-
cer has but unfolded and applied it, is utterly incor-
rect. Darwin lays no claim to the authorship of the
theory of evolution. What he did was to advance
the “natural selection ” hypothesis of development,
a principle which has been widely adopted by sci-
entists, and which Spencer has made much use of in
his striking phrase “survival of the fittest.” But
his philosophy was fully developed in his mind, and
partly in his writings, before Darwin had published
a word on the subject, though unquestionably the
hypothesis advanced by the latter author has been
utilized by Spencer in the explication of his philo-
Sophical idea.
The first volume of the projected system was pub-
lished in 1862, under the title of First Principles.
It is divided into two parts : 1, “The Unknowable ; ”
and, 2, “The Laws of the Knowable.” In the first
part the author maintains that human knowledge
has its necessary limits, beyond which it can never
advance, and that there is an unknown power which
must remain forever beyond the reach of man's con-
ceptions. To this power he gives no name and says
nothing as to its possible intelligence or non-intelli-
gence, declaring that its qualities, conditions, and
relations are utterly beyond the grasp of human
thought, and that speculation concerning them is
and must forever remain idle. This doctrine of the
“unknowable" is not an essential part of his system
of philosophy proper. It has been strongly com-
bated, and some of its conclusions seem invalidated.
In the “Laws of the Knowable” Spencer lays down
the basic principles of his system as applicable to
the general phenomena of matter, motion, and force,
declaring that in all the details of nature a law of
gradual development has steadily acted, all things
advancing step by step from the general to the par-
ticular, from the unconditioned to the conditioned,
until, from a simple, homogeneous, uniform, and
generalized state of the universe, there has arisen,
through evolutionary processes and solely under the
influence of natural laws and forces, a complex, het-
erogeneous, multiform, and specialized state. To
illustrate his theory in simpler form, the original
diffused and homogeneous fire-mist of the planets
has become developed into spheres of extraordinary
diversity of conditions, matter having lost its origi:
nal uniformity, and become the wonderfully varied
combination of mineral, plant, animal, intellectual,
and moral conditions which now exist upon the
earth's surface. It may be said here that Spencer
uses a phraseology which renders the comprehension
of his system very difficult to many readers; that it
is by no means presented in the simplicity of which
it was susceptible.
In The Principles of Biology (2 vols., 1867) the
evolutionary hypothesis is applied to, and illustrated
by, the facts of animal and vegetable life. In 1872
appeared The Principles of Psychology (2 vols.), in
which the evolution of mentality is reviewed and il-
lustrated. This work is in great measure an out-
growth of his treatise of 1855, being in some respects
a second edition of that work, though with much ex-
pansion and a broader grasp of the principles ad-
vocated. . Continued ill-health, which has grown
more disabling of recent years, together with much
Writing aside from his main purpose, has prevent-
ed Spencer from completing his work within the
twenty years originally allotted. Of the Principles
of Sociology, but two volumes of the requisite three
have appeared ; while the Principles of Morality, de-
signed to be in two volumes, is at present partly rep-
resented by a treatise entitled The Data of Ehics.
In the former of these the laws of society are sought
to be deduced from the facts of social and political
Science, while the latter seeks to deduce the laws of
human conduct from man's relations to nature and
his fellows, and the scientific investigation of the
growth of the sense of duty, conscience, and moral
obligation.
The completion of this work has also been delayed
by the general prejudice against the author's views,
while yet he was obliged to make a living by his
pen. As no publisher could be readily found for the
work when first proposed, the author decided to be-
come his own publisher, and to issue the work in
quarterly parts by annual subscription. The vol-
umes, as they appeared, met with strong opposition
and much adverse criticism, their views of nature
being so radically unlike those before prevailing as
to disturb all the relations of preceding philosophi-
cal and religious thought. Spencer, however, has
gradually gained a large following, and in the quar-
ter-century that has passed since the publication of
the first volume of the series, there have been re-
markable changes of general opinion upon the deep-
est subjects of human contemplation. These changes
have undoubtedly in very considerable measure been
due to his philosophy, and to the scientific theories
of Darwin, with the concurrent views of numerous
later authors.
All that Spencer has written since the publication
of his prospectus bears somewhat directly on his
evolutionary system. Of these separate works, Edu-
cation : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical, a series of
reprinted papers, written in a style of unusual ease
and fluency for him, has been one of the most popu-
lar. In opposition to the old system of teaching by
rote, it advocates methods in which the curiosity of
the pupil is excited, his observation strengthened,
and his judgment constantly appealed to. This was
indeed the method of teaching employed by Spen-
cer's father, and under which his school life was
passed, and he was well aware of its efficacy from
boyhood. Since the appearance of his work a
steady improvement has taken place in educational
methods, both in England and the United States, in ,
the direction which he points out. To this improve-
ment his work has undoubtedly contributed, though
other influential writers took part with him in advo-
cating radical changes in education.
Of his other publications may be named Classifica-
tion of the Sciences (1864), in which he states his rea-
sons for dissenting from M. Comte ; Spontaneous
Generation, and the Hypothesis of Physiological Units
(1870); The Study of Sociology, in the “Interna-
tional Scientific Series” (1872); and The Coming
* - 7
SPIDER.
Slavery (1884), a bitter attack on the increasing
tendency to socialism. Much of the time taken up
in writing controversial articles might have been
applied to the completion of his system, leaving it
to fight its own battle, on its merits or demerits,
against the attacks of opponents. In addition to
these he has written many magazine papers, bearing
on various points of his system.
Of his separate works, however, much the most
important is his Descriptive Sociology, which was de-
signed to be a complete repertory of facts in relation
to the structure, habits, beliefs, and other conditions
of society, of all grades and characters, ancient and
modern, savage, barbarous, and civilized ; these facts
to be arranged in tabular form, for easy comparison
and reference.
mense labor, far beyond his own powers and op-
portunities, and he engaged three assistants, adapted
by their culture and information to the work. The
original plan proposed a work in 18 parts, of which
several have been published, including No. 1, a de-
scriptive sociology of the English civilization ; No.
2, the extinct American civilizations; No. 3, the
Negrito and Malay races; No. 4, the African races,
etc. The restricted sale of the work and the great
expense of the undertaking forced him to limit it to
9 numbers, extensive unpublished materials remain-
ing in his hands.
of social facts, is of great value so far as it goes, and
its completion in accordance with the original de-
sign would make it an invaluable work of reference,
replete with facts of sociology nowhere else to be
found in such completeness and convenience of ar-
rangement.
It is not our purpose to attempt any critical re-
view of the great work of Spencer's life, his system
of philosophy.
critical opinions, favorable and unfavorable. It has
The plan as laid out involved im-
This work, covering a wide range.
J
many overloaded with illustrative particulars, every
step of the gradually unfolding argument being sup-
ported by an extensive array of quoted illustrations,
and the whole work founded on a broad basis of the
phenomena ascertained and recorded by modern sci-
€I) Cé.
That any speculative philosophical theory can be
indubitably established in this or any other manner
cannot be affirmed. There maay be no chance for two
opinions respecting the characters of a mineral body,
but the primary cause of gravitation, of animal de-
velopment, etc., will always be open to a diversity
of opinion, and dozens of theories in regard to the
same phenomenon may be honestly entertained and
susceptible of some degree of corroborative evi-
dence. Yet the fact remains that the theory which
accords with the greatest number of observed phe-
nomena, which offers the most satisfactory explana-
tion of nature's mysteries, and which meets with the
fewest discordant phenomena, has the soundest
standing as a law of the universe. Spenger has
earnestly labored to sustain his theory by illustra-
tions drawn from every field of science, and mar-
shalling accordances into a cumulative array of evi:
dences; though not until all facts are known, and
all shown to be in strict accordance with a proposed
law of nature, can an irrefutable system of philoso-
phy be established.
As a logician and a thinker of broad grasp and
deep powers of analysis, and synthesis, Herbert
Spencer has had few equals in the history of man-
kind. He is generally conceded to have unusual
mastery of method, breadth of view, and capacity of
It has called forth a vast array of
feet health. His health was so broken when he be-
organizing ideas, and none of his positions are easy
of overthrow, however strong in fact and argument
ſ be his opponents. * - ºn
Spencer, as has already been stated, is in imper-
been proved by later investigation that some of the gan his great work that few of his friends believed
supposed facts on which his arguments were based that he would be able to go on with it, and of recent
are not facts at all ; certain of his positions have years he has been virtually obliged to abandon it,
been invalidated; several of his theories are very though he may yet live to complete it. He is a
unlikely to be accepted, much of his reasoning bachelor, living in a quiet boarding-house in the
has been met by equally cogent counter-reasoning.
Yet all these are but attacks upon the Outworks ;
the central citadel of his system, the evolutionary
hypothesis, still stands firm. A wider and wider
circle of scientists and thinkers in general have ac-
cepted the system, but it has not yet been decided
what will be the eventual conclusion of cultivated
mankind. The philosophical system of Herbert
Spencer claims to be the most solidly based of any
now in existence, as the only strictly inductive sys-
tem the world possesses. Modern philosophers may
be divided into two classes on national lines of sepa-
ration, the several German systems being all deduc-
tive, and attending far more to conclusions than to
facts ; the English, and after them the French, being
essentially inductive, and considering facts as of pri-
mary, conclusions of secondary, importance. Of the
several English and French systems, however, this
is most particularly the case with that of Herbert
Spencer. His idea of evolution was gradually worked
out through diligent study and widespread compari-
son of the facts discovered by science, beginning
with its application to the laws of society, and gradu-
ally extending, as his studies widened, till it embraced
the whole universe. This gradual growth, through
the study of scientific facts, is essentially different
from the deductive method of reasoning out a uni-
versal principle to begin with and then seeking sup-
port for it in facts. In the explication of his system,
however, Spencer has been forced to adopt the latter
method, first applying his theory to the basic condi-
tions and relations of the universe, and then seeking
their support in recorded facts. The latter labor
constitutes the bulk of his work, which seems to
West End of London, and so careful and systematic
in all his habits, literary and otherwise, that he has
been enabled to do far more work than would other-
wise have been possible to him. He visited America
in 1882 and delivered some lectures, though soon
obliged to give up all exertion in consequence of ill-
health. In London he is a regular frequenter of
the Athenæum Club, and makes billiards, concerts,
and theatrical entertainments his principal amuse-
ments, alternated with long country-rambles, of
which he is very fond. He has persistently refused
to join scientific societies or accept university honors,
or to yield to anything which might distract him
from the chosen work to which he has devoted his
life and strength. (C. M.)
SPIDER, an arthropod animal of the family
Araneidea, order Arachnida, this order
sº º: embracing also the mites and scorpions.
Km. Rj." The Arachnida seem intermediate be-
tween the Crustaceans and Insects, dif-
fering from the latter in the close union of the head
and thorax, the possession of simple eyes only, and
the absence of antennae and wings. There is no
transformation, the young being born with the form
and instincts of the adult. Maturity is reached after
six moultings of the skin. The spiders possess four
pairs of legs, an unsegmented and more or less
spherical abdomen, and respire by means of both
lungs and tracheae. They are all carnivorous, and
are provided with mandibles adapted to aid in tak-
ing their prey, the mandible ending in a powerful
hook and being supplied with a poison-duet. The
ocelli, or simple eyes, number 8, 6, or 2, in different
species.
SPIDER.
A peculiar and highly interesting characteristic of
the spiders is their power of making silk, and the
Varied uses to which this substance is applied. Un-
like the product of the silk-making insects, which is
exuded from the under-lip, that of the spider comes
from jointed spinnerets situated behind the anus,
most Spiders possessing 3 pairs of these appendages.
They are conical papillae, surrounded by stiff bristles
and hairs, and dotted at the apex with horny tubes
Varying from 100 to 1000 in number. The silk is
Secreted as a viscid liquid, which dries and hardens
immediately on contact with the air. The silken
filaments are very strong and fine, one coming from
each tube of the spinnerets, while each line of the
Spider-web is composed of hundreds or thousands of
smaller ones. According to Leuwenhoek it would
take 4,000,000 of the fine filaments to make the size
of a human hair. The supply of silk seems sufficient
to make 6 or 7 webs during the season.
The sexes of spiders are separate, the males and
females living apart. The females are oftenest seen,
and are the larger, often considerably so, while their
carnivorous instinct leads them frequently to attack
and devour the males, even in the reproductive sea-
Son. Spiders ordinarily obtain nutriment by suck-
ing the juices of their insect prey, but sometimes
Swallow the flesh. They can support long fasts, and
spend the winter in a torpid state. They are very
cleanly in habit, and spend much time in clearing
their body and limbs of dust and dirt. They have
much ingenuity and perseverance, and display con-
siderable intelligence in adapting themselves to cir-
Cumstances and in changing the form of the web to
suit the locality.
Nine-tenths of all spiders are included in the fol-
lowing families, as named and described by Emerton.
The Mygalidae embrace the largest tropical species.
They usually have very hairy and dark bodies, with
only two pairs of spinnerets, one pair being very
long, and turned up behind the abdomen. There
are four air-sacs under the front of the abdomen, in-
stead of two as in other spiders. The mandibles are
very large, and work up and down instead of side-
ways. Most members of the family belong to the
tropics, but there are some species in the south-
western United States. Some of the Mygales are
very strong, M. avicularia, the bird-eating spider,
being about 3 inches long, while its legs spread over
8 or 10 inches. It leaps upon and destroys hum-
ming-birds and other small birds.
The Dysderidae form a small family, of which
there are few North American species. They are
usually found under stones, the legs being drawn
up close to the body. They have 6 eyes, and 4
breathing-holes, one pair of which leads to branched
tubes instead of to sacs. The Drassidae are a large
family whose members vary greatly in shape, color,
and habits. They, like the above, make no webs,
but usually live under Stones, or in silken tubes on
plants. They have small eyes arranged in two rows
on the front of the head, and long spinnerets. The
Agalenidae are a tribe of long-legged web-building
spiders, of a brown color, and with one pair of spin-
nerets longer than the others. They build flat webs
with a funnel-shaped tube on one side, which forms
the den in which the spider lies in wait for its prey.
The Ciniflonidae are similar to the above, but differ
in the possession of a peculiar spinning organ. This,
called the cribellum, lies in front of the spinner-
ets, and has much finer tubes. The threads from
it are drawn out and tangled, and are attached to the
plain threads of the web, serving to make it more
adhesive.
The Lycosidae, or running-spiders, form a numer-
ous and interesting family. They live in open
places, build no webs, and are very active in their
movements, they having long legs, of which the
rear pair is the longest. The head is held high, giv-
ing an aspect of vigilance to the animal. The name of
the family refers to their wolf-like habit of running
down their prey. The Altidae, or jumping spiders,
have usually a short body and square head, with a pe-
culiar arrangement of the eyes, there being two large
ones in the middle which give them a look of spe-
cial animation. Their legs are short, it being their
habit to leap on their prey. The Thomisidae, or crab-
spiders, have bodies usually flat and widest in the
rear, and somewhat resemble the crab in appear-
ance. The front two pairs of legs are longer than
the rear ones, and are bent in such a manner that
the Spider can readily move in a narrow crack.
Some walk sideways, like the crabs. They build
no webs.
The Theridiidae form the largest family of the
spiders. They are generally of small size, with
large rounded abdomens and slender legs. They
build large webs, whose shapes differ for different
species, and rest, head downward, under these webs,
holding on by their feet. The most interesting
family of web-builders are the Eperidae, the makers
of the orb-like, geometrical webs which form at-
tractive objects of spider-architecture. The species
of this family are large in size, with short, round
abdomens, flat heads, and eyes widely separated.
The webs are made in lines radiating from a centre,
and crossed by adhesive lines wound in a spiral or
in concentric circles. Like the last-named family,
the Eperidae hang head downward in the web, or in
other cases live in a hole near by, keeping in con-
stant communication with the web by the aid of a
connecting line.
The ordinary belief that spiders are aggressive
and poisonous is based rather on prejudice than fact.
If not disturbed, they will not bite, though all spi-
ders will bite when cornered. There are few satis-
factory instances on record of their biting man, and
stories of injury from spider-bites are mostly erro-
neous. The great majority of spiders are undoubt-
edly harmless to man, the tarantula, and perhaps one
or two other species, being the only ones that need
be avoided. Fear and prejudice, rather than fact,
have given the spider its bad reputation.
It is by their spinning habits that the spiders are
specially distinguished from other animals, the silk-
en line, which is principally employed by insects in
making a cocoon, or a nest for their young, being
applied by the spider to a considerable variety of
purposes. The spinning instinct is so strong that it
is manifested by the young as soon as they have left
the egg, those of certain species dwelling together
in a common web till they are strong enough to
build for themselves. Spiders in confinement begin
to spin at once, and do not seem comfortable till
they can go everywhere within their bounds on the
web. As they walk, they draw out a thread behind
them, while the young of many species, and the
adults of some small species, use the silken thread
as a means of flight, emitting sufficient to support
them in the air by its buoyancy. It is believed that
when they wish to descend they draw in a portion of
this flying thread.
The leaping spiders make another use of the
thread. When springing from a vertical wall on
passing insects, as they frequently do, they always
remain attached to the wall by a thread, and are
thus drawn back and saved from falling. The Water-
spider makes a small silken tent on plants beneath
the surface. This opens downward, and is filled
with air which its occupant carries down, a bubble
at a time. Thus domiciled, it runs about on the
water-plants, and catches the minute insects that
live upon them. Its hairs keep the water from its
skin. Some species that live on land-plants make
flat tubes of silk, in which they lie in wait. Others
SPOFFORD–SPOLIATIONS.
559
build tents near their webs as lurking places. The
species which live under stones, or in other place: of
concealment, all line their residences with silk. The
large and well-known webs are built by comparative-
Of these there are a great variety,
from the regular orb-web to that of irregular threads
ly few species.
with a tubular den, which is common in grassy
fields, and to the dome-shaped web, whose shape is
retained by threads which run in various directions.
One species builds a double web, under the upper
of which it lives. The purpose of the lower is not
known. The orb-weavers are usually bright-colored,
and hang in the web with no attempt at conceal-
ment, but some species cover a place in the web with
rubbish, under which they lie hidden.
Among the most interesting of the spiders are
those known as trap-door spiders. The habit of
building underground can be traced through a con-
siderable variety of stages. The running spiders,
when ready to lay their eggs, seek or make a hole in
the ground, which they line with silk for a nest.
Others dwell habitually in such silk-lined excava-
tions, and build round the mouth rings of sticks and
stones held together by web. In the species known
as turret-spiders the circular excavation is about an
inch in diameter and two inches deep, above which
is built an irregular pentagon of bits of grass, straw,
weeds, etc., crossing at the corners and bound with
silk, rising to a height of 2 or 2% inches. The inner
surface is silk-lined, and the inmate crouches at the
summit of his tower, peering out for prey. On the
sea-shore turrets of tiny pebbles are made, and the
sand of the tunnel is held firm by its silken lining.
The trap-door spider constructs a similar underground
tunnel, the summit of which is closed by a hinged
lid, whose surface is covered with moss and other
materials to make it resemble the neighboring
ground. Just inside this door is the inmate's lurk-
ing place, where it clasps the door and holds it down
so firmly that it cannot be opened without tearing.
The foraging period of this spider is at night, at
which time the door is thrown open and it ventures
to some distance from its fortress in search of prey.
Some of the trap-door species have a second tube,
opening into the first, the entrance being closed by
a valve-like trap not distinguishable when shut from
the remainder of the tube. In still other species
this second tube ascends to the surface, and affords
an avenue of escape in case enemies should break
through the two trap-doors. Insect ingenuity could
scarcely go further.
Another common use of the silk thread is in the
making of cocoons for the young. These are small,
round bags in which the eggs are laid. They are
lined with the softest silk within, and often woven
so closely as to be very hard and firm without. The
spider pays great attention to its cocoon, which in
some species is held by loose threads in the web,
in others suspended by a stem. Some large species
make a pear-shaped cocoon, which is attached to
grass or bushes. Others build a hemispherical one
against a flat surface. The running spiders carry
the cocoon with them, attached to their spinnerets,
and the young, when hatched, are carried for some
time on the back of the mother.
Attempts have been made to use the silk of the
spider as a material for fabrics, but with little
success. The most recent experiments are those
made by Prof. Wilder with a large southern species.
He believes that an ounce of thread can be got
from each spider during the season, this thread be-
ing from .007 to .004 inch thick, and much smoother
and brighter in color than that of the silk-worm.
Its fineness is such that several threads need to be
twisted to obtain a size suitable for use. The diffi-
culty in obtaining the silk, the labor in providing
the spiders with food, and other impediments, make
sects.
by parasitic mites, and some species are destroyed
the industry too expensive to promise satisfactory
competition with insect silk.
Comparatively little is known about the senses of
spiders. The general impression that they hear
well, and even enjoy music, is not based on fully
established facts. They are very sensitive to vibra-
tions, and this probably has much to do with their
apparent sense of hearing. The possession of a
stridulating organ by some species, however, is an
argument in favor of their hearing. They seem to
be short of sight and with little power of appreci-
ating form, their simple eyes being very imperfect
organs of vision.
Spiders have many enemies, which attack, both
the eggs and the mature animals. Parasitic insect
eggs are laid in the cocoons, and the larvae, hatch-
ing first, prey on the young spiders. The mature
spiders are eaten by savages in many parts of the
world, and supply food to birds, reptiles, and in:
They are affected and frequently destroyed
in considerable numbers by wasps, which paralyze
them by a sting, and then store them in their egg-
cells as food for their young when hatched. The
spider, on the other hand, is very wary and alert in
escaping his foes. Many of them have special lurk-
ing places and only venture out to take their prey,
others conceal themselves in the web, some have
the habit of shaking the web when in danger so
violently that they cannot be seen, and many others
when attacked at once fall from the web to the
ground, and thus seek to escape peril. (C. M.)
SPOFFORD, AINsworth RAND, Librarian of Con-
gress, was born at Gilmanton, N. H., Sept. 12, 1825.
Failing health having prevented him from entering
college, he removed to Cincinnati, and established
himself as a bookseller and publisher. In 1859 he
was engaged as associate editor by the Cincinnati
Daily Commercial, and two years later he entered the
Congressional Library, becoming librarian in 1864.
Under his administration the national library has
grown from 70,000 to upward of 600,000 volumes.
The office of librarian has become an important One
through the change in the copyright law effected in
1870. By this, all American copyrights are issued
from his office, and copies of all copyright publica-
tions must be deposited in the library. Mr. Spofford
has written much for the periodical press, and has
published catalogues of the Library of Congress;
The American Almanac and Treasury of Facts
(annually since 1878); Library of Choice Literature
(10 vols., 1881—SS); Library of Wit and Humor (5
vols., 1884); and Manual of Parliamentary Rules
(1884). In 1884 he received the degree of LL. D.
from Amherst College. As a librarian he is known
widely for his thorough knowledge of books.
F. L. W.
SPOLIATIONS, FRENCH. This term { Aiºn
history, denotes the losses sustained by the owners of
American ships confiscated by the French govern-
ment during the war between France and England
between the years 1778 and 1800. Under the Milan
decrees of Napoleon, made to counteract the British
Orders in Council, between 600 and 700 American
ships and their cargoes, were seized and sold. Jef-
ferson, as U. S. secretary of state, in 1793 called on all
merchants who had suffered or might thereafter suffer
injuries, “ contrary to the laws of nations and existing
treaties,” to forward the evidence of their claims to
the department of state. In the negotiations for the
settlement of these claims, which terminated in 1801,
the French conceded that the claims were just, and
repeatedly offered to pay the cash due. On the other
hand, certain French citizens had claims against the
United States, and the French nation itself had a
valid claim for damages. The private French claims
Were slight and easily settled, but the claim of the
560 SPORTS.
French nation was great. Under the treaty between
the French and the struggling American nation, con-
cluded in 1778, not only did the United States agree
to fight for the French in America, but they agreed
to allow the French ships of war to carry prizes into
American ports and there condemn and sell them at
all times. In return for these concessions the French
king recognized the right of the new nation, and also
gave such other valuable aid during the Revolution-
ary War as enabled the colonies to attain their inde-
pendence. The obligation of the United States to
stand by the terms of the treaty of 1778 was manifest.
The damages done by English cruisers to French
colonies, which American ships of war might have
averted, constituted a valid claim against the nation.
But more than all France valued her right under the
treaty to bring her prizes into American ports. The
American nation was extremely anxious to get rid of
the obligations to permit her to do so. It was one
of the triumphs of Jefferson's diplomacy which en-
abled this country to free itself from the entangling
alliance made during the struggle for liberty. Taking
the claims of American shipowners, which were then
worth their face interest in gold, Jefferson offered
them to the French on condition of a release in full
for all obligations on our part, and the bargain was
closed. The American government had taken private
property and used it for the public good. Everyone
acquiesced. Even the merchants who had lost their
ships were pleased, because the American Constitu-
tion said, “Nor shall private property be taken for
public use without just compensation.” In 1802
the claims were first reported to the House of Repre-
sentatives by Mr. Giles, in behalf of a select com-
mittee appointed for their investigation, and again,
in 1807, by Mr. Marion of South Carolina. These two
reports were a favorable statement of facts without
recommendation, probably on account of the unfort-
unate condition of the finances at that time. In
1818 there was an adverse report by Mr. Roberts; in
1822, to the House, by Mr. Russell; in 1824, by Mr.
Forsyth. In 1826, under the administration of John
Quincy Adams, all of the evidence touching these
claims, gathered from the documentary history and
from the ample material accumulated in the archives
of the department of state, was for the first time
completely presented to Congress, and never since
has there been an unfavorable report to either House.
The objections to the payment of these claims found
in the adverse reports referred to, in the “views of
the minority’ accompanying some of the favorable
reports, in the veto messages of Polk and Pierce, in
a speech of Silas Wright, made in the U. S. Senate
in 1835, were as follows: 1. They are stale. 2.
That the condition of the finances of the country
will not admit of their payment. 3. That at the
time they arose there was a state of war between the
United States and France. 4. That they were em-
braced in the Louisiana convention. 5. That they
were embraced in the convention of 1831 with France.
6. That Congress annulled the French treaties and
thus effaced them. In 1886 Congress passed an en-
abling act allowing the claims to go before the Court
of Claims. The claims were allowed, but Congress has
so far failed to make an appropriation covering the
several amounts. The legislatures of the 13 original
States have all at various times passed resolutions
directing their senators and asking their representa-
tives to take favorable action in behalf of these
claimants. It is estimated that, if interest be reck-
oned on the claims at 6 per cent., the aggregate
would now be about $80,000,000, as they will have
increased to 6 times the original amount. A few of
the undivided claims are as large as $50,000, the
average of them being about $4300. Most of them
have the necessary evidence on file. A very elabo-
rate history of the claims was made by the House !
committee on foreign affairs in January, 1884 (Re-
port No. 109). (F. G. M.)
SPORTS, ATHLETIC. This article is confined to
the popular American athletic sports.
BASE-BALL is the “national game” of the United
States. Two sources are claimed for it : (1) An old
English game called “rounders; ” (2) a game fa-
miliar in parts of the United States, fifty and more
years ago, known as “town ball.” The weight of
evidence seems to favor “town ball,” though that
may have been but a variation of “rounders.”
“Town ball” was systematized by the Olympic
Club of Philadelphia, organized in 1833. The pros-
perity of this organization attracted enterprising
ball-players and led to the formation of the first
base-ball clubs, two or three of which came into ex-
istence in New York in 1845. The Knickerbocker
Club was the chief promoter of this development.
It adopted playing rules, Sept. 23, 1845, and started
the game under auspicious circumstances. In May,
1857, the National Association of Base-ball Players,
composed entirely of New York clubs, drafted and
adopted a new code of playing rules. In 1860 the
Excelsior Club of Brooklyn, by its exhibitions in
tours through the cities of Western New York,
Pennsylvania, and Maryland, gave an impetus to
the spreading popularity of the game. What the
Knickerbocker Club did in the earlier period of the
history of the game in establishing base-ball on a
permanent basis, the Excelsior Club followed up by
their successful efforts to extend its popularity.
These tours resulted in the increase of the National
Association from twenty-five clubs in 1859 to eighty
in 1861. Meanwhile amateur clubs outside of the
Association were organizing all over the country,
and the game was becoming familiar to every Ameri-
can boy. Not only did boys take to the game, but
young and middle-aged men grew fond of it. The
old National Association had not been flourishing
ten years before professionalism began to find a
foothold in the institution, and in 1869 and 1870
this element became a ruling power in the Associa-
tion. A division followed, which resulted in the
organization of two National Associations, . The
new bodies were the National Amateur Association,
organized in 1871, wholly of amateur clubs ; and
the National Association of Professional Base-ball
Players, organized the same year, wholly of profes-
sional clubs, a distinction which has ever since been
preserved. From this time professional clubs mul-
tiplied rapidly, and soon the desire for closer organi-
zation sprang up, and professional Leagues, with
schedules of games to be played for various cham-
pionships, were formed by clubs representing differ-
ent cities. These operations did not interfere with
the progress of amateur clubs, which also multiplied,
and had their sectional leagues, schedules of games,
and attractive aims. The only check in the Wonder-
ful prosperity of the sport occurred at this time
through sundry evils connected with pool-selling
and the “cracked ” element in the clubs. But
these flagrant evils were opportunely and effectually
destroyed by the stringent laws of the National
League, established in 1876, and the American AS-
sociation, a new body of professional clubs, estab-
lished in 1881. The old National Association had
passed away and these two new bodies had taken its
place. For some time there was strife between them
as to which should have chief authority in the base-
ball world; each set up rules and laws of its own,
and the bitter rivalry threatened the destruction of
the honesty and popularity of the game. But the
differences were amicably arbitrated in 1882, when
the National League, American Association, and the
Northwestern League entered into the “Tripar-
tite Agreement,” which in 1883 was developed into
the “National Agreement.” The parties to this
SPORTS.
61
º)
P-
document, which has become the fundamental law
of base-ball affairs, are now (1889) the National
League, composed of clubs representing the cities
of Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Chicago, Wash:
ington, Pittsburg, Detroit, and Indianapolis : and
the American Association, consisting of clubs repre-
senting the cities of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Brook-
lyn, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Louisville, Kansas City,
and St. Louis. Other prominent associations are
the International Association, formed of clubs in
Canada and New York State ; the Central League,
formed of clubs in New Jersey and adjacent States ;
and the Western Association, formed of clubs in
States on the Mississippi; and the California Asso-
ciation. The laws
duce it in England, but there is an earnest endeavor
to popularize it in Australia. • * *
The following is a diagram of the ground, as it is
required under the existing regulations.
The grounds are always diamond-shaped. At each
corner is a square, called a “base.” The bases, num-
bered first, second, and third, are marked by canvas
bags, while home base is made of rubber. Home base
is the starting-point in the game, and is directly, in
front of the catcher; first base is diagonally to his
right. Lines drawn from the outer corner of the
home base through the centre of the first and third
bases, to the boundaries of the ground, are called
“foul lines.” The part of the field inside the dia-
mond is called the
of the game and *; i. * P.
rules governing sige of it, bºrn,
its play, as framed º * side the “foul
under this agree- lines,” is galled
ment, are adopted the “outfield.
by every base-ball In a game nine
organization in players are re-
the United States. quired on each
The rules may side; these are a
be changed every *F- catcher, pitcher,
year to meet the first, second, and
exigencies of the .# third basemen,
times and to keep & short stop, left,
pace with the im- sº centre, and right
proving skill of fielder. E a ch
the players. club has a cap-
The number of s” lºt Basemaa tain, who is al-
clubs, profession- * O ways one of the
al and amateur, nine player S.
in the United Tºach has a tenth
States, would run º sº man as a substi-
far into the thou- § tute when a regu-
sands, every city pl?chia lar player is re-
containing from B s ºf "S ^ called or disabled.
one to a hundred 4.ft. B The positions of
of them, in the sº these players are
supply of which s indicated in the
over 12,000 balls d diagram ; their
are made daily. 3 duties are pre-
The professional | N º: scribed by rules.
clubs have well- *: ; ; Oº ; : As to their abili-
kept grounds, fit- •º # /N 3, f ties, each must be
ted with every * 2° *— & a good fielder and
convenience to 9. 4, sº/PE a good batsman,
make the game éArc º v. > and if he is also
attractive. The Af O 2’ a good base run-
Phil a de lp hia UMPIRE / C ner so much the
Club expended * better. He must
$100,000 on its A A be a sure catcher
grounds in im- and swift, accu-
Cătchef's fence
prove me n ts
alone, the seating
rate thrower. The
capacity of the
grand pavilion
being over 10,000
people. Other
grounds seat as many as 15,000, and there occur times
when 18,000 are in the grounds and thousands on the
outside unable to gain entrance. Base-ball playing
is now done on scientific principles, and adept play-
ers, with reputations, receive salaries of from $2000 to
$4000 for a season of about six months. The players
are held to the different clubs by approved con-
tracts. As the success of a club depends largely
upon the skill of its players, there is considerable
competition every year in securing brilliant men ; as
high as $20,000 is said to have been paid for the
transfer of a first-class pitcher from one club to
another. Considerable capital is invested in the
sport, and the dividends are generally large.
Base-ball has not made much headway in other
countries. Unsuccessful efforts were made to intro-
FIG. 1.-Base-ball ground.
A, A, Reserved for Umpire, Batsman, and Catcher; B, B, Reserved for Cap-
tain and Assistant; C, C, Players' Benches; D, E, Bat Racks,
most responsible
position is that of
pitcher. His skill
and tact generally
decide the game.
Next to him is the catcher; and next, the short
stop. The umpire is a judge regularly appointed to
decide all points of dispute that may arise during
the game. He also superintends the play, signifies
when the game is to begin, passes judgment on all
balls pitched by the pitcher, and decides whether
the players are “out" or not. In short, he is mas-
ter of the field from the commencement to the ter–
mination of the game, and must compel the players
to observe the provisions of all the “playing rules.”
He generally stands behind the catcher, that he may
see and judge the balls thrown by the pitcher and
watch the players and plays.
The materials for play are a ball and a bat, no
more than one ball and no more than one bat being
used at a time. But if a ball be lost or ripped, or a

562
SPORTS.
bat be broken, a new one can take its place. Each
batsman generally has a bat to suit his own taste
and strength. The ball is spherical and elastic
enough to spring when hard hit, but not so elastic as
pure rubber. It must weigh between 5 and 54
9unces avoirdupois, and measure between 9 and 9i
inches in circumference. The bat is a round, taper-
ing club, though a portion of the surface may be flat
on One side; it must not exceed 2% inches in diameter
in the thickest part and must not exceed 42 inclies
in length. The bases are canvas bags stuffed with
Saw-dust or excelsior ; the home base being made of
rubber, that it may have a flat surface and avoid in-
jury to runners. The catcher uses a wire mask, in-
flated rubber chest-protector, and padded gloves;
the pitcher wears a brass toe-plate ; the first base.
man also wears padded gloves. The players are
uniformed, each club wearing regulation hats, suits,
belts, and shoes.
A Match-game.—With the above facts in mind, a
still clearer knowledge of base-ball can be obtained by
going through a game. Therefore let us play one or
two “innings,” and introduce the “points” as they
occur. We will suppose the game to be between the
Philadelphia and Chicago Clubs. The two captains
having decided by toss which shall go out in the
field and which shall stay in to do the batting, the
umpire “calls” the game to begin. The Philadel-
phia players have the “outs" and take their places
in the field ; the Chicago Club have the “ins.”
When three of their players have been “put out,”
their whole side will be “out,” and the Philadelphia
club will take its turn at the bat. The game usually
consists of nine of these double innings. All being
in readiness, the umpire calls “game,” tosses a new
ball to the pitcher, and prepares to judge the throw-
ing. The first batsman of the Chicago Club steps
into the quadrangle, beside home base, and gets
ready to hit the ball. The Philadelphias wish now
to prevent the batsman from reaching first base.
The pitcher wants to throw the ball in such a man-
ner as to deceive the batsman and make him “strike ’’
out. The batsman's aim is to avoid this by hitting
the ball so that he may run and reach first base be-
fore the ball can be thrown there. The pitcher
takes careful aim and sends the ball whirling toward
the catcher. Every ball must pass over the home
base between the knees and shoulders of the bats-
man. Every time it fails to do this, the umpire calls
‘‘ ball,” and every time the ball passes as required,
he calls “strike,” whether the batsman aims at it or
not. Four of these “balls” entitle the batsman to
run to first base, while three of these “strikes '' put
the batsman “out ; ” i.e., force him to give place to
the next batsman, so that, generally, the pitcher has
never to pitch more than seven balls to decide
whether a batsman goes out or not. The game be-
ing now in motion, let us suppose that the batsman
has tried to hit the ball with his bat, but has failed.
This failure may be owing to the speed of the ball or
the curve it takes, and the batsman's misjudgment.
Every such attempt and failure to touch the ball is
called also a “strike,” and three of these will put
him out. In other words, a batsman can be put out
on “strikes’’ in either of two ways: on strikes
called by the umpire or on strikes made by himself.
At length he knocks the ball into the field along
the ground in such a way that the fielders fail to
stop it before he reaches first base. This is called a
“base hit.” He has now become a “base runner,”
and his object is to reach second base, then third
base, and then “home.” He can do this in either of
two ways: run swiftly to second base while the ball
is passing from pitcher to catcher, or wait till the
next batsman hits the ball, and sends him to second
base. If he does the former he is said to have
“stolen” second base; if the latter, he has been
“forced ” or helped to second base. Batsman No.
2 knocks the ball “fair” enough, because it goes
in front of the “foul lines,” but it flies up into the
air, and is caught in the air by centre fielder, and
held. This is called a “fly.” ball, and batsman No.
2 is said to be “out on a fly.” No. 1 is still on first
base, not being allowed to run on a caught “fly,”
and No. 3 steps up to bat. He knocks the ball an
it rolls slowly toward first baseman, who picks it up
and touches his foot to the bag before No. 3 can
reach there, but not quick enough to prevent No. 1
from running to second base. This puts No. 3 out.
There are now two men out, Nos. 2 and 3, and only
one more needs to be put out to prevent No. 1 from
reaching “home" and scoring a run. No. 4 hits the
ball so hard as to send it flying over the head of the
left fielder, and before it can be stopped and thrown
in toward the pitcher No. 1 has touched third base
and the home base, and scored a run ; while No. 4
has reached second base, having made a “two-base
hit,” because he reached second base before the ball
did. No. 5 comes to bat, and while waiting, the
pitcher, trying to catch No. 4 napping, makes a feint
to pitch the ball but does not do so. The umpire
detects him, and calls it a “balk,” which permits
No. 5 to take first base, just as if he had hit the ball,
this being the penalty for “balking.” There are
now two men on bases and No. 6 comes to bat, but
while he is waiting to aim at the ball No. 4 tries to
“steal” third base; but the pitcher, ever-watchful,
detects him, hurls the ball to third baseman, who
catches it and touches No. 4 before he can reach the
base. This puts him out, and (since three have now
been “put out ’’), closes the Philadelphias’ part of
the “inning.” The Chicagos now go into the field,
and the Philadelphias come in to bat. Batsman No.
1 steps up to bat. He hits the ball fiercely to short
stop, who picks it up and throws it swiftly toward
first baseman, but it is too high and goes over his
head. Before it can be recovered No. 1 has reached
the base. He has gained so much on an “error”—
made by the short stop. No. 2 waits in vain for a
“good "ball. The pitcher is excited by the short
stop's mistake, and throws the ball so wildly that
the umpire calls “ball ” after “ball” until four are
counted, and No. 2 goes to first base. This forces
No. 1 to second base. Nobody is out yet, two men
are on bases, and No. 3 is ready to bat. The pitcher
is still unstrung, and pitches so wildly that the ball
hits No. 3 in the side. The umpire tells No. 3 to
take his base, this being the penalty for hitting a
batsman with the ball. No. 3 forces No. 2 to second
base, and No. 2 forces No. 1 to third base. The
bases are now said to be “full” and no one out.
The chances for “runs’ are excellent. No. 4 takes
up the bat and knocks the ball to short stop. Every
man is forced to run. It is a critical stage. Short
stop picks up the ball, touches No. 2 like a flash,
and then throws the ball to the catcher, who receives
it before No. 1 can reach home. Two men are thus
put “out”—No. 2 and No. 1–and a “double play ”
is made. There are now two out, and two men on
base : No. 3 on second and No. 4 on first base. The
Philadelphias are anxious for a “run,” and No. 5
hits the ball so hard that it goes far beyond centre
fielder, and before it can be recovered No. 5 has
made the whole circuit and reached “home,” mak-
ing a “home run" and sending in Nos. 3 and 4, each
with “runs" to his credit. No. 6 hits the ball, but
it goes up into the air outside of the “foul lines.”
The catcher is nimble and catches it before it touches
the ground, and No. 6 is said to be out on a “foul
fly.” Three men are out, and the other part of the
“inning” is finished. Two such parts make up an
“inning” and nine “innings” constitute a game.
The “score ” for this first inning is 3 runs to 1 in
favor of the Philadelphias; and the Chicagos come
SPORTS. - 563
in to bat again. And so the game goes on, alter- Always aim over the plate and the ball will be seen
nately, until nine innings are finished, the club hav- to curve in, the amount of the curve depending upon
ing the most runs winning. If the score be even or the rapidity of the twist imparted to the ball by the
“tie,” more innings have to be played until either fingers. The greater the full-length swing of the
side exceeds the other. Games usually begin at 4 P. arm, the greater is the speed and more sudden the
M. and last two hours. If darkness gathers before curve of the ball. Sudden sharp curves are called
the game is done, the umpire can call the game to “shoots,” and the in-shoot is the most marked be-
stop, and the club which is then ahead wins. cause it is easiest to give it the most rapid twist and
The season for base-ball is from April 15 to Octo-1 the swiftest momentum. The twist of the in-curve
ber 15, the summer months being the most favorable ball is forward and from left to right, and any kind
time. (H. R. R.) of delivery that will give it this gyration with suffi-
Dr. Leuf's Hygiene for Base Ball Players (A. J. cient rapidity will cause the ball to curve in.
Reach & Co., Phila.) gives the following explanation | The out-curve, so called because it turns out from
and illustrations of “curve-pitching,” as now prac- the batsman, is generally produced by rolling the
tised. Its principles have been thoroughly investi-ball off the thumb side of the index-finger with the
gated, both as regards the varieties of curve and the palm turned up and the little-finger edge of the
muscular effortrequired to effect them. The object of hand facing the opposite shoulder (Fig. 3). As in
Fig. 2. —In-curve. FIG. 3.-Out-curve.
the curve pitching is to outwit the batsman while the every kind of pitching, the arm is first drawn well
Pitcher gains a point for the benefit of his own side. back so as to give it plenty of swing in coming for-
There are four curves used: The in-curve, the out- ward in delivery. The elbow is slightly bent and,
curve, the down-curve or drop-ball, and the up-curve as the arm comes forward and just before letting
or rising ball, which are here explained. go the ball, there is a simultaneous side-bending of
The in-curve, so called because it turns in toward the wrist on the little-finger side toward the oppo-
the batsman, is produced by rolling the ball off the site shoulder, and a slightly jerky movement of the
tips of the fingers with the palm of the hand facing elbow backward and away from the body. These
directly forward (Fig. 2). The ball must be grasped complex movements send the ball out of the hand
with sufficient firmness to prevent its premature with a sudden jerk from the thumb side of the in-
slipping out of the hand. The arm is drawn back, dex-finger, with the hand upturned, and give the
and with a full-length swing brought forward, usu-ball the requisite twist to make a good curve and
ally on a level with the shoulder. When about also insure adequate speed. The twist of the out.
opposite the shoulder, the elbow is bent in toward curve ball is forward and from right to left.
and across the chest, at the same time sharply bend- The down-curve or drop-ball, so called because it
ing the wrist and making a sudden jerky finger press-descends sooner than if it had been thrown in the
ure upon the ball to give it the necessary twist. ordinary manner, is rolled off the thumb side of the

564 SPORTS.
index-finger as in the out-curve, with the difference |thumb side of the index under the hand. This is a
that the palm, which is now brought over the shoul- necessary movement—to impart the proper twist, and
der, 1S turned directly upward, with the little-finger at first is found difficult to execute. The ball leaves
side facing the breast (Fig. 4). The arm is first the hand with a remarkably sudden jerk, and on that
Fig. 4.—Down-curve. FIG. 5.-Up-curve.
swung back behind the head, from which position it account gets great speed and a very good twist and
is brought forward on about a level with the top of resulting curve. (A. H. P. L.)
the head. In this the mode of drop-ball delivery º Foot-BALL is not so popular in the United
elbow is of course necessarily bent. Immediately States as base-ball, and has no professional clubs.
- after passing over the shoulder, the arm is as sud- Its principal favor is with students in academies and
denly and as forcibly as possible pulled down, the colleges. There are amateur associations, and several
palm is turned up, and the hand bent in toward the intercollegiate leagues, and by these the game has
chest on the little-finger side, and the ball permitted been made somewhat scientific. The principal foot-
to roll off the thumb side of the index-finger. The ball organization is the American Intercollegiate
sudden, shoulder motion must be mainly depended Association, comprised of “elevens” from Harvard,
upon for speed, while the wrist motion determines Yale, Princeton, Wesleyan, and the University of
the rapidity of the twist, and hence the extent and Pennsylvania. This body yearly arranges a schedule
suddenness of the curve. of games which are played for the championship of
The up-curve, or rising ball, so called because it the United States. The contests between these
has a peculiar ascending motion, and falls to the “elevens” create wide interest and are played be-
ground farther away than if it had been thrown in fore crowds of 5000 to 15,000 people, who pay liber-
the ordinary manner, is the most difficult to master, ally for the privilege. Yale has won the champion-
but always the easiest curve to make when once ship pennant in 1876, 1881, 1882, 1883, and 1888.
learned (Fig. 5). Here the ball is also rolled off the Foot-ball, as played in the United States, resembles
thumb side of the index-finger, but in a manner that the Rugby game more than the Association or Har-
at first is extremely awkward, and, in fact, seems row game of England. Under the rules of the
almost impossible. The body is bent forward, and American Intercollegiate Association the game is
the arm drawn back and well up so as to get a as follows: -
good start for the forward swing. As it is brought. The field is rectangular, 330 by 160 feet. The
down at full length it comes forward at about the rectangle is outlined by broad whitewash lines, as
level of the knee, and just here the palm is turned in tennis. At each end are the “goal lines.” Inside
is far upward and backward as it can be twisted, of these and the side lines the game must be played.
with the little-finger side directed upward toward Parallel with the goal lines and running across the
the face of the pitcher and also slightly bent field at a distance of 75 feet from each goal are lines
back, when the ball is permitted to roll off the called the “25-yard-line limit of kick-out.” In the

SPORTS.
565
middle of each goal line stands the goal—two up-
right posts, exceeding 20 feet high, and placed 18%
feet apart, with a cross-bar 10 feet from the ground.
Every ball, to count in the score, must cross the
goal line. The value of each point in scoring is :
Goal from “touch down,” 6; goal from “field kick,”
5; “touch down" failing kick, 4 ; “Safety,” by op-
ponents, 2.
The ball is of oval shape, inflatable, made of
India-rubber, and cased in leather. A foot-ball team
consists of seven “rushers,” known as centre rusher,
his right and left guards, and two end rushers; one
quarter-back, two half-backs, and a full-back. The
captain is one of the eleven, and directs the move-
ments of his team. The main office of the rushers
is to keep their opponents away from the ball. The
centre rusher puts the ball in play, and should be a
man of weight and muscle. The quarter-back looks
after the disposition of the ball. The half-backs
must be wiry, swift, and deep-chested. The full-
back is the emergency man, and must be a good
kick and a sure “tackler.” There is an umpire and
a referee: the umpire is judge for the players, and
his decisions are final regarding “fouls,” i.e.,
violations of rules and unfair tactics; the referee
is judge for the ball, and his decision is final on all
points not covered by the umpire. The time of game
is usually 14 hour, each side playing 45 minutes
from each goal, with 10 minutes intermission between
the two halves. The game is decided by the score of
even halves.
Foot-ball can be best illustrated by going through
and explaining the steps in an actual game. Let us
describe a contest between the Yale and Harvard
“elevens.”
The two captains toss up for choice of goal or
“kick off.” (A “kick off" is a “place kick” from
the centre of the field of play and cannot secure a
goal, a “place kick” being made by kicking the
ball after it has been placed on the ground.) Yale
wins the toss, and the rival teams walk into the cen-
tre of the field. Here there are three lines, running
parallel with the goal lines, five yards apart. The
centre line is for the ball; the other two are for the
rival “rush lines,” made up of the seven “rushers.”
The rushers face each other, spreading out, with
their faces toward their opponents' goal. Behind
the centre rusher stands the quarter-back. Five
yards behind him, diagonally to his right and left,
stand the two half-backs, and ten or more yards be-
hind them, centrally, stands the full-back. Between
the two lines of rushers, five yards directly in front
of the centre rusher, is placed the ball.
The Game.—All in readiness, the referee signals to
begin. . The ball can be put in play only by the cen-
tre rusher in one of two ways, as directed by the
captain : viz., either kick it strongly toward Harvard's
goal, a proper “kick off; ” or lift it with his toe,
catch it as it rises, and pass it behind him to his
nearest man, a feint to “kick off.” The latter is the
commonest and safest mode of opening. Yale's cap-
tain having signalled the centre rusher to feint, he
passes the ball quickly to a chosen man, generally a
half-back. Yale's aim is to get the ball over Har-
Vard's goal line, while Harvard's object is to prevent
such success. Accordingly the Yale man, with the
ball, darts for the coveted goal, while his colleagues
strive to block and keep away from him their oppo-
ments. He has hardly gone ten yards before a burly
Harvard man, bursting past every obstacle, seizes him
round the waist and drags him to the ground. This
is called a “tackle,” and the man with the ball cries
“down,” and is released. The scattered teams re-
form, or “line up,” on the spot, facing each other as
before. As the Yale man clung to the ball, it goes
again to his centre rusher. It can now be put in
play either by a “kick off,” by the centre rusher, or
keep the ball.
by being “snapped back,” when it must touch at
least three persons. The first way is usually im-
practicable, so the centre rusher, at a signal from the
quarter-back, snaps the ball backward with his foot
toward the latter, who seizes it instantly and throws
it to a signalled half-back, who proceeds to dart be-
tween the enemy or out around them, while after
him rush the Harvards, harassed and impeded by
the Yale rushers. The man with the ball is Sur-
rounded, but before he can be “held " he passes the
ball back to one of his men, who continues the dash,
and immediately becomes the object of attack. In
attempting to run round the enemy, he is forced be-
yond the limit line at the side. He must now stop
and come back to the point where he passed “Out-
side.” The men “line up º' as before, and now the
ball must be put in play by the end rusher nearest
the side line. He can do it in either of the ways
allowed the centre rusher, but he chooses to Snap
it back, and the quarter-back passes it to the half-
back, who tries to force his way through the bat-
tling crowd. (The moment a “snap back" is
made, the Harvard rushers spring in and strive
to break through the Yale “rush line " and cap-
ture the ball. Here the heaviest fighting occurs.
The rules forbid the use of fists in fighting through
the crowd, under penalty of disqualification. But
the man with the ball can use his elbows, shoulders,
or open palm to throw off assailants. The ball is
always carried tightly under the arm opposite the
enemy.) The half-back makes an attempt to dive
between the men, but is caught suddenly and
thrown and “held,” i.e., intercepted—he is said to
be “down.” If in four of these “downs" the side
with the ball does not gain at least five yards, the
ball passes over to the other side. The possession
of the ball is a decided advantage. The Yales have
now three “downs,” and must gain two yards to
The goal with the chance of scoring
is still 50 feet away. They “line up" quickly and the
ball is snapped back. The quarter-back throws it
to the half-back, who dashes gallantly through the
crowd, gains clear ground, and makes for the goal,
With the enemy at his heels. But he is too fleet for
them, and, dodging the full-back, he crosses the goal
line and touches the ball to the ground between the
goal posts. This is called a ‘‘ touch down,” and
counts 4 points. When a “touch down '' is made
the ball is brought back into the field, to a point on
the “25-yard-line limit of kick-out ’’ opposite the
place where it touched the ground, and is held very
close to the ground (but never touching it). The
man thus holding the ball lies on his side and tries
to drop it just in time for some one of his team (the
most accurate kicker) to kick it through Harvard's
goal posts and over the cross-bar. If he succeeds it
is called a “goal from touch down,” and counts 6
points. If he fail, Yale is credited with merely a
“touch down.” He succeeds, and so increases the
score by 6 points. The ball is now placed in the
centre of the field, as at first, and the elevens resume
the positions they occupied at the beginning of the
game, with the difference that Harvard has the ball.
The game opens with a proper “kick off,” and both
sides sweep after the ball. It falls near the Yale
goal line, and before Yale's full-back can return it,
i.e., kick or carry it back, the Harvards pounce on
him and have it “down.” If, during the rush that
is about to take place, the ball be forced back across
Yale's goal line, or so near to it as to run the risk of
a “touch down,” Yale is permitted the choice of a
fight or a concession. If the latter, they carry the
ball over their own goal line and themselves make a
“touch down,” which is called a “safety" and counts
2 for Harvard. This is always a bitter resource.
But if they decide to fight, the ball is put in play
regularly and thrown to the full-back, who kicks it
566
SPORTS.
high over all heads toward the Harvard goal. If the
ball chances to go over the side bounds of the field
both sides make a rush for it, and the side capturing
it. Qut of bounds bears it back just within the limits.
If it strikes inside the field, the side catching it puts
it in play. Harvard gets the ball, and they put it in
motion, and their half-back breaks through all
restraint and makes a “touch down.” But as he did
not get near enough the goal posts to make a “drop
kick,” his play is to “punt out” the ball (made by
a player of the side which has made a “touch down”
in the opponents' goal to another of his own side for
a fair catch). His object is to punt so that the ball
Will be caught in front of the goal posts. Accord-
ingly, Yale “line up” along their goal line; while
Harvard, excepting the punter, “line up" 15 yards
aWay, facing Yale. The punter takes his position
among the Yale men, who must be 10 feet away
from him on either side, and makes the “punt” by
letting the ball fall from his hands and kicking it
before it touches the ground. If a “fair catch " be
made the ball is passed to a Harvard man, who holds
it for a “drop kick” as before. But if the ball be
missed, the moment it touches the ground it is in
play again, and can be rushed by either side. The
Harvard man misses the ball, intentionally or other-
Wise, but it is saved by one of his side, who grabs it,
and the men “line up " again. (This “lining up "
takes place every time the ball is about to be put in
play.) The centre rusher snaps it back and the
quarter-back throws it to the full-back, who “drop
kicks" it unerringly through the Yale goal posts,
making a “goal from field kick,” which counts 5.
The referee now calls “Time,” and the first half is
played. An intermission of ten minutes takes place,
the score standing: Harvard, 9; Yale, 6. And so
the game continues until the time is ended. All
time lost by accidents or allowable delays is added
to the regulation time, that the full limit may be
Occupied. In games between such teams as Har-
ward, Princeton, and Yale more than 15 points are
seldom made by either side, a few points often de-
ciding the game. But between these and inferior
teams the score mounts even into the hundreds,
Harvard defeating Exeter in 1886 by a score of 158
points to 0, the greatest on record. (H. R. R.)
JUMPING. In this sport the records are confined,
for the most part, to amateur athletic associations.
Among amateurs a fair record for the running broad
jump is 17 feet 9 inches ; and for the running high
jump about 5 feet. Only a few years ago a standing
jump of 5 feet 7 inches was considered marvellous,
and but few American athletes could attain even
that. Now there are several men in almost every
large city who are able to accomplish it. There are
many ways of approaching the bar practised by
good athletes, but those who lead in this sport run
toward it directly at right angles. When the bar is
reached the body should be crouched as low as
possible, as only by that means are all the muscles
of the body brought into play. The leverage of the
back is also important in assisting the jumper, and
by constant practice the cartilages may be brought
to a high state of elasticity. The method practised
is to approach the bar with three unequal long
bounds and two short ones, after which the crouch-
ing position is assumed. When making the final
spring the jumper twists the right foot violently out-
ward, after which both arms and legs are jerked
suddenly upward to give additional impetus to the
jump. The knees are brought into contact with the
chest, thereby causing the body to Occupy the Small-
est possible space when crossing the bar. The Sud-
den twisting of the right foot outward imparts a
similar motion to the body, thereby causing it to
turn half-way round from left to right. . When the
body is near the top of the bar the right arm is
jerked toward the shoulder, and a similar motion
With the left should follow. At the instant the
arms are jerked the legs should be shot out from
their doubled-up position, thus carrying the body
still farther upward. The highest record of this
Sort was made by E. Byrd Page, who cleared 6 feet
4 inches, in Philadelphia, Oct. 7, 1887.
ROWING is a pastime which has closely followed
the practice in England; but it differs from it, more
especially with regard to the stroke. The stroke
usually adopted in England, known as the “book-
stroke,” makes the rower reach forward as far as he
can, and requires him to pull it clear through until
his body is well past a perpendicular. At first
scarcely any of the American oarsmen adopted this
stroke ; and yet they differed from each other as
much as they did from the English stroke. The
champion scullers, the professionals, and amateurs
appear to vary as much as they possibly can in their
ideas of what a correct stroke should be. It is
described by Edward Hanlan, of Canada, long the
champion of the world, as follows: “Instead of
spreading my knees apart, as most rowers do when
reaching forward, I sit in a natural position with
my legs and arms directly in line as they stretch
out before me. In coming back the knees close
Somewhat, but not entirely, the elbows come close
to my sides, and the hands lap over about 6 inches.
This wide spreading of the knees and stretching for-
ward to the last inch of reach puts those who adopt
it into a cramped position when their oars catch the
water, thereby wasting strength and purchase.
Open-handed oars I never use. For my great point
is to utilize my every ounce of strength, and open-
handed oars fritter away a man's strength by spread-
ing his arms too wide when he takes the water.
Being convinced that more speed is got aft of the
rowlock than forward of it, I pull an easy stroke un-
til my body is straight in the boat, and then shove
through steadily with all my strength, but so bal-
ancing the stroke as not to jerk the boat at the fin-
ish. I don’t begin to slide until my oars have taken
a good hold on the water, for I can only get all my
weight on a stroke by having my legs and arms act
simultaneously—that is to say, by bringing all my
rowing muscles into play at the same time. Force
is lost by a premature using of the slide. In turn-
ing, after getting just past the flag, I drop my left
oar almost straight down into the water, with elbow
close to side, put my whole weight on it, leaning
slightly to the left, so that both ends of the boat are
raised above the water and she can pivot on her
bilge, and then pull her around with steady strokes
of the right oar. Every inch tells in the long run,
and it is by studying such little points as these that
I obtained and keep my place as champion oarsman
of the world.” In the American colleges a variety
of strokes was used until 1872, when the leading col-
leges began to adopt the English stroke. The re-
sults have shown that it has won more races than
the hap-hazard strokes that have been adopted by
the different crews from year to year. In 1883 the
Yale College oarsmen adopted a very fast stroke, but
they suffered defeat at the hands of the Harvards,
who had adopted the long sweeping stroke of the
English. The Harvards had adopted this stroke by
degrees for ten years previously ; and even the Yale
men had won with the same stroke in 1876. The
victory of the long stroke in 1883 was the more sig-
nificant because the Yale men were giants in com-
parison with the Harvard men, and they kept up
their stroke of 42 to 45 a minute to the very end
without apparent fatigue. The inference was that
the longer stroke was the best. *
Among the professional rowers of America the
Ward brothers, of Cornwall, N. Y., appear to have
been the pioneers. Later, the championship"of the
*
SPORTS.
567
world was secured by Hanlan; and, in 1885, by
William Beach, of Australia. The championship of
America was won by O'Connor, of Toronto, in De-
cember, 1888. Among amateurs the leader for many
years was Charles E. Courtney, of Union Springs, N.
Y., who afterward became a professional and made
the extraordinary time of 3 miles in 19 minutes and
27 seconds. In 1885 a great race was rowed at Al-
bany between Courtney and Conley, on one side,
and Hosmer and Gaudaur, for the double-scull
championship of the world. The race was won by
Courtney and Conley. ;
Rowing in the United States has been more rap-
idly developed through the races between the several
universities and colleges than through any other
source. In fact, the history of these races may be said
to have marked nearly all of the history of its ad-
Vancement. In 1852 Harvard and Yale rowed their
first race of 2 miles on lake Winnipiseogee, in New
Hampshire. Harvard was represented by the Oneida,
an 8-oared boat, 38 feet long ; and Yale, by the Hal-
cyon, also an 8-oared barge. Yale won by 2 lengths,
the time being about 10 minutes. In 1855 Harvard
put forward an 8-oared and a 4-oared boat ; and Yale,
two 6-oared boats. The former won. In 1859 Harvard
had a shell and a lapstreak, Yale a shell, and Brown
a lapstreak. Harvard was the victor. In 1859 Yale
beat by 2 seconds; and in 1860 Harvard beat by 12
Seconds. Down to this point the races were so ir-
regular, as to the classes of boats entered, that no
fair test could be made. In 1858 a movement was
made toward an intercollegiate regatta. Harvard,
Yale, Brown, and Trinity responded; but nothing
Was done until 1860, with the result above noted.
The civil war postponed further efforts until 1864,
since which time the record of the university races
is as follows—the course being 4 miles.
Year. Winner. Time. Won by.
Minutes. | Seconds.
1864. |Yale........................... |9.01 42%
1865. Yale........................... 17.42% 26%
1866. | Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.43 27
1867. Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.13 72%
1868. | Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.48% 50
& 1869. Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. 02 9
1870. | Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.30 Foul
1871. Agricultural (three colleges) .... 16.46% 37
1872. Amherst (six colleges) .......... 6.33 24
1873. |Yale (eleven colleges)........... 16.59 10
1874. Columbia (nine colleges)... . . . . . 16.42 S
1875. Cornell (thirteen colleges)....... 16.53% 11
1876, Yale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,02 29
1876. Cornell (six colleges) . . . . . . . . . . . 17.01% 4
1877. | Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.36 7
1878. Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.44 45
1879. Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.15 93
1880. Yale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.27 42
1881. |Yale........................... 22.13 6
1882. | Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.47 3
1883. Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.49 73
1884. |Yale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.31 15
1885. Harvard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.15}; 74%
}}}} ||Yale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.41% | 10
| 1887. Yale....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.56 14%
Liss Yale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 20.10 74
In 1883 Cornell beat Pennsylvania, Princeton, and
Wesleyan on Lake George ; and in 1884 Pennsyl-
vania beat Princeton, Cornell, Columbia, and Bow-
doin. For a time Harvard and Yale had everything
their own way. In 1871 Harvard, Amherst, Brown,
and Bowdoin organized the “Rowing Association of
American Colleges,” for the purpose of using the
course at Springfield, Mass. In 1872 Harvard was
defeated by Amherst, and Yale was the last to reach
the goal. This result encouraged boating among the
Smaller colleges, so that in 1873 eleven crews entered.
Disputes having arisen in regard to the line of finish,
there was a disagreement upon the results between
Harvard and Yale for several years which helped
other colleges to win the intercollegiate races. Har-
vard and Yale, however, met again in 1876, and the
contest between the two leaders has been continued
to the present day.
The original Oneida, of the Harvards, was a type
of the club-boats down to 1855. It was a lapstreak,
very heavy, with a straight stem and no sheer. The
width was 33 feet in the widest part ; and the oars
were placed in pins fastened to the gunwale. The
boats used by Yale in 1852 were of a similar pattern.
In 1855 the Oneida received small outriggers of
wood, which was the first appearance of such arrange-
ments in America, although they had been used in
the Oxford and Cambridge races after 1846. Soon
after 1855 Harvard secured an 8 oar lacing boat,
a lapstreak 51 feet long, with outriggers. In 1857
Harvard built the first 6-oared shell ever constructed
in America. It was 40 feet long, 26 inches wide, and
carried iron outriggers. The boat weighed 150
pounds–-a great gain over former boats—and the
material was white pine. In 1859 the Yale men
brought a new shell of Spanish cedar, 45 feet long,
24 inches wide, and weighing 150 pounds. Yale car-
ried a coxswain; Harvard carried no coxswain or rud-
der. This, the first racing between shells in America,
was won by Harvard. The two lapstreaks also entered
for the race were left behind so far that the advent
of the shells marked a new era. Then came the
adoption, by Harvard, of a rudder steered by the bow
oar by means of wires. In 1870 Yale introduced the
sliding seat, which immediately called forth a long
debate as to its merits; but it was soon accepted as
a positive advance in the art of rowing. In 1885.
paper boats began to be used; and they are now al-
most universally employed.
RUNNING. Foot-races of 100, 200, and 440 yards are
often won by a few inches, and the value of an inch
or two in a runner's stride is of great importance.
Relatively long limbs, with a short body, full chest,
and small bones will win the day as against long
bodies and long limbs. The small girth of the legs.
of runners has often been noticed. From the girth
of the muscle may be obtained a correct idea of its
Volume, and but little idea of its length or the ex-
tent of its contraction. Length of the muscle, and
not thickness, is of advantage to short-distance run-
ners. One of the champion runners of the world is
but 5 feet 7 inches in height; but he has a length of
lower leg which corresponds to a man 3 or 4 inches
taller and a length of thigh belonging to a man al-
most as large. , Running records have not been pre-
served as carefully as the records upon other athlet-
ic sports. It may, however, be stated that for a 100
yards run a fair record is 10 to 11 seconds; for a
440 yards run, 57 seconds; for a 220 yards dash, 25
Seconds. The records for running a mile differ, so
that but little significance can be attached to them.
The half-mile was run by Cross, of England, in 1 min-
ute 543 seconds in New York in 1888; the 100 yards,
by Westing, in 10 seconds; the 14 mile, by Coneff, in
6 minutes 3 seconds; the 239 yards, by Peiling, in 24;
Seconds. Westing and Pelling broke the records.
SKATING, in the United States, follows at a consid—
erable distance behind the practice of the art in
Canada and in the northern countries of Europe.
In fact, no Americans have yet been found who could
compete, successfully, either in speed or in grace,
With natives of those countries. The championship
of America was won in 1884 by a Norwegian, Axël
Paulsen, who skated 10 miles in 39 minutes 7
Seconds. Soon afterward he made 25 miles in 93
minutes 28 seconds. Both of these records were
considerably in advance of the fastest time down to
that date. The fastest authentic time on record in
America was made by Tim Donohue, Jr., on the
Hudson River, near Newburg, N. Y., in 1887. The
mile was made in 2 minutes 12, seconds.
B68
SPORTS.
Formerly the best skate used in America was
known as the “Dutch rocker,” but the wooden skate
has passed away. About 1870 a skate imported from
Canada, called the ‘‘Acme,” proved superior to any
&manufactured in the United States. Now the
“‘Club '' skate appears to be the favorite. It is
built upon a plate of iron or steel which fits closely
to the sole of the boot ; and the blade is made of the
finest steel. It costs three or four times as much as
the original Dutch rocker. The latter always had a
groove running lengthwise of the blade ; and this re-
quired continual sharpening so that the skate might
take a better hold upon the ice. But with the
Acme skate smooth bottoms were introduced, and
grooved skates have not been manufactured since.
From about 1875 to 1880 many rinks were built
in the United States for the purpose of roller-skat-
ing. This skating could be practised at all seasons
of the year, but its free exercise was found to foster
immorality. The public then discountenanced it and
many of the States passed laws so regulating and re-
stricting the rinks that they have been closed.
SWIMMING. Of this valuable exercise records
are not frequent ; and they are of little worth, be-
cause the various conditions of tide and running
water are such as to make a fair record very difficult.
Natatoriums are now common in all the larger
cities. The former practice was to have the bottom
of the building open to the bottom of a stream.
But, latterly, it has been customary to build a floor
that can be raised at any angle by windlasses at the
four corners. This is considered much safer for the
bathers. The natatoriums now float instead of be-
ing built from the bottom of the stream. An ap-
proved form consists of two pontoons running longi-
tudinally, each 60 feet long and about 30 feet broad.
The pontoons are divided by bulkheads into air-
tight compartments which would prevent the bath-
house from sinking in case of an accident. The
pontoons are connected at the ends by stout tim-
bers bolted and wedged with knees for braces.
Upon this double boat a foundation and structure
80 feet square is erected. There is but one entrance,
and that is from the outside. Small compartments,
for use by the individual bathers, open by doors
into the inner court. The movable floor allows any
depth of water to be used, and also gives access for
occasional cleanings.
Eor swimming the following directions are given.
First, learn to duck without minding it; hold your
breath and put your head under water several times
whenever you bathe. The ducking will become
less and less disagreeable, until the disinclination to
go under water nearly or quite disappears. Some
acquire the necessary indifference to being under
water almost at once. When it is acquired, select
a place where the water is just deep enough for the
bather to sit upon the bottom with head and shoul-
ders out. Then take a full breath, distending the
lungs, and, placing the arms by the sides, lie down
on your back. If unsuccessful, partially expel the
air from the lungs and try again. After having
found out by actual experiment how easy it is to lie
down on your back under water, go out to the full
length of your rope and, holding your breath, pull
yourself in toward the shore, hand over hand, not
jetting your feet touch bottom on any account until
your breath gives out or you run aground. When
you can run yourself ashore with ease and certainty
you will probably have discovered that most of the
passage is made at or near the surface of the water,
and possibly you will have learned to keep your
balance and pull yourself ashore with your nose
above water. When you can do this you can
breathe through your nose during the passage, and
as soon as you can breathe comfortably while haul-
ing yourself ashore you are ready for the next step;
namely, try to pull yourself ashore using one hand
for the rope and paddling with the other. This is
not a very easy thing to do, and before you accomplish
it you will find yourself paddling with both hands
and kicking with both feet—that is to say, swimming.
As soon as you find that you can keep yourself right
side up, and your eyes and nose above water, you
have learned the great secret, and swimming, with
the most approved and scientific stroke, will follow
according to your opportunities and ambition.
These directions are based upon the well-estab-
lished fact that no one can be a confident swimmer
who is disconcerted at finding himself unexpectedly
under water. Therefore the first thing to be learned
is to catch the breath instinctively under any and
all circumstances the instant you find yourself going
under water. Strangulation occurs in consequence
of drawing water with the breath into the air-pas-
Sages, and even partial strangulation is unpleasant.
The first thing, then, for the novice to learn is to
instinctively keep water out of the windpipe. This
can best be done by frequent voluntary duckings.
TENNIS, LAwN, is fully described in the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA.
ToBoggANING is a sport which has been recently im-
ported into the United States from Canada. The re-
markable spread of the sport in the Northern States is
worthy of a brief notice. About the year 1875 the
winter sports of the city of Montreal commenced to
attract attention. These, including tobogganing, were
made an annual feature of its social life. Since that
time tobogganing slides have been erected in Sara-
toga, Troy, Albany, Burlington, St. Paul, and many
other cities of the North.
A toboggan slide may be briefly described as fol-
lows: A frame of heavy timbers is erected to a
height of from 50 to 60 feet. From one side of this
frame a very steep slide, paved with ice, is arranged
at an incline of about 45 degrees for perhaps 10 or
15 feet. The incline then changes so that it shall
gradually approach the ground and run parallel with
it. If the slide (as is usually the case) has been ar-
ranged near a hill-side, the runway is considerably
longer. The object of the steep incline at first is to
give theimpetus to the toboggan at the start, where it
is most necessary. The toboggan differs from the
ordinary sled in being composed of flat boards
turned up at the front end. A toboggan will carry
from 2 to 6 or 8 persons. A modification of tobog-
ganing, known in some of the Northern cities as
“bobbing,” is a cross between tobogganing and
coasting. The “bob” consists, primarily, of two
sleds joined by a long plank, upon which from 4 to
40 people can ride. In Vermont, and other of the
New England States, a modified bob is used called a
“traverse.” This differs from the bob in that it has
braces along the sides upon which to place the feet.
Bobbing is practised in Albany and some other
Northern cities.
WALKING was first publicly made a competitive ex-
ercise in the United States about the year 1868, when
Edward P. Weston walked from New York to Chicago
on a wager. The ensuing notoriety induced other
walkers to take strides across the continent. Soon
afterward matches were arranged within buildings
upon tracks built specially for the purpose—none of
them exceeding a third of a mile in circuit. . In
1882 Fitzgerald made 582 miles in 6 days; and after-
ward Hazael made over 600 miles. These contests
took place in the city of New York. In February,
1888, James Albert made 621 miles and 1320 yards
in 140 walking hours, with only 19 hours and 21
minutes of the six days for resting. This record
was broken in November, 1888, by Littlewood, who
made 623 miles and 1320 yards within the six days.
The second on the list made 605 miles º *
F. G. M.
SPOTTSYLVANIA—SPRINGFIELD.
569
SPOTTSYLVANIA, BATTLE OF. See WILDERNESs.
SPRAGUE, CHARLEs (1791–1875), poet, was born
in Boston, Oct. 26, 1791, his father having been one
of the party that threw the tea into Boston harbor.
The boy was educated at Boston, and at the age of
10, through an accident, lost the sight of his left
eye. At the age of 13 he entered a mercantile house
as clerk, and in 1816 became a partner. In 1820 he
became teller in the State bank, and, on the estab-
lishment of the Globe bank, in 1825, he was ap-
pointed cashier, and held the office till 1865, when
he withdrew from active life. He early manifested
a taste for poetry, and for many years devoted his
spare time to the study of the old English classics.
Public notice was first drawn to him as a poet by
his winning the first prize for the best prologue on
the opening of the Park theatre, New York, and he
achieved similar success at the opening of theatres
at Philadelphia, Salem, and Portsmouth. In 1823
he won the first prize for the best “Shakespeare
Ode,” which was recited in the Boston theatre. In
1829 he delivered at Cambridge before the Phi Beta
Kappa Society of Harvard a poem on “Curiosity’”
which has been considered his best production. In
1830 he pronounced the centennial ode at Boston on
the 200th anniversary of the settlement of the city.
Of his productions Edwin P. Whipple says: “His
prologues are the best that have been written since
the time of Pope. His ‘Shakespeare Ode' has
hardly been excelled by anything in the same man-
ner since Gray's ‘Progress of Poesy.' But the true
power and originality of the man are manifested in his
domestic pieces. ‘The Brothers,’ ‘I see thee still,’
and the ‘Family Meeting’ are the finest consecrations
Of natural affections in our literature.” His Prose
and Poetical Writings appeared at Boston in 1850,
and other editions followed in 1855 and 1876. He
died at Boston, Jan. 14, 1875.
SPRAGUE, WILLIAM BUEL (1795–1876), best
known by his Annals of the American Pulpit, was
born at Andover, Conn., Oct. 16, 1795. He gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1815, and studied theology
at Princeton. He was ordained pastor of the Con-
gregational Church of West Springfield, Mass., in
1819, and ten years later took charge of the Second
Presbyterian Church, Albany, N. Y., to which he
ministered for forty years. He was released from
this charge in 1869 and retired to Flushing, L. I.,
where he died, May 7, 1876. In his early life he had
published Letters to a Daughter (1822); Letters from
Europe (1828); Revivals of Religion (1832); Words
to a Young Man's Conscience (1848), and many ser-
mons and commemorative discourses. At length, in
1852, he began preparations for his great biograph-
ical work, to contain sketches of prominent Amer-
ican ministers of nearly all denominations. Though
its publication was somewhat interrupted by the
civil war, the work was completed in 9 large octavo
Volumes in 1869. Volumes I. and II. comprise the
Congregationalists; III. and IV., Presbyterians;
W., Episcopalians; WI., Baptists; VII., Methodists;
VIII., Unitarians; IX., United Presbyterians, Lu-
therans, and Reformed.
SPRING, GARDINER (1785–1873), Presbyterian
minister, was born at Newburyport, Mass., Feb. 24,
1785. His father, SAMUEL SPRING (1746–1819), had
been a chaplain in Arnold's expedition to Canada,
and afterward pastor at Newburyport for forty years.
He took part in founding Andover Seminary, and in
organizing the American Board of Commissioners
for Foreign Missions. Gardiner graduated at Yale
College in 1805, and, after spending over a year in
teaching in Bermuda, returned to New Haven to
study and practise law. But he soon determined to
enter the ministry, and, having studied theology at
Andover, was ordained and installed pastor of the
Brick Presbyterian Church, New York City, in 1810.
Vol. IV.-2 L
*
The early years of his pastorate were marked by fre-
quent revivals. He took part in forming the Amer-
ican Bible Society in 1816, the American Tract So-
ciety in 1825, and the American Home Missionary
Society in 1826. His pulpit power and influence
"steadily increased, and many of his sermons were
published. In 1861 he was prominent in securing
from the Presbyterian General Assembly (O.S.) res-
olutions giving moral support to the U. S. govern-
ment's defence of the Union. After that year he
had a colleague in the pastorate, but, though he
preached less often, he retained his position till his
death, Aug. 18, 1873. Among his publications
were Life of Samuel J. Mills (1820); Obligations of
the World to the Bible (1839); The Power of the Pul-
pit (1848); The Mission of Sorrow (1862); Pulpit
Ministrations (1864); and Personal Reminiscences
1866).
( SPRINGFIELD, the capital of Illinois, county
seat of Sangamon Co., is 4 miles S. of the Sangamon
river, and 185 miles S. W. of Chicago, at the inter-
section of the Chicago and Alton and the Wabash,
St. Louis and Pacific Railroads. The State capitol,
a marble building with granite portico, is 385 feet
long by 296 wide, and stands in the centre of a
Square, which is surrounded by handsome blocks of
business houses. The U. S. government offices are
accommodated in a fine building. Springfield has
also a fine State arsenal, 8 banks, 2 hospitals, 28
churches, 2 colleges, 3 academies, a public library, 4
daily and 10 weekly newspapers. Springfield is in
a bituminous coal region, which gives rise to impor-
tant industries. There are large iron-rolling mills,
railroad shops, paper and woollen mills, planing and
flour mills, a watch factory, and other factories.
Springfield was laid out in 1822, was selected as the
State capitol in 1837, and was made a city in 1840.
It is governed by a mayor and a board of 18 alder-
men. It has gas- and water-works and a paid fire
department. Its population in 1880 was 19,743.
Springfield was the home of Abraham Lincoln, and
in Oak Ridge cemetery, near the city, stands the
Lincoln monument, designed by L. G. Mead and
costing $264,000. Besides an obelisk, it comprises
a catacomb and memorial hall.
SPRINGFIELD, a city of Massachusetts, county
seat of Hampden Co., is on the Connecticut river,
which is here crossed by four iron bridges and a
Wooden bridge to West Springfield. It is 98 miles
West of Boston and is at the intersection of several
railroads, which assist its commercial importance.
Besides the level along the river bank, the city oc-
cupies part of an elevated plain extending eastward,
and comprises three villages and post-offices besides
the city proper. In the latter the streets are wide
and well shaded with elm- and maple-trees. There
are several public squares and a park of 100 acres.
The city has a brown-stone post-office; a granite
court-house, which cost $500,000; city hall, city li-
brary; a Union railroad station, costing $700,000; 9
banks, 3 savings banks, 2 private banks, and 3 insur-
ance companies, a high school and 30 other schools,
a cathedral and 30 churches, 3 daily and 8 weekly
newspapers. The U. S. arsenal was established here
in 1777 and in 1794 the armory was founded on Ar-
mory Hill. . The buildings occupy a square of 20
acres, and about 400 hands are employed. During
the War as many as 3400 were employed, and the
daily product was 1000 finished arms. The arsenal
has usually about 300,000 stands of arms. Spring-
field has also cotton and woollen factories, car-works,
machine-shops, paper-mills, and manufactures of
furniture, carriages, pistols, skates, organs, trunks,
locks, picture-frames, buttons, needles, and jewellery.
Springfield has gas since 1847, and electric light
since 1882, and water-works, which bring a supply
from Ludlow, 9 miles off, with three intermediate
570
SPRINGFIELD-SPURGEON
reservoirs. It was settled in 1635 and was made a
city in 1852. Its property is valued at $39,861,550,
and the tax-rate is 1.36 per cent. In 1885 it had
37,577 inhabitants, and has now 42,000, making it
the eighth in size in the State. In the vicinity
brown sandstone is quarried, and shipped over ail
the country.
SPRINGFIELD, a city of Missouri, county seat
of Greene Co., is on the St. Louis and San Francisco
Railroad, 238 miles W. S. W. of St. Louis. It is
the most important town of Southwestern Missouri.
It has a court-house, 15 churches, 3 banks, 2 daily
and 5 Weekly newspapers. Drury College, a Con-
gregational institution, was established here in 1873.
The industrial works comprise machine-shops, car-
Works, Woollen and cotton mills. The population in
1880 was 6552, but it has since greatly increased.
SPRINGFIELD, a city of Ohio, seat of Clark
county, at the confluence of Lagonda Creek with
the Mad River, 81 miles N. N. E. of Cincinnati. Six
lines of railway pass through the city, connecting it
With Cincinnati, Cleveland, Sandusky, Columbus,
Indianapolis, and more distant places. It has a fine
County court-house, new government building, new
city building, a handsome library structure, two
opera-houses, and fine business blocks. Besides 15
public Schools it has a young ladies’ seminary and
Wittenberg (Lutheran) College, with good building
and spacious grounds, and a free public library.
There are 38 churches, some of which are fine edi-
fices, a free hospital, and children's home. Three
daily and 6 weekly newspapers are published here.
The city has 60 manufacturing firms, employing over
7000 workmen. The chief products are agricult-
ural implements, among which their reapers, mow-
ers, and graindrills (see AGRICULTURE) are especially
noted. There are also produced sewing machines,
bicycles, tricycles, water-wheels, iron fences, malle-
able iron, linseed-oil, etc. The city has good water-
works, an efficient fire department, gas and electric
lights, telegraph and telephone service, a park, good
sewerage, street railways, and postal carrier-deliv-
ery. Springfield was laid out in 1801 and incorpo-
rated as the county seat in 1819, but its chief improve-
ment has been since 1860. Its population in 1880
was 20,730, but it has since greatly increased. The
Indian chief Tecumseh was born in this vicinity.
SPRUCE, the name usually given to that section
of the botanical genus Abies (or, according to some
botanists, to the separate genus Picea) the species of
which are distinguished by pendant cones with per-
sistent scales, and by the leaves being arranged all
around the shoots ; in distinction from the Firs, in
which the cones are erect, the scales non-persistent,
and the leaves placed in rows on Opposite sides of
the shoot. The Spruces are of slower growth than
the Firs, and their wood much superior for com-
mercial purposes, it being soft but tough, and well
adapted to many uses. The Spruces are also often
of handsome form and foliage, and several species
are highly esteemed as ornamental trees.
In the eastern United States and Canada there are
three species of considerable commercial impor-
tance, Abies Canadensis, the Hemlock Spruce ; Abies
migra, the Black Spruce ; and Abies alba, the White
Spruce. (For a description of these species, see FIR
in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.) The Rocky
Mountain and Pacific coast regions possess several
species, most important among which is A. Engel-
manni, the characteristic species of the mountains
of Colorado. This is a large tree, from 75 to 150
feet in extreme height, and 3 to 4 feet diameter, its
range extending through the Rocky Mountains to
British Columbia and to Oregon. It is a handsome
tree, with timber similar to that of A. nigra, covers
the mountain-slopes from 5000 to 11,500 feet eleva-
tion, and at the medium height forms in Colorado
extensive forests of considerable density and great
beauty. At its extreme elevation it is reduced to a
prostrate shrub, which is, however, loaded with
cones. P. Engelmanni is the most valuable timber
tree of the central Rocky Mountain region, being
much used for fuel, charcoal, and lumber, while its
bark is rich in tannin.
4. Litchensis, the tide-land spruce, extends from
Alaska to California, and forms extensive forests, from
10 to 50 miles wide, near the mouth of the Colum-
bia River. It is a large tree, attaining a height of
140 to 180 feet, and 7 to 15 feet diameter, and is of
great economic value, its wood being used for con-
struction, fencing, boat building, cooperage, etc.
4. pungens is a rare and local species, extending
from the Wind River Valley to the mountains of
Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. It never forms for-
ests. Among the species which have been classed
as Spruces may be named the huge Douglas Spruce,
Norway Spruce.
which in its extreme growth is among the tallest
trees known, it being said to occasionally, in Oregon,
attain a height of 300 to 350 feet. Recent botanical
authorities, however, remove this species from the
genus Abies, and class it as Pseudotsuga Douglasii,
it having peculiarities of seeming generic value
which approach those of the Hemlocks. In addition
to the native Spruces of America, several exotic spe-
cies have been introduced as ornamental trees, prin-
cipal among these being the Norway Spruce, A.
eaccelsa, which in form and foliage is one of the hand-
somest of the coniferae. (C. M.)
SPURGEON, CHARLEs HADDON, eminent Christian
preacher and worker, was born at Kelvedon, Essex,
England, June 19, 1834. His father John and grand-
father James had been pastors of Independent
churches. With the latter Charles spent his child-
hood, already evincing a serious disposition and
being pointed out as likely to be a successful minis-
ter. Returning to his father's house at Colchester,
he attended school there, and when only fifteen be-

SQUASH–SQUIER. 571
beans, the latest vegetable to be planted, light soils
being best suited to their cultivation.
There are two broad varieties of Squashes, the
bush squashes, of early summer ripening, and the
late or winter squashes. The vines of the bush
or early varieties have lost much of their running
habit, and grow in a somewhat bush-like compact-
of millions of his discourses. The chapel, proving ness, while the late varieties have vines of 12 feet
too small for the increased congregation, was en- or more in length, which send down secondary roots
larged, and in 1861 the Metropolitan Tabernacle was at their joints... In planting, the bush squashes
opened, having seats for 5500 persons. Though its are sown in hills 3 or 4 feet apart, the running
cost exceeded $150,000, it was free of debt.
came an usher at Newmarket. In 1850 he became a
Baptist, and soon began to preach with such force
that in 1852 he was made pastor of a church at
Waterbeach. In the next year he was called to Sup-
ply New Park Street Chapel, London, and in a few
months a sermon of his was printed, thus inaugurat-
ing a practice which has resulted in the circulation
In con- squashes 6 to 8 feet apart. Eight or ten seeds are
nection with this church there are numerous mis- sown in each hill, the plants being afterward reduced
sionary, educational, and philanthropic agencies. to three or four of the strongest. Squashes are grown
The Pastors' College, intended to fit young men for extensively for market, and the early varieties are
ministerial work, began in 1855, and has a special raised in large quantities in the vicinity of Norfolk,
building, erected in 1874. The Stockwell Orphan-i Charleston, and Savannah for shipment to the North,
age sprang from a gift of £20,000 made by a lady to reaching market two or three weeks before the North-
Spurgeon for this work. At first boys only were ad- ern squashes are ripe. *
mitted, but since 1879 girls also are received. There It is not positively known that there are any species
are now about 240 boys and 230 girls supported, the of squashes native to the United States, though there
most needy having the preference. . The church has is reason to believe that this is the case. Roger
also its almshouses and day-school, and carries on Williams and other early writers of New England
colportage in the villages of England. Mr. Spur- speak of the general culture of some varieties by the
geon has an efficient helper in his wife, to whom he Indians. One species, C. ovifera, is found wild in
was married in 1856, and his brother, James Archer | Texas. It is cultivated principally for ornamental
Spurgeon (b. 1837), has been his associate in the pas- purposes, under the names of mock Orange, orange
torate since 1868. His twin sons, Charles and gourd, etc., and is occasionally eaten young, as the
Thomas, have become Baptist preachers, the former egg-squash. Gray thinks it may be the original of all
at Greenwich, England, the latter at Auckland, New the crook-necked squashes, the vegetable marrows,
Zealand. Spurgeon's publications comprise, The New and even the common pumpkins. There are very
Park Street Pulpit, The Metropolitan Tabernacle Pul- many varieties of squashes in cultivation, though it
pit, The Treasury of David, a commentary on the is difficult to keep any kind pure, on account of
Psalms (7 vols.), Lectures to my Students, John Plough- their readiness of intercrossing. Of the bush varie-
man's Talk, and John Ploughman's Pictures. The
last two, homely in style and pungent in matter,
have attained a circulation of 350,000 copies. Mr.
Spurgeon's religious monthly magazine, called The
Sword and Trowel, gives information of the various
enterprises in connection, with his church. The
power exerted by Spurgeon, both in the pulpit and
through the press, has been abundantly acknowledged
not only by those favorable to his methods but by
those indifferent and hostile. The London Times
has been led to ask why St. Paul's and Westminster
Abbey should remain comparatively empty while
this dissenter should gather around him 10,000
people every Sunday. The Daily Telegraph and
the Saturday Review have borne testimony to his
efficiency. His success is due to his intense ear-
nestness and sincerity, assisted by his simple, idio-
matic language and his impressive delivery. Fully
convinced of the truth of his utterances, he presses
the message of Christianity on the hearts of the
eople.
SQUASH, the name commonly given to several
species of the gourd family, genus Cucurbita, the
title being derived from the final syllable of the Ind-
ian name for the plant, Askutasquash. The words
Squash and pumpkin are used somewhat indiscrimi-
nately in the United States, large varieties of the
Squash being ordinarily called pumpkin, without at-
tention to specific characters. It is very difficult,
indeed, to define the species of squashes, or to trace
the cultivated varieties to the original species, the
plants hybridizing so readily as to confuse all dis-
tinctions. The squashes are said to be of wider va-
riety in kinds, fitted for more varied uses, and found
in a better state of perfection under all conditions of
weather, than perhaps any other garden product.
Being of tropical origin, their growth is consum-
mated during the summer, yet the fruit of the late
varieties can be kept, with a little care, through the
winter, and until the following May. They are all
of luxuriant and vigorous growth, and will do well
in almost any soil, though they respond very readily
to generous fertilization.
They are, next to Lima
ties those most commonly grown bear a fruit of
partly hemispherical shape, with an expanded and
flattened edge which is deeply and regularly scal-
loped. These vary considerably in color, are the
earliest to ripen, and are planted almost exclusively
for the first crop, while their hard rind adapts thern
Well to shipment. The Summer Crook-neck is
highly esteemed, and the best in yield of the sum-
mer varieties. It is about 8 inches long, tapering
and curved toward the stem, the skin bright yellow
in color, with warty protuberances. The Boston
Marrow, which ripens about ten days after the above,
has an orange-yellow, very thin rind, and is of un-
surpassed flavor. The fruit is egg-shaped, with both
ends pointed.
Of the fall and winter varieties the Essex Hybrid
is of excellent flavor and is unexcelled in winter-
keeping qualities. The Hubbard is far more exten-
sively grown as a late variety than any other. It is
of large size, often weighing 9 or 10 lbs., of bluish-
green color, and of superior quality. In some of the
Eastern States the Winter Crook-neck is largely
grown for Winter supply. The Mammoth Chili is a
yariety which attains an immense size, often weigh-
ing as much as 200 lbs. . It is excellent for all pur-
poses. In England the favorite variety of the
squash, is that known as the Vegetable Marrow,
which is distinct in character from all the preced-
ing. The fruit varies considerably in size, ranging
from 9 to 18 inches in length, and from 4 to 6 inches
in diameter. The skin is of a greenish-yellow color,
the flesh white, soft, and of a rich flavor. We have
named here but a few of the very many varieties of
the squash, but the above are those most widely
grown and highly esteemed at present. They are
used largely on American tables, cooked as a vege-
table, as a constituent of pies, and prepared in other
modes, and form a very important member of our
food products. (C. M.)
SQUIER, EPHRAIM GEORGE (1821–1888), traveller
and archaeologist, was born at Bethlehem, N. Y.,
June 17, 1821. In youth he worked on a farm.
taught school, then edited country newspapers, and
572 STAMEORD STANFORD.
studied engineering. Having removed to Ohio he
became interested in the Indian mounds of that a youth Standish entered the English army in the
State, and with Dr. E. H. Davis undertook an ex- Netherlands and rose to the rank of captain. Though
F.". : them, ſº results were published by not a member of the Leyden church or congregation
e Smithsonian Institution. He next published he accompanied the Pilgrims to Cape Cod Bay, New
dº”, * * . º % * York: jº * board º Nº. yº OI). Nº.
*-* * * sent by the U. S. govern- 21, , sixteen armed men, “Everyone his musket,
º as * º to the republics of Central sword, and corslet, under the dº. of Captaine
DOle T1C3, . is observations of this region and its Myles Standish were despatched ashore on a second
remarkable aboriginal architecture were recorded in . No one i. described the captain's
several volumes, among which are Nicaragua , its appearance and character so graphically as Long-
People, Scenery, and Monuments (1852). In 1853 he fellow :
returned to survey a route for an interoceanic rail-
sword through the heart of Wat Tyler.” While yet
“Short of stature he was, but strongly built and athletic,
road, which, however, was never begun.
lished The States of Central America (1857), which
He pub-
Broad in the shoulders, deep-chested, with muscles and sinews
of iron.
was revised in 1870; and a work on Tropical Fibres Somewhat hasty and hot (he could not deny it), and head-
(1861). In 1863 he was sent to Peru as U. S. com-
missioner and explored the remains of the Inca mon-
uments, but after his return to New York his labors
in the preparation of an exhaustive work on the sub-
ject were interrupted by a mental disorder. After
an interval of years he was able to publish, Peru :
Incidents and Explorations in the Land of the Incas
(1877). Still later he was again attacked by the
mental disorder and unfitted for work. He died at
Brooklyn, April 17, 1888.
STAMFORD, a borough and town of Connecticut,
in Fairfield county, on Long Island Sound, and on
the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad,
34 miles N. E. of New York. The harbor will ac-
commodate vessels of 8 feet draught, and there is
daily steam-boat communication with New York.
The town-hall is a fine building which cost $140,000.
There are 10 hotels, 2 national banks and 2 savings
banks, 4 weekly newspapers, 8 churches in the
borough, and 12 more in the town. Besides manu-
factures of drug-extracts, hats, Yale locks, and post-
office outfits, there are iron and bronze foundries,
sash and blind factories. The borough is lighted
with gas, and has water-works and small parks. Its
property is valued at $10,000,000, its public debt is
$150,000, and its ordinary yearly expenses about
$100,000. It was settled in 1641 and incorporated
in 1830. For two hundred years it preserved the
aspect of a typical Puritan village, but since 1850 it
has become more cosmopolitan. The town has an
area of 10 square miles, of which the borough oc-
cupies one-sixth. Many citizens of New York have
summer residences here. The town had in 1880 a
population of 11,297.
STAMPFLI, JAKOB (1820–1879), a Swiss states-
man, was born in the province of Berne in 1820.
He was of humble origin, but by energetic persist-
ence acquired a good education. He studied law at
Berne, became an advocate in 1843, and soon after
entered actively into politics, becoming a leader of
the radical party about 1845. He was elected pres-
ident of the canton of Berne in 1849, and of the re-
public of Switzerland in 1858. The reforms intro:
duced through his influence were the establishment
of direct taxation and the abolition of all feudal
burdens, while he vigorously opposed the influence
of the Jesuits. In 1872 he was chosen one of the
members of the Alabama arbitration commission,
and gave his vote in favor of the United States. He
died, May 15, 1879.
STAMP ACTS. See REVOLUTION, AMERICAN.
STANDISH, MILEs (or MYLEs), the Pilgrim-sol-
dier, was born about 1584, in Lancashire, England,
and claimed to be descended from the rightful heirs
of Duxbury Hall, Lancashire. Froissart tells how,
in the time of Richard II., the rebel Wat Tyler Was
slain by a “squyer of the Kynges called John Stan-
dysshe" who received knighthood for the deed,
Longfellow refers to the feat in his “Courtship, of
Miloš Standish : ” “One of my ancestors ran his
Strong,
| Stern as a soldier might be, but hearty and placable always,
| Not to be laughed at and scorned, because he was little of
|
| stature,
For he was great of heart, magnanimous, courtly, courageous.”
During the first winter at Plymouth he lost his wife,
Rose, and tradition tells that he employed his friend,
John Alden, to negotiate his marriage with the win-
some Priscilla Mullins, but the maid's suggestion,
“Why not speak for yourself, John?” resulted in her
marriage with the envoy. Standish was the cham-
pion, par eaccellence, of the infant settlement, defend-
ing it against the open and secret hostilities of the
| Indians. In 1622 a new colony was founded at Wes-
sagussett (now Weymouth), and the Massachusetts
Indians planned to destroy it. . The plot was re-
vealed by a friendly Indian, and Standish, with only
8 men, set out to its relief. By the counsel of their
native well-wisher Standish decoyed the two chiefs,
along with a half-brother of one of them, into a
room, and there, after a desperate struggle, slew
them. A battle followed, and the Indians fled. The
head of Wituwamat, one of the chiefs, was set up at
Plymouth, and this, with Standish's victory, struck
terror into the savages. In 1625 he revisited Eng-
land as agent for the colony, and returned next year
with supplies. He then settled Duxbury—giving
that name to the place after the English home of his
race—and for the remainder of his life held the
office of magistrate or assistant of that town. Plym-
outh despatched a vessel and force under Standish
to compel the French to surrender Penobscot, from
which, in 1635, they had driven away a party of
Plymouth men, but the expedition proved a failure.
In addition to being the military head of the colony,
Standish was its counsellor in civil matters, and for
many years its treasurer. Tradition says his second
wife, Barbara, was a younger sister of his first wife,
Rose. In 1877 a portrait of Standish, painted on a
panel, with date 1625, and bearing his name and age
(38), was discovered in a picture-store in Boston.
it is now to be seen in Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, where
one of his swords is preserved, another being in the
cabinet of the Massachusetts Historical Society.
He died at Duxbury, Oct. 3, 1656, leaving a widow
and four sons to whom, by his will, bearing date
March 7, 1655, he left his property, valued at £350.
A granite monument (founded in 1872) is erected to
his memory on Captain's Hill, Duxbury, and is sur-
mounted by a statue of the hero, “ the first commis-
sioned military officer of New England.” (J. H.)
STANFORD, LELAND, railroad constructor and
senator, was born at Watervliet, N. Y., March 9,
1824. His early life was spent on a farm, but, hav-
ing studied law, he was admitted to the bar and began
practice at Port Washington, Wis. In 1852 he re-
moved to California and engaged in gold mining in
Placer county. In 1856 he established a mercantile
business in San Francisco, and accumulated a large
fortune. In 1860 he was a delegate to the Republi-
can national convention at Chicago. He was a
STANLEY__
STANLEY. 573
prominent promoter of the Pacific railroads, and in
1861 became president of the Central Pacific Rail-
road. He was elected governor of California in the
same year. His energy and force of character were
fully shown in the construction of the Pacific Rail-
road over the mountains in 1869. Subsequent years
were devoted to the development of the business of
the road and to the promotion of the material inter-
ests of California. In 1885 he was chosen U. S. Sena-
tor. In memory of his only son he has given $20,-
000,000 for the endowment of a university at Palo
Alto, Cal. The corner-stone was laid, May 14, 1887,
and the buildings are expected to accommodate stu-
dents in 1889.
STANLEY, DAVID SLOANE, general, was born in
Cedar Valley, Ohio, June 1, 1828. In 1852 he
graduated at West Point and was brevetted 2d kieu-
tenant in the Second Dragoons, and detailed for Ser-
vice in the survey of a railroad route along the 35th
parallel. From 1855 till 1861 he served as a cavalry
officer, almost constantly on the frontier, taking part
in engagements against the Cheyennes and the
Comanches. For a successful fight against the lat-
ter, near Fort Arbuckle, he was complimented by
Gen. Scott in general orders, and in 1861 promoted
to a captaincy. On the outbreak of the civil war he
was sent to the field of active operations in Missouri,
where he was engaged in several actions, and in Sep-
tember, 1861, was nominated brigadier-general of
volunteers. At New Madrid he led a division, and
the general in command reported that he was “es-
pecially indebted to General Stanley for his efficient
and untiring zeal.” He commanded the second di-
vision of the Army of the Mississippi at the capture
of Island No. 10, and in this capacity took part in
most of the skirmishes around Corinth and in the
battle of Farmington. He was in the battle of Iuka
(Sept. 19), for his conduct in which he was com-
mended by Gen. Rosecrans, and in that of Corinth
(Oct. 3–4), where he was exposed to the severest at-
tack of the enemy, but stood fast when other parts
of the line gave way. In November, 1862, he was
made chief of cavalry in the Army of the Cum-
berland, and on the 29th promoted major-general
of volunteers. He was in active service at the bat-
tle of Stone River, in the Tullahoma campaign, in-
cluding the battle of Shelbyville, and in the many
minor engagements of that army. He was in com-
mand of the Fourth Army Corps in Sherman’s Atlan-
ta campaign, and took part in the battle of Jones-
boro, where he was wounded. During the month of
October his command was engaged in following
Hood, till on the 27th it was detached from Gen.
Sherman's force and §. to strengthen Gen.
Thomas, who had been º'espatched to Nashville to
resist the invasion of Tennessee. On his march
toward Nashville he was engaged in frequent affairs,
distinguishing himself particularly in the action at
Spring Hill. On the Fourth and Twenty-third Corps
(of which he was now in command) arriving at
Franklin, Nov. 30th, it made a stand, and a desper-
ate hand-to-hand conflict ensued, in which he was
Severely wounded ; refusing, however, to leave the
field till a notable victory had been gained. He re-
ceived frequent promotions, and for his skill and
bravery here was brevetted major-general in the
regular army. After being disabled for two months
he rejoined his command, and, after the war, led it
to Texas. In February, 1866, he was mustered out of
the volunteer service and resumed his command in
the regular army, as colonel of the Twenty-second
Infantry. In 1872–73 he was in command of the Yel-
lowstone expedition, and his favorable reports in re-
gard to the hitherto unknown Dakota and Montana
did much to promote emigration thitherward. In
1874 he was with his regiment at the lake stations;
in 1879 he moved to Texas, and effectually checked
Indian raids in the West.
In 1882 he was ordered
to Santa Fé, and placed in command of the district
of New Mexico. In March, 1884, he was assigned to
the Department of Texas, with the rank of brigadier-
general in the regular army.
STANLEY, HENRY MOBTON, explorer, was born
near Denbigh, Wales, in 1840. His name was then
John Rowlands, and at the age of three he was sent
to the poor-house at St. Asaph, where he stayed till
he was thirteen. He was then employed as a teacher
at Mold, Flintshire, but a year later shipped as a
cabin-boy for New Orleans. There a merchant
named Stanley gave him employment and eventually
adopted him. But the merchant died intestate, and
his property passed to other heirs. Stanley then
led a roving life among Indians and California
miners until the civil war broke out. He enlisted
in the Confederate army, but, being soon taken pris-
oner, offered to take service on the other side. He
was sent to the iron-clad Ticonderoga, and there
became acting ensign. At the close of the war he
went to Crete as correspondent for the New York
Herald, but soon left and travelled in Turkey and
Asia Minor.
Returning, he visited Wales, and gave
a dinner to the poor-house children at St. Asaph.
In 1867, after a visit to the United States, he went as
a Herald correspondent to Abyssinia. By sending
to London the news of Lord Wolseley’s victory be-
fore the official despatches arrived, Stanley attracted
universal attention to his merits. In 1868 he was
employed in reporting the war in Spain. In 1869
Mr. James G. Bennett, the proprietor of the Herald,
conceived the idea of sending the adventurous Stan-
ley into Central Africa in search of Dr. Livingstone,
who had been reported to be killed in 1866, but
whom Mr. Bennett believed to be still alive. Stan-
ley went first to the East, visiting Constantinople,
Egypt, Jerusalem, and crossing Persia to India,
which he reached in August, 1870. Thence he
sailed in October for Zanzibar, having decided to
follow in Livingstone's track. He organized an ex-
pedition of 192 men, divided into five caravans, the
first of which started inland on February 18, 1871,
and the last of which he accompanied on March 21.
His objective point was Ujiji, and he had resolved
to reach Unyanyembe, the half-way house, within
three months. In the middle of April he met an
Arab chief, bound eastward, who informed him that
Livingstone was at Ujiji. During the first month
much of Stanley's route lay through the jungle, so
that his average day's march was only four miles,
While the carriers and other natives hired to accom.
pany him frequently gave trouble or tried to escape.
Still worse were his difficulties with the Englishman
and Seotehman whom he had engaged as his chief
assistants. But, in spite of fever and insect-plagues,
as well as the troubles from treacherous followers
and extortionate chiefs, he pushed on, and in June
reached Unyanyembe. Owing to his sickness and
a tribal war he remained in this vicinity till the end
of August, though he heard again that Livingstone
Was at Ujiji, 400 miles distant. Across the fertile
regions of the interior, peopled by naked Savages,
he toiled on, paying tribute to chief after chief for
permission to pass his little district. At last, on
Nov. 10, 1871, he sees the port of Ujiji on the great
lake Tanganyika. At his order his band fire their
guns and display the American flag, and march into
the town; Livingstone's servants soon salute him,
and conduct him to the object of his toilsome
search. The veteran missionary and the adventu-
rous correspondent exchange greetings. They spent
four months together, but Dr. Livingstone refused
to return to Europe, as his work of exploration was
not yet done. He aceompanied Stanley on his re-
turn as far as Unyanyembe, to which place Stores
had been forwarded for both parties. Though
574
STANTON.
floods greatly impeded the way, Stanley pressed on,
and in May, 1872, was again in Zanzibar, where he
found another expedition, organized under the
auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, making
preparations to start. As, however, the immediate
object of finding Livingstone had been already ac-
complished, this expedition was abandoned for the
time, but was taken up again by Lieut. Werney L.
Cameron. (See AFRICA in this work.) Stanley ar-
rived in England in July, 1872, and gave an account
of his expedition before the British Association in
August. Honors of all kinds were abundantly be-
Stowed upon him, and in November he published
his narrative, How I Found Livingstone. Before he
left Africa Stanley had despatched a caravan with
stores for Livingstone, but it spent five months in
reaching him. Then the veteran resumed his work,
but the country he explored was flooded and he
ºnly succumbed to dysentery, dying on May
, 1873.
Stanley's next famous expedition is described un-
der AFRICA. In this, starting again from Zanzibar
in the autumn of 1874, he turned off to Victoria lake,
which he thoroughly explored, then made his way
to Ujiji, crossed to the Lualaba river, and, there em-
barking, proved its identity with the Congo by sail-
ing down that mighty stream to the Atlantic Ocean.
He reached the coast in August, 1877, after perils
far surpassing those of his first famous expedition.
His second heroic enterprise and the wonderful geo-
graphical discoveries which were then accomplished
are narrated in The Dark Continent (1878). He went
again to Africa in 1879 under the auspices of the
African International Association, of which the King
of Belgium was the chief patron, to explore the
basin of the Congo river (q. v.). In the course of
four years Stanley had established trading stations
along the river for a distance of 1400 miles, and
founded a government for the region.
Toward the end of 1886 Stanley undertook an
expedition, partly at the expense of the Egyptian
government, for the relief of Emin Pacha, who had
seized the southern part of the territory claimed by
Egypt. Leaving England in January, 1887, he
gathered in Zanzibar a force consisting of 620 na-
tives of that country, with 74 other Africans and 9
Buropeans. He also had the help of Tippo-tip, the
greatest slave-dealer of Central Africa. King Leo-
pold of Belgium had furnished several steam-boats
for use on the Congo. Stanley embarked on these
at Stanley Pool on April 30, 1887. Since that time
there have been rumors of his death, and again of
his safety, but the facts are not yet positively known.
STANTON, ELIZABETH CADY, an earnest advocate
of “Woman's Rights,” was born at Johnstown, N. Y.,
Nov. 12, 1816. Her father, Daniel Cady, was an
able and learned lawyer, who for years held the Of-
fice of judge in Fulton county. His daughter, while
still a child, spent much time in his office, where she
heard many instances of the unjust discrimination of
the laws against the property rights of women. Her
indignation was early aroused by this, and was in-
creased by the little consideration shown to girls as
compared with boys. Her father manifested a supe-
rior regard for his son, and when the latter died was
inconsolable, though he had five daughters. “I wish
you were a boy,” he said with a sigh to his daughter
Elizabeth. “Then I will be a boy, and will do all
my brother did,” she replied. In pursuance of this
resolution she determined to learn Greek, and the
art of managing a horse, conceiving that learning
and courage were the principal manly characteristics.
She studied Greek, Latin, and mathematics, winning
in the first-named study a Greek Testament as a
prize, and afterward graduated in the Johnstown
Academy at the head of her class. Her heart was
set on entering Union College, where her brother
had been educated, and on learning that girls would
not be admitted her vexation and indignation were
great. She afterward studied at Mrs. Willard's
Seminary in Troy. On reaching maturity the
thoughts which had been fostered in her girlhood
showed themselves in the life of the woman. She
became an ardent advocate of the anti-slavery cause,
and in 1839, when 23 years of age, was married to
Henry B. Stanton, an eloquent anti-slavery orator.
Her husband had been chosen as a delegate to the
World's Anti-slavery Convention, which met at
Freemasons' Hall, London, June 12, 1840, and
thither the newly wedded couple proceeded. Many
Women-delegates had been sent from America to the
convention, but owing to prevailing notions about
women, they were not permitted to take part in its
deliberations. This exclusion excited much indig-
nation, and added to Mrs. Stanton's feeling of the
injustice done to her sex. While here she formed a
warm friendship with Lucretia Mott, one of the most
highly respected advocates of the reform upon which
she had set her heart. Among the Englishwomen
excluded from the convention were Elizabeth Fry,
Mary Howitt, and Amelia Opie. On her return to
America. Mrs. Stanton resolved to devote her life to
resisting the injustice shown, in several forms, to her
sex; and in pursuance of this resolution she called,
in June, 1848, at her own instance, a public conven-
tion of women at Seneca Falls, N. Y., in which city
she then resided. This was the pioneer “Woman’s
Rights Convention ” (known under that name), but
Mrs. Stanton went in her views beyond all the other
delegates in resolving to include woman's suffrage
among the rights demanded. Her husband and
Lucretia Mott strongly objected to her purpose in
this direction, and at the opening of the convention
she found only one delegate, Frederick Douglass, to
support her novel demand. She had never before
spoken in public, but developed an excellent ability
in oratory, and, aided by Mr. Douglass, carried all
her resolutions, that demanding the ballot included,
through the convention. The announcement of this
convention made a great sensation throughout the
country. All the papers commented upon it, gener-
ally with ridicule, but Mrs. Stanton went persist-
ently to work to advocate her views before the
women of America. Two years after the convention
Miss Susan B. Anthony, who had at first treated the
demand for the ballot as ridiculous, became her
friend and co-worker, and together they have spent
their lives in ardent advocacy of this cause.
In 1866 Mrs. Stanton, then living in New York
city, offered herself as a Congressional candidate to
the voters of the 8th distºt. Out of 23,000 votes
cast she polled exactly 24. YIn 1868 she, in conjunc-
tion with Parker Pilsbury, Miss Anthony, and others,
started The Revolution, a journal in the interests of
women's rights. This journal was finally merged
in The Liberal Christian, an organ of Unitarianism.
After giving up her editorship of The Revolution Mrs.
Stanton devoted herself for 14 years to public lect-
uring. She is a happy and ready speaker, and by
her advocacy did much toward the advancement of
the cause she had so much at heart.
Apart from this exhausting work she compiled, in
her residence at Tenafly, N. J., a History of Woman
Suffrage (3 vols, of 1000 pages each), embracing doc-
umentary evidence and biographies of its leading ad-
vocates. In 1882 she went to France on a visit to
her son and his wife, and in 1883 held conferences
in England with John Bright and others on her favor-
ite theme. Mrs. Stanton has a son living in France,
and a daughter residing in England, and has in all five
sons and two daughters. The social reforms which
she advocates have made remarkable progress dur-
ing the forty years which have elapsed since the first
convention at Seneca Falls. The property rights of
STARCH_STARK,
575
women have been placed on a level with those of
men in some States, and have everywhere improved,
while the demand for the ballot has gained too
wide a circle of advocates to be any longer consid-
ered ridiculous, and has been granted in regard to
school-board elections in some States, and in all mu-
nicipal elections in the State of Kansas.
Her husband, HENRY BREWSTER STANTON (1805-
1887), lawyer and journalist, was born at Pachaug,
Conn., June 27, 1805. He removed to Rochester, N.
Y., in early life, and engaged in journalism and po-
litics. After being clerk of Monroe county for three
years he went to Lane Theological Seminary at Cin-
cinnati, in 1832, and there took part in the anti-slavery
movement. He devoted years to this cause, and in
the meantime, having married Miss Cady, went with
her to London in 1840, and then made a tour in Great
Britain, Ireland, and France. In 1847 he settled at
Seneca Falls, N. Y., and was admitted to the bar, but
was still active in urging temperance and other
social reforms, as well as in anti-slavery work. He
published Reform and Reformers in Great Britain
and Ireland (1849). His chief work was done
through the daily press, to which he was a constant
contributor. He died in New York City, Jan. 14,
1887. Soon afterward a volume of his Random
Recollections was published. (C. M.)
STARCH. A very considerable variety of plants
w ... yield commercial starch, though the
º *H, principal supply is obtained from
Km. º " wheat, maize, rice, and potatoes. The
manioc-root is the source of the use-
ful nutrient variety known as tapioca ; the root of
several species of Maranta, of arrowroot ; and the
pith of very many of the palms, of sago. These
latter, however, are tropical productions, and the
ordinary starch of commerce comes in great part
from the substances first named. Corn- or maize-
starch is a product of American inventive industry,
and was first produced in 1842. Previously wheat,
barley, rice, and potatoes had yielded the world's
supply of starch. Potato-starch was first made in
the United States in 1802, the industry being in-
troduced by John Biddis, of Pennsylvania. It in
time became an important product, and a large num-
ber of starch factories were built, especially in the
cotton-manufacturing districts, the starch being
largely consumed in this industry. A number of
wheat-starch factories also were built. In Europe
wheat constituted the principal source of starch,
the product being very considerable, particularly in
Pngland and France, whose cotton factories con-
'sume a large percentage of the supply. Among the
several substances which have been used abroad as
starch producers may be named horse-chestnuts,
which have been employed for this purpose in
France. The bitter principle is removed by the use
of sodium carbonate.
In 1842 Thomas Kingsford, superintendent of the
wheat-starch factory of W. Colgate & Co., in New
Jersey, began to experiment with Indian corn, and
soon satisfied himself that this grain was well
adapted to serve as a superior commercial source of
starch. His conviction was communicated to others,
and somezcapitalists built a factory for him at Os-
wego, N. Y., in 1848, this location being chosen
from the ease of getting a large supply of corn from
the West by water-carriage, while it was compara-
tively convenient to the great commercial and manu-
facturing centres. The industry prospered from the
start, and the factories have grown until they cover
10 acres of ground-surface, treat over a million bush-
•els of corn annually, and yield an annual product of
more than 20,000,000 lbs. of starch. The great
prosperity of the Oswego factory gave instigation to
another great concern, the Duryea Brothers' corn-
starch manufacturing establishment at Glen Cove,
Long Island, which was founded in 1858, and has at
present a yield nearly or quite equal to that of the
Oswego factories. These two concerns are now the
largest starch-manufacturing establishments in the
world. As early as 1860 they had brought to an end
the importation of European starch, and soon after
they began to compete with the factories ºf Europe
for the starch commerce of the world. They have
received the first prizes at international exhibitions,
and the demand for their product has steadily
grown, the exportations of American stareh increas-
ing from 1,000,000 lbs. in 1864 to 7,400,000 lbs. in
1887.
Corn-starch is made in the United States by soak-
ing the corn in water containing caustic soda and
hydrochloric acid, to dissolve the gluten, grinding,
washing on sieves, and finishing by. Various pro-
cesses. Each of the two great establishments em-
ploys its own methods, and no effort is made to
recover the gluten as a food product, as in the Eu-
ropean wheat-starch factories; but this, with other
by-products of the grain, is sold as food for domes-
tic animals. The starch is prepared in three forms,
for three separate purposes. The first is that known
as “Maizena,” in England as “prepared food,”
being pulverized corn-starch intended for culinary
purposes, and as food for infants and invalids. The
second is the refined starch prepared for laundry
use ; the third, sizing starch for use in cotton fac-
tories and other industries.
The success of the factories named has led others
into the business, and there are many smaller corn-
starch factories now established. The establish-
ment of this industry, however, has not done away
with the production of wheat-starch, which is made
in the United States on a considerable scale. Po-
tato-starch is also largely manufactured, there being
several factories at Stowe, Vt., and Watertown,
Mass., some of which consume 20,000 bushels of
potatoes annually, the yield averaging 8 lbs. of
starch to the bushel. Rice-starch is largely manu-
factured in England, France, and Belgium, but not
in the United States. In regard to the statistics of
the American starch industry, there exist no general
ones later than those of the census reports, and these
are lacking in detail. In 1870 the number of starch
factories in the United States were reported as 195,
with a total product valued at $5,995,000. In 1880
the factories had decreased in number to 139, but
the product had increased to $7,477,742. This was
principally produced in three States, the yield of
New York being $3,328,102 ; of Ohio, $1,754,710;
and of Indiana, $1,276,880. No other State pro-
duced largely. The business is steadily increasing,
and is probably destined to attain a great develop-
ment in the future, the immense yield of corn in
this country giving an almost unlimited supply of
material. The proportion of starch in the various
grains is the following: Maize, 60 to 80 per cent. ;
wheat, 60; rye, 60; oats, 46; barley, 57; rice, 61.
Potatoes yield 62 per cent. Of these various sub-
stances the high yield of maize seems to adapt it
particularly to starch production. As to the uses
of starch, the following are the principal: It is used
for stiffening cotton and linen cloths, and as a siz-
ing for paper and various other articles ; for making
paste, hair powder, dextrine, glucose, etc.; in med-
icine, to dilute and otherwise modify various articles
of the materia medica; in surgery, in the prepara-
tion of splints and bandages; in the chemical labor-
atory, for the detection of iodine ; for stiffening pur-
poses in the laundry; and as a nutritious and agree-
able article of food, for which its use is rapidly
increasing. For the last-named purpose corn-starch
is of high value. (C. M.)
STARK, JoHN (1728–1822), general in the Revo-
lutionary War, was born at Londonderry, N. H.,
576
STATE-MILITIA.
Aug. 28, 1728. In 1736 his father removed to Der-
Tyfield, now Manchester, in that State, where young
Stark was employed in farming, with intervals of
hunting, till April 28, 1752. On that day, while
out hunting, he was taken prisoner by a party of St.
Francis Indians, in whose hands he remained a cap-
tive for six weeks, being finally set free on the pay-
ment of $103 ransom. While with the Indians his
frequent exhibitions of courage and independence of
Spirit made him very popular, and he was adopted
into the tribe. In 1755 he was appointed lieutenant
in Rogers' company of rangers, with which he served
in the campaigns of that and the following year. In
January, 1757, the corps to which he was attached,
While returning from an expedition, was attacked by
a strong body of French and Indians near Ticon-
deroga and a sanguinary conflict ensued, ending in
the repulse of the colonists. The management of
the retreat fell to him, and it was effected with great
skill and prudence. Soon afterward he was made
captain of rangers, and in 1758 took part in Aber-
crombie's attack on Ticonderoga. In the following
spring he joined Amherst's army, and was present at
the reduction of Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
At the end of the French war Stark returned to
his farm, and remained there till the beginning of
the Revolutionary troubles, when he was made a
member of the Committee of Safety, and on learning
of the battle of Lexington immediately repaired to
Cambridge. Here he was made colonel of a regi-
ment of New Hampshire troops, and took part with
them in the battle of Bunker Hill, where his men
were stationed behind a rail fence at the left of the
line. They held their ground firmly, and repeatedly
repelled the enemy with great loss, but were forced
to retreat when the other portions of the line were
taken. At the close of the campaign in the North,
in 1776, he joined Gen. Washington, and in the
battle of Trenton commanded the vanguard of the
army. In the subsequent engagement at Princeton
he played an active and prominent part. In the pro-
motions that followed, however, Stark was over-
looked and, feeling aggrieved, he resigned and re-
turned to his farm in April, 1777. He was not left
long at rest. The advance of Burgoyne from Canada
began in June, and fort after fort was taken as he
advanced south by the Lake Champlain and Lake
George route. The council of New Hampshire at
once commissioned Stark to raise a force to guard
the frontier, and he quickly found himself again in
active service. Burgoyne sent a detachment under
Col. Baum to seize the supplies which the Ameri-
cans had collected at Bennington, Vt. Gen. Stark
marched rapidly to save these stores, and, finding
Baum intrenched at a point near Bennington, at-
tacked with great energy. It was at this time that
he inspired his raw troops with the speech that has
become historic : “There are the red-coats; we
must beat them to-day, or to-night my wife sleeps a
widow.” His spirit was seconded by the valor of
his men, the regulars were severely defeated, and a
second force that was marching to Baum's assistance
suffered the same fate, the British loss in these two
actions exceeding 600 men. Yet more important Was
the saving of the stores, of which Burgoyne stood
sadly in need, and the want of which aided in the
eventual total collapse of his expedition.
For this gallant action Congress voted thanks to
Gen. Stark on Oct. 4, 1777, though it had just before
passed a vote of censure on him for disobeying Gen.
iincoln's order to march to the west of the Hudson,
a step which would have left Baum's raid unop-
posed. He was commissioned major-general, and in
September joined Gates and contributed to the suc-
cess of the campaign. In 1778 he was placed in
charge of the Northern Department at Albany, and
in October of that year joined Gates in Rhode Island.
In May, 1780, he joined the army at Morristown, and
was present at the battle of Springfield, being again
placed in command of the Northern Department in
the spring of 1781. This ended his army service,
and he returned to his farm at Manchester, N. H.,
where he died, May 8, 1822, Congress having voted
him in 1818 a pension of $60 per month.
STATE-MILITIA. The militia of each of the
States of the Union is an essentially State institution
regulated by State laws. But by the provisions of
the Constitution of the United States and the laws
of Congress enacted to carry those provisions into
effect, the militia of each State is, to a certain ex-
tent, subject to Congressional regulation and, under
certain circumstances, is required to render Service
to the general government. This twofold relation—
on the one hand to the State, on the other to the
Union—gave rise, during a considerable portion of
our national history, to much discussion, to angry
disputes, and often to serious embarrassments. Partly
by the logic of events, partly by the decisions of Our
highest judicial tribunals, these questions may all be
regarded as now practically settled. A brief sketch
of the history of the militia of the United States, of
the nature of the questions above referred to, and of
the manner of their settlement is necessary to a full
understanding of the character and availability of
the militia as a military force and of its present con-
dition and strength.
When the Continental Congress proclaimed the in-
dependence of the colonies in the famous Declara-
tion, the only military force of which it could avail
itself in order to maintain that declaration was the
militia. All the regular soldiers in the country and
all the men who had received a scientific military
education were on the side of the Crown. But, on
the other hand, there was probably no country in the
world where so large a proportion of the common
people had a practical acquaintance with the duties
of the soldier and so many of its educated men were
fitted to change from the duties of peace to those of
war. The long contest with the Indians and the
French had imbued the people with the military
spirit, and familiarized them with the dangers and
hardships of war, while to large numbers of the men
of ability that contest had been the school in which
they had acquired a military education. , Washing-
ton was a graduate of no military college, but he had
acquired the theory and practice of war by years of
service alongside of regularly educated British offi-
cers, and he was only the most illustrious type of a
class. After the conclusion of the Revolution the
mass of the people gladly returned to the pursuits of
peace, but the military spirit was kept alive partly by
tradition and partly by the spectacle of the great
wars in Europe going on almost continually during
the next generation. The drill and efficiency of the
militia was far better preserved than it was a half-
century later.
The Constitution of the United States, adopted in
1789, gave Congress the power “To provide for
calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.”
These words conferred upon Congress the power of
doing for the Union, as a whole, that Wºich, each
State in its individual capacity could do for itself.
They state briefly but clearly the primary reasons
for the existence of a militia. But the Constitution
further gave to Congress the power, “To provide for
organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and
for governing such part of them as may be employed
in the service of the United States, reserving to the
States respectively the appointment of the officers,
and the authority of training the militia according to
the discipline prescribed by Congress.” . Further,
the Constitution provides that, “The President shall
be commander-in-chief of the militia of the several
STATE-MITITIA,
577
States when called into the actual service of the
TJnited States.”
The first act of Congress in regard to “organizing,
arming, and disciplining” the militia was passed in
1792; but this, as well as subsequent acts, aimed at
little more than to secure a tolerable degree of uni-
formity among the militia of the different States and
a certain amount of agreement with the arming and
disciplining of the regular army. In all other im:
portant respects the authority of the States was not
interfered with.
The war of 1812–14, raised a number of questions
as to extent of the power over the State militia con-
ferred upon the general government by the Consti-
tution.
Some maintained that the power conferred on the
President to act as commander-in-chief of the State
militia when in the actual service of the United States
was a power personal to himself and could not be dele-
gated; and as the appointment of officers had been
reserved to the States, the militia, even when in the
|U.S. service, were under no obligations to obey any-
body but the State authorities or the President in
person. The governor of Vermont went so far as to
claim the right to order the militia of that State to
return home if, in his discretion, he thought they were
more needed at home than in front of the enemy
who had invaded a neighboring State. But the de-
cisions of the U. S. Supreme Court and the prece-
dents established by the exigencies of the great civil
war of 1861–65 have settled it, probably for all time,
that from the moment the militia are mustered into
the U. S. service they are, until the expiration of
their term of service, as much under the control of
the general government, for the purposes which they
were called out to aid in accomplishing, as the reg-
ular army itself.
The conclusion of the war of 1812–15 and the over-
throw of Napoleon Bonaparte were followed, both in
America and Europe, by a period of peace extending
over a third of a century. The war with Mexico
was not a war “ to enforce the laws of the Union, to
suppress insurrection,” nor “to repel invasions,” and
it consequently afforded the general government no
occasion and no opportunity for calling out the
militia. No such call was made until the breaking
out of the great civil war in 1861. During this long
period the interest of the people at large in military
affairs and their knowledge of the art of war grad-
ually decayed. The annual meetings for instruction
in drill and discipline, the so-called “training days,”
became mere farces. They were regarded as a sheer
waste of time or as something worse, occasions of
drunkenness and revelry, profitable only to pedlers
and gamblers, and went out of fashion.
When the great civil war broke out each State had
upon its statute books an elaborate code of laws in
regard to the militia. But by the great body of the
people, and especially among the country-people,
those laws had long been practically ignored. In
most of the large cities one or two militia organiza-
tions existed. Some of these, in the accuracy of their
drill, the precision of their movements, and the com-
pleteness of their appointments, would have compared
favorably with the best regiments of any regular army
in the world. But such organizations were wholly
exceptional.
It was under these circumstances, as regards the
condition of the militia, that Pres. Lincoln, on April
15, 1861, issued his first call for 75,000 men for three
months’ service. The enthusiasm of the people was
very great. Had the President called for twice that
number they would have been easily obtained.
The quotas of the loyal States were quickly filled
out. Most of those States, when their quotas were
filled, refused to receive any more; other States
offered to the general government the services of
|
far more than they were called upon to furnish-
Massachusetts was ready with two and a half times,
Rhode Island with four times, Connecticut with
three times, Pennsylvania with 60 per cent., and
Missouri with three times more than they were asked
for. The great majority of the men were intelli-
gent, brave, and eager to do their duty; but it
would probably be an exaggeration to say that
10,000 of the 75,000 had any more knowledge of the
duties of a soldier than is possessed by every intel-
ligent citizen of full age. But there was something
worse than this. The officers were generally as ig-
norant as the men. It is not possible here, nor is it
necessary, to enter into details. The disastrous result
of the first battle of Bull Run was necessary in or-
der to convince the people that the attempt to im-
provise an army, in a few weeks' time, out of men
taken from the office, the farm, and the factory, is,
in modern warfare, but a waste of treasure and of
blood.
The civil war also demonstrated another proposi-
tion. If its earlier events proved that untrained
troops led by untrained officers, no matter how great
their enthusiasm and bravery, were of small account,
its subsequent course showed with equal conclusive-
ness that of all soldiers the well-trained “citizen-
soldier’ is the most efficient.
The greatest difficulty experienced in the earlier
stages of the civil war was the lack of competent
officers. Given a regiment in which the commis-
sioned officers all thoroughly understand their duties
while all the rest of the regiment consists of men
strong and willing, though without knowledge and
experience in military affairs, and it can be brought
to a high state of discipline and efficiency in a com-
paratively short time. But where officers as well as
men are obliged to learn their business after being
mustered into service, the time required increases in
an appalling ratio. To educate officers by means of
actual service in time of war is a very costly opera-
tion. A large number of militia officers during the
civil war achieved high distinction, but as a rule they
were those who, from natural inclination, had devoted
much time, before entering the service, to the study
of military science and to practice in organized
bodies of militia; or they were men of far more than
average abilities, animated by an enthusiasm and de-
termination which no obstacles could oppose.
One of the most remarkable citizen-soldiers, prob-
ably in the opinion of professional military men the
most remarkable, developed by the civil war was
Gen. Alfred H. Terry, who captured Fort Fisher,
and at the close of the war was appointed a major-
general in the regular army. He entered the ser–
vice as a colonel, but it would be a great mistake to
suppose that he passed, without preparation, from
his office to his colonelcy. On the contrary, in his
boyhood he had a strong inclination toward every-
thing military. He served in the militia before the
war with a kind of serious zeal. From youth to
manhood he devoted much of his time to the study
of hilitary science. During the Crimean war he
visited Europe for the express purpose of seeing
military operations on a large scale as conducted in
actual warfare. The consequence was that when he
led his regiment to the field there was probably no
graduate of West Point, no colonel in the regular
army, who knew more thoroughly and completely
what he ought to do and how it ought to be done.
The experience of our civil war appears to justify
the conclusion that, in a free country, the mainte-
nance of a great standing army imposes upon the
people a burden at once enormous and unnecessary.
With suitable legal provisions and at a comparatively
Small expense voluntary organizations sufficient both
in numbers and discipline can be maintained to meet
any sudden emergency and to insure time for prep-
578
STATE-MILITIA.
aration for greater crises, provided that certain con-
ditions are fulfilled. The most important of these
conditions—indeed, the only indispensable ones—
are the cultivation among our youth of a greater in-
terest in military affairs and a greater dissemination
of military knowledge among our educated young
men. This is not the place to enter upon a discus.
sion of the methods by which these objects are to be
attained. The experience of the civil war demon-
strated, in the most brilliant and conclusive manner,
the thoroughness and completeness of the profes-
sional military education imparted by our national
school at West Point. But in order to render
speedily available, whenever occasion requires, the
Vast yet dormant and formless military power of our
nation, there should be a far larger number of our
citizens, than there is at present, who possess a mili-
tary education somewhere intermediate between the
perfection of West Point and that ignorance of the
most rudimentary duties of a private and the most
elementary principles of military science that char-
acterizes the great mass of our educated young men.
Among the measures which might be adopted to ac-
complish this purpose, the recommendation of Ad-
jutant-General R. C. Drum of the U. S. Army, in his
annual report for 1888, that military science should
be made a part of the curriculum of our colleges and
universities and that all students who are physically
qualified should be required to attend lectures, reci-
tations, and drills, is worthy of the most serious con-
sideration.
By the laws of the United States all able-bodied
male citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 years,
with the exception of such as are exempted by State
laws, are bound, when called upon, to do military
duty. Thus the liability to render military service
extends over 27 years of the citizen's life; but,
should peace prevail, not one man in a hundred will
ever even play soldier for an hour. The active mili-
tia is composed entirely of volunteer organizations.
Their discipline must conform to that of the regular
TJ. S. army. Almost everything else is regulated by
State laws. The military codes of the different
States vary considerably in matters of detail. In
certain general features, however, there is substan-
tial agreement. The term of service is generally five
years. In order to induce men to enlist in such or-
ganizations certain privileges are conferred upon
their members both during their term of service and
after its expiration. One of the most common of
these privileges is exemption from the performance
of jury duty. But the State relies chiefly upon the
fact that a large number of its citizens believe that
they can manifest their devotion to law and order
and prove their love of country in no other way so
conclusively as by becoming members of some mili-
tary organization. The State also relies upon the
strong desire, which is innate in many men, to par-
ticipate in military display and to receive their share
of the admiration which the general public, male
and female, always, extends to a handsome, yell-
drilled military body. In many cases, also, mem-
bership of such a body is, to a certain extent, a mark
of social distinction. In almost all Our large cities
there is one, in some of the larger cities more than
one, militia regiment of which most young men
would be proud to say they were members.
The amount of actual service required by the
State in the course of a year does not generally ex-
ceed one week; but, of course, any organization
which makes any pretensions to military excellence
devotes, of its own accord, much more than this
amount of time to drill and discipline.
The amount of money appropriated by the State
to the support of the militia is very small. Indeed,
membership of a militia regiment or company is al-
ways a source of individual expense; in some cases,
of very considerable expense. The cities often ex-
pend far more than the State upon regiments com-
posed of their own citizens. They do this partly
from municipal pride and partly in order that the
civil power, in cases of riotous disturbance too ex-
tensive for it to cope with, may have at hand a mili-
tary force upon which it can call for aid in suppress-
ing disorder and maintaining the public peace. In
such cases the military is entirely subordinate to the
civil authority. No shot can be fired until the
mayor, sheriff, or other authorized civil officer gives
permlSSlon.
The total number of citizens belonging to militia
organizations is limited by law. In proportion to
the whole population the number is very small. In
the great State of New York, with a population ex-
ceeding 6,000,000, the number is limited to 20,000.
There is nothing in the whole organization of society
in which the contrast between the nations of Europe
and the States of the Union is more strikingly illus-
trated. In Germany, in time of peace, every male
citizen not physically incapacitated, is obliged to
spend some of the best years of his life in continuous
military service. In the United States, in time of
peace, only a very small fraction of the citizens are
permitted to enter the military service of the State,
and then only in such a manner as to hardly consti-
tute an interruption to their ordinary avocations.
If any number of citizens beyond the legal limit
should desire to form a military organization they
can do so in the same manner as they form athletic
Societies or base-ball clubs, according to their own
rules and at their own expense. Such a military
club, no matter what it might call itself, and no
matter how complete might be its appointments and
how perfect its discipline, would no more be a part
of the legal military force of the State than the New
York Yacht Club is a part of the United States
Navy.
According to present regulations officers of the
regular U. S. army are detailed to act as professors
of military science and tactics in universities, col-
leges, and schools under prescribed conditions.
During the year ending Sept. 30, 1888, forty institu-
tions in different parts of the Union availed them-
selves of this opportunity of giving instruction in
military science, with practice in military drill, to
such of their pupils as chose to receive it. The
whole number of students over 15 years of age at-
tending these institutions was 7791. Of this num-
ber about 4000, or 51 per cent., attended infantry drill.
During the previous year the same system had been
pursued. The total number of students was less, and
only 49 per cent. attended the drills. Should the
interest of the students in military matters continue
to increase in the same ratio and, above all, should
the recommendation of Adjutant-General Drum to
make attendance upon the lectures and drills of
these officers obligatory upon all students be adopted,
it must, in a few years, have a marked influence upon
the military efficiency of the militia.
According to the laws of several of the States,
the State-militia is required to go into camp for one
week in each year. During this time they are Sup-
posed to conduct themselves in the same manner as
the troops of the regular army would under similar
circumstances. Whenever the State authorities re-
quest it, officers of the regular army are detailed to
inspect these encampments and give instruction to
the militia. These officers make minute reports of
the results of their observations to the Adjutant-
General of the U. S. Army. During the year end-
ing Sept. 30, 1888, such encampments were held in
fifteen States. Those desiring the most accurate
and authentic information as to the present condi-
tion of the State-militia of these fifteen States, in-
cluding among them the three largest States in the
t
STATES'
RIGHTS. 579
TJnion, will find it in the annual reports of the ad-
jutant-general to the secretary of war. The reg-
ularly organized and uniformed active militia of the
several States” in the year 1885 aggregated 84,739
men; in 1886 the number was 92,734; in 1887 it had
increased to 100,837; and on July 2, 1888, it had an
available force of 106,814 men. This is less than
one-fifth of one per cent. of our population, and less
than the whole number of persons subject to mili-
tary duty when required in the single city of New
York. (w. M. F.)
STATES’ RIGHTS. In the general sense, this
term, as applied in American political history, con-
tains a reference to the relations subsisting between
the United States and the respective States, but it
has a special sense that describes a body of opinion
that has exercised a large influence in moulding the
institutions of this country. It is in this special
sense that it is here considered. The States’ rights
doctrine is a theory of the construction of the Con-
stitution of the United States, and not a general
theory of government or communal Society. It is
to be regarded as an extreme expression of a ten-
dency existing in all communities, definitely ex-
hibited in those that have reached any considerable
stage of organization, and especially in those that
are composed of organized communities united to
form a general or national community, as in the in-
stances of imperial and federal systems of govern-
ment. This tendency seeks to conserve the individ-
ualities of the organic units of the system as against
an opposite tendency to blend the entire system in-
to a single homogeneous and consolidated political
society by the reduction of the functions of its in-
tegral parts, and the enhancement of the powers of
the larger system. This tendency has a still broader
interpretation, and is found in all organic systems
conserving the individualities of their parts and sub-
Ordinate organs.
The States' rights doctrine, as propounded within
ten years after the adoption of the Constitution of
the United States, and at a later period made the
ground of an attempt on the part of a single State to
nullify certain laws of the United States within its
territories, and at a still later period the justifica-
tion for an attempt on the part of several States to
secede from the Union, denied to the United States
the character of a national sovereign, affirmed that
sovereignty remained in the States alone, to whom
alone allegiance was due from the citizen ; that the
powers of the general government constituted an
agency created by the States, federating together as
independent sovereigns to attain certain definite
ends of common interest to them by prescribed and
limited means; that the sovereignty of the States re-
mained undiminished by this delegation of powers,
and that as such sovereigns they were without a su-
perior to judge of the infractions of the Constitution,
and thus entitled to judge, each for itself, of such
infractions, and to seek a remedy for such wrongs
either in nullifying the acts of Congress thus held
to be in excess of its authority, or to secede from
the Union and resume a state of entire sovereign
independence.
The Constitution had conferred upon Congress the
diplomatic and war powers of the government, the
maritime police, the regulation of intercourse and
the adjustment of differences between the States ;
Certain special powers, including the fixing of com-
mercial standards of value and quantity ; general
taxing powers, devoted to the payment of the debts,
the common defence, and “general welfare " of the
United States, and all other powers “necessary and
proper” for carrying the same into execution. It
was generally conceded that the powers of Congress
were limited, but the nature and extent of that lim-
itation were subjects of dispute between those en-
º
tertaining opposite theories of the proper construc-
tion of the Constitution. º tº º
An occasion arose, out of the complications inci-
dent to the unsettled political condition of France
subsequent to the revolution that dethroned the
ancient line of her monarchs, for the differences be-
tween the two schools of opinion to assume activity.
Congress assumed a certain control over aliens and
persons engaged in seditious practices within the
States, that was claimed by the adherents of the
States’ rights doctrine to be in excess of its constitu-
tional powers. On the one hand, sympathy with
the popular aspirations that produced the French
revolution and, on the other, apprehensions for the
stability of government in the presence of such un-
controllable forces, gave color and warmth to the
discussions that arose, and fitting conditions to pro-
duce extreme expressions of opinion on both sides
of the question.
The contest was between a strict and a liberal
construction of the Constitution. It was claimed by
those adhering to a strict construction that the only
powers that could be exercised by Congress were
those which were specifically enumerated by the
Constitution and such incidental powers as were
necessary to the exercise of those specifically enu-
merated; and as authority over the citizens of the
States, either permanent or temporary, was not
among the enumerated powers, the attempt of Con-
gress to interfere with the authºrity of the States
over their own citizens, on the gröund that they were
aliens or seditious, was in excess of its constitutional
authority. On the other hand, it was contended
that the war powers and that of regulating inter-
course with foreign nations and between the States
justified such action, as essential to the common de-
fence and general welfare. To this it was replied
that Congress had no general authority to legislate
for the promotion of the general welfare, but was
only so far to provide for the general welfare as that
was connected with the specific subjects committed
to its authority, and that the war powers were inap-
plicable as the state of war did not then exist. As
these differences were irreconcilable, it was necessary
to consider whether any constitutional means existed
for their adjustment. The national party contended
that the national judiciary was the only recourse for
their solution under the Constitution. This was
denied by the States' rights party, who affirmed that
the federal judiciary was the creature of the sover-
eign States, brought into existence by their act, and
could not control its creator. The national party
replied that the government of the United States
Was the Supreme authority, superior to the States,
Within its sphere, and therefore the proper judge of
the extent and limits of its authority. As every
sovereign government is necessarily the judge of the
extent of its authority, subject only to the right of
revolution that is inherent in civil society, it was
necessary to the position of the party of strict con-
struction that the sovereign character should be de-
nied to the government of the United States, and
this position was taken. It was affirmed that the
Constitution was the act of the State governments
and not of the people of the United States as a
Whole, and as such was a mere league, of the infrac-
tions of which the parties to the compact were the
sole judges as well as of the proper means of redress.
The gravity of an issue maintained not only by
able and illustrious men but by organized States
standing foremost in the rank of civilization, and
that presented the alternative of placing the United
States in the attitude of a national sovereign clothed
with authority adequate to effectuate its purposes at
home and to fulfil its engagements abroad, and with
rank and dignity equal to that of any other nation,
or to reduce it to the level of a diplomatic agency
580 STATES’
RIGHTS.
depending for the effectiveness of its action upon
ratification by a numerous body of independent
States from whom its authority was derived, renders
necessary a statement of the successive steps of this
great controversy.
The War with Great Britain to maintain the decla-
ration of independence made by the colonies exhib-
ited the necessity of concerted action on their part
and led to their confederation and representation
in the Continental Congress. In this body each
State, through its delegates, had an equal voice with
each other in the adoption of public measures; but
such measures lacked effectiveness through the
frequent failures of the States to comply with the
demands made upon them, and the inability of Con-
gress to coerce compliance therewith. A profound
conviction of the necessity of enlarging the powers
of Congress arose throughout all parts of the coun-
try, that continued to gain strength after the con-
clusion of the war, and finally led to the calling of
the convention of 1787, in which the present Con-
stitution, apart from the amendments subsequently
made, was passed for submission to the people of
the United States.
The earliest plan submitted to the convention was
that of Mr. Edmund Randolph, of Virginia. This
plan proposed a national government, both in name
and in substance. The essential feature was that
it was to be derived directly from the people and
Was to act upon the people through laws judicially
expounded and efforced by the national govern-
ment. The powers of the government were re-
Spectively described as the national executive, the
national legislature, and the national judiciary.
The jurisdiction of the national government was to
be confined to certain subjects, but in the exercise
of its powers over these subjects it was to act as a
sovereign government, superior to the governments
of the States. The powers that were withheld from
the general government were to be retained by the
States, to be exercised by them as sovereign govern-
ing communities. According to this plan the polit-
ical governments of the United States and of the
respective States were to act independently of each
Other, but the national government, being Supreme,
its laws, properly enacted, would operate directly
upon the people in such manner as to deny validity
to any law of a State that infringed upon the na-
tional powers.
The Virginia plan was supported by the larger
States, of which Virginia, Massachusetts, and Penn-
sylvania were the largest, both as to territory and
population. The advantage of this plan to the large
States was that, as the system was based upon popu-
lar majorities, they would have the greatest advan-
tage from it, as a consequence of their being the
most populous.
The smaller States, especially New Jersey, Dela-
ware, and Maryland, were opposed to the Virginia
plan, as giving a preponderating influence to the
large States in the proposed government. They pre-
ferred the plan of the then existing confederacy, in
which each State had an equal voice with every
other in public affairs.
Mr. Patterson, of New Jersey, submitted a plan
that received the support of the smaller States.
This plan was based on the federal idea, according
to which a federal government was to be instituted
under the authority of the governments of the re-
spective States, in which each State should have an
equal voice with every other. . According to this
plan the federal government could only carry out its
purposes through the aid of the State governments,
having no efficient means of its own for the purpose.
As the federal government could only act through
the States, it was necessary to its existence that it
should possess the means of coercing a State that
should fail to discharge its proper duties, and such
a provision was contained in the plan.
A third plan was offered by Alexander Hamil-
ton, of New York, which proposed a national gov-
ernment of unlimited powers, but which was not
brought into discussion by the convention. South
Carolina, throughout the discussions of the conven-
tion, adhered to the views of the larger States, and
upheld the plan of a national government with lim-
ited powers.
Although a conflict of interests was recognized in
the course of the discussion as existing between the
Northern and Southern States, arising from the di-
versification of their respective institutions and in-
dustries, especially in view of the assumed necessity
of perpetuating the institution of slavery in the last-
named States, yet that consideration led only to
modifications of details, and had no apparent effect
upon the fundamental principle of the proposed
government, the controlling influence in that respect
arising from the political interests connected with
the unequal distribution of population among the
States. *
These differences between the larger and the
smaller States were adjusted, principally, in the
constitution of the national legislature. The House
of Representatives was to be chosen directly by the
people of the States, who were to be represented in
the ratio of population, so that a majority of the
House would represent a majority of the people of
the United States, without regard to State lines.
By this disposition the people of the United States
were unified as a whole for the purpose of making
laws that should operate upon themselves, collec-
tively and individually. Such governmental author-
ity, so derived, where responsible to no higher au-
thority, was necessarily sovereign, and where the
objects for which it is created are national, as involv-
ing interests common to an entire independent com-
munity, such sovereignty is necessarily of the sov-
ereign type.
The smaller States, while yielding thus far to this
national scheme, insisted that the States in their
political capacities should have a negative upon the
popular action of the House of Representatives by
giving to each State, independent of the extent of
territory or population, an equal voice in the Senate,
or what was then called the second branch of the
national legislature. The larger States at length
yielded to this demand, and it was concluded that
each State should be represented by two senators,
chosen by the legislatures of the respective States,
constituting a senate which should have a negative
upon all action of the popular branch, as well as
upon certain functions of the executive that con-
cerned treaties and appointments to office.
What was intended by the arrangement of the
national legislature was that in all matters the action
of the government of the United States should con-
form, on the one hand, to the will of the majority of
the people of the United States as a whole, and, on
the other hand, to the desires of a majority of the
States as separate political bodies. Both of the
schemes of government thus embodied in the Con-
stitution contemplated a controlling influence of the
general government over the States in all matters of
national concern, the one that embodied the federal
idea propounding direct coercion for that purpose,
while the national plan secured the same end with-
out coercion applied to the political government of
the States by having direct authority over the people
of the States by which they might be compelled to
conform to the laws of the United States, and be
prevented from conforming to the laws of the States
that were infractions of the national right.
In the final framing of the Constitution the terms
“national” and “federal” were both dropped without
STATES'
RIGHTS. 581
eliciting any discussion tending to show that any im-
portant interests were regarded as in any way con-
nected with their use or omission, and that the
change was formal merely, such as might have been
induced by the consideration that descriptive words
were not necessary to define the nature of a govern-
ment whose jurisdiction and powers had been fully
set forth in its constitution.
It has been claimed in public discussion that the
plan of a national government was rejected by the
convention as inconsistent with the proper indepen-
dence of the States, but this is obviously an error.
Mr. Madison, whose report of the proceedings of the
convention is accepted as standard authority, was in & s - e g = º
safety of our own institutions and our amicable re-
later years an advocate of the doctrine of States'
rights, and it is not to be assumed that he either in-
tentionally or accidentally suppressed so important
a feature of the discussion. The discussions and
action of the convention show that no other idea
than that of a national government was entertained ;
that the subjection of the people of the States to the
authority of the general government in all matters
own mind. At the same time a law was passed by
committed to that government was fully intended to
be direct, so that the necessity of coercing the polit-
ical governments of the States could never arise.
Such a direct governmental relation between the
general government and the people of the States
constitutes the authority exercisable through it as
sovereign, and that implies power to determine its
own limits of authority, subject only to the ultimate
right of popular revolution.
The differences between those who adhered to a
strict and those who advocated a liberal construction
of the Constitution were brought into discussion in
the first Congress, in 1791, on the occasion of the
incorporation by Congress of the Bank of the United
States. Mr. Madison opposed the measure as beyond
the competency of Congress. It was claimed by the
advocates of the measure that such a financial insti-
tution was a necessary and proper means of enabling
the government to exercise the functions conferred
upon Congress by the Constitution. The position
assumed by Mr. Madison was that a case of strict
necessity must appear, to warrant the exercise of the
power as within the class of incidental powers, and
that it was not sufficient to justify its exercise that
the facilities afforded by such an institution would
be a convenience to the administration of the gov-
ernment. His view was that nothing was to be
added by implication to the specific powers con-
ferred upon Congress unless such implication arose
out of actual necessity incident to the exercise of
such specific powers, and that the fitness of the
means proposed to attain its end was not the test of
the propriety of the implication, but the circum-
stance that without such means the power could not
be properly exercised. The charter of the bank was
granted by Congress, and the institution was in op-
eration many years before the discussion as to the
validity of the authority under which its powers
were exercised again attracted general attention.
In 1792 Mr. Madison opposed the granting by
Congress of bounties to promote the cod fisheries
upon the ground that it was not within the power of
Congress. It had been contended that the authority
of Congress to provide for the general welfare justi-
fied the exercise of the power claimed. Mr. Madi-
son held that the authority of Congress to provide
for the general welfare was limited to cases in which
the general welfare was involved in some question
relating to the specific subjects committed to the
jurisdiction of that body. The discussion of this
construction was renewed at a later day under cir-
cumstances giving it a wider and more interesting
range, that will be mentioned.
The passage by Congress of the laws known as the
Alien and Sedition laws was the first of a series of
important public events that brought into general
discussion the nature and extent of the powers of Con-
gress, and the means possessed by the States for gon-
fining the government of the United States within
its legitimate sphere and restraining it from encroach-
ments upon the reserved rights of the States, the
succeeding events being the attempted nullification
by South Carolina in 1832 of certain revenue laws,
and the attempted secession from the Union of cer-
tain States in 1861.
The popular sympathy which in this country was
ardently excited during the early stages of the French
revolution in behalf of the condition and aspirations
of our late ally gave place to apprehension for the
lations to foreign powers, as the instability of popu-
lar institutions in France was made apparent. Dan-
ger was apprehended from intrigues engaged in by
resident aliens, and Congress authorized the Presi-
dent to remove from the United States aliens found
here, upon such evidence of public danger arising
from their presence as might be satisfactory to his
Congress to punish sedition committed or attempted
in the United States and the publication of state-
ments and opinions hostile to the action of the gov-
ernment.
The warmth of discussion that followed the enact-
ment of these laws was not alone due to the fact
that to many it seemed that Congress had designedly
overstepped the limits of its authority, and had en-
tered upon a scheme of consolidating the national
power by the destruction of the liberties of the
States, but was due in part to the approaching politi-
cal crisis that transferred public authority from the
hands of the Federalists to those who, under the name
of Republicans, were to control its destinies for many
years, and also in part to the belief of many that the
laws in question overthrew certain barriers indis-
pensable for the protection of individual liberty,
such as the right of trial by jury, the freedom of
speech, of the press, and of religion.
The legislature of Kentucky in 1798 passed cer-
tain resolutions, of which the first, containing the
statement of principles on which they were based,
was as follows:
“1. Resolved, That the several States composing
the United States of America are not united on the
principle of unlimited submission to their general
government; but that, by compact, under the style
and title of a constitution for the United States, and
of amendments thereto, they constituted a general
government for special purposes, delegated to that
government certain definite powers, reserving, each
State to itself, the residuary mass of right to their
own self-government ; and that whensoever the gen-
eral government assumes undelegated powers, its
acts are unauthoritative, void, and of no force ; that
to this compact each State acceded as a State, and is
an integral party; that this government, created by
this compact, was not the exclusive or final judge of
the extent of the powers delegated to itself, since
that would have made its discretion, and not the
constitution, the measure of its powers; but that, as
in all other cases of compact among parties, having
no common judge, eash party has an equal right to
judge for itself as well of infractions as of the mode
and manner of redress.”
The remaining resolutions of the series declare
certain acts of Congress, including the alien and se-
dition laws, to be in excess of the authority of Con-
gress and void, as highly dangerous to the liberties
of the States and the people, that immediate redress
was demanded, and provide for the transmission of
the resolutions to Congress and to the other States.
It is noticeable that these resolutions indicate no
mode of redress, although claiming that each State had
582
STATES’ RIGHTS.
the independent right to judge of the infractions and clared. It is announced, “That this Assembly doth
of the mode of redress, and propose no second course
of action to be pursued by that State, either alone or
concurrently with any other States. They were evi-
dently intended as a declaration of principles for the
consideration of Congress and of the people at the
approaching general elections, looking to the repeal
of the obnoxious laws and the overthrow of the
party conducting the government.
The value of these resolutions as a statement of
the doctrine of States' rights depends upon certain
propositions advanced, and the reasons assigned for
their verity. The leading statement is to the effect
that the general government, “was not made the ex-
clusive or final judge of the extent of the powers
delegated to itself,” and the reason assigned is that
that would make its discretion the measure of its
powers. Dependent upon this proposition, and ne-
cessarily true if the preceding one is established,
is the proposition that each State has the right to
judge for itself as well of infractions as of the mode
and manner of redress.
The reason assigned for this statement is that it
is a consequence common to all other cases of com-
pacts among parties having no common judge. This
compact is described as one made by the States for
certain definite purposes. The denial of the exist-
ence of any common judge negatives the attribute
of sovereignty in the United States, as all sovereign
governments are superior to all the individuals and
communities constituting them, and are judges of
the limits of their powers. It is obvious, then, that
the Constitution was regarded as a league among
sovereign States creating certain governmental agen-
cies, but parting with no part of their sovereignty.
If such be the case, the principle that each party
must judge for himself of the infractions and mode
of redress would be applicable, assuming the non-
existence of any competent judge among them.
sent to the several States then composing the Union,
and replies were returned by several of these States,
all of which, except that of Virginia, denied both
the principles of construction applied by Kentucky to
the Constitution and her deductions from those prin-
ciples. Upon the receipt of these replies the legis-
lature of Kentucky, in 1799, passed additional reso-
lutions reiterating the positions assumed in the
resolutions of the preceding year, and declaring
‘‘ that the several States who formed that instrument,
being sovereign and independent, have the unques-
tionable right to judge of its infractions; and that a
nullification by those sovereignties of all unauthor-
ized acts done under color of that instrument is the
rightful remedy.” At the conclusion of the resolu-
tions they declare their object to be a solemn pro-
test. As in the first series of resolutions, no purpose
on the part of the State in view of the conditions
stated is disclosed, and a disinclination to present an
ultimatum is evinced by the emphatic statement of
the object of the resolutions as that of a protest.
In view of the declination of a majority of the
States of the Union to sanction the ground assumed
by Kentucky, the only course open to that State was
either to abandon its position or to claim that it was
the right of individual States to seek such redress as
to them respectively might seem appropriate, and
this last of the alternatives was acted upon by the
resolutions of 1799. º
Following the resolutions of Kentucky, and in the
same year, 1798, the legislature of Virginia passed
resolutions upon the same subject, that were pro-
posed by Mr. Madison. This action is in form
and substance a protest addressed to the several
States of the Union against the Alien and Sedition
laws enacted by Congress. Adhesion to the Consti-
tution and firm attachment to the Union are de-
explicitly and peremptorily declare, that it views the
powers of the federal government as resulting from
the compact to which the States are parties, as lim-
ited by the plain sense and intention of the instru-
ment constituting that compact, as no farther valid
than they are authorized by the grants enumerated
in that compact ; and that in case of a deliberate,
palpable, and dangerous exercise of other powers,
not granted by the said compact, the States, who are
parties thereto, have the right, and are in duty
bound, to interpose, for arresting the progress of
the evil, and for maintaining, within their respective
limits, the authorities, rights, and liberties, apper-
taining to them.” Regret is expressed that Congress
appears disposed to assume unconstitutional powers
tending to a consolidated government. Protest is
made against the Alien and Sedition laws as the
exercise of a power not delegated, that violates fun-
damental principles of liberty of conscience and the
press. An appeal is made to the people of the
States to “concur with this commonwealth in de-
claring, as it does hereby declare, that the acts afore-
said are unconstitutional ; and that the necessary
and proper measures will be taken by each for co-
Operating with this State, in maintaining unimpaired
the authorities, rights, and liberties, reserved to the
states respectively or to the people.” Direction is.
given that copies be sent to the legislatures of the
several States.
The Virginia resolutions of 1798 advance no opin-
ion as to the existence of a constitutional remedy for
the grievances complained of, indicate no line of ac-
tion that ought to be pursued by the State beyond
that of consultation with the sister States, and pro-
pose such consultation as the only object beyond
that of entering a protest against the action of Con-
gress. The case stated as imposing upon the States
the duty of arresting the progress of the evil, and
The resolutions of the Kentucky legislature were
maintaining their liberties, is that of “a deliberate,
palpable, and dangerous exercise of other powers
not granted by the said compact.” As a solemn
public protest in a great national exigency, its words.
must be taken with that limitation suggested by the
gravity of the occasion. The powers thus seized
upon by Congress must be dangerous in their char-
acter, as where they violate fundamental principles
of liberty, especially the liberty of conscience and
the press, as charged against the action of Congress
in another part of the instrument. Such powers
must be obviously and unquestionably improper for
Congress to assume, in order to satisfy the expres-
sion, “palpable.” Finally, they must have been as-
sumed for some purpose hostile to the objects of the
Constitution, as for the purpose of establishing a
consolidated government, as elsewhere charged in
the same instrument, in order to satisfy the expres-
sion, “deliberate.” If the case as stated had been
actual, the right of revolution would have undoubt-
edly given the appropriate remedy, and the mode
in which Virginia dealt with the question, if she so
believed, must be regarded as moderate and conser-
vative.
These resolutions were transmitted to the other
States and replies were received from Delaware,
Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New York, Connecti-
cut, New Hampshire, and Vermont, all dissenting
from the position of Virginia, and the majority of
them claiming that the questions involved were
proper for consideration only by the judiciary of
the United States.
The character of the replies received and criti-
cisms that had been made, unfavorable to the action
of Virginia, induced the legislature of that State to
reconsider the whole subject, and a report was made
to that body by Mr. Madison reviewing the entire
subject.
STATES' RIGHTS. 583
The report of Mr. Madison, made and adopted in the persons administering the government, a change
the year 1800, sustains the propriety of the resolu-jin its policy rather than of its nature. The prevail-
tions of 1798. It discusses the constitutionality of ing tendency of popular excitements to find ex:
the Alien and Sedition laws, the character of those pression in the elective act, a striking feature and
laws as violating fixed principles of government, safeguard of our institutions, had its first distinct de-
and the propriety of the measures proposed by the velopment in the instance of the Alien and Sedition
resolutions of 1798. laws, and is readily accounted for when it is observed
The question of constitutionality is considered that the road to the acquisition of public authority
mainly under the clause of the Constitution that en- is made easy through popular ferment, and that the
ables Congress to provide for the public defence temptations to acquire, such authority are greater
and general welfare of the United States. He re- than those that lead in the direction of dismember-
gards the authority to provide for the general wel- ing and crippling the government.
fare as limited to the specific objects enumerated as In 1811 the question of the repeal of the charter
the powers of Congress. He contends that the only of the United States Bank was agitated in Congress,
other construction possible would be that which and Mr. Clay opposed the power of Congress to in-
should claim that anything that might tend to pro- corporate a bank. He says: “What is the nature of
mote the welfare of the States as a whole might be this government It is emphatically federal ; vested
done by Congress under it; that this would render with an aggregate of specified powers for govern-
nugatory the limitations intended to be imposed by mental purposes, conceded by existing sovereignties,
the enumeration of specific powers. The report who have themselves retained what is not so con-
defends the resolutions from the charge of recom- ceded. It is said that there are cases in which it must
mending improper measures, contending that all act on implied powers. This is not controverted ;
they intend is to bring about discussion and com- but the implication must be necessary, and obviously
parison of ideas among the States, whose action may flow from the enumerated powers with which it is
be confined to representations to Congress to induce allied. The power to charter companies is not speci-
the repeal of these laws. It is claimed that the | fied in the grant, and, I contend, it is of a nature
States have the right under the Constitution to con- not transferable by mere implication. It is one of
fer together and concert action proper to be taken the most exalted attributes of sovereignty.”
under the Constitution. The action of the legis- In the foregoing statement Mr. Clay should be re-
lature upon this report did not change the position garded as conceding that Sovereignty resides in the
of affairs assumed by the resolutions of 1798, either United States, as its powers are described as govern-
as to their form or effect. mental, though limited, and emanating from a sover-
The effect of the clause of the Constitution that eign source; as the quality of that retained by the
enables Congress to provide for the general welfare States is sovereign, that which they parted with, be-
has always had a conspicuous place in the discus- ing intended for the same general uses, must have
sions of the advocates of the different schools. This the same nature. He employs the term federal in
discussion has a promiſent place in the report of the sense that has become general, as implying a
Mr. Madison, as a vital feature of the controversy. governmental relation between communities exer-
If that clause was to be taken in its broadest sense, cising sovereign authority united through a common
the power of Congress would seem to be unlimited, law for governmental purposes. Conceding the sover-
for it would, in that case, stand as a grant of general | eignty of the United States, the right to judge of
legislative power in the broadest terms. It was al- the limits of its powers, depending on the fact that
ways conceded by those who put the most liberal such sovereignty is supreme, must be regarded as
construction on the Constitution that the powers of conceded, and hence Mr. Clay could not but regard
Congress were subject to limitation, and this ex- the question of the sufficiency of the grounds of im-
cludes the clause under consideration from receiving plying powers in the government of the United States
the broadest construction of which it was capable if as proper for decision by its judiciary.
standing alone. The narrower doctrine was that In 1816 the Supreme Court of the United States,
Congress could only provide for the general welfare in the celebrated case of Martin ps. Hunter, was
where matters were involved that were of common called upon to place a construction upon the Con-
interest to the whole Union, which would place be- stitution as to the nature and limits of the powers of
yond the authority of Congress the attainment of Congress. The judiciary act had provided for ap-
objects of merely local interest. This construction peals from the highest courts of the States to the
Mr. Madison rejects and propounds the very strin- Supreme Court of the United States where questions
gent doctrine that Congress can only consider and of a federal nature were involved in their decisions.
provide for the general welfare as it regards the sub- This feature of the law was strenuously resisted
jects placed in the enumeration of its powers. Inter- as an assumption of authority not granted by the
mediate between the larger construction, which Mr. Constitution. Judge Story, delivering the opinion
Madison rejects, and the narrow one propounded by of the court, claimed that the Constitution proceeded
him is another, that does not appear to have received from the people of the United States, and not from
attention in the discussions at that time. In addi- the States as political bodies, and that it was in-
tion to the powers conferred upon Congress, certain tended to limit the sovereignties of the States, and
other powers are inhibited to the States; if, then, a render the United States supreme, within its proper
power thus inhibited to the States is of such a nature jurisdiction, over all State authority. His conclusion
that its exercise is essential to the maintenance of was, and such was the judgment of the court, that
government, the question whether the authority to the grant of jurisdiction over cases arising under the
provide for the general welfare did not authorize Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States
such power to be exercised by Congress, as a neces- is absolute, and, as such, extends to an appellate
sity of government, is one that would have to be jurisdiction over the judgments of the State courts
considered before the rule of construction pro- where questions of that nature arise.
pounded by Mr. Madison could be accepted as a The Supreme Court was again, in 1819, called
finality. . . e upon to examine the fundamental nature of the
The agitation excited by the Alien and Sedition powers exercised by Congress. The State of Mary-
laws, that at one time threatened the stability of land had assumed to impose a tax upon the opera-
the Union, passed into the arena of general politics, tions of a branch of the Bank of the United States
and was one of the causes that placed Mr. Jefferson located in that State, and a controversy arose and
in the presidency, producing, through a change of was brought into that court involving the constitu.
584 STATES
RIGHTS.
tionality of the authority under which the bank ex-
ercised its powers, and of the act of Maryland taxing
the institution. The court affirmed the authority of
Congress to create the bank, and denied that claimed
by Maryland. The position assumed by the court,
as stated in the opinion of Chief Justice Marshall, is
substantially as follows: The government of the
United States was created by the people of the States
as a Sovereign government, though its jurisdiction
Was limited to certain specified subjects; that in
relation to such subjects it was sovereign and supe-
rior to the States; that, in addition to the enumer-
ated powers, it was intended to have all such powers
as Were proper in order to carry into execution the
enumerated powers; that in the choice of means to
carry Out its powers it was not limited to such as
Were indispensably necessary for that purpose, but
could use such as in its judgment were reasonably
necessary and proper for that purpose ; that it was
the sole judge of the propriety of the means adopted
So long as those means were suitable to the nature
of the powers enumerated; that the power to bor-
row money and levy taxes implied the creation of
banks to that end; that a law of the State of Mary-
land subjecting the powers granted to the bank to
restrictions was inconsistent with the sovereign au-
thority of Congress over the subject, and was there-
fore unconstitutional and void.
In 1828 Congress enacted a law imposing duties
upon foreign importations, which was claimed to be
intended for the protection of domestic manufact-
ures, that gave rise to animated discussion both in
Congress and in the States. In 1830 this discussion
was maintained by Mr. Webster and Mr. Hayne, of
South Carolina, in the celebrated debate upon the
powers of the government. Mr. Webster's position
was that, apart from the right of revolution, there was
no power in any State to resist the authority of Con-
gress under the Constitution. That the government
of the United States was established by the people,
and its responsibility is to the people alone. He ad-
mitted that New England had opposed the embargo
law on the same grounds that South Carolina opposed
the tariff, but had submitted to an unwelcome de-
cision against her claims. He regards the Virginia
resolutions as indefinite as to whether revolutionary
or constitutional means of redress were intended.
He says: “I hold it to be a popular government,
erected by the people ; those who administer it re-
sponsible to the people, and itself capable of being
amended and modified just as the people may choose
it should be. It is as popular, just as truly emanat-
ing from the people, as the State governments. It
is created for one purpose, the State governments
for another. It has its own powers, they have theirs.
There is no more authority with them to arrest the
operation of a law of the Congress than with Con-
gress to arrest the operation of their laws.”
Mr. Hayne in reply claimed that the government
of the United States emanated from the sovereignties
of the States as organized governments, and hence
the agencies created could not control the power by
which they were created. He regards the action of
a State declaring the action of Congress as unconsti-
tutional as a check which ought to be respected
until appeal is made to the States collectively to as-
certain their will in the matter, thus excluding the
idea of coercion of a State on the part of Congress.
Mr. Webster, replying to Mr. Hayne, took the
ground that, assuming the position that the Consti-
tution emanated from the State governments, still
the claim of South Carolina that a single State has
an independent right of construing it cannot be
maintained, as it could only be construed by the
States acting together. And even in that case, where
a means of deciding questions of construction was
designated by the contracting parties, that means of
decision would be competent, and the only compe-
tent means. But he disputes this assumption, and
contends that the people of the States, in their col-
lective capacity as the people of the United States,
made the Constitution.
In 1832 the first attempt was made to put into
practical exercise the doctrine that the Constitution
Was a mere league or compact between sovereign
states by which they parted with no part of their
Sovereign authority, but merely created certain gov-
ernmental agencies for the common benefit, and sub-
ject to their control. In that year South Carolina
adopted, in convention, an ordinance that declared
unconstitutional and void the acts of Congress al-
leged to have been passed for the purpose of pro-
tecting domestic manufactures, and assumed to nul-
lify those acts within the territories of that State,
and threatened that if an attempt was made to apply
force to the State she would withdraw from the Union
and establish a separate government. The history
of these transactions is given in another place under
NULLIFICATION.
Assuming the premises claimed by South Caro-
lina, that the Constitution created no sovereign au-
thority that could be asserted as superior to the
States, and that could act as the judge of the extent
of the obligations assumed by the States, it would
be difficult to deny the right of each State to act for
itself in the manner propounded by the Kentucky
resolutions, and practically acted upon by South
Carolina in 1832.
The difficulty lies in maintaining the assumption
that was the foundation of the deductions upon
which that State sought to act. In addition to Con-
gress and the judicial authority conferred upon the
courts of the United States a supreme arbitrator was
created by the Constitution superior to the Consti-
tution itself, and competent to bind the States by
obligations that had not been assumed with the Con-
stitution. The power of amendment over that in-
strument was placed in the hands of three-fourths
of the States, and its exercise was to be binding upon
the remaining States. This power of amendment
was only limited in two respects, one of which re-
lated to control over the migration and importation
of persons, and the other to the distribution of di-
rect taxes. Beyond this limitation the power of
amendment was unlimited. To affirm that a power
by which a majority of a collective community of
individuals or states may control the entire commu-
nity, in an almost unrestricted manner, does not im-
port sovereign authority, is the chief difficulty in
the argument in favor of separate State liberty. A
contract by which the majority of the contracting
parties may change the terms of contract is certainly
not an ordinary contract, and very clearly implies
the existence of governmental authority that is in-
separable from the idea of sovereignty. It is equally
difficult for a State to say that it has only parted
with so much of its liberty as is embodied in the
terms of a certain instrument, where it has lodged
in the hands of a power that may act independently
of its authority ability to change those terms, and
thus to subject it to new obligations. Nor is it easy
to conceive by what reasoning it can be maintained
that a supreme power that may mould the obligations
of States can exist independently of the possession
of power to judge of infractions of its requirements.
The attitude of South Carolina called forth the
celebrated proclamation of Pres. Jackson that vindi-
cated the national sovereignty of the United States,
and the supremacy of her judiciary over all contro-
versies arising out of the terms of the Constitution.
South Carolina at length yielded to a compromise
act proposed by Mr. Clay by which the principle of
national imposts for the protection of domestic man-
ufactures was retained but certain economic advan-
STAUNTON_STEEDMAN.
585
tages were secured to South Carolina, according to
her estimation, by the gradual reduction of the du-
ties imposed to a minimum to be reached by 1842.
The next and final effort to practicalize the ideas of
State liberty propounded by the States' rights doc-
trine was in 1860 and 1861, when South Carolina
passed an ordinance for the secession of that State
from the Union, and was followed by ten of the
States that adhered to the system of legal slavery.
The election of Mr. Lincoln to the presidency in
1860 was the transfer of public authority from the
southern group of States to the section of the Union
where slavery had become extinct, and was inter-
preted by the seceding States as an indication that
that system could not look to indefinite continu-
ance. The history of the events attending this ef-
fort to withdraw from the Union is given in another
place under SECESSION. Armed resistance to the
authority of the United States commenced with
South Carolina, and a state of active hostilities en-
sued. The seceding States formed a confederated
government and demanded that they should be
treated as belligerents according to the laws of war,
and this concession was made. The issue of the
conflict was determined by military means, and the
final surrender of the armies of the confederacy sub-
jected the territory of those States to the conse-
quences flowing from a state of war, according to
which the Supreme authority remained in the hands
of the conqueror to be exercised according to his
will. After a brief interregnum of military govern-
ment, Congress provided for the readmission of the
seceded States into the Union, establishing by its
authority the popular basis upon which such recon-
struction should take place. The people of the sev-
eral States that had yielded to the military power of
the United States accepted the conditions offered by
Congress and formed State constitutions and gov-
•ernments, and were readmitted to representation in
Congress. The history of these events is given un-
der RECONSTRUCTION.
The whole force of the States' rights doctrine was
centred in the question of the right of one or more
States to secede from the Union where they had ad-
judged the action of Congress unconstitutional and
detrimental to the liberties of the States. Nullifica-
tion could only be regarded as a temporary remedy
mainly intended, as claimed by Mr. Hayne, as a
check to induce more full consideration before act-
ing upon doubtful powers. The same argument
that would sanction the right to nullify the laws of
the United States within a State would justify that
State to secede from the Union if the act of nullifi-
cation proved insufficient as means of redress.
The entire question must then be regarded as in-
volved in the related attitudes of the United States
and the confederated States. That the States that
remained in the Union after the act of secession held
to the opinion that such right of secession did not
exist is evidenced by the fact that they based the
right to make war upon it. With the success of their
arms restoration to the statehood implied acceptance
of the principles of which the war was the expression.
The doctrine of the war was the indissoluble union
of the States, to form a sovereign national govern-
ment, and the restoration of the States to full consti-
tutional rights was the acceptance of a corresponding
obligation upon the States thus restored. The con:
sequence of this acceptance was that the judiciary of
the Union, the people of the United States, and the
States in the exercise of constitutional powers, were
the ultimate recourse for the solution of all questions
of right and duty on the part of States or individuals
within the Union. (A. J. W.)
STAUNTON, a city in Virginia, county seat of
Augusta Co., is in the Shenandoah valley, on Lewis
*Creek, 60 miles N. of Lynchburg. It is on a branch
WOL. IV.-2 M
magazines and newspapers.
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. It has a court-
house, 2 banks, 10 churches, a high school and ex-
cellent private schools, the State asylum for lunatics,
and the State institution for the blind, deaf, and
dumb. It contains also large iron-works, flour and
planing mills. Three weekly newspapers are pub-
lished here. The population in 1880 was 6664. ...
STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE, poet and critic,
was born at Hartford, Conn., Oct. 8, 1833. He entered
Yale College in 1849, but left after some breach of
discipline, though the degree of A. M. was conferred
on him in 1871. While yet in college his poem
Westminster Abbey won a prize, and appeared in the
Yale Literary Magazine in 1851. After editing the
Norwich Tribune, 1852–53, and the Winsted Herald,
1854–56, he removed to New York, and wrote for the
His first notable suc-
cess was gained in 1859, through the appearance in
the New York Tribune of The Diamond Wedding and
several other pieces in verse. These, with others, were
gathered in his Poems, Lyric and Idyllic (1860). The
Prince's Ball, reprinted from Vanity Fair later in the
same year, commemorated the visit of the Prince of
Wales to the United States. In 1861–63 he was war
correspondent of the World, writing from headquar-
ters of the Army of the Potomac, and from Washing-
ton. Returning to New York in 1864 he gave up
journalism for the stock exchange, but continued to
write verse. His Alice of Monmouth appeared, 1864;
The Blameless Prince, and Other Poems, 1869; Rip
Van Winkle, 1870; and subsequent volumes, 1877
and 1879. His Poetical Works were collected in
1873, and in a Household Edition: in 1884. Some of
his poems were written for special occasions. Get-
tysburg was read before the Army of the Potomac at
Cleveland in 1871, an Ode at Dartmouth College
in 1873, The Monument of Greeley at the dedication
in Greenwood Cemetery in 1876, The Death of Bryant
before the Century Club in 1878, Meridian at the
25th anniversary of his Yale class in 1878, and Corda
Concordia before the Concord School of Philosophy
in 1881. Of late years Mr. Stedman has turned his
attention to criticism, and done some of the best-
considered critical writing that has been produced
in America. Articles in Scribner's, afterward The
Century, were the basis of his Pictorian Poets (1875),
of which the 13th edition (1887) is brought down to
date. His Poets of America (1886) is a similar work,
deserving even greater praise, on account of his
steadfast maintenance of the true judicial tone.
Mr. Stedman edited Austin Dobson's Poems (1880),
and, with T. B. Aldrich, Cameos from Landor (1874).
He is now, with Miss Ellen M. Hutchinson, editing
a Library of American Literature, being selections
from all home writers of any note from the earliest
colonial times: this is to fill ten large volumes.
STEEDMAN, CHARLEs, rear-admiral, was born,
Sept. 24, 1811, at Charleston, S. C. In 1828 he entered
the navy as midshipman; in 1834 became passed mid-
shipman, cruising in the frigates Constitution and
United States. In 1841 he received his promotion
as lieutenant, and in 1846–47 served in the Mexican
War in the sloop St. Mary's. When Vera Cruz was
bombarded he had command of the siege-guns in
the naval battery on shore, and, besides other oper-
ations on the coast, took part in the boat-expedition
that effected the capture of Tampico. In Septem-
ber, 1855, he was promoted to commander, and as
such was in charge of the brig Dolphin in the Para-
guay expedition. When his native State seceded in
1861 he resisted the efforts of family and friends
and remained loyal to the Union, to which he ren-
dered efficient service. His first service in the cause
was to convey Gen. Ben. F. Butler, with the Eighth
Massachusetts Regiment, from Havre de Grace to
Annapolis, Md., in the railroad ferry-steamer Mary-
land, the command of which he received in an-
586
STEEDMAN STEEL.
swer to his request for duty. Thereafter he served
under. Admiral Foote in the organization of the
naval force that manned the gun-boats on the Missis-
sippi. In September, 1861, he co-operated, as com-
mander of the steamer Bienville, in the capture of
Port Royal, and in the operations on the coast of
Florida and Georgia. In September, 1862, he was
made captain and, in charge of the Powhattan, took
part in the blockade of Charleston, in various en-
gagements there, and in the capture of Fort Mc-
Allister, on the Ogeechee, which led to the evacua-
tion of Savannah. After towing the captured ram
Atlanta to Philadelphia, he went in command of the
Ticonderoga to the coast of Brazil in pursuit of the
Confederate cruiser Florida. In this vessel he con-
tinued to serve during the remainder of the war,
taking part in several operations, and finally went
On a cruise in the Mediterranean, whence he re-
turned in 1867, in command of the frigate Colorado.
Meantime, in July, 1866, he had been appointed
commodore. From 1869 to 1872 he was in charge of
the Boston navy-yard. In May, 1871, he was advanced
to rear-admiral, and finally retired from the service,
Sept. 24, 1873.
STEEDMAN, JAMES BARRETT, general, was born,
July 30, 1818, in Northumberland Co., Pa. He was
emphatically a man of energy and action, and before
the war had been a contractor on the Wabash and
Erie Canal, a member of the legislature of Ohio, the
Organizer of a party to cross the plains to California
in search of gold (from which he returned next
year), a member of the Ohio board of public works,
the public printer at Washington during Buchan-
an’s administration, and a delegate to the conven-
tion at Charleston in 1860, where he advocated the
nomination of Stephen A. Douglas. On the out-
break of the war he became colonel of the Fourth Ohio
Regiment, and was sent to Western Virginia. Here
he was engaged in the battle of Philippi; thereaf-
ter he joined Gen. Buell in Kentucky, and in July,
1862, was promoted to brigadier-general. In this
capacity he rendered efficient service at the battle
of Perryville, arriving on the field just in time to
drive back the enemy, who had broken the Union
fine. In July, 1863, he was appointed to the com-
mand of the First division of the reserve corps of the
Army of the Cumberland, and at the battle of Chick-
amauga re-enforced Gen. Thomas at a moment of
great emergency. For this he has been given the
credit of saving the day, though the honor of sug-
gesting the movement is usually assigned to Gen.
G. Granger. His services here earned him the rank
of major-general (April 24, 1864). He afterward
served in Sherman's Atlanta campaign, everywhere
showing zeal and courage. When Thomas left the
expedition to return to Nashville, Gen. Steedman
joined him, and performed efficient service. In 1866,
after serving as provisional governor of Georgia, he
resigned, and received the appointment of collector
of internal revenue at New Orleans. Here his want
of familiarity with business involved him in finan-
cial difficulties, and he returned to Ohio. In 1879
he was elected to the State senate, but on a second
canvass was defeated. A few months before his
death he was made chief of police of Toledo, where
he was ostensible owner and editor of the Weekly Ohio
Democrat. He died at Toledo, Oct. 18, 1883.
STEEL. Every description of iron ore will give
cast iron and wrought iron, the properties of the
product obtained depending upon the ore and the
method used; but in all cases the terms “cast iron"
and “wrought iron" will be applied to the extreme
results and all intermediate products which cannot
be classed with cast iron on the one hand, or the
wrought iron on the other, may be called steel. It
forms the link between cast and wrought iron, and
unites the properties of both, the distinguishing
characteristic being that it may be hardened or soft-
ened at will by rapid or slow cooling. When ex-
posed to heat it takes on in succession the following
colors:
1. A faint yellow, which shows the proper temper-
ature for lancets and other fine cutters that require
the finest edge, with but little strength of metal.
2. A pale straw-yellow, the temperature for razors
and surgical instruments.
3. Full yellow, for pen-knives, with increased
toughness.
4. Brown, with purple spots, for axes and carpen-
ters' tools.
5. Bright blue, for swords and watch-springs.
6. Full blue, for fine saws and daggers.
7. Dark blue, for large saws, or instruments that
may be sharpened with a file.
Proportions of Carbon in Steel and Iron.
Per cent. of carbon.
Pure wrought iron.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.000
Soft steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.075
Mild steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08 to 0.20
Hard steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 to 0.40
Tool steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 to 0.80
Malleable cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.88 to 1,52
Draw-plate steel....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
Cast iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 to 5
Steel, then, may be produced by any process which
adds carbon to wrought iron or reduces it in cast
1I'OIl.
Puddled steel is made in the puddling furnace. In
changing into wrought iron in the furnace the metal
passes through the state of steel, or becomes steel
before it becomes wrought iron ; so to get steel the
usual puddling process is stopped at such a stage in
the working as will give steel.
. A very old process is the process by cementation
or heating bars of iron embedded in charcoal for
from six to ten days. The iron is in the form of
straight bars about 3 inches wide and # inch thick.
Fine charcoal in cubes of # to $ inch edge is placed
in the bottom of the converting pot or chest, which
is made of fire-brick or fire-stone; on this the bars
are laid close together, and then another layer of
charcoal about $ inch thick and a layer of bars, and
so on till the chest is full, when a thick layer of char-
coal is placed on the top and a compact, air-tight
covering of grinder's waste or clay is pasted over
the top. The chest is then placed in a furnace and
a temperature of glowing redness kept up during
periods varying with the quality of steel desired.
Spring steel requires seven days; shear steel, eight
days; and steel for welding, from nine to ten days.
When taken out the fractured bar has no longer the
bluish tint of malleable iron, but has acquired a red-
dish-white color and a scaly, crystalline texture.
A remarkable characteristic of the carbonized bars
is the blistering of the surfaces, from which it gets
the name of “blister steel.” When the blisters are
small in size and are regularly distributed the steel
is of good quality; when they are large and follow
certain lines it indicates a want of homogeneity in
the iron used. The average increase of weight ex-
perienced by the iron during conversion is from 3 to
# per cent., and the amount of coal consumed is
from 75 to 90 per cent. of the weight of the steel
produced. Blister steel is used for facing hammers
and sledges; when drawn out at a low heat it is used
for spring steel, but the texture is not sufficiently
uniform for general purposes, and drawing out the
bars necessarily entails a loss of carbon and, in con-
sequence, a loss of hardness.
The proper uniformity of structure may be ob-
tained, however, by breaking up the steel made by
cementation and fusing the pieces in air-tight cruci-
bles, from which the steel is poured into moulds, or
when a large casting is to be made a number of
STEEL.
587
crucibles are emptied into one large ladle. Krupp manganese, so that spiegeleisens mixed with mot-
casts ingots weighing 20 tons, using 70-lb. crucibles,
the mixture in the crucibles being puddled steel,
The melt-,
ing hole or furnace is a rectangular cavity about 2
feet square and 3 feet deep, lined with fire-brick,
wrought iron, and carbonaceous matter.
|
with the top on a level with the floor, and the grate
bars and ash-pit readily accessible from below, with
a square fire-tile for a cover.
flue is below, communicating with the chimney. A
number of such furnaces are arranged in parallel
lines, with spaces between for moulds. The cruci-
bles are made of a mixture of refractory clay and coke
dust and are 16 to 18 inches high, and 6 to 7 inches
in diameter.
furnace with charges from 35 to 80 lbs. The cruci-
ble is annealed by heating to redness in an open
fire, and is then put in the furnace, and the charge
of blister steel or such mixture as may be desired,
the cover is put on, and the full heat of the furnace
kept up for four or five hours. To tell when the charge
has been thoroughly fused the cover is taken off
and the inside felt with a rod, and when fused it is
left at rest for a time depending upon the desired
temper. The slag is skimmed from the surface and
the crucible lifted out by a pair of tongs and the
contents poured into a cast-iron mould, the mouth
of the mould when full being covered by a shovelful
of Sand or a plate of sheet iron. The fuel consumed
is from three to four times the weight of metal pro-
duced. The fractured surfaces of the softer crucible
steel ingots are bright and finely granular; the §
harder varieties exhibit distinct crystalline plates ar- º
ranged in parallel bands. The ingots are nearly Balling
Two crucibles are usually put in a
A short rectangular
always unsound, and the vesicular cavities can only
be removed by
temperature.
Mushet was granted a patent in England, in 1800,
reheating and hammering at a low
for a process of manufacturing cast steel by firing
malleable iron in crucibles with carbonaceous mat.
ter, and in 1839 a patent was granted William Wick-
parts of iron borings with 3 parts of black oxide of
manganese and 3 parts of ground charcoal.
Case-hardening is a rapid process of cementation
by which the surface of wrought iron is converted
into steel. The piece to be case-hardened is em-
bedded in animal charcoal in a chest, and this is
placed for a short time in a smith's forge or a fur-
nace, and when taken from the fire the object is
hardened by heating it to redness and plunging it
while still red hot into cold water. Small articles
may be so hardened externally as to resist a file, by
Sprinkling a little ferrocyanide of potassium on the
surfaces while red hot. As soon as the powder has
disappeared the article is quenched in cold water.
Instead of producing the steel by causing a cer-
tain amount of carbon to combine with wrought iron,
carbon may be taken from the cast iron. The first
Way that this was done was in the open hearth,
though improved methods have about done away
With this process; but the term open-hearth steel is
still used to distinguish the product of the Siemens-
Martin furnace. The hearth is filled with burning
charcoal and a number of plates or slabs of lamellar
cast iron are melted in the blast of the tuyere, a
quantity of rich slag and iron scale being, added to
assist in the oxidation of the carbon. About thirty
cubic feet of charcoal are used per cwt. of steel pro-
duced.
Hºddled steel was produced in Carinthia as early
a. 1835, and by 1845 it had become a staple product.
There is but little difference between puddling for
Steel and puddling for iron (see IRON), except that in
the latter case the decarbonization is more thor.
oughly effected. The crude irons that are best for
suspended by means of a wrought-iron hoop, B
this purpose are those that are rich in carbon and carrying trunnions, C, supported by cast-iron stand.
tled pigs are very good. The furnace bed is usually
smaller than in the iron furnace, to command 8,
higher temperature with the same-sized chimney
and fire-place. The charge is so distributed in
small fragments that it will all become fused about
the same time. The charge is from 3 to 33 cwts.
This must be perfectly fused and covered with a
stratum of liquid slag, to regulate the oxidation of
the carbon. The melting down, stirring, or rabbling
is done at a higher temperature than with the iron
puddling and occupies usually from 40 to 50 min-
utes; the steel balls are formed, however, at a lower
temperature than those of iron, and at this stage the
furnace should be filled with smoke to produce a
neutral or non-oxidizing atmosphere by closing the
damper. The appearance of the particles of the
metal brought above the slag by the stirring tells the
progress of the operation and the nature of the pro-
duct. When brightly granular it indicates satis-
factory progress and the production of steel of fine
grain and good quality. When flaky and coarsely
granular the steel is likely to be coarse in texture
and imperfectly refined. The shingling of the balls
is conducted at a lower temperature than with iron,
and when not taken immediately to the hammer are
rolled in slag to prevent oxidation. The time re-
quired under ordinary circumstances to work off a
heat of iron and steel will be as follows:
Iron. Steel.
Melting down. . . . . . . . 30 to 40 minutes. 40 to 50 minutes.
tirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 “ 35 4 * 45 ‘‘ 50 { %
Boiling and fusing... 25 “ 30 ( & 20 “ 25 * {
* * * e s - e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. 10 { { } () { {
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . 95 to 115 115 to 135
From 1800 to 2000 lbs. of shingled steel balls can
be obtained from one furnace in 12 hours, in from
six to seven charges. In puddling steel, from 30 to
35 per cent. more coal will be used than the weight
of steel produced. The puddled balls when under
ers for the production of cast steel by melting 100
the hammer emit a blue flame, due to the com-
bustion of carbonic oxide. To draw into bars, the
blooms must be reheated before being put under
the hammer, or into the rolls.
Numerous attempts have been made to produce
steel cheaply, and to Sir Henry Bessemer is due the
gredit of discovering a quick way to convert pig-iron
into steel. This process was first made public by
him at the Cheltenham meeting of the British Asso-
ciation in 1856. This is a very simple process, and
consists in charging a quantity of about five tons of
melted pig-iron into a furnace shaped like a ginger-
ale bottle mounted on trunnions, having an open
top, and a bottom perforated by a number of holes,
through, which air is forced in small jets by a
powerful blowing-engine. The blast of air, forced
up through the molten metal, effects the rapid oxi-
dation and consequent combustion of the carbon, sil-
icon, and other foreign substances. A very high tem-
perature is produced, sufficient to keep liquid the
resulting decarburized iron, and if the blast be kept
up after the carbon is all burnt out the iron itself
Will be burnt ; so, before this point is reached, the
blast is stopped, and a charge of spiegeleisen con-
taining the necessary amount of carbon is intro-
duced. Pig-iron of exceptional purity must be used,
and it should be free from sulphur, phosphorus, and
Qopper. . The Spiegeleisen is an alloy of carburized
iron and manganese. This, containing about 5 per
cent. of carbon and from 10 to 25 per cent. of man-
ganese, is put in to replace the carbon that has been
burnt away, and sufficient to give the required
proportion of carbon in the finished metal." The
Converter consists of a shell of Wrought iron,
588
ards, D, one solid carrying a pinion, E, gearing into
a rack, F, Worked by a small engine, for turning the
converter to a horizontal position. The other trun-
nion is hollow, and forms a passage for the blast.
The lining, A, is the most refractory material that can
N
§
}00\\ 0 O O' O O G O GOO
FIG. 1. –Bessemer Converter.
be obtained. It is made from fine-grain silicious
Sandstone known as gannister. It is finely ground,
and then sometimes mixed with powdered fire-brick,
then incorporated with a small quantity of water,
and then lightly rammed between the outside casing
of wrought-iron and an inside wooden core, which
is afterward withdrawn. The bottom consists of a
plug of the same refractory material, with a number
of holes or tuyeres, T, T, opening below into an iron
box, G, which communicates with the hollow trun-
nion by means of a pipe, H, so that air can be blown
up through the molten mass in the converter. The
operation is as follows:
The charge is melted in a cupola or run direct
from the blast furnace, and the converter, which has
been previously heated to redness by filling it with
ignited coal, is reversed to remove any unconsumed
<< *.*
º
FIG. 2. —Bessemer Converter.
fuel, and then brought to a horizontal position (Fig. 2)
to receive the charge of molten metal, which is run in
through an iron gutter lined with sand. The con-
verter is then slowly turned back into the vertical
position, the blast being at the same time, turned
on. The flame which first issues is yellowish red.
Graphitic carbon passes into the combined state ;
the silicon becomes oxidized, and silicates of iron
and manganese are formed. This first stage, which
takes about five minutes, is followed by a period of
violent boiling, during which the combined carbon
is rapidly oxidized by the blast. Carbonic oxide be-
ing evolved in large quantities, the flame increases in
brilliancy, and showers of sparks, and fragments of
burning iron are thrown off. This lasts for about
W
STEEL.
seven minutes, when the intensity of the action be-
gins to diminish. Fewer sparks are given off and
the flame acquires a bluish-violet tint, marking the
commencement of the last stäge. As soon as the
carbon is all consumed the flame ceases, being im-
mediately succeeded, however, by a flame of white-
hot gas, principally nitrogen. As soon as it is seen
that the carbon is about burnt out, the converter is
again turned back to a horizontal position and the
Spiegeleisen run in from a furnace by means of a
Sand-lined gutter. When very mild metal is needed,
the tempering is done with ferro-manga-
nese, made hot and shovelled into the
ladle while pouring. The steel is decanted
from the converter by turning the top
down and letting it run out into cast-
iron moulds open at both ends, and a lit-
tle larger at one end than the other, so
that the ingots can be easily turned from
them when cool.
In the Bessemer process, as described
above, it is necessary to employ pig-iron
containing a very minute quantity of phos-
phorus, as but little of that element is
eliminated during conversion. This means
very costly and scarcer ores; but steel can
now be made by the basic method from
iron Smelted from cheap ores, the pig to
be sufficiently free from sulphur, not to
contain more than one per cent. of silicon, while
the phosphorus should not be less than 2 to 2%
per cent. This process is called the basic pro-
cess, to distinguish it from the acid process of
Bessemer. The terms refer to the lining of the
converter, acid-signifying quartz or gannister, and
basic lime and magnesia as existing in calcined
dolomite. The chemical fact involved is that the re-
tention of phosphorus in the blown metal is ma-
terially influenced by the character of the slag,
which is a silicate of iron and manganese, and if re-
duced to a lower silicate by the addition of other
bases phosphorus can be removed by oxidation.
Lime is used for dephosphorizing after the carbon
of the metal has been oxidized. When the converter
is ready for charging it is made hot by a coke fire,
and a quantity of quick-lime, from one-seventh to
one-fifth of the weight of the charge of metal, is intro-
duced, made as hot as possible. The metal is then
charged in the usual way and the blowing conducted
as already described. In about ten minutes the car-
bon is burnt out and the dephosphorizing period
commences. This is marked by a great increase in
the temperature of the bath and a thickening of the
converter smoke from the burning of the iron, the
flame showing peculiar bright patches which are
not seen in the old process. The length of the after-
blow is regulated by breaking small test-ingots,
which should show a close, silky fracture, entirely free
from bright crystalline particles. When the desired
metal has been obtained, the converter is tipped to
run off the slag, after which the metal is brought to
the final temper by the addition of the proper
amount of spiegel and ferro-manganese, the former
in the converter and the latter in the ladle after
pouring. The slag must be removed, as a portion of
the phosphorus may be reabsorbed if left in contact
with the metal.
There are diverse opinions as to the relative values
of steel made by the acid and basic processes. The
latter, utilizing the cheap ores, is remarkable for its
purity and mildness, and this is likely to bring about
its use on a large scale in the construction of boilers,
ships, bridges, and other structures requiring tough-
ness. The basic process is used both with the Bes-
semer converter and the Siemens-Martin furnace or
open-hearth process. -
The grandest application of the Bessemer process
P






589
STEEL.
is the manufacture of steel rails, though, strange to
say, when granted the patent for this process he was
denied the right to manufacture rails.
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FIG. 3. –Open-hearth Furnace.
The Uchatius process of making steel is to effect
the partial decarburation of pig-iron by fusion in
contact with ferric oxide, or some other substance
FIG. 4.—Open-hearth Furnace.
to offer a large surface of contact for the gases.
There are four of these chambers, two communi-
cating with one, and two with the other, end of
the furnace. The mixture of combustible gases
and air reaches the furnace F after having passed
through two of the regenerators, A, A, at one end,
and passing through the furnace pass out through
the two regenerators A, A, at the other end, as shown
by the arrows in Fig. 3. The bricks of the regener-
ators store up the greater part of the heat of the gases
that have left the furnace, and the products of com-
bustion pass off by the chimney D. Now, by aid of
the valves, the course of the gases is reversed, and the
gases pass into the furnace through the regenerators
that have just been heated, and out by the ones that
have been furnishing heat. In this way the gases,
slowly passing through a honey-comb of hot bricks,
are intensely heated, and reach the hearth at a tem-
perature nearly that of the furnace itself, so that the
combustion develops an intense heat. The temper-
ature is raised at each reversal of the valve E, the
volume of the gases being regulated by the register
C, the volume of air being controlled by B, and the
draught by the chimney damper D. The gas pro-
ducer (Fig. 4) consists of a chamber, A, of fire-brick.
D is a hopper to regulate the supply of fuel, and C
a pipe for introducing water to the bottom of the
furnace. The pipe E conducts the gases to the fur-
Ila C62.
The furnace (Figs. 5 and 6) is reverberatory, with a
single door, A, on one side, and on the opposite side
a tapping hole, B. The gases from the regenerators,
and the air to burn them, arrive and depart at the
ends C, C and E, E. A bed of iron, cooled by a
current of air from below, holds the lining of sand
or gannister. The furnace is heated to a white heat
by the hot gas, and receives then a charge of hot cast
iron, and when this is properly melted soft iron,
heated to a bright red, is introduced. These addi-
tions are made about every half-hour, and the whole
is then vigorously stirred. When by tests the metal
is found to be sufficiently refined, red-hot cast-
iron is added. Tests are made, and cast-iron added
till the proper carburization is arrived at, and the
product is then tapped. The operation takes from
nine to eleven hours with 5 to 6-ton charges. From
13 to 14 cwt. of coal is consumed per ton of ingots.
A modification of this process is seen in the Per-
not rotating furnace, which is made with an inclined
bed, as shown, and when rotated the molten metal
flows from side to side, the bed standing under the
capable of yielding oxygen. The pig-iron is granu-
lated by running the fused metal into water, and
mixing the granulatéd metal with about
arch of the reverberatory furnace, and over the re-
generators. From two to four revolutions are made
per minute, and as the pieces of the charge are con-
20 per cent. of roasted spathic ore and 4
per cent. of fire-clay. The mixture is
then melted in clay crucibles in an ordi-
nary cast-steel furnace.
Another method of obtaining steel is
by the fusion of a mixture of cast iron
and wrought, the carbon distributing it-
self between the two and so forming
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steel.
The production in a reverberatory fur-
nace of cast-steel, by the solution of
malleable scrap in molten pig-iron, has
been brought to a high state of perfec-
tion by the use of the Siemens regenera-
tive gas furnace. This is heated by gas
produced in the furnace itself.
The greater part of the heat of the
gases coming from the furnaces is stored
in regenerators, and this heat is used in
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FIG. 5. —Open-hearth Furnace.
keeping up the temperature of the furnace. The tinually changing from exposure to the flame to full
i.e. are chambers of refractory brick placed immersion the fusion is very rapid, and the bottom,
in horizontal layers, with spaces between them being exposed to the flames at short intervals, is














































590
STEEL.
kept at a high temperature, so that there is no stick-
ing of the ebarge to the bottom. These furnaces are
extensively used in this country.
The steel used in the vessels now constructing for
the U. S. navy is made in ordinary Siemens-Martin
furnaces, Bessemer steel not as yet being used for
this purpose, though basic steel is used extensively
for ship rivets.
The basic method of dephosphorization is now be-
ing extensively used in the manufacture of steel in
FIG. 6. —Open-hearth Furnace.
the open-hearth furnace, a bed of shrunk dolomite
or magnesia being substituted for that of gannister
used in the Siemens process.
In casting steel in large masses, whether from
crucibles, Bessemer converters, or open-hearth fur-
naces, it is often difficult to obtain sound ingots,
especially when the steel is a mild one, the upper
part usually being honey-combed to a greater or less
degree—due probably to the escape of carbonic OX-
ide or hydrogen gas. The necessary consolidation
of ingots intended for rolling or forging is effected
by subjecting the metal while in the mould to hy-
drostatic or gaseous pressure until it sets, prevent-
ing in this way the escape of gas, or else giving the
gas a chance to escape by stirring or pouring from
one ladle to another. Sir Joseph Whitworth applies
Tà
º
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§
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\
FIG. 7.-Pernot Rotary Hearth.
the first method on a large scale ; his fluid com-
pressed steel being subjected to a pressure, while
melted, of from 6 to 20 tons per square inch. The
density of metal is increased about ºper cent. over
that cast in the open moulds. At Pittsburg steam
--L
º :::::::::: == &
Allen, of the Bessemer Works, Sheffield. He inserts
a two-bladed propeller on the end of a vertical shaft
into the ladle just before casting, and stirs the metal,
liberating the gases and thoroughly incorporating
"all parts.
This country can now produce within its borders all
the iron ore needed in every branch of its iron and
steel industries, including the finer grades of cruci-
ble steel. We have ores in great abundance for the
manufacture of acid Bessemer steel, but they are
confined to comparatively limited areas.
We have beds of ore for the manufacture
of Spiegeleisen and furo-manganese, that
would place our country on a self-sustain-
ing basis, in case the foreign supply should
be interrupted. But the spiegeleisen is
not a large item in the manufacture of steel,
\ and it is more economical now to import
it. Great Britain is entirely without man-
ganiferous iron ore deposits. The first
steel of any kind produced in the South
was made with the Henderson Steel and
Manufacturing Company's open hearth
furnace at Birmingham, Ala., Feb. 27,
1888.
In 1887 the United States produced 47,-
598 tons of spiegeleisen. Ore of a charac-
ter suitable for the manufacture of spiegel-
eisen was discovered in Independence Co.,
Ark., and railroad connections with this
region were completed in 1887, though all the ore
shipped in that year, 926 tons, was sent to the
Edgar Thompson furnaces at Braddock, Pa. Our
pºetion of spiegeleisen since 1875 is as fol-
OWS :
Years. Tons. Years. Tons.
1875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,832 1882. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,963
1876............... 6,616 | 1883. . . . . . . . * * g g º is tº 24,574
1877. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,845 1884. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33,893
1878. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,674 1885. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,671
1879. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,931 1886. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,982
1880. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,603 | 1887. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,598
1881. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,086
The iron and steel production of the United
States has been subject to periods of depression,
and at times it has been necessary for the manufac-
turers to regulate the production to bring about a
healthy state of trade; for in times of booms the
manufacture is apt to be carried to such an extent as
to exceed the demand. The year 1887 was the most
active year in the history of the American steel and
iron trade, the following table showing the pro-
duction in that year as compared with 1885 and
1886.
Tons of 2000 lbs.
|
Products. 1885. issº. iss".
Pig iron... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '4,259.860 6,635,898 |7,187,206
Bessemer steel ingots. . . . . 1,701,762 2,541,493 3,288,357
Bessemer steel rails. . . . . . . 1,074,607 | 1,763,667 2,354,132
Open hearth steel ingots ... 149,381 245,250 360,717
Open hearth steel rails. . . . . 4,793 5,255 19,203
Crucible steel ingots. . . . . . 64,511 80,609 84,421
Rolled iron except rails.... 1,789,711 2,259,943 2,565,438
| | Iron rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | " 14.815 "23,679 23,062
| | Kegs cut nails (100 lbs.). . 6,696,815 8,160,973 6,908,870
: Pig, scrap, and ore blooms. 41,700 41,909 43,306
––––––––––– --~~~
has been used, and Krupp uses liquid carbonic acid &
to supply the pressure. In the former the mould is This table shows a wonderful progress, such as
covered by a closed lid wedged down to form a has never been witnessed in other great industries
steam-tight joint, and this communicates by a flexi- of this or ºther countries. In the two years from
ble pipe with a steam-drum supplying steam at , a 1885 to 1887 we increased our prºductiºn of pig iron
pressure of from 80 to 150 lbs. per square inch, 58 per cent, of Bessemer steel ingots 93 per cent.,
which is allowed to act till the metal has set. of Bessemer steel rails 119 per cent., of open hearth
The most noticeable method of producing homo- steel ingots 141 per cent, and of rolled iron 43 per
geneity in molten metal by agitation is that of Mr. cent. In these two years over 21,000 miles of new



STEEL.
591
railroad were constructed, for 1886, 8999 miles, and
for 1877, 12,500 miles. These new roads demanded
steel rails, tools, locomotives, bridges, and cars, all
using steel, and the general prosperity of the coun-
try created an extensive demand in manufacturing,
agricultural, and other enterprises requiring the use
of iron and steel. Old roads, finding their trade
heavier, put in steel rails and built heavier bridges.
Congress appropriated large sums of money for new
vessels, armor, and guns, all requiring steel of the
very best quality in vast quantities. The population
increased by about a million, and these required
steel for domestic and other purposes. Finally, iron
and steel were much used in the building of new
iron and steel works in the South. Notwithstanding
the great demand, the prices were kept within rea-
sonable limits. The year 1888 started badly on ac-
count of freight-rate wars, strikes, the blizzard, and
the uncertainty as to the tariff. These affected the
earnings of the roads, but the consumption of steel
for miscellaneous purposes, and the manufacture of
steel rails for renewals, extensions, and new roads,
was large. The bridge-works, the foundries, the
machine shops, the car builders, the car-wheel man-
ufacturers, and the locomotive builders are still
very busy.
Imports of Iron and Steel.
Tons of 2000 lbs.
ſ Commodities. -
1884. 1885. 1886. 1887.
|
Pig iron... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206,381 | 164,349 405,180 523,625
Scrap iron... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 192 15,4S0 97,635 351,028
Scrap steel... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,388 2,196 11,353 29,716
Bar iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,998 || 35,251 32,647 40,565
Iron rails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 57 7 70
Steel rails... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,074 2,395 46,571 154,099
Cotton ties... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,518 20,576 | 11.561 24,276 ||
| Hoop, band, and scroll iron.. 332 1()3 12S 35
Steel hoops, sheets and plates 1,500 2,644 4,719 26,885 ||
Steel ingots, bars, etc. . . . . . . . 24,610 || 33,718 167.357 347,818
Sheet, plate and tagger's iron 7,863 6,200 6,852 8,012 :
| Tin plates and terne plates. 242,123 256,028 28S,761 317,896 ||
Iron and steel wire rods. . . . . 145,525 | 105,148 || 153,401 167,262
Wire and wire rope. . . . . . . . . . 2,732 2,475 2,689 3,247
Anvils, forgings, etc. . . . . . . . . 967 642 963 1,474
Chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 633 669 1,023
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733,260 | 647,895 | 1,230,393 |1,997,241
The foreign value of the imports of iron and ºi
manufactures, represented in the above table, to-
gether with machinery, cutlery, firearms, and other
articles whose weights were not obtainable, was $56,-
420,607 in 1887, and $41,630,779 in 1886. The value
of the iron ore imported in 1887 was $2,206,958, and
in 1886 it was $1,912,437. The imports of pig iron
in 1887 included 176, 153 tons of spiegeleisen. We
import iron ore principally from Spain, Elba, Al-
geria, and Cuba.
Exports of Iron and Steel.
Our iron and steel exports consist principally of
finished articles ready for use, such as firearms,
printing presses, hardware, axes, saws, and other
tools, shovels, scales and balances, sewing machines,
locomotives, and other steam engines, boilers, stoves
and ranges, machinery, car wheels, castings, etc.
We do not export much pig iron or rails, but in
1887 we exported 55 locomotives. In 1887 we ex-
ported $2,427,835 worth of mowers, reapers, ploughs,
and cultivators. The following table gives the
values of the exports of iron and steel :
1886.
The number of open hearth steel works at the end
Year. Value. Year. Value.
1871........ $14,185,359 1880 . . . . . . . $15,156,703
1873. . . . . . . . 12,595,539 1881. . . . . . . . 1S,216,121
1873. . . . . . . . 14,173,772 1883. . . . . . . . 23,34S,834
1874........ 17,312,239 1883. . . . . . . . 22,716,040
1ST5........ 17,976,833 1884. . . . . . . . 19,290,895
1876. . . . . . . . 13,641,724 1885. . . . . . . . 16,632,511
, 1877. . . . . . . . 18,549,929 1886. . . . . . . . 14,865,087
1878. . . . . . . . 15,101,899 1887. . . . . . . . 16,285,922
1879. . . . . . . . 14,223,646
Production of Bessemer Pig in 1887.
States. Tons. States. Tons.
Pennsylvania. . . . . . 1,842,449 : New York...... 62.626
Illinois. . . . . . . . . . . . 549,111 Colorado . . . . . . . 23,295
Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331,144 Maryland. . . . . . . 18,473
Missouri . . . . . . . . . . 122,725 Michigan....... 12,766
Wisconsin . . . . . . . . 109,585 Tennessee ...... 11,500
West Virginia. . . . . 73,070 - --
New Jersey. . . . . . . 63,773 Total . . . .3,220,517
A large part of the Bessemer pig produced in the
Lehigh and Schuylkill Valleys, and in Maryland,
New York, and New Jersey, is made from foreign
ores, or foreign ores mixed with native Ores.
Furnaces.—The number of steel and iron furnaces
in blast in the United States at the close of 1884 was
236 ; on June 30, 1885, 228; on June 30, 1887, 306,
and at the end of 1887, 339. At the close of 1887
there were 583 furnaces in the United States, and 30
new furnaces in course of erection.
Production of Steel.—The production of Bessemer
steel ingots in the United States in 1887 was 3,-
288,357 tons, a gain of 746,864 tons over the produc-
tion of 1886, nearly double the production of 1885;
about seven-eighths of our total production for this
year being made by the . Bessemer processes.
Eleven States contributed to this production, Massa-
chusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West
Virginia, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Mis-
souri, and Colorado, there being 41 works with 86
converters employed. In 1887 there were 2,290, 197
tons of Bessemer steel rails produced.
The open hearth steel production of 1887 was
360,717 tons, an increase of 115,467 over that of
This was made in nine States, by 39 plants.
of 1887 was 53, with 104 furnaces. There were
19,203 tons of steel rails by the open hearth process
in 1887. The States producing open hearth steel
are New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Cali-
fornia, and Alabama.
The production of crucible steel in 1887 was 84,-
421 tons against 80,609 tons in 1886. This was
made in ten States—Massachusetts, Connecticut,
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Tennessee, Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan.
The production of steel by various minor processes
amounted in 1887 to 6265 tons, blister, puddled, and
malleable cast steel being included.
In 1887, 2,373,335 tons of steel rails were produced,
an increase of 603,796 tons over 1886. These were
produced in fifteen States, Pennsylvania furnishing
54 per cent., and Illinois 30 per cent. In 1887 there
were 57,362 tons of street rails produced.
The production of steel by all processes in Great
iºn and the United States, in 1887, was as fol-
OWS :
Ingots. Great Britain. United States.
Bessemer Steel. . . . . 2,064,403 3,936,033
Open hearth steel. . QS1,104 322,069
Crucible steel. . . . . . About 100,000 75,376
Other steel.... . . . . Nominal if any 5,593
3,545,507 3,339,071
The Presence of Foreign Substances in Steel.—The
carbon of course regulates the kind of steel. When
it amounts to .04 of one per eent. we get a tensile
strength per square inch of about 50,000, increasing
to 150,000 lbs. as the carbon rises to .9 of one per
cent. Manganese is used up in eliminating more
injurious substances in the ore. For example, com-
bining with protoxide of iron, it helps to remove
this very injurious oxide, reducing it to iron and
oxide of manganese, which passes off in the slag.
The presence of much manganese makes the steel
very hard and stiff. In plates for ships it varies
from .22 to .60 per eent.
592
STEEL.
Phosphorus tends to make the steel non-homogen-
eous by being unequally distributed, to make it
“cold-short ’’ or brittle when worked cold, and tends
to weaken steel that is reheated or subjected to vi-
bration, so that it must be kept below .06 per cent.
in ship plates, shapes, and rivets, and below .03 per
cent. in boiler stays, plates, and rivets. Pig contain-
ing phosphorus is very cheap, and the phosphorus
helps in the melting and pouring of the metal, and
gives a good elastic twist and strength with less work
on the material. So there is naturally a strong temp-
tation to use it on account of cheapness, and the ba-
sic processes are apt to rapidly grow in favor. In
bridge steel phosphorus is not permitted to be above
.05 per cent., and in rails it is limited to .10 per
cent.
Silicon tends, in solid castings, to prevent blow-
holes and sponginess. The silicon is usually con-
sumed in the furnace when making mild steel, and
in ship-plates does not amount to more than .04 per
cent.
Sulphur is very injurious, leading to hot short-
facture of steel is in the making of malleable steel
castings; the heavy ram sterns, stern-posts, rudder-
posts, and struts, that had until recently to be forged
out are now cast, and such castings are to show a
tensile strength of 60,000 lbs., and an elongation in
8 inches of 10 per cent.
Boiler shell plates are tested the same as the
ship plates, but the gauge plates are to have an
elongation of 29 per cent. in 8 inches.
In the case of gun steel and steel for armor, the
specimen is 2 inches between witness marks, cylin-
drical in shape, 3 inch in diameter. For protective
decks the steel to be between 60,000 and 70,000 lbs.
and 25 to 23 per cent. elongation, or between 70,000
and 80,000 lbs. with 23 to 19 per cent. elongation,
or between 80,000 and 90,000 lbs. with 19 to 12 per
cent. elongation. For heavy steel armor, the tensile
strength to be 82,000 lbs. and the elongation not
less than 20 per cent. Gun steel must be of the
very best, and there are tests for the various parts of
the gun, the tests for the 8-inch gun being given
as an example.
Tubes. Jackets. Hoops.
A. E. C. A. B. C. A. B. C.
Tensile strength (pounds) . . . . . . . 80,000 | 72,000 || 70,000 || 85,000 || 76,500 || 74,000 || 100,000 90,000 || 90,000
Elastic limit (pounds) . . . . . . . . . . . 38,000 34,000 33,000 40,000 36,000 34,000 50,000 || 45,000 45,000 |
Elongation (per cent.). . . . . . . . . . . 20 18 12 18 15 10 18 16 12
Contraction of area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 20 15 30 20 12 30 25 15
ness or brittleness when worked hot. It is not Material is, of course, subject to a rigid surface in-
above .03 per cent. in ship steel. Arsenic makes
steel cold-short, copper red-short, and antimony
both red- and hot-short.
Tests.--Steel is now subjected to rigid tests be-
fore being used for structural purposes. For the
mild steel which is used for the vessels now build-
ing for the Government, test pieces are taken about
16 inches long, with witness marks about 8 inches
apart, the sectional area being from .5 to 8 of an
inch. These pieces are placed in the testing-ma-
chine and subjected to a pull, the amount of which
can be accurately measured in pounds. The speci-
mens are first carefully measured to get the exact
sectional area, the micrometric gauges used measur-
ing to .001 inch. An initial stress of about 30,000
lbs. to the square inch and kept in continuous action
for about a minute, and observations taken to note
the corresponding elongation. The weight is then
increased gradually, till the cracking of the mill-
scale and the unsteadiness of the beam show that
the elastic limit is being neared; and when the beam
drops suddenly, the weight is recorded as the elas:
tic limit. From this time loads are gradually added
till the specimen is broken. The load necessary to
produce ultimate fracture is carefully noted and the
pieces fitted carefully together, and the increased
distance between the witness-mark measured to ob-
tain the elongation. Plates and the shapes, as they
are called, such as angle steels, Z bars, bulbs, etc.,
must show an ultimate tensile strength of 60,000 lbs.
to the square inch, and an elongation in 8 inches of
25 per cent. Pieces cut from the finished heat must
bend over flat on themselves when cold without
breaking, and specimens, after being heated to a dark
cherry-red and then plunged into water at 82°F.,
must bend round a curve whose diameter is 14 time
the thickness of the plate, without cracking. Rivets
are to have a tensile strength of from 50,000 to
55,000 lbs. per square inch, and an elongation in 8
inches of not less than 30 per cent., and they must
flatten out cold under the hammer to a thickness of
one-half the diameter, and hot to a thickness of one-
third the diameter, and bend in the form of a hook
when cold without showing cracks or flaws.
One of the most important advances in the manu-
spection for laminations, hair-cracks, scale-marks,
blisters, pits, snakes, and cobbles. Pits should
cause rejection, being due to burning. They occur
in the form of small cup-like holes, and must not be
confounded with cinder-spots, which are due to cin-
ders or pieces of firebrick being rolled into the
plates. Cracks are due to rolled-out blow-holes, while
snakes are small lines twisting in every direction,
due to foreign substances in the heat separating two
masses of pure steel. This should always cause re-
jection. Cobbles are irregularities due to one side
being more heated than another. -
Ship plates and shapes can be bought, which will
pass the above tests, for about 3.34 cents per lb.
Steel castings cost about 16 cents a lb. Steel forg-
ings for guns cost about 30 cents a lb., though the
price depends very much on the size, and twelve-
inch armor-plates cost about $675 per ton. Steel
rails are now worth about $27 per ton.
The recent additions to the U. S. navy comprise
ten steel-protected vessels, begun in 1887 : the
Baltimore, Newark, Philadelphia, Vesuvius, and
Yorktown, built at Cramps' ship-yard, Philadelphia;
the Bennington and Concord, built at Roach's yard,
Chester, Pa.; the Petrel, built at the Columbian
Iron Works, Baltimore ; and the Charleston and
San Francisco, built at the Union Iron Works, San
Erancisco. In 1888 two armored cruisers were com-
menced—the Maine, at the New York navy yard,
and the Texas at the Norfolk navy yard. The New-
ark, one of the largest, is a twin-screw, steel-pro-
tected cruiser of 4083 tons displacement. She is
328 ft. long, 49 ft. beam, and 18% ft, mean draught.
The engines, boilers, magazines, shell-rooms, tor-
pedo spaces, and steering gear are protected by a
thick steel deck, resembling a turtle-back, extend-
ing fore and aft, and dipping below the water at the
sides and ends. The speed is to be 18 knots, and she
will carry twelve 6-in. breech-loading rifle guns. The
contract price for hull and machinery is $1,248,000.
In the preparation of this article the following have been
drawn from : The Elements of Metallurgy, by J. Arthur
Phillips; The Inspection of Structural and Boiler Material,
by Lieut.-Commander J. G. Eaton, U. S. N. ; and the Report
of the American Iron and Steel Association. (L. N.)
*

STEELE STEPHEN.
595.
STEELE, FREDERICK (1819–1868), general, was
born at Delhi, N. Y., Jan. 14, 1819. Graduating at
the U. S. Military Academy in 1843, he served in
the war with Mexico as 2d lieutenant, gaining the
brevets of 1st lieutenant and captain by his “gallant
and meritorious conduct ’’ at Contreras and Cha-
pultepec. In June, 1848, he was commissioned as
1st lieutenant and ordered to California, where he
served till 1853, and thereafter mainly in Minnesota,
Nebraska, and Kansas till the civil war, receiving his
commission as captain in 1855. In June, 1861, he
was advanced to major of the Eleventh Infantry, and
in September to colonel of the Eighth Iowa Volun-
teers, commanding a brigade in Missouri till April,
1862, and taking part in the battles of Dug Spring
and Wilson's Creek. He was commissioned brigadier-
general of volunteers in January, 1862, and com-
manded a division in the Army of the Southwest
till November of that year, being engaged at Round
Hill and in the occupation of Helena, Ark. He was
then brevetted to major-general of volunteers and as-
signed to the Thirteenth Army Corps, which he com-
manded in the Yazoo expedition and at the capture
of Arkansas Post, in January, 1863. Transferred to
the Fifteenth Corps, he led a division in the Vicks-
burg campaign, for his various services in which he
was brevetted colonel in the U. S. army, July 4,
1863, and promoted to lieutenant-colonel, Aug. 26,
when his division was sent to Arkansas and, Sept. 19,
captured Little Rock, from which date till Nov. 29, .
he commanded the department of that State. He
then went to the aid of Gen. Canby in the reduction
of Mobile, and, after commanding various divisions
in the South, was at the close of the war brevetted
brigadier-general in the regular army for the capture
of Little Rock, and major-general for services during
the war. In December, 1865, he was assigned to the
command of the Department of Columbia. On July
28, 1866, he was assigned to the colonelcy of the
Twentieth Infantry, and remained in the service till
mustered out in March, 1867, on account of failing
health. He died at San Mateo, Cal., Jan. 12, 1868.
STEENSTRUP, JoHANN JAPHET SMITH, Danish
naturalist, was born, March 8, 1813, at Wang, where
his father was pastor of a Lutheran church. He
studied medicine but devoted himself especially to
natural science, making for this purpose visits to the
island of Bornholm (1836), to the north of Jutland
(1838), to Iceland (1839-40), to the Scotch High-
lands, Faroe Islands, and Norway (1844). In 1843 he
obtained the natural history prize offered by the
University of Copenhagen. He had already been
instructor in mineralogy and botany at Soroe, and
in 1845 he was made assistant professor of zoology
in the University of Copenhagen, and in 1848 one of
the directors of the Royal Museum of Natural His-
tory in that city. His works on The Development of
Animals by Alternations of Generation (1842) and Re-
searches on Hermaphrodites (1846) are important
contributions to science and have been translated
into English and other languages.
STEFFENS, HEINRIGH (1773–1845), German phi-
losopher, was born at Stavanger, Norway, May 2,
1773. He studied the natural sciences at Copen-
hagen, and went thence to Germany to follow the
course of Schelling at Jena. On his return to Copen-
hagen he opened a course of lectures on philosophy,
Which was promptly suppressed owing to the start:
ling novelty of his ideas. By way of compensation
he accepted the chair of philosophy and mineral-
ogy in the University of Halle. A determined foe to
the French invasion of Germany, he served through
the campaign of the War of Liberation, and after
the peace returned to Breslau to teach the natural
sciences. He was then called to Berlin to Occupy
the chair of natural sciences in the university of
that city, and for a year occupied the position of
scientific examination.
duchies in the German press.
rector of the university. His principal works are:
The Principles of the Philosophy of Nature (Berlin,
1806); Anthropology (Breslau, 1821); The False
Philosophy and the True Faith , (Breslau, 1825);
Christian Philosophy (Breslau, 1835). He died at
Berlin, Feb. 13, 1845.
STEIN, LORENz, Danish jurist and economist, born
at Eckernförde, Nov. 18, 1815. The son of a sol-
dier and left an orphan at an early age, he was
brought up as a “child of the regiment " at a mili-
tary school, where he so distinguished himself by his
intelligence and progress that he received a bursary
from the king by which he was enabled to continue
his studies at the Flensborg School of Science and
at the Universities of Kiel and Jena, where he ap-
plied himself specially to the study of philosophy
and jurisprudence.
Kiel, and published a History of Civil Procedure and
| Present Practice in Denmark which gained for him a
In 1841 he took his degree at
prize from the government that enabled him to visit
Berlin and Paris, where his attention was mainly di-
rected to Saint-Simonism. He was thus led to pub-
lish a pamphlet upon Socialism and Communism in
Modern France (Leipsic, 1844), in which the socialist
theories were for the first time submitted to a really
- In Paris, also, he collected
materials for his History of the French Constitution:
and Law (3 vols., 1846–48). Meantime he had been
created Doctor by the University of Kiel, and in
1846 was appointed professor extraordinary there.
When the Schleswig-Holstein question came to be
agitated he warmly defended the rights of the
He took part also in
editing the pamphlet of the nine Kiel professors,
and saw himself, thereupon, threatened with depri-
Vation. On the rising of the duchies in 1848 he sus-
tained the national cause with more ardor than ever,
and was sent by the provisional government to Paris,
where he brought out a pamphlet on The Schleswig-
Holstein Question. Here also he revised his work on
the social condition of France, which he brought
out anew under the title: History of the Social Agi-
tations in France from 1789 to the Present Time (Leip-
sic, 1849–51, 3 vols.). From this time he devoted
himself more especially to economical questions
proper, and, having, along with his nine colleagues,
been deprived of office on Denmark retaking posses-
sion of the duchies in 1852, lived privately in Kiel
till 1854, when he repaired to Vienna. Here he was
appointed to the chair of the political sciences and
became associated with the Minister of State Von
Bruck, who called on him for assistance in regard to
the Austrian finances. In 1878 he was appointed
professor in the law faculty of the University of Vi-
enna, and held this chair till his retirement in 1885.
Among his works are : A System of the Political Sci-
exces (Stuttgard, 1852–56); The New Conditions of
Specie and Credit in Austria (Vienna, 1855); Man wal
of Political Economy (Vienna, 1858); Manual of the
Science of Finance (Leipsic, 1860); Science of Adminis-
tration (Stuttgard, 1865–68); Army Administration,
(1872); Woman in National Economy (1886).
STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITzJAMEs, English lawyer
and legal author, was born in London in March,
1829, being the son of Sir James Stephen, for whom
See ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. He was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, graduated B. A. in 1852,
and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in
January, 1854. He served as recorder of Newark-on-
Trent from 1859 to 1869, and in December of the
latter year was appointed a law member of the gov-
ernment of India in place of Sir Henry Maine. He
held this office till April, 1872, during which time
he strove to simplify the laws of India. In 1873 he
unsuccessfully contested Dundee, in 1875 was ap-
pointed professor of common law of the Inns of
Court, and in 1878 became a member of the royal
594
STERLING—STEUBEN.
commission to inquire into the provisions of a draft
code relating to indictable offences. In 1879 he was
appointed a judge of the High Court of Justice. He
has been an active writer on legal subjects, his prin-
cipal works being Essays by a Barrister (1862);
General View ºf the Criminal Law (1863); Liberty,
Equality, and Fraternity (1873); Digest of the Law of
Evidence, and Digest of the Criminal Law (1877), the
latter works forming the basis of a bill on indictable
offences; and History of the Criminal Law of Eng-
land (3 vols., 1883).
His brother, LESLIE STEPHEN, noted as an author,
Was born in Ilondon, Nov. 28, 1832. He was edu.
cated at Eton ; King's College, London; and Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B. A. in 1854
and M. A. in 1857. He was a fellow and tutor in
Trinity Hall for several years, but left Cambridge in
1864 and entered actively into literary pursuits in
London. He married Harriet M. Thackeray, daugh-
ter of the novelist, and in 1871 became editor of the
Cornhill Magazine, and continued in charge of it till
1882, when he resigned for the purpose of taking up
the extensive work upon which he has been since
engaged, the Dictionary of National Biography.
In May, 1883, Mr. Stephen was elected to the lect-
ureship of English literature at Cambridge. In
addition to his editorial and professional work Mr.
Stephen has been an active writer, and has contrib-
uted largely to the literature of Alpine travel, which
he has treated in The Playground of Europe (1871).
In addition, his works include Essays on Free Think-
ing and Plain Speaking (1873); Hours in a Library
(3 series, 1874–79), a collection of acute literary
criticisms; History of English Thought in the Eigh-
teenth Century (1876); The Science of Ethics (1882);
and Lives of Johnson, Pope, and Swift in the “Eng-
lish Men of Letters” series. He edited Fielding's
Works in 10 volumes, with a biographical essay, in
1882, and has contributed numerous articles to the
Saturday Review and the Pall Mall Gazette. The
Dictionary of National Biography in which he is as-
sisted by many distinguished writers, is the most
complete and accurate work in its special field.
STERLING, a city of Illinois, in Whiteside
county, is on the N. bank of Rock river, 109 miles
W. of Chicago. It is on the Chicago and North-
western Railroad, and on a branch of the Chicago,
Burlington and Quincy Railroad. Rock river is here
crossed by two bridges, one being of iron, 1100 feet
long, and costing $40,000. There is a large dam
which furnishes water-power to nearly all the fac-
tories, 44 in number. They produce agricultural
implements, wagons, carriages, barbed wire, paper,
pumps, windmills, and other articles. There are five
iron foundries. Sterling has a city hall, 2 hotels,
theatre, 3 fine public school buildings, 15 churches,
a free public library. It was settled in 1834, and
incorporated in 1858. Its property is valued at
$7,000,000. It is surrounded by a rich agricultural
district, inhabited by a highly moral community.
The population of Sterling in 1880 was 5087.
STEUBEN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST HEIN-
BICH FERDINAND VON, BARON, a German soldier of
distinction in our war of the Revolution, was born,
Nov. 15, 1730, in the fortress of Magdeburg, Prussia,
where his father was a captain. After finishing his
education in a Jesuit college at Neisse and Breslau,
he entered the Prussian service in 1747 as cadet in
an infantry regiment, and was made ensign in 1749
and lieutenant in 1753. He served in the Seven
Years' war and was wéunded at the battle of Prague,
and distinguished himself at Rosbach. In 1758 he
was made adjutant-general, and in 1759 took part in
the battles of Kay and of Kunersdorf, where he was
again wounded. He was aide to Gen. Knoblauch
in his brilliant march into Poland in 1761, and was
taken prisoner by the Russians, but was exchanged,
and in 1762 made aide to Frederick the Great, in
which capacity he was present at the siege of
Schweidnitz, the closing scene in the Seven Years'
War. At the peace of 1763 he withdrew from the
army, and was presented by Frederick with a valu-
able lay benefice. He accompanied the Prince of
Hohenzollern-Hechingen to several of the courts
of Europe, and was by him made grand marshal and
general of his guard, which posts he filled for 10
years. In 1777, while on a visit to France, he was
induced by Count St. Germain to offer his services
to the struggling American colonies, through the
agency of Silas Deane. In December, 1777, he set sail
with several other officers from Marseilles, and after
a perilous passage arrived, in 55 days, at Ports-
mouth, N. H. Hence he wrote to Congress, offering
his service, and saying that the sole motive that
brought him was to “serve a nation engaged in the
noble work of defending its rights and liberties.”
Proceeding south he presented himself to Congress
at York, Pa., and proposed to enter the patriot
force as a volunteer, on the conditions that if his
“Services were not satisfactory, or if the colonies
failed to establish their independence, he was to
receive nothing,” but if they were successful “he
was to be refunded the income he had given up, and
be remunerated for his services.” His offer was
accepted and he proceeded at once to Valley Forge,
where he was gladly welcomed by Washington. On
looking at the wintry encampment and observing
the half-starved, half-clad, and poorly armed sol-
diers crawling out from their huts, he declared that
“no European army could be kept together a week
in such a state.” He set to work at once, and from
that hour our military system assumed a new shape.
In May, 1778, Congress appointed him inspector-
general of the army, with the rank of major-gen-
eral, and he took part as a volunteer in the battle
of Monmouth in the following June. His services
in drilling the officers and men of the army can
scarcely be overrated. In 1779 he submitted to
Congress a manual of instruction, which, being ap-
proved, contributed to introduce a thorough system
of discipline. In 1780 he sat as a member of the
court-martial that tried Major André, and in the
same year was placed in command of the troops in
Virginia, at the head of which he was busy in the
beginning of 1781 in harassing the British under
Gen. Arnold. At the siege of Yorktown Steuben
took his place as a major-general of the line, and
was attached to Gen. Lafayette's division. He was
in the trenches when the proposition to surrender
arrived, and when Lafayette came to relieve him he
refused to leave his post, declaring that the rules of
war required that the officer who received the first
overtures of surrender must keep his post till terms
were agreed on or hostilities resumed. Remaining as
a citizen of the United States after the war, he took
up his abode in New York City, where he resided
for several years. It was only after 7 years' struggle
that he succeeded in getting Congress to fulfil its
contract, which it did by granting him a pension of
$2,400. Meantime several States had presented him
with grants of land. New York gave him a town-
ship (now called Steuben) near Utica, Oneida Co.,
and here he built himself a log-cottage, in which he
spent the remainder of his days, in the company of
North, Popham, Walker, and other of his aides. His
lands covered 16,000 acres, but of these he gave away
large tracts in gifts to poor soldiers, passing the
evening of his life in the healthful occupations of a
simple farmer. He died at his cottage, Nov. 28,
1794, and according to his own request was buried
near it with the star of honor that he always wore
on his breast. A life by Francis Bowen appeared in
Sparks' American Biography, but a superior one was
published by Friedrich Kapp in 1866. (J. H.)
STEUBENVIILE–STEVENS.
592,
STEUBENVILLE, a city of Ohio, county seat of
Jefferson Co., is on the Ohio river, 22 miles above
Wheeling. It is on the Cleveland and Pittsburg,
and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati and St. Louis Rail-
roads, which here cross the river on a bridge... It
has a fine court-house, 3 national banks, 2 other
banks, 18 churches, a high school and other schools,
2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers. The industrial
works comprise iron rolling-mills, blast furnaces,
car-works, machine-shops, white-lead works, brewer:
ies, glass factory, paper, flour, and woollen mills, and
potteries. It is adjacent to bituminous coal-fields,
and has a good supply of natural gas. It is also a
trade centre for a farming and wool-growing district.
Fort Steuben was erected here in 1787, and the set-
tlement which grew around it was made a city in
1851. Its population in 1880 was 12,093.
STEVENS, ISAAC INGALLs, general, was born,
March 28, 1818, at Andover, Mass., and was gradu-
ated in 1839 from the U. S. Military Academy, where
he ranked first in his class, being commissioned 2d
lieutenant of engineers. In 1840 he was promoted
1st lieutenant, and served as adjutant of the engi-
neer corps in the Mexican war, in the course of
which he was brevetted captain and major for
meritorious conduct at Contreras, Churubusco, and
Chapultepec. At the taking of the City of Mexico
he was severely wounded. For several years he
superintended fortifications on the New England
coast, and from 1849 to 1853 was principal assistant
and in charge of the office of the U. S. Coast Survey
at Washington, D.C. In the latter year he resigned
from the army on his appointment to the governor-
ship of Washington Territory. While continuing
to hold this office he conducted the pioneer survey
of the northern route for a Pacific railroad, an account
of which he afterward published. In virtue of his
office of governor he was superintendent of Indian
affairs, in which capacity he had frequent dealings
with the natives, as well as hostile encounters with
them. In 1854–55 he concluded treaties with them
by which they relinquished more than 100,000 square
miles of territory. During his absence, in the latter
year, the disaffected Indians rose against the whites.
On his return he called out 1,000 volunteers, and
after a campaign in 1856 the Indians were subdued
and their chiefs slain. During the struggle he caused
whites sympathizing with the savages to be shut up
in the towns, and when Chief Justice Lander issued
a writ of habeas corpus for their release, Stevens de-
clared two counties under martial law, seized Lander
in his court-room, and kept him prisoner till the end
of the war. In 1857 he resigned his governorship
and was elected delegate to Congress from Washing-
ton Territory for two successive terms (1857–61).
On the outbreak of the civil war he hastened from
the Pacific coast to Washington, and was appointed
colonel of the 79th (Highlanders) N. Y. Volunteers.
The men were disappointed at being commanded by
army officers and 8 companies mutinied, but by his
courage and sound sense Col. Stevens restored dis-
cipline, and on his promotion to brigadier-general,
Sept. 28, 1861, the men asked to be transferred to
his brigade. His first service in this capacity was in
the Port Royal expedition, which left Fortress Mon-
roe a month later, in the course of which he, with
the co-operation of the gun-boats, attacked and capt-
and cheered on his men; while thus engaged he was
shot through the head and instantly killed.
STEVENS, John (1749–1838), inventor, was born
in New York in 1749. His specialty was the prob-
lem of steam-navigation. The legislature of the
State of New York had offered a monopoly of the
navigation of the Hudson to anyone who should con-
struct a boat with a speed of 3 miles an hour, and,
as early as 1789, Stevens presented a memorial stat-
ing that he had perfected his plans. In 1804 he
built a vessel with twin screws that navigated the
Hudson, but failed to attain the required speed.
Livingston (Stevens' brother-in-law) and Fulton
then acquired the monopoly. In 1807 Stevens built
the paddle-wheel steamer Phoenix, that plied for
six years on the Delaware. Professor Renwick, who
gives the best account of Fulton's boat Clermont, in
i807, says: “The Stevenses [father and son] were .
but a few days later in moving a boat with the re-
quired velocity,” and, “being shut out of the Waters
of New York by the monopoly of Livingston and Ful-
ton, Stevens conceived the bold design of conveying
his boat to the Delaware by sea, and this boat, which
was so near reaping the honor of the first success,
was the first to navigate the ocean by the power of
steam.” In 1812 Stevens designed a revolving,
iron-plated steam battery, essentially on the prin-
ciple afterward embodied in the monitors. . In the
same year he published an essay on railroads, indi:
cating the methods of operating them by steam, and
suggested the building of a railway between Albany
and Lake Erie. He was the engineer of the Cam-
den and Amboy Railroad. To Stevens may be ascribed
the paternity of the American patent law. . In 1790
his petition to Congress for protection to American
invention was referred to a committee, which report-
ed a bill that became law, April, 1790. He died at
Hoboken, N. J., March, 1838.
His son, RoberT LIVINGSTON STEVENs (1787-1856),
was born at Hoboken, N. J., March, 1787. From
his 17th year he was associated, with his father in
experimeats in steam-navigation and ship-building.
In the hull of his father's vessel the Phoenix, which
he navigated from New York to the Delaware in 1808,
he introduced concave water-lines, this being the
first application of the wave-line in ship-building.
During the war with England he was engaged, in
1813–14, in making a bomb that could be fired from
a cannon instead of from a mortar, and ultimately
sold to the government percussion oblongated shells
for smooth-bore guns. On Fulton's death, in 1815,
the speed attained by steam-boats on the Hudson
was under 7 miles an hour ; about this date Stevens
produced the Philadelphia, with a rate of 8 miles.
From this time till 1832 he kept accelerating the
rate, till the North American attained 15 miles. In
1821 he originated the present form of ferry-boats
and ferry-slips. In 1822 he introduced anthracite
into his furnaces, and, soon after, into his steamers.
In 1836 he introduced the T-rail on the Camden and
Amboy Railroad, of which he was president. In
1842 he was commissioned by government to build
an iron-plated war-vessel or battery, shell-proof, and
to be driven by screws. This was left unfinished
* his death, which occurred at Hoboken, April 26,
1856.
JAMES ALEXANDER STEVENs, brother of the preced-
ured the Confederate batteries on the Coosaw. On ing, was born in New York in 1790, graduated at
July 4, 1862, he was promoted to major-general of Columbia College in 1808, and was admitted to the
volunteers, and transferred to Newport News, serv- New York bar, 1811. He also was connected with
ing under Gen. John Pope. He took part in skir- steam-navigation, and, in conjunction with Thomas
mishes on the Rappahannock, and was hotly engaged Gibbons, established the Union Line between New
in the second battle of Bull Run, where he distin-York and Philadelphia. This resulted in a suit,
guished himself. On the morning of Sept. 1, 1862, memorable for its decision, that placed all the waters
his division encountered the enemy near Chantilly. of the United States under government jurisdiction.
Stevens, carrying the colors of the 79th Regiment in , EDWIN AUGUSTUs STEVENs (1795–1868) was associ-
his hand, placed himself at the head of his divisions, iated with his brothers in steam-navigation, and in
596
STEWART.
STEVENS.–
conjunction with them established passenger and tow-
boats on the Hudson and other rivers. On the out-
break of the civil war he and James A. offered to com-
plete the iron-clad battery left unfinished by their
brother Robert, on condition that government should
remunerate them for their outlay in the event of its
proving a success; and, for the purpose of showing
the reasonableness of the proposal, they fitted out,
at their own cost, the little iron-clad Naugatuck,
which rendered valuable service in engagements on
the James River. Nevertheless the offer was de-
clined, , whereupon Edwin himself expended con-
siderable sums on the battery, and on his death
bequeathed it, with $1,000,000 to complete it, to
the State of New Jersey. This sum proving insuffi-
cient, the vessel was sold by the State in 1874 to the
U. S. government, but, Congress having failed to
make the appropriation for the purchase, it re-
mained at the dock of Hoboken uncompleted. At
an early period Edwin purchased the entire site
on which the city of Hoboken is built, by which,
as well as by his other enterprises, he acquired
an immense fortune. He endowed the Hoboken
high school, and bequeathed in all nearly $1,000,000
to establish the Stevens Institute of Technology
at the same place. He died at Paris, Aug. 8, 1868.
STEVENS, WILLIAM BACON (1815–1887), a bishop
of the American Episcopal Church, was born at Bath,
Maine, July 13, 1815. Having early lost his father,
he was brought up in the residence of his grandpar-
ents in Boston. He belonged to the Congregational
Church, and expected to enter its ministry, but on
account of ill-health he left Phillips Academy, An-
dover, and took a sea-voyage around the globe, spend-
ing five months in the Sandwich Islands and five
more in China. On his return he studied medi-
cine at Savannah, Ga., but received his degree from
Dartmouth College in 1837. While engaged in
practice at Savannah he organized the Georgia His-
torical Society, and edited two volumes of its Collec-
tions. His health having been restored he took up
the study of theology under Bishop Stephen Elliott,
and was ordained in the Episcopal Church in 1843.
He was then called to be professor of belles-lettres
and moral philosophy in the University of Georgia,
at Athens, and, having been appointed by the legis-
lature State historian, he published his History of
Georgia (2 vols., 1847–59), which was highly com-
mended by Bancroft and Sparks. In 1848 he was
chosen rector of St. Andrew's Church, Philadelphia,
and, removing to that city, became noted as a pulpit
orator. In 1861 he was chosen assistant bishop of
Pennsylvania, and in 1865 succeeded Bishop Alonzo
Potter in charge of the diocese. Under his episco-
pal direction the religious and benevolent work of
the church was diligently prosecuted, and in a few
years the diocese, originally conterminous with the
State of Pennsylvania, had to be twice divided.
Bishop Stevens retained Philadelphia and four ad-
joining counties, which still preserved for Pennsyl-
vania its relative rank in numbers and influence
among the American dioceses. His work was at
times seriously interrupted by ill-health, and in 1886
he was obliged to ask for an assistant. He resumed
his activity, however, and was engaged in perform-
ance of public duty until within a few weeks of his
death. He died at Philadelphia, June 11, 1887. Be-
sides the historical works noted, he published some
charges, devotional treatises, and memorial dis-
courses. For some years he had oversight of the
American Episcopal churches on the Continent of
Europe, and in 1885 he preached the sermon before
the Pan-Anglican Council at Lambeth.
STEVENSON, RoPERT LOUIs, British author, was
born at Edinburgh in 1845. He was grandson of
the engineer Robert Stevenson, famous for his
building of light-houses (for whom, see ENCYCLOPAE-
DIA BRITANNICA). He was educated at the university
of his native city, and from it obtained the degree
of M. A. While still an undergraduate, he had started
a college magazine. He travelled on the Continent
of Europe and across the United States. His first
book to attract attention was Travels with a Donkey
in the Cevennes. But still more popular were his
Treasure Island, Kidnapped : a Story of the Rebellion
of '45, The Dynamitards, and others.
STEVENSON, WILLIAM FLEMING (1832–1886),
Irish Presbyterian minister, was born at Strabane,
Sept. 20, 1832. He graduated at the University of
Glasgow and, after studying theology in Scotland
and Germany, was licensed to preach in 1856. His
first work was as city missionary in Belfast, and in
1860 he took charge of a newly formed Presbyterian
church in Dublin. . He was also busy in contribut-
ing to Good Words and other periodicals. In 1871
he was called to assist in directing the foreign mis-
sion work of the Irish Presbyterian General Assem-
bly. In 1873 he attended the meeting of the Evan-
gelical Alliance at New York, and in 1877 he travelled
around the world in the interest of missions. In
1881 he was made moderator of the Irish General As-
sembly. He was a member of the senate of the Royal
University, and was made chaplain to Lord Aber-
deen, when viceroy of Ireland. He died at Rathgar,
Dublin, Sept. 16, 1886. His published works are
Praying and Working (1862); Lives and Deeds Worth
Knowing (1870); Hymns for Church and Home (1873).
STEWART, CHARLEs (1778–1849), rear-admiral,
U. S. N., was born of Irish parents at Philadelphia,
July 28, 1778. His father died two years later, leav-
ing his widow, with four children, in straitened cir-
cumstances. Charles entered the merchant service
as cabin boy at the age of 13, and rose to the com-
mand of an Indiaman before he was 20. In 1798 he
entered the navy as lieutenant and served on board
the frigate United States against the French pri-
vateers in West India waters. In 1800 he was ap-
pointed to command the schooner Experiment, and
in these seas captured the French schooner Deux
Amis and, soon after, the Diana, of 14 guns, retaking
several American vessels which had been made prizes
by the French. The same year he rescued 60 women
and children who had been wrecked when escaping
from the revolution in Santo Domingo, which ser-
vice the Spanish governor of the island acknowl-
edged in a letter of thanks to the President. In
1804, in command of the brig Siren, Stewart took
part in the naval operations under Preble against
Tripoli, co-operating with Decatur in the destruction
of the Philadelphia, which had fallen into the hands
of the Dey. In 1806 he was promoted to captain.
From 1808 to 1812 he was employed in the mer-
chant service, but re-entered the navy in the latter
year on the outbreak of war with Great Britain. In
the summer of 1813 he took command of the Con-
stitution and sailed from Boston on a cruising ex-
pedition to the coasts of Guiana and the Windward
Islands, capturing the British war-schooner Picton,
of 14 guns, a letter-of-marque under her convoy, and
several merchant vessels. In December, 1814, he
set out on a second cruise on board the Constitution, ,
then mounting 52 guns, with 470 men, and on Feb.
20, 1815, after an engagement of 50 minutes, capt-
ured the British war-ship Cyane, of 34 guns and 185
men, and the sloop of war Levant, of 21 guns and
156 men. The British loss was stated as 41 ; Stew-
art's was 3 killed and 12 wounded. A British fleet
approached while he was lying at St. Jago, Cape de
Verde, from which he adroitly escaped, carrying with
him the Cyane; the Levant was, however, recapt-
ured. For these services he received from Congress
a vote of thanks, a sword, and a gold medal; from
the legislature of Pennsylvania, a vote of thanks and
a sword; and from New York, the freedom of the
STILES STOCKTON. 597
city. From the public he received the flattering Pathology (1848); Therapeutics and ſaleria Medica
sobriquet of “Old Ironsides.” From 1816 to 1820 (1860); and Epidemic Meningitis (1867). With J.
he was on the Franklin, in command of the Medi- | M. Maisch he prepared the National Dispensatory
terranean squadron, and from 1820 to 1824 of that (1879), and edited the second edition of Medical Ju-
of the Pacific, where he vindicated the rights of risprudence, which had originally been prepared by
American commerce by compelling the annulment of his brother Dr. Morlton Stillé (1822–55) and Dr.
a paper blockade. From 1830 to 1832 he was a com: Francis Wharton.
missioner of the navy, and, 1838 to 1841, commanded STILLWATER, a city of Minnesota, county seat of
the Philadelphia navy-yard. In 1842 and 1843 he Washington Co., is on the west bank of St.Croix
was in charge of the home squadron, and again of river, which here expands into a lake, 18 miles N.
the Philadelphia navy-yard in 1844 and from 1854 E. of St. Paul, with which it is connected by rail-
till 1861. In 1862 he was made rear-admiral on the road. It contains a fine court-house, 2 national
retired list. He died at Bordentown, N. J., Nov. 7, banks, 12 churches, a high school, a public library,
1869, having been in the service 71 years and senior a penitentiary, 1 daily and 3 weekly newspapers:
officer for 19. In 1835 his daughter, Delia Tudor, It has also an iron foundry, flour- and saw-mills, and
was married to John Henry Parnell of Avondale, carries on a large trade in pine-lumber. Its popu-
County Wicklow, Ireland, by * she is mother of lation in 1880 was 9055.
Charles Stewart Parnell (q. v.). ÖCKER, ADOLF, German clergyman, was born
STILES, EzRA (1727–1795), educator, was born at at #º. Dec. ii, 1835. #. educated in
North Haven, Conn., Nov. 29, 1727. His father was his native town and at the Universities of Halle and
pastor of the church at that place and published Berlin until 1857. Ha ving been ordained in the
some religious treatises. . The son graduated at Yale United Evangelical Church, he became pastor at
College in 1746, became a tutor there, and studied the- Seggerde in #. In the war of 1870 he was chap-
ology. After being licensed to preach he turned to iiaisº, a division of the German army, and in 1874
the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1753. Three nº was called to Berlin, as court a hd cathedral
years later, however, he was ordained pastor of a preacher. He has published several sermons and
church at Newport, R.I., but during the occupation addresses, but is chiefly noted as an advocate of
of that city by the British he removed to Ports- Christian socialism and as a leader in the agitation
mouth, N. H. He was called to be president of e : * ~~~~ cºrn re - 's in Gor-
Yale College in 1778, and held that position till his sº the increasing influence of the Jews in Ger
death, meantime discharging the duties of various 2-\ , wºr-
j ñ, ai. i*i;, iſºs. He had a high STOCKHARDT, Julius Appº.º.º.
reputation for learning of various kinds, from the º chemist, was born, Jan. 4, 1809, at Röhrsdorf,
ancient languages to modern science. He made Saxony. He was classically educated, graduated in
some of the first electrical experiments in New Eng- natural science as pharmacist of first class in 1833,
land, and taught all the natural sciences. Besides and received the degree of Ph.D. at the University
some sermons, he published a History of the Three of Leipsic in 1838. In 1834 he travelled in England,
Judges of Charles I. (1794), and left incomplete an France, and Belgium, and he revisited the last two in
fºsſajicº History of New England. His diary 1843, to perfect his technical knowledge. In 188:
and other writings are preserved in Yale College li. he taught at Dresden, and next at Chemnitz, and
brary. His Life was written by his son-in-law, Dr. |Yº appointed inspector of drugs. His lectures be-
Abiei Holmes (1798) and Prof. j. L. Kingsley (1842). fore the Chemnitz, Agricultural Society, began, a
STILLE, CHARLEs JANEwAY, historian and educa- popular movement, the first-fruit of which was the
tor, was born at Philadelphia, Sept. 23, 1819. He founding at Möckern, Saxony, in 1852, of an experi-
graduated at Yale College in 1839, and was admitted ment station. The number of these institutions in
to the bar. During the war for the Union he was ac-|Europe and America nºw exceeds one hundred.
tive in the cause of the U. S. Sanitary Commission The movement has resulted in a wide diffusion of
(q.v.), and afterward wrote its history. He also ob- knowledge of chemical principles as applied to the
tained note by his pamphlet, How a Free People Com- soil. In 1848 he became the first occupant of the
duct a Long jjar (1862), and some other publications. chair of agricultural chemisty in the Rºyal Academy
in 1866 he was appointed professor of history in the of Tharand. He died there June 1,1886. In periodi-
University of Pennsylvania (q. v.), and in 1868 was cal literature he was editor of Polytechnisches Central-
made provost of that institution. From his first blatt (1846–49); Zeitschrift für deutsche Landwirthe
connection with the university he endeavored to in- (1850–55) ; Der Chemische Ackersmann (Leipsic, 1855–
fuse a new spirit into it, advocating the enlargement 73). His other publications are, Untersuchung der
of its courses of study, and especially promoting the Zwickauer Steinkohle (1840); Erkemn ung und Anwen-
scientific department. The result of these efforts.is dung der Giffarbe (1844) ; Schule der Chemie (1846),
partly seen in the new buildings of the university. ºnslated as Principles of Chemistry, New York;
Dr. Stillé retired from his position in 1880, and has Chemische Feldpredigten (Agricultural Chemistry,
since devoted himself to historical research, publish- Phila.); the last-named two works are translated
ing Studies in Mediaeval History (1881), and various into several languages. Stöckhardt ranks next to
monographs on American history. Liebig In aptness for popularizing science rather
His brother, ALFRED STILLé, physician, was born, than in original research.
Oct. 30, 1813. He graduated from the University | STOCKTON, a city of California, county seat of
of Pennsylvania in 1832, and from its medical de- San Joaquin Co., is on Stockton Creek, a navigable
partment in 1836. He then studied medicine in Eu- branch of the San Joaquin river, which flows 3 miles
rope, and in 1839 became resident physician at the westward. It is on the Central Pacific Railroad, 92
Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1854 he was made pro- miles E. of San Francisco, and has also local rail-
fessor of the theory and practice of medicine in roads. It has a court-house, several banks, 15
Pennsylvania Medical College, and held this position churches, a convent, a high school and other
till 1859. In 1864 he was elected to a similar chair schools, a theatre, 2 public libraries, 2 daily and 7
in the University of Pennsylvania, and held it for weekly newspapers, and the State asylum for the in-
twenty years, then becoming professor emeritus. sane. Its supply of water is chiefly from artesian
He has also lectured before various medical soci- wells. It was settled in 1849, and in 1880 its popu-
eties, and was president of the American Medical lation was 10,282.
Association in 1871. He has published many pro- STOCKTON, RICHARD (1730–1781), a signer of
fessional treatises, including Elements of General the Declaration of Independence, was born near
598
STODDARD-STONE.
Princeton, N. J., Oct. 1, 1730. His great-grandfather
came from England in 1670, and purchased a tract of
6400 acres, including the site of Princeton, the prop-
erty largely remaining in the family. Richard was
graduated at Princeton in 1748, and, after studying
law in Newark, was admitted to the bar in 1754, where
he acquired repute and a competent fortune. In
1766–67 he visited Great Britain, and while in Scot-
land prevailed on Dr. Witherspoon to accept the pres-
idency of Princeton College. In 1768 he became a
member of the executive council of the province, and
in 1774 judge of the Supreme Court of New Jersey.
In this same year he submitted to Lord Dartmouth
“An Expedient for the Settlement of the American
Disputes.” On this failing to effect its purpose, he
allied himself with the patriot party, and in 1776
was chosen a member of the Continental Congress
that met in Philadelphia, where he was one of the
signers of the Declaration of Independence. In Sep-
tember of this year he was chosen one of a commit-
tee to inspect the Northern army, and on Nov. 30
was seized by night in Monmouth, N. J., and com-
mitted to the common prison of New York, where he
underwent treatment that seriously affected his
health and, ultimately, conduced to his death.
Meanwhile his library, one of the finest in the coun-
try, had been burned and his land laid waste, so
that he was reduced to severe pecuniary straits. He
died at Princeton, Feb. 28, 1781. In 1888 the State
of New Jersey placed his statue in the Capitol at
Washington. His wife, ANNIS BOUDINOT, was a po-
etess of no mean merit. One of her poems, addressed
to Washington after the surrender of Yorktown,
elicited from the patriot chief a courtly acknowledg-
ment; another was sung by young ladies while
strewing flowers on the path of the hero on his pas-
sage through Trenton on his way to his first inaugu-
ration at New York.
His son, RICHARD STOCKTON (1764–1828), senator,
was born near Princeton, April 17, 1764, studied law
in Newark, and was admitted to the bar in 1784. He
rose rapidly to the head of the profession in the
State; was a presidential elector in 1792 and 1801;
|United States senator 1796–99; and representative
in Congress 1813–15, declining further candidacy.
He received the degree of L.L. D. from Queen's (now
Rutgers) College in 1815, and from Union in 1816.
FIe died near Princeton, March 7, 1828.
ROBERT FIELD STOCKTON (1795–1866), son of the
preceding, commodore, was born in Princeton, Aug.
20, 1795. He left Princeton College before com-
pleting his course, and in 1811 entered the navy as
a midshipman, at once distinguishing himself for
gallantry, especially in the defence of Baltimore
against the British, for which, in 1814, he was pro-
moted to lieutenant. On the declaration of war
with Algiers he sailed with the Decatur to the
Mediterranean, but was transferred, as 1st lieuten-
ant, to the Spitfire, in which he took part in the capt:
ure of the Algerine frigate Mahonda, and in 1815
headed the boarders in the capture of the corsair
Esledio. In 1821 he went to Africa in command of
the Alligator, and aided the Colonization Society
(q. v.) in acquiring by purchase from native chiefs
the territory now constituting the Republic of Libe-
ria. While engaged in this service the Alligator
was fired on by a Portuguese letter-of-marque, which
mistook it for a pirate. An engagement of 20 min-
utes sufficed to capture the assailant, which, how-
ever, was subsequently returned to Portugal. By
his capture of the French slaver Jeune Eugénie
Lieutenant Stockton established the legality of seiz-
ing slavers under a foreign flag. In 1823–24 he was
employed on the survey of the coast of the Southern
tates. From 1826 to 1838 he was on leave at
Princeton, and took an active part in politics as a
follower of Gen. Jackson. In 1838 he served as
flag-officer in the Mediterranean, and on his promo-
tion to captain on Dec. 8 was recalled. In 1841 he
was offered by Pres. Tyler a seat in the cabinet as
secretary of the navy, but declined office. He was
one of the first to advocate a steam navy, and pre-
pared the plans for the steam sloop of war Prince-
ton, which was built at Philadelphia, 1842—44, and
was given command of it. On a trial-trip on the
Potomac in the latter year one of her guns burst,
causing the death of five persons, including the
Secretaries of war and the navy. A court of in-
quiry entirely exonerated Captain Stockton. He
next sailed to Texas as bearer to its government of
the annexation resolutions. In the Mexican war
he was commander-in-chief of the squadron on the
Pacific, and in 1846, by proclamation, assumed com-
mand of all American forces on the coast, conquer-
ing California and establishing the authority of the
United States. In 1847 he was relieved, and re-
turned home overland, being received with honor by
all parties. The New Jersey legislature gave him a
vote of thanks and a reception. In 1850 he resigned
from the navy, and in 1851 was elected to the U. S.
senate, where he promoted the abolition of flogging
in the navy. He resigned his seat in 1853, and re-
tired to private life, dying at Princeton, Oct. 7, 1866.
His son, JoHN POTTER STOCKTON, senator and law-
yer, was born in Princeton, Aug. 2, 1826. He was
graduated at Princeton, 1843, studied law, and was
admitted to the bar, 1850, and immediately attained
a high position in his native State. He was ap-
pointed by its legislature a commissioner to simplify
proceedings in the courts of law ; in 1857 was sent
as U. S. minister to Rome; in 1865 was chosen by a
plurality vote to the U. S. senate, but this being
challenged he was unseated by a vote of 23 to 21,
March 27, 1866. He was re-elected in 1869, serving
one term. In the Senate he advocated with effect
the establishment of life-saving stations on the coast.
In 1877 he was appointed attorney-general of New
Jersey, and was re-elected in 1882 and 1887, in which
office he has consistently sustained the system of rail-
road taxation. Ever since 1864 he has been dele-
gate-at-large to all the Democratic national conven-
tions. In 1882 Princeton conferred on him the
degree of L.L. D.
STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY, poet, was born at
Hingham, Mass., in 1825. He was a contributor to
the Knickerbocker Magazine, and published his first
collection of poems, Foot-Prints, in 1849, and a sec-
ond collection in 1851. After his marriage to Eliza-
beth D. Barstow, in 1852, he settled in New York,
where he was employed in the custom-house. He
has since been prominently identified with the liter-
ary life of the metropolis. In recent years his sight
has been much impaired. Among his publications are
Songs of Summer (1857); Town and Country (1857);
The King's Bell (1863); The Book of the East (1871).
He has also written some prose works and tales for the
young, and edited various collections of English and
American poetry. He excels as a lyric and imagina-
tive poet and is a successful writer of blank verse.
STONE, CHARLEs PoMEROY, general, was born,
Sept. 30, 1824, in Greenfield, Mass. He graduated at
West Point in 1845, and became 2d lieutenant in the
ordnance. In the Mexican war he served from Vera
Cruz to the capture of the City of Mexico, and was
brevetted in 1847 for gallant and meritorious con-
duct in the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapul-
tepec. In 1848 he obtained leave of absence to visit
Europe, with the object of improving in his profes-
sion. In 1851 he was ordered to California, where
he constructed the Benicia arsenal, acting, at the
same time, as chief of ordnance for the division of
the Pacific. Resigning in 1856, he engaged in the
banking business in San Francisco till appointed,
next year, by the Mexican government, chief of a
STONE STONE RIVER, 599
º: º º: and explore its lands with Archbishop Hughes in regard to the use of the
i. w ...”. ...”. º 1 i; : Fº this wº | º, His *: for good was felt in
- • --5 ... to become colonel the city in many irections. e specially interested
º of the militia of the District himself in the institution for the deaf and dumb and
& s §§a He .. ; engaged, under Gen. the society for the reformation of juvenile criminals.
Wººt
&/ - - - - - A & 's as a proline author, especially in the depart-
t; ; º i. Of .." º: i. Wºº, ment of local history, Among his publications were
St d h erson ne . a brigade in the latter's Life of Maria Monk (1836); Letters on Animal Mag-
iº.º.º.º.
y y * -º 2 9 º' iſ - 2 €I’ ion by his son, W. L. Stone, 5); Border
: * º º, º Of the Army of the Po- Wars of the American Recolution (2 vols., 1836 j ; Po-
º, fei ... - * } E. º to etry and History of Mºoming (1841; new ed., 1864);
ºº::ſº
- - y ther , the author, by W. L. Stone, Jr., 1866); J. J …"
on his own authority, converted the feint into a real | Uncas and Miantonomoh ºiº. , 1866); and Life of
attack and was disastrously repulsed on the next STONEMAN, GEORGE, general, was born, Aug. 8
morning. There was a popular outcry against the 1822, at Busti, Chautauqua county, N.Y. in isié
* 3.", º º, * . º º: at wº ;" and was assigned to the
* -- . • */ 3 * 3 r "rested an Ci E 11'S I’8.9 OOD S. S47 ºf a . . . . *††) ſº º –
placed in confinement in Fort Lafayette, New York ter of theſ sºon tºº. tº: º .
harbor, where he lay till Aug. 16th. He was then rmained in active service on the Pacific coast til 1857
released, without any explanation. In May, 1863, he when he was promoted captain and ordered to Texas.
was ordered to duty in the Department of the Gulf, While in command of Fort Brown, in that State, hi -
yº he took part in the siege of Port Hudson and superior officer, Gen. D. E. Twiggs (who joined i.
. g”; sº '. º Gº". Of º place, secessionists, making over to them his army together
of staff, he was \ rºl à tºd all is. nis chief | with the government stores), ordered him to surrender
:"...º.º.º.º.º. º.º.º.º.º.º.º.
• 3. + J. STOD 6 DO *GITISGC " _ _ !
April 4, 1864, he was honorably mustered out as and .. º: º: º º
º of volunteers, and on Sept. 13 he was advanced to major, and in August º:
Cr º : co- º ſe - y 5 * > * -
jº In i §". 5. º,º i.e. and chief of cavalry of the Army of the
dive of Egypt and was made chief of the º Fºil º º sº
staff of the army. Subsequently he was made tem- tion of 3. #. CO º &et. § e &:
porary chief of the cadastral survey, and was presi- ate force, and so brou ion the batti . *:::: €I'-
dent of the Geographical Society. . . When the burg. After the . Buil †";i. h *.
American officers were mustered out of the Egyptian command of Gen. Phil. Kear 'u' lºng, e got t le
service, in 1879, Stone alone remained, and held November, 1862, was ºd ‘....". and in
his position of chief of the staff till the insurrection teers, and put in charge ..";". Of volun-
of Arabi Pacha. In 1883 he resigned and returned succession to Gen ºp Hº .# 1I]
to the United States, decorated with several orders Fredericksburg Dec. 13th ‘i. A º i º: Ing it at
conferred by Ismail Pacha. Since his return he has he led a cavalry COI’ s in the º }. . ſº 1863,
held the posts of engineer-in-chief for the Florida and from January #. April º, oward ichmond,
º and transit company, and to the commit- of the Twenty-third cº y R. *... gº
ee for the erection in New York harbor of Bar-' organized the * --> s. . . -->
tholdi's statue of Liberty Enlightening the Wor Gº e armies operating before Richmond,
STONE, WILLIAM LEETE (iiº isºſ) º: ". ºº: º º * i *.i.
born, April 20, 1792, at New Paltz, N Y. his father sh 12- *: , and IVéCL U1D Cler
-, 9 -, * 3 - - - - - - 5 ather Sherman in the Atlantic cam f 1864. taki
having been a soldier in the Revolutionary war. He e •+ 3, 41. ampaign of 1864, taking
sº of his youth on his father's farm at soat. *ś *.*.*.*.* ". º:
. Y., which was then in a wilderness, and there sonvi ***. º Macºn and Ander-
met with adventures and gained experiences i. . i`i. pº 8. J. ly 31 at Clin ton,
º embodied in his border tales. At the age of ary and Riº j. hº..."; º º:
e became a printer, and in 1813 he wa ăiţor trict º * • e dis-
of the Herkimer American, on which tºº. *. º . e, and in March and April
yº a journeyman. He subsequently edited ing engaged at wºj. * º *s #.
political papers in Hudson, Albany, and Hartford, bury ānā i Ash iiie. 2 capture or Sans-
besides conducting at Hudson a literar ...a...: ' ... ... at Asheville. In June, 1866, he was made
- r erary periodical colonel of the 21st Infantry i W: w *
entitled The Lounger, and at Hartford, in conj is º * antry, and was brewetted, in
e & ; : - * - L. L. C y junc- Succession, colonel, brigadier-g l e
tion with J. M. Wainwright (afterward bisho - c general, and major-
.* {. & shop) and general. In August, 1871, he resi *
Samuel G. Goodrich (*Peter Parley "), The Knights my ºs', sº e resigned from the ar-
of the Round Table. From 1821 tºº, ...'. ...'. up his º: dence in California, of which
º of the proprietors and editors of the New York ŠtóNÉ ###". *::::! s § -
Commercial Advertiser, employing its columns t - Vº .*.* - L.A. * * y . ESBORO, BATTLE OF-
vocate, among other 5. cause of *ś : Yºº #...ºf º River
of slavery and that of compulsory education soon himse *-* * * *. Vº ºrryville (Oct. 8, 1862), perceived
º º *.* "... WJº e on himself no longer pursued, he hi & 4' -
after the Morgan tragedy he, although imself a beri S. pursued, he alted his forces,
* se--, *, *****, *s " I X Is ' . 40,000, at Murfreesboro’
freemason, addressed a series of letters to J numbering some 40,000, at Murfreesboro' on the
- lºwl, v. * * * *-* *- ters to John Stone River and the Nashvill tº
Quincy Adams (afterward collected and - | … . he Nashville and Chattanooga Rail-
- * - . . . . published way, about 30 miles S. E Tº slº --> S.
at New York, 1832 º urging tl 4. ** 3 f eS - & Of Nashville. On Oct.
Freemasonry id: it. ha d º .*.*.* tºº.a. i. Rosecrans was transferred to the
in 1841 he was sent by Pres. Harrison as ū. s. be in º i. * Uniºn Army of the Ohio or Cum-
minister to the Hague, but was r *- S. Perland, whº at this time lay around Bowling
gue, but was recalled the same Green and Glasgow in K - - - *
year by Pres. Tyler. He was chosen, in 1844, the on Oct. 30, 1 f ..", entucky. On his arriving,
first superintendent of the public schools of New ized condiº º º the force in a sadly demoral-
York City, and in this capacity had a controve sº to 65 ºutlººn reduced in numbers from 100,000
º -- tº. oversy to 65,000. With the exception of the city of Nash-
600 STONE
RIVER,
Yille-Weakly garrisoned and poorly supplied—it
had nothing to show for its nine months' campaign.
The district was scoured by Confederate cavalry un-
der Capt. J. H. Morgan and Col. N. B. Forrest, who
rendered it most difficult to keep up communications
with the Union depot of supplies at Louisville.
After reorganizing the army and replenishing its
ammunition, he took immediate steps to avert the
danger with which Bragg's proximity menaced Nash-
ville. By Nov. 7 he had the main part of his forces
concentrated in front of that city, southward, and
covering the roads leading in that direction. To
insure the maintenance of communication with
Louisville the main part of his centre division was
stationed at Gallatin. For about six weeks he lay
thus, employed in collecting supplies of various
kinds preparatory to a movement upon Bragg. Dur-
ing this period his men were engaged in frequent
skirmishing conflicts with the enemy, among which
was the surprise of the Union Col. Moore and capt-
ure of 1500 men by Morgan's rough-riders at Harts-
ville on Dec. 1st. But the hour for more impor-
tant movements was at hand. Bragg had no idea
that Rosecrans would undertake a winter campaign
and had sent away a large portion of his force—one
section (cavalry) into West Tennessee, to annoy
Grant ; the other into Kentucky, to break up the
railroad forming Rosecrans' sole means of commu-
nication with his depots at Louisville. The latter
commander judged that the opportunity was not to
be let slip and at once took action.
At dawn of Dec. 26 the Union army moved south-
ward : McCook, with 3 divisions (16,000 men), along
the Nolensville pike toward Triune ; Thomas, with
two divisions, Negley’s and Rosecrans’ (13,500), by
the pike on his right to fall in by cross-roads to
Nolensville; and Crittenden, with 3 divisions (13,300),
on the Murfreesboro’ pike toward Lavergne. The
plan given out was that McCook should attack the
Confederate general, Hardee, who was reported lying
with a large force at Triune, 7 miles south of Nolens-
ville, and, in the event of Hardee's having to retreat,
that Crittenden should assail him at Stewart's Creek,
while Thomas was to come in on his left flank.
These movements were to be covered by Brig.-Gen.
D. S. Stanley, chief of cavalry. McCook (skirmish-
ing all the way) reached Nolensville in the evening
and rested there, with Thomas on his right, who
closed Negley’s division on Nolensville. Crittenden,
with the left, reposed near Lavergne. Late at night
Rosecrans, who had left Nashville at noon, arrived
at McCook's headquarters.
On McCook's arrival before Triune next day (27th)
he found that Hardee had retired, and he rested
there for the night. Crittenden the same day
reached Stewart's Creek. Next day was Sunday, and
a day of almost general rest. On the morning of
Monday (29th) McCook pushed on from Triune to
Wilkinson's Cross, 6 miles from Murfreesboro’, while
Crittenden, moving on the Murfreesboro’ pike, skir-
mished forward to the West Fork of Stone River,
within a short distance of Murfreesboro’. In the
afternoon Palmer signalled headquarters at Lavergne
(erroneously) that the Confederates were evacuating
the village, and Harker of Crittenden's was ordered
to cross the stream and occupy it. His brigade on
crossing found Breckenridge in strong force in front,
and Crittenden wisely recalled him. Next morning
McCook moved close up to Stone River, a little
west of the town, and before evening nearly the
whole Union force stood in an irregular line, more
than three miles in length, in front of the Confeder-
ates, who held a strong position before Murfreesboro'.
During the night of the 30th both armies prepared
for battle. Crittenden was on the Union left, resting
on Stone River; Thomas held the centre ; McCook
stood on the right. Bragg disposed his forces—the
right under Breckenridge in the rear of Stone River;
Polk in the centre, and Hardee on the left, both in
front of the stream. At 9 P. M. the Federal com-
manders met at headquarters and Rosecrans ex-
plained his plan of battle. The left and centre were
to be thrown heavily on Breckenridge at daybreak,
crush him, wheel rapidly, and attack the front and
flank of the Confederate centre, and then, sweeping
through Murfreesboro’, gain the rear of the centre
and left, cut off their line of retreat, and so destroy
the army in detail.
Pefore sunrise of the 31st Van Cleve's division of
Crittenden's crossed the river, and Wood was ready
to follow him in support. Meanwhile a counter-
movement of the Confederates entirely deranged
Rosecrans' scheme. Bragg had decided to attack
the Union right at dawn, and with this view had
massed his troops on his left under Hardee in front
of McCook. In the dim light of dawn these emerged
on a sudden from the close woods. Cleburne led
with four brigades and charged McCook's extreme
right before Van Cleve had moved. Cheatham's and
McCown's divisions struck nearer the centre, and, de-
spite a storm of missiles, fell heavily on the brigades
of Willich and Kirk and forced them back in con-
fusion. Kirk was seriously wounded; Willich was
taken captive ; Edgarton's battery and part of Gold-
speed's were captured and turned on the fugitives;
a large number of prisoners were taken. Following
up this success, the victors fell on McCook's left,
composed of the divisions of Sheridan and J. C.
Davis, striking them on the left flank. After a se-
vere struggle, especially on the part of Sheridan,
these also gave way and fell back almost to the
Nashville pike. In this onset Houghtailing's bat-
tery and part of Brash's were lost.
It was now 11 o'clock. The Union right wing,
comprising one-third of the army, was completely
broken up, and the Confederate cavalry were in
Rosecrans' rear. It seemed as if the day were lost.
The Union troops had been driven from nearly half
the ground they held at dawn, and they had lost
many hundreds of men. The brunt of the battle
fell now on Thomas in the centre, who had been re-
enforced by Rousseau's reserve division. The enemy
pressed toward his rear till they reached a position
whence they poured a storm of cross-fire on Negley
and Rousseau. This compelled Thomas to with-
draw from the cedar-wood he occupied and form
line in the open ground between the woods and the
Nashville pike. This position he held firmly, and
enabled Rosecrans to readjust his line in accord-
ance with the position of affairs. The fight was not
yet over. Palmer's division, on the right of the
Union left wing, was next assailed in front and rear.
His right brigade, under Craft, was beaten back,
and the assailants fell on the second brigade under
W. B. Hazen. This broken, the Confederate victory
was complete. Hazen felt that on him depended
the issue of the battle, and, at a terrible sacrifice,
held his ground till Rosecrans was able to form his
new line. His brigade, by staying the tide of Con-
federate victory, saved the day. But the struggle
was not over. Bragg's entire force, excepting a
part of Breckenridge's across the river, now pressed
on to break the newly formed Union line. Wood,
though severely wounded, with Van Cleve, fought
the Confederate left under Breckenridge and re-
pulsed his charges till darkness put an end to the
conflict, leaving the Union troops, to use Rose-
crans' own words in his report, “masters of the
original ground on their left, and their new line
advantageously posted, with open ground in front,
swept at all points by their artillery.”
Rosecrans' loss in men and guns had been heavy,
but he was not discouraged. Bragg had sent a de-
spatch to Richmond stating that after ten hours
STONES. 601
fected by the sulphurous and other acid emanations
of large cities. London is particularly destructive
to building stones from these causes—materials rap-
idly disintegrating there which are very durable in
drier and purer atmospheres. The building stones
of the United States yet await thorough exploration.
The first effort to collect and display the wealth and
variety of these products in the several States was
made at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, on which
occasion a highly useful and instructive collection
was displayed. More recently the National Museum
at Washington has engaged in this desirable enter-
prise, and has now a large and handsome cabinet of
the various building stones of the country, cut into
fighting he “had driven the enemy from every po-
sition but his extreme left, held by Hazen, and had
as trophies 4000 prisoners, 2 brigadier-generals, 31
guns, and 200 wagons and teams.” What, then,
must have been his astonishment to see his antag-
onist standing next morning, on advantageous
ground and with undiminished confidence, in order
of battle 2 This day (Jan. 1) little was attempted
by either of the exhausted armies beyond skirmish-
ing and artillery firing, and preparing for a renewal
of the struggle. Van Cleve's division had during
the night been thrown across Stone River and taken
possession of a height commanding the upper ford.
Nor had Bragg been idle during the same time, but
had planted four batteries to sweep the Union lines, 4-inch cubes. - tº º -
and with these he opened a terrific fire at 8 A. M. Building stones may be broadly divided into three
This was, however, quickly silenced by Bradley's classes: First, the diversified series known under
guns and those of Walker's and Sheridan's divisions. the general name of granite (named in government
There was now a lull till 3 P. M., but the Confederates publications crystalline silicious rocks); second, the
were massing along Beatty's front and threatening limestones and marbles; third, the sandstones. . A
danger there. fourth division, of minor importance in building, in-
Rosecrans, adhering to his original plan of turn- cludes the slates. These various rocks are obtained
ing Bragg's right and capturing Murfreesboro’, had and prepared for market by several processes,
strengthened Van Cleve's division by one of Pal- adapted to their special characters. For the harder
mer's brigades. While he was engaged in examining rocks explosives are generally used, the rough masses
the line it was suddenly assailed by Breckenridge's obtained by blasting being, afterward chiselled,
entire corps with cavalry and artillery, aided by sawed, or otherwise worked into shape. In other
heavy enfilading fire from Gen. Leonidas Polk's cases the rocks are got out by channelling and wedg-
artillery in the centre. The Union troops were rap-ling, where , natural lines of cleavage render this
idly driven in confusion across the river, closely available, while the more fragile and valuable mar-
followed by Bragg's entire right wing in three lines bles are sawn out in the quarries, so as to avoid
of battle, which came sweeping down the slopes to splitting the brittle rock by the use of the blast.
the edge of the stream. | Granite may be defined as a crystalline, unstrati-
But in the meantime Crittenden's artillery had fied rock, composed usually of various combinations
been massed on the rising ground on the opposite of mica, quartz, and felspar, and, as used in build-
side, to enfilade the enemy with 58 heavy guns, and ſing, ordinarily susceptible of a fine polish. It is
these opened with fatal effect, mowing down the pur- whitish or grayish in hue, or mottled with a flesh-red,
suers in lanes. A fierce battle ensued. Both sides but is sometimes quite dark. Its expensiveness pre-
massed their batteries ; both felt that the decisive vents its being often used for private edifices, though
moment had come. “For a time,” says an eloquent it is generally used in large public buildings, and is
writer to whom we acknowledge our obligations, coming more and more into employment for banks
“it seemed as if mutual annihilation were to be the and other large commercial edifices. The employ-
result.” Finally Miller, and Stanley with his cav- ment of polished granite is rapidly extending, both
alry, charged simultaneously and drove the Confed- for columns and other ornamental additions to build-
erates rapidly before them. This charge decided
the day. “In 40 minutes,” says Rosecrans, “the
Confederates lost 2000 men, and their entire line
fell back leaving 400 captive.” The Battle of Mur-
freesboro’ was over.
The 3d was occupied by Rosecrans in making
preparations to follow up his victory. During the
night Bragg retreated through the village in the
direction of Chattanooga, leaving 2000 sick and
wounded in his hospitals. The next day was Sun-
day, and all remained quiet. On the morning of
Monday (Jan. 5th) the Confederate rear-guard was
driven by Thomas 6 or 7 miles on the Manchester
road and the village definitely occupied.
The loss on both sides had been heavy. That of
the Union army was 1533 killed, 7245 wounded, and
3000 prisoners. Bragg claimed to have taken 6273
prisoners. His own loss he acknowledged to be
10,000, of whom 9000 were killed and wounded.
(J. H.)
STONES, BUILDING. The ordinary building mate-
rials may be divided into two classes, natural and
artificial, the former comprising wood and stone, the
latter brick, iron, artificial stone, etc. Of these
stone is ordinarily the most expensive, but is pre-
ferred for all buildings intended to be handsome and
imposing, from its beauty of texture and color and
the appearance of massive solidity which it is ca-
pable of giving. It has its defects, however, many
building stones being deficient in durability when
exposed to the atmosphere. Some rapidly decay
under the influence of the weather, particularly in
damp, frosty climates, while some are seriously af-
WOL. 1 W. —2 N
|ing
ty
quantities in Montana and Wyoming, and less exten-
sively in Dakota.
ings, and for cemetery purposes, where its durability
makes it much superior to marble. The coarser
kinds of granite are often used for street pavements
where the traffic is heavy. -
Granitic building stones are very widely distrib-
uted throughout the United States, though up to the
present time New England has been the most im-
portant centre of the granite-quarrying industry.
The granites of that region are, taken as a whole,
the finest yet developed in the country, yielding sev-
eral varieties of hardness, texture, and color, many
of them being very beautiful and of unusual solidity.
Nearly all the massive government buildings on the
Atlantic seaboard, and many of the great public build-
ings in Washington are constructed of New England
granite, from the Quincy and other quarries.
Good building granite occurs in Virginia, North
and South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, while
in the valley of the Colorado, Texas, is an extensive
deposit closely similar to the red sienite of Egypt.
The State capitol at Austin is built of this stone. In
the Rocky Mountain region granite suitable for build-
ing purposes occurs abundantly, existing in great
In Colorado extensive deposits
have been opened, some containing a red crystalline
rock susceptible of high polish, and suitable for fine
ornamental Work. Other quarries yield a cream-col-
ored stone that polishes well. In addition to the
granites may be named a fine pink-colored lava, which
has been largely used as a building stone in Denver.
Granitic rocks are abundant on the Pacific slope,
the Sierra Nevada being composed of this material
602
STONES.
throughout. Much of this stone has been used in
San Francisco for public buildings. In the Penryn
quarry, near Sacramento, the granite splits so evenly
that blocks 100 feet long and of almost any thick.
ness can be readily obtained. The colors are blue,
black, gray, and other varieties of hue. Oregon and
Washington possess granitic building stones in
equal abundance.
In close connection with the granites may be
named the green serpentines, which have been used
to a considerable extent in Philadelphia buildings,
being obtained from quarries in the vicinity of that
city. The most imposing structures in this material
are the buildings of the University of Pennsylvania.
In Western North Carolina there is a very large de-
posit of serpentine, or verd antique, which is sold
under the name of green marble, polishes finely,
and is much used for interior decoration. This is
the only extensive deposit of this stone in the Union.
The limestones suitable for building purposes com-
prise three classes, common limestone, gypsum, and
marble, the latter varying from coarse grades, which
shade into limestone, to the finest-grained marbles.
Of coarse marbles the most extensive deposit yet
opened lies in Westchester county, N. Y., just north
of the city. This has yielded nearly all the building
marble used in New York City—the university, the
Roman Catholic cathedral, and other imposing
buildings being constructed of it. At Lockport
exist extensive beds of a compact, soft, and easily
Worked grayish limestone, which hardens when ex-
posed to the air. It is a handsome stone and has
been largely used, the Lenox Library building, New
York, being an instance. -
North Carolina comes next to New York in the
possession of extensive beds of building limestone.
These occur in the mountain region of the west,
while on the coast “shell limestones,” suitable for
building purposes, abound. East Tennessee possesses
an abundance of Oolitic limestone, characterized by
minute round grains. This is very white, of excel-
lent quality, works easily, and wears well. In the
centre of the State are limestones nearly as hard as
marble, of which the State capitol at Nashville has
been built. West of the Mississippi extensive beds
of limestone suitable for building occur in Missouri,
Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, while in Iowa is a bed
of solid gypsum which extends for 5 miles along the
Des Moines river, and has been quarried and used
for building. Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado are
similarly well supplied, the Jefferson Company's
quarries in the latter State being practically inex-
haustible. On the Pacific slope limestones exist
abundantly, but not of quality well suited for build-
ing purposes.
Marbles suitable for building are quite as widely
distributed. The finest quality of American marble
yet discovered is that of Vermont, being a portion of
a continuous belt which extends from the coarse
marbles of Westchester county, N. Y., across Wer-
mont into Canada. The finest grades occur within
30 miles north and south of Rutland, Vt., the mar-
bles here being of fine texture and pure white color.
The veins of the finer material are nowhere very
large, and it being more liable, with greater purity,
to crack and splinter in quarrying, it is now got out
by sawing instead of blasting. Ingenious machines
drive peculiarly shaped saws, often with black dia-
mond-pointed teeth, that cut channels into the rock.
The deposits are practically inexhaustible, the mar-
ble being delicate in texture, some white enough for
statuary, and all polishing finely. It is largely em-
ployed for furniture and interior decorations. .
The southern Alleghanies possess vast deposits of
marble, of fine texture and almost every shade of
color; western North Carolina having beds of white,
pink, black, gray, drab, and mottled, all susceptible
of a fine polish. Opposite these, in eastern Tennes-
See, are extensive beds of very handsome marbles,
often beautifully variegated in color. These have
been used extensively for interior finish in expen-
sive private dwellings, and largely for steps and
staircase Wainscoting in hotels and other large pub-
lic buildings. The colored Tennessee marbles have
been used in the interior decoration of the Capitol
at Washington, and in the governor's room of the
Albany capitol building.
In Georgia exists much the largest bed of marble
yet discovered in the Union. This marble is of uni-
formly fine texture, the color varying from white to
Variegated, some of the latter varieties being of great
beauty. The marble area of North Carolina, Ten-
nessee, and Georgia is greatly the most extensive in
the Union, and its material the most diversified in
character. In Iowa is a peculiar deposit known as
coral marble, one of its constituents being a fossil
Coral or sponge, which shows itself in delicate trac-
ings on the marble when polished. It is greatly va-
ried in hue, the foundation color being mostly gray
or drab, and the beds are practically inexhaustible.
Missouri is well provided with excellent marbles,
one variety known as onyx marble being extensively
used for mantels, fine furniture, etc. Montana,
Wyoming, and Colorado are well supplied, while
Oregon and Washington have rich deposits, as yet
but little developed. Undeveloped beds also exist
in New Mexico and Arizona.
Yet more important than the granites and lime-
stones for building purposes are the sandstones,
which are very largely employed in the fronts of
private residences. When of good quality these
stones will resist the effects of heat, and cold, dry-
ness and moisture. They are used ordinarily, on
account of their cost, as a sort of veneer for house-
fronts, being applied in thin slabs backed up with
brick. Sandstones differ very considerably in con-
stitution, some being silicious, some granitic, others
argillacious, etc. They differ as greatly in degree of
compactness and in color, the principal shades being
brown, drab, and bluish. The sandstones are the
most widely and generally diffused and most diverse
in texture, compactness, and color of all building
stones. They usually occur in deposits of moderate
extent, but so numerous and scattered as to be
everywhere available. East of the Alleghanies the
two most important deposits are those in the valley
of the Connecticut river, and near Belleville, N. Y.
These beds are of immense extent, and have sup-
plied building stones to the adjacent cities and vil-
lages for more than one-third of a century. In Ul-
ster county, N. Y., are extensive beds of a very hard
blue-stone, which is much used for steps, sills, etc.,
and at Potsdam a deposit of very hard and durable
stone, of reddish color with veins of gray.
The Southern Atlantic States have numerous small
deposits of building sandstones, while in eastern
Tennessee they occur largely. The States bordering
the Mississippi and Ohio are very well provided,
and the same is the case with the Rocky Mountain
and the Pacific slope region. The colors vary
greatly, there being shades of drab and blue, blue
with gray tint, pure gray, greenish-gray, white, red,
and quite dark. Vast quantities of these stones are
used in building.
The slate quarries of the United States chiefly
exist in Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, and
Maine. The first named of these States yields more
than all the others combined, its largest quarries
being on the Lehigh river in the vicinity of Allen-
town. This slate is of fine texture, and is well
adapted for roofing and other uses. The New York,
and Vermont deposits are continuous with each
other. Their slates are of excellent quality and are
employed largely to imitate variegated marbles, be:
603
STONES.
when thus treated, extensively used for Wash-
stands, mantels, etc. In the South, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, and Georgia have large beds of slate suitable
for building purposes. - - - - -
The statistics of annual production of building
stones in the United States, as given in the Census
report for 1880, are as follows:
ing,
Number of Product Product
quarries. (cubic feet). (value).
\ - 4 * * r i
Marble and limestone 616 65,523,965 $6856,681
j e e º e s is e º º º 502 24,776,930 4,780,391
Crystalline silicious -
. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 20,506,568 5,188,998 |
Slate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4,572,670 1,529,985
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . 1,525 115,380,133 sisº,
Of sandstone-producing States Ohio stands at the
head, yielding 33 per cent. of the entire product.
Pennsylvania yields 25, New York 12, New Jersey 8,
and the other States in rapidly diminishing ratio. Il-
linois, Iowa, and Pennsylvania are the leading States
in quantity of limestone and marble produced; while
of the granites, Massachusetts yields 25 of the total
product, Connecticut and Pennsylvania 14 each. . Of
the slates, as we have already said, Pennsylvania is
the principal producer. The above ratio of State
production, however, is destined to greatly change
in the coming years. Building stones of good re-
pute have been carried long distances, though equally
good stone, without reputation, lay in the immediate
vicinity of the builder. The development of the re-
sources of the country will change all this, and the
several States come more and more to depend on
their own deposits for home use. (C. M.)
STONES, PRECIOUs. Up to the present time the
territory of the United States has by no means
proved prolific in the more valuable gems, the pre-
cious stones which it possesses in any abundance
being of the less esteemed kinds. And though it is
quite within the limits of possibility that important
deposits may yet be discovered, the probability is
against it, so far as the most highly valued gems are
concerned. Of precious stones within the United
States over thirty varieties are enumerated, but of
these none of great money-value have been dis-
covered. In 1884 the sale of native stones brought
but $28,650, while that of foreign importations
reached $8,712,315. In 1886 the value of native
stones sold was $79,056. So far there has been no
persistent search for precious stones in this country,
those found being generally discovered in the pro-
cess of mining for metals and useful minerals.
Systematic mining for precious stones is reported
from only two places: Mount Mica, Paris, Maine,
which in 1886 yielded $5,000 worth of tourmalines
(cut value); and Stony Point, N. C., where in that
year nine emeralds were found, valued at over $3,000,
the value of the total find being about $4,000.
Diamonds are found in the United States in very
limited quantities and of small size. They are sel-
dom of the first water. They have been picked up
in widely separated localities, but nowhere in suffi-
cient abundance to warrant extended research. Many
of the claimed diamonds, indeed, have proved on
testing to be minerals of much less value. They are
found in gravel-beds and alluvial soil, no diamond-
bearing matrix having been discovered. The find
of 1884 was valued at $800 only, and in it the most
beautiful stone was worth but $100, the others being
generally colored. Itacolumite, or “flexible sand-
stone,” which is looked upon as a matrix of the dia-
mond, occurs in the Carolifias and Georgia, and
many small stones have been found in its vicinity.
The largest native diamond yet found was dug up in
1884 by a laborer at Manchester, Va. Its original
weight was 234 carats, but cutting reduced it to 11+.
carats. It was held at an extravagant value, and
$1500 expended on its cutting, yet it is not $9.
sidered by experts as worth more than $300 or $400,
it being off-colored and imperfect. Diamonds have
been found in North Carolina, Georgia, Indiana,
Oregon, and other States; also in the gravels or
gold-washings of California and Nevada, but there is
no clew to their place of origin. . Of late years there
|have been observed in Kentucky and Tennessee de-
posits of peridotite in association with carbonaceºus
shales. This is exactly the condition existing at the
Kimberley diamond mines, South Africa, and several
geologists are of the opinion that the American per;
idotite may yet yield diamonds. But it has not yet
done so, and the promise is not good. t
Emeralds and beryls—stones which are similar in
composition but differ in their coloring substance–
have been found in small quantities. They are most
abundant in North Carolina, but have also been
found in Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and
Pennsylvania. Many beryls, yellow, green, and
white in color, have been picked up in recent years
in Litchfield county, Conn. The 1886 find of that
locality, when cut, brought $5,000. An interesting
and valuable stone, allied to the emerald, was dis-
covered in 1881 in Alexander county, N. C., as yet
its only known locality. It is the only gem pecul-
iar to the United States, and has been named Hid-
denite, from W. E. Hidden, its discoverer. While,
like emerald, a silicate of alumina, it differs in hav-
ing lithia for its base. In occurs in slender crystals,
resembling emerald only in color, and is found in
nests or pockets, often associated with emerald and
beryl. Its rarity and beauty have caused it to be
greatly in demand, as yet largely for cabinet pur-
OSéS.
p Sapphires and rubies have been found in New
Jersey and North Carolina. Macon county, of the
latter State, has yielded them of various shades of
color, blue, red, yellow, and colorless. In 1872 the
Jenks mine, near Franklin, N. C., yielded a sapphire
crystal, of 312 lbs. weight, which is now in the Am-
herst College mineral cabinet. In the west they are
found in New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Mon-
tana. Mount Helena, Montana, is the richest local-
ity for sapphires in the United States. Topazes are
found in Maine, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and
Arizona. Pike's Peak, Colorado, has yielded some
fine light-blue specimens, considered equal to those
of the same size from Siberia. The Utah specimens
are small, and generally of a limpid white color.
Beautiful fire opals have been found in Georgia and
North Carolina, but none possessed of opaline iri-
descence. Coarser grades occur in Lebanon county,
Pa. In many places of the West opals occur with
some play of color. Garnets are widely distributed,
and crystals suitable for gems or watch-jewels abound
in Colorado. Agates are found in many places along
the Connecticut river, in southeastern Pennsylvania,
and in North Carolina. They abound around Lake
Superior and in the upper Mississippi region, while
the Rocky Mountains and California yield beautiful
specimens. The favorite variety known as moss-
agate is found in Pennsylvania and North Carolina,
and is abundant in Humboldt county, Nevada.
Amethysts occur in many localities in New Eng-
land, in Delaware county, Pa., in Georgia, and in
many places west. The Lake Superior variety is
coated like the moss-agate. In Yellowstone Park
they are found as a beautiful lining to the interior
of hollow, petrified, or silicated trees. In color
they are usually of light purple, bordering on pink,
and as gems are of little value. Tourmaline is
found in Maine, New York, and Pennsylvania. The
richest finds are in the Maine locality above-men-
tioned, the crystals being usually colorless, but
604
STORER—STORRS.
often of varying shades of pink, blue, yellow, and
green. The two largest found in 1886 were of a
rich grass-green color, and weighed respectively 343
and 27% carats.
The stone known as serpentine has a translucent
Variety of a rich, oil-green color, varying from dark
to pale. This is called precious serpentine and is
used for ornaments. It is found from Maine to
Maryland, and abounds in North Carolina, but not
of fine quality. The finest grades come from near
Newburyport, Mass. Malachite, suitable for orna-
ment, occurs in very small quantities, though the
Copper Queen mine, of Arizona, has yielded this
mineral in large masses. Turquoise has been found
of late years in New York, Arizona, and Nevada. It
is not highly valued as a gem. The same may be
Said of jasper, which is found in many localities.
North Carolina yields it of the texture known as
Cat's-eye. Jade has been obtained from the Indians
of Alaska, but its locality is not known.
Chalcedony is obtained, of a pink color, from
near Cisco, Utah. It takes a fine polish, but has
been little introduced as yet. Jet, a variety of
lignite or mineral coal, of value for mourning orna-
ments, is found abundantly in the California lignites.
Amazon stone, a green felspar from Pike's Peak,
is used slightly as a gem. Obsidian occurs largely
in Yellowstone Park. Some of it is beautifully col-
Ored, and it may yet prove very useful in the orna-
mental arts. Jasperized, or so-called petrified wood,
also abounds in the same locality and in Arizona.
In this the wood-tissue has been replaced by silica.
It polishes well, and is sold as an ornamental stone.
Of other minerals used for gems may be mentioned
Sunstone and moonstone, found only in Delaware
county, Pa., and near Orange Court-House, Va.;
spinel, occasionally found of fine quality ; aqua-
marine, from several localities; phenakite, found at
Pike's Peak, of fair size and fine quality ; rock
crystal (quartz), of which limpid specimens are often
cut for gems; Smoky quartz, which is cut as a gem
to a considerable extent; and gold quartz, which,
when clear and well penetrated by gold, makes a
handsome stone. There are many other minerals
which are occasionally cut and used as ornamental
stones, but the above-named are the most impor-
tant. - (C. M.)
STORER, BELLAMY (1798–1875), jurist, was born
at Portland, Maine, March 9, 1798. He gradu-
ated at Bowdoin College, studied law in Cincinnati,
and was admitted to its bar in 1817. As editor of
the Crisis, a Federal party-organ, he advocated in
1824 the election of John Quincy Adams as Presi-
dent. In 1835–37 he was a representative in Con-
gress, and in 1844 a presidential elector in favor of
Henry Clay. He occupied for many years a chair in
the law school of Cincinnati, and was for 14 years a
judge of the supreme court of Ohio. His religious
feelings were warm. In his youth he was a leader
in a band of young men who, under the name of
“flying artillery,” went from place to place promot-
ing revivals. In 1821 his alma mater conferred on
him the degree of L.L. D. He died at Cincinnati,
June 1, 1875, holding at the time the office of vice-
president of the Evangelical Alliance. &
His brother, DAVID HUMPHREYS STORER, physician,
was born at Portland, March 26, 1804, and graduated
at Bowdoin College in 1822. In 1825 he received
the degree of M. D. from Harvard, and forthwith
commenced practice in Boston, where he originated
the Tremont Medical School. In 1854 he was ap-
pointed professor of obstetrics and medical jurispru-
dence in the Harvard Medical School, and was sub-
sequently dean of that school. In 1876 the degree
of LL. D. was conferred on him by Bowdoin. Dr.
Storer for several years was physician to the Massa-
chusetts General Hospital, he had charge of the
departments of zoology and herpetology in the Mas-
sachusetts State survey, and in 1866 was president
of the American Medical Association. Among his
productions are, Synopsis of the Fishes of North Amer-
ica (Cambridge, 1846); History of the Fishes of Mas-
sachusetts (Boston, 1853–67).
His son, HoRATIO ROBINSON STORER, surgeon, was
born in Boston, Feb. 27, 1830. He graduated at
Harvard, 1850, where he devoted himself mainly to
the natural sciences. Thereafter he studied medi-
cine, receiving his degree in 1853. He spent the
next two years in the great schools of Europe, acting
for a year as private assistant to Sir James Y. Simp-
son, of Edinburgh. In 1855 he began practice in
Boston, taking for his specialty midwifery and the
diseases of women. From 1865 to 1869 he occupied
the chair of obstetrics and medical jurisprudence in
Berkshire Medical College. To qualify himself
more perfectly for teaching medical jurisprudence,
he returned to Harvard to attend its law school, and
graduated from it in 1868. His lectures to medical
students on the diseases of women were attended by
physicians from all parts of the country. In 1872
he returned to Europe, spending five years there,
mainly in Southern Italy, in the study of the fevers
of that district. On his return to the United States
he settled at Newport, R. I., where he still resides.
Dr. Storer was instrumental in founding the Boston
Gynaecological Society, of which he was for some
time president, acting also as editor of its journal.
In 1865 he was secretary and prize-essayist of the
American Medical Association, and its vice-president
in 1866. He has been an exceptionally prolific
writer on medical subjects, both in professional
journals and in book-form. In the latter shape he
has published Why not P A Book for Every Woman,
which received the gold medal of the American
Medical Association (Boston, 1866); Is it I? A
Book for Every Man (1867); , in conjunction with
F. F. Heard, Criminal Abortion ; its Nature, its Epi-
dence, and its Law (1868); On Nurses and Nursing,
(1868); and Southern Italy as a Health Station (1875).
His brother, FRANCIS HUMPHREYs STORER, born in
Boston, March 27, 1832, studied also in Harvard
Scientific School, devoting himself specially to chem-
istry under Prof. Josiah P. Cooke. In 1853 he was
appointed chemist to the Pacific exploring expedi-
tion, and on his return completed his scientific
course at Harvard, and graduated, 1855. After fur-
ther study, in Europe, he devoted himself to teaching
chemistry and to the practice of his profession as an
analytical chemist, in which latter capacity he held
several appointments. In 1870 he was appointed
professor of agricultural chemistry in Harvard, a
position he still holds, while he is, at the same time,
dean of the Bussey Institution. He has been a con-
stant contributor to scientific periodicals, and was
for a time American editor of the Repertoire de Chi-
mie appliquée. In book-form he published, with
Charles W. Eliot (now president of Harvard Univer-
sity), Manual of Inorganic Chemistry (1868) and Man-
wal of Qualitative Chemistry Analysis (1869); Cyclopae-
dia of Qualitative Analysis (1870–73); and Agriculture
in Some of its Relations with Chemistry (2 vols., 1887).
STORMS. See TORNADO.
STORRS, RICHARD SALTER, Congregationalist
pastor and author, was born at Braintree, Mass.,
Aug. 21, 1821. He graduated at Amherst College
in 1839, and entered on the study of law under Ru-
fus Choate, but then turned to theology. He grad-
uated at Andover Seminary in 1845, and became pas-
tor of a church at Brookline, Mass. A year later he
was called to take charge of the newly organized
Church of the Pilgrims at Brooklyn, N. Y., and has
since continued in that position. From 1848 to 1861
he was one of the editors of the Independent. He is
noted for his eloquence and is an advocate of preach-
STORY STOWES.
60.5
ing without notes. He has published Constitution of in use in the colonies, to a very limited degree,
the Human Soul (1857); Early American Spirit (1875); Holland stoves with doors opening into the room
John Wycliffe and the First English Bible (1880); Rec- and with a flue from the top. The German stoves,
ognition of the Supernatural (1881); Manliness in the also in use, had doors upon the outside of the build-
Scholar (i983); fivine Origin of Christianity (1884). ing or in some other room. While they gave a good
STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE, sculptor, was born in heat yet there was the objection that the fire could
Salem, Mass., Feb. 12, 1819, and was graduated at not be seen.
In addition to Holland and German
Harvard in 1838. He was the son of the renowned stoves there was a limited use of charcoal fires in
jurist, Joseph Story (for whom, see ENCYCLOPAEDIA pots for the heating of chambers; but with the
JBRITANNICA).
also ; he was admitted to the bar, and became dangerous.
known as the author of treatises on the Law of Cox-
tracts (1844) and Law of Sales (1847), and other
stoves introduced many years later.
legal tomes. But he also contributed to various
periodicals, delivered poems on several occasions, in
Law first claimed the son's attention great objection that the gases generated often proved
Franklin's stove was a great improve-
ment on all that had preceded it. The principle of
its action was the same as that of the air-tight
Indeed, 1t
would have been air-tight had it been possible at
1847 brought out his first volume of poems, and in
1851 published The Life and Letters of Joseph Story
(2 vols.).
The direction in which his tastes lay had
already been indicated in some of his writings, and
in 1848 he went to Italy, where he has since devoted
himself chiefly to art.
statues of his father, Edward Everett, and George
Peabody; busts of Theodore Parker, Josiah Quincy,
and James Russell Lowell ; and a number of ideal
works, among them Sappho, Saul, Cleopatra, Deli-
lah, Helen, Jerusalem in her Desolation, Semiramis,
He has modelled portrait-
that time to make the castings sufficiently close-fit-
ting. Almost at the same time that lyr. Franklin
wrote, John Potts made stoves at Pottstown, Pa.; but
no description of these is given. There are stoves
in existence to-day, bearing the date 1756, and man-
ufactured by J. Glonninger & Co., at Huntingdon
Springs, Pa. The plates are nearly one inch thick.
About 1757 Henry William Stiegel (known as Baron
: Stiegel) came to Lancaster County, Pa., and built
: the Elizabeth furnace in the town of Mannheim.
Judith, Sardanapalus, and Thetis and Achilles.
were among the first of the kind in the country. He
Some critics have seen talent rather than genius in
these thoughtful, carefully executed works, but,
though not strikingly original, they are noble and
pure in sentiment, the products of a highly culti-
vated mind. In Europe he has been regarded by
consisted of heavy plates about 30 inches square on
many as the foremost among American sculptors.
!
As an author he is almost equally well known, and
several other stoves, among them two or three for the
has published Roba di Roma, sketches of Italian life,
Proportions of the Human Figure, and various vol-
umes of poems, including Graffiti d' Italia and The
Roman Lawyer in Jerusalem. (F. L. W.)
STOUGHTON, JoHN, English Congregationalist
author, was born at Norwich, Nov. 15, 1807. He
was educated at Highbury and University Colleges,
London, and became pastor at Windsor in 1832, and
at Kensington in 1843. He was chairman of the
Congregational Union in 1856, and became professor
of historical theology and homiletics in New College,
St. John's Wood, London, in 1872. He resigned
this post in 1884, having resigned his pastorate also
in 1875, when he received a testimonial of £3000.
He was a delegate to the conferences of the Evan-
gelical Alliance at New York in 1873 and at Basel
in 1879. He has been active with his pen and has
published many books relating to English church
history. Among them are Church and State 200
Years Ago (1862); Ecclesiastical History of England (6
vols., 1867–81); Religion in England, 1800–1850
(1884). Among his popular biographical works are
Philip Doddridge (1851); Haunts and Homes of Martin
Luther (1875); Worthies of Science (1879); William
Wilberforce (1880); William Penn (1882); John
Howard (1884); Italian Reformers (1881); Spanish Re-
formers (1883).
STOVES. Several localities have laid claim to the
first manufacture of stoves in the United States. In
1741 Benjamin Franklin invented what he called a
“Pennsylvania fireplace,” consisting of several plates
of cast iron with a “shutter’ to regulate the draught
and a “register” to distribute the heat properly.
In 1744 Franklin printed, from his own press, a
description of the Pennsylvania fireplace. The book
begins by stating that in the Northern colonies fires
were necessary seven or eight months in the year;
and that wood was becoming scarce, and even then
had to be carried as much as 100 miles before it was
used. Therefore the writer had invented the Penn-
sylvania fireplace in order to save something of the
large quantities of wood that went to waste in the
generous fireplaces of those days. There were then
He also built a furnace and a fortified place in Leb-
anon County, where he cast the six-plate stoves which
was rapidly developing his industry when the war of
the American Revolution made it impossible for him
to meet his liabilities. In 1767 William Lyle, of
New York City, made the first hot-air furnace. It
the side. From 1770 to 1775 Franklin also invented
burning of bituminous coal. One of these had a
downward draught, and consumed its own smoke;
the other had a basket grate or cage, with movable
bars at the top and bottom, which, after being filled
and kindled at the top, could be inverted, and so
made to burn at the base.
Between 1785 and 1795 Benjamin Thompson,
known as Count Rumford (see THOMPSON, in the EN-
CYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA), devised several improve-
ments in stoves, Ovens, etc., all intended to econo-
mize fuel and heat. Soon after the Revolutionary
war George Youle established a stove store in Water
Street, New York, where he made galleys for the
navy. In 1812 Charles Postly made a nine-plate
stove of an oval shape with the fire directly under
the Oven and with openings on the sides in which
tubular boilers were placed.
Previous to 1825, the use of stoves, generally of
the box pattern, and of a very rude construction, was
confined to stores, hotel bar-rooms, school-houses,
and churches in the cities and larger towns. In
these churches the stoves were sometimes raised on
stilts that the people in the galleries might be
warmed. Country churches were not usually heated,
but the older women carried their foot-stoves and
the men protected their feet with stout leather over-
shoes, known as “boxes.” In the residences of
Some of the more wealthy city families cannel and
other English coal, generally referred to at the time
as “Sea-coal,” was burned in imported grates or in
Rumford stoves, lined with fire-brick. A large
number used the Franklin stove as an open fireplace,
burning wood in it. A still greater number used the
capacious, old-fashioned fireplace. The cheapness
of fuel, the cheerfulness of an open fireplace, and
the great weight and rough construction of the stoves
of those days, made the latter in but little demand.
After the opening of the Erie and Champlain canals,
the introduction of river steam-boats, and the begin-
ning of railroad travel, the facilities for transporting
heavy goods were so much iſſcreased that the manu-
facture of stoves soon became a leading industry,
{306
STOVES.
These were wood-stoves, but anthracite coal, which
Was gradually coming into use wherever a high de-
gree of heat was required and a strong draught pos-
sible, was destined to create a revolution in the bus-
11 leSS.
Anthracite coal came into use about the year 1820,
When but 365 tons were sent to the market. A new
kind of stove was required for anthracite, in which
the draft of air would be much smaller. One of the
earliest in this field of invention was Dr. Eliphalet
Nott, who spent several years in perfecting his in-
ventions for heating. The chapel of Union College
Was heated by one of his stoves, in which the
base-burning principle was used. There was also a
marvellous kind of box stove, which was attributed
to the genius of Dr. Nott. The iron was about an
inch thick and could be neither broken nor bent.
Dr. Nott, however, did not have the first patent on
anthracite stoves. His was the third, it being issued
in 1832. The first patent went to Anthony Savage,
of Pottsville, Pa., in 1830; and the second to Jordan
L. Mott, of New York, in 1832. The latter showed
that the anthracite fire could be made from nut- and
pea-sized coal, and established several other facts
concerning the laws of combustion, so that anthracite
coal stoves became salable.
From their position at the foot of the Erie Canal,
and at the head of navigation on the Hudson River,
the cities of Albany and Troy early became great
centres of the stove industry. Fortunately for them
both, the best moulding sand in the country was close
at hand. The first cooking stoves manufactured in
these cities were of the old ten-plate oval pattern,
the oven above the fire. About the year 1860 the
Question of burning anthracite coal from the bottom
of the magazine within the stove was widely dis-
cussed, but it was found that Littlefield, of Lowell,
had in 1852 patented a base-burner covering the chief
points that the inventors of 1860, and later, had at-
tempted to cover. From that time the use of base-
burners has increased in a marvellous degree.
What are known as gas stoves are simply enlarge-
ments or adaptations of gas-burners to the process of
heating. Vapor stoves were invented about 1863 as
a means of vaporizing the products of petroleum.
They are, practically, nothing more than large lamps
adapted to other purposes than lighting.
Stove Factories.—A description is given of a lead-
ing factory in the city of Albany. The ground con-
sists of about 54 acres, the establishment being one
of the largest in the country, having a capacity of
about 500 hands, whose skilled labor is capable of
making from 100 to 200 stoves a day of every de-
Scription, from the mammoth hotel-ranges and heat-
ers to the oil and vapor stoves, including parlor and
cook stoves, furnaces, ranges, together with stove
fixtures of every possible style. The main building,
in which are contained the general and manufact-
uring offices, show-room, mounting, repair, ship-
ping, nickel-plating, oil stove, and general storage
departments, is 200 x 71 feet, 4 stories in height,
with a basement, and is built of brick. This build-
ing is supplied with two large elevators capable of
sustaining any desired weight. In the pattern-
makers' department every pattern, constructed from
the best of soft woods, is formed almost entirely by
hand. Here some of the most skilled workmen are :
to be found, since much depends on the pattern as
to the success of the casting. In the nickel-plating
room the different pieces of the stove undergo the
nickeling process, after which they are removed to
a room adjoining, and burnished on emery and felt
wheels. Near the main structure is a building,
50 × 50 feet, constructed of brick and 2 stories high,
boilers. One of the former has a capacity of 250
horse-power and the other of 50. The latter engine
is used principally to run the dynamo that furnishes
electricity for lighting purposes. The boilers are
sufficient to furnish enough steam to supply both
engines and also heat the several departments thor-
Qughly in the most severe weather. The japanning
department, fitted with all the modern appliances
for the successful prosecution of this work, adjoins
the main building on the south. A building, 100 × 24
feet, 2 stories high, also constructed of brick, ad-
joins the scratch shop. This contains the facing
room, ladle oven, blacksmith and carpenter shops
on the first floor, while on the second floor are the
iron and wood pattern shops, the latter being lo-
cated at the southwest corner of the building. Ev-
ery pattern is made from drawings supplied by
draughtsmen regularly employed for this purpose.
The work is almost entirely executed by hand, en-
tailing a heavy expense and the consumption of
considerable time. It is necessary that the greatest
care should be used in the manufacture of the pat-
terns, as the least flaw can easily be detected in the
castings. A fourth building, 90 x 30 feet and 3
stories high, stands west of the main structure on
the north line. This is used principally for the
storage of coal and wood and general supplies. Ad-
joining this is a three-story brick structure, 20 × 23
feet, which is also used for general storage on the
first floor, while the two upper apartments are given
over to the use of the employés. At the west of
these buildings is a huge structure, 130 x 281 feet,
known as the moulding department. It is built of
wood filled in with brick, and has a gravel roof.
This building contains 150 “floors,” a technical
term applied to that section of a moulding room
where flasks are repaired. Centrally located on the
east line of this building are three cupolas for melt-
ing the iron, which is done by blasts supplied by
two “blowers” that are located in the engine-room.
The 250-horse-power engine used to drive the blasts
is of low pressure, perfectly reliable, and capable of
doing the work required of it. These cupolas have
a capacity of about 20 tons of melted iron per day.
Located midway between the moulding and scratch-
shop buildings is the mill room, wherein are several
“mills” that are revolved continuously for the pur.
pose of “milling ” or removing the sprawls and
cinders from the castings. West of the moulding
shop is a building, 12 × 36 feet, containing the
moulding and other sands used in the manufacture
of stoves. There are also some dwellings and
stables on the extensive grounds. While the build-
ings themselves do not cover fully five acres, the
land not covered with buildings is devoted to the
storage of lumber, pig-iron, flasks, etc. The build-
ings are perfectly adapted to the use for which they
are intended. Each department is heated by steam
and lighted by electricity; for the former, iron pipes
run about the several buildings and the steam is
supplied from the mammoth boilers adjoining the
engine-room. The buildings may be considered
practically fire-proof; automatic sprinklers are at-
tached to water-pipes that are fastened to the ceil-
ings of the several apartments. These sprinklers
are at a distance of 8 feet apart, and the pipes are
always kept filled with water. In the event of any
apartment being on fire the heat will melt the solder,
thus allowing a cap to drop down and the water to
spurt into the burning room. The water thus re-
leased covers a distance of 8 feet in either direc-
tion. The moment the water in the pipes is re-
leased, it removes the pressure upon a large tank
| containing about 9000 gallons of water, and the
that is used for the casting and cleaning depart- automatic pump is immediately set in motion and
The buildings adjoining this contain the engines and
* |
ments on the first floor, and a tin shop on the second. renews the water-supply.
supplied with the automatic sprinklers except the
Every department is
STOWE—STRAWBERRY.
607
moulding shop, which has seven hydrants, with 450
feet of hose always attached for immediate use.
The force of water from the hydrants is sufficient to
throw two 4-inch streams over any of the buildings.
These hydrants are so constructed as to be quickly
reached and used to advantage from either the in-
side or outside of the moulding shop. The works,
when in full working order, have a capacity of from
100 to 200 stoves a day.
The chief centres of the stove-making industry in
the United States, aside from Albany and Troy, al-
ready noted, are Boston, Cincinnati, Philadelphia,
Buffalo, Louisville, St. Louis, Cleveland, Pitts-
burg, Detroit, Chicago, and Kansas City.
(F. G. M.)
STOWE, CALVIN ELLIs (1802–1886), clergyman,
was born at Natick, Mass., April 26, 1802. He
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1824 and at Andover
Seminary in 1828, then becoming a teacher there.
In 1831 he was made professor of Greek and Latin
in Dartmouth College, and in 1833 accepted a call to
be professor of biblical literature in Lane Theologi-
cal Seminary at Cincinnati. While there he mar-
ried in 1836 Miss Harriet Beecher, whose career has
been sketched in Vol. I. in connection with the
Beecher family. In 1850 her husband went to Bow-
doin College as professor of natural and revealed
religion, and in 1852, just as her remarkable work,
Uncle Tom's Cabin, was becoming known, he was
made professor of sacred literature in Andover Semi-
nary. He discharged the duties of this position un-
til 1864, when he retired. He died, Aug. 22, 1886.
At the beginning of his career he translated, with ad-
ditions, Jahn's Hebrew Commonwealth (1828), and
Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry (1829). He after-
ward published a report on Elementary Public In-
struction in Europe (1838), and some other works on
education. After retiring from his professorship
his lectures were summarized in his Origin and
History of the Books of the Bible (1867).
STRAIN, Isa Ac G. (1821–1857), naval officer and
explorer, was born at Roxbury, Pa., March 4, 1821.
In 1837 he entered the navy as midshipman. In
1845 he led a small exploring expedition into the
interior of Brazil, and in 1848 he made a personal
exploration of Lower California. In 1849 he crossed
South America from Valparaiso to Rio Janeiro, and
published an account of his journey under the title,
The Cordillera and Pampa (1853). In 1850 he was
promoted lieutenant and was attached to the com-
mission that determined the boundary-line between
the United States and Mexico. Afterward he com-
manded an expedition to explore a line for a canal
across the Isthmus of Panama. The party suffered
extreme hardships, losing several of its members,
and the heroism Strain displayed first attracted pub-
lic attention to him. An account of the expedition,
compiled by J. T. Headley, appeared in Harper's
Magazine in 1856. In 1856, sailing in the Arctic in
the North Atlantic, Strain ascertained by soundings
the practicability of a telegraphic cable between the
United States and Great Britain. His death, due to
exposure on the isthmus, occurred at Aspinwall,
May 15, 1857. Among his interesting papers com-
municated to the American Geographical Society
was one on The History and Prospects of Interoceanic
Communication (1856).
STRAWBERRY, a plant of the order Rosaceae,
y- genus Fragaria, which bears one of
See Yºl. ***, the most delicious of our small fruits
p. 592 (p. 621 e e - º
Am. fº and is widely cultivated throughout
all civilized lands. The name is of
Anglo-Saxon derivation, and probably comes from
the wandering habit of the plant, being a corruption
of strae. The strawberry-plant is a stemless, peren-
nial herb, with compound leaves of three coarsely
serrated leaflets. It multiplies by runners, or un-
derground branches, which form buds and develop
roots and leaves, the runner then losing its connec-
tion with the parent plant by decaying, so that the
new plant becomes independent. The flowers are
5-petalled, mostly white, with numerous stamens and
simple pistils. They are seated on a convex recep-
tacle which greatly enlarges in the fruiting season,
and becomes pulpy and edible. This swollen recep-
tacle, which is popularly considered the fruit, is
really only the end of the flower-stem, greatly al-
tered, and bearing the real fruit in the ripened ovaries
scattered over its surface, or sunk in little depres-
sions in the succulent mass.
The strawberry is found in all parts of the north-
ern temperate zone and in the mountains of South
America, and has several species native to the United
States. Of these the best known is Fragaria Pir-
giniana, the Virginian or common wild strawberry;
which extends from the arctic regions to Florida, and
from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. In this
species the leaves are rather long and sharply ser-
rate, of a light-green color, the fruit mostly globular
and bright-red in color, with deep pits on its surface,
in which the seeds are sunk. There are many Vari-
eties of this species, and it has been described under
various names. The cultivated varieties are mostly
derived from this species and F. vesca, the Alpine
or wood strawberry, the common European species,
but indigenous also in the northern portions of
America, where it extends from the Atlantic to the
Pacific. This species bears rather small flowers, and
thin, pale-green leaves, the flower-stalks longer than
the leaves. The fruit is small and sweet, parting
freely from the calyx, while the seeds are attached to
the surface, and not sunk as in F. Virginiana. This
was the first species to be cultivated, there being
records of its culture in England more than 400 years
ago. Of other American species the most important
is F. Chilensis, the Chili strawberry. It is found
on the Pacific coast from Oregon southward, and
bears very hairy, thick leaflets, with large yellowish-
white of rose-colored flowers, and a fruit sometimes
as large as a small hen's egg. It is of a pale color
and insipid taste, but has yielded valuable varieties
by hybridization. The Indian species, F, Indica,
from upper India, is naturalized in the Southern
States. It differs greatly from the other species,
and bears showy yellow flowers which give it value
as an ornamental plant ; but its fruit is dry and
tasteless.
By the abortion of the stamens some species of
the strawberry are rendered more or less dioecious,
and modern culturists divide the varieties into two
classes, the staminate or male, and the pistillate or
female. In the latter the stamens are aborted and
bear little or no pollen, while the former have usually
a small number of pistils. The greatest bearers are
Strawberry.
Perfect Flower.
Pistillate.
mostly of the pistillate variety, but they, being nearly
incapable of self-fertilization, are fertilized by plant-
ing staminate plants near them. The difference can
be readily distinguished when the plants are in
blossom, and in selecting plants for this purpose it
is necessary to choose varieties that flower about the
same time. The present tendency of growers, how-
ever, is to discard the unisexual kinds. As regards

608 - STREATOR-STREET RAILROADS.
the cultivation of the strawberry the same general
rules as to soil, drainage, manuring, etc., apply as in
the case of other small fruits and vegetables. It needs
a good, deep, rich soil, and clean cultivation between
the rows, with a renewal of the plants as often as
Once in three years. They are planted in rows about
a foot apart, the rows needing to be kept clear of
runners as well as weeds. The plants are set a foot
apart in the rows. They are raised from the well-
budded runners of the preceding autumn, set out in
early Spring, or by transplanting in June after the
fruit has been gathered, though early autumn is not
too late for this work. In the far north the plants
are often covered with hay or straw for protection
from frost, they growing through the straw, which
Serves to keep the fruit clean.
There are a great many varieties cultivated, the
first important step in this direction in the American
culture being in the appearance of Hovey's Seedling.
This has not been excelled in quality. The next im-
portant variety was Wilson's Albany. To these have
been added many favorite varieties. The strawberry,
if cultivated with care and close attention to weed-
ing, is a profitable crop. The fruit rarely sells at
a less average than $8 per hundred quarts, while
careful cultivation will give at least 5000 quarts per
acre, so that the crop, even at the lowest average
rates, is fairly profitable. The strawberry season,
formerly very brief, has now been greatly extended
by the transportation of the fruit from long dis-
tances, the Northern market being supplied at first
from Georgia, and then from States up the coast to
New Jersey, which furnishes the principal supply to
New York and Philadelphia. Later in the season
the fruit from Connecticut and Massachusetts comes
into market, so that the annual supply of this favorite
fruit, once confined to two or three weeks, is now
extended over as many months. (C. M.)
STREATOR, a city of Illinois, is on the Vermil-
ion river in the southern part of La Salle county,
90 miles S. W. of Chicago. It is at the junction of
the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Wabash,
and four other railroads. In the vicinity are 22
bituminous coal mines, whose annual output is over
1,200,000 tons. There are also large works, manu-
facturing plate and window glass and bottles, 4 tile
factories, 3 foundries, railroad and machine shops, a
paper-mill, flouring and planing mills, and coke
works. Streator has 2 national banks, 1 private
bank, 5 weekly and 3 daily newspapers, 16 churches,
a commercial college, high school, and other public
schools. The city, picturesquely situated on a high
bluff, has gas, electric light, water-works, etc. Its
property is valued at $6,000,000; its public expenses
in 1887 were $65,000, and it has no debt. It was
first settled in 1866 and incorporated in 1881, having
then a population of 5157.
STREET, ALFRED BILLINGs (1811–1881), author,
was born at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., Dec. 18, 1811. He
received his education at Dutchess Academy, and
afterward studied law under his father, commencing
practice in Albany. In 1839 he removed to Albany
and, after editing a newspaper for two years, was
in 1848 appointed State librarian, which position
he held till his death. From his youth up he con-
tributed largely—chiefly poetical pieces—to maga-
zines, some of his productions receiving high com-
mendation from critics, and several being translated
into German. His published poetical works com-
prise : The Burning of Schenectady (1842); Draw-
ings and Tintings (1844); Fugitive Poems (1846);
Frontenac (1849). His prose works are: Woods and
Waters, or the Saranacs and the Racket (1860); A
I)igest of Taication in the United States (1863); and
The Indian Pass (1869). Collected editions of his
poems appeared in 1847 and in 1866. He died at
Albany, N. Y., June 2, 1881.
STREET RAILROADS are an institution pecul-
iarly American, both in original con-
See Vol. XXII. º and in ãº. The
p. 506 (p. 537 tº e
Am. Rep.). first horse-car for service in the streets
of any city was built in 1831. This
car consisted of three compartments, each com-
partment holding ten persons, and being entered by
Separate doors on the side from a guard-rail. Seats
were provided on top of the car for 30 or more per-
Sons. The car was very much like the English rail-
road coach, though it was set considerably lower.
It was hauled by a team of horses, the conductor re-
maining outside on the rail. It was built for the
New York & Harlem Road, which ran from Prince
Street, on the Bowery, in New York City, along the
line of the present Fourth Avenue (not then opened,
though surveyed in 1810) to Yorkville and Harlem.
The fare paid varied with the distance, being six-
pence (or 64 cents in Spanish silver currency then
in vogue) from Prince Street to 14th Street, and in-
creasing by sixpence for other distances until it was
25 cents to Harlem. In time through fare was re-
duced to 18 pence, and then to 12, but the road did
not succeed. In 1837, after six years of continuance,
it temporarily gave way to steam-cars. In 1845,
however, it resumed working under its charter,
which had not been given up, and which is still used
for the present Fourth Avenue horse-car line. The
cars were then remodelled nearly to their present
style, by the adoption of end platforms and en-
trances. Similar cars ran in Philadelphia from the
centre of the city to Gray's Ferry, on tracks used
chiefly for a freight railroad. No other horse-car
line was built in New York till 1852, when at about
the same time charters were granted for the Second,
Third, Sixth, and Eighth Avenue lines. Boston was
the next American city to adopt the new system, in
1856, and Philadelphia followed in 1857, after which
it spread over the country. New Orleans, in 1861,
was the first to adopt the small car, or, as it is
called, the “bobtail” car. In 1860 George Fran–
cis Train started a “tram-way ” in Birkenhead, op-
posite Liverpool, England. Popular feeling was
against the idea, and the company did not declare a
dividend in 20 years. So intense was the popular
prejudice in England at that time, that the starting
of a horse-car in London caused a riot, and the rails
were torn up. Nor could an act of Parliament be
obtained until as late as 1870 for the construction of
other roads. Now lines are operated in the American
style in most of the principal cities in Great Britain,
the cars, by their combination of lightness, durabil-
ity, and comfort, having won the day against English
manufacturers. In 1866 the countries of South
America took up street-railroad enterprises on a
large scale, Brazil, Venezuela, Chili, Peru, Uruguay,
Ecuador, and the Argentine Republic, as well as
Costa Rica, all adopting them. Cars manufactured
in the United States are now sent to all civilized
countries—to New Zealand, Australia, Java, India,
Japan, South Africa, as well as to Canada, France,
Belgium, Portugal, Austria, Holland, Germany,
Russia, Sweden, Norway, and England. The chief
centres in the United States for the manufacture of
horse-cars are Philadelphia, New York, Troy, and St.
Louis. The English cars differ from American cars
in having winding stairs at each end, by which to
reach the seats on top of the cars. The fares in
England and in most European countries are so much
a mile. In Paris the cars are allowed to carry Only
a certain number of passengers—10 standing on the
front platform, 10 on the rear platform, and as many
in the car as are allowed to have seats. Those in-
side pay 50 centimes (10 cents), and those outside
25 centimes. When a car has its complement the
gates are shut, a sign is hung out reading, “Com-
plet,” and no one can enter. During the busy time
STREET RAILROADS.
609
of the day, between 5 and 6 o'clock, when crowds tor can be made to run at any speed that will be
are waiting for a car, it is necessary to apply at allowed, and will far excel the horse in this respect.
the office for a numbered ticket.
number is obliged to wait until it is called by the
driver : a plan which causes inconvenience until the
|
The holder of a In Scranton speed is obtained at an average of about
15 miles an hour. g
The following details of the method used in
holder has gained his seat, but afterward it enables Scranton show how electricity is applied to the mov-
him to take the trip much more comfortably than ing of surface railroad-cars.
the custom of crowding which prevails in America.
When open cars are
driven, one motor of 20 horse-power is placed in the
When street railways were first introduced, one of middle of the car and all of the wheels are drivº
the most serious problems of construction was that ing-wheels, the connection between the motor and
relating to the shape of the rail. For railroads run-
ning through the country the T-rail answered every
purpose, and nothing for such use has been found
to supersede it to this day. But it was necessary to
lay such tracks in cities that ordinary vehicles, run-
ning along or across them, should meet with as little
obstruction as possible. The old Philadelphia pat-
tern of street rail was first used for this purpose,
and many tracks of this kind are still in existence.
This is known as the “side-bearing” rail. During
a few years past the “centre-bearing ” rail has come
into general use. The latter, after being worn
down, has the advantage of being able to be reversed
so as to present a fresh rounded edge upon which
the wheel may take hold. The crown projects above
the brim, or the level of the pavement, from 1 to 14
inch. All the railroads in the United States are
now using steel rails, as they are cheaper as well as
better than the iron rails formerly used, but no
longer manufactured in this country. The steel
rails used here are all of American manufacture.
The duty on imported steel rails is $17 a ton, and or-
dinary American steel rails can be purchased for $29
a ton, which is just $1 more than the duty before the
reduction of the tariff went into effect. The “life”
of a steel rail is from 10 to 20 years, according to the
nature and amount of the traffic.
Efforts have been made in the legislatures of sev-
eral States to remove the bobtail cars, in which the
passengers are obliged to discharge some of the du-
ties of conductors. The extra work of the drivers
in seeing that passengers pay their fares is the cause
of frequent accidents in large cities.
It is considered that some motive power other
than horses must be substituted in all of the cities;
but it cannot be determined yet what that power is.
Improvements in motors are in progress; and in
many of the cities the cable is superseding the use
of horses. (See ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.) Exper-
iments are in progress with electricity as a motive
power : and some of them have proved successful.
A line of street railroad in the city of Binghamton,
N. Y., is carried on by a “traveller” which runs on
a wire suspended above the track. The traveller
follows the car, and makes the electric circuit com-
plete with a wire that parallels one of the tracks.
Motive power from storage batteries has also been
tried. (See TRACTION, ELECTRIC, in ENCYCLOPEDIA
PRITANNICA.) *
The largest electric railroad in operation in the
United States is at Montgomery, Ala. It is 13 miles
long, has 18 cars, and the steam-power costs $14 per
day, or an average of from 75 to 80 cents per car.
Other roads operated are as follows: Windsor, Can-
ada, 2 miles, 2 cars, with steam-power at $4 a day;
Detroit, 2 miles, 8 cars, steam, $6 per day; Apple-
ton, Wis., 5 miles, 5 cars, water-power, $4.50 per
day; Port Huron, Mich., 5 miles, 5 cars, natural gas,
$3.50 per day; Scranton, Pa., 43 miles, 7 cars, coal
culm or dust, $7 a day; Lima, Ohio, 4 miles, 6 Cars,
crude oil, $4 per day; St. Catherines, Ontario, 6 miles,
6 cars, Water-power, $4 per day. Electric motors are
Soon to be used, as follows: Jamaica, N. Y., 6 miles,
10, cars; Omaha, 7 miles, 10 cars; Dayton, Ohio, 6
miles, 12 cars ; Ansonia, Conn., 33 miles, 4 cars.
It is said that the cost of maintaining the motor will
not exceed that of machinery in any shop. The mo-
|
the wheel-axles being made by means of chains and
Sprocket-wheels. But when closed cars are driven,
a motor of 15 horse-power is placed on a closed
platform at the front of the car; the forward wheels
only are driving-wheels, and their connection with
the motor is made in the same way as on the open
cars, with chains and sprocket-wheels. The com-
pany intends to use also larger cars, each with a
motor of 25 horse-power, which will not only propel
themselves but be able each to haul two other cars,
loaded with passengers, up all the grades. The aver-
age speed attained is more than 8 miles an hour, and
there is no difficulty in going much faster ; in fact,
the men in control of the cars have to be watched
to prevent their running at excessively high speed.
At the generating station there are 2 stationary
engines of 100 horse-power each, 2 dynamos of 100
horse-power each, and 4 boilers of 100 horse-power
each ; only one engine and dynamo, however, and two
of the boilers being in use at the same time. The
duplicate engine, dynamo, and boilers are for the
purpose of providing against contingencies of acci-
dent to those in use, and also to allow of alternations
in service, thus giving opportunities of frequent ex-
amination and inspection. Upon this railway the
overhead system of conduction is employed, having
flexible connection between the motor on the car
and the carrier traversing the conductor, which is a
Solid copper wire, * inch in diameter, suspended
On a part of the route from transverse wires at-
tached to wooden poles, 20 feet high and 6 inches in
diameter, placed, at distances of 100 feet, on both
sides of the street. On the rest of the line the
wires are suspended from arms projecting sideways
from wooden poles at the side of the railway, about
20 feet above the ground. As the line is a single-
track railroad, there are several turn-outs, or passing
places, at which points the electric overhead con-
ductor branches off over the side track also ; and an
ingenious system is in use by which the carrier, run-
ning upon the overhead wire with two grooved
Wheels of about 24 inches diameter, automatically
shifts the connections at the points of divergence
from the main line, so that the carrier always follows
that one of the overhead conductors which is above
the track upon which the car is travelling. The re-
turn current of electricity is taken by the rails. The
electrical current has a tension of about 600 volts,
which, while sufficient to give a shock, could not
produce any dangerous effect on man in ease the
current should by any means be diverted. Part of
the road is laid with tram-rails and the rest with T-
rails, and only part is paved, so that these different
conditions, in connection with the many grades and
the curves and turn-outs, thoroughly test the working
of the system. The noise of the carriers running on
the conductors is not great, but the noise produced
by the motors and the chain and sprocket connec-
tions is annoying. This could be entirely avoided
by the use of a noiseless motor and a better method
of connection. Noiseless and durable electric motors
suitable for use on cars can be had, in which the
Weight per horse-power does not exceed 60 pounds.
Electric railways with overhead conduction have
shown their capability to propel a few cars, even if
heavily loaded, at less cost and much greater speed
than can be obtained by horse-power.
610 STREET RAILROADS.
In the case of electrical railways with underground these kinds of storage-battery cars are in service
oonduction, the effort has been made to give all the with entire success. The charging of the cells is
advantages of the overhead system. On account of done by a dynamo driven by steam-power or any
the serious objection in most cities to having the other desirable means, and it takes 4 hours to charge
conductors and poles or other supports obstructing cells which are able to perform 4 hours' work. To
the streets, attempts have been made to secure elec- remove from the car the cells which have done their
tric railways with underground conduction. But | work and to replace them by freshly charged cells
the costly conduit, and the needful arrangements takes no more than the time required to change
for drainage and for cleaning out, together with the horses. It requires 10 horse-power exerted for 4
increased care necessary to provide against the con- |hours, making 40 horse-power hours, to charge the
siderable loss or leakage of electricity, which, never- batteries or cells of each car. The cost of running
theless, generally takes place in spite of all precau- large stationary steam-engines of 200 to 400 horse-
tions, detract greatly from the apparent advantages power, constructed with the modern improved cut-off
of the plan. Many inventions have been patented, appliances and other economical devices, has been
and various devices contrived to overcome the objec- found not to exceed cent per horse-power hour.
tions of this method, but practical success has hardly This allowance includes fuel, attendance, repairs to
yet been obtained. Neither by overhead nor under- engine and boilers, oil, etc. At 1 cent per horse-
ground conduction have more than a few cars as yet power hour the whole cost of a day's supply of elec-
moved simultaneously upon railways, although many tricity would be $1.60. The expense of horses for
ingenious arrangements are offered by inventors the same work and time is not less than $4.50.
who confidently assert they can run any required With motors properly constructed a speed of 8 or 9
number of cars. Both plans also are open to another | miles per hour is readily accomplished—in fact, 8
Serious objection in the entire stoppage of travel on miles per hour may be taken as the speed at which
the whole line in case of breakage or derangement such motors will work to the best advantage and re-
of any part of the conducting apparatus or the gen- turn the greatest percentage of mechanical efficiency.
erating machinery. In this respect they suffer from | The requirements of street-car service demand varia-
the same disability by which the cable system of ble rates of speed; as, for instance, in crowded streets,
car-traction is hampered. Possibly by suitable ar- behind other vehicles, or in turning curves and en-
rangements of duplicate engines, boilers, and dy- |tering switches it is necessary to go slowly and cau-
namos, duplicate conductors, and auxiliary, sectional, tiously, and the weight of the load carried at differ-
or relay systems of conduction, this disability may ent times varies from an almost empty car to one
yet be reduced to insignificant proportions. Taken overloaded. These conditions, together with in-
altogether, underground conduction does not com- creased power needed to ascend grades and to start
pare favorably with overhead conduction up to this loaded cars, especially on up-grades, call for electric
time. One great trouble with the latter plan, how- motors which will, under such greatly yarying cir-
ever, is that although it can be used to great ad- cumstances, respond at all times almost equally well.
vantage and economy on lines running a few cars in . There are motors which, while engaged in perform-
towns or in suburban districts outlying large cities, 'ing an equable work and running at an equable
it will probably never be allowed by the municipal speed, for both of which purposes the motor was
authorities in large cities, which, of course, are the specially made, will return 90 or possibly 95 per
very places where the advantages of electrical pro- cent. of efficiency, while the same motor, when run
pulsion are needed the most. To move a large num- at some different speed or under some different load,
ber of cars, as, for instance, upon the Third Avenue may return but 30 or 35 per cent, so that the aver-
or Broadway lines in New York City, the electrical age performance of such motors in street-car service
conductor, whether overhead or underground, must would probably give only 50 per cent. return of
be of great size if the current is of low tension ; efficiency. Motors can, however, be obtained which
while, on the other hand, if a small or moderate- will, under all the variations of street-car Work, con-
sized conductor be used, the current must then be stantly return 75 per cent. of efficiency.
of dangerously high tension, and, of course, it would A uniform rate of 5 cents is charged in almost
then be very difficult to avoid great loss of electricity every city of the United States. There are, how-
from leakage. ever, street railroads which require from 6 to 10
In the accumulator or secondary-battery system, cents because extra power is required upon hills, or
each car carries its own supply of energy, and is en- because of long stretches of unoccupied territory
tirely independent of any method of continuous elec- along the tracks. A very careful investigation of
trical conduction. No change of track or roadway the earnings of certain street railroads in New York
is required, nor any costly conduit or unsightly City and Brooklyn, by the State board of railroad
poles or other supports, while the cars can run any- commissioners, has resulted in a statement that
where that a car can be taken by horses. These nearly all of them required but little over 4 cents
points are of great advantage, and are its chief per passenger in order to pay expenses, interest, and
merits, independent of its economy, over horse- 10 per cent. yearly of the cost of the road and the
power. In practice, cars of the size of the usual equipment. In 1886 all the street railroads of New
2-horse cars are provided with about 80 accumula- York City carried 206,000,000 passengers; while in
tors, weighing when filled with fluid and ready for 1887 the number was but 200,000,000. The several
use about 40 pounds each. These cells are placed elevated railroads carried 115,000,000 passengers in
under the seats on each side of the car. Their com- the former year and 159,000,000 in the latter. The
bined weight is 3200 pounds, and the weight of 2 elevated railroads had scarcely begun their operations
motors, each of 5 horse-power, should not, together, when the disadvantages of the surface roads became
with their connections to the car-axles, exceed 800 apparent; and the proprietors of the latter Were
pounds so that the additional weight imposed upon stimulated to make great improvements. After vari-
the car is about 4200 pounds, which allows 200 ou. legislative attempts to guard the interests of the
pounds for the apparatus to control the current and public, a general law was passed by the New York
for other electrical appliances. This added weight, legislature, in 1884, for the construction and opera-
if placed upon a 4-wheel car, may be of disadvantage tion of street surface railroads in that State. Power
to the car ºr to the track. If this should be the case, was given to local authorities to make regulations as
the difficulty is removed by the use of 8 wheels on 2 to the rate of speed, the mode of use of tracks, the
swinging trucks, which support the car much better, removal of snow and ice, and the enforcement of
and distribute the weight upon the track. Both compliance with all of these requirements under.
STRIKES,
611
heavy penalties. The rate of fare was limited to 5
cents. It was also provided that new roads may use
the tracks of an old road for a distance not to ex-
ceed 1000 feet; and that all street surface companies
may use any kind of power except steam. Imme-
diately after the passage of this act, three companies
(one being the Broadway) were formed to operate
surface railroads in the city of New York. In 1886
a new law was passed to secure adequate compensa-
tion for the right to construct, maintain, use, operate,
or extend street railroads. Stringent provisions
were made in relation to giving such privileges to
the highest bidder. (F. G. M.)
STRIKES are combinations of workmen to en-
force a demand for higher wages, and occasionally
to obtain other ends, by refusing to labor under the
rates and regulations of their employers.
as used in this sense is much more recent than the
thing. A strike on a large scale occurred in England
after the plague of 1340, with destructive conse-
quences to the harvests and to general business; the
prevention of similar movements was aimed at by a
statute of labor which required the poor to work at
the old rates for any employer, and forbade them to
move from one place to another, under various pen-
alties.
The Word
sentenced to fines and imprisonment, but pardoned.
Salisbury, Mass., was much injured in 1852 by a
strike of the mill-hands, caused by the abolition
of a fifteen minutes' recess for lunch. The Lynn
shoe-makers lost $200,000 in wages by a strike,
Feb. 22, 1860. The coal-miners in Western Penn-
sylvania and elsewhere struck in 1859, and 1862-63.
In 1863 strikes were numerous. That of the Pitts-
burg stove-moulders in January, 1867, resulted in
breaking up their union. The Pennsylvania legis-
lature passed, in 1868, the eight-hour law ; non-
compliance with it on the part of the Mahanoy valley
colliers produced an extensive strike in that region ;
the price of coal for many years has been largely
affected by movements of this kind. The business
of Schuylkill county was greatly injured by the con-
test of 1870, the miners refusing to accept the basis
of $2 per ton and then that of $2.50, fixed by the
firms, and successfully demanding $3. . During this
year there was much trouble in the shoe-shops of
Massachusetts, and Chinamen were introduced at
North Adams. In January, 1871, a strike of miners
began at Scranton, which extended throughout the
whole anthracite field; it was settled by arbitration
in May, but further increase of wages was gained in
the fall.
The famous railroad strikes of 1877, which were
In the United States strikes began at an earlier
period than has usually been supposed. The jour- attended by gross violence; immense destruction of
neymen bakers of New York struck in 1741, and property, and considerable loss of life, began at Mar-
were tried for conspiracy. An association of jour- tinsburg, W. Va., on the Baltimore & Ohio R. R.,
neymen shoemakers in Philadelphia ordered strikes and extended to the Pennsylvania Central, the Erie,
for increase of wages in 1796 and 1798; these were and many other roads. The lawless element of the
successful, and one to resist a proposed reduction in community joined the strikers, and large mobs for a
1799 was partly so. The sailors' strike in New York, time had their own way at Pittsburg and elsewhere;
November, 1803, which was long thought the first in the militia in some cases refused to act, and in others
America, employed compulsion, and did not suc- were worsted. The loss at Pittsburg, July 21-23,
ceed; nor did another of the Philadelphia shoe- was estimated at $5,000,000, $2,000,000 of which was
makers in 1805. A “general turn-out” was ordered borne by the railroad ; some 1600 cars with their
by the New York cordwainers in November, 1809: contents, 126 locomotives, and nearly all the shops
the term “scab '' was at this time applied to the un- were burned, and much property stolen ; traffic and
faithful member of a journeymen's association. In
1815 several cordwainers were tried and convicted of
conspiracy at Pittsburg in connection with a strike.
Some ship-builders at Medford, Mass., struck in
1817 for continued supplies of rum. The employ-
ment of a “rat " or non-union printer, at Albany,
caused a strike among the printers there in 1821.
In 1822 three hatters of New York were convicted of
conspiracy. Sundry strikes of ship-carpenters and
calkers occurred along the coast, 1825–30; one of
tailors in Philadelphia, 1827, for the reinstatement
of discharged comrades; one of laborers on the
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 1829; and several of
carpenters, masons, and machinists, in Boston and
elsewhere, for fewer hours of labor, 1830–31. From
this date strikes were so frequent that only the more
important or significant of their incidents need be
noted. The Boston merchants and ship-owners, at
a meeting held May 15, 1832, resolved to employ no
member of the unions. An unsuccessful strike of
women engaged in binding shoes took place at
Lynn, Mass., in January, 1834. Schuylkill mer-
chants agreed on a lock-out, May 26, 1835; during
this year various trades in Philadelphia were troub-
led by strikes. A riot at Rowley, Mass., May, 1840,
began among railroad laborers in consequence of
deduction of pay for being late. In 1847 a strike of
1200 journeymen tailors in Philadelphia lasted four
months, and obtained the desired advance ; in 1848
one of factory operatives at Allegheny City and else-
where, after eight weeks' idleness and much rioting,
secured the adoption of the ten-hour system with a
reduction of 16 per cent. in wages. A strike in the
mills at Fall River, Mass., 1850-51, kept 1300 per-
sons idle for nearly six months, at a loss in wages of
above $140,000. One of iron-workers at Pittsburg,
travel were interrupted for a week. Disorders oc-
curred somewhat later at Reading, Scranton, and
Other towns, as also at St. Louis and several places
in Ohio.
These acts of violence, the destruction of the prop-
erty of railroad companies and other employers,
and the odious terrorizing and compulsion practised
on men who wish to work, are frequent accompani-
ments of strikes, rather than properly a part of them;
but they must be expected and reckoned with in
considering the subject.
Volume XX. of the Tenth U. S. Census reports
the strikes and lock-outs of the year 1880 as number-
ing 762, of which 304 were in Pennsylvania, 104 in
New York, and 93 in Ohio. Five hundred and
twenty-four affected mechanical and manufacturing
industries, 182 mining, and 50 trade and transporta-
tion. In estimating 813 causes and results, Mr. J.
D. Weeks assigns 539 strikes to questions of wages
and 71 to other difficulties : of 85 lock-outs, 78 re-
lated to wages ; 118 causes were unclassified or
mixed. Of the strikes 143 were successful, 70 were
compromised, 156 failed, and 241 were not reported;
of the lock-outs, the corresponding numbers were sev-
erally 10, 8, 34, and 33 ; of the cases unclassified, 16,
7, 37, and 58. The strikes in the mining region of
Ohio, 1869–80, which attracted great attention, and
frequently required the help of the militia to enforce
the law, have been discussed by the Ohio bureau of
labor statistics. The whole number of strikes and
lock-outs recorded in the United States prior to 1881
is estimated at 1491, of which 1089 related to wages:
316 succeeded, 154 were compromised, 583 failed,
and the result of 438 is unknown.
The statistics of this subject from 1881 to 1886 are
very fully presented in the Third Annual Report of
1850, was accompanied with violence; many were the Commissioner of Labor (1888). In 1881 2928 es-
*
612
STRIKES,
tablishments were affected by strikes, in 1882, 2105;
in 1883, 2759; in 1884, 2367 ; in 1885, 2284; in 1886,
no less than 9861. In every case the majority of
these were closed, the average being 23 days. In
these six years the aggregate of idle days was 487,-
615, with a loss to 1,660,835 employés of $51,814,723,
and to employers of over $30,000,000. Very many
of the old hands lost their work, and 37,483 were
brought from other places. Nearly four-fifths of
the strikes were ordered by labor organizations;
over 10,000 succeeded, about 3000 won partial suc-
Cess, and nearly 9000 failed. New York was the State
most largely affected ; after it came Pennsylvania,
Illinois, Connecticut, Ohio, Massachusetts, and Texas
-judging by the number of persons involved ;
looked at from other points of view, the order differs
somewhat. The chief industries concerned were
building trades, 6075 houses; tobacco, 2959; mining,
2060; clothing, 1728; metals and metallic goods,
1570; transportation, 1478; food preparations, 1419.
The lock-outs for the same years numbered 2214, of
Which 1753 were ordered by organization. About
564 of them succeeded and 190 in part, while 1339
failed. One thousand six hundred and twenty-five
establishments were closed for an average of 28.4 days,
with a loss to employers of $3,462,261, and to em-
ployés of $8,157,717. The proportion borne by the
year 1886 in these totals is even greater than with
the strikes.
The figures for New York during 1887 are given in
the Fifth Annual Report of the State Bureau of Statis-
tics for Labor. In that year strikes affected 1604
shops, including 144 trades and callings. Of these at-
tempts 694 succeeded, 696 failed, 190 were compro-
mised, 424 were yet pending. The number of work-
men engaged was 51,731, only about two-fifths that of
1886; but the number to whom employment was af-
terward refused was greater, being 8176 as against
6391. The loss of wages was over $2,000,000, and
$217,069 was spent by the labor organizations in aid
to the strikers. Employers lost over $1,100,000, and
11,472 persons acquired an increase of wages esti-
mated at $944,632. As to the causes of the strikes
(which here include lock-outs also), 469, or only about
34 per cent., were for increase of wages; 158 were
for a reduction of the hours of labor ; 118 were due
to refusals to handle boycotted coal or freight ; 113
to the employment of non-union men, and 11 to the
discharge of members of the unions. The boycott
showed an increase, 242 cases against 186 in 1886;
of these 101 were professedly successful, 36 failed,
and 105 were yet pending.
Bradstreet's report gives nearly 1000 strikes as oc-
curring in the United States from Jan. 1, 1887, to
April 1, 1888,884 of which were in 1887—this number
indicating movements, and not establishments affect-
ed, as in the N. Y. report above cited. Some 340,854
workers struck during 1887. Of these strikes, the
most recent as to which statistics are available, it is in-
structive to note the more important. The year 1887
began with a strike of 2000 brewers in Philadelphia
to resist a reduced schedule of wages ; after four
months it was partially successful. It was directed
by a combination of local unions under the guidance
of the Knights of Labor, from whom, however, the
brewers withdrew as soon as their affair was settled.
Far more important in its results was the strike of
the coal handlers at Bayonne, Perth Amboy, South
Amboy, and other places in eastern New Jersey at the
same time. It failed after lasting six weeks, but the
various associations of coal handlers in New York
and Brooklyn followed, seeking a higher and uni-
form rate of wages. James E. Quinn, of District
Assembly 49, assumed the leadership of the move-
ment, instigated a series of sympathetic strikes, in-
terrupted the movement of coal to New York so seri-
ously that a coal famine was threatened, and called
out all the men connected with work on the wharves.
Of these—longshoremen, boatmen, grain handlers,
coal handlers, bag sewers, grain sealers, coal-train
brakemen, etc.—in New York, Brooklyn, and Jersey
City, including the employés of the Dominion Steam-
ship line, some 23,000 belonged to the several local
assemblies, and 15,000 of them obeyed the call.
The corporations resisted this effort to paralyze their
trade, used strenuous efforts to procure new laborers,
and employed a great number of Pinkerton detectives
to protect these and the property about the wharves
and tracks. Collisions occurred, and for several weeks
the strike was the object of universal attention and
Wide anxiety. Quinn threatened and attempted
likewise to affect the gas and electric light companies,
the machine shops, breweries, etc., and practically
to Suspend all business in New York. He undertook
too much ; most of the local assemblies refused to
obey. Then he tried, with but partial and temporary
success, to call off the employés of the coal-carrying
roads terminating in and about Jersey City, and
finally to paralyze the coal trade in New England and
elsewhere. The main strike ended before the middle
of February, having substantially failed some time
previous. Bradstreet's estimates that above 34,000
men were engaged in it, with a loss in wages of
$2,650,000; the official figures of New York are
6574 men, and a loss of over $400,000 in that State.
—The drivers and conductors of the Consolidated
Street Car Co. in Boston, offended by a new rule to
pay them by the trip instead of by the day, struck,
Jan. 11: they were members of District 30, K. of L.,
but acted independently of the Assembly. Public
sympathy was with the men, and they won a complete
victory in a single day.
A strike which began about this time among the
shoe factories in Worcester Co., Mass., was turned
into a lock-out by a combination of the employers,
who refused to employ union men or to treat except
with individuals. After five months the men, num-
bering 8000, were entirely defeated, with a loss in
wages of $2,500,000. The strike was directed by the
leaders of District Assembly 30, the funds of which
were largely expended in aid; but the strikers were
dissatisfied, and ultimately withdrew and formed an
Assembly of their own, K. of T. Toward the end of
January 2400 employés of the Higgins carpet factory,
in New York, struck against a proposed reduction of
10 per cent. in their wages; a compromise was ef-
fected after four days. In February they went out
again, at the instigation of District Assembly 49, to
aid the coal handlers, but two weeks’ idleness re-
sulted in a failure. Early in April, 7500 of the
8000 carpenters in Chicago, members of the local
Trades Assembly, struck for fewer hours and more
pay. The K. of L., to whom one-fourth of them be-
longed, interfered as “peacemakers,” but the unions
won a victory in a fortnight. Similar strikes of
trades unions were induced by this success ; in Cin-
cinnati 1100 men were idle a week, and in Brooklyn
800 won after ten days. In April several movements
of stove-moulders against certain boycotted patterns
were merged into a general strike by the Amalga-
mated Association of Iron and Steel Workers; 3311
men in Chicago, Milwaukee, Keokuk, Quincy, Pitts-
burg, and elsewhere were affected, and won after
being out from six to eight weeks. Early in May
5000 hod-carriers of Chicago struck, with the au-
thority of the Trades Assembly. The result was
complicatéd, and led to a combination and lock-out
of the employers, whose terms were so severe (in-
cluding a boycott on their men) as to suspend all
building operations, and throw 15,000 men out of
work. After nine weeks the workmen yielded. In
May, 5000 shoemakers in Haverhill, Mass., and
2600 in Cincinnati, were locked out because of dis-
putes as to wages; compromises were effected, speed-
613
STRIKES,
ily in the former case, in the latter after a month.
During the spring a strike of 13,000 coke-workers in
the neighborhood of Pittsburg, members of the K.
of L., failed after ten weeks, with a loss in wages of
nearly $1,000,000. Mr. Powderly condemned this
strike as unauthorized. In May, 2000 brickmakers
in Pittsburg lost a week and gained nothing. In
June, 1200 carpenters of St. Paul and Minneapolis
were idle nine weeks under authority of a trades un-
ion; the matter was compromised. In July, 4000
operatives of the Harmony Mills, at Cohoes, N. Y.,
struck for higher wages under direction of local
leaders of the K. of L., who prolonged the struggle
for two months by sending many of the hands to
work elsewhere; the mills procured new operatives,
and the strike failed. During the first half of 1887
Bradstreet's reckons 607 strikes, involving a greater
number of workmen than the corresponding period
of 1886. The failure of two-thirds of these move-
ments caused a diminution in the following months.
July 11, 106 engineers and firemen of the Brooklyn
Elevated Road struck, giving but an hour's notice ;
their places were speedily filled, and the Brotherhood
of Locomotive Engineers was signally defeated. In
August, 2500 men in the rolling mills of Pittsburg
struck because of an alleged violation of a rule ;
after a month they won their point. A similar con-
test began shortly after at Youngstown, O., involving
3500 men, who were successful after a fortnight. At
the same time 2500 miners in the Hocking Valley,
O., struck for a semi-monthly pay-day, and Won in
two days. In that month at Brockton, Mass., W. L.
Douglas, a State senator and active member of the
K. of L., locked out the workmen in his shoe-factory
for resisting the use of labor-saving machines, dis-
missed the Knights in his employ, and made his
shops “free,” having therein the support of local pub-
lic opinion. In August and September, 1100 cotton
spinners at Fall River were out five weeks, and then
accepted a compromise. Sept. 13, 1000 cigarmakers
struck on a question of apprentices, and were de-
feated after nine days. A similar difficulty kept over
2000 glass blowers, in various factories in the East,
out of work for a month or more, and was generally
settled by a compromise ; the usual result was a re-
turn from the K. of L. to the trades union. A very
extensive and disastrous K. of L. strike among the
Pennsylvania coal miners of the Shamokin, Mahanoy,
Lehigh Valley, and other districts began, Sept. 10,
lasted till January, 1888, and involved some 27,000
men, whose efforts to gain an increase of pay re-
sulted in an estimated loss of $2,500,000 in wages.
In October the brass-workers of Brooklyn struck for
a Saturday half-holiday without loss of pay, claiming
that their employers had broken an agreement; they
were locked out, and defeated after a month of idle-
ness. At the same time the ale brewers and book
printers of New York struck; the latter demanded
increased pay, a regulation of the apprentice ques-
tion, and the turning of every office into a union or
“card ” place. Their typographical unions, backed
by the Central Labor Union, were opposed by the
employers, who organized as “Typothetae.” After
three weeks a compromise was effected, the first
claim being granted and the last denied. In October
and November, 500 shoemakers were locked out for
five weeks in Philadelphia, and brought to submis-
sion. A similar case occurred in Rochester; a union
had attempted to dictate to employers, and 3500
men were locked out through December and half of
January, 1888, with the same result.
Near the end of 1887 fears of a coal famine were
aroused by an attempt to compel the Reading Rail-
road to discriminate, against firms obnoxious to cer-
tain parties, as employing non-union men. The
company declined to permit this interference with its
business, and the K. of L. called out over 6000 of its
employés on Dec. 24, and threatened to extend the
strike to all the coal-carrying roads and coal mines
of Pennsylvania. But many of the Knights refused
to obey ; their authorities declared the strike illegal,
and most of those who had taken part in it, having
no prospect of support from the general fund, re-
sumed work on the 27th. A smaller attempt on the
next day proved equally abortive; but the matter
assumed more serious shape in January and Febru-
ary, 1888, through many strikes of coal miners, partly
in sympathy with the railroad employés, partly in
search of 8 per cent. advance in their own Wages:
President Corbin of the Reading R. R. was involved
in a contest with the Executive Board of the K. of
L., which represented and directed the miners in the
company's collieries. Ultimately these returned to
work at the old rates. The losses were estimated
at no less than $3,620,000 in wages to full 30,000
men, $1,000,000 to the company, and $700,000 to
consumers in increased prices of coal, besides con-
siderable sums to private collieries.
An even more momentous and alarming strike, at-
tracting general attention for many weeks, began
with the engineers of the Chicago, Burlington, and
Quincy Railroad, who sought an adjustment of wages
similar to the schedules of other roads. For a time
trade was nearly paralyzed in portions of the West,
gross disorders were perpetrated at points far apart,
and lawless confusion seemed to triumph. The af-
fair is too recent for an accurate estimate of what it
cost the country.
Of the 884 strikes commenced in 1887, 247 were
successful, and 115 partially so : these two classes
concerned 128,234 employés, or 38 per cent. Of all—
nearly twice the proportion of 1886. Of them all, 542,
or 63 per cent., were for increased wages or a shorter
day's work; 225, or 26 per cent., came from trades
union demands of other kinds; 68, or 8 per cent.,
were “sympathetic strikes ; ” the small remainder is
unclassified. Pennsylvania and New York were most
affected, with 111,317 strikers and 62,656, respective-
ly. The trades chiefly concerned were coal and coke,
with 70,450 men ; transportation, 62,379; building
trades, 56,560; iron and steel, 29,989; leather, shoes,
etc., 28,805 ; textiles, clothing, etc., 25,328; patterns
and machinery, 10,000; tobacco, 8,000. The building
trades lost the greatest number of days, 1,492,078 :
boots and shoes follow, with 1,291,943. The entire
number of days during 1887 employed in successful
strikes was 1,774,694, while 5,081,315 were thrown
away on failures. Some 3,000,000 days must be
added for strikes still in progress at the end of the
year, making 10,000,000, or about a month for each,
of near 350,000 strikers. If these earned an average
of $1.50 a day when at work, the total loss in wages
for 1887 would be some $13,500,000. The loss to
business interests in general, and to consumers in
increased prices of goods, cannot be estimated with
any degree of accuracy.
It cannot be said that strikes are never beneficial
to the striker : the figures prove the contrary. More
than this, the fact that they are frequent and always
possible may go far to check the rapacity of some
employers, and to win respect for the hand that
wields so dangerous a weapon ; yet it seems as if
civilization might have devised some less cumbrous
and costly method of coming to an understanding.
The problem is more difficult in an ethical than in
an economical view. Under free institutions the
right of the workman to better his condition if he
can, and to combine in order to that end, is unques-
tionable ; and no less so the right of the employer
to manage his business in his own way, and to em-
ploy such persons and under such regulations as he
sees fit. The natural jealousy between Labor and
Capital tends to make each careless of the other's
interests and claims : employés have sometimes de-
614
STRINGHAM–STROSSMAYER.
manded increased wages at a time when the business
Was being conducted with little profit or actual loss,
so that increased expenses would have meant ruin;
and employers have often regarded their workmen as
machines, and neglected or refused to allow them
any share in the great profits of a fortunate season.
Greater mutual consideration and consequent har.
mony, may come through the advance of education,
intelligence, and character; and a definite remedy
has been found (whenever wisely tried) in co-opera-
tive sehemes, which make the operative a partner,
however humble, and no longer a mere instrument.
Short of this happy climax, which requires large-
mindedness if not benevolence in the capitalist,
legislation must strive more and more to suppress
those aggressions, alike on public welfare and on
personal liberty, which cannot be tolerated in a free
state. The tyrannies of dictation and the enormities
of the boycott, from whatever quarter and in what-
ever interest, must be restrained. The abuse of
power, whether by walking delegates or by wealthy
corporations, is alike incongruous with American
ideas. The constant liability to sudden stoppage of
the wheels of modern life, of railroad and telegraph
and traffic, by whatever means it is to be averted,
cannot be endured much longer. Strikes, lock-outs,
and their accompaniments, are the rude resources of
an incomplete civilization. F. M. B.)
STRINGHAM, SILAs HoRTON (1798–1876), ad-
miral, was born at Middletown, N. Y., Nov. 7, 1798.
Entering the navy as midshipman in 1809, he took
part in the engagement of the frigate President with
the Little Belt, and was made lieutenant in 1814.
He served in the Algerine war, and afterward along
the Slave coast of Africa. In 1821 he was engaged
in suppression of piracy in the West Indies. He
rose to be captain in 1841, and in the Mexican war
took part in the bombardment of Vera Cruz. In
1853 he took command of the Mediterranean fleet,
and afterward was in charge of the Boston navy-
yard until the civil war broke out. He was then
summoned to Washington to advise the government
in regard to naval affairs. He was placed in com-
mand of the North Atlantic blockading fleet and
conducted an expedition to Hatteras Inlet, where
two forts surrendered after bombardment, Aug. 29,
1861. Retiring from active service in the following
T)ecember, he resumed his command of the Boston
navy-yard. In 1862 he was promoted rear-admiral
on the retired list, and in 1870 was made port-admiral
of New York. He died at Brooklyn, Feb. 7, 1876.
STRONG, GEORGE CROCKETT, a soldier in the civil
war, was born, Oct. 16, 1832, in Stockbridge, Vt.
His father dying while he was a child, he was
brought up by an uncle, A. L. Strong, Northamp-
ton, Mass. He entered West Point Military Academy
and was graduated in 1857, and assigned to the ord-
nance with the brevet rank of 2d lieutenant. In
1859 he was promoted to 2d lieutenant, and be-
came assistant at Watervliet arsenal, West Troy, ris-
ing to the command in 1861, when he became 1st
lieutenant. On the outbreak of the civil war he
sought active service, and was on the staff of Gen.
McDowell as ordnance officer at the first battle of
Bull Run, and afterward served in the same capac-
ity on the staff of Gen. McClellan. He had in Octo-
ber, 1861, been appointed assistant adjutant-general
of volunteers, with the rank of major, and was en-
gaged in the organization of the New Orleans expedi-
tion, which he accompanied. In April, 1862, he com-
manded the expedition from Ship Island to Biloxi,
Miss., and in September led the successful expedition
to Pontchatoula, where he destroyed a large train
and broke up Jeff. Thompson's headquarters. . In
November, 1862, he was made brigadier-general of
volunteers and became Butler's chief of staff, but in
December he was compelled to withdraw on sick
leave to New York, where he remained till June,
1863, having been commissioned captain of ord-
nance in the previous March. He commanded a
brigade in the operations against Charleston, S. C.,
and led the successful attack upon Morris island,
where he was the first to land. While leading the
second assault on Fort Wagner, on July 18, and
cheering on the storming column, he was mortally
Wounded, after having gained the parapet of the fort.
He was at once removed to New York City, where
he died, July 30, 1863.
STRONG, JAMES, a layman, honorably entitled to
the degree of S. T. D., was born in New York City,
Aug. 14, 1822. In his youth he began the study of
medicine, but after graduating at Wesleyan Univer-
sity, Middletown, in 1844, he became a teacher.
His health failing, he became a farmer, and soon was
active in improving the village of Flushing, L. I.
He had there entered upon a course of Biblical study,
and when giving instruction in ancient languages he
prepared manuals of their grammar. His first larger
Work was a Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels
(1852), originally prepared for the English version,
and afterward adapted to the Greek. In 1856 he
received the degree of S. T. D., and from 1858 to 1861
he was professor of Biblical literature in Troy Uni-
versity. His series of Lessons for Every Sunday in
the Year, in which he was aided by other writers,
Was the precursor and model of the Internation-
al Sunday-school series. In 1868 Dr. Strong was
made professor of exegetical theology in Drew Sem-
inary at Madison, N. J. He took part in the revi-
sion of the English Old Testament. In company with
Rev. Dr. John McClintock he prepared the well-
known Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Eccle-
siastical Literature (10 vols., 1867–79). He also edited
Daniel in Schaff's edition of Lange's Commentary,
and some other Biblical works. -
STROSSMAYER, Joseph GEORGE, Croatian arch-
bishop, was born at Essek in Slavonia, Austria, Feb.
4, 1815. He was educated at the University of
Pesth, obtained the degrees of doctor of philosophy
and of theology, and, after having spent some time
in the Augustinian convent at Vienna, was ordained
priest in 1838. He was soon made professor in the
Seminary at Diakovar, then court-chaplain, and in
1849 was consecrated bishop. His diocese extended
over Croatia and Servia, and he became the head of
the Croatian national party in opposition to the
Hungarians. Primary instruction was fostered, a
seminary established for Bosnians, and a university
opened at Agram. Here also an academy was insti-
tuted, with a fine gallery of paintings on national
subjects and by native artists. A handsome cathe-
dral was erected at Diakovar, and at Rome Arch-
bishop Strossmayer caused the ancient Illyrian
chapel of San Girolamo to be restored. In the Aus-
trian Reichsrath, to which he was elected in 1860,
the archbishop favored a federal union of the vari-
ous nations and races composing the empire. The
Croatian leaders, finding themselves unable to secure
home-rule, accepted the compromise offered by the
Hungarians giving the Slavonic people representa-
tion in the Hungarian diet, and Strossmayer then
withdrew from political affairs. At the Vatican
Council in 1870 he made open and strenuous resist-
ance to the promulgation of the doctrine of papal
infallibility, and finally left Rome without accepting
the dogma. Even in a later visit to the Holy See he
persisted in his attitude of ignoring the action of
the council. In his efforts to preserve and advance
the Croatian national spirit Strossmayer has pub-
lished many historical and popular works. The
most important is Monumenta Slavonorum meridio-
malium (Rome, 1863). For an interesting sketch of
this “Father of his People,” see Laveleye's Balkan
Peninsula (1887).
STROTHER—STUART.
615
STROTHER, DAVID HUNTER (1816–1888), artist,
author, and soldier of the civil war, born at Martins-
burg, Va. (now W. Va.), Sept. 26, 1816. He studied
drawing in Philadelphia, and afterward, under Sam-
uel F. B. Morse, in New York. After travelling in
the Western States he went, in 1840, to Europe,
where he remained 5 years. On his return, in 1845,
he studied in New York the art of drawing on wood
for engravers, and illustrated some books. From
1852 to 1861 he contributed to Harper's Magazine,
under the name “Porte Crayon,” a series of illus-
trated articles, chiefly on Virginia and the South,
some of which appeared in book-form under the
title of Black Water and Virginia Illustrated. On
the outbreak of the civil war he volunteered into
the United States service, and was appointed captain
and assistant adjutant-general, rising to the colonelcy
of the Third West Virginia Cavalry. In 1864 he
resigned, and in 1865 was brevetted brigadier-gen-
eral “for meritorious services.” He returned to his
home at Berkeley Springs, where for some years he
continued to supply sketches to the magazines. In
1879 he was appointed consul-general to Mexico, and
held the office till 1885. He died at Charleston, W.
Va., March 8, 1888.
STRUVE, OTTO WILHELM, Russian astronomer,
was born at Dorpat, Russia, May 7, 1819. There
his father, Dr. Wilhelm Struve, became pre-eminent
through his researches on double stars, and, by his
succeed in its grand purpose, it certainly prepared
the way for icº of the Old and New School
branches, effected in 1870. Mr. Stuart, however,
had still remained an elder in the Reformed Presby-
terian, and was subsequently suspended from his
office by a synod of that denomination for a techni-
cal offence. The sentence, however, remained inop-
erative, and Mr. Stuart, with the congregation to
which he belonged, eventually joined the Presbyte.
rian Church in 1880. He had always been prominent
in every movement for the promotion and extension
of Christianity, and was an officer in many societies
for such purpose. While a merchant he was Yige-
president of the Mechanics' Bank, and in 1880 he
became president of the newly formed Merchants
Bank. His labors had often been interrupted by ser
were attacks of asthma, and in 1888 he was obliged
to retire from business.
| STUART, JAMEs EwBLL BRowN (1833–1864), a
Confederate cavalry officer, was born in Patrick Co.,
Virginia, Feb. 6, 1833, his grandfather having been
an officer in the war of the Revolution and his fa-
ther in that of 1812. After spending two years at
Emory and Henry College, Salem, Va., he entered
the U. S. Military Academy, whence he graduated in
1854. At both institutions he was noted for his deep
religious convictions. On leaving West Point he
joined, as 2d lieutenant, the regiment of mounted
| riflemen then stationed in Texas, and did good Ser-
influence with the Emperor Nicholas, brought about vice against the Apaches. Next year he was trans-
the erection of the Pulkowa Observatory in 1840. ferred, with the same rank, to the First U. S. Cav-
As assistant to his father Otto made a catalogue of alry, which was on duty in Kansas during the bor-
many hundred double stars, before unknown as such.
His work determining the constant of precession,
popularly called the annual amount of motion of
the equinox among the stars, won the gold medal of
the Royal Astronomical Society in 1850. He has de-
termined the parallax of several stars, made a series
of observations on the rings of Saturn, has observed
several solar eclipses, and had general charge of the
geodetic operations in the Russian Empire. In 1862
he succeeded his father as director of the observa-
tory. In 1879, acting under the authority of the
Russian government, he contracted for a larger re-
fractor than any yet made ; with Alvan Clark & Sons,
of Cambridge, Mass., for a 30 inch object-glass; and
with Repsolds, of Hamburg, for the mounting. This
telescope has been in operation since 1885. (See
OBSERVATORIES and TELESCOPES, in the ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA.) Otto Struve's greatest work,
the result of thirty-five years' observations of the
double stars, was published in 1878, in the ninth
volume of the Pulkowa Observations.
STUART, GEORGE HAY, president of the U. S.
Christian Commission during the civil war, was born
at Rose Hall, county Down, Ireland, April 2, 1816.
In early manhood he emigrated to America, and set-
tled in Philadelphia, entering into mercantile life.
He was active in forming the Young Men's Christian
Association of that city, and was for many years its
president. He also assisted in the national and inter-
national organization of these associations. This
work, bringing him into contact with representative
Christian men of all parts of the country, was a fitting
preparation for the work of the Christian Commission,
which he undertook when the officers of the Sani-
tary Commission refused to become agents of funds
for ministering to the religious needs of the soldiers.
The great work thus neglected was energetically
taken up by Mr. Stuart, and successfully carried
through. His labors won the approval of General
Grant, and of nearly all the Union generals. After
the war Mr. Stuart took up more urgently the cause
of Christian union, and in 1867 called and presided
over a convention in Philadelphia of delegates from
all branches of the Presbyterian Church, to consider
a plan of union. Though this convention did not
der troubles. In this year, also, he married the
daughter of Col. Philip St. George, and next month
was promoted 1st lieutenant. In 1857 his regiment
was engaged in Indian warfare, and he was wounded
in an action with the Cheyennes on Solomon's River.
Being in Washington in the close of 1859, he vol-
untered as aide to Lieut.-Col. Robert E. Lee, in his
expedition to Harper's Ferry to quell the John
Brown insurrection, and identified its leader as “OS-
sawatomie Brown,” whom he had known in Kansas.
Thereafter he rejoined his regiment, but, obtaining
leave of absence in March, 1861, he returned to Vir-
ginia, and on the secession of that State resigned
his commission. The State authorities forthwith
appointed him lieutenant-colonel of Virginia infan-
try, and, in July, colonel of cavalry. His first ac-
tive service in his new sphere was in screening the
movements of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston from Gen.
Robert Patterson when he advanced from Winches-
ter with re-inforcements for Gen. Beauregard on the
eve of the battle of Bull Run. In this fight Col.
Stuart greatly distinguished himself by his effective
defence of Gen. Jackson's left flank, repulsing the
assaulting Union force, and thereby contributing no
little to the Confederate victory. For his conduct
here, as well as for other services, he was in Sep-
tember, 1861, appointed brigadier-general. In the
Virginia peninsular campaign he covered Gen. Jos.
E. Johnston's rear in his retirement from York-
town and Williamsburg. In June, 1862, he was
directed by Gen. R. E. Lee (to whom the com-
mand of the troops for the defence of Richmond
had now fallen) to make a raid round the rear of
McClellan's army, now lying on the Chickahominy,
inflicting as much damage on it as possible, and de-
termining the position of its left. On June 12th he
Sallied out of the Confederate lines before Rich-
mond at the head of 1200 men and some light artil-
lery, and in the course of three days passed entirely
around the Army of the Potomac, destroying a large
amount of stores at Tunstall's Station near McClel-
lan's base of supplies at the White House, recross-
ing the Chickahominy by a ruined bridge, and re-
turning up the James to Richmond, with McClellan's
forces on his one flank and the Union gun-boats on
616
STUART STUBBS.
the other. He brought back with him 165 prison-
ers and his own corps entire (save one man), and, at
the same time, information that enabled Lee to
make a successful assault on the Union right wing
at Gaines' Mill on the 27th. For this brilliant
achievement and his services in the Seven Days' fight
he was in July–though not yet 30 years of age—
promoted to major-general. Soon thereafter he
marched north to support “Stonewall” Jackson in
his operations against Gen. John Pope, then in com-
mand of the Army of Virginia. On Aug. 22 he
crossed the Rappahannock, penetrated Pope's en-
campment at Catlett's Station, captured his despatch-
book and baggage, and made prisoners of several
officers of his staff. Two days later he was ranking
officer in the attack on Manassas Junction, and sent
into the town a brigade of infantry, under Brig.-Gen.
Trimble, that made many prisoners and captured
valuable stores. At the second Bull Run fight he
rendered important service by guiding Longstreet
to an effective junction with Jackson that resulted
in Pope's army being driven back upon Washington.
In the ensuing Maryland campaign he led the ad-
vance of Jackson's corps, and rendered efficient ser-
vice at South Mountain and Antietam. Next Octo-
ber (9–12) he made a daring raid across the Potomac,
at the head of 1800 picked troops, on Chambersburg,
Pa., where he destroyed property to the value of
$250,000 and carried off much booty, the entire
cavalry force of the Army of the Potomac being
wearied out in pursuing him. He took part in the
battle of Fredericksburg, being on guard on the ex-
treme left of the Confederate line. His next note-
worthy exploit was a raid on Dumfries, in which,
by means of spurious telegrams to Washington, he
learned the movements in contemplation by the
leaders of the Union forces. In March, 1863, a por-
tion of his force was successfully attacked at Kelly's
Ford by the National cavalry under Gen. Averell.
At the battle of Chancellorsville his cavalry covered
“Stonewall ” Jackson's advance to the right of the
Union line, and when that distinguished soldier fell,
mortally wounded, the command of his corps de-
volved temporarily on Stuart, who not only extri-
cated it from the critical position into which it had
been carried in the darkness, but next day renewed
the attack, and, pushing onward, joined the right
wing under Lee at Chancellorsville, then abandoned
by Hooker. In the succeeding Gettysburg cam-
paign he was sent forward to guard the flanks of
Lee's advancing columns, and had several encoun-
ters with the enemy, with varying success, as at
Fleetwood Hill, Stevensburg, Aldie, Middleburg,
and Upperville. At the passage of the Potomac here-
ceived permission to repeat his favorite tactical move-
ment of passing behind the enemy's rear, and ac-
cordingly crossed the river between the Union army
and Washington. The detour was wider than had
been calculated on, and he did not reach Gettysburg
till the evening of the second day of that eventful
conflict (July 2), and so was in time only to take
part in the closing struggle and to cover the rear of
the retiring Confederates by guarding the gaps of
the mountains. This raid, which deprived Lee of
his cavalry at a most important crisis for the South-
ern cause, has been much criticised, the responsi-
bility for it being especially the subject of contro-
versy. When the Confederates lay intrenched on
the northern bank of the Potomac, Stuart's cavalry
had many conflicts with those of Gens. Judson Kirk-
patrick and John Buford, as well as, later in the
summer, with those of the above generals and of
Gens. Alfred Pleasonton and Henry E. Davies, when
holding the line of the Rappahannock. . . When
Grant entered the Wilderness in May, 1864, his chief
of cavalry, Philip H. Sheridan, at the head of 12,-
900 troopers, advanced on Richmond. Stuart in-
stantly hurried to interpose between him and the
city, concentrating his force at Yellow Tavern.
Here a desperately contested fight took place, in
which Gen. Stuart was mortally wounded and his
men routed. He died at Richmond, May 12, 1864.
Till Sheridan came on the field to contest the palm
with him, Stuart was undoubtedly the foremost cav-
alry commander in either army. The novelty, bold-
ness, and rapidity of his movements—in a word, their
dash and brilliancy—combined with their general
success, invested him with a halo of romance, and
brought him to be regarded as the Rupert of the
South. - (J. H.)
STUART, Moses (1780–1852), Hebraist and Bibli-
cal theologian, was born at Wilton, Conn., March 26,
1780. At twelve he read Edwards on The Freedom of
the Will, and at fourteen mastered the Latin gram-
mar in three days. Entering Yale as a sophomore,
he graduated in 1799, taught school for two years at
North Fairfield and Danbury, studied law, and, just
before his admission to the bar, 1802, was appointed
tutor at Yale. Here he remained two years, study-
ing theology with Pres. Dwight, till licensed to
preach by the New Haven Association, 1804. On
March 5, 1806, he was ordained pastor of the First
Church in New Haven. After nearly four years'
eminently successful ministry, he resigned his
charge to become professor of sacred literature at
Andover, Feb. 28, 1810. His first publication was a
Hebrew grammar without points (1813), printed
largely by his own hands, and previously used in
MS. by his students, who copied the sheets as fast
as he wrote them. Though many lamented his
withdrawal from the pulpit, he was invaluable in the
professor's chair, which he retained till 1848. Of
his students over 1500 became ministers of the gos-
pel, over 70 college presidents or professors, and
over 100 foreign missionaries, of whom 30 translated
the Bible into foreign languages. On these he ex-
erted a powerful influence, and so stimulated zeal
and enlarged facilities for study in his department
as to earn the title of “Father of Biblical literature"
in America. His principal publications were Letters
to Channing (1819, six editions); Grammar of the
Hebrew Language, with points (1821), highly com-
mended at Oxford ; Letters to Samuel Miller, D.D.
on the Eternal Generation of the Son of God (1822);
a translation of Winer's New Testament Grammar,
with Prof. E. Robinson (1825); Commentary on the
Epistle to the Hebrews (2 vols., 1827–28; 1 vol., 1833);
on the Epistle to the Romans (2 vols., 1832; 1 vol.,
1835); Hebrew Chrestomathy (1829); Principles gº In-
terpretation, from the Latin of Ernesti (4th ed., 1842);
Grammar of the New Testament Dialect (2d ed., 1834);
Notes to Hug's Introduction to the New Testament
(1836); Hints on the Prophecies (2d ed., 1842); Criti-
cal History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon
(1845); Commentary on the Apocalypse (2 vols., 1845);
a translation of Rödiger's Gesenius' Hebrew Gram-
mar (1846); Commentaries on Daniel (1850), Ecclesi-
astes (1851), and Proverbs (1852); Conscience and
the Constitution, called forth by Daniel Webster's
speech (1850). Besides these he wrote, 14, pam-
phlets, and some eighty contributions to the Ameri-
can Biblical Repository, the Bibliotheca Sacra, and
other periodicals, amounting to over 3000 octavo
pages. He died at Andover, Jan. 4, 1852. Strange
to say, he never obtained the degree of D. D., though
highly deserving it.
STUBBS, WILLIAM, English bishop and historian,
was born at Knaresborough, June 21, 1825. He was
educated at Ripon and at Christ Church College,
Oxford, graduating in 1848. He was then made
fellow of Trinity College, and, being ordained priest,
became vicar of Navestock. As the first-fruits of
his antiquarian and historical researches, he pub-
lished in 1858 Registrum Sacrum Anglican wºm, which,
STUCKENEERG_STURGEON.
617
-y
by its precision of statement and correction of the
errors previously abounding in civil and ecclesiasti-
cal histories, firmly established his reputation. In
1862, becoming librarian to Archbishop Longley, of
Canterbury, he was enabled to pursue still further
researches, which resulted in his careful editing of
many early English chronicles. In 1866 he was
made professor of modern history at the University
of Oxford, and in 1869 curator of the Bodleian Li-
brary. He published Select Charters and other Illus-
trations of English Constitutional History (1870). All
his previous labors led up to his most important
work, the Constitutional History of England in its Ori-
gin and Development (3 vols., 1874–78). His freedom
from party spirit and scrupulous fidelity to facts
have laid the foundation for a better understanding
of English history. In 1875 he was made rector of
Cholderton, and in 1879 canon residentiary of St.
Paul's.
professorship at Oxford, until 1884, when he was ap-
pointed Bishop of Chester.
STUCKENBERG, JoHN HENRY WILBURN, phi-
losopher, was born at Bramsche, Germany, Jan. 6,
1835. Having emigrated to America in early life,
he graduated at Wittenberg College, Ohio, in 1857,
afterward studied at German universities, and be-
came pastor of Lutheran churches in Iowa and Penn-
sylvania. During the civil war he was chaplain of a
Pennsylvania regiment for a year. In 1873 he was
made professor of theology in Wittenberg College,
and in 1880 he went to Berlin, where he was placed
in charge of the American Chapel. He assisted Rev.
W. L. Gage in translating Hagenbach's German Ra-
tionalism (1866).
Theses (1867); History of the Augsburg Confession
(1869); Christian Sociology (1880); Life of Immanuel
#: (1882); Introduction to the Study of Philosophy
(1887).
STURGEON, the largest fresh-water fish of the
- northern hemisphere, to which it is
sº exclusively confined. The sturgeon
p. 61 I (p. belongs to the primitive order of car-
tilaginous armored fishes known as
Ganoids, of which order it is probably the youngest
representative, no trace of it having been found be-
yond the Eocene formation. In conformity with the
Ganoids it has free gills, and is more or less cov-
ered with bony plates in longitudinal rows, the tail
is heterocercal, and the skeleton cartilaginous. The
sturgeons constitute a family, Acipenseridae, with
two genera, of which Acipenser is the most impor-
Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio).
tant. The common sturgeons of Europe and Amer-
ica were classed as separate species by the older
Writers, that of America being known as A. Oxyrhyn-
chus, but they differ but little, and are now gener-
ally classed together as A. sturio. This species is
ordinarily about six feet in length, though in rare
cases it reaches a length of 18 feet. Its body is
long and slender, gradually tapering, and covered
throughout by large, bony tubercles. In color it is
of a grayish brown above, silvery on the lower sides,
and white below. It is found along our coast as far
South as Florida, entering the rivers to spawn, dur-
ing which season it is taken in great numbers. The
flesh is white and firm, and affords excellent food,
though less used for that purpose in this country
WOL. IV.-2 o
He held this position, together with his
He has published, Ninety-five
than in Europe. The ova of the sturgeons are very
small, yet the ovaries are so large as in some species
to make up nearly one-third of the entire fish, So
that the number of eggs is enormous. It may equal
3,000,000 for a single female. It is probably due to
this fact that the sturgeons remain undiminished in
number, despite the vast multitudes that are annu-
ally taken in the rivers of Europe and America. In
addition to the use of the flesh as food, the roe is
employed to make the food-substance called caviare,
a favorite viand in Russia. The making of caviare
was formerly confined to Europe, but is now carried
on somewhat extensively in America, the Sturgeon-
fisheries of the Hudson and Delaware, for instance,
being largely devoted to this industry. Isinglass,
which is made from the inner coat of the air-blad-
ders, is another important product of the sturgeon.
As an evidence of the extent of the sturgeon-fisher-
ies, it may be stated that more than 200 tons of cavi-
are yearly have been produced from the catch of the
rivers flowing into the Caspian Sea.
In addition to A. sturio, the Atlantic waters of the
United States possess another species, A. treriros-
tris, distinguished from the former by its shorter
and blunter nose. It is less abundant, and is not
found north of Cape Cod. Both species frequent
the rivers and estuaries in great abundance in sum-
|mer, when they may be frequently seen leaping from
the water. They spawn in the lower stretches of
the rivers, and partly in the brackish water at their
mouths, where they seem to obtain food by grubbing
in the mud for its living creatures. Within a few
years the taking of the sturgeon for smoking and
the manufacture of caviare has attained considerable
importance in several of the larger rivers flowing
into the Atlantic.
The Pacific coast also has two species, A. trans-
montanus and A. medirostris. The former of these,
known as the “white sturgeon,” is a large species,
attaining a length of 8 feet or more and a weight
of 400 or 500 lbs., though seldom found of over 150
lbs. weight. It abounds in the Sacramento, Colum-
bia, and Frazer rivers, ascending them at the same
time as the Salmon, and is an important food-fish in
the San Francisco markets, where it is always abun-
dant and very cheap. It is little used as food in its
fresh state elsewhere, on account of the abundance
of Salmon, but is smoked, and caviare made of its
roe. A. medirostris, the ‘‘green sturgeon,” is of the
same size and distribution as the “white,” but is
much less abundant, and is not used for food, being
reputed to be poisonous.
Another species of considerable commercial im-
portance, A. rubicundus, has its home in the Great
Lakes, and in the Mississippi and its tributaries. It
is particularly abundant in the upper lakes, of which
it is the largest fish, though much smaller than the
other species named. Its extreme weight is 100 lbs.,
and its average length less than 5 feet, though there
are traditions of 9-feet sturgeon having been taken.
It lives on the shell-fish of the lakes, spawns in the
early summer months, and is caught in great quan-
tities, the fishery lasting from September 10th to the
middle of October. It is not popular as a food-fish,
though palatable when properly cooked, but its
flesh is pickled and smoked in considerable quan-
tity, and much caviare made from its eggs. This
is done by pressing them through a sieve till they
are free from all particles of membrane, and then
putting them into salt pickle.
.The second genus of sturgeons, Scaphyrhynchus,
differs from that described in several particulars,
principal of which are the lack of spiracles, and the
confluence of the osseous bucklers on the tail, which
they entirely cover. Four species are known, all
exclusively fresh-water in their habitat. América
possesses S. platyrhynchus, which inhabits the Missis-

618 STURGIS_SUGAR.
*ippi and other southern rivers, and attains a length
ºf 5 feet. It is not highly valued as a food-fish.
Targe as are some of our American sturgeons, they
ºte surpassed in size by certain species of Europé.
One species of the river-systems of the Black and Cas-
pian seas is said to sometimes attain a length of 20 to
25 feet, and a weight of nearly 3000 lbs. (C. M.)
STURGIS, SAMUEL DAVIs, general, was born at
Shippensburg, Pa., June 11, 1822. Entering the U.
S. Military Academy in 1842, he was graduated and
promoted as 2d lieutenant, Second Dragoons, in
1846. During his service in Mexico he was capt-
ured near Buena Vista, February 20, 1847, two days
before the battle, and was not released until eight
days after. He served after the Mexican war at
Jefferson Barracks and Fort Leavenworth, and en-
gaged in Indian warfare from 1854 to 1857, especially
With the Apaches, and was promoted to captain,
First Cavalry, in 1855. He continued on frontier
duty until the opening of the civil war, and became
major of the First Cavalry, in August, 1861. He was
distinguished in the battles of Dug Spring, Mo., and
of Wilson's Creek in August, 1861, under Gen.
Nathaniel Lyon, whom he succeeded in the com-
mand when that general fell. He received the
brevet of lieutenant-colonel for services in those bat-
tles, and was made brigadier-general of volunteers,
Aug. 10, 1861. He was in command of the de-
fences of Washington from May to August, 1862,
fought in the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 29,
1862, and was with the Army of the Potomac at
South Mountain, and at the battle of Antietam. In
the battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, 1862, he com-
manded the second division of the Ninth Army
Corps, and for his conduct there was brevetted colo-
nel. Constantly active in military operations, he
Was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in October, 1863,
and took part in the military operations in East
Tennessee, in the fall of that year and the beginning
of the next. Here his restless activity found abun-
dant occupation, especially in conflict with Gen.
N. B. Forrest, against whom he was successful. At
the close of the war he was brevetted major-gen-
eral in the regular army. He was mustered out of
the volunteer service in August, 1865, and was
thereafter engaged on frontier duty, becoming the
colonel of the Seventh Cavalry in May, 1869. He
served as superintendent of the recruiting service in
St. Louis in 1874, and commanded on the Yellow-
stone expedition from May to October, 1877. He
was placed on the retired list of the army on June
18, 1886. (H. C.)
STUYVESANT, PETER, director-general of the
New Netherlands, was born in Holland in 1602, his
father being a Frisian clergyman. He served in the
West Indies, was director of Curaçoa, lost a leg in
an attack on the Portugese island of St. Martin,
and then returned to Holland. The Dutch West
India Company next appointed him director-general
of the New Netherlands, where he arrived in 1647,
forthwith establishing a court of justice and, in def-
erence to the popular will, Ordering a general elec-
tion of 18 delegates, from whom he selected his
advisory council. Toward the Indians, whom his
predecessor, William Kieft, had provoked to hostil-
ities, he adopted a policy of conciliation, and ear-
nestly endeavored to improve their condition as well
as that of the colonists generally, by the introduc-
tion of well-meant reforms. He prohibited the sale
of liquor as well as of fire-arms to the savages, en-
forced a rigid observance of Sunday, erected a better
class of houses and taverns, founded a public school,
and established a market and annual cattle-fair. In
1650 he met the New England commissioners at
Hartford, and with them arranged a line of partition
between the Dutch and English territories, which
had been hitherto in dispute. His conduct of the
arrangement, however, was not satisfactory to the
Dutch, who declared he “had ceded away territory
enough, to found fifty colonies, each fifty miles
square.” In 1651 the Dutch built Fort Casimir, on
the Delaware River (then called the South River in
contradistinction to the Hudson or North River),
Which the Swedes claimed to be an encroachment on
their rights, and, under their governor, Rising, capt-
ured the fort in 1654. Next year Stuyvesant sailed
up the Delaware, with 7 vessels and 600 or 700 men,
and took possession of the whole settlement of New
Sweden. For the next ten years there was unbroken
peace on the exterior, but discontent began to show
itself at home. In 1653 a convention of two dele-
gates from each village in the colony demanded that
“no new laws shall be enacted but with the con-
sent of the people ; that none shall be appointed to
office but with the approbation of the people; that
obscure and obsolete laws shall never be revived.”
Stuyvesant indignantly ordered the convention to
disperse on pain of condign punishment, haughtily
replying: “We derive our authority from God and
the Company, not from a few ignorant subjects.”
The embers of discontent, however, continued to
Smoulder, and encroachments from abroad came to
further harass the governor. In 1664 Charles II.
granted to his brother, the Duke of York (afterward
James II.), all the territory from the Connecticut
River to the shores of the Delaware, and four English
war-ships, under Captain Richard Nicholls, bearing
450 men, appeared in August in the bay, and de-
manded the surrender of the city of New Amsterdam.
Stuyvesant sent a defiant answer to Nicholls and pre-
pared for resistance. But the municipal authorities,
seeing little hope of successful defence and being but
indifferently disposed toward their Dutch masters,
insisted on yielding, and on Sept. 9, 1664, a treaty
was signed at Stuyvesant's house, on his farm or bow-
ery, by which the city was surrendered to the Eng-
lish. Its name was forthwith changed to New York,
and the designation soon extended to the whole
province. Stuyvesant went next year to Holland to
report to his superiors, but soon after returned to
his farm, whose name still survives in the Bowery,
New York city. There, in the country, he passed
the remaining 18 years of his life, dying in August,
1682. He was buried in the vault of a chapel, be-
longing to the Reformed Dutch Church, that he had
erected on his grounds. Its site is now occupied
by St. Mark’s Episcopal Church on the corner of
Stuyvesant Street and Second Avenue, where his
gravestone, bearing an inscription, is to be seen built
into the wall. His dwelling-house was destroyed by
fire in 1777.
SUGAR. The etymology of the word “sugar.”
points to a Hindu origin, the form of
See Yºl, XXII: the word in Sanscrit being sarkara,
Kºłº, ,” whence, it may be traced in differing
g ''' forms through all the Aryan lan-
guages. It is doubtful, however, if all these names
Originally referred to the same product, since sugar
does not appear to have been known in the ancient
European world, though it was probably in use from
a remote period in India and China. The sweet
substance known as sugar is principally of vegetable
origin, but occurs to some extent in animals. It is
soluble in water, generally crystallizable, neutral to
vegetable colors, and is an organic chemical com-
pound of Carbon with Hydrogen and Oxygen in the
proportions to form water; that is, 2 parts of Hydro-
gen to 1 of Oxygen. There are two generically dis-
tinct sugars: The Saccharoses or Sucroses, O, a Ha2O, , ;
and the Glucoses, OePI12O6. The latter, which are
much less sweet than the former, have been already
treated (see GLUCOSE). The former, Saccharose or
Sucrose, ordinarily known as Cane-sugar, comprise
several varieties, differing in taste and appearance,
SUGAR.
619
though alike in chemical composition. Cane-sugar
is found in the stems and roots of many grasses, es-
pecially sugar-cane, sorghum and Indian corn ; in
fleshy roots, as the beet, carrot, turnip, sweet potato,
etc.; in the sap of many trees, especially the date-
palm and sugar-maple ; in most sweet fruits, pump-
kins, melons, sweet potatoes, etc.; and in the nectar
of flowers and glandular exudations of certain plants.
Of the total sugar-product the sugar-cane yields
about 60, the beet-root 35, the date-palm 3.5, the
sorghum-plant 1.75, and the Sugar-maple .5 per cent.
The Sugar-cane, Saccharum officinarum, is a kind
of gigantic grass, with a solid stem, 1 to 1% inch
thick and 8 to 10 feet high. The stem is jointed at
distances of 3 to 6 inches, and sends forth leaves 3
or 4 feet long, which fall with the ripening of the
plant. The flower stem, called the “arrow,” is 7 or
8 feet high, smooth and jointless, bearing a panicle
of soft, silky flowers. The ripe stem contains a
pith of dirty-white color and open cellular tissue,
which is filled with the saccharine juice of the plant.
Numerous varieties of sugar-cane are cultivated, dif-
fering much in character, though most botanists
think that they all came from one species. Of these
varieties those most cultivated in this quarter of the
world are the Creole or Madeira (the common sugar-
cane), and the Otaheite, a taller variety, whose yield
is larger and its juice more easily worked. The
Batavian, Chinese, and other varieties are cultivated
to some extent. The Salangore is one of the most
prolific, and has been known to yield as much as
7200 lbs. of sugar from one acre of canes. The
sugar-cane thrives best in warm, moist climates, and
finds its most luxuriant development on islands and
sea-coast regions, perhaps from the moisture of the
sea-breezes. It reaches its greatest perfection with-
in the tropics, and cannot be successfully cultivated
in frosty regions. Even in Louisiana it is often in-
jured by frost.
The sugar-cane, which had long before been cul-
tivated in the West Indies, was introduced into the
United States about the middle of the last century.
It is said to have been brought by Jesuits from San
Domingo, and cultivated on the banks of the Mis-
sissippi, above New Orleans, about 1751. Some
authorities say that the first sugar-mill was built on
the Mississippi in 1758, and that the culture pros-
pered ; but others say that the manufacture of cane-
sugar did not begin till 1764, and did not prosper,
there being very few sugar-estates in Louisiana
when ceded to the United States in 1803. In 1818
25,000 hogsheads of sugar were made. Up to that
time the cane was ground by cattle, but steam-
grinding was introduced in 1822. The sugar-district
at present extends on both sides of the Mississippi,
from about 60 miles below New Orleans to nearly
200 miles above, and also along Red river and
many bayous. The culture has been introduced
into Texas and is increasing in all the Gulf States.
Yet in all these States the cane is liable to injury
from frosts, which occasionally cause serious reduc-
tion of the crop, while droughts and the overflow of
rivers also act injuriously. The sugar-cane is ex-
posed to many animal pests, chief among which are
rats. These gnaw the standing canes, and let the
air into the pith and juice, fermentation and acidity
resulting. White ants are also very troublesome in
some localities, while there are several borers,
plant-lice, etc., which do great injury to the canes.
Various more or less effective methods have been
introduced to mitigate these pests, the mongoose
being employed successfully by some planters to get
rid of the rats; while turkeys, insectivorous birds,
ichneumon flies, and ants are useful as natural ene-
mies of the boring larvae. -
The cane is propagated only by means of cuttings,
no kind of cultivated sugar-cane being known to
perfect its seed. These cuttings are planted at in-
tervals of 2 feet, in rows 3 feet apart, though this
differs in different localities. Hand-holes are dug to
set out the cuttings, though this method is being re-
placed, particularly in Louisiana, by the use of the
plough. After the first cutting, new plants, known
as “ratoons,” grow up from the roots, and this
method of growth is sometimes continued for 20
years before the vitality of the old roots is ex-
hausted. When the canes are ready for harvest they
are cut with hatchets as close to the root as possible,
the juice from the lower joints being the richest.
The tops are discarded. The canes are crushed in
mills by heavy rolls, an average yield of 60 per cent.
in juice being thus obtained. There is great loss in
this method, however, and a new process, known as
diffusion, is now becoming general. In this the pith
is treated with successive applications of water, into
which the juice diffuses, the yield being much greater
and the juice purer, while the residuum of molasses,
being free from plant-tissue, is of better quality.
Next in importance to the cane as a Sugar-producer
is the Beet-root. Up to the 18th century only cane-
sugar was known in commerce, but in 1747 it was
discovered that beets contained about 6 per cent. of
sugar. During the Napoleonic wars, when the Eng-
lish blockade deprived France of sugar, Napoleon had
experiments made on many plants, and, as beet-root
proved the best, a beet-sugar factory was established
at Lille in 1810. After the peace this industry,
which had gained considerable development in
France, declined, but improved processes brought it
into vogue again, and at present beet-root sugar has
largely driven cane-sugar out of Europe. The ef-
forts to introduce the beet-root sugar industry into
the United States have not met with much success.
An attempt was made by Vaughan and Ronaldson, of
Philadelphia, in 1830, but failed from ignorance of
the proper process. At that time the European
beet yielded only 4 to 5 per cent. of sugar, though
the present yield is from 8 to as high as 14 per cent.
In 1839 D. L. Child, of Northampton, Mass., made
1300 lbs. of beet-sugar. Nothing further of impor-
tance seems to have been done till 1863, when a large
factory was established at Chatsworth, Ill. Other
factories have since started in that region, but none
of them have been very successful. In 1860 experi-
ments in beet-root sugar-making began in California,
and in 1870 the Alvarado Sugar Co. was formed.
Other companies have since been established, with
good promise of success. Yet they have met with
difficulties from want of experience, while there are
obstacles in making beet-sugar which do not exist in
the case of cane. The product of sugar is but two-
thirds that of cane, while the juice is highly charged
with impurities which need removal by expensive pro-
cesses. The total annual product of beet-root sugar
in this country is estimated at 2000 tons, but there
are indications of a steady increase. (See AGRICULT-
URE, Chap. W. 2. Beet.)
The chief native source of sugar in the United
States is the Sugar- or Rock-maple, a tall and orna-
mental tree which flourishes widely throughout
North America, though its abundance has been
greatly reduced by the too free use of the axe. Its
sap yields a profitable percentage of sugar, but the
manufacture of sugar from it has as yet been mainly
confined to farmers for home consumption. The
Season of maple-sugar making is very favorable for
farmers, being in the early spring before the begin-
ning of farm-work. At the first thawing of the
ground, in middle or late February, the flow of Sap
begins, and the sugar-making continues through
March and into early April, though the sap gradu-
ally diminishes in its saccharine qualities. The sugar-
sap season is thus about six weeks long, the average
product of sugar being one pound to 43 or 5 gallons
620
SUGAR.
ºf sap. In a good season an average tree will yield,
during the best period of flow, as much as 3 gallons
of sap daily, and produce about 4 pounds of sugar
during the season. There are exceptional cases on
record of 10 to 40 lbs. from a single tree. Trees,
When fully mature, may be tapped many years with:
out injury, there being cases of the same tree being
tapped for 40 years without apparent harm.
The process employed in collecting the juice is to
notch the tree 13 inch deep with an axe, or to bore
auger-holes, the sap being caused to flow into col-
lecting vessels. Three persons, it is said, can attend
to 250 trees. The Sap is evaporated in iron caldrons
or shallow boilers, yielding a sugar of peculiar ap-
pearance and taste. The annual product of maple-
Sugar is estimated at 10,000 tons, but the data are
not reliable. In Nebraska an equally good sugar is
made from the ash-leaved maple, while some other
American trees promise well as sugar-producers.
Vermont is the principal State engaged in the maple
Sugar industry. At the last census this State sur-
passed its nearest competitor, New York, by 2,200,000
lbs.
Maize or Indian corn was a source of sugar to the
ancient Mexicans, and the maize-plants that bear no
Seeds are So Sweet that the Mexican children are said
to be as fond of them as of sugar-cane. It has been
used to some slight extent for this purpose in South-
ern Europe and the United States, but a far more
important sugar-yielding plant is the Sorghum, or
Chinese Sugar-cane, which has been experimented
upon with very promising results. The seeds of
this plant were first brought to Europe in 1851, and
to the United States in 1854. They were distributed
among farmers, and found to flourish, in proper soil,
from Maine to Texas. The culture rapidly spread,
especially in the western States, mainly for the pur-
pose of making molasses, though the leaves made
excellent food for cattle. Until quite recently the
Sorghum-juice was almost wholly made into mo-
lasses. The census of 1870 reports only 24 hogs-
heads of sorghum-sugar, with 16,000,000 gallons of
molasses. The census report of , 1880 makes no
mention of Sorghum. The product had apparently
fallen to unimportant dimensions. But since 1880
improvements in Sorghum-sugar making have been
introduced which promise to greatly revive that in-
dustry, it being possible to produce sugar of excel-
lent quality from sorghum at a cost much below
that of Louisiana cane-Sugar. The powerful ma-
chines used to crush cane are not needed in the case
of sorghum, which can be crushed much more
easily. The area of possible sorghum-culture is
extensive, being nearly the same as that of Indian
corn, and while cane-sugar is profitable only on large
plantations, sorghum can be raised profitably by
ordinary farmers. The industry promises, there-
fore, to become an important one in the United
States. (See AGRICULTURE, Chap. V. 4.)
Another source of American sugar is the Melon
(Cucumis melo), which has assumed some little im-
portance, particularly in California. . Usually the
juice is only evaporated to molasses, whose flavor is
said to be much superior to that of beet-sugar.
As a source of commercial Sugar, melons cannot
compete with cane or beet. Other sources of sugar
are milk, which is used to some extent for this pur-
pose in Switzerland, and the juice of several species
of palm, particularly that of the wild date-palm,
from which sugar is made in many tropical regions.
The artificial conversion of starch into sugar was
first effected by Kirchoff at St. Petersburg in 1702.
The sugar thus produced is glucose, differing gener.
ically, as we have said, from sucrose. The making of
it has become an extensive industry of late years in
Europe and the United States. One further source
of the sugar-product of this country is imported
molasses, which is largely used for the making of
low grades of yellow sugar. The receipts of foreign
and domestic molasses at the port of New York in
1880 was 14,849,760 gallons. Much of this, and of
the molasses received at other ports, is worked over
again for the sugar it contains.
An approximate estimate of the annual production
of sugar in America outside the United States may
be made from the replies to an inquiry addressed a
few years ago by the Agricultural Department at
Washington to the United States consuls at various
American ports. These replies yield the following
tabular statement of the American sugar-product :
Mexico, exports, 1885–86.................... 6,389,208 lbs.
Lower California, annual product........... 2,400,000 “
Costa Rica, 1884 product ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896,300 “
Guatemala, 1886 product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,672,740 “
Nicaragua, annual product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,240,000 “
Salvador, annual product................... 18,000,000 “
Brazil, 1884–85 product. . . . . . . . - * * * * * * * * * * * * 570,606,828 “
British Guiana, 1886 product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250,555,200 “
Dutch Guiana, 1886 product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,395,751 “
Ecuador, annual product ................... 11,000,000 “
Venezuela, annual product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,500,000 “
Peru, annual product..'.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89,600,000 “
The last-named country is excellently adapted to
Sugar-production, and in 1876 its crop was about
166,000,000 pounds, with promise of large increase
through irrigation and the introduction of Chinese
labor. But the war with Chili, the beet-root sugar
competition, and other adverse influences have caused
a considerable falling off in later years.
The West India product, as given in the same re-
ports, is as follows:
Jamaica, average annual product. . . . . . . . . .
91,821,620 lbs.
Trinidad, 1886 export (
108,523,940
- - - - - - tº e º & e º 'º - - - - e s tº
Santa Cruz, 1885–86 product..... . . . . . . . . . 17,925,202 “
Guadeloupe, 1886 product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88,297,307 “
Guadeloupe, 1887 estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132,300,000 “
Martinique, 1886 product ................. 66,581,760 “
San Domingo, 1886 product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,497,715 “
Porto Rico, estimated annual product..... 170,400,000 “
Cuba, total product for 1886 (estimated
from another source). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,505,810,880 “
Barbadoes, 1884–85 (estimated from another
source) 135,968,000 “
Of the Cuban product, which is about one-third
that of the whole world, 93.55 per cent. of the export
comes to the United States. The product of cane-
Sugar in the United States is much less per acre
than in the well-cultivated West India islands. In
Barbadoes the yield per acre is about 5800 lbs. ; in
Louisiana, about 1350 lbs. The product of this
country declined from 247,577 hogsheads in 1850 to
87,043 in 1870. This was in consequence of the
war, during whose continuance the sugar-crop ran
very low. It has been on the increase since 1870,
and has again reached the amount of 1850. It is
doubtful if it will increase considerably beyond this,
and may, perhaps, ere many years, be surpassed by
the sorghum-product. The following figures give
the Louisiana production for several successive years.
• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is dº e
1851. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231,194,000 lbs.
1860. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255,115,750 “
1865. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,800,000 “
1870. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99,452,940 “
1880. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198,962,278 “
1881. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272,982,899 “
1889. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159,874,950 “
1883. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303,066,258 “
1884. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287,712,230 “
1885. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211,402,963 “
1886. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286,626,486 “
The product of the other Gulf States, during the
same period, has ranged from 5,000,000 to 16,000,000
lbs., the amount for 1886 being 16,128,000 lbs. Dur-
ing the same period the importations of foreign sugar
into the United States have grown to so enormous
dimensions as quite to dwarf the Louisiana product.
SULLIVAN–SULLY.
621
The figures for successive years are as follows:
1851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380,402,289 lbs.
1860. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694,838,197 “
1870. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,196,773,569 “
1880. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,829,291,684 “
1881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,946,745,205 “
1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990,152,374 “
1883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,137,667,865 “
1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,756,416,896 “
1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,717,884,653 “
1886. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,689,881,765 “
The sugar produced from other sources in the
United States was, in 1883, as follows: Maple, 41,-
440,000 lbs. ; beet-root, 1,344,000 lbs. ; sorghum,
896,000 lbs. ; while the total consumption has grown
from 917,109 tons, in 1880, to 1,389,125 tons, or 3,111,-
640,000 lbs., in 1886, the latter being a consumption
of 53.3 lbs. per capita of population. In addition to
the quantity consumed there were exported from the
United States, in 1886, 175,836,220 lbs., almost en-
tirely composed of sugar refined from imported
sugars. The sugar refining process in the United
States has of late years grown to enormous propor-
tions, and forms one of our most important indus-
tries.
The total world's product of sugar was estimated
some years ago at 3,500,000,000 lbs. (which has since
more than doubled), of which 66.47 per cent. Was
cane, 27.87 beet, 4.29 palm, and 1.28 maple. Of
this sugar the greatest consumers are peoples of the
Gothic and Teutonic stock, the English and their
offshoots being the highest. This group consumes
2,460,000 tons annually ; the Latin group not more
than 465,000 tons; and the Slavonic, 265,000 tons.
The annual consumption of English-speaking peoples
is about 1,850,000 tons. (C. M.)
SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHURSEYMOUR, an English com-
poser, was born in London, May 13, 1842. His fath:
er was professor at Kneller Hall, the training-School
of the British military bands. The son was in boy-
hood chorister in the Chapel Royal, St. James's, and
at the age of 14 competed successfully for the Men-
delssohn scholarship. He studied under Bennett
and Goss, and afterward at the Leipsic conservatory.
He returned in 1861, bringing music for Shakespeare's
Tempest. His next work was the cantata Kenilworth,
for the Birmingham Festival of 1864. Then followed
various overtures and oratorios, among which were
The Prodigal Son (1868) and The Light of the World
(1873). Meantime he had also commenced the se-
ries of operettas by which he is most widely known.
The first of these was Coa, and Boa (1866); more
successful were the Trial by Jury (1875) and The Sor-
cerer (1877). In these he was first associated with
Mr. William S. Gilbert, who devised the dramatic
parts, while Mr. Sullivan composed the music. The
success of these operas was completely eclipsed by
the authors' next joint labor, H. M. S. Pinafore
(1878), which soon passed around the world, with
constantly increasing applause. The Pirates of Pen-
2ance (1879) was a remarkable second to the forego-
ing. Then came Patience (1881) and Iolanthe (1882),
with great popularity assured by the authors’ fame,
but not increasing it. For his contributions to sa-
cred music the University of Cambridge conferred
upon Sullivan the degree of doctor in music in
1876, and Oxford gave the same degree in 1879. In
1883 the Queen conferred upon him the rank of
knighthood. From 1876 to 1881 he was principal of
the National Training School of Music. In his song-
writing he has attained greater popularity than any
other composer.
SULLIVAN, JoHN (1740–1795), a general of the
Revolutionary war, was born in 1740 at Somersworth,
N. H. Till called to take up arms he practised law
successfully at Durham, N.H., and was elected a dele-
gate to represent his State in the first Continental
appointed by it in Jane,
1775, a brigadier-general, and proceeded at once to
the field. Here, proving himself braye, discreet,
and skilful, he was quickly promoted to major-
general. At the siege of Bostºn he was next in
ºommand to Gen. Lee, and in the battle of Hong
Island, when Gen. Greene was disabled, Sullivan
succeeded to the command of his division. Acting,
subsequently, under the immediate eye of Washing-
ton, he gained the great leader's confidence by his
conduct in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandy:
wine, and Germantown. In 1778 he was assigned
to the command of the forces in Rhode Island. and
stood ready to act in concert with the French, fleet
under Comte d'Estaing in an attack upon the British
at Newport, when the project was defeated by where:
tirement of the count on the appearance of the
British fleet. After repulsing an attack of the ene:
my, Sullivan withdrew his troops with such skill and
success as to earn the thanks of Congress.
In 1779 Congress was aroused by the massacres
in Wyoming and Cherry Valley, perpetrated by the
tribes of the Six Nations (Iroquois), and Washing-
ton determined to send a strong force under a reso-
lute leader to take vengeance, and at the same time
destroy a source of support for the enemy. Sullivan
received the command, and, June 18, set out from
Easton on his toilsome march. On Aug. 29 he
came upon the Indians, with some British and
Tories, under Joseph Brant (q.v.), intrenched at
Newtown (Elmira). These he, after a struggle, dis-
persed, and thereafter set himself to the work of
devastation. Forty villages were burned down, crops
and orchards destroyed everywhere, and many Sav-
ages slain. On Oct. 13 he returned to Easton, with
only trifling loss. In 1779 Gen. Sullivan retired
from the army and returned to his practice in Dur-
ham. Here he was the recipient of many honors
from his native State, being chosen its delegate to
Congress, its attorney-general, and three times its
president. In 1789 he was appointed by Washing-
ton judge of the United States court of New Hamp-
shire, which office he held till his death, in 1795.
SULLY, JAMES, an English psychologist, was
born at Bridgewater, Somersetshire, in 1842. He
was educated at the Independent College, Taunton,
the Regent's Park College, London, and graduated
at the University of London in 1866. He afterward
studied at the University of Göttingen, and in 1871
entered on a literary career. He has contributed to
the Fortnightly and Westminster Reviews, and is the
author of several articles in the ninth edition of the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. Among his separate
works are Sensations and Intuitions (1874); Pessi-
mism : a History and a Criticism (1877); An Introduc-
tion to Psychology (1883).
SULLY, THoMAs (1783–1872), painter, was born at
Horncastle, Lincolnshire, England, in June, 1783.
His parents removed to the United States in 1792,
and he began to paint at Charleston, S. C. In 1803
he went to Richmond, Va., then to New York, and
afterward to Philadelphia, painting portraits in each
of those cities. In 1837 he visited England to paint
Queen Victoria in her coronation robes. This paint-
ing is owned by the St. George's Society of Phila-
delphia, and was lent by the society for the celebra-
tion of the Queen’s Jubilee in 1887. Other noted
portraits by Sully are those of Jefferson, now at West
Point, of Lafayette, of Decatur, of Fanny Kemble
Butler, of Dr. Benjamin Rush, and of George Fred-
eric Cooke. His Washington Crossing the Delaware,
now in Boston, has been popularized by engravings.
Sully illustrated some books, but his fame rests on
º portrait. He died in Philadelphia, Nov. 5,
His son, ALFRED SULLY (1821–1879), graduated at
second Congress, he was
Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. Returned to the West Point in 1841, and served in the Florida and
622
SULPHUR—SUMACH.
Mexican Wars. At the outbreak of the civil war he
Was still a captain, but was soon promoted major and
Colonel. During the Peninsular campaign he com-
manded a brigade, and he fought at Antietam, Fred-
ericksburg, and Chancellorsville. In 1863 he was
§ent against the Indians in Dakota and was brevetted
brigadier-general for his services there. In 1870 he
Was appointed colonel of the 19th Infantry. He died,
April 27, 1879. &
SULPHUR. This very important element is
found widely distributed in earth and
sea, in chemical combination in gyp-
sum and pyrites, and dissolved in the
Ocean in the form of sulphates. It is
also evolved from volcanoes and from vents in the
earth in former volcanic regions, the principal Amer-
ican sulphur deposits being derived from sulphur va-
por which has arisen from the interior in this man-
ner and become condensed at the surface. Sulphur
Springs are numerous in the United States, and indi-
gate a very general distribution of this element, either
free or combined with hydrogen. In the eastern
United States sulphur deposits occur on Cayuga Lake,
and at Springport, Cayuga Co., N.Y.; on the Wirgin-
ian side of the Potomac, about 25 miles above Wash-
ington; on Put-in-Bay Island, Ohio; in Kansas; at
Tampa, Florida; and in Louisiana. These deposits
are too small to have any industrial significance, ex-
cept that of Louisiana. Here sulphur is found in
Calcasieu parish, 13 miles from Lake Charles. The
bed is a deep one, being reached only at a depth of
425 feet. It is said to average 100 feet in thickness
and to be quite pure, and is underlaid by a bed of
gypsum and Sulphur. Some effort has been made
to mine it, but with little success. An accident
caused the works to be abandoned, and only recently
have mining operations been renewed, with little re-
sult as yet.
Extensive and valuable beds of sulphur exist in
some of the Pacific States, and here more vigorous
efforts have been made to mine it, though the cheap-
ness of Sicilian sulphur has caused the abandonment
of many of the mines. Large deposits have been
found in the Uintah Mountains of Wyoming, and
also in Southeastern Idaho, though these have not
been utilized, from lack of railroad facilities. Sul-
phur also occurs in several localities in New Mexico
and California. Some of the Californian deposits
are large, but none, except that near Clear Lake, have
been utilized, on account of the absence of cheap
transportation. At Clear Lake the sulphur vapor
issues from fissures in the rock, and is condensed
near the surface. A peculiar feature of this deposit
is the existence of a notable percentage of cinnabar
in association with the sulphur. Borax also occurs
in the vicinity. Sulphur was refined at this locality
from 1865 to 1868, but the operations were then
abandoned, on account of the fall in price of im-
ported sulphur at San Francisco.
In Nevada sulphur is found in the craters of ex-
tinct hot springs in the Sage desert. There are
many of these deposits, but of no commercial value.
The sulphur beds in Humboldt county, Nevada, on
the borders of the Black Rock desert, have been
worked at the Rabbit Hole mines. The hills which
here bound the desert have at their foot a strip of
stratified volcanic tufa, which, at the locality of the
mines, is richly charged with sulphur, all its inter-
stices being filled with this element. The sulphur
is of volcanic origin, and extends for Several miles
along the hills, in superficial deposits. The Hum-
boldt Sulphur Company formerly produced 20 tons
daily, but Sicilian competition has stopped the works.
A deposit of sulphur was found in 1885 in the
mountains of Ventura county, Cal., but has as yet
been used only for local purposes. In Utah the
Mormons used sulphur purified from native ore for
See Vol. XXII.
p. 634 (p. 667
Am. Rep.).
Some years. These deposits exist at Cove Creek,
about 22 miles east of Black Rock, on the Utah
Central Railroad. Here, as in the other places named,
the sulphur has been deposited from vapor coming
up from a great depth. This is still in progress,
the prospecting holes becoming quickly lined with
beautiful crystals of pure sulphur. In some locali-
ties the beds are 25 feet thick. In the four prin-
cipal claims the mass of sulphur is estimated at
1,350,000 tons, much of it of high purity. The
Cleveland mine, put in operation in 1885, yields
ore of a remarkably high percentage of sulphur, it
averaging at least 75 per cent., and frequently reach-
ing 90 or over. Nowhere else do volcanic deposits
of sulphur exist in such massive beds. This locality
has, moreover, one advantage over the other Ameri-
can mines and those of Sicily in the presence of
abundant fuel, the deficiency of fuel being a serious
detriment to the Sicilian sulphur industry. All
the sulphur produced in the United States at pres-
ent is from the Cove Creek deposits, amounting to
3000 tons in 1887.
In addition to the American localities for sulphur
above named, there are large deposits in Alaska, oc-
curring near volcanic cones in the Aleutian and other
islands. Sulphur mines exist in Japan, China, India,
Turkey, Austria, Spain, Iceland, and the Samoa and
Philippine Islands, but the principal supply comes
from Sicily, though recently a considerable quantity
of sulphur has been received in this country from
Japan, and the importations from this source are
increasing. The Sicilian sulphur, in addition to its
abundance and cheapness of production, is free from
arsenic, the most troublesome impurity, and is
highly prized in the sulphuric acid manufacture.
The annual product of the Sicilian mines increased
from 143,323 tons, in 1862, to 376,316 in 1879, and is
still increasing. The quantity of crude sulphur im-
ported into the United States in 1886 was 117,538
tons, worth $2,237,989, with over 3000 tons of refined
Sulphur, and flowers of sulphur in addition. Sul-
phur has declined rapidly in price of late years, fall-
ing from $31 per ton of crude, in 1881, to $19.50 in
1887. This is due principally to the rapidly increas-
ing consumption of pyrites in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid. Pyrites promises to yield an acid
satisfactory for ordinary purposes more cheaply than
Ordinary sulphur, the impurities in this acid being
too slight to detract from its value in refining petro-
leum and manufacturing fertilizers. Sulphur is
being used in increasing quantities as “sheep dip,”
to prevent certain skin diseases in sheep. It is used
in limited quantities in the gunpowder manufacture,
in California to protect the vineyards from mildew,
in the manufacture of ultramarine at Newark, N. J.,
and for some other purposes. Yet these consume
but a small percentage, and nearly the whole prod-
uct is consumed in the sulphuric acid manufacture.
In 1884 about 306,000 short tons of this acid were
made in the United States from crude sulphur, and
122,000 tons from pyrites. (C. M.)
SUMACH, the common name of plants of the
genus Rhus, a wide-spread genus of shrubs or small
trees of the order Anacardiaceae, an order embracing
the cashew, mango, and other tropical fruits. There
are about 12 species of sumach within the United
States, two of them marked by dangerously poison-
ous properties. They have compound leaves with
alternate leaflets, and small polygamous flowers in
terminal or axial panicles. In the sumachs proper
the leaves are pinnate and the flowers in a crowded
panicle; the fruit globular, and clothed with acid
hairs. There is no plant more highly ornamental
in autumn than the Sumach, its long leaves then
changing in color to a yellow, dark red, or brilliant
scarlet, and forming one of the most beautiful or-
naments of our autumn forests.
SUMNER.
623
|
Of the American sumachs the largest species is
Rhus typhina, the Staghorn or Virginia Sumach,
which attains a height of from 10 to 25 feet, with a
woody stem, and irregular or crooked branches.
The young shoots are covered with a soft, velvety
down like that on the new horns of the stag, which
they resemble. The leaves are large and slightly
downy beneath, changing in autumn to a purple or
yellowish red. The flowers are greenish yellow in
hue, in close spikes at the end of the branch, suc-
ceeded by drupes or berries densely clothed with
crimson hairs. There are many varieties of this
species, which is found wild almost throughout
North America. On cutting the stem a yellowish
resinous juice exudes. The wood and leaves are
used for tanning the finer kinds of leather, while
the roots are prescribed as a febrifugal medicine.
The branches, when boiled with the berries, yield a
black, ink-like tincture, and the berries may be em-
ployed in dyeing red. They are of a pleasantly acid
taste, and may be eaten with impunity. They are
said to contain malic acid in large proportion, and
are used as a substitute for lemons in medicine, and
in various domestic preparations. i
R. glabra, the Smooth Sumach, closely resembles
the above, and is the most common species. It
dry situations, like R. toricodendron, as it is much
more virulently poisonous than the latter, being
dangerous to most persons who touch it, and to
some who come near it. For an unknown reason
some persons may handle it with impunity. Its ef:
fect is to produce small cutaneous pustules, filled
with watery matter, and itching and burning Se-
verely, the effect lasting for a week or two, though
yielding to certain remedies. The use of very h9t
water relieves the itching sensation, and it is said
that carbonate of soda, bound on with a cloth and
kept wet, is a sure and rapid cure for the eruption.
Of other American species may be named R. aro-
matica, the Sweet-scented Sumach, whose leaves
when crushed yield an agreeable odor. In the west-
ern varieties of this species the odor is strong and
heavy. Its leaves are among those smoked by the
Indians in place of tobacco, under the name of Killi
Rinick. R. cotinus, a Mediterranean species used
for tanning, is the ornamental Smoke-tree of our
gardens. In this species the leaves are simple. Of
other important foreign species may be mentioned
R. succºlanea, from which Japan wax is obtained:
This wax exists as a thick coating on the seeds, and
is obtained by boiling. It is made into candles
which resemble white wax and give a fine, clear light.
reaches a height of from 2 to 12 feet. Like R. ty- R. vernicifered, a shrub much like R. versenata in ap-
phina it bears a dense cluster of greenish-yellow pearance and in its poisonous properties, yields a
flowers, and of crimson fruit, velvety from its nu-i milky juice which blackens on exposure, and forms
merous hairs, and with pleasantly acid taste, its the varnish used in the well-known Japanese lacq-
long compound leaves having from 11 to 31 leaflets. uer ware. What are known as Chinese galls are
But its young branches are smooth instead of downy. yielded by another species, R. semialata. They re-
A third species of the same group, R. copallina, the sult from the deposit of the eggs of an insect in the
Dwarf or Mountain Sumach, is from 1 to 7 feet high, young shoots, and are largely imported into Eng-
with downy branches, and its petioles wing-mar-
gined. It bears from 9 to 21 leaflets, whose dark-
green hue and smooth, shining surface make this
species a very handsome one. It frequents rocky
hills, but may be found in lowlands. The three
species above named, but particularly R. glabra, from
its greater abundance, are of considerable commer-
cial value, for their use in tanning light-colored leath-
ers, in dyeing, and calico printing. The leaves are
gathered somewhat extensively in Virginia and
neighboring States for tanning purposes, they being
dried, beaten, and ground to powder. They contain
12 to 20 per cent, of tannin. The Sicilian Sumach,
R. coriaria, which is largely cultivated in Sicily for
the same purpose, is much richer in tannin, contain-
ing from 30 to 35 per cent.
Another group of Rhus contains two very com-
mon and very poisonous plants, R. toricodendron and
R. penenata. Their flowers and fruit are borne in
long and slender axillary panicles, and their leaves
have fewer leaflets than the species described. R.
toricodendron, commonly known as Poison-ivy, is a
widely extended plant. It has two forms, an erect
and a climbing; the latter, which climbs by aid of
rootlets over trees and fences, having been described
as R. radicans. This species has three leaflets, and
yields a milky juice which blackens on exposure
and stains indelibly. It is dangerous from its wide
distribution and its poisonous properties, which
produce a highly disagreeable cutaneous eruption,
attended with violent itching, in those who touch
the plant. R. venenata, known as Poison or Swamp
Sumach, Poison-elder, and Poison-dogwood, is a
low tree of 10 to 20 feet high, with 5 or 6 pairs of
leaflets, greenish-yellow flowers, and greenish-white
fruit, which hangs in loose clusters from 6 to 8
inches long. It yields a milky juice which dries to
a black varnish, resembling the Japanese lacquer.
The leaves are smooth and shining, and the tree a
very handsome one. In the autumn the leaves
change to an intense red or purple. This species is
found in Swamps and moist, shady situations, from
Canada to Louisiana. It fortunately does not affect
land for tanning and dyeing purposes. (C. M.)
SUMNER, EDwDN VosB (1797–1863), general, was
born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 30, 1797. He passed
his youth at Milton, Mass., and received his educa-
tion at the academy there. After a brief mercantile
experience he was appointed, in March, 1819, 2d
lieutenant of Second Infantry. He served with high
credit in the Black Hawk and other border Indian
wars, being promoted 1st lieutenant in 1823, and
captain, Second Dragoons, March, 1833, in which ca-
pacity he commanded the school of cavalry practice,
then at Carlisle, Pa. Commissioned major in 1846,
he distinguished himself in the war with Mexico,
leading the famous cavalry charge at Cerro Gordo,
where he was wounded, and brevetted lieutenant-
colonel. He gained fresh laurels at Contreras and
Churubusco, and at Molino del Rey commanded the
entire cavalry, holding in check 5000 Mexican lan-
cers. For this exploit he was brevetted colonel. In
1851–53 he was governor of New Mexico, when he
was selected to visit Europe to report on improve-
ments in cavalry. In 1855 he was promoted colonel
and led a successful expedition against the Chey-
ennes, whom he defeated at Solomon's Fork of the
Kansas river. While in command of the Depart-
ment of the West he rendered faithful service in the
troubles in Kansas. In February, 1861, he had com-
mand of Pres.-elect Lincoln's escort from Spring-
field to Washington. In March he was promoted
brigadier-general of regulars, and sent to super-
sede Albert S. Johnson, in command of the Pacific
Department, but was recalled next year to lead the
First Corps of the Army of the Potomac under Mc-
Clellan. At Yorktown he was in command of the left
Wing, and from here to Malvern Hill, in spite of his
advanced age, he distinguished himself in almost
every engagement. At Fair Oaks his services were
especially conspicuous, it being due to his soldierly
promptitude in crossing the Chickahominy to the
support of the attacked left wing that the battle was
not a disaster. In the course of the Seven-days-fight
he was twice wounded. For his services in the Pe-
ninsular campaign he was, in July, 1862, brevetted
624
SUMNER—SUPERIOR.
major-general in the regular army. At Antietam he
succeeded Hooker in command of the Union right,
and gained the main successes in the fight, though
again wounded. He commanded one of the three
grand divisions of Burnside's army at Fredericks-
burg, and was assigned to make the disastrous at-
tacks on Marye's Heights, Dec. 13, 1862. At his own
request he was relieved in 1863, and was ordered to
the Department of the Missouri. He was on his
Way thither when he died at Syracuse, N. Y., March
21, 1863. His son, bearing the same name, is a col-
onel in the regular army.
SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM, economist, was born
at Paterson, N. J., Oct. 30, 1840. After graduating
at Yale, 1863, he went abroad, and pursued his
studies at Göttingen and Oxford. He was an in-
structor at Yale from 1866 to 1869. Having taken
Orders in the Episcopal Church in 1867, he went to
New York, 1869, as assistant minister to Dr. Wash-
burn of Calvary Church, and editor of The Living
Church. After a brief season of pastoral duty at
Morristown, N. J., during which he translated
Lange's Commentary on the Second Book of Kings
(1872), he was called back to Yale in 1872 as pro-
fessor of political and social science. In this post he
has been active and successful, inaugurating a spe-
cial library for the use of his classes, and supple-
menting the immediate duties of his chair by fre-
quent publications and continual contributions to
periodicals. With great earnestness and cogency he
protests against what he considers economic heresies
of the day, and argues for the ideas he has adopted
—free-trade, a gold standard, and the laissez-faire
principle. His American Finance (1874), with other
papers, was contributed to the Transactions of the
Social Science Association. His chief publications
are: History of American Currency (1874); Lectures
on the History of Protection in the United States (1875);
Andrew Jackson in the American Statesmen series
(1882); What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1883);
JEconomic Problems (1884); Essays in Political and
Social Science (1885); and Protectionism (1885). Hav-
ing made large plans of work for some years to come,
he has mainly suspended his activities outside the
college.
SUMTER, THOMAs (1734–1832), major-general in
the Revolution, was born in Virginia in 1734. He
volunteered against the French in 1755, and was
present at Braddock's defeat. He afterward re-
moved to the upper part of South Carolina, and there
fought with the Cherokees. On the outbreak of the
Revolutionary war he was made lieutenant-colonel of
riflemen, and was engaged chiefly against the Tories.
After the capture of Charleston by the British, in
May, 1780, Col. Sumter took refuge at first on the
swamps of the Santa, and later in North Carolina.
In July he returned and routed a force in the
Catawba, killing both the British and Tory com-
manders. He was then made brigadier-general and,
on Aug. 6, won another victory at Hanging Rock,
but on the 18th was routed by Col. Tarleton. How-
ever, he continued to harass the enemy until late in
November, when he was severely wounded. In the
following February he resumed his operations, and
co-operated with Marion until the close of the war.
He was a member of the State convention which
ratified the U. S. Constitution, and was elected to
the first Congress under it. He served as a repre-
sentative eight years, and in 1801 was chosen U. S.
senator. Retiring in 1810, he resided on his estate,
near Camden, S. C., until his death, June 1, 1832.
SUNDAY. See SABBATH.
SUNFLOWER, a common American plant of the
order Compositae, genus Helianthus, of which there
are about fifty species in North America. The genus
includes annuals and herbivorous perennials, with
rough stems and foliage, some species bearing tu-
bers. The common Sunflower, Helianthus annuus, has
a flat floral receptacle of from 6 inches to a foot and
more in diameter. It bears
showy yellow, marginal ray
flowers, while the disk is
crowded with brownish tu-
bular ones. The prevailing
idea that the Sunflower is so
called from its presenting
its floral disk to the sun is
à an error. It derived its
§º name from its resemblance
§§ to representations of the
sun with a circle of rays.
The perennial species have
much smaller and often very
Ornamental flowers. Some
varieties are double, the
disk flowers developing in
the same form as the ray.
H. multiflorus produces in late summer double flow-
ers which present a close resemblance to the dahlia,
and are very ornamental for garden purposes. Cali–
fornia has a species with very large double flowers,
one of the best adapted to garden cultivation.
H. annuus is now cultivated in most parts of the
World, being raised in some parts of Southern Eu-
rope as a field crop. The numerous large seeds
which are borne closely crowded on the disk are use-
ful as food for cattle and poultry, and yield a large
percentage of excellent oil, little inferior to olive-oil.
An acre of good land will sometimes produce 50
bushels of seed, yielding 50 gallons of oil. The Am-
erican Indians make bread of the seeds. The flowers
abound in honey and are much visited by bees, while
the leaves are useful as fodder, and the stems, which
yield much potash, are used as fuel. In some parts
of Europe a bouilli is made of the seeds as food for
infants. Sunflowers are supposed to destroy malarial
conditions and prevent miasmatic fevers, and they
are planted in many places for this purpose. The
pith is used sometimes instead of the true moxa.
Sunflowers are not cultivated largely for commercial
purposes in America, and seem injurious to the soil
from their large absorption of potash. One of the
tuberous species is the well-known Jerusalem Arti-
choke, called Jerusalem from a corruption of the
Italian word girasole, and Artichoke from the resem-
blance in flavor of its tuber to the true artichoke.
SUPERIOR, LAKE, is the highest and most north-
ern of the chain of Great Lakes, and the largest body
of fresh water in the world. The shape is somewhat
triangular, with the apex turned toward the west.
The length is 380 miles; the average width, 80 miles.
The circuit is 1500 miles, and the area is 32,000.
square miles. The elevation above the level of the
sea is 627 feet, and the elevation above Lake Huron,
the next lower in the chain of lakes, is 49 feet. The
elevation above Lake Huron is shown in St. Mary's
river, the outlet of Superior, where a series of rapids
formerly obstructed navigation. But of late a ship-
canal about the falls of St. Mary has given access to
Lake Superior for the largest craft upon the lower
lakes.
The basin of the lake is not as interesting as the
basin of Lake Ontario, either as to geological or to-
pographical features (see ONTARIO). Lakes Huron
and Michigan lie in the basin of the Devonian lakes,
while Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan, belongs
to the lower Silurian lakes. What are known as the
Niagara rocks turn eastward from Green Bay to the
head of Lake Erie, closing a geological and hydro-
logical circle around the peninsula of Michigan.
This forms the Devonian basin above noted : and in
a third basin, excavated from the same Swales, and
thrown to the east by the great anticlinal which con-
nects Detroit and Cincinnati, lie the waters of Lake
Sunflower.

SUPERIOR.
625.
Erie. If this anticlinal did not exist Lake Erie
would have had no existence, Lakes Huron and
Michigan would have emptied their waters through
Georgian Bay into Lake Ontario, and no falls would
have been known at Niagara. The narrow belt of Ni-
agara rocks curving about the head of Lake Michigan
contracts the water-shed so that it is but a short dis-
tance to the tributaries of the Ohio, Mississippi, and
other rivers that empty into the Gulf of Mexico.
The basin of Lake Superior lies apart from the ba-
sins of the other Great Lakes at the extreme north-
western limits of the formations which have been
mentioned. Its basin is excavated, in part, from the
lowest of the Silurian rocks. The mineral resources,
chiefly copper, iron, and silver, for which it is cele-
brated, belong to still older formations surrounding
it on all sides except the southern. The Lauren-
tian and Huronian mountains support a country of
forests and lakes of great extent, all the waters of
which reach the shores of Superior. The region is
really the western end of the great northern basin
drained by the Ottawa, St. Maurice, and Saguenay
rivers. It is, indeed, a wilderness of small lakes, the
areas of which would make a water-surface as exten-
sive as that of Lake Ontario; and the aggregate of
rivers would greatly exceed the volume of the St.
Lawrence river. Lake Superior, upon the Ameri-
can side, is somewhat low and sandy, the monotony
of the shore being broken by the Pictured Rocks ;
but upon the Canadian side the banks are less uni-
form. Among the islands the Twelve Apostles, Isle
Royale, and Grand Isle, belong to the United States;
and the Silver, Montreal, Leech, Slate, St. Ignace,
Pic, Sandy, Caribou, and smaller islands belong to
Canada.
Lake Superior appears to have been comparatively
free from the greater part of the fluctuations in the
height of water that have been noticed upon the
lower of the Great Lakes. On April 14, 1858, there
was reported a change of 6 feet in the level of Lake
Michigan. On May 10, 1823, according to De Witt
Royale, there was a sudden fall of four feet in the
waters, and when they returned they did so with a
rush, the vibrations continuing for several hours. In
1834 the waters above the Sault St. Mary rapids Sud-
denly receded, and in half an hour returned with
great velocity. In August, 1845, Dr. Foster, states
that while in an open boat between Copper harbor
and Eagle river, an enormous surge, 20 feet in
height and crested with foam, rolled toward the
shore, succeeded by 2 or 3 swells. Dr. Foster ob-
served repeated flows and reflux of the Waters in
1847, 1848, and 1849, which preceded or followed
storms on the lake. In 1851 D. D. Brockway re-
ported, in a perfect calm, a sudden rise of 15 inches,
and in another 24 feet. The Lake Superior News
of July 17, 1855, reported extreme fluctuations be-
tween 9 A. M. and 4 P. M. The U. S. government
has recently finished several charts, based upon
a long series of observations, which show that
from 1882 to 1888 the surface of Lakes Michigan,
Huron, and Erie was considerably above the mean
level. The water at the present time is about one
foot lower than the average from 1882 to 1887. The
charts also show that the fluctuations in the lake
levels have closely corresponded to the rainfalls.
The fact may be considered established that the
Lakes are simply great pools, forming part of the
course of a river, and that they conform to all the
laws governing the rise and fall of rivers.
As early as 1621 it was known that the shores of
Lake Superior contained great mineral wealth. The
French Jesuits first visited the great inland Sea
early in the beginning of the 17th century, but it was
not till nearly fifty years later that René Mesnard
visited the Lake and wrote an accurate account of
the discoveries made on his voyage about its shores.
Mesnard was followed by Allouez, Marquette, Da-
blon, and other French explorers, who made good
maps of the lake, and gathered much information
about the minerals from the natives with whom they
came in contact. In 1721 De Charlevoix, an advent-
Clinton, at Otter creek, on the Canada shore of Lake
Erie, a wave came in 9 feet high, and the same oc-
currence took place at Kettle creek, 20 miles dis-
urous Frenchman, spent nearly a year on and about
Lake Superior, and a few years later he published a
graphic account of his discoveries in Paris. During
tant. Another, in 1830, reported 3 waves at Madison the 18th century a number of explorers and trap-
Rock, Lake Co., Ohio, the first rising 15 or 20 feet. pers visited the shores of the Great Lakes, and
In 1844, or 1845, a wave came into Euclid creek 15 while all of them seem to have formed a high opin-
feet in height, carrying everything before it. On ion of the mineral wealth of the shores of Superior,
Nov. 15, 1845, the water at Cleveland suddenly fell the great distance from what was then the boundary
2.8 feet during a high wind from the southwest. The of civilization made it impossible to operate mines
U. S. government, has, since 1859, taken 3 observa- of any kind. One English company, formed to mine
tions daily of the height of the water at the Milwau- copper, did send, in 1770–72, a few men to the north
kee lighthouse. In May, 1887, the water in Milwau- of Ontonagon river, but no copper was ever mined
kee bay was a foot lower than in May, 1885. In by them. In 1830 Dr. Douglas Houghton, an able
September the water reached the highest level it had geologist, visited the Lake Superior district in com-
attained since 1859, a period of 27 years. In 1876, pany with Gen. Lewis Cass, and continued his ex-
however, the water-level was very high, though not plorations for 10 years, spending nearly all of that
as high as in 1886. The lowest stage of the water time in northern Michigan. In 1841 he made a re-
recorded was in February, 1873, when the water-level port to the State legislature setting forth his discov-
was 4 feet below the level of 1838. The annual flood eries. The report made a sensation, and led to the
tide of the water is in September and October, and
the annual ebb tide in January, February, and March.
The greatest difference in the water-level noted in one
year was in 1871, when it was 2.6 feet higher in the
fall than in the previous winter. Before 1859 the
observation of the water-stages depended upon
private sources, and they are conflicting. In 1852
Solomon Juneau, who had resided in Milwaukee
since 1818, said that never in his recollection had
the water in the bay been so low as in 1820, and
never so high as in June, 1838, when the old Indian
race course was 6 feet under water. The difference
between the water-stage of 1819 and that of 1838 was
4.8 feet at Milwaukee and 5 feet 3 inches at Detroit.
development of the great copper interests of the
district. In 1845 Dr. Houghton was drowned in
L'Anse bay, and with him perished much valuable
knowledge. In addition to discovering valuable
veins of copper, it is certain that he found gold in
nuggets and grains. His death was a great loss to
the district. Since 1842 the development of the cop-
per mining industry has been rapid and continuous
(see CoPPER).
In 1845 what the discoverers thought to be a solid
mountain of iron ore was found at Negannee, Mar-
quette Co., and the Jackson Iron Company was
formed to mine and smelt the ore. From 1845 to
1855 very little was accomplished, but in the latter
This proves that Lake Michigan annually rises and year the first canal at Sault St. Mary was completed
falls from 12 to 18 inches. Lake Superior also shows by the State, and it became possible to ship ore to
fluctuations in a less degree. In 1789, opposite Isle Eastern furnaces. In 1854 the old Cleveland mine
626
SUPPE— SURGERY.
in Ishpeming sent a small cargo of ore to the Penn-
sylvania furnaces, and the Jackson mine had made
Several small shipments in previous years. In 1858
the Lake Superior, and in 1864 the Lake Angeline,
mines were added to the list of producers; and since
1865 new mines have appeared each year on the list
of shippers. In 1877 the first ore was shipped from
the Menominee range, and in 1884 small shipments
Were made from the Gogebic and Vermilion iron
range mines. Out of a grand total of 35,559,000
tons of iron ore shipped from the entire Lake Supe-
rior district since 1854 the Marquette county mines
have furnished 25,140,603 tons; and of this amount
four mines (the Cleveland, Jackson, Lake Superior,
and Republic) have furnished over one-half. The
Lake Superior is the largest iron mine in the world,
with the Cleveland second.
The grain of the great Northwest has, of late years,
sought an outlet to market through the harbor of
Duluth (q.v.), the eastern terminus of the Northern
Pacific Railway. The city, which now contains about
10,000 inhabitants, is upon a bay which has been ar-
tificially protected by 2 miles of breakwater. The
early commerce of the Lake was conducted in small
schooners whose capacity seldom exceeded 10 tons.
The largest vessel in 1818 had a capacity of 136 tons.
In 1852 the commerce of Lake Superior had increas-
ed to such importance as to necessitate the improve-
ment of the St. Mary's river. The improvement in-
cluded the digging of a canal, with locks, around the
Sault St. Mary. The locks were sufficiently deep to
pass vessels drawing 11 feet of water. In view of the
possible increase of commerce on the upper Lake
there was sufficient area between the gates of the
locks to admit several vessels at once. It was sup-
posed that this lock (opened in 1855) would accom-
Imodate the future traffic of Lake Superior, but in less
than 10 years it could not accommodate the in-
creasing traffic. Another lock was constructed, 515
feet long and 80 feet wide, and with 17 feet of water
on its mitre-sills. It was opened for traffic in 1881.
The maximum capacity was 96 vessels per day. The
new lock of the canal, constructed on the site of the
original canal, is 800 feet wide, and it has 21 feet of
water on the mitre-sill.
The life of the lake traffic is the up-cargo, which
uniformly consists of coal. This product is brought
to Buffalo from the anthracite mines of Pennsylva-
nia, and to Toledo and Cleveland from the bitumi-
nous mines of Ohio. This furnishing of coal for up-
cargoes gives the Americans a great advantage over
the Canadians ; and the latter, after spending many
millions to draw the trade of the upper Lakes to
Montreal through the Welland and St. Lawrence
canals, have failed to divert it because their products
are chiefly imported goods not necessary to the life
of miners and grain-growers. The enlarging of the
St. Mary’s canal has resulted in the building of a
much larger class of vessels than it is possible to
pass through the two Canadian canals.
A grain-boat, launched in 1887, draws, when empty,
about 5 feet of water, and cost $300,000. It is a
three-decked steam-ship with a hull of steel, pro-
pelled by compound engines. The ship carries 2,800
tons of cargo and fuel on a draught of 15% feet,
and with this load wº run 16 miles an hour. The
length over all is 357 feet; depth, 25% feet; beam,
41 feet. An iron or steel steamer of ordinary size,
strong and seaworthy, and with great towing power,
to carry 75,000 bushels of wheat and tow 3 consorts,
costs about $175,000. A wooden Screw steamer, of
the same carrying capacity and towing power, costs
about $125,000. A wooden schooner to carry 75,000
bushels of wheat, or 2150 tons, costs about $75,000.
A steel steamer and four consorts, as now built, repre-
sent about $475,000. The five ships carry the wheat
that grew on 22,000 acres of productive wheat land in
Dakota. This amount is sufficient to load 24 freight
trains of 30 cars each, and each car carrying 500
bushels, and it would load nearly 50 canal-boats.
Wheat can be carried by this method from Duluth
to Buffalo, a distance of 880 miles, for 3 cents per
bushel ; and this rate is profitable if an up-cargo
can be secured. The statistics for the close of
the season of 1888 show that 6,500,000 tons of
freight had been carried through the St. Mary's
canal since the opening of navigation, a gain of
1,000,000 tons or more over any former year. Thus in
six months (the season of navigation) as much freight
was taken over this fresh-water route as passed
through the Suez canal in twelve months. The av-
erage distance this vast quantity of ore, coal, wheat,
flour, and other freights is carried by the vessels in
which it passes through the canal at St. Mary's is es-
timated to be not less than 600 miles. This makes
a total freight movement equivalent to the transpor-
tation of 3,900,000,000 tons one mile, for the whole
season of navigation. In 1887 the entire freight busi-
ness of all the railroads of New England was equal
to the transportation one mile of 2,141,588,000 tons.
The tommage of all the railroads in the two Caro-
linas, Florida, Mississippi, Arkansas, Colorado, Ore-
gon, and Georgia may be added before the total
reaches the volume of traffic from Lake Superior
through the St. Mary's river in six months.
(F. G. M.)
SUPPE, FRANZ won, Austrian musician of Belgian
descent, was born at Spalato, Dalmatia, April 18,
1820. He was educated at the University of Padua,
studied music at Vienna, and became a conductor at
Presburg, but afterward removed to Vienna. He
has composed many masses, symphonies, and quar-
tets. Of his overtures, Dichter und Bauer is the best
known. He has also composed many operas, includ-
ing Das Mädchen vom Lande (1847); Franz Schw-
bert (1864); Schöne Galatea (1865); Freija (1866);
Isabella (1869); Fatimitza (1876); Boccaccio (1879);
Donna Juanita (1880). Fatinitza has been produced
in England and America.
SURGERY, AMERICAN. The history of surgery
in America begins during the latter
half of the last century. Before that
time there were capable practitioners,
men of great vigor and originality of
thought, and large practical wisdom, but there were
none who could be classed as surgeons, certainly no
great surgeons. The medical men of one hundred
years ago were those who first gave distinction, in
the eyes of the civilized world, to the teaching and
practice of surgery on this continent, and the history
of surgery is really the history of their lives and
achievements. Sydney Smith asked, in No. lxv.
(January, 1820) of the Edinburgh Review, “What
does the world yet owe to American physicians or
surgeons 2 ” Even at that date the question was one
which could have been answered with pride by any-
one familiar with the records of surgery in America,
and at the present day the briefest enumeration of
the valuable additions to surgical knowledge made
by American surgeons would far exceed the limits of
this article.
In the last half of the eighteenth century there
flourished in America a number of distinguished
men whose names are now familiar to surgeons
throughout the world. Chief among these was Dr.
Benjamin Rush, who, although he did not perform
any great surgical operations, had acted as surgeon-
general to one of the divisions of the Revolutionary
army and had left in that capacity a most creditable
record. In those days, as at the present time, med-
ical men in America occupied the highest social
rank. Dr. Rush, with others of his professional con-
temporaries, left his mark not only upon the surgery
and medicine of that period but upon the general
See Vol. XXII.
p. 672 (p. 707
Am. Rep.).
SURGERY.
627
literature, the politics, the philanthropy of the day.
His influence was so wide-spread, his practice so ex-
tensive, and his skill in all departments of medical
science so great, that his name naturally begins the
list of great American practitioners; but his contem-
porary, Dr. John Jones, also a Philadelphian, was
perhaps at the same period the best known Surgeon
of the country. He was a pupil and friend of Mr.
Pott, a physician to the Pennsylvania Hospital, and
vice-president of the College of Physicians. He
wrote one of the first American treatises on Surgery,
which was published about 1777. He was an expert
Operator, particularly in cases of stone, which he ex-
tracted with great rapidity, a more important matter
in those days than in these of anaesthetics. He is
said to have performed the first operation of this
kind in America in 1790. He attended Dr. Franklin,
who suffered with stone in the bladder, and was the
family physician of Washington.
Philip Syng Physick, the pupil of John Hunter
and a professor of surgery in the University of
Pennsylvania at the beginning of this century, earned
the title of “The Father of American Surgery" by
his admirable teachings and his skilful work as an
Operator. One of his most noted operations was that
upon Chief Justice Marshall, from whom, when he
Was at an advanced age, he removed upward of one
thousand vesical calculi. Dr. Physick originated a
process of employing animal ligatures, selecting for
the purpose dog-skin cut into suitable strips and
then rolled on a marble slab to impart to them the
requisite degree of hardness, roundness, and smooth-
ness. Dr. John Syng Dorsey, after numerous experi-
ments performed at the instance of Physick, was led
to employ for this purpose French gut, using it in
various amputations and in a number of capital op-
erations, cutting the ends off close to the knot and
treating the wound as if no ligature had been used.
He was professor of anatomy in the University of
Pennsylvania, and was the first surgeon in the
United States who ligated the external iliac artery.
Dr. William Gibson, who held the chair of surgery in
the same institution, was the first surgeon who ever
tied the common iliae artery. At about the same
time lived Dr. John C. Warren, a son of Dr. John
Warren, who was the surgeon-general during the
Revolutionary war and professor of anatomy and
surgery in Harvard College. He performed the
first successful operation for the relief of dropsy of
the pericardium, drawing off the accumulation of
fluid with a trocar and cannula. The younger Dr.
Warren succeeded his father in the joint professor-
ship at Harvard, and was the first surgeon who ever
gave ether as an anaesthetic during a surgical opera-
tion.
Dr. John Rhea Barton invented the well-known
operation for the treatment of anchylosis, having per-
formed excision of the hip on a sailor in 1826, de-
scribed a fracture of the lower end of the radius
still known by his name, introduced the bran dress-
ing in the treatment of fractures and dislocations
of the leg, and devised the bandage known by his
name and employed in fractures of the lower jaw.
Dr. Valentine Mott, of New York, was the first
Surgeon Who ever tied the innominate artery, but his
reputation rests upon a long series of brilliant and
successful operations. Dr. Gross says of him : “No
surgeon, living or dead, ever tied so many vessels, or
so successfully for the cure of aneurism, for the re-
lief of injury, or the arrest of morbid growths.” The
catalogue, inclusive of the celebrated case of the in-
nominate artery, comprises 8 examples of the sub-
clavian artery, 51 of the primitive carotid, 2 external
Carotid, 1 common iliac, 6 external iliae, 2 internal
iliac, 57 femoral, and 10 popliteal—in all, 138.
Dr. Ephraim McDowell, of Kentucky, was the first
ovariotomist of the world, and shared with all other
great discoverers the universal opprobrium and bit-
ter criticism of his fellows. He was also one of the
most successful lithotomists of the early part of this
century, attaining very enviable success in the lateral
operation for stone. -
The first ligation of the primitive carotid artery was
performed in this country by Dr. Amos Twitchell,
in 1807, some time before the famous case of Sir
Astley Cooper, which was supposed to be the first of
its kind on record.
In the treatment of ununited fracture, various im-
provements were made by American surgeons, nota-
bly the introduction of the seton by Dr. Physick, the
union of the ends of the fragments by a metallic pin
or screw as practised by Dr. Joseph Pancoast, and
the freshening and wiring of the extremities as done
by Dr. Rodgers, of New York. Dr. Reid, of Roches-
ter, demonstrated by a series of dissections and ex-
periments the possibility of reduction of dislocations
by manipulation and by dispensing with the cum-
brous and sometimes dangerous appliances which
had been used for that purpose. His paper on this
subject was followed by others by Prof. Gunn, of
Chicago, and Moore, of Rochester ; and, still later,
by a comprehensive monograph by Prof. Bigelow, of
Harvard.
The first operations for the relief of anchylosis of
the inferior maxillary were performed by Dr. Car-
nochan, of New York, and by Dr. S. D. Gross, of
Philadelphia.
Among the brilliant surgery of the century, we
can only briefly record the operations of Dr. J.
Kearney Rodgers, for ligation of the left subclavian
between the scalene muscles; of Hunter McGuire
for ligation of the abdominal aorta ; of Onderdonk
for ligation of the femoral in arthritis of the knee;
for extirpation of the clavicle by Mott. The inven-
tions or modifications of splints by Physick, Hodg-
den, N. R. Smith, and others were of the highest prac-
tical importance, while Fox's apparatus for fracture
of the clavicle is yet in common and effective use.
Dugas, of Georgia, pointed out one of the most valu-
able diagnostic signs of scapulo-humeral luxations,
and Bigelow, in the paper above mentioned, revolu-
tionized the theory of the meehanism of dislocation
of the hip. Dr. Joseph K. Swift, of Easton, Pa., was
the first surgeon to employ adhesive plaster as a
means of extension in fractures of the lower extrem-
ities, an enormous step in advance, both as to com-
fort of patients and practical results obtained.
The employment of rest in general affections,
which has recently been insisted on with great vigor
by numerous European writers, was taught and prac-
tised in this country one hundred years ago by Dr.
Physick. Trephining for bone abscess, usually
credited to Sir Benjamin Brodie, was first per-
formed by Nathan Smith, of New Haven, in the lat-
ter part of the 18th century. The first excision of
the upper jaw ever performed was done by Dr.
Jamison, of Baltimore, and the first resection of
both bones by Dr. Rodgers, of New York. Dr. J.
Mason Warren, of Boston, was the first to Suggest
the importance of dividing the muscles in the arches
of the palate as a means of facilitating the union of
the edges of the fissure after operations for cleft
palate. Dr. Milton Antony in 1823 published, in the
Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical
Sciences, a case in which he removed, along with a
diseased rib, a large portion of lung-tissue which
was involved. The drainage of the bladder through
the perineum in case of chronic cystitis suggested by
Mr. Guthrie, of London, was first put into practice
by Prof. Willard, of New York.
The most important advance in the Surgery of the
urinary organs made within the Century was intro-
duced to the profession by Dr. Henry J. Bigelow of
Boston, in January, 1878. Until that time it had been
628
SURGERY.
the custom to greatly limit the period during which
Crushing operations were carried on, several sittings
being necessary before the operation was completed,
the maximum time of 8, 10, 15, or 20 minutes being
allowed by various surgeons for the crushing of the
stone. Dr. Bigelow showed that with proper care
and gentleness the crushing could be completed at
one sitting, even when it required several hours to
effect this, and that at the same time the whole mass
of débris could be evacuated instead of being left in
the bladder to pass out with the urine. Dr. Bigelow
greatly improved the lithotrite in several important
particulars and invented an evacuating apparatus
far superior to anything preyiously employed. His
discovery was greatly facilitated by the observation
of Dr. Fessenden Otis, of New York, who had pre-
viously shown that the calibre of the male urethra
Was far greater than had been supposed, and that
catheters and bougies of much larger size than were
formerly employed could be used with entire safety.
Extirpation of the coccyx for what was then known
as coccygeal neuralgia was first done by Dr. J. C.
Nott, of Mobile, although later Sir Joseph Simpson,
not knowing of Nott's essay, described the same dis-
ease under the name of coccygodynia, and advocated
the same method of treatment. J. Marion Sims in
1852 introduced to the medical world his operation
for vesico-vaginal fistula, which has from that day to
this maintained its position as an operative proced-
ure and has "perhaps done as much to restore to
health and happiness large numbers of suffering
women as any other operation in the entire domain
of gynaecology. The relief of chronic cystitis by
permanent drainage of the bladder should also be ac-
credited to the inventive genius of Sims, although at
about the same time the same procedure was em-
ployed by Nathan Bozeman and Thomas Addis Em-
mett. Parvin's operation for the cure of urethro-vag-
inal fistula, the so-called Battey's operation, and the
operation of gastro-elytrotomy, have all been either
originally conceived or greatly improved by Amer-
ican surgeons. While considering the department
of surgery known as gynaecology, mention should of
course be made of the forceps and the lever-pessary
of Hodge, and the speculum, uterine repositor, and
probe of Sims.
In ophthalmic surgery should be mentioned the
ingenious method of advancement of the lateral eye-
muscles devised by Dr. A. E. Prince. This has re-
ceived very wide adoption. A number of modifica-
tions of the various plastic operations upon the lids
have appeared from time to time in the hands of
American surgeons; notably Green, of St. Louis.
The method devised by the late Dr. C. R. Agnew,
of New York, for removing a lens dislocated into the
vitreous, with the aid of a bident, deserves mention;
as do the able experimental researches of Knapp, of
New York, and Weeks, of New York, in antiseptic
eye-surgery; the discovery of the bacillus of acute
conjunctival catarrh by Weeks, and his useful in-
vestigations of the bacteriology of xerosis conjunc-
tivae. The three best ophthalmoscopes which have
emanated from American inventors since the intro-
duction, years ago, of Dr. Loring's instruments, are
those devised by Randall, Jackson, and Risley, of
Philadelphia.
Medical teaching was even during the last century,
in certain parts of the Eastern and Middle States, to
be favorably compared with much of the instruction
given at European schools. At the University of
Pennsylvania, the centre of American medical edu-
cation at this time, or connected with the Pennsyl-
vania and Philadelphia hospitals, were to be found
during the early years of this century many of the
men whose names are still familiar to the profession
throughout the world: John Syng Dorsey, Nathaniel
Chapman, W. P. Dewees, Robert Hare, Samuel Jack-
son, Isaac Hays, Hugh Hodge, John Rhea Barton,
Geo. B. Wood, William W. Gerhard, William Pepper,
Sr., George W. Norris, and others whose teachings and
Writings have in no small degree aided in the prog-
ress of medical science. It would have been pleas-
ant to point out in detail the work of each of these
gentlemen ; to dwell on the remarkable and diversi-
fied talents displayed by Dorsey, whose death at the
age of thirty-five, just after his election to the chair
of anatomy in the university, removed one of the
most promising teachers ever seen in Philadelphia.
He is said to have lectured on operative surgery.
given practical instruction in materia medica, dem-
onstrated anatomical details in the dissecting-room,
and examined in physiology in the same day, with
equal Satisfaction to his pupils. We are indebted
to Dr. Chapman, not only for innumerable jeu.c
d'esprit and for brilliant medical teaching, but for
the establishment in 1820 of the best medical pe-
riodical in America, if not in the world, The Ameri-
can Journal of the Medical Sciences, afterward so ably
edited by the Drs. Hays, father and son. The first
number bore on the title-page the quotation from
Sydney Smith already alluded to. A special edition
of this journal, with a single exception the oldest
medical periodical in the English language, is now
published in London for the benefit of British
readers. To Dr. Gerhard belongs the honor of hav-
ing been the first to point out clearly the distinction
between typhus and typhoid fever, a differentiation
which has saved thousands of lives. Much well-
deserved praise could be written of the contribu-
tions of Barton to mechanical surgery and of his
original operation for the cure of bony stiffening of
the joints, the parent of all the orthopaedic and sub-
cutaneous surgery of the present day; of the ad-
vances made by Norris in conservative surgery; of
the rare diagnostic acumen and brilliant clinical abil-
ities as teacher and practitioner of the elder Pep-
per ; of Wood's great labors in practical medicine
and therapeutics, his undying record still existing in
what is probably the most successful medical book
ever published, The United States Dispensatory. John
K. Mitchell's inquiries into the absorption of fluids
and the origin of malaria were markedly in advance
of their day, in some respects almost prophetic,
while Hodge's invention of the lever-pessary, and
Hare's of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, cannot pass
unnoticed. Dr. Gross, in his recently published
autobiography, has given us a list of his contribu-
tions to medical science, a list of which any surgeon,
or, indeed, any two or three surgeons, might be
proud ; but his researches on wounds of the intes-
times deserve special mention.
In 1824 the Jefferson Medical College, which was
in its origin an offshoot of the University of Penn-
sylvania, was founded by Drs. McClellan, Eberle,
Rhees, and Green, all graduates of the university,
and in 1825 and 1826 the first course of lectures was
given. A number of distinguished men have been
connected with it from that day to this, notably
Mutter, the founder of the Mutter Museum and
lectureship at the College of Physicians; John K.
Mitchell, the father of Dr. S. Weir Mitchell; Joseph
Pancoast, Charles D. Meigs, J. M. Da Costa, and
Prof. S. D. Gross.
It seems hardly possible, and is perhaps hardly
proper, in this article to enter with any detail into
the history of more recent achievements by Ameri-
can surgeons. The earlier work of Dr. D. Hayes
Agnew, in the improved operations upon vesico-vagi-
nal fistula and of lacerated perineum, was most
brilliant, and his teachings have had a lasting influ-
ence as regards those operations, while his work as
a general surgeon has probably never been surpassed
either as regards the ground covered, the results ob-
tained, or the sound judgment displayed. The
SWAYNE–SWINBURNE.
629
work of Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, in reference to the re-
sults of injuries to nerves, constituted a new depart-
ure in the study of the pathology of these structures,
and the results have been of vast importance to the
practical surgeon. The work of the same physician
in the investigation of the nature, results, and
treatment of snake-bites also has been of the highest
value. The statistical work of the younger Gross,
the observations of Otis upon the capacity of the
male urethra, which rendered possible the introduc.
tion of litholapaxy by Bigelow, the experiments of
Senn, of Milwaukee, upon wounds of the intestines
and intestinal sutures, the monumental labors of
the compilers of the Medical and Surgical History of
the War of the Rebellion and of Dr. Billings and his
associates in the preparation of the Indez Catalogue
and Indez Medicus, and the equally noteworthy Work
of many others who cannot be mentioned here, serve
to illustrate the fact that American surgery to-day is
as worthy of respect and admiration as at any period
in the history of the country.
Perhaps the four great achievements of the cen-
tury have been the introduction of anaesthesia ; the
establishment of ovariotomy as a justifiable proced-
ure, the outcome of which has been modern abdom-
inal surgery; the elevation of gynaecology into a
science ; and the recognition of the principles of
antiseptic surgery. When we remember that of
these four the first three are clearly attributable to
American genius and skill, and that nowhere in the
world was the inestimable value of the fourth earlier
appreciated than in this country, we can understand
the debt which the civilized world owes to American
surgery.
In the limits of this article the merest allusion to
the most memorable occurrences has been possible,
but much more of almost equal interest and impor-
tance may be found recorded in the Essays of Pro-
fessors Gross and Thomas which may be found in
A Century of American Medicine, published by Lea,
of Philadelphia, in 1876. (J. W. W.)
SWAYNE, NoAH HAYNES (1804–1884), jurist, was
born in Culpepper Co., Va., Dec. 27, 1804. While an
apothecary's clerk at Alexandria he entered on a
course of higher study, and was admitted to the bar
at Warrenton, Va., in 1824. He then removed to
Coshocton, O., and in a few years was elected to the
State legislature. He was U. S. district attorney
from 1830 to 1839, and in the meantime was elected
judge of the county court, but declined. In 1836 he
was again elected to the legislature, and there took a
prominent part in organizing State asylums for the
insane, blind, deaf, and dumb. His eminence in his
profession induced Pres. Lincoln to appoint him a
justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in January, 1862.
He resigned this profession in 1881 on account of
º advanced age, and died in New York City, June
, 1884.
SWINBURNE, ALGERNoN CHARLEs, English poet
and critic, was born at Pimlico, a suburb of London,
April 5, 1837. He is the son—the eldest of six chil-
dren—of Admiral Charles Henry Swinburne, R. N.,
and of his wife, Lady Jane Henrietta, daughter of
the third Earl of Ashburnham ; and the grandson of
Sir John Edward Swinburne, Bart., of Capheaton,
Northumberland. From the blood and influence of
the latter, a man of no common mould, who lived
and retained his natural force unabated to the ex-
treme age of ninety-eight, the poet has evidently
derived much that is characteristic in him. As a
boy, young Swinburne's tastes ran on the one hand
to poetry, and on the other to swimming and riding.
In these physical exercises he is said to have ex-
celled. He was not merely a great reader of poetry,
but of poetry of a very high order of excellence. In
one of his books he speaks of “having, from well-
nigh the first years I can remember, made of the
study of Shakespeare the chief intellectual business,
and found in it the chief spiritual delight of my
whole life.” Poets and authors of the first rank ex-
erted a most powerful influence on the impression-
able mind of the lad when he was, to use his words,
“most susceptible of influence, and least conscious
of it, and most in want.” As a child, he often found
an all-sufficient delight in the mere music of verse
the meaning of which was quite beyond his power of
comprehension. His memory for poetry, was spe:
cially retentive. His favorite authors so impressed
themselves on his mind, apparently with little or no
direct effort on his part, that he early had by heart
long passages from them—even entire poems. As
was most natural in a lad so constituted, efforts at
original composition of poetry soon followed, and
some of these boyish effusions he afterward pub-
lished in his somewhat notorious collection of Poems
and Ballads.
Young Swinburne was sent to Eton, and after five
years there entered Balliol College, Oxford, as a
commoner, in 1857. While at the university he was
one of the chief among some half-dozen student
contributors to a short-lived college magazine, Un-
dergraduate Papers. His contributions included,
among other things, what was considered a very
clever parody. After something less than four years
at Oxford, he left the university without taking a
degree. He was, however, a natural scholar, and
his attainments, especially in literature and the lan-
guages, have been considered—and justly—as truly
phenomenal.
Without ever having personally met Walter Sav-
age Landor, at that time England's oldest living
poet, young Swinburne came to entertain for him
the most enthusiastic admiration and regard, and in
1864 he made a veritable hero-worshipper's pilgrim-
age to Italy, for no other purpose than to make the
personal acquaintance of his hero. The aged poet
received him cordially, and the two spent some
months together at Florence, during the last year of
Landor's life.
After previous publications, not without merit,
Mr. Swinburne first achieved name and fame by the
publication, in 1865, at the age of twenty-eight, of
his classical drama, Atalanta in Calydom. Atalanta
is a tragedy upon the severest Greek model—cer-
tainly a unique, and by many considered an almost
faultless, work of art. It was the result of a happy
inspiration, born of prolonged training in the classi-
cal languages. Nor is it a mere Greek imitation ; it
is rather the product of a Greek imagination. Hence
Atalanta ranks with the very best productions of its
kind. Seldom or never has it been given to an
author to achieve popularity by the publication of a
work which naturally appeals to so restricted an au-
dience. Yet it would not be wide of the truth to say
that Mr. Swinburne did achieve just that—over and
above the reputation he gained within the world of
letters. Few modern resuscitators of the ancient
classical drama have more nearly contrived to “make
the dry bones live.”
But while Atalanta made the young author famous,
Poems and Ballads—published the following year—
in this country under the title of Laws Veneris—
came very near making him, in certain eyes at least,
infamous. The book was violently assailed as being
grossly sensual and immoral. Parts of the collec-
tion were declared to be indecent, others blasphe-
mous. In defence of the work the plea has been
urged that the poems were, as Mr. Browning says
of a volume of his own, “though lyric in expres-
sion, always dramatic in principle, and so many ut-
terances of so many imaginary beings.” But many
who accepted the plea refused to consider all parts
of the work as artistic in the best sense. Still
others, who entertained a high opinion of the young
630
SWINBURNE.
author, both as an artist and as a man, admitted that
in the selection of some of his subjects he had been
injudicious and unfortunate. The outcry against
book and author was so sudden, sharp, and em-
phatic, that his publishers, the Messrs. Moxon &
Co., withdrew the book almost immediately from
circulation. It was reissued with little delay, how-
ever, by another publisher, at whose instance, and in
whose behalf, Mr. Swinburne published a brief re-
ply to his assailants, Notes on Poems and Reviews, in
the course of which he says: “The book is dramat-
ic, many-sided, multifarious, and no utterance con-
tained therein can properly be assumed as the asser-
tion of the author's personal feeling or faith. . . .
If literature indeed is not to deal with the full
life of man and the whole nature of things, let it
be cast aside with the rods and rattles of children.
Whether it affects to teach or to amuse, it is equally
trivial and contemptible to us; only less so than the
charge of immorality. Against how few really great
names has not this small and dirt-incrusted pebble
been thrown. I knew that belief in the
body was the secret of sculpture, and that a past age
of ascetics could no more attempt or attain it than
the present age of hypocrites.”
Mr. Swinburne was not content to be known and
criticised as a poet. He turned critic himself, and
discussed all sorts of literary and artistic subjects in
the current reviews. His prose work materially en-
hanced his reputation in certain quarters, while
much of it also has been sharply criticised and even
ridiculed.
Although the immediate descendant of two very
old and exclusive families of the English aristocracy
—himself barely without the pale of the titled aris-
tocracy, and only through the operation of the Eng-
lish laws of primogeniture—Mr. Swinburne early
espoused the most radical opinions politically, and
sought by his pen to promote the cause of republi-
canism in Europe. In A Song of Italy he apos-
trophizes—almost to apotheosis—Garibaldi and Maz-
zini. His republican ardor and hopes for the future
found still further expression in the Ode on tº Pro-
clamation of the French Republic, the Songs before Sun-
rise, and the Note of an English Republican on the Mus-
covite Crusade.
In 1871 Robert Buchanan, the poet, published in
one of the reviews, under the assumed name of
“Thomas Maitland,” an article, “The Fleshly School
of Poetry.” This was aimed more especially at Mr.
Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but in the acrimonious
discussion which ensued Mr. Swinburne—a Warm
personal friend of Rossetti's and classed with the
iatter, by Mr. Buchanan, in the obnoxious “Fleshly
School”—became involved, and published a reply (to
Mr. Buchanan) entitled Under the Microscope. In
the course of this paper he also gave expression to
some of his opinions respecting American poets and
poetry. Poe and Whitman were singled out as de-
serving of high commendation, but most of their
fellow-craftsmen in America were characterized as
“ mocking birds,” or, where really independent of
models, as “corn-crakes”—because of the harshness
and worthlessness of their song.
Erechtheus is a second classical drama. It is gen-
erally regarded as inferior to Atalanta. The Note
on Charlotte Brontë is a brochure full of enthusiastic
and exalted praise of Miss Brontë, in which the gifted
author of Jane Eyre and her sister Emily are rated
with Mrs. Browning, and far above George Eliot,
George Sand, and other women in the world of let-
ters. A Year's Letters by Mrs. Horace Manners is
Mr. Swinburne's first and thus far his only effort
in the field of prose fiction.
Mr. Swinburne has shown a most remarkable
power of imitating the characteristic style of other
poets of various ages and countries. The Heptalogia
was an anonymous imitation of Tennyson, Browning,
and others ; himself included, the better to divert sus-
picion from him as the author. But though the
authorship in this case did not remain undiscovered,
some work of this sort by Mr. Swinburne has de-
ceived the very elect among the critics. Chastelard;
Bothwell; and Mary Stuart form, together, a dra-
matic trilogy on the Scotch Queen, whom Swinburne
condemns for reasons peculiarly his own. Marino
Faliero is certainly superior to Lord Byron's tragedy
of the same name.
Swinburne's rightful place among the poets is the
subject of wide—almost violent dispute. While some
regard him as an unintelligible “language-slinger’—
an insatiable word-monger—others, conceding his
poetic genius, deplore the sensuous tone of his
muse. A poet of acknowledged power has said that
in all his many volumes “he has written no line that
lingers in the memory, has uttered nothing that re-
sembles a thought ; ” which has been indorsed by a
reviewer in the sentence : “A severer criticism could
not be conceived and a truer one its author never
uttered.” On the other hand, judges are not wanting
who rate Swinburne not merely among the poets of
high rank, but who assign him a high position in
that select coterie. Among his defects may be men-
tioned, first, a fatal facility for the selection of un-
fortunate if not positively inartistic themes—themes
that to a vast majority of cultured people are physi-
cally or morally repulsive, if not both : second, an in-
ability to exercise true artistic restraint—extrava-
gance in the treatment of his subjects—overdoing,
generally, in what he says and in his way of saying it :
third, a readiness to subordinate, if not actually to
sacrifice, sense to sound, to rate formal execution of
greater import than insight, the outcome of which ten-
dency is to render his poetry often mere word-musig
devoid of sufficient thought to vitalize it: fourth, a
proneness to be vague, indefinite, unintelligible—nay
more, to be at times positively inane. Beyond this,
severer critics assert that he is a man so wrapped in a
self-limited world that he is constitutionally incapa-
ble of broad human sympathies. This want of com-
munity of feeling with his fellows is shown by the
slight tendency of his poetry to find lodgement in the
minds and memories of men. “By necessity, pro-.
clivity, delight, men quote,” and from none more
freely than from the great writers of all time—
whether Biblical, classical, or modern—yet mankind
are not given to quoting Swinburne. However
learnedly some men argue about him, however prone
some are to praise him, they are slow to quote him.
Prolific as his pen has been, it has added next to
nothing to the deathless and divine in literature
which graves itself at once and indelibly on human
hearts and memories. And in proportion as this
point is well made, it would seem to argue some
vital defect in him as a man, and consequently as an
artist, which must ever exclude him from the circle
of the world's great poets.
As for his merits, his champions aver that all his
work, prose as well as poetry, evinces a knowledge,
vast and varied, of the world's best lore ; an eager
and passionate love of beauty; an enthusiastic de-
votion to art for its own sake ; an impetuous, luxu-
riant, and wholly distinctive individuality of style ;
a quickness to perceive and a readiness to praise
everything in the work of his fellows that seems to
him meritorious ; a lofty artistic hauteur—an implicit
belief in himself which, however egotistic it appear
to the vulgar crowd, has always been, still remains,
and must ever continue a prime requisite of Genius.
They call attention, in his verse, to his facile al-
literations, to his pleasant surprises in metre and
rhythm, to the originality and scope of his melodi-
ous variations; to his curiously intricate stanzaic
forms, all singularly felicitous in their ever-recur-
SWINE.
631
*
ring assonances and concordant sounds. Nor will
they admit that his poetry is merely exquisite
sound. They find it as full as adverse critics find it
void, of suggestive and valuable thought. They dote
on his “marvellous execution,” his “wonderful
technique,” but assert that these powers are but
superadded to that of vitalizing his verse with a
substance of thought worthy of the lyric splendor
shown in its construction. To them his strains are
as subtly strong as they are surpassingly sweet.
He is a sovereign among rhythmists—in all moods
an absolute autocrat of verse.
Whatever may be our conclusions about Swin-
burne, it is certainly long since any man in the liter-
ary world has provoked discussion more varied,
more extended, more unintermitting. For Wellnigh
a quarter of a century he has been a most prominent
figure among contemporary men of letters. Writing
not for gain, but simply and solely to please him-
self, following unfalteringly his own star, whitherso-
ever it might take him, refusing to yield so lauch as
a single article in his artistic code, to gain a friend
or to placate a foe, he has produced a mass of work
which, good or bad, is undeniably original and char-
acteristic, and from which neither his brother ar-
tists, nor the camp-following critics, nor the hosts
of the philistines have been able successfully to
avert their gaze. He is a man whom his admirers are
unable to sufficiently praise, and whom his detractors
treat with all manner of contempt, Save the Supreme
contempt of silence and neglect.
Swinburne's collected works comprise : The Queen Mother
and Rosamond (two plays, 1860); Atalanta in Calydon : a
Tragedy (1865); Chastelard : a Tragedy (1865); Poems and
Ballads (1866); Notes on Poems and Reviews (1866); A
Song of Italy (1867); William Blake : a Critical Essay
(1868) ; Siena : a Poem (1868); Ode on the Proclamation of
the French Republic (Sept. 4, 1870); Songs before Sunrise
(1871); Under the Microscope (1872); Bothwell ; a Tragedy
qualities; and the great means of improvement was
the using of boars of the compact, fine-boned Chi-
nese, Siamese, and Neapolitan stock, to which all
the best swine now on the globe are largely indebted
for their most valuable characteristics.
The swine of America consist mainly of the fol-
lowing breeds or their crosses : Berkshire, Poland-
China, Chester, white Suffolk, Essex, Jersey reds,
Cheshires, and Victorias. The breed known as Po-
land-China had its origin early in the present cen-
tury in southwestern Ohio. John Wallace, of Union
Village, while visiting Philadelphia in 1816, pur-
chased an imported boar and three sows, designated
as “big Chinas,” and took them to Warren county.
Their progeny became popularly known as “War-
ren county hogs.” They were improved by mixture
with Berkshires in 1836 and with “Irish Graziers ”
in 1838. The stock thus produced constitute the
basis of the breed known as “Poland-China.”
There appears to have been no admixture of other
blood in the breed since 1840. For a long time
there was great diversity in the designation for the
breed, but the National Convention of Swine-breed-
ers, at Indianapolis, in November, 1872, compro-
mised on Poland-China as the name by which it
should be called.
Great improvement has been made, especially
since 1870, in the form and finish of these swine,
and while prior to that time they were white- and
black-spotted, they are now bred more nearly black,
and in many instances are marked very much like
the Berkshire. The best specimens are well-haired,
have good length, short legs, broad, straight backs,
deep sides, flanked well down on the leg, broad,
square hams and shoulders, deep chests, short, full,
high-crested necks, heavy joints, short heads, fine
muzzles, moderately fine and drooping ears, and
have very quiet, gentle dispositions. For size they
(1874); George Chapman : a Critical Essay (1875); Essays are equal to any swine raised, and are properly
and Studies (1875); Songs of Two Nations (1875); Erech-
thews a Tragedy (1876); Note of an English Republican on
the Muscovite Crusade (1876); A Note on Charlotte Brontë
º A Year's Letters by Mrs. Horace Manners (1877);
9ems and Ballads: Second Series (1878); A Study of
Shakespeare (1879); Songs of the Spring Tides (1880);
Studies in Song (1880); The Heptalogia ; or, The Seven against
Sense : a Cap with Seven Bells (1880); Mary Stuart : a
Tragedy (1881); Disgust : a Dramatic Aſomologue (1881),
which was a parody of one of Tennyson's poems; Tristram
of Lyonesse : with Other Poems (1882); A Century of Roun-
dels (1883); A Midsummer Holiday, and other Poems (1884):
Aſarino Faliero ; a Tragedy (1885); A Study of Victor
Hugo (1886); Miscellanies (1887); Locrine : a Tragedy
(1887); Select Poems (1887). In his Miscellanies have been
included several of his characteristic contributions to the EN-
CYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. (C. E. w.)
SWINE were probably imported from Spain by
Columbus into Hispaniola (Hayti) in 1493, and into
Florida by De Soto about 1538. Within a century
later breeding stock found its way into Nova Scotia,
Newfoundland, Canada, and Virginia.
Notwithstanding the receipt from foreign coun-
tries of an occasional pair or trio of superior speci-
mens, such as the Woburns or Bedfords sent by the
duke of Bedford to Gen. Washington, there was,
prior to 1815–30, but little interest manifested in
any general improvement, and the stock of the coun-
try was mainly made up of coarse, ungainly brutes,
considered of moderate value to roam at will in the
forests, where, subsisting on mast, roots, and rep-
tiles, they grew in from two to four years to weights
of 150 to 400 pounds gross, of fairly good and
sweet-tasted meat, with a minimum quantity of fat
or lard. Since 1830 many improved swine of differ-
ent names and characteristics have been imported
from England for breeding purposes, and used with
remarkable effect in giving to America a greater
number of superior pork-producing animals than is
Possessed by any other country. The old-time stock
of England was coarse and deficient in fattening
classed among the largest breeds. Much attention
is being paid to keeping accurate record of their
pedigrees, and for that purpose different associations
of breeders have published herd-books. Among
these are the American, at Vinton, Iowa; the Cen-
tral, at Indianapolis, Ind. ; and the Ohio, at Dayton,
Ohio.
The Berkshire was well known as a distinct breed
in Southern England a century ago, when the stock
of that name were ungainly, coarse-boned — but
short-legged—flat-sided, and lop-eared, and required
two to three years in maturing. On account of
yielding a large percentage of lean meat mixed with
their fat, they were favorites for making bacon.
The earliest importation of these into the United
States is supposed to have been made to New Jersey
in 1823; the next to the neighborhood of Albany,
N. Y., in 1832. In 1839, Bagg and Wait, English
farmers, settled in Orange Co., N. Y., began impor-
ting largely, selling their stock in Kentucky, Tennes-
see, Missouri, and the South. They were at that
time animals of superior excellence, but under the
neglectful system of stock-raising then prevailing
they deteriorated rapidly and their popularity waned.
English farmers, however, never lost faith in the
value of the breed, and continued to improve it from
year to year. About the year 1865 enterprising Am-
ericans were again attracted by the good qualities of
the swine and began making importations of the best
obtainable. Each year since has witnessed improve-
ment in form and quality, and the stock has been
distributed throughout every State and Territory,
being greatly esteemed either for pork-production
pure or for crossing on other sorts.
Among the qualities that commend the Berkshires
to the favor of breeders and feeders are their remark-
able uniformity in color, form, and quality; great
muscular power, vitality, and activity; strong diges-
532
*
e
SWINE.
tive and assimilative powers; their aptitude for fat-
tening and attaining heavy weights. Their flesh is
the highest quality of pork for all purposes. Their
standard of characteristics and markings, as agreed
upon by American breeders in 1872, was as follows:
“Color black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail,
and an occasional splash of white on the arm. While
a small spot of white on some other part of the body
dºes not argue an impurity of blood, yet it is to be
discouraged, to the end that uniformity of color may
be attained by breeders. White upon one ear, or a
bronze or copper spot on some part of the body, argues
no impurity, but rather a reappearing of Original col-
Ors. Markings of white other than those named above
are suspicious, and a pig so marked should be rejected.
Face short, fine, and well-dished, broad between the
eyes. Ears generally almost erect, but sometimes
inclining forward with advancing age ; Small, thin,
soft, and showing veins. Jowl full. Neck short and
thick. Shoulder short from neck to middling deep
from back down. Back broad and straight, or a very
little arched. Ribs long and well sprung, giving
rotundity of body; short ribs of good length, giving
breadth and levelness of loin. Hips good length
from point of hips to rump. Hams thick, round and
England. Jeffries' stock and its progeny continued
to be bred on and with the original stock of the
County, until its hogs attained a wide reputation
for both size and quality. In Pennsylvania and
neighboring States the new breed was the favorite.
At the fair of the U. S. Agricultural Society at
Philadelphia in 1856, at the U. S. Fair at Richmond,
Va., in 1858, at the State fairs of Maryland, Virginia,
and Pennsylvania, they stood almost unrivalled.
After 1865 much attention was given in all parts of
the Union to raising better stock than had before
been common, and the reputation acquired pre-
viously by the Chester county swine caused them to
be eagerly sought in greater numbers than could be
Supplied, but a reaction followed.
Though not adapted to all localities, the Chester
whites are in many respects swine of superior value.
In some portions of the West and Southwest they
are considered more liable to skin diseases than
black hogs. The Chester whites are among the
most docile of swine, and properly classed as be-
longing to the large breeds; individuals of it have
been fed to the enormous weight of 1300 pounds.
The standard of characteristics adopted for the
breed by the Swine-breeders' Convention in 1872
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Chester White Hogs.
deep, holding their thickness well back and down to
the hocks. Tail fine and small, set on high up.
Legs short and fine, but straight and very strong,
with hoofs erect, legs set wide apart. Size medium,
length medium ; extremes are to be avoided. Bone
fine and compact. Offal very light. Hair fine and
soft ; no bristles. Skin pliable.” Since the prep-
aration of this standard great advances have been
made in developing still heavier hams, deeper sides,
broader, straighter backs, and shorter heads.
American breeders of Berkshires were first to
adopt a systematic plan for the registration of swine
pedigrees, and in 1875, organized, at Springfield,
Ill., the American Berkshire Association for the
purpose of the “collection, preservation, and dis-
semination of reliable information on the origin,
breeding, and management of Berkshire Swine, and
the publication of a herd-book or record of Berk-
shire pedigrees.” Several volumes have already
been issued, and the record is considered of great
value to breeders.
The Chester white takes its name from Chester
Co., Pa., where James Jeffries, in 1818, brought a
was as follows: “Head short, and broad between
the eyes; ears thin, and projecting forward ; neck
short and thick; jowl large; body lengthy and
deep, and broad on the back; hams full and deep ;
legs short and well set under for bearing weight :
hair thinnish, white, straight, without bristles, and
if a little wavy not objectionable; tail small.” Since
the adoption of this standard the tendency has
steadily been toward reducing somewhat the coarse-
ness of their bones, shortening their heads, and
breeding them with smaller, finer ears. The im-
provement has been so great that the best speci-
mens of the breed are nearly models in form.
Large, pendulous ears, coarse heads, long, coarse
tails and hair, and coarse, spongy bones, are not, as
in times past, characteristics of the breed, and the
enormous weights to which they were formerly fed
are not now considered most desirable or profitable.
For farmers who desire white hogs somewhat smaller
and quicker-maturing the Chester sows are excellent
for crossing with smaller boars, such as the Suffolk
breed affords; those who make a specialty of the
latter breed claim that such a cross makes “the
pair of superior white pigs from Bedfordshire,
best Chester white possible.” In Pennsylvania they






SWINE.
633
have always been held in the highest esteem. . In
form, size, and general characteristics, except color,
they are very similar to the Poland-Chinas, but for
some cause have not retained their popularity of
former years among the pork-raisers of the corn-
growing States, where the dark-haired hogs now
largely predominate. Very little attention seems
to have been paid to keeping records of the breed-
ing of different families or strains of Chester
whites.
The Suffolk is a small white breed, originated in
England, where pigs essentially the same are also
IEnglish
authority says they have been continually intermixed
with mutual advantage, and pigs of exactly the
called Yorkshires, or small Yorkshires.
same form, the result of crosses, are exhibited
under the name of Yorkshires or Cumberlands;
also, that the improved Suffolk, the Middlesex, the
Coleshill, and the Prince Alberts (or Windsors) of
England were all founded on the Yorkshire-Cumber-
land stock. Though known to some extent in all
the States since 1855, they have never attained any
general popularity as farmers’ hogs, largely due to
the fact that they were too small, not wholly satis-
factory as breeders and nurses, had skins too deli-
cate to withstand the exposure they encountered,
and too nearly resembled some of their remote
ancestors, described as being ‘‘perfect bladders
filled with hog's lard, and nearly of the same size
and quality.”
The standard characteristics of the Suffolks are :
“Head small, very short ; cheeks prominent and
full ; face dished; snout small and very short ; jowl
fine ; ears short, small, thin, upright, soft, and
silky ; neck very short and thick, the head appear-
ing almost as if set on front of shoulders ; no arch-
ing of crest ; chest wide and deep—elbows standing
out ; brisket wide, but not deep ; shoulders thick,
rather upright, rounding outward from top to elbow ;
crops wide and full. Sides and flanks—long ribs
well arched out from back, good length between.
Shoulders and hams—flank well filled out, and com-
ing well down at ham ; back broad, level, and
straight from crest to tail; no falling off or down at
tail ; hams wide and full all the way down ; legs
small and very short, standing wide apart—in sows
just keeping belly from the ground ; bone fine; feet
small, hoofs rather spreading ; tail Small, long and
tapering ; skin thin, of a pinkish shade, free from
color; hair fine and silky, not too thick; color of
hair pale yellowish white, perfectly free from any
spots or other color ; size small to medium.”
The Essex is a long-established breed of English
origin, but, though of admitted good qualities, it
has never become widely disseminated or popular in
the United States. It was improved by the intro-
duction of some Neapolitan hogs into England by
Lord Western. The reputation of the Essex breed
was established in England in 1840.
They are classed with the small breeds, but are
about the largest of that class, and frequently grow
to weights that would entitle them to consideration
among the larger breeds, often weighing 400 to 600
pounds at maturity, though usually most profitably
slaughtered young for fresh pork, breakfast bacon,
or family use, for which they are highly esteemed,
their meat being well-flavored and fine-grained,
and their lard firm and white. When properly
dressed they are but little darker than other hogs,
even those with white hair. The standard agreed
upon for them by the National Convention is as fol-
lows: “Color black ; face short and dishing ; ears
small, soft, and stand erect while young, but com-
ing down somewhat with advanced age; carcass
long, broad, straight, and deep ; hams heavy and
well let down ; bone fine ; carcass, when fat, com-
posed mostly of lard ; hair ordinarily rather thin ;
WOL. IV. —2 P
fattening qualities very superior. As breeders, prolific
and fair nurses.”
The swine variously known by the names of “Jersey
reds,” “red Berkshires,” “Durocs,” or “Saratoga
reds,” are quite common throughout the United
States. They are of a reddish, Sandy, , or bronze
color, and of widely varying characteristics. For
over sixty years sandy-colored hogs have been nu-
merous in southern New Jersey, especially in Salem
and Burlington counties, and highly esteemed; there
is a tradition that they are descendants of early im-
portations from England of the unimproved Berk-
shires. The National Swine-breeders' Convention in
1872 agreed that their positive origin was unknown,
but reported the following as characteristics of good
“Jersey reds : ” “They should be red in color, with
a snout of moderate length, large lop ears, and
small head in proportion to size and length of body;
should be long in the body, standing high and rangy
on thin legs; bone coarse; heavy tail and brush ;
hair coarse, including the bristles on the back.”
Swine called Cheshires were mentioned by Eng-
lish writers subsequent to 1840–45 as “long-legged,
long-eared, unprofitable giants, all but extinct.”
IBetween 1860 and 1870, in Jefferson Co., N. Y., the
favorite swine were of a large white sort known as
the Jefferson county or Cheshire breed, or some-
times “improved Cheshire.” During those years
they were exhibited at the fairs of the New York
State Agricultural Society, and latterly received
nearly all the prizes awarded on large breeds. The
accepted description of them is that they are pure
white, with very thin skin of pink color, and little
hair, though not wholly uniform in the latter re-
spect, as pigs in the same litter differ widely in the
quantity of hair; the snout is often long, but very
slender and fine ; the jowls are plump, and the ears
erect, fine, and thin ; shoulders wide and hams full ;
their flesh is fine-grained, and they yield an extra
quantity of mess pork in proportion to Offal.
An American breed known as Victorias had its
origin in Saratoga Co., N. Y., about 1855. They
were a combination of the “Grazier,” “Byfield,”
“Yorkshire or Suffolk,” and another hog, white,
long in body and well-haired, and the best of them
are descendants of a sow named (about 1860 or 1862)
Victoria. They have a good coat of fine, soft, white
hair, and fine heads closely set on their shoulders;
snout short and face slightly dished ; ears erect,
small, and thin ; shoulders round and full ; legs
short and fine ; back broad, straight, and level, and
the body long ; hams round and swelling, and high
at base of tail, with plaits or folds between the
thighs; tail fine ; rosettes common on the back ;
skin thin, soft, and elastic ; the flesh fine-grained
and firm, with thick side pork. They can be made
fit for slaughter at almost any age.
The pig being omnivorous, its highest and most
rapid development calls for a generous variety of
feed. During the period of growth there should be
a smaller percentage of carbonate or fat-formers
supplied, and the percentage of phosphates and ni-
trogeneous compounds increased. Indian corn is
rich in fat; oats, on the other hand, are especially
rich in bone- and muscle-formers. Clover and grass
so combine the two that when young hogs are grazed
on these they make a good growth of bone and mus-
cle, and a development of stomach which enables
them to assimilate a greater amount of corn at fat-
tening-time.
As a scale of 100 points for judging swine the Na-
tional Convention of Breeders agreed upon the fol-
lowing : Back, 10; long ribs, 8; short ribs, 7 ;
shoulder, 8; ham, 12; length of body, 6; flank, 6;
twist, 6; snout, 4 ; jowl, 3; face, 3 ; ear, 2.; neck,
4; belly, .4; skin, 5; hair, 3 ; bone, 3; legs, 3;
feet, 2.; tail, 1. (F. B. C.)
634
SYBEL–SYNAGOGUE.
SYBEL, HEINRIGH voN, German historian, was
born at Düsseldorf, Dec. 2, 1817. He was a pupil of
Ranke, at Berlin, though he was chiefly educated at
the University of Bonn, where he became professor
extraordinary in 1844. In 1841 he had published a
History of the First Crusade, exposing some popular
errors in regard to that movement. After pub-
lishing his essay on the Origin of the German
Ringdoms he was called, in 1845, to Marburg as pro-
fessor of history. In 1847, he began his political
career as representative of the university in the
Hessian parliament and was sent to the Congress of
Erfurth. Duke Maximilian II. of Bavaria called
him in 1856 to Munich, where he founded the first
historical seminary in Germany, and published an
historical review. In 1861 Von Sybel returned to
Bonn as professor and was soon sent as deputy to the
Prussian chamber. In 1867 he was elected to the
constituent diet of the North German Confederation,
and took an active partin Bismarck's struggle with the
Ultramontane party. In 1874 he was elected to the
Reichstag, and in the next year was made director of
the State archives at Berlin. His edition of these
important historical documents, commenced in 1878,
is expected to comprise 70 volumes. Von Sybel's
great work is Geschichte der Revolutions zeit von 1789
his 1795 (5 vols., 1853–67), which has passed through
several editions and has been translated into Eng-
lish. It was based upon a faithful study of the
archives in Berlin, Vienna, London, and The Hague.
Von Sybel has also published Die Erhebung Europas
gegen Napoleon (1860), and numerous historical
essays.
SYLVESTER, JAMES Joseph, English mathemati-
cian, was born in London, Sept. 3, 1814. His early
education was at private schools in that city and at
the Royal Institution, Liverpool. His later training
was at St. John's College, Cambridge ; but, being a
Jew, he could not receive a degree, though in 1837
he was second wrangler, and in 1839 was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1872, however, the
degrees then denied him were finally bestowed; he is
also M. A. of Dublin and Oxford, L.L. D. of Dublin
and Edinburgh, and D. C. L. of Oxford. He studied
law at the Inner Temple and was called to the bar
in 1850. He was made professor of natural philosophy
at University College, London, and in 1852 was
called to the chair of mathematics in the University
of Virginia. Returning to England in 1862, he be-
came professor in the Royal Military Academy at
Woolwich, which post he held for five years. On the
organization of the Johns Hopkins University at
Baltimore, in 1877, Sylvester was made professor of
mathematics there, but at the end of 1883 he was
elected Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford,
which chair he has since held. Although he has
published no separate work of importance, his con-
tributions to mathematical periodicals have been
of the highest merit. His papers number altoge-
ther 250, and relate to every department of mathe-
matics, but especially to higher algebra, which he
greatly enlarged by his theory of reciprocants. He
is also the inventor of the plagiograph and other
geometrical instruments. Some sonnets and other
poems from his pen attest the versatility of his
genius. He was the first editor of the American
Journal of Mathematics (founded in 1878), and
second president of the London Mathematical So-
ciety.
SYNAGOGUE. The word Keneseth, the proper
“ſy" Hebrew word for synagogue, is proba-
See Vol. jº, bly post-biblical, and certainly does
Å; 'kº). * not occur in the old Testament. The
... kº & word used in Ps. lxxiv. 8 is not kene-
seth, but moedh, the word commonly employed to
denote the great festivals: The Passover, the Pen-
tecost, the Feast of Tabernacles. The Septuagint
A
and Vulgate translations give the word its usual
meaning in this passage (rùs 'oprás; omnes dies festos
Dei); and the meaning is entirely consistent with
the context. The burning of the sanctuary was virt-
ually the burning of all the solemnities that had
centred there. But even if the word moedh be here
taken in the unusual meaning of “appointed places,”
or “places of assembly,” there is nothing to estab-
lish an identity between these and the fully de-
Veloped synagogue, or to justify the assertion that
‘‘ such synagogues existed in all parts of Judaea in
the time of Ps. lxxiv. 8, or to prove that this psalm
Was Written after synagogues became a recognized
institution.
The Great Synagogue.—The statement that Jewish
tradition assigns to the so-called Great Synagogue
“Supreme religious authority from the cessation of
prophecy to the time of the high priest Simeon the
Just’ needs modification. The traditions (see Mai-
monides in Ugolino, vol. i., col. 12; also Hieros. in
Megil., fol. 70, col. 4, cited in Lightfoot, Pitman's
ed., X. 525, and elsewhere) include among the men
of the Great Synagogue Daniel and his three com-
panions, with Haggai, Zechariah, Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Malachi, and speak of other prophets, in con-
siderable numbers, as also included. It is necessary
to distinguish between what the traditions say of
the Great Synagogue as an organization and what
they say of the men of the Great Synagogue as
persons. Much of what is said in regard to the or-
ganization is apocryphal enough, especially with the
interpretation put upon it by some modern writers;
but no men whose names appear in history are more
real than those just mentioned and their associates.
Whatever Kuenen or others may have shown as to
the organization sometimes described as the Great
Synagogue, or as to the original meaning of the
name, neither he nor anyone else doubts that most
of those who are called the men of the Great Syna-
gogue were veritable men, who actually did literary
work in connection with the Old Testament ; and it
is certain that the traditions concerning this work,
however distorted or exaggerated some of them
may be, have a basis of truth, and that parts of the
truth can be disentangled from the fiction. In par-
ticular, the most important Old Testament questions
connected with the men of the Great Synagogue are
questions that have nothing to do with the organiza-
tion, but only with the men.
This succession of men maintained itself for sev-
eral generations after the succession of the prophets
had ceased, and in this sense the men of the Great
Synagogue are later than the prophets; but it
should not be forgotten that they were also for sev-
eral generations contemporary with the later proph-
ets, and included these prophets among their num-
ber.
The statement that only modern writers since
Elias Levita attribute to the men of the Great Syna-
gogue the completing of the Old Testament canon is
perhaps true, if applied strictly to the alleged or-
ganization of that name ; but it breaks down if ap-
plied to the men of the Great Synagogue as distin-
guished from the organization. The traditions at-
tribute to Ezra, Nehemiah, and other men of the
Great Synagogue a vast amount of work on the Old
Testament books, including the “writing” (that is,
in many cases, the editing) of all the latest of them.
In the sense, therefore, that the canon was actually
complete the moment the latest writings included in
it were finished, the traditions attribute to the men
of the Great Synagogue the completing of the can-
on ; it may perhaps be true that these traditions,
when rigidly sifted, recognize no other “fixing ” of
the canon than this, but this is the determination of
it that is all-important. See, e.g., Baba Batra (Ven.
ed. of 1520), fol. 14a. (W. J. B.)
TABERNACLE.
635
T.
TABERNACLE : The Central Sanctuary of Israel,
and its Religious Feasts. The author
See Vol. XXIII of the article TABERNACLE, in the EN-
# 5 (p. 9 Am
ep.). gard to the detailed accounts of the
Israelitish Tabernacle and its worship, as these are
given in the Priest-code, that “the whole description
is ideal,” that it “throws back into the time of
Moses the whole scheme of worshift and ritual of
which the second temple was the centre.” This
position is an essential part of the view of the Old
Testament held by the succession of writers on
Biblical subjects in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ;
if it be admitted that the tabernacle and its ser-
vices, as described in the Pentateuch, are matters
of historical fact, then their whole scheme falls to
the ground.
The Biblical accounts testify that the tabernacle
was constructed in the vicinity of Mount Sinai.
This gives the author of the article on SINAI, in the
BRITANNICA, an opportunity to open and close his
treatment by an attack on “the historicity of the
Hebrew records involved.” He says: “The ab-
sence of exact topographical detail on the part of
the Biblical narrators, who always speak of Sinai as
if it were a single summit, and give no hint about
several summits of which it is one, shows that in
their time there was no real tradition on the matter,
and that all attempts at identification are necessarily
vain.” But this writer cannot be unfamiliar with the
fact that the usual Hebrew word for mountain de-
notes a given mountainous region as properly as a
single summit. Which of the two it denotes in any
particular passage, can only be known from the con-
text, or from known facts concerning the topography.
He has no right, therefore, to say that these nar-
rators always speak of Sinai as if it were a single
summit ; neither he nor anyone else knows that to be
a fact ; the presumption is that they speak inter-
changeably, sometimes of the region and sometimes
of a particular peak, and there is no evidence to
overthrow this presumption. The fact that their
lack of definition in this particular, and their lack
of details, render it difficult to settle some points as
to the topography, is not at all discrediting to the
historicity of the writings. It is a matter of fact
that in the Sinaitic peninsula, as well as in Egypt
and in Palestine, a growing knowledge of the topo-
graphy, while it often overthrows our theories as to
the meaning of the Biblical statements, yet shows
the correctness of the statements themselves. Even
a man who holds that the Pentateuchal accounts of
the tabernacle were written after the exile, ought to
be able to see that they were written by some one
who was familiar with the Sinaitic peninsula.
The Pentateuchal accounts inform us that Israel
had a public sanctuary-tent, earlier than the one
that Moses made at Sinai, Ex. xxxiii. 7–11. See
also, in this work, ISRAEL, Period I., Institutions.
It is not a fair reading of the history to regard this
as an older and contradictory mention of the taber-
nacle that Moses is said to have made at Sinai. On
the contrary, it is spoken of as a part of a group of
pre-Sinaitic institutions, that were either superseded
by the legislation at Sinai, or incorporated into it.
The Priest-code writings circumstantially describe
the tabernacle itself and its furniture, its system
of offerings and sacrifices, its priesthood, its sacred
year of daily burnt offerings, sabbaths, and ap-
pointed festivals, and in virtue of all these, its char-
acter as the one legal sanctuary of Israel. In regard
to each of these points, the books of the Old Testa-
CYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, says in re-
ment, with more or less continuity, give the subse-
quent history of the institutions founded by Moses,
and in regard to each of them, the several writers in
the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA deny the historicity
of the account thus given.
The tabernacle itself and its furniture. Besides what
we might infer from what is said concerning the
sacrifices, the priests, the festivals, etc., we have the
following direct statements: The tabernacle (mish-
kan) was recognized as in existence, in Western
Israel, after the conquest by Joshua, Josh. xxii. 19,
29. The tent of meeting had been set up at Shiloh
by the congregation of Israel, Josh. xviii. 1. The
inheritances of the tribes were distributed before
Jehovah, at the doorway of the tent of meeting in
Shiloh, Josh. xix. 51. In Eli's time, the tent of
meeting was still in Shiloh, perhaps within the
temple inclosure there, 1 Sam. ii. 22. When David
brought up the ark to Jerusalem, he pitched a tent
for it, 2 Sam. vi. 17; 1 Chron. xvi. 1, while the
Chronicler adds that the mishkan of Jehovah was
then at Gibeon, close by, and the force of Levitical
ministers was divided between the two points, xvi. 39.
This statement is repeated in 1 Chron. xxi. 28 sq.,
2 Chron. i. 3, and on the face of it seems to be con-
firmed by what is said as to Solomon's sacrificing in
Gibeon, and his vision there, 1 Ki. iii. 4–5; ix. 2.
During all this period, Jehovah represents himself
as dwelling in tent and mishkan, 2 Sam. vii. 6.
The mishkan of Jehovah's glory is recognized in Ps.
xxvi. 8. The tent of Jehovah, with its altar (the
tent at Gibeon, rather than the one at Jerusalem),
figures prominently in connection with the accession
of Solomon, 1 Ki. ii. 28, 29, 30; i. 39. And finally,
we are told that, at the dedication of Solomon's
temple, the priests and Levites brought up not only
the ark, but “the tent of meeting and all the holy
utensils that were in the tent,” 1 Ki. viii. 4; 2
Chron. v. 5. In Eli's time we are told that the ark
was in the temple at Shiloh, 1 Sam. iii. 3, pre-
sumptively in its proper sanctuary in the tabernacle,
which we have seen was also there; and that it was
removed from Shiloh at the time when it fell into
the hands of the Philistines, iv. 3, 4. Thus sepa-
rated from the tabernacle, we have a pretty full
account of its various fortunes, till the two were
placed in Solomon's temple. The shew bread of
Ex. xxv. 30; xxxv. 13, appears in 1 Sam. xxi. 6, and
again among the arrangements of Solomon's temple,
and those in preparation for the temple, 1 Ki. vii.
48; 2 Chron. iv. 19 ; 1 Chron. xxiii. 29, etc. In 2
Chron. i. 5, cf., 1 Chron. xxi. 29, it is said that the
brazen altar made by Bezaleel was still in use in
Solomon's time.
Certainly this line of statements, especially when
corroborated by the many parallel allusions to the
sacrifices, the festivals, the priesthood, and other
institutions that had their centre in the tabernacle,
appears, on the face of it, to be entirely credible
as history. If we are not to accept the statements,
We ought to have satisfactory reasons for rejecting
them. Of what sort are the reasons for this, as they
are actually adduced ?
The author of the article on the Tabernacle, in the
BRITANNICA, says: “The Chronicler indeed, who had
before him the Pentateuch in its present shape, as-
Sumes that after the Israelites entered Canaan the
tabernacle continued to be the one legitimate place
of sacrifice, until it was superseded by Solomon's
temple, and represents it as standing at Gibeon in
the days of David and his son (1 Chron. xxi. 29; SQ.
2 Chron, i. 3). But the book of Kings knows Gibé-
636
TABERNACLE
On only as ‘the greatest high place' (1 Ki. iii. 4).”
But We have seen that the continued existence of the
tabernacle is not a mere assumption of the author of
Chronicles, but a matter of fact attested by the
books of Joshua, Samuel, and Kings. The fact that
the book of Kings knows of Gibeon as the seat of
the great high place (this book recognizes no other
high place as legitimate) is perfectly consistent with
the view taken in Chronicles, that the great high
place was constituted as such by the fact of the
presence of the tabernacle there. The account in
Kings does not contradict that in Chronicles, but
confirms it.
On this point, the author of the same article says:
“Two passages in the tº books of Judges,
Samuel, and Kings speak of the tabernacle . . . . ;
but external and internal evidence show them to be
interpolated (1 Sam. ii. 22; 1 Ki. viii. 4). " But the
mention of the tabernacle in 1 Ki. viii. 4 is in the
Septuagint, as well as in the Hebrew copies, and
that in 1 Sam. ii. 22 is in the Hebrew and the Alex-
andrian Septuagint, though not in the Vatican copy
of the Greek. In each case the mention of the tal.
ernacle fits the context, and fits all the Biblical
statements that touch the matter. A man who re-
gards the Priest-code writings as unhistorical must
needs find in that circumstance a reason for regard-
ing these passages, which ascribe historicity to the
Priest-code writings, as interpolations; but really
there is no other reason for so regarding them.
The author of the same article further insists upon
what he regards as the fact that at Shiloh the ark
‘‘ was housed not in a tent but in a temple (1 Sam.
iii. 3, 15).” But, admitting that there was a perma-
nent temple structure at Shiloh, the account testifies
that the tabernacle was also there, and there is no
difficulty in understanding that the tabernacle may
have stood somewhere within the temple precincts,
with the ark in its holy of holies, and the legal ar-
rangements for sacrifice connected with it.
The offerings and sacrifices connected with the taber-
'nacle. The Pentateuchal writings testify that Israel
had institutions of this sort from the time when
Abraham first came to Palestine ; that there were
Israelitish institutions of sacrifice in Egypt, just be-
fore the exodus, and in the wilderness, in the interval
between the exodus and the giving of the Sinaitic
legislation, Gen. xii. 7; xxii. 2 sq. et al.; Ex. x. 25;
xii. 3–28; xviii. 12; xxiv. 5, etc. They affirm that,
under Moses, these earlier institutions were regulat-
ed by various statutes, and supplemented. The col-
lection of them found in the Pentateuch is in no
proper sense a code, but is simply a succession of
papers placed one after another, with no apparent
system. The ritual described differs materially
from that of either Solomon's temple, or the second
temple; it provides for no courses in the Ordering
of the priests and Levites, no corps of gate-keepers
and other attendants of that class, no singers, no
wood-offering (cf. Neh. x. 35 [34]; xiii. 31), no
money provision for current expenses (cf. Neh. x.
33–34 [32-33]), the half shekel tax of Ex. xxx. 12-
16; xxxviii. 25–28, being a very different thing from
the permanent tax of Nehemiah. On the other hand,
traces of the existence of many of the sacrificial usa-
ges described in this legislation are found through-
out the history, from Joshua to Nehemiah. The
great day of atonement, indeed, is not mentioned in
the Old Testament outside the Pentateuch. The
word for sin-offering, except perhaps in Ps. xl. 7
[6], occurs only in Ezekiel, the Pentateuch, and
the post-exilic books, and is first applied in Chron-
icles to the times of Hezekiah. The current phrases
to describe atonement for sin occur in Deuteronomy,
in 1 Sam. iii. 14, in 2 Sam. xxi. 3, and in Ps. li. 9
[7] and other Psalms, but they are abundant only in
the Priest-code and the later Old Testament books.
But most of the other distinctive terms for sacrifice
are found sprinkled through the books of Judges,
Samuel, Kings, and the earlier prophets.
The passages in which these terms occur are very
numerous. It is impossible here to refer to them in
detail. A thorough examination of them would not
lead to the conclusion that the Pentateuchal system
of sacrifices and offerings was in complete opera-
tion in Israel throughout the period from Moses to
Nehemiah ; but equally, it would not justify the con-
clusion that the essential points of the system were
ever unknown in Israel during that period. Such
passages as Deut. xii. 8 and Josh. v. 2–8, show that
the System, so far as the whole people was con–
cerned, was in very imperfect operation even in the
time of Moses himself. The ritual of the times of
Eli has its points of difference from that of the Pen-
tateuch, as well as its points of resemblance. But
in the successive revivals of ritual, under David and
Solomon, under Hezekiah, under Josiah, under Ezra,
the claim made in the records is that the revival fol-
lowed the Mosaic precepts that were in the pos-
session of the priests; and there is nothing in the
phenomena of the times to contradict this claim.
In the article TITHES, in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRI-
TANNICA, the view is presented that the older Israel-
itish legislation had nothing to say of titles, but de-
manded as due to Jehovah the firstlings of the flock
and herd, and also, without fixing the amount, the
first-fruits of agricultural products; that before the
Writing of the Deuteronomic legislation in the sev-
enth century B. C., the amount of the first-fruits had
come to be fixed at a tenth ; that in that code, Deut.
xii. 6, 11; xiv. 22 sq., an innovation is introduced to
the effect that the tithes “must be consumed at a
central, instead of a local, sanctuary ; ” and that in
the times of Ezra and Nehemiah there was put in
force “the new law of the priestly code (Num. xviii.
21 sq.), in which it is formally laid down that the
tithe is a tribute paid to the Levites, who in turn
pay a tithe of it to the priests.” It is sufficient dis-
proof of this that the Priest-code, Deuteronomy,
and Nehemiah alike regard the tithes as something
entirely distinct from the first-fruits, Num. xviii. 12,
13, 21–26; Deut. xxvi. 10, 12 ; Neh. x. 35–38; xii.
44. This theory of the evolution of the tithing sys-
tem has no elements of continuity or of probability
that would justify a truly critical scholar in accept-
ing it in preference to the specific testimony of the
different accounts, which ascribe the laws concerning
tithes to Moses.
In the article on SACRIFICE in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA is a similar theory of the evolution of
sacrificial worship. It holds that a sacrifice “is pri-
marily a meal offered to the deity.” Either the deity
alone partook, as in the case of the burnt offering,
or he shared the sacrificial feast with his worship-
pers. Animals came to be preferred as sacrifices, be-
cause animal food was thought of as more luxu-
rious than vegetable food. In certain stages of
savagery, it is unlawful for a tribesman to eat the
totem animal of his own tribe, and praiseworthy for
him to eat that of a hostile tribe, and thus certain
animals come to be regarded as fit for food or sacri-
fice, while certain others are unfit. “Generally
speaking, then, the original principle on which a
sacrificial meal is chosen is that men may not eat
what cannot be offered to their god.” As the flesh
of their enemies is particularly choice food, in the
view of certain savage tribes, the practice of offering
human sacrifices began, being, in many cases at
least, the product of cannibalism. But somehow or
other, a different idea came to be connected with
human sacrifices—that of the slaying of the victim
to placate the deity, who was offended, and whose
vengeance must be satisfied; the sacrifice became pi-
acular. In due time there came to be piacular ani-
TABERNACLE.
637
mal sacrifices also. In some cases, the offering of
an animal was of the nature of a fine ; “more usu-
ally, however, the life of an animal is accepted by
the god in place of a human life.”
This theory is supposed to find some support in viii.
temple, is
of changing the shew bread, 1 Chron. ix. 32,
xii. 2 sq.; a day regarded as especially suitable for
the Old Testament. It is asserted that “the slaugh-
ter of an animal seems to have been always
sacrificial in early Greece,” and then, that “among
the Semites sacrifice and slaughter for food are still
more clearly identified; the Hebrews use the same
word for both.” This last statement has only a
meagre support from the Hebrew lexicons, and
really none at all from the usage of the Old Testa-
ment; there is no instance where a word of the stem
Z–B–H occurs where it may not naturally be under-
stood to denote a sacrificial feast, either, as a fact,
or, in a very few instances, figuratively, while the
words of the stem T-B-H are not currently used to
denote sacrifice. Again, the alleged connection
between totemism and the distinction of clean and
unclean animals cannot be traced in the Penta-
teuchal scheme; the animals allowed for food are
different from those allowed for sacrifice, the food
animals including many species that are named, and
an immense number of others that fall under gen-
eral designations; while those for sacrifice are three
species of animals and two of birds. Further, the
theory just described requires us to regard “thé
presentation of the gift” as “the central feature in
every ordinary act of worship.” If the laying of
the hand on the head of the victim, in the Hebrew
ritual, was a mere act of presentation, then this fact
fits the theory; but if it was rather an emblematic
confession of ill desert, and a prayer for pardon
(Lev. xvi. 21; v. 5; Num. v. 7), it does not at all
fit the theory.
On the basis of this theory it is sometimes argued,
that, in such cases as that of Jephthah, we have a
picture of the religion of Jehovah in the stage when
it still recognized the propriety of human sacrifices;
that the story of Abraham and Isaac indicates a
later stage, in which this religion outgrew the idea
of human sacrifice; that its sacrificial system grad-
ually developed until, in post-exilic times, the full
pentateuchal ritual had come to be in existence. In
regard to all ideas of this kind, it is sufficient to say
that they contradict the only known ancient records
that bear testimony in the case, and that they have
no such intrinsic credibility as to justify our accept-
ing them in preference to the records.
Concerning the priesthood of the tabernacle, and the
questions depending on it, see PRIEST, in this work.
The sacred Year of the Tabernacle. In Numbers
xxviii., xxix., and elsewhere in the Pentateuch, we
find precepts for a class of acts of worship at certain
fixed times throughout the year—the morning and
evening daily offerings, the special offerings and ser-
vices for the Sabbaths, the new moons, the Passover,
the Pentecost, the Feast of Tabernacles, with its pre-
liminary ceremonials of the blowing of trumpets
and the day of Atonement. Both the Pentateuch
and the other historical books that mention these
attribute the institution of them to Moses, with the
modification that some of the elements involved
were incorporated into the Mosaic legislation from
older sources.
In Opposition to the statements of the records, the
author of the article on the SABBATH in the ENCY-
CLOPEDIA BRITANNICA cites the words of Jesus in the
New Testament to prove that the Sabbath of the
Tanaite scribes (which he assumes to be the same
with that of the Priest-code) was different from that
which prevailed in Israel before the exile. He
makes a grave mistake when he assumes that the
Pentateuchal Sabbath is that of the scribes, and is
to be interpreted by their spirit, instead of by the
spirit of Old Testament prophecy and history. Not
much is said g
exilic books outside the Pentateuch. But in the
concerning the Sabbath in the pre-
few places where it is mentioned, we learn that the
Sabbath was a day of abstinence from labor, . Amos
5; a day of special religious services in the
2 Ki. xi. 5, 7, 9, cf. 2 Chron. xxiii.; the day -
cf. Mat.
consulting a prophet, 2 Ki. iv. 23; a day associated
in thought with the new moons and festivals, and
their assemblies, Isa. i.13; Hos. ii. 13 [11] ; 1 Chron.
xxiii. 31; 2 Chron. ii. 3 [4] ; viii. 13; in fine, as a
day which, in many ways, was regarded as set apart
to Jehovah, and no longer belonging to a man him:
self. In fine, counting one or two severe laws of
the Priest-code as police regulations, designed for
Israel in camp rather than for permanent enforce-
ment, the Sabbath of the Priest-code is, so far as
appears from the particulars given, the same with
the Sabbath of the other Pentateuchal codes, and
the same with the Sabbath that appears in the his-
tory; and each differs, in principle, from the Sab-
bath of the scribes, in precisely the points in which
that Sabbath-doctrine contradicts the teachings of
Jesus.
The mention of the great sacred feasts that are
said to have centred in the tabernacle, in the ac-
counts of the pre-exilic times, is as full as could be
expected. Aside from the passages that specify
particular feasts, we have an allusion to Jehovah's
yearly feast in Shiloh, Jud. xxi. 19; Elkanah and
his contemporaries made annual pilgrimages to Shi-
loh, 1 Sam, i. and ii.; the appointed time of 1 Sam.
xiii. 8, 11, may have been one of the festivals ; the
Chronicler represents that one principal object of
David and Solomon in building the temple was to
make provision for the feasts, 1 Chron. xxiii. 31 ; 2
Chron. ii. 4; the feasts are well known at the time
of Solomon's death, 1 Ki. xii. 32,33; they are prom-
inent in the writings of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and
Nahum, and in the Psalms, Amos v. 21; viii. 10; Hos.
ii. 13 [11] ; ix. 5; Isa. i. 14; xxix. 1; xxx. 29; xxxiii.
20; Nah. ii. 1 [i. 15]. Solomon is said to have ob-
served the three feasts mentioned in the Pentateuch,
1 Ki. ix. 25 ; 2 Chron. viii. 13, both passages men-
tioning the “three times in the year,” though the
names are given in Chronicles only.
Besides the instances in which it is alluded to in
connection with the other festivals, the Feast of
Tabernacles is several times mentioned by itself.
In Josh. viii. 35, the phraseology used is that of the
law for the Feast of Tabernacles, Deut. xxxi. 10–12,
and the suggestion is that the solemnities recorded
in the previous verses took place at the time of the
feast. In 2 Sam. xi. 11, Uriah says that the ark and
Israel and Judah, but not the army, are dwelling in
booths ; on the face of it this looks like a celebra-
tion of the feast of booths. The feast of Jud. xxi.
19 had a vintage dance connected with it, and may
well have been the Feast of Tabernacles, though if
it was, the dance was a mere incident of it. Samuel
was born “at the revolutions of the days,” 1 Sam. i.
20, and the account connects an annual feast with
his birth ; the word translated “revolution” is used
only here and 2 Chron. xxiv. 23; Ps. xix. 7 [6];
and Ex. xxxiv. 22, where “the revolution of the
year” is the time for the feast of ingathering. The
dedication of Solomon's temple was at the time of
the Feast of Tabernacles, 1 Ki. viii. 2, 65–66; 2
Chron. v. 3; vii. 8, 9. This feast is very prominent-
ly mentioned in Zech. xiv. 16, 18, 19.
The writer on the TABERNACLE in the ENCYCLo-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA, however, holds that this feast,
though in existence from early times, did not become
what is called the Feast of Tabernacles—that is, more
properly, the feast of booths, as deseribed in the
priestly legislation—till the times of Nehemiah. He
638 TABERNACLE.
says that from the passage beginning Neh. viii. 14, The festival having been thus instituted, supple-
“We learn that the use of booths on that occasion mental directions were afterward given, at different
had no foundation in traditional usage, but was based times, in regard to it, defining its position in the sa-
directly on the law, which then for the first time be- cred year, its relations to the harvest, and its rela-
came generally known.” But the passage does not tions to the central sanctuary, and defining other
say that the law then first became generally known. points concerning it.
Pt does not intimate that the use of booths was an in- In contradiction to this, the articles on PAssovER
novation on traditional usage. In a sentence con- and PENTATEUCH in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
structed to throw especial emphasis on the adverb, represent that this festival was, in its beginnings, a
the author of Nehemiah says that the children of spring feast, arising from “the accumulation of the
Israel had not so done the thing since the times of sacrifices of firstlings and fatlings " at that season;
Joshua ; the fair inference is not that they had never that “it appears from the Jehovist that something
done the thing before, but rather that they had al- of this kind existed before the exodus, and gave oc-
ways been in the habit of doing it, but never so con- casion to the request of Moses for leave to lead the
spicuously as on this occasion. people out into the wilderness to sacrifice to Jeho-
The writer of the article mentioned above further vali ; ” that the feast of unleavened bread was origin-
says: “According to the law in question, the booths ally a different thing—an agricultural feast, presup-
were to be a memorial of the wilderness wandering, posing a fixed residence in Canaan (as if they had
Lev. xxiii. 43, but of this there is no hint in Deuter- no agriculture in Egypt); that up to the time of
onomy; and . . . . it is certain from Exodus Josiah “this sacrifice was not tied to any set feast; ”
that the feast had originally agricultural and not his- that the name pesach originally was probably that of
torieal significance.” But the two are not necessarily some dance attendant on the feast, the historical
exclusive ; it is entirely credible that the agricultural idea now connected with it being a later interpreta-
significance may have had a historical meaning added ition; that the sacrifice of the lamb and the feast of
to it, as the accounts say was the case. There is no unleavened bread became united into one in Josiah’s
need, therefore, to look for any custom of living in time; that the feast underwent further modifica-
booths during the vintage, or of providing temporary |tions during the exile, and again after the exile. In
shelter for those who came from a distance to the proof that “the Deuteronomic passover was a new
festivals, in order to account for the booths of this thing in the days of Josiah,” is urged the passage be-
feast ; the historical reason assigned for them is suf- ginning 2 Ki. xxiii. 21 : “There was not made the
ficient, though it does not exclude the other reasons, like of this passover from the days of the judges who
provided they are authentic. judged Israel, and all the days of the kings of Israel
The same author says: “In Jud. ix. 27 we find a and the kings of Judah.” But the difference be-
vintage feast at Shechem among the Canaanites, tween this particular passover and previous feasts of
from whom the Israelites first learned the ways of the kind, as we naturally understand by the context,
agricultural life, and from whom so much of the popu- did not consist in the fact that the feast itself, in
lar religion was copied.” Here the intimation that the form in which it was now observed, was an inno-
the Feast of Tabernacles is a development from some vation, but rather in the circumstances and the spirit
Canaanite vintage feast is as gratuitous as the state- of the observance.
ment that the Israelites first learned agriculture from Evidently, the view thus sketched is inconsistent
the Canaanites, or that much of the popular religion with the Pentateuchal accounts. It is equally at
—meaning the religion of Jehovah, then counted cor- variance with the statements of the other historical
rect—was copied from them. He further explains books. These inform us that the passover was cele-
that the autumnal feasts of Israel, that finally devel- |brated shortly after Joshua crossed the Jordon, Josh.
oped into the Feast of Tabernacles, were originally v. 10, 11 : that it was one of the festivals of Solo-
held at many local sanctuaries, and that “it was the mon's time, 2 Chron. viii. 13 ; cf. 1 Ki. ix. 25; that
fame of great shrines that gradually tended to draw it was prominent in Hezekiah's reform, 2 Chron, XXX.
worshippers from a distance to temples like those of 1, 2, 5, 15, 17, 18, 13, 21. Confessedly, the books
Jerusalem and Bethel. Finally, the Deuteronomic of Joshua and Chronicles know of no separation be-
law of the one sanctuary . . . . . put an end to tween the passover and the feast of unleavened
all local religious feasts,” and “obscured the old bread, but use the terms together in their descrip:
significance of the festal cycle, and made room for |tions. Confessedly, the writers of 2 Ki. xxiii. and 2
the historical interpretation of the celebrations.” | Chron. xxxv, represent Josiah's passover to be of
This might be plausible if there were some proof the genuine Mosaic type, not a new feast just con-
that the feast in question was ever celebrated else- trived. º e
where than at the central sanctuary, but of such Under the outline fonnd in the Pentateuch, every
proof there is no vestige. Biblical statement concerning the passoyer can be
According to the Biblical accounts, as they now naturally placed, with no necessity for rejecting any
stand, the PAssover festival was instituted by Moses, of the testimony, or putting a forced meaning upon
just before the Israelites left Egypt, and was at that it. The account thus obtained will be found to be
time kept by them, though in a primitive and incom- simple, intelligible, and consistent, and suited to
plete form, Whether it superseded or incorporated the explanation of all incidental questions that arise
any older festival usages, we are not informed, but on the subject. In contrast with this, the account
certainly no one can trace any connection between found in the BRITANNICA article, based upon a pro-
the passover and the sacrifice to Jehovah which Is- |posed reconstruction of the Hexateuch, is compli-
rael asked Pharaoh's leave to make in the wilderness. cated, involves improbable assumptions, and requires
If the writer of Ex. xii. 34, 39, was writing history, us to reject as false or impossible both a large pro-
he certainly did not intend to be understood as here portion of the statements made in the Hexateuch
giving a different account of the origin of the feast itself, and many of the statements of the other
of unleavened bread from that which he had already | books.
given in verses 3–28; verses 34 and 39 are rather to be | The Tabernacle, as the Central Sanctuary. The
inderstood as mentioning an incident that occurred, three Pentateuchal laws concerning. places of sacri-
illustrating the haste with which the people left |fice are found in Ex; xx. in Lev. xvii., and in Deut.
Egypt, and also illustrating how certain people, who | xii., supplemented by other passages in Deuteron-
had been negligent about obeying the command to omy. The first of the three, so far as its words go,
put away leaven from their houses, were, after all, neither restricts sacrifice to one place nor º:
providentially compelled to eat unleavened bread. more places than one for it. This law is referred to
TABERNACLE.
639
in Josh. viii. 31, where the altar on which Israel sac-
rificed was not the brazen altar of the tabernacle,
but one reared for the occasion. Perhaps it is again
referred to in 1 Ki. xviii. 30–32, where again the altar
is not that of a central national sanctuary. On the
supposition that both this law and the other two
were given by Moses, this law is to be regarded as
stating what was correct Israelitish usage up to the
date when it was given, as regulating the usage from
then to the giving of the subsequent laws, and as
covering any cases that might afterward arise, which
did not fall within the scope of the subsequent laws.
The second in date of the three laws is that given in
Lev. xvii., for, many assertions to the contrary not-
withstanding, Deut. xii. distinctly presupposes Lev.
xviii., instead of being presupposed by it ; compare,
for example, Deut. xii. 15 with Lev. xvii. 13, and
so all through the two chapters. This second law
is applicable to Israelites in camp or out of camp,
but only when Israel is encamped around the taber-
nacle. It may have been enforced in the case of
whatever guard remained statedly with the taber-
nacle during the thirty-eight years of the wandering,
but it certainly was not enforced with the great body
of the people during that time. In Deut. xii. 8,
and context, the people at large are rather excused
than rebuked for doing as they pleased, in contrast
with sacrificing at a central altar only. After the
settlement in Canaan, this law could have no appli-
cation to the people in their homes, though it might
apply if expeditions were made in which they took
the tabernacle with them. The third sanctuary law
is that given in Deut. xii. and subsequent passages.
Under this third law, Jehovah was to choose a
place in the promised land, to put his name there,
and the people were to come to this place from
every part of the land, for certain acts of sacrifice
and worship, and these they were forbidden to per-
form elsewhere. Obedience to this law would al-
ways be impossible, except when Israel was settled
in Palestine, was at rest from enemies, and was in
possession of a place which was recognized as the
one chosen by Jehovah for the purpose.
ingly, these three limits are explicitly stated in the
law itself. Further, this law is qualified by an ex-
press permission to make private sacrificial feasts doors do not necessarily exclude the Vail.
12, 19, 21; 1 Sam. i. 3, 9, 24; ii. 14; iii. 21 ; iv. 3, 4,
12; xiv. 3; 1 Ki. ii. 27; Ps. lxxviii. 60 ; Jer. vii. 12–
14; xxvi. 6–9, with contexts. They represent, how-
ever, that the ark was sometimes moved from Shiloh,
and that some respect was paid to the places that
had been made sacred by the experiences of the
patriarchs or of Israel in past times, 1 Sam. iv.; Jud.
xx. 26–28 ; Josh. xxiv., especially ver. 26; 1 Sam. X.
8; xi. 14, etc. They further represent, however,
that during a large part of the time from Joshua to
David, and for the Northern kingdom after Solo-
mon, the conditions of rest were not such as to ren-
der obedience to the Deuteronomic law possible;
and that, for some portion of the time between Eli
and David, there was no longer a recognized perma-
nent place for the ark and tabernacle together.
They represent that under David Jehovah again gave
Israel rest, and chose a place to put his name there,
|
;
and that, in pursuance of this, David placed the ark
in Jerusalem, and the tabernacle near by, in Gibeon,
thus constituting a divided central Sanctuary, until
the temple was ready to absorb the functions of both
places, 2 Sam. vii. 1, 11 ; 1 Chron. xxii. 9, 18; xxiii.
25; 1 Ki. v. 4; 1 Chron. vi. 31, etc.; 1 Ki. viii. 44,
48, etc. ; and the passages already referred to.
Parts of this account come from several independ-
ent witnesses. The account is perfectly continuous
and consistent. Why should it not be believed 2
In the article TEMPLE, in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRI-
TANNICA, we are reminded that there had been tem-
ples in Israel, both public and private, before that
built by Solomon. The instances mentioned are the
temple at Shiloh, and Micah's house of gods, Jud.
xvii. 5. There might have been added the shrines
at Dan and Ophrah, Jud. xviii. 30, viii. 27, and it
ought to have been added that these places, with the
exception of Shiloh, are mentioned with clear indi-
cations of disapproval. It is said that in the matter
of the temple, “as in other matters, the Israelites
must have learned from the Canaanites.” But how
does this follow 2 We are told that “in Solomon's
temple both the oracle and the outer cella had fold-
Accord-ling doors,” and that “the Chronicler (2 Chron. iii.
14) introduces a wail in the first temple,” this being
a feature of the post-exilic temple. But the folding
It is fur-
anywhere and at any time, provided due care was ther said that “the first temple was primarily the
taken to prevent these from being confounded with | royal chapel, and the kings did as they pleased in it;
the public rites that were limited to the central the second temple was the sanctuary of the priests.”
sanctuary, Deut. xii. 15, 21, with the context.
i
But several recorded instances, notably the rebellion
On the supposition that these three laws are all against Athaliah, and the withstanding of Uzziah, 2
genuine precepts of Moses, we should expect to find
the third law in constant operation in Israel in Pales-
time, unless conditions of political unrest existed
that should render it infeasible, or unless a condition
of things should arise in which no place was recog-
nized as the one chosen by Jehovah to place his name
there. Whenever either of these two conditions ex-
isted, obedience to the Deuteronomic law would be-
come impossible, and usage in Israel would again
become subject to the two earlier laws, as these might
apply. In other words, all the laws alike recognize
the place where the tabernacle and the ark are as the
national centre of worship. But when the tabernacle
and the ark are separated, or when either or both of
them move from their permanent location, or when
there is no permanent location for them, and they
simply wander from place to place, these facts consti-
tute modifications of circumstances that affect the
applicability of the several laws.
As a matter of fact, the books of the Bible assert
that the condition of rest was given by Jehovah to
Israel in the time of Joshua, that Shiloh then became
the abiding place of the ark and tabernacle, and
therefore the national sanctuary, and remained so
till the time of Eli or later, and that only Shiloh and
Jerusalem ever held this position, Josh. xviii. 1, 8, 9,
Ki. xi.; Xv. 5; 2 Chron. xxiii.; xxvi. 21–23, show
that the king's power in the first temple was limited;
and the history throughout makes the first temple,
no less than the second, the sanctuary of the priests.
Like these are all the attempts to prove that Is-
rael had no proper central sanctuary until the times of
Josiah. The historical notices of the successive
kings from Solomon mention that the worship in the
high-places was maintained ; but they mention it
with disapproval, so that each instance is an addi-
tional testimony to the fact that the law of the cen-
tral sanctuary was obligatory throughout this period.
Before Solomon many sacrifices and other acts of
worship are mentioned as occurring at other places
than the central sanctuary, and a plurality of legiti-
mate altars to Jehovah are recognized as existing in
the Northern kingdom, in the days of Elijah, 1 Ki.
Xviii. 30, xix. 14. But all these instances are ex-
plained, either as being illegal, or as being instances
of the merely private sacrificial feasts that are pro-
vided for in the law itself, or as occurring in cir-
cumstances in which the law was inapplicable, and
the usage was therefore governed by the earlier laws.
In fine, there is no reason that will stand the test of
true criticism for refusing to accept the Biblical ac-
count of the tabernacle and its functions as the central
10; xix. 51 ; xxi. 2; xxii. 9, 12; Jud. xviii. 31 ; xxi. Sanctuary of Israel, as historical and correct. (W. J. B.)
640 TAINE–TALC.
..TAINE, HIPPOLYTE ADoLPHE, French critic and
literary historian, was born at Vouziers, April 21, 1828,
Before he left school he was marked as destined to
named Bishop of London in 1856, in succession to Dr.
Bloomfield. . In 1863 he initiated a plan to raise
achieve distinction. At the Collége Bourbon he
gained the prize for rhetoric in 1847 and in the next
year was at the head of those admitted to the Normal
School of Paris. In 1853 he received the degree of
doctor in ietters, having presented a Latin thesis De
Personis Platonicis and a French Essai sur les Fables
de La Fontaine. He then turned from the career of
university teaching, which was open to him, and de-
voted himself to authorship. His Essai sur Tite Live
(1854) was crowned by the French Academy, and his
Voyage anta, Eawa, des Pyrénées (1855) achieved great
popularity.
His Philosophes français du XIXme Siècle (1856)
was an attack on the system of education prescribed
by the government. In 1863 he was appointed exam-
iner in literature for the military school of St. Cyr,
and in the next year professor of the history of art
and aesthetics at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. In the
same year appeared his essays on English idealism
with Carlyle as its exemplar, and English Positivism,
with John Stuart Mill. These prepared the way for
the work by which he is best known to the English-
speaking world, Histoire de la Littérature anglaise
(4 vols.). His brilliant sketch of the development of
English literature and masterly criticism of its grand
array of authors and their works would have sufficed
to give it fame. But beyond and beneath, permeating
and modifying all his research and statements, was the
doctrine that the great authors, instead of being lead-
ers of the thought of their age, were rather the prod-
uct of its movement. The versatile genius of Shakes-
peare, the lofty verse of Milton, the correctness of
Pope, the cynicism and even the madness of Swift,
the romance of Sir Walter Scott, and the sweetness
of Tennyson, are all attributed more to their physical
and social environment than to individual originality.
To the same effect he labored in his Philosophie de
l'art (1865), in Voyage en Italie (2 vols., 1866), and in
other works, brilliant in thought and style. In 1871
he delivered courses of lectures in England and re-
ceived from the University of Oxford the degree of
D. C. L. His closer views of England and its institu-
tions were given in his Notes sur l’Angleterre (1872),
which, like his other books of travel, has been issued
in handsomely illustrated editions. Still more impor-
tant than any of his preceding works was his great
historical and political study of his own country, Ori-
gines de la France Contemporaine. To this belong
L'Ancien Régime (1876); La Revolution (1878); La
Conquête Jacobine (1881). In these works, while he
depicted with unsparing hand the evils of the feudal
despotism, he showed as little favor to the blood-
thirsty democracy by which they were overthrown.
The work, during its progress, was accepted as a par-
tial defence of the monarchical system, and Taine, who
had been rejected by the conservative Academy in
1864, just after the publication of his work on English
literature, and again in 1874, was in 1878 admitted
among the Forty Immortals. -
TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL (1811–1882), pri-
mate of England, was born at Edinburgh, Dec. 22,
1811, and educated at the High School there. He
graduated at Glasgow University in 1827 and at Bal-
liol College, Oxford, in 1830, where he became a Fel-
low and tutor. He opposed the new “Oxford move-
ment,” and with three others published a...protest
against Newman's famous Tract No. 90. His being
in orders prevented his appointment in 1838 to the
chair of Greek at Glasgow. In 1842 he succeeded Dr.
Arnold as Head Master of Rugby School. While
here he married and was widowed. Appointed Dean
of Carlisle in April, 1850, he administered the office
with much energy and efficiency; he was also an
active member of the Oxford University Commission.
After losing three children by Scarlet fever he was
#1,000,000 in ten years for supplying the deficiency
of church accommodations in London. After refusin
the metropolitan see of York he accepted that o
Canterbury from Disraeli in 1868, succeeding Dr.
Longley. In this high office he displayed remarkable
energy, honesty, tact, and courtesy. As a moderate
Low Churchman he was disliked by the “advanced ”
party and continually attacked by the Church Times,
but this he wisely disregarded. In the conflicts about
ritual and ecclesiastical law his sound judgment was
of great value. He presided over several important
meetings, as the Pan-Anglican Synod at Lambeth,
1867; the Church Congress at Croydon, 1877; and
the Conference of Anglican Bishops at Lambeth, 1878.
His letter to the Evangelical Alliance at its meeting in
New York, 1873, exhibited his liberal feelings. His
writings are notable rather for common sense than
for brilliancy or profundity. They include, besides
various charges, letters, sermons, etc., The Dangers
and Safeguards of Modern Theology (1861); and
The Word of God and the Ground of Faith, in two
parts (1863–4). He died at Croydon, Dec. 3, 1882. A
sketch of his Public Life and a comparison between
him and Archbishop Laud appeared the next year. A
memoir of his wife and son, who both died in 1878,
was written by W. Benham (1880), with his approval.
TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE, British mathematician and
physicist, was born at Dalkeith, Scotland, in 1831.
He was educated at the University of Edinburgh and
at Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he was senior
wrangler. He was made professor of natural philos-
ophy in the University of Edinburgh, and is general
secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He
received in 1886 a medal from the Royal Society for
his valuable contributions to mathematical and phys-
ical science. He is joint author with Sir William
Thomson of the Natural Philosophy known by their
name ; and with Prof. Balfour Stewart of The Unseen
Universe. He has also published Recent Discoveries
in Natural Philosophy; Dynamics of a Particle; and
Quartermions.
TALBOT, SILAs (1750–1813), naval officer, was
born in Rhode Island, and at the outbreak of the Rev-
olution was made captain in a R. I. regiment. He
served at the siege of Boston, at New York city, and
at Fort Mifflin, near Philadelphia. In 1778 his naut-
ical skill was displayed in transporting Gen. Sullivan's
troops from the main-land to Newport, R. I., and in
capturing the British floating-battery near that town.
In 1779 i. armed a prize vessel, and after several ex-
ploits was commissioned as captain. He was, how-
ever, captured by a British fleet in 1780, and remained
a prisoner till the close of hostilities. He purchased
the forfeited estate of Sir William Johnson, on the
Mohawk, and served in the N. Y. Legislature and in
Congress. On the reorganization of the navy in 1794
he superintended the construction of the frigate Con-
stitution, which became famous as “Old Ironsides.”
In this vessel he cruised in the West Indies in 1799.
He resigned in 1801, and died at New York, June 30,
1813.
TALC, an important species of mineral, of unctuous
feel, whence possibly its name, which is derived from
the same root as English “tallow.” Chemically tale
is a silicate of magnesia, usually somewhat hydrated,
its formula being Ois Sig Mgs, 2H,0. Occasionally it
makes up the mass of extrusive geological formations.
In physical character it is very soft, ranking with
graphite in this particular, and is used as No. 1 in the
scale of hardness. Specific gravity, 2.6 to 2.8. It is
found in several conditions, occasionally in an imper-
fectly crystallized state, but usually in compact or in
foliated masses. The folia are micacious in character,
very flexible but not elastic. Talc is sometimes of
pearly lustre, usually light green in color, but occasion-
ally white or dark green. In its compact or massive
TALLMADGE-TAMMANY SOCIETY. 64}.
variety it is known as steatite or soapstone... Extrusiye
beds of this material occur in some localities of the
United States, often in association with serpentine and
talcose or schloritic schist. Quarries of Soapstone are
worked at several localities in Vermont, New Hamp-
shire, and Massachusetts; near Philadelphia, Balti-
more, and Washington, and at many other places. . It
is used to make stoves, ovens, and hearths, for sizing
rollers in cotton factories (being unaffected by acids),
as stoppers for chemical vessels, in its powdered state
as a lubricant, and for slate pencils and crayons. The
French chalk of the toilet and tailors' shops is a soft
white sort of soapstone. It is used to Some extent in
the porcelain manufacture, and is an ingredient in Sev-
eral kinds of steam-packing. Being easily cut into
figures which can be hardened by fire, it is used to im-
itate more valuable stones, being colored in accordance
therewith. At the town of Edwards, St. Lawrence
co., N. Y., is a large deposit of talc which is peculiar
in having the fibrous character of asbestos. This ma-
terial is crushed and pulverized, and is used for a
variety of purposes, but principally in paper-making.
As a filler in the manufacture of paper of all grades,
except the very finest and the coarsest, it is excellent,
and is preferred to the clays and other substances or-
dinarily used for this purpose. (C. M.)
TALLMADGE, BENJAMIN (1754–1835), colonel in
the Revolutionary war, was born at Setauket, L. I.,
Feb. 25, 1754. The son of a minister, he graduated
at Yale College in 1773, and had charge of a high-
school at Wethersfield, Conn., when the war began.
Entering the army as lieutenant in 1776 he rose to the
rank of colonel in 1779. In September of that year
he crossed Long Island Sound and surprised and cap-
tured 500 Tories. In the following May a similar ex-
loit resulted in the destruction of British stores at
Fort George, L. I. He had the custody of Major
André after his capture in September, and was a
member of Washington's military family. After the
war he married the daughter of Gen. William Floyd
(1734–1821), a signer of the Declaration of Independ-
ence, who had commanded the patriotic militia of
Long Island. He settled in New York city as a mer-
chant and in 1800 was elected to Congress, where he
served for sixteen years. He died at Litchfield, Conn.,
March 7, 1835, having long commanded universal re-
*.* a survivor of “the times that tried men's
souls.”
His son, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS TALLMADGE (1792–
1869), lawyer , and politician, wrote Memoirs of his
father (1859), held many local offices, and was a mem-
ber of Congress (1846–48).
TALMAGE, THOMAS DE WITT, Presbyterian
preacher, was born near Bound Brook, N. J., Jan. 7,
1832. He graduated at the University of New York
City in 1853 and at New Brunswick Theological Sem-
inary in 1856. He was then ordained pastor of a
church at Belleville, N. J. In 1859 he was called to
the Refowmed Church, Syracuse, N. Y., and in 1862
to the Second Reformed Church, Philadelphia. After
seven years' service here, he became pastor of the
Central Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. His
brilliant oratory soon drew crowds, to accommodate
which a new edifice of wood and iron, capable of hold-
ing 3000 people, was erected, and when it was de-
stroyed by fire, Dec. 22, 1872, a more substantial one
was built of brick and stone on the same site. It has
seats for 5000 persons. The old church is used as a
Lay College, of which Dr. Talmage is president. Be-
sides gathering and ministering to one of the largest
Presbyterian churches in the country, he has been a
popular lecturer, a writer for newspapers, and editor
of a religious weekly and a magazine. Quick in
movement, often extravagant in style, and emergetic
in action, he readily sways an American audience.
His sermons are widely circulated every week, over
600 newspapers publishing them entire. They are
translated into several languages. From his sermons
and contributions to the press many popular volumes
have been compiled. Among them are Crumbs
Swept up (1868); Abominations of Modern, Society
(1872); Night Sides of City Life § Brooklyn
Tabernacle (1884); Marriage Ring (1886). iº
TAMMANY SOCIETY, a noted political organi-
zation of the Democratic party, derives its name from
Tamanend, an Indian chief, concerning whom Various
legends are related. He is said to have ruled near the
present site of Easton, Pa., to have signed the treaty
with William Penn, and after a life of primitive piety
to have died a centenarian. Towards the close of the
Revolutionary war the Pennsylvania troops of Wash:
ington's command took him as their patron saintinstead
of St. George, and celebrated his day, May 12, with
festivity appropriate to his race and the season. The
warriors, decked with feathers and bucktails, having
gathered around a liberty pole, “St. Tammany ... came
forth from a wigwam, and gave them a “talk '' on
courage and freedom, after which they danced and
caroused. The annual celebration was retained in the
American army and among the people, especially in
Pennsylvania, for many years. Within a fortnight of
the first inauguration of Washington at New York,
April 30, 1789, William Mooney, an ardent, Irish-
American “Liberty Boy,” took advantage of this fes-
tival to institute the Columbian Order. It was intended
as a popular offset to the “Society of the Cincinnati’
(q. v.), which had excited prejudice on account of its
supposed aristocratic character and tendencies. The
immediate cause of the formation of the new society was
the popular reaction against the recent removal of the
political disabilities of the wealthy Tories who had
remained in New York city. Columbus had been
selected as the patron of the order, probably in defer-
ence to Joel Barlow's once famous epic, The Vision.
of Columbus, then newly published. But the terms
and usages of the society were all derived from those
of the Indian tribes, and when the popular instinct
transferred the honor to the Indian Tammany the
leaders readily acquiesced in the change. Mooney, as
“Grand Sachem” of the order, was assisted by twelve
sachems, or chiefs of tribes, and the other officers
were a sagamore, or master of ceremonies, a wiskin-
kie, or doorkeeper, and a scribe. Pres. Washington
is said to have availed himself in 1790 of the assist-
ance of the society in entertaining a delegation of
Creek Indians and negotiating a treaty with them.
At this time some Federalists belonged to it, but its
rules and levelling tendency soon excluded all but pro-
nounced Republicans. The passage in Washington's,
“Farewell Address' referring to the danger of polit-
ical “combinations and associations” has been thought
to refer to the Tammany Society, and had the effect
of diminishing its membership at the time.
The society had indeed become a machine'' under
the direction of Aaron Burr, who, though never a
member of the order, was able through his personal
influence with Mooney and its other leaders to inspire
and guide its movements in the political struggle in
New York city. By its aid he achieved in 1799 the
astonishing defeat of the careless Federalists in both
city and State. His victory promptly secured for him
the nomination to the vice-presidency from the Con-
gressional caucus, but his shameless attempts to snatch
the presidency from Jefferson brought him discredit
with the party he had guided to success at the polls.
Yet in 1804, when he sought to regain his prestige by
winning the governorship of New York by a similar
method, Tammany, whose members had received no
benefit by his elevation, still adhered to his cause.
Burr, defeated by the efforts of Hamilton, slew him
and was himself ruined.
The society which he had made formidable in poli-
tics still professed to be organized for charitable pur-
poses and obtained a charter in 1805 as the “Tammany
Society, or Columbian Order.” It even began a mu-
seum of natural history, which finally passed into the
6.42
TANEY.
hands of the great showman Barnum. But such ideas
were soon discarded by its practical members. One of
its main objects was the extension of the elective fran-
chise which had been restricted in the New York
State Constitution to freeholders of a certain amount
of real estate. Yet, actually for many years, it did
nothing to secure this object, its energies being ab-
sorbed in the contest with De Witt Clinton, who had
at one time been its scribe but had been alienated by
its subserviency to Burr, and its later alliance with the
Livingston family, noted for its wealth in land.
Throughout Madison's presidency there was a rivalry
between him and the Clintons—“old George,” the
vice-president, and his greater nephew De Witt—hav-
ing some elements of that between Jefferson and Burr.
From Madison Tammany obtained the control of the
Federal patronage, while at Albany Daniel D. Tomp-
kins–early and late a member of the society—was now
governor of the State. In 1811 Tammany had reached
such financial success that it built its first hall. Its
meetings had heretofore been held in taverns, and
especially in Martling's Long Room, a one-story struc-
ture built for dancing-parties.
After the war with Great Britain (1812–15) De Witt
Clinton, who was supposed to be completely crushed
by his political enemies, renewed his grand project of
the Erie Canal with such vigor that the people elected
him governor though Tammany showed its spite by
naming an opposition candidate. The Society however
had gained a powerful ally in Martin Van Buren, and
in a number of instances it was enabled by his shrewd
management to win political advantages and even to
appear more favorable to internal improvement, Sup-
port of which was the ground of the governor's popu-
larity. A general meeting in Tammany Hall in 1820
led to the State constitutional convention which in 1821
removed some of the restrictions on the elective fran-
chise which had been one of the Society's earliest griev-
ances. The society itself was correspondingly enlarged
and became too unwieldy to conduct affairs by general
meetings. In 1822 a general council was therefore
formed, consisting of three delegates from each of the
eleven wards. This council, or general committee as it
came to be called, gradually assumed the powers of the
general meeting, and the Society merely preserved its
existence for ownership of the hall and formal celebra-
tions.
Before De Witt Clinton died in 1828 he had again
been elected governor of New York in spite of his able
and vigilant foes, but thereafter Tammany Society
worked in harmony with the Democratic governors for
many years. In 1833 New York city had obtained a
charter making the mayor elective, and a change which
produced increased political activity among the people.
The “Equal-rights’’ party struggled with the Tam-
many managers for control of the general meeting. An
incident of the meeting in 1835 gave the name “Loco-
foco" to these innovators and the name was afterwards
extended to the whole party. Tammany was defeated
more than once by the Loco-focos in local contests, but
in JS39 harmony was re-established. The Democrats
however were defeated in 1844, when James Harper
was elected mayor by the American party. , When the
Democratic party of the State divided into the
* * - ~~~ * * * r * * * † Tºº A W a
Hunkers” and Barnburners” (q.v.) a somewhat
corresponding division took place in Tammany, Hall
between the “Hards” and “Softs,” the former being
the office-holding faction. Though they united in
electing Fernando Wood mayor in 1854, the internal
struggle continued. In 1858 with the regular Tammany
nomination he was defeated and in the next year iſ:
opposition to it he was elected. He began the syste
of lavish municipal expenditure which had such dis-
astrous results soon after the civil war.
in 1860 the first Tammany Hall was reconstructed,
but on July 4, 1867, the corner-stone of the present
building on Fourteenth street between Irying Place and
Third avenue was laid and Gulian C. Verplanck de-
livered the oration. Exactly one year later the building
was opened to receive the Democratic National Con-
vention which there nominated Horatio Seymour and
Frank P. Blair. The building is of red brick with
white marble trimmings. It has a wide front and is
three stories high. A circular pediment bears the
inscription “Tammany Society,” with the dates 1789
and 1867. Between these in a niche is the marble
statue of an Indian warrior, twelve feet high.
The delegates to the general committee originally
came from each ward, but in 1843 from each election
district and finally from each precinct. The body
thus grew from 33 members to over 1400, and
from having management of the campaigns to havin
entire control of the political action. The society j
owned the hall and held formal celebrations but had
hardly the semblance of power. Even the general
committee was too unwieldy for its nominal task and a
“committee on organization'' did the serious work.
The chairman of this committee was the "boss” cf.
the Hall.
After the civil war came a succession of “rings”
controlling the action of the Hall. The most notorious
of these was the corrupt combination formed by Wm.
M. Tweed, A. Oakey Hall, Richard B. Connolly, and
Peter B. Sweeny. Having obtained from the State
Legislature an amended city charter, which gave them
as office-holders irresponsible control of the city
finances, they doubled the annual expenditure, and in-
creased the bonded debt by more than $100,000,000.
A standing army of voters was obedient to their will
exercised through the agency of Tammany Hall. After
years of wholesale peculation and embezzlement, a clerk
revealed to the New York Times the fraudulent ac-
counts. Even after their exposure, Boss Tweed could
arrogantly ask, “What are you going to do about it?”
A committee of seventy, with the aid of Charles
O'Conor, Samuel J. Tilden, and other prominent
Democrats, undertook to battle with the ring and by
heroic efforts succeeded in ousting its members from
office and driving them into exile or into prison.
Yet Tammany Hall survived even this catastrophe.
In 1873 it passed into the control of John Kelly, a
nephew of §al McCloskey, who had assisted in
expelling the Tweed Ring. Personally pure and with:
out ambition for office, he was an astute and successful
º manager. The new nominations were of a
higher order than had been customary for many years.
But the growth of the Independent vote and the vari-
ous Democratic secessions from Tammany had dimin-
ished its power. As economic questions again became
prominent, the Democratic party moved in the direc-
tion of Free Trade, while Tammany inclined to a pro-
tective tariff, claiming room for that policy under the
shield of Democracy. In 1879 Tammany bolted from
the action of the State convention and made John
Kelly its candidate for governor, thus defeating Lucius
Robinson. In 1880 its influence was used against
Gen. Hancock in the Presidential campaign. It en-
deavored to prevent Cleveland's nomination and
election in 1884, but without success. Kelly's health
failed and he was obliged to withdraw from political
work. He died June 1, 1886. No one has succeeded
to his power. But Tammany Hall still remains the most
compact organization of the Democratic party in New
York city. Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, though not be-
longing to it, was elected mayor of New York on its
nomination in 1886, but, as his subsequent course gave
offence to its members, he was defeated when a candi-
date for re-election in 1888, and H. J. Grant, Tam-
many's candidate, secured the prize. (J. P. L.)
--TANEY, RogFR BROOKE (1777–1864), chief justice
of the United States, was born in Calvert co., Md.,
March 17, 1777. He belonged to a Catholic family,
which had settled there a century earlier, and always
adhered to his ancestral faith. He graduated at Dick-
inson College in 1795, and was admitted to the bar in
1799. In the next year he was a member of the Mary-


º TAPPAN.
643
land house of delegates, and in 1816 of the State Sen-
ate. His reputation as a lawyer steadily increased, es-
pecially after his removal to Baltimore in 1823. He
had originally been a Federalist, and was personally
opposed to slavery, but in the new alignment of par-
ties, which took place during John §. Adams'
administration, Taney took the Democratic side. He
was appointed attorney-general of Maryland in 1827,
and four years later Gen. Jackson called him to be
U. S. attorney-general, and found him an able as-
sistant and trusty adviser. When the President, after
vetoing in 1832 the bill for renewal of the charter of
the U. S. Bank, decided further that the bank and
its branches should no longer be government deposi-
tories, Duane, then secretary of the treasury, with
a well-grounded apprehension of the result of in-
trusting the funds to State banks of various and un-
certain degrees of financial soundness, refused to exe-
cute the order. He was, therefore, removed, and
Taney, who had advised the scheme, was appointed
in his place. The nomination was held in suspense
by the Senate for nine months, and finally rejected,
though Taney had meantime been acting as head of
the department. Jackson's regard for him was shown
again in 1835, when he nominated Taney first as as-
sociate and afterwards on the death of John Mar-
shall as chief justice of the Supreme Court. There
was still opposition in the Senate, but within three
months Taney was confirmed. He had now attained
the height to which his ambition had early aspired.
The feelings of awe and veneration which, during the
long career of Chief-Justice Marshall, had gathered
around the Supreme bench, were preserved during
several years of Taney's term.
Two great cases bearing strong impression of his
mental qualities illustrate his powers and balance of
mind at its period of most full development and in its
days of declining strength. Both of these cases in-
volved fundamental questions relating to the structure
of our system, the one as it regards its political and the
other its civil aspects. One of these cases arose out
of what is known as the Dorr rebellion, which was an
attempt to change the constitution of Rhode Island by
popular authority without the assistance and concur-
rence of the then existing government of that State.
The other case was that of the status of a slave who
had been carried from a State in which slavery existed
to a place where that institution did not exist and
returned to the first-mentioned State, where the free-
dom of the slave was claimed on the ground that he
had been taken by his master to a State in which
slavery had no existence. In the first case the de-
cision of the court rendered by the chief justice was
strictly confined to the necessities of the questions
presented, while in the other the opinion of the
chief justice went beyond those necessities to define
a grave constitutional question that involved the
balance of powers between the national government
and the States.
That the attempt to change the constitution of
Rhode Island, independent of any concurrent action
of the existing government, was revolutionary in its
nature appears quite clear. That the government
sought by such means to be established was not in fact
established so as to be capable of being regarded as a
de facto government appears by the statement of the
case, and is a . historical fact. The case in
the opinion of the chief justice turned upon the au-
thority of the President upon the application of the
government of a State to use the military power of
the United States to quell insurrection against such
State authority, in such a case the court being con-
cluded by the action of the President on such an ap-
plication. As in cases of that character it may happen
that the actual existence of the government making
such a demand of the President may be disputed as
between two conflicting claimants to such authority the
conclusion of the court would appear to sustain the
idea that the determination of such a question belongs
to the President, and his decision is binding upon the
court. No higher assertion of national authority can
be made than that which confers upon the national
overnment authority to determine the controversies
É. a State and its citizens as to the rightful exer-
cise of State authority, and where such authority is
accorded to the national executive so as to bind the
judicial power, the assertion of national prerogative
against State authority is as vigorous as the most ardent
advocate of the national idea could demand.
But the greater the manifest regard of the American
people for its highest tribunal the more anxious were
the pro-slavery politicians to obtain the support of this
department of the government for the movement for the
extension of slavery. The case of DRED SCOTT (q. v.)
furnished the opportunity, and Taney, with the ma-
jority of the court, yielded to the pressure. The de-
cision which refused Scott, as a negro, any standing in
a U. S. court, and the offensive dictum that, in the
opinion of the framers of the U. S. Constitution, ne-
groes had “no rights which white men were bound
to respect,” was published March 6, 1857, immedi-
ately after Pres. Buchanan's inauguration. It was
evidently intended by its authors to extinguish all op-
position to the progress of slavery in the national do-
main ; its only effect was to rouse in the North a
fiercer and more determined antagonism to the dom-
ination of the slave power. During the ensuing years
of political strife, secession, and civil war Taney re-
mained a reluctant witness to the steady progress of a
political revolution, which finally overthrew slavery
even in Maryland. He faithfully performed all the
duties of his office as he understood them, but he be-
wailed the loss of much of its former glory. His views
even brought him into conflict with the military au-
thorities, and he was compelled to recognize the truth
of the proverb, “Inter arma leges silent.” He died at
Baltimore, Oct. 12, 1864. His life ended before the
conclusion of the great struggle that restored the
strength of the national authority that had been
weakened by the decision in the Dred Scott case, and
the country truly mourned the death of an eminent
judge and worthy man who was equal to the de-
mands of his great office in the height of his mental
powers, but in the end could not resist the course
§ * and of revolution. See his Life by S. Tyler
1872).
TAPPAN, ARTHUR (1786–1865), merchant and
Abolitionist, was born at N orthampton, Mass., May
22, 1786. . His father, Benjamin Tappan, had been
noted for his patriotism during the Revolution. Ar-
thur, after receiving a common-school education, en-
tered on a mercantile career at Boston. With his
brother, Lewis, he engaged in importing dry-goods,
and resided for a time at Tortland, and afterwards at
Montreal. The war of 1812 compelled him to leave
Canada, and he settled in New York. Here his ac-
tivity and liberality found wide scope in founding and
contributing to religious and benevolent enterprises.
The American Tract Society, the American Bible So-
ciety, and various colleges and seminaries were fostered
by his generosity. In 1828 the Tappan brothers
founded the New York Journal of Commerce, with
Horace Bushnell as one of its editors. Arthur was
roused to activity in the Abolitionist cause by the per-
secution of William Lloyd Garrison, whom he rescued
from a Baltimore jail by paying his fine. In 1833 he
called at his own house a meeting for the formation
of an anti-slavery society, and in the same year was
made the first president of the American Anti-slavery
Society. When threatened with the loss of Southern
trade the brothers replied that their goods but not
their principles were for sale. In is34 Arthur's
dwelling house was attacked and pillaged by a mob,
&nd the brothers' store had to be ja by arms.
Yet they continued to give liberally to the Abolition
cause until in 1835 their warehouse was burned. By
-
644
º TAPPAN–TARIFF.
Severe struggles the firm was able to maintain its stand-
ing, even during the panic of 1837. When the lead-
ers of the Anti-slavery Society directed their attacks
on the Christian churches as upholders of slavery Ar-
thur Tappan protested, and finally withdrew from be-
ing its president. In 1841 his business partnership
was dissolved, and in the next year he failed, but with
unflinching integrity caused all his personal property
to be sold for the benefit of his creditors. He was
then employed by his successors in the business until
1849, when he joined his brother in his enterprise, the
first mercantile agency in the United States. In old
age he resided at Passaic, N. J., and finally at New
Haven, Conn., where he died July 23, 1865. His
brother Lewis (1788–1873), who had been closely asso-
giated in his business and philanthropic labors, wrote
his Life (1870). -
. Another brother, BENJAMIN TAPPAN (1773–1857),
in his youth learned engraving and portrait painting,
but afterwards studied law and moved to Öhidiniº.
There he was a member of the Legislature, afterwards
lºgº and in 1833 was appointed by Pres. Jackson
. S. district judge. In 1839 he was elected to the
U. S. Senate as a Democrat, but in 1848 he took part
in the organization of the Free Soil party. He died
at Steubenville, Ohio, April 12, 1857.
TAPPAN, HENRY PHILIP, metaphysician and edu-
cator, was born at Rhinebeck, N. Y., April 23, 1805.
He graduated at Union College in 1825, studied
theology at Princeton, and became associate pastor of
a Reformed church at Schenectady. In 1828 he was
called to a Congregational church at Pittsfield, Mass.,
and in 1832 was made professor of moral philosophy
in the University of the City of New York. After
holding this position six years he conducted a private
school for 14 years. Meantime he had prepared his
metaphysical treatises, commencing with a review of
JEdwards on the Freedom of the Will (1840), and ex-
panded into The Doctrine of the Will Determined by
an Appeal to Consciousness (1840), and The Doctrine
of the Will Applied to Moral Agency and Responsi-
bility (1841). He also published Elements of Logic
(1844), which was afterwards revised. In 1852 he was
chosen first chancellor of the University of Michigan,
and made a tour in Europe, recorded in his book, A
Step from the New World to the Old (1852). Another
visit to Europe enabled him to secure an excellent
equipment for the university observatory, and the ser-
vices of Prof. Francis Brünnow as astronomer. The
university soon attained great prosperity, and became
the model for similar institutions in other States. In
1863 Dr. Tappan resigned and went to Europe.
TAR is a result of the destructive distillation of
organic substances, especially wood
See Vol. XXIII. and coal. Where wood is plentiful
P. "R (P 9% tar is produced by burning the wood
Am. Rep.). for that purpose ; and in some of the
pits where charcoal is produced an arrangement is
made by which the tar is collected. From wood-tar
there is further distilled wood vinegar, or pyroligneous
acid, from which is also procured wood naphtha. In
the United States nearly all of the wood-tar comes
from North Carolina. Wood-tar is produced by the
smothered burning of the long-leafed pine deadened by
fire. A tar-kiln is commenced by Scooping out of the
ground a saucer-shaped foundation, making a hole in
the middle, and thence running a wooden spout out-
side the rim of the foundation. The wood is split into
billets 3 or 4 feet long and about 3 inches in diameter.
The billets are stacked in the centre hole and piled up-
ward, each upper stick lapping a little over, thus giv.
ing the finished pile the appearance of an inverted
cone. Logs of wood and green twigs are then, piled
around, and the whole covered with earth. . The fire
is lighted at the top eaves, and the distilled tar runs
out through the spout. A kiln yields 50, 100, or more
barrels of tar, according to its size. Large iron re-
torts have been used, but the product is not suffi-
ciently greater or more cleanly to pay for increased
COSt.
Coal-tar was for a long time a troublesome product
of gas-works, no useful application of it being known
to any great extent. Later it was used as a covering
to protect iron-work exposed to the weather; and the
pitch obtained by distillation was found, when mixed
with earthy matters, to be a good substitute for the
natural product, asphaltum, used for artificial pave-
ment, water-tight covering for roofs, etc. Finally tar
distillers learned to extract from it crude naphtha, and
also light oily fluids. The pitch, by continued distil-
lation, was made to yield more oily matters. Crude
naphtha is now purified with it ; by taking one-tenth
its bulk with concentrated sulphuric acid, adding when
cold 5 per cent of peroxide of manganese, and distil-
ling off the upper portion a rectified naphtha is obtained,
which easily j India rubber. Mixed with wood-
naphtha it produces a powerful solvent of various resin-
ous Bubstances useful in making varnishes. Still fur-
ther purified, the liquid benzole is obtained, used ex-
tensively as an illuminating agent. The light essen-
tial oils, as well as the heavier ones, possess antiseptic
properties, which render them valuable for preservin
wood from decay. Among the other products obtaine
from coal-tar are carbolic acid and the * colors.
F. G. M.)
TARIFF' (from Tarifa, the name of the Spanish
port at which the Moslem rulers of the country levied
duties on goods passing through the Straits of Gibral-
tar) is a list of the duties levied by any country upon
exports and imports, especially the latter. In the
United States question of free trade or protection has
centred around the legislation to increase or lower
these duties; and the tariff controversy has stood next
to that over slavery, and above that over the currency,
as a source of party divisions.
The word was in America adopted from English
usage. The early English tariffs were prohibitory in
their provisions. They absolutely forbade the impor-
tation of articles which the Parliament agreed should
be made at home. It was not until the reign of
Queen Elizabeth that the use of the tariff as a source
of revenue to the government may be said to have be-
gun. Heretofore the sovereign had profited by it
only through selling dispensations from its provisions
to favored merchants, much as Napoleon did during
the continuance of his Continental system, but without
the concealment he practised. But even the tariffs of
a later date contained distinct prohibitions, and that
of 1819 still continued the prohibitory method under
the cover of duties placed so high as to effect the ex-
clusion of the article. In the American tariff there are
no prohibitory duties except on some articles—chicory,
shoddy, doctored wines, etc.—which are excluded for
other than merely commercial reasons.
After American independence had been secured the
power to legislate with reference to duties on imports
passed to the thirteen States of the very imperfect Union
of 1777–89. Each of them adopted such a tariff as
suited its ideas and circumstances, and the lines of cus-
tom-house collections sundered them from each other.
This at one time seemed not unlikely to result in the
dissolution of the Union into its original elements, as
quarrels sprang up in all quarters, and some States
were not above adapting their regulations to foster
smuggling into the territory of their neighbors. The
Constitution of 1787–89 transferred this power to the
new national government, and on July 4, 1789, James
Madison reported a tariff law, which expressly stated
among its objects “the encouragement and protection
of manufactures.”
While the Federalist party continued in power the
only changes made in this tariff were in the increase of
its duties; but on the accession of the States Rights.
party in 1801 there was, a cessation of this constant
adaptation of the duties to the freshly discovered
needs of industry. No duty, however, except that on
TARIFF.
645
salt, was repealed or even reduced, and when the Sec-
ond war with Great Britain occurred the duties were
doubled until three months after the cessation of hos-
tilities. In this first period of our tariff legislation
there was entire agreement among our statesmen as to
the wisdom and propriety of the protective policy,
Washington and Hamilton on the one side, and Jef-
ferson and Madison on the other being of that mind.
At the same time there was prevalent a very moderate
idea of what the country should undertake in the way
of supplying itself with manufactures, and the tariff
omitted or placed under a mere nominal duty Some of
the most important staples.
It was the war of 1812 which at once destroyed the
previous unanimity of view and raised the ideas of the
protectionists as to the necessity and feasibility of a
national manufacturing system, which would make the
country independent of foreign supplies in case of an-
other war. The war itself acted as a prohibitory tariff
on British goods, and forced Americans to begin mak-
ing for themselves what thbad been buying abroad.
It created the factory system on American soil, and
thus began the supersession of those household manu-
factures which had clothed our people. At its close
the people of the Middle and Southern States were
pretty well united in the belief that it would be a mis-
take to allow the industrial gains of the war to be sac-
rificed to the competitions of cheaper labor and more
abundant capital in Europe ; and the tariff of 1816
was enacted, in the face of the resistance of New Eng-
land. with that purpose. It proved quite inadequate,
as its duties were too low to meet the new conditions
as to cheapness of production and of transportation in
Europe, and it was reinforced by higher duties in 1824
and 1828, the latter being the highest tariff ever en-
acted in this country.
In the meantime the South and New England had
changed places as regards the principle of a protective
tariff, the former because manufactures were found
impracticable in slave States, the latter because it had
begun to di vert its capital and the ingenuity of its peo-
ple from an exclusive devotion to commerce and ship-
ping to manufactures. In both 1824 and 1828 the
amount of opposition from the South had increased,
and in the next decade that section had become almost
unanimous for free trade. This was especially the
case after England" in 1832 removed the protective
duty she had levied upon our cotton for the benefit of
her East and West Indian dependencies, as she had
found that our longer and finer staple was indispensable
to her spinners if they were to compete with those of
America. From that time the Southern planter no
longer depended upon the Northern mills for a market
for his crop ; and he entered into a free trade alliance
with the English loom-lords for mutual advantage.
In 1832 the tariff was revised, and many of its duties
were reduced to conciliate the growing opposition, but
the result was so little acceptable to the South that
South Carolina, with some moral support from her
neighbor States, undertook to “nullify” the tariff
laws of the United States, and to prevent the collec-
tion of their duties in her ports. By the firmness of
Pres. Jackson, this danger was averted; but for politi-
cal reasons a further revision was had in 1833, and it
was agreed that there should be a progressive reduc-
tion of duties until by 1842 none of them should stand
higher than 20 per centum ad valorem. This reduc-
tion proved disastrous to our manufactures, and was a
leading cause of the panic of 1837, which caused a po-
litical revolution and brought the Whigs into power in
1841. The tariff of 1842 ranks in protective efficiency
beside that of 1828, and it caused a revival of Ameri-
can industries in all directions.
In June of 1846 Great Britain repealed its corn laws
and abandoned the protective principle, after enjoying
its benefits for more than 500 years. It was predicted
and confidently expected by Mr. Cobden and his asso-
clates in the league that this would be followed by the
speedy adoption of free trade in all parts of the civil-
ized world. In the United States it did lead to the
tariff of 1846, which placed almost all duties at one of
three ad valorem levels of 10, 20, or 30 per centum, in-
stead of the specific duties of the tariff of 1842. It is
notable that Mr. Calhoun suggested as preferable the
sliding-scale method, by which duties should rise as
prices fell and vice versa, as tending to reduce instead
of increasing fluctuations in prices, and also to give
American manufacturers a better chance. The tariff
operated very unevenly upon our manufactures, as
some of them still enjoyed ample protection, while
others, especially those of iron and woollen goods,
were greatly depressed, and in many cases ruined.
Presidents Taylor and Fillmore urged a return to pro-
tective duties on the ground of the harm the industries
of the nation had received; but the slavery controversy
occupied the time and attention of Congress to the ex-
clusion of almost everything else. In 1857 the South-
ern leaders even carried an amendment to a bill for a
slight alteration in tariff methods, which reduced the
duties by 25 per centum. This was followed by a
panic, of which it was a chief cause ; but although
Pres. Buchanan urged the revision of the tariff in the
interests of our native industries his recommendations
passed unheeded, until at the close of his administra-
tion the withdrawal of Southern senators and repre-
sentatives of the seceding States left the Republican
party with a majority in both branches of Congress, and
this led to the adoption of the protective tariff of 1861,
called the Morrill Tariff from its chief author, Hon.
Justin D. Morrill.
When this tariff was adopted six States had declared
themselves out of the Union, Jefferson Davis had been
inaugurated as President of the Confederate States at
Montgomery, and nine days afterwards the Constitution
of the Confederacy was adopted, declaring that its
Congress should have no power to impose protective
duties on imports. The tariff of 1861 was a war
measure both in the sense of levying many duties for
the sake of a large revenue to the national government,
and in the sense of aiming to put the country in a
posture of defence in case of any complication with
Europe. It was altered by the imposition of higher
duties in the session of 1861–62 and in that of 1863–64,
and in a minor degree at various other times. Through.
out the period protection and revenue were equally
kept in view, and through its operation both these were
secured. The manufacturing industries grew and the
natural resources of the country were developed with
such rapidity, and the losses of population were re-
placed by immigration to such an extent, that the ter-
rible waste of war was hardly felt in an economic
sense, and the country came out of the most gigantic
civil conflict known to history richer and stronger than
when it began. -
With the close d’ſ the war and the reduction of the
burdens of national indebtedness, the work of bring-
ing the tariff from a war to a peace basis began. First,
revenue duties, such as those on tea and coffee, were
repealed. Then as the internal revenue taxes were
repealed, duties raised to compensate them were re-
duced correspondingly. This was effected especially
in 1870; but in 1883 a general revision was effected
after a thorough investigation of the workings of the
tariff through a national commission. But the accumu-
lation of a surplus of revenues in the national treasury
brought up the question of a further revision and re.
duction, and the majority of the House in the Fiftieth
Cºngress committed itself to that policy by passing the
Mills Bill, so called from its author, Hon. R. Q. Wiills
As Pres, Cleveland had urged this policy very
strongly upon Congress in his annual message of Dé.
cember, 1887, and was known to have expressed his
approval of this particular measure, and became a
candidate for re-election to the presidency in 1888, the
election campaign of that year was accepted on both
sides as turning upon this issue. An especial feature
646
TASCHEREAU-TAUNTON.
of the Mills Bill was the transfer of raw materials of
manufacture to the free list. This change may be re-
garded as having secured to Mr. Čeveland the votes of
two manufacturing States in the North. But as he
got no more than these, and as the agricultural States
of the North-west showed their resentment of this
proposal by their votes, the Mills Bill and the policy
it embodies may be said to have shared in Mr. §.
land's defeat. In those sections of the South where
manufactures had struck root since the abolition of
slavery there was a notable falling-off in the vote of
the Democratic party, and both Virginia and West
Virginia gave Mr. Cleveland only small pluralities.
At the same time the Protectionists secured majorities
in both branches of the Fifty-first Congress, thus en-
abling them to proceed with the work of reconstructing
the revenue legislation of the country in accordance
with their principles.
In the later phases of the tariff controversy the
opponents of the protectionist policy have shown
themselves very unwilling to be called free traders.
Some of them seem to think they are entitled to repu-
diate this now unpopular name because they do
not wish to abolish the custom-house, as do John
Ruskin and Henry George, but rather to maintain
a tariff for revenue. But this wish is not in the slightest
degree inconsistent with the idea of free trade, in the
well-ascertained and historical sense of that word. A
tariff which should impose no duty calculated to divert
any part of the labor and capital of the country into a
channel in which they would not flow otherwise is a
free trade tariff, however high its duties, or however
large a share of the national revenue may be derived
from it. Such a tariff will either levy duties only on
such articles as cannot be produced in that country, or
it will compensate the duties upon other articles by
excise taxes upon the domestic product of equal
amount. Under such a tariff trade would be as “free’’
as if there were not a custom-house in the whole
COuntry.
More legitimate is the objection to the term free
trade in the case of those who say that while they be-
lieve in free trade principles, they recognize the vested
rights which have grown up under the protective tariff,
and they would do nothing to injure the manufactures
thus called into existence, while they would move
slowly but steadily towards a system of “industrial
liberty,’’ and would refuse to vote for any further
extension of protection either in the imposition of new
duties or the raising of old ones. But this species of
“revenue reformer” is rarely met with, and has not
a single known representative among the economists
or the statesmen .# the country. -
The protectionist principle is not limited to any
method of application. If it were possible to accom-
plish the same end by premiums or exemption from
taxation or guarantee of profits, there would be no
objection to the substitution of those methods. But
it is found in practice that each of these is attended
with difficulties which do not attend the adoption and
enforcement of a protective tariff
There are three methods of levying the duties of a
tariff : (1) By taxing imports a given percentage of
their value, and ascertaining this by the invoices, or
by the judgments of experts, or both. This is ob-
jectionable because it tends to intensify all variations
in prices, to put a premium upon false statements,
and to give d. domestic producers the least protec-
tion when he needs it the most, viz., in a time of low
prices. , (2). By fixing an average price for the article
and taxing it so as to bring the imported article up to
that price. Under this arrangement the tax disappears
when prices rise above the average, and increases in
proportion as they fall below it. This was the method
of the English Corn Law of 1815. It obviates most
of the objections to ad valorem duties, but would
require constant readjustment as the progress of
methods of production lowered the cost. (3) To levy
the duty by number, weight, or bulk of the imported
article, thus dispensing with invoices, oaths to their
accuracy, and other encouragements to perjury. This
is the method of the English tariff, but that of the
United States attempts a most unhappy combination
of this with the ad valorem method. (R. E. T.)
TASCHEREAU, ELZEAR ALEXANDER, cardinal
and archbishop of Quebec, was born Feb. 17, 1820, at St.
Marie de la Beauce, Quebec. He is of distinguished
French origin, his father having been Jean Thomas
Taschereau, Judge of the King's Bench, Quebec, while
some of his ancestors held even more prominent posi-
tions. After studying at the Quebec and Grand Semi-
naries, he, in his seventeenth year, proceeded to Rome,
where he received the tonsure. Returning to Quebec,
he pursued his theological studies, and in 1842, though
i. canonical age, was ordained priest. Shortly after
his ordination he was appointed to the chair of philoso-
phy in the Grand: Seminary, which post he occupied
for twelve years. While holding this office he endeared
himself to his co-religionists and many others by his
voluntarily acting as nurse and spiritual comforter to
the many Irish emigrants who, driven from their home
by famine, had been taken down by malignant fever
during the voyage and landed on Grosse isie, in the
St. Lawrence River, thirty miles below Quebec, which
soon became a mass of loathsomeness and pestilence
that gradually converted it into a cemetery. The
heroic ecclesiastic was himself stricken down and nar-
rowly escaped death. In 1851 he became professor
of theology in the seminary, and in 1854 he again
visited Rome, where he remained two years studying
canon law, and received the title of Doctor of Canon
Law. On his return to Quebec, he held in succession
the offices of director of the Lower Seminary, of di-
rector of the Grand Seminary, of superior of the
seminary and rector of Laval University, serving also
as a member of the Council of Public Instruction for
Lower Canada. On his return from a third visit to
Rome, he was, in 1862, appointed vicar-general of the
diocese of Quebec. In 1870 he revisited Rome as sec-
retary to Archbishop Baillargeon, of Quebec, while
attending the Vatican Council. On the archbishop's
death in this year Doctor Taschereau was appointed
conjunct administrator of the affairs of the arch-dio-
cese, and in the spring of 1871 was consecrated arch-
bishop. His visits to Rome have been frequent, and
when last there, in 1887, he was presented with the
cardinal's hat, being the first Canadian on whom this
dignity has been conferred.
TATNALL, JosLAH (1796–1871), Confederate naval
officer, was born near Savannah, Ga., November, 1796.
His father, bearing the same name (1762–1803), was then
a U. S. Senator, and afterwards was a brigadier-general
of militia and governor of Georgia. The son entered
the navy as midshipman in 1812 and had some active
service near Norfolk in the next year. He was with
M. C. Perry on the African coast and with Porter, in
his expedition against West Indian pirates. During
the Mexican war, in 1847, he took part in the attacks
on Tampico and Vera Cruz. In 1856 he was flag-officer
of the East Indian squadron, and on one occasion fired
on Chinese who were repelling a British attack. When
Georgia seceded he resigned his command and hastened
to Savannah where he gathered a fleet of gun-boats to
defend Port Royal, S. C., against Commodore Dupont's
expedition. He had command of Norfolk in 1862 and
when the Merrimac, altered into the iron-clad Virginia,
was disabled in her famous fight with the monitor,
Tatmall ordered her to be destroyed. During the rest
of the war he had command at Savannah, and at its
close went to Nova Scotia. He soon returned however
and was made harbor-master. He died June 14, 1871.
TAUNTON, a city of Massachusetts, county-seat
of Bristol co., is on Taunton River, 34 miles S
of Boston. It is at the junction of the Old Colony
Railroad with other roads. It has a court:house,
city-hall, 3 national banks, 2 savings banks, 20
TAXATION. 647
churches, a high-school and several good schools, 1
daily and 2 weekly newspapers, and the State lunatic
asylum. The industrial works comprise locomotive-
works, copper-works, 10 foundries, cotton-mills, and
factories producing nails, tacks, screws, jewelry, bri-
tannia ware, etc. There are also ship-yards and brick-
yards. Taunton was settled in 1639 and became a city
in 1864. Its population in 1880 was 21,213.
Taxation - º sº * 3.D. º
ent field for the study of the practica
See Yºlº operation of methods of taxation, in
Km Re; that there are in this country forty-eight
..º.º. A -- e - -ºº º'e J e separate governments besides that of
the nation, which have the right to determine the
methods in which they will levy upon the resources and
the extent of the people for public purposes, only ten
of them being in any way restricted by any superior
authority in this respect. The legislation of the ten
Territories, which are States in the making, is subject
to the revision of Congress. The Legislatures of the
thirty-eight States are limited only by the provisions
of their own constitutions and of that of the United
States. The national government is limited only by
the latter.
The national government is the only one whose
duties and resources are co-extensive with the nation.
Before the Constitution of 1787 was adopted it had no
powers of taxation, and could only assess the States to
obtain money for its necessary expenses in conducting
the wars and managing the diplomacy of the country.
The proposal to extend to it the power to levy taxes on
imports, as much for the sake of a general system of
protection to home industry as to make its treasury
independent of that of the States, was defeated by the
negative vote of New York. This fortunate refusal
precipitated negotiations for the formation of “a more
perfect union,’’ and the new Constitution conveyed to
the national Congress “ power to collect taxes, duties,
imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for
the common defence and general welfare of the United
States,’’ and to “borrow money on the credit of the
United States.” But this large grant was accompanied
by decided restrictions. The first is that “All duties,
imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the
United States.” The second, that “No capitation or
other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to
the census or enumeration '' elsewhere provided for.
The third, that “No tax or duty shall be laid on articles
exported from any State. No preference shall be given,
by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports
of one State over those of another.” On the other
hand it is provided that “No State shall, without the
consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on
imports or exports except what may be absolutely nec-
essary for executing its inspection laws; and the net
produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on
imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury
of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject
to the revision and control of Congress.” The inter-
retations of the Supreme Court have determined
1) that Congress has no power to levy duties on ex-
ports under any circumstances; (2) that the restriction
upon the power of direct taxation does not apply to an
income tax, that being a form of direct tax which the
authors of the Constitution could not have had in
mind ; (3) that no State may tax the “instrumentali-
ties” which the Federal government deems proper to
create or employ for carrying out its purposes, such as
property in the debt of the United States.
he grant of power thus conveyed has proved much
more extensive than its authors contemplated. In fact
it has transferred to the national government all the
popular and easy forms of taxation, as it possesses not
only the sole right to levy import duties, but the sole
ower to collect excise duties also. The attempt of any
State to collect revenue from the makers of any com-
modity would only result in the transfer of its manu-
(acture to other States. At the same time the jealousy
of the States at the time of the adoption of the Consti-
tution prevented any equally extensive transfer of the
duties and responsibilities of government to the na-
tion. Thus we have a national government possessing
the most ample revenues, but in time of peace doing
less for its people than any other national government
of the civilized world. The costs of maintaining the
national executive and his cabinet, Congress, the treas-
ury, the comparatively insignificant army and navy,
the post-offices, the system of Federal courts of ex-
tremely limited jurisdiction, and the tax-collecting
machinery itself make up the necessary expenses of the
national government. To these it voluntarily, and in
the face of protest from the friends of States' rights,
has added outlays for the construction of internal im-
provements, harbors, grants for education, and various
minor expenditures. And in addition to its revenue
from taxation, it long derived a revenue from the sale
of lands on the public domain, and still counts that
among its minor sources of income. Under the ordi-
nary working of the Constitution there is a vexatious
disproportion between constantly swelling revenue and
restricted possibility of expenditure.
This anomaly did not at once appear after the adop-
tion of the Constitution, nor for several years later
as the United States government was burdene
by a considerable debt, incurred in the prosecution
of the war for independence, and, through the in-
fluence of Alexander i. was induced to assume
the war debts of the States. But as early as 1806
Pres. Jefferson announced to Congress the approach
of a time when the revenue would be in excess of the
constitutional wants of the government, although all
the excise taxes enacted in Washington's administra-
tion had been repealed in 1801. As in his view it
would be unwise to reduce the tariff in order to re-
duce the revenue, he proposed that the powers of
Congress be enlarged by the amendment of the Con-
stitution, so as to enable it to undertake a great
system of internal improvements.
The outbreak of another war with Great Britain
both postponed the appearance of a surplus of rev-
enue and forced the re-enactment of the excise taxes.
But in 1829 we find Gen. Jackson, in his first mes-
Sage to Congress, again announcing the approach of
a surplus, and proposing that it be distributed among
the State governments in proportion to population.
After a futile attempt of the Whigs under Mr. Clay's
leadership to distribute the specific revenue from the
sale of lands, a law proposed by Mr. Calhoun was
passed in 1836, and signed by Pres. Jackson, “de-
positing '' with the States in quarterly instalments the
surplus in the national treasury.
Before the third of the contemplated instalments
had been made, the business depression of 1837, and
the losses of government money through the failure
of the State banks to which Pres. Jackson had trans-
ferred it, compelled the treasurer to stop payment.
In this course he was sustained by Congress, which
suspended the distribution law. In recent years the
State of Virginia has sued for this fourth deposit,
but was non-suited because the court upheld the
validity of the suspending law. Of the three deposits
made under the law of 1836, most of the States made
wise and fruitful use. The common schools of many
of them draw revenue from the fund to this day.
But in some States there prevailed ideas of financial
management now happily obsolete. Thus the State
of New Hampshire divided it up among its citizens,
While levying the usual taxes for the support of the
State government.
In the interval between the panic of 1837 and the
outbreak of the war there was no surplus, partly be-
cause of the war with Mexico and partly because of
the bad financial management, which left a debt of
$61,140,496 on the country in 1860, some of it payin
twelve per cent. interest. Of course the expenses o
the war and the pressure of the debt prevented the
§4S
TAXIDERMY.
accumulation of a surplus in the twenty years that fol-
lowed it, although the tariff for many years was full of
duties for revenue as well as protective taxes, and the
system of excise taxes was revived with a thorough-
ness never known before. But the refunding operations
of the treasury having put a large part of the debt out
of reach for redemption at par, by lSS7 it was found
that in spite of the repeal of most of the taxes imposed
for a war revenue, and repeated reductions of the tariff
and the repeal of all merely revenue duties it contained,
that the income of the government was becoming much
in excess of its legitimate outlays. This at once made
the surplus a question of national politics. The free
trade party proposed to retain the excise taxes on
alcoholic liquors and tobacco (the only survivors of the
general repeal), and to effect a reduction of the revenue
by enlarging the free list of the tariff and by a very
general reduction of duties on imports. The protec-
tionists favored a reduction of duties only so far as it
would not impair the protective character of the
tariff, and proposed the repeal of the excise
taxes on tobacco and on alcohol used in the arts,
and even, if necessary, the entire abolition of ex-
cises, as in 1801. A third proposal is to return to the
policy of 1836, leaving the issue between free trade
and protection to be decided on its own merits, but
giving to the States the surplus of revenue from such
taxes as the national government believes it can collect
without unduly burdening the people, whether these
come from a revenue tariff or a tariff for protection to
home industry, or from either of these, together with a
system of excise taxes on articles whose use it is desir:
able to discourage. The advocates of this plan would
connect with this distribution of the surplus conditions
as to its expenditure, such as have accompanied grants
of money and lands to the States for the promotion of
education or the construction of railroads. They would
require its use (1) for the promotion of education and
the abolition of illiteracy; (2) the payment of State
debts with accumulated interest, without regard to acts
of repudiation passed by any State; (3) to the relief of
the burdens of local and State taxation.
The problem devolved upon the States and their
subordinate governments of collecting sufficient revenue
for the cost of the multifarious duties they have to dis-
charge has been solved in as many ways almost as
there are States. An excellent summary of their
methods will be found in Prof. Richard T. Ely's work
on Tºration in American States and Cities (New York,
1887). It has been a favorite idea with our legislators
that natural equity demanded the equal taxation of
every kind of property, without regard to the likelihood
of injuring the community by driving industries to
localities more favored by the tax laws, and also with-
out regard to the enjoyment of much greater favors
from the community by some industries than by others.
Equally indifferent have been the laws of many States to
the practicability of colleeting certain taxes; and bonds
of foreign corporations held within the State and other
equally intangible forms of personal property have been
taxed on a par with real estate, thus offering a premium !
In this respect the
on the easy evasion of the laws.
tax system of Pennsylvania has generally been regarded
as superior to that of the States generally, which is due
to the fact that in no State have the principles of
economic and fiscal science had so many keen and
practical students. e
While it is in the highest degree desirable that the
incidence of taxation should approximate to equality
throughout the Union—a point most carefully guarded
n as regards the national taxes—this
is the respect in which the differences have been most
Of course in the newer and
by the Constitutio
striking and harmful... ( -
poorer States of the Union the rate of taxation pe.
capita must
wealthier commonwealths. - *
among these older States there are differences out of
proportion to the differing wealth of their people.
be much lower than in the older and mens and have them stuffed as they gould.
But we find that even present day many individuals an e
all Europe and America, make a special business of the
Thus in 1880 the tax-rate in Massachusetts was $16.20
a head, but less than $9 in Pennsylvania, for both
the expenses of the State and those of its local and
subordinate governments. The chief reason of this is
found in the difficulty of raising an adequate revenue
by direct taxation, which leads State and local govern-
ments to skimp the work of government, to be content
with inadequate schools and wretched roads, and to
regard “economy'' as the one virtue in fiscal manage-
ment. To this policy the New England States gener-
ally have been honorable exceptions, and Massachusetts
especially so, but at serious cost to themselves. Many
of the smaller industries, and those not especially
favored by local circumstances, have been driven to the
Middle States, where the tax-rate is lower because the
State governments take a less exacting view of their
duty to their people.
Taking the country as a whole, however, we find that
the direct taxation upon all kinds of property and
incomes is higher than in any country of Europe, ex-
cept one, and an analysis of local tax-lists seems to
show that nearly three-fourths of this burden is borne
by people whose estates amount to less than $5000 each,
this class constituting ninety-seven per cent. of the tax-
payers. The aggregate of property taxes levied by the
State and local governments in 1880 was $312,750,000,
being $6.23 a head of the population, and $18.50 per
$1000 of its property.
Remedies for the weight of this great burden have
been sought in (1) the monopoly of monopolies like the
gas-supply and street-railways by municipal govern-
ments; (2) and in the heavier taxation of such monop-
olies as railroad corporations by the States, so as to secure
from them some equivalent for the valuable franchises
bestowed upon them by the community. But even
these are only alleviations of an evil, which must be
corrected in a more radical way, either by the transfer
of costly government duties like education and police to
the national government, or by the transfer of its sur-
gº of revenue from the national government to the
States.
The former proposal is that which commends itself to
those who wish to see the general government strength-
ened at the expense of the States, as has been the ten-
dency throughout our history, with few interruptions.
The latter should commend itself to those who value
the State governments as a counterpoise to the central-
izing tendency. As such it was advocated by Mr. Cal-
houn in 1836, and accepted by the States' Rights party
of that day. The ài. of securing a two-thirds
vote in Congress and the vote of three-fourths of the
State Legislatures for an amendment to the Constitu-
tion makes the former plan very difficult of application.
It is safe to say that nothing but the prolonged failure
to return to Mr. Calhoun's plan can give it a chance of
adoption. It is that which may bring the country to
such an urgent sense of the need of a fiscal reconstruc-
tion as may force the adoption of the most drastic rem-
edy at hand. At present the proposal to aid the States
in educating their illiterate population, and that for
refunding the amount of the direct tax levied in 1861
as a war measure by the general government, both in-
dicate a growing disposition to treat the national revenue
as not to be isolated from the needs of the State and
local governments. (R. E. T.)
TAXIDERMY (derived from the Greek Tášic, ar-
rangement, and 6épua, hide or skin) is the art of
preserving the outward forms of birds and animals.
The stuffing of birds and other animals is of ancient date,
but the first to adopt the art as a business were the
Verreaux Frères, of Paris, early in the present century.
Examples of their work may be seen in the American
Museum in Central Park, New York. . Before their
day each museum was obliged to collect its own speci-
- At the
and firms, both in
art. The naturalists of former centuries n_ade no
TAYLOR.
649
attempt to collect specimens as nearly as possible in a
state of nature. Even Audubon paid no attention to
taxidermy. When he secured a rare bird he pinned it
to a tree and made drawings to reproduce, as nearly as
possible, the natural tints of the plumage. After this
the skin was removed and dried ; but no attempt was
made to stuff it so as to resemble the bird while alive.
The collection of drawings left by Audubon have
always been highly prized ; but if, instead of the draw-
ings, the great naturalist had acquired the art of taxi-
dermy, his collection would have been more valuable.
The noted English naturalist, Charles Waterton, was
the first in his special line of investigation to practise
taxidermy. His specimens, now in the American Mu-
seum in New York city, are of great value as attempt-
ing to show the natural positions of the birds. Waterton
left particular directions as to the stuffing of birds. He
pointed out that a bird's body is not completely covered
i. feathers, but has places about the shoulders, under
the wings, and on the thighs, where the skin is nearly
bare. Unskilful taxidermists stuff these parts to a
fuller extent than in nature, with the result of destroy-
ing the original proportions. He also pointed out
that, in mounting, the legs were usually too much
lengthened, and advised that the three bones of the
legs should be fixed to form the letter Z, because the
upper joint of the thigh is never straight.
In the practical work of taxidermy, the skin of a
bird demands the most careful attention from the
moment it is killed. Cotton should be used to fill the
wounds, and a damp sponge to wipe blood from the
feathers. In cold weather the bird may be allowed to
become cold before skinning; but in hot weather it
must be skinned at once. The operation is this : be-
ginning at the breast-bone, the skin is slowly separated
by forcing a blunt instrument between it and the flesh;
the bones of the wings are cut at the shoulder-joints,
and when getting the skin from the skull the vertebrae
can be unjointed ; then remove the brains and eyes;
the flesh is taken from under the bill, using care not to
mutilate the openings of the ears or eye-lids; the skin
should then be rubbed with a solution of arsenic or
corrosive sublimate and prepared for drying.
Dr. Jared P. Kirtland, of Ohio, one of the best
taxidermists in the United States, but more especially
in the West, gave the following instructions to young
taxidermists. The implements needed are : a glover's
three-cornered needle, a knitting-needle sharpened and
fixed in a handle, and a sharp knife. Arsenical soap
is to be prepared as follows : pulverized arsenic, 2 lbs.;
potash in powder, 12 oz.: camphor gum, 5 oz. ; white
soap, 2 lbs.; lime in powder, 4 oz. Shave the soap
into small pieces, place it in a pipkin over a slow fire
and add a little water; stir with a wooden spatula till
the soap is dissolved ; take it off and add potash,
and stir well; add the lime by small quantities and then
the arsenic, stirring till all are thoroughly mixed ;
when nearly cold add the camphor, dissolved in strong
alcohol; if the mixture becomes too thick, add water
sufficient to reduce. Dr. Kirtland advised that the
bird be allowed to lie from 2 to 4 hours before skinning,
without regard to the temperature of the day. In
handling the damp skin care should be taken not to
Squeeze the head. The throat should be swabbed with
cotton and filled with powdered plaster of Paris. Cotton
should also be crowded into the mouth, and plaster into
`all the cavities of the head. The cotton and plaster
prevent fluids from issuing out of the head and spoiling
the skin. Having smoothed the feathers carefully with
cotton, lay the bird upon a piece of thick pasteboard
or a thin board covered with canton-flannel, soft side
up. Place the bird upon this with the head toward
the left hand, Separate the legs and feathers and at
the end of the breast-bone begin to cut through the
skin, downwards. . If blood or other fluids issue, put
in plaster of Paris to absorb them. Do the left side
in the same manner, cutting the muscles and the flesh
from the body. Cut the muscles of the wings. The
VOI. IV.-2 Q
membrane of the ear must be undermined by a knife
and the knife forced upwards, lºsiº out the ends
nearest the bill. Remove the eyes. , Clear away the
brain, tongue, and muscles. Wash the inside of the
skull with arsenical soap and fill the skull full of pow-
dered arsenic. Then press a piece of cotton into the
sockets. Leave the bones of the wing and cut the
muscles. Insert a thread at the other end of the bone
in the skin ; break the knob off at the end of the wing-
bone. Take the muscles out of the legs and sometimes
take the fat off the legs. Lubricate with arsenical
soap and wind the bone with cotton. Then tie the
wings with threads, not too tightly. Lubricate the
whole with arsenical soap. Get the ball of cotton out
of the nostrils. Run a little awl, of the size of a small
wire, behind the toes to the joint ; then straighten the
legs and tie the bone to the wire. Take the cotton off
and put more on with arsenical soap. Prepare a cork
body of the length of the bird and as large round as a
large-sized bottle-cork. Join the two wires which are
already in the legs, and another for the neck to the
cork body, leaving them to project 3 or 4 ins, outside
the real body. Wind cotton upon the wire till it be-
comes as large as the neck, and lubricate with arsenical
soap. Wind cotton around an instrument like a knit-
ting-needle till it is about the size of the little finger
and take them off—as fast as made—and lay them on,
under, and around the cork body. Press it from time
to time and put in arsenic powder. Insert the leg
wires; do not place the legs too far back or make the
breast too full. Use arsenic freely. Begin at the
upper part to sew. Put a little aqua ammoniae in the
eye-sockets and let it remain for an hour. Then clear
away unnecessary matter and put putty in the cavities.
Imbed a glass eye in the putty, taking care not to let
the putty show. (F. G. M.)
TAYLOR, GEORGE (1716–1781), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born in Ireland, and
emigrated to Pennsylvania as a “redemptioner” in
1736. From being a laborer in an iron-foundry he rose
to be a proprietor in Northumberland co., and in 1764
was elected to the colonial assembly. After 5 years'
service he was made county judge, and in 1775 was
again a member of the assembly. Here he took the
patriotic side, and on July 20, 1776, was one of the
new members chosen as delegates to Congress. As
such he was allowed to affix his signature to the famous
Declaration on Aug. 2. He was afterwards employed
in negotiating treaties with Indian tribes. His service
in Congress was brief, and he died at Easton, Pa.,
Feb. 23, 1781.
TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786–1858), the-
ologian, was born at New Milford, Conn., June 23,
1786. He graduated at Yale College in 1807, studied
theology, and in 1812 was ordained pastor of the
First Congregational Church of New Haven. In
1823 he was made Dwight professor of didactic theol-
ogy in the seminary then established in connection
with Yale College. During his 36 years of service in
this position about 700 students received his instruc-
tion. His essays and sermons attracted marked at-
tention. . He carried further Dwight and Edwards'
modification of Calvinistic theology, and in his Works
insisted that man, though by nature indisposed to
holiness, was yet not without ability to repent. This
View he maintained not only in his lectures on the
''. Moral Government of God,” but also in the Chris-
tian §. which he edited for twenty years. In
it he also vigorously opposed Unitarianism. He died
March 10, 1858. Rev. Dr. Noah Porter, his son-in.
law, edited his Works (5 vols., 1858–62). *
TAYLOR: WILLIAM MACKERGo, minister, was
born at Kilmarnock, Scotland, Oct. 23, 1829. He
graduated at the University of Glasgow in 1849 and
studied theology at Edinburgh. He was ordained
pastor of a United Presbyterian church at Kilmaurs,
Scotland, in 1853, and in 1855 accepted a call to a
church in Liverpool. In 1872 he became pastor of
650
TECUMSEH-TELEGRAPH.
the Broadway Tabernacle Church, New York. He
has twice delivered, courses of lecture on “Preachin g”
in. Yale Seminary and another course on “Gospel
Miracles'' at Princeton. From 1876 to 1880 he was
editor of the Christian at Work. Many volumes of
his sermons have been published, among them being
The Lost Found (1870); David, King of Israel (1875);
Elijah the Prophet (1876); Songs in the Night (1877);
Peter the Apostle (1877); Daniel the Beloved §:
Moses the Lawgiver (1879); Paul the Missionary (1882);
:/oseph the Prime Minister (1886). He has also pub:
lished a biography of John Know (1885).
TECUMSEH (1770–1813), noted Indian chief, was
born near the site of Springfield, Ohio, about iTTO.
In youth he was of a mild disposition, yet was always
averse to the whites. In his first fight with them,
when 20 years old, he is said to have run away, yet he
afterwards had a reputation for dauntless courage. In
1804, with his brother, Elskwatawa, known as the
‘... Prophet,” he formed a scheme for uniting the In-
dian tribes and extirpating the whites. They visited
the tribes on the great lakes and the Mississippi,
professing to deliver a message from the Great Spirit.
At their camp, near Greenville, some hundreds of
warriors were gathered, and in 1810 Gov. W. H. Har-
rison was notified that the further appropriation of
lands by the whites would be resisted. }. the autumn
of 1811 Tecumseh, in furtherance of their project, went
to visit the Creeks and Cherokees in Alabama and
Georgia. During his absence Harrison, with a force
of 900 men, marched to Tippecanoe and encamped
there. The Prophet directed an assault to be made
early on Nov. 7, but the Indians were repulsed and
fled. Tecumseh in the next year went to Canada, then
threatened with invasion by Gen. Hull's army. With
700 men he joined the British forces, fought at the
River Malden, and was present at Hull's surrender at
Detroit. He was commissioned brigadier-general with
command of all the Indians fighting for the king.
During the contest in the next year he appears to have
lost heart in the British cause, and before the battle of
the Thames, Oct. 5, 1813, he is said to have predicted
his own death. He had command of the right wing,
which was routed by Col. R. M. Johnson, who is said
by some to have shot Tecumseh. His brother, the
Prophet, a man of low cunning and altogether inferior
character, lived to obtain a pension from the British,
but lost his reputation, and died in 1834. See the Life
of Tecumseh (1878) is by E. Eggleston and L. E. Seeley.
TEETH. See DENTISTRY.
TELEGRAPH. º º is º i. º º
...,,, tory of the telegraph in the Unite
sº States. About the year 1827 Prof.
p. 112 (p. Joseph Henry (afterwards secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution) began a se-
ries of experiments in the attic of the Boys' Academy
building in Albany, N.Y., among which was included
the running of a wire about the room, and the sending
of signals from one end to the other by means of an
electric current. During the summer of 1832 Prof. S.
F. B. Morse (for whom see ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN-
NICA) conceived the idea of an electric or electro-mag-
netic telegraph ; and, after numerous experiments, an-
nounced his invention to the public in April, 1837.
Hon. Levi Woodbury, secretary of the U. S. Treasury,
on March 10, 1837, issued a circular requesting in-
formation in regard to establishing a system of tele-
jº. for the United States, to which Prof. Morse
replied, giving an account of his invention, its pro-
posed advantages and probable expense. . At that
time he “presumed 5 words could be transmitted in a
minute.” Morse petitioned Congress for aid to enable
him to test the practical operation of his invention,
and an appropriation of $30,000 was made for this pur-
ose. In 1843 he began to erect the first telegraphig
line between Washington and Baltimore, a length of
40 miles. It was at first proposed to lay the wires in
leaden pipes along the line of the Baltimore and Ohio
steamer at 8 A.
Railroad, but this plan was abandoned, and the wiree
were suspended on poles, a metallic circuit being
formed. The wire had reached Annapolis Junction
just before the National Whig convention opened in
Baltimore in May, 1844. A friendly Congressman
suggested to Prof. Morse that the opportunity had now
come for him to show what could be done. A man at
Annapolis Junction was directed to get information of
what the convention had done as soon as the afternoon
train arrived there from Baltimore, and telegraph it at
once to Washington. The capital was in a ferment,
every citizen being anxious for the news from Balti-
more, which should be brought by railroad. Prof.
Morse and his friend spent that afternoon in his ma-
chine-shop. The wire was opºlating well, and soon
Morse was able to announce, “The convention has ad-
journed. The train for Washington has just left, and
the ticket is Clay and Frelinghuysen.” In spite of
Some doubts the news was quickly spread in Washing-
ton before the train bearing the delegates from the
convention could reach that city. This fact should
have settled the question that Morse's invention was
of practical use. And yet almost a year passed before
the Washington office could be opened for regular
business. The earnings of its first week, in April,
1845, were only $3.09%.
The telegraph line from Washington wasbut slowly
extended to Philadelphia and New York, a distance
of 250 miles. It reached Boston in 1845, and be-
came the great line of the North, from which branched
two others, one from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, Cin-
cinnati, and St. Louis, 1000 miles; the other from New
York to Albany, Buffalo, Cleveland, Chicago, and
Milwaukee, 1300 miles. Another line, 1395 miles in
length, connected Buffalo, Niagara, Toronto, Montreal,
Quebec, and Halifax. Two lines ran south to New
Orleans, one from New York, Washington, and
Charleston, 1966 miles ; the other from Cleveland and
Cincinnati, via Nashville, 1200 miles. The only line
constructed with government aid was the original one
connecting the cities of Washington and Baltimore.
The others were established by private enterprise.
The following table exhibits the annual receipts of the
“Magnetic Telegraph Company,” extending from
Washington to New York, which was the first organ-
ized in this country : From Jan. 27, 1846, to July 1,
1846, $4228.77; to July 1, 1847, $32,810.28; to July
1, 1848, $52,252. Sl to July 1, 1849, $63,367.62; to
July 1, 1850, $61,383.98 ; to July 1, 1851, $67,737. 12;
to July 1, 1852, $103,860.84; total amount received
up to July, 1852, $385,641.42. In 1852 the telegraphic
charges from Washington to various cities were as fol-
lows: Baltimore, 20 cents; Boston, 75 cents; Buffalo,
90 cents; Chicago, $1.25; Cincinnati, 70 cents;
Louisville, 95 cents; Milwaukee, $1.35 ; Nashville,
$1.35; New Orleans, $2.20; , New York, 50 cents;
Philadelphia, 30 cents; Pittsburg, 45 cents; Port-
land, Me., 95 cents; St. Louis, $1.20.
A report made for the U. S. census of 1850 stated:
“The amount of business which a well-conducted
office can perform is immense. Nearly 700 messages,
exclusive of those for the press, were sent in one day
over the Morse Albany line ; and a few days after the
Bain line at Boston sent and received 500 communica-
tions. Another office, with two wires, after spending
three hours in the transmission of public news, tele-
graphed in a single day 450 private messages, averag-
ing 25 words each, besides the address, 60 of whic
were sent in succession without a word of repetition.
Messages passing from one very distant point to an-
other have usually to be rewritten at intermediate sta-
tions; though, by an improved method, the Seaboard
line has, in good weather, transmitted communications
direct between New York and Mobile, a distance of
nearly 1800 miles without intermediate rewriting. By
the Cincinnati route to New Orleans, a distance of
nearly 2000 miles, the news brought by an Atlantic
M. has been telegraphed from New
TELEGRAPH.
651
York to that distant point, and the effects produced in
the market there returned to New York by 11 A. M.
The Congressional reports from Washington are
usually received simultaneously in Baltimore, Phila-
delphia, and New York ; and all that is necessary at
the intermediate stations is for an operator to be pres-
ent and receive the message as it is developed on paper
by the instruments.
“The electric telegraph has been applied in this
country to a new and highly important purpose—that
of the registration of astronomical observations; thus
establishing the best possible means for the determina-
tion of the difference of longitude. The observatories
in different parts of the country are connected by tele-
graphic wires; and the most delicate experiments, de-
pendent upon the appreciation of minute portions of
time, have been successfully performed. This method
has been recently used for the determination of the
wave time of electrical currents.
“The great extent of the telegraphic business and
its importance to the community is shown by a state-
ment of the amount paid for despatches by the Asso-
ciated Press of New York, composed of the seven
principal morning papers—the Courier and Enquirer,
Tribune, Herald, Journal of Commerce, Sun, Times,
and Express. During the year ending Nov. 1, 1852,
these papers paid nearly $15,000 for despatches, and
about $14,000 for special and exclusive messages not
included in the expense of the association.’’
The original invention of Prof. Morse was what is
known as the “single circuit.” Soon afterward a
needle system was invented containing two multipliers,
and using an alphabet wherein the signals were dashes
at angles instead of the Morse arrangement in parallel
lines.
Alexander Bain, (q.v.) a native of Scotland, patented
an electro-chemical telegraph on Dec. 12, 1846; and
another patent was granted to him in connection with
Robert Smith, in October, 1849. The advantages
which the inventor attributed to the electro-chemical
telegraph were : “Ist. More economy and simplicity
in the primitive construction ; 2d. More rapidity in
the transmission of despatches. A single wire, with a
good insulator, can transmit 1200 letters a minute ;
3d. An electric current, more feeble than ordinary,
suffices to cause the apparatus to work ; 4th. More
simplicity and economy in the correspondence and
superintendence; 5th. Fewer chances of error in the
despatches sent.” The Bain telegraph was materially
improved by Henry J. Rogers. The earlier Bain tel-
egraph lines ran from New York to Boston, from
Boston to Burlington and Ogdensburgh, from Boston
to Portland, from Troy to Saratoga, and from New
York to Buffalo. *
The “House printing telegraph '' was invented by
Royal E. House, a Pennsylvanian, and patented April
18, 1846. The first line operating with this instru-
ment was completed in August, 1850, by the Boston and
New York Telegraph Company between those cities.
It was patented in England by Jacob Brett. The
difference between Morse's and House's telegraph
was, principally, that the former traced at the distant
end what was marked at the other ; while House's
did not trace at either end, but made a signal of a let-
ter at the distant end which had been made at the
other, and thus, by new machinery and a new power
of air and axial magnetism, was enabled to print the
signal letter at the last end at the rate of sixty or
Seventy strokes, or breaks, in a second, and at once
recorded the information, by its own machinery, in
printed letters. Morse's was less complicated and
more easily understood, while House's was very diffi-
cult to be comprehended in its operations in detail,
and worked with the addition of two more powers, one
air and the other called axial magnetism, One was a
tracing or writing telegraph ; the other, a signal and
rinting telegraph. The earlier House lines were
}. Boston to New York, from Boston to Spring-
field, Albany, and New York, from Poughkeepsie to
Troy, Aibany, and Buffalo, and from Philadelphia to
New York. In 1848 the House Printing Telegraph
Company entered into competition with the Bain and
a similar company. In 1849 the owners of the Morse
patent sued the Bain operators, and a compromise
was concluded by which the Morse patents were used
over the wires of both companies. The Bain wires,
however, were used between Boston and Montreal
for many years. The House printing machine was in
use until 1847. It was similar to the ticker of to-day,
but larger; the operator turned a crank with his foot
to induce the proper current. The House machine
was much more rapid and could do more work than
the Morse instrument, but in wet weather it became
useless on account of the escape, and the wire had to
be thrown upon the Morse apparatus. The House
circuit was the best and the largest wire, being No. 6
gauge of plain iron. The insulators were made of a
large iron cap which went on top of the pole. The
wire rested in a cleat made of iron but insulated from
the main cap, which was considered the best insulation
at that time. In 1855 the Hughes printing machine
was patented ; but it was such a delicate instrument,
with its vibrating spring, that it did not meet with
much favor. º
In 1855 the rival lines in the West had all been con-
solidated into one company, which was named the
Ohio and Mississippi Printing Telegraph Company.
The word “printing '' was added on account of the
company's using the House instrument. This com-
Yany was incorporated in 1851 by the State of New
ork, with a capital of $360,000, of which about $75,000
was paid. At that time this company was only one
of some twenty or thirty that were struggling for ex-
istence in the country, most of them situated in the
Western States. Each company had a separate set
of officers and employés of all grades; and instead of
making money for its shareholders it was heavily
mortgaged and working at a loss. The stocks of these
companies were almost valueless, and the investors in
the new company determined to buy them up and con-
Solidate the management. By an act of the New
York Legislature, April, 1856, it had its name changed
to the Western Union Telegraph Company. The
Legislature of Wisconsin also issued articles of incor-
poration of the company in 1856, when its capital was
placed at $500,000 with the privilege of increasing it
to $1,000,000. The company then turned its attention
to the purchase and leasing of lines of struggling
Western companies. It soon acquired control of ji
the wires west of Buffalo and Pittsburg. The wires
east of those points were under the management of
the American Telegraph Company, of New York,
with Amos Kendall, president, though the Western
Union built a new line from Philadelphia to Pittsburg.
In 1859 the telegraph line from Omaha to Salt
Lake City to meet the California State Telegraph
Company was projected and J. H. Wade, of Cleve-
land; Edward M. Creighton, of Omaha; J. M. Steb-
bins, of St. Louis; Hiram Sibley, of Rochester, N.
Y., and others were the prime movers in this enter-
brise.... The Indians interfered in every way possible
y killing the line-men and cutting down the poles
and wire after the gangs and troops had passed on.
Down to 1860 the intervention of the government had
been confined to the passage of a few acts granting aid
and protection to parties proposing to extend the tel-
egraph to the Pacific coast and to the Atlantic Cable
Company. In June of that year Congress offered a
bonus of $40,000 a year for 10 years, in addition to
rights on the public lands, to parties who would under-
take the construction of a line from the Missouri to
the Pacific ; and the line was completed in 1861. The
wire was seldom working more than two or three days
at a time; after an interval of the same length the
company would succeed in getting it to work for as
many days more. But business was accepted at gold
652
TELEGRAPH.
rates and held at Omaha, because the time, even at' sissippi. The Baltimore and Ohio Telegraph, as a dis-
tinct organization, dated from Jan. 1, 1882, although
this slow rate, was much shorter than the water route,
via Panama. When the Indians ceased their opposi-
tion, the Overland Telegraph Company became a very
fortunate venture.
At the beginning of the civil war the telegraphic
the telegraph lines of the railroad were in operation
many years before. During the civil war the rail-
road, in connection with the American Telegraph Com-
pany, made additions to its telegraph lines in order to
territory of the country, was divided mainly between transmit commercial messages. "When the consolida.
the American Company running through the eastern
slope from Nova Scotia to New Orleans; the South-
Western, extending from New Orleans through Missis-
sippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky to Louisville, and the
estern Union Company, extending through the Mid-
dle and Western States. The California State Tel-
egraph Company operated the lines on the Pacific
slope connected with the Western Union by the line
above mentioned ; the Illinois and Mississippi Com-
pany operated lines west of Chicago; the Northwestern
Company, those through Wisconsin and Minnesota,
which maintained an independent organization until
their absorption in 1884. These lines all worked in
connection as one system, although under different
managements. The capital stock of the Western
Union Company was $3,000,000, representing the
$2,000,000, to which it had been quadrupled, and
accretions from various sources. In 1861 a stock div-
idend of $3,000,000 was added. In 1863 and 1864
$5,000,000 more was issued, to represent extensions
and new lines ; and, in the latter year, the stock was
doubled by an issue of $11,000,000 as a dividend. In
1863 and 1864 the Russian extension was organized
with a capital of $10,000,000. During and after the civil
war an active opposition arose from the United States
Telegraph Company, competing in the territory of the
Western Union over some 14,000 miles of wire. In
1866 commenced a plan of consolidation; the 14,000 miles
of the United States Telegraph Company's wires were
purchased with new stock of . Western Union valued
at $6,345,800. The Illinois and Mississippi and the
Southwestern Companies' lines were absorbed. Bonds
to the amount of $1,652,000 were issued for the Cal-
ifornia Telegraph lines, and for each share of the
American Company's stock three shares were issued.
When this consolidation was accomplished, the West-
ern Union Company stood without an important rival
in the telegraph business of the country, with a capital
stock of $41,000,000 and a total nominal investment
of $47,877,350. -
The year 1866 thus marked an important epoch in
the history of the telegraph system in this country.
From that time the stock of the Western Union Com-
pany was increased from $41,000,000 to $80,000,000 in
1884. In that year the National Telegraph lines were
sold to the Baltimore and Ohio Telegraph Company,
and the latter became a great rival of the Western
Union, The National Telegraph Company was the re-
sult of a consolidation between the two telegraph lines
running from Buffalo to Chicago along the “Nickel-
Plate ’’ Railroad, and from New York city to Buffalo
along the West Shore Railroad. . This made a contin-
uous line from New York to Chicago. The consolida-
tion extended the line of the Baltimore and Ohio from
New York city to the principal cities east of the Mis-
tion of the Western Union and the American lines
took place the Baltimore and Ohio refused to surren-
der the independence of its telegraph system. On
Jan. 1, 1877, the Baltimore and Ohio Telegraph
broke away from the Western Union and gave assist-
ange to the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company.
When, in the fall of 1877, the Western Union ab-
sorbed that company the Baltimore and Ohio sought
other telegraph connections, which were secured in
May, 1879, through the American Union Company.
When the consolidation of the latter with the West-
ern Union took place, in 1881, the Baltimore and
Ohio determined to establish its telegraph system on
a thoroughly independent basis, and the Baltimore and
Ohio Telegraph Company was formed, and it soon de-
termined to extend its lines to all important points east
of the Rocky Mountains. But in 1887 the Western
Union gained complete control of the Baltimore and
Ohio Company, and since that time it has had practi-
cally no opposition. The special gain by the transfer
was the acquiring of many miles of wires that ran
along railroads, but had been used hitherto chiefly to
help the service of such roads. In October, 1888, the
Western Union Telegraph Company reported its out-
standing capital stock at $86,199,852.06, of which
$25,976,700 belongs to the company. The stock was
increased during the year by the purchase of the Bal-
timore and Ohio Telegraph Company, for which pur-
pose $5,000,000 of additional stock was issued. The
bonded debt, less balance in the sinking fund, was
$6,737,038. 32. The gross revenues for the year end-
ing June 30, 1888, were $19,711, 164, 12, and the ex-
penses were $14,640,592. 18, leaving a profit of $5,070,-
571.94. The surplus amounts to $7,498,548.94. In
addition to the Baltimore and Ohio system, consisting
of 6711 miles of line, .carrying 54,087 miles of wire,
and the New York and Southern system, consisting
of 1528 miles of line, and carrying 5090 miles of wire
acquired during the year, the company constructed
6322 miles of new line, carrying 32,430 miles of
wire, on which account there was appropriated $1,219,-
590.67. The total additions to the plant were 14,561
miles of line, and 91,607 miles of wire, and 1583 ad-
ditional and newly equipped offices. The average
amount received per message during the year was 31.2
cents as against 30.4 cents the year before. At the
close of 1888 the company owned and operated 171,375
miles of poles and cables, carrying 616,248 miles of
wire, over which there were sent during the year
51,463,955 messages from 17,241 offices. In the 22
years of its existence the company earned and collected
$91,383,726.83, and paid in dividends $51,185,565.07.
The following table shows the growth of the Western
Union Telegraph Company in various years since
1866 : a"
Statisties of the Western Union Telegraph Company.

M º Average .
- Miles of Miles of essages vo; tolls per cost per profit per
Year. line. wire. Offices. Sent. Receipts. Expenses. | Profits messajimes...}.
CtS. CtS. cts.
1866 37,380 || 75,686 2,250 $6,568,925 $3,944,006 |$2,624,920
1870 54,109 || 112,191 3,972 || 9,157,646 || 7,637,449 || 5,104,787 2,532,662 69.5 45.7 23.8
1875 72,833 179,496 6,565 17,153,710 || 10,034,986 6,635,474 3,399,510 50.9 33.5 17.4
1880 i 85,645 233,534 9,077 29,216,509 | 12,782,895 6,948,957 || 5,833,938 || 43.7 || 23.7 | 19.3
1885 147,500 462,283 14,184 42,096,583 17,706,834 || 12,005,909 5,700,924 32.1 24.9 7.2
1886 151,832 || 489,607 || 15,142 || 43,289,807 | 16,298,638 12,378,783 3,999,855 37.6 28.5 9.1
1887 156,814 524,641 15,658 47,394,530 17,191,910 | 13,154,029 || 4,037,281 30.4 27.7 8.5
1888 171,375 616,248 17,241 51,463,955 | 19,711,164 || 14,640,592 || 5,070,571 31.2
——
TELEGRAPH. 653
The fact that the Western Union Company had in ships, and he accompanied the expeditions which
secured virtual control of the telegraph business in sailed from England in 1857 and 1858 for the purpºse
this country led to attempts in Congress from 1882 to of laying the cable across the Atlantic Qcean. Twice
1885 for the establishment of a postal telegraph to be the attempt failed in 1857, and again in 1838. The
carried on by the U. S. government. (See POSTAL third attempt proved successful, and in 1858 telegrapliº.
SERVICE.) communication was established between England and
What is called quadruplex telegraph (or the transmis- America. The first public messages were congratuk-
sion of 4 messages from a single wire at the same time)|tions between Queen Victoria, and Pres, Buchana].
has been made possible by a combination of single and which occupied in transmission 67 minutes, each.
double currents. In the duplex working one operator |i)oubts were expressed of the genuineness of these
sends upon a key which reverses and operates only on despatches, and only when a despatch conveying the
the sending battery, whilst the working of another key |action of Parliament on an important public matter
brings into play the full strength of the battery. At was verified by mail two weeks afterward were these
the receiving end one man reads his messages from a despatches accepted as real. But in a few weeks the
delicately adjusted instrument, which is acted upon cable ceased to work, and it was again pronounced a
only by the reverse currents of the first sending op- failure. Mr. Field, however, never lost faith in its
erator, while another receives his message from a less|ultimate success, and he made frequent trips to Europe
delicate machine, responding only to the stronger sig- to resuscitate the company. But the American civil
nals sent by the second sending clerk. To accomplish war, broke out, and not until 1865 was another ex-
quadruplex working an arrangement is made, permit- pedition prepared.
ting transmissions in opposite directions at the same | Meantime submarine telegraphy had been greatly
time. This is done by making the receiving apparatus |improved in many ways, a better cable was prepared,
of the home station insensible to the effects of the out- and the steamship Great Eastern took it on board and
going currents. sailed for the American coast. Over 1200 miles of cable
Later improvements of transmission include an in- had been laid, when, by a sudden lurch of the vessel,
vention which can send some hundreds of words per the cable snapped and was lost. The bottom of the
minute, and have them received at the receiving sta- sea was dragged for days in search of the broken end,
tion in Roman letters, all ready for the attendant to and the jiào. returned to England. In 1866 the
lace in envelopes and send to the persons addressed. | Great Eastern again sailed with a fresh cable, and .
xperiments are still making in regard to the laying | 2000 miles of wire were safely stretched across the
of wires underground, and several miles of subways ocean, and the communication was perfected July 27,
have already been laid in the city of New York with 1866. After landing this the Great Eastern returned
moderate success. The same experiments are extend- to the middle of the ocean, and after two months'
in, to Washington, Boston, and other cities. search succeeded in grappling the sundered cable of the
The aggregate mileage of telegraph lines in the year previous. It was brought up from a depth of
United States used for public business exceeds 180,000; two miles, joined to the cable on the steamship, and
which is exclusive of railroad, government, private, and carried safely to the western shore. After twelve years
telephone lines, the length of which cannot be ascer- of incessant labor, in which he crossed the ocean nearly
tained. fifty times, Mr. Field saw the crowning effort of his
Submarine Telegraphs.--In June, 1852, the sub- life accomplished. Congress voted him a gold medal
marine telegraph between Dover and Ostend was com- with the thanks of the nation, while the prime min-
pleted, and on Nov. 1 electric communication was lister of England declared that it was only the fact that
established direct between Great Britain and the he was a citizen of another country that prevented his
continent of Europe. The history of the Atlantic receiving high honors from the British government.
cable is full of interest. Cyrus W. Field, of New York | The first cable cost $1,256,250, and the company's ex-
city, was applied to in 1854 for aid in completing a land penditures up to Dec. 1, 1858, amounted to $1,834,500.
telegraphic line which had been begun in Newfound- Among the despatches sent over the new cable was
land, to cross the island, 400 miles, from Cape Ray to the speech of the King of Prussia just before the
St. John's, from which it was intended to run a line Austrian war of 1866. It cost $3000 to transmit it.
of fast steamers to the west coast of Ireland, and thus This cable has been in running order almost continually
bring America within a week of Europe. While since its successful completion.
studying this subject, and turning over the gobe in his In 1874 work was begun by the “Direct Cable Com-
- ibrary, he thought, “Why not carry the line across pany ” to lay a cable between Ballinskellings Bay, in
the ocean 2'' Going to St. John's, Newfoundland, in the southern part of Ireland, and Rye, New Hamp-
March, 1854, he obtained from the Legislature of that shire, by way of Nova Scotia. It was finally completed
colony a charter granting an exclusive right for 50 years in 1875. The Commercial Company laid a series of du-
to establish a telegraph from the continent of America |plicate cables in 1884. The starting point may be con-
to Newfoundland and thence to Europe. On March sidered the village of Waterville, near Ballinskellings
10, 1854, the articles of association were signed by five |Point, but a few miles south of Valentia, the terminus
citizens of New York–Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, of the earliest ocean lines. From this point the new
Marshall O. Roberts, Chandler White, and Cyrus W. line has double connections to the English and Eu-
Field. Mr. Cooper became president of the associa-|ropean centres; a land line direct to Liverpool, London,
tion. Mr. White subsequently, died, and Wilson. G. and Paris; also a submarine cable through the English
Hunt took his place. The association was called “The Channel to Havre, thence two separate cables across
New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph the Atlantic to Canso, from which place it has two
Company.” More than two years were required to build submarine cables to the United States, one to Rockport
the land line across Newfoundland and Cape Breton and another direct from Canso to New York city, thus
Island. Meantime Mr. Field went to Europe and or- giving double lines from London and Paris to Boston
dered a submarine cable, to connect Cape Ray and and New York. These lines are all duplicated for two
Cape Breton. This was sent out in 1855, and was lost|reasons, the press of business and the contingency of
in a gale in an attempt to lay it across the Gulf of St. disaster to one of them. The system adopted is known
Lawrence, but the attempt was successfully renewed in as octoplex harmonic, one wire doing the duty of eight.
1856. In that year Mr. Field again went to London The cost of these cables is estimated to have been
and organized the Atlantic Telegraph Company, to about $10,000,000. º -
carry the line across the ocean. As an evidence of his Method of Working.—In the early part of the history
confidence in its success, Mr. Field subscribed a fourth of the Atlantic cable, the flash system of signals was
of the entire capital stock ºf the company. He set used; the messages were spelled out by flashing rays
cured from the British and American governments aid of light back and forth aeross a standard line, the right
654
TELESCOPES.
and left flashes corresponding with the dots and dashes
of the ordinary telegraph alphabet. In Stern's system,
which is now used by the French cable, having its
terminus at North Eastham, Mass., the light is flashed
by reflection from an extremely light mirror, which is
turned to right and left by the opposing influence of
pºsitive and negative impulses. This system has the
advantage of being operated with very slight impulses,
but also the disadvantage of leaving no permanent
record. To secure the latter very important end, the
recording instrument has been adopted. The recorder
is a horseshoe magnet, electrified by the usual circle
of fine wire, and attracting a small metallic coil. The
coil is hung between the magnet-poles; and by a light
lever and a thread almost as fine as the strand of a
cobweb it is connected with a delicate siphon hung in
a little reservoir of ink. The ink is electrified, so as
to produce a repulsion of the particles, making it flow
more readily through the siphon, which outside is about
the size of a darning-needle, and the interior tube
Scareely larger than a hair. The lower end of the
siphon rests against a paper tape playing perpendicu-
larly through rollers. The whole machine is almost
of gossamer fineness and flexibility, so as to minimize
the electric strain necessary for working the cable. The
Commercial (or Mackay-Bennett) Company has adopted
the system known as the William Thomson siphon
recorder. Between the two poles of a powerful magnet
is suspended a piece of soft iron. In this the mag-
netism is concentrated. In the field is suspended a
coil of fine wire. The motion of the coil is transmitted
to the siphon-fed with the purest aniline ink—by
means of a silk fibre so fine as to be almost invisible.
A revolving electric motor feeds the ink generator by
induction between its armatures and two enveloping
shields, and that induces the current. The instrument
used in Wall street, New York, is very small and the
work noiseless. An endless tape passes under the point
of the siphon, which moves back and forth at the rate
of 100 dots a second. The tape can be read at any
time, and the messages preserved ; but this could not
be done by the old system of mirrors.
It has been proposed to establish telegraphic com-
munication between Australia, New Zealand, Canada,
and Great Britain, by means of a line perfectly inde-
pendent of existing lines and freed from foreign influ-
&nces. This would require a chain of cables across the
Pacific Ocean from Brisbane or Sidney to the north of
New Zealand, thence via the Fiji Islands, the Fanning
Islands, the Sandwich Islands to Vancouver Island,
then across to the new city of Vancouver on the main-
land, the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
The line would follow this railway and be extended
possibly to Gaspe, in the Province of Quebec. From
Gaspe a new cable would be laid through the Straits
of Belle Isle to the United Kingdom, unless it was
found to be practicable to secure control of the existing
lines across the Atlantic. The total length of cables
contemplated in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is
11, 145 miles, and the distance across the continent
will be 3450 miles, making in all about 15,000 miles.
Since the opening of the first Atlantic cable the
rates charged for the messages have been steadily re-
duced, as is shown by the following : In 1866, $100
were charged for 20 words or less ; from November,
1867, $50 for 20 words or less; from December, 1867,
$25 for 10 words or less ; from September, 1868, $16.85
for 10 words or less; from June, 1869, $10 for 10 words
or less ; from August, 1869, $7.50 for 10 words or less ;
from December, 1870, $15 for 10 words or less; from
July, 1871, $10 for 10 words or less; from May, 1872,
$1 per word ; from May, 1875, 50 cents per word ; from
December, 1884, 40 cents per word. (F. G. M.)
TELESCOPES, AMERICAN. The earliest manu-
facturer of astronomical telescopes in the United States
of whom we have record was Amasa Holcomb, of
Southwick, Mass. He made his first experiments in
grinding lenses in 1820, and completed in 1830 an
achromatic º º about 48 º focal length.
y- wing, however, to the difficulty of ob-
* Nº. * taining suitable glass for objectives, he
Am. Rep.). turned his attention to the manu:
facture of reflecting telescopes, and
achieved considerable success in this direction. His
reflectors were from 4 to 10 inches in diameter,
mounted in the Herschelian form ; that is, with the
mirror inclined slightly to the axis of the telescope, so
that the image is formed near the upper edge of the
tube, and is there magnified and examined. In 1838
Mason, Smith, and Bradley, the two first, at that time,
students in Yale College, built a reflector of 12 inches
aperture, with which some very creditable work upon
nebulae was accomplished.
Thirty years ago the most prominent telescope.
maker in the United States was Mr. Henry Fitz, of
New York. His largest objectives are given in the
table below. Spencer, of Canastota, N.Y., made in
1856 the 133-in. refractor of the Litchfield Observa-
tory of Hamilton College, with which Dr. Peters has
discovered no less than 47 asteroids, and Davis, of
Cincinnati, an 11-in. objective which is now mounted at
Smith College, Northampton, Mass. Many small ob-
jectives, some of a very high order of excellence, have
been produced by American opticians—Stendicke,
Kahler, Gregg, Allen, Walther, Byrne, Clacey, and
Tolles, the three last-named making especial efforts to
grind lenses of short focus. Clacey's largest glass, of
10% in. aperture and 9 ft. 9 in. focal length, has re-
cently been gompleted for the Smith Observatory,
Geneva, N. Y. The ratio of aperture to focal length
is here 1 to 12, while the usually accepted ratio is
about 1 to 15.
Reflecting telescopes have thus far met with com-
paratively little favor in this country. The only one
of large size (28 in.) was made by Dr. Henry Draper
in 1866–70, and used by him at his observatory at
Hastings-on-the-Hudson in researches in spectrum
photography. This instrument was removed in 1887
to Harvard College Observatory, where it is now used
for similar work under the direction of Prof. Picker-
ing. Brooks, formerly of Phelps, N. Y., has made
two reflectors, of 9 and 11 in. respectively, with
which he has been remarkably successful in searching
for comets, discovering 13 comets within 6 years.
Brashear, of Allegheny, has made a number of very
excellent reflectors with silvered-glass mirrors, ranging
from 5 to 15 in. in diameter. He has also constructe
several small refractors, and is now at work upon a
16-in. objective with “ photographic correcting lens”
for Carlton College Observatory. Dr. C. S. Hastings
has figured several excellent objectives upon theoret-
ical curves ; his largest, of 9.4 in. aperture and re-
markably perfect, is mounted at the Johns-Hopkins
University.
Alvan Clark (Q. v.), who has become famous as
an optician the world over, began his career as a tel-
escope-maker in 1846. In 1860 he finished a telescope
of 183 in. aperture, then the largest refractor known.
In testing it Mr. Alvan G. Clark discovered the com-
panion of Sirius, the existence of which had long been
indicated by theory, though it had hitherto escaped
detection. . This first of the great Clark refractors was
originally intended for the É. of Mississippi,
but, being prevented by the civil war from reaching
its destination, it was purchased by the Chicago AS-
tronomical Society and mounted at the Dearborn Ob-
servatory. In 1873 the Clarks completed a 26-in.
refractor for the U. S. Naval Observatory at Washing-
ton, the contract price for which was $46,000; and, at
the same time, they made for Mr. Leander McCor-
mick an objective of a slightly larger aperture, which
they mounted in 1883 at the University of Virginia.
With the former instrument Prof. A. Hall discovered
in 1877 the two small satellites of Mars. In 1879 the
Clarks entered into a contract with the Russian gov-
ernment to furnish an objective of 30 in., and in 1880
TELESCOPES.
655
with the Lick trustees for one of 36 in. The glass for
all these large lenses is of foreign manufacture, coming
from either Chance & Co., of Birmingham, or Feil &
Co., of Paris; and considerable difficulty was expe-
rienced in obtaining disks of the requisite degree of
purity, º in the case of the 36-in. crown
glass disk, which involved nearly three years' labor and
19 failures before a suitable piece was obtained.
Of smaller objectives the Clarks have made a great
number—over 60, probably, between the apertures 6
and 12 in.
The mounting for the 30-in. Pulkowa objective was
made by the Repsolds, of Hamburg; that for the
Lick glass by Warner & Swasey, of Cleveland, Ohio.
The following details of the Lick mounting are taken
in part from an illustrated description of the instru-
ment given in Engineering for Aug. 17, 1888:
The telescope is supported on a hollow cast-iron
column of rectangular section, measuring 4 ft. by 8 ft.
at the top, 5 ft. by 9 ft. at the floor line; then spread-
ing rapidly to a sbase 10 ft. by 16 ft. bearing on the
foundation. Around the top is a balcony, to which
access is given by a spiral staircase. The objective in
its cell weighs about 3 ton, the column and head
which carries the polar axis weigh together 21 tons,
while the total weight of the telescope complete
is 40 tons. The polar axis is of steel, 10 ft. long, 12
in. in diameter at its upper and 10 in. in diameter at
its lower bearing, and having a hole 6 in. in diameter
extending its entire length. Through this hole pass
the shafts by which the observer at the eye end works
the right ascension clamp and slow motion. The dec-
lination axis is also of steel, 10 ft. 6 in. long., 10 in, in
diameter at its upper and 93 in. at its lower bearing,
and has a 4-in. hole extending through it. Bearings
of Babbitt metal are provided for both axes, but much
of the weight is carried by anti-friction rolls and an
ingenious arrangement of “ball bearings.” The tel-
escope tube consists of a central section of cast-iron
strongly ribbed, to which sections of sheet-steel are
attached. When the telescope is horizontal the flex-
ure of the tube with the object glass and permanent
counter-balancing weights is $ in. only, while with a
load of one ton added at each end the flexure is in-
creased to 3 in.
An observer at the eye end can perform the follow-
ing operations:
. Clamp in declination.
Give slow motion in declination.
. Read the declination circle (2 verniers).
. Clamp in right ascension.
. Give slow motion in right ascension.
5. Start or stop driving clock.
. Read the right ascension circle (1 microscope).
An assistant on either side of the balcony can–
8. Clamp in declination.
9. Give quick motion in declination.
10. Give slow motion in declination.
11. Clamp in right ascension.
12. Give quick motion in right ascension.
13. Give slow motion in right ascension.
14. Stop or start driving clock.
15. Read right ascension circle (2 microscopes).
16. Read a dial showing approximate declination,
There are three permanent finders of 6 in., 4. in., and
23 in. diameter respectively, and brackets are provided
for attaching a 12-in. telescope belonging to the observ-
atory when especially accurate pointing, as in some
photographic work, is required. The eye end is
further provided with a fine position micrometer made
by jº, & Co., and a stellar spectroscope by Bra-
:
g
shear. The driving clock is in the upper section of
the pier. The speed of the clock is regulated by a
frictional governor of the cross-armed type and by an
electric control, by means of which its rate is kept in
agreement with that of a standard sidereal clock. One
of the arbors, turning once in a minute, carries a chro-
nograph drum.
For use as a photographic telescope a third (crown)
lens of 33 in clear aperture, weighing with the cell
150 pounds, is mounted in front of the visual object-
ive, its application shortening the focal length of the
telescope by 10 ft. An opening is therefore made in
the tube 10 ft. from the eye j, and giving access to
a plate-holder capable of carrying a plate 20 in. Square,
and provided with all the necessary adjustments. An
image of the moon upon the plate is about 5% in. in
diameter.
The dome covering this great telescope is 70 ft. in
diameter, and the floor can be raised vertically through
a distance of 163 ft. by four hydraulic rams. The
observing slit is 93 ft. wide, closed by two steel shut-
ters, which are opened by a pull of 5 lbs. upon an
endless rope. The cost of the visual objective was
$52,000, that of the photographic corrector $13,000,
while the mounting was furnished for $42,000, and
the dome and movable floor were put in place for
$73,300.
We have given a somewhat detailed description of
this instrument for the reason that it may be regarded
as embodying on a large scale all of the modern im-
provements and conveniences that have been introduced
into telescope construction. Both Warner & Swasey
and Fauth & Co. have furnished mountings for a num-
ber of Clark's smaller lenses, which are all that could
be desired for ease of manipulation and steadiness.
Among improvements in astronomical instruments
should be mentioned the “ photoheliograph,” a horizon-
tal telescope of long focus, which was first brought into
use by Prof. Joseph Winlock in 1869–70 at the Harvard
College Observatory. A somewhat similar apparatus
was previously suggested by Capt. Laussedat and others
in France, but the peculiar advantages of this form of
instrument for photographic observations of the sun
do not seem to have been appreciated until the results
of independent experiments at Cambridge had been
published. Photoheliographs of 5 in. aperture and
40 ft. focal length, mounted in the meridian, were used
by all the parties sent out by the United States to
observe the transits of Venus of 1874 and 1880, and
the Superior results obtained by these parties seem to
have justified the adoption of the “American method.”
of observation. A form of horizontal mounting for
large reflectors, which appears to possess some of the
advantages of Loewy’s “equatorial coudé,” was de-
scribed by Mr. J. A. Hill at the meeting of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science in
1871. The astronomer is enabled “to remain seated
in one position, looking in one direction, and entirely
F. from cold, fatigue, night air, etc.” Prof.
ickering has used a horizontal telescope mounted at
right angles to the meridian in his extensive photo-
metric work, and for the continuation of this work to
fainter stars he has recently had constructed by the
Clarks an instrument of this kind of 12 in aperture
and 200 in. focal. The object glass is at the western
end of the tube, and in front of it is placed a plane
mirror, 18 in. in diameter, so mounted that the light
of a celestial object not more than one hour either side
of the meridian can be thrown into the field of the
telescope. . The eastern end of the tube, carrying the
eye-piece, is covered by a small building, which can be
Warmed. An auxiliary telescope of 5-in, aperture is
employed to bring into the field an image of the
pole-star, which is reduced by polarizing apparatus to
equality, with the image of any star observed in the
principal telescope. The āngular apertures of the two
telescopes are such that the emergent pencils may be
coincident.
Photography has recently been developed into such
a valuable accessory in astronomical observations that
it, becomes extremely desirable to provide means by
which the ordinary visual objective may be readily
transformed into a photographic objective, for the cor-
rection for chromatic aberration by means of the flint
glass lens in the ordinary objective is too great to give
656
TEMPERANCE REFORM.
satisfactory photographic images. The method origi-
nally adopted by Rutherfurd and already mentioned in
connection with the Lick glass, is to provide an addi:
tional convex lens of long focus, which may be placed
over the ordinary objective when photographs are to
be taken, and may be removed when direct observation
is desired. Another method of getting rid of the ex-
cessive correction for chromatic aberration, suggested
by Prof. Pickering, is to separate the flint and crown
glass lenses and to place the flint nearer the eye-piece.
While the color correction is in this way made satis-
factory, the spherical aberration is only partially cor-
rected, the focal length of the central part of the
object glass being greater than that of the surround-
ing portions. This difficulty is, however, surmounted
by making one surface of the crown glass lens much
more convex than the other, and reversing it when
the lenses are separated. An objective of 13 in. aper-
ture ground in this way by the Clarks for the Harvard
Observatory in 1887 has given most satisfactory
results.
The principal makers of meridian circles, astronomi-
cal transit instruments, and Zenith telescopes in Amer-
ica are Young, Würdemann (now retired), Stackpole,
Buff & Berger, Fauth & Co., and Warner & Swasey.
Fauth & Co. mounted in 1888 at the Cincinnati Ob-
servatory a 54-in. meridian circle (object glass by
Clark), the divided circle of which, as far as it has
been investigated, compares favorably with the best
of foreign make. -
The following table will, perhaps, convey an idea of
what may be expected of modern telescopes in “space-
penetrating’’ or in “separating power;” the table
gives the magnitude of the faintest star that tele-
scopes of various apertures may be expected to show,
and also the angular distance of the components of
the closest i. star that these apertures will just
separate. [Note.—A star of about the 6th magnitude
is the faintest visible to the unaided eye : a linear foot
subtends an angle of I’’ at a distance of about 39 miles.]
The separating power was based by Dawes upon a
number of experiments with small telescopes. The
space-penetrating power is taken from Newcomb and
#. Astronomy, and is computed upon the as-
sumption that a star of any magnitude gives 23 times
the light of one of the magnitude next below.
Table of Space-penetrating and Separating Powers.
Aperture Faintest Least Aperture Faintest Least
in star separable in star separable
inches. visible. distance. inches. visible. distance.
Magn // Magn. f /
1.0 9.0 4.56 5.5 12.7 0.83
1.5 9.9 3.04 6.0 12.9 0.76
2.0 10.5 2.28 6.5 13.1 0.70
2.5 11.0 1.82 7.0 13.3 0.65
3.0 11.4 1.52 8.0 13.5 0.57
3.5 11.7 1.30 9.0 13.8 0.507
4.0 12.0 1.14 10.0 14.0 0.456
4.5 12.3 1.01 11.0 14.2 0.414
5.0 12.5 O.91 12.0 14.4 0.380
List of the Largest Reflectors in the World.
Aperture.
Observatory Centi- In. Constructed by
or Owner. metres.
Lord Rosse, Birr Castle,
Ireland, 183 72 Lord Rosse, 1844.
Bessemer, London, 128 50+ Bessemer.
Sir W. Herschel, Slough, 122 48 Herschel.
Lassell, Liverpool, 122 48 Lassell, 1860 (destr'd).
Melbourne Observatory, 122 48 Grubb, 1870.
Paris Observatory, 120 47 Martin, Eichens, 1876.
Common, Ealing, 94 37 Calver and Common,
1879.
Lord Rosse, Birr Castle, 91} 36 Lord Rosse.
Toulouse Observatory, 85 33% Henry, Secretan.
Marseilles Observatory, 80 31% Foucault, Eichens.
Harvard College Ob-
servatory, 71 28 H. Draper.
List of the Largest Refractors in the World.
Aperture.
Observatory Centi- In. Constructed by
or Owner. metres.
Lick Observatory, Mt. 91} 36 Clark, Warner an
Hamilton, Cal. Swasey, 1887.
Pulkowa, 76 30 Clark, Repsold, 1884.
Nice, 76 30 Henry, Gautier, 1886.
Greenwich, 71 28 Grubb (constructing).
Paris, 73%. 27# Martin (Eichens).
Vienna,' 68%. 27 Grubb.
McCormick Observatory, 66 26 Clark, 1883.
Washington, 66 26 Clark, 1873.
Newall, Gateshead, Eng., 63%. 25 Cooke, 1868.
Princeton, 58; 23 Clark, 1881.
Strassburg, 48%. 18% Merz, Repsold, 1879.
Milan, 48%. 18% Merz, 1879.
Dearborn Observatory, *
(near Chicago), 18} Clark, 1863.
Dr. Van Duzee, Buffalo, 40%. 16 Fitz.
Warner Observatory, Ro-
chester, 40%. 16 Clark, 1880.
Carleton College Ob-
servatory, Minn., 40%. 16 Brashear (construct’g),
Washburn Observatory,
Madison, Wis., 39; 15% Clark, 1879.
Dun Echt Observatory -
(Lord Lindsay), 38%. 15% Grubb, 1875.
Harvard College Observ-
atory, 38 14* Merz, 1843.
Pulkowa Observatory, 38 14* Merz, 1840.
Paris & 4 38 14% Lerebours, Brunner,
1854.
Lisbon { { 38 14% Merz, Repsold, 1861.
Huggins, London, 38 15 Grubb, 1871.
Brussels Observatory, 38 14* Merz, Cooke, 1880.
Hordeaux ( & 38 14% Merz, Eichens, 1880.
Litchfield ( & -
Clinton, N. Y., 34 13} Spencer and Eaton.
Markree Castle, Ireland, 34 13% Cauchoix, Grubb, 1834-
Columbia College, New
York, 33 13 Rutherfurd.
Dudley Observatory, Al- -
bany, 33 13 Fitz.
Harvard College Observ-
atory, 33 13 Clark.
Catania-Etna, 32, 12% Merz, 1877.
Greenwich, 32; 123 Merz, Troughton and
Simms, 1860.
Ann Arbor, Mich., 32 12}. Fitz.
Vassar College, Pough- -
keepsie, N. Y., 31, 12, Fitz (reworked by
Clark).
Morrison Observatory, 31 12+ Clark, 1876:
Oxford, Eng., 31, 12% Grubb, 1875.
Cambridge, Eng., 30; 12 Cauchoix.
Dublin, 30%. 12 Cauchoix (1825) *
Radcliffe Observatory, - -
Oxford, 30, 12 Cauchoix.
Middletown, Conn., 30%. 12 Clark, 1 S69.
S. V. White, Brooklyn, -
N. Y., 30%. 12 Clark (reworked, 1867).
Allegheny, Pa., 30%. 12 Fitz (reworked by
Clark, 1874).
Harvard College Ob-
servatory, 30} 12 chº, (H. Draper,
a S/ U ).
Harvard College Ob- º
servatory, 30, 12 Clark, 1888, (horizon-
tal telescope).
Vienna, 30%. 12 Clark, 1876.
U. S. Military Academy,
West Point, 30} 12 Clark, 1884.
Lick Observatory, 30} 12 Clark, 1881.
B. von Engelhardt, Dres-
den, 30%. 12 Grubb, 1880.
% Paris inches. - • * *
Where two makers are given, the first made the objective,
the second the mounting. (W. C. W.)
TEMPERANCE REFORM. The beginning, of
the modern temperance movement may be traced to
the publication, in 1785, of a work by Dr. Benjamin
Rush, entitled An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent
Spirits upon the Human Mind and Body, which made
a profound impression on thoughtful readers, and led
in no long time to organized efforts for the suppression
TEMPERANCE REFORM.
657
of intemperance. There was abundant need ; for
though, from an early period in the history of the
country, legislation had been directed to restricting the
sale of intoxicating drinks, the evil had increased till
it reached a portentous height. Strong drink was
thought indispensable to laboring men. It was essen-
tial to reputable hospitality. It was plentifully supplied
at weddings and at funerals, and even at ecclesiastical
gatherings. Dr. Lyman Beecher describes an ordina-
tion which he attended early in his ministry in Con-
necticut. “The preparation for our creature comfort,
besides food, was a broad sideboard covered with de-
canters and bottles, and sugar and pitchers of water.
There we found all the various kinds of liquors then in
vogue. The drinking was apparently universal. The
preparation was made by the society as a matter of
course. When the consociation arrived they always
took something to drink round ; also before public
services, and always on their return. As they could
not all drink at once they were obliged to stand and
wait, as people do when they go to mill. There
was a decanter of spirits also on the dinner-table to
help digestion, and gentlemen partook of it during the
afternoon and evening as they felt like it, some more
and some less ; and the sideboard, with the spillings
of water and sugar and liquor, looked and smelled like
the bar of a very active grog-shop. None of the con-
sociation were drunk, but that there was not at times
a very considerable degree of exhilaration I cannot
affirm.” One or two such scenes were enough to
move Dr. Beecher powerfully, and the result was an
organization proposed by the General Association for
diminishing the use of spirits and for the reformation
of manners. Similar action was taken about the same
time by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church; and in 1811 the General Association of Massa-
chusetts appointed a committee to co-operate with the
committees of the Connecticut Association and the
Presbyterian Assembly. Nothing more was proposed
at this time than to restrain the eccessive use of ardent
spirits. -
In 1813 the “Massachusetts Temperance Society''
was formed—organized at first as the “Massa-
chusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemper-
ance ; '' the name subsequently adopted was indicative
of more positive purposes, that were not long in being
developed. In 1826 the “American Society for the
Promotion of Temperance'' was founded at Boston.
Dr. Justin Edwards was appointed in 1829 correspond-
ing secretary of this society, and travelled extensively,
advocating total abstinence and forming State and local
societies. This society later adopted the name, “The
American Temperance Union,” and has since been
reorganized as the “National Temperance and Publi-
cation Society.” The first national temperance con-
vention, held in 1833, resolved “That the traffic in
ardent spirits as a drink, and the use of it as such, are
morally wrong, and ought to be abandoned throughout
the world.” But the movement had by this time ac-
quired a momentum that made an advance necessary.
In 1836 the national convention declared for total ab-
stinence from all intoxicating drinks, and this became
a settled ‘‘principle '' of organized temperance. A
powerful effect was produced upon the public mind.
As a rule, the ministers of the different denominations
and a large proportion of the communicants in the
churches became pledged “ teetotallers.” Society took
on a new face, and over a large part of the country the
volume of the liquor traffic was materially diminished.
Up to this time the effort had been to prevent the
formation of the drinking habit, by getting the young
pledged against it. It was assumed that drunkards
were irreclaimable. But in 1840 six men of intem-
perate habits in Baltimore signed a total abstinence
pledge and founded the “Washington Temperance
Society.”
that 150,000 intemperate men were led to abandon
their cups. It was asserted, however, by observers of
the movement that to a painful extent the reformation
proved but temporary and was followed by relapses.
More recent efforts in this direction have taken the
form of what is termed “Gospel Temperance,” in
which it is sought to strengthen the moral appeal by
the awakening of religious motives. In 1842 the order
of the “Sons of Temperance'' was formed, and in
1852 the order of “Good Templars,” societies that
have branched extensively and have had numerous
imitators, in which the temperance principle is Sup-
posed to be reinforced by the machinery of lodges,
pass-words, grips, and regalia, with pledges of mutual
assistance.
But while very great and gratifying success had been
gained, it was painfully evident that it was incomplete.
There were still drunkards, there were still moderate
drinkers who, in the general opinion of temperance
men, were drunkards in the making, and there seemed
to be no hope of abolishing the evil but by outlawing
it. Massachusetts in 1838 passed an act prohibiting
the sale of liquors in less quantity than 15 gallons,
but it was repealed in 1840, leaving in force the former
law forbidding the sale by unlicensed persons of liquor
in less quantity than 28 gallons. Licenses were granted
by city governments and by county commissioners. In
1843–46 a movement began for the election of commis-
sioners opposed to license, and thus, without any
change of the law, the sale of liquor became illegal in
all the counties and cities of the commonwealth. A
strong anti-license feeling was developed in New Eng-
land, and rapidly ...i through New York, Penn-
sylvania, Ohio, and several of the North-western
States. But it was found that law, administered by
the ordinary judicial processes and the ordinary rules
of evidence, was ineffectual to arrest the traffic, and
hence was originated a more inquisitorial law, raising
presumptions against the accused in view of certain
defined circumstances—a so-called prohibitory law,
armed with heavier penalties. The first prohibitory
statute was passed by Maine in 1851. With some
modifications it has continued in force to the present
time, and is generally approved by the people without
distinction of party. Massachusetts followed the ex-
ample by a similar act in 1852, which was soon repealed.
But an act was passed in 1855 which proved impervious.
to legal criticism, passed the ordeal of the courts, and
was declared constitutional by the U. S. Supreme
Court. It continued in force 20 years, having been
repealed in 1875. A local option law was substituted,
under which every city and town (township) votes an-
nually for or against license. As a rule a majority of
the cities vote for license and a majority of the country
towns against it. The result is that the sale is pro-
hibited over two-thirds of the State. Between 1850
and 1860 prohibitory laws were passed by New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Michigan,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin; also in
New York, where, however, it was declared unconstitu-
tional by the Court of Appeals, and a license law was
substituted.
The decade after 1850 was the period of highest
success in all branches of temperance effort. The civil
war had an unfavorable effect. While on the one hand
there was a reaction from the theory and practice of
total abstinence, there was on the other so complete
absorption in the excitements of the war as to make
the people unmindful of the change. The reaction
was promoted by publications questioning the duty of
total abstinence from fermented liquors. Foreign im-
migration had its effect, causing a manifest change in
.. { --- e º - - - º *
º The “Washingtonian’ movement spread was 13 gallons; in 1860, 3} gallons;
rapidly over the country, and it has been computed
the character of our population. The wine of Cali-
fornia and the products of foreign and domestic brew-
ºries powerfully solicited the appetites of the people.
| In 1840 the consumption of malt liquors per capita
-- in 1880, S3 gal-
lons; in 1882, 10 gallons. Nevertheless, the friends
|. abstinence have not been disheartened, but hold
658 TEMPERANCE REFORM.
the most advanced ground. ... New Hampshire and
Yermont retain their prohibitory laws, and some
Western States. The local option system has had con-
siderable success in the South, particularly in Georgia,
though it seems difficult to keep the public mind
steadily up to the work. The apparently capricious
changes from prohibition to license and vice versa has
led the friends of total abstinence to agree very gener-
ally in support of constitutional prohibition.
Kansas was the first State to embody in her consti-
tution an article prohibiting the manufacture and sale of
intoxicating liquors. Similar amendments have been
put into the constitutions of Maine, Rhode Island, and
Iowa; the Iowa amendment was annulled by the
judiciary as not legally submitted to the popular vote.
It is not easy to see the superiority of this method over
statutory prohibition. No constitution executes itself;
it can only be carried into effect by legislation appoint-
ing the process of enforcement and affixing penalties.
The “statute in that case provided '' is the operative
measure. The prohibitory force of the statute is all
the force that can be directed against the traffic, what-
ever superfluity of energy may be supposed to inhere
in the constitution. In Rhode Island, the first Legis-
lature that sat after the amendment was made was
roundly accused of having virtually nullified the article,
and a great popular agitation arose. Whatever may
have been th. fact in that case, it is clearly in the
power of any Legislature, under color of carrying con-
stitutional prohibition “into effect,” to make laws as
ineffectual as possible, whenever public opinion sets in
that direction. Wisely or unwisely, however, the
standard of prohibition by constitutional amendment
is “full high advanced as the sign in which they are
to conquer, by all Prohibitionists in every part of the
country. A prohibitory amendment to the Constitu-
tion of the United States is the ultimate aim.
A political party devoted to the cause of Prohibition
as the one thing needful was a natural outcome of the
agitation. The Prohibitory party, after some local
enterprises, entered the field of national politics in the
Presidential election of 1884. They chose no electors,
of course, but they polled about 150,000 votes, and
with extraordinary elation extended and perfected
their organization with a view to further operations as
a national party. In the Presidential canvass of 1888
they redoubled their energy and agitation on the
“stump,” through the press, and by the circulation of
‘‘documents.” Success in electing their candidates was
not claimed as probable. That was modestly deferred
to the election of 1892. But the mark aimed at was
a million of votes. The number cast was 257,243, a
gain of 70 per cent. over the result in 1884.
Meanwhile an increased attention began to be given
to what is termed “High license,” as an expedient for
restraining and diminishing the sale of intoxicants. The
exaction of a large license fee as a minimum, coupled
with stringent conditions, tends to restrict the number
of licensed dealers, who are thus more easily kept
under lawful supervision. At the same time the
revenue derived from the traffic is some compensation
for damages due to it; though it must be allowed that
there is force in the objection, that for municipalities to
derive a revenue from the traffic operates as a mer-
cenary motive to license it. Where, as in Pennsyl-
vania, the licensing power is committed to judges, the
system has worked with beneficial effect. It is a ques-
tion still disputed whether in other localities high
license has had the effect to diminish the consumption
of intoxicating drinks. Many friends of temperance
favor it ; Massachusetts has adopted it, and it is evi-
dent that the system must have its trial and abide the
verdict from experience. Besides laws in restraint of
the sale, a number of the States have adopted civil
damage laws, the effect of which is to make the dealer
in intoxicating drinks liable in damages for any injury
resulting from the sale. º • * *
In 1873 the public mind was electrified by tidings
of a Woman's Crusade against the saloons, beginning
in Qhio and spreading into the neighboring States.
At first the grog-sellers cowered before the unexpected
invasion, but recovering themselves they opposed this
extra-legal assault. The agitation would probably have
Soon spent its force if opportunity had not been seized
to transfer its energy into a well-devised organization
under the name of the “Woman's Christian Temper-
ance Union,” which has become one of the recognized
forces in the temperance warfare, and has j. its
operations to the promotion of other reforms. The
Union has done much to promote the education of
the young in the principles and habit of abstinence;
to Secure legislation requiring such instruction in the
public Schools : and to add to the moral momentum of
the temperance agitation. Of late, as a national or-
ganization, it has become an ally of the Prohibition
party, and has declared for woman suffrage, which is
|espoused also by the Prohibitionists.
Total abstinence is a theory and a policy. As a
theory it has had a remarkable evolution. At first, in
view of the sin and misery of drunkenness, and the ex-
posedness of men to temptation, abstinence was urged
as the only security against the always impending
peril. All drunkards, it was said, were once moderate
drinkers, and none of them intended to become drunk-
ards. And even if one could drink without peril to
himself, he was besought from love to his neighbor to
take the pledge with him and help him to keep it.
Prudence and benevolence were the chief motives ap-
pealed to, and with remarkable success. These pleas
were strengthened by evidence of economic damage
and the Social and moral evils resulting from intem-
perance. But, as early as 1833, as we have seen, a
national convention resolved that “the use of ardent
spirits as a beverage and its sale for that purpose are
morally wrong.” This empirical dictum of ethics was
resolved, and now it is apparently assumed on all
hands as needing no proof, that any sale or use of in-
toxicating liquors is a sin. But a large proportion of
temperance men are also sincerely ... men, and
reverence the Bible as an authority on moral questions,
and it is but too obvious that on this ground the Bible
is chargeable with the approbation of sin. To evade
collision between their ethical theory and their faith in
the Scriptures, the notion has been bruited and has
found considerable currency, that there were in ancient
times two kinds of wine, one unfermented and harm-
less and the other fermented and pernicious ; and that
when the Bible commends wine it means the harmless
kind, but that when it speaks unfavorably of wine it
refers to the fermented sort. The late Prof. Moses
Stuart and Pres. Eliphalet Nott were the first vouchers
for this strange theory. The scholarship of the age
has repudiated this futile method of interpreting the
sacred texts. It remains for its advocates to revise
either their ethical dicta or their mode of interpreting
and applying the Scriptures, or perchance to modify
both. A development in another direction has been
observable, though not perhaps distinctly formulated :
a tendency to regard the drunkard not as guilty but
as simply the victim of the liquor-seller. The latter is
summarily described as a drunkard-maker. That an
intemperate man has any responsibility for drinking is,
if not denied, apparently forgotten.
As a policy, the temperance movement began its
course as simply a moral reformation. The effort was
to persuade men to leave off the use of intoxicating
drinks, to give up the traffic, and to throw their social
influence on the side of abstinence. Arrayed against
it was the strength of appetite, of custom, and of the
law. The form of license assumed that the sale of
intoxicants was for “the public good,” and applicants
for license were required to furnish certificates to their
“good moral character.” The advocates of temper-
ance faced this front of opposition, and by the force
of their moral appeals won to their side the clergy
the churches, and a large proportion of the educated
TEMPLE–TENNENT. 659
and respectable, including no small part of the labor- | though the practical efforts it has put forth. have been
ing classes, especially of skilled laborers. A great for the enactment of the Permissive Bill, corre-
diminution in the sale and use of liquors was the sponding nearly to our local option laws. It proposes
result. But now a new purpose was taken up, which to prohibit the licensing of the traffic in any parish in
was nothing less than to suppress everywhere the manu- which two-thirds of the rate-payers shall so determine.
facture ...i sale of intoxicating drinks. Hence law, This moderate and reasonable measure stands no chance
more law, and, finally, constitutional law, have been of being enacted at present. Great as has been the
invoked, and until the desired end is reached the increase of pledged abstainers, the movement is far
agitation is to go on. Whether this is not an utterly from having permeated religious and general society
impracticable purpose; whether any law can be devised to the extent that it has in this country. -
that will prevent men from gratifying the appetite for Whatever opinion may be entertained of the theories
stimulants as long as the appetite exists; are questions or the policies of organized temperance, it cannot be
to which in their present temper the leaders in the doubted that a highly beneficial change has been pro-
temperance warfare will scarcely vouchsafe a hearing. duced in the habits of the people. During forty years.
But those who are willing to think may be led to doubt i from 1810 to 1850, there was a very great reduction in
whether legal penalty is superior to, or in any degree the quantity of intoxicating liquors consumed in the
a substitute for, the appeal to moral, religious, and country. Of distilled spirits the consumption fell from
affectional motives, º the cumulative force of en- 4.6 gallons to 2.5 gallons per capita. and, including all
lightened public sentiment—whether in short there is intoxicants, there was a decrease per capita from 8 to
any more effective prohibition than a man imposes 4.1 gallons. It would be a great error to suppose that
upon himself. the real strength of temperance principle is to be meas-
There are many earnest temperance advocates and jured by the number of political prohibitionists. It
workers who cannot believe it right to proscribe is not uncommon to find persons who have grown up
wine, which our Lord and his apostles used, and which to mature manhood without having ever known the
is made a symbol by the Holy Spirit of spiritual joy. taste of intoxicating drink, or feeling the slightest
Hence, they will not join in any movement of teetotal- inclination to acquire it. The great body of moral and
ism or prohibition which is undiscriminating in this intelligent men and women of our native stock are
regard. They are ready to use every reasonable abstainers from principle, and much as our composite
means to diminish the evils that come from the exces. | population now complicates results, an assimilation is
sive use of intoxicants, and to put heavy restraints going on among the foreign elements of our common-
upon the sale of distilled liquors. These temperance wealth to the native American standard.
advocates also are opposed to the one-sidedness of a The literature of Temperance is enormous. Beginning
reform that puts one sin forward out of all proportion with Dr. Rush's pamphlet (17s5), Dr. Heman Humphrey's
to other sins and so tempts many to suppose that if | Sir Sermons (1810), and Dr. Lyman Beecher's Sir Sermons
this sin is avoided the II] alſ] is renewed. They believe O 77 Intemperance (17 S5 \, the reverberation of which went lit-
all sins should be classed together as odious to God i. around the wº i. º essays by
!-------> K-3 e - ead l Ilg In 1IllSterS Of a €IlOIIll Ilātl ODS. 3. In C W erul I, ent
and injurious to man, and that the social vice, greed civilians and jurists, reports of national and local organi.
for wealth, and fraud are doing as much to destroy * s
- - - - zations, some of them productions of eminent ability. and
society as is intemperance. Against all every effort permanent value, and discussions in periodicals. Of recent
should be put forth for their overthrow and the estab- works two are of special value: History of the Temperance
lishment of righteousness. Reform, by Hon. Henry W. Blair, and The Liquor Problem
The temperance movement was carried beyond the in 4!/49es, by Daniel Dorehester, D. D. (L. E. S.)
Atlantic, and appeared in Scotland in the formation TEMPLE, FREDERICK, English bishop, was born
of a temperance society, near Glasgow in 1829; the at Santa Maura, Nov. 30, 1S21. He was educated at
first total abstinence society was formed at Dunferm- Balliol College, Oxford, and graduated B.A. in IS42,
line in 1830. The first temperance society in Ireland being then elected fellow and mathematical tutor of
was organized at New Ross, County Wexford, in 1829; his college. He was ordained priest in 1847 and be-
the first total abstinence society at Strabane, in 1835. came principal of Knellar Hall Training College from
The celebrated Father Theobald Mathew began at lS4S to 1855. In 1858 he was appointed head-master
Cork, in 1838, those labors which made his name a of Rugby School and discharged the duties of this
household word in the Old and the New World. He position with marked success. He was one of the
rapidly extended his labors to all parts of Ireland with seven authors whose Essays and Reviews (1S60) re-
such effect that the society formed by him contained vealed the increase of Broad church views and ra.
in 1840 1,800,000 persons pledged to total abstinence. tionalistie tendencies in the Church of England. His
The consumption of whisky in Ireland fell from 12,- essay was on “The Education of the World.” He
500,000 gallons in 1838 to 6,500,000 in 1841. In 1843; also published three series of Sermons Preached ºn
the number of persons, pledged to total abstinence Rugby Chapel (1S62–71). In 1S69 he was made bishop
through the labors of Father Mathew in Ireland and of Exeter, and in 18S5 he was transferred to the see
in Great Britain exceeded 5,000,000. In England, of London. He was select preacher at Oxford in 1873,
beginning in 1830, local associations were formed at and Bampton lecturer in ISS4.
Bradford, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds. “The TEN §§ GILBERT (1703–1764), and WILLIAM
British and Foreign Temperance Society'' was formed (1705–1777), were sons of Rev. William Tennent, a
in 1831, with the patronage of the Bishop of London, Presbyterian minister who emigrated from Ireland in
and the support of many persons high in rank and 171S, and founded a log college” near Philadelphia
official station, pledged to abstain from distilled spirits for the training of students in divinity. Gilbert, after
except for medicinal purposes. , Total abstinence and teaching and being taught there, was ordained pastor
teetotal" societies were formed in IS35. .” The New of a Presbyterian church at New Brunswick in 1736.
British and Foreign Temperance Society," formed in Here his brother William while studying theology fell
1836, had originally two pledges, but in 1839 the total into a trance and was for some days supposed to be
abstinence pledge was ºl. Both general Socie-idead. He revived, however, and afterwards declared
ties j this pledge in l840, and a great impulse that he had been admitted to heaven and gave some
was given to the movement. The eause has since been description of his vision. Meantime he had lost his
carried forward by the ageney of several efficient er-, knowledge of earthly things and had to be trained as
ganizations in different parts of England, laboring"by a child. Having fully recovered he was in 1733
means of lectures, publications, and petitions to Par- ordained pastor of a church at Freehold, N.J., and
liament. The ' United Kingdom Alliance,” formed there eontinued until his death, March S. i*i; Gilbert
in 1853, aims at the total and immediate suppression in 1740 at the request of Whitefield became an ºut.
of the traffic in all intoxicating liquors as a beverage,” igelist and travelled in New England. His doctrinal
660
peculiarities and perhaps his eccentricity in dress and
manner roused opposition to him and the Presbytery
of New Brunswick was divided. In 1743 he founded
a church at Philadelphia but still travelled widely.
The Log College had been merged in Nassau Hall at
Elizabethtown, N. J. and afterwards at Princeton, and
in behalf of this institution Tennent went to England,
Scotland, and Ireland in 1753, and obtained liberal
donations. . He died at Philadelphia, July 23, 1764.
He had published many sermons and an account of the
revival of religion in 1741.
TENNYSON, ALFRED, BARON, the representative
oet of the Victorian era in English literature, was
orn at Somersby, a small hamlet of Lincolnshire,
Aug. 6, 1809. He is the third of seven sons in a
family of twelve children. Lord Tennyson is de-
scended, through the Barons D'Eyncourt, from the
ancient and illustrious Norman Plantagenets. The
oet's father, the Rev. George Clayton Tennyson,
L. D. (d. about 1831), rector of Somersby and vicar
of Grimsby, was notable in many ways. He was a
striking, impressive man of great strength and stature,
an excellent mathematician and linguist, something of
an architect, musician, painter, and poet, and, withal,
a man of fine character, “high-souled, high-tem-
pered.” Tennyson's mother was Elizabeth, daughter
of the Rev. Stephen Fytche, vicar of the neighboring
parish of Louth, “a sweet, gentle, and most imagina-
tive woman, exceedingly tender-hearted, intensely,
fervently religious—as a poet's mother should be.”
Thus the genius of Alfred Tennyson, shared, as it was,
in some measure by most of his many brothers and sis-
ters, would seem to be inherited in some degree from
each of his parents; for if the fine physique, the
scholarly tastes, the high character, and the artistic
temperament of the illustrious son are traceable to his
father, surely his surpassing imagination and his
unspeakable tenderness—without which his greatness
as a poet would have been impossible—are as plainly
traceable to his mother.
Dr. Tennyson’s “handsome children had beyond
most children that wondrous toy at their command
which some people call imagination.” They were given
to games typifying the exploits of legendary kings
with their retinues of knights, and beguiled their
happy childhood with tales and romances of their own
making fashioned after mediaeval models.
As to Tennyson's education, the central fact is that
he has been pre-eminently self-taught. Not that he has
lacked regulation teachers and tutors, but that he early
began to supplement their instruction by Self-instigated
reading, observation, and reflection ; and that he has
shown from boyhood a growing independence of mind
and character. Early in life he as good as recorded of
himself that knowledge to him was beautiful, and that
he loved it “for its beauty.'" To any one with the
slightest appreciation of Tennyson's love for the beau-
tiful this autobiographical bit is sufficient to account
for the powerful affinity his mind has ever shown for
knowledge. Such a soul, after a first start, may safely
be left to itself. This start in Tennyson's case was ob-
tained largely at home under the tuition of his father,
though he attended for a time Cadney's village school,
and for a brief period the grammar-school at Louth.
The young lad's poetical bent was greatly stimulated
by the similar bent of his elder brothers, Frederick and
Charles, both of whom have written verse of much
merit. As boys they were all great readers of poetry,
ancient and modern, Alfred being particularly partial
in those years to Scott and Byron ; and they were all
furthermore copious writers of metrical compositions.
Alfred's boyish efforts were very numerous.
In 1827 Charles and Alfred published selections from
their accumulated productions, under the title, Poems
by Tico Brothers. This little book, for which the young
authors received from their publishers £10, contained
228 pages, and bore on its title-page the disclaimer
quoted from Martial, “Haec mos movimus esse mihšl.
TENNYSON.
The preface explained that the poems were composed
not jointly but individually, and that they were written
between the ages of fifteen and eighteen. The body of
the work is remarkable for its numerous foot-notes and
quotations from ancient and modern poets—but chiefly
for the entire absence of anything characteristic of the
later work of England's Laureate. The volume is
interesting chiefly as showing the 'prentice hand of
Alfred Tennyson. The critics of that day, with one
exception, passed it by in utter silence. That it con-
tained little or nothing worthy, on its own merits, of
further perpetuation is now the practically unanimous
verdict, Tennyson's not excepted; for he has never
seen fit to reprint or to publicly acknowledge So much
as a single poem contributed by him to this first volume.
About 1828 Alfred, with Charles, removed to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where the eldest brother Fred-
erick had just taken the Chancellor's medal for his
Greek poem, Egypt. Here Alfred soon became a
recognized leader among a circle of young collegians
remarkable for high character, and for vigor and brill-
iancy of intellect. Among them were Arthur Henry
Hallam, who will be forgotten only when In Memoriant
fails for readers; Lord Houghton, then Richard
Monckton Milnes, sometimes styled the “Maecenas of
his time;’’ Richard Chenevix Trench, afterwards
Archbishop of Dublin; Henry Alford, James Sped-
ding, Merivale, the historian ; Edward Fitzgerald, and
Kinglake. Thackeray, for years a warm personal friend
and a great admirer of Tennyson, was also a fellow-
student at Cambridge ; their close intimacy, however,
seems to have dated from a subsequent period. Al-
fred's tutor at college was William Whewell, “a man
who is well known to have stripped the tree of
knowledge and tasted most of its substantial fruits.”
Tennyson and others of the students above mentioned
belonged to an undergraduate Society commonly known
as the “Cambridge Apostles,” from the limitation of
its active members to twelve ; the main object of which
was full and frank discussion of those questions which,
in the bold and vigorous minds of its members, were
pressing for solution. It appears probable that Tenny-
son in his university career was much more given to
wooing the muses than to pursuing any prescribed
routine course of study ; but it is also probable that in
disregarding conventionalities he was consciously fol-
lowing the mandates of his own genius, which, how-
ever lawless it might make him appear to others, was
an all-sufficient law unto itself. When at length he
quitted the university it was without a degree. The
same was true of Thackeray. Thus the two most
widely known Cambridge men of this century left
their alma mater without the customary seal to their
fidelity and of her approval—but destined to win loft-
ier honors and more enduring laurels than any ever won
or bestowed in college.
In 1829 Tennyson was awarded the Chancellor's
medal for his poem Timbuctoo, one of the unsuccessful
competitors being his nearest friend, Arthur Hallam.
The poem received a very flattering notice from the
Athenaeum. The author did not, however, include it
in subsequent collections of his poems.
In 1830, while still at Cambridge, Tennyson pub-
lished his Poems, Chiefly Lyrical. This volume con-
tained Lilian, Isabel, Mariana, The Merman, The
Mermaid. The Owl, Recollections of the Arabian
Nights, Ode to Memory, The Poet's Mind, The De-
serted House, The Ballad of Oriana, The Sea Fairies,
Nothing Will Die, All Things Will Die, The Dying
Swan, together with twenty-five poems which the au:
thor did not republish in subsequent collections. All
the “rejected poems”—indeed, every collectable scrap
Tennyson has ever written—now appear in recent
American editions. The volume of 1830 soon drew
the fire of the critics, from some of whom it received
hearty though discriminating praise.
As originally proposed the “Poems'' were to have
been a joint publication by Tennyson and Arthur
TENNYSON.
G61
Hallam as a memorial of their friendship. This plan
was abandoned at the suggestion of Hallam's father.
Hallam, however, reviewed his friend's volume in an
essay “On some of the Characteristics of Modern
Poetry, and on the Lyrical Poems of Alfred Tennyson."
wlich appeared in the Englishman's Magazine. To
those who would account for Tennyson's surpassing
affection for his friend this essay is exceedingly inter-
esting. Hallam notes five distinct excellencies in Tenny-
son's manner: his luxuriance of imagination and his
control over it; his power of embodying himself in
ideal characters; his vivid picturesque delineation of
objects, and the peculiar skill with which he holds all
of them fused in a medium of strong emotion; the
variety of his lyrical measures, and exquisite modu:
lation of harmonious words and cadences to the swell
and fall of the feelings expressed ; the elevated habits
of thought, implied rather than directly expressed,
and more impressive than if the author had drawn up
a set of opinions in verse, and sought to instruct the
understanding rather than to communicate the love of
beauty to the heart. Hallam's prophetic allusion in
verse to his companion is worthy of mention :
“A friend, a rare one,
A noble being full of clearest insight,
• . whose fame
Is couching now with pantherized intent,
As who shall say, I’ll spring to him anon
And have him for my own.”
Leigh Hunt paid Tennyson's first volume the com-
pliment of an extended review. Yet the poet's
&ourse has not been a continuous ovation. Even Cole-
ridge wrote: “ The misfortune is that he has begun to
write verses without very well understanding what
metre is.”
About this time Tennyson and Hallam made a jour-
ney to the Pyrenees in the interest of the Spanish
patriots driven into revolt by the tyranny of Ferdinand.
They were the bearers of money and of despatches in
invisible ink to the conspirators who were then hiding
in the mountains. This episode is referred to in In
Memoriam, In the Valley of Canteretz, and in the poet's
letter to his commentator, Mr. Dawson, of Montreal.
In the winter of 1832 a second volume appeared,
containing thirty poems ; among them The Lady of
Shaloft, The Miller's Daughter, OEnone, The Palace
of Art, The May Queen, The Lotus Eaters, and 4
Dream of Fair Women. Of this little book one of the
most competent of modern critics (himself a poet) has
said : “All in all, a more original and beautiful volume
of minor poetry has never been added to our literature.”
It is difficult for those whose memories cover only that
portion of Tennyson's career since his powers have
been abundantly acknowledged and his fame assured
to realize that there was a time when not merely the
world but the majority even of the readers of poetry
were quite indifferent to the feasts which he prepared
for them ; that a taste for such spiritual delicacies had
actually to be cultivated, and that right slowly and
painfully. Such is the case, however, as is shown in
the world's willingness to let ten years elapse before
calling for a second edition of this exceptional volume.
Here and there, however, might be found a man, and,
very rarely, even a critic, who regarded Tennyson as
the chief living hope of the muses.
In 1833 Arthur Hallam, the poet's brother in the
kinship of sympathy—and the betrothed lover of his
sister Emily—died while absent in Vienna. This be-
reavement, so sudden, sharp, and unexpected, following
fast upon other similar visitations, produced a most
profound impression on the sensitive, thoughtful mind
of the poet, bringing him face to face and at closest
quarters with the awful Sphinx, propounding the great
riddle—Death—and the even greater riddle—Life.
Tennyson's answer—and no grander has been recorded
in our age—is to be found in Im Memoriam. The ten
years following 1832 was a period of silence, though by
no means one of inactivity. The poet's life during
these ten years was one of the º seclusion.
“Avoiding general society, he would prefer to sit up
all night with a friend, or else to sit and think alone.
Beyond a very small circle he was never met.” This
circle, however, was as select as it was small. ... It in-
cluded Thackeray, Landor, R. Horne, Carlyle,
Sterling, Macready, Cunningham, Forster, and Mill.
Tennyson and Carlyle used to have Sundry “Wit com-
bats,” “interlarded,” according to their own accounts,
with “brilliant flashes of silence.” At length the
plodding poetic world so far caught up with her great
apostle as to demand a new edition of his poems.
This was met in 1842 by the publication of a selection
from the contents of his two previous books, carefully
revised, with several new poems, among which were
Lady Clara Tere de Vere, The Blackbird. The Goose,
Ulysses, Love and Duty, The Tuco Voices, The Talk-
ing Oak, Morte d'Arthur, The Gardener's Daughter,
Dora, St. Simeon Stylites, Locksley Hall, Godiva,
and part of The Day Dream. The reception given
these two volumes by the most thoughtful of the
English-speaking race everywhere was prompt and
appreciative. Fine as had been the quality of his pre-
vious work, it was seen that he had improved even
upon that. Three further editions of the “Poems.”
were called for within four years, and Moxon, his pub-
lisher, said, as early as 1843, that Tennyson was the
only poet by whom he had not lost. About this time
the future laureate met, for the first time, his great
predecessors. The high opinion of each respecting the
other is shown in one of Wordsworth's letters to É.
Henry Reed, of Philadelphia, in which he says: “I
saw Tennyson when I was in London several times.
He is decidedly the first of our living poets. You will
be pleased to hear that he expressed in the highest
terms his gratitude to my writings.”
One thoroughly human phase of genius is well shown
in the “literary squabble’’ between Bulwer-Lytton
and Tennyson which followed the bestowal of a pension
upon the latter in 1845. The curious may learn par-
ticulars by referring, in old editions, to The New
Timon ; a Romance of London, and to Tennyson's
rejoinder, The New Timon and the Poets. But the
wrath of the truly great is apt to be as momentary
as it is intense. The After-thought, since re-
christened Literary Squabbles, following speedily upon
Tennyson's New Timon, shows his humility as well as
his wisdom in such matters. A further sequel to this
episode is to be found in Tennyson's dedication of his
Harold.
In 1847 The Princess appeared ; a poem well worthy
of profound study by l who find themselves per-
plexed over the question of woman's proper ‘’ sphere.”
Three important events mark the year 1850. On June
13 Tennyson was married to Miss Emily Sellwood,
whose mother was a sister of Sir John Franklin. The
bride was “ the near, dear, and true '' of The Dedica-
tion in Enoch Arden. She proved a woman eminently
qualified to have in her keeping a poet's comfort and
happiness. Few men of letters have been so singularly
fortunate in the choice of a helpmeet. The second
event of 1850 was the publication of In Memoriam.
Those who make of this work merely a monument to
Arthur Hallam's memory underestimate its weighty
import. Such a monument it is, of course, but it is
vastly more : it is Tennyson's rendering of Job—des-
tined to endure as long as men turn for enlightenment
and consolation to the scriptures of the nineteenth cen-
tury. In Memoriam instances well the slow and pain-
ful evolution of those things which are vital and lasting.
Even a Tennyson took seventeen years to write In Me-
moriam ; and the sadness and sorrow of some of those
years are a subject too sacred to be publicly intruded
upon. It was in 1850 that Tennyson succeeded Words-
worth as poet-laureate, an office which he has greatly
honored, though not by the amount of work done
strictly in his official capacity. The best known of his
662
laureate poems are the Ode on the Death of the Duke
of Wellington, and The Charge of the Light Brigade.
In 1855 appeared, with other poems, the monodrama
Maud, the full-blown blossom of which the stanzas
"Oh, that 'twere possible,” so rapturously alluded to
by Mr. Swinburne, had been the beautiful bud. This
fair flower of Tennyson's genius was eighteen years in
opening. Those who feel the need of help in arriving
at the true meaning of Maud, which has been much
misunderstood, may find the essay of Dr. R. J. Mann of
assistance; this essay received high commendation
from the poet.
The Idylls of the King afford another instance of
the slow growth of great works of art. The germ
from which these sprang had a very definite existence
in the mind of the poet at an early period; the matur-
ing of the product of that germ was well-nigh the work
of a lifetime. The first instalment of the Idylls ap-
peared in 1859; four more were added in 1869, while
the series complete was not given to the world until
1872. These Arthurian poems, constituting as they
do in a very real sense an epic, are by many considered
the poet's masterpiece. Of Guinevere Bayard Taylor
has said that it would die only with the language in
which it was written.
Enoch Arden, with other poems, came out in 1864.
This poem, translated as it soon was into French, Ger-
man, and even into Latin, has been so widely read that
its very title has passed into a proverb. In 1870 ap-
peared The Window, or the Songs of the Wrens, with
music by Arthur Sullivan.
Tennyson's work as a dramatist comprises Queen
Mary (1875); Harold (1877); The Falcon (1879);
The Cup (1881); The Promise of May (1882); and
Becket (1884). The dramas are often spoken of as the
Laureate’s “least successful” work. Curiously enough
many criticisms of them seem based on the precon-
ceived notion that Tennyson could not write a drama.
Others have thought him, with his weight of nearly
threescore years and ten, too far advanced in age to
attempt the gathering of fresh laurels in a new field.
Nevertheless, some of the dramas are highly regarded
by sundry good authorities, and the author, it is said,
believes them to contain his best work.
In 1879 The Lover's Tale—written in 1829, privately
printed in 1833, pirated and misprinted in 1875—was
reluctantly placed at the disposal of the public, together
with its sequel, The Golden Supper. In 1880 the
richly various volume, Ballads and other Poems, came
out, evidencing the singular persistence of Tennyson's
owers. Concerning Rizpah, in this collection, Mr.
winburne says: “If after a thousand years all trace
of all his poems had vanished from all human record
save only these eighty-six lines of Rizpah, proof
positive and ample and overflowing would be left in the
survival of these that in him, if ever upon earth, a
reat poet had been born. . . . . Never since the very
jº. of all poetry were the twin passions of terror
and pity more divinely done into deathless words.
. . . . The poet never lived on earth whose glory
would not be heightened by the attribution, of this
poem to his hand.” This is high praise, and it pro-
ceeds from a high source ; from a rival, it might be
said, were rivalry possible in the highest art.
Tresias and Other Poems, dedicated to Robert
Browning, appeared in 1886, and also in the same
year Locksley Hall Sæty Years After, a recantation in
some degree of the poet's early dreams of the progress
of the world. -
Alfred Tennyson has been one of the men whom
the world has shown a growing delight to honor. His
career affords a study in the concrete of the way in
which all things are added to those who seek first that
which is highest and best. In 1845 the value of his
work and influence received recognition from the state
in the award of a pension, and in 1850 in his appoint:
ment as Laureate. In 1855 the University of Oxford
conferred upon him the decree of D. C. L. In 1865
TENNYSON.
he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. The same
year a baronetcy was offered him, which, however, he
did not accept. The offer was repeated three years
afterwards, and was again declined. In 1869 he was
elected honorary fellow of his alma mater, Trinity
College, Cambridge. In 1880 he was invited to stand
for the Lord Rectorship of Glasgow University, but,
the candidature involving his identifying himself with
a political party, he declined the honor. In 1884 he
was made president of the Incorporated Society of
Authors. In the same year he was raised to the British
peerage under the title Baron Tennyson of Aldworth
and Farringford, a fitting and graceful recognition of
his eminence in the world of thought and genius.
Concerning Tennyson's private life there is little to
be said. For many of the years after leaving Cam-
bridge he had no settled place of abode. Much of that
time he lived in London with poverty and his golden
dreams. His early married life was spent in Twicken-
ham, which place he has made “twice classic.” For
upwards of thirty years he has lived at Farringford,
Isle of Wight, and at his summer residence, Aldworth,
in Surrey. Recluse as he has been, a few congenial spirits
have found in him the prince of companions. Those
who have been admitted to this charmed circle prize
him as a man fully as much as they admire him as a
poet. He is a penetrating judge of character, and
knows instinctively, it is said, everything that is going
on about him. He is fond of reading his poetry to ap-
preciative listeners. His rendering is described as a
mysterious incantation, exceedingly impressive, leaving
the listener with the feeling that he has for the first
time heard what he may have already read, perhaps,
a hundred times. With his personal appearance the
world has been familiarized by his numerous pictures.
That the best of these, however, fail to do justice to
the fine face is evident from the descriptions of those
who have seen that face under the play of the pas-
sions within. Thomas Buchanan Read describes the
poet's head as that of “a dilapidated Jove.”
Of Tennyson and his work it is embarrassing to try
to speak in general terms. The subject presents the
double danger of falling into extravagance and yet of
failing to do it justice. Disclaiming all attempt to
adequately discuss it here, it may be remarked that
Tennyson's poetry is pre-eminent for its beauty and for
its power. On the first of these heads let the poetry
speak for itself. Passing to the second, we charac-
terize Tennyson's poetry pre-eminent in power because
none of his contemporaries has touched so deeply and
at so many points the hearts of the people of all ranks,
classes, and conditions. Others have moved the masses;
still others have been the pride of their own “re-
stricted audiences.” Not one, however, as this great
minstrel, has so won the hearts of all. Is he, then, a
“ popular ’’ poet? Yes; but not in the disparaging
sense. Is he the apostle to the aristocracy? Yes; to
the aristocracy of intelligence and virtue. Take up
the collection of poetry–Parnassus—which shows
the personal taste of that lofty intelle&tual aristocrat,
Ralph Waldo Emerson : in it the greatest among other
living poets are accorded but about quarter the space
accorded to Tennyson ; take up any modern “fireside''
collection, the proportion will be found about the
same. The wide influence of the poet is further shown
by the Complete Concordance to his works, published
in 1869; by the numerous translations his works have
undergone into most of the languages of Europe, and
by the willing aid which the kindred arts—music, sculp-
ture, and painting—have lent to the illustration of his
poetry.
In conclusion let us poll the jury of the poet's
peers. Wordsworth : “He is decidedly the first of our
living poets.” Browning : “In poetry, illustrious and
consummate ; in friendship, noble and sincere.” Mrs.
Browning : “He is a divine poet; if anything were
to happen to Tennyson the world should go into
mourning.” Swinburne : the high tributes already
TERHUNE—TERRITORY. 663
quoted. Rossetti : “The greatest poet of the period.”
hackeray : “The wisest man, I know.” ickens:
“What a great creature he is . . . A great living
poet, who uses his great gifts, as he holds them in
trust, for the general welfare.” Landor: “Infinite
his tenderness, his thought, his imagination, the
melody and softness as welfas the strength and stateli-
ness of his verses.” Carlyle : “One of the few
British and foreign figures who are and remain beauti-
ful to me—a true human soul, or some approximation
thereto, to whom your own soul can say, ‘Brother ' ' ''
Gladstone : “His life and labors correspond in point
of time as nearly as possible to my own, but his exer-
tions have been on a higher plane of human action
than my own. He has worked in a higher field, and
his work will be more durable.” Emerson : “Tenny-
son has incomparable felicity in all poetic forms. . . .
Nay, some of his words are poems.” Lowell : “It
may be centuries before such a thinker and speaker
as Tennyson appear.” Stedman : “Certainly to be
regarded in time to come, as, all in all, the fullest rep-
resentative of the refined, speculative, complex Vic-
torian age.” That age has been widely deplored as
grossly materialistic. Let those who can make of it
nothing else or better ponder on the exaltation which
has overtaken the humble youth
“That did love Beauty only.” (C. E. W.)
TERHUNE, MARY WIRGINIA, novelist, better
known by her pen-name, “Marion Harland,” was
born in 1835, in Amelia co., Va., her maiden name
being Hawes. From her earliest years she was given
to writing, and when she was 16 she had a story
accepted for Godey's Lady's Book, which was
translated into French, re-translated into an English
periodical, and finally copied in America as an English
tale. Encouraged by this singular success she deter-
mined to write a novel. This was published in 1854,
under the title, Alone, and at once created a sensation,
while since that time upwards of 100,000 copies have
been sold. In 1855 she produced The Hidden Pºrth,
which also had a large sale. In 1856 she was married
to Rev. Edward P. Terhune, then a minister at Char-
lotte Court-House, Va. Marriage and its duties did
not check her prolific pen. In 1857 her Moss-Side
appeared, and this was followed in rapid succession by
Nemesis, Husks, Husbands and Homes, Sunnybank
and Christmas Holly, Ruby's Husband, Phemie's
Temptation, At Last, The Empty IHeart, Jessamine,
Handicapped, A Gallant Fight . eighteen novels
in all, every one of a pure and elevating character. In
1858 Dr. Terhune was called to a church in Newark,
N. J., where he and his family spent eighteen years.
Two years were then devoted to travel and residence
in Europe, which furnished material for a book called
Loiterings in Pleasant Paths.
On his return Rev. Dr. Terhune received a call
to the First Congregational Church of Springfield,
Mass., and five years later to the Bedford Reformed
Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., where he and his wife still
reside, actively engaged in Christian and philanthropic
work. Besides her novels “Marion łł." has
been noted for her counsel to housekeepers. Her
Common Sense in the Household had an immediate
success; 150,000 copies have been sold in America and
half that number abroad, and it has been translated
into Arabic, French, and German. Kindred works,
constituting the Common Sense Series, have come
from her pen, comprising Breakfast, Luncheon and
Tea, The Dinner Year Book, The Cottage Kitchen
(1883), and Cookery for Beginners (1885).
TERRAPIN. See TORTOISE.
TERRE HAUTE, a city of Indiana, seat of Vigo
co., is on the left bank of the Wabash River, about 175
miles from St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, and Louis-
ville respectively. Nine railroads connect it with
these and other places. . .The city is on a plateau 60
feet above the river, which is here crossed by three
bridges. It contains a U. S. government building, a
handsome court-house, opera-house, 5 hotels, 3 na-
tional banks, 2 other banks, and 27 churches, some
of which are fine structures. It has fourteen schools,
whose property is valued at $244,000; also the Indiana
State Normal School, St. Mary's Institute, Coates
College, Rose Polytechnic Institute, Rose Qrphans'
Home, and St. Anthony Hospital. Two daily and 4
weekly newspapers are published here. There are I
foundries, 23 factories, and many mills, the total of
industrial establishments being 125. The proximity
of the block coal-mines of Clay county favors manu-
factures. The city has gas- and water-works and two
parks. The property is valued at $15,000,000; the
public debt is $283,000, and the yearly expenses about
$200,000. Terre Haute was settled by French colo-
nists, an offshoot from Vincennes, Ind. Col. Francis
Vigo (1740–1836), from whom the county was named,
was a merchant here and advanced the funds for Gen.
George Rogers Clarke's expedition against Kaskaskia.
Terre Haute in 1880 had a population of 26,042.
TERRITORY. This article treats of the title of
the United States to their territory and of the forma-
tion of territorial governments. The greater part of
North America was claimed by the sovereign of Great
Britain on the ground of its discovery by British sub-
jects. The grant to Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584 of
lands not held by any Christian prince or people and
title to such as should be discovered under that au-
thority resulted in no permanent establishment.
The first charter of Virginia, in 1606, granted the
sea-coast of America from the 34th to the 45th degree
of latitude to two companies termed the first and
second colonies, the first colony to be established be-
tween the 34th and 41st degrees, and the second colony
between the 38th and 45th degrees, but not less than
100 English miles apart. The western limit of this
grant was indefinite. The second charter of Virginia,
in 1609, defined more exactly the grant to and powers
of the first colony, limiting it territorially to 200 miles .
north and the same distance south of Point Comfort,
extending into the land from sea to sea. The third
charter of Virginia, in 1611, was to the first colony
and confirmed the terms of the second charter as it
regarded the territory granted, but added that it
should extend from sea to sea, west and north-west,”
and also added certain islands. The first company,
originally known as the London Company, organized
under the second charter as the South Virginia Com-
pany. The second company was the Plymouth Com-
pany that settled New England.
The charter of New England, in 1620, was to the
second colony under the Virginia grant, and its objects
Were to make the colonies independent of each other
and to make partition of their territory between them,
which had been partially accomplished by the second
charter of Virginia. The territory granted under this
charter was denominated New England, and was to ex-
tend from the 40th to the 48th degrees of latitude.
A charter was granted to the colony of Massachu-
setts Bay in 1629, embracing that part of the coast of
New England between the Merrimac and Charles
Rivers and extending beyond them respectively three
English miles. This charter, intended to confirm a
grant from Plymouth colony, was annulled in 1684 and
a new charter granted in 1691. The last mentioned
charter granted to Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth
colony the Province of Maine and Nova Scotia and as
far south as Rhode Island and Connecticut, including
Cape Cod and westward to the South Sea. \...
Massachusetts was one of the original colonies and
became a State at the Revolution.
New Hampshire was settled under grants from the
Plymouth colony, confirmed by the crown in 1629,
and became an independent colony in 1675 by royal de-
cree, and became a State at the Revolution.
Rhode Island was settled under a patent of the
Providence Plantations issued under the authority of
664 TERRITORY.
Parliament in 1643. It was chartered by the crown in
1663 and became a State at the Revolution.
Connecticut was settled and established as a govern-
ment under commission from the General Court of
Massachusetts in 1636 and asserted its independence
in 1638. It was recognized as an independent colony
by royal charter in 1662 and became a State at the
Revolution.
Maine was constituted of territory of the Plymouth
golony. In 1639 the Province of Maine was granted
by the crown to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, as lands unoc-
cupied under the New England grant, and in 1664 was
granted to the Duke of York, together with land now
Occupied by the State of New York, which grant was
confirmed in 1674. In the charter to Massachusetts
Bay in 1691 Maine was confirmed to that colony, and
in 1819 was made independent by an act of the Legis-
lature of Massachusetts confirmed by popular vote.
In 1820 an act of Massachusetts, confirmatory of her
previous cession, consented to the admission of Maine
as a State, and she was admitted in that year. The
boundary of Maine where touching upon the British
possessions was in dispute for many years, and was
finally adjusted in the treaty with Great Britain of
1842,
Vermont.—The territory and jurisdiction of this
'golony were disputed between Vermont, claiming to be
independent, and Massachusetts and New Hampshire,
claiming in right of the Plymouth title, and New York
in right of the Duke of York. These claims were
finally relinquished, and Vermont was admitted as a
State in 1791.
New York, which was originally settled in part and
claimed by the Dutch, was, under a purchase made by
the Duke of York from the Earl of Stirling, claimed
by the Duke, who, in 1664, took forcible possession of
New Amsterdam, and his title was finally confirmed
by the second grant to him in 1674. New York was
one of the original colonies and became a State at the
Iłevolution.
New Jersey was originally settled by the Dutch, but
was claimed by the Duke of York under his grant of
1664 and sold to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car-
teret, the title of the duke being confirmed by the
grant to him of 1674. New Jersey was an original
colony and became a State at the Revolution.
Pennsylvania.-The territory of Pennsylvania, orig-
inally disputed between the Swedes, Dutch, and Eng-
lish, was finally granted to William Penn as unoccu-
pied land in 1681, though the Swedes had already
made settlements. Penn purchased of the Duke of
York the territory of Delaware. Pennsylvania be.
came a State at the Revolution.
Delaware was part of the territory of Pennsylvania
purchased of the Duke of York, but was by charter
from Penn allowed an independent government. Del-
aware was recognized as a colony and became a State
at the Revolution. . . .
Virginia.-The territory of Virginia, derived under
charter to the first colony of Virginia, was reduced by
her constitution in 1776 by the cession to Maryland,
Pennsylvania, and North and South Carolina of their
right of property and jurisdiction, Virginia became
a State at the Revolution, claiming territory to the
Mississippi, north of that relinquished to North Caro-
lina and extending north indefinitely.
Maryland.--The territory of Maryland, although
embraced in the grant to the first colony of Virginia,
was, in 1632, granted to Lord Baltimore, and in 1776
relinquished by Virginia. Maryland was recognized
as an independent colony and became a State at the
Revolution. .
West Virginia was formed of western counties of
Virginia that did not follow that State in seceding from
the Union, and was admitted as a State December 31,
1862. e
Kentucky, originally part of Virginia, was claimed
by the settlers to be independent, though such claim
was denied by Virginia. The constitution of Vir.
ſº of 1776 asserted jurisdiction over that territory,
ut such jurisdiction was not actually exercised. Vir-
ginia assented to a separate government for Kentucky
in December, 1789, and by act of Congress in May, 1790,
a temporary government was provided for such terri-
tory, designated as “south of the Ohio,” and in 1790
Kentucky was admitted as a State.
Ohio was formed from the territory north-west of
the Ohio that was ceded by an act of Virginia, passed
in 1783, being part of the territory derived under the
Virginia charters and granted by deed in 1784. At
first, on behalf of France, and afterwards of Great
Britain, a claim was made to this territory as part of
the Province of Quebec, but this claim was extin-
guished by the treaty of peace with Great Britain in
1783. The North-west Territory, as ceded by Wir-
ginia, was organized by Congress in 1787. As this
action tended to extinguish claims reserved to Vir-
ginia by the deed of cession, the ratification of that
State was obtained in 1788. In 1800 Congress divided
the North-west Territory into two parts, the easterly
part embracing the territory of Ohio and part of that
of Michigan, and erected the western part into Indiana
Territory. In 1802 Ohio was admitted as a State with
boundaries that excluded the territory embraced in
Michigan.
Indiana was formed from Indiana Territory, which
was divided in 1809, and the westerly part set apart
and organized as Illinois Territory. Indiana was ad-
mitted as a State in 1816 with boundaries excluding the
territory embraced in Michigan.
Illinois was formed from Illinois Territory, which
had been set apart from Indiana Territory by act of
1809, from which it received separate territorial or-
ganization and was admitted as a State in 1818, with
boundaries that excluded the territory embraced in
Wisconsin and that west of the Mississippi.
Michigan, established as a Territory in 1805, em-
braced territory excluded by the northern boundaries
of Ohio and Indiana, and in 1818 was extended to the
Mississippi, and in 1834 to the Missouri River.
Michigan had been claimed as part of the Province
of Quebec. (See above under 8.) Michigan was
admitted as a State in 1837 upon assenting to condi-
tions fixed by Congress in 1836, excluding from its
boundaries the territory west of the east line of Wis-
COI) S10.
Wisconsin.—In 1836, when Congress excluded from
Michigan the territory west of Lake Michigan and a
line connecting that lake with Lake Superior, it erected
such excluded territory into the Territory of Wiscon-
sin, extending to the Missouri and White Earth
Rivers. In 1838 that part of the Wisconsin Territory
west of the Mississippi was set apart and organized as
the Territory of Iowa. Wisconsin was admitted as a
State in 1846.
Minnesota.-The Territory of Minnesota was partly
derived from the Virginia cession of the North-west
Territory and partly under the Louisiana purchase. It
was embraced in the Territory of Iowa, established in
1838 upon the division of Wisconsin Territory. It was
organized as the Territory of Minnesota in 1849, ex-
cluding from its boundaries the Territory of Iowa and
that of Dakota and admitted as a State in 1857.
North Carolina. —In 1663 a charter of the Prov-
ince of Carolina was given, embracing part of the ter-
ritory conveyed to the first Virginia colony, with boun-
daries that were extended by charter of 1665 so as to
include from about latitude 36° 30' to Florida, and
westerly to the South Sea. North Carolina, originally
under the government of the Lords Proprietors, be-
came independent as a colony and a State at the Rev-
olution.
South Carolina, originally embraced in the Province
of Carolina, received a separate government by the
appointment by the Lords Proprietors of William
Sayles as governor of that part of the Province of
TERRITORY.
665
Carolina south of Cape Carteret. The provincial
assembly of South Carolina claimed independence of
the Lords Proprietors in 1719. South Carolina be-
came a State at the Revolution. º
Georgia, originally part of the Province of Caro-
lina, received a corporate government in 1732, with a
cession of that part of South Carolina South of the
Savannah River and extending west to the South
Sea. A regular colonial government was given in
1752 and Georgia became a State at the Revolution.
The constitution of that State in 1798 gave authority
for the cession to the United States of the territory
west of the Chattahoochee, and that cession was
made. The territory thus relinquished was included
in the Territory of Mississippi established in 1798
that extended to the Mississippi River.
Alabama was established as a Territory in 1817 out
of the Territory of Mississippi, and was admitted as a
State in 1819.
Mississippi, organized as a Territory in 1798, was
admitted in 1817, comprising that portion of the terri-
tory excluded from the limits of Alabama. Portions
of the States of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi
were derived by the cession of the Floridas by Spain.
Tennessee was, upon its cession by North Carolina,
embraced in the limits of the territorial government
of the territory south of the Ohio, established in 1790,
and remained in that condition after Kentucky, part
of that territory, was a State. It was admitted as a
State in 1796.
Louisiana occupies territory that was part of the
Province of Louisiana held by France and ceded by
France to the United States by treaty in 1803, during
the administration of Pres. Jefferson, for which the
United States paid $11,250,000 in a 6 per cent. stock
redeemable in annual payments of $3,000,000, com-
mencing in fifteen years from the treaty. Under an
act of Congress in 1803 possession was taken of this
rovince and its government committed for the time
being to the President. In 1804 the province was
divided into two Territories, that portion south of lati-
tude 33° being named the Territory of Orleans, and
the northerly part being called the District of Louis-
iana. The Territory of Orleans was organized in 1804
and the District of Louisiana provisionally attached to
the Territory of Indiana. In 1805 the District of
Louisiana was separately organized as the Territory of
Louisiana. Louisiana was admitted as a State in 1811,
embracing the Territory of Orleans.
Missouri.-The name of the Territory of Louisiana
was in 1812 changed to that of Missouri Territory, and
territorial organization completed. In 1820 Missouri
was enabled to be admitted to the Union subject to
the ratification of the boundaries assigned, and ac-
cepted such boundaries, excluding the north part of
the Territory of Missouri and that embraced in
Arkansas Territory.
Arkansas was organized in 1819 as Arkansas Terri-
tory out of that portion of Missouri Territory south
of the territory of the present State of Missouri, and
was admitted as a State in 1836.
Iowa originally formed part of Missouri Territory,
but was separated from that Territory in 1834 and
made part of Michigan Territory, and in 1836 em-
braced in the Territory of Wisconsin. In 1838 it was
erected into the Territory of Iowa, and in 1845 was
admitted as a State.
Florida.—The territory occupied by Florida was
part of that ceded by Spain to the United States by
treaty in 1819 under the name of the colonies of East
and West Florida, and was organized as the Territory
of Florida in 1822, and Florida was admitted as a
State in 1845.
Teacas was formerly part of the Republic of Mexico
and united with Coahuila as a State of that republic.
In 1833 Texas declared her independence, as a State
of the Mexican Republic, and in 1835 framed a con-
stitution. In 1836 Texas declared her entire inde-
WOL. IV.-2 R
pendence of Mexico and in the same year framed a
constitution in conformity with such declaration...This
independence was recognized by the United, States
and other nations. In 1845 Texas was annexed to the
United States under a joint resolution of Congress
accepted by that State, and in the same year was ad-
mitted into the Union. e
Kansas.-The territory of Kansas was in part de-
rived from Missouri Territory and in part under the
cession of Florida in 1819, and was erected into the
Territory of Kansas in 1854, the northerly portion ex-
tending to the Rocky Mountains. Kansas adopted a
constitution in 1859 excluding the territory occupied
by Colorado from its boundaries, and was admitted as
a State.
Nebraska. —The Territory of Nebraska was organ-
ized in 1854 by the same act that organized the Terri-
tory of Kansas, and included with the territory of the
resent State a portion of that of Colorado, Montana,
}. and Wyoming, which were excluded from her
boundaries at her admission as a State in 1867. *
Colorado.—The territory occupied by Colorado was
derived in part from the Territory of Nebraska and in
part from that of Kansas, and was organized as the
Territory of Colorado in 1861. Colorado was admitted
as a State under an act of 1875.
California was occupied by military and naval forces
of the United States during the Mexican war, and at
its close, in 1848, passed by treaty into possession. It
was admitted as a State in 1850.
New Mexico and Utah were organized as Territories
in 1850 from lands derived from Mexico under the
treaty of peace in 1848. New Mexico was enlarged by
the Gadsden purchase from Mexico in 1853. Nevada
was separated from Utah and made a Territory in
1861, and was admitted as a State in 1864. Arizona
was separated from New Mexico and organized as a
Territory in 1863.
Montana, Wyoming, and Dakota were, in 1854,
embraced in the Territory of Kansas, that Territory
being in part derived from the Louisiana purchase, in
part through the treaty of peace with Mexico, and in
part through the annexation of Texas. Montana was
organized as a Territory in 1864, Dakota in 1861, and
Wyoming in 1868.
Washington Territory was organized in 1853 of land
derived under the treaty of 1846 with Great Britain
for the settlement of the North-west boundary, and
was originally established as the Territory of Oregon
in 1846, and, upon the admission of Oregon as a State
in 1859, received the residue of Oregon Territory not
included in that State. Idaho was separated from the
Territory of Washington and organized as a Territory
in 1863.
The Indian Territory was acquired by the annexa-
tion of Texas, and was set apart for Indian occupation
in 1828, under treaties with certain Indian tribes, and
has not been organized as a Territory of the United
States.
Alaska was acquired by purchase from the Russian
government in 1867, and has not yet received com-
plete territorial organization. After long remaining
under military control, it was made a District in 1884,
and has a governor appointed by the President.
The District of Columbia was ceded to the United
States by Virginia and Maryland in 1791 as the
national seat of government. Virginia's share was
retroceded in 1846. From 1871 to 1874 the District
had a territorial form of government, but this was
revoked by Congress.
The authority possessed by Congress over the Terri-
tories is sovereign, and without other limitation than
such as is imposed by the Constitution upon its powers
at large. Article IV. of the Constitution declares
that “Congress shall have power to dispose of and
make rules and regulations respecting the territory or
other property belonging to the United States.” This
power has been judicially defined as sovereign in its
666
TERRY-THANKSGIVING.
nature. Although the Articles of Confederation are
silent as to the authority of Congress over the Terri-
tories, yet the Congress under those articles in 1787
conferred territorial government on the “Territories
north-west of the Ohio,” which had been ceded to the
Union by Virginia, and that authority was recognized
and confirmed by the first Congress under the Čonsti.
tution.
The authority of Congress to acquire territory from
foreign states was seriously doubted by Mr. Jefferson,
yet was exercised during his presidency in the pur-
chase of Louisiana from France. The purchase of
Florida from Spain and of Alaska from Russia, and
the acquisition of the western part of the continent by
the treaty of peace with Mexico at the close of the
Mexican war, are instances showing the full recogni-
tion of the sovereign authority of Congress over the
Territories of the United States.
The territorial government established in 1787 over
the “Territory north-west of the Ohio’’ was a prece-
dent and model that gave definition to the territorial
policy of the United States. The form of govern-
ment established in that Territory was substantially
adopted in the succeeding organization of Territories
down to the organization of Missouri Territory in
1812; it provided for the appointment of a governor,
secretary, and judges of the Territory, with full legis-
!ative, executive, and judicial authority, subject to the
Constitution and laws of the United States, but with
a contingent provision for the creation of a legislative
body when the population of the Territory should be
such as to demand it. Another feature of the organic
law of the “Territory north-west of the Ohio’’ which
has exercised a large influence over the territorial
policy was the proviso in that law that slavery should
never exist in that Territory. This was intended as an
organic provision that should enter into the constitu-
tions and laws of all the States formed out of this Ter-
ritory and form part of the organic law of such States,
and that effect has been realized and its validity
judicially recognized. # º
The organization of the Territory of Missouri under
the act of 1812, while still retaining in the President of
the United States the appointment of executive and ju-
dicial officers, provided for a legislative authority largely
popular in its nature, but to some extent dependent
upon the national authority. The legislative power
was vested in a general assembly, that should consist
of the governor, a legislative council, and a house of
representatives. The house of representatives was
É. by popular election, but the legislative council
was selected by the President of the United States
from a larger number of persons chosen by the repre-
sentatives, and could be removed at the pleasure of the
President. All laws were required to have not only
the consent of the legislative council but that of the
governor. All territorial laws depended for their effi:
cacy upon their consistency with the Constitution and
laws of the United States.
In 1816 the provisions of the organic act as to the
choice of the legislative council were changed so as to
make that body subject to popular election. The
territorial act of Missouri contains a Bill of Rights
similar to those generally introduced into the State
constitutions.
Upon the admission of Missouri as a State of the
Union the policy of excluding slavery from a portion
of the Territories of the United States which was
inaugurated by the act constituting the Territory
North-west of the Ohio, was extended over the terri-
tory acquired from France under the name of Louis-
iana, which lay north of latitude 36° 30', and was
intended as an organic provision that should extend to
all Territories and States organized from that terri-
tory. (See SLAVERY.) (A. J. W.)
TERRY, ALFRED. Howe, major-general, was born
at Hartford, Conn., Nov. 10, 1827. He was educated
at Yale College, and was admitted to the bar in 1848.
He was made clerk of the New Haven county court in
1854, and was active in the militia. During the
Crimean war he visited Europe in order to observe
military operations, and at the outbreak of the Amer-
ican civil war he was probably better informed on such
subjects than any other American outside of the regular
army. The time came when his knowledge was to be
reduced to practice. . In 1861 he led his company to
Washington, and at the battle of Bull Run he covered
the retreat and saved a large amount of government
property. He then raised the Seventh Connecticut
regiment, and with it participated in Gen. T. W. Sher-
man's expedition to the Georgia coast. He was en-
gaged in the siege of Fort Pulaski and afterwards had
command of it and other forts. In March, 1862, he
was commissioned brigadier-general and led a brigade
at the battle of Pocotaligo. In 1863 he had com-
mand of a division and was engaged in operations in
Charleston Harbor. He was afterwards with Gen.
Butler's Army of the James and took part in the
action at Drury's Bluff. From May till December,
1864, he commanded the Tenth Army Corps. In
January, 1865, he commanded the land forces in the
expedition against Fort Fisher, at the mouth of Cape
Fear River. The fort was captured by assault Jan. I5,
and from that date ran his commissions as major-gen-
eral of volunteers and brigadier-general U. S. A.
Gen. Terry marched inland and joined with Gen.
Sherman in the closing events of the war. He after-
wards had command.
TEWFIK PACHA, MoHAMMED, Khedive of Egypt,
was born Nov. 10, 1852, at Cairo. He is the eldest
son of Ismail Pacha, and when his father was com-
pelled to abdicate, Aug. 8, 1879, he succeeded to the
throne. The principal events of his reign have been
narrated under Arabi Pacha (q. v.).
THANKSGIVING, in the United States, denotes
an annual festival, not instituted to celebrate a single
event, but to show proper gratitude to God for the
blessings of the closing year. It was meant to gather
up in thought all the mercies of a twelvemonth, all
the bounties of the harvest, all the manifold gifts of
Providence, and show a fitting recognition of the
whole in gratitude which should overflow in festivity
and mirth. As now observed, it may be said to be
borrowed from the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles. The
Hebrews, under the Mosaic law, celebrated the good-
ness of God in a harvest festival, under branches of
trees and in tents of palm. They felt, beyond any
other ancient people, that the fruits of the earth, the
things needed for sustenance and comfort and cheer,
were gifts of divine beneficence; and that it was fitting
to express gratitude for them in a public celebration
in which the gifts should be enjoyed. Thanksgiving
day differs in these respects from the religious festivals,
or holy days, that have prevailed in the various Chris-
tian churches. There have, however, been national
and local festivals which have a closer resemblance.
In Holland the anniversary of the deliverance of the
city of Leyden from the siege, Oct. 3, 1575, was kept
as a religious festival of thanksgiving and praise. In
the English Church service the Fifth of November
is celebrated in commemoration of the discovery of the
Gunpowder Plot. The German Protestants, Lutheran
and Reformed, have the custom of “ Harvest Home,”
with religious services as well as general feasting and
rejoicing. This custom was brought by German and
Dutch immigrants into the United States. Hence
probably came the local Thanksgiving day in parts of
Ilong Island, after driving home for the winter the
cattle which, during the most of the year, were pas-
tured at Montauk Point.
But the American custom of Thanksgiving is his-
torically traced beyond question to the earliest settlers
of New England. In 1621, within a year after the
landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, Gov. Bradford
wrote as follows: “They begane now to gather in the
small harvest they had, and to fitte up their houses
THANKSGIWING.
667
and dwellings against winter, being all well recovered
in health and strength, and had all things in good
plenty; for as some were thus employed in affairs
abroad, others were exercised in fishing about codd,
and bass, and other fish of which they took good store,
of which every family had their portion. All the
somer ther was no waste. And now began to come in
store of foule, as winter approached, of which this
place did abound when they came first (but afterwards
decreased by degrees) and beside water foule ther was
great store of wild turkies of which they took many,
beside venison, etc. Beside they had about a peck of
meal a weeke to a person, or now, since harvest, Indian
corn to that proportion.” In this connection Edward
Winslow described the public commemoration in the
following manner: “Our harvest being gotten in, our
Governor (William Bradford) sent four men on fowl-
ing, so that we might after a special manner rejoice
together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors.
They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a
little help beside, served the company almost a week.
At which time, amongst other recreation we exercised
our arms, many of the Indians coming among us, and
among the rest their greatest king Massasoyt, with
some 90 men, whom for three days we entertained and
feasted ; and they went out and killed 5 deer, which
they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our
Governor, and upon the Captain (Myles Standish) and
others. And although it be not always so plentiful as
it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of
God, we are so far from want that we often wish you
partakers of our plenty. '' . The next Thanksgiving
day was in July, 1623. A long and severe drought
had prevailed, and the governor appointed a day of
fasting and prayer. During the prayer “soft, sweet,
and moderate showers’’ fell, continuing for two weeks.
The fasting and praying were changed into devout
thanksgiving.
In the Plymouth colony Thanksgiving days were
appointed for 1651, 1668, and 1680, and in the Massa-
†. Bay colony similar observances were held in
1633, 1634, 1637, 1638, and 1639. The colony and
province of New York was not without its days of
praise and prayer. The Dutch governors proclaimed
such days in 1644, 1645, 1655, and 1664. The English
governors followed the example of their predecessors
in 1760 and in 1775. Throughout the Revolution
Congress annually recommended days of Thanksgiving.
In 1784 there was a day of general praise for the
return of peace and liberty to the country. In 1789
Pres. willion appointed a day of rejoicing for
the adoption of the &ºn. In 1795 he issued
a call for a national thanksgiving ; the preamble was
this: “When we review the calamities that afflict so
many other nations, the present condition of the United
States affords much matter of consolation and satisfac-
tion. Our exemption hitherto from foreign war; an
increasing prospect of the continuance of that exemp-
tion—the great degree of internal tranquility we have
enjoyed—the recent confirmation of that tranquility
by the suppression of an insurrection which so wan-
tonly threatened it—the happy course of our public
affairs in general—the unexampled prosperity of all
classes of our citizens—are circumstances which pecu-
liarly mark our situation with indication of the divine
beneficence toward us. In such a state of things it is
in an especial manner our duty as a people, with rev-
erence and affectionate gratitude, to acknowledge our
many and great obligations to Almighty God, and to
implore him to continue and confirm the blessings we
experience.” On account of these reasons the Presi-
dent recommended “to all religious societies and de-
nominations and to all persons whomsoever, within
the United States, to set apart and observe Thursday,
the 19th day of February next, as a day of public
thanksgiving and prayer, and on that day to meet
together and render sincere and hearty thanks to the
great Ruler of nations for the manifold and signal
mercies which distinguish our lot as a nation—partic-
ularly for the possession of constitutions of govern-
ment which unite, and by their union establish, liberty
with order; for the preservation of our peace, foreign
and domestic; for the reasonable control which has
been given to a spirit of disorder in the suppression
of the late insurrection, and generally for the pros-
perous condition of our affairs, public and private ;
and at the same time, humbly and fervently to beseech
the kind Author of these blessings graciously to pro:
long them to us; to imprint on our hearts a deep and
solemn sense of our obligations to Him for them ; to
teach us rightly to estimate their immense value ; to
preserve us from the arrogance of prosperity and from
hazarding the advantages we enjoy by delusive pur-
suits; to dispose us to merit the continuance of his
favors by not abusing them, by our gratitude for them,
and by a corresponding conduct as citizens and as men ;
to render this country more and more a propitious
asylum for the unfortunate of other countries, to ex-
tend among us true and useful knowledge, to diffuse
and establish habits of sobriety, order, morality, and
piety, and finally to impart all the blessings we possess
or ask for ourselves to the whole family of mankind.”
This proclamation followed the precedent by which
Thursday had been uniformly designated by the gov-
ernors of the New England States as the day of thanks-
giving. In those States the Congregational Church
predominated. In 1789 the Prayer-book of the Prot-
estant Episcopal Church recognized the authority of
the civil government to appoint such a feast. The
custom went gradually to other States. In 1795
Gov. Jay, of New York, issued a proclamation of
thanksgiving, which was , but slightly attended to.
A second trial was made by Gov. De Witt Clinton in
1817 and a hearty response was made. Since 1817 the
annual Thanksgiving i. been celebrated in the State
of New York with hardly a break. The State of
Pennsylvania followed soon afterward ; but the West-
ern States were more slow in adopting the custom.
Illinois, admitted as a State in 1818, did not appoint
a day of Thanksgiving until 1840, the day named being
in December. The Southern States, owing to differ-
ence of climate and institutions, did not take kindly to
the custom which had originated in New England ; yet
in 1858 the governors .# eight Southern States sent
forth proclamations for days of thanksgiving.
Until the great national crisis of the civil war, with
the exception of Washington's administration, the cus-
tom was strictly confined to the will of the governors
of the respective States. During the civil war Pres.
Lincoln frequently appointed special days of thanks-
giving for national victories; and more than once,
when the results of great battles were discouraging to
the Union cause, he appointed days of fasting and
prayer. In 1863 he issued a long proclamation, ap-
pointing the last Thursday of November as a day of
thanksgiving and prayer. The closing part of this
document was in these words: “I recommend to the
people of the United States that, while offering up the
ascriptions justly due to God for such singular deliver-
ances and blessings, they do also, with humble peni-
tence for our national perverseness and disobedience,
commend to his tender care all those who have be-
come widows, orphans, mourners, or sufferers in the
lamentable civil strife in which we are unavoidably en-
gaged; and fervently implore the interposition of the
Almighty hand to heal the wounds of the nation and
to restore it, as soon as may be consistent with the
divine purposes, to the full enjoyment of peace, har-
mony, tranquility, and union.” Since that year every
President of the United States has appointed the last
Thursday of November as a national day of thanksgiv-
ing, and nearly all the governors of the States have
followed with proclamations for their respective States.
In the Protestant churches the religious observance
of Thanksgiving is provided for by the several congre.
gations and their ministers or other officers, Seldom
668 THAXTER—THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
has any objection been made to the civil government
appointing a day, for religious worship, though some
theologians, who have discussed the question, have in-
sisted that the civil authorities can only recommend
a day for the purpose, but cannot invade the religious
rights of the people by enforcing its observance. This
conclusion coincides with the view of the civil courts
from the other side, and, indeed, with the general
American idea of the relations of the state to religion.
In the Roman Catholic Church Thanksgiving day
received no official attention until the Plenary Council
met at Baltimore in 1885. It was then recommended
that extra prayers be offered at the services on that
day. Accordingly, in November, 1888, Cardinal Gibbons
issued a circular, requesting the clergy of the arch-
diocese of Baltimore to honor the festival by reciting
the prayers for the authorities of the State and nation
after the late mass on that day. Similar directions
were given by other prelates. This recognition will
hº cause, a still more general observance of
hanksgiving day, though American citizens of that
faith had already in many instances shown regard for
the festival.
Thanksgiving days, appointed by the national or
State authorities, are a legal holiday in all the States
of the Union. (See LEGAL HolidAYS.) (F. G. M.)
THAXTER, CELLA, poet, was born at Portsmouth,
N. H., June 29, 1835. Since her fifth year she has
lived on Appledore, one of the Isles of Shoals, about 9
miles off the coast. Her maiden-name was Leighton,
and she was married at the age of sixteen. In 1867
she wrote for the Atlantic Monthly some essays on her
island-home, which were gathered in a volume—
Among the Isles of Shoals (1873). Her poems, col-
lected from magazines and newspapers, are full of the
charm and mystery of the sea.
THAYENDANEGEA. See BRANT, Joseph.
THAYER, SYLVANUs (1785–1872), called “Father
of the Military Academy’’ at West Point, was born at
Braintree, Mass., June 19, 1785. He graduated at
Dartmouth College in 1807, and at West Point in
1808. He was employed in the construction of coast
defences until 1812, when he was made chief-engineer
of the Northern army for the invasion of Canada. In
1815 he was sent to Europe to examine the military
schools, and on his return was made superintendent at
West Point. The whole system of training there used
was formed by Major Thayer. (See MILITARY ACAD-
EMIES.) In 1833 he was employed in constructing
forts in Boston harbor, and in 1838 became president
of the Board of Engineers for coast defence. In 1843
he went to Europe for professional purposes, and after
his return continued his work of coast defence until
1857, when he was relieved of duty, though not for-
mally retired until 1863. He published some profes-
sional papers and gave liberally to the cause of educa-
tion. Dartmouth College and his native town were
among his beneficiaries.
THEATRE. See DRAMA.
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES IN THE UNITED
STATES.–During the colonial period, and in the early
years of the republic, preparation for the ministry, as
for the other professions, was obtained largely from
rivate sources, according to location and opportunity.
#. was designed as a seminary for preachers, and
a chair of divinity was founded there in 1721. Theo-
logical classes were held at Yale from 1754. The few
institutions of learning had this end more or less in
view, for a far larger proportion of students became
ministers then than now ; i. many sought instruction
at home or from the nearest clergyman. The first
Protestant theological school was initiated by the As-
sociate Presbyterian Synod in Beaver co., Pa., in
1794, under John Anderson, D. D. The Associate
Reformed Seminary, in New York city, was begun
1804 under John M. Mason, D. D. Andover, New
Brunswick, and Princeton followed within the next
eight years, and there are now over 150 institutions of
the kind, which may best be grouped here under the
heads of the several religious denominations. The statis-
tics are taken chiefly from the last report of the U. S.
Commissioner of Education (for 1885–86), and many
facts have been gathered from the Schaff. Herzog En-
cyclopædia. These schools represent every degree of
strength, from a merely or nearly nominal existence to
a long record of wide usefulness. Many of them
stand on their own independent foundation ; several
of the greatest and some of the least are departments
of universities or colleges. In the latter case the
figures reported in a few instances appear to indicate
the whole number of students in the college, not that
in the theological department. The period. of study
in all the seminaries of higher character is 3 years, and
the classes are usually called senior, middle, and
junior. The States most extensively provided with
these institutions will be found to be Pennsylvania and
Illinois, each having 17; the denominations which
claim the largest number of schools and instructors are
the Roman Catholic and Baptist.
BAPTIST.
Hamilton Theological Seminary, located in the
village of Hamilton, N. Y., was chartered 1819 and
organized 1820. As the oldest Baptist seminary in
America, it has been vitally identified with the history
of the body for two-thirds of a century, and has fur-
nished a large proportion of its ministers. It has a
good endowment, 130 acres of land, three School
buildings, and several residences. The successive
residents have been Drs. D. Hascall, N. Kendrick,
} S. Maginnis, G. W. Eaton, and E. Dodge. There
are 6 chairs, 5 of which are now filled. Among their
occupants have been Barnas Sears, T. J. Conant, A.
C. Kendrick, and other eminent men. The seminary
had at last accounts 54 students and 18,000 volumes
in the library.
Newton Theological Institution, at Newton Centre,
Mass., was organized 1825 and chartered 1826. The
plan was to provide college graduates with a 3-years'
course in divinity, beginning with the Hebrew and
Greek Scriptures and giving prominence to Biblical
studies. This limitation has been relaxed sufficiently
to admit non-graduates who could follow the subjects
pursued, and even to indulge a few with a 2-years'
course in English alone. The institution was opened
1825, with Ira Chase, D. D., as sole teacher. . J.
Ripley, D. D., was appointed the next year; J. D.
Knowles in 1834 (he died 1838); B. Sears, D. D.,
1836, and H. B. Hackett, D. D., 1839. From that
date there were 4 professors, to whom an instructor in
Hebrew was added 1846. From 1868 there were 5
professors and a teacher of elocution. There are
now 8 instruetors and 68 students. Alvah Hovey,
D. D., LL.D., is president and professor of theology,
H. Lincoln, f). D., professor of church history, and
O. S. Stearns, D.D., of Old Testament Biblical inter-
pretation. The library has 18,500 volumes. . The en-
dowment is over $300,000, and the value of grounds
and buildings about $130,000. There are three halls,
Colby, Farwell, and Sturtevant, with a gymnasium
and 25 or more scholarships. Newton has sent forth
full a thousand ministers, including some 70 foreign
missionaries. It is governed by a board of 48 trustees,
clerical and lay.
Shurtleff College, at Upper Alton, Ill., opened 1827
and chartered 1832, has a theological department un-
der A. A. Kendrick, D. D., with 3 instructors, 13 stu-
dents, and a library of some 7500 volumes.
Rochester Theological Seminary, at Rochester, N.Y.,
was chartered 1850 and opened 1851 with two profes-
sors. E. G. Robinson, D. D., LL.D., now president
of Brown University, was long its leading spirit.
Drs. T. J. Conant, H. B. Hackett, and A. C. Ken-
drick held chairs. A. Strong, D. D., has been presi-
dent since 1872. There are now 10 instructors, .#
them Drs. Howard Osgood and W. A. Stevens, an
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
669
full a hundred students. The German department.
was founded in 1854. Near a thousand have entered
from all parts of America, about one-fourth being
Germans. The seminary has nearly $500,000 of in-
vested funds, and grounds and buildings valued at
$123,000. Trevor Hi was erected 1869 and Rockafeller
Hall 1879. The library has over 21,000 volumes, and
includes that of Neander. No subscription to creeds
or formal statement of doctrine is here required, but
any members of evangelical bodies are admitted on ev-
idence of religious experience and a call to the ministry.
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary was
organized 1859 at Greenville, S. C., chartered 1876,
and removed 1877 to Louisville, Ky. Its first endow-
ment was destroyed by the civil war, and its opera-
tions suspended from 1862 to 1865, when it started
again with 7 students. It has now some 114, with
6 teachers, real estate worth $120,000, over $200,000
of invested funds, and a library of 8500 volumes.
The varying wants of students are met by a full theo-
logical course, one limited to the vernacular and elective
studies; diplomas are given accordingly. J. P.
Boyce, D. D., LL.D. (d. 1889), was chairman of the
faculty and had been a professor since 1859. B.
Manly, D. D., and J. A. Broadus, D. D., were also
appointed at the opening of the seminary ; C. H. Toy,
D. D., 1869 (now of Harvard University); W. H.
Whitsitt, D. D., 1872, and G. W. Riggan, 1881.
Wayland Seminary, founded 1865 at Washington,
D. C., under the care of G. M. P. King, has real es-
tate worth $45,000 and a library of 2000 volumes. It
reports 6 teachers and 126 students, but the number
taking a theological course is probably much smaller,
having been given a few years earlier as 3.
Shaw University, at Raleigh, N. C., organized 1865,
chartered 1874, has a theological department under
H. M. Tupper, D. D., with 2 instructors and 40
students.
Roger Williams University, at Nashville, Tenn.
(formerly Nashville Normal and Theological Insti-
tute), opened 1865, reports a theological ãº.
under } W. Phillips, D. D., with 2 instructors and
35 students.
The Baptist Union Theological Seminary, at Mor-
gan Park, Ill., was opened in 1866, under the auspices
of the Chicago Baptist Union, in the building of the
Chicago University, by N. Colver, D. D., and J. C. C.
Clark, who taught some 12 students there. A full
organization was effected in October, 1867, with 20 stu-
dents, under G. W. Northrup, D. D., as president
and professor of systematic theology, and J. B. Jack-
son, D. D., as professor of church history. A build-
ing was erected in Chicago 1869. A Scandinavian de-
partment, under J. A. Edgren, began 1873 with 4
students; since increased to 28. The seminary was
removed 1877 to Morgan Park, where it has 5 acres
and a building worth $50,000. A fair endowment was
raised 1881 and subsequently. There are now 7 in-
structors, 90 students, and 18,000 volumes in the
library. Dr. Northrup is still president.
The Atlanta Baptist Seminary, opened 1867 at At-
lanta, Ga., is ruled by S. Graves, D. D., has real es-
tate worth $15,000, a library of 2500 volumes, an
reports 5 teachers and 152 students, but not all in
theology.
Richmond Theological Seminary (formerly Rich-
mond Institute) was organized 1867 at Richmond,
Va., and chartered 1876. C. H. Corey, D. D., is its
head. It has 4 instructors, 50 students, a library of
3200 volumes, and real estate valued at $20,000.
Crozer Theological Seminary, at Upland, Delaware
co., Pa., was chartered 1867, and opened 1868 with 20
students. It now has 560 under 6 professors, H. G.
Weston, D. D., being president from the start, a
library of 9000 volumes, a lecture fund, and a fair en-
dowment. There are two courses of study with differ-
ing diplomas.
William Jewell College, at Liberty, Mo., founded
*
7
1868, has, or had, a Jeremiah Wardeman School of
Theology, pronounced by the commissioner of educa-
tion “not a theological seminary proper.’’
The Benedict Institute, at Columbia, S. C., opened
1871, reports 6 teachers, 35 pupils, and a library of
1500 volumes. C. E. Becker is at its head. ...
Jackson College, opened 1877 at Jackson, Miss., has
6 teachers, 30 pupils, and real estate worth $30,000.
This is doubtfully placed among the theological semi-
Ila. TI6S.
Indian University, at Muskogee, Ind. Terr., founded
1880, has a theological department under A.
Bacani, reporting 6 teachers, 70 students, and real
estate worth $28,000. These figures perhaps belong
to the whole university.
The Selma University (formerly Alabama Baptist
Normal and Theological Institute) was organized 1877,
and opened 1878 at Selma, Ala. C. L. Pierce is at its
head. It reports real estate worth $15,000, with 7
teachers and 170 students, probably not all theological.
Bishop College, at Marshall, Tex., opened 1881,
has a theological department under S. W. Culver,
which reports 7 teachers and 166 pupils, with real es-
tate valued at $55,000. Here again the figures
probably belong to the whole college.
Leland University, at New Orleans, La., has a the-
ological department under H. R. Traver, with 3 in-
structors and 34 students. -
Mercer University, at Macon, Ga., reports a theolog-
ical department, with three students, under J. G.
Ryal, D.D.
FREE-WILL BAPTISTs.
Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale, Mich., chartered
1852, opened 1855, has a theological department un-
der G. F. Mosher, with 9 instructors, 53 students,
and a library of 3000 volumes.
Bates College Theological Seminary, at Lewiston,
Me., opened 1870, reports 4 teachers, 29 students, and
3000 volumes. O. B. Cheney, D. D., is at its head.
CHRISTIAN (Disciples of Christ, q.v.).
Eureka College, Eureka, Ill., chartered 1855, opened
1864, has a Bible department, with 3 teachers, 30 stu-
dents, and a library of 2000 volumes.
Oskaloosa College, Oskaloosa, Ia., chartered 1856,
opened 1872, has a Bible department, with 2 teachers,
13 students, and 2000 volumes.
The Christian Biblical Institute, at Standfordville,
N. Y., opened 1869, reports 5 teachers, 11 pupils,
1900 volumes, and real estate worth $40,000. J. B.
Weston, D. D., is at its head.
The College of the Bible, at Lexington, Ky., char-
tered 1865, opened 1877, has 3 teachers and 100 pupils
under R. Graham. -
Drake University, Des Moines, Ia., opened 1881,
has a Bible department, with 2 teachers, 48 students,
and 1500 volumes.
CHRISTIAN (Christian Connection, g. v.).
Union Christian College, at Merom, Ind., opened
1862, has a “Berean department,” with 2 teachers
d and 4 pupils.
A Christian Biblical Institute was begun at Eddy-
town, N. Y., 1869.
A Literary and Theological Institute for colored
persons was opened at Franklinton, N. C., 1881.
CoNGREGATIONAL.
Andover Theological Seminary, at Andover, Mass.,
was planned 1807, and intended to be connected with
Phillips Academy, founded 1778. A junction was
effected with another about to be established at New-
bury, Mass., the “moderate ’’ and “consistent" Cal-
vinists uniting on the basis of a creed similar to the
Westminster Catechisms. The seminary was incor-
porated as a branch of Phillips Academy under its
trustees, but also under the supervision of a board of
670
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
*
visitors. It was opened Sept. 28, 1808, with a ser-
mon by Pres, Dwight, of Yale. Thirty-six students
entered at once. r. E. Pearson was the first pro-
fessor of Sacred literature, 1808–9; Dr. L. Woods
of Christian theology, 1808–46; Dr. E. D. Griffin of
sacred rhetoric, and Dr. Jas. Murdock of ecclesiastical
history. Rev. Moses Stuart was professor of sacred
literature, 1809–47, and was then succeeded by Dr. B.
B. Edwards. Dr. E. Robinson was professor extraor-
dinary in this branch 1830–33. Drs. E. Porter, R.
Emerson, and T. H. Skinner were also in the faculty.
Dr. E. A. Park was professor of sacred rhetoric 1836–
47, and of theology 1847–81, Dr. A. Phelps succeed-
ing to his former chair 1848–79; both these are now
professors emeritus. In addition to the first 5 chairs,
others of the relations of Christianity to science, of
elocution, and of Biblical theology have been founded.
There have been many gifts and benefactors. The
buildings are 2 dormitories, 2 chapels, a library with
over 45,000 volumes, a gymnasium, 8 houses for pro-
fessors, etc. The real estate is valued at $107,000;
but it is not of material things that Andover is proud.
Puring 80 years some 3000 students have been in-
structed here, and here the American Education So-
ciety, the Tract Society, the Temperance Society, and
the oldest religious newspaper in America had their
origin. The Andover Press has published the works
of Profs. Porter, Woods, and Stuart, besides many
commentaries, lexicons, etc. The Biblical Repository
was printed here 1831–38, and the Bibliotheca Sacra U
founded 1844. The place has been a famous centre
of religious learning and research. Andover theology
professed to be a compromise between extreme Cal-
vinism and Hopkinsianism, incorporating the sub-
sº both. This is represented by the seminary
‘‘ creed.’’
During the last few years an unfortunate contro-
versy has threatened the credit and usefulness of this
venerable institution. On Dr. Park's withdrawal in
1881 Dr. Newman Smyth was elected to his chair by
the trustees. The Board of Visitors did not concur,
and he was not installed. A question was afterwards
raised and much mooted as to the orthodoxy of the
faculty, in view of essays on “Progressive Ortho-
doxy” in the Andover Review, and especially of cer-
tain expressions as to the “last things.” The chairs are
now held by Drs. J. P. Gulliver, E. C. Smyth, W. J.
Tucker, J. P. Taylor, J. W. Churchill, G. Harris, E.
Y. Hincks, W. H. Ryder, and G. F. Moore. Drs. S
Harris, E. A. Lawrence, and E. B. Andrews are lec-
turers. The number of students for the year 1887–88
was 50 ; it is now larger. Dr. E. C. Smyth is presi-
dent of the faculty. There are 2 fellowships and 30
scholarships. A fourth year is allowed for advanced
study.
ºngor Theological Seminary was chartered 1814,
and opened at Hampden, on the Penobscot (then in
Massachusetts) October, 1816. In 1819 it was removed
to Bangor. In 1820 the State of Maine was created,
and the first class in this seminary graduated, number-
ing 6. The course was at first designed for such as
had not gone through college and covered 4 years.
The classical or preparatory department was abandoned
in 1827, and the curriculum made to correspond with
those of similar institutions, embracing 3 years of
purely theological study. J. Ashmun, G. Shepard,
and L. Woods, Jr., were among the professors. Dr.
Enoch Pond (q. v.) was professor of theology 1832–
56, and professor of ecclesiastical history 1856–70, also
holding the presidency 1856-82. He was succeeded
by L. L. Paine, D. D. There are now 5 professors,
30 students, with a library of 15,000 volumes, and real
estate valued at $65,000. Nearly 700 ministers have
been sent forth with thorough theological preparation,
and near 200 have received a partial training.
Yale College (now Yale University), New Haven,
Conn., from its beginning in 1701-3 had a view to
education for the ministry, and a professor of divinity
was the first appointed (1755) after the rector. Many
of the most eminent clergy of America were trained
here, as Edwards, Hopkins, Emmons, Bellamy, Dwight,
Backus, Moses Stuart, N.W. Taylor, Lyman Beecher,
Bennet Tyler, and E. Robinson. The theological school
as a distinct department was established 1822, with N.
W. Taylor, E.T. Fitch, and J. W. Gibbs as profes-
sors, to whom C. A. Goodrich was added 1839. The
faculty now consists of Pres. Dwight and Dr. G. E.
Day, Hebrew language and literature and Biblical the-
ology (Old Testament); S. Harris, systematic theology;
G. P. Fisher, ecclesiastical history; L. O. Brastow,
homiletics and the pastoral charge ; j ñ, Russell, Bib-
lical theology (New Testament); and G. B. Stevens,
New Testament criticism and interpretation. There
are also 3 instructors and 5 special lecturers. In
1886–87 there were 108 students, 10 of whom were
pursuing graduate or fourth-year studies. The school
has a reference library of 3000 volumes, and the library
of church music of the late Dr. Lowell Mason.
The Theological Institute of Connecticut, otherwise
Hartford Theological Seminary, was opened May 13,
1834, at East Windsor Hill, Conn., with Dr. Bennet
Tyler as president. He led and formulated the severer
New England theology, as against the liberalizing ten-
dencies of Dr. N. W. Taylor, who was all-powerful at
New Haven. Between these was much controversy,
and their differences, then widely supposed to affect
matters of faith, led to the formation of the Pastoral
nion of Connecticut in 1833, and of its Theological
Institute Dr. Tyler retained the presidency till 1857.
The first professors with him were Drs. J. Cogswell,
1834–44, and W. Thompson, 1834–81. There are now
5 professors, 2 instructors, and some 40 students. In
1865 the institute removed to Hartford, where Hos-
mer Hall was erected 1879–80. The library contains
42,000 volumes. Near 600 ministers received their
training at Hartford.
Oberlin. Theological Seminary is a department of
the college at Oberlin, O. In 1834 most of the
students of Lane Seminary, at Cincinnati, withdrew
because anti-slavery discussion was prohibited. They
agreed to go to Oberlin if C. G. Finney (q. º of New
York, would take the chair of theology there, and
Arthur Tappan persuaded him to do so, and provided
the means. Asa Mahan (q.v.) was elected president,
and J. Morgan, of Lane Seminary, professor of New
Testament literature. The seminary opened 1835 with
35 students. There are now over 400 alumni, mostly
college graduates, and over 50 students in attendance.
J. H. Fairchild, D. D., is president and professor of
theology. There are 5 more professors and an in-
structor. These are not required to sign a creed, but
the theology taught is new-school Calvinism of the
Edwardean type. There is a good building, which
cost some $75,000, and a reference library of 2000
volumes.
The Chicago Theological Seminary was organized
and chartered 1854, and opened Oct. 6, 1858, with 29
students and 2 professors, Drs. J. Haven and S. C.
Bartlett. It now has 7 professors, 2 instructors, some
65 students, a library of 7500 volumes, and 2 halls
facing Union Park, and worth $127,000. There are
two courses of English study and a German depart-
ment; some 600 students have attended, and half as
many graduated. -
The Pacific Theological Seminary, at Oakland, Cal.,
was organized and chartered 1869. J. A. Benton,
D. D., is senior professor. It has 3 teachers, 11
students, and 4000 volumes.
Fisk University, at Nashville, Tenn., organized 1869,
has or had a theological course under E. M. Cravath,
Straight University, at New Orleans, La., chartered
1869, opened 1870, reports a theological department
with 36 students under R. C. Hitchcock.
Talladega College, at Talladega, Ala., chartered
1869, opened 1872, has a theological department with
12 students under G. W. Andrews,
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
671
A German Congregational Theological Seminary,
at Crete, Neb., opened 1878, has 15 students under
W. Sims.
EPISCOPAL.
The General Theological Seminary in New York
city was organized by the General Convention May 27,
1817, and opened May 1, 1819, in a room of St. Paul's
Chapel, Drs. S. H. Turner and S. F. Jarvis being the
first professors. It was removed to New Haven 1820,
but brought back to New York in February, 1822, with
6 professors and 23 students, and chartered the same
year. It is governed by a Board of Trustees elected
by the General and Diocesan Conventions, each bishop
being a member eſc officio. Successive buildings were
erected 1825, 1834, and 1883. Its finances have always
been well managed, and it now has real estate worth
$600,000 and a library of some 19,000 volumes. Among
its professors have been Bishops Brownell, Hobart, B.
T. Onderdonk, Whittingham, and Seymour, Drs. Bird
Wilson, Ogilby, Haight, S. R. Johnson, Mahan, S.
Seabury, and F. Winton, besides C. C. Moore, LL.D.,
and Hon. G. C. Verplanck. The faculty now consists
of Drs. E. A. Hoffman, dean ; W. E. Eigenbrodt,
pastoral theology; S. Buel, systematic divinity; R.
C. Hall, Hebrew and Greek ; A. Oliver, Biblical
learning and interpretation of Scripture ; W. J. Sea-
bury, ecclesiastical polity and law; T. Richey, eccle-
siastical history, and F. T. Russell, instructor in elo-
cution. Several of these chairs have special endow-
ments. An alumni professorship of evidences is not
yet filled. There are 88 students. To the buildings
on Chelsea Square (Sherred Hall, library and deanery)
a chapel was added 1886–8.
The Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary of
Tirginia was founded in Alexandria, Va., 1823, Dr.
B. Keith being the first professor. In 1827 it was
removed to a point over 2 miles west of Alexandria
and 7 from Washington. It was not incorporated till
1854. Dr. W. Sparrow was professor of systematic
divinity 1841–74. The chair of church history was
filled by Drs. Lippitt, 1827–41, and J. May, 1841–61.
It now has 6 professors and instructors, Dr. J. Pack-
ard being dean, with about 40 students, a library of
12,000 volumes, and several buildings. There is a pre-
paratory department with a two-year course. It has
sent forth some 800 ministers and 50 foreign mission-
aries, among them the late Dr. Hill of Athens, Bishops
Payne of Cape Palmas in Africa, Boone of China, and
Williams of Japan. Dr. Phillips Brooks of Boston is
an alumnus.
The Theological Seminary of the Protestant Epis-
copal Church in the Diocese of Ohio, otherwise Bex-
ley Hall, at Gambier, Ohio, was chartered 1824 and
opened 1825. It has 5 instructors and a library of
7000 volumes, is under the management of Bisho
Bedell, and is in relations with Gambier College. F.
James, D. D., is senior professor.
Nashotah House, at Nashotah, Wis., opened 1841
and chartered 1847, has sent forth many Western
clergy. It is controlled by 7 Western bishops, and
has 20 students, a library of 9000 volumes, and real
estate valued at $100,000, but depends for its support
on voluntary offerings. G. G. Carter is president,
and Drs. W. Adams, J. M. Clarke, and T. M. Riley,
professors.
The Berkeley Divinity School, at Middletown, Conn., |
was at first a department of Trinity College, Hartford,
and as such graduated its first class in 1850. It was
incorporated 1854 and removed to its present location,
where it has a library of 17,000 volumes. Bishop
Williams is president, and J. Binney, F. Gardiner,
HD. D., W. A. Johnson, S. Clarke, and F. T. Russell,
professors.
Griswold College, Davenport, Iowa, chartered 1859,
has a small theological department (Lee Hall) under
the direction of Bishop Perry. W. H. Barris, D. D.,
is dean, C. H. Seymour, professor, and C. R. Hale,
l). D., instructor.
Seabury Divinity School, at Faribault, Minn., was
opened. 1860. It is controlled by Bishop Whipple,
has 6 teachers, 25 students, a library of 6300 volumes,
and real estate worth $60,000. ©
The Divinity School of the Protestant iscopal
Church in Philadelphia was organized and chartered
in 1862 while the seminary at Alexandria was closed
by the war. An informal training-school had existed
for some five years previous. An endowment was pro-
vided, a library of 8000 volumes, and a building in
West Philadelphia, which was exchanged in 1882 for
a larger one at Woodland avenue and Fiftieth Street.
E. T. Bartlett, D. D., is dean, and Drs. G. E. Hare,
D. R. Goodwin, J. F. Garrison, and J. P. Peters, pro-
fessors. There are now 26 students.
The Episcopal Theological School of Massachusetts
was established at Cambridge, 1867, by a gift of
$100,000, and began with 4 professors and Dr. J. S.
Stone as dean. e was succeeded by Dr. G. Z. Gray.
It has a fine chapel and three halls, valued at $325,000,
but admission is limited to college graduates, and the
number of students has never been large. There are
now 16, under 6 professors, and about 100 alumni.
The Bishop Green Associate Mission and Training
School, at Dry Grove, Miss., was opened 1867, and is
in charge of W. K. Douglas, S. T. D.
St. Augustine's Normal School, at Raleigh, N. C.,
opened 1868, has a theological department and some
property. It is under R. B. Sutton, D. D.
Matthew's Hall, at Denver, Col., opened 1872, is
controlled by Bishop Spalding.
St. Andrew's Divinity School, at Syracuse, N. Y.,
was opened 1876.
The University of the South, at Sewanee, Tenn.,
chartered 1856, organized 1876, has a theological de-
partment, with 8 professors, 20 students, 2500 volumes,
and buildings worth $50,000. Telfair Hodgson, D. D.,
is dean. This is a live institution, which has made
head against great difficulties.
The Kansas Theological School, at Topeka, Kan.,
began 1874, “has merely a nominal existence.” A
similar institution at Louisville, Ky., exists only in
“a valuable library and productive funds.”
Wheeler Hall, Chicago, Ill., was opened 1885 by
Bishop McLaren. It has 5 professors, 12 students,
2000 volumes, and buildings on the Washington boule-
ward worth $150,000. º
EVANGELICAL Association.
Union Biblical Institute, at Naperville, Ill., was
opened 1876, with 3 teachers and S pupils under J. J.
Esher.
The German Evangelical Theological Seminary,
opened 1850 at Normandy, Mo., was afterwards re-
moved to St. Louis, and its name changed to Eden
College. It reports 3 teachers and 90 pupils under L.
F. Haeberle, with real estate worth $130,000.
LUTHERAN.
Hartwick Seminary, founded 1815, in Otsego co.,
N. Y., has a small theological department, long con-
ducted by G. B. Miller, D. D. A. Heller, D. D., is
now at the head of it. A new building was erected
about 1865, and a memorial volume published at Al-
bany, 1867.
The Theological Seminary of the General Synod,
at Gettysburg, Pa., was founded 1826 and chartered
1826. Its successive heads have been Drs. S. S.
Schmucker, C. A. Hay, and M. Valentine. Dr. E. L.
Hazelius became its second professor in 1830. Others
were Drs. H. I. Smith, C. P. Krauth, Sr., C. F.
Schaeffer, J. A. Brown, C. A. Stork, E. J. Wolf, and
J. G. Morris. There are now 4 professors, about 40
students, a library of 11,000 volumes, 2 lectureships,
an endowment of near $100,000, and buildings worth
$75,000. The alumni number nearly 700.
The Theological Seminary of the Synod of Ohio,
at Columbus, Ohio, was begun 1830. M. Loy, D. D., is
672 THEOLOGICA ſ,
SEMINARIES.
at its head, with 3 instructors, about 30 students, 4500
volumes, and real estate worth $100,000.
The Theological Seminary of the South, at New-
berry, S. C., opened 1830, has an endowment of
$22,000, 3 instructors, and a few students, under G.
Holland.
Concordia Seminary, at St. Louis, was founded
1830 in Perry co., Mo., in a settlement of recent em-
igrants from Saxony. At first it included also a
gymnasium or college, which was transferred to Fort
Wayne, Ind., 1861. The seminary was removed to
St. Louis in 1849, and passed in 1850 under the con-
trol of the Missouri Synod (afterwards the Synodical
Conference). A fine building was erected 1882–3.
Dr. C. F. W. Walther, long president, has been suc-
ceeded by F. Pieper. The seminary now has 6 pro-
fessors and some 95 students, with a library of 5500 |h
volumes. It has prepared near 600 men for the min-
istry. A branch of it, called a “Practical Seminary,”
was removed to Springfield, Ill., 1875, and now reports
5 teachers and 213 pupils.
Wittenberg College, at Springfield, Ohio, founded
1845, has a theological department in connection with
the General Synod, which reports 2 teachers and 11
students. -
Wartburg Seminary, Mendota, Ill., opened 1856,
is controlled by the German Synod of Iowa, and has
2 teachers and 50 students, with 3000 volumes. S.
Fritschel, D. D., is its head.
The Missionary Institute, at Selinsgrove, Pa., opened
1858, is connected with the General Synod. It has
a small property and endowment, 3000 volumes, 2
teachers and 12 pupils. P. Born, D. D., is at its head.
Augustance Seminary, at Rock Island, Ill., began
1860, belongs to the Swedish Augusta Synod, which
is in communion with the General Council. It has
real estate worth $100,000, 2500 volumes, 3 instruc-
tors, and 48 students, under Dr. T. N. Hasselguist.
The Theological Seminary of the Evangelical Lu-
theran Church, at Philadelphia, opened Oct. 5, 1864,
at 218 Franklin street, is controlled by the Ministe-
rium of Pennsylvania and the General Council. It
has maintained the ablest faculty and the highest
character of any English Lutheran institution. Its
first professors were Drs. C. F. Schaeffer, C. P.
Krauth, Jr., W. J. Mann, and C. W. Schaeffer.
The two first named died and were replaced by Drs.
A. Spaeth and H. E. Jacobs. The library has 17,000
volumes. There are now 62 students and some 300
alumni. A collegiate education or its equivalent is
necessary to entrance.
Augsburg Seminary, at Minneapolis, Minn., opened
1869, belongs to the Norwegian-Danish Conference.
It has an endowment of $46,000, 2 teachers, and 31
pupils. S. Sverduep is at its head.
#. Norwegian and Danish Augustana Seminary,
at Beloit, Iowa, opened 1874, is controlled by the
Norwegian Augustana Synod. D. Lysnes is its di-
Tector. e
Luther Seminary, at Madison, Wis., opened 1876,
belongs to the Norwegian Synod, and has 20 pupils.
The Evangelical Lutheran 7 heological Seminary,
at Milwaukee, Wis., begun 1878, is controlled by the
Wisconsin Synod and the Synodical Conference.
has 3 teachers and 35 students.
The Red Wing Seminary, at Red Wing, Minn., is
connected with Hauge's Norwegian Synod, and re-
orts 5 teachers, 17 pupils, and real estate worth
30,000.
A Practical and Theological Seminary, at Afton,
Minn., opened 1881, belongs to the Joint Synod of
1O.
Concordia College, at Conover, N. C., 1883, is di-
rected by the Tennessee Synod and by P. C. Henkel,
D. D
Other small institutions of recent origin are reported
as existing at Blair, Neb., Saginaw, Mich. North-
field, Minn., and Chicago. (See Stall's Lutheran
It h
lººk 1888, and Lutheran Church Almanac,
METHODIST EPISCOPAL,
De Pauw University (formerly Indiana Asbury
University), founded 1837, has a theological depart-
ment under A. Martin, D. D., L.L. D., with 5 teach-
ers and 45 students.
Boston University has a school of theology, which
WàStº. 1837 and opened 1847 at Concord,
N. H., as the Methodist General Biblical Institute.
Among its early professors were Drs. J. Dempster, J.
W. Merrill, Q. C. Baker, S. M. Vail, C. Adams, and
D. Patten. It was merged with the Boston Univer-
sity, 1871, endowed by the founders of that institu-
tion, reorganized, and removed to Boston 1876. It
as a wide curriculum, with instruction in German
and Spanish, and lectures by eminent divines of other
bodies. There are now 13 instructors and some hun-
dred students, with a library of 5000 volumes, and
buildings valued at $150,000. Dr. W. F. Warren is
the president. Many missionaries have gone hence to
Mexico and other lands.
Garrett Bublical Institute, at Evanston, Ill., was
opened 1856 and chartered 1857. The first professors
were Drs. J. Dempster, D. P. Kidder, and H. Ban-
nister, to whom were added Drs. M. Raymond and F.
D. Hemenway. Dr. W. X. Ninde became president
in 1879, and was succeeded by Dr. H. B. Ridgeway.
There is a good building, and an endowment of some
$300,000. There are now 8 instructors, some 125 stu-
dents, and nearly 500 graduates, besides many more
who have taken a partial course. The institute is
controlled by the Western conferences.
Wallace College (German), at Berea, Ohio, founded
1864, has a small theological department under W.
Nast, D. D.
Central Tennessee College, at Nashville, opened 1866,
has a theological department under J. Braden, D. D
and reports 9 teachers and 48 students.
The Gilbert Haven School of Theology in New Or-
leans University, La., opened 1866, reports 8 teachers,
20 pupils, and 3000 volumes in its library.
The Drew Theological Seminary, at Madison, N.J.,
was founded 1867 by a gift of $250,000 from Daniel
Drew. The Gibbons estate of about 100 acres, with a
large mansion, was purchased, and 2 more build-
ings erected for students, with 2 for professors. The
endowment was to have been doubled, but Mr. Drew's
failure prevented. Pres. J. F. Hurst, however,
procured subscriptions of $300,000. The first presi-
dent was Dr. J. McClintock, who died 1870. He was
succeeded by Drs. Forster and . Hurst, who became
bishops, and Dr. H. A. Beatty, also professor of New
Testament exegesis. The other professors are Drs. J.
Strong, J. Miley, G. R. Crooks, and D. F. Upham.
There are several instructors and lecturers, some 100
students, and a library of 18,000 volumes.
The Centenary Biblical Institute, at Baltimore, Md.,
on the corner of Fulton street and Edmonson avenue,
was chartered 1867 and organized 1872. It has 11
teachers, 55 pupils, 1000 volumes, and real estate
wº $30,000. W. M. Frysinger, D. D., is at its
€801.
The German-English College, at Galena, Ill., opened
1868, chartered 1871, has a theological department
under E. Uhl, with 2 teachers and 12 pupils.
A Swedish Theological Seminary, at Evanston, Ill.,
opened 1870, is taught by A. Ericson, and has 19 stu-
dents, and real estate worth $8000. A Norwegian
and Danish theological school was opened here 1886
under N. E. Simonson, and is reported as a separate
institution.
A German College, at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, was
opened 1873, and has 4 teachers, 24 pupils, and real
estate worth $15,000. J. Schlagenhauf is at its head.
The Gammon School of Theology of Clark Univer-
sity, Atlanta, Ga., opened 1883, reports 3 teachers, 53
• ?
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
673.
students, 4100 volumes, and real estate worth $65,000.
W. P. Thirkield, S. T. D., is dean.
McKendree College, at Lebanon, Ill.,
ical department with 10 students.
GERMAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL.-Central Wes-
leyan College, at Warrenton, Mo., opened 1864, has a
theological department under H. A. Koch, D. D., with
4 teachers and 44 students.
METHODIsT EPIscoPAL CHURCH, SOUTH.–Trinity
College, at Trinity, N. C., has a theological depart-
ment. The 8 teachers and 142 pupils reported doubt-
less include the whole college.
Vanderbult University, Nashville, Tenn., founded
1872–75 with the finest endowment in the South, has
a Biblical department, with 12 teachers and 45 stu-
dents. W. F. Tillett, D. D., is dean.
AFRICAN METHODISTEPISCOPAL.- Wilberforce Uni-
versity, at Wilberforce, Ohio, opened 1853, has a theo-
logical seminary with 5 students under S. T. Mitchell.
AFRICAN METHODISTEPISCOPAL ZION.—Livingston
College, Salisbury, N. C., has a theological depart-
Inent.
has a theolog-
METHODIST PROTESTANT.
Adrian College, Mich., opened 1878, has a school
of theology, with 3 teachers and 21 students under D.
L. Stephens.
Westminster Theological Seminary, at Westminster,
Md., opened 1882 under J. T. Ward, D. D., reports 5
teachers, 11 students, and a small library and property.
WESLEYAN METHODIST. — Wheaton. Theological
Seminary, at Wheaton, Ill., opened 1881 under L. N.
Stratton, has 5 teachers and 16 students.
MORAVIAN.
The Theological Seminary was opened at Nazareth,
Pa., Oct. 3, 1807, with 2 professors, E. L. Hazdius
and J. C. Beckler, and 3 students, who in time be-
came bishops. It was removed to Bethlehem, Pa.,
1838, and has continued there, except for a sojourn of
7 years (1851–58) at Nazareth. It was incorporated
1863 as the Moravian College and Theological Semi-
nary, with a course of 4 years in classics and 2 in the-
ology. It has an endowment of $80,000, a building
worth $9000, and a library of 5500 volumes. There
are 25 students under Profs. A. Schultze (president),
J. J. Hamilton, C. B. Shultz, and H. A. Jacobson.
PRESBYTERIAN.
Princeton Theological Seminary, at Princeton, N.J.,
was founded by the General Assembly in 1812. Dr.
Archibald Alexander was at its head till 1851. Dr.
Samuel Miller was professor, 1813–50; Charles Hodge
(q.v.), 1822–78; J. Addison Alexander, 1835–60; John
Breckinridge, 1836–38; J. W. Alexander, 1849–51;
and A. McGill, 1854–83. Dr. W. H. Green
was added to the faculty 1851 ; C. W. Hodge, 1860;
J. C. Moffatt, 1861; C. A. Aiken, 1871; A. A.
Hodge (q. v.), 1877; F. L. Patton (q.v.), 1880; and
W. M. Paxton, 1883. Under these scholars Princeton
has always been noted for the stern consistency of its
Old School theology. It has instructed some 3700
students, and now has about 140 under 11 instructors.
The library has 46,000 volumes. The seminary has
received many benefactions from R. and J. Lenox, R.
L. and A. Stuart, and others. It is exceptionally well
supplied with funds and buildings. The Biblical Re-
ository and Princeton Review, from 1825 to 1872, un-
er the editorship of Dr. C. Hodge, represented the
“Princeton School” and its theology. The General
Catalogue of the seminary, by Dr. W. E. Schenck,
1882, covered 330 pages.
Union Theological Seminary, at Hampden-Sidney
College, Va.; existed in germ at an early period, and
was reformed 1812 by the Synod of Virginia.
next 8 years it sent out some 30 licentiates. Dr.
Moses Hoge, president, died 1820, and in 1824 the
Hanover Presbytery established the seminary as a sep-
arate institution. It passed under the care of the
In the D. D
General Assembly in 1826, and was henceforth gov-
erned, through 24 trustees, by the Synods of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina, receiving its present name.
Dr. J. H. Rice was in charge, 1824-31; Dr. G. A.
Baxter was president, 1832–41, and Dr. S. B. Wilson
from 1841. By 1831 there were buildings, a library,
and 3 professors; a fourth was added 1854. The sem-
inary now has 5 teachers, 60 students, 12,400 vol-
umes, 40 acres, with buildings worth $50,000, and an
endowment of $250,000.
Auburn Theological Seminary, at Auburn, N. Y.:
was established by the Synod of Geneva 1819, and
chartered April, 1820. Ten acres were given and a
building erected ; afterwards enlarged at a cost of
$40,000. In 1874–75 Morgan Hall was built, 216 by
45 feet, and 5 stories in height, costing $100,000. The
Dodge and Morgan Library cost $40,000, has room for
60,000 volumes, and now has over 16,000. The semi-
nary is governed by trustees and commissioners, repre-
senting the presbyteries included in the Synods of
Albany, Geneva, Central New York, and Western.
New York. The doctrinal tone is in harmony with
Princeton : “No leaven of Pelagianism or Arminian-
ism has ever found its way into this school.” Each
professor on entering on his office signs a declaration:
of belief. There are 5 chairs, of Christian theology,
church history and government, Biblical criticism, He-
brew language and literature, and sacred rhetoric and
pastoral theology. Dr. S. M. Hopkins is senior pro-
fessor; Dr. Willis J. Beecher is professor of Hebrew.
There are about 50 students and 700 graduates.
The Western Theological Seminary was opened at
Allegheny, Pa., Nov. 16, 1827, in accordance with
action taken by the General Assembly in 1825. J.
Stockton and E. P. Swift, D. D., were its first teach-
ers. Eighteen acres of ground were granted. The first
building, occupied 1831, was burned 1854, and another
dedicated 1856. There are now 3 halls and 5 profes-
sors' houses, valued together at $165,000. The library
has some 21,000 volumes. The government is vested
in 40 directors and a board of 30 trustees, the latter in-
corporated 1844. Each professor at his inauguration
subscribes a pledge. They number 6, with some 70
students and over 1500 alumni, among them many
missionaries. There is a post-graduate course.
The Theological Seminary of the General Assembly
(South) was begun in 1828 and chartered 1832. At
first under the care of the Synods of South Carolina
and Georgia, with which that of Alabama joined in
1857, it was transferred in 1863 to the General Assem-
bly of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate
States of America, which changed its name after the
war. Among the professors were Drs. J. H. Thorn-
well (theology), 1855–62, and Howe (Hebrew), 1831–
83. The seminary had in 1863 a good endowment,
which was largely destroyed by the war, and not re-
placed till 1882, when the school, after being closed for
2 years, was reopened with 5 professors and some 25.
students. Prof. Woodrow was suspended in 1886 on
account of his showing favor to evolution. He was af-
terwards tried for heresy, but acquitted. The semi-
nary was closed in 1886.
Lane Theological Seminary, at Cincinnati, Ohio, was.
begun as a preparatory school Nov. 18, 1829, 60 acres
at Walnut Hills and a small sum of money having been
given. The academy was abandoned in 1834 and the
theological department opened in December, 1832, with
Drs. Lyman }. and T. J. Biggs as professors.
Dr. Calvin E. Stowe came in 1833 and Dr. B. Dickin-
son in 1835. An exodus of students occurred 1834.
(See Oberlin.) Dr. D. H. Allen was professor of sa-
cred rhetoric, 1840–51, and of systematic theology,
1851–67, when he was succeeded by H. A. Nelson,
. Dr. G. E. Day was professor of Biblical litera-
ture, 1851–66; Dr. T. E. Thomas of New Testament
literature, 1871–75; Dr. H. Smith of sacred rhetoric,
1855–61 and 1865–79; and Dr. Z. M. Humphrey of
church history, 1873–81. There are 5 professors and
674
SEMINARIES.
THEOLOGICAL
about 40 students, a library of 13,000 volumes, a fair
endowment, and good buildings. Near Soo graduates
have gone into the ministry, mostly west of the Alle.
ghenies. -
Union, Theological Seminary, New York city, was
projected October, 1835, a board of directors chosen 1836,
and a charter obtained March, 1839. Instruction was
begun, Dee. 5, 1836. A building on University Place
Was dedicated Dec. 12, 1838. Endowment came
slowly, but now exceeds $1,000,000, besides special
funds. In 1884 a larger edifice, at 1300 Park avenue,
Was completed and occupied. The real estate is valued
at $700,000. Among the professors have been Drs.
Edward Robinson, H. White, H. B. Smith, T. H.
Skinner, William Adams, and Roswell D. Hitchcock.
The faculty at present consists of Drs. W. G. T. Shedd,
systematic theology : P. Schaff, church history; G. L.
Prentiss, pastoral theology; C. A. Briggs, Hebrew;
T. S. Hastings, sacred rhetoric ; Francis Brown, Bibli.
cal philology; M. R. Vincent, sacred literature. There
are also two instructors, a superintendent of mission work,
a librarian, and three lectureships. In 1887–88 there
were 132 students. The library began with that of Dr.
L. Van Ess, purchased in Germany 1838, and now
includes 55,000 volumes, besides many pamphlets and
MSS. There are some 1500 alumni, among them over
130 foreign missionaries. The theology taught is of the
New School type; the General Assembly has no con-
trol over the seminary beyond a veto (since the reunion
in 1870) on the appointment of professors. A board
of 28 directors, one-half laymen, govern the institution;
they and the professors promise adherence to the
Westminster Confession.and to the Presbyterian form
of government.
Danville Theological Seminary was opened 1853 at
Danville, Ky. It has four professors, S. Yerkes be-
ing the senior professor, 11 students, 8000 volumes,
and real estate worth $10,000.
The German Presbyterian Theological School of the
North-west at Dubuque, Iowa, was begun 1852, organ-
ized 1856, and chartered 1871. It has four professors,
28 students, 2000 volumes, and real estate worth
$25,000. A. J. Schlager, D. D., is chairman of the
faculty.
The McCormick Theological Seminary, till lately the
Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the North-west,
is in Chicago, at 1060 N. Halsted street.
chartered 1856 and opened 1859, and has recently
received the stimulus of valuable benefactions. Its
real estate is valued at $200,000, and it has a library
of 10,000 volumes. This is one of the most important
theological schools of the West, with 11 instructors
and 100 or more students. Dr. Le Roy J. Halsey is
president.
Biddle University, at Charlotte, N. C., for colored
students, opened 1868, has a theological department
with 11 students, under S. Mattoon, f). D.
Lincoln University, Pa., founded 1871 for colored
students, reports a theological department under I. N.
Rendall, D. D., with 8 teachers and 31 pupils.
The German Theological School of Newark was
opened 1869 at Bloomfield, N. J., and chartered 1871.
It reports 6 teachers and 28 students under C
Knox, D. D., with 3000 volumes and real estate worth
some $18,000.
... •
San Francisco Theological Seminary, Cal., organ-
chartered 1876, has 16,000 volumes and
ized 1871,
T.
real estate worth $24,000, but very few students.
Fraser is at its head.
An Institute for Training Colored Ministers was
opened IS77 at Tuscaloosa, Ala. It reports 3 teachers
and 19 pupils under C. A. Stillman, D. D.
UNITED PRESBYTERIAN.
The U. P. Theological Seminary of Venia, Ohio,
antedates almost all other existing theological Schools
It was
burg, Pa., and was removed to Xenia in 1860, but not
chartered till 1877. It has 4 teachers and 36 students
under Dr. James Harper, with 4000 volumes and real
estate worth $15,000.
The Theological Seminary of the U. P. Church,
at Allegheny City, Pa., was established 1825 and
chartered 1868. It has 11 instructors, 36 students,
3100 volumes, and real estate valued at $40,000.
The Rºſarmed Presbyterian Theological Seminary,
also, at Allegheny City, Pa., opened 1856, has 3
teachers and 21 students, with 2800 volumes and
real estate worth $25,000. Dr. D. B. Willson is dean.
Another Reformed Presbyterian Theological Semi-
nary, is conducted in Philadelphia by Rev. David
Steele, D. D.
CUMBERLAN D PRESBYTERIAN :-
The Cumberland University at Lebanon, Tenn.,
chartered 1842, opened 1852, has a theological depart-
ment, with 7 teachers, 27 students, 5000 volumes, and
real estate worth $10,000. N. Green, LL.D., is
chancellor.
Trinity University at Tehuacana, Texas, opened
1871, has a theological department, but the 12 teachers
º 300 students reported probably represent the entire
college.
The Associate Reformed Theological Seminary at
Due West, S. C., opened 1840, reports 4 teachers
and 6 students under Rev. W. M. Grier, D. D.
REFORMED CHURCH.
Dutch Reformed.—The venerable body, commonly
distinguished as Dutch Reformed, wisely contents
itself with a single theological seminary. The Dutch
churches in America till 1771 were subject to the
classis of Amsterdam, which then made it a condition
of their independence that measures be speedily taken
for theological education. Nothing was done till after
the Revolution in Öctober. 1784, the Synod ap-
pointed J. H. Livingston, D. D., of New York, pro-
fessor of theology, and H. Meyer, of Pompton, N. J.,
| instructor in the “inspired languages.” The former
delivered an inaugural oration May 19, 1785, in New
York, and began to receive students at his house; for
a time he taught also at Flatbush, L. I. Synod ap-
pointed “lectors in theology,” living elsewhere, with
whom young men should study, that they might be
examined and certified by Dr. Livingston. Two other
professors at one time received students at their homes.
By arrangement between the General Synod and the
trustees of Queen's (now Rutgers) College, at New
Brunswick, N. J., Dr. Livingston became its presi-
dent, and removed thither 1810, having up to that
time certified about 90 candidates. In 1812 the Gen-
eral Synod adopted a plan for the full organization and
government of the school, and provided for the ap-
pointment of a board of superintendents. A second
professor was appointed 1815, a third 1825, and a
fourth 1865. Synod controls the seminary and elects
its professors, who promise strict adherence to the
Heidelberg Catechism, the Belgic Confession, and the
canons of the Synod of Dort. The buildings are on
grounds given by 3 patrons, and include 2 halls, a
library, and 5 residences, in all valued at $350,000.
The seminary is well endowed; 2 benefactors together
gave near half a million, and each endowed a chair.
There are now 6 professors and 22 students; the library
contains some 60,000 volumes. S. M. Woodbridge,
D. D., is dean.
The Western Seminary, at Holland, Mich., opened
1866, has 3 teachers and 8 pupils under M. N. Steffens,
D. D. This institution is the product of direct emi-
gration from Holland.
GERMAN REFORMED.
The Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church,
in America, having been founded by the Associate
Synod in 1794. It was long maintained at Canons-
now at Lancaster, Pa., was opened March 11, 1825, at
Carlisle, Pa., with 5 students and 1 professor. It was
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
675
removed to York 1829, and chartered 1831. . In 1837
it moved to Mercersburg, the seat of Marshall Col:
lege, where it developed theº Mercersburg Theology.”
In 1871 it followed the college to Lancaster. The prº-
fessors of theology have been Drs. L. Mayer, J. W.
Nevin (q.v.), B. C. Wolff, H. Harbaugh, and E. V.
Gerhart. A chair of church history and exegesis,
founded 1829, has been filled by D. Young, E. A.
fauch, and Drs. P. Schaff, E. E. Higbee, and T. G.
Apple. A tutorship existed 1861-73. ...F. A. Gast
took the new chair of Hebrew 1873. The seminary
is controlled by three synods, through aboard of trustees
and one of visitors. It has a fair endowment (largely
raised in Germany), a building worth $20,000, a library
of 10,000 volumes, 31 students, and 4 professors. Dr.
E. W. Gerhart is at its head. e
Heidelberg Theological Seminary, at Tiffin, Qhio,
was established by the Ohio Synod and opened in May,
1851. Dr. E. V. Gerhart served alone till 1855, and was
succeeded by Dr. M. Kieffer. The faculty now consists
of Drs. J. H. Good (1869) and H. Rust (1861). There
are is students, some 225 alumni, 3000 volumes, and
an endowment of about $30,000.
A Mission House, at Franklin, Wis., opened 1860,
reports 7 teachers under H. A. Muehlmeier, D. D.,
and 4200 volumes. The number of students is not
1WeI).
g Ursinus College, at Freeland, Pa., 30 miles north:
west of Philadelphia, opened 1870, has a theological
department, with 4 teachers, 10 students, and about
60 graduates. It was recognized by the General Synod
in is72. J. H. A. Bomberger, D. D., is president.
ROMAN CATHOLIC.
The Theological Department of St. Sulpice and St.
Mary's University, Baltimore, Md., organized .1791,
chartered 1860, has 8 teachers, 220 pupils, a library
of 26,000 volumes, and real estate valued at $150,000.
A. Magnien, D. D., is at its head.
Theological Department of Mount St. Mary's Col-
lege, Emmittsburg, Md., organized 1808; 27 teach-
ers, pupils not reported; 10,000 volumes, real estate,
$150,000. E. P. Allen. 4.
St. Vincent's Seminary, Germantown, Philadelphia,
organized 1818; 6 teachers, 10,000 volumes. T. J.
Smith.
Philadelphia Theological Seminary of St. Charles
Borromeo, Overbrook, Pa., opened 1832, chartered
1838; 8 teachers, 106 pupils, 15,600 volumes. W.
Kieran, D. D., vice-rector. This is one of the most
important Roman Catholic institutions.
Augustinian Monastery of St. Thomas of Willamova,
Villanova, Pa., organized 1842, chartered 1848; 8
teachers, 21 pupils in the “ecclesiastical department.”
T. C. Middleton, D. D.
St. Vincent's College and Theological Seminary,
Cape Girardeau, Mo., chartered 1843, opened 1844;
10 teachers, 8000 vols. P. McHale.
St. Vincent's College, Beatty, Pa., opened 1846;
6 teachers, 37 pupils in theological course, 24,300 vols.
D. Block.
St. Mary's Theological Seminary, Cleveland, Ohio,
opened 1849; 5 teachers, 30 pupils, property valued
at $75,000. N. A. Moes.
St. Meinrad's Seminary, St. Meinrad's, Ind., opened
1854; 5 teachers, 8000 vols. F. Mundwiler,
Seminary of St. Francis of Sales, St. Francis, Wis.,
opened 1855, chartered 1877; 12 teachers, 110 pupils,
12,000 vols., real estate worth $100,000. A. Zeininger,
IſectOT,
Diocesan Seminary of the Immaculate Conception,
South Orange, N. J., opened 1856; 4 teachers, 15
pupils, 5200 vols. W. P. Sact, director.
College and Seminary of our Lady of Angels, Sus-
pension Bridge, N. Y., opened 1856, chartered 1863;
7 teachers, 66 pupils. P. V. Kavanaugh.
St. John's University, Collegeville, Minn., formerly
St. John's Seminary, St. Joseph, Minn., opened and
chartered 1857; 6 teachers, 22 pupils in “ecclesiasti-
cal course.” A. Edelbrock.
St. Bonaventure's Seminary, Allegeny, N. Y.
opened 1859; 8 teachers, 74 pupils, 6000 vols. T.
Pospisilik.
St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary, Troy, N.Y., or,
ganized 1864; 7 teachers, 120 pupils, 9000 vols., real
estate worth $200,000. H. Gabriels, D. D. This ranks
with or possibly above the seminary at Overbrook, Pa.
St. Charles Borromeo Theological Seminary, Car-
thagena, Ohio, opened 1864; 19 teachers, 45 pupils.
T. Wittmer.
Mt. St. Clement, Ilchester, Md., opened 1868; 11,000
vols., $60,000 in real estate. E. Grimer.
Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md., chartered 1867,
opened 1869. Conducted by Jesuit Fathers. No re-
port. gº º -
Preston Park. Theological Seminary, Louisville, Ky.,
opened 1870. No report.
Theological Department of St. Viateur's College,
Bourbonnais Grove, Ill. ; 3 teachers, 29 pupils. M.
J. Marsile.
College of the Sacred Heart, Vineland, N. J.; 7
teachers, 20 pupils. E. H. Porcile.
There are also said to be seminaries at Santa Bar-
bara, Cal., and New Orleans, La., which made no
report.
SweDENBoRGIAN OR NEW CHURCH.
Theological School, at Waltham, Mass., opened 1866.
Urbana University, Urbana, Ohio, had in former
years a theological department, but this is extinct.
UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST.
Union Biblical Seminary, Dayton, Ohio, organized
and chartered 1871, has 4 teachers, 40 students, a
library of 1100 volumes, an endowment, of $100,000,
and $25,000 in real estate. G. A. Funkhouser, D. D.
UNITARIAN.
The Divinity School of Harvard University, now
professedly non-sectarian, made its mark and attained
its reputation in the service of this body, and sent
forth most of its ministers. Harvard College began
in 1636 as a seminary for preachers, with a limited
academical course. The first chair was that of divinity,
endowed by T. Hollis, an English Baptist, 1721. The
first chair ‘endowed by a native of New England (T.
Hancock) was that of Hebrew. The Divinity School
began to have a separate existence in 1815, and was
organized 1819. For near 60 years the chairs were oc-
cupied solely by Unitarians, among them many eminent
men, as Drs. Ware, Norton, Peabody, Hedge, and Ab-
bott. The graduates were a numerous body of the
highest culture, and very many of them attained dis-
tinction. Of late no ... restraints exist. Lec-
tures have been delivered by a Trinitarian, and the
appointment of an “orthodox” professor of dogmatic
theology has been sought for years. There are now 6
professors, 21 students, 17,000 volumes, and real estate
worth $100,000. C. C. Everett, D. D., is dean of the
school. -
Meadville Theological School, Meadville, Pa., was
founded 1844 by the Unitarians and the Christian
Connection and chartered 1846. A belief in the divine
origin of Christianity is the only doctrinal test. The
successive presidents have been Drs. R. P. Stebbins,
1844–56; O. Stearns, 1856–63, and A. A. Livermore.
Divinity Hall was erected 1854, and a fire-proof build-
ing holds a library of 18,000 volumes. The real estate
is worth $30,000 and the endowment is $160,000. Two
professors and an instructor are resident, and 3 give
part of their time. There are about 30 students and
400 who have been such. A partial course is given
besides the regular one of 3 years. w
UNIVERSALIST.
Canton Theological School, Canton, N. Y., was or-
ganized and chartered 1858. It has 5 teachers, 14
676
students, a library of 7800 volumes, and real estate
worth $50,000. J. M. Atwood, D. D., is at its head.
Tufts College, at College Hill, Mass., has a Divinity
School which was opened 1869, and made rapid pro-
gress. Drs. T. J. Sawyer and C. H. Leonard were the
first professors. In 1875 a four-years' course was pro-
vided for non-graduates, and the faculty increased ; it
now numbers 7 professors and instructors. E. H. Capen,
D. D., is president. There are 34 students and about
100 graduates.
Lombard University, Galesburg, Ill., has a theologi-
cal department opened 1881. It reports 7 teachers
and 11 students under N. White.
UNDENOMINATIONAL.
Howard University, at Washington, D.C., opened
1870, has a theological department under J. C. Craig-
head, with 5 teachers and 53 students.
JEWISH.
The Hebrew Union College, at Cincinnati, Ohio, was
organized 1875. It has 6 teachers, 32 pupils, 9500
volumes, and real estate worth $30,000. J. M. Wise
is at its head.
From the above statistics it will appear that theo-
logical Seminaries, no less than colleges, multiply be-
yond any very pressing demand for their services, or
at least beyond the power and will to sustain them.
It is a common remark that a moderate number of
strong institutions would be better than a plethora of
feeble ones. But the American tendency is to bring
education, professional as well as general, as near as
possible to every man's door, and in the strife of sects
each wishes to be represented, as nearly as it can, in
every part of the country.
is usually unheeded. With several of the denomina-
tions one-third or more of their schools might be
wiped out without special injury, and this process is
not unlikely to take place to some extent. (F. M. B.)
THERMoMº ºil. iº for
w letermining the temperature of air or
.*.*.*; other fluid is usually filled with mer.
Km. ñº. cury; , but many thermometers for
special uses are filled with colored
alcohol. The mercury or alcohol is contained in a
glass ball from one side of which arises a long and
thin hollow tube with a very small bore, and the ball
and tube are fastened upon a flat piece of metal or
wood upon which are marked various degrees. The
uniformity of the bore is tested by introducing a
small quantity of mercury and moving it along the
tube from end to end by air forced out of a small
india-rubber ball attached to one extremity. If the
column is observed to occupy the same space through-
but the bore is considered to be of uniform diameter.
This process is called the calibration of the tube. The
ball, or bulb, and part of the tube are filled with mer-
cury that has been strained through chamois leather.
In the usual process of filling thermometers a lamp is
held to the bulb until the air is highly rarefied ; the
end of the tube is then placed in a vessel of mercury,
the lamp removed, and the mercury rises in the tube
by the cooling and condensing of the air in the bulb.
The bulb is then held downward and the mercury
heated so that, in expanding, it entirely fills the tube.
Then the top of the glass tube is sealed with a blow-
pipe; and the mercury, contracting as it cools, falls
down in the tube toward the bulb, leaving above it a
vacuum. Upon the application of heat to the bulb
the mercury expands and rises in the tube in propor-
tion ; or it shrinks and drops in the tube as it cools.
Besides the bulb and the tube it is necessary to have
a graduated scale in order to make the instrument of
practical service. The three principal scales in use
are Fahrenheit's, Reaumur's, and the Centigrade. The
scale used for ordinary purposes, both in England and
the United States, is Fahrenheit's, although both this
and Reaumur's are sometimes marked on the same in-
The moral is obvious, but
THERMOMETER,
strument. Fahrenheit's scale is formed thus: The
bulb of the thermometer is placed in boiling water,
and the height to which the mercury rises is marked
by a Scratch on the tube; it is then put into melting
Snow or ice, and another scratch is made at the point
where the mercury has descended. The space be-
tween these two marks is divided into 180 equal parts,
called degrees, and these divisions are carried upward
to nearly the end of the tube, and downward toward
the bulb ; the upper scratch, indicating the heat of
boiling water, is marked 212, and the iower one, the
freezing point of water, is 32. The zero point was
intended to mark the temperature of a mixture of
Snow and salt, which was supposed to be the utmost
possible natural cold. On the scale of Reaumur's
thermometer the zero is at the freezing point of water,
and the boiling point is marked 80. The Centigrade
differs from Reaumur's only in having the space be-
tween the boiling and freezing point of water divided
into 100 parts instead of 80. The “register ther-
mometer,” or “maximum and minimum thermom-
eter,” has two bulbs, tubes, and scales on the same
instrument; one bulb is filled with mercury and the
other with colored spirit. In each tube a piece of
enamel, about half an inch long and fitting the cavity,
is introduced ; the one in the mercury is to register
the highest, and that in the spirit to register the
lowest, degree of heat. They act in the following
manner: The spirit, when rising in the tube, wets
the enamel and passes by it so that the elevation of
temperature does not affect its position, but when the
spirit sinks it carries the enamel with it, thus register-
ing the lowest temperature, so that the distance the
enamel is found down the tube indicates how low the
spirit may have descended in any particular time, say
a night. Mercury, on the other hand, does not ad-
here to the enamel, and therefore, on rising, pushes it
up in the tube, but on descending leaves it behind, the
height at which the enamel is found up the tube in-
dicating the highest point to which the mercury had
risen, and consequently the highest temperature. To
adjust the instrument, a slight tap or shake will make
the index in the spirit-tube rise to the surface of the
spirit, where it is held by the adhesive quality of the
liquid, and by the same process that, in the mercurial
tube, will fall to the surface, but will not penetrate
the mercury, owing to its great density.
In making very accurate thermometers the boiling
point is found by immersing the instrument in steam
and not in the water itself, as water really boils at
different temperatures depending upon various circum-
stances, whilst the temperature of the steam is uni-
form. Even with the greatest care in constructing, the
indications of a thermometer are liable to derange-
ment; and this result may come more particularly
from the bulb not resuming its former capacity after
being heated to a high temperature. Such a fault as
this may not be discovered until comparison has been
made with thoroughly reliable thermometers.
Aside from the thermometer certain appliances must
be used to assist in case of finding temperature in
inaccessible places, like the different depths of the
sea, etc. Siemens has invented a method of ascer-
taining the temperature at such depths, depending on
the principle that the electric resistance of metals is in
proportion to the increase of their temperature. The
process requires two coils of the same kind of plati-
num wire which shall have equal resistance. The
ends of the wires are connected with long and thick
copper wires; so that, if necessary, the coils may be
placed at a considerable distance from the galvanome-
ter. The copper terminals are adjusted so that each
coil shall have the same resistance ; but such resist-
ance should be small in comparison with the resistance
of the coils themselves. One of the coils is sunk to
the required depth in the sea, and the other is placed
in a jar of water on the deck of the ship. The tem-
perature of the water in the jar is adjusted until the
THESSALONIANS-THOMAS.
677
resistance of both coils is the same. Thus, the tem-
perature of the water in the jar is made the same as
that of the sea-water at the depth of the lower coil.
The thermometer showing the temperature of the
water in the jar will, therefore, show the temperature
of the water at the depth required.
For the mutual conversion of the three standard
thermometric scales, Fahrenheit's, Reaumur's, and the
Centigrade, the following formulae are convenient :
F: C : R :: 180: 100: 80 =9: 5:4. Therefore, F= #C;
F = }R : C = #P. Of course to convert F. degrees
into C. or R. degrees 32 must be subtracted before
(and in the converse problem added after) either of the
first two formulae is applied. (F. G. M.)
#sº EPISTLE TO. See ROMANs,
EPISTLE TO.
THISTLE is the º Ila,DO € given to º
.., , , genera of Compositae. he thistles
* . .'; ºf the United States chiefly belong to
Am Rep p * the genus Cirsium, of which we have
...lº-li-A-A 6 -- ºw. Wºº A…" - I e about 20 species. They are distin-
guished by perfect and similar flowers, of tubular
form and grouped in many-flowered heads. They
have bristly receptacles, corollas of purple or reddish
color, oblong smooth achenia, and a plumose pappus.
Most of the thistles are useless and troublesome
weeds, one of our introduced species being among the
worst pests of agriculturists. This is the Canada
thistle (C. arvense), which has extended throughout
the United States and over the agricultural districts
of Canada. It is a low, branching plant, with exten-
sively creeping roots; affects cultivated fields and pas-
tures, and is extremely difficult to eradicate. It can
be got rid of only by plowing and persistent extraction
of the roots. The most common of our thistles, C.
lanceolatum, is also an introduction from Europe.
is found in over-abundance on road-sides and in thick
pastures, has very prickly stem leaves, and bears
numerous handsome purplish flowers. The common
yellow swamp-thistle extends from Massachusetts to
the South, where there is another yellow thistle, C.
horridulum, a tall, rough, disagreeable sea-coast plant,
well named the horrid thistle. Of species of other
genera may be named Omoperdon acanthium, the
cotton thistle, a tall, showy plant, with large light-
purple flowers; and Centauria americana, a handsome
species of the South-western States, which is cultivated
in gardens. Many plants are called thistles which be-
long to quite different families from the wº º
C. M.
THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816–1876), one of
the most illustrious generals of the American civil
War, was born in Southampton co., Va., July 31, 1816.
His father's family, originally Welsh, had by long res-
idence become English before emigrating to America;
his mother was of Huguenot extraction. When a boy
Thomas learned by watching workmen to make a sad-
dle, boots, and furniture and thus cultivated habits of
observation and combination that stood him in good
stead in his future career. The first twenty years of
his life were spent at home and in attendance at South-
ampton Academy. On leaving school he entered the
office of his maternal uncle, James Rochelle, county
clerk, but on being offered a cadetship in West Point
he gladly gave up law for arms. He entered the acad-
emy in June, 1836, and in 1840 graduated twelfth in a
class of 42, and was commissioned second-lieutenant
in the Third artillery. His company was ordered to
Florida, and there he remained till the termination of
the Seminole war. In 1841 he took part in the cap-
ture of 70 Seminole Indians, and was brevetted first-
lieutenant “for gallantry and good conduct in the
war.” In 1844 he was promoted to first-lieutenant
and joined his company at Fort Moultrie. His next
service was in Mexico under Gen. Taylor, where he
was brevetted captain “for gallant and meritorious
conduct” in the battles about Monterey, and major
for his conduct in the battle of Buena Vista. In
It
1847 the citizens of his native county, proud of his
achievements, presented him with a sword. In 1851
he was ºf as instructor of artillery and cavalry at.
West Point, and while there married, in 1852, Miss
Frances S. Kellogg, Troy, N. Y.; receiving his promo-
tion to a captaincy September, 1853. In 1855 he was
appointed major of the Second cavalry and, in the fol-
lowing year, went with his new regiment to Texas where
he remained till 1860. During this time he accompanied
an expedition to the Canadian and Red Rivers, and an-
other to the Conchas River, Mexico, where he received
his only wound from a band of predatory Indians. An
arrow which had transfixed his chin and penetrated
his breast he drew out with his own hand. In 1860
while he was on his way home on leave of absence his
spine was injured in a railroad accident, and to this
has been attributed his slow riding and deliberate
movements so much commented on during the war.
In 1861 he applied for the position of instructor of
cadets in Lexington Military Institute, Va., and this
application, though unsuccessful, roused a suspicion of
his loyalty that tended afterwards to impede his well-
merited promotion. When the Legislature of his na-
tive State in April, 1861, voted for secession, Major
Thomas remained faithful to the Union, and his first
service in the civil war was, on April 21, to aid in quel-
ling a secession mob in Maryland.
Vacancies occurring rapidly through resignation, on
April 25 he was promoted to the lieutenant-colonelcy,
and on May 5 to the colonelcy of his regiment, now
known as the Fifth cavalry. The first service rendered
by the new colonel was under Gen. Patterson against
“Stonewall” Jackson at Falling Waters. When Pat-
terson's failure to hold Gen. Jos. E. Johnston sub-
jected him to obloquy, Col. Thomas spoke out loyally
in his behalf. In August, 1861, he was appointed
brigadier-general of volunteers and was assigned to the
command of Fort Dick Robinson, Ky., where he
found 6000 raw troops. While in Washington,
Thomas had suggested the occupation of Tennessee and
the seizure of the railroad connecting Richmond with
the South-west, and was mortified to learn, while in-
creasing and organizing his force with this view, that
his plan had been accepted but its execution given to
Gen. O. M. Mitchel. His own immediate duty was to
resist the advance of the Confederates, who under
General Zollicoffer had invaded Kentucky by way of
Cumberland Gap (q. v.). A force sent out by Thomas
drove the enemy back into the Gap, immediately on
which he began preparations for invading East Ten-
nessee, when an order from Gen. D. C. Buell, now
commanding the department, required him to move
his whole command to Lebanon, Ky. Here Thomas
organized the first division of the Army of the Cum-
berland, whence he threw out reinforcements to Gen.
A. Schoepf to aid him in preventing Zollicoffer cross-
ing the Cumberland. In spite of opposition Zol-
licoffer with 8000 men crossed the river, and in-
trenched himself opposite Mill Spring. Thomas's
whole force took the field on the last day of the year,
and, after a laborious march of 19 days, reached Lo-
gan Cross-Roads, 10 miles south of Mill Spring,
where he halted for the arrival of Schoepf with whom
he was to make a conjoint attack on the enemy's po-
sition. He was, however, forestalled by Zollicoffer,
who, anticipating an easy victory, left his lines and on
jan. 19 made, an attack on Thomas camp, driving in
his pickets. Thomas rapidly formed his line and by a
brilliant charge forced the enemy back to their in-
trenchments. Being joined by Schoepf, preparations
were made for an assault on the intrenchments on the
20th, but during the night Zollicoffer crossed the river
and escaped, leaving his artillery and supplies to the
yictor. By this action—the first Union victory in
Tennessee—10,000 men were eliminated from the op-
erations that followed.
The capture of Forts Henry and Donelson compelled
the evacuation by the Confederates under Gen. A.
678
Sydney Johnston and Beauregard of Columbus,
Bowling Green, and Nashville, and Gen. Thomas was
ordered to report at the last place, where he remained
as Buell's reserve till April. After the battle of Shiloh
he joined the main army under Gen. H. W. Halleck–
who now left his head-quarters at St. Louis—in its ad-
Yance on Corinth. Halleck, who was not quite satis-
fied with Grant's management at Shiloh, appointed
him second in command, thus relieving him of the
command of the Army of the Tennessee which he
conferred on Thomas. At Corinth, Thomas, learning
that Grant felt hurt, asked to be relieved from the
Army of the Tennessee, and restored to his old command
in the Army of the Cumberland, which reduced him
from the leadership of five divisions to that of one.
Qn June 10, the transfer was effected and he joined
Buell at Nashville, being put in command of the post
While Buell started for Kentucky to check Bragg. In
September he joined Buell at Cave City and was
placed second in command, holding this position during
Bragg's invasion and till Buell's withdrawal to Louis.
yille. Here an order came from Washington reliev-
ing Buell of the command and conferring it on
Thomas, but the latter again generously declined the
promotion, on the ground that it was unjust to relieve
a commander on the eve of a battle for which he had
made preparation, his force having been augmented to
100,000. On Oct. 7 the army moved out of Louis-
ville with Thomas in command of the right wing. On
the 8th the battle of Perryville was fought, principally
by the left wing under McCook, the right, from its
position, being unable to take part except with its
cavalry as skirmishers. The action was sanguinary,
and the enemy retired across the Cumberland toward
Murfreesboro; but there was no effective pursuit.
The dissatisfaction at Washington with the results
of this battle led to the nomination of Rosecrans to
Supersede Buell. Thomas felt himself aggrieved by
the appointment, and protested against it as subordi-
nating him to a junior, but without avail. Rosecrans
offered to continue him as second, but he preferred a
distinct position and was assigned to the command of
the centre, composed of four divisions. The entire force
now marched to the vicinity of Nashville. In the ad-
vance against Bragg at Murfreesboro, begun on Dec.
26, Thomas marched with only two divisions—Rous-
seau's and Negley's—and two detached brigades, the
troops left to maintain communication with Louisville
having been withdrawn from him. At the battle of
Stone River (q. v.), on Dec. 31, Thomas through the
exhibition of his pre-eminent qualities of calm resolu-
tion, self-reliance, and immovable firmness, saved the
day from being a Union defeat. When his supports
were driven back in confusion he alone held the enemy
at bay, changing his front and shifting his position in
face of a victorious foe, and thus enabling Rosecrans
to form that second line that, next morning, struck the
enemy with amazement. But for Thomas the Union
army would have been withdrawn to Nashville. At
the council held late at night Gen. Thomas fell sound
asleep. When it was decided to withdraw, and
Rosecrans awoke him with the question : “Will you
protect our retreat 7” he simply answered : “This
army can't retreat,” and fell asleep again. It was
Thomas who, on Jan. 2, mainly baffled Breckinridge's
assaults, and who ultimately drove Bragg out of Mur-
freesboro.
For six months after this battle Rosecrans lay at
Murfreesboro. In the series of brilliant strategic
movements which began in the latter end of June, and
which resulted in the Confederates, evacuating Chat-
tanooga, Thomas bore a distinguished part. , But it
was at Chickamauga (q. v.) that he earned the title
that so aptly characterized him—“The Rock of Chick-
amauga.” On the first day it was mainly by his corps
that the enemy's onslaughts were repulsed. During
the night Bragg was reinforced by Longstreet, and
next day the assaults were renewed with redoubled
THOMAS.
vigor in the hope of piercing the Union lines. At
length the supports on Thomas' flanks were broken,
and McCook's and Crittenden's corps routed, stream.
ing in such confusion to Chattanooga that Rosecrans
believed himself defeated and so telegraphed. But
Thomas stood unshaken, and here, as at Murfreesboro,
saved a lost battle to the Union. Wheeling his lines
within the defile of Frick's Gap, whose steep sides pro-
tected both his flanks, he grandly withstood all onsets
till the baffled enemy ceased his efforts. Garfield,
chief of Rosecrans' staff, hearing the noise of continued
fighting, halted in his flight, and rode back to the
Scene of conflict. “Never,” says he, “will I forget
my amazement and admiration when I beheld that
grand officer holding his own, with defeat on every
side.” . During the night he led his corps back to the
lines of Rossville, and next evening conducted it in per-
fect order to Chattanooga. Rosecrans made no over-
statement when he wrote: “To Thomas, the true
soldier, the prudent and undaunted commander, the
modest, uncorruptible patriot, the thanks of the coun-
try are due for his conduct at the battle of Chicka-
mauga.
On Oct. 19 Rosecrans was relieved of his com-
mand. Thomas was most justly appointed his suc-
cessor, and, on the 27th, mºd: brigadier-general of the
regular army. On assuming command he at once ad-
dressed himself to strengthening the fortifications of
Chattanooga and securing supplies, as well as to
making preparations for the advance planned by Gen.
Grant, who had taken command of the entire Division
of the Mississippi. On Nov. 4, by a bold dash,
he made himself master of the enemy's works at Or-
chard Knob, commanding part of the fortifications on
Missionary Ridge, and on the next day his Fourth
corps, under Gen. Joseph Hooker, made its great
charge up the steep side of the hill, swept across it,
and broke the Confederate centre. The battle of Mis-
sionary Ridge was won ; Bragg was in full flight; the
Union arms held the key of the central regions.
Gen. Thomas had now a long period of rest. When
Grant was promoted to be lieutenant-general the com-
mand of the Military Division of the Mississippi de-
volved on Gen. Sherman, and Thomas was placed
under him. Though thus made subordinate to his
junior, he was too patriotic to show offence, and
promptly yielded him obedience.
On May 7, 1864, Sherman put his legions in motion
against Gen. Joseph E. Johnston on their famed
march on Atlanta, and Thomas' old Army of the Cum-
berland, consisting of the corps of Howard, Palmer,
and Hooker, in all 60,000 strong, constituted the cen-
tre, and made the opening demonstration on Buzzard's
Roost and Rocky-Face Ridge. On May 15 Thomas
drove the enemy from the hills in his front at Resaca.
Thereafter he assaulted the fortifications at New Hope
Church ; took part in severe conflicts near Dallas; on
June 22 repulsed the sudden onset of Hood's corps;
and on the 27th led his columns in their disastrous at-
tack on the enemy's strong position on Kenesaw
Mountain. It was his command that, on July 20, met
and repelled Hood's furious onslaught with severe
loss, and Palmer's corps supported the Fifteenth in
beating back the magnificent Confederate charge on
the 28th. On Sept. 1, at Jonesboro’, his Four.
teenth corps carried the enemy's intrenchments,
making prisoners of nearly an entire brigade, while
Slocum, with his Twentieth corps, entered Atlanta,
and completed the great task. There were, indeed,
few great battles on this wonderful march, but in
nearly every encounter Thomas took a part. To Sher-
man is due the merit for the grand scheme of the cam-
paign, but his plans would never have borne their full
fruit but for the hearty and intelligent co-operation of
his subordinates, among whom Thomas i. the first
blace. -
R Now came a total change in the Confederate plans.
Hood had superseded Johnston, and, instead of
THOMPSON. 679.
attempting directly to impede Sherman's advance,
thought to draw him back from the South by himself
making a demonstration against the North. Moving,
therefore, from before Sheridan westward, he turned
north, his objective point being the Ohio. As soon
as he began his northward march Sherman despatched
Thomas to Nashville to check Hood and protect his
own rear, but still proceeded on his “march through
Georgia, smashing things to the sea.” Thomas had
under him on reaching Nashville only 22,000 infantry
and 7700 cavalry, with sundry small garrisons and de-
tachments guarding railroads. At this city, while
waiting the arrival of Gen. A. J. Smith, he occupied
himself in strengthening his army, having given Gen.
Schofield instructions to impede Hood's advance, and,
when seriously threatened, to fall back on Franklin.
This movement Schofield successfully effected. When
Hood assailed his lines there on Nov. 30 he drove
him back with a loss of 6000 men. (See º
During the night Schofield fell back on Nashville, an
on the same day Gen. Smith's command arrived.
Hood followed Schofield to Nashville, and now pro-
fessed to besiege it. A terrible awakening awaited
him. On Dec. 15 Thomas, sallying forth, made his
grand attack, and rolling up Hood's lines from left to
right, drove him for ...i. miles to a position he had
breviously selected. n front of this position the
Jnion troops bivouacked, and, on the 16th, renewed
the assault, carrying the enemy's works and driving it
in rout before them till darkness put an end to the
pursuit. “Our line,” says Hood, “was broken at all
points, and, for the first and only time, I beheld a Con-
federate army abandon the field in confusion.” Next
day the chase was resumed, and continued unremit-
tingly till the 29th, when Thomas learned that Hood
had crossed the Tennessee at the head of “a disheart-
ened and disorganized rabble of half-armed, barefooted
men.” For this decisive success Thomas was created
major-general in the regular army, and received a vote
of thanks from Congress. On the first anniversary of
the battle he was presented with a gold medal by the
State of Tennessee. -
The battle of Nashville closed the last campaign in
the West. During the final battles before Richmond
Thomas remained in command of his department. He
was not idle, however, but contributed to crushing out
secession by organizing raiding bands, that resulted in
the capture of Jefferson Davis. On June 30, 1865,
under the act of Congress dividing the country into
districts, Thomas assumed the command of the Military
District (afterwards the Department) of Tennessee.
This he held till March, 1867, when he was assigned
to the Third Military District, comprising Georgia,
Florida, and Alabama. While here he declined, in
1868, the rank of lieutenant-general, on the ground
that it came too late, if intended as an acknowledg-
ment of his service during the war, and that since the
war he had done nothing deserving it. From May,
1869, he commanded the Military District of the
Pacific, with head-quarters at San Francisco, where
his death occurred March 26, 1876.
Gen. Thomas was a true man; spotless in character,
a hater of ostentation, reserved even to reticence, self.
poised, steadfast. In his manner and habits of thought
he was deliberate, some thought to excess; his plans
were slowly evolved and carefully matured; he never
moved till he had perfected every detail, so that, when
he did, move, it was to assured success. . No con-
tingencies arose to perplex him, for he had prepared
for all emergencies. His imperturbability in battle
was amazing, and has already been referred to as
eliciting the admiration of Garfield. He was, above
all others, a man of system. At Chickamauga, when
the enemy had routed the corps supporting him and
had opened fire on his flanks and front, he replied to
Steadman, who had reported to him, and who asked
how the fight was going ... “The scoundrels have no
system.” As might be inferred, the confidence of his
troops in him was complete; and this is evidenced by
one of the names they gave him—" Old Reliable"—
and their appreciation of his care for their welfare is
yet more eloquently expressed by the other title they
conferred on him—“Pap Thomas.” Gen. Thomas
has the glory, all but unique, of never having lost a
battle when in independent command. When he
served as a subordinate among other corps commanders
he was ever the central figure. Though modest, above
most men, he had yet a just appreciation of the value
of his services, and when friends referred in his pres-
ence to the insufficient recognition these received he
was wont simply to answer: “History will do me
justice.” Standing high among the noblest sons of
the noble State of Virginia, his patriotism was not
limited to the boundaries of State or section. His
services to the cause of the Union were rendered
chiefly elsewhere, and his fame is the inheritance of
the undivided country which he helped to save.
(J. H.)
THOMPSON, Joseph PARRISH (1819–1879),
preacher and author, was born at Philadelphia, Aug.
7, 1819. He graduated at Yale College in 1838, and
was ordained pastor of a Congregational church at New
Haven in 1840. His literary activity led him to join
in founding the New Englander, a monthly magazine,
in 1843, and afterwards the Independent, in 1848, at
New York. He had been called to this city in 1845, and
in the Broadway Tabernacle he gathered a large and
influential congregation. With tongue and pen he
was diligent in promoting religious and benevolent en-
terprises. On a visit to Egypt in 1853 he became
interested in the study of its monuments, and when in
1871, worn out with the incessant demands on his time
and strength, he was compelled by ill health to resign
his charge, he removed to Berlin to pursue his archae-
ological investigations. But some of his most impor-
tant public work was done in this new field of activity.
where he obtained great favor with sovereigns and
statesmen. His Church and State in the United
States (1873) diffused effectively in Europe the
American idea of religious liberty. In 1878 the
Berlin Congress, through his influence, inserted a
clause in its treaty favoring this idea. The Evan-
gelical Alliance found in him one of its strongest
Supporters. . In various parts of Europe he delivered
lectures which developed and explained American
ideas. Exhausted with his multifarious labors, he died
at Berlin, Sept. 20, 1879. His books and other pub-
lications but partly reveal his ability and range. Be-
sides some biographies he had published ſieves of
Egypt (1854); Lore and Penalty (1860); Christianity
and Emancipation (1863); Holy Comforter (1866);
Theology of Christ (1870); Life of Christ (1875).
THQMPSON, Robert ELLIS, economist and prom-
inent defender of the protective tariff system, was born
near Lurgan, Ireland, in April, 1844. His family
emigrated to America in 1857, settling in Philadelphia.
He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in
1865, and, having studied theology, was ordained in
the Reformed Presbyterian Church (N. S.) in 1873,
but entered the Presbyterian Church in 1879. He had
been assistant editor of the American Presbyterian
from 1866 to 1870. He had returned to the University
of Pennsylvania in 1868 as instructor in mathematics
and Latin, and has since remained in connection with
it, being made assistant professor of mathematics in
IS70, professor of social science in 1874, and John
Welsh Centennial professor of history in 1881. From
the University he received in 1886 the degree of D. D.
Prof. Thompson was editor of the Penn Monthly from
1868 till 1879, and since that time chief editorial writer
for the American, a political and literary weekly. He
has also contributed }. to other periodicals on re-
ligious, political, educational, historical, and econom-
ical topics. He has delivered courses of lectures in
elucidation and defence of the American protective
system in Harvard, Yale, Williams, Amherst, and
680
THOMSON.—THORNWELL.
other colleges. He has published Social Science and
National Economy (1875), the third edition of which
was revised under the title Political Economy (1883).
His lectures before Harvard University were published
under the title Protection to Home Industry (1886).
He was the original editor-in-chief of this Supplement,
but after two volumes had been prepared the work
passed into other hands.
THOMSON, CHARLEs (1729–1824), secretary of
the Continental Congress, was born at Maghera, near
Londonderry, Ireland, Nov. 29, 1729, . With his family
he sailed for America in 1741, but his father died on
the Voyage. He was taught by Rev. Francis Alison,
at Thunder Hill, Md., and became a teacher first at
Newcastle, afterward at Philadelphia. Through the
friendship of Franklin and other influential men he
was employed in negotiating treaties with the Indians,
and the tribe of the Delawares adopted him as the
‘’ Truthteller.” He was engaged in mercantile busi-
ness for Some years, and was secretary of many lit-
erary and patriotic societies. Hence when the first
Continental Congress met in Carpenters' Hall, Phila-
delphia, Sept. 5, 1774, they readily chose him as secre-
tary, and he retained this position in each successive
Congress until the adoption of the Federal Constitu-
tion in 1789. Then he was commissioned to notify
Gen. Washington of his election to the Presidency,
but declined any further public service. He spent
many years in translating the Bible into English, using
the Septuagint for the Öld Testament. After his ver
ision was published in 1808 (4 vols.), he prepared from
it a Synopsis of the Four Evangelists (1813). He died
at Lower Merion, Pa., Aug. 16, 1824.
THOMSON, WILLIAM, Archbishop of York, Eng-
land, was born at Whitehaven, Cumberland, Feb. 11,
1819. He passed from Shrewsbury School to Queen's
College, Oxford, where he was in succession scholar,
fellow, dean, bursar, tutor, and provost. Graduating
in 1840, he was ordained deacon 1842, and priest 1843.
After four years' parish work at Guildford and Cud-
desden, he returned to his college as tutor, was ap-
pointed select preacher at Oxford 1848 and 1856, and
provost 1855. In the same year he accepted the
crown living of All Souls, Marylebone, and contributed
to the Oaford Essays. in 1858 he became preacher
at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1859 one of her Majesty's
chaplains. Lord Palmerston procured his appoint-
ment to the see of Gloucester and Bristol in Decem-
ber, 1861, whence he was translated to York a year
later, and enthroned Feb. 24, 1863, succeeding Dr.
Longley. He has been active in educational and eccle-
siastical reforms, had charge of the Public Worship
Regulation Act in the House of Lords, and procured
the appointment of a royal commission on church
patronage. He is president of the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund, a member of the Royal and Geographical
Societies, a lord of the privy counéil, governor of the
Charter-house and of King's College, London. He
has been examiner in divinity at Oxford and in logic
and mental science to the Society of Arts. Eminent
as a scholar and metaphysician, he has published An
Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought (1842),
largely used in England and America as a text-book on
logic; The Atoming Work of Christ Viewed in Rela-
tion to Some Current Theories (The Bampton Lec-
tures), 1853; Sermons Preached in Lincoln's Inn
Chapel (1861); and The Limits of Philosophical En:
quiry (1869), besides many charges, discourses, and
contributions to Smith's Dictionary of the Bible and
other works. He edited Aids to Faith (1861), a reply
to Essays and Reviews, and projected The Speaker's
Commentary. As archbishop of York he has an in-
come of £10,000 and the patronage of 96 livings. . .
THOMSON, SIR WILLIAM, British mathematician
and physicist, was born at Belfast in June, 1824. His
father, James Thomson, LL.D., was then lecturer on
mathematics in the Royal Academical Institute in Bel-
fast, but afterwards removed to Glasgow, having been
appointed professor in the University of that city. The
son was educated in that institution and at Peterhouse,
Cambridge, where he graduated in 1845 and became a
fellow in is is he was made professor of natural
philosophy at Glasgow, and has since retained that
post. e was the editor of the Cambridge and Dub-
lim Mathematical Journal from 1846 to 1853, and to
it contributed valuable papers. He gave especial atten-
tion to electrical science, and invented several beautiful
and delicate machines for investigating atmospheric
electricity. Among his other inventions are the mir-
ror galvanometer and the siphon-recorder, which proved
of great service in submarine telegraphy. On the suc-
cessful completion of the Atlantic cable in 1866, to
which he had greatly contributed, he received the
honor of knighthood. He also received the degree
of LL.D. from the Universities of Dublin, Cambridge,
and Edinburgh, and that of D. C. L. from Oxford.
In 1871 he was chosen to preside at the meeting of the
British Association in Edinburgh, and in 1881 was
president of the section of mathematics at the meeting
of the association in York. He has also received many
marks of honor from foreign societies and academies.
His Mathematical and Physical Papers were collected
in a volume published at Cambridge in 1882.
THOMSON, WILLIAM McCLURE, missionary, was
born at Springfield, near Cincinnati, Dec. 31, 1806.
He graduated at Miami University in 1826, studied
theology at Princeton, and was ordained as an evangelist
in 1831. He was sent as missionary to Syria in 1833,
and labored there until 1876 with two intervals of rest,
in which he returned to the United States. He is best
known as the author of The Land and the Book (2
vols., 1859), in which in a conversational method vivid
illustrations of the Bible are drawn from the scenes,
manners, and customs of Palestine. The work has been
thoroughly revised and enlarged in three volumes,
Southern Palestine and Jerusalem (1880), Central
Palestine and Phoenicia (1882), Lebanon, Damascus
and Beyond Jordan (1886). Dr. Thomson now resides
in New York city.
THORNTON, MATTHEW (1714–1803), a signer of
the Declaration of Independence, was born in i.
in 1714. His father soon removed to Wiscasset, Maine,
and thence to Worcester, Mass. The son became a
physician and accompanied Sir William Pepperell's
expedition to Louisburg. He was also active in militia
affairs, and in 1775 was president of the New Hamp-
shire Convention. This body was divided into two
houses in 1776, and Thornton became speaker of the
assembly. He was not elected to the Continental Con-
gress until September, yet on his appearance in it in
November he was allowed the honor of signing the
engrossed copy of the Declaration. He continued to
attend Congress until the end of 1777, and then re-
turned to New Hampshire, where he was Judge of the
Superior Court until 1782, and held other offices. He
died June 24, 1803, while visiting his married daugh-
ter at Newburyport, Mass.
THORNWELL, JAMES HENLEY (1812–1862),
Presbyterian theologian, was born in Marlborough
district, S. C., Dec. 9, 1812. Most of his life was
spent at Columbia, S. C., either at the South Caro-
lina College, or in the Presbyterian Theological Sem-
inary. In the former he graduated in 1831, and after
a brief experience in teaching and as pastor of a
church at Lancaster, S.C. (1835–8), he returned to be
professor of logic and belles lettres. His service was
interrupted by a pastorate of a year in Columbia
(1840–1), and six months in Charleston (1851). After
the former his position was changed to that of chaplain
and professor of Christian evidences, and after the
latter he was called to the #. In 1855 the
Presbyterian synod appointed him professor of didag-
tic and polemic theology in their seminary, and this
position he held till his death at Charlotte, N. C.,
Aug. 1, 1862. He had twice visited Europe for the
sake of his health. He was well versed in ancient
THURMAN–TIME. . 681
and modern literatures, eminently successful as an in-
structor, and the most prominent leader of the
Southern Presbyterian Church. His views were set
forth in the Southern Quarterly Review, which he
founded and edited from 1855 to 1857. In politics he
strictly followed John C. Calhoun, and in theology
John Calvin. Rev. J. B. Adger edited his Collected
Writings (2 vols., 1874) and Rev. B. M. Palmer, D. D.,
his Life and Letters (1875).
THURMAN, ALLEN GRANBERRY, statesman, was
born Nov. 13, 1813, at Lynchburg, Va. His father,
a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, re-
moved to Chillicothe, Ohio, in 1819, and here Allen
received an academical education. After some experi-
ence as a surveyor he studied law with his uncle,
William Allen, afterwards governor of Ohio, and with
Judge N. H. Swayne, afterwards a justice of the U.
S. Supreme Court. He was aduitted to the bar in
1835 and soon was active in both law and politics. In
1845 he was elected to Congress, and in 1851 to the
Supreme Court of Ohio, of which he became chief-
justice in 1854. His term expired in 1856 and he re-
turned to practice at the bar. In 1867 he was Demo-
eratic candidate for governor but was defeated by
Rutherford B. Hayes, although Thurman had exhib-
ited remarkable power as a campaign-speaker. The
ſegislature, however, was largely Democratic and elected
him to the U. S. Senate, which had then only eleven
others of his party. James G. Blaine in his Twenty
Years of Congress pronounces Thurman then “the fore-
most man of his party in the nation.” As such he vigor-
ously supported the restoration of the government of
the Southern States to the native whites. He stood
firmly for the maintenance of gold and silver as the cur-
rency of the country, and resisted the Greenback move-
ment. He opposed Chinese immigration and sought
to maintain the control of the general government over
the Pacific railroads. In 1881 his term as Senator ex-
hired, but Garfield, who had been chosen by the Legis-
|. to succeed him, having been subsequently elected
President, showed his friendly regard for Thurman
by appointing him a delegate to the international
monetary conference at Paris. Thirteen nations were
represented, and the conference recommended the re-
monetizing of silver, but the disinclination of the
English government prevented definite action, on the
part of ary. . After a tour through Europe Thurman
returned to the United States and was soon active in
his profession. In 1885 he was retained to assist gov-
ernment counsel in the suit against the Bell Telephone
Jo., but the cases were decided against the govern-
ment. In some Democratic national conventions
Thurman had been suggested as Presidential nominee
and in 1876 he was a prominent candidate. In the
convention of 1884 he received 88 votes on the first
ballot. In 1888 a movement was started a few days
before the meeting of the convention at St. Louis to
name him for second place on the ticket, the first being
accorded to Pres. Cleveland. When the conven-
tion met the proposal received general approval and
he was nominated on the first ballot. Mr. Thurman,
in spite of his age, exerted himself gallantly in the
canvass, but his ticket was defeated by a decisive vote.
THURSTON, Rob ERT HENRY, engineer, was born
at Providence, R. I., Oct. 25, 1839. His father,
Robert L. Thurston (1800–1873), was a successful
builder of steam-engines. The son graduated at Brown
University in 1859 and was engaged in his father's
business until 1861, when he entered the navy as
officer of engineers. He served in the North and South
Atlantic squadrons throughout the war. He was then
made assistant professor of physics in the U. S.
Naval Academy. In 1870 he went to Europe to study
iron-manufacture and on his return was appointed
brofessor of mechanical engineering in the Stevens
†. Hoboken, N. J. In 1873 he was a member
of the U. S. scientific commission to the Vienna Ex-
hibition, and edited the IReport of the commissioners,
WOL. IV.-28
hesides publishing his own Report on Machinery and
Manufactures (5 vols., 1875–6). He was a member
of the U. S. commission on steam-boiler explosions.
In ISS5 he was made director of Sibley College, Qr
school of ulechanical engineering and the mechanic
arts, in connection with Cornell University, Ithaca,
N. Y. Prof. Thurston has invented numerous iln-
provements in mechanical devices. His many papers
on scientific and technical topics have been published
in both European and American journals. His History
of the Steam-Engine is the standard work on the
subject.
TiEFIN, a city of Ohio, county-seat of Seneca co.,
is on the Sandusky River, 34 miles S. W. of San-
dusky, on the Cincinnati, Sandusky, and Cleveland
Railroad and two other railroads. It has a court-house,
2 national banks, a savings bank, 16 churches, a con-
vent, a high-school and other schools, and is the seat
of Heidelberg College, which was founded in 1850 by
the l8eformed Church. Tiffin has 2 daily and 4 weekly
newspapers. Its manufactures include agricultural
implements, carriages, stoves, furniture, woollen goods,
tiles, etc. Its population in 1880 was 7879.
TILLANDSIA, the generic name of a plant known
by the various names of long moss, old man's beard,
etc., belonging to the Bromeliaceae, or pine-apple
family, most of the menbers of which are epiphytes,
or air-plants. T. usneoides, the common long moss,
occurs abundantly in the Southern States, hanging in
masses of long, dark, swaying fibres from the branches of
the live-oak and other trees, and constituting a peculiar
feature of Southern woodland scenery. There are in
all eight species of Tillandsia in the United States, but
the above named is the best known. Its sten's are
thread-like and pendulous, its leaves awl-shaped, its
flowers sessile and sumall, the petals imbricated and
tube-like below, spreading above, the seeds erect on
long stalks. This plant is found in humid districts,
from the Dismal Swamp southward, becoming very
abundant in the Gulf States, and has considerable
economic importance; its fibrous masses being ex-
tensively used for stuffing mattresses, cushions, bird-
skins, etc. For these purposes it is one of the best of
materials. The plant is also an ingredient in an oint-
ment which is said to be useful for haemorrhoids. In
winter it is eaten by cattle. (C. M.)
TIME, STANDARD. The introduction of railroads
and the invention of the telegraph, and the constant
use of these modern facilities of intereourse, have
forced upon the popular mind in America more than
elsewhere attention to the fact of differences of local
time, and given that fact a commercial bearing.
Places on the same meridian have the same solar time,
but places on different meridians, whether on the
same parallel or not, differ in time according to their
longitude. The proper management of railroads was
early found to require the fixing of a standard of time,
and each road undertook to establish a standard suited
to its locality. But the great through lines of the
United States, running chiefly east and west, found it
difficult to secure such harmony among their differ-
ent sections and connections as was absolutely neces-
sary for safe and satisfactory working. In 1880 there
were over fifty railroad standards of time used in the
United States, and at the intersection of various roads
these standards varied and conflicted in most perplex-
ing ways. Nearly every railroad centre had two or
three standards. Three were used in Chicago, five in
Kansas City, six in St. Louis. The smaller cities
readily adopted the time of the railroads which passed
through them, though some took pride in having ac-
curate Solar time for the town-clock.
The establishment of the U. S. Signal Service, with
its constant use of the telegraph at fixed times,
brought before eminent scientists the practical consid:
eration of the problem which was already annoying
the railroad managers. Prof. Cleveland Abbé sug.
gested the simple and ingenious plan which eventually,
682
TIMOTIIY—TOAD.
with some modifications, was adopted by the railroad
lines of the United States, and put in operation on
Nov. 18, 1883. According to this systeuſ, this coun-
try, extending from 65° to 125° W. long., was divided
into four time-sections, each of 15° of longitude, ex-
actly equivalent to one hour. The objects aimed at by
the railroad managers were to have as few standards
as possible, yet so arrange them that the variation
from mean solar time at any point within the section
regulated by the standard should not exceed 30 min-
utes, and that the changes in the standard should take
place at well-known points of departure, chiefly at the
termini of the roads. The system adopted meets all
of these requirements. -
The 75th meridian west of Greenwich, which passes
between New York and Philadelphia, gave an excel-
lent starting-place. Its time was adopted for the Dis-
trict of Columbia by act of Congress approved March
13, 1884. According to the division of the country sug-
gested by Prof. Abbé and adopted by the railroad com-
panies, the First section, which is governed by the time
of that meridian, includes all the territory between the
Atlantic coast and Detroit, Pittsburg, Wheeling, Park-
ersburg, W. Va., Huntington, Bristol, Tenn., Au-
gusta, Ga., and Charleston (the last being its most
Southern point). The time of this section is called
Eastern time, and it is marked by the dropping of
time-balls at noon by the aid of the telegraph from the
U. S. Naval Observatory and other observatories. The
Second section includes all the territory from JDetroit
and the other western limits of the First section to
Bismarck, Dakota, North Platte, Dodge City, etc. It
includes nearly all the Mississippi Valley, the Gulf
States, and the greater part of Georgia. Its time is
governed by that of the 90th meridian, and is called
Central time. It is one hour slower than Eastern
time. The Third section extends from the western
limit of the Central section to Helena, Montana, Og-
den, Utah, and the western boundary of Arizona. Its
time is that of the 105th meridian, and is called Moun-
tain time. The Fourth section covers the rest of the
country to the Pacific Ocean. The time is that of the
120th meridian, and is called Pacific time, being one
hour slower than Mountain time.
One great advantage of this system is that the dif.
ference in time between prominent places is always an
exact number of hours. At 12 noon in New York
city the time at Chicago is l l A. M. ; at Denver 10
A. M. ; at Portland, Oregon, 9 A. M.
It is probable that the system of standard time,
successfully inaugurated in this country, will eventu-
ally be adopted throughout the world. An interna-
tional congress of scientists was held in Washington in
October, 1884, at which the meridian of Greenwich
was recommended as a common prime meridian to be
used in reckoning longitude throughout the world.
When this has been adopted by the great commercial
nations, it will be an easy step to have time reckoned
from meridians exactly a certain number of hours west
of that prime meridian, as is now done across the
North American continent. (J. P. L.)
TIMOTII.Y. See PASTORAT, EPISTLES.
TIMROD, HENRY (1829–1867), a Southern poet,
was born at Charleston, S. C., Dec. 8, 1829, his father
being a well-to-do bookbinder with poetic tastes, who
died while Henry was in childhood. After some pre-
liminary training in his native city, young Timrod
entered the University of Georgia, but ill health com-
pelled him to leave before finishing his course. The
study of law proved uncongenial to his poetic
nature and he became a teacher. His earlier poetical
pieces, which appeared, from about 1849 to 1853, in the
Southern Literary Magazine and the short-lived
Jºussell's Magazine º of Charleston), attracted
local notice. In 1800 he brought out a small volume
of his poems through Ticknor & Fields of . Boston.
His feelings at this eventful period were intensely
Southern, and on the outbreak of the civil strife he
jecame the Tyrtaeus of the South. His lyrics, “A
Cry to Arms” and “Carolina,” as well as his ad-
dresses “To the Unknown Dead” and “To Spring,”
and his “Carmen Triumphale,” breathe a spirit of
almost feminine tenderness uningled with the fire of
martial ardor. For some time Timrod was war-corre-
spondent for the Charleston Mercury; in 1863 he re-
moved to Columbia, S. C., where he became editor
and part proprietor of The South Carolinian. This
position promised a moderate competence, and in 1864
he married Miss Kate Goodwin. On the entrance of
Sherman's army into Columbia, his office, printing-
press, etc., were demolished and himself ruined. “My
story for the last year” he wrote his friend Col. P. H.
Hayne in March, 1866, “is beggary, starvation, death
[he had lost a child], bitter grief, utter want.” For a
time he wrote editorials for The Carolinian of Charles-
tou, and later was glad to act as temporary clerk to
Gov. Orr. In 1867, owing to failing health, he on
two occasions accepted the invitation of Col. Hayne to
share his quaint home in the pine-woods of Georgia.
Alarming hemorrhages drove him back to his home in
Columbia, and he died there, Oct. 7, 1867. An en-
larged edition of his poems and a sketch of his life by
Paul H. Hayne appeared in 1873.
TIN. See METALS.
TITHES. See TABERNACLE.
TITUS. See PASTORAL EPISTLES.
TITUSVILLE, a city of Pennsylvania, in Crawford
co., is on Oil Creek, 18 miles N. of Oil City, and on
three railroads. It has a national bank and other
banks, an opera-house, 10 churches, a high-school and
other schools, 1 daily and 3 weekly newspapers. Its
business prosperity has fluctuated with that of the oil
region in which it is situated. While still principally
engaged in this business it has also iron-works and
barrel- and wagon-factories. It has a good system of
Water-works. In 1880 its population was 90.46.
TOAD, the common name of the batrachian family
See Vol. XXIII. Bufonidae, subºrder Anura, or tailless
p. 422 (p. 450 Amphibians. The toads differ from
Am. Rep.). the frogs, the other family of the
- Anura, in having the shoulder girdles
in an embryonic state, and in being destitute of teeth,
also in being more terrestrial in their habits. They
have a thick and heavy body, covered with wart-like
glands which secrete an acrid fluid, the fore and hind
legs are nearly equal in length, the tongue is well de-
veloped and can be protruded with great rapidity in the
capture of insects. They absorb moisture by the
skin, which is cast off at intervals and swallowed.
Their life in water is confined to the breeding season,
ordinarily March and April, the remainder of their
liſe being passed on land. They spend the winter in
holes and crevices in a torpid state. The toad has
been long regarded as venomous, though without war-
rant. Its glandular secretion may cause painful irrita-
tion of a tender or abraded skin, but can do no further
harm, and the animal is entirely inoffensive and of
great usefulness to man, as it destroys great numbers
of insects injurious to vegetation. Toads have been
known to live 35 or 40 years, and can survive for a long
period without food and with little air, though the
stories of their being able to live for years or centuries
hermetically sealed in rocks and trees need confirma-
tion. Experiments in this direction show that toads
annot long survive if deprived of air.
Toads are found all over the world, though most
abundantly in the tropics. Ninety-two species are
enumerated in the family, of which 77 belong to the
typical genus Bufo. Of this genus the largest species
is B. maacimits of tropical America, of which individ-
uals 8 inches long are often found. The United States
has about 10 species of Bufo, of which the common
eastern species is B. lentiginosus. This species oc-
curs from Maine and Canada to the Mississippi Val-
ley, and to the Gulf States, in which the typical form
(with bony knobs or crests above the eyes) is found.
*
TODD–TOLSTOI. 683
It is 2} to 3 inches long, with a thick warty body, col-
ored with spots of varying hue, size, and shape, the
lower parts a dirty yellow. It is quicker in its move-
ments than the common European toad. The variety
found in the northerly region lacks the knobs over the
eyes, and is classed as the sub-species B. Americanus.
l'rom Massachusetts to Canada still another variety is
found, with an Osseous ridge on the skull.
B. Americanus in the Middle States is a common in-
habitant of gardens and other localities where insects
abound. It is crepuscular in habit, its quiet but sud-
den movements being familiar to all. It is the earliest
of the Batrachia to enliven spring with its note, as it
rests on the water while depositing its spawn and con-
tinues to sing well into the summer. The eggs are de-
posited in a long, rope-like tube of transparent albu-
men, which gathers into a coil on the bottom of the
water. When the young, after their transformation
from the tadpole to the mature toad form, leave the
water they make long journeys in the evening, hiding
during the day. If rain falls they emerge from their
hiding-places, thus giving rise to the supposition that
they have been rained down to the earth.
A more localized and very small species, B. querci-
cus, ranges from North Carolina to Florida. The
largest North American species is B. boreas of the Pa-
cific region, which is sometimes nearly as large as B.
maximus. In the upper Mississippi region is a small
species, B. dipterm us, which has two well-developed
tarsal spurs for the purpose of excavating. This pe-
culiarity, which is found in some other species of Bufo,
is well developed in Rhinophrynus dorsalis of Mexico,
whose remarkably strong shovel-like excavator enables
it to rapidly make its way into the ground.
The members of the batrachian family, Pelobatidae,
are nearly all subterranean in their habits. The Ameri-
can species of this family are exceedingly noisy at the
time of depositing their eggs. Scaphiopus Holbrookii.
the hermit spade-foot toad, is common in the Middle
States. Other species are found in the South-west,
some of them with remarkably loud cries. Of the
family Hylidae, or tree-toads, there are about 175
species, principally found in tropical America. The
typical genus Hyla has 95 species, of which the coun-
mon tree-toad of the United States is II, versicolor.
This lays its eggs in the water on some fixed body, as
an aquatic plant. The species of this family are noted
for their loud and varied cries, the first note of spring
in the United States being the shrill piping of H.
Pickeringii, a swamp-dwelling species. This creature
continues to sing into the fall, but not with the loud-
ness and liveliness of his springtime note. The Hy-
lidae are often brilliantly colored, and some of them are
remarkable for their great changes of hue to accord
with the surface on which they rest. H. versicolor
when resting on a tree-trunk may be of a dull brown
or a pale gray, representing a lichen ; but when among
tree-leaves becomes of a bright green. Those species
which live among flowers and varied foliage are often
very brilliant in their hues.
Another family of toads, the Pºpidae, are tongueless,
and differ in other respects greatly from those de-
scribed. One species, P. Americana, the Surinam
toad, has a remarkable habit, without counterpart in
the order. The eggs are not laid in the water, but are
received by the male, who deposits them on the back
of the female. The skin thickens between the eggs
thus deposited, till each is invested in a sort of sac,
which is covered with a thin, gelatinous operculum.
The young go through their metamorphoses in these
sacs, the tail and branchiae being absorbed while they
are still in the egg. They emerge perfect frogs. This
species is common in the dark corners of houses in
Guiana, and is said to be eaten by the natives, in spite
of its repulsive aspect. e (C. º
ODD, John (1800–1873), Congregationalist
preacher and author, was born at Rutland, Vt., Oct.
9, 1800. His early life was a struggle with poverty
|
but he gained an education at Yale College, graduating
in 1822, and then studied theology at Andover. He
was pastor of a church at Groton, 1827–31, the con-
gregation comprising many Unitarians. Afterwards
he had charges at Northampton (1833–36), at Phila-
delphia (1836–42), and then at Pittsfield (1842-72).
He was not only a strenuous upholder of Calvinism,
but was active in the promotion of education. His
own experience was largely embodied in his Student's
Manual (1835), which had an immense circulation.
Other books of a similar kind, such as The Daughter
at School (1854), were less sought after. Dr. Todd
assisted in founding Mount Holyoke Female Seminary,
and was president of the Young Ladies’ Institute at
Pittsfield. Among his later books were Mountain
Gems (1864), Sunset Land (1869), giving his impres-
sions of California, and Old-Fashioned Lives (1870).
In Woman's Rights (1867) he took a conservative
view of the subject which provoked a reply by “Gail
Hamilton” under the title Woman's Wrongs. Dr.
Todd died at Pittsfield, Aug. 24, 1873. See John Todd;
the Story of his Life, edited by his son, Rev. J. E.
Todd (1876).
TODHUNTER, Is AAC, English mathematician,
was born at Rye, in 1820. His father was of Scotch
descent and uinister of a 1)issenting congregation.
The son was educated first at University College, Lon-
don, then taught school at Wimbledon, and entered
St. John's College, Cambridge. He graduated as
senior wrangler in 1848, and became fellow, assistant
tutor, and mathematical lecturer of his college. His
school and college text-books on the various branches
of mathematics have had extensive circulation in Great
Britain and America. Besides these he has published
History of the Progress of the Calculus of Tariations
during the Nineteenth Century (1861), and History of
the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and the
Figure of the Earth from Newton to Laplace (2
vols., 1873).
TOLEDO, a city of Olio, county-seat of Lucas co.,
is on the Maumee River, S miles from Lake Erie. It
is 92 miles W. of Cleveland and is an important rail-
road town. It has a good barbor and a channel 17 ft.
deep, has been dredged through the Maumee Bay to
the lake. Large elevators, with storage for 5,000,000
bushels, and the immense union railroad depot afford
facilities for the shipment of grain and flour. There
is also a large trade in lumber, live-stock, hides, wool,
iron, and tobacco. The manufactures include carriages,
Wagons, pumps, steam-ongines, agricultural imple-
ments, furniture and cabinet-ware, etc. There are
also boat-yards and bridge-works. Toledo has a court-
house, 7 national banks, 6 other banks, 60 churches, a
good system of public schools, several private schools,
a free public library, 3 hospitals, 3 orphan asylums,
and other charitable institutions. Three daily and 11
weekly newspapers are published here. The city is
governed by a mayor, a board of aldermen, and a
common council. It has a good supply of water and
a paid fire department. Toledo was formed in 1836
by the union of two villages, and in 1880 it had
attained a population of 50, 137.
TOLSTOI, Count LYEFF NIKol AIEVITCH, a Rus-
sian novelist and reformer, was born near Tula, Aug.
28, 1828. He is descended from Count Peter Tolstoi,
a friend of Peter the Great. Among his contempo-
rary relatives were Count Dmitri Tolstoi, minister of
public instruction (1866–80), noted as an active agent
of autocracy and enemy of liberty, and Count Alexis
Tolstoi (1817-73), author of a trilogy of tragedies
The Death of Ivan, the Terrible, Car Feodor, and
CŞar Boris, Lyeff (or, as the name is commonly
Written in English, Lyof or Leo) was early orphaned,
and was educated on his maternal estate of Jasnaja
Polyana, except for two years, 1843–5, at the Univer-
sity of Kazan. In 1851 he went with a brother to the
Caucasus and entered the army. There he wrote his
first books, The Cossacks and Childhood and Youth.
ÖS4
TOMATO,
An English versiou of the latter, by Malwida von
Myenberg, was published at Loudou, ISU2, but at-
tracted no especial attention ; and though Tolstoi was
an industrious writer from the start, his faule was for
many years confined to his own country. At the be-
ginning of the Crimean war, 1853, he was transferred
to the Danube, and served on the staff of Prince
Gortschakoff. In the defence of Sevastopol he coul-
manded a battery : the painful experiences of that
year are described with accurate detail in Sevastopol in
December, in J1 1/, and in August. On the conclusion
of peace he resigned his coumission and made litera-
ture his chief employment, spending the summers on
his estate and the winters in Moscow, where he mar-
ried the daughter of a German physician. War and
Peace, his longest book, appeared 1800. The next
year he became a magistrate, and thenceforth lived
chiefly in the country, striving for the instruction and
improvement of his peasantry, teaching in the schools,
and writing educational books. His most widely read
novel, Anna Karenina (1876–77), bears witness to his
Varying interests, and indicates (perhaps unconsciously)
his ripening disgust with society and the conventional
modes of life. Soon after its appearance he wholly
abandoned these and adopted the peasant's garb and
humble labors, in pursuance of a scheme of socialistic
philosophy, which he rather developed from within
than learned from without. My Religion appeared in
the Nouvelle Recue, and Christ's Christianity in an
lºnglish translation in ISS5. His peculiar views are
set forth in these and others of his books, many of
which, however, are not allowed to be printed in Russia,
but circulate in MS. among his numerous admirers.
His theology, at once highly mystical and profoundiy
rationalistic, has been explained by Miss Hapgood in
the Nation for Sept. 27, 18SS. It is understood to
deny the divinity of Christ, the special inspiration of
the Scriptures, the validity of prayer, and the immor-
tality of the soul : yet he reveres Jesus as a supreme
example of influence, and accepts literally the praise
of poverty, the injunction of passive submission, and
the enforcement of love to one's neighbor : these he
obeys with unfashionable consistency and unfaltering
zeal. Ecclesiastical authority he rejects, and would
substitute “member of the Orthodox Greek Church ''
for ‘‘Pharisee.” Nor will he enter or approve a dis-
Senting sect, for he despises all organizations, and
holds the spirit to be above them and independent of
them. In an evil world absolute non-resistance, he
holds, is alike the only policy for those who have or
seek the light, and the only true obedience to gospel
precepts. Circumstances prevent his carrying out his
views fully, yet he has arranged his life in a manner
which in any civilized land must provoke annazement,
and cause his sanity to be questioned. He professes
to regard his past life with loathing, as regulated by
the false opinions and customs of Society. Having
tasted wealth, rank, warfare, pleasure, fame, he has
found them vanity and vexation and been driven to
seek eagerly for the peace of faith. To Mr. Kennan,
the Siberian traveller, “he spoke slightingly, almost
contemptuously, of his works of fiction, and seemed
to regard them as monuments of misdirected energy.”
(See A Visit to Count Tolstoi, in the Century Maga-
zine, June, 1 SS7.) He works at the shoemaker's
bench and in the fields, and lives on terms of absolute
democratic equality with peasants. Yet he writes as
vigorously as ever tracts and stories, which are ser-
1mons, for the common people and their children ; over
them his influence is said to be powerful and wide-
spread. A sort of Russian Buddha, the object nearest
his heart is their improvement and the coming of that
millennium in which men, relieved from the incubi of
organized religion and government, shall dwell together
in equality, peace, and mutual brotherly helpfulness.
To contribute to this end is his one desire ; and the
government, which is swift to suppress an argument
or a treatise, often allows the same revolutionary ideas
to appear in the guise of tales. A collection of Tol-
stoi's works in ten volumes appeared in 1880, but he
has written much since then, and his bibliography is
for the future historian.
Tolstoi's vogue in Aulerica has arisen since 1885. A
Writer in the Nineteenth Century said in 1879 that
neither of his two greatest books seems likely to be
translated into English. A version of The Cossacks, by
Eugene Schuyler, when brought out in New York, at-
tracted so little notice that the publishers determined to
Venture on no more of his. Since then, however, every-
thing bearing his name has been welcomed, and a sin-
gle house has issued some fifteen volumes of his writ-
ings, several of which are on the market in more than
one version. The translators are Nathan Haskell
Dole, Isabel F. Hapgood, Mrs. Aline Delano, and
Huntingdon Smith : some are rendered from the
original, others through the French. War and Peace
and Anna Karenina are novels of great length ; other
volumes, as A /ēussian Proprietor and The Long Ecile,
are named from one of sundry short stories. The list
includes The Cossacks ; Sevastopol; Katia; Ivan
I//itch; The Invaders; In Pursuit of Happiness;
What People Live by; Family Happiness; Childhood,
Boyhood, and Youth ; My Confession ; My Religion;
The Physiology of War; Napoleon and the Russian
Campaign, and What to do. Thoughts Evoked by
the Census of Moscow.
Except perhaps Turgeneff, Tolstoi ranks as the first
of Russian authors. He has his votaries and his op-
ponents : , Mr. W. D. Howells is unstinting in his
praise, while Maurice Thompson decries him as an
injurious writer and a “socialistic crank.” His earlier
and secular books illustrate with unsurpassed power
the virtues and vices of the realistic school ; those
produced since he awoke to his mission, though often
couched in the plainest language and dealing with the
daily life of peasants, are loftily idealistic in spirit and
conception. His genius is now generally conceded,
and few would deny the purity of his motives and the
nobleness of his aims; but as to the enjoyableness of
his books, no less than the beneficial tendency of the
larger and more ambitious ones, opinions differ widely.
The photographic minuteness of Anna Karemina, the
relentless hounding of human weakness into crime
and misery, are dreary and depressing to sonne, while
War and Peace has been described as a huge and con-
fusedly overcrowded canvas. The reader may with
justice complain that these romances are no more edi
fying, no more agreeable, than real life. With more
open and compressed cynicism, Iran Ilyich sets forth
the worthlessness of common purposes and cares. As
to his later and shorter tales, most would admit that
they often, in spite of their elaborately plebeian dress,
have force, point, and beauty, with an elevated and
poetic moral. Tolstoi himself would indignantly re-
pudiate the dictum of an American critic, “ The do-
main of his genius is fiction and not the bewildering
muddlements of pseudo-philosophy.” The best essays
on Tolstoi are in French, by M. de Vogüé and E. Du-
Juy. (F. M. B.)
TOMATO, the Lycospersicum escarlemtum, a plant
helonging to the Solanaceae, or night-shade family.
There are numerous species of the genus, all of South
American origin, though the esculent tomato is now
grown widely throughout the world. It is cultivated
for its fruit, which is a very important article of diet,
though until recent years supposed to be uneatable.
The tomato was introduced into England in 1596, but
but for many years was grown only as an ornamental
plant or for medicinal purposes. It was known as
love-apple, which name is still given it in France and
Italy. It was first used as a vegetable in Italy, and
soon afterwards in France and England, though it has
been in general use for this purpose less than fifty
years. It needs warm suns, and does not ripen to
perfection in England, though it is grown there for
market under glass. As at present used it is one of
*
6S5
TOMPECINS—TOPEKA.
the most important of our garden products. It is
easily managed, even by inexperienced hands, and
hundreds of acres are now planted with it in the
vicinity of all our large cities.
The tomato plant has a weak stem of about 4 ft. in
length, which is apt to trail or become prostrate. The
leaves are irregular primate with large leaflets, the
stem and leaves being clothed with soft viscid hairs
of a strong, unpleasant odor and a somewhat resinous
substance which leaves a stain. It bears racemose
clusters of yellow flowers, its fruit being a 2- or 3-celled
berry, though there are numerous cells in the cultivated
yarieties. Under, cultivation the fruit varies greatly
in color and size, the plant being highly plastic, though
it is possible that the cultivated forms may represent
several species. Half a century ago this plant was
raised only as a curiosity, or as an ornauent from its
red fruit, but it is now one of the most popular and
useful of vegetables. It ripens after plucking, and
hence can be picked green and transported long dis-
though the contrary was the fact. His opposition to
banks was conspicuously shown by his proroguing the
Legislature for ten months to prevent the Bank of
America from being established in the city of New
York. The bank, however, finally obtained its char-
ter. In 1816 he was elected vice-president on the
ticket with Monroe, and before leaving the governor's
chair he recommended the passage of an act abolishing
slavery in the State of New York. This was done, the
act taking effect in July, 1827. Tompkins was re-
elected with Monroe, and at the close of his term
retired to Staten Island, where he died June 11, 1825.
TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810–1885), Southern states-
man and orator, was born at Washington, Wilkes co.,
Ga., July 2, 1810. He was educated at the University
of Georgia and at Union College, N. Y.. and studied
law in the University of Virginia. He began the prac-
tice of law in 1831, and was captain of a company of
volunteers in the Creek war in isº. He was then
elected to the State Legislature, and in 1844 he was
tances, our northern cities being supplied from Florida elected to Congress, where he became a prominent
and the Bermudas and gradually up the coast before representative of the Whig party. After eight years'
the fruit ripens in their own vicinity. It is used in service in the lower house he entered the Senate,
numerous ways, eaten raw as a salad, stewed, baked, being now most aggressive in demands for national
broiled and in soups, stews, and sauces. Tomato cat- recognition and support of slavery. After the election
sup is a favorite relish, and vast quantities of tomatoes of Pres. Jincoln he urged forward the movement for
are put up for winter use by canning and preserving. secession in Georgia, and even when the Union party,
To produce early crops the seed is sown in hot-beds headed by A. H. Stephens, elected a majority of dele-
or forcing-pits some ten weeks before planting in the gates to the State convention, Toombs succeeded in
open air. In the Middle States this is done about the bringing about the passage of an ordinance of secession
first week in March, transplanting being done in Jan. 17, 1861. Toombs then withdrew from the Senate
middle May. The plants are placed in light sandy with a threatening speech, which the Senate some weeks
soil, in hills 3 ft. apart, and well manured. The yield later answered by a resolution expelling him. Mean-
under careful cultivation is about 400 bushels to the time he had been active in the Confederate Congress at
acre, the average market price being about 75 cents Montgomery, Ala., and was a candidate for the presi-
per bushel. This seems profitable; yet there is much idency of the new Confederacy. Jefferson Davis, how-
expense and labor needed in the forcing processes ne- ever, was chosen, and Toombs was made secretary of
cessary for an early crop. In the South, where con-i state. The position was not to his liking, and he ob-
vcnient to shipping, the raising of tomatoes for the
Northern market is a very remunerative industry. In
some localities thousands of acres of tomatoes are
raised by farmers under contract for canning purposes.
These often sell as low as 30 cents per bushel, but this
will pay on suitable land better than most farm crops,
there being no need to plant early for this purpose.
Of the many varieties of tomatoes now in the mar-
ket, among the leading ones in the vicinity of New
York are the Mikado, Acme, Paragon, Perfection,
Trophy, Red and Yellow Plum, General Grant, Hath-
away's Fxcelsior, and Canada Victor. Elsewhere
other varieties are more prominent. The Trophy has
been in favor for many years, and is of unsurpassed
size, flavor, and productiveness. Earlier and smoother
varieties are now raised, though there has been no
improvement in quality of varieties for twenty years
past, and all further improvements seem likely to be .
in smoothness and solidity. The tomato is a plant
which requires a high temperature to ripen its fruit,
its time of ripening being May in Georgia, June in
Virginia, July in Delaware, and August in New Jer-
sey and New York. As a winter vegetable, in its
canned state, it has hardly an equal among vegetable
articles of diet, many millions of cans being annually
used. (C. M.)
TOMPKINS, DANIEI, D. (1774–1825), vice-presi-
dent of the United States, was born at Scarsdale, N.
Y., June 21, 1774. He graduated at Columbia Col-
lege in 1795, and was admitted to the bar in 1797. He
was elected to the Legislature in 1801, and took part in
the revision of the State constitution. Elected to Con-
gress in 1804, he resigned to become an associate
justice of the N. Y. Supreme court. In 1806 he was
chosen governor of the State, and during his tenure of
this office he gave effective support to the war policy
of the national administration in 1812. At a later
period the incomplete and confused record of his
financial transactions at this time were used to injure
his reputation, and prove him a debtor to the State,
tained a commission as a brigadier-general. Though his
unwillingness to obey orders rendered him troublesome,
he stayed with the army in Virginia until the end of
1862, and then returned to Georgia, where he had
command of State troops. At the close of the war he
refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of the United
States, and went to Europe by way of Cuba. He re-
turned, however, in 1867, and resumed his law prac-
tice, but proudly declared himself an “unrepentant
rebel.” A man of massive frame, he claimed from all
he met recognition of his physical and intellectual
superiority. This granted, }. showed himself pat-
ronizing and genial, but if denied, he was arrogant and
blustering. He was a kind master to his slaves; he
would permit no inn near his residence—“Liberty
Hall ''-but welcomed there any stranger who visited
the neighborhood. , Numerous anecdotes and sayings
attest his domineering character in the Senate, but in
the history of the Confederacy he left little impression.
He died at Washington, Ga., Dec. 25, 18S5.
TOPEKA, the capital of Kansas, and county-seat of
Shawnee co., is on the Kansas River, N. lat. 39°37. W.
long. 95° 40', and 66 miles west of Kansas City. Four
railroads, the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Kansas, and
Nebraska, the Missouri Pacific, and the Atchison, To-
peka, and Santa Fé, furnish abundant facilities for com-
munication and trade with all parts of the Union. The
city is also well supplied with street railways. It has
a handsome capitol, 2 opera-houses, 4 hotels, 4 national
banks, 3 other banks, 4 daily and over 20 weekly ncws-
papers. There are 17 school-buildings, whose property
is valued at $300,000, 2 business colleges, a Catholic
seminary, Washburn College(Congregational), Bethany
College for young ladies (Episcopal). There are 45
churches, comprising nearly every religious denomina-
|tion, and some possessing fine cdifices. Two bishops
i Episcopal and Methodist—have their residence here.
i The Prohibition law is enforced and generally approved,
Near the city are the State Asylum for the Insane and
the State Reform School. Besides the machine-shops
686
TORNADO.
of the Santa Fé Railroad, the chief industrial works
are 9 flouring-mills, whose yearly output is 400,000
barrels. There are also 3 iron-foundries, 2 packing-
ouses, and factories producing starch, vinegar, cloth-
ing, harness, cigars, tents, wheels, windmills, and
agricultural implements. The city is well laid out with
wide, shady, well-paved streets, and handsome resi-
dences. It has excellent sewerage, an electric-light
and telephone system, gas- and water-works. Topeka
was settled in 1854 and incorporated in 1858. Its early
history is closely connected with the settlement of
Kansas and its admission into the Union. Its popula-
tion in 1880 was 15,452, but it is estimated in 1888
to be 40,000. Its assessed valuation in 1887 was
$7,270,017, the true value being thrice as much.
TORBERT, ALFRED T. A., general, was born in
Delaware in July, 1833. He graduated at West Point
in 1855, and was appointed brevet second-lieutenant
of infantry. He served in Texas and Florida, and took
part in the Utah expedition of 1857–58. When the
civil war broke out he was employed in mustering New
Jersey volunteers into service, and in September was
made colonel of the First regiment N. J. volunteers.
With his command he participated in McClellan's
Peninsular campaign, and in August, 1862, he was
assigned to the command of a brigade. He fought in
the second battle of Bull Run, and was wounded at
South Mountain. He was then made brigadier-general
of volunteers, but was unable to serve until June, 1863,
when he returned to his brigade in the Sixth corps in
time to fight at Gettysburg. In 1864, while Gen.
Sheridan conducted a raid on Richmond, Gen. Torbert
commanded the cavalry which remained with Gen.
Grant, and afterwards led the First division in several
actions, including the battle of Cold Harbor. Gen.
Torbert was now made chief of cavalry of the Middle
military division, and was engaged in all the operations
in the Shenandoah Valley. In April, 1865, he was
made commander of the Army of the Shenandoah, and
afterwards had charge of various districts, until he was
mustered out of the volunteer service in January, 1866.
In October of that year he resigned from the regular
army, in which his actual rank was only captain,
though he had brevet rank as major-general. He was
sent as U. S. minister to Salvador in 1869, as consul-
general to Havana in 1871, and to Paris in 1874.
TORNADO. There are two well-marked species of
gyratory storms—the cyclone, in which the wind moves
mainly in a horizontal direction and covers an exten-
sive area, and the tornado, in which the movement is
principally vertical and the ground area of the storm
very small. These two kinds of storm are connected
by no intermediate gradations, and seem distinct in
character and origin. The tornado, however, is con-
nected with a series of less violent gyrations, ranging
from the waterspout of the ocean and the sand-storm
of the desert down to the little dust-whirl which is so
ordinary a phenomenon in our streets. The violent
form of whirl known as the tornado occurs more fre-
quently and disastrously in the United States than in
any other region of the earth, and is particularly prev-
alent in the valley of the Mississippi, where severe ex-
amples are of annual occurrence, and the loss of life
and property often extensive.
The tornado, which apparently has its origin in the
clouds at no great distance above the earth, presents
the appearance of a vast cloud funnel, visibly descend-
ing from the layer of cloud in which it originates, un-
til it reaches the earth, where it draws up everything
that lies in its path into its swift revolving vortex.
Its cloud-like appearance is due to the condensation
of moisture in the warm and compressed air of the
wind-whirl, into which the adjoining air is drawn with
great force and caused to revolve with extraordinary
violence, the motion being an upward spiral, with a
partial vacuum in its centre. The path of the tor-
mado is always very narrow, averaging less than, a
quarter-mile in width, the greatest violence being in its
funnel forms.
invariably opposite to that of the movement of a
clock-hand, in this respect agreeing with the gyration
of the cyclone.
central region. In this region everything that is
touched is destroyed ; houses unroofed or torn to
pieces, and their fragments thrown long distances;
great trees twisted off like reeds; such weights as loco-
motives lifted and hurled aside, and a power displayed
which it is difficult to appreciate. The whirling no-
tion is indicated by the twisting of trees and the turn-
ing round of buildings which have been lifted from
their foundations, while the mode in which the walls
of houses occasionally seem to burst outward in all di-
rections appears the work of a vacuum in the passing
centre of the whirl.
The tornado cloud never seems to reach to a great
height, but becomes lost in the broad layer of cloud
from which it depends. It sways to and fro, like a
dangling whip, as it moves rapidly along its path of
destruction, the end occasionally rising from the
ground to descend farther on. When thus raised it
seems somewhat pointed at bottom, and though the
surface wind is still severe, little harm is done. The
path of greatest violence of the tornado is very nar-
row, while the time of passage of its centre over any
spot is less than a minute, sometimes but a few sec-
onds. It seems to strike everything within its reach a
single blow, like that of a gigantic hammer which de-
stroys whatever it touches. The wind pressure of the
tornado has been estimated from its effects to vary from
18 to 112 pounds to the square foot, and the velocity
of the wind to be sometimes as much as 2000 miles
per hour.
Definite scientific observations of tornado phenom-
ena have been confined to a few years past, this work
having been taken up by Lieut. John P. Finley, of the
Signal Service Bureau, who several years ago organ-
ized a system of regular observations which have added
greatly to our knowledge of the subject. He has
learned so much concerning the tornado conditions, in
fact, as to be able to predict, with some degree of ac-
curacy, the probable appearance of such storms within
the settled regions of the country. In furtherance of
this project he has sent blanks to competent persons
throughout the tornado region, desiring them to de-
scribe the character and peculiarities of every tornado
that came under their observation, and in this manner
obtained a large sum of statistics. As a result of his
studies on the subject it may be stated that of 38 pre-
dictions made by him in April and June, 1884, that
tornadoes would occur, 18 were verified, and of 19 in
June and July, 1885, 15 were verified. In all cases
violent storms occurred, either tornadoes, fierce gales,
or hail-storms.
His predictions are based on the following observed
facts. Tornadoes are found to be always associated with
cyclones, and always to make their appearance in the
south-east quadrant of the cyclone, or south-east of
a moving centre of low barometric pressure, while their
tracks conform closely to the direction of the main
storm. Their place of occurrence, however, is several hun-
dred miles distant from the centre of the cyclone. The
favorable climatic conditions are an elevation of tem-
perature of from 15 to 50° above the normal, and an
excessive humidity, with abnormal conditions of wind
direction and cloud formation and movement. The
average number of tornadoes which annually occur in
the region east of the Rocky Mountains is over 100.
In 1884 there were 172. Of 600 recorded occurrences
from 1794 to 1881, 304 moved from south-west to north-
east. As a general rule about 80 per cent. of them
move in this direction, and about 10 per cent, from
north-west to south-east. The average width of path
is 1085 feet, and of velocity 30 miles an hour, though
the velocity may vary from 1 to 150 miles per hour.
The cloud is nearly always funnel-shaped, varying
from the hour-glass to the conical and the inverted
The direction of the whirl is almost
Tornadoes move parallel to the pro-
*
TORNADO.
687
gressive storm by whose side they are developed, keep-
ing their average distance of several hundred miles
frºm its centre. They occur most frequently in the
months of May, April, June, and July, in the order
given, and from 3.30 to 5 P.M., immediately after the
warmest part of the day, and when warm ascending
currents are most likely to meet cool descending
CurrentS.
In the United States 3000 persons have been killed
and as many injured by these storms, while the loss of
property reaches scores of millions of dollars. They
occur most frequently in the States bordering the
northern Mississippi and the lower Missouri. Here
the warm and very moist winds from the Gulf meet
with currents of cold air from the north, exceedingly
unstable atmospheric conditions being produced. They
seldom or never occur west of the 100th meridian, a
region unvisited by severe cyclones. Of the various
tornadoes on record the most remarkable series was that
of Feb. 9, 1884. On that day, after 10 A.M., more
than 60 tornadoes occurred in the States between Illi-
nois and Virginia on the north, and Mississippi and
Georgia on the south, at distances of from 500 to 2000
miles from the cyclone centre. The damage was ex-
cessive; more than 10,000 buildings were destroyed,
800 persons killed, and 2500 wounded.
Thunder and hail-storms occur in the same advance
quadrant of the cyclone with the tornado, and possibly
all arise from the same general conditions. These
storms are doubtless all due to the effort at equilibra-
tion in very unstable atmospheric conditions. The
tornado is always preceded by warm and humid south-
erly winds, and followed by cold northerly ones. The
preceiling atmosphere is, in fact, Saturated with vapor,
its abnormally high temperature increasing its capacity
in this respect. There is probably a very rapid dim-
inution of temperature with altitude, and undoubt-
edly the large temperature gradiants vertically, and the
marked contrast of vapor conditions, have much to do
with the development of the tornado, which is natur-
ally propagated along the line and in the direction in
which the unstable condition of equilibrium prevails.
The gyration noticeably forms in the upper air, where
the winds attain a much greater velocity than on the
surface, and gradually descends. The warmth and
high vapor conditions of the southern and eastern
regions of the cyclone are doubtless the reason that tor-
nadoes appear there and not in the northern and
western regions, where the air is comparatively dry
and cold, and the equilibrium of the atmosphere much
less disturbed.
Several theories as to the immediate cause of torna-
does have been advanced. Guyot ascribed them to
the meeting of opposite winds of different tempera-
tures in the upper atmosphere. According to a more
recent theory, the tornado is preceded by the forma-
tion of a surface layer of abnormally warm air, above
which extends a layer of much cooler air. The former,
in its effort to ascend, pierces the latter at some point,
and rushes upward in a spiral whirl or eddy which
quickly draws the surrounding warm air into its vortex.
This theory is based on the analogy of the behavior of
water under circumstances similar to those assumed, as,
to adduce a familiar instance, when the stopper is
pulled from the escape-pipe of a bath-tub. In this
case the water rushes from all sides towards the vent,
and eddies round in a descending spiral as it passes
downward through the pipe, a water vacuum existing
in the centre of the eddy. The analogy to the tornado
seems very close, yet this theory, though supported by
Soune eminent meteorologists, is hardly in accordance
With the facts. Instead of the preceding calm condi-
tions which it seems to require, the tornado is preceded
by strong winds. Nor does it offer any explanation of
the cold north winds which follow the tornado, nor of
the rapid and somewhat regular progressive motion of
the latter. It is in agreement with the water analogy,
but hardly with the atmospheric conditions.
There are other water eddies, however, of more
normal character, that of which we have spoken need-
ing unusual conditions for its manifestation. The nor-
mal eddy requires moving water for its propagation
and never appears when this water moves steadily an
regularly. But at the least disturbance of this regu,
larity, eddies are generated, and increase in width and
violence as the disturbance becomes greater. In short,
the ordinary eddy is due to opposition to the move-
ment of water currents, either from the meeting of two
currents more or less opposed in direction, or from the
impingment of a current on an unyielding obstacle
and the hurling of the water back upon itself. The
latter is the case in the tornado-like whirlpool at Ni-
agara. In every case we have the meeting of two
bodies of water which cannot pass each other, and
whose progressive motion is converted into a whirl,
while the accumulating waters can only escape down-
wards, so that the whirl is converted into a descending
spiral.
This form of eddy appears to be the true analogue
to the atmospheric eddy known by the various names
of whirlwind, tornado, etc. In the latter case wind is
always present, and apparently opposing winds. In
the little dust-whirl of the streets this seems evident.
It only appears during gusty winds, where the air
currents frequently vary their direction, and it seems
to indicate the meeting of two opposing puffs of wind,
which break into an eddy as they mett, while the pro-
gressive motion of the whirl is due to the gradual
meeting of the angularly opposed fronts of the
currents. In this phenomena we probably have, on a
small scale, what is repeated in the tornado on a large
scale.
Before proceeding with the argument, however, a
more particularized statement of tornado conditions is
important. The disturbance, as already said, always
begins in the upper air. Lieut. Maury, in 1882, at-
tributed the tornado to an upper air current seen at
times to move from the south-west at a speed of 100
miles per hour. Numerous descriptions show that the
first tornado indication is a cloud to the northward,
heavy, black, and comparatively slow in its southward
movement. This is met by a light, rather smoky, and
more rapid cloud from the south-west. These clouds,
borne by their respective winds, rush together, violent
conflicts of currents drive the clouds in every direction,
up and down, round and round; clouds, like great
sheets of white smoke, dash about in a frightful man-
ner. Finally, a black, threatening mass descends
slowly towards the earth, whirling violently, but still
manifesting confusion in form. This soon gives place
to the peculiar funnel-like shape, intensely black in
appearance. As white clouds appear and are drawn
into the vortex, the funnel trunk sways like an elastic
column. Substances drawn up are seen flying in its
centre, gradually rising, to be finally flung out near the
top after the storm has progressed a mile or two.
Dark masses of cloud shoot down the sides of the fun-
nel, and are drawn into the vortex near the ground.
At times the velocity appears to inerease, and every-
thing is torn to splinters. A peculiar hollow, rumbling,
but very loud sound accompanies the storm.
This description of the genesis of a tornado, abbre-
viated from Prof. Eddy's paper in the Popular Science
Monthly, is in accordange with the following descrip-
tion of the tornado of May 30, 1879, from the Signal
Service Report : -
“The cloud from which the funnel depended, seen
at a distance of 8 miles, appeared to be in terrible
commotion; in fact, while the hail was falling, a sort
of tumbling in the clouds was noticed as they came up
from the north-west and south-west, and about where
they appeared to meet was the point from which the
funnel was seen to descend. There was but one fun-
nel at first, which was soon accompanied by several
smaller ones. . . . Finally, one of them seemed to
expand and extend downwards more steadily than the
{}
688
others, resulting at length in what appeared to be
their complete absorption.”
These are typical examples of general tornado de-
Scriptions, all of which indicate wind opposition.
Opposite winds seem always to prevail, probably
in different strata of the atmosphere, the south wind
usually, perhaps always, the lower. This warm and
humid south wind naturally rises, while the cold north
wind as naturally descends. Thus two strong and
opposite air currents, which had been moving in dif.
ferent layers of the atmosphere, meet face to face.
The result seems necessarily the same in air as in
Water, the formation of a vigorous eddy or vortex,
whose energy depends upon that of its constituent
winds. In this case the escape is upwards, and the
descent of the eddy to the ground is probably a conse-
quence of the effort of the winds to pass each other.
The opposing air currents have widely extended fronts,
more or less angularly inclined to each other, so that
they come together gradually, like, to use a homely
illustration, the meeting of the blades of shears. To
this the progressive movement may be due. The vortex
is generated at each successive meeting point of the
winds, and vanishes in the rear as it forms in front.
Its speed of progression indicates that of meeting of
the angular wind fronts, and depends on the width of
the angle, while its irregularities are doubtless due to
the variations of speed and direction in the winds to
which it owes its origin. The final prevalence of the
north wind at the surface seems to indicate a reversal
of position in the two air currents, the north having
descended to a lower, the south ascended to an upper
stratum of the atmosphere, so that they once more
pass without opposition.
Gen. Greeley’s list of destructive tornadoes is given
in part in the following table, some of the less destruc-
tive being omitted :
Loss
State. Date. Killed. Injured. Houses. Value.
Miss. May 7, 1840. 317 109 ..... $1,260,000
& 4 June 16, 1842. 500
Conn. Aug. 9, 1878. 34 28 2,000,000
Mo. April 18, 1880. 101 600 ..... 1,000,000
Iowa. June 17, 1882. 100 300 260 1,000,000
Miss. April 22, 1883. 51 200 100 300,000
Wis. May 18, 1883. 16 100 52 175,000
Minn. Aug. 21, 1883. 26 80 400 700,000
Ark. Nov. 21, 1883. 5 162 60 300,000
N. (.. Feb. 19, 1884. 18 125 55
Dak. July 28, 1884. 15 18 1()0
Wis. Sept. 9, 1884. 6 75 305 4,000,000
N. J. Aug. 3, 1885. 6 100 500 500,000
Ohio. Sept. 8, 1885. 6 100 300 500,000
Minn. April 14, 1886. 74 136 138 385,000
Ohio. May 12, 1886. 57 ..... 85
Ran. April 21, 1887. 20 237 330 1,000,000
Many of these tornadoes extended through Jeveral
States, that of April 14, 1886, for instance, traveling
350 miles—from Council Bluffs to Sauk Rapids, Minn.,
which town it destroyed. That of April 18, 1880,
utterly wrecked the town of Marshfield, Mo. Many
other towns and villages have been partly or wholly
destroyed, and it seems evident that, in the fuller set-
tlement of the Mississippi Valley States, a greatly
increased annual destruction may be expected from
this source. The forests of that section often present
great lanes of broken-down and torn-up trees, indica-
ting the tracks of tornadoes in the past. As towns
replace forest and cover the prairie lands, the danger
will proportionately increase. The Atlantic States,
while less frequently visited by this terrible agent of
destruction, are by no means exempt. Several of the
examples in the table given were in the East—that of
August 3, 1885, passing through the city of Camden,
N. J., where it made frightful havoc. A more recent
disaster of this kind was that of January 9, 1889, in
which a violent tornado struck the city of Reading,
Ba., fortunately only on its outskirt, utterly wrecking
a silk-mill and a railroad paint-shop, with a loss of 24
TORTGiSE.
killed, 98 injured. This tornado passed over a con-
siderable extent of country, but, by good fortune,
struck no other town. What was probably an accom.
panying tornado passed over Western Pennsylvania on
the same day, doing great damage in the oil-fields,
blowing down the suspension bridge at Niagara, and
Wrecking an unfinished building at Pittsburg, with con-
siderable loss of life. (C. M.)
TORTO SE, one of the names given to the Testu-
See Vol XXII. º OT º reptiles, which
p. 455 (p. 4S4 are known also by the common names
Am. Rep.) of turtle and terrapin. As at present
used the tendency is to restrict the title
of tortoise to the marine species, that of turtle to the
land species, and that of terrapin to freshwater and coast
species of the family Emydidae. In the United States
the name of terrapin is applied only to a few species
of this family which are used for food. The United
States has in all 42 or 43 species of tortoises, of which
all, with the exception of the musk tortoises, are used
to a greater or less extent for food, or for other eco-
nomical purposes. Yet only a few species are in actual
demand, including the marine green turtle, 2 or 3
species of soft-shelled turtles, the Snapping turtle, the
gopher or land-turtle, and 3 or 4 species of terrapin.
Of the latter much the most highly prized is the
diamond-back salt-water terrapin (Malacolemmys palus-
tris). This species is found in the salt marshes along
the coast from Massachusetts to Texas and also in
South America. The northern terrapin, however, are
more delicate in flesh than those of ... Gulf, and the
principal market supply comes from Chesapeake Bay
and the coast of the Carolinas. Egg Harbor, N. J.,
also furnishes some very fine ones.
The diamond-back terrapin is of small size, the
under shell of the female averaging 6 or 7 ins, in
length, its extreme length being 10 ins. The weight
is 4 or 5 lbs., though in extreme cases 10 lbs. is
reached. It has a very large head, with strong and
cutting jaws, small eyes, and short and thick neck.
The shell is oval, moderately convex, and of a dusky
olive-green color, with darker concentric lines. The
sternum, or lower shell, is yellow, with dusky concentric
lines. This species is very shy and active, swims well,
and runs with considerable speed on land. The males
are smaller than the females, much less valued, and
sell at a considerably lower price. The fishing season
lasts from Oct. 1 to June 1, October and November
being the best months. At this period the terrapin
has buried itself deeply in the mud for its winter
hibernation, and is very fat and juicy. It is easily
found by a mound of mud raised above its hiding-
place, and is taken in considerable quantities. The eggs,
25 to 100 in number, are laid in early spring. Females
in egg are the most highly valued, the eggs being the
tidbit of epicures. In their best season terrapin sell
at from $15 to $36 and even $50 per dozen, according
to size. The males are used only in soups, and bring
about $3 per dozen. Many terrapins are caught in
summer, and penned in “yards' till the market sea-
son. They are found to breed in captivity, and efforts
have been made, with some success, to raise them from
eggs laid under such circumstances. This is impor-
tant, as the annual catch, never large, is steadily de-
creasing. Philadelphia is the principal market for
terrapin, though large quantities are supplied to other
Seaboard cities, and many are sent to the cities of the
interior.
There are from 15 to 20 species of fresh-water
terrapins in the United States. These, formerly
classed in the genus Emys, but now divided into several
genera, differ from the land-turtles in having their feet
more webbed and expanded, and the shell of the back
more flattened. Three or four species of the genus
Pseudemys are of marketable value. Of these the red-
bellied terrapin, P. rugosa, is usually 10 or 11 ins.
long. Its upper shell is of a dusky brown color, with
blotches and lines of red; the lower shell is of a dusky
TOTTEN TOURGEE.
689
red hue. It dwells only in the Delaware and Susque-
hanna and the rivers of Chesapeake Bay. The flesh
is very palatable, and it is gathered in considerable
numbers for ularket, being largely substituted for the
diamond-back in restaurants.
Yet more esteemed is the yellow-bellied terrapin,
P. scabra, which is found in stagnant ponds from
Virginia to Florida, and is abundant in the latitude of
Charleston. It is about 12 ins, long, 7} wide, and
11 high, the upper shell being very convex, and deeply
serrated behind. It is of blackish-brown hue, with
radiating yellow lines and marks, the sternum being
yellow. These species feed on suall reptiles, fish, etc.,
and will eat vegetable food in captivity. Out of water they
move more quickly than the land-turtles. Farther south
occurs another species of value, the Mobilianer (I’
Mob'liensis). This is the largest of the food species, the
shell being often 14 to 16 ins. long by 10 wide, and
7+ high. In color it is brownish, with yellow lines
and bands, while the sternum is pale yellow. It is
found in lakes and rivers from North Carolina to
Western Louisiana, and up the Mlississippi to Arkansas,
and is very abundant in East Florida, especially in the
St. John's River. The flesh is quite delicate, and is
much esteemed in the Southern cities.
The chicken terrapin, Chrysemys reticulata, is about
9 by 5 in. in dimensions, the color of its upper shell
being dark brown with a network of yellow lines, that
of the lower yellow. Its long neck, as it swims with
body hid and head extended, presents a snake-like ap-
pearance. It occurs from North Carolina to Louisiana,
and is the most esteemed of the fresh-water terrapins.
£ º a somewhat smaller species, is also valued as
() () (l.
Other species of tortoises are used as food in the
United States. Of marine tortoises the only species
of value is Chelonia viridis, the green turtle, which
is used extensively as the basis of turtle soup. The
Pacific coast has a related species, C. virgata. Of
what are known as soft-shelled tortoises the United
States has 6 species, belonging to 2 genera, which differ
in length from 6 in. to 2 ft. or more, and in weight
from 4 to 16 lbs. These occur in most of our lakes
and rivers, from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains,
and are easily taken by hook and line, as they bite
greedily. Their flesh is a superior article of food, sur-
passing in delicacy, it is said, the green turtle. Their
eggs also are considered excellent.
Of the snapping turtles there are two species, be-
longing to different genera. The northern species,
Chelyara serpentina, is widely distributed, and is
largely taken for food purposes. Its maximum weight
is 20 to 30 lbs. The Southern species, known as the
alligator turtle, weighs 50 or 60 lbs. and in extreme
weight 100 lbs. It is spoken of very highly as a food
species, some stating that it is more delicate than the
green turtle, though this is doubtful. The gopher,
the great land-turtle of the South, is also used to
some extent as food. This species is 15 in. long and
is so strong that it can move under a weight of 200
lbs. It lives in underground burrows in the sandy
forests of the Gulf States. Even the little “box
turtle,” the familiar inmate of our fields and gardens,
is occasionally eaten, and is said to be quite palatable
when fat. (C. M. )
TOTTEN, Jose.PH GILBERT (1788–1864), chief.
engineer U. S. A., was born at New Haven, Conn.,
Aug. 23, 1788. He graduated at West Point in 1805,
and being commissioned second-lieutenant in the en-
ineers' corps went as assistant to his uncle, Jared
§.l.i. surveyor-general of Ohio. Although he
resigned from the army he soon returned and was en-
aged in the construction of forts in New York har-
#. until the commencement of the war of 1812. Then
he was made chief-engineer of the army on the Ni-
agara frontier and fought at Queenstown. Afterwards
he served at Lake Champlain and was brevetted lieu-
tenant-colonel for his gallantry at the battle of Platts-
|burg. In 1816 a Board of Engineers was formed to
devise a system of coast defence, and in connection
with this work Totten rendered most in portant Service
to his country. In 1819, when Gen. Siu on Bernard
was brought from France to give the benefit of his
long experience in this branch of warfare, the other
members of the board resigned, but Major Totten
continued, and the reports prepared on harbor and
coast defence were mostly from his pen. In 1825 Tot-
ten (now brevet colonel) began the construction of
Fort Adams at Newport and was thus engaged for
thirteen years. In 1831 Gen. Bernard retired and
Totten had charge of the harbor defences east of New
York. In 1838 he published Hydraulic and Common
Mortars, giving the result of many experiments by
himself and others. In the same year he was made
chief-engineer with the rank of colonel, and removed
to Washington. He continued to carry out his plans
of coast defence until 1847, when he was called by Gen.
Winfield Scott to take charge of the engineering oper-
ations in the siege of Vera Cruz. After the capture
of the city he returned to Washington, having ob-
tained the brevet of brigadier-general for his services.
Besides his office work at Washington, he made a
biennial tour of inspection, examining every detail of
construction in the forts and other defences. He was
also a member of the Light-House Board from its or-
ganization in 1852, and was actively connected with
various scientific associations. When Gen. Scott was
obliged to retire from the chief command of the army,
he suggested Gen. Totten as his successor, but the
latter declined on account of his own advanced age.
He died at Washington, April 22, 1864, having re-
ceived a brevet as major-general on the previous day.
Among his Reports may be mentioned those on Na-
tional Defences (1851) and Ordnance (1857). Although
the fortifications to whose construction his energies
were given have been proved insufficient owing to the
vast changes in ordnance, there has been no system
devised to take their place which meets universal ap-
proval.
TOURGEE, AIBION WINEGAR, author, was born
at Williamsfield, Ohio, May 2, 1838. He prepared for
college at Kingsville Academy and entered Roches-
ter University as sophomore in 1859. He was one of
the first to volunteer for service in the Union army,
enlisting April 17, 1861, as a private in the Twenty-
seventh N. Y. volunteers. He was wounded at the first
battle of Bull Run and discharged, but the following
year was commissioned first-lieutenant, by Gov. Tod,
of Ohio, and recruited Company G, One-hundred-and-
fifth Ohio V. I. He resigned his commission in 1864
on account of wounds and disease contracted in Salis-
bury and Libby prisons. He was married to Emma
L. Kilbourne, of Conneaut, Ohio, in 1863, and at the
close of the war settled in Greensbryo, N. C., as lawyer
and editor. He was a delegate to the Southern Loyal-
ist Convention held in Philadelphia in 1866, and was a
member of the committee that drew up the report on
the condition of the Southern States. He was elected
to the constitutional convention of North Carolina in
1868, and took so prominent a part in this body that
the constitution then prepared is often called “Tour-
gee's constitution.” He was appointed by this con-
vention one of the three commissioners to codify the
laws of the State. He was elected judge of the Su-
perior Court in 1868, which office he held until the ex-
piration of his term in 1874. He was also a member
of the State constitutional convention of 1875. He
is the author of the N. C. Form Book ; The N. C. Code
with Notes, and a Digest of Cited Cases. Besides
these legal works he is the author of the following
works of fiction : Soinette (1874; in later editions ...i
Royal Gentleman); Figs and Thistles (1879), a ro-
mange partly founded on Pres. Garfield's army career;
A Fool's Errand (1879), a work that attracted much
attention and has been translated into several lan-
guages. It is a graphic exposure of the difficulties
690
TREASON.
which Northern men, and women encountered in at-
tempting to settle in the South after the war. To it was
afterwards added an appendix, “The Invisible Eul-
pire.” . To the same class belong his Bricks without
Straw (1880); John. Eac and Mamelon (1882); Hot
Plowshares (1883); An Appeal to Caesar (1884), Caesar
hºre denoting the sovereign American people; The
Peteran and his Pipe (1886); Button's Inn (1887), a
stºry relating to the early days of Mormonism in
Ohio; Black Ice and Letters to a King (ISSS). From
1882 to 1884 Judge Tourgee was editor of Our ("on-
timent, a weekly magazine, published in Philadelphia.
No man has contributed more to the political educa-
tion of our people than Judge Tourgee. Original in
method, fearless in expression, and graphic in style
he has pressed home to the hearts and consciences of
the American people the difficult political and social
problems of his generation. His present residence is
at Mayville, Chautauqua co., N. Y., where he employs
himself solely in literary pursuits.
TRADE, BOARDS OF. These are combinations of
merchants, manufacturers, and others to promote the
interests of commerce, external and internal, and in
every way to aid the industrial advancement of cities
and nations. The first idea of concerted action for
this purpose seems to be due to Cromwell, who in 1655
appointed his son Tichard, many lords of his council,
judges and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of
}. York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, etc., to
meet and consider how the trade and navigation of
the Commonwealth might be best promoted. After
the Restoration, in 1660, Charles II. established a
council of trade to control all the commercial interests
of the nation, and afterwards instituted a Board of
Trade and Plantations. This board, after being re-
modelled by William III., continued in existence till
1782, when it was abolished, and a new council for the
regulation of trade affairs, on the plan still existing,
was appointed Sept. 2, 1786. See TRADE, BoARD OF,
in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.
Apart from this governmental board, the merchants
of many cities, both in lºurope and in the United
States, have organized civic Boards of Trade, or
Chambers of Commerce as they are called in some
cases, whose deliberations have taken a wide scope and
proved of the utmost benefit to commercial interests
at large. At their meetings every subject relating to
the material interests of cities and nations is debated,
the mature judgment of the members brought to bear
on the jº. and resolutions taken in accordance
with the opinions of those best adapted by their ex-
perience to offer wise and pertinent suggestions.
The earliest American movement in this direction
was made April 5, 1768, on which date twenty mer-
•chants of New York organized themselves into the
Chamber of Commerce of that city, for the expressed
purpose of the promotion and encouragement of com-
merce, of adjusting disputes relative to trade and
navigation, supporting industry, obtaining necessary
legislation, and doing everything in their power in the
interest of commerce. This association is still in ex-
istence, the only one dating from the last century with
the exception of the New Haven Chamber of Com-
merce, organized in 1794. No similar institution was
organized till 1833, when the Philadelphia Board of
Trade was established, composed of persons interested
in commerce, finance, manufacturing, and the mechanic
arts; its object being the promotion of the trade of
the city, the improvement of facilities for transporta-
tion, and the use of all proper measures for advancing
the interests of the business community.
The idea thus instituted by the leading cities of the
country was adopted by others in gradual succession :
by Cincinnati in 1839, Buffalo in 1844, Chicago in
1848, Baltimore in 1849, San Francisco in 1850, Port-
land in 1853, Boston in 1854, Detroit in 1856, Mil-
waukee in 1858, St. Louis in 1866, and others of the
smaller cities at various intermediate and later periods.
In 1868 a new idea was put into effect, in the forma-
tion of a National Board of Trade, composed of
delegates from the associations of the several cities, the
first meeting of which was held at Philadelphia in
June 9f that year. It was composed of delegates
from the following organizations: the Boards of Trade
9f Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Charleston,
Cleveland, Denver, Detroit, Louisville, Newark, Os:
wego, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Portland, Providence,
St. Louis, Toledo, Troy, and Wilurington (Del.); the
Chambers of Conuſerce of Cincinnati, Milwaukee,
New Orleans, New York, Richmoud, and St. Paul;
the Boston Corn Exchange, Dubuque Produce Ex.:
change, New York Produce Exchange, Peoria Mer-
chants' Exchange, Philadelphia Counercial Exchange,
and St. Louis Union Merchants' Exchange. Its pur-
pose, as stated in its articles of organization, was to
bromote the efficiency and extend the usefulness of the
various Boards of Trade, Chambers of Comunerce,
etc., organize for general couluercial purposes, to se-
cure unity and harulony of action in countercial usage,
custom. and law, and to consider all questions pertain-
ing to finance, commerce, and the industrial interests
of the country.
This national organization has met annually in dif-
ferent cities of the country, its meetings from 1879 to
1888 having been held at Washington. Frederick
Fraley, of Philadelphia, its first president, has pre-
sided over every successive meeting, and was re-elected
at the meeting held in 18SS at Washington, at which
meeting 21 societies were represented. On Nov. 14,
1888, a meeting was convened at Chicago. In regard
to the general scope of interests considered at the
meetings of the National Board of Trade, it may per-
haps best be shown by naming those debated at the
1888 meeting. These included the subjects of adultera-
tions, coast defences, river and harbor improvements,
postal telegraph, agricultural reports, revenue, trade
reciprocity with Canada, bankrupt legislation, naturali-
zation laws, national bankruptcy law, currency, ques-
tions of shipping, pilotage and quarantine, etc.
The meetings of the city associations consider ques-
tions relating principally to local interests, but the
annual deliberations of so many bodies composed of
the most experienced business men of our various
cities, and of a national board made up of selected
delegates from the local boards, cannot but be of the
utmost benefit to the commercial and industrial inter-
ests of the country, and go far towards the solving of
many mooted questions in social and political economy
and the promotion of the welfare of mankind in gen-
eral. The great growth of modern business and the
diversity of interests involved has necessitated the
formation in many cities of associations devoted to the
promotion of particular interests, such as corn ex-
changes, produce exchanges, and the like, more re-
stricted in their interests than the general boards of
trade, yet working in harmony with them. Some ex-
amples have already been named, and there may be
added, as secondary to the old-established New York
('hamber of Commerce, the New York Importers' and
Brokers' Board of Trade (1872), and the New York
Board of Trade (1874). (C. M.)
TREASON. The crime of treason has in the
y- ºr- United States undergone changes in
º its constitution from its character as
An. i.e. OS prevailing in England that are charac-
teristic of the difference between gov-
ernments that have a purely popular basis and those
thap rest wholly or partly upon the derivation of pub-
lic authority by heredity. The government of Great
Britain is popular only as it regards one of the branches
of its legislature, while the Crown and Lords, consti-
tuting the other two branches, still claim their public
functions through heredity. The Crown of Great
Britain still preserves attributes common to monarch-
ies absolute and limited that give to the act of treason
a personal character in its bearing upon the personal
TREASON. - 691
sovereign. Hence in England to compass the death of
the occupant of the throue, as the lawyers express it,
is an act of treason. In the United States the Sov-
ereignty resides in the public as a coulu unity, and an
act of treason is necessarily one against the entire
community. To this idea the Constitution of the
United States is conformed, since it declares that
treason against the United States shall consist only in
levying war against them, or in adhering to their ene-
mies, giving them aid and coulfort. It is possible for
a single º to do all that need be done to take the
life of t
overnment of a columunity illuplies mueans of a very
ifferent nature,
The definition given to treason, as used in the Con-
stitution, and accepted as authoritative, is that it in-
plies the assembling of a body of men for the purpose
of overturning or resisting the government by force,
and the performance of some act looking to that end,
although such act need not amount to a collision of
arms. This definition is in harmony with the spirit of
popular institutions, for it accords with the popular
right to deliberate together and plan changes of the
government or of its policies, general or particular, so
i. as force is not to be the iustrument for the accom-
plishment of that purpose. That which the whole
eople have a right to accomplish can be undertaken
y any limited portion of the whole number if force is
not resorted to. An assembly for deliberative pur-
oses alone is not an act of war, for though war may
)e the product of deliberation, it represents a distinct
step beyond that of deliberation. The act of war is
recognized as a corporate act in which more than one
must be engaged, although the minimum number has
not been agreed upon, but according to the judicial in-
terpretation a maximum is not necessary that could be
supposed sufficient to accouplish the end intended.
The assembly, in order to fall under the censure of
the law, must be to act rather than to deliberate, and
that action must be directed against the authority of
the government, using force as its intended instrument.
To resist a subordinate officer of a government is not
that kind of resistance that is contemplated by the Con-
stitution, unless an intention accompanies it to meet the
whole force of the government, should it be brought
into exercise. An instance of this class appears in the
case of the Whiskey rebellion in Pennsylvania, where
force was directed against the judicial power of the
government.
According to the European system, from which our
own is derived, the effect of treason upon an individual
convicted of it is to deprive such person of all civil and
political right in addition to deprivation of life. His
capacity both of holding property and of transmitting
it to others by descent is taken away. This result
might not only ensue as the consequence of conviction
of such crime, but might be produced by an act of leg-
islation. The Constitution of the United States pre-
cludes this consequence and leaves the civil couse-
quences of treason to be applied through a conviction
by the judicial authority. The laws of the United
States go a step farther and limit these civil con-
sequences to the life of the person convicted as it re-
gards the disposition of property at death,
In 1790 the crime of treason was defined by Con-
gress in harmony with the provision of the Constitu-
tion. No other legislation on that crime appears to
have taken place until the rebellion of 1861, which
called forth in the following year provisions of law of a
more definite character than i. previously existed.
The history of the United States presents some strik-
ing instances of treasonable conduct. The treason of
Gen. Arnold during the Revolutionary war was an im-
portant military fact, but gave rise to no legislative or
judicial consequences. The most notable event of
that class occurring in the first half of the century of
our national existence was the attempted invasion of
Mexico by a force raised to carry out the plans of
he personal sovereign, but to antagonize the
Aaron Burr, while the last half of that century is
signalized by the attempt of several States of the
Union to secede therefrom. The former was an effort
to take advantage of the divergence of , interests
i between the Atlântic States and those bordering on
the Mississippi River, while the latter instance was an
effort that arose from differences of interests and senti-
ment between States bordering on the Atlantic. Ken-
tucky and Tennessee were the first among the group
of States that depend upon the great waterway af-
forded by the Mississippi River, which before the days
of railroads was the only avenue of commerce upon
which the vast region eubracing the interior of this
continent could rely where not touching on the Great
Lakes. The soil and jurisdiction of Kentucky were
claimed by Virginia, and those of Tennessee by North
Carolina. The people of these colonies claimed their
independence of those States, and persisted in these
claims until time and immigration established their
claims. This conflict of jurisdiction sowed the seeds
of discontent and alienated the interests and affections
of the respective peoples. The Atlantic States were
connected together by common interests of navigation
in which the Western States did not participate, while
the commercial advantages afforded by the Mississippi
River appeared to be disconnected from those affecting
the Atlantic States. While the west bank of the Mis-
sissippi was controlled by France, then under the au-
thority of Napoleon, Mexico and Florida. held by the
Spanish, lay at the outlet of that river. The purchase
of Louisiana in part satisfied the denſands of the peo-
ple of the valley of the Mississippi, but Spain desired
still to hold the advantages of the trade of that river.
Taking advantage of this disturbed condition of popu-
lar feeling and interest and of the unsettled policy of
the Western States, Burr devised a scheme of taking
forcible possession of the Spanish territories. Many
believed that his plan was to bring about disunion as
an ultimate consequence of his bold enterprise, and
this impression had doubtless much to do with the ac-
tivity that counteracted his plans. That Burr appealed
to the discontent of the people of the West and ex-
cited among them a desire to advance their local inter-
CŞts by a striking adventure although in disregard of
their allegiance to the Union, may be assumed. Places
of assembling troops and storing military supplies were
established, and men and supplies collected, but the
vigilance of the government prevented such secrecy
and deliberate preparation as was necessary for the
consummation of his plans. Burt hastily embarked
with a small body of men to descend the Mississippi,
hoping to increase his force as he advanced. In this
he was disappointed, as the enterprise was broken up
by the action of the government before he reached
New Orleans, and he sought to escape but was cap-
tured and inade a prisoner in Alabama. Taken to
Richmond, he was there indicted, with several of his
associates, for treason and misdemeanor. His trial
resulted in his acquittal of both offences.
If What Burr intended bad been consummated it
Would have been an act of war against a friendly
power, but such an act would not necessarily involve
treason against the United States. Assembling troops
Within the United States for such a purpose, although
contrary to its laws, would not necessarily imply that
those troops were intended to come into collision with
the civil or military power of the United States. Such
a collision might occur, and in fact was likely to occur,
but it would only be when the expeditionary force was
confronted by the authority of the United States that
the intention directing it could be brought to a test.
The intention that constitutes treason a crime must be
evidenced by some overt act, and such act could only
appearin the presence of some exercise of governmental
authority adverse to the plans of the expedition.
Had its direct object been to oppose force to the au-
thority of the government a different case would have
existed, but such an intention was not to be presumed
692
TREASURY.
in the present case; if there was a covert design to
use force against the authority of the government that
fact could only be disclosed when suitable circumstances
brought it to light.
If Burr's ultimate intention embraced disunion of
the States as a consequence of a turn of affairs grow-
ing out of the attack upon Mexico, that expectation
could not enter into the question of treason as cou-
nected with the early stages of the movement, for that
would depend upon the drift of events rather than
upon a congerted Scheme of action. Burr's enterprise
is distinguishable from others that have since that
time occurred by the magnitude of the intended plan
and the power of the man both personally and as de-
rived from his having held the office of Vice-President
of the United States.
The rebellion of 1861 presents marked instances
of treason. It was brought about by persons owing
allegiance to the United States although disclaiming
that fact, and the first important act was an attack by
armed bodies of men upon the military force of the
United States. Whatever may have been the actual
or assumed grounds of this act of war, in its legal
character it was an act of treason. Elaborate legisla-
tion by Congress was called out by the resistance
offered to the government. In its relation to the
question of treason the stage of hostilities should be
divided into two parts, the one prior to the recognition
by Congress of the existence of a state of war between
the opposing forces, and the other after such recogni-
tion had taken place. Congress was the only power
that could declare war under the Constitution, and
until such declaration was made the individuals en-
gaged in rebellion could only be regarded as personally
responsible for their conduct inimical to the govern-
ment. The fact that other powers might recognize
the Confederate States as entitled to the character of
belligerency could not change the question as it re-
garded the fact of citizens of the United States mak-
ing war against that power, for the action of foreign
powers could not produce any change in the domestic
effect of the laws of the United States.
When Congress declared the state of war to exist it
did so because it found that the hostile forces were
under the control of a government that had secured
actual control over the people of the section engaged
in rebellion. That declaration announced that the
action of the United States would be against such
government and not, against the individuals of which
it was composed. The hostile conduct of the people
of that region became merged in that of the govern-
ment wi. had obtained control of them and the
arbitrament of war displaced that of civil judicature.
But although the recognition of the state of war
properly suspended civil functions acting in the same
sphere to deal with questions of that character, yet at
the conclusion of the war the responsibility for all
acts of hostility committed before the declaration of
war was revived, and legally the penalties for treason
might have been imposed. But there is a cause that
tends to modify the strictness of the law in cases of
the class under consideration, and that is a humane
sentiment that has obtained great force among civilized
peoples that operates against the infliction of individual
penalties in cases where popular commotion has event-
uated in organized armed resistance to the public
authority. It was this sentiment prevailing at the
close of the rebellion that resisted attempts to enter
upon any general policy of prosecuting for acts of
treason committed during those stages of the conflict
where the penalties for treason were appropriate.
It would not be a just criticism upon the leniency
of the government at the close of the war to charge
it with weakness in not vindicating the right of gov-
ernment and marking the duty of the citizen by im-
posing penalties for acts of treason committed, for the
sentiment that induced such leniency was a cause of a
nature recognized in all systems of jurisprudence as
appropriate to modify the conduct of the administra-
tion of justice. - .-
The fact that in the short existence of this nation
So many instances have occurred in which treason,
actual or incipient, has been applied against this gov-
ernment is not an evidence that the attachment of the
people to their government is less than in countries
where a more rigid régime exists, but is the natural
consequence of the fact that the susceptibility of our
governmental forms to change arising from popular
causes induces that liberty to run out into excesses in
that direction. A more mature experience will lead
to a more distinct discrimination between legitimate
and improper means of inducing change in the struc-
ture and administration of the government.
(A. J. W.)
TREASURY. The U. S. Treasury Department
was originally established by act of Congress of
Sept. 2, 1789, and numerous amendments and en-
actulents have since so augmented its business and
proportions that it is now the largest and most
important of all the executive departments of the
United States government. It is presided over by a
Secretary, who is appointed by the President and con-
firmed by the Senate. Upon this officer devolves the
duty of digesting and preparing plans for the improve-
ment and management of the revenue and for the
support of the public credit. He is required to super-
intend the collection of the revenue; to prescribe forms
for keeping and rendering the public accounts, and of
making returns; to make reports annually, and specially
when called upon, and to give information to either
branch of Congress, in person or in writing as may be
required, respecting matters referred to him, and as to
all matters pertaining to his department; to grant,
under the limitations established by law, all warrants
for moneys to be drawn from the treasury in pursuance
of appropriations made by Congress; and generally to
perform all such duties connected with the national
finances as are required by law. The functions of this
officer and the multifarious business intrusted to his
supervision have been greatly expanded within the
past quarter of a century. These, as may be imagined
from a contemplation of the vast interests and resources
of the country, are numerous, and, among others, em-
brace the management of the public debt, the national
currency and coinage, the supervision of the national
banks, the control and management of matters pertain-
ing to the internal revenue system, the customs service,
the commercial marine, the light-house and buoyage
system of the country, the survey of the coast and
interior triangulation of the United States, the con-
struction of public buildings under control of the de-
partment, the collection of commercial statistics, the
inspection of steam-vessels, the marine hospital ser-
vice, the life-saving service, and the prevention and
detection of fraud upon the revenue.
Two assistant-secretaries of the treasury are also ap-
pointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate,
either of whom may be designated as acting-secretary
during the absence or inability of the secretary. There
are also in the office of the secretary a chief clerk and
nine division chiefs, upon whom, under the general
supervision of the secretary and assistant-secretaries,
devolves the general direction of the routine business
and operations of the office. In addition to the officers
connected with the secretary's office proper there are
in the department a first and second comptroller, a
commissioner of customs, and six auditors, who con-
stitute what are known as the accounting officers of the
treasury. These officers are also appointed by the
President and confirmed by the Senate, and hold office
until the appointment of their successors. All ac-
counts for the receipt and expenditure of public
moneys are subject to the examination and settlement
of these officers, as the same come respectively within
the provision assigned to each by the statutes. Their
official duties, as may readily be imagined, are of vast
TREASURY. 693
magnitude, responsibility, and importance. There is
required of them, in the discharge of those duties,
not the capacity of the accountant alone, but of a mind
trained to and adapted for administrative and judicial
investigation. Those duties embrace the examination
of facts, the sifting of evidence, the determination of
conflicting claims and adverse interests, as well as the
construction of statutes and the application of settled
and well-defined principles of law.
The auditor provided for by the act creating the
department, was then known as auditor of the treas-
ury. His duties were to receive and audit all accounts.
Subsequently, by the act of March 3, 1817, four addi-
tional auditors were provided for, and he was then
denominated the first auditor. He is required by law
to examine all accounts relating to the receipts from
customs; all accounts accruing in any department on
account of salaries; all accounts for salaries and ex-
penses of judges, marshals, and other officers of United
States courts; expenses connected with the construc-
tion of public buildings; and generally all accounts
relating to the civil expenses of the government with
the exception of those incurred in the consular and
diplomatic service and internal revenue bureau. Early
in this century such a distribution of the public busi-
ness was demanded as was calculated to result in a
prompt settlement of public accounts. Hence the ne-
cessity for the act of March 3, 1817, which provided
for five auditors, to whom were assigned, respectively,
the settlement of the accounts of the different depart-
ments. The duties of the second auditor, as now de-
fined, are the examination and settlement of accounts
relating to the pay and clothing of the army, ordinance
service, subsistence of officers, bounties to soldiers,
hospital stores, and contingent expenses of the war
department, and of all accounts relating to Indian
affairs. The third auditor is required to examine all
accounts relative to the subsistence and transportation
of the army, and generally all accounts of the war de-
partment other than those assigned by law to the
second auditor, and all accounts relating to army pen-
sions. The fourth auditor receives and settles all ac-
counts relating to navy pensions, and accounts pertain-
ing to the naval service. The fifth auditor receives
and examines accounts accruing in or relative to the
diplomatic and consular service; accounts relating to
the census, the National Museum, and the contingent
expenses of the patent office. The office of the sixth
auditor was originally created by the act of July 2,
1836. Previously the duties had devolved on the fifth
auditor in addition to his other duties. The duties of
the sixth auditor bear relation both to the Treasury
and Post-Office departments. He is an officer of the
treasury, and under the direct control of the secretary,
but, at the same time, he is also by law subject in cer-
tain respects to instructions which may be given by the
Postmaster-General. He is required by law to examine
all accounts relating to the postal service, and to report
to the Postmaster-General all balances found on settle-
ment of such accounts. Unlike the other auditors, his
settlements of accounts are not subject to revision by
any other officer, except when dissatisfaction is ex-
pressed by any person or by the Postmaster-General, in
which case an appeal may be taken within twelve
months to the first comptroller, whose decision is final.
All the accounts passed upon by the other five auditors
go to the first or second comptroller or commissioner
of customs for re-examination. All returns relative to
the survey and sale of public lands are made to the
commissioner of the General Land Office in the Interior
department, who is required by law to audit and settle
all public accounts relative thereto, and to certify the
balances and transmit the accounts to the first comp-
troller of the treasury for his examination and decision.
He is thus made an auditing officer, with duties relating
to accounts pertaining to public lands or of like char-
acter as those devolving on the auditors of the treasury,
with regard to their several subjects of accounting.
The first comptroller is required to examine all ac-
counts settled by the first auditor except those relating
to receipts from customs; all accounts settled by the
fifth auditor and by the comicissioner of the general
land office, and to certify to balances arising thereon
to the register of the treasury. . He is also required to
countersign all warrants drawn by the Secretary of the
Treasury which are authorized by law, and to superin-
tend the recovery of all debts certified by him to be
due the United States, and for that purpose to direct
such legal proceedings as may be adapted to enforce
prompt payment thereof. The second comptroller
examines all accounts settled by the second, third, and
fourth auditors, and certifies the balances arising
thereon to the heads of the departments in which the
expenditures have been incurred. He also counter-
signs all requisitions drawn on the Secretary of the
Treasury by the Secretaries of War and of the Navy.
The office of commissioner of customs was created
by the act of March 3, 1849. At this time there were
two revising officers, already described as first and
second comptrollers, the former of which was charged
with the duties transferred by that act to and now per-
formed by the commissioner of customs. He is re-
quired by law to examine all accounts settled by the
first auditor relating to the receipts from customs, and
to certify to balances arising thereon to the register of
the treasury. In addition to the foregoing there are
also embraced in the organization of the department
the following-named officers: Treasurer of the United
States; Register of the Treasury : Commissioner of
Internal Revenue ; Comptroller of the Currency; Di-
rector of the mint; Chief of the Bureau of Engraving
and Printing ; Supervising Inspector-General of the
Marine Hospital establishment; Supervising Inspec-
tor-General of Steamboats; General Superintendent of
the Life-Saving Service : Superintendent of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey ; Chief of the Bureau of Com-
mercial Statistics; Supervising Architect; Commis-
sioner of Navigation : Chief of the Secret Service ;
and the Light-House Board.
Persons appointed to the office of Secretary of the
Treasury, first comptroller, first auditor, treasurer, or
register, are prohibited by law from being concerned
or interested in trade or commerce, public lands or
other public property, or public securities of a State,
or of the United States, and from taking to his own
use any emolument or gain for negotiating or transact-
ing any business in the treasury department other than
is allowed by law. The duties of the register are to
keep all accounts of the receipts and expenditures of
the public money, and of all debts due to or from the
government; to receive from the first comptroller and
commissioner of customs all accounts finally adjusted
by them, and to transmit to the Secretary of the
Treasury copies of the balances of accounts so cer-
tified ; to record all warrants for the receipt of pay-
ment of moneys at the treasury, except those drawn
by the Postmaster-General and those by the Secretary
of the Treasury upon requisition of the Secretaries of
War and of the Navy. This officer also has charge of
the accounts of the issue and redemption of bonds,
notes, and other securities of the United States, and
is custodian of the records and files pertaining to the
accounts arising in the civil branches of the govern-
ment. The office of Treasurer of the United States
was created by the act establishing the Treasury de-
partment. The treasurer is required to give bond in
the penalty of $150,000, conditioned for the faithful
discharge of his office, and for the fidelity of the per-
sons to be employed under him. He receives and
keeps the moneys of the United States, and disburses
them only upon warrants drawn by the Secretary of
the Treasury. He is also charged with the custody of
all public moneys deposited in the various sub-treas-
uries and depositories throughout the country; he
receives from the Bureau of engraving and printing,
and counts and seals preparatory to use, United States
694 TREASURY.
legal-tender notes for the reserve fund kept on hand
to replace worn and mutilated notes of the same
character which are from time to time redeemed and
Yetired from circulation ; he acts as agent for the re-
demption of national bank notes; has entire charge of
the payment of interest on the public debt; is cus-
todian of bonds held in trust for various tribes of
Indians, and of bonds purchased from time to time by
the Secretary of the Treasury, as trustee of the sink-
ing-fund established by law for the liquidation of the
debts due the government from the Union Pacific and
Central Pacific Railway Companies, and is charged
generally with the safe-keeping of all public funds.
The commissioner of internal revenue, under the di-
rection of the Secretary of the Treasury, is invested
with the general superintendence of the assessment
and collection of internal revenue taxes, embracing
the preparation and distribution of all instructions,
regulations, forms, blanks, stamps, and other matters
pertaining thereto.
The office of comptroller of the currency was created
by the national banking act of 1864. The comptroller
is charged, under the general direction of the Secretary
of the Treasury, with the execution of all laws relating to
the issue of a national currency secured by U. S. bonds.
He is appointed by the President on the recommendation
of the Secretary of the Treasury, by and with the con-
sent of the Senate, and holds office for a term of five
years, unless sooner removed by the President. He is
assisted by a deputy, who has the power and performs
the functions and duties of the comptroller in case of a
"acancy in the office or during the absence of the
comptroller. Both officers give bond for the faithful
discharge of their duties, and are prohibited by law
from being interested in any association issuing national
currency. The comptroller is required to make an
annual report to Congress upon the condition, resources,
and liabilities of national banks, and upon all matters
relating to banking institutious generally. The Direc-
tor of the Mint is the head of a bureau of the treasury
having charge of all U. S. mints and assay offices. He
receives his appointment from the President and holds
office for a term of five years, unless sooner removed.
He is required to make an annual report at the close
of each fiscal year, and from time to time such addi-
tional reports, setting forth the operations and condi-
tion of these institutions, as the Secretary of the
Treasury may require. The Bureau of Engraving and
Printing grew out of the necessity for the issue of
paper currency to meet the demands on the govern-
inent in the early part of the war of the rebellion, and
has since attained such excellence that its work rivals
in artistic merit all former productions of like charac.
ter. The chief of the bureau is charged with the duty
of the engraving and printing of all U. S. bonds,
legal tender notes, national bank notes, gold, silver,
and currency certificates, certificates of deposit, inter-
est checks, disbursing officers' checks, and internal
revenue Stamps.
The supervising surgeon-general of the marine hos-
pital service (see MARINE HOSPITAL) is charged with
the supervision of all matters connected with the marine
hospital service, and with the disbursement of the fund
for the relief of sick and disabled seamen employed on
the vessels of the mºrcantile marine of the oceans,
lakes, and rivers, and of the revenue cutter service,
the general superintendence of the marine hospitals,
the purveying of supplies, the orders, details, and as:
signment of medical officers, and the examination of
property returns. The supervising inspector-general
of steamboats administers the laws relating to the in-
spection of vessels, and is aided in the work by a board
of supervising inspectors and a corps of local inspec-
tors established at the different ports of the country.
Inspection is made of hulls and boilers of all yessels
tengaged in the transportation of goods and pas-
sengers. -
The LIFE-SAVING SERVICE (g. v.) is under the
charge of a general superintendent. His duties em-
brace the establishment of life-saving and life-boat
stations and houses of refuge at proper points along
the coast, for affording aid to shipwrecked vessels
thereon, and measures generally calculated to promote
the humane purposes of the law ; also the selection of
sites for the stations and houses of refuge; the prepara-
tion of plans and specifications for buildings; the mak-
ing of contracts for their construction ; the testing, erec-
tion, and purchase of their apparatus, equipment, and
supplies; the organization of the service, and the
preparation of regulations for the government of its
officers and employés; the employment of crews of
experienced surfmen, and the regulation of their wages
and duties; the supervision of all expenditures and
accounts connected with the service, and the prepara-
tion of estimates for its support. They also embrace
the award of medals for the saving of life from the
perils of the sca : the collection of statistics of marine
disasters; the investigation of circumstances attending
shipwrecks, and the preparation of the annual report
of the operations of the service.
The office of the COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
(q. v.), like the Light-House Board, because of its close
connection in its labors and purposes with the interests
of commerce and navigation, has become by process of
time attached to this department. The service was
originally provided for by the act of Feb. 10, 1807,
authorizing the President to cause a survey to be m:ade
of the coasts of the United States. The act of March 3,
1843, provided for the organization of a board to adopt
a plan of reorganizing the mode of executing the sur-
vey, and authorized the employment of as many of the
officers of the army and navy as might be found com-
patible with the successful prosecution of the work,
the officers of the navy to be employed on the hydro-
graphical parts and those of the army on the topo-
graphical parts of the work. The results of the sur-
veys of the coasts, and of the labors and observations
incident thereto, are exhibited in maps and charts pre-
pared and engraved by skilful draughtsmen and en-
gravers employed for this special purpose and in the
annual reports to Congress. The general operations
of the bureau are at present directed by a superin-
tendent appointed from civil life.
The duties of the chief of the Bureau of Statistics
are to collect, arrange, and classify statistical infor-
unation showing the condition of the agriculture,
manufactures, and domestic trade of the several States
and Territories. He is required to report annually
on the statistics of commerce and navigation of the
United States with foreign countries, and publish an-
nually, quarterly, monthly, and occasional reports em-
bodying information relating to imports and exports,
imuligration, shipping, and other matters relating to
the foreign and domestic trade of the country. The
supervising architect of the treasury prepares plans
and designs for custom-houses, court-houses, post-
offices, sub-treasuries, uints, appraisers' stores, ware-
houses, and all other public buildings under the con-
trol of the department, and supervises their construc.
tion and repair. The Bureau of Navigation was
created by the act of July 5, 1884, and placed under
the immediate control of a commissioner of navigation,
who is charged with the general superintendence of the
counercial marine and merchant seamen of the
United States, so far as vessels and seamen are not
subject to the supervision of any other officer of the
government. He is required to decide all questions
relating to the issue of registers, enrolments, and li:
censes of vessels, and to the filing and preservation of
those documents. He is charged with the Supervision
of the laws relating to the admeasurement of vessels,
and the assignment of signal letters thereto, and of de-
termining all questions growing out of the execution
of the laws relating to the service and those relating to
the collection of tonnage tax. He is also required to
prepare and publish annually a list of the steam and
TREASURY.
695
sailing vessels of the United States belonging to the
commercial marine, specifying their names, rig, ton-
nage, home port, and place and date of building, and
to investigate the operations of the navigation laws
and report to the Secretary of the Treasury any needed
amendments thereto.
The chief of division of special agents is charged
with the supervision and enforcement of the regu-
lations for the prevention of smuggling and frauds
on the customs revenue; the Supervision over cus-
toms districts and over the acts of customs officers
and their books and records, with a view of secur-
ing uniformity in their methods of transacting busi-
ness; the supervision of the transportation of mer-
chandise in bond, and the investigation of cases arising
from alleged irregularities in connection with such
transportation, and the enforcement of the laws and
regulations relating to the establishment of bonded
routes and mode of transportation. The principal
duties of the chief of the secret service division of the
department are to detect and to bring to trial persons
engaged in counterfeiting the coin, currency, and Se-
curities of the United States, and those engaged in
passing or dealing in the same, as well as to detect
other felonies committed against the laws of the
United States relating to the pay and bounty laws.
The Light-House Board is composed of two officers
of the navy of high rank, two officers of the corps of
engineers of the army, and two civilians of high
scientific attainments, together with an officer of the
navy and an officer of engineers of the army as secre-
taries, all of whom are appointed by the President.
Under the superintendence of the Secretary of the
Treasury the board is required to discharge all adminis-
trative duties relating to the construction, illumination,
inspection, and superintendence of light-houses, light-
vessels, beacons, º and their appendages, em-
bracing the security of foundations of works already
existing, the purchasing of illuminating and other ap-
paratus, supplies, and materials of all kinds for build-
ing and for rebuilding, and the keeping in good repair
the light-houses, light-vessels, beacons, and buoys of
the United States. It is required also to take charge
and custody of all the archives, books, documents,
drawings, models, and other property appertaining to
the light-house establishment. (See LIGHT-Housh.)
The office of solicitor of the treasury was estab-
lished by act of May 29, 1830. Previously there
had been an agent of the treasury whose duty com-
prised the collection of official balances due by de-
Hºn. officers of the government and of other
debts due the United States. In addition to the
duties which devolved upon this agent the solicitor is
required to take cognizance of all frauds or attempted
frauds upon the revenue, and to exercise a general su-
pervision over the measures for their prevention and
detection, and for the prosecution of persons charged
with the commission thereof. It is his duty also to
establish such regulations for the observance of collec-
tors of customs and of officers of U. S. courts respect-
ing suits in which the United States is a party, as may
be necessary for the just responsibility of those officers
and the prompt collection of all revenues and debts due
and accruing to the government, excepting those aris-
ing under the internal revenue laws, which are in
charge of the solicitor of internal revenue. Though
nominally attached to the treasury department, he is
in reality an officer of the Department of Justice, and
may be required by the Attorney-General to give his
opinion in writing on any question of law submitted by
any department for the opinion of the latter, except
questions involving a construction of the Constitution
of the United States, and to perform anv other duty
required of the Departument of Justice or any officer
thereof.
It will thus be seen that the details involved in the
transaction of the immense and varied business of the
fiscal department of the United States government are
wisely and systematically distributed among a series of
responsible officers. The clerical and other forces em-
ployed in the various offices and bureaus number
15,097, of whom 2852 are in bureaus at Washington,
4450 in the customs service, 3303 in the internal reve-
nue service, 948 in the mints and assay offices, 225 in
the several sub-treasuries, and 3919 in the life-saving,
marine hospital, steamboat inspection, and revenue
marine bureaus, and in the various public buildings
and other branches of the department located through-
out the country.
The general system of accounting in force in the de-
partment—which was conceived and put in operation
by Alexander Hamilton, its first secretary—has proven
so admirably adapted to the purposes for which it was
intended that but few modifications have since been
muade in its practical application.
The following statements exhibit the principal oper-
ations of the department during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1888, and the condition of the treasury at
the close of the year :
Receipts and Erpenditures.—The revenues of the
government are mainly derived from duties on im-
borts, and internal taxes upon distilled spirits, fer-
inented liquors, tobacco, and banking. The expendi-
tures are mainly on account of the war and navy de-
partments, pensions. interest on the public debt, and
the civil service. The revenues from all sources for
the fiscal year JSSS aggregated $379,266,074.76, of
which $219,091, 173.63 were from duties on imports,
$124,296,871.98 from internal taxes, $11.202,017.23
from sales of public lands, and $24,676,011.92 from
miscellaneous sources. The expenditures for the same
period were $267,924,801. 13, as follows: civil and
miscellaneous, $72,952,260.80; war department, $38,-
522,436. l l ; navy department, $16,926,437.65; In-
dian service, $6,249,307.87; pensions, $80,288,508.77;
premium on bonds purchased, $8,270,842.46; and in-
terest on the debt, $44,715,007.47, leaving a surplus
of $ 11,341,273.63, of which $43,732,550.00 was ap-
plied to the redemption of bonds for the sinking-fund,
and $31,081,013.05 to ordinary redemption of the
debt. As compared with the previous fiscal year,
there was an increase in the revenues of $11,041,749.
38 in the following items : duties on imports, $1,804,-
280.50; internal taxes, $5,473.480.76; sales of public
lands, $1,947,730. Sl; and from miscellaneous sources,
$1,816,257.31. There was a decrease of $3,178,952.2S
in the following: tax on circulation of national banks,
$637,284.33; sales of Indian lands, $598.941.38; re-
payment of interest and sinking-fund, Pacific railroads,
$427, 200,62, and from sales of old public buildings and
miscellaneous sources, $1,515,525.95, making a net in-
crease of revenue of $7,862,797.10. The expendi.
tures were practically the same in the aggregate as for
the fiscal year 1887.
The National Banks.-The following shows the
condition of the national banks on June 30, 1888, as
represented by reports from 3120 banks then in
operation.
JResources.
Loans and discounts....................... ..........S1,619,999,200.68
Overdrafts......................................... tº a tº º te 8,125,364.15
U. S. bonds to secure circulation............ ... 177,543,900.00
U. S. bonds to secure deposits.................... . 55,788,000.00
U. S. bonds on hand...... ........ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº tº ºn 7,830,150.00
Other stocks, bonds, and mortgages............ 96,265,812.31
Due from approved reserve agents............ 158,133,598.31
Due from other national banks........ 101,689,774.90
Due from State banks and bankers............ 22,714,258.27
Real estate, furniture, and fixtures............
61,101,833.19
Current expenses and taxes paid...............
5,685,313.21
Premiums paid.......... * - tº q & © tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 18,903,434.54
Checks and other cash items..................... 16,855,801.15
Exchanges for clearing-house................... 74,229,763.69
Bills of other national banks.................... 21,343,405.00
Fractional currency................................. 632,602.42
Trade dollars.............................. * * * * * * * * * * * * 371,76
Gold coin................ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e o e º e º se s a s e s s 74,825,782.84
Gold treasury certificates.......................... 68,761,930.00
606 TREATY.
Gold cleari Resources. - Character of debt. Amount.
§ clearin º certificates................. $ 20,884,000.00 Refunding certificates at 4 per cent..... $ 138,050.00
º: . . tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s s e º a s g g e g s º Navy pension fund at 3 per cent......... 14,000,000.00
sil e tr º rac ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º & e s is is e º e s e º e º e 2,819,277.92 Interest accrued on the above............. 9,671,459.96
i § º cates........................ sº Fº . which º: has ceased ...... 2,496,095.26
**-ºsº ºvves…......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,995,643. nterest. On matured debt................... te 168,267.86
U. S. certificates of deposit for legal-tender Bonds issued to Pacific Railroads........ 64,623,512.00
F'. a tº e º s is ſº tº $ a º edempt :... . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . .& 12,315,000.00 Interest accrued thereon..................... 1,952,745.32
º redemption fund with U. S. Demand and U. S. notes..................... 346,737,823.50
D "...ºu.'s ºf is gº tº e º e º e a # e. . ......"...i.....". 7,765,837.16 Certificates of deposit........................ 14,415,000.00
“d. fund reasurer other than re- O QQ (37 p. Gold certificates................................ 119,887,370.00
DU10D Illſld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 1,236,675.66 || Silver certificates............................. 200,387,376.00
Aggr 1 tº A-, Fractional currency........................... 6,922,643.82
ggregate....................... * * * * * * g º a $2,731,448,016.16 *º-º-º-º-º-º-º-ºº ºmºmºsºm-º.
Liabilities Total ...................................... $1,717,784,793.72
§. º paid in.............................. $ jº. The net debt, after deducting the cash in the treasury, was
other undivided profits. º;|.º.º.º.with slºº,02 at the
* * * * *-* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s e s w a , - ' ' ' ' ) C - \ } { -
sº bank uotes outstanding.............. 155,313,353.50 close of the previous fiscal year.
State bank notes outstanding................... S2,372.5 g *
Dividends unpaid............... sº 7 sº The State of the Treasury.—The following is a
Individual deposits ................................ 1,293,343471.38 statement of the condition of the public treasury on
U. S. deposits.......................................... 34.679.6;3.93|June 30, 1888 :
Deposits of U. S. disbursing officers 3,690,652.65 g ºt tº * g : - «
g * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * "J, Q, v. ) ºn tº ~ . Liabilities. A mount
Due to other nat ! banks.................. 248,24S t e & ... Sº
Due tº §. º º # * g tº tº º e º 'º º ſº a ; Gold certificates outstanding........................ $119,887.370.00
Notes and bilis re-discounted............ išojiāº; Silver certificates outstanding...................... 200,387,376.00
isis ºvačič. C tºl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º: º, Currency certificates outstanding................. 14,415,000.00
payable...... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4,905,068.27 | Reserve for redemption of U. S. notes. ......... 100,000,000.00
. Or (r. 1" ºn tº a w iſ Funds for retirement of bank circulation...... 91.952,843.65
Aggregate...... .........................: $2,731,448,016.16 | Funds for redemption of national bank notes. 6,976,727.62
º e * isbursi * 'balances............... ........ S9.
The Coinage—The coinage executed at the mints|ºi. *ś.
of the United States during the fiscal year 1888 was | post office department account.......... .......... 6032846.ió
tº 3 gº wº Matured debt and interest........................... 14,289,026.37
Go 'd : Denomination. Pieces. Value. Miscellaneous items.................................... 4,600,208.23
Double-eagles ............... 815,087 $16,301,740.00 Balance.................................................... 29,384,241.48
£agles . ...................... 899,826 8,998,260.00 $º sº. A ſº dº ºf
Half-eagles ......... ......... 599,102 2,995,510.00 Total ........................ ....... ............. $714,033,484.77
Three dollars............... 11,366 34,098.00 t
Quarter-eagles.............. 6,273 15,682.50 g Assets. - Amount,
Dollars........................ 1S, S80 1S,880.00 Gold coin;................................................. $203,636,984.04
y - y \ ... - . Gold bullion.................................. .......... 110,116,632.85
P- -, - ; , º, A-" tº jº- Standard silver dollars................................ 243,879.487.00
4) * Q & Q ſº. * y y
SW/rer : 2,350,534 28,364,170.50 |si. i.i. 4, 142,731.54
... . . # J- p=y Trade-dollar bullion............................ ..... 6,477,022,82
St: & ‘S ....... .. 32 Ç 2 C), U f : * y » :
jº 3 *::::: $3 Fº United States notes;......; .................... ..... . 52,398,204.07
Quarter dollars * e º 'º e º is $ 4 & a s g 778,673 194.65s 35 Deposits in national banks ................. ... 59,979,039.63
işines tº gº & e º e º º is g º a tº 12 iggiº, 1 319.317.50 National bank notes for redemption............. 6,770,380.08
• * g g g g º & e º º sº e º e º ſº e s tº ſº º e º gº 3 * ~ *- : **** . O Fractional and minor coin.......................... 26, 163,776.77
45,702,194 34,136,095.25 Miscellaneous items .......................... ...... 469,225.97
y * } ; 1 - v, &
Jſi nor Coin. : * TH
Five cents.................... 15,207,173 $ 760,358.65 Total..................... ......................... $714,033,484.77
Three cents............ ..... 45,573 1,367.19 -
Oue cent ..... ......... ....... 45,725,073 457,250.73 (w. F. M.)
60,977,819 1,218,976.57 TREATY. While the government of the United
r º –––. tº gº º See Vol. XXIII States adheres to the general doctrines
Total coinage..... $109,030,547 $63,719,242.32 º º -4- 564 as to the nature and effect of treaties
7 Åm. ke; prevailing among the states of Eu-
. Imports and Ecports—The value of the merchan; tº ºf º rope, it has introduced changes in the
dise imported into the United States during the fiscal method of forming such treaties that were demanded
year 1888 was $123,819,813 as agº inst $592,313,768|by the nature of its political institutions. The inter-
during the previous fiscal year. The value. of the national intercourse of the European states has been
expºrts of the products of agriculture, uſanufactures, largely affected. by the consideration that dynastic in-
luining, forestry, and the fisheries is thus shown : terests were intimately interwoven with national inter-
Products of Value Per cent. ests, giving to that intercourse a personal as well as na;
Agriculture.......…. $500 785,314 7...." |tional character. Having in our system eliminated
Manufactures.........….. 130,312,408 19.06 this personal element it was possible that treaties
Mining ........................ 18,067,051 2.45 should be made under the supervision of some repre-
Forestry....................... 23,991,092 3.50 sentative body sustaining close relations to the people
Fisheries, ºr 㺠1.00 of the United States, and yet of such stability as to
Miscelianeous............... 5, 166,591 75 insure a high degree of uniformity and persistence in
Total..................;683,862,236 100.00 the policy of our diplomatic relations with other pow-
te y - sº - ) ers. The selection of the Senate to revise the execu-
The value of the exports of agricultural products fellº.” the making of treaties, leaving the power
off from $523,077,223 in 1887, to $500,785,314 in 1888 of negotiation in the hands of the President, secured
“H” y → *- : } ~~ K. º gº } * > y - º AI ---> º e y
while the exports of all other commodities increased | *@* the advantages to be derived from executive
from $179,945,700 to $183,076,922 unity with those resulting from a divided respon-
The Pºlic Debt ºffic fºllowing table shows the sibility in which the representatives of the people par-
A v.2 - *- g 8-) & .* º e .. '** * - .
total amount of the national debt on June 30, 1888: "Pºº * -- A l. * . : .
. As the Senate in the performance of this function
Character of debt. A mount. sits as an executive body and not in its character, as
Ronds at 4% per cent...... ................... $23.307,050.00 a branch of the legislative body, the treaty-making
Bouds at 4 per cent........................... 714,177,400.00 power as it exists with us is to be regarded as strictly
TREATY.
697
executive in its nature, and therefore of the same
quality as that exercised under the governments of
Europe. It follows that our engagements with foreign
powers are not under the legislative control of Con-
ress but are the products of executive action alone.
#. is true that as to the domestic effect of a treaty it
may be entirely controlled by Congress, so that obliga-
tions imposed upon the citizens and officers of this
country by treaties may be remitted by Congress, and
rights secured thereby may before such treaties have
assed into actual execution be denied by Congress,
ut where the national faith has been º; to a for-
eign power by a treaty duly made and ratified by the
proper executive authority Congress cannot undo the
obligation thus imposed without the consent of the
ower with which the engagement has been made.
n this respect a treaty made by the national execu-
tive stands on the same footing with one made by an
absolute sovereign, and that it should have that char-
acter is essential to the maintenance of international
intercourse.
The Constitution of the United States gives to the
domestic operation of treaties made under its authority
the quality of law, declaring that they should consti-
tute part of the Supreme law of the land, but does not
place the disposition made by treaties beyond the
power of Congress as it regards their domestic oper-
ation. The existence of an obligation implies the pos-
sibility that the obliged party may not conform to its
requirements, in which case compensations or punitive
consequences appropriately follow, and such power of
conforming to or declining what is demanded under an
obligation must in the nature of things reside some-
where, and under our system it resides in Congress.
If there is any instance in which Congress can con-
trol the relations of the nation with foreign powers it
would be found in the instance of treaties of pacifica-
tion where war has been formally declared by its au-
thority, but the current of opinion seems to flow in
the direction of allowing to the treaty-making power
authority to change the status of war, although created
by a legislative act, into that of peace. Where, how-
ever, the conditions of peace called for the payment
of money, as in the instance of the war with Mexico,
under which a large portion of the present territory of
the United States was acquired, an appeal to the
legislature is a practical if not a legal necessity. No
case has arisen to test the ability of the treaty-making
power to alienate the territory of the United States
except as a mere incident of the ascertainment or per-
fecting of uncertain or disputed boundaries. It is a
singular fact that, while the legislative power of the
nation is placed under constitutional limitation to keep
it in proper channels, no such care has been exhibited
in the case of the diplomatic powers of the govern-
ment, and the existence of limitations of that which
properly falls within the nature of that power must
depend on inferences from rather than direct expres-
sions of the Constitution.
The earliest stage of our national diplomacy was oc-
cupied with the establishment of relations of amity
and commercial reciprocity with the various powers of
Europe. A broad and liberal policy of international
relationship had been mapped out while the govern-
ment was still under the Articles of Confederation that
was continued under the Constitution. The political
policy of the diplomacy of the country was placed in
a condition in .. it has remained until the present
day. The geographical position of the United States
rendered unnecessary the diplomatic complications
that are rendered necessary in Europe by the number
and proximity of the competing powers, and the avoid-
ance of foreign alliances for political purposes was
early accepted as a principle of our inſ. Nor
have the conditions tending to allow simplicity to our
relations with other powers looking to political objects
materially changed. Neither the security nor the in-
fluence of the inited States depend upon alliances,
WOL. IV.—2 ºr
but have been found to be best secured by an impar-
tial treatment of all other powers. -
The development of an impartial system of inter-
national commercial intercourse engaged the attention
of the early diplomats of the country and especially
interested Pres. Jefferson. It was sought to place the
interests of navigation and commerce upon the se-
curity afforded by a generous scheme of reciprocity
broad enough to include all the powers with which the
United States desired commercial relations, conferring
special favors on none and withholding from none
i. which impartiality would confer upon them. To
accomplish this it was necessary that the practice of
European diplomacy by which commercial favors were
balanced against political favors should be avoided and
that the interests of commerce should be entirely sep-
arated from those of a political nature. The conse-
quence of this policy was that rights of commerce and
navigation were in the United States fixed by general
laws equally applicable to all nations, rather than by
special treaty engagements with the several powers.
For many years duties upon foreign importations of
merchandise and dues to which the right of navigation
was subjected were established by general laws allow-
ing no exclusion of any power that was willing to
reciprocate like advantages.
This impartial policy was to a limited degree in-
fringed by an event that marked the second stage of
the diplomatic policy of the United States. The immi-
gration into Kentucky brought an enterprising popu-
lation into contact with the problem of the free navi-
gation of the Mississippi River, the western bank of
which was within the jurisdiction of France. The
purchase of the right of France to the territory west
of the Mississippi and which was known as Louisiana
was pressed upon Jefferson upon his accession to the
Presidency. He hesitated to take a step that seemed
inconsistent with the views that he entertained as to
the limited powers of Congress. To acquire that ter-
ritory would require that Congress should expend the
public money for that purpose, and such an object was
not found among the enumerated powers of Congress
and could by no means be regarded as a necessity of
the execution of such enumerated powers. Jeffer-
son's hesitation was overcome by the pressure of
political interests, and the purchase was consummated
through a treaty made with Napoleon, then First
Consul of France. By this treaty certain commercial
advantages within the ceded territory were allowed to
France and Spain for a limited period of time, from
which other nations were to be excluded, and thus Pres.
Jefferson in addition to inflicting a wound upon the
doctrine of States rights contradicted to a limited
extent the impartial commercial system to which he
had devoted his thought and effort.
The diplomacy of the United States had now en-
tered upon the career of territorial aggrandizement
which was not likely to be ended while any portion of
the continent of North America lay outside of its juris-
diction. This precedent, set in 1803, was followed in
1819 by the purchase of the Floridas from Spain, and
at the conclusion of the war with Mexico by a treaty
purchase that carried the jurisdiction of the United
States tº the Pacific Ocean. In 1867 the purchase of
Alaska from Russia marked the last step taken in the
direction of the diplomatic policy of the extension of
the territory of the United States.
.The acquisition of territory by these various treaties
did not encroach upon the principle of keeping apart
in international intercourse political and commercial
interests, so that the acquisition of advantages in refer-
ence to one of these classes should not entail disadvan-
tages upon the other, except in the case of the Louis-
iana purchase, where certain exclusive privileges were
granted that were not to be common to all other
powers. It is true that that exclusive advantage was
given as part of the price of the territory acquired, and
thus something was taken from the interests of comº
698
TREATY.
merce to enhance the political interests of the country
in the extension of its territories, and that as the direct
interest in commerce is individual, the public interest
in it being indirect merely, it was something taken
from the individual advantages incident to an unre-
stricted commerce, to be conferred upon the public or
political interest of the nation. But notwithstanding
that this incident was an encroachment upon the prin.
ciple that the interests of commerce should not become
the price of political advantages, the limited character
of the exclusive privilege conferred can hardly entitle
it to be regarded as a serious departure from the ante-
cedent diplomatic policy.
An emphatic step of departure from that policy was
taken by the treaty with the Hawaiian Islands in 1875.
That treaty gave a discrimination as to customs duties
on merchandise interchanged between the two coun-
tries that gave to Hawaii privileges not enjoyed by other
nations with which the tº. States had treaties and
commercial intercourse, notwithstanding many of those
treaties excluded imposts that were not equally im-
posed upon all other countries. Although the Hawai-
ian treaty gave similar advantages to the United States
as to certain classes of merchandise introduced into the
islands, yet the history of the diplomacy and concurrent
legislation shows distinctly that political rather than
commercial advantages prompted the action of the
United States in making that treaty, naval advantages
and the desire to exclude European influence from the
control of the islands forming an important part of the
motive to the treaty. Whether the reactionary step
taken in the instance of the Hawaiian treaty is to be
the first of a series of steps to lead back to the old sys-
tem of trading in the interests of commerce for politi-
cal advantages, and thus to defeat the systematic
organization of international commercial intercourse,
cannot be determined at the present time.
Mödern diplomacy has assumed important functions
in the development of international law that marks an
advance from the condition of early diplomatic action.
The international system has been formed by a slow
process from the habitudes of commercial interchange
and national intercourse, in this respect having the
same nature as the common or unwritten law which is
the product of the judicial recognition of persistent
social habit. Treaties have in the past had some influ-
ence upon this process, but treaty relations between
particular states have only indirect effect upon the
general habitudes of international intercourse, although
particular customs in process of time often become
general.
It is only of late years that the spirit of diplomacy
has broadened to a policy of giving systematic devel-
opment to the international law. A striking effort of
this character appears in the instance of the effort that
was made by the United States to secure a clear and
liberal definition of the relations of belligerent and
neutral states by its introduction into the treaty made
with Great Britain in 1871 that had a particular rela-
tion to the settlement of the Alabama claims (q.v.).
Such efforts on the part of the United States entitle
this nation to be regarded as the patron of systematic
diplomacy, and are the outgrowth of the principle of
impartial international relationship, that has already
been referred to as in the early diplomacy of this coun-
try applied to the interests of navigation and com-
merce. While diplomacy was recognized as the art of
aggrandizing the condition of individual states, its
functions were necessarily limited, but with the devel-
opment of an international spirit it has entered a more
useful and interesting sphere. º
The suppression of the slave-trade is another inter-
est of international law that has received attention
from the diplomacy of the United States, and as con-
nected with this subject effort has been addressed to a
more accurate definition of the right of search at Sea,
a subject that once involved this country in hostilities
with Great Britain. (See SEARCH, RIGHT OF.) The
United States fully sympathized with Great Britain in
her efforts to suppress the African slave-trade, but at
the same time desired to guard their maritime inter-
ests against abuses of the right of visitation and search.
By the treaty, negotiated by Secretary Seward with
Great Britain in 1862, the principle applied interna-
tionally to the case of piracy was extended under care-
ful limitations to the African slave-trade.
A still more important subject as affecting the ad-
ministration of justice is that of the extradition of
persons º with crime from countries to which
they have fled to that country in which the crime was
alleged to have been committed. Apart from treaty
stipulations there was no mode by which the govern-
ment or country in which crime had been committed
could secure persons charged with such crimes for the
purposes of justice while within the territory of an-
other power. The United States has taken a promi-
nent place in the effort to supply what is demanded by
this important international interest. In 1843 a pro-
vision of that character was negotiated with France,
and in 1846 a similar provision was concluded with
Great Britain. In the treaty with the latter the crimes
for which extradition could be claimed are specifically
enumerated, and are murder, assault with intent to
commit murder, piracy, and the utterance of forged
paper. A specific enumeration of the offences for
which extradition might be claimed was important
principally for the purpose of excluding political crimes
from the class. Crimes against governmental stability
and order are intimately connected with popular efforts
to reform existing institutions, and as the United States
recognized the right of the people of a community to
adjust its government to their needs or ideas, it was
unwilling to lend its assistance to sustain oppressive
governments or to prevent the people from securing
good ones. The diplomacy of the United States has
ºr. the idea of an asylum for those under politi-
cal oppression from that of defeating the ends of jus-
tice by harboring criminals from other countries, and
has shaped its course to subserve the ends of justice
without denying an asylum to the oppressed of other
nations.
The United States have contributed to modern dip-
lomacy another important feature by efforts to improve
the conditions of international judicature. As it is no
part of the policy of the United States to use the right
of conquest for the enlargement of its territories or the
enhancement of its military or political influence, no
motive exists to prevent the establishment of rational
methods of determining international controversies.
The treaty of 1783 with Great Britain left undefined the
North-eastern part of the boundaries between the posses-
sions of the two countries. In 1794 a commission was
rovided for by treaty to complete the location of that
j. but this commission failed to reach a sat-
isfactory result. In 1814 it was agreed between the two
powers that the question of difference should be referred
to a friendly sovereign for final settlement. The King
of Netherlands was selected for that purpose, who ren-
dered a decision that was not acceptable to the United
States, and, indeed, that was not in accordance with
the views of Great Britain. The leading objection to
the decision of the King of Netherlands was, that
instead of adjudicating the exact question submitted to
him, he had propounded a compromise line as best
conforming to his views of the interests of the re-
spective countries. The United States had sought a
judicial solution of the points of difference, and was
dissatisfied with an arbitrary conclusion that expressed
nothing beyond the personal opinion of the arbitrator.
Great Britain was urged to constitute a commission
that should proceed according to recognized methods
of adjudication. Great Britain declined these tenders,
and for many years the question remained unsettled.
By the treaty of 1842 with Great Britain, known as the
Ashburton treaty, the question was disposed of by dip-
lomatic methods.
TREITSCHKE–TRENTON.
699
The question of the North-western boundary of the
United States still remaining unsettled, it was referred
by the treaty of 1871 with §. Britain to the Em-
peror of Germany for decision, and was afterwards
decided by him and carried into effect. The treaty of
1871 also made provision for the settlement of the
claims against Great Britain on account of the losses
sustained through depredations committed by cruisers
of the Confederate government built and fitted out in
English ports. The United States desired that the
claims on account of such depredations should be de-
cided on judicial principles and Great Britain yielded
to that desire. A tribunal was constituted for that
urpose by the treaty and methods of procedure stipu:
i. in conformity with recognized methods of judicial
rocedure. The result was a decision favorable to the
É. States, while the procedure is universally
recognized as in a judicial spirit. (See ALABAMA
CLAIMS.)
The instances referred to illustrate fully the tendency
of American diplomacy to formulate methods of set-
tling international controversies that are conformable
to the principles applied in domestic acts of justice.
Should a time occur when the leading nations are will-
ing to forego the opportunities of aggrandizement
ºried by war, the effort of the diplomacy of the
United States so well begun will be attended with the
large success to which its principles entitle it.
s the government of the United States is the sole
medium of communication between the people of the
various States and foreign countries, the duty devolves
upon it of protection to all the people of the various
States and Territories travelling, residing, or trading
in foreign countries, and elaborate provisions are made
in treaties with the various powers to meet the con-
tingencies likely to occur in the course of such occupa-
tion abroad.
From the first settlement of the American continent
the relations of the European settlers to the Indian
tribes occupying the country were adjusted by treaties,
and at the formation of the Constitution this inter-
course with the Indian tribes was committed to the
treaty-making power of the government. Since 1873
this method of dealing with the Indians has been dis-
continued, and acts of Congress have taken the place
of treaties as means of adjusting such relations. The
history of the exercise of the treaty-making power in
its application to the Indian tribes does not exhibit the
same tendency to give expression to the higher princi-
les that should actuate societies of men that appears
in the other branch relating to international inter-
course. As the least favorable aspect of the policy of
a country is that which concerns the means for enlarg—
ing its territories, the fact just stated may be accounted
for. By this important power a continent has been
purchased, and an annual disbursement to supply the
simple wants of a remnant of that people represents its
rice. (See INDIANS. (A. J. W.)
TREITSCHKE, HEINRICH GOTTHARD voN, Ger-
man historian, was born at Dresden, Sept. 15, 1834.
He studied at the Universities of Dresden and Leipsic,
and at the School of Agriculture at Lutzschena. In
1863 he was made professor in the University of Frei-
burg, but on the outbreak of the war between Prussia
and Austria in 1866 removed to Berlin, where he was
made editor of the government annuals, in which he
had assisted since 1858. He was soon afterwards called
to Heidelberg University, and thence to Berlin in 1874.
He had been already elected to the German Parlia-
ment, in which he belonged to the National Liberal
party. . . Both in speeches and in writing he gave effec-
tive aid to Bismarck's movements for German unity
and a centralized government. In early years he pub-
lished two volumes of Patriotic Poems (1856), but he
afterwards confined his literary labor to historical and
political affairs. In his Historische und Politische
Aufsätze (3 vols.), he discusses historically federal gov-
ernment, royalty, liberty, and kindred subjects. In
his Der Socialismus und Seine Gönner (1875), he at-
tacks the professorial socialism then spreading in Ger:
many. His Zehn Jahre Deutscher Kämpfe, (1875)
treats of the movements through which the kingdom
of Prussia became the German empire. This work
was but preliminary to his more important and com:
prehensive Deutsche Geschichte üm 19 Jahrhundert (5
vols., 1879–86). Von Treitschke exhibits the industry
and sagacity of Ranke, but he has confined his labors
to a much narrower field, his own country and cen-
tury.
TRENTON, the capital of New Jersey, county-seat
of Mercer co., is on the Delaware River, at the head
of tidewater and steamboat navigation. By the New
York division of the Pennsylvania Railroad it is 56
miles from New York and 33 from Philadelphia. The
Bound Brook branch of the Philadelphia and Readin
Railroad also connects it with those cities, and severa
other railroads pass through or terminate in the city.
There is also daily steamboat communication with
Philadelphia. Two fine bridges here cross the Dela-
ware. Assanpink Creek divides the city into two parts.
Trenton stands chiefly on high ground, and has wide,
shady, well-drained streets. #. residences
occupy picturesque sites in the suburbs. The public
buildings comprise a fine State-house, U. S. govern-
ment buildings, county court-house, city-hall, State
Lunatic Asylum, State Arsenal, penitentiary, State
Reform School, and State Normal School. There are
also a high-school and several public and private
schools, a public library and other libraries, an opera-
house and several halls, 2 national banks, 2 State
banks, and a savings bank, several hospitals and other
buildings for benevolent land charitable institutions.
Four daily and 6 weekly newspapers are published
here. Trenton is largely engaged in manufactures,
and its potteries have a deservedly high reputation.
There are also extensive rolling-mills, zinc- and iron-
works, and works producing saws, tools, chains, India-
rubber goods, fire-bricks, and terra-cotta. The water-
power of the Delaware is largely utilized for manu-
facturing purposes. The city has a good fire depart-
ment, ample supply of water, and has gas- and electric-
lights. Its population in 1880 was 29,910.
TRENTON, BATTLE OF. When Gen. Washington,
in the autumn of 1776, was compelled to retreat from
the vicinity of New York city, the affairs of the Amer–
ican patriots had sunk to a low ebb. He sought refuge
in Pennsylvania, guarded by the Delaware River. The
British troops, which had been slow in pursuing him,
were expecting soon to cross that river and capture
Philadelphia. The term of most of the American
soldiers was to expire with the year. Under these
circumstances Washington decided to strike a counter-
blow at the British in their winter quarters in New
Jersey. His full plan included a crossing of the Dela-
Ware above and below Trenton, at Bristol, and at
Philadelphia. The time selected was the night after
Christmas, when the enemy would probably be de-
moralized. The only effective crossing was made at
McConkey's Ferry, 9 miles above Trenton, where
Washington commanded the left wing in person. The
fierce north-east snow-storm hindered even his move-
ments and prevented the others. After he had
crossed, his men, numbering 2400 all told, were
divided into two divisions, Sullivan taking the river
road, while Washington, with Greene, reached Tren-
ton by the Pennington road. At Trenton Hessian
mercenaries, numbering about 1550 men, under Col.
Rahl, occupied barracks. The two American divisions
came upon them about 8 A. M., and placed artillery in
position to command the streets and roads, and detach-
ments sent out to cut off the retreat to Princeton and
to Bordentown. . The Hessians' guns were quickly
captured, and, though Col. Rahl exerted himself to
fºrm his troops in position, they were unable to do so.
He was killed while urging an assault, and his followers
surrendered. Their loss was 40 killed and wounded
700
TRINITY COLLEGE—TRISTRAM.
and nearly 1000 captured. Six bronze guns, over 1000
stands of arms, and various stores were taken. The
American loss was 2 killed and 3 wounded, and 2 were
frozen to death in recrossing the river. Washington
with his army, returned to his head-quarters on the
same night. The Hessians were sent to Philadelphia,
and marched through its streets, that the dread of
them might be dispelled.
TRINITY COLLEGE. The General Assembly of
the State of Connecticut in May, 1823, granted a char-
ter for the establishment of a second college in the
State, under the name of Washington College; and in
1845, in compliance with the wishes of the alumni and
the corporation, the name of the institution was
changed to Trinity College. The plan of the college
originated with the Episcopalians of Connecticut, who
had established, in 1795, a seminary of liberal learning,
but who had in vain sought to gain for it the power of
conferring degrees. At length, in 1818, a remarkable
combination of circumstances—social, religious, and
political—led to a revolution in the State, the imme-
diate results of which were the overthrow of the
“Standing Order” of Congregationalism, and the
adoption of a State constitution. In the following year
the long-existing vacancy in the bishopric of Connecti-
cut was filled by the election of the Rev. Dr. Thomas
Church Brownell, who had been for ten years tutor
and professor in Union College, a man of learning, pru-
dence, and practical wisdom. Under his guidance
advantage was taken of the opportunity to present a
petition for a new college ; and after a struggle, in the
literature of which one finds political and financial
questions curiously mingled with those relating to
religion and education, the act of incorporation was
granted. The corporators included prominent repre-
sentatives of the religious bodies who had united in
opposition to the old establishment ; and the charter
contained a clause providing that no religious test
should ever be required of officers or students.
In consequence of the generous gifts of the citizens
of Hartford the trustees voted to locate the college in
that city, and a beautiful site was secured for the
buildings. These were of brownstone, in the Ionic
order of architecture, of which two were erected at
once, and a third in 1845. A faculty of learned men
was gathered, and the institution began its work, in
1824. Bishop Brownell was chosen president; after
faithful service, he retired in 1831, and was succeeded
by the Rev. Dr. N. S. Wheaton, a steadfast and liberal
friend of the college, who did much to enlarge its use-
fulness. His successors were : in 1837, the Rev. Dr.
Silas Totten, professor of mathematics; in 1848, the
Rev. Dr. John Williams, who left academic duties
here to discharge with no less remarkable ability those
of the ... iiº. and afterwards the bishopric,
of Connecticut; in 1854, the Rev. Dr. D. R. Goodwin,
a profound metaphysician; in 1860, Dr. Samuel Eliot,
a man of wide and graceful scholarship; in 1864, the
Rev. Dr. J. B. Kerfoot, an experienced educator, who
was soon called to the bishopric of Pittsburg; and in
1867, the Rev. Dr. Abner Jackson, formerly professor
here, and then president of Hobart College, who died
in April, 1874. . In the course of fifty years the college
had experienced many changes, though it had always
held firmly to its ideal as a place of liberal education
under the guidance of Christian principles. Its endow-
ments had been increased by numerous gifts, and the
course of instruction, which had from the first been
practically the same as that of the other colleges, of
New England, with provisions for special students, had
been modified from time to time to meet the demands
made upon it. A graduate department had been
organized for the study of theology, but it had soon
(in 1854) become a separate institution, and, under the
name of the Berkeley Divinity School, had been located
at Middletown. In 1871 the number of undergrad-
uates for the first time reached a hundred.
Near the end of Dr. Jackson's presidency the trus-
tees accepted an offer from the city of Hartford to pur-
chase the campus as a site for the State capitol, and
elaborate plans were prepared for buildings to be
erected on a new campus of eighty acres situated on a
bluff in the southern part of the city. The work was
delayed by Pres. Jackson's death ; but his successor,
the Rev. Dr. Thomas R. Pynchon, prosecuted it with
great energy. In 1878 two blocks of buildings, each
300 feet long, were finished, and the college was re-
moved to its new home. Four years later these build-
ings were connected by a tower 70 feet square, thus
completing the west side of the great quadrangle of the
architect's plans. In 1883 the Rev. Dr. George
Williamson Smith was chosen president. In the fol-
lowing year considerable changes were made in the
course of instruction, in order to introduce elective
studies into the work of the latter half of the course
and to provide for four distinct schemes of study; one
leading to a degree in arts and two to a degree in
Science. An observatory and a president's house were
Soon built, and the last two years have seen the erec-
tion of a gymnasium and alumni hall and of the Jarvis
Hall of Science, standing outside of the space reserved
for the quadrangles. The style of architecture of these
quadrangles is that known as French secular Gothic,
and there can be included in them great piles of build-
ings to provide amply for the present and prospective
needs of the college. The i. is furnished with
30,000 volumes, and is rapidly increasing, and the
museum is well supplied with material for study.
The number of alumni has been about 900, many of
whom have attained eminence in various professions
and walks of life. Among the liberal benefactors of
past years special mention should be made of Mr.
Chester Adams, of Hartford, Col. and Mrs. C. H.
Northam, of Hartford (whose name has been given to
the central tower), Mr. Junius S. Morgan, of London,
Mr. George A. Jarvis, of Brooklyn (the donor of the
hall of science), and Mr. M. Buckingham, of
Poughkeepsie. Of those who have served in the
faculty two are specially worthy of honor on account
of their long connection with the college : Prof. Dun-
can L. Stewart (1833–1880), and Prof. John Brock-
lesby (since 1842). (S. H.)
TRIST, NICHOLAS PENDLETON (1800–1874), poli-
tician, was born in Virginia, and educated at West
Point, where he for a time taught French. He re-
moved to Washington, and was a warm political friend
of Pres. Jackson. He had married a granddaughter
of Pres. Jefferson and carefully preserved the tradi-
tions and principles of that statesman. In 1845 he
was made chief-clerk of the State Department, and
during the Mexican war he was sent to Mexico as the
direct representative of Pres. Polk, and endeavored to
control Gen. Scott's movements, so far as they had po-
litical bearing. Trist negotiated the treaty of Guada-
loupe-Hidalgo in January, 1848. He was afterwards
U.S. consul at Havana, and finally postmaster of Al-
exandria, Va. He died there Feb. 11, 1874.
TRISTRAM, HENRY BAKER, English clergyman
and naturalist, was born at Eglingham, England, May
11, 1822. He was educated at Durham and at Lin-
coln College, Oxford, graduating in 1844. After
travelling for a year on the continent he was ordained
and became curate of Morchard Bishop. In 1847 he
went to Bermuda as chaplain and secretary, to Sir
Charles Elliott. After visiting the United States in
1851 he returned to England and became rector of
Castle Eden, where he established a training-school
for female teachers. In 1855 he was compelled by ill
health to seek a warmer climate and went to Algiers.
His winter excursions to unexplored localities furnished
material for his first book, The Great Sahara (1856).
In 1860 he was made vicar of Greatham and master
of Greatham Hospital, which he enlarged and im-
roved. In 1870 he was made honorary canon of
bºn, in 1874 canon, and in 1880 dean. He has
held also other ecclesiastical positions, and in 1879 was
TROLLOPE—TROUT.
701
offered the bishopric of Jerusalem, but declined it.
He has made five expeditions to Palestine and Syria
and his explorations have been recorded in several
books, which have attained wide circulation. Among
them are The Land of Israel (1865); Natural His-
tory of the Bible (1867); Daughters of Syria (1869);
Bible Places (1872); The Land of Moab (1873);
Fauna and Flora of Palestine (1884).
TROLI.OPE, THOMAs ADOLPHUs, novelist, his-
torical and descriptive writer, was born in London,
England, April 29, 1810. He is a son of Mrs. Fran-
ces Trollope, whose strictures on American manners
are not yet forgotten, and brother of Anthony Trol-
lope, for whom see the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
After completing his education at Oxford University,
in 1840, he produced two volumes on Brittany, fol-
lowed next year by two on Western France. He then
took up his residence in Florence, and has been a most
prolific writer on Italy and Italian subjects. His Im-
pressions of a Wanderer in Italy appeared in 1850,
followed next year by Girlhood of Catherine de Medici,
A Decade of Italian Women, and Tuscany in 1849.
In 1860 he published his Filippo Strozzi and Paul the
Pope and Paul the Friar. While he did not equal
his brother in rapidity of production nor in popularity,
yet each succeeding year, down till 1870, saw one or
more new works from his pen. His novels range freely
from Italian to English subjects. Among them are
La Beata, Marietta, Giulio Malatesta, Beppo the
Conscript, Lindisfarn Chase, Gemma, Artingall
Castle, Dream. Numbers, Leonora Carolini. The %.
stangs of Garstang Grange, Durnton Abbey. His
most important historical work is the History of the
Commonwealth of Florence, from the Earliest Inde-
pendence of the Commune to the Fall of the Republic
in 1531 (4 vols., 1865). He wrote also a Life of Pope
Pius IX. (2 vols., 1877), and in 1888 published a vol-
ume of reminiscenses under the title What I Re-
member.
TROOST, GERARD (1776–1850), scientist, was born
at Bois le Duc, Holland, March 15, 1776. He gradu-
ated in medicine at the University of Leyden, and
practised at Amsterdam and the Hague. He entered
the army of Holland as a private, but soon was com-
missioned in the medical department. Louis Bona-
parte, while king of Holland, showed Troost special
favor, and in 1809 sent him to Java on a scientific explor-
ing expedition. He was, however, captured on the voy-
age and carried to France, and thence was permitted to
sail for America. King Louis having abdicated,
Troost settled in Philadelphia and established a manu-
factory of alum in Maryland. He was first president
of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
1812–17, and first professor of chemistry in the col-
lege of pharmacy 1821–22. In 1821 he joined Owen's
socialist community at New Harmony, Ind., but on its
failure in 1827 went to Nashville, Tenn. Here he was
soon made professor of chemistry and geology in the
university and in 1831 geologist of the State of Ten-
nessee. In 1849 this position was abolished, and on
Aug. 14, 1850, Dr. Troost died at Nashville.
#5 ºf the name given to the smaller, river-
dwelling species of the Salmon genus, and also to
several larger members of the genus inhabiting the
reat lakes and the ocean. The number of species of
orth American salmon and trout was enumerated at
43 in 1873, but has been reduced to 18 in the amended
list of Gill and Jordan. The old genus Salmo has
been retained for only a portion of the species, the
red-spotted trout, the lake trout, and some other
species being assigned to genus Salvilinus. The
speckled trout, Salv. fontinalis, the brook trout of the
Eastern United States, is found between 32° 30′ and
55° N. lat. in the lakes and streams of the Atlantic
water-shed and near the sources of a few rivers of the
Mississippi system and some southern affluents of
Hudson Bay. The members of this genus are known
in England as charrs, in distinction from the black-
spotted trout. In America they inhabit ºnly clear
and cold mountain streams and lakes, and seldom Ven-
ture to the sea, though º restrained from doing
so only by the warmth of the lower waters of the
rivers. The brook trout is one of the most beautiful
of fishes, though probably the least graceful of the
charrs. It has a somewhat heavy head and large
mouth. The back is more or less mottled and barred
with olive hues and colored with large red spots, the
dorsal and caudal fins being also barred and mottled.
In extreme southern range the brook trout reaches
Northern Georgia, where, however, it is only a finger-
ling, while along the Canada border it frequently
reaches a weight of 10 lbs. Ordinarily it seldom
weighs over 24 lbs. It is the favorite game-fish of
American waters, being the most shy, most cunning,
and mettlesome of all our fish, while in beauty and
delicacy of flesh it is unsurpassed. It is found from
the tiniest brooks to the largest rivers, is a bold biter,
but by its wariness calls out the greatest skill of anglers
in its capture. In the spring it delights in rapid-flow:
ing waters, but in hot midsummer retires to deep and
shady pools. The streams, however, are being rapidly
depleted of this fine game-fish, and, in the words of
an experienced angler, “This is the last generation of
trout-fishers. The children will not be able to find
any.” Yet the hardiness of the brook trout renders
it well adapted to artificial culture, and it may be pre-
served in this manner. It has been successfully planted
in Europe. -
Of other American charrs may be named S. ogwassa,
an exquisite little fish of the Rangeley chain of lakes
in Maine, the allied S. arcturus, from extreme Arctic
America, and the Greenland charr, S. stagnalis. The
great lake trout, S. mamaycush, has been placed in the
same genus, though with some peculiarities of charac-
ter. It is found in all the larger lakes from New Eng-
land to Alaska. It waries from 15 to 80 lbs. weight,
sometimes larger, and is of high rank as a food-fish.
In color it is grayish, with paler spots. Compared with
the other trout it is sluggish, heavy, and ravenous, its
great size and strength alone giving it value as a game-
fish. It keeps low, and seldom leaps out of the water
like brook trout. It is caught principally in gill-nets,
and in the winter through holes in the ice. It does
not ascend rivers, but spawns in the shallower places
near shore. Another #. of this group, S. malma,
the Dolly Warden trout of the Sacramento, is a beauti-
fully colored fish, nearly related to the brook trout. It
is found in all the Pacific rivers, reaching 14 lbs. ex-
treme weight, but averaging much less. It ranks high
as a food-fish, and occurs abundantly from Puget
Sound northward.
The black-spotted trout, S. purpuratus, a widely dis-
tributed fish of the streams of the Pacific region, is
classed by Jordan in the sub-genus Salar, as it differs
in some particulars from the typical Salmo. It is
found only in the region west of the Mississippi, ex-
tending thence to the Pacific. This species, known also
as the mountain trout, spotted trout, silver trout, etc.,
occurs in all the rivers west of the Rocky Mountains,
varying in size from 2 inches to 2 or 3 feet in length.
It descends to the ocean, where it is known as salmon
trout, and attains a weight of 30 lbs.
The rainbow trout of the same region, S. irideus,
known also as brook trout, golden trout, speckled trout,
etc., is a small species, from 4 to 12 inches long, its
extreme weight being 5 or 6 lbs. It is found in all the
mountain streams and is a good table-fish, but lacks
the gaminess and activity of the eastern brook trout.
It has been somewhat extensively introduced into the
waters of the Eastern United States.
S. Gairdneri, the steel-head trout, is another very
common western species, being found in every stream
and lake from New Mexico to Washington Territory,
and northward to Kamtschatka. It is more active and
gamy than the rainbow trout, larger and hardier, and
likely to prove a more useful acquisition to eastern
702
TROWBRIDGE–TRUST COMPANIES.
Waters. It averages about 15 lbs. weight. The Rio
Grande trout, S. spilurus, inhabits the head-waters of
the Rio Grande, Rio Colorado, and their tributaries.
It is the finest food-fish of New Mexico and Western
Colorado, and probably inhabits all streams of that re.
gion to the Sierra Nevada. It is larger than the rain-
bow trout.
. Mugh has been done towards the artificial propaga-
tion of the more important species of trout during re-
cent years, eggs having been taken in considerable
numbers from the brook, the lake, the rainbow, and
other species and the fry distributed in various streams.
A large station was recently formed at Neosho, Mis-
souri, for the propagation of trout and other fishes
indigenous to that region, and several other stations
are devoted to trout propagation. What the result
will be is yet to be determined. (C. M.)
TROWBRIDGE, John, physicist, was born in Bos-
ton in 1843. He graduated at Lawrence Scientific
School in 1866, and remained there two years as
teacher. In 1868 he was appointed assistant professor
of physics in Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In 1870 he accepted the same position at Harvard Col-
lege, where he received in 1873 the degree of Doctor
of Science, and in 1879 he accepted the chair of ex-
perimental physics. At Harvard College he estab-
lished the largest laboratory of its kind in America.
Having observed that the time signals of the college
observatory were transmitted through the earth over a
great extent of territory, he suggested to Mr. Preece,
of London, the possibility of telegraphing signals
across large bodies of water without a wire. Mr.
Preece established the fact by transmitting telegraphic
signals from Southampton to the Isle of Wight. Prof.
Trowbridge is associate editor of The Journal of
Science, and his various scientific papers are to be found
therein, and in the Popular Science Monthly and the
Atlantic Monthly. He invented the cosine galvanome-
ter, and is member of a number of scientific associa-
tionS.
TROWBRIDGE, JOHN TownsenD, novelist, was
born at Ogden, N. Y., Sept. 18, 1827. He was brought
up on a farm, but early displayed literary proclivities.
At the age of 19 he was a journalist in New York city
and at 20 he went to Boston, where he wrote popular
tales under the name of “Paul Creyton,’’ and edited
a weekly newspaper. His Father Brighthopes (1853)
was the first of a long series of stories, specially
adapted to boys' reading—pure, bright, and stimulat-
ing to exertion. Neighbor Jackwood (1855) and The
Old Battle Ground (1859) are excellent examples.
Cudjo's Cave (1863) and The Drummer Boy are tales
founded on incidents of the civil war. The South
(1866) was a record of the author's observations in his
travels after the war. Trowbridge had in the mean-
time obtained a higher fame by his vivid and pathetic
oem, “ The Vagabonds,’’ first published in the At-
antic Monthly in 1863, and though he has written other
poems he has never excelled this sketch. After be-
ing for some years a regular contributor to the Atlan-
tic Monthly he became in 1870 the editor of Our
Young Folks, a highly successful juvenile magazine,
which was afterwards merged in St. Nicholas.
his later novels may be mentioned Coupon Bonds, Mar-
tin Merrivale, and Neighbors' Wives.
TROY, a city of New York, county-seat of Rensse-
laer co., is on the east bank of the Hudson River, at
the head of steamboat navigation, 6 miles above Al-
bany. It is in N. lat. 42° 44' and W. long. 73°38′.
It is on the New York Central, the Delaware and Hud-
son, and the Fitchburg Railroads. Street-railroads
run to Lansingburg and the suburb called Albia.
During the summer there is daily steamboat commu-
nication with New York. The city is chiefly on an
alluvial plain, 3 miles long and over half a mile wide,
but extends also over the hills to the east. Mount
Ida on the south affords an extensive view of the sur-
rounding country. River street follows the curve of
the Hudson, but other streets branching from its north-
ern part run directly south. The court-house is an
imposing marble edifice in the Doric style, and the
Troy Savings Bank has a costly structure with a fine
marble hall. There are 9 hotels, 9 national banks, 48
churches—some of which have fine edifices—two
hospitals, orphan-asylums, a high-school, 15 public-
schools, and several academies. The Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute has a national reputation. There are
2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers published here. The
industrial works of Troy include cotton-, knitting-, and
paper-mills, stove- and car-wheel-factories, iron- and
steel-works, and bell-foundries. An important manu-
facture is that of shirts and collars, about 8000 girls
being employed in this industry. Troy distributes its
manufactured products more widely than any other city
in the United States. The city has gas and electric
light and water-works, for which there is an indebted-
ness of $380,000, the rest of the city debt being over
$750,000. The yearly expenses exceed $550,000. The
total valuation of property is $47,847,230. Troy was
Settled by the Dutch in 1659 and incorporated in 1816.
Its population in 1880 was 56,747.
TRUMBULL, HENRY CLAY, Sunday-school worker
and editor, was born at Stonington, Conn., June 8
1830. He belongs to a family noted in the history of
Connecticut, . Some of whose members are briefly
sketched in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. He was
educated at Williston Seminary, East Hampton, Mass.,
and removed to Hartford, Conn., in 1851. Here he
became State missionary for the American Sunday-
School Union, and in 1861 was ordained to the minis-
try, that he might become chaplain of the Tenth Con-
necticut Volunteers. He was taken prisoner before
Fort Wagner, S. C., in 1863. On returning from army
Service in 1865 he was appointed S. S. missionary sec-
retary for New England, and in 1871 was made normal
Secretary. He removed to Philadelphia in 1875 to
take charge of the Sunday-School Times, which he has
since edited with great skill and efficiency. In 1881 he
made a visit to Palestine, the chief result of which
was his successful determination of the previously dis-
puted locality of Kadesh-Barnea. Besides his inter-
esting work Kadesh-Barnea (1884), he published The
Blood-Covenant (1885), applying to the interpretation
of Scripture the wide-spread usage of covenanting by
shedding and mingling blood. Dr. Trumbull has also
published many works on Sunday-schools, the chief
being Yale Lectures on the Sunday-school (1888).
His brother, JAMES HAMMOND TRUMBULL, has be-
come noted for his acquaintance with native American
languages. He was born at Stonington, Dec. 20, 1821;
and studied at Yale College, but ill health prevented
his pursuing a professional career. He was corre-
sponding secretary of the Connecticut Historical So-
ciety from 1849 to 1863, and in the meantime edited
Connecticut Colony Records (3 vols., 1850–59). He
was afterwards president of this society. His study
of the American aboriginal languages commenced in
1858, and he was active in forming the American
Philological Association in 1869. He was appointed
State librarian in 1854; he was made assistant secre-
tary of state in 1858; in 1861 he became secretary of
state, and held that position until 1865. He has ed-
ited many documents of colonial times and has pub-
lished Origin of McFingal (1868); The True Blue
Laws (1876), and has contributed to various periodi-
cals on Indian names and historical subjects.
TRUST COMPANIES. Of the various classes of
financial corporations connected with the monetary
system of the country, none are of more importance
than trust companies; which in a degree exercise the
functions of both banks and savings banks. The
charters of such corporations are obtained through the
State Legislature, and as a rule contain the broadest of
powers. In the State of New York, during the year
1887, provision was made for their organization under
a general law, which however is not applicable to com-
TRUST COMPANIES.
703
panies previously chartered by special acts of the Legis-
ature. The affairs of these corporations are managed
by trustees or directors elected annually by their stock-
holders. Most charters prohibit trustees from borrow.
ing the moneys or securities of the corporation, and
require their capital, which varies from one hundred
thousand to two millions of dollars, to be invested in
bonds and mortgages or designated public Securities.
While such charters are not uniform, the main powers
conferred are common to all. They are authorized to
receive money on deposit and pay interest thereon and
may receive securities and other personal property
from individuals or corporations, and loan money on
real estate and collateral or personal securities; or act
as the fiscal agent of States, municipalities, or corpora-
tions, and in such capacity receive and disburse money,
and transfer, register, and countersign certificates of
stock, bonds, or other evidences of indebtedness; they
also act as trustees under mortgages given by corpora-
tions, and accept and execute any other municipal or
corporate trusts not inconsistent with law. They accept
trusts from married women, and execute trusts for them
in respect to their separate property and act as agent in
the management thereof; they also take and accept by
grant, assignment, devise, or bequest, and hold real or
personal estate on trusts created in accordance with law.
They are authorized to act, under the order or appoint-
ment of courts of record, as guardian, receiver, or
trustee of the estates of minors, and as depositories
of moneys paid into court for the benefit of minors;
and may accept and execute such legal trusts, duties,
and powers in respect to the holding, management, and
disposition of estates and property, real or personal,
and the rents and profits thereof, or the sale thereof,
as may be granted or confided to them by courts, indi-
viduals, corporations, municipalities, or other authority.
And they are accountable to parties in interest for the
faithful discharge of all trusts, duties, or powers con-
fided to and accepted by them.
The services rendered by trust companies are of great
value to persons associating together as corporations
for the purpose of starting new industries or enter-
prises, where the issue of stock or bonds becomes
necessary, as they are authorized to act as transfer
agent of stocks, and trustee under mortgages upon
real and personal property or franchises of corpora-
tions, pledged as security for bonds issued. The pay-
ment of dividends on stocks and interest on bonds are
also made through them. Married women having
separate estates, and maidens possessed of fortunes,
who are desirous of retaining control of their property
after marriage, find the services of these corporations
particularly desirable, owing to the strictly confidential
character of all of their business transactions. Persons
wishing to provide beyond contingencies for the sup-
port, maintenance, and education of minor children, or
for the support of offspring mentally incompetent, or
those addicted to dissolute habits that unfit them for
the management or control of property, can do so by
depositing money or Securities, or conveying real estate
in trust to these corporations, the income from which
is applied as directed. Those desiring to provide for
the support of relatives or dependents, with reversion
of the fund, after death of beneficiary, to designated
individuals or charities, find them peculiarly adapted
to the acceptance of trusteeships under such circum-
stances. They are also useful where deposits of money
or securities are required to be made, to abide the result
of litigations, the fulfilment of contracts, or the issue
of transactions in the future.
Trust companies are exempted from giving bonds or
other collateral security when appointed guardian, re-
ceiver, or depository of moneys paid into court; all
moneys received by them in either of such characters
is at the sole risk of the corporation, and for any loss
thereof, their capital stock, property, and effects are
absolutely liable, and in case of dissolution by the Legis-
lature, the Supreme court, or otherwise, debts due from
them as guardian, receiver, or depository of moneys
paid into court usually have preference.
Several of the earlier charters (1822 and 1830)
granted by the State of New York, in addition to
the numerous other powers conferred, authorized the
insuring against losses by fire; the insuring of lives;
the granting and purchasing of annuities and the
making of any other contracts contingent on the dura:
tion of life. Such extraordinary powers were exercised
by but one company and for a brief period only. At
present the principal business of these corporations is
the receiving of deposits and the acceptance of trusts;
those engaged in the receiving of deposits in the State
of New York, whether domestic or foreign, are required
to transfer securities to the amount of ten per cent. of
their capital to the superintendent of the banking de-
partment in trust as security for their depositors and
creditors. These corporations make semi-annual re-
ports of their condition to that officer, and are subject
to annual examinations by him.
Trust companies possess the general powers of cor-
porations. n the latitude of j. investments there
is little restriction other than the discretion of their
trustees; they loan on all classes of stocks or bonds
having a home or stock exchange market value, and
buy almost any good mercantile paper, not being con-
fined to particular branches of business in the purchase
of notes. With but few exceptions these corporations
are located at the large money centres. Jan. 1, 1888,
the capital of the trust companies of New York city
alone exceeded $14,500,000.
In the following table, compiled from both official
and unofficial sources, is given the aggregate of the
several items of resources and liabilities reported by
the loan and trust companies throughout the United
States for the years 1886 and 1887:
1886–87.
Resources. 58 companies.
Loans on real estate................................... $16,269,993
Loans on personal and collateral security..... 36,544,018
Other loans and discounts........................... 143,282,819
Overdrafts......... ... e º & © e * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 12,810
U. S. bonds............................................... 28,787,717
State, county, and municipal bonds.............. 178,148
R. R. bonds and stocks............................... 7,400,348
Bank stocks.............................................. 132,651
Other stocks, bonds and mortgages.............. 36,428,878
Due from other banks and bankers.............. 18,795,503
Real estate, furniture, and fixtures............... 11,087,272
Current expenses and taxes paid........ ......... 433,509
gº coins and certificates.....................
ilver coins and certificates...................
Legal tenders and mational bank notes.... 16,822,224
Checks and other cash items..................
Other resources......................................... 2,949,767
Total............................................... $319,125,657
Liabilities.
Capital stock paid in................................. $36,355,769
Surplus fund............................................. 15,841,793
Other undivided profits.............................. 11,351,526
Dividends unpaid...................................... 581,255
Individual deposits.................................... 240,190,711
State, county, and municipal deposits.......... 38,084
Due to other banks and bankers.................. 5,606,897
Other liabilities......................................... 9,159,622
Total............................ tº e º 'º e º e º 'º a tº t e º e a is tº a $319,125,657
(E. A. W.)
In the State of New York trust, loan, mortgage,
security, guarantee or indemnity companies or associa-
tions and corporations or associations having the power
of receiving money on deposit, incorporated under
any law of the State, or corporations or associations
not incorporated under the laws of the State which
receive deposits of money or assume obligations in that
State, other than banks, savings-banks and insurance
companies, are on an equality in respect to the super-
vision the State exercises over them through its bank-
ing department.
(E. A. W.)
704
principles of co-operation have in recent times im-
pressed many changes on industrial methods, but none
more striking than that exhibited by the great
“Trusts” that have come into existence within a few
years last past. That individuals may unite their
property and exertions for their common benefit has
always been recognized by our practice and our laws,
although when they assume to act with corporate
unity the authorization of the laws is a recognized
necessity. Partnerships are the outgrowth of such
purposes and in more advanced conditions of social
integration a legal corporation makes its appearance,
while it is reserved for a still more advanced state of
industrial organization to exhibit co-operative groups
embracing both individuals and corporations. The
stages of this process present the most interesting
Social phenomena. (See Co-operaTION and CoR-
PORATION.) -
Trusts in the sense of the term here used have
existed in Europe for many years, but it was re-
served for their transfer to the fertile American mind
to i. their most striking effects. The necessity
of bringing a series of railroads constituting parts of a
particular system of transportation under a common
management induced the formation of large “syndi-
cates’’ for their control. The attempt that had been
made to connect their operations by contracts imposing
restrictions upon their management or combining their
interests proving not to be effectual, proprietary com-
binations, aided by the functions of syndicates, were
the result. This object was accomplished by uniting
in the hands of a limited number of persons the
major stock interest of each of the roads desired to be
brought under a common management. Where the
members of the syndicate were the owners of the
stock interest that enabled them to assume manage-
ment of the system the case was simply a combina-
tion among stockholders of a number roads to ex-
ercise the rights they possess as stockholders to secure
such management of such roads as might best suit
their ideas of their interests. The idea, thus developed
in its application to transportation, passed into the
field of production.
The immense oil industry of this country attracted
the attention of the large operators at first in its bear-
ing on oil transportation, and afterwards extended to
the production and refining of oil. (See PETROLEUM
PIPE LINEs.) So vast an enterprise demanded more
than could be accomplished by the union of a limited
number of capitalists having personal confidence in
each other, and took a more enlarged form. The con-
trol of vast amounts of property consisting of oil
wells, refineries, and means of transportation were to
be centred for their management in the hands of a few
men with the largest powers of control over the con-
duct of the business that it was possible to communi-
cate. If the management was to embrace all the
owners of the property, the vast extent of the business
would demand that so large a number of managers
should be included as to defeat that unity of purpose
and action that is essential to the highest success. It
was thus necessary that, while the ownership of the
property managed should be in the hands of many
ersons, the control should be in the hands of a very
imited number. To bring about this result the man-
agement had to be separated from the proprietary in-
terest. Such a relation contained the essential prin-
ciples of a trust according to which the title and con-
trol of property is in one while the beneficial interest
is in the hands of another.
In the organization of the Standard Oil Trust in
1882 these conditions were complied with by an ar-
rangement by which the property to be managed was
transferred to certain persons termed trustees, but for
the benefit of the actual owners whose interests were
represented by trust certificates issued by the trustees
and which were designed to be merchantable property
TRUSTS.
TRUSTS. The advantages to be derived from the
capable of being bought and sold in the market. The
design appears to have been to place in the hands of
the trustees property of partnerships, and the stock
of incorporated companies engaged, in the business
proposed to be carried on by the trust. The object of
this arrangement was to enable the trustees to have
the direct management of the property employed in
the business by private companies and the indirect
control of that held by corporations by having the
right to choose directors for its management. This
plan embraced several important features; it involved
personal confidence in the trustees, who were intrusted
with the largest powers of control over the property
in trust capable of being communicated to persons
standing in a fiduciary relation to its owners; it placed
the vast industry in the hands of a limited number of
persons whose skill and integrity were approved by a
large number of interested persons qualified to under-
stand the requirements of the business and the char-
acter of the men to whom it was intrusted. A more
vigorous application of the principle of co-operation
cannot be conceived.
The immense success of the Standard Oil Trust in
embracing within its control almost the entire oil interest
of the country attracted the attention of operators in
other fields, and induced in 1884 the formation of the
Cotton-Seed Oil Trust that has developed into a vast
industry. Many other trusts have followed these ex-
amples, the most notable being the Sugar Trust.
It is supposed by many that these great trusts are
in their constitution and operation out of harmony
with the principle of our legal system. Others em-
phasize their conflict with competition, which seems
to impress their minds as being the leading if not the
only principle of the industrial system. A very gen-
eral feeling prevails outside of the owners of the stock
certificates that the powers placed in the hands of the
trustees are too great for any class of men to exercise,
whether they use them well or ill.
An intelligent view of trusts must distinguish among
them and recognize very marked differences in
structure and operation. Those trusts that deal with
trade alone, independent of production and transporta-
tion, cannot in the nature of things have any other
object. than to stifle competition by direct action upon
that principle. Such an attempt when accomplished
by, co-operation is condemned by our laws, in harmony
with the principle of industry that the destruction of
competition is not the proper function of co-operation.
To aggregate capital for the purpose of trade is cer-
tainly legitimate, and to secure such aggregation of
capital by uniting the means and exertions of a num-
ber of persons has always been regarded as conform-
able to both political and economic laws, as is apparent
from the universal recognition of partnerships which
are an instance of this class. While co-operation has
a legitimate place in the operations of trade, it is an
abuse of that function to employ it as means of stifling
competition, and it is true that, whenever two or more
persons unite for the purpose of trade, there is an
indirect interference with competition, for had they
traded separately there would have been competition
between them, but if this is not the intended effect
but an incidental consequence merely, the combination
is not improper. An attempt to stifle competition in
trade is then a wrong, whether committed by individuals
trading together or by companies, whether organized
on the principles of trusts or otherwise.
That trusts for such improper purposes have been
created and have brought a bad name upon trusts in
general is certainly true, and without doubt trusts
organized for legitimate purposes have engaged in
such transactions, but the question presented in such
cases is not that of the legitimacy of trusts, but of the
lawfulness of their conduct. The scarcity of commod-
ities of general necessity is a social evil, and it takes
no great penetration to discover that there are appro-
priate social means for preventing such an evil from
TRUSTS.
705
being intentionally created for the benefit of persons
combining together to accomplish such a purpose.
The legal principles that have led to the repression of
such combinations are those just indicated, and their
applicability to suppress such improper combinations
cannot be affected by the form with which such com-
binations may be clothed. Where the object of a trust
is an unlawful act the trust, is incapable of being
regarded other than as an unlawful combination, and
that such trusts exist does not admit of question ;
many of the trusts that have brought discredit on the
system are not only of this class but present most dan-
gerous instances of such unlawful objects. . Such trusts
have been created to monopolize the food supplies of
great cities like New York, and affecting as they do
the necessities of life are deserving of the strongest
condemnation.
The most interesting question as to trusts is not
concerned with this class just indicated, but relates to
such as tend to supply the means of production and
transportation. While the trust that is merely a
disguised attempt to monopolize trade must be judged
according to its real rather than its pretended purpose,
one that is actually intended to afford larger and better
means of production and transportation must be
judged by different principles. Such trusts may in-
irectly diminish competition, but if this is the incident
or accident of their existence, their character is not to
be determined by that fact.
It is the undoubted right of any number of persons,
great or small, to combine their interests for purposes
of controlling means for production, even although they
should be able to grasp in their control the industry of
the continent, and to deprive them of that liberty is to
make an encroachment upon individual liberty as it is
understood at this day in all free countries, while it is
true that if the necessary consequences of such liberty
should impair the social interests, it would be legiti-
mate to place it under legal restraint, yet before such
a step is taken its necessity should be demonstrated
and not merely anticipated. If it is a right of indi-
viduals to co-operate thus, it is equally their right to
repose the conduct of their interests in any person or
persons in whom they may desire to place that degree
of confidence. Whether they own factories or the
stock of such as are incorporated, they have an equal
right to unite with as many others as may choose to
join with them and to commit the management of
such property to persons of their own selection. The
disposition that may be made by a stockholder of a
corporation of his stock is no more the subject of legal
control than is any other kind of property, and if he
chooses to unite with others to use it as capital in pro-
ductive enterprises he is at entire liberty to do so un-
der our laws.
Whether viewed as a question of law or of economy,
no limit has as yet been found to the possible aggrega-
tion of capital for industrial purposes; and if there is
such a limit ascertainable, it has not been discovered
by the experience of mankind; and unless such a limit
is found and ascertained by laws, there can be no dif-
ference between the case of a single person trusting
the management of his property to one in whom he
has personal confidence and the case of such trusts on
the part of any number of such persons.
The reduction of the number of persons producing
a commodity has no necessary tendency to diminish
the amount of that commodity produced, provided
the reduced number have the means and desire of
maintaining the supply, while, on the other hand, the
less the number of persons producing a given amount
of a certain commodity, the less should be the cost of
its production. Over-production is a social evil, for
although it may afford momentary gratification, yet in
the end it will react against the social interests. Such
a concerted management of an industry as will tend to
prevent over-production must be regarded as a social
advantage, and the organization of an industry as a
whole and bringing it under unity of control has a
tendency in that direction. If this tendency is coun-
teracted by other causes tending to unduly restrict
production where there is concerted management of
productive interests, that fact is yet to be demon:
strated by actual experience. The tendency of social
development seems to lie in the direction of the inte-
gration of industrial powers, and it is not yet clear
where is to be the limit to such tendency, and to
assume to fix an arbitrary limit before the true limit
is ascertained is a step that no intelligent statesman
will take.
The existing popular discussion of the question of
suppressing or limiting the great trusts is of too ex-
cited a character to reach a safe conclusion. The con-
flict of individual interests has a conspicuous place in
such discussion, and is not a proper element of the
question as one of public law and policy. The con-
centration of capital necessarily displaces for the time
being individual advantages, and causes popular oppo-
sition to new and advanced conditions. In the present
instance this cause is more energetic from the influence
of a widely extended opinion and feeling that the
object of social arrangements should be to enhance
the powers of the individual by a corresponding de-
crease of the influence of corporate and aggregate
masses. It is not to be expected that a safe solution
of either the theoretical or the practical question sug-
gested will be reached while these elements are com-
bined in public discussion.
f it is perceived that the principles that have been
stated in relation to productive industries are sound
and applicable to the case, it will readily appear that
they are of equal force in their application to the con-
ditions of transportation. Although trade and trans-
portation are embraced in the distributive function
that intervenes between production and consumption,
still they are separated by distinct principles. That
railway transportation demands concentrated manage-
ment is generally admitted, many persons believing
that that need cannot be satisfied otherwise than by
placing the entire system in the hands of the govern-
ment, while others regard that end as attainable by
combined individual efforts.
It is equally true of transportation as of production,
that the proper relation between supply and demand is
a social need, and that it can be better reached by
concerted management than by ordinary competition.
What has been said of productive industry on this
subject needs no demonstration as to its applicability
to the case of transportation.
It must be conceded by every intelligent thinker
that dangers attend the existence of great powers, in-
creased with the increasing magnitude of those powers.
Qur experience with steam at high bressures and with
electricity demonstrates this fact, and that such dangers
are incapable of being separated from the conditions
of material progress. When it is ascertained how far
the development of material resources should be per-
mitted to go, a limit of the measure of the productive
powers can be determined, but not until that time
arrives can such limitations be intelligently imposed.
America has the rôle of competition with Europe
under conditions that render the highest organization
of its productive powers a necessity and cannot afford
to weaken the sources of its strength, and should not
be hasty in imposing political restraints upon the free
exercise of its productive powers.
If the great trusts confine their operations within
the limits of a wise administration, they may prove to
be a great step in advance of the realizations of in-
dustry in the past; but if they abuse their powers and
Seek to inconvenience rather than to serve the commu-
nity, the failure of the system will be due to their own
fault, and in the meantime the policy of the country is
to keep them within the line of their proper function,
and not to impair or destroy their useful powers. (See
CORPORATION.) (A. J. W.)
'706 TRUXTON.—TUCKER.
TRUXTON, THOMAS (1755–1822), naval officer, was
born Feb. 17, 1755, at Jamaica, Long Island. At the
age of 12 he went to sea and was impressed on board
a British war-ship. In 1776 he was lieutenant of the
privateer Congress, and next year was commander
of the Independence and, in company with two con-
sorts, succeeded in making many prizes. On the con-
clusion of the war of independence he engaged in
mercantile pursuits, trading between Philadelphia
and the West Indies. In 1794 he was promoted cap-
tain of the West Indies Squadron and given com-
mand of the frigate Constellation, on board of which
he did efficient service during the trouble with France,
in Pres. Adams' administration. In especial, in Janu-
ary, 1799, he captured, off St. Kitts, L'Insurgente, the
swiftest craft in the French fleet,for which exploit he re-
ceived a service of plate from the merchants at Lloyd's.
Next year he encountered the French frigate Ven-
geance off Guadaloupe and drove it, in a hopelessly dam-
aged condition, into Curaçoa. But for the fall of his
foremast he would have captured her. For his gal-
lantry here Congress voted him a gold medal. In
1801 he was promoted commander of the West Indies
squadron and transferred to the President. In 1802
he was named to command the expedition against
Tripoli, but being denied a captain to his flagship he
declined to accept and Jefferson struck his name off
the navy-list. He now retired to private life in Phila-
delphia, where he occupied the position of high sher-
iff from 1816 to 1819. He died May 5, 1822. He
was author of a work on Latitude and Longitude
(1794), and compiler of a volume of extracts on Na-
wal Tactics (1806).
TSCHUDI, Joha NN JAKOB VON, Swiss natural-
ist and traveller, was born July 25, 1818, at Glarus,
Switzerland, of a family distinguished for talent in
many directions. For its earlier members of note see
the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. He studied at the
University of Zurich, and afterwards at those of
Leyden, Paris, and Berlin, devoting himself chiefly
to the natural sciences and philology. In 1838 he set
out on a French ship with the view of making a jour-
ney round the world, but the captain having sold the
vessel at Callao, he was compelled to restrict himself
to an investigation of the natural history and ethnog-
raphy of Peru, which he pursued for five years. On
his return to his property at Jakobshof in Lower
Austria, he devoted some years to the arrangement of
his materials to supply the leading museums of
Europe. In 1857 he undertook a second journey to
Brazil, the Argentine States, Chili, Bolivia, and Peru,
returning in 1859, when he was almost immediately sent
back by the Swiss government as its minister extraor-
dinary to Brazil. During the two years he acted in
this capacity he directed his attention particularly to
the capabilities of the country as a field for immigra-
tion. In 1868 he was appointed plenipotentiary to
Vienna and remained there till 1883, when he re-
turned to his property. Among his works on natural
history are his System de Batrachier (Neuchatel,
1838), and Untersuchungen über die, Fauna Peruanas
(St. Gall, 1844–47). His philological works comprise
I)ie Kechua Sprache (Vienna, 1853); Ollanta, an old
Peruvian drama translated out of the Quechua tongue
and annotated (Vienna, 1875), and his elaborate Q-
ganismus der Kechuasprache (Leipzig, 1884). His
works of travel, embodying his observations in Brazil,
the Argentine Republic, Chili, Bolivia, and Peru, are
of great value, and have been translated into English.
He has also published a number of papers on natural
history, medical, geographical, and ethnographical
subjects.
º
TÜCKER, ST. GEORGE (1752–1827), jurist and
founder of an influential Virginian family, was born in
Bermuda, July 9, 1752. His father game to Virginia
while St. George was yet a boy, and he entered Wii.
liam and Mary College, where he graduated in 1772.
He afterwards studied law, which he administered as a
magistrate almost from his admission to the bar. On
the outbreak of the war of independence, he left the
courts and took up arms for his adopted country. His
chief exploit was a secret and successful expedition to
Bermuda, where he knew there was a large quantity
of military stores in a fortification slenderly garrisoned.
These stores eked out the slender supply of Wash-
ington's army in the siege of Boston. Tucker was
with the army before Yorktown in the capacity
of lieutenant-colonel, and received a wound in the
face from the explosion of a bomb. He was soon
after appointed to a seat in the General Court, and,
while a judge, was professor of law in William and
Mary College. In 1803 he was advanced to judge in
the State Court of Appeals, holding the office for 8
years; in 1813 he became judge of the U. S. Court
for the eastern district of Virginia. He took part in
codifying the laws of his State, and was one of the
commissioners of Virginia who met in Annapolis in
1786 and recommended the convention that formed the
present Federal Constitution. In 1778 he married his
first wife, Mrs. Randolph, mother of John Randolph
of Roanoke, by whom he had numerous descendants,
not a few of whom have risen to eminence. His
second wife left no children who survived him. Judge
Tucker had a ready talent for versification which he
exercised through life, being particularly successful in
vers de societé. To his annotated edition of Black-
stone's Commentaries (1803) is probably due his so-
briquet of the “American Blackstone.” He was also
the author of A Dissertation on Slavery, with a Pro-
posal for its Gradual Abolition in Virginia. He died
in Nelson county, Va., in 1827.
His son, HENRY ST. GEORGE TUCKER (1781–1848),
was born in Virginia, Jan. 5, 1781, studied law under
his father and became like him eminent in his pro-
fession. He was professor of law in the University
of Virginia, and chancellor of the fourth judicial dis-
trict and president of the State Court of Appeals.
From 1815 to 1819 he was a member of Congress.
His works include Lectures on Constitutional Law;
Commentaries on the Laws of Virginia (2 vols., Win-
chester, 1836); and Lectures on Natural Law and
Government (Richmond, 1843). He died at Winches-
ter, Va., Aug. 28, 1848.
Another son, NATHANIEL BEVERLEY TUCKER (1784–
1851), was born at Matoax, Amelia co., Va., Sept. 6,
1784. Graduating at William and Mary College, he
studied law, and commenced practice in 1809 in Char-
lotte co., but removed in 1815 to Missouri where he
became a judge, retaining office till 1830. In 1834 he
was called to the chair of law in William and Mary
College, and held this position till his death, which
occurred at Winchester, Aug. 26, 1851. In 1850, he
had attended the Southern convention at Nashville,
and in discussing the alleged wrongs of the South de-
livered an elaborate invective which recalled the
speeches of his half-brother, John Randolph of Ro-
anoke. His friend, W. Gilmore Simms, has well de-
scribed him as “a brave old Virginian gentleman, a
stern States Rights doctrinaire, intense of feeling
jealous of right, and with an eager sense of wrong and
injury.” Judge Tucker's legal works include a trea-
tise on Pleading and Lectures on Constitutional Law,
which are still of value as giving clearly and forcibly
the States Rights view. Besides these he was the
author of three novels, George Balcombe, Gertrude,
and The Partisan Leader. The last, secretly printed
in 1836, but purporting to have been written in 1856,
has a special interest as in some measure foreshadow-
ing the secession movement. It represents Van Bu-
ren as in 1849 holding a third presidential term, at the
head of a strongly centralized government. The
Southern States, however, except Virginia, have Se-
ceded; the Constitution having been set at naught, the
Union has been dissolved, and a conflict of small re.
publics ensues. These were depicted as the legitimate
consequences of the continuance of Van Buren's ad-
TUCKERMAN–TUFTS COLLEGE,
707
ºministration, and though strangely at variance with
the actual facts, reveal the ideas then germinating in the
leading classes of the South. The story was reprinted
in New York in 1861 with the title, A Key to the Dis-
union Conspiracy.
GEORGE TUck ER (1775–1861), a nephew of St.
George Tucker, came to Virginia from the Bermudas
about 1787, entered in William and Mary College, and
was educated in law by his uncle. He was elected to
Congress in 1819, 1821, and 1823, and in 1825 became
professor of ethics and political economy in the Uni-
versity of Virginia, which position he held till he
reached his 70th year. The most important work that
came from his pen was a Life of Thomas Jefferson
(1837), which was long a standard authority. € WaS
the author also of a novel entitled The Valley of the
Shenandoah (1824); and A Voyage to the Moon (1827),
a satirical romance. His History of the United States
(4 vols., 1856–58) brought the narrative down to 1840.
The most of his later life he spent in Philadelphia,
but he died near Charlotteville, Va., April 10, 1864.
TUCKERMAN, HENRY THEODORE (1813–1871),
man of letters, was born in Boston, April 20, 1813,
and educated in the public schools there. The years
from 1833 to 1839 were spent in European travel for
the sake of his health, with the exception of parts of
1835–36, when he returned to resume his studies.
The fruits of his tours are seen in his Italian Sketch-
Book (1835); Isabella of Sicily, a Pilgrimage (1839);
Rambles and Reveries (1841), with which may be asso-
ciated his later Month in England (1853) and Maga
Papers about Paris (1867). Removed from Boston to
New York in 1845. He contributed there largely to
magazines, reviews, and other periodicals. In 1846
the first series of his contributed papers appeared in
collected form under the title, Thoughts on the Poets,
and they were followed by Artist Life, or Sketches of
American Painters (1847); Characteristics of Litera-
ture (1849–1851); The Optimist (1850); Diary of a
Dreamer (1853); Essays, Biographical and Critical,
or Studies of Character (1857). Of this last volume
Washington Irving, with characteristic kindness to a
brother author, says: “I do not know when I have
read any work more uniformly rich, full, and well
Sustained." In biography proper he produced the
lives of Commodore Silas Talbot, Horatio Greenough,
Dr. J.W. Francis, J. P. Kennedy. Part of his essay
on The Character and Portraits of Washington
% was originally appended to Irving's Life of
Washington. The Book of American Artists (1867)
is still a standard work, and, with his other writings
on art, furnishes his best claim to remembrance.
While steadily diligent with his pen, he was always
somewhat of a dreamer, and the ideal unworldly life
of the artist had especial charms for him. To Shaw's
Outlines of English Literature Tuckerman appended
a, Sketch of American Literature (1852). His pam-
phlet on The Rebellion, its Latent Causes and True
Significance (1861), was pronounced by Dr. A. P.
Peabody “a very thorough and careful analysis of
certain secondary causes of the Rebellion.” Among
his other publications are America and her Commen.
tators (1864) and The Criterion : or the Test of Talk
qbout Familiar Things (1866). Tuckerman also pro-
duced The Spirit of Poetry (1851) and A Sheaf of
Verse, the latter a contribution to the Sanitary Fair
of New York in 1864. His books are mainly collec-
tions of monographs relating to biography, literature,
and art. As specimens of genial and pleasantly in
structive, but not profound, criticism they served well
a temporary purpose, though now less frequently read
or quoted. The author deserves credit for his gen-
uinely American spirit.
TUCSON, a city of Arizona, county-seat of Pima
co., is on the Rio Santa Cruz and on the Southern
Pacific Railroad, 250 miles E. of Yuma. It has a
egurt-house, U. S. government building, a bank, a
church, public and private schools, and a newspaper
office. It carries on trade in hides, stock, wool, and
gold-dust. It was founded by the Jesuits in 1560, and
was the capital of Arizona from 1867 to 1877. Its
population in 1880 was 7007.
TUFTS COLLEGE is situated on the most beau-
tiful and commanding eminence in the Southeasterly
part of Middlesex co., within the town of Medford
and on the borders of Medford and Somerville,
Mass. . The tract of land given by Mr. Charles Tufts
comprises in all 100 acres. In consequence of this
gift it was determined that the college should bear his
name. The original charter, granted April 21, 1852,
conferred the power to give degrees of every kind
“except medical degrees.” This restriction was re-
moved Feb. 2, 1867. In May, 1853, the Rev. Hosea
Ballou, D. D., was chosen to the office of pres-
ident. The college was first regularly opened to stu-
dents in August, 1855. Dr. Ballou died in May,
1861. The Rev. A. A. Miner, D. D., was chosen to
succeed him in 1862, and continued to hold the office
until his resignation in February, 1875. During his
presidency and largely through his instrumentality the
extraordinary material development of the college was
secured. Funds were obtained from Silvanus Packard,
William J. Walker, Oliver Dean, and others, aggre-
gating fully $750,000. The Hon. Israel Washburn,
j r., the war governor of Maine, was chosen president
on the resignation of Dr. Miner, but he declined to
accept the office. The trustees then determined to
place an alumnus at the head of the institution. The
Fº incumbent, the Rev. Elmer Hewitt Capen,
D., a graduate of the class of 1860, was elected to
the vacant chair, March 13, 1875. The calling of an
alumnus to the post has quickened the interest and
secured the co-operation of the graduates,
In the matter of development few institutions in
the country have made steadier progress. The selec-
tion of its present site was fortunate : first, because
of its proximity to Boston, the literary centre of the
New World; and, secondly, because of the closeness
of its proximity to Harvard University, which has
compelled it to maintain the highest standard. The
result is seen in the steady growth of recent years.
The attendance has increased about forty per cent.
during the last decade.
The course of study adopted was that of the other
leading New England colleges. The faculty in the
beginning consisted of three professors besides the
president; and for some years the work was done by
not more than five teachers. The gifts of Dr. Walker
enabled the trustees to enlarge on the side of science.
A professorship of civil engineering was created in
1867. This department has been enlarged gradually,
until now men receive complete courses of professional
instruction in civil, mechanical, and electrical engineer-
ing, Natural history, physics, and chemistry have
each, been made separate departments. There are
excellent laboratories of physics, and, besides college
Work, original investigations are conducted by Dr.
Dolbeare and assistant-professor Hooper. The or.
ganic research laboratory of chemistry has been fully
equipped and offers facilities unsurpassed for original
investigation. Very considerable additions to chemical
knowledge are made every year by Prof. Michael and
his assistants, -
Previous to 1875 the work of the college was mainly
brescribed. At that time the scope of electives was
roadened. There are now 11 full courses of electives
open, and from the middle of junior year a large
percentage of the work is in lines which the student
chooses for himself. A system of honors has been
devised tº reward students eminent in special lines of
work. The degree of A. M. is given only after grad-
uate study in residence or under the direction of the
faculty for at least one year. The modifications of
discipline have been no less important. Formal rules
relating to conduct have been abolished. Men are
put upon their honor and no longer watched. Under
708
*.
TULIP TREE–TUNNELS.
this policy the moral tone of the college has greatly
advanced. The contentment of students has j in-
creased. . The relative percentage of those who grad-
uate to those who enter has risen from 63 per cent. to
nearly S0 per cent., placing it in this respect in the
front rank of New England colleges. The whole num-
ber of graduates is now about 500.
Silvanus Packard by will provided for one theological
§. Thomas J. Sawyer, D. D., was elected
ackard professor of theology and the divinity school
organized and opened in 1869. There are at present
four professors in the divinity school besides Dr. Saw-
yer. The course of study is four years for all except
college graduates.
The site of the college was originally treeless and
barren. But imposing buildings have been erected,
walks and driveways have been constructed, and trees
have attained a thick and heavy growth. There is no
more attractive spot in the neighborhood of Boston.
In 1883 Mrs. Mary T. Goddard erected at her own
cost a beautiful stone chapel, and on its completion
built and furnished an excellent gymnasium. One
of the most important additions of recent years is
the Barnum Museum of Natural History, the gift of
Mr. P. T. Barnum. It is a building of dignity and
beauty. The first floor is devoted to laboratories and
work-rooms. The main floor has a lecture-room and a
grand vestibule in which the larger specimens of nat-
ural history are deposited and where the stuffed skin
of Jumbo is to find its ultimate resting-place. The
third floor comprises a large exhibition hall for the
cabinet, together with the fine zoölogical collection
given by Mr. Barnum. The library contains nearly
25,000 bound volumes, many of them rare and of
great value, and 8000 or 9000 pamphlets.
The college has been distinguished for its liberal
policy towards young men who are obliged, on accºunt
of limited means, to struggle for an education. There
are thirty scholarships in the gift of the college. . By
means of these tuition may be cancelled. Gratuities
are also given, in cases of need, so that instruction is
practically free to men of promise and fidelity wh9se
circumstances require it. n account of the isolation
of the college, there being no villages in immediate
contact with it on either side, it is not only extremely
favorable to study, but admirably adapted to those
who are obliged to practise economy. (E. H. C.)
TULIP TREE, or TULIP PopLAR, the common
name given to the Liriodendron tulipifera, a genus
of trees belonging to the order Magnoliaceae which has
but one species, that above named. It is a native of
the United States, where it is generally known as a
poplar from its resemblance to the latter, though it
has no affinity to the poplars. It is known as white
wood and yellow poplar, from its varying color; as
canoe wood, from the use made of it by the Indians;
and as saddle tree, from the shape of its leaves. . . It is
one of the most magnificent of American deciduous
trees, being only surpassed in size by the plane or but-
tonwood, and being superior to the latter in the per-
fect straightness and uniform diameter of its trunk,
the more regular distribution of branches, and the
greater richness of foliage and flowers. . Its height is
usually 60 to 80 feet, with a diameter of 18 inches to
3 feet, but in favorable localities it may attain a height
of 120 to 140 feet, and more than 7 feet diameter.
The leaves of this tree have a peculiar development.
As the large buds open, the leaf group is found to be
covered by two stipules cohering at their edges so as
to form a sac. On opening they reveal an interior
sac of the same character and a single leaf, glosely
folded and with the petiole doubled over. As this leaf
unfolds the interior sac opens, revealing similar con-
ditions within, and this process continues until 5, or
6 leaves have appeared. The leaves are 6 or 8 inches
long, on long petioles, with four lobes, the apex aſ:
pearing as if abruptly cut off, leaving, a Yery broad,
shallow notch. This conformation of the leaf gives a
peculiar º to the tree, clearly distinguishing
it from all others. The flowers are equally peculiar
and striking. They have 3 deciduous sepals and 6
petals, forming a large lily or tulip shaped flower, from
which resemblance both the generic and specific names
have been derived. The flowers are solitary and terminal,
inclosed by a sheath which is pushed off as they open.
The flower bell is 2 inches or more in length, with nu-
merous stamens and a cone-like mass of pistils. The
petals are greenish-yellow in color, with an orange spot
at base, the color deviating in different localities.
They form large, showy flowers with an agreeable odor
and much nectar, which when in bloom add greatly to
the ornamental character of this handsome tree. The
fruit comprises numerous thin scales attached to a
common axis and forming a conical spike 2 or 3
inches long.
The range of the Tulip tree is from the Southern
extremity of Lake Champlain to the Gulf States, and
from the Connecticut River to the Mississippi Valley,
being abundant in the Middle and Western States, and
articularly so in Kentucky. It delights in deep,
oamy, and extremely fertile soils, like those of rich
river bottoms and swamp borders, but will grow on
soil of different character. The wood, though classed
with the light woods, is much heavier than the common
poplar and has almost as many uses as the white pine.
t is easily worked, polishes well, and the heartwood
when well seasoned resists decay and is rarely attacked
by insects, but is liable to shrink and warp when ex-
posed to the weather. Its color and character are so
affected by the nature of the soil that it is known in
some localities as white, in others as yellow poplar.
Near New York and Philadelphia it was formerly
much used for joists and rafters, but has grown scarce
and has been replaced by pine and spruce. It is also
used for door-panels and wainscots, and particularly for
carriage-panels, it taking the paint j. polishing
brilliantly when perfectly dry. Large quantities are
used in trunk-making, for chair-seats, and for tables
and beds (stained to imitate mahogany). Of other
uses may be named the making of sleigh- and wagon-
bodies, bowls, brush- and broom-handles, and various
other articles of turners' ware. The Indians used it
to form canoes, the wood being light and strong, while
from the great length and diameter of the trunk single
canoes could be made capable of carrying 20 or more
persons. The bark, especially of the root, is bitter
and aromatic, and is considered by some as scarcely in-
ferior to cinchona as a tonic and antiseptic. The aro-
matic principle resides in a resin, which acts as a gentle
cathartic. The bark was used by the Indians as a
remedy for intermittent fevers. Reduced to powder
and given to horses it seems a pretty certain remedy
for worms. º M.)
TUNNELS IN A. This ..ºf àS º
eral prominent examples of tunnels
º . tºuš mountains for railroad and
Km º mining purposes, and has also begun to
º • * > use tunnels under the beds of navigable
rivers. In the first class the Hoosac tunnel is the most
noted. The Hoosac Mountain is a part of the Green
Mountain range that extends across the western part
of Massachusetts. On account of the very circuitous
routes which it compelled to be taken between Boston
and Albany, and the West, the project of a shorter
communication was seriously debated in the early part
of the present century. At that time canals were in
vogue, and in 1825 the State of Massachusetts ºp-
pointed a board of commissioners to select a route for
such canal to connect Boston with the Hudson River.
Their report included the project of a tunnel thrºugh
the Hoosae Mountain. But when soon afterward the
early railroads of America proved successful, the
scheme of building a canal was abandoned. The Boš-
ton and Albany Railroad was completed in, 1842; it
was carried over the mountains about 20 miles to the
south of the proposed tunnel. The steep grades of
TUNNELS. 709
this road had been attempted by no road up to that ments were built upon the points of the two highest
time; and even yet the running expenses and freight summits overhead. The transit instrument, threw
charges are higher than they would be with lower these monuments in line and extended the line, in
grades. On this account the project of the tunnel was either direction for several miles. This not only fur-
still considered seriously even after the canal had been nished the line upon which the tunnel was constructed,
abandoned. In 1848 the Troy and Greenfield Rail, but also the line by which the central and western
road Company was incorporated with the object of shafts were sunk. When the headings from the cen-
building a road through the mountain. The most ſtral shaft and from the eastern opening came together
eminent geological authority of that day, Prof. Ed- their alignments swerved from each, other by only 1.
ward Hitchcock, of Amherst College, examined the inch ; whereas, the opposite arms of the Mont Cenis
mountain, and stated that quartz and mica slate were tunnel had a divergence of more than half a yard. .
the chief substances to be encountered. In 1851 the . The tunnel cost the State of Massachusetts, with
work upon the tunnel was commenced with a clumsy interest on the investment, about $18,000,000; but
and expensive boring machine, which attempted to the cost would not have been so great had the im-
bore a hole of the full size of the tunnel. When this proved methods of machinery and blasting been used
and similar machines had proved failures the work was earlier in the progress of the work. The first plan for
abandoned until 1854. The State of Massachusetts the use of the completed tunnel was to allow all rail-
then loaned $2,000,000 and took a mortgage on the roads to have j rights; but this was soon aban-
property of the company as security. From this source | doned, and special privileges were given to one line.
funds were obtained until 1862, when the work, again After several years of unsatisfactory dealing the State
stopped, and the State foreclosed the mortgage. The of Massachusetts, in January, 1887, completed the sale
State having committed itself to the work commis- of the Hoosac tunnel, with the accompanying 44 miles
signers were appointed to carry it on, but on account of railroad, to the Fitchburg Railroad Company for
of its slow progress the State, in 1868, made a con- $5,000.000 in bonds and $5,000,000 in stock of the
tract for its completion. At that time the work was railroad.
in the following condition : East end, 5283 feet; west In June, 1888, a tunnel was opened through the
end, 4055 feet; west shaft sunk to grade, 318 feet, Cascade range in Washington Territory. The work
and central shaft sunk to a depth of 583 feet. The was begun in April, 1886; the material and machinery
contract required the completion of the additional |ºre hauled in wagons for over 90 miles through a
15,743 feet, the central shaft to be sunk to grade, and rough country without roads; some of the heavy ma-
the sum to be paid, $4,594,268. The work was suc- chinery was moved by block and tackle the whole dis-
cessfully prosecuted; and on Feb. 9, 1875, the first ſtance, and $125,000 had been expended before the
railroad train passed through the Hoosac Mountain. actual work began. The tunnel is 3S50 feet long and
Down to 1865 the drilling and blasting had been
16 feet wide by 203 feet high in the clear. It is in-
done by old methods; after that date the State com: tended for a single-track road. The west end approach
missioners used machine-drills driven by compressed
g d consists of an open cut thrºugh trap-rock, while the
air, as had been successfully done in the Mont Cenis
east end enters the tunnel by crossing a creek imme-
tunnel under the Alps. For using compressed air suf diately under a cataract, which has a fall of 160 feet.
ficient water-pºwer was obtained at the east end while Before crossing this creek the track is made by cutting
the central and west end sections were carried on with a heavy ridge or slide of earth and loose rock. These
steam-power. The first drills were heavy and expen- two approaches contained in the aggregate upward of
siye; and later a less complicated and lighter machine, 30,000 eublic yards of material, most of which was
with a gang of drills, was used. With this machine a solid rock, requiring to be blasted. The strata or formal
hole of from 4 to 5 feet in depth could be made in an itions of the mountain lie nearly flat, having but a
hour; and one of the drills was kept running for over slight inclination from east to west across the entire
3 months with9ut the slightest repair, during which range. This increased the danger and difficulty of the
time the total depth of holes drilled would have meas- work. The rock throughout was a gray conglomerate
ured ºver a mile in length. The cºmpressed air was basalt of medium hardness, but slacking and sºlin.
stored in a tank and conveyed to the tunnel through on exposure to air, rendering timbering necessary.
12-inch iron-pipes carrying a pressure of about 60 lbs.
to the Square inch. A rubber-pipe, easily discon-
nected when the drill-carriages were taken out of the
way of a blast, connected the iron-pipes with the
drills. A heading, 8 feet high by 24 feet wide, was
driven by the first gang. About 500 feet in the rear
of this another gang was employed in enlarging the
tunnel to the full size of 22 by 24 feet. The average
number of men employed was from 500 to 800, and
136 lives were lost during the construction. Work
was carried on continually night and day, with the ex-
ception of Sundays. Down to 1865 the chief explo-
sive was the ordinary black powder; but after that
date nitro-glycerine was used for a short time, and it
was finally decided to use trinitro-glycerine manufac-
tured upon the spot. The central shaft, located near
the centre of the tunnel, is 1028 feet deep. This was
sunk not only as a ventilator, but also as a means of
shortening the time of the work by allowing other
gangs to work east and west from its bottom. After
sinking to the tunnel-grade an advance was made to
the west of 2006 feet, and to the east of 1563 feet.
But so much water poured into the tunnel that it is
doubtful if much time was saved in this wav. After
the sinking of the central shaft it was thought best to
sink a shaft toward the western entrance, on account
of the uncertain structure of the rock in that part of
the tunnel. This also helped to shorten the time of
the work. After the in. had been projected monu-
|The work was constantly prosecuted from both ends
with the most approved machinery: one of the air
compressels was run by water-power, and the other by
steam. The tunnel was run without the use of air-
shafts.
Tunnels for mining purposes are less frequent than
railroad tunnels. They are used to reach eposits of
gold and silver, and also to drain the mines. One of
the more recent enterprises is the Big Bend tunnel of
Butte co, Cal. Certain points in the valley of the
Feather River having been found to be unusually pro-
ductive of gold, it was considered most desirable for
economy's sake to connect these points. To this end
a tunnel was eommenced in 1SS2, and completed in
1SS7. . It practically diverts at will the whºle of the
river from its present channel, and carries it through
a mountain. Six gates of iron and steel, each 43 by
8 feet, at the head of the tunnel, control the passage
of the water. The size of the tunnel is 12 by is feet,
and the length is over 2 miles. &
River Tunnels.--Small tunnels under navigable
Streams are quite frequent in the United States. In
Chicago a number have been bored under the Chicago
River in order to connect the several parts of the city
without bridges. The project of a tunnel under the de-
troit River, through which railroad traffic should be car.
ried without interfering with navigation, has long been
fliseussed. Various tºwns have, from time to time,
been selected as sites for the beginning of operations.
710 *
TUPELO—TURNER.
At Port Huron, some miles above Detroit, the River
St. Clair is now being tunnelled in order to avoid the
carrying of cars upon railroad ferry-boats. When com-
bleted, the tunnel will shorten the distance between
uffalo and the cities of Detroit and Chicago. It will
be over a mile in length, 2310 feet being under the
river, 1810 feet under dry ground south of the city
limits of Port Huron, and 1160 feet on the Canadian
side ; 1500 feet of the portion under the river will be
almost level, falling eastward only enough to cause the
water that leaks into the tunnel to run to the Canadian
side. The total length of the ascent on the American
side will be 4900 feet, and on the Canadian side 4970
feet. The length of the open cutting or approach at
the Port Huron end of the tunnel will be 2820 feet,
and at the Canadian end 3270 feet. The depth of the
lowest part of the tunnel below the surface of the water
will be 81 feet, which is 15 feet higher than had been
at first expected, on account of anticipated quicksands
and water-pockets. The minimum depth of the top
below the bed of the river will be 15 feet. The tunnel
has a clear internal diameter of 20 feet, and is intended
for a single track. A double-track tunnel was at first
proposed, but it was found that two single-track tun-
nels could be built at less expense than one double-
track. Should this tunnel prove successful and profit-
able, the company intends to build a second one. The
cost of the tunnel is estimated at $1,500,000.
There have been various projects of tunnels around
New York city. One passing under the East River
is projected between Grand Street and the eastern dis-
trict of Brooklyn; in another, from Long Island City,
the eastern entrance of the tunnel would be nearly
# mile from the river, and the western terminus
near Tenth avenue and Thirtieth street. The depth
below the surface of the water would be about 100
feet, rising to the surface under either city at an in:
clination of about 60 feet to the mile. The intended
width of the tunnel is 27 feet and the height 21 feet.
A double-track road will be laid, each track to be a
continuous rail, to prevent noise and jarring. The
proposed trains are to be operated by electric mo;
tors, and the tunnel lighted by electric lights and
ventilated by steam-fans. At each station elevators
capable of holding 100 passengers would connect with
the surface and elevated railroads. gº
Another tunnel is proposed under the Harlem River,
at the northern end of New York city, in order to
avoid the delay occasioned by the opening of the draw-
bridges. The construction of this tunnel presents, from
an engineering point of view, few difficulties. As the
depth of water at the maximum is 30 feet, there would
be but 54 feet of vertical altitude to be overcome in the
dients of the tunnel approaches, and this could be
one by a grade of 200 feet to the mile, which would
be perfectly practicable for the use of horse-cars and
teams, Ten feet is considered sufficient headroom for
the tunnel, as has been ascertained in the Chicago ex-
perience. But although a grade of 200 feet, to the
mile is of no serious moment in the operation of horse-
power, yet in the case of steam-railroads, especially
those which transport heavy freight, high grades add
to operating expenses in a largely increasing ratio. To
lessen this grade to a more practicable, one, the ap-
proaches would have to be carried back a long distance,
which would greatly increase first cost and would intro-
duce other difficulties. . e
The project of connecting New Jersey with New
York city by a tunnel has often been discussed, because
it would facilitate the passage to Philadelphia and other
important points. The tunnel started under the Hudson
in 1874–5 by Col. Haskins, of New York, was aban-
doned after the expenditure of over $1,000,000. Al-
though the Pennsylvania Railroad Company has con-
trol ºf the charter under which this tunnel was to be
constructed, and which gives the owner the right tº go
underground to any portion of New Yºrk or Brooklyn,
the old tunnel will not be utilized. By a new project
the underground work will be upon different principles,
and will comprise two single-track tunnels. As the
expense of this operation will be stupendous, it is pro-
posed to make all railroad lines entering Jersey City
parties to it. The plan contemplates terminals, under
Washington Square, in New York city, at a depth of
15 feet below the earth's surface, which will occupy an
area of over an acre of space. This will be illuminated
by electricity and furnished with every convenience and
comfort for travellers. There is an evident tendency
toward the introduction of underground railroads in
the larger American cities, and it is probable that in a
few years some of the various schemes proposed for
º and freight railroads of this dº will
e successfully executed. - (F, G. M.)
TUPELO. See GUM TREE.
TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUHAR, author, was born
in London, July 17, 1810, and educated at the Char-
terhouse, and at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating
1832. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but
never practised, and has lived on his estate of Alburg
in Surrey. His literary career began with an anony-
mous volume of poems in 1832. His reputation was
made by Proverbial Philosophy (1838), which the
Athenaeum, thought not “likely to please beyond the
circle of a few minds as eccentric as the author’s.”
The critic was mistaken ; of this and the second series,
1842, the hundredth thousand was issued in London,
1865, and more than half a million copies have been
sold in America. The book has had the honor of
several French translations. A third series appeared
1867, and was denounced by the Athenaeum as “weak,
twaddling, and insincere, not sharp or clear, but Ser-
pentine, flabby, and obscure.” Mr. Tupper's other
works are very numerous but less notable : they in-
clude several novels. The Crock of Gold (1844);
Heart (1844); The Twins (1844); and Stephen Lang-
ton, or the Days of King John (2 vols., 1858): of mis-
cellaneous prose, Modern Pyramid (1839); An
Author's Mind (1841); Probabilities (1847); Farley
Heath (1851); Paterfamilias' Diary (1855); Memor-
ials of W. G. Tupper (1856); and Rides and Rev-
eries of the late Mr. Lºsop Smith (1857); and in verse
Geraldine (1838); A Thousand Lines (1845); Hac-
tenus (1848); King Alfred's Poems in English, Metres
(1851); Hymns for all Nations (translated into 30
languages, for the World's Fair, 1851); Lyrics
(1854); 300 Sonnets (1860); several volumes of ballads,
a few odes, etc., and two plays, Alfred (1865) and
Raleigh (1866). The Times in 1870 accorded him the
long established “position of chief butt for metropol-
itan critics and professional jokers; ” but the Literary
Gazette in 1848 called him “a genuine poet and an
original thinker,” and his admirers proposed a testi-
monial in 1867. Mr. Tupper's life has been unevent-
ful; he visited America in 1851, and was at one time
talked of for a baronetcy. He published My Life as
an Author (1886). Of late his circumstances are said
to have become reduced.
TURNER, SAMUEL HULBEART (1790–1861), theo-
logian, was born at Philadelphia, Jan. 23, 1790. He
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1807
and was ordained to the Protestant Episcopal Church
in 1811, becoming priest in 1814. He had charge of a
church" at Chestertown, Md., for five years, and in
1818 was elected professor of historic theology in the
General Episcopal Seminary, New York. He re-
mained in connection with this institution until his
death, though he was transferred to the pg.
of Biblical learning and interpretation of Scripture in
1821. He also held a professorship of Hebrew in
Columbia College from 1831. He died Dec. 21, 1861.
He translated #. Introduction to the Old Testa-
ment and published notes on some books of the New
Testament; Biographical Notices of Distinguished Jewſ-
ish Rabbis (1847); Scripture Prophecy (1852); Teach:
ings of the Master (1858); Spiritual Things compared
with Spiritual (1850). He had also contributed to
TURNER—TYPOGRAPHY.
711
leading theological reviews and other periodicals and
left some manuscripts nearly ready for the press. His
Autobiography was published in 1862.
#&#. WILLIAM WADDEN (1810–1859), phi-
lologist, was born in London but emigrated to the
United States in 1818, and learned the printer's trade.
He became distinguished for his knowledge of ancient
and modern languages. He was appointed librarian to
the University of New York, and in 1842 instructor
in Hebrew in Union Theological Seminary. In 1852 he
removed to Washington to become librarian of the Pat-
ent Office, and died there Nov. 29, 1859. He had assisted
in preparing Dr. Nordheimer's Hebrew text-books,
and in translating Freund's Latin-German Lecicon as
a basis of Prof. E. A. Andrews' Latin Dictionary.
He devoted considerable attention to the languages of
the American Indians and contributed to the linguistic
publications of the Smithsonian Institution.
E. See TORTOISE.
TUSCARAWAS. See IROQUOIS.
TYLER, WILLIAM SEYMOUR, educator, was born
at Hartford, Pa., Sept. 2, 1810. He graduated at
Amherst College in 1830, and studied theology at An-
dover and was tutor at Amherst. In 1836 he was
licensed to preach by the Third Presbytery of New
York, but, being made professor of Latin and Greek
at Amherst, he devoted himself to teaching. In 1859
he was ordained by a Congregational council, and
thereafter preached occasionally in the college chapel
and in various churches. He has published several
scholarly text-books—Tacitus' Germania and Agri-
cola; Tacitus' Histories; Plato's Apology and Crito;
Plutarch on the Delay of the Deity; Demosthemes De
Corona; Demosthemes, Philippics and Olymthiacs;
Homer's Iliad. He has published an essay on Prayer
for Colleges and a History of Amherst College (1873),
and Theology of the Greek Poets (1867).
TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT, English anthropolo-
i. was born at Camberwell, Oct. 2, 1832. He has
evoted himself to the study of the races of men, their
history, speech, and civilization. In 1871 he was
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1883 was
appointed director of the University museum in Ox-
ford, where he also delivers lectures. He is also pres-
ident of the Anthropological Society. His publica-
tions are of the highest authority in his department of
research. Among them are Anahuac, or Merico and
the Mexicans (1861); Researches into the History of
Mankind (1865); Primitive Culture (2 vols., 1871);
Anthropology, an Introduction to the Study of Man
and Civilization (1881).
TYNDALL, John, British physicist, was born at
Leighlin-bridge, Ireland, in 1820. Although his
#. were very poor he received a good elementary
nglish and mathematical training, and at the age of
19 became a civil assistant in the division of the Ord-
nance survey which included his native village.
1844 he was employed by a firm in Manchester and
took part in railway engineering operations. In 1847
he became a teacher in Queenwood College in Eng-
land, which was intended to give preliminary technical
training to engineers and agriculturists. Here he be-
came associated with the chemist Dr. Frankland, and
entered on a series of physical investigations which
have led to momentous results. The two friends, in
furtherance of their work, in 1848 went to the Univer-
sity of Marlburg, where they studied under R. W.
Bunsen (q.v.). Afterwards Tyndall went to Berlin to
work in the laboratory of Magnus. His researches
had especial reference to magnetism and diamagnet-
1SRI). is publications caused him to be chosen a fel-
low of the Royal Society, and in 1853 he was chosen to
succeed Faraday as professor of natural philosophy in
the Royal Institution at London. In 1856 he joined
With Prof. Huxley in investigating the glaciers of
Switzerland, and the results were given in a joint pa.
per, Tyndall returned to Switzerland in is57 and
subsequent years, and after heroic exposure succeeded
In D
in determining the winter motion of the Mer de
Glace. In 1859 he began to investigate radiant heat,
which led to his famous essay, Heat Considered as a
Mode of Motion (1863), and his lecture On Radiation.
(1865). He had already received the degree of L.L. D.
from the University of Cambridge in 1855 and from
Edinburgh in 1866; and Oxford joined in acknowledg:
ing his eminent merit by giving him the degree of
D. C. L. in 1873. In the year 1872 he made a very
successful lecturing tour in the United States, treating
especially of light, heat, and sound. After defraying
his expenses he gave the remainder of the proceeds,
amounting to $13,000, to a committee in aid of stu-
dents who devote themselves to original research. In
August, 1874, Prof. Tyndall presided at the annual
meeting of the British Association held in Belfast.
His opening address excited a great sensation by its
support of materialism. He declared that he saw “in
matter the promise and potency of all the forms
of life.” The address was published “with addi-
tions and a preface '' (1874). e had already greatly
shocked the conservative religious portion of the com-
munity by proposing to test the efficacy of prayer in
behalf of a portion of the patients of a hospital. He
was scientific adviser to the British Board of Trade
and to the light-house authorities, but he resigned
these duties in May, 1883. Prof. Tyndall has a cottage
on the Alps and has given much time to the various
natural phenomena to be observed in those lofty re-
gions. Several of his books have reference to moun-
tains. Besides his publications already mentioned
may be noted Sound (4th ed., 1883); Fragments of
Science (5th ed., 1876); Forms of Water (1872);
Floating Matter of the Air (1881).
TYNG, STEPHEN HIGGINson (1800–1885), clergy-
man, was born at Newburyport, Mass., March 1, 1800.
He graduated at Harvard College in 1817; after spend-
ing two years in business pursuits he studied theology.
He became rector of an Episcopal church at George-
town, D. C., in 1821, and afterwards had charge of a
church in Maryland until 1829. He then removed to
Philadelphia, where he was rector successively of St.
Paul's and Epiphany Churches until 1845. From that
year until his retirement in 1878 he was rector of St.
George's Protestant Episcopal Church in New York
city. He died at Irvington, on the Hudson, Sept. 4,
1885, Dr. Tyng was an eloquent preacher and ready
speaker. As a leader of the Low Church party he
cultivated friendly relations with all Evangelical denomi-
nations. He was editor of the Episcopal Recorder in
Philadelphia and of the Protestant Churchman in
New York. He was an active promoter of Sunday-
Schºols. Many of his sermons were gathered into
bºok form, Besides these he published Memoir of G.
T. Bedell (1835); Forty Years' Experience in Sunday-
Schools (1860); The Spencers (1870) ; The Office and
uty qf a Christian Pastor (1874). Under the title,
4 Child of Prayer (1866), he published a memorial of
his son, Rev. Dudley A. Tyng, who had succeeded to
his father's charge in Philadelphia, but was accident-
ally killed.
TYPHQID FEVER. See FEveR.
TYPOGRAPHY, º a. ºl 3CCOUlnt. gf the inven-
r y- tion and early history of the art of
* .. iº, printing, and a complete exposition
Am. Rep.). of, that art, together with accurate
definitions and descriptions of the
phraseology of the composing-room and press-room,
the reader is referred to the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITAN'
NICA. The work of the American printer and the
tools and phraseology of his art are essentially similar
to those of the English printer. Passing by these
topics, this article will treat of the American printing-
press, and especially of the rapid machines invented
in recent years to meet the demands of the great daily
newspapers. In all the successive achievements lead.
ing up to the marvellous results of the present time
American inventors have held an fºul. place. In
'712
TYPOGRAPHY.
1827 the English firm of Cowper & Applegarth made
important improvements on the old Koenig press, and
built for the London Times a four-cylinder press which
turned off 4000 or 5000 single impressions an hour.
But when, a few years later, the American inventor,
Richard Hoe, of New York, developed his so-
called “lightning press,’’ capable of printing 20,000
impressions an hour, the London Times was among
the first to tear out its Applegarth presses and pur-
chase the Hoe machines. Wondering crowds gazed at
the first of the new Hoe machines when it was set up
in the press-room of the Philadelphia Public Ledger.
A few years later similar machines were in daily use
by the New York Tribune, London Times, and Paris
La Patrie. The eight- and ten-cylinder press certainly
looked like a finality, but was soon superseded by the
web perfecting press, which prints both sides at
Once from stereotype plates that can be duplicated to
any extent desired, thus making it possible to have
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any number of presses at work simultaneously upon
the same edition and on a continuous roll or web of
paper. A glance at the accompanying cut, illustrat-
ing the old cylinder press at work, and a comparison
with the illustration of the modern perfecting press,
will give a fair idea of the vast improvement over the
old form. The new invention practically quadrupled
the productive capacity, while it required less than
half the labor for running the machine. It naturally
became the ideal press wherever great †. was
necessary. The old cylinder presses are stil found in
many newspaper offices, and they give good results in
the publication of weeklies or, even dailies of com-
paratively small circulation ; but wherever time is
feckoned by seconds instead of by hours, there the
rotary perfecting press is found, reeling out its perfect
eight-page papers at the rate of 700 or more every
minute.
'The making of this marvellous machine came about
gradually. Its evolution has been well described in
The Paper World:
“The use of the continuous web of paper was Sug-
gested by Sir Rowland Hill as long ago as 1835 ; and
in 1849 Jacob Worms, of Paris, hit upon the idea of
curved stereotype plates secured to a rotating cylinder.
Worms even built a press in which the printed sheets
were separated from the web by a serrated blade and
tension rollers, as in some perfecting presses now used,
and made stereotype plates from a papier maché mat-
rix, the material still considered the best. The press
was patented in England in 1850, but met with no
success, partly because it failed to deliver the sheets
as fast as printed, and partly because the process of
stereotyping, as then understood, involved too much
delay. It was not until 1861 that the latter difficulty
was overcome by Charles Crask, a New York engraver,
whose improved stereotyping process was at once
adopted by the New York Tribune. This made the
use of duplicate forms possible. The first web, per-
fecting press capable of doing the work.9f, a large
morning newspaper was built by William Bullock, of
Pittsburg, for the Cincinnati, Times in 1861, and soon
after a similar press was tried by the New York Tribune.
Neither of these, however, accomplished all that was
expected of it, and Mr. Bullock worked at his inven;
tion several years longer before he finally surmounted
all obstacles and produced the improved press capable
of printing 10,000 perfect newspapers per hºur. The
Walter press, which prints, the New York Times and
the London Times, is similar to Bullock's, with the
addition of several improvements in matters of detail,
which give it greater speed. (For illustration see Fig.
14 in article TYPOGRAPHY in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA.) o
“When these perfecting presses began to attain &
speed of 8000 to 10,000 papers an hour, an unexpected
limit was found in the impossibility of delivering be-

TYPOGRAPHY.
713
yond a certain rate from the fly. Richard Hoe and
Stephen D. Tucker invented the contrivance that first
obviated that difficulty in 1877—an accumulating, cyl-
inder on which six or eight sheets were laid one above
another, and then delivered from the fly at one mºtion.
This increased the practical working, speed of the
perfecting press to 18,000 per hour., Preyious to that
these gentlemen had designed a web gºing press
embodying all the improvements of Bullock, Walter,
and other inventors, with many of their own. . It was
a lighter, more compact, and stronger machine, and
rapidly superseded all others in the press-rooms of the
great dailies. A folding attachment was then added,
next a pasting and cutting attachment, and finally, in
1879, th. most perfect printing machine up to that
time made was first put into the press-room of the
St. Louis Republican. Its production was 30,000
perfect eight-page papers per hour, printed, cut,
pasted, and folded. That, like the ten-cylinder ma-
chine, seemed to be the end of printing press improve-
ment; but the improvement has since continued.
The immense circulation attained in recent years by
the great English and American dailies, together with
the ever-present necessity of holding open their pages
for “the latest news,” has presented to the press-
builder an intricate problem. The modern practice
of expanding the four-page paper into the six- or eight-
page sheet and the eight-page journal into one of ten
or twelve pages on days when the pressure of the
news or the demands of the advertiser warrant it has
complicated that problem still further. The problem
has been solved, however, by the invention of that
marvel of mechanical ingenuity, the double supple-
ment insetting press, by means of which a single or a
double sheet supplement is readily turned out, cut,
pasted, and folded into the body of the paper and that,
too, at a rate of speed which permits the holding open
of the news pages until the latest possible moment.
The development of journalistic enterprise has made
ever-increasing demands upon the resources of me-
chanical ingenuity. The most rapid and the most re-
liable of the machines which have enabled it to do so
are those of American make. They are found to-day
in the press-rooms of the leading newspapers of Eng-
land, Ireland, Scotland, and even in New Zealand and
Australia, as well as in those of the greatest American
dailies.
Probably the most productive printing-press ever
built for making four- and six-page papers is that con-
structed in 1888 by Richard Hoe & Co., of New York
and London, for a Philadelphia afternoon newspaper.
It is claimed for this remarkable machine that it is
capable of printing, pasting, counting, and folding
ready for the carrier 96,000 four-page papers per hour,
48,000 six- or eight-page papers, or 24,000 ten-,
twelve-, or sixteen-page papers, the four-, six-, and
eight-page papers counted in lots of either 50 or 100,
and the twelve- and sixteen-page papers in lots of 50,
the papers being cut at the head, pasted, and folded
half-page size. The ability to make the “inset ’’ of
an extra sheet, thereby making a six-page paper in-
stead of one of four pages, whenever it seems desira-
ble, is an advantage which every newspaper publisher
appreciates. Aside from the loss of time involved in
the process, the simple folding in of a single supple-
ment sheet by hand, without pasting it, is often objec-
tionable alike to the reader, the newsdealer, and the
advertiser, and the extra sheet, if loose, is likely to be
lost or discarded. It is such considerations as these,
together with the considerable economy both of time
and labor, that have placed the so-called perfecting,
insetting, or double supplement machines far in ad-
Vance of their foreign competitors in the race for
speed and popular favor.
One of the best illustrations of the highest attain-
ment in the art of press-building, up to the present
time, is the Hoe quadruple web perfecting press which
is now in daily use by the New York World and some
VOL. I \'. '7 MJ
other metropolitan dailies. It prints ſº papers
at a running speed of 90,000 per hour, folded carrier
size; six and eight-page papers at a speed of 43,000;
and ten- and twelve page papers at a speed of 24,990
per hour. As this machine is an excellent type of its
glass a somewhat detailed description of its mechanism
is given. * * * * º
A year was required for the building of this ma;
chine. It is composed of about 6500 parts and
weighs about 53 tons. In each revolution of the plate
cylinder it prints either four complete eight-page
papers, or two complete sixteen-page, papers with one
eight-page sheet inserted in the other. In case of
accident, either the main press or the supplement
press can be run independently of the part which is
crippled. -
in the cut of the quadruple press the end of the
press at the right is the supplement end, and the long
cylinder near the top contains eight plates. The great
roll of paper is near the floor to give steadiness to the
machine and facility for handling. The paper roll of
the main press, which prints the main sheet of the
paper, is at the extreme left near the floor. The two
presses are at right angles to each other, but are
operated by the same power, and together, as in the
case of the double presses, which are similarly ar-
ranged, but on a smaller scale. There is a passage;
way between the main and supplement presses, and
the main shaft for the supplement press is shown
crossing the aisle near the floor. About two-thirds
of that part of the machine to the right of this aisle
is taken up by the supplement press, the remaining
third being the apparatus for folding all the sheets
which both presses can deliver.
The great roll of paper for the main press is about
6 ft. wide, weighs 1700 pounds, and requires two
men, with block and tackle, to handle. The width of
the margin of the printed page is regulated by a screw
controlled by a hand wheel, shown at the head of the
paper-roll spindle. This head is also equipped with a
safety-brake, governed in a second by the smaller lever
of the two inclined to the right. This safety-brake is
used only in case of emergency , as, by means of an
automatic paper-feed and paper-brake combined, the
press is supplied with paper at the exact speed and
tension required. This is done by an endless rubber
belt, the outer end of which rests upon the top of the
paper roll. The large main lever has a quadrant and
latch like the reverse lever of a locomotive. This
starts or stops the press by shifting the main driving
belt, being assisted in stopping by a powerful friction-
º pressing upon the driving pulley on the main
Shaft.
To the left of this starting-lever are seen the ends
of two cylinder shafts. The upper cylinder carries
eight stereotype pages, which are supplied with ink
from an ink fountain at the highest point of the left-
hand end of the machine, as it appears in the cut.
The ink is distributed by composition rollers having
both a revolving and shifting motion so as to distribute
the ink that is fed to the distributing rollers by the
adjustable fountain. By thumb screws placed closely
together along the entire length of the ink fountain,
the flow of ink to any portion of the rollers can be
regulated to a nicety, thus enabling the pressman to
put more or less “color '' upon any column in the
paper. The lower cylinder is the impression, cylinder,
carefully jacketed and so adjusted in position as to
bring the paper, which travels between it and the
inked plate cylinder, up against the latter, giving it a
full and perfect impression.
The endless web is thus printed upon one side, and
it then passes between the large second-impression
cylinder (shown at the right of the starting-lever) and
the second-plate cylinder (shown in line with the first).
This gives upon the other side of the web the impres-
sion of the opposite pages. The paper web runs along
the line of the top of the fraume and over the aisle and
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TYPOGRAPHY.
715
turning-bar placed diagonally across the frame, from
which it passes down into the supplement, press at
right angles to its former course. The operation of the
supplement press (on the right in the engraving) is
practically the same as that of the main press. In
case of the quadruple press each division of the ma-
chine has the same producing power as regards size
and number of sheets.
After the web from the main press is carried over
the angle-bar, which changes its direction to one at
right angles to its previous course, it passes around a
roller, which returns it upon its course in the direct
path with the sheet coming from the supplement
press. Thereafter the double web passes to the head
of the “formers,” where a rotary knife separates the
two sheets lengthwise of the web. Each part passes
down over the “former,” which is an inclined tri-
angular form, placed point downwards between two
rollers, which completes the operation of making a cen-
tral lengthwise fold in the double half-web.
The folding triangle is inclined about 50° to the
horizontal, and its shape is such that as the sheets
glide smoothly but rapidly down its outer surface the
outer edges of the web are curved down and inward
until upon leaving the triangle they gradually meet
between a pair of horizontal rollers. TÉ. width of the
combined web is now only that of a single page, but it
still continues a continuous web. A pair of folding-
and cutting-cylinders carries a double set of knives,
which separate each eight-page or ten-page sheet, as
the case may be, from the moving web, while folding-
blades on the opposite cylinders crease the paper
across the middle of the page and thrust it between the
small rolls, which give it the final fold and hurry it to
the delivery.
Before a paper is completely separated from the
web small pins dart out from the folding-cylinder close
to the blade and catch the web, so as to hold it until
after the length of a page has been completely severed.
This is sº by the paper being grasped by
a series of tapes running faster than its previous speed,
which, breaking the points of attachment which were
left by the cutting-blades, rush the papers to a collect-
ing-cylinder. The pasting is done by the web running
over the edge of a pasting-wheel, which revolves in a
trough of paste, and leaves a track of paste down the
centre of one of the webs.
The papers are dropped, folded half-page size, upon
a set of leather belts, which carry them out from the
folding-machine, and automatically count them in piles
of 50 as they go. The folder can be run in connection
with either one of the printing-machines or with both.
This machine occupies but little space and requires |
only three men and two boys to operate it. The
various supplement presses work almost exactly as the
quadruple press does, only the size of the supplement
sheet is smaller. The quadruple press might be called
a double double-perfecting press. The other supple-
ment presses from which the quadruple has developed
are really triple presses.
By means of these compound presses, capable of
running two webs of paper º, them, it is possible,
by varying the cutting up of the webs, and by using
one-half of the press or both, to make two-, four-, six-,
eight-, ten-, twelve-, or sixteen-page papers. These
presses accomplish their work with much less liability
to stoppage from choking or clogging of the printed
sheets while passing through the folder than their
predecessors did. The great power and production of
these presses are due to their simplicity of construction.
While a single machine accomplishes its work with a
considerable detail of complicated mechanism, such as
the switch, the collecting-cylinder, a perfect network
of tapes, etc., the new double stereotype insetting ma-
chines dispense with nearly all these, except the tapes,
which are reduced in number and extent.
As often as some new invention or some new appli-
eation of an old one has eclipsed all former achieve-
ments, so often has an applauding public believed that
the acme of perfection in the building of speedy presses
has been reached; yet the ideal is still before us... It
may well be that the machine just described will in
time share the fate of its predecessors and give place
to a greater one, but up to the present time it may be
said to mark the highest attainment of the art.
CoLoR-PRINTING.
Progress in the art of color-printing, though less
remarkable than that in the manufacture of news-
paper-presses, deserves mention. Probably the
greatest recent advance in this branch of the art is
that marked by a machine only lately introduced,
the inventor and patentee of which is a Philadelphian.
Though this new color-press has not yet come into
general use, there can be little doubt that it has proved
the possibility of printing by means of a perfecting-
press one sheet of paper on both sides and in several
colors simultaneously, thus enabling the printer to pro-
duce an illustrated paper, book, or pamphlet in illu-
minated colors. Incredible as this may seem, it is
claimed that the complete set-off system contrived in
this machine will enable a skilled printer to accomplish
this result. A recent issue of Paper and Press con-
tains the following description of this interesting and
important invention :
“Colors are now known to some ink-manufacturers
that will work on each other while wet and give good
results. This has been a constant study of the inventor
for over seventeen years, and he is said to have proved
that many designs may be effectively printed at one
operation or passage of a sheet through a machine,
thus expediting work, and often with greater advan-
tages than handling the sheet each time separately for
each color. *
“Another form of this machine will enable one to
print cartoons or pictures from zincographic surfaces in
outline, and then fill in the picture with rich, trans-
parent colors from relief-plates, thereby dispensing
largely with very troublesome wetting of the color
parts of the picture. Thus it may be converted into a
semi-lithographic machine, and produce chromo-zinco-
types, for illustrations suitable for a children's pictorial
or serial. The style may be also adapted to print both
sides at one time, where a large edition would de-
mand it.
“The machines can be constructed to do a great
range of work—from printing a series of labels in colors
to º plain surface on one side ; or the same
press can be used to print a book with great rapidity
on both sides at once.
“This system is based on the principle of two cylin-
ders of unyielding construction running in harmony
with each other. The plate-cylinder is twice the
diameter of the impression-cylinder, and thus three
points are gained : the smallest possible line of contact
in impression, giving strength and speed ; the largest
diameter, so that the plates will not need much
curvature ; and a portion of the plate-cylinder to act as
a table or distribution-surface for the ink. Each color
or side is isolated from the other, thereby preventing a
discoloration by the ink flying while in rapid distribu-
tlOn.
“Every color has a separate pair of cylinders. The
sheet is carried rapidly between each pair of cylinders
by an elastic gear-wheel, or positive-motion metallic
band, to which is attached a series of grippers, and is
held fast in proper position until it has received any
number of impressions on one or both sides. When
the sheet is perfected it is then carried by the same
grippers to a point of delivery, and may be delivered
on a table or passed through any ordinary folding-
Imaghine. Thus, it would be printed, if necessary, on
both sides in colors, , and folded ready for delivery.
The speed of a machine may be made to suit any
special want, because there are no reciprocating- or
eccentric-motions to give impressions. All the parts
716 TYPOGRAPHY,
are rotary, and there are no difficult mechanical prob-
The pica body adopted as the standard under the
lems to be overcome.”
point system was that made by the Johnson type-
TYPE-CLASSIFICATION.
American Point System.—English printers still
suffer from the same trouble that proved a serious
annoyance in this country previous to the universal
adoption by American type-founders of a uniform
gauge of type measurement known as the “American
Point System.” Type made by different founders
varied considerably in the size of its body, though desig-
nated by the same name. Printers upon reinforcing an
old font of minion, for instance, with a new outfit of
minion made by a different founder, sometimes discov-
ered that the difference in size between the two fonts
was so considerable that the type would not “justify,”
and consequently the two fonts could not be mingled.
This difficulty has been obviated by the adoption of the
'' Point System.” This system lays down the cardinal
dictum that the dimension of pica body shall be 12
“points,’’ and that 83 pica bodies—996 points—must
be exactly equivalent to 35' centimetres. Here we
have a unit of measurement (the point) which is based
upon the French metric system—an invariable gauge.
Having agreed upon this sound basis the American
type-founders adopted the following uniform measure-
ments for the bodies of type in common use :
Name under
Old System.
Name under
Point System.
3-point body..................... IEaccelsior.
3% “ “ ..................... Brilliant.
4 “ “ ..................... Semi-Brevie?'
4% & © tº $ tº £ e º e º 'º - e º 'º e º 'º $ tº ſº Diamond.
5 “ ..................... Pearl.
5% “ “ ..................... Agate. .
6 “ “ ..................... Nompareil.
7 “ “ ..................... Minion.
8 “ “ ..................... Previer.
9 * “ | Bourgeois.
© e º ſe tº º e º 'º e º © e s e º 'º & e º e 3-line Eaccelsior.
10 “ “ ..................... Long Primer.
11 tº “ Small Pica.
12 “ “ ..................... Pica.
14 “ “ ..................... {{ºn.
English.
16 “ “ ..................... 2-lime Brevier.
#: {{ {{ | Great Primer.
e e - e s tº e º e º º e º 'º e º e e s e e 3-lime Nonpareil.
20 “ “ ..................... 2-line Long Primer.
Paragon. º
22 “ “ ..................... 2-line Small Pica.
24 “ “ ..................... 2-lime Pica.
28 “ “ ..................... 2-line English.
30 “ “ ..... e e e º e º e º e º e º see e 5-line Nonpareil.
32 “ “ ..................... {:}; Small Pica.
* u, a tº e º 'º e º 'º º & © e º 'º º 4-line JBrevier.
36 “ “ . ................... {:}º Primer.
& e º 'º e º e º G & º º º 3-line Pica.
40 “ “ ..................... Double Paragon.
42 “ “ ..................... 7-lime Nonpareil.
44 “ “ * {{... Small Pica.
* e º e s g c e º 'º e º e º e º e s tº e c 3. In OIl.
48 “ “ ..... tº e º tº º tº tº º tº tº $ tº tº e º º 4-line Pica.
54 {{ 6 : { 5-lime Small Pica.
e t e o e º e º e < * * * > * > * > & © tº 9-line Nonpareil.
60 “ “ ..................... 5-line Pica.
72 “ “ .................... . 6-line Pica.
Bleight to paper, 2% centimeters.
The bodies indicated in italics in the above table are
those whose dimensions, as made by the most extensive
American type-founders prior to the adoption of thc
new system, were the same as they now are under the
point system. The old excelsior, brevier, or pica, for
instance, as made by the best founders before the in-
novation, is identical with that now adopted, and mixed
fonts of the new and old would justify readily. But
the new brilliant, diamond, or pearl would not work
with the old bodies, each being a fraction of a point
larger or smaller than was the prevailing brilliant,
diamond, or pearl of the old régime.
foundry, of Philadelphia, the oldest of its kind in the
country, being established in 1794.
MUSIC-TYPOGRAPHY.
Music-typography is the art of representing a musical.
composition by the combination of movable types, on
which are the staff-lines and the various musical signs
and characters. The art, though an old one, has only
recently been developed to a high state of perfection.
As early as 1482 Oct. Scotus, of Venice, printed music
from type at two separate impressions, th. first print-
ing the staff only and the second the notes upon it.
Erhard Oeglin, of Augsburg, in 1507 was the first to
succeed in printing both the staff-lines and the music
at a single impression. He may be regarded, there-
fore, as the pioneer of the present system, though his
productions were naturally crude as compared with the
work of the present time. The early form of printed
notes was square : then a diamond- or lozenge-shaped
note-head was substituted, and in the latter part of the
seventeenth century the round-shaped note now in
common use was adopted. The first American who
employed movable type for the printing of music was
Christopher Sower, of Germantown, Pa., who, in 1753,
printed and published in the German language a New,
Enlarged, and Complete Song-Book, wherein are con-
tained as well the Psalms of David. Sower cast his
own type, and his musical typography was legible, but
still crude and far from beautiful. As the art of
stereotyping did not come into general use until about
the year 1810, all music-printing prior to that time was
done directly from the type. The wear and tear of
press-work soon battered the type so seriously as to
impair or ruin it, and the process of musical typography
was an expensive one. At present, however, the type
itself is used only as the basis from which are cast,
either electrotype or stereotype plates. The printing
is done from these plates, and the type, not coming in
contact with the press at all, with careful usage on the
part of the compositor and electrotyper, may be made
to serve for a long time without injury.
John M. Armstrong, who was born in New York, in
1833, and died Jan. 25, 1878, probably did more
than any other American to develop the art of music-
typography to its present state of perfection. He
| made this task the study of a lifetime, and in many
ways improved greatly upon the German fonts,
which up to his time had been the best available. To
his efforts was due the introduction of many new
logotypes, brass lines, stems, and straight ties of
various lengths, all of which are recognized as among
the indispensable features of the present system.
A page of music-typography is made up of an
indefinite number of small pieces, so united by the
deft hands of the compositor as to represent continuous
lines and characters. If the type is in good condition
and the work is done skilfully there are no breaks
visible between these many small component parts, the
junctures being so perfect as to defy detection. For
instance, the group of notes combined in Fig. 1 is made
up of 29 pieces, as shown in Fig. 2. To make the
====E ~ * = i = − = -
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
various and almost infinite combinations required in the
representation of an intricate piece of music upwards
of 500 separate typographical characters are used by
the musical-compositor. Figs. 3, 4, and 5 represent
the upper-, lower-, and side-cases, comprising a full
font of music-type, with each character located in the
box or compartment in which it belongs. In the
upper-case are shown in the left-hand side the ties
used for connecting the stems of the notes. These are
TYPOGRAPHY.
Fig. 3.
necessarily of various lengths, and produced at various
angles to the staff-lines, in order to connect properly
notes or different portions of the musical staff; in the
right-hand section of the case is a similar assortment
of slurs, also adjusted at varying angles to the staff-
lines, for the same reason ; there, too, are the acci-
dentals (sharps, flats, etc.), some of them on the staff-
lines and others on the spaces,
In the lower-case (Fig. 4) are the several notes and
rests—some on the lines and others on the spaces—
note-stems, bass and treble-clefs, pauses, the quadrates,
and sections of the staff-lines in various lengths.
In the middle compartment of the side case (Fig. 5)
are the characters known to the musician as grace-
notes, the diminutive accidentals, etc., and the other
sections of the same case contain the numerals, cres-
cendo and diminuendo characters, and other symbols
which the musician will recognize readily.
d
There are in common use five styles of music type,
the “bodies’’ of which are of different sizes. There
are also various fonts of the same sized “body,” but
printing the note-heads larger or smaller. The pre-
vailing styles are shown in Fig. 6. The smallest
type, beginning at the top of the figure, is known as
“Excelsior 2,” and the others, in the order in which
they are shown in the plate, are “Excelsior Music,”
“Diamond,” “Diamond 3,’’ ‘‘Diamond 2,” “Agate
3,’’ and “ Nonpareil 3.”
Character Note Systems.-Various typographical
devices have been introduced from time to time with
the common object of simplifying the reading of musi-
cal compositions. None of these has as yet been
adopted so extensively as to supersede the common
system, though the device known as the Tonic Sol-Fa
system is meeting with considerable favor, especially
in England. The Tonic Sol-Fa system dispenses en-
3. Sº
r line
% em
quadrate
1 line en
quadrate
1 line quadrate.
a line quadrate.
2 line em
quadrate
1 line em
|quadrate


718 TYPOGRAPHY.
Fig. 5.
tirely with the common staff-lines of the musical scale,
and also with the note characters, The seven tones
(do remi fa sol la si) are indicated by the initial let-
ters, d, r, m, f, s, l, and t, printed in bold, plain-faced ||.
type. An upper tone is distinguished from the one
an octave below it by means of an accent mark printed
above the initial letter which indicates the note. By
combinations of these initial letters any musical chord
may be represented readily enough, while the time, the
value of the several notes, the rests, pauses, slurs, etc.,
are represented by similar typographical expedients,
which are not difficult to master.
Another idea which has been developed in various
forms is that of indicating the tone by the peculiar
shape of the note-head, the theory being that the
shape of the note-head, together with its distinctive
position on the staff, makes a double appeal to the
eye of the musician and renders the note more readily
identified. One of the most ingenious of these sys-
tems is that introduced by Jesse B. Aikin, an Ameri-
can, who contrived a different shaped note-head for
each of the seven tones, round, semi-circular, rect-
angular, diamond-shaped, and triangular forms, all be-
ing employed in his method. In i of these devices
the shape of the note-head is the main distinguishing
feature, the staff lines still being retained generally
(though the idea theoretically permits of their aban-
donment), and the values of the several notes being
represented by note-stems, dots, etc., as in the pre-
vailing system.
In Aikin's system the seven characters employed
are as follows:
* Nº sº he dº ſº fº
do re mi fa Sol la si
The smallest type, beginning E-3
at the top of the figure, is known -
as “Excelsior 2,” and the e
others, in the order in
which they are shown in
the plate, are “Excel-
sior Music,” “Dia-
mond,” “Diamond
3,” “Diamond N-
3." “Agate 3,” Oh, Say, Can you See
and Non- Q \ [ TI
pareil 3.” H. —I ~ —— I
#SEE===#H
N- -º- r—
Oh, Say, can you see
N-
Oh, say, can you see
S-
Oh, say, can you see
Fig. 6.
(H. P.)





UMBRELLA TREE–UNION COLLEGE,
719
U.
UMBRELLA TREE. The tree known under this
title is one of the several American species of magno-
lias, its specific designation being magnolia umbrella.
It is a small tree, rarely more than 36 ft, high, and
with a trunk less than a foot in diameter. Its range
is from south-east Pennsylvania along the Alleghenies
to central Alabama, and westward through Kentucky
and Tennessee to north-east Mississippi, it also oc-
º
* +:-
& 2 ºº
Unabrella Tree.
curring in central and south-west Arkansas. It is
most common on the western slopes of the Southern
Alleghenies, where it frequents rich, shady hillsides.
Like all the magnolias it is a handsome tree, bearing
very large, white, highly-scented flowers, and a rose-
colored fruit. It gets its name from the fact of the
leaves being crowded on the summit of the flowering
branch in an umbrella-like circle.
UNION COLLEGE. This institution of learning
at Schenectady, N. Y., was founded in 1795 by the
Regents of the University of the State of New York,
in response to a petition of 127 citizens of the State.
Several earlier but unsuccessful efforts had been made
to accomplish the same end.
The prime movers in all later efforts were the pro-
prietors of the Schenectady Academy, originally estab-
j in 1785 under the patronage of the Reformed
Dutch Church. In 1792 and again in 1794 the request
of its managers for a charter under the title “The
College of Schenectady,” was denied, but finally a
plan was framed designed to obviate the objections
made to former applications, and coupled with an offer | LL
of the immediate use of the academy building. This
scheme proposed the name ' Union College” and pro-
vided guarantees for the independence of the institu-
tion from all sectarian bias. The charter was granted
on Feb. 25, 1795, over the signatures of George
Clinton, governor and chancellor, and De Witt Clinton,
secretary. The charter granted all the rights and
privileges enjoyed by Columbia College, fixed the
number of trustees as twenty-four, gave them power
of perpetual succession, of appointing officers of
instruction and government, of making ordinances for
government, and of conferring such degrees “as are
usually granted by any or either of the universities of
}.} Subsequent amendments reduced the
number of trustees to twenty-one, and admitted certain
officers of the State to ex-officio membership. In
1873, by act of the Legislature, an additional university
charter was obtained by which permission was granted
several existing institutions to unite with Union
College in the formation of Union University.
The new institution was housed at once in the two-
story brick academy building, 50 by 30 feet, and re-
mained in these humble quarters until a new and
commodious structure of stone, three stories and
basement, 150 by 60 feet, costing about $56,000, was
completed in 1804. Since 1854 this building has
been the main edifice of the public school system of
the city. The only evidence of its former collegiate
use remains in the name of the neighboring “College
street.” º º
During the first nine years of its history, 1795 to
1804, the college had three presidents, Rey. John
Blair Smith, D. D., Presbyterian, Rev. Jonathan
Edwards, D.D., Presbyterian, and Rev. Jonathan
Maxcy, D. D., Baptist. In 1804 began the presidency
of the distinguished Eliphalet Nott, D. D., L.L. D.
At the time of his election to the presidency he was a
Presbyterian clergyman in the city of Albany, a mem:
ber of the board of trustees of Union College, and
known to the general public chiefly as the author of
the funeral oration over Alexander Hamilton. Dr.
Nott retired from the official management of the
college in 1861, after nearly sixty years of continuous
service, but he really continued to direct the affairs of
the institution until his death in 1866. He was suc-
ceeded by the profound metaphysician, Rev. Laurens
P. Hickok, D. D., LL.D. Upon the retirement of
Dr. Hickok in 1868, the nominal presidency was con-
ferred upon the Hon. Ira Harris, L.L. D., of Albany,
then president of the board of trustees. The actual
management of the college, however, devolved upon
Prof. Isaac W. Jackson, L.L. D., senior member of
the faculty. Subsequent presidents were Rev. Charles
A. Aiken, D. D., Ph. D., a graduate of Dartmouth,
and Rev. Eliphalet Nott Potter, D. D., D., a
grandson of Dr. Nott and an alumnus of Union,
who succeeded Dr. Aiken in 1871. During the ad-
ministration of Dr. Potter, 1871 to 1884, the build-
ings were materially improved, their number in-
creased, the classes enlarged, and the funds of the
college strengthened. Upon the retirement of Dr.
Potter in 1884 to take the presidency of Hobart
College occurred an interregnum of four years,
during which affairs were directed by Hon. Judson
S. Landon, L.L. D., as president ad interim.
In June, 1888, Harrison Edwin Webster, LL.D.,
an alumnus and former, professor of the college, was
called to the vacant presidency. Among eminent in-
structors connected with the college at various times
during its history may be mentioned Rt. Rev. Alonzo
Potter, D. D., D., who subsequently became
Bishop of Pennsylvania; Rev. Francis Wayland, D.D.,
AL. D., Subsequently President of Brown Univer.
sity ; Tayler Lewis, LL. D., the eminent oriental
scholar and author, one of the foremost Greek
scholars in the United States; William Mitchell
Gillespie, L.L. D., founder of the school of civil
engineering at Union ; Isaac W. Jackson, L.L. D.,
author of various mathematical works ; Jonathan
Pearson, A. M., distinguished for antiquarian re-
searches, and John Foster, LL.D
The grounds of Union College comprise about 130
acres, within city limits but on the north-east verge.
They are greatly diversified, and command a wide
and charming view. They include also a famous
garden of several acres, the memorial of Dr. Jack-
$on, whose name it bears and to whose devotion its
loveliness is a perpetual witness. The present build-
ings occupy a broad level terrace nearly half a
mile, in length. The main structures, North and
South Colleges, respectively, are each in the shape of
an L, and include between their long arms a campus
600 feet in breadth. . The front line of buildings,
200, feet long in each college, is four stories in
height, and is flanked by the residence of a professor
Qne at each extremity and one at each angle, making
four in all. . The wings, somewhat lower and called
the colonnades, extend at right angles 300 feet to
the rear and include the campus between their parallel

720
UNITED LABOR PARTY.
sides. The material is brick, grouted gray, and diver-
sified by pilasters of white, ''The front edifice of each
gollege is subdivided into three Sections, each contain-
lºš.16 roºms and giving a total dormitory accommo-
dation of about 200. The engineering-rooms, the
chemical and physical laboratories, the armory, the
natural history museum, the chapel, and the recita.
flon-rooms of the departments of Greek, modern
languages, engineering, chemistry, physics, natural
story, and military science are contained in this set
of buildings.
At the back of the campus, midway between the
golleges, stands a sixteen-sided structure of StOne, 84
feet in diameter, and surmounted by a dome rising to
a height of 120 feet above the ground floor. The
exterior Ornamentation is white sand-stone and Scotch
granite. The interior has a mosaic pavement of Salop
tile, the walls are rivetted with polished marble, the
galleries are of corrugated iron, and light is admitted
through, stained glass. This costly structure was
ºrected by Dr. Potter at the cost chiefly of the Hon.
Clarkson, N. Potter, and Mr. Howard Potter, as a
memorial of Dr. Nott. At a short distance to the rear
is a semi-circular structure of pressed brick. The
central part, two stories in height, and fire-proof,
contains the library.
The wings hold the recitation-rooms of the depart-
ments, of mathematics, English, Latin, philosophy,
and ethics. The central portion is styled “The Wash.
burne Memorial Library Hall,” the rest of the struct-
ure “The Thomas Henry Powers Memorial Hall.”
The gymnasium is a detached structure of brick in the
rear of South College. In addition to the four resi-
dences already mentioned are the following: the
dwelling, formerly Dr. Nott's, now occupied by the
president; the house built by Dr. Potter for his use;
a handsome Swiss cottage erected by Hon. Samuel T.
Benedict for the use of Dr. Jackson and wife, and
in virtue of this consideration held by himself under a
life-lease, and two other residences. The remaining
buildings are the photographic rooms, bath-houses,
stables, and cottages occupied by college servants.
The departments of law, medicine, pharmacy, and
the observatory, which with the college constitute the
university are situated in Albany.
The library contains about 30,000 volumes. Its
special features are the Gillespie collection of engine-
ering and Scientific works, the Patterson collection of
mathematical works, and very complete sets of the
great literary reviews. Connected with it is a reading-
room supplied with the leading current magazines and
reviews. .
Under the title of apparatus and collections may be
mentioned the following : 1. In physics a costly set of
apparatus for illustration and experiment in electricity,
magnetism, light, heat, acoustics, pneumatics, etc.
2. In natural history, the Wheatley collection of shells
and minerals, the gift of the Hon. E. C. Delavan,
valued at over $80,000. The collection of marine in-
vertebrate faunas, made by President Webster and
his assistants during his incumbency of the professor:
ship of natural history, representing the results of fif-
teen years of special research along the Atlantic coast
of North America and the west shore of the Gulf of
Mexico, and of exchange of duplicates for specimens
from nearly every part of the world. The fine col-
lection of North American birds, gathered and
mounted by James E. Benedict, A. M., some time
assistant to the department of natural history. 3. In
engineering, instruments of every, class, representing
the entire development of practical engineering. The
Olivier models, 50 in number, ºn; the most
important and complicated surfaces of descriptive
geometry, invented by Prof. Theodore Olivier, of the
Paris “Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.” Of the
three existing sets, Union College has the fullest and
the original. Bardins, (Paris) dº models of inter-
sections, Schröeder's (Darmstadt) models, stone-cutting
models from “L’École Polytechnique,” architectural
models from “L’Ecole des Beaux Arts,” bridge models,
including Doyne's dynamometer bridge model, etc.
and over 50,000 plates of engineering and architectural
Structures.
The courses of study offered at Union are four ;
the classical, the scientific, the Latin scientific, and
the engineering. The degrees conferred in the course
are A, B., B. S., and C. E. The faculty includes the
president, eleven professors, a professor emeritus, a
tutor, and a lecturer. There are several grades of
seholarships, granting credits that range from $50 to
$300 per year. Various commencement prizes are
offered for excellency in oratory, essays, débate, and
general standing.
The list of commencement prizes embraces:
ſ Blatchford Medals,
two. Total value $70.
Oratory, l Junior and Sophomore, four. {{ “ 50.
* Veeder, one. & & “ 50.
Ingham, On 8. { { “ 70.
Essays, Clarke, tWO. { { “ 25.
Allen, three. § { “ 60.
Conduct
and Warner Cup, One. “ “ 50.
Standing, º
Military, three. { { “ 75
Honors consist of assignment to place among the ten
Commengement orators, the valedictory, special men-
tion for high standing and extra work.
College Societies.—The old Adelphic and Philoma-
thean Debating Societies still exist, but their function
has in large measure been transferred to the secret
Societies. The students publish the Concordiensis
monthly during college year, and the can º
J. R. T.
UNITED LABOR PARTY is a political organiza-
tion which grew out of the Central Labor Union in
New York city. This union was established in the
winter of 1881–82, and its origin is traced to a meetin
held for the purpose of expressing the sympathy of
workingmen in New York city with the poor of Ire-
land. In the autumn of 1882 the Union nominated
candidates for Congress, the State Assembly, and the
city board of aldermen. But the Labor vote in the
election was trifling until Henry George (q. v.) had
commenced an agitation for the nationalization of
land. In July, 1886, the Union appointed a commit-
tee to prepare a plan of political action. After sev-
eral conferences a city convention was held Sept. 23,
at which 176 labor organizations were represented.
The platform adopted practically affirmed George's
doctrines, and the convention nominated him for mayor
with little opposition. The candidate of the united
Democracy was Abram S. Hewitt, and the Republican
candidate, Theodore Roosevelt. Mr. George made
over 100 speeches during the campaign, and by his
energetic action roused i. friends and foes to un-
wonted efforts. Before the nomination he had received
the pledges of 34,000 voters. The election gave Hew-
itt 90,552; George, 68,110; and Roosevelt, 60,435.
As the strength of the Greenback-Labor party (see
GREENBACK PARTY) had been in the country districts,
this result seemed to show that a similar element ex-
isted in the large cities. The problem for their leaders
was how to unite these elements in an effective organ;
ization. In New Haven the Labor party obtained
about 1000 votes in November, 1886, but the movement
in Boston failed as an element in the campaign. In New
York city those who supported George determined to
call themselves the “United Labor Party,” and they
prepared a constitution with the following preamble:
“We, the representatives of the United Labor party
of the city and county of New York, believing that
governmental corruptions and injustices spring from
neglect of the self-evident truth that all men are cre-
y
ated equal; that the advantages arising from social
UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
721
growth and improvement belong of right to the society
at large, and that the true purpose of government is
the maintenance of that sacred right of property which
jures to everyman the fruits of his own labor; demand
that in the drawing of grand-jurors there shall be no
distinction of class; that the property qualification for
trial jurors shall be abolished; that equal pay for
equal work should in public employment be accorded
without distinction of sex; that police interference
with peaceful assemblages should, cease; that our
elective methods should i. reformed ; that the people
of New York should have full control of their own
iocal affairs; that the procedure of our courts should
be simplified; that the laws for the safety and sanitary
inspection of buildings should be enforced ; that all
jaws which bear unjustly on labor should be abolished;
that in public work all labor, should be directly em-
ployed; that all taxes on buildings and imprºvements
should be abolished; that all taxes should be levied on
land values which arise from and are due solely to in-
crease of population; that existing means of transit
should no longer be left in the hands of Corporations,
but should by lawful process be assumed by the city
and operated for the public benefit.” g
In Chicago a branch of the party was established
which required each member to take a pledge to Sup-
port its candidates.
The first regular convention of the United Labor
party met in New York in January, 1887. In the
New York Legislature of 1887 a law was passed, with
little opposition, allowing this new-born party to have
two inspectors at every polling-place in the city of New
York, thus giving it the same privileges enjoyed by the
older political parties. It had also the advantage, of
an organization well provided with workers who had
become alienated from the larger Democratic organ-
izations. -
Yet from this climax of its political power the United
Labor party rapidly dwindled in numbers. Qne of the
chief supporters of George was Dr. Edward McGlynn,
who was suspended from his functions as a Roman
Catholic priest on account of his pronounced opinions
in favor of the land-nationalization theories. Many of
the sympathizers with the movement could not follow
it as long as Dr. McGlynn was under a ban. At its
State Convention, held in Syracuse in August, 1887,
Socialists were excluded from the party. Henry
George was nominated for Secretary of State, and
along with him a complete ticket for State officers.
The platform took more advanced ground in regard to
George's theories, and also resolved in favor of many
measures of particular importance to laboring men, as
to the hours of work, free schools, etc. In the elec-
tion of November, 1887, George secured 70,055 votes
in the State of New York, his vote in New York city
having fallen to 37,477; but in Kings co. (Brooklyn)
he had 15,635, or nearly 1000 more than his party ob-
tained in 1886. In ôº. 1888, the party nomi-
nated Mr. James J. Coogan for mayor of New York
city, but in the bewildering whirl of the national Pres-
idential election he obtained only 9809 votes. Thus
within two years the United Labor party dropped from
the surprising vote of 68,000 to comparative insignifi-
cance. The indications are that the party has no real
bond of coherence, and cannot maintain its existence
as a factor in politics. But its sudden rise and its fall
no less sudden form a peculiar chapter in the history
of American politics. (See SOCIALISM.) (F. G. M.)
UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF
North AMERICA. This church was formed in May,
1858, by the union of the Associate Presbyterian
Church and the Associate. Beformed Presbyterian
Church (see these titles). The basis of union was the
Westminster Confession of Faith (with a slight modi-
fication) and Catechisms, and a Testimony, containing
18 articles or declarations of doctrine. Those having
direct practical bearing pronounced slaveholding a sin
disapproved secret societies, forbade the extending of
|
communion in sealing ordinances to persons who
refuse adherence to the church's profession, and de-
clared that in singing God's praise the Bible. Psalms
should be inj to the exclusion of uninspired hº-
man compositions. . These declarations, practically
held in common with the Reformed . Presbyterian
Churches (q.v.), yet serve to Separate this body from
the main Presbyterian Church. It may further be re-
marked that though this denomination gan historically
claim community of origin with the United Presby-
terian Church of Scotland, it is in regard to Calvinistic
orthodoxy at the furthest remove from that body.
The first General Assembly of the newly formed de-
nomination met in Xenia, Ohio, in May, 1859. . Its
statistics show that it had 42 Presbyteries, 408 minis-
ters, 634 congregations, and 55,547 members. The
three synods of the Associate Reformed Presbyterian
Church, namely, that of New York and the First
and Second Synods of the West, formed a framewºrk
for grouping the Presbyteries. . The General Assembly
appointed the following boards to conduct the benef-
ident operations of the church : The Board of For;
eign Missions, located at Philadelphia; Board of
Home Missions, at Xenia, O.; Board of Publication,
at Pittsburg; Board of Church Extension, at Alle-
gheny, Pa.; Board of Education, at Monmouth, Ill.
To these was added in 1863 a Board of Freedmen's
Missions, at Allegheny, Pa.; and in 1873, a Board of
Ministerial Relief, at Philadelphia; the latter bein
an expansion of an Aged Ministers' Fund, commence
in 1862. *
The progress of the church has been steady. . Its
numbers have been increased by emigration from
the north of Ireland as well as by accessions from those
born in America. Its stronghold has been in Western
Pennsylvania, but it has spread throughout the West,
and has some churches on the Pacific coast. In 1865
Rev. W. C. McCune, of Cincinnati, then a minister
of this church, published a book on Close Commun-
ion, advocating a wider extension of church privi-
leges than the iononº Testimony allowed. He
was tried by his synod and acquitted of teaching seri-
ous error, but appeal being taken to the General As-
sembly in 1867, that court found him guilty of main-
taining serious error in regard to church fellowship.
Mr. McCune withdrew to the Presbyterian Church,
and afterwards passed to the Congregationalists.
The movement which had commenced in the vari-
ous Presbyterian Churches of Scotch origin for the
improvement of the Psalmody was continued in the
United Presbyterian Church and resulted in the adoption
by the Assembly of 1871 of a better metrical version of
the Psalms. This newly authorized version has in a great
degree superseded the Scotch version of the Psalms,
often called Rous's version. In connection with
the new version commendable efforts have been made
to improve the singing in the churches. To this end
the Board of Publication has prepared various editions of
the Psalter with appropriate music. This movement
led also to a discussion of the right to use instrumental
music in the worship of God. The Directory of
Worship which had been adopted by the action of the
(..."Nº. and the Presbyteries in 1867 forbade
such use on the ground that the Scriptures did not
warrant it in the New Testament Church. But an
increasing party grew restive under this restriction
and an open controversy arose on the publication by
Rev. D. F. Bonner of a pamphlet, Instrumental Music
Divinely Authorized (1877). Several pamphlets were
issued in reply to this. A vigorous movement for the
repeal of the section forbidding instrumental music
was begun and the question was submitted by the
General Assembly to the vote of the Presbyteries.
The vote as reported to the Assembly in 1881 was
doubtful, but the Assembly declared the section re-
pealed. This action was stoutly disputed, but each
successive Assembly, refused to reopen the question,
giving various explanations of the position taken.
722
UNIVERSALISM,
The advocates of instrumental music have in many
cases introduced organs into their churches, and at-
tempts to subject them to church discipline therefor
have failed. Some congregations have been divided
and the general work of the church has suffered, yet
the annual reports to the Assembly continued to show
advance in all departments.
In the midst of this controversy came in 1883 the
twenty-fifth anniversary of the denominational or.
ganization. A special and vigorous effort was made
to celebrate this quarter-centennial by liberal contribu
tions to the beneficent work of the church. The net
amount raised was $369,668.86, which was distributed
to the Mission Boards of the church, to its theolog-
ical seminaries, to the denominational colleges, and to
Some local objects.
The United Presbyterian Church has been actively
engaged in foreign mission work since its formation.
From the churches which combined in 1858 it re.
ceived under its care missions in Egypt, India, and
Syria. In 1859 it started a new mission to China,
but after several years of labor in that field the
General. Assembly decided to leave it to other de-
nominations and the missionary was recalled to labor
among the Chinese in California. The mission in
Syria was likewise transferred to the Irish Presby-
terian Church, which had already been associated
in the work. The United Presbyterian Church
has concentrated its efforts in Egypt and India
(the Punjab), and its success has challenged the at:
tention of all visitors to those countries. In both
there are theological training-schools for the natives,
and several churches have native pastors.
In Egypt there are 85 mission stations, 11 ordained
missionaries, 10 female missionaries, 10 native pastors,
2307 communicants, and 5601 pupils, the mission
property being valued at $207,810. In India there
are 69 stations, 8 ordained missionaries, 11 female
missionaries, 12 native pastors, 457l communicants,
and 4341 pupils, the mission property being valued at
$29,922.
The statistics of the United Presbyterian Church
for 1888 show 10 synods, 61 presbyteries, 753 minis-
ters, of whom 507 are pastors, 57 licentiates, 42 stu-
dents of theology, 3580 ruling elders, 907 congrega-
tions, of which 614 have pastors, 150 mission stations,
159 parsonages, 98,992 communicant members, 953
Sabbath-schools, with 9815 officers and teachers, and
86,450 scholars. The total contributions for the year
ending April 30, 1888, were $1,019,937, of which
$783, 120 were for congregational purposes.
The church has two theological seminaries. That
of the conservative wing is at Xenia, Ohio, and is
the successor of the oldest seminary in the United
States (see THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES). The other,
more flourishing, is at Allegheny City, Pa.. West-
minster College, New Wilmington, Pa., and Mon-
mouth College, Monmouth, Ill., are denominational
colleges of many years' standing and established rep-
utation. Lincoln College, Mo., and Cooper Me-
morial College, Kansas, are of recent origin, and are
still struggling for. existence. Muskingum College
and Franklin ãº. older institutions in Ohio, are
largely patronized by United Presbyterians. At
Knoxville, Tenn., is a college for the Freedmen, con-
ducted by United Presbyterians. tº *º tº
Besides Sabbath-school papers and other periodi-
cals issued by the Board of Publication at Pittsburg
there are published in the interest of this church two
weekly papers, The Christian Instructor, at Philadel:
phia, and The United Presbyterian, at Pittsburg, and
also a monthly, The Evangelical Repository, at Pitts-
burg.
See Rev. Dr. J. B. Scouller's full and accurate
Manual of the United Presbyterian Church (2d ed.,
1887), and Rev. Dr. W. J. Reid's United Presbyte-
rianism (1886). (J. P. L.)
UNIVERSALISM is commonly thought to mean
belief in the final salvation of all men. The System
of faith which passes under this name cannot be char.
acterized in this way. The result here predicated is
but a corollary or inference from a theological concep-
tion which regards God as a moral being working by
Horal methods for the accomplishment of moral ends
The principles of his nature are declared to be univer
sal in their application and issue.
History-This view is not modern. The apostles
taught that God is love and that love sent the Saviour
into the world. Their successors held to this concep-
tion and stated it with positiveness. Great leaders of
the Greek Church, like Clement of Alexandria and Ori-
gen, maintained by specific arguments that love must
triumph in the ultimate recovery of every soul. This
Yiew prevailed until the sceptre of authority passed
from the Eastern to the Western branch of the church.
Then a purely legal conception of the divine nature
and government, of sin and penalty, and of redemp-
tion was substituted for the moral. Augustinianism
came to prevail almost exclusively until the rise of
Protestantism. The latter movement produced the
modifications known as Lutheranism and Calvinism.
The Reformed theology of England was for the most
part that taught by Calvin. The Westminster divines
sought to put Calvinism into a popular form. This
was the theology which the early settlers brought to
this country. The whole English-speaking race at the
beginning of the eighteenth century gave almost un-
qualified assent to it.
But very early in the century there began to be
Imarked symptoms of dissent. Arminianism in Eng-
land, and, later on, the Arminian and Socinian
tendencies in America, were the signs of a protest in
the bosom of Protestantism against Calvinistic pre-
destination and election. During this upheaval the
modern Universalist movement had its birth. It began
on the other side of the water, but was soon transferred
to America. Dr. Eddy, in his work entitled Univer-
salism in America, mentions five distinct channels by
which the doctrine was brought hither: 1. Dr. George
De Beneville, one of the French refugees in London,
1703, after expulsion from England because of his
heretical opinions, and after barely escaping death
from the same cause in France, came to Aumerica in .
1741, and settled in Pennsylvania, where he practised
medicine and preached in different parts of the State
until his death, in 1793. 2. The §. Baptists,
commonly called Dunkers (q.v.), who settled in Penn-
sylvania in 1719, were from the first believers in the uni-
versal restoration. 3. The Rev. Richard Clarke, rector
of St. Philip's Church, having a European reputation,
was pronounced in his advocacy of the doctrine. He
had strong sympathizers among leading men of his
denomination in different parts of the country. 4.
Among the Congregationalists, the attitude of Dr.
Charles Chauncey, pastor of the First Church of
Boston, and of Dr. Jonathan Mayhew, of the West
Church, is well known. 5. But the Universalist de-
nomination of to-day traces its origin to the Rev. John
Murray (1741–1815), who came from England to this
country and preached his first sermon in Thomas Pot-
ter's church, at Good Luck, N. J., Sept. 30, 1770.
Murray at twelve years of age had come under the
influence of John Wesley, who honored him with his
confidence, so that he became, a few years later, an
advocate in his connection. But upon hearing White-
field he adopted Calvinistic views, and became a com-
municant in his Tabernacle. , Here he was so marked
by his zeal and ability that he was º commis-
sioned to reclaim a young lady of the congregation
who had adopted the views of James Relly, a Univer-
salist preacher of London. The young lady was strong
in her convictions, and by questions and answers raised
roblems in his mind which troubled him sorely. . Next
he began to read Relly's Union, a small theological
treatise, and became a regular attendant upon his
preaching. Completely converted to what was then
UNIVERSALISM.
723
known as “Rellyism,” he was then urged to become a
preacher of the new faith, but declined. After the
death of his wife he emigrated, hoping that he might
bury himself in the wilderness. But after resisting by
every means the solicitations of Mr. Potter, he con-
sented to preach in the house which the latter had
built in the confident expectation of a preacher whose
views corresponded with his own. Murray, at first
thought he would spend his days as a kind of private
chaplain to his new-found friend, and his immediate
neighbors. But people flocked to hear him from miles
around. He says: “Solicitations, earnest solicitations,
poured in from the Jerseys, from Philadelphia and
from New York; and it became impossible to with-
stand their repeated and imposing energy.". He en-
tered upon a series of missionary journeys which car-
ried him as far north as Portsmouth, N. H. . As early
as 1773 he had made several visits to Rhode Island,
preaching to large congregations in Newport, East
Greenwich, and Providence. He formed, life-long
friendships with Gen. Nathaniel Greene and other
distinguished Rhode Island patriots.
Mr. Relly held that the atonement was complete.
All men had fallen in Adam, through “union” with
him had actually participated in his transgression, and
therefore merited damnation. But in like manner all,
through “union ” with Christ, the second Adam, had
entered into the atonement. Their redemption, though
not their salvation, was complete. Murray accepted
this doctrine without qualification. Supposing him-
self to be entirely alone in his views on this continent,
he did not make formal announcement of them, but
confined his expression entirely to the language of the
Scriptures. Hence his deviation from orthodoxy for
some time was not suspected, and churches of the
standing order were freely opened to him. But as
men came to have a clearer understanding of his
opinions he encountered opposition. While preach-
ing in Boston in 1774 his life was threatened. Visit-
ing Gloucester, Nov. 3, 1774, he found several persons
who had read Relly's Union, and were thoroughly in
accord with its teachings. Being invited to settle in
Gloucester, he accepted, and barring the term of his
chaplaincy in the army, resided here until his removal
to Boston, in 1793, where he remained until his death.
Through Murray's influence a number of societies were
established in different parts of the country. Among
his associates in the work of the ministry may be men-
tioned Adams Streeter, Caleb Rich, Edward Mitchel,
George Richards, a man of lofty eloquence and literary
. Walter Ferris, Elhanan Winchester, and Hosea
all 10 U.
Mr. Ballou exerted a greater influence than Murray
upon the Universalist denomination and theology.
e was born in Richmond, N. H., April 30, 1771, of
Baptist parentage, but before he was 18 years old he
i. become persuaded that the Scriptures taught that
the grace of God is universal, and a few years later he had
cast aside the commonly received notions of the Trinity,
and the atonement. After being ordained to the min-
istry in 1794 his settlements were Dana, Mass. ; Bar-
nard, Vt. ; Portsmouth, N. H. ; Salem, and Boston.
In the autumn of 1798 he supplied Mr. Murray's pul-
‘pit for ten weeks. “On the last day of his minis-
tration he gave a very frank and clear explanation
ºf his new views touching Christ and the atonement.”
The occasion is historic. It marks a new departure
in the Universalist theology of the period. From that
time every vestige of Calvinism was swept out of the
Universalist faith. In 1804 Ballou published Notes
on the Purables of the New Testament, and in 1805
his Treatise on the Atonement. Horace Greeley and
others have called this the most remarkable book of
the century. It was remarkable, if it be remembered,
that a young man without formal education, unac-
quainted with the literature of theology, without com-
mentaries, with nothing but the English Bible, had
substituted the moral for the legal view of the atone-
ment, and produced a system of theology, with Christ
as the mediatorial agent for bringing the moral uni-
verse into voluntary subjection to the power and love
of God. His theology, however, has never been
wholly acceptable to the Universalist body. . He held
an extreme view of the Divine sovereignty which, gave
an Antinomian tinge to his teaching. . His theory
that “the Scriptures begin and end the history of sin
in flesh and blood, and that beyond this mortal exist-
ence the Bible teaches no other sentient state, but
that which is called by the blessed name of life and im-
mortality,” gave rise to the Restorationist movement,
and led many to feel that the Universalist view of sin
is superficial and frivolous. Yet, under his influence,
the denomination had a phenomenal growth. People
flocked in multitudes to hear his messages, and he
drew into co-operation with him men whose intellect-
ual gifts were only inferior to his own. Mention
should be made of Walter Balfour, whose examina-
tion of the meaning of the terms Sheol, Hades, Tar-
tarus, and Gehenna, led to interpretations which have
now been accepted by the foremost scholars and Bib-
lical critics of the Protestant world; Thomas Whit-
tlemore, an unrivalled controversialist, and Lucius R.
Paige, known by his books, Selections from Eminent
Commentators, and Commentary of the New Testa-
ment. The historical outline of Universalism would
not be complete without reference to two other men,
who, though belonging to a later generation, were con-
temporaries of Hosea Ballou in the formative period
of the denomination. The first is Hosea Ballou, sec-
ond editor of the Universalist Quarterly Magazine,
from 1844 to 1861, and the first president of Tufts
College ; a scholar of the first rank. The second is
Thomas J. Sawyer, the dean of Tufts Divinity School.
To these two men the denomination is indebted for
the shaping of its theology, and for the educational
impulse which has been a conspicuous feature of its
later history.
The General Convention, at its session in Winchester,
N. H., in 1803, adopted the following :
I. We believe that the Holy Scriptures of the Old
and New Testaments contain a revelation of the
character of God, and of the duty, interest, and final
destination of mankind.
II. We believe that there is one God, whose nature
is love ; revealed in one Lord Jesus Christ, by one
Holy Spirit of grace, who will finally restore the
whole family of mankind to holiness and happiness.
III. We believe that holiness and true happiness
are inseparably connected, and that believers ought to
be careful to maintain order and practice good works,
for these things are good and profitable unto men,
This profession has remained the only test of fellow-
ship until the present time. There is, however, a
large and increasing minority who object to it on the
ground, first, that the last clause of the second article
seems to imply the doctrine of the fall of the race
through the transgression of Adam ; and secondly,
that the third article is utilitarian in its philosophy.
A committee has been appointed by the General Con-
vention to consider the matter of revision.
Polity.—Universalists originally for the most part
were drawn from the Congregationalists. Accord-
ingly the polity of the church has Congregational feat-
ures. In the individual churches the people have the
controlling, voice in settling ministers and directing
parish affairs. The parishes are organized into con-
ventions confined to the limits of the several States,
the General Convention being over all. The State con-
ventions are composed of the clergymen in fellowship,
and of lay delegates chosen by the parishes. Discip-
line is in the hands of a committee of fellowship, ap-
pointed by each convention. The General Convention
is a delegate body, meeting, after 1889, biennially,
Delegates, clerical and lay, in certain definite propor-
tions, are chosen by the State conventions. It is also
a corporate body, having a board of trustees, who
724 - UNIVERSITIES_USURY.
are charged with matters of discipline, finance, and
missionary effort. The General Convention was char-
º in 1866. The present organization dates from
Statistics.-The whole number of ministers is 710.
There are 926 parishes, comprising about 40,000 fami-
lies. The church-membership is upwards of 37,000.
There is a Sunday-school membership of nearly 53,000.
The estimated value of church property is $7,500,000.
The permanent funds of the general convention aggre-
gate, nearly $200,000. During the last thirty years
particular attention has been given to the establish-
ment, and development of educational institutions.
Besides such seminaries as Clinton Liberal Institute,
in New York; Goddard Seminary, in Vermont;
Westbrook Seminary, in Maine, and Dean Academy,
in Massachusetts, all well endowed, there are four
colleges and three theological schools. The colleges
are Tufts College, St. Lawrence University, Lombard
University, and Buchtel College. With each of the
three first-named colleges a theological school is con-
nected. The aggregate of funds permanently devoted
to educational purposes is not less than $3,000,000.
Upwards of 100 teachers are employed, and instruc-
tion is given to nearly 1400 pupils annually. (E. H. C.)
UNIVERSITIES. See CoI, LEGES.
UPHAM, CHARLES WENTwoRTH (1802–1875),
author, was born at St. John's, N. B., May 4, 1802. His
father, Joshua Upham (1741–1808), was a judge in Mas-
sachusetts, but taking the Tory side in the Revolution,
removed to New Brunswick, where he became member
of the governor's council. Charles returned to Bos-
ton in childhood and graduated at Harvard in 1821.
Three years later he was ordained as a pastor in Salem,
but after twenty years' service he was obliged to give
up preaching on account of loss of his voice. Mean-
time he had already served in the Legislature, and was
afterwards a member of the State Senate, and its presi-
dent in 1857–58. He was also a member of Congress
1853–54, and took part in the original organization of
the Republican party. He died at Salem, June 14,
1875. e had always been busy in writing for the
press; his Lectures on Witchcraft (1821) was afterwards
expanded into two volumes (1867); he edited the
Christian Review, quarterly, and the Christian Regis-
ter, weekly ; and prepared several biographies: Sir
Płenry ſame (1835) for Sparks' American Biography;
Fremont (1856); Francis Peabody (1869), and com-
pleted the Life of Timothy Pickering (5 vols., 1867–
72), which had been left unfinished by O. Pickering.
He also prepared a Life of Washington, made from
the general's letters, but withheld it out of regard
for Sparks' edition of the Writings of Washington. . A
surreptitious edition, however, appeared in England in
1852.
UPHAM, FRANCIS WILLIAM, educator and author,
was born at Rochester, N. H., Sept. 10, 1817. He
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1837, studied law and
was admitted to the bar in 1844. He afterwards de-
voted himself to teaching in New York city, where he
was professor of mental and moral philosophy in Rut-
gers Female College, 1867–70. Being greatly influ-
enced by the views of Prof. Tayler Lewis, he has pub-
lished not only a defence of these views, but also other
religious works, containing peculiar and ingenious spec-
ulations. They include The Wise Men (1869); The
Star of Our Lord, or Christ Jesus, King of all Worlds
(1873); Thoughts on the Holy Gospels (1881).
UPHAM, THOMAS Cogswell (1799–1872), author,
was born at Deerfield, N. H., Jan. 30, 1799. His
grandfather, Timothy, had been the pastor of the Con-
regational church there for many years, his father,
§. had been a member of Congress for three
terms, and his uncle, Timothy, was an officer in the war
of 1812. Thomas graduated at Dartmouth College in
1818 and at Andover in 1821. Here he became tutor
of Hebrew, but in 1823 he was made associate-pastor
at Rochester, N. H. In 1825 he was called to Bow-
doin, College, and there held the chair of philosophy
for forty-two years. During this time he prepared his
Elements of Mental Philosophy, in three volumes,
treating respectively of the intellect, sensibilities, and
will. An abridged edition also had a large circulation
as a text-book in schools. He also published Life and
Opinions of Madame Guyon (1847); Life of Faith
(1848); Divine Union (1851); Letters from Europe,
Egypt, and Palestine (1857). He resigned his profes-
sorship in 1867, and took up his residence at Kenne-
hºport Me. He died at New York city, April 2,
UPTON, EMORY (1839–1881), general, was born
Aug. 27, 1839, at Batavia, N. Y. He was brought up
on a farm, and spent the winter of 1854–55 at Ober-
lin College, Ohio, but in 1856 entered the U. S. Mil-
itary Academy at West Point. He graduated on the
outbreak of the war in 1861, and was assigned as 2d
lieutenant to the 5th regiment of artillery. On May
27 he was selected as aide to Gen. Tyler, and as such was
present at the first battle of Bull Run, where he was
wounded. On his recovery he was assigned to the
command of a battery in the U. S. artillery in Frank-
lin's division, and was commended by that general
and again by Gen. Slocum for skill and bravery in the
Seven-days' fight. At the battles of Crampton Gap
and Antietam, Upton was in command of an artillery
brigade of 26 guns which he handled with marked
efficiency. In October, 1862, he was appointed colonel of
the 121st N. Y. Volunteers, and so distinguished him-
self at Salem Heights (May 3, 1863) that, at Gettys-
burg, he was intrusted with the command of a bri-
gade. Holding the same position he took part in the
assault on the Confederate intrenchments at Rappa-
hannock Station (Nov. 7, 1863). He participated in
Gen. Grant's Wilderness campaign in May, 1864, and
distinguished himself particularly in the indecisive
battle at Spottsylvania Court-House. Promoted brig-
adier-general of volunteers, in May, 1864, he took
part in the defence of Washington in July, as well as
in Sheridan's campaign against Early in the Shenan-
doah Valley, again distinguishing himself at the battle
of Winchester (Oct. 9, 1864), where he was severely
wounded. He was then promoted major-general of
volunteers, and, on his recovery, was assigned to the
command of the fourth division of the cavalry corps
under Gen. J. H. Wilson and participated in that
general's operations in Alabama and Georgia, from
March to May, 1865, taking part in the capture of
Selma and Columbus. On March 13, 1865, he was
promoted brevet major-general U. S. A. At the close
of the war he was assigned to the command of the
district of Colorado with head-quarters at Denver.
Devoting himself now to the study of tactics, he de-
veloped the system used in the U. S. army under his
name. In 1875 he was sent out by the government as
a special commissioner to investigate the military con-
dition of the various countries in Asia and Europe, and
gathered valuable material for his authoritative work
on the military policy of the United States. On being
mustered out of the volunteer service in April, 1866,
he resumed his rank as captain in the 5th regiment of
artillery, but in July he was made lieutenant-colonel
of the 25th infantry; and in 1870 was appointed com-
mander of cadets in West Point, which office he held
for five years. On his return from his foreign tour in
1877, he was assigned to duty at the artillery school of
practice at Fortress Monroe. He died by his own
hand, March 14, 1881, at Presidio San Francisco,
whither he had gone in the close of 1880 to assume com-
mand of the 4th artillery, of which he had been ap-
pointed colonel. His death is attributed to despond-
ency caused by chronic catarrh. His publications were
his standard work on Infantry Tactics (1867) and his
Armies of Asia and Europe (1878). Prof. Michie
has published his Memoir (1885).
USURY is the excess over the legal rate charged to
a borrower for the use of money. The legal rate is
725
WACCINATION.
fixed by statute in each State; if there be no statute
there can be no usury in a legal sense.
See Vol. jº. If there be a loan in contemplation of
#..." e “ the parties, no matter how it may
p.). be disguised, the contract is usurious
if it be so in other respects. The bona-fide sale of a
note, bond, or other security at a greater discount than
would amount to legal interest has been held not to be
necessarily a loan, though, if the note was made with
a view to evade the law against usury, the transaction
would be construed a loan. Both parties must be
cognizant of the facts which make the contract
usurious. . It has been held that a mistake in re-
gard to the law will not protect the parties, though
a miscalculation will. A mortgagor may, however,
agree to pay a tax on the mortgage in addition
to the full legal rate of interest. The ordinary com-
missions in the course of trade may be charged
without making a contract usurious, though not
So if they are charged as a means of evading the
law. A commission charged in addition to interest for
advancing money is usurious. A gratuity given to
influence the making of a loan has been considered to
be usurious. The reserving of interest on negotiable
paper at the time of making the loan does not make
the contract usurious, though the borrower is thereby
made to pay more than the legal rate. The borrower
must be obliged to return the principal together with
more than lawful interest. Parties may contract for
interest according to the place of the contract or the
place of performance. In the absence of such agree-
ment the transaction will be governed by the law of
the place of the contract. When a dispute about in-
terest is taken before a court the burden of proof is
on the person pleading usury.
Usury may be set up as a defence by the person who
has contracted to pay usurious interest, or by his sure-
ties. A usurer, however, cannot take advantage of
his usury to avoid his contract.
It is generally provided by the statutes of the States
that the excess over the legal rate of interest is not
recoverable. - &
The act of Congress of June 3, 1864, provided with
reference to the national banks that they might take
interest at the legal rate of the State, Territory, or
District where the bank was located, except that in a
State where the State banks were permitted to take a
higher rate, the national banks might do the same.
If no rate was fixed by the law of the State, Territory,
or District, the banks might not exceed 7 per cent.
It was further provided that the penalty for taking a
greater amount of interest than that allowed by the
act should be deemed a forfeiture of the entire interest
carried by the note, bill, or other evidence of debt ;
also that where such interest had been paid, twice the
amount thereof might be recovered back by the per-
son who had paid it, provided the action was begun
within two years. Under this act it has been held
that as Congress is the sole judge of the necessity for
national banks, and has created them, the States can-
not exercise control over them or in anywise affect
their operation, except so far as Congress may permit ;
consequently the penalty prescribed by the Act of
1864 for the exaction of usurious interest is superior
to and exclusive of any State penalty. It has also
been held that a national bank is not justified in
charging usurious interest because the statute of the
State permits specified banks to do so. (T. R.)
UTAH. See MORMONS.
UTILITARIANISM. See CONSCIENCE,
W.
WACCINATION. This operation consists in the
See Vol. XXI. hº ºf the º: with
p. 23 (p. 53 the ſymph of cow-pox, or ine-pox (vac-
Am... Rep. ciuto), for the special purpose of pre-
venting an attack of small-pox (variola),
and it is believed to be almost assure protection against
that loathsome disease, when properly performed with
pure virus, as is small-pox itself a protection against a
Second attack. Furthermore, it modifies the severity
of small-pox and greatly reduces the death-rate from
that disease in its modified form, varioloid. To Ed-
ward Jenner, an obscure apprentice and country physi-
cian at Sodbury, near Bristol, Eng., is due the credit
of discovering the prophylactic properties of vaccinia,
his attention i. first called to i. immunity from
small-pox of persons connected with the care or milk-
ing of cows, and whose hands became sore from com-
ing in contact with the udders and teats of cattle suf.
fering with a peculiar eruption about those parts. He
first published to the world his great discovery in 179s,
after a series of observations and experiments extend.
ing over a period of twenty years, and although bit-
terly opposed at first, his name has become immortal
among all civilized nations as one of the greatest bene-
factors of the race.
.The phenomena resulting from vaccination are: A
slight papular elevation is observed at the point of in-
oculation (usually about midway between the elbow and
shoulder) on the evening of the second or morning of
the third day after the operation, becoming more dis.
tinct and reddened on the fourth day, and presenting a
bluish-white vesicle about the fifth or sixth day, with
raised, firm edges and marked central depression (um.
bilicated) on the seventh day. The pock attains its
growth by the eighth day, and appears as a plump
round, pearl-colored vesicle, distended with clearlymph
elevated two or three lines, and measuring about one-
third inch in diameter. At this time a circular ring of in-
flammation or areola forms about the base of the pock,
increasing for a day or two in redness, and measuring
from one to three inches in diameter; considerable
hardness, and swelling may occur in the adjacent tis-
sues, with pyrexia, and some local pain and pruritus;
9ccasionally there is inflammation and swelling of the
lymphatics of the arm and glands of the axilla. About
the tenth day the areola begins to fade, the pyrexia to
subside, and a dark spot is seen on the centre of the
Yesicle, which gradually concretes and becomes opaque,
forming a hard scab by the fifteenth day, and falling
off about the twenty-fifth day from the date of vač
gination, leaving a circular, depressed and somewhat
ºted cicatrix, which usually remains visible through
lTê.
Vaccination should be performed in early life, as the
Susceptibility, to small-pox exists at all ages. An in-
fant, if healthy, may be vaccinated after the second
month, or even earlier, if exposed to the contagion,
Care being taken to use only pure vaccine, and it is
better perhaps at so tender an age to use humanized
lymph (not too far removed) instead of bovine. The
length of time during which the protection afforded
by vaccination exists has been variously stated—the
” Seven-year ... theory having many advocates. No
rule can be laid down on this point, and the safest plan
is to revaccinate whenever an epidemic of smallpox
9ccurs in the vicinity or an exposure to the disease has
happened. Even if no epidemic or eXposure oecurs it
is good practice to revaccinate those who have indis.
inct seats or who have not been vaccinated since in-
fancy. Flint recommends revaccination every five years.
726
The procuring of pure vaccine is the most important
practical point connected with vaccination, and upon
this too much stress cannot be laid ; the difficulty of
obtaining it is in fact at the bottom of all present op-
Position to... humanized virus (except, of course, the
few non-believers in the whole subject of vaccination),
and in this country bovine virus has nearly superseded
the use of the old-time “scab '' or “crust” and “vac-
gine tubes.” Quite recently (1887) John B. Buist,
M. D., F. R. S. E., in his book, Vaccinia and Variola,
a Study of Their Life History, says: “The difficulty
which is encountered in determining the cause of many
infective diseases lies in the circumstance that no defi-
nite bacteric form peculiar to them can be isolated ;
and this is occasioned by the minute forms in which
such contagia generally exists. Improved methods of
histological investigation, by means of different stain-
ing materials and improved magnifying and illuminat-
ing apparatus, have now made it possible to define
forms which were formerly beyond the range of hu-
man vision . . . . Experimental vaccination appears to
prove that the potency of vaccine materials varies in a
remarkable degree, in proportion to the quantity and
quality of their active principle . . . . The form
of bacterium present in clear vaccine lymph is a
very minute spore, . 15 u in diameter, and if the lymph
be dried immediately the further development of the
spore is prevented. Its activity can be revived by
moistening the dried film of lymph with water, and
this material, when properly employed, produces per-
fect vaccination. Between this minute body and the
large torula (2 u to 5 u) cell in opaque lymph, there is
apparently no more connection than there is between
an acorn and an oak, but there are certain close analo-
gies between vaccine lymph and yeast. In Great
Britain, “clear vaccine lymph, carefully taken from
typical vesicles in healthy subjects (arm-to-arm vaccina-
tions), is regarded by the authorities of the National
Vaccine Establishment as the most perfect material for
vaccination that can be obtained. Opaque or opales-
cent lymph is regarded as an inferior or imperfect ma-
terial for vaccination, on the ground that complaints
used to be frequent, on account of its too energetic
qualities. Vaccine lymph is said to be clear when it
shows no opalescence by reflected or obliquely trans-
mitted iight, and when it is free from blood or other
impurities. It is said to be opaque when it appears
slightly milky, or opalescent when tested in the same
way. One of the great difficulties of vaccination is the
propagation of a material which remains perfectly
clear for a time after being stored . . . . It is
found that vaccine lymph is most certain in its action
when transferred ài. from the arm of one child to
that of another, good vesicles being easily produced by
a single or a double scratch thus : If this same ma-
terial be stored in a tube for even half an hour, it is
found that the same result cannot be produced unless
the operation is done thus : , and the lymph well
rubbed in it. This explains why many vaccinations
fail with clear lymph, especially if they are in the
habit of vaccinating from arm to arm. The material
has changed in potency, and a more severe operation
is required for its successful insertion. When a cover-
glass preparation of clear lymph, is examined micro-
scopically, it shows minute isolated spherical organisms,
about. 15 u in diameter. This is the true bacterie form
of the perfect vaccine material, which does not, Con-
tain any larger organisms. When the lymph is dried
these organisms are preserved from developmental
changes, and the material undergoes no other change
in quality than is common to stored lymph generally.
. . . Opaque vaccine lymph, unless, originally glear
and carefully stored in well-filled sterilized tubes, from
which the air has been expelled during the sealing pro-
cess, must be regarded as an imperfect material for
vaccination. . . . Experience teaches that opaquelymph
is an imperfect vaccine material. It is more energetic
locally than clear lymph, and in former times eruptions
WACCINATION.
were frequently produced by its use, especially when
the lymph was taken too late.” *
Owing to the supposed deterioration of humanized
lymph (i. e., vaccine obtained from previous vaccina-
tions) and the opposition to its use by many who fear
the introduction of other diseases, bovine lymph has
almost entirely superseded its employment in this
country. The “Beaugency stock,” imported to the
United States in 1870, by Dr. Henry A. Martin, of
Boston, is perpetuated through successive inoculations
of heifers, being first obtained from a cow at Beau-
gency, France, in 1866, in which a “spontaneous”
appearance of cow-pox was observed. The inoculation
of heifers is performed by securing the animal upon
its back, in a frame made for that purpose, shaving
the parts adjacent to the udder, and introducing the
virus at many points over the denuded surface, which
is first thoroughly cleansed. The scarifications are
protected by fastening a cloth over the parts, and in
due time the vesicles appear. When filled with lymph,
on the seventh Qr eighth day, the calf is again secured
as before, and ivory points or quills are “charged ”
with the virus as rapidly as possible, dried, and her.
metically sealed, or otherwise protected from the air.
It is a remarkable fact that bovine virus does not
retain its potency as long as the humanized, and for
this reason the ivory points or quills are not guaranteed
by those furnishing them beyond two or three weeks.
No lancet is required in the operation, as each point
or quill is sharpened at the end sufficiently to scarify
the place of inoculation, care being taken to first dip, it
in water to liquefy the virus. Simply removing the
outer or scarf-skin with the ivory point, or making
cross cuts thus , with a lancet, without drawing
blood, is deemed the best practice. It is claimed that
better protection results if more than one, say four or
five vaccinations, are made (see table below), and that
the inconvenience or discomfort from inflammatory
action, etc., is not thereby increased ; this applies
more particularly to humanized vaccine.
The following classification of 5000 patients—extend-
ing over twenty years—afflicted with small-pox, shows
the percentage of deaths in each class represented
(Marson): -
Classes. Per cent. of deaths.
I. Unvaccinated................................... 35.00
II. Stated to have been vaccinated, but
showing no cicatrix......... .............. 23.57
III. Vaccinated—a, one cicatrix............... 7.73
{ { b, two cicatrices............. 4.70
{ { c, three " ............. 1.95
{ { d, four or more cicatrices. 0.55
“ a, well-marked “ ... 2.52
( & b, badly “ ( & ... 8.82
IV. Having previously had small-pox....... 19.00
The history of the introduction of vaccination into
this country shows the same bitter opposition by both
the medical profession and the people as marked its
early introduction in other countries. Dr. Benjamin
Waterhouse, of Cambridge (formerly of Newport), and
Dr. James Smith, of Baltimore, are each given the
credit of the first vaccinations in the United States.
In June, 1800, Waterhouse, who was then professor
of theory and practice of medicine in Harvard, and
who had obtained all the information possible regarding
Jenner's great discovery, succeeded after several fruit-
less efforts in obtaining upon a cotton thread a small
quantity of pure vaccine from England, and on July 8
inoculated one of his sons, then five years of age.
This he followed in a few days by vaccinating others
in his family, six in all, among them an infant of one
year. He then applied the crucial test by sending the
children to the small-pox hospital at Brookline, within
two months after their vaccination, where they were
not only freely exposed to the contagion of small-pox
but also inoculated with variolous matter, the only
result observed being a very slight irritation at the
WACCINATION. sº
727
points of the insertion of the virus; there was no con-
stitutional disturbance whatever. Waterhouse very
truly remarks: “One fact in such cases is worth a
thousand arguments” (The Jenner of America ... an
address delivered before the Philadelphia Co. Medical
Society by W. M. Welch, M. D., 1885). º
Notwithstanding his successful experiments with
vaccination, all efforts to establish a vaccine centre in
Boston failed ; but Waterhouse had a firm friend in
Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, to
whom he sent vaccine, and who in turn supplied
hysicians in the District of Columbia, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Virginia, and other States, still farther
south, also the Indians; studying the phenomena of
the disease himself very closely, and learning by
observation that the proper period for collecting the
virus is “eight times 24 hours from the time of its
insertion.” This rule, which the President himself
observed carefully and with uniform success, he was
particular to communicate to all to whom he sent virus
(Welch). Waterhouse made repeated efforts to es-
tablish a vaccine institution in Boston, but failed,
though his perseverance finally settled the question of
the value of vaccination in the following manner :
The Board of Health of Boston appointed a committee
of seven of the most reputable physicians of the city,
who on Aug. 16, 1802, vaccinated nineteen children at
the health office. On Nov. 9 these children were
sent to Noddle's Island, and there inoculated two
different times with variolous matter, besides being
exposed for twenty days to the contagium of small-pox
without manifesting the slightest indisposition. The
report of the committee concludes with this remark :
“The cow-pox prevented their taking the small-pox,
and they do therefore consider the result of the experi-
ment as satisfactory evidence that the cow-pox is a
complete security against the small-pox'' (Welch).
A similar test at Randolph, Vt., where the question
of inoculation with small-pox vs. cow-pox was to
determine the efficacy of the latter ; a town-meeting
was held, a committee appointed, and 75 persons who
had been vaccinated were then inoculated with the small-
pox virus taken warm from the pustules of patients
covered with them, and not one of the number was
found susceptible to small-pox. The committee,
however, was not satisfied, and desired to find some
woman with a sucking child who would be willing to
let her infant be vaccinated and herself have small-
pox. Waterhouse says : “ Mrs. M-- heroically
offered herself for the experiment. The infant was
first inoculated with kine-pox, and forty-eight hours
afterwards its mother was inoculated with small-pox.
The kine-pox went on regularly in the child, and so
did the small-pox in the mother, who suckled the
child all the time. The mother had a considerable
number of pustules on her body, face, and breasts ;
one or two of which were kept raw by the tender lips
of the infant, while sucking; and yet the child ap-
peared as well throughout the whole process as if it
had not been nursed by a person suffering under
small-pox'' (Welch).
Dr. Henry A. Martin says of the opposition to
Waterhouse by the clique of Boston physicians that
it “ did all it could to oppose vaccination (as taught by
Jenner), to hinder, § and persecute the noble
man, who, in the face of obstacles innumerable, strug-
gled for the truth and won—won what? Poverty,
persecution, bitter and mendacious, and a fame so
great and lasting that only here and there an eccentric
student knows more than his name '' (“Jefferson as a
Vaccinator,' N. C. Med. Journal, January, 1881). In
1810 he petitioned the Legislature of Massachusetts
to reimburse him for the work he had done, having
impoverished himself by his long-continued efforts in
establishing vaccination in his own and other States.
The Legislature satisfied itself by permitting him to
withdraw his petition In a letter to an old friend in
England he says: “For the honor of my eountry I
am ashained to tell Dr. Jenner how I have been treated
by our Legislature respecting remuneration; have
received nothing but abuse, nay, more, I have been
intrigued out of my place as physician to the U. S.
Marine Hospital, with 500 sterling a year, and given
me by Jefferson as a reward for my labors in Vaccina-
tion, and this merely in consequence of his going out
and others coming in, so that, at 56 years of age, I
have now to contrive and execute some new plan to
supply this deficiency.” After he was forced out of
the university by his jealous associates, President
Madison, knowing of his unfair treatment, gave
him military supervision of the nine posts of New
England. tº , &
Dr. James Smith, of Baltimore, began vaccinating
in that city in the spring of 1801, contemporaneously
with Waterhouse's second effort in Boston, but, unlike
him, met with no opposition professionally or other-
wise ; “on the contrary, the profession of Baltimore,
including almost the entire faculty, gave public and
early expression of their approval,” and vaccine
virus was distributed through his efforts “over Penn-
sylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary-
land, Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, North and South
Carolina, and other States, and even to the West
Indies and South America ’’ (The Introduction of
Inoculation and Taccination into Maryland Histori-
cally Considered ''—Address by J. R. Quinan, M.D.,
Baltimore, 1883). It is stated by Dr. Quinan that
the first virus received into Baltimore was by Dr.
John Crawford 'of that city in the summer of 1800,
contemporaneously with the first received by Water-
house. Notwithstanding the assistance given Dr.
James Smith, he, too, became impoverished in his
enthusiastic efforts to disseminate the “new inocula-
tion,” as it was then called. The vaccine institute
established by him and his associates in 1802, and his
work to further its beneficial effects, rendered him
almost penniless, and when in 1809 the Legislature
enacted a law to establish an institution for the free
distribution of matter he tried to obtain an appropria-
tion but failed. A lottery was then tried, but as it
had to compete with the Washington Monument Lot-
tery it also failed. Subsequently he succeeded in
mortgaging his private property and establishing a
vaccine institution in the city ; and in 1813, Congress
having established a U. S. vaccine agency, Dr. James
Smith was appointed without pay to fill the position of
agent, which |. held till 1822, when it was abolished
(Quinan). Like Waterhouse he eary subjected his
two sons and other members of his family to small-pox
inoculation as a proof of the efficacy of vaccination,
and supported twenty special agents with horses and
virus to gratuitously vaccinate all who would submit
to lt. -
From the date of these two noble men to the pres-
ent time the work of vaccination in this country has
been going on, until now there is not a city, town, or
hamlet in which it is not practised ; nor is there one
in which epidemics of small-pox are not always suc-
cessfully met by vaccination ; and in most of them
there are laws or ordinances compelling vaccination
of their school-children, if not of their entire popu-
lation. -
Revaccination.—Although the protection of a suc-
cessful vaccination is absolute for the time being, ac-
cumulative evidence goes to prove that it is not per-
manent and that revaccination is necessary to thor-
oughly protect the individual and the community. To
insure perfect immunity from the ravages of small-
pox it is therefore necessary to revaccinate from time
to time. Dr. Wm. M. Welch, physician in charge of
the Municipal (small-pox) Hospital, Philadelphia,
Some of the earliest and most conclusive proofs
of the value of revaccination are furnished as the re-
sult of experience in the Wurtemberg, Bavarian, and
especially in the Prussian armies. Among 14,284 re-
728 WALENTINE–WAMBERY.
vaccinated soldiers in Wurtemberg only one case of
small-pox occurred in five years, and only three among
26,964 revaccinated civilians. During three severe
epidemics of small-pox in Copenhagen, between the
years 1828 and 1835, not even a single instance of
Varioloid was observed among any who had been vac-
cinated. . . . It is due to Germany to say that vac-
cination is nowhere more carefully and thoroughly
performed than in that country. It was there that
revaccination was first practised and has ever since con-
tinued to be systematically performed. . . . During
the Franco-Prussian war small-pox prevailed to an
alarming extent, and both armies were freely exposed
to the contagion ; but the loss by death from that dis-
ease in the German army was only 263 men, against
23,468 in the French army, and the latter army was at
no time much more than one-half the size of the
former. In joining the French army vaccination was
not a Fº and revaccination was in nowise
Compulsory. Among the most conclusive proofs of
the efficacy of revaccination is that furnished by statis-
ties of small-pox hospitals. After thirty years of
labor at the hospital of London, Marson asserted that
but few patients were admitted who had been revac-
cinated with effect, and that these few had varioloid
in a very mild form. During his connection with the
hospital he revaccinated all the nurses and servants,
who had not had small-pox, on their coming to live at
the hospital, and not one of them contracted the dis-
ease. At a time, however, when a large number of
workmen were employed about the hospital, most of
them consented to be revaccinated, but there were a
few who declined. Of the latter two took small-pox,
while the former enjoyed perfect protection.
“The medical superintendents of the several small-
pox hospitals of London report that during the period
from 1876 to 1879, when 11,412 cases of the disease
occurred among vaccinated persons, not one case was
known to occur in any person who had been success-
fully revaccinated. Of the nurses and servants em-
ployed at the various hospitals, numbering in all about
1000, some half dozen only contracted the disease,
and these for some cause or other had escaped revac-
cination before entering the wards.”
Dr. Welch concludes by saying that his twelve
years' service entirely agrees with the above, and that
no employé or attendant who had been revaccinated
before entering on duty had suffered with the disease.
The question of the identity of small-pox and cow-
pox virus, while still discussed, is now pretty generally
decided in the negative, and the efficacy of horse-pox
vaccine as a protection against small-pox has also been
decided the same way. Retro-vaccination (from man
to cow) is uncertain and not to be encouraged, the only
pure source being the “spontaneous” vaccinia of the
cow, which is continued and kept pure through the
vaccination of healthy heifers. (P. H. B.)
WALENTINE, EDWARD VIRGINIUs, sculptor, was
born at Richmond, Va.,, Nov. 12, 1828, his father
being a merchant in that city. He went to Europe in
1859 and studied first with Couture at Paris, then at
Florence with Bonaruti ; and after a tour in the art gal-
leries of Italy, at Berlin, with Kiss, with whom he re-
mained for four years. On returning to Richmond Val-
entine produced portrait busts of Beauregard, J. E. B.
Stuart, “Stonewall” Jackson, and other Confederate
celebrities. His Lee Recumbent (see SCULPTURE)
was executed for the mausoleum attached. to the
chapel of Washington and Lee University. Valentine
had already spent some time, at Lexingtºn, Va.,
modelling a bust of Gen. Lee, and was thus well fitted for
the later task. He has also produced several ideal
figures and groups, the most noted being Andromache
and Astyanax. His bronze heroic statue of John C.
Breckinridge, ordered by the State of Kentucky,
was erected at Lexington, Ky., in November, 1887.
His latest work is a statue of “Stonewall Jackson"
for the Jackson Memorial Association.
WALLANDIGHAM, CLEMENT LAIRD (1820–1871),
politician, was born at New Lisbon, Ohio, July 29,
1820, of a Dutch family long settled in Virginia. The
name was originally Van Landeghem. His mother's
Scotch-Irish blood also entered into his tenacious com-
bativeness. After teaching school two years in Mary-
land and acquiring the art of stump-speaking, he be-
came a lawyer at Columbus, Ohio, 1842, was sent to the
Legislature 1845–47, edited the Western Empire at
Dayton 1848–50, and was an unsuccessful candidate for
several offices. Of unblemished private character and
untiring industry and energy, his extreme Southern
opinions long excluded him from public life; but after
repeated efforts he in 1857 secured a seat in Congress.
He always professed to be for the Union, but he was
the most resolute, persistent, and annoying opponent
of war measures in the North—the model and leader
of such as were called Copperheads. The House
heard a resolution to inquire concerning his loyalty,
Feb. 19, 1862, and received seven petitions for his ex-
pulsion. He was in constant anticipation of public
punishment or private violence, but nothing short of
imprisonment or death could silence him. The same
Zeal and courage, exerted on behalf of the North,
would have won him a high place in national history.
When his last term in Congress had ended he kept up
his agitation by frequent speeches in Ohio. Anywhere
but in the United States he would have been sup-
pressed at once. For a speech at Mt. Vernon, May
1, 1863, he was arrested May 5, by order of Gen.
Burnside, commanding the department of the Ohio,
tried by court-martial, and sentenced to be confined in
Fort Warren, Boston harbor. Pres. Lincoln, who,
perhaps, preferred to make his foe ridiculous, com-
muted this to deportation beyond the lines. Wal-
landigham was escorted to the Confederate troops in
Kentucky. His friends protested, and Lincoln justi-
fied the banishment of one who was striving “to pre-
vent the raising of troops, to encourage desertions
from the army, and to leave the rebellion without an
adequate military force to suppress it.” The exile
made his way to Canada, was nominated for governor
of Ohio in his absence by the Democrats, and defeated
by an enormous majority. He returned home in June,
1864, and was not further disturbed, for the tide of
war had turned and he was no longer dangerous. His
death at Lebanon, O., June 17, 1871, was highly sen-
sational. He was arguing a murder case in court, and
in attempting to illustrate the tragedy another was
roduced by the explosion of a pistol in his hand.
#. Speeches, Arguments, Addresses, and Letters, with
a sketch of his life, was published in 1864 as an ex-
tended campaign document.
WAMBERY, ARMINIUS, a Hungarian explorer of
Central Asia, was born at Duna-Szerdahely, on an
island in the Danube, 1832. He was educated March
19, at Presburg and Vienna, and was a private teacher
at Pesth when the revolution of 1848 broke out, and
naturally joined in the movement. At the siege of
Comorn his leg was broken, but this fact probably
saved his life when the Austrians became masters of
the place. He was, however, exiled and took refuge
at Constantinople. Here he improved his opportuni-
ties to become acquainted with the Asiatic lan-
guages, and finally he determined to visit the native
land of the Huns. First he spent nearly two years in
the Ottoman embassy at Teheran, then adopting the
disguise of a dervish he joined a band of pilgrims on
their way to Turkestan. He visited Khiva, Bokhara,
and Samarcand without detection, and on his return
to Europe brought with him a genuine dervish
whom he had deceived by a pretence of visiting
Mecca. His contributions to ethnographic and
geographical science were warmly welcomed by the
learned societies of Europe. His book, Travels and
Adventures in Central Asia (London, 1864), was
issued in several languages. His later books have
regard to the same general theme. They include
VANDERBILT—VAN RENSSELAER.
729
Wanderings and Adventures in Persia (1867); Sketches
of Central Asia (1868); History of Bokhara (1873);
Mohammedanism in the Nineteenth Century §:
Manners and Costumes in Oriental Countries (1876);
Primitive Civilization of the Turco-Tartar Peoples
(1879). He has published a Dictionary of the Turco-
Tartar Languages (1878) and an autobiography,
Life and Adventures º His recent works are
The Origin of the Magyars (1882); The Turkish Tribes
(1885); The Coming Struggle for India (1886). He
has also translated The Scheibaniade, an epic poem of
the Usbeks (1885). tº . * : *
VANDERBILT, CoRNELIUS (1794–1877), capitalist,
was born near the site of Stapleton, Staten Island,
N. Y., May 27, 1794. His condition was humble, and
education he neither possessed nor valued ; but his
financial talent has never been surpassed. At sixteen
he bought a boat to carry farm products to New York;
at twenty-three he had amassed $10,000. Then he be-
came captain of a steamboat plying between New
York and New Brunswick, where his wife aided him
by keeping a hotel. He remained in the service of
Thomas Gibbons till 1829 on a salary of $1000, and
raised the business to $40,000 a year; then, ºf
his employer's offers, he embarked in the building of
steamboats to run on the Hudson, Long Island Sound,
and elsewhere ; hence his title of “Commodore.” His
enterprise, daring, and persistence were rewarded by
uniform success. He was unmerciful to competitors,
but he was true to his word and had a rough sense of
honor. About 1848 he began to extend his maritime
operations. In 1851 he started a line of vessels to
San Francisco by way of the Isthmus, with a branch
to New Orleans in 1852. The next year he took his
family abroad in one of his ships, and in his absence
was dropped from the management of the California
routes. For this, as in other cases, his vengeance was
prompt and effective. He built a rival line, which com-
pelled the other to come to terms. He also established
a line to Havre, which was given up at the outbreak of
the civil war. His first and chief act of generosity was
in presenting to the government the “Wanderbilt,”
which had cost $800,000. At seventy his gains
amounted to forty millions, much of which was in-
vested in railroads. On these he now concentrated his
activities, acquiring control of the Harlem. His only
mistake (which he ascribed to bad advice of º
lay in attempting to gain command of the Erie, o
which Fisk and Gould were ready to issue as many
shares as he chose to buy. He established the New
York Central system, and by means of its additions was
the originator of trunk lines in the United States. After
1873 he managed 2000 miles of track. His statue,
with emblematic surroundings, was erected over the
Hudson River Railroad station in New York, 1869.
Fast horses and whist were his recreations, money-
º º business and delight; but he helped those
whom he liked, and in his later years gave $700,000 to
Vanderbilt University at Nashville and presented a
church to Dr. C. F. Deems. He died at New York,
Jan. 4, 1877, worth nearly a hundred millions.
See The Vanderbilts: the Story of their Fortune, by
W. A. Croffut (1886).
His son, WILLIAM HENRY WANDERBILT (1821–
1885), was born at New Brunswick, N. J., May 8,
1821. His father, who had little faith in his abilities,
left him to make his own way and gave him no assist.
ance till satisfied that he could do it. This he proved
as a bank clerk, and then on a farm in Staten island,
where also he was for a time receiver of a railroad. He
Was never permitted to take any part in the “Commo-
dore's' vast enterprises till 1864, when he was asso-
ciated in the management of the Harlem Railroad.
He soon won the paternal confidence and showed him-
self entirely able to carry on what his father had begun,
as well as to hold what he had acquired. He became
vice-president of the Hudson River Railroad in 1872,
and five years later was his father's chief heir and sole
VOL. IV.-2 V
successor in the railway management. Better edu-
cated and a less striking and original personality, he
filled scarcely less space in the public eye, by reason ºf
his roads and his millions. ... He inherited the taste fºr
horses and added one for collecting pictures. His only
notable benefaction was the gift of $500,000 to the
New York College of Physicians and Surgeons in
1884. He died suddenly at home, Dec. 8, 1885, hav-
ing doubled his father's huge accumulations. The
stocks passed into the control and chiefly into the pos-
session of his sons, Cornelius and William Kissam.
The former, who had the early discipline of self-help...is
the chief manager, and noted not only for business habits
and capacity but for blameless life and active interest
in religious and charitable work. He erected, 1887, in
New York a fine building for the benefit and conven-
ience of his railway employés. (F. M. B.)
WAN DYCK, CORNELIUS WAN ALEN, missionary,
was born at Kinderhook, N. Y., Aug. 13, 1818. He
graduated at Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia,
and was sent by the American Board of Foreign Mis-
sions to Syria in 1840. He was ordained by the mem-
bers of the Syrian mission in 1846, and in 1848 was
made principal of the missionary seminary. In 1857,
on the death of Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, Dr. Van Dyck
took charge of the mission press and also of the transla-
tion of the Bible into Arabic. On his visit to New York
to superintend the printing of this work by the Amer-
ican }. Society in 1866–67, Dr. Van Dyck taught
Hebrew in the Union Theological Seminary. After his
return to Beirut he resumed his duties in connection
with the mission press and was also physician to St.
John's Hospital and professor of pathology in the
Syrian Protestant College until 1882. He has since
been physician to St. George's hospital. He has
edited in Arabic several mathematical and physical text-
books, and also translated the Westminster Shorter
Catechism, Schönberg-Cotta Family, and treatises of
various kinds.
VAN RENSSELAER, STEPHEN (1764–1839), the
‘‘ Patroon,’’ was born in New York, Nov. 1, 1764.
He was fifth in descent from Kiliaen Van Rensselaer,
a jewel merchant of Amsterdam, who under authority
of the Dutch West India Company acquired in 1630–7
an estate of more than 700,000 acres on the Hudson :
this was occupied by the family and by their numerous
tenants under a peculiar feudal tenure, and confirmed
by various orders during the Dutch possession, and by
a grant of Gov. Dongan in 1685. §. inherited
seignorial rights over some 3060 farms in Albany and
Rensselaer counties, including some 436,000 acres;
these, lands he did much to improve and settle, but
W9uld never sell. His mother was a Livingston;' and
after graduating at Harvard in 1782 he married a
daughter of Gen. Philip Schuyler. Throughout life
he was active in the service of the State, and held
many offices, being in the Assembly 1789, in the New
York, Senate 1790–5, lieutenant-governor 1795–1801,
president of the Constitutional Convention, regent of
the State University from 1819, and for a time its
chancellor, in Congress 1823–9. In the war of 1812
he commanded the State militia and directed the
attack on Queenstown. He took an early and active
interest in the Erie Canal, was one of the commis-
Sioners from 1816, and for several years president of
the board. He directed Eaton's geological surveys,
1821-3, and bore the cost. He will be long remem.
bered as the founder (1824) of the Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute at Troy. To have exercised equal
public spirit concerning the disputed and undetermined
rights of the tenants on his huge property would
º saved the State much trouble and some blood-
SIle Ol.
The “patroon" system, under which extensive
portions of New York had been settled, in which his
family had the largest interest, had been advantageous
at first, but its evils had been pointed out in 1732, and
it was ill adapted to the nineteenth century and to
730
republican institutions. The tenants through long
occupancy had come to regard themselves as practically
Owners of the soil, and the antique though slight
annual payments were felt as burdensome. In case
of transfer, one-fourth of the price was claimed by the
patroon ; º objection was made to these “quarter
Sales,” and their legality questioned. The last pos-
Sessor of these feudal rights had been careless or
lenient in collecting his rents, often allowing them to
run on from year to year, till a sum of about $400,000
was due him. The tenants expected these amounts to
be remitted, but he died at Albany, Jan. 26, 1839,
without making any such provision. Then the trouble
began. Mass-meetings were held in the country, and
an accommodation sought in vain ; the heirs resorted
to writs of ejectment, which were resisted. The
sheriff with a large posse was confronted at Reidsville,
Dec. 2, 1839, by a throng estimated at 1500. Gov.
Seward in a message of Jan. 7, 1840, denounced the
tenures as “odious,” and in May a bill was passed to
settle the difficulties, but without result. The agita-
tion continued ; anti-rent associations were formed,
and outrages committed by bands of pretended “In-
dians.” The trouble spread to other parts of the
State, where the same system existed. Several lives
were lost, disorder prevailed, and Delaware county
was declared to be in insurrection ; many persons were
arrested and 22 sentenced to terms of imprisonment.
The anti-renters became a strong political party, and
contributed to the election of Gov. Young, after
making Silas Wright's term a period of embarrassment
and alarm. The disturbance lasted for seven years,
and constitutional conventions, legislatures, and courts
had much to do before the lease-hold system was
finally abolished. Van Rensselaer's heirs modified their
claims, and parted with much of their land. These
events supplied a motive to three of Cooper's novels,
Satanstoe, The Chain-bearer, and The Redskins, and
to a satiric poem, Hildenburger (1855); all these take
the side of conservatism and privilege. See E. P.
Cheyney's Anti-rent Agitation (1887), in the publica-
tions of the University of Pennsylvania. Several of
the patroon's uncles and cousins rendered service and
won military distinction in or since the Revolution ;
one of his sons attained note as a Presbyterian
clergyman, and another as an officer in the civil war.
ASSAR COLLEGE, the first well-equipped in-
stitution for the higher education of women, is located
2 miles east of Poughkeepsie, N. Y. It was founded
by Matthew Vassar, an Englishman, who came to
America in 1796. Mr. Vassar's earnest desire to use
his wealth for the public good led him to cºnsider
favorably the suggestion of his niece, Miss Booth,
that a model school for young women should be estab-
lished, and the bolder proposition of his friend, Milo
P. Jewett, that he should found and endow a college
for young women which should rank with the leading
colleges for men. After about two years of prelimin-
ary work the college was incorporated Jan. 18, 1861,
under the name of “Vassar Female College,” which
title was, in 1867, changed by the Legislature, in ac-
cordance with the request of the founder, to “Vassar
College.” The charter empowered the 29 trustees to
have control of the property, to appoint the members
of the faculty, and to confer degrees. At the first
meeting of the board of trustees, Feb. 26, 1861, Mr.
Vassar transferred to that body property valued at
$400,000, including a farm of 200 acres, on which the
college was to i. This gift was afterwards in-
creased by large sums for various purposes during Mr.
Vassar's lifetime. At his death he bequeathed more
than $250,000 for the establishing of four funds, viz.:
auxiliary, library, art and cabinet, and general repair.
At his first interview with the board Mr. Vassar
showed keen foresight and great breadth of view in
the remarkable speech in which he set forth his hopes
concerning the college and his ideas in regard, to the
education of women. He also stamped the religious
WASSAR COLLEGE,
character of the college in saying that all sectarian in-
fluences should be carefully excluded, but the “train-
ing of our students should never be intrusted to the
skeptical, the irreligious, or the immoral.’’
In 1861 Milo P. Jewett was chosen as the first presi-
dent. After his resignation in 1864 John H. Ray.
mond was elected. e retained the position until his
death in August, 1878. Samuel L. Caldwell, who
succeeded him, resigned in 1885. After one year,
during which James Ryland Kendrick served as acting
president, James M. Taylor accepted the position,
which he still holds (1889).
The main building and observatory were completed
in June, and it was decided to open the college on
Sept. 20, 1865. More than three hundred students
presented themselves for admission, some of whom,
in anticipation of this opening, had been carefully pre-
pared for college work. The first faculty consisted of
the president, lady principal, 8 professors, and 20 as-
sistant teachers. In accordance with the wish of the
founder, that men and women should co-operate in the
instruction and discipline of the college, three of the
professors and all of the assistants were women. In
the present faculty six professors and all of the as-
sistant teachers are women.
The college buildings are as follows: Main build-
ing (erected 1865), observatory (1865), museum (1866),
laboratory (1880), conservatory (1886), gate-lodge, gas-
works, boiler- and pump-houses, and farm-buildings.
The main edifice was originally 500 feet long and 164
feet broad at the centre, but in 1872 this breadth was
increased to 200 feet. The building is constructed of
red brick with trimmings of blue free-stone. The
central part and the wings are five stories in height
(94 Fº while the connecting portions are four.
This building contains apartments for the president
and other resident officers and for 300 students, rooms
for lectures and recitations, a chapel, library, reading-
room, offices, parlors, dining-hall, and kitchen. There
is a steam-elevator in the centre of the building. As
protection against fire the partition walls are all made
of brick and extend from the ground to the top of the
house, and the long corridors may be quickly divided
into five separate parts by means of sliding iron doors
connected with fire-proof walls. Ample protection is
further afforded by means of a steam-fire-engine and
similar appliances.
The library contains about 16,000 volumes. It is a
large, well-lighted room, which is open to the students
during ten hours of each day. The library fund pro-
vides for an annual increase in the number of books.
The observatory is located on a slight elevation, a short
distance from the college building, and consists of a
basement, principal story, and dome. . The equatorial
telescope has an object-glass 12# inches in diameter.
The observatory contains also a meridian circle with
collimating telescopes, clock, and chronograph, port-
able telescopes, and apparatus for making solar º
raphs. The gymnasium contained originally rooms
#. calisthenics, the riding-school, and a bowling-alley;
also a society hall and music rooms. In 1872 the
riding-school was discontinued, and the gymnasium
was remodelled so as to afford suitable accommodation
for the departments of natural history and of art.
The valuable collections belonging to these departments
were then transferred from the main building to the
larger rooms in the building now known as the museum,
The gymnasium is well equipped with the apparatus
used in the Sargent system, and the alumni have raised
a fund for the immediate erection of a new building.
The Wassar Brothers' Laboratory of Chemistry and
Physics was the gift of Matthew Vassar, Jr., and
John Guy Vassar, nephews of the founder. It was
erected in 1880 and supplied with all modern appli-
ances for the study of physics and chemistry. In
1886 the Eleanor Conservatory, a memorial gift, was
added to the college buildings for the use of the
botanical department.
WAUGHAN–VENTILATION.
731
The grounds embrace about 210 acres and form a
beautiful park in which the students may indulge in
various forms of recreation. A lake affords facilities
for boating and skating.
A preparatory department, maintained from the
opening of the college until 1888, was then discon-
tinued by vote of the trustees. The departments of
painting and music were in 1878 changed into schools
of painting and music, which have their respective
courses of study leading to diplomas. Resident pupils
in music or painting are members of the college family
and are required to give a portion of their time to col-
legiate study. Each school has a director, who, to-
gether with the president of the college, has entire
control of his department.
In the regular course for the degree of A. B. the
studies are j prescribed to the iii. of the sopho-
more year and languages to the close of the same year.
During the junior and senior years each student sub-
mits #. the approval of the faculty an election of
from 13 to 15 recitation hours per week. Special
courses designed chiefly for teachers may be pursued.
For admission to these courses the requirements are in
general the same as for admission to the regular
course, viz., examinations similar to those required for
entrance to the leading colleges of the country. To
obtain the degree of A. M. or of Ph. D. the candidate
must pursue a course of non-professional study ap-
.." by the faculty, and must present a satisfactory
thesis upon some topic of the work. Seven hundred
and sixty-nine young women have received the degree
of A. B. and 29 that of A. M. The first honorary
degree, L.L. D., was given in 1887.
he charge for one year, including tuition, board,
and laundry work, is $400. In addition to the
$100,000 given as an auxiliary fund, there are eight
scholarships, yielding $300 or $400 annually. These
funds are for students in the regular course.
(J. M. T.)
WAUGHAN, CHARLES John, English clergyman,
was born at Leicester, Aug. 6, 1816. e was educated
at Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated B. A.
in 1838, and M. A. in 1841, and was fellow of his col-
lege from 1839 to 1842. Having taken orders he be-
came vicar at Leicester in 1841, and in 1844 was made
head master of Harrow School, which position he held
fifteen years. In 1860 he was made vicar of Don-
caster and rural dean and chancellor of York Cathe-
dral. In 1869 he was made master of the Temple,
London, and in 1879 dean of Llandaff. He was a
member of the Cambridge University Commission |f
1858–62, and of the English New Testament Revision
Company until the close of its labors in 1881. He has
been noted as a preacher, and several volumes of his
sermons have been published. Among these are
Memorials of Harrow Sundays (1859); Revelation
of St. John (1863); Church of the First Days (3 vols.,
łº Authorized or Revised? (1882); Philippians
1885),
vºnpºr. ELIHU, artist, was born in New York,
Feb. 26, 1836, and had his first art instruction in his
native city. Later on he studied also with T. H.
Matteson, and under Picot in Paris. For a time he had
a studio in New York, but he subsequently removed
to Italy, where he has since resided. His works are
characterized by fertility of imagination, and broad
and yigorous handling. Ideal in motive, they show
the desire of the artist to give expression to his emo-
tions and thoughts, and have given rise to much dis-
gussion as to their intent anā meaning. His more
important paintings include The Lair of the Sea-
Serpent; Arab Listening to the Great Sphinx: The
Crucifixion; The Lost Mind; Roc's Egg; Young
Marsyas; and Cumean Sibyl. He has also designed
a Series of strong and original illustrations for Omar
Khayyam's Rubaiyat. e was elected an associate
of the National Academy, N. Y., in 1863, and an
academician two years later. (F. L. W.)
VENTILATION AND WARMING., Ventila-
tion consists in changing the air any-
See Vol. XXIV. where, whether it be in an enclosed
#. (P. ** space or an open field, but is generally
ep.). understood to mean the substitution
of pure air for foul air in dwellings, public buildings,
hospitals, factories, ships, cars, mines, etc.; in short,
wherever man or beast is liable to reinhale his own or
others' breath. Formerly the openings of doors, win-
dows, crevices, and chimneys were deemed sufficient
(if the subject was thought of, which is doubtful), and
it was also supposed that a cold room was a healthy
one. In modern times mechanical ventilation by
means of fan-wheels was first introduced in cotton-
factories, and the improved health of the operatives
drew attention to the necessity of pure air in the habi-
tation of man. Although scientists and doctors had
long believed and asserted that deleterious gases viti-
ated the air and made it injurious to human life, and
fires were built in the public streets in those days for
the purpose of destroying these gases, it is only within
recent years that the scientific study of ventilation and
its practical application have been deemed of sufficient
importance to be incorporated in the plans and specifi-
cations of architects and builders. Without entering
into the discussion of the chemical constituents of the
atmosphere (see ATMOSPHERE in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA) it may be stated that one cubic foot of
pure air per second is what should be allowed every
individual, though half that amount is all that is
absolutely necessary, and in order that he may not
reinhale it a change of air is indispensable, and must
be maintained without giving the sensation of an
unpleasant draught—say at the rate of one and not to
exceed three feet per second. -
Warming is the twin problem with Ventilation, and
the two ...iſ be considered together, as they are almost
inseparable. In order to properly ventilate and warm
a room in winter or keep it fresh or cool in summer,
it is of course necessary to remove the vitiated or foul
air in the same quantity as the pure air is introduced—
they should be simultaneous and interdependent,
otherwise there is imperfect ventilation. The prob-
lem is how to accomplish this double or reciprocal
movement of air without creating unpleasant draughts,
and at the same time securing an equable temperature
(say, 70° more or less) throughout the room. It is a
well-known fact that heated air rises to the ceiling,
while cold air, the emanations from the breath and
body, the products of combustion, bad odors, etc., are
ound near the floor; this being the case, it would
seem the most natural thing in the world to withdraw
the impure air at the point where it is found, the
floor, and let the pure air in at or near the ceiling, as the
Vacuum created by withdrawing the foul air would
cause the warm air to descend gradually to the floor.
Ventilation may be either natural or artificial; the
former is divided into (1) Diffusion, (2) Action of the
winds or perflation, and (3) Movements made by un-
equal weights of air. Every gas diffuses inversely as
the square root of its density, and rooms are par-
tially ventilated on this principle through crevices and
imperfect carpentry, and even through brick and
stone walls (Parke). The action of the winds or per-
flatiºn is uncertain and difficult to regulate—opening
windows at top and bottom, inserting slanting boards
to direct the wind upward, or special openings made
at various points, ventilating tubes with cowls, etc.
have all been tried with indifferent success. Move.
ments made by unequal weights of air are more satis-
factory—the fire-place and chimney afford a good illus-
tration of this kind of natural ventilation; also the
furnace with registers and Qutlet tubes properly placed ;
but this partakes of artificial ventilation, which will
now be considered. This may be divided into plenum
or forced ventilation (propulsion) and vacuum ºr aspi.
ration (extraction). . There is much diversity of Opin-
ion as to the relative merits of these two kinds of
732
VENTILATION.
yentilation, and in some instances they are combined,
hot (or gold) pure air being forced in and foul air
extracted at the same time. Scientifically considered,
one would think that the great elasticity of the air
would be an objection to propulsion for the reason
that a room could be surcharged with air without nec-
essarily changing it as rapidly as it entered; while
on the other hand, by aspiration, it would change at
the same rate as it was extracted, on the principle that
“nature abhors a vacuum.” Theories in ventilation
and warming are as numerous as trees in a forest, and
it is only by practical tests and experiments that the
Question can be settled.
The question of “up-draft” or “down-draft” is
equally discussed by engineers and sanitarians, and
opinion is divided as to which of the two systems is
the best. In the first, the extraction of foul air is
made from the top of the room, and in the other
from the bottom of the room. The former is the
system that has been employed in the Halls of Con-
gress for over a quarter of a century, while the latter
is coming into more general use in public buildings in
recent years.
The change of air necessary to constitute perfect
ventilation and warming depends upon the size of the
room and number of its occupants. As has already
been stated, each individual should be supplied with
fresh air at the rate of one cubic foot per second, and
to prevent the unpleasant sensation of a draught the
movement of air should not exceed 3 feet per second ;
better if but 1 or 13 per second. It will be observed
that the inlets and exits to the room must bear a cer-
tain proportion to its size and the velocity of the air's
movements; it then becomes a mere matter of mathe-
matics to determine the question of how much air is
needed and how frequently it must be changed.
Parke says “it may be fairly assumed that the quan-
tity of air supplied to every inhabited room should be
great enough to remove all sensible impurity, so that
a person coming in from the external air should per-
ceive no trace of odor or difference between the room
and the outside air in point of freshness. Taking the
carbonic acid as the index of impurity it appears
from experiments made by Dr. De Chaumont and
myself that the organic impurity of the air is not
perceptible to the senses until the carbonic acid (i. e.,
the initial and respiratory carbonic acid) rises to the
ratio of .6 per 1000 volumes, or .0006 to each cubic foot.
Occasionally air may seem pure to the senses when
the carbonic acid is .7 or even .8 per 1000 volumes,
but the usual rule seems to be when it exceeds .6 the
air commences to become perceptibly impure. When
the carbonic acid reaches .9 or 1 per 1000 volumes,
the air is what is called close and fusty; above this it
becomes disagreeable.” º e
How to warm as well as ventilate a room is a ques;
tion of importance to a large section of our diversified
Country. }. without ventilation is no longer
deemed prudent, and the best means to accomplish
this double purpose is one that is still sub judice.
The fire-place or grate, the stove of many patterns, the
furnaces without number, the steam-pipes or coils,
hot-water pipes, radiators, and what not, are to be
found everywhere, while the manner of introducing
heated air into large rooms and public buildings, even
after the kind of apparatus for heating, them has
been fixed upon, is no easy question to decide. Shall
the heat be admitted at the floor and the foul air
extracted at the ceiling, or vice versa? shall it be
forced in (plenum), or shall it be drawn in (vac-
uum)?—if propulsion is used, a fan-wheel is necessary;
if suction is preferred, a heated ventilating shaft, 9r a
fan-wheel (perhaps both), will be required; while a
combination of plenum and vacuum will certainly
necessitate fan-wheels for each. Then the condition
of the outside air has to be considered, whether cold
or warm, moist or dry, high wind or moderate, and
the point of the compass from which it comes; the
|location of the building itself may influence the heat-
ing and ventilating of its rooms, while the light em-
ployed (candle, gas, or electric) must also receive
attention, so that no system can be said to be perfect,
however satisfactory it may be under favorable con-
ditions.
The open fire, which most closely resembles the
Sun's heat by direct radiation (and is doubtless the
most healthful), may answer for warming and venti-
lating small rooms, the demands for combustion pre-
yenting the air from becoming stagnant and keeping
it in constant motion towards the fire-place; but this
very movement of air creates a sensation of dis.
comfort, as a draught from the colder portions of the
room or from the cracks and crevices around the
doors and windows chills the feet and backs of those
sitting in front of the fire, for it must be remembered
that the air itself is not warmed by the fire. By sup-
plementing the open fire with warmed air from other
Sources (small furnaces, etc.), or admitting the cold
air back of the fire-place, where it is warmed and de-
livered into the room (radiating grates), the dis-
comfort spoken of may be in great measure obviated.
The stove is probably the most economical and most
generally used means for warming small dwellings and,
when properly made, and set with a view to ventila-
tion, is, next to the fire-place, the most healthful.
There are thousands of different patterns of stoves—
from the “thermometer stove'' of Dr. Arnott, in-
vented in 1838, and the original “Franklin stove'' of
earlier date, to the styles .# the present day. What-
ever pattern is used the following points must be con-
sidered: The stove should have a large heating sur-
face, and be encased, except at the top, to prevent
direct radiation—the object being to heat the air com-
ing into the room and not the persons immediately
around it. A fresh air duct from the external atmos-
phere delivering the pure air inside the casing
surrounding the stove will give an equal temperature
throughout the room, while the under-draft to the
stove will ordinarily remove the foul air by suction,
though it is better to have an opening on a level with
the floor, connecting with a heated ventilating shaft.
An urn or other vessel filled with water ... kept
on top of the stove. When the gas is lighted or the
room becomes too warm another opening (fitted with
a register) near the ceiling and connecting with the
heated shaft may be opened occasionally. It must be
remembered that the temperature of a room is no
index to the purity of the air.
Steam heating is now largely used in public build-
ings, hotels, offices, and in not a few private residences,
and if proper ventilation and indirect radiation is com-
bined with it, no serious objection can be urged against
it, or against hot water heating (meaning thereby the
heat radiated by pipes or coils in the rooms and
halls of buildings, and not heating from such pipes
placed in basements and conducted through flues to the
rooms above). In such cases fresh air from the out-
side may be delivered among the coils, thus securing
indirect with direct radiation, or admitted at the top
of the room, care being taken that foul air ducts from
openings level with the floor be connected with a warm
ventilating shaft. The disagreeable noises resultin
from turning the steam into partially heated or col
coils is said to be now obviated by the use of but one
set of pipes, the condensed Steam (water) returning
alongside the steam from the boiler; of course this also
does away with the extra valve and drip-cock at the
distal end of the set of coils. o
Heated air supplied by either furnaces, steam-coils,
or hot water pipes, located in the basement, is a very
common plan for heating fashionable dwellings, large
buildings, churches, school-houses, theatres, etc., the
heated air being conveyed through ducts built for that
purpose, and delivered where wanted. The general
plan of such furnaces, coils, and pipes may be briefly
stated as follows: The object being to obtain as large
WERDI.
733
heating surface as possible in order that the cold air
introduced may become sufficiently warmed before
passing into the various parts of the building, a fur-
nace should be built upon the same principle as a tubu-
lar boiler and enclosed to prevent the escape of the air
which is being warmed and collected in the dome, Suf-
ficient space being allowed between the enclosing walls
and the furnace to permit the warming of a certain
amount of air introduced from without. Steam-coils
and hot water pipes are also arranged to secure the
eatest amount of heating surface possible, and simi-
#. enclosed. Small portable furnaces, such as are
found in ordinary dwelling-houses, are enclosed by
sheet-iron instead of brick, the cold air entering from
the bottom and becoming warmed as it passes upward
into the drum. e
The hot air is now ready to be conducted into the
room or hall: the questionis, where shall it enter?, The
consensus of opinion now is, that it should be admit-
ted at or near the floor, for reasons already given.
Shall it be drawn in by vacuum, or forced in by pro-
pulsion, or shall both aspiration and plenum be em-
ployed 2 If by vacuum, where shall that be applied,
near the ceiling or at the floor 2. As before stated, the
Halls of Congress are heated and ventilated by plenum,
the heated air in winter and the fresh air in summer
being forced in by means of a large fan-wheel,
through numerous openings in the floors, carrying with
it the dust and other impurities which naturally gather
there, while louvers or ridge ventilators are placed at
or near the roof. It is claimed, too, that the floor
registers are used as cuspidors, and that the general
sanitary conditions of the halls is detrimental to health
on account of the system of heating and ventilation.
employed. The more recent and scientific application
of the forces of nature as developed by the vacuum or
down-draft system may be here explained : A vacuum
is created in a heated shaft outside the building ; the
rooms or halls to be ventilated are connected with this
shaft by numerous ducts opening upon the floor, the
number and size of the openings depending on the air
space to be ventilated ; at or near the ceiling fresh air
is admitted through numerous openings and in the
same proportion as it is withdrawn below; this in sum-
mer or moderate weather. In winter the heated air is
admitted near the floor, naturally ascends, and (the
openings in the ceilings being closed) distributes itself
equally throughout the room and finds its exit at last
through the foul air duct openings at the floor. Ob-
jection is made that heated air will remain at the top
of the room ; theoretically it will ; but experiments
have proved that it does not, when a vacuum is created
below; on the contrary it is discharged as rapidly as it
enters, but not till after it has become equally diffused
throughout the room, the thermometer marking but
two or three degrees difference between the top and
the bottom of the room. In fact, the expansion of air
by heat is only Tºw of its volume for every degree (F.)
of additional temperature; if it is zero outside and 70°
inside, the air in the room will be only one-seventh
lighter than the outside air. By placing the ventilat-
ing shaft and chimney side Sby side (carrying them
both well up above the building) the former will be
sufficiently heated for ventilating purposes in ordinary
weather, but on damp mucky days, or in Summer,
when the chimney is not heated by fire, a small furnace
is necessary to create a vacuum in the shaft. An ex-
haust-fan is substituted for the ventilating shaft, when
desired, and acts on the same principle by creating a
vacuum upon the floor of the room which the warm air
above at once fills. Both propulsion and vacuum are
employed in mines, aboard ships, and for inaccessible
Spaces.
Pure Air.—The question of obtaining pure air for
heating and wentilating purposes is much discussed,
many believing that it cannot be had at the level of the
lot or street upon which the house is built, and pure
air shafts of various heights have been suggested.
Others claim that smoke, cinders, and the products ºf
combustion in a large city would be drawn into shafts
and that the air circulating upon the surface of the
earth is best. All agree, however, that air from cel-
lars, damp basements, newly made earth, foul streets,
or marshy grounds is not fit to use. This question
must be settled by the circumstances involved in each
C3SG.
The system of ventilating and warming introduced
by Gouge of New York, based on the increased force
air gains by being gathered into different sized tubes,
partially inserted one into the other, and started by
means of a gas jet or lamp, is novel and said to be very
satisfactory, particularly in large buildings and railroad
cars, where it has been pretty extensively adopted.
The Ruttan-Smead system is fast becoming very
popular, many school-houses and public buildings being
heated and ventilated by it. The principle is the down-
draft or vacuum system, with the additional advantage
of utilizing the heated air after it has left the rooms or
halls by its passing through numerous openings under
the floors, thus keeping them warm, and being again
collected in a “gathering-room,” where it is further
used for ventilating the privies and urinals located in
the basement, it thence passes into the heated venti-
lating shaft. The furnace is tubular, and so con-
structed as to not only secure a large heating surface
but also obtain much heat from the gases and smoke
before they escape into the chimney. The ventilating
shaft and chimney are carried well above the building
and are separated by a thin partition which keeps the
shaft heated when the furnace is in use, and a small
furnace supplies heat when it is not in use or on damp
or rainy days. Each room is supplied with a separate
fresh air duct entering near the floor, which is so ar-
ranged as to let in either warmed air or cold air, or a
mixture of both, as may be desired. An examination
by the writer of the “ gathering-room '' and the
privies of a twelve-room school-house with 480 schol-
ars demonstrated the practibility of thoroughly deo-
dorizing and drying the deposits, an accumulation of
two years from this number of pupils giving off no
odor and appearing like a few barrows of dark dry
earth, the urine and all moisture having evaporated.
The down draft through the privy holes was very
strong and constant, and no odors were perceptible.
No other new systems of ventilation and warming
have been introduced in late years ; perhaps there are
none that do not embrace one or more of those already
described. (P. H. B.)
VERDI, GIUSEPPE, the foremost of modern Ital-
ian composers, was born at Roncolo, near Parma, Italy,
Oct. 9, 1814, his father being a poor inn-keeper. From
his earliest years he manifested a talent for music, and
at the age of eight began to receive lessons from the
village organist, while also attending a day-school at
Busseto. At his eleventh year a liberal amateur of
that town received him into his house and put him un-
der the organist of that place, where he already began
to write little orchestra-pieces. . In 1833, through the
bounty of his patron, he was able to go to Milan, and
received for three years instruction from Lavigna,
maestro in the great theatre, La Scala. Thence he re-
turned to Busseto, and in 1839 married the daughter
of his benefactor. Then taking up his residence in
Milan, he brought out his first opera, Conte di San
Bonifazio, at La Scala. Such was its success that he
forthwith received a commission from the director for
three other operas, to be produced in two years. The
first he presented was a comic opera, Un giorno di
regno, which met with but a cool reception, and this,
coupled with the death of his dearly loved wife, deter.
mined him to renounce comic opera forever. His next
work, Nabucodomosor, was performed at La Scala
with º success during the carnival of 1842.
From that hour the young master took rank among the
first composers of the age. His I Lombardi º
g * eared
at the same theatre in 1843, and his Ernani at
enice,
734
WERE–WERPLANCE.
1844. In the succeeding years he produced a series
of 9peras, in the same style: I due Foscari, Giovanni
d'Arco, Alzira, Attila, Macbeth, I Musnadieri, Jeru-
sglem, Il Corsaro, La battaglia di Legnano (inter-
dicted at Rome after its first representation in is 48),
Luisa. Miller, Stiffolia. The Macbeth on its repré.
Sentation at Florence in 1847 was received with such
enthusiasm that it led to his being called to London,
where he presented his Masnadieri, of which the prin.
çipal role was written for Jenny Lind. This year also
his Jerusalem was performed with great success at
Paris. Deeper, yet in impressiveness and showing
flºº power in characterization are his Rigoletto
1851), Il Trovatore, his chef d'oeuvre (1852), La Tra-
viata (1853), I_Vespri Siciliani, (1855) Simone Bocca-
negro (1857). His other works of this class are Alordo
(1857), Un ballo in Maschera (similar to Auber's
Masked Ball), La forza del Destino (brought out at
St. Petersburg in 1863 and held by some to be his high-
est, achievement), Dom Carlos (1866), Aida (1871),
and Montezuma (1878). His last work, Otello, founded
Qn, Shakespeare's tragedy, was produced at La Scala,
Milan, in February, 1887, with great enthusiasm. Be-
sides operas Verdi wrote a series of church and cham-
ber pieces, the best known of which probably are Roman-
zieri, a hymn for the second London Exhibition in
1862, and a Requiem Mass for the funeral of Alessan-
dro Manzoni in 1874. In place of the amorous, sen-
timental, and brilliant music of Bellini, Rossini, and
others, Verdi has sought to substitute work of a man-
lier type, characterized by energy and grandeur. Dur-
ing the Austrian rule in Italy he responded to the ºs-
pirations of his compatriots after liberty and gave musi-
cal expression to them, so that his name (“ Viva
Verdi') became their rallying-cry. In his later years
he has lived with his second wife, Giuseppina Strep-
poni, a noted singer, in Genoa, and at his villa near Bus-
seto, where he occupies himself with agriculture. In
1859 he was elected a member of the national assem-
bly of Parma; in 1861 he became a member of the
Italian chamber of deputies; in 1874 he was named by
Victor Emmanuel a member of the senate. In 1859
he was chosen a corresponding member of the Paris
Academy of Fine Arts, and in 1864 succeeded Meyer-
beer as associate.
VERE, AUBREY DE. See DE WERE.
VERGENNES, CHARLES GRAVIER, COMPTE DE
(1717–1787), a French statesman, born at Dijon, Dec. 28,
1717, being son of the president of the parliament of
Dijon. He early entered the French diplomatic ser-
vice, and in 1740 accompanied the diplomat, M. de
Chavigny, as a member of his staff to the court of
Lisbon. In 1750 he was appointed minister at the
court of the Elector of Treves, and, from 1755 to 1768,
was ambassador to the court of the Sublime Porte. In
1771 he was sent to Sweden and had no small share in
the revolution that occurred under Gustavus III.
When Louis XVI. came to the French throne in 1774,
he immediately recalled Vergennes from Service abroad
and made him his minister of foreign affairs, which
office he filled with all the tact and ability of a skilled
diplomatist, having ever before his eyes as his supreme
object the interests of his king and country. Among
the leading acts of his ministry were the treaty of
Soleure, concluded with the Swiss in 1777, the treaty
of Teschen with the Emperor Joseph II, in 1779, and
the treaty of commerce negotiated with England in
1783. But still more important to Americans was the
steady and efficient support lent by him to the United
States in their struggle for independence. When dis-
asters befell their arms in 1776 and commissioners were
sent to various countries in Europe to seek foreign rec-
ognition and aid, he granted, in December, a courteous
audience to Franklin, Deane, and Lee, and counselled
the king to grant them money from the royal, ex-
chequer and permit them to purchase military supplies.
In December, 1777, he encouraged Louis to recognize
the independence of the States and to enter into a
treaty with them (signed February, 1778), through
which they secured the co-operation of French land.
forces and war-ships, as well as aid in money and muni-
tions. Later he openly and in defiance of England
resented Franklin and his associates at the court of
ersailles, shortly after which M. Gerard was sent as
minister plenipotentiary to the United States, while
Dr. Franklin was received in the same character at the
French court. When John Adams arrived in Europe
in July, 1781, asking a seat in the congress of minis-
ters about to be held at Vienna to treat of peace between
Great Britain and all her enemies, Vergennes insisted
on this being conceded him, and on the British refusal
to recognize Adams he was instrumental in having the
congress abandoned. Finally Comte de Vergen-
nes was a party to the treaty of peace signed at Paris,
Sept. 3, 1783, by which American independence was
definitively recognized, though in arranging the terms
he showed himself fully as favorable to §. as to the
United States. He died at Versailies, Feb. 13, 1787.
VERNE, JULES, French author, was born at
Nantes, Feb. 8, 1814. He received his literary
education in his native city, had some experience as a
sailor, and afterwards studied law in Paris. In 1858
he made his debut in literature with a versified comedy,
Les Pailles Rompues, and followed it up with a
comedy in three acts, Onze Jours de Siège, and several
comic operas. In 1863 appeared his Cinq Semaines
en Ballom, a romance in which he weaves the results
of modern scientific research into a fantastically imag-
inative narrative, indulging, at the same time, in
adventurous flights of fancy into the region of the
possible future of science, especially as relating to
geography and astronomy. The immediate success of
this production encouraged its author to work this
vein and he gave forth an astonishing number of
works in which plausible science and romantic exploits
were grotesquely blended. Among them are Les
Adventures du Capitaine Haller; Le Voyageau Centre
de la Terre : De la Terre d la Lume ; Les Enfants du
Capitaine Grant; Vingt Mille Lieua, sous les Mers;
Une Ville Flottamte ; Le Tour du Monde en quatre-
vingt Jours; Le Pays des Fourrures ; Le Å.
Oa: ; Michel Strogoff; Hector Servadac ; Les Indes
Noires; Un Capitaine de Quinze Ams; Les Cinq Cent
Millions de la Begum ; Les Tribulations d'un Chinois
en Chine. Most of these have been translated into
English and widely popularized in dramatic versions,
to which they readily lend themselves. But Werne has
not confined himself to romantic fiction. He has
compiled and edited Geographie Illustrée de la
France, and Histoire générale des grands Voyages et
des grand Voyageurs, the latter being also translated
into English.
VERPLANCK, GULIAN CROMMELIN
1870), Scholar and statesman, was born in New
Aug. 6, 1786, of mingled Dutch and Connecticut stock.
His father, Daniel C. Verplanck (1761–1834), was a
member of Congress, 1803–9; his mother's father was
Dr. W. S. Johnson, President of Columbia College.
Graduating there in 1801, he studied law and trav-
elled in Europe for several years. Returning, he
engaged in State politics, was a candidate of the Mal-
contents for the Legislature, and entered that body in
1820. His anniversary discourse before the New York
Historical Society in 1818 on Early European Friends
of America attracted much attention. Some satires
on DeWitt Clinton were credited to Verplanck. Though
a layman he was professor of Christian evidences in the
Episcopal General Seminary, and in 1824 published Es-
says on the Various Evidences of Revealed Religion, in
which he laid chief stress on internal or moral evi-
dence, rather than the external or historic. His Doctrine
of Contracts (1825) was praised by Wheaton. From
1825 to 1833 Verplanck was in Congress, where he
worked for the extension of copyright, and Poe says
that “While in Congress he was noted as the most
industrious man in that assembly, and acted as a
1786–
ork,
WERRAZANO—VETO.
735
walking register or volume of reference, ever at the
service of his colleagues.” In 1834 he was Whig can-
didate for mayor and was narrowly defeated. After that
he sat for some time in the State Senate, and was
active in its judicial functions. In 1833 appeared his
Discourses and Addresses, and three volumes of Mis-
cellanies reprinted from The Talisman, which he had
conducted with Bryant and R. C. Sands. His reputa-
tion was enhanced by college addresses on The Right
Moral Influence and Use of Liberal Studies at Geneva,
1833, on The Influence of Moral Causes on Opinion,
Science, and Literature, at Amherst, 1834, and on
The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ameri:
can Scholar, at Union, 1836. He issued an annotated
edition of Shakespeare (3 vols., 1844–47), but the
lates were destroyed in the fire at Harper's, 1851.
W. position in New York may be compared to
that of Ticknor in Boston. (See TICKNOR in the ENCY-
CLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.) From 1829 he was vice-
chancellor of the University of New York, and from
1846 president of the commissioners of emigration,
and writing most of their reports. Much of his later
years was spent in his ancestral home at Fishkill.
He died in New York March 18, 1870, and Bryant
delivered a memorial address before the Historical
Society in May following.
VERRAZANO, GIov ANNI (c. 1480–1527), Italian
navigator and explorer, is supposed to have been born
shortly after 1480 in Florence, Italy, where members
of his family had attained high office. He is said to
have travelled extensively, particularly in Egypt and
Asia, and is even doubtfully reported to have com-
manded one of Aubert's ships in that mariner's
expedition from Dieppe to America in 1508. In 1521
Verrazano appears in history as a French corsair under
the name of Juan Florin or Florentin, preying on the
commerce of Spain with her new possessions. In
particular he is said to have captured in 1522 the rich
treasure-ship in which Cortez was sending to Charles
V. of Spain the spoils of Mexico, valued at $1,500,-
000. While following this occupation he seems to have
attracted the notice of Francis I., King of France,
under whose auspices he started in 1523 with 4 ships,
professedly to reach Cathay by a westward voyage,
‘‘ expecting to penetrate any intervening land,’’ al-
though it may be questioned whether his real object
was not piracy as well as a desire to reach the new
regions discovered by Cabot and Cortereal—that is,
North America. His little fleet encountered violent
storms and he was obliged to put back to some port in
Brittany with only two vessels, in one of which, the
Dauphine, he made a fresh start Jan. 17, 1524, from
the Island of Madeira, with 50 men. In 50 days he
made the land in N. lat. 34°, not far from Cape Fear
in North Carolina, and began his search for a harbor
by coasting 50 leagues to the south. Failing in this
object, he turned along the shore northward, and
while at anchor (perhaps near Raleigh Bay) sent a
boat ashore for water and found the natives (whom he
describes as black, of moderate stature and good pro-
portions, and naked save for a breech-cloth) friendly
and hospitable. Still following the shore, in fifty
leagues he reached a pleasant place where he anchored,
and found the natives fairer than those first seen and
the country as fertile but colder. Hence his crew car-
ried off a boy and brought him with them to France,
After coursing a hundred leagues farther to the north-
east, he arrived at a spot between small steep hills
where a great stream poured its waters into the sea.
Anchoring in the river, Verrazano sent his boat in, and
this, aftergoing half a league, found that the entrance
widened into a lake of three leagues circuit, upon
which at least 30 native boats were passing from
shore to shore. A sudden squall frightened the
boatmen and they returned to their ship without
further exploring this pleasant harbor, which seems
to have been that of New York, Sailing thence
east, they then discovered about 10 leagues from the
mainland an island of triangular shape and “about
the size of Rhodes,” to which they gave the name
of Louisa, mother of Francis I. From this island
(supposed to be Block Island) Verrazano steered
landward and in fifteen leagues came to a most beau-
tiful harbor which he places in the parallel of Rome,
41° 40' N., when the natives in their boats crowded
around the ship and showed themselves curious and
friendly, being easily persuaded to come aboard.
They are described as fine-looking, the handsomest
seen on the voyage, of taller stature than Europeans,
of light color, sharp faces with long black hair and
black eyes, but with a mild expression. In this
agreeable harbor, which has been identified as New-
port, Verrazano tarried 15 days, and then, through
the kindness of the inhabitants having supplied
himself with all necessaries, he sailed for 150 leagues
farther along the coast, the next landing being made
in a country colder, full of thick woods, and where
the natives were rude, shy of strangers, and clothed
in skins. This landing has been placed not far from
Portsmouth, N. H. ãºini. the voyage hence,
in a north-easterly direction, 52 islands were dis-
covered, all near the shore, but without stopping to
examine these Verrazano held on another 150 leagues,
when he attained about latitude 50° N. Here,
having reached the country already discovered by
the adventurous fishermen of Brittany, and finding
his stores almost exhausted, he decided to return to
France, having, as he says, discovered more than
700 leagues of unknown territory. His arrival at
Dieppe is placed early in July, 1524, for his letter
to the king giving an account of his discoveries is
dated from that port, July 8, 1524. We lose trace
of Verrazano after his return from this voyage.
It has been suggested that he went to England and
offered his services to Henry VIII., and contempo-
rary allusions give color to the suggestion. Biddle,
in his Jſemoirs of Sebastian Cabot, suggests he was
the Piedmontese pilot who was killed and eaten by .
the Savages in Rut's expedition of 1527, which would
harmonize Ramusio's statement that Verrazano made
a second voyage to America and lost his life there.
But Spanish official documents show that Juan
Florin, with other French pirates, was captured at .
Sea in 1527, and in November hanged at Colmenar,
between Salamanca and Toledo. A letter is said to
have been found, bearing date Paris, Nov. 14, 1527,
which speaks of Verrazano as preparing an expedition
of five º for America. It is not possible, indeed,
to reconcile the statements regarding him after his
return from America. (J. H.)
VETO. During the colonial period in the history
of this country, all legislative authority being ulti-
mately in the crown and parliament of Great Britain,
the Veto, power as now recognized had no existence;
as all colonial legislation took effect under the assent
of the British power, that specific limitation known as
the veto power was merged in that which had a more
universal nature. The people of the colonies naturally
regarded with disfavor that which appeared to them
to be an arbitrary interference with the right of popu-
lar.government. With the assertion of the right of
self-government by the colonies, the effect of this sen-
timent was not dissipated, and hence we find that the
necessity for an executive veto was not readily recog-
nized by them.
Massachusetts, in her constitution of 1780 adopted
the provisions that, with hardly any change of sub-
stance Qr form, have passed into the Constitution of
the United States and of the States generally. These
E.". required that the acts of legislation should
e signed by the governor or that he should return
them to the legislature with his objections, whereupon
they could only take effect when passed by a two-thirds
Vote. Until the charter of 1726 the governor had an
absolute veto upon the legislation.
Under the frame of government for Pennsylvania in
g
78
1682 and that of 1683 the governor had the initiation
of measures of legislation, which was equivalent to an
absolute veto, while under the charter of 1701 he had
an absolute veto given in terms, of acts tending to
change that organic law. By the constitution of I790
the provision as to the veto was adopted in the form
in which it had been adopted by Massachusetts in
1780, and this provision was continued in the consti-
tution of 1838.
The Massachusetts clause was adopted in the con-
stitution of New York in 1821, and was continued in
the constitution of 1846. Connecticut adopted the
provision in the same general form, but allowed a
mere majority to overcome the veto in the constitu-
tion of 1818. Virginia did not embody such a clause
in her constitution until 1870.
The executive veto of legislation may be regarded
as a fixed part of our system of government, but re-
duced from an absolute negative of legislation to a
check that may be overcome by the vote of a majority
or a larger proportion of the legislative body. In most
of the States two-thirds of the quorum is necessary,
but in some a mere majority is sufficient.
At the hº day the executive veto is recognized
by the United States and all of the States except
North Carolina, Ohio, Delaware, and Rhode Island.
In every instance where the veto exists it may be
overcome by a competent proportion of the legislative
body. A vote of i.º. is necessary for the pur-
pose in Maryland and Nebraska. Two-thirds of the
whole number elected is required for that purpose in
Missouri. Two-thirds of a quorum is necessary in
California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa,
Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire, New York,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia,
and Wisconsin. A majority of all persons elected is
required in Tennessee, West Virginia, Alabama, Ar-
kansas, Indiana, Kentucky, and New Jersey. A ma-
jority of a quorum is required in Connecticut. In
ermont the vote is a merely suspensory act, subject
to the action of the next session, and proceeds from
the governor and council.
The Constitution of the United States provides that
a bill presented to the President for his signature shall
become a law unless returned in ten days, unless Con-
ress by its adjournment prevents such return, and the
tates generally that have veto provisions, have a
similar clause varying as to the time within which the
bill must be returned. -
The Articles of Confederation did not provide for a
veto, for that form of government did not admit of its
application as an executive act, the States being repre-
sented in the system as sovereign communities. The
Constitution of the United States followed the form
originally adopted by Massachusetts requiring two-
thirds to overcome the veto of the President. The
discussion in the convention that framed the national
Constitution exhibits differences of opinion on this
subject, three plans being suggested—one for an abso-
lute veto by the President, another proposed revision
by the President and judiciary, and the third, that
which was finally adopted. The preponderating influ-
ence was in favor of a two-thirds vote. An attempt
was made to confer a veto over laws of the States upon
the Federal Government, but in its place power was
conferred upon the federal judiciary to declare laws of
States that were not in conformity with the Constitu-
tion of the United States of no effect. The question
of vesting the veto power was discussed upon proposi-
tions to place the whole in the executive or partly in
that officer and partly in the judiciary, but the final
result was its being placed in the executive alone, quali-
fied by the authority conferred on two-thirds of Con-
gress to destroy its effect. º e
According to existing practice, the two-thirds...of
Congress competent to enact a law notwithstanding
the President's veto is two-thirds of the number act-
VETO.
ing as a quorum of the respective houses of Congress,
and not two-thirds of the persons qualified to sit in
those houses.
During the first half century under the Constitution
the veto power was used for enforcing the executive
views of the limitations of the Constitution upon the
authority of Congress. The establishment of the Bank
of the United States at the commencement of the
government divided opinion on the question of its
constitutionality, which culminated in the exercise of
the veto power by Pres. Jackson to prevent the re-
charter of that institution. Another subject of grave
differences was the constitutionality of any attempt on
the part of Congress to create and maintain internal
improvements within the territory of the States. Both
Madison and Jackson applied the veto to prevent the
exercise by Congress of such power, which they re-
gººd as infringing upon the sovereignties of the
States, neither, as they regarded the matter, expressly
conferred upon Congress nor necessary for the exercise
of such as had been expressly conferred.
The frequent use by Pres. Jackson of the veto power
produced a political reaction against its employment in
the manner that was by many regarded as tending to
suppress efforts for the development of the material re-
sources of the country. The creation of internal im-
provements to connect together the great water-ways
of the country, the magnitude and interstate relation-
ships of which were regarded as rendering the action of
the general government essential to their institution,
gave prominence to the discussion of the question of
the veto power.
Another interest that gave animation to the discus-
sion was the growing opinion that the revenues of the
country should to the largest extent be obtained from
imposts, duties upon imported goods, as means of de-
veloping the material resources of the country. The
rigid construction of the powers of Congress that was
insisted upon by those who adhered to the school of
strict construction of the Federal' Constitution had
found expression in the exercise of the veto power pro-
fessedly for the windication of the limitations imposed
by the Constitution upon the powers of Congress.
Another subject that has induced the active exer-
cise of the veto power was the interests connected
with the institution of slavery, that culminated in the
rebellion of 1861. The period of reconstruction that
followed the close of this rebellion brought into con-
flict local and general interests, and the veto power was
used by Pres, Johnson to enforce his views of the
constitutional relations of the States to the Federal
Government. Prior to the close of the period of re-
construction the absorbing political topic in the United
States was the balance of power between the general
government and the States, and the form in which the
veto power was placed by the Constitution, and the
mode of its subsequent exercise may be regarded as
largely influenced by the pendency of that fundamen-
tal question. To reach a . between national and
local sovereignties that should give efficacy and unity
to the national government without suppressing or im-
pairing the efficiency of the States in the exercise and
development of their internal powers and resources,
was a problem that had neither º theoretical or
practical grounds been solved in the experience of
mankind, and if, while engaging the profound thought
of statesmen, it should happen to excite jealousy among
those favoring the one or the other source of public
authority, it ought not to be regarded with ..
While the question of the balance of power between
the States and the national government must remain
indefinitely subject at any time to produce animated
discussion and contrarieties of opinion in the United
States, still the occasion that gave the greatest interest
to this discussion has passed with the abolition of
slavery, which by dividing the country upon lines that
expressed fundamental differences in their social and
economic structure gave direct interest to every Sug-
$.
VICESBURG.
737
gestion that tended to weaken the national government)
as against the States.
The prominence of questions of constitutional au-
thority in the vetoes that occurred in the early history
of the country tended to associate that power specifi-
cally with questions of that character, and to create an
opinion that it was improperly used where the occa-
sion of its use was a difference between the executive
and Congress as to the policy of public measures. The
Constitution drew no such distinction, while it pro-
vided ample means for subjecting the action of Con-
gress to the limitations imposed upon it by the Con-
stitution, by conferring jºi. to uphold those lim-
itations upon the national judiciary. The circumstance
that the proper effect of the veto under the Constitu-
tion was to require Congress to act by a larger number
than a mere majority in certain cases, points the con-
clusion that the object of the veto was to secure mature
consideration in such cases, and that object would em-
brace questions of policy as well as those that involve
constitutional powers. Viewed in this light, the con-
stitutional veto may be regarded as a power placed in
the hands of the executive, by which a more mature
consideration may be required on the part of Congress
than what is implied by its acting by a mere majority.
Such executive authority does not contradict the prin-
ciple of representative legislation, but only exacts a
more full expression of the legislative mind in cases
where differences exist between the opinions of the
executive and the legislative departments of the gov-
ernment. The fact that the termination of a session
of Congress before the expiration of the time allowed
by the Constitution for the action of the President
upon bills presented to him for his approval may, and
often does, defeat legislative action, may be regarded
as an accident of the system that is unavoidable, and
not as impugning the principle that under no circum-
stances should the executive will prevail over that of
the legislative body; although advantage may be taken
of that fact to defeat legislative action, yet the result
can only be ascribed to the abuse of a proper power
which may not be dispensed with, although possible to
be abused.
It is plainly inferrible from the nature of the execu-
tive office that the veto was not intended to interfere
with matters of detail in legislation, for a minute in-
quiry on the part of the executive into the details of
legislation would be inconsistent with the proper dis-
charge of the executive duty that demands a general
oversight of the interests of the government. As
means of protecting the great interests of the country,
its nature can be readily understood, for legislative
bodies are likely, notwithstanding the checks and
guards afforded by parliamentary organization, to act
at times hastily and improvidently, especially under
the influence of excitement arising from popular ap-
prehensions of public evils, and for the vindication of
the principles that sustain the administration of jus-
tice and a wise public policy, such means of securing
deliberation can readily be understood. As parliamen-
tary bodies are liable, notwithstanding the means of
securing deliberation afforded by the experience of
government, to act without due deliberation, it would
seem necessary that some means should be devised for
the protection of the important public interests in
such an event, and the executive veto is the only means
for that purpose that has been proved by the experi-
ence of government. (A. J. W.)
WICKSBURG, SIEGE OF. After the battle of
Corinth, Oct. 3–4, 1862 (see CoRINTH), Gen. Grant,
in command of the department of the Tennessee,
proposed to Gen. H. W. Halleck, then general-
in-chief of all the national armies, a movement
having as its objective the capture of Vicksburg.
His views being approved, he, on Dec. S, ordered
Gen. Sherman to move down the Mississippi from
Memphis with this ulterior object, while Grant him-
self should co-operate with him by land. The cap-
ture of his secondary base of supplies at Holly
Springs, Dec. 20, and the difficulty of protecting
the long line of communications, induced him to
abandon the land expedition and take command, in
person of the movement down the Mississippi. On
arriving at Milliken's Bend, 20 miles above Vicksburg,
on the west side of the river, he found Sherman there,
and directed him to attempt the capture of the strongly
fortified position of Haines' Bluff, on the Yazoo River.
Sherman crossed the Mississippi at the head of 32,000
troops, and ascended the Yazoo, landing immediately
below the bluff. His assault was repulsed with severe
loss, and Grant, establishing his head-quarters at Mem-
his, commenced preparations for co-operation. With
Šiºn. in a concentrated movement against Vicks-
burg. On Dec. 29, 1862, he arrived at the head of
50,000 men at Young's Point, nearly opposite the
mouth of the Yazoo River, 3 miles above Vicksburg,
Admiral Porter co-operating with a fleet of gun-boats
carrying 280 guns and 800 men. Various modes pre:
sented themselves for reaching the high ground behind
Wicksburg, whence only it could be assaulted. . Three
received especial consideration: (1) By crossing the
river below Vicksburg and co-operating with Gen.
Banks, who was ascending the river in command of an
expedition from New Örleans; (2) By constructing a
canal across the peninsula opposite Vicksburg for the
passage of gun-boats and transports, and which would
e kept open as a line of communication for supplies;
(3) By turning the Mississippi out of its course an
crossing its bed. Each of these plans, specious in
theory, was found impracticable, mainly on account
of the weather, the swollen condition of the river, and
the state of the country. After spending about three
mouths at Young's Point “trying,’’ Gen. Grant says,
“to get on high land and waiting for the river to re-
cede,” he determined to attempt a plan more hazard-
ous than any of the others. This was to run the
batteries of Wicksburg with his gun-boats and trans-
§. march his troops down the west bank of the
Mississippi from Milliken's Bend to a point in the
neighborhood of New Carthage, and ferry them thence
over to the east bank. The movement was begun
March 29, when the troops set out on their march
to New Carthage and Hard Times. On the night of
April 16 the fleet ran the batteries of Vicksburg under
a hot fire. On April 29 Gen. Grant reconnoitred
Grand Gulf, and finding it too strong to promise suc-
cess to an assault, ran its batteries with his gun-boats,
etc., as he had done those of Vicksburg, to a point
farther down the river. On the 30th the advance of
his army was ferried across to the east bank at Browns-
burg, 30 miles south of Vicksburg, and forthwith
marched out in the direction of Port Gibson, near
which, on May 1, it encountered Gen. Bowen at the
head of Some 7000 men, defeated him, and chased
him for some miles. On May 3 the Big Black River
was reached and also the Mississippi at Grand Gulf.
i. which place he made his head-quarters for a few
ayS. -
Grant now found himself between two hostile armies.
—one with head-quarters at Jackson, 45 miles east of
Vicksburg (of which Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, sent
as Confederate general-in-chief of the Wicksburg cam-
paign, took the command on May 13), the other under
Gen. J. C. Pemberton, with head-quarters at Wicks-
burg. With the view of relieving his front, Grant had
ordered Sherman to make a feigned attack on Haines'
Bluff, which compelled the Confederates to despatch
troops to its relief. This feint had been successfully
executed on April 30, whereupon Sherman marched
to join the main army. Three days were spent in
Grand Gulf inferrying over Sherman's army and recon-
noitring towards Vicksburg, . By the evening of May
6. Sherman's corps had joined the main army in
Grand Gulf, and it became Grant's policy to cut him-
self adrift from his base, and, by a rapid movement,
to strike first the one and then the other of the hostile.
738 VICTORIA.
armies ere they had time to unite. On May 7 the
movement commenced, with the assault of Wicks-
burg from the rear as its ultimate object. On the 12th
McPherson leading Grant's advance met at Raymond
a force under Gen. Gregg from Jackson. This was
defeated and driven back on that city. The next | b
move was direct on Jackson, where Johnston now was
at the head of 12,000 men, and on the 14th this place
was taken, the supplies collected there destroyed, and
the railroad bridge broken down. Johnston lost 845
men and 17, guns. Grant instantly faced to the west
against Pemberton, met him on the i8th at Champion's
Hill, and, after the hardest fought battle of the cam-
paign, defeated him with a loss of 1400 put hors de
combat, 2500 prisoners, and 24 guns. On the 17th
the enemy was again encountered intrenched at Big
Black River bridge, and, after a hard fight, driven
across the river, with a heavy loss in killed and
wounded, and of 1751 men captured as well as 18
guns. On May 18 the outworks of Vicksburg were
reached, and the Confederates driven within the forti-
fications. The city was forthwith invested, and from
this date the siege is to be reckoned.
Grant, believing Pemberton's troops demoralized
by their defeats at Champion's Hill and Big Black,
ordered a heavy assault on the 19th and another on
the 22d. Both resulted in discomfiture, although
some of the enemy's advanced positions were cap-
tured. On the 23d the siege was begun in regular
form, and the troops set to work in fortifying the posi-
tion and pushing it forward towards the enemy's
parapets.
Vicksburg is situated on the east bank of the Mis-
sissippi, a mile below the junction of the Yazoo, and
stands on an uneven bluff, much broken up on the
land side with ravines, having an average height of
from 200 to 250 feet above the river. Its defences
commenced 3 miles below the town and followed the
highest ridge in an east and north-east direction till
they reached the Jackson Road, where they turned
due north and then west for 2 miles till they reached
the river at Fort Hill. The total length was about
7 miles. The line had been selected in the autumn of
1862, and most thoroughly fortified during the winter
and spring. At an average distance of 200 yards bat-
teries had been constructed, the parapets 25 feet thick,
10 feet high, and ditch 7 feet deep. The works were
defended by 128 guns. In addition to land-defences,
the circuit was made complete by a series of water-
batteries stretching along the Mississippi from Fort
Hill on the north to where they met the land-batteries
on the south. These mounted 30 pieces siege artillery
of the heaviest calibre and 13 pieces j artillery.
The troops for the defence numbered over 20,000
effectives, in four divisions, under Gens. Stevenson,
Forney, Smith, and Bowen, with the addition of
Waul's legion. Stevenson held the right, Forney the
centre, Smith the left. Bowen's division and Waul's
legion were in reserve. tº
Grant had 71,000 troops to conduct the siege and
defend his rear against Johnston, who had now been
reinforced to over 30,000. By June 30 he had 220
military guns in position, all light field-pieces except 6
32-pounders, supplemented by a battery of heavy guns
from the navy—in all 248 pieces. Sherman held the
right of the besieging force, starting from the river;
McPherson came next; McClernand stood left of him,
holding the road south to Warrenton. , Lauman's
division, which arrived at this time, held the extreme
left. Grant's head-quarters were at the north-east
angle, where Sherman's and McPherson's corps
touched. His whole line measured about 15 miles.
A sap which had been run up to the enemy's parapet
was exploded on the 25th June without any definite
effect, and an attempt to charge after the explosion
resulted in failure. On July 1 another mine was ex-
ploded, and destroyed a redan, killing and wounding
à number of its occupants, but no attempt was made
to charge. From this time the work of mining and
pushing the position nearer the enemy went on with
renewed vigor. Already the approaches had reached
the enemy's ditch, and orders were given to prepare
for the assault on July 6. Meantime the garrison had
egun to suffer from failure of supplies. An inter-
cepted despatch had informed Grant that Johnston had
planned an attack to relieve it, while Pemberton was
to cut his way out. The line of defence which his re-
inforcements enabled Grant to make towards Jackson
foiled this scheme, as the means taken by him in con-
nection with Admiral Porter had on the 21st equally
foiled a scheme of Pemberton's to leave the city for
the Louisiana side by boats. When Pemberton saw
that all hope of relief or escape had vanished, he, on
July 1, addressed his four division commanders, asking
whether they would counsel evacuation. Two directly
counselled surrender; the other two did practically the
same, saying that an attempt to evacuate would fail.
Already Pemberton had received a message from
Johnston suggesting he should negotiate for the re-
lease of the garrison with their arms.
On July 3 a white flag appeared on a portion of the
works and hostilities along that line ceased. Shortly
thereafter Gen. Bowen, and Pemberton's aide-de-
camp, Col. Montgomery, appeared with a white flag
and bearing a letter asking an armistice “for —
hours” to id: commissioners to meet to arrange terms
of capitulation. This Grant declined to accede to, but
wrote, saying he would meet Pemberton to arrange for
unconditional Surrender of city and garrison, promis-
ing that the latter would be treated with all the respect
due prisoners of war. At 3 P. M. Pemberton appeared
with some of his officers and met Grant with some
Union generals. Grant would accede to nothing but
unconditional surrender, but agreed to send a i.
embodying his final terms at 10 P. M. These terms—
the surrender of the city and of the whole force, with
their arms and munitions, as prisoners of war, not to
serve again till properly exchanged—were accepted by
Pemberton, and at 10 A.M., July 4, the Confederate
troops marched out, each division taking position in
front of its works, where it stacked arms, laying its
colors upon them, and then marched back to the city.
Logan's division marched in and took possession.
Paroles were made out and signed as quickly as possi-
ble, the prisoners being meanwhile fed from the Union
stores. On July 11 they marched out unarmed, and
proceeded to the neighborhood of Enterprise, Miss.,
and Demopolis, Ala., where they remained till they
were exchanged in the following September. The
number of men actually paroled was 29,591, namely,
2166 officers and 27,425 men. There were also 790
who refused parole and were sent north as prisoners of
war, so that the total force surrendered was, in round
numbers, 30,400. The artillery found in the place
numbered 172 pieces, 67 of which were siege-guns.
Grant's total loss in the campaign º expedi-
tion against Jackson) was a little under 10,000. É.
berton's loss, including men surrendered, has been es-
timated at 46,000. The total length of the siege, from
May 18 to July 3, 1863, was 47 days.
The events of July 4, 1863, at Wicksburg and Gettys-
burg, sounded the death-knell of the Confederacy.
The struggle was prolonged indeed, and maintained
with the desperate resolution of brave men, but of
men conscious that defeat awaited them in the end.
Grant, for his brilliant services, was promoted to major-
general in the regular army, and Congress, on its meet-
ing, passed a vote of thanks to him and his army and
voted him a gold medal. (J. H.)
VICTORIA, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland,
and Empress of India, daughter and only child of Ed-
ward, Duke of Kent, was born at Kensington Palace,
London, May 24, 1819, her mother being Victoria Mary
Louisa, daughter of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saal-
fºld, and widow of Prince Charles of Leiningen. The
Duke of Kent died when his daughter, Alexandrina
VICTORLA.
739
Victoria, was only eight months old, but her mother
fulfilled the important duties devolved on her with ad-
mirable care and judgment. On Victoria's accession
to the throne, on the demise of her uncle, King Wil-
liam IV., June 20, 1837, she was accomplished not
only in the continental languages, drawing, music, and
some of the sciences, but she was thoroughly instructed
in the principles of the British Constitution. Retain-
ing the late king's ministers, her first public act was
to dissolve Parliament in person on July 17, reading
her speech from the throne. Next year her corona-
tion was celebrated, June 28, amid general rejoicing.
Although but eighteen years of age at her accession,
the dignity with which she bore herself, her strict pro-
i. of conduct, and amiability of character won the
earts of her subjects, and she has retained their love
and respect to the present day. On Feb. 10, 1840, she
married her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, who proved not only a husband devoted to
herself, but able and ready to further the welfare of
her people. By him she has had nine children—four
Sons and five daughters—of whom seven still live.
Her offspring are, the Princess Royal, Victoria, now Em-
º of Germany, born Nov. 21, 1840, married
an. 25, 1858, to Frederick William, then Crown Prince
of Prussia, and later Emperor of Germany ; Albert
Edward, Prince of Wales, heir-apparent to the throne,
born Nov. 9, 1841, who married March 10, 1863, Prin-
cess Alexandra of Denmark ; Princess Alice, born
April 25, 1843, married in 1862 to Prince Frederick of
Hesse, died Dec. 14, 1878; Prince Alfred, Duke of
Edinburgh, born in 1844, married, 1874, Marie Alex-
androvna, only daughter of the Czar of Russia; Prin-
cess Helena, born 1846, married, 1866, Prince Chris-
tian of Schleswig-Holstein ; Princess Louise, born 1848,
married, 1871, the Marquis of Lorne, eldest son of the
Duke of Argyll (the only child of the Queen who mar-
ried a subject); Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, born
1850. married, 1879, Princess Louise of Prussia, daugh-
ter of Frederick Charles, the “Red Prince ;” Leopold,
Duke of Albany, born 1853, married, 1882, Princess
Helen of Waldeck, died 1884; Princess Beatrice,
born 1857, married, 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg.
The leading events of Victoria's reign are here
briefly noted. The year 1839 was marked by the tur-
bulent proceedings of the Chartists. Their principles,
which were embodied in “the five points of the char-
ter,” have since been largely recognized in legislation,
In 1840 Sir Rowland Hill's penny-postage scheme was
put in operation. The war against China, 1840–42,
was closed by a peace, by whichingland Secured a large
war-indemnity, the island of Hong-Kong, and the
opening of four ports in addition to Canton. In 1841
Sir #. Peel came into power, and after great popu-
lar agitation, his administration repealed the corn-laws
in 1846. Serious wars occurred in Afghanistan in 1842,
and in the Scinde in 1843. In 1845 the great Sikh ris-
ing took place in India, which was not quelled till 1849.
It resulted in the annexation of the Punjaub. The
famine in Ireland through the failure of the potato-
crop in 1846 drove multitudes of its people from their
homes to find an asylum in America. #. widespread
distress led to a revision of the poor-laws for the whole
empire. In 1848, the year of European revolutions,
the throne of Victoria alone stood secure, though
there was an uprising in Ireland, and the Chart-
ists gave some trouble in London. In 1849 Queen
Victoria for the first time visited Ireland, and was re-
ceived with demonstrations of loyal respect, while the
name of the Cove of Cork, where she landed, was
changed to Queenstown, On May 1, 1851, the World's
Fair in Hyde Park, London, was opened by the Queen
and Prince Albert, who had energetically promoted this
industrial exhibition. In this year the first submarine
telegraph cable was laid across the Straits of Dover.
The close of 1852 was marked by the death of the
Duke of Wellington, who had been the sponsor to
Prince Arthur.
Ten years of peace were succeeded by new wars. In
1854 war with Russia led to the Crimean campaign by
the united forces of England, France, Italy, and Turkey,
and was closed by the capture of Sebastopol, Sept. 9,
1855. The formidable Indian mutiny burst forth in
1857 and was suppressed only after a long and desper-
ate struggle. The great East India Company was abol-
ished and its vast empire transferred to the crown of
Britain. In this year the title of Prince Consort was
conferred on the Queen's husband. A volunteer move-
ment for the defence of England was inaugurated in
1859. The civil war in America caused much distress
in England owing to the cotton famine. To Victoria
the close of 1861 was darkened through the death of
her devoted husband. Her grief was testified by many
years of seclusion from the public. Besides architectu-
ral tributes to his memory, she caused the publication
of his Speeches and Addresses (1862). Lieut.-Gen.
Charles Grey prepared under her direction The Early
Years of H. R. H., the Prince Consort (1867), and Sir
Theodore Martin The Life of H. R. H., the Prince
Consort (3 vols., 1875).
To resume our chronology: in 1866 telegraphic com-
munication was established between Europe and
America by the laying of the cable between Valentia,
Ireland, and the coast of Newfoundland. Fenian
troubles marked the year 1867. The same year was
signalized by the passing of Disraeli's reform act, es-
tablishing household suffrage in boroughs and occupa-
tion franchise in counties, and by the formation of
Canada into a dominion and the transference of the
seat of government to Ottawa. In 1869 the Estab-
lished Church of Ireland was disestablished and dis-
endowed. This was followed, in 1870, by the passage
of a land-act for Ireland, establishing courts for fixing
reasonable rents. This has been the precursor of sev-
eral kindred measures, down to the Ashbourne act of
1888, the general object being to restore peace to that
unfortunate country. The purchase of commissions
in the army was abolished in 1870. In this same year
the elementary education act was passed for England
and, in 1872, a kindred measure was passed for Scot-
land, education being now compulsory in both these
COUntries. <-º:
At the close of 1871 the life of the Prince of Wales
was for a time in imminent danger through typhoid
fever. In 1871 the Emperor Napoleon III. found
asylum with his wife and son at Chiselhurst, Kent,
where he died in 1873. In 1876 Parliament, at the in-
stance of Disraeli, passed a royal title-bill, by which
Victoria was made Empress of India. In 1877 that
favorite minister of state was raised to the peerage
with the title of Earl of Beaconsfield. In 1878, at the
end of the war between Russia and Turkey, the island
of Cyprus was ceded by the latter country to England.
A war with the Zulus in South Africa, which broke
Qut in 1879, was noted for the slaughter of the young
Prince Napoleon, a volunteer with the British troops.
\ ºria erected a monument to his memory in Zulu-
à.I] Ol.
Troubles in Ireland continued, and on May 6, 1882,
Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke were assas.
sinated in the Phoenix Park, Dublin. Parliament then
passed an Irish coercion bill of the most stringent na-
ture, which still remains in force. For the war in
Egypt in that year see ARABI PACHA. Lower Egypt
was occupied by British troops and this led to compli-
cations with the fanatical Arab tribes of the Soudan
who, under the Mahdi, threatened Lower Egypt, slew
Gen. Gordon, who had gone to Khartoum to pacify
the region, and came in collision with the force which
had been despatched too late for his relief. A bitter
and undecisive “little war” was the result. One of
its luost prominent events was the battle of Suakim,
in December, 1888, which resulted in the decisive re.
pulse of the Arabs from that town,
In the early spring of 1884 died the Duke of Albany,
who of all the Queen's children was said, in point ºf
740
VINCENT—WIOLET.
tastes and culture, most to resemble his father. In 1858–61, St. Mark's, New York, 1861–70, Emmanuel,
December of this year Parliament passed an act by
which practically the whole adult male population of
Britain is enfranchised. Since then Parliament has
been mainly occupied with Irish questions, the central
one being that of Home-Rule.
In the Spring of 1888 Queen Victoria visited Italy
for the sake of her health and on her return journey
spent three days in the month of April at the Schloss
Charlottenburg, near Berlin, where her son-in-law, the
Emperor Frederick, was to die on June 15. In the
fall the Dowager-Empress came to her mother at
Windsor.
A marked peculiarity of Queen Victoria has been her
predilection for Scotland and its people, her favorite
personal attendants, notably John Brown, being mainly
of this nation. In 1847 she took up her first residence
in the Highlands at the old castle of Ardvenkie, In-
vernesshire, and since then her visits here have been,
at least, annually. In 1852 Prince Albert acquired
tle fee-simple of the castle of Balmoral on the Dee,
Aberdeenshire, with a property of 40,000 acres, largely
deer-forest, and built a new castle on the site of the
old one. Here, more than elsewhere, the Queen has
ever since made her home proper, spending generally
two months in autumn. In its neighborhood some
rivate family monuments have been erected, and her
earest associations seem to cluster. Her majesty's
literary productions are all associated with her High-
land life, and tell of excursions amid the mountains
and glons, of Highland sports, of her own home life,
and of Highland life and usages.
Finally, her reign has been one of great activity,
scientific, literary, and artistic, and books have multi-
plied in an unprecedented degree. The great names in
these departments will be found under their separate
entries. Victoria's name, like those of her predecessors,
Elizabeth and Anne, marks an illustrious era in liter-
ature. (J. H.
VINCENT, John HEYL, bishop in the Methodist
Episcopal Church, was born at Tuscaloosa, Ala., Feb.
23, 1832. He received an academical training, and
entered the Methodist ministry. He has had charge of
churches in New Jersey, at Newark, Franklin, and
Irvington, 1852 to 1856; in Illinois, at Joliet, Mt.
Morris, Galena, Rockford, and Chicago, from 1857 to
1865. He was made Sunday-school agent in 1866, and
corresponding secretary of the Methodist Sunday-
school Union in 1868. While engaged in active pro-
motion of the cause of Sunday-schools he became con-
vinced of the nerd of popularizing higher instruction in
this country. Young men and women eager to be taught
lacked opportunities to procure the training to which
they aspired. The problem then was to diffuse liberal
culture above the range of the common schools. By the
generous aid of Mr. Lewis Miller Dr. Vincent was en-
abled in 1874 to put in practice at Chautauqua certain
ideas which had been developed in his mind. The re-
sult has been partly described under CHAUTAUQUA,
but the work has advanced to greater perfection since
that article was published. Dr. Vincent was the super-
intendent of instruction there until 1884, and has
since been chancellor of Chautauqua University. In
1888 he was chosen bishop by the General Conference.
He has published The Chautauqua Movement (1886),
The Home Book (1886), and manuals relating to Sun-
day-schools.
VINTON, ALEXANDER, HAMILTON (1807–1881),
clergyman, was born at Providence, R.I., May 2, 1807.
His father, David Vinton (1774–1830), was a prom-
inent merchant. Alexander, after spending , three
years at Brown University, studied medicine, and praç-
tised at Pomfret, Conn., but in 1833 abandoned med;
icine for theology. After studying at the Episcopal
General Seminary in New York, he was ordained dea-
con in 1835 and priest in 1836. He was successively
rector of Grace Church,_Providence, 1836–43, St.
Faul's, Boston, 1842–58, Holy Trinity, Philadelphia,
Boston, 1870–77. He then retired to Pomfret, but
afterwards was professor of systematic divinity in the
theological School at Cambridge. He declined the
bishopric of Texas in 1857, and was candidate in other
dioceses, but was not elected. With a noble voice and
presence, he was impressive alike as preacher and pastor,
and has been pronounced one of the greatest men of
the Episcopal Church. He died at Philadelphia,
Aº 1881. His only publications were Sermons
1855). w
His brother, FRANCIS WINTON (1809–1872), was
born Aug. 29, 1809, graduated at West Point in 1830,
and published Arthur Tremaine, or Cadet Life (1830).
He served on topographical and engineer duty till
1836, when he resigned, having managed to study law
at Harvard and be admitted to the bar at Portsmouth,
N. H. But like his brother he turned to theology, en-
tered the same seminary, and was ordained deacon in
1838, and priest in 1839. He became rector of St.
Stephen's, Providence ; of Trinity, Newport, 1840;
of Emmanuel, Brooklyn, 1844; of Grace, Brooklyn,
1847. He declined the bishopric of Indiana in 1849,
and in 1855 became an assistant minister of Trinity,
New York, with charge of St. Paul's. In 1869 he
was made professor of ecclesiastical law and polity in
the General Seminary. He published Lectures on the
Evidences of Christianity (1865), and Commentary on
the Canon Laws (1870). He was a leader of the High
Church party, as his brother Alexander of the conser-
vative evangelicals. He died in Brooklyn, Sept. 29,
1872.
VIOLET, the sº * ; the i. Yº.
r the type of the botanical order Vio-
See .. iº, laceae. The genus is a large one,
Km. º comprising about 200 recorded spe-
cies of herbaceous, perennial (rarely
annual) plants, the most of which are favorites of
flower lovers. They possess short rhizomes or under-
ground stems, alternate leaves, and solitary flowers,
nodding or declined. The flowers have nearly equal
sepals, produced at the base into a free appendage;
the petals are unequal, the lower one produced into a
sac or spur at the base.
Of the American species, V. cucullata, the common
blue violet, is much the best known, and is found
throughout the country. Other common Species are
W. palmata, the hand-leaf violet; and V. pedata, the
birds-foot violet, a species with large and handsome
flowers of blue or purple color, the two upper petals
sometimes deep violet and velvety like the pansy. . In
addition to the blue, there are several species of white
and yellow violets. Of the latter may be named V.
rotundifolia and W. pubescens, the latter a fine, tall
species, with an aºiſºn 6 to 12 inches high. . It
bears yellow flowers, with striated, petals, and thrives
well under culture. f the white species may be
named V. blanda, the small scented violet, its flowers
being white, small, and with a faint sweet perfume.
It grows in wet meadows in company with another
white-flowered species, V. lanceolata, the lance-leaved
violet.
There are representatives of a second genus in the
Northern United States, Solea, the green violet.
concolor occurs from New York to Illinois and south-
ward. It is a homely little plant, with small, green-
ish-white flowers, and has the power, in common with
many other violets, of projecting its seeds to a consid-
erable distance from the plant. . & e
Europe possesses many beautiful species of violets,
the favorite among them all being V. odorata, the
sweet-scented violet. This is a low, º the
flower generally blue, but occasionally of other colors,
and with a very delicate fragrance, much superior tº
that of any American violet. It has been naturalized
here to some small extent. W. tricolor, a pretty little
plant, is the source of all our cultivated varieties of
pansies, heartsease, etc. Most of the cultivated vio-
WIOLLET LE DUC–WIRCHOW.
741
lets are of Old World species, the American violets
generally being not showy in culture, though V. pe-
data responds well to cultivation, and is becoming
common in gardens. (C. M.)
VIOLLET LE DUC, EUGENE EMANUEL (1814–
1878), a French architect and author, was born at Paris,
Jan. 27, 1814. He studied architecture, at first under
Leclerc, occupying himself specially with the Gothic
architecture of the middle ages, and thereafter by
observation in the course of tours of investigation in
Italy, Sicily, and Southern France, wherein he paid
attention chiefly to Greek and Roman remains. In
1840 he was made inspector of the restoration of the
Sainte Chapelle, Paris, and was successively intrusted
with the restoration of the ancient churches of Verze-
Hay, of Saint Père, Montreale (Yonne), Poissy, Carcas-
sone, and Semur ; and of the Hôtels de Ville of Saint
Antoine and Narbonne; and in 1845 with the resto-
ration of the Church of Notre Dame, Paris. His
success here led to his appointment as architect of the
Abbey of St. Denis. In 1849 he restored the fortifi-
cations of Carcassone and superintended the embellish-
ment of the Cathedral of Amiens. In 1853 he was
appointed one of the three government inspector-
generals of religious edifices, in which capacity he
conducted the restoration, among others, of the Church
of Notre Dame, Chalons sur Marne; of the Cathedral
of Laon, and of the Chateau Pierrefonds. In 1863
he was named professor of art, history, and aesthetics
in the reorganized School of Fine Arts, but soon re-
signed. During the siege of Paris, 1870–71, he aided
as an architectural engineer in the defence of his native
city, and was lieutenant-colonel. Meanwhile his re-
publican and free-thinking views, expounded through
the press, raised a clamor against him. He was, how-
ever, charged with the construction of the Protestant
Cathedral of Lausanne, Switzerland, and the restora-
tion, for the Comte de Paris, of the Chateau d’Eu.
But, owing to clerical opposition in 1874, he resigned
his position as inspector of diocesan edifices and
ceased to be architect of the Cathedrals of Rheims,
Amiens, Clermont, and Paris, though retaining the
office of architect of St. Denis. In 1874 he was
elected to the Chamber of Deputies as republican can-
didate for Montmartre. It was on his report as a
member of the Commission on International Exposi-
tions that the project of the palace of the Champs de
Mars and the Trocadero united by a gallery was
adopted for the Paris exposition of 1878. He latterly
occupied himself with questions of the fine arts, and,
among other things, proposed to multiply the statues
of great men in Paris, and advocated the use of the
Phrygian bonnet for the statues of Liberty. He died
suddenly at his country-house, near Lausanne, Sept.
17, 1879. Among his publications are Dictionnaire
raisonné de l'architecture française de XI-XVI. Siècle
(Paris, 1854–1868, 10 vols; a twice-crowned chef
d'oeuvre); Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier Fran-
£aise de l'Epoque carlovingienne ô la Renaissance
(1854–1875); Lettres sur la Sicile (1860); Entretiems
sur l'Architecture (1858–1872); Cités et ruines Ameri-
caines (1862–63); Chapelles de Notre Dame de Paris
(1869); Habitationes modernes (1874–75); Histoire de
('habitation humaine (1875); L'Art russe (1877).
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF, German pathologist and
ublicist, was born Oct. 13, 1821, at Schievelbein,
Pomerania. In 1843 he graduated in medicine from
the University of Berlin, and began to lecture on
anatomy, being also prosector of the Charité hospital.
In 1847 he established in Berlin, in conjunction with
Reinhardt, the Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und
Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (from vol. xxi. by
Virchow alone). This periodical, now having over 80
volumes, is recognized as one of the most authorita-
tive in the j In 1847 Virchow, in connection
with Leubuscher, founded also the Medical Reform.
In 1848 he was deputed by the government to investi-
gate the nature of the typhoid epidemic in upper
Silesia, and his report took high rank in Sanitary
science. Aroused by the Revolution of 1848 he en-
tered the political arena as a liberal leader, and was
elected to the Prussian House of Deputies, but was
declared ineligible on account of his age. His liberal
politics also served to deprive him in 1849 of his lec:
tureship, whereupon he accepted a call to the chair of
pathological anatomy in the University of Würzburg,
where he obtained fame by his lectures on cellular
É. In 1852 he investigated, by request of the
avarian government, the famine in Spessart ; and in
1859, at request of the Swedish government, he
investigated in Sweden and Norway the causes of
leprosy. In 1856 he was recalled by the University
of Berlin to assume the chair of pathological anatomy
and to become director of the Pathological Institute,
which he soon raised to the first rank ...; such
establishments. Since 1859 he has, as a member of
the city council of Berlin, devoted great attention to
matters of sanitary science. Since 1862, as member
of the Prussian House of Deputies, he has con-
sistently opposed Bismarck's arbitrary policy, the
governmental centralization, and the military dom-
ination. Though he had objected to the constitution-
ality of the creation of the German Empire in 1880
he entered the Reichstag, where he soon became
famous by his coinage of the watchword “Kultur.
kampf.” In the wars of 1866 and 1870 Prof. Vir-
chow was director of the German hospital service. In
1869 he helped to organize the German Archaeological
Society at Innspruck, and became a leader in the Ber-
lin Anthropological Society. In 1873 he was chosen a
member of the Academy of Sciences. As one of the
instructors to the Berlin Workingmen's Union he
actively engaged in popularizing science. In 1872, a
German Society having requested his withdrawal from
the French, Scientific societies, he declined, saying
a rupture of the scientific relations between the two
countries would be contrary to the interests of civiliza-
tion, of Science, and of humanity. In 1879 he ren-
dered some assistance to Dr. Schliemann, in the Troad,
and he contributed the Preface and some appendices
to his Ilios (1881), and two appendices to his Troga
(1884). The cancerous disease that carried off Fred-
erick III in 1888 brought Virchow prominently before
the world as the ultimate authority on the pathologi-
cal problem. It has become evident also that he
exerted a great political influence (in conjunction with
Geffcken and others) upon the liberal-minded but un-
fortunate emperor.
In Germany, until the time of Virchow (1847), the
basic principles of medicine were a priori assumptions.
He claimed that facts and experiments were the only
admissible foundations for that science, no matter how
long it would take to collect them or establish them.
“Observations and experimentation only have perma-
nent value; they will prove the fortress of scientific
medicine, the outworks of which are pathological
anatomy and clinical research.” Schleiden had dis-
covered the cell to be the fundamental basis of the
Vegetable tissues, and Schwann had found it to be
the basis also of the animal tissues. A few geniuses,
from Vesalius and, Paracelsus down to Virchow, had
slowly and gradually shaped the theory of diseases as
local anomalies. It remained for him, after a series
9f observations and experiments, to proclaim his cel-
lular pathology as a consistent carrying out of the
theory. . He annºunced the necessity of localizing
disease in the smallest composing element, or the celi
Therapeutics, under the guidance of experimental
Imethods, have, undergone important changes in the
# of this theory, and have become vastly more
efficient and local in application. Thus far every new
discovery of pathological facts has found a ready ex-
planation by the cellular theory and its methods, and
the largest proportion of recent progress in pathology
has been owing, directly or indirectly, to the adoptiºn
of his doctrine of cell-growth. Important in its influ.
742
VIRGINIA CREEPER—VITICULTURE.
ence on biology generally, it has little less than revolu-
tionized pathological study. Under this view diseases
of the different organs which, until their essential
elements were demonstrated, appeared to have nothing
in Common, are now seen to be results of the same
process. Thus a strong tendency may be observed at
work toward the classification and unification of dis-
ease and the resolution of complex, forms into the
simplest elements. In other words, all the elementary
processes of pathology may be seen in the different
tissues and organs producing the same effects, though
the effects are manifested in a manner peculiar to each
part. With the same fundamental lesion the disease
is the same essentially, although wholly distinct in
appearance. Since the great bulk of disease can be
resolved into these fundamental processes, a scientific
and durable foundation for pathology is established
which is of the highest value and significance for phi-
losophic medicine. “The search,” says Prof. Huxley,
“for the explanation of diseased states in modified
cell life; the discovery of the part played by parasitic
organisms in the etiology of disease; the elucidation
of the action of medicaments by the methods and the
data of experimental physiology appear to be the
greatest steps which have ever been made toward the
establishment of medicine on a scientific basis.” (See
PATHOLOGY in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.)
In the course (1854–56) of his researches on vegeta-
ble parasites as among the causes of disease, Virchow
invented the term mycosis, which has since been gen-
erally adopted. In the “Movement in Favor of Unity
in Scientific Medicine” (in Collection of Contributions
to Scientific Medicine, 1849) he spoke of the origin
of life as a mechanical necessity, and in his three ora-
tions on Life and Disease (1862) he pointed to the
transmutability of species as a necessary basis for the
mechanical theory of life. He opposed the idea of
Haeckel, that theories of natural selection should be
taught in the public elementary Schools, on the ground
that facts only, and not theories, should have place
there. The burden of his lecture at Munich, Sept.
22, 1877, is throughout a caution against evading the
distinction between the problematical and the proven ;
“they are not on the same evidential level.” He would
teach, he said, “evolution, if it were only proved; it is,
as yet, in the hypothetical stage; the audience ought
to be warned that the speculative is only possible, not
actual truth; that it belongs to the region of belief,
and not to that of demonstration. As long as a prob-
lem continues in the speculative stage it would be
mischievous to teach it in our schools. We ought not
to represent our conjecture as a certainty nor our hy-
pothésis as a doctrine.” His principal works are : Cel:
lular Pathology (4th ed., 1871); Handbuch der. Speci-
ellen Pathologie und. Therapie (3 vols., Erlangen,
1854–62); Pathology of Tumors (3 vols., 1863–67),
the most exhaustive and comprehensive work on that
subject; Die Entwickelung der Schädel-grundes. (Ber-
lin, 1857); Darstellung von der Lehre, der. Trichinen
(1866); Treatises connected with State Medicine (2 vols.,
i879). He has also published : Popular Lectures:
Archaeological, Ethnological, etc. (1866, sqq.); Gºethe
as a Natiºnalist (1861); Aufgabe der deutschen Turn-
erei (1864); National Development and the Impºrtance
of the Natural Sciences (1865); Education of Women
jor their Vocation (1865); Hunger Typhus (1868);
Sewerage and Drainage (1869); Problems of the Nat-
ºral Sciences in the New National Life of Germany
1871); Die altmordischen Schädel zu Kopenhagen
§: Ueber die Chlorose, etc. (1872); Technique of
I)issection (1876); Liberty of Science in the Modern
State (1877); Ueber die Weddas von Ceylon (1881).
Those whose titles are given in English, have been
translated into that language. (J. W. W.)
VfRGINIA CREEPER, the common name of a
favorite American climbing plant, of the Vitaceº; or
vine family, genus Ampelosis, species A. quinquéſolº,
which occurs abundantly throughout the Atlantic
States, and extends as far west as Colorado. It is dis-
tinguished by a slightly 5-toothed calyx; the petals
concave, thick, j expanding before they fall; the
flowers in cymose clusters; the leaves digitate, with 5.
oblong, lanceolate leaflets; the climbing tendrils digi-
tate at end, and fixing themselves by dilated sucker-
like disks at the tips. This is a common vine, growing
in low or rich grounds, and climbing extensively, simi-
lar in habit and locality to the poison ivy or sumach,
but easily distinguishable by its five leaflets, the poison
ivy having but three. It blossoms in July, and ripens
its small, dark blue berries in October, these forming
an open grape-like cluster. At all periods it is an at-
tractive feature of our woodland scenery, but particu-
larly so in the autumn, when the leaves turn a bright
crimson, and it stands out in rich contrast to the darker
foliage of the trees to whose summits it has º
C. M.
WITICULTURE. The culture of the vine, or grape
plant Vitis, is one of the oldest of field industries, and
may be traced back to a very remote period in the his-
tory of mankind. The use of wine as a beverage is
mentioned in the earliest literature of China and India,
Egypt and Palestine, and was very prevalent in the
great kingdoms of later antiquity. It was eventually
i. by law in China and the vines ordered to be
torn up, while the precepts of Mohammed put an end
to wine-drinking among the vast multitudes of his fol-
lowers, but in Europe it has continued without inter-
mission, and the culture of the vine is one of the most
important agricultural industries of Southern Europe
at the present day. All the varieties of the European
vine are supposed to belong to a single species, Vitis
vinifera. In American vine culture, on the contrary,
this species is only generally grown in California, native
species being the basis of the culture in the Eastern
States. -
The vine was early discovered to be a native of
America, the Norse discoverers calling the country
Vinland, from the abundance of grapes which they
found. It was not, however, until recent years that
any definite effort to cultivate the native grape was
made. Wine is said to have been made from the Eu-
ropean grape in Florida as early as 1564, while in 1602
it is stated that there were about 2,000,000 wines in
Paraguay. Vines were planted in Virginia about 1620,
at a later date in Delaware, and in 1683 by William
Penn, in Pennsylvania. Many subsequent efforts to
introduce the European vine were made, but were all
unsuccessful, either the severity of the climate or the
great susceptibility of this species to the attacks of in-
sect enemies preventing its growth. Experiments with
native species were not made until somewhat late in the
present century. In 1835 Major Adlum, of George-
town, D.C., brought the Catawba variety to notice.
Its culture was ardently taken up by Nicholas Long-
worth, of Cincinnati, and with such success that by
1867 there were 2000 acres planted near that city. The
lack of hardiness of the Catawba caused the develop-
ment of other varieties—the Concord, Norton's Vir-
ginia, and others—and the total American acreage in
vines in 1867 was about 2,000,000. (For the native
species of American vines, and the principal varieties,
see GRAPE.)
On the Pacific Vitis vinifera was introduced by
Spanish Franciscans about 1771. After California be-
came part of the United States and the gold fever had
subsided, agriculturists began the culture of the mis-
sion grape, the vines which they found about the old
mission stations, encouraged by the fact that these
would grow without irrigation. But the wine made
from their fruit proved of poor quality, and other va-
rieties of the European grape, and recently of the
American grape, were introduced, with much improve-
ment to the wine product.
In Europe the cultivation of the vine, except under
glass, has its extreme northern limit near Berlin, 52.30°
N lat. ; its southern limit at 26° S. Palatable wines.
WOGUE–WOLAPUK.
743
Q
however, can be made only in a much narrower dis-
trict, the chief wine-producing countries being France,
Spain, Portugal, Germany (valley of the Rhine), Aus-
tria, and Italy. In North America the hardy native
vines thrive as far north as Massachusetts, but wine
cannot be profitably made above Southern New York,
Pennsylvania, and Northern Ohio. The culture of the
vine has hitherto not been extensively prosecuted in the
Southern States, though it is probable that good wines
could be produced throughout that region.
In viticulture soil and location have a great influence
on the quality of the product, often from causes that
are not apparent. A southern slope is important for
the profitable growth of the vine, and light soils are
best, even sandy loams, but mineral food, especially
potash, is necessary, and the best European soil seems
to be that arising from the disintegration of felspathic
and volcanic rocks. American vines, on the contrary,
seem to prefer calcareous soils. The soil needs to be
deep and well drained, “wet feet ’’ being generally
thought injurious to the vine. There are several
methods of propagation, as cutting, layering, and
rafting, and seed planting to produce new varieties.
rapes vary readily from seed growth. Seeds from
black varieties like the Concord, for instance, will occa-
sionally yield pure white or greenish varieties without
cross fertilization, though the latter is considered the
most advantageous process. The seeds need to be ob-
tained from fully ripe fruit, mixed with sand and kept
moist until spring, when they are sown in boxes under
lass or in the open ground, being covered with a half
inch of soil. The seeds of hardy varieties do best if
kept where they will freeze during the winter. The
seedlings are set out when a year old and trained to a
single stake until they produce fruit. After the grapes
appear the inferior vines are destroyed, and those
worthy of preservation propagated in the usual meth-
ods. It is very rarely that an improved variety ap-
pears, the chance of success not being one in a thou-
sand, though there is still much room for improvement
in our native grapes.
The most common method of grape culture is by
cuttings. These are taken from the previous year's
growth, 3 buds being usually left, though single bud-
cuttings with 1 or 2 inches of cane are used in propa-
gating rare varieties. The latter need to be grown
with great care, and are usually started under glass
during the winter. Another common method is by
layering. The layer is but a cutting left attached to
the parent vine and fed by it until it has developed
roots of its own. The principal advantage of this
method is that certain varieties which are not readily
propagated by cuttings may be made to produce roots
on layers, the vitality of the planted canes being longer
preserved. Grafting is a very ancient method. "It
was much practised in Roman times, and is frequently
described in Latin treatises on agriculture. Its principal
advantage is in giving hardy root stocks to delicate
varieties. The most usual method is to insert the scion
in the crown of the plant below the surface of the
ground. It needs to be tied in and the earth banked
around it, this serving instead of the wax employed in
aerial grafting. It is necessary, however, to prevent
the Scion from sending out roots of its own, and its
rootlets need to be removed several times during the
SeaSOI).
There are various ideas about the best methods of
growing the grape. The open trellis and frame train-
ing is most common in the United States. In Europe,
where wood is less abundant, single stakes are often
used, the vine being pruned more severely than the
American species will bear. The several diseases and
insect enemies to which the vine is subject are de-
scribed under GRAPE and PHYLLOXERA. The prod-
ucts of the vine are six in number : the fruit, which is
largely used in the fresh state as an article of food;
the dried fruit, or raisin, for which the sweeter grapes
are used; the currant, which is the dried product of a
small seedless grape cultivated in the Levant; wine,
the fermented juice of the grape; brandy, the alco:
holic spirit distilled from wine; and tartar (the acid
tartrate of potassium), which is deposited, as a solid
incrustration on the interior of casks in which wine is
stored, and which, in its purified state, forms the
cream of tartar of commerce. tº
Of these several products the American industry is
confined to three only ; the fruit, wine, and raisins.
Grapes are grown very largely for table use, and the
methods by which they can be kept in a fresh state
until far into the winter add considerably, to their con-
sumption. Of recent years raisins, which were for-
merly produced only in Calabria, Sicily, and Turkey,
have i. successfully dried in California. (See
WINES.). - (C. M.)
WOGUE, CHARLEs JEAN MELCHIOR, MARQUIS DE,
French archaeologist and diplomatist, was born at
Paris in 1829. His father, Léonce, Marquis de
Vogüé (1805–1877), was in early life a lieutenant
of cavalry, but after the revolution of 1830 de-
voted himself to agriculture and iron-works until
1848, when he took part in forming the republic
and supported the presidency of Louis Napoleon.
But when the latter declared himself emperor
Marquis de Vogüé again withdrew from public life,
until 1871, when he was elected to the National
Assembly and supported the monarchists. In 1853
his son, then Comte de Vogüé, set out for the east,
where he devoted two years to exploring in Syria and
Palestine. After returning to Paris he published sev-
eral works of so high value that he was named a free
member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles
Lettres to fill the place left vacant by the Duc de
Luynes. In 1871 M. Thiers named him ambassador
to Constantinople, which office he held till 1875, when
he was called to the embassy at Vienna. These posi-
tions, however, he owed rather to his fame as a scholar
than to diplomatic ability, and on the accession of
Pres. Grévy, in 1879, De Vogüé returned to France.
He is author of the following valuable and handsomely
illustrated works: Les Eglises de la Terre Sainte,
with 59 engravings (1859); Inscriptions hebraiques de
Jerusalem (1864); a monograph on Le Temple de
Jerusalem, with 50 plates, followed by an Essai sur la
Topographie de la Tille Sainte (1865); L' Architecture
civile et religieuse du Jer au PIIe Siècle dams la Syrie
Centrale, with plates (1865–77); Mélanges d’Archéo-
logie Orientale (1869); Inscriptions Sémitiques, 43
plates (1869–77). De Vogüé 㺠edited the Duc de
Luynes' posthumous work on the exploration of the
ead Sea. ..
VOLAPUK, the “world language,” invented by
Johann Martin Schleyer, a Catholic priest, who was
born at Qberland, Baden, in 1831, and at present re-
sides in Switzerland. He became an ardent student
of philology, and gained some knowledge of about 50
languages and dialects. His studies in this direction
were largely devoted to the formation of a language
which would be suitable as a medium of international
intercourse, and in 1878 he published an outline of
such a language, of which he issued a grammar and
dictionary in 1880. He has since published numerous
works on the subject; his system has been warmly
Welcomed in Germany and has attracted so much at-
tention elsewhere as to call for a descriptive mention.
The idea of a world language is not new. Efforts
have been made from time to time in this direction,
the earliest being that of John Wilkins, Bishop of
Chester, in 1668. There have been many later schemes
proposed, recent ones being the “Ideography” of
Sinibaldo de Mos in 1863, and the “Alevato’’ of
Stephen Pearl Andrews in 1877. All these, however,
were based on metaphysical or other impractical con.
ceptions, and have no value other than as literary
curiosities. Schleyer's scheme was the first of a prac.
tical character. Recognizing that all existing lan-
guages have irregularities of grammar, orthography,
744
VOLAPUK.
etc., which render them troublesome even to natives
and Qceasionally unlearnable to foreigners, it was
his, object to produce a language prepared solely
with a view to its practical utility, in which the
irregularities and complexities of existing languages
should be avoided and complete simplicity and regu-
larity be gained. Unfortunately his native lan-
guage was German, and he has retained German-
isms of grammar and orthography which make his
method difficult, to other, modern nations. Before
giving the ºriticisms of linguists, however, we shall
briefly describe the leading features of Volapük, this
title signifying “world language'' in the new method
of speech.
Volapük possesses in all 37 letters. To the 5 pure
vowels are added the German ä, ö, ü, sounds which
very few persons of English, Spanish, or Italian birth
are capable of properly making. The consonants, as
he arranges them, are b, p, d, t , v, f.; h, y, g, k;
l, r, m, n ; S, j, c, x, z. To these are added 10 new
signs, invented or borrowed from existing alphabets, to
supply deficient sounds. There are no diphthongs, the
vowels have the Continental sounds, and certain of the
consonants have arbitrary sounds, c being like jin joy,
j like English sh. Thus jip is pronounced “sheep.”
In forming the vocabulary a *. series of radicals
or roots was chosen, these being mostly monosyllabic,
with an internal vowel, and one, sometimes two, pre-
liminary and final consonants. Dissyllabic roots are
formed on the same principle. The root word is al-
ways a noun, concrete or abstract. English being
recognized as the most important and widespread lan-
guage of modern civilization, the roots are taken from
it, wherever a suitable one can be found, other lan-
guages, being used more sparingly. Thus English
’’ man’’ forms an unobjectionable root. But English
“house '' is not in accordance with the rule of root
formations. So Latin “dom '' is chosen instead.
“Sheep'' is jip. Here the pronunciation is preserved,
the spelling ğangi It is necessary that all roots
ji begin and end with a consonant, in order that
prefixes and suffixes can be readily added as gram-
matical inflections. The prefixes used are frequently
ordinary or abbreviated prepositions. Some are adjec-
tives or shortened nouns of quality. For suffixes el,
ik, am are very commonly used. El forms nouns
which indicate the doer. Ik is the termination of all
adjectives but the numerals. Am corresponds to the
English termination ‘‘ing'' or “tion." O, ii, and Ö
are used as inflectional terminations. O forms adverbs;
ii, prepositions; 6, interjections.
The grammar of Volapük has the modifications of
Aryan grammar generally, and forms all these modifi-
cations by inflectional expedients. The plural is in-
variably formed by the addition of s, and tens are
formed from units in the same manner. The personal
pronoun forms its genders in the third person by the
addition of om, of, and os. Os, however, is not neu-
ter; all things are masculine; os is used only imper-
sonally and abstractly, as totos, “it thunders.” In
nouns denoting person the suffix ji makes the noun
feminine. In animals om denotes the male, ji the
female. The nominative case is the simple word form.
To form the genitive, dative, and accusative a, e, and i
are added; in the plural as, es, and is. The preposition
governs the nominative except when it denotes motion,
then the accusative. Adjectives and participles may
be declined when separated from the nouns which
they qualify, so that the relation can be shown. The
personal pronouns are ob, “I’’; ol, thou"; on, of
os, “he, she, it’’; on, ‘‘ one,” or “ they,” as in “they
say.” These are attached to the roots to form the per-
son endings of verbs in the indicative, as penob, “I
write”; penol, thou writest”; pemon, “one writes ”;
penobs, “we write,” etc., The signs for the tenses are
prefixed vowels, a for the present; ii., imperfect; e,
erfect; i, pluperfect; o, future; u, future, perfect.
xample: âpenob, “I wrote ’’; epenol, “thou hast
written.” The prefix p before the tense vowel makes
the verb passive, as paloboſ, “I am loved.” The
conditional and subjunctive moods are indicated by
the addition of a syllable, 6v and la respectively, after
the person ending, thus: âbinoböv labik, if abinobla
legik, signifies “I would be happy if I were rich.”
The imperative adds 3d to the person ending, as
gololód, “go thou.” The infinitive ends in Ön, the
participle in Ül, while other prefixes, suffixes, and in-
fixes are employed to cover other exigencies of gram-
matical inflection.
In forming sentences the words are arranged in the
following order: First, the subject; second, the predi-
cate; third, the object. Each principal word is fol-
lowed by its modifiers, except that adverbs, when
modifying adjectives or other adverbs, precede. The
negative no also precedes the negatived verb. This
arrangement is a radical departure from the German
method, in which the verb is placed at the end of the
Sentence.
Volapük has grown with some rapidity into favor.
It made some progress in Germany and Austria pre-
vious to 1884, in which year it was taken up in
Holland and Belgium, and in France in 1885. It was
introduced into the latter country by Dr. Kerckhoffs,
who made several changes, the most of which were
decided improvements. Other European nations be-
came interested in it during 1885 and 1886, but little
interest was shown in England and in the United
States until 1887, since which time much has been
written on the subject, text-books published, and
classes formed in several cities, though principally
among persons of German birth. A convention was
held in Munich in August, 1887, the delegates being
mostly Germans. At this several simplifications were
adopted, a general Society of Volapük clubs formed,
and an academy established, which began its functions
in 1888. Father Schleyer is at the head of both these
organizations. Over 100 books on the subject were
j in Europe up to July, 1887, and many more
ave been issued since. Several periodicals in Vola-
pük are now published, and the number of persons
who have studied it is given at 100,000. It has been
brought into considerable use in commercial inter-
course, and has in fact made a remarkable progress,
indicating the need of some such international lan-
Ulage.
g The growing popularity of Volapuk has aroused
philological students, and several other systems
have been proposed since its introduction. In 1885
P. Steiner, of Germany, published a system entitled
“Pasilengua,’’ and in 1888 Dr. L. Samenhof, of
Warsaw, an “International Language.” Both these
endeavor to produce a simple, regular system, with a
vocabulary formed from existing Aryan words. Dr.
Samenhof is credited with ºil. judgment in his
selections, and the vocabulary of both can be acquired
with great ease, yet both use diacritical marks, sounds
not common to all Aryan tongues, and grammatical
complexities. The method proposed by Dr. Samenhof
closely resembles that in use in the “agglutinative
family'' of languages. More recently, A. Melville
Bell, the author of the system of “visible speech” for
deaf mutes, has proposed what he calls “World
English,” based on the fact of the wide employment
of English. It is simply English written on a phonetic
system, with certain new consonantal signs and a sim-
plification of English grammar.
The advantages of Volapük are given by the Satur-
day Review, as the following. Its words present no
accumulation of heaped-up consonants or vowels, and
there are no long compound words. It has no arbi-
trary rules of orthography, sparingly uses difficult
sounds, and greatly decreases the number of words by
its free use of inflections. This renders it useful for
telegraphy. It is marked by clearness and precision,
and freedom from ambiguous forms, while its numer-
ous rhymes adapt it well to versification. It is
WOWS,
745
richer in forms than almost any other living language,
and allows greater latitude in the construction of sen-
tences. Yet it is not free from exceptions, such as
that in which the preposition governs mostly the nom-
inative. Exceptions of accent are also allowed in
poetry.
The advantages above named are correlated with
faults which must stand in the way of its general
acceptance by Aryan nations. These faults have been
pointed out by a committee of the American Philo-
sophical Society appointed in 1887 to consider and
report upon the newly proposed language. The re-
port of the committee is shrewd and sensible in its
suggestions, and we give an abstract of it, as showing
the views of many linguists as to what a world lan-
guage should be. The committee had for its chair-
man Prof. D. G. Brinton, the distinguished archaeolo-
ist, the other members being Henry Phillips, Jr., and
1onroe B. Snyder. They expressed the opinion that a
universal language is greatly needed for the use of
scientists, and also for the commercial and travelling
world, but much less so for general literature, and that
if adopted it is likely to be used as an addition to the
native language of each people. Their report contains
the following suggestions: 1st, the orthography of such
a language should be absolutely phonetic; 2d, every let-
ter should have but one sound; 3d, this sound should
be common to all the leading Aryan languages; 4th,
diphthongs, double consonants, etc., should be omitted ;
5th, the meaning should never depend on tone,
accent, quantity, or inflection of the voice; 6th, the
vowels should be limited to the five pure vowels a, e,
i, o, u, with the Italian pronunciation (these being
common to all Aryan tongues); 7th, in consonants,
all gutturals, aspirates, lisps, and nasals should be
omitted, and all double and complex consonantal
sounds; 8th, diacritical marks, accents, and apostrophes
should be omitted, and all signs that cannot be made
without lifting the pen (as the crossing of the t and
the dotting of the § avoided; 9th, all sounds should
be easy to make and agreeable to the ear; 10th, brew-
ity should be sedulously sought.
The vocabulary should be based on that common
to the leading Aryan tongues. There are 1500 words
in German almost the same as in English, and more
than this common to English, French, Spanish, and
Italian. At least a thousand words are common to
all these languages, their main difference lying in pro-
nuciation. Commercial, business, and scientific terms
have much in common, the chief differences occurring
in literary and art terms. The most important differ-
ences, and the least easy to obviate, are those between
the grammatical forms of the several languages. In
respect to grammar, the simplest method is the best.
In a simplification of grammatical forms the interjec-
tion and article might be dispensed with. Several
languages find no need of the latter. The adjective
has neither gender, number, nor case in English, yet no
difficulty arises in consequence, and therefore these
modifications could be dispensed with. The distinction
of form between the adjective and adverb might be
omitted, as it often is in the spoken language. This
would reduce the present nine parts of speech to six.
The comparison of adjectives by “more'' and “most”
is now practically the rule in the Romance languages,
and might be generally adopted. The noun has no gen-
der in English and modern Persian, though useless and
annoying gender inflections are retained in all other
Aryan tongues. The adjective of sex serves all,nec-
essary purposes of indicating gender in English.
Number also could be usually dropped, as is now occa-
sionally done. Case might be omitted. English retains
only the genitive. Case can be readily replaced by
pronouns and prepositions, as the genitive by the old
use of “his” as in “John his book.” Relative, inter-
rogative, and demonstrative pronouns could be blended
without confusion. The reflexive form is unnecessary,
as is shown by English usage. In verbs all inflections
Vol. 1 Y.—2 W
can be avoided by the use of auxiliaries, and the mod-
ern development of language has tended strongly in
this direction. Most prepositions could be omitted by
the arrangement of the sentence into verb, direct
object, and indirect object. This simplification would
yield an equal simplification in syntax, but would be
attended with a loss to the flexibility of language.
The logical arrangement of the sentence should be:
the subject before the predicate; the noun before the
adjective; the verb before the adverb; the immediate
before the remote object. Internal inflection, and the
use of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes should be avoided.
These suggestions, which are based on the tenden-
cies manifested in the evolution of languages, and
particularly of modern English, which has divested
itself of the old inflectional methods more fully than
any other modern language, are applied to the system
of Volapük, which, as weighed in this balance, is
found seriously wanting. It is, in the opinion of the
committee, in conflict with the development of the
Teutonic and Romance tongues alike, and is full of
difficulties to the learner. It retains the impure Ger-
man modified vowels, the French j and the aspirate h,
and has 8 vowels and 19 consonants, where 5 vowels
and 16 consonants would suffice. It has various dia-
critical marks of accent, tones, inflection, and quantity
(all needless obstructions). Double consonants are nu-
merous, and vowels are printed and written with
underscoring and Italic letters to facilitate the compre-
hension of words. Several of the sounds used could
not be pronounced by an Aryan without special oral
training. Many words are manufactured from en-
tirely new radicals, capriciously formed. Nouns are
inflected through four cases, prefixes and suffixes com-
monly used--all this being out of accordance with the
tendency of Aryan speech development. There is an
excessive multiplication of inflectional forms; verbs are
modified by 14 prefixes and 16 suffixes, and the
meaning of a word largely depends upon its place in a
sentence. The system of Volapük, in short, is abso-
lutely opposed to the evolutionary tendencies of Aryan
speech ; it being synthetic and complex, while all
modern dialects are growing more and more analytic
and simple. It proposes a distinct retrogression in
linguistics, a step backward toward conditions from
which we have been for centuries escaping.
The committee, in conclusion, recommended the
calling of a congress of philologists, for the purpose of
devising an international language of the simplest and
most advanced character possible, not for the purpose
of supplanting existing tongues, but to add to them a
general medium of international intercourse, and a
common scientific and commercial language. In com-
pliance with this recommendation the American
Philosophical Society has taken steps to call together
such a congress, composed of the most capable philol-
ogists of Europe and America, and it seems very prob-
able that the instigation of Volapuk will lead to the
formation of a world language in every respect in har-
mony with the present state of the science and fully
adapted to the needs of international intercourse.
(C. M.
WOWS AND º l In i. Fº º
y- the Bible the phrase “God forbid '' (as
jº, distinguished from “the LoRD §§
Äm. kº. or my God forbid") occurs eight times
tº in the Old Testament, and fifteen times
in the New Testament. Neither the Hebrew nor the
Greek phrase so translated contains the name of the
Supreme Being, either expressly or by implication.
The phrase “God save the king' occurs eight times;
in each case the Hebrew is simply “Live the king.”
We are in these cases accustomed to translate the
Hebrew or Greek phrases, not by English words that
§orrespond with the words of the original, but by Eng-
lish idiomatic phrases that are conceived of as convey-
ing, on the whole, the same meaning with the original,
and these English phrases came into the language
746
WULPIAN.
from other than Biblical sources. These peculiarities
of translation have something of a typical character.
In the unatter of appeals to the Supremie Being, either
in oaths or vows, the ideas of Christian peoples are
More or less colored by notions of heathen origin.
This appears in 9ur current religious phraseology, our
hymnology, our interpretations of Scripture.
The fundamental law concerning vows is stated in
Deut. xxiii. 21–23. They are often mentioned in
connection with freewill offerings, with which they
have this in common, that they are required from no
one; the law simply regulates them, in case any one
deems it a privilege to offer them. But the limits
within which the vow is permitted are narrower than
those of the freewill offering. For example, no vow
to offer an animal in sacrifice is permitted, unless the
animal is without blemish. When a vow has once
been legally made the legal accomplishment of it is
rigidly exacted. But it is evident that the vow was
commonly thought of rather as a form of prayer, or of
public confession and thanksgiving, than as a bond
upon the person making it. This is strikingly illus-
trated by the fact that the current word for it in the
Septuagint and the New Testament is eixà, prayer,
while the most common variants are other forms of
eixouai, and the word Óuoãoyia, signifying public con-
fession. The interpretation thus given to the Old
Testament word fits its use as far back as this can be
traced. . It follows from this that vows are not pre-
sented, in the Bible, as modes of bribing the Supreme
Being for his interference, or of paying him for favors,
but rather as a method of prayer and an expression of
praise and gratitude.
The Biblical vow is ordinarily a promise to offer
some sacrifice, or perform some ritual act, or render
some other external service. The services vowed are
always external, and ordinarily temporary, not spirit-
ual or perpetual, though of course the spirit with
which a vow was performed was regarded as all im-
portant. The law of the devoted things, Lev. xxvii.
21–29, Num. xviii. 14, cf. Josh. vi., vii., is not an ex-
ception to this statement, for the “herem ’’ is a differ-
ent thing from a vow. The case of the Nazirite for
life is not an exception, as we shall presently see. The
case of Jacob's accepted vow, Gen. xxviii. 20–22, xxxi.
13, is not an exception, for the words “Jehovah will
be to me for God’’ properly close the protasis of the
sentence, instead of beginning the apodosis. Jacob
did not vow that if Jehovah would go with him and
supply his wants and bring him back, then Jehovah
should be his God, but that if Jehovah, fulfilling the
bromises he has just made to be with him and bring
#. back, would be his God (verses 13–15, cf. xvii. 7),
then Jacob would make his memorial stone a house of
God, and would give tithes.
The article in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
mentions the prominence given in the Roman Catholic
Church to irrevocable vows of certain sorts. Solemn
promises made to God, having something of the
nature of vows, are quite common among Protestants.
To say nothing of Brotherhoods and Sisterhoods,
formed more or less upon the Roman model, we have
the solemn promises made by ministers at licensure or
ordination, those made by ministers and people at the
institution of the pastoral office, those often made at
the receiving of persons into covenant with the church,
the pledges of the various Christian Associations,
Christian Endeavor Societies, Temperance Societies,
and many others of the same general character. As
to all such matters, it should be remembered that
while a pledge of this kind, used within Scriptural
limits, may be a privilege and a help, there is great
danger of our º it the contrary. If we permit
vows of this kind to take the place in our lives that
belongs to love or conscience or the grace of God, the
vow will become a burden and a snare.
From the point of view of those who regard the
Biblical account of the origin of the Mosaic legislation
as historical, the vow of Jephthah, Jud. xi., must be
regarded as illegal. He i. no right to vow a burnt-
offering to Jehovah, except as he limited the vow to
animals legally fit for that purpose. We have here an
account of a rash man who had military gifts and who
was used by Jehovah, but whose religious position by
no means indicates the true character of the religion
of Jehovah at that period. There is nothing to show
that either Jephthah's vow or that of Hannah, 1 Sam.
i. 11, were cases that would fall within the law of
redemption given in Lev. xxvii., and there is there-
fore nothing in these cases to show that that law was
then non-existent. Instead of saying “ the principle
that a vow once taken must be fulfilled at any cost
was so far modified in later times in Israel that ex-
ceptional vows were by law redeemed at a valuation,”
it would doubtless be correct to say that from the times
of Moses the law provided for a class of vows that
might be so redeemed.
In the article NAZARITE or NAZIRITE, in the FN-
CYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, it is asserted that “the
Hebrew root N-Z-R is only dialectically different from
N–D–lt, to vow.” This is in one sense true, but not
in the sense that would justify the inference “that the
peculiar marks of the Nazirite are primarily no more
than the usual sign that a man is under a vow of some
kind.” Any one will be convinced of this who will
notice the distinctness with which the two words are
used in. Num. vi., and throughout the Old Testament.
Whatever might supposedly be true of the two words,
if they belonged to different dialects, it is a matter of
fact that in Hebrew usage they are sharply differ-
entiated.
The statement that the law of the Nazirite, as found
in Num. vi., “is not pre-exilic,” is, of course, contrary
to the explicit testimony of Num. vi. 1, which attrib-
utes the law to Moses. Very likely it may be true
that this law is “ directed to the regulation of a known
usage,” but there were already such things as exist-
ing usages in the times of Moses. Further, the fact
that the law contemplates one form of Nazirite usage
does not render it incredible that other forms of it may
have existed. The case presented in Num. vi. is that
of a temporary Nazirite usage by vow ; the case of
Samson (perhaps that of Samuel also) is the different
case of a person who is a Nazirite for life by divine
appointment, independent of any vow made by him-
self. If we regard these cases as two species of a
common genus, then the fact of the existence of one
species in the times of the judges indicates the probable
existence of the other species rather than proves it to
be nonexistent in those times. And in any case, the
variations between the case of Samson and the de-
scription given in Num. vi. have no weight to prove
that the law in Num. vi. had not then been given ;
for the variations may either be due to the difference
between the condition of a Nazirite for life and a
Nazirite for a limited period, or may be accounted for
like the other prevalent negligences and irregularities
in the observances of the national laws that were prev-
alent in the times of Manoah and Eli. (W. J. B.)
WULPIAN, EDME FELIX ALFRED (1826–1887),
French physiologist, was born at Paris, Jan. 5, 1826.
In 1854 he graduated at the Medical School, and be-
coming assistant in the Museum of Natural History
ursued researches on the nervous system. In 1867
he was, despite of the charges of materialism made
against him by the bishop of Sura, called to the
chair of pathological anatomy in the Medical School.
In 1868 his teachings were attacked during the
discussion of a petition against the instruction in that
school, but Vulpian maintained an attitude of such
dignity that he acquired the esteem of the scientific
world, and in the next year was made member of the
Academy of Medicine. In 1872 he passed to the chair
of experimental and comparative pathology, and in
1875 was made dean of the faculty. In 1876 he was
chosen member of the Academy of Sciences. By his
WACE—WADE.
747
erudition and the strictly scientific methods evinced in
his researches on the nervous system he attained to
the first rank among physiologists. He died at Paris,
May 18, 1887. His important works are Des Pneu-
monies secondaires (1860); Leçons sur la Physiologie
générale et comparée du Système nerveua (1866), the
work which founded his reputation ; Lecons sur l'ap-
pareil vaso-moteur (2 vols., 1875), in which he subjects
previous works to the rigid tests of experimentation ;
Clinique médicale de l'Hôpital de la Charité (1878);
Maladies du Système nerveua (1879).
(J. W. W.)
W.
WACE, HENRY, English clergyman and author,
was born in London, Dec. 10, 1836. He was educated
at Brasenose College, Oxford, and graduated B. A. in
1860. Having taken orders he was curate in London
from 1861 to 1869, and chaplain of Lincoln's Inn from
1872 to 1880. He was also professor of ecclesiastical
history in King's College, London, from 1875 to 1883,
and since that date has been its principal. He has
also been prebendary in St. Paul's Cathedral since
1881, and has been select preacher at the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge. He has published
Christianity and Morality, Boyle lectures (1876); The
Foundations of Faith, Bampton lectures (1880); The
Gospel and its Witnesses (1883); Student's Manual of
the Evidences of Christianity (1886). With Dr. Wil-
liam Smith he edited the valuable Dictionary of Chris-
tian Biography (4 vols., 1880–86). This work treats
with scholarly fulness and accuracy of the literature,
sects, and doctrines, from the time of the apostles to
the age of Charlemagne. Dr. Wace is the author of
the Commentary on the Apocrypha (1886) in what is
called the Speaker's Commentary. He has been asso-
ciated with Prof. Buchheim in editing the First Prin-
ciples of the Reformation (1884).
WADDINGTON, WILLIAM HENRY, French archae-
ologist and statesman, was born of English parents,
Dec. 11, 1826, at Saint-Remi (Eure-et Loire). His
education was commenced in Paris, and completed at
the University of Cambridge. Thence he returned to
France, and chose it for his nationality. Possessed of
fortune, he gave himself to antiquarian and numis-
matic pursuits, and became member of the Society of
Antiquaries. The results of a journey in 1850 in Asia
Minor, which he published in two Memoirs, were
crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions, of which
institution he was chosen a member in 1865. Elected
from the department of Aisné in 1871 to the national
assembly, he soon obtained note by his report of the
law for the organization of the councils general. At first
he ranked himself with the right centre, but, after his
brief occupancy of the post of minister of public in-
struction for five days in May, 1873, at the end of M.
Thiers' presidency, Waddington generally voted with
the left centre. He gave his vote for the law which
restricted the right of suffrage till the age of twenty-
five. In May, 1874, after the fall of the Duc de
Broglie, he declined a portfolio in the new cabinet; voted
against the law for freedom from state control in higher
instruction, and supported the Republican constitution.
He was elected senator from Aisné in 1876, but very
soon in the Dufaure cabinet took the position of
minister of public instruction, from which the depart-
ment of public worship was then separated. He
enforced compulsory primary education and the gov-
ernmental control of all educational institutions. In
the department of higher instruction he aimed at the
grouping of the faculties in the powerful and complete
universities, the establishment of private courses of
study directed by the faculties, the development of
libraries, laboratories, and collections, and urged the
creation of scholarships for poor students. He
changed some colleges into lycées, instituted faculties
of law at Bordeaux and Douai. He retained his port:
folio when Jules Simon became premier, but resigned
it five months afterward (May 16, 1877), and in the
next month he voted in the senate against the dissolu-
tion of the chamber of deputies. In the following
December he entered the new cabinet of Dufaure as
minister of foreign affairs. He acted as the French
plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin (June, 1878),
and claimed for Roumania and Servia freedom of
religion and political equality, conformably to the law
of modern civilization. He stoutly insisted on the
rectification of the boundaries between Greece and
Turkey. On his return to France he announced to
his government its honorable re-entry in the councils
of the great powers, and was complimented by M.
Dufaure in a public letter. After Marshal Mac-
Mahon's resignation of the presidency and Dufaure's
retirement, Waddington, under the presidency of
M. Grévy, while retaining the ministry of foreign
affairs, accepted in February, 1879, the presidency
of the council. He was then antagonized by the
senate as too republican, and by the chamber as too
moderate. Notwithstanding, he protested against the
prosecution of the late ministry of MacMahon on the
one hand, and on the other against an entire amnesty.
Despite the dissatisfaction of a portion of the Republi-
cans of the chamber, he obtained a vote of confidence,
Dec. 2, 1879. But four weeks later he resigned both
his positions, whereupon he was offered the ambassa-
dorship to England, which he declined. Besides the
Memoirs, mentioned above, he has written Melanges de
Numismatique et de Philologie (1861); Edit de Dioclé-
tien (1864); Voyage archéologique en Grèce et en Asie
Mimeure (1868–77).
WADE, BENJAMIN (1800–1878), senator, son of a
soldier of the Revolution, was born near Springfield,
Mass., Oct. 27, 1800. The family was in very humble
circumstances, and what the boy learned was from his
mother. In 1818 he migrated to Northern Ohio, and
supported himself by farm-work, and driving cattle to
New York, with intervals of teaching school and shov-
elling on the Erie Canal. He managed to study law,
began practice in 1828, and after the usual waiting for
clients was made prosecuting attorney of Ashtabula
county in 1835. n 1837 he was sent to the State
Senate, where he was soon known as an outspoken
opponent of the slave system and its concomitants
in the North. Popular opinion on this subject in
Ohio was not then what it afterward became, and
Wade's hostility to the State “black laws” incurred
such odium as relegated him to private life. After
his re-election he had charge of the bill which incor-
pºrated Qberlin College, . He became president judge
of the Third Ohio district in 1847. The dignity of
the bench did not repress his political activity; after
the sessions of his court he made speeches in the cam-
paign for Taylor, whom, though a slaveholder, he pre-
ferred to Van Buren. His reputation was no more
than local when he was sent to the U. S. Senate as a
Whig in 1851; but in the national arena he speedily
made himself felt, and was a striking figure for eigh-
teen years. A hearty hater, with the full courage of
his convictions, untroubled by delicate scruples, con-
sideration for opponents, or the philosophic habit of
looking at both sides, he was in his element in the rude
struggles which preceded the conflict of arms. His
748
WAGES-WAITE.
rough and ready frankness and immovable determi-
nation were a set-off to “plantation manners,” and he
was of use in making felt the ripening Northern will
and purpose, where more refined men and measures
might have failed. When challenged by a Southern
Senator, he so conducted himself as to bewilder and
overawe his adversaries. His rebuke to Douglas, dur-
ing the debate on the Kansas-Nebraska bill, however
unparliamentary, was effective. He earned the re-
spect of Toombs, who bore public witness to his manly
sincerity and directness. With five others he voted in
1852 to repeal the Fugitive Slave law. He opposed the
Lecompton constitution for Kansas, the proposed pur-
chase of Cuba, and every measure in the interest of
slavery. He advocated negro suffrage in the District of
Columbia; and pushed the Homestead bill till it was
passed in 1862. He earned the familiar appellations of
“honest Ben Wade,” “the old Roman,” and the
like. The war he may be said to have enjoyed, urging
emancipation and confiscation from the start, and as
chairman of the Joint Committee on its conduct ren-
dering real service. To the era of reconstruction he
was ill adapted, for moderation and mercy were neither
in his views nor in his temper. He opposed a second
term for Lincoln, and as president of the Senate ve-
hemently urged the impeachment of Pres. Johnson.
Counsels of this kind had not a happy effect when the
war was over, a fact which he seemed unwilling to
realize. By 1869 he was no longer needed in the Sen-
ate, nor was he invited to the Cabinet, but his retire-
ment was softened by a commissionership on the Pacific
Railroad. In 1871 he was on the Santo Domingo
Commission, and favored annexation. He was last
heard of in 1877 as violently opposing the mild policy
of Pres. Hayes toward the South. An ardent re-
former while the battle of principles was in progress,
he could not accept results and be content when the
victory was won. He died at Jefferson, Ohio, March
2, 1878. See his Life, by A. G. Riddle (1886.)
WAGES. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. X., LABOR
and STRIKES.
WAITE, MoRRISON REMICK (1816–1888), chief.
justice of the United States, was born at Lyme, Conn.,
Nov. 29, 1816.
1837, he removed to Öhio. where he completed his le-
#al studies and engaged in the practice of the law at
Toledo. He filled no national office until selected by
Pres. Grant in 1872 to represent the United States at
Geneva before the tribunal of arbitration on the Ala-
bama claims under the treaty of Washington with
Great Britain. While presiding over a convention for
the revision of the constitution of Ohio he was nom-
inated by Pres. Grant to the office of Chief-Justice of
the Supreme Court of the United States, and entered
on its duties March 4, 1874. He held that office until
his death, which occurred on March 23, 1888.
Prior to the sickness that terminated his life he had
prepared an elaborate opinion in the telephone cases
that had been for many months before the Supreme
Court involving the validity of the Bell telephone pat-
ents. Before he had obtained entire relief from the
indisposition which had affected him he took his place
upon the bench, on March 19th, for the purpose of
delivering the judgment of the court in the telephone
C3 SCS. e remained in court while the opinion was
read by another and then returned to his bed, from
which he never arose.
Chief-Justice Waite was called to preside over the
Supreme Court at a period that marks.9ne of the
great stages in the history of that court. The rebellion
of 1860 had been suppressed and the period of re-
construction had passed, during which the powers of
the government had been strained to meet the exigen-
cies that threatened the national unity if not its ex-
istence, and it now devolved upon the court over which
he presided to readjust the civil relations that, had
been disturbed during this exciting period in conform:
ity with sound views of the nature and limitations of
Having graduated at Yale College in
the public authority. In a political sense the period
under consideration was necessarily one of conservative
reaction and it was to be anticipated that the action of
the court would reflect that tendency. The vast in-
crease of business transacted by the court was another
peculiar feature of this period, and a relatively large
proportion of that business related to public and cor-
porate obligations. The war had given a great impetus
to the extension of railways, connecting together all
parts of the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific
and from the Lakes to the Gulf, and the adjustment
of the legal relations arising from such interests
brought to the court an extended and complicated
branch of business. The crowded state of the calen-
dar of the court rendered the despatch of business the
most pressing necessity of the conduct of its busi-
Il GSS. -
In the early years of the Supreme Court, when the
structural lines given by the Constitution were to be
transferred to the institutions and habits of intercourse
of a young and growing society, and that court was the
organ of such adjustments, and when the national im-
pulses and local predilections of men read the purposes
of that Constitution in opposite senses, a mind com-
prehensive and exact, animated by the genius of our
national institutions and sensitive to the balance of our
complicated legal system, was needed in the chief seat
of that court to inspire and mould its deliberations,
and that mind was found in John Marshall (for whom
see ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA). The occasion was
great and the man was equal to the demand of its ex-
igencies. Before that day nations had arisen and be-
come great under the arbitrament of the sword, but
the spectacle of a nation planned in council and habil-
itated under the genial sway of judicial reason was new
to the world.
As the first great period in the history of the court
demanded an ideality that could grasp the possibilities
of American civilization, so the second period de-
manded a robust administration to give fibre to that
which had been fashioned by his great predecessor.
The court over which Chief Justice Taney (q.v.) pre-
sided did not fail to meet what was promised by its
ability and demanded by the state of the country, until
the dark shadow of the rebellion of 1860 disturbed its
equanimity.
The third great period may be regarded as commenc-
ing at the accession of Chief-Justice Waite to its first
office. The necessity for settling great fundamental
political questions appeared to have passed, and the
early doctrines of the court had passed into full ac-
ceptance and had been clearly illustrated and defined.
The industrial development made the chief demand
upon the attention of the court. Commercial enter-
prises embodying the national spirit that emerged with
fresh animation from the unities of purpose and action
brought about by the war passed from local to inter-
state relationships, thus widening the area of federal
jurisdiction and crowding the court with a great vol-
une of business that overtasked its means of dis-
charging such grave public duties. Under such cir-
cumstances an able administrator was what was needed
at the head of the court and such an officer was found
in Chief-Justice Waite. With the depressing fact
ever present in the mind of the court that its suitors
must wait three years to be heard before it, it is not
surprising that the adornments of oratory should largely
disappear from the court, replaced by frictionless ma-
chinery without heat or scintillation. The mental consti-
tution of Chief-Justice Waite was not at variance with
the necessities that thus affected the court, for he re-
garded it as a place for the transaction of business and
its chief duty beyond that of deciding properly to be
the expedition of its business. If the overtasked
powers of the bench did not admit of the realization
of the forensic models of Rome and Greece that was
no deprivation to the Chief-Justice, who entertained
English ideas of methods of advocacy. A concise and
WALKER.
749
clear statement of facts and a skeleton of an argument
emphasized at its salient points satisfied in his mind
the demands of the duty of the advocate and the con-
venience of the court.
It often happens that the advocate in the course of
examining a proposition of law under its limited ap-
lication to a case under consideration sees it in its
i. relations, and thus obtains a standpoint from
which its specific applications can be ulost accurately
judged. In such cases it is natural that he should en-
deavor to lead the court to the same standpoint, and if
the prevailing methods of presentation and the state
of business in the court do not admit of such an effort
it is a grave misfortune. Whenever our jurisprudence
reaches the last term of its development, it will be pos-
sible to administer it by mechanical methods, but so
long as it is to meet new conditions and exhibit expan-
sive qualities the required conditions must be found
in the methods and mind of the court. A close ad-
hereuce to English forensic methods is not practicable
for the mind or conditions of America. The English
jurists adhere to antecedent forms and draw their
reasonings from limited authoritative sources, avoiding
generalizations that embrace elements that have not
this technical sanction ; while the American jurist recog-
nizes that the conditions of our national life demand
progressive changes, and he seeks to conserve substance
rather than form as derived from the past, and admits
the principles of nature and social order into his gen-
eralizations although not recognized by his juridical
predecessors. The English jurist aims to perpetuate
existing forms of legal institutions, while his American
brother looks to higher adaptations of existing methods
than have yet been reached.
Under the tendency that has just been stated Ameri-
can constitutional law has sprung into existence, which
owes its development to a breadth of generalization
excluded from English forensic methods. It may be
said that the stage of the expansive development of
American jurisprudence has passed, and it may be
true that the most active period in that respect has
gone by, but there is nothing in retrospect or forecast
to waryant the opinion that a stage of development has
been reached that will impose on the jurists of this
country no more arduous duty than that of conserving
its forms and principles.
Chief-Justice Waite possessed that trained legal
sense, by which conclusions are drawn before the rea-
sons on which they rest are consciously recognized, and
which is the first condition of a sound legal judgment.
This quality apprehends the fitness of things in a legal
sense before º details are exaulined, and is in fact
a generalization based on broad legal experience with-
out which legal inquiry is in danger of being lost in
technicalities and minutiae. If confidence in the pos-
session and value of this quality sometimes disinclines
its possessor to painstaking efforts for the verification
of his results, on the other hand its absence or weak-
ness leaves opinion without anchorage in the sense in
which the term opinion is put in contrast with that of
conviction. In the scientific branch of legal work,
which consists in testing the generalizations drawn in
the manner just pointed out by the results of antece-
dent judicial decisions, many have surpassed Chief.
Justice Waite, and the same may be said as to that
rare quality by which legal principles are unfolded in
their nature and applications. -
In his personal bearing as a judicial officer Chief-
Justice Waite was kind and considerate, and, although
the flowers of rhetoric did not flourish under his touch,
kindly feelings habitually remained with those who had
judicial intercourse with him.
See “Memorial Proceedings in Supreme Court,”
U. S. Reports, Vol. 126, Appendix. (A. J. W.)
WALKER, AMASA (1799–1875), economist, was
born at Woodstock, Conn., May 4, 1799 : his ancestry
settled at Charlestown, Mass., 1641. From 1825 to
1840 he was engaged in business in Boston, and active
in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. . From
1843 his home was at North Brookfield, Mass., but for
some years he visited Oberlin, Ohio, as professor of
political economy. He was sent to the Massachusetts
assembly 1848 and to the senate 1849, was secretary
of state 1851–2, member of the Massachusetts Con-
stitutional convention 1852–3, of Congress 1862-3,
and lecturer on political economy at Amherst College
from 1861. He died Oct. 29, 1875. He was one of
three editors of the Transactions of the Massachusetts
Agricultural Society, 1848–54. He wrote much on his
favorite subject for periodicals, and published Nature
and Uses of Money (1857), and Science of Wealth
(1866). The latter was widely read, and gained much
repute and influence.
His son, FRANCIs AMAs A WALKER, statistician and
educator, was born in Boston, July 2, 1840, and grad-
uated at Amherst College in 1860. His legal studies
were interrupted by the war, in which he became ad-
jutant-general of Gen. D. N. Couch's division in 1862,
and colonel in 1863. He was wounded at Chancellors-
ville, taken prisoner, and emerged from the strife with
broken health and the brevet of brigadier-general.
After teaching for two years at Williston Seminary,
Easthampton, Mass., and editing the Springfield Re-
publican for a year, he was appointed chief of the
bureau of statistics at Washington 1869, superin-
tendent of the Ninth Census 1870, and Indian com-
missioner 1871. He became professor of political
economy and history in the Sheffield Scientific School
of Yale College 1872, and president of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in Boston 1881. Besides three
volumes of census reports and a Statistical Atlas of
the United States (1874), he has published The Indian
Question (1873) : The Wages Question (1876), The
World's Fair (1876); Money in its Relation to Trade
and Industry (IS79); Political Economy (1882), in the
“American Science Series’’; Land and its Rent
(1883), and History of the Second Corps, Army of the
Pºtomac (ISS6). -
WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801–1869), statesman,
was born at Northumberland, Pa., July 19, 1801, and
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania 1819.
He began to practise law at Pittsburg 1819, became an
activel)emocrat, and removed in 1826 to Natchez, Miss.,
where he rose to prominence. Always a Unionist, he
resisted the nullifiers in 1833. The next year he pub-
lished Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Mis-
sissippi (1818–32). Elected to ti...ºf S. Senate 1836, he
introduced the earliest Homestead bill, supported Van
Buren's measures, and urged the recognition of the in-
dependence of Texas in 1837, and afterwards its an-
nexation. . He had much influence with Pres. Tyler,
and helped to effect the nomination of Polk, who made
him secretary of state in 1845. In this office he ac-
tively favored free trade, procured a reciprocity treaty
with Canada, and introduced the warehousing system.
The Department of the Interior was established at his
suggestion. His later posts were of less eminent rank,
but afforded opportunities of honorable service. In
1853 he was a commissioner to open commercial rela-
tions with China and Japan. In 1857, as fourth gov-
ernor of Kansas, he repeated the doleful but enlight-
ening experiences of his predecessors (Reeder, Shan-
non, and Geary), and declared himself “unwilling to
aid in forcing slavery on Kansas by fraud and forgery.”
As in this case he broke with Buehanan's administra-
tion and the slave power, so in the war he would not
go with his adopted section. As U. S. financial agent
in Europe during most of 1863–4, he negotiated $350,-
000,000 of the 5-20 bonds, and prevented the sale of
the second Confederate loan of $75,000,000. During
these years he edited the Continental Monthly, and
wrote for it some letters on American resources, which
exerted an influence abroad and won high praise. He
advocated the purchase of the Danish West Indies
and Alaska, * the construction of the Pacific Rail-
road. As a friend of peace and of both sections, he
750
WALKER—WALLACE.
opposed the impeachment of Pres, Johnson, and
the carrying out of the Congressional Reconstruc.
tion measures, in Mississippi. He died Nov. 11,
º at Washington, where he was prominent at the
à l’.
WALKER...WILLIAM (1824–1860), filibuster, was
born at Nashville, Tenn., May 8, 1824. After travel.
ling abroad, studying medicine in Paris, and being ad-
mitted to the bar, he was connected for a time with
the New Orleans Crescent and the San Francisco
Herald, and practised law at Marysville, Cal. In Oc.
tober, 1853, he undertook a fantastic enterprise against
the north-western states of Mexico. Landing with a
few comrades at La Paz on the end of the Californian
peninsula, he proclaimed himself president of the
country, “annexed '' Sonora, and marched northward,
only to surrender at San Diego. In May, 1854, he was
tried at San Francisco for a violation of the neutrality
laws and acquitted. Invited to Nicaragua, he landed
at Ruelijo in June, 1855, raised a force, won in a few
actions, took Granada, Oct. 15, and executed a native
general for “treason.” In a war with Costa Rica he
retrieved a defeat in March, 1856, by a victory in April.
“Elected '' president in June, he issued currency on a
large scale, re-established slavery, and was recognized by
Pres. Pierce. His intrusive tyranny provoked a re-
volt, and the opposition of the Vanderbilt Steamship
Company, whose property he had confiscated, contrib-
uted to his downfall. After burning Granada, he sur-
rendered May 1, 1857, to Commodore C. H. Davis,
and was sent to New Orleans, whence he escaped to
make another effort, but within two weeks was taken
by another U. S. naval officer, and conveyed to New
York. His madness was encouraged by sympathy at
home, and Pres. Buchanan ordered his release in Jan-
uary, 1858. In the fall he started again, but was ar-
rested, tried in New Orleans, and acquitted. His cu-
riously unamiable fanaticism despised all lessons of ex-
berience, and in June, 1860, he landed at Truxillo, in
onduras. Two months later he was driven from the
town by a British war-vessel; marching into the coun-
try with a small force, he was captured by the native
authorities, and shot Sept. 8, at Truxillo. He repre-
sented no American or rational principle, and accom-
plished no good end : his reckless exploits belong rather
to mediaeval than modern manners, but he is unregret-
fully remembered as “the gray-eyed man of destiny.”
and the chief of “filibusters.” His account of The
War in Nicaragua, written before his last expedition,
appeared at Mobile, 1862. ©
Wººd. ALFRED RUSSEL, an eminent Eng-
lish naturalist, was born at Usk, Monmouthshire, Jan.
8, 1822. He received his education at the grammar
school of Hertford, and was articled to an elder brother
who pursued the business of land surveyor and archi-
tect. Early in life, however, he gave up this pursuit
in favor of the study of natural history, and in 1848
accompanied the naturalist Henry Walter Bates on a
scientific expedition to Brazil. They made a long so:
journ in Pará, engaged in a scientific exploration of
the vicinity, and then started on a voyage of explor-
ation of the forest region of the Amazon and Rio Ne-
gro rivers, from which they returned to England in
1852. During this journey Wallace obtained a some-
what extended vocabulary of the Indian languages of
the Amazon valley, and a valuable collection of scien-
tific material, which was very rich in the departments
of botany and ornithology. Unfortunately, the greater
part of this was lost in a shipwreck, In 1853 he pub-
j Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, with Re-
marks on the Vocabularies of the Amazonian Lam-
guages, which work was followed by The Palm Trees
of the Amazon, and their Uses. o º
In 1854 he set out on a yet more important Scien-
tific journey, the field of his exploration being now
the islands of the Malay Archipelago, in which region
he remained for eight years, passing from island to
island, and extending his expeditions to the island of
New Guinea, then almost unknown for scientific pur-
poses. This long period Wallace occupied in the most
ardent and enthusiastic natural history labors, resultin
in the collection of an extraordinarily rich cabinet #
Zoological specimens, including more than 100,000 in-
sects and over 8000 birds. Among his special studies
were the habits of the orang-utan, and, while in New
Guinea, the birds of paradise, peculiar to that island.
To him we owe the earliest satisfactory account of the
habits and haunts of this most beautiful family of
birds. He succeeded in adding to those already known
a new species, the Standard Wing. (Semioptera Wal-
lace'), distinguished by a pair of long, narrow white
feathers, springing from the bend of the wing, and
capable of being erected at the bird's pleasure.
While thus engaged his mind was also occupied with
the study of the mystery of the origin of species
which has during the present century exercised the
intellects of so many able naturalists. The result of
his thoughts was the conception of an idea of animal
derivation remarkably similar to Darwin's celebrated
theory of natural selection, and the parallel is the more
interesting from the fact that the announcement of the
results of Wallace's and Darwin's studies was made on
the same day and before the same scientific body.
Wallace embodied his theory in a paper entitled “On
the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from
the Original Type,” which he sent to the Linnaean
Society through Sir Charles Lyell. It was read on
July 1, 1858; and at the same meeting was read Dar-
win's paper “On the Tendency of Species to Form
Varieties, and on the Perpetuation of Species and Wa-
rieties by means of Natural Selection,” which con-
tained the first public statement of his celebrated
theory. Wallace recognized natural selection as the
agent in producing most of the changes pointed out by
Darwin, but denied its sufficiency, without aid from
some higher power, to explain the origin of the hu-
man species. Though the two naturalists arrived at
this theory independently of each other, the priority
has been given to Darwin, who had privately described
his theory to scientific friends several years before, had
conceived it many years previously, and published a
detailed exposition of it immediately after the first
public announcement, with a wealth of illustrations,
the results of his own studies, far in excess of any-
thing that Wallace had to offer.
In 1862 Wallace returned to England, where he
spent several years in arranging and classifying his
vast collection and in writing a popular account of his
explorations, which was published under the title of
The Malay Archipelago, the Land of the Orang-utan
and the Bird of Paradise (1889), and ranks among the
most entertaining and instructive narratives of scien-
tific exploration. He also published many papers in
the proceedings of the Linnaean, Zoëlogical, Ethnologi-
cal, Anthropological, and lºntomological Societies, a
collection of which was issued in 1870, entitled Contri-
butions to the Theory of Natural Selection. In 1868
he received, in acknowledgment of the high value of
his scientific labors, the gold medal of the Royal So-
ciety, and in 1870 the gold medal of the Geographical
Society of Paris. The works above named were fol-
lowed in 1876 by the most valuable of his scientific
productions, an elaborate work On the Geographical
Distribution of Animals, which was issued in English
French, and German, and yet remains the standar
work on the subject. In the same year he was presi-
dent of the Biological section of the British Asso-
ciation in its meeting at Glasgow. His other scien-
tific works comprise Tropical Nature (1878), which
contains his latest views on the colors of natural
objects, sexual selection, geographical distribution,
etc.; and Island Life (1880), in which he considers the
phenomena presented by the faunas and floras of the
principal islands of the globe and the problem of
geological climates. He has also edited a work on
Australasia, chiefly written by himself. In 1882 he
WALLACE—WALSH.
751
received from the University of Dublin the honorary
degree of D. C. L.
Wallace's attention has not been confined to scien-
tific subjects. After his return from the Pacific
islands he gave much attention to the phenomena of
spiritualism, into which he made close researches,
with the result of becoming firmly convinced that they
were actually the work of disembodied spirits. The
results of his observations in this direction were pub-
lished in 1874 in a series of essays in the Fortnightly
Ičeview, which were afterwards reprinted under the
title, Miracles and Modern Spiritualism (1875). Since
that date Wallace has written little upon the subject,
but is said to be still a firm believer in the spirit origin
of these phenomena. At a later date he became
strongly interested in social and political problems, and
published Land Nationalization, its Necessity and
Aims (1882), in which he gave a sketch of the whole
subject of the tenure of land, and proposed a scheme
of occupancy under state control which he believed
would remedy the numerous evils of the present sys-
tem of land-holding. For the advocacy and promo-
tion of this scheme a Land Nationalization Society has
been formed, with Wallace as its presiding officer. A
later economic publication is his Bad Times, with Sug-
gested I’emedies (1885).
As a scientific thinker and observer Wallace occu-
pies a high position in the annals of modern science,
yet in the former has not attained the standing to
which his mental acumen seems to entitle him. Un-
like his follow-theorist, Charles Darwin, he has not
devoted his life to the elucidation of a single problem,
or attempted the exhaustive treatment of any topic,
but has given his attention to subject after subject
without an effort to probe any one to the bottom.
While unusually quick in the appreciation of causes
and principles, as evidcnced in his theory of natural
selection and luany minor theoretical views, it is rather
quickness than depth, his conceptions being reached at
a leap, as it were, and never pursued to their ultimate
with the hard and persistent labor of the great mas-
ters of thought. IIis scientific friends say that he is
almost intuitive in his readiness in solving a problem
in natural history, but his quickness does not seem
combined with persistence, and, with all his fine pow-
ers of thought, he has failed to win the leading posi-
tion in science which some of less native brilliancy of
thought have attained. As a writer he is comprehen-
sible and pleasing, his works being clearly and attract-
ively written, and full of that enthusiasm in his sub-
ject which is necded to arouse the interest of the
reader to its fullcst cKtent. They have been widely
read and have aided much in the popularization of
science. (C. M.)
WALLACE, LEWIS, general and author, was born in
Fountain co., Ind., in 1827, son of David Wallace (1799–
1859), formerly governor of that State. IIe studied law
and was admitted to the bar, but during the Mexican
war threw up his practice and joined the army as second
lieutenant of First Indiana Volunteers. After the war
he returned to the practice of his profession in his na-
tive State, of whose senate he was member for a
year. At the outbreak of the rebellion he was adju-
tant-general of Indiana, but in April, 1861, he was
chosen to the command of the Eleventh Indiana Volun-
teers (three-months' men), and served with it in West
Virginia, at the capture of Romney, and elsewhere.
This regiment's term expired in August, 1861, but,
mainly through his zeal and influence, it was forthwith
reorganized under, his command. In September he
received his commission as brigadier-general of volun-
teers, and was for a time stationed in Kentucky. He
commanded a division at the capture of Fort Donel-
son, occupying the centre of the National lines, and
manifested such gallantry and skill that he was pro-
moted major-general of volunteers, March 21, 1862.
In the battle of Shiloh his division occupied Crump's
than the field of battle, and was not engaged the first
day. On the second day it rendered efficient service,
as it did also in the subsequent advance on Corinth.
In the court of inquiry, which sat in November to in-
quire into the conduct of Gen. Buell, Gen. Wallage was
president. In 1853 he prevented the capture of Cin-
cinnati by Gen. Kirby Smith, and was next year as:
signed to the command of the Middle Department and
Eighth Army Corps, with which he met Early marching
on Washington, but was defeated by him on the banks of
the Monocacy, Maryland, July 9, 1864. On this Gen.
Ord was directed by Halleck to supersede Wallace,
but Grant promptly reinstated him. He had, in fact,
succeeded in his main object, which was to give Grant
time to reinforce Washington from City Point. He
was a member of the commission which sat in 1865 for
the trial of the persons implicated in the assassination
of Pres. Lincoln and the attempt on the life of Sec.
Seward, and was president of the court that tried Capt.
Wirz, of Andersonville prison. After the war Gen.
Wallace engaged in the practice of law at Crawfords-
ville, Ind. Here also he wrote his first work of fiction,
The Fair God (1873), a story of Mexico. In 1881 he
was sent as U. S. minister to Constantinople, and in
next year was made envoy extraordinary and minister
plenipotentiary at the same court. He returned to the
United States in 1885.
Gen. Wallace has shown uncommon faculty of turn-
ing to new subjects of diverse kinds, and mastering
them with the zeal and enjoyment of youth. He was
distinguished as a soldier, a general, and a lawyer; he
handles the brush with the facility of an artist. Few
literary productions have so suddenly leapt into fame
as his Ben Hur (1880, New York). The circulation
of the latter work has been quite phenomenal, and an
eminent critic has said, “Ben Hur is altogether the
most noteworthy novel ever written by an American.”
In 1888 these were succeeded by another work, The
Boyhood of Christ, in which he has made use of the
stories in the Apocryphal Gospels. For the Presiden-
tial campaign of 1888 he wrote a biography of his
friend, Gen. Benjamin Harrison. In Harper's Maga-
zine for January, 1889, he published a tragedy in blank
verse, entitled Commodus. , Gen. Wallace resides in
Crawfordsville, Ind., mainly occupied with literary
work. His wife, Mrs. Susan E. Wallace, is a brilliant
and picturesque writer of historical and descriptive
sketches.
WALLACE, WILLIAM HARVEY LAMB (1821–
1862), general, was born at Urbana, Ohio, July 8,
1821. In 1833 he removed with his father to Illinois,
where he studied law in Springfield and Ottawa. On
the occurrence of the Mexican war, he enlisted in Col.
Hardin's regiment, the First Illinois Volunteers, rising
to be lieutenant and adjutant and was engaged in the
battle of Buena Vista. In 1853 he was elected State
attorney for the 9th circuit of Illinois, and in May,
1861, he was commissioned colonel of the Eleventh
Illinois regiment. At the capture of Fort Donelson
in February, 1862, he commanded a brigade in
McClernand's division and bore so conspicuous a part
that on March 21 he was promoted brigadier-general.
At the battle of Shiloh he commanded the division of
Gen. C. F. Smith, absent on account of sickness. When
the three other divisions were routed, Wallace, in con-
junction with Gen. Hurlbut, for six hours held the
field against the force of the enemy flushed with vic-
tory. At the end of the struggle Gen. Wallace fell
mortally wounded, “closing in death,” says Horace
Greeley, “a day's work which had won for him the
admiration of all beholders and the gratitude of his
º” He died at Savannah, Tenn., April 8,
62.
WALSH, ROBERT (1784–1859), author, and jour-
nalist, was born in Baltimore in 1784, and was edu-
cated at the Catholic College there and Georgetown
College, D. C. After completing his course he went
landing, on the Tennessee, some 8 miles lower down! to Europe, where he remained until his twenty-fifth
^
752
WALTHER—WALWORTH.
year.,.On his return he studied law but soon aban-
dºned it for literature, beginning his career on Dennie's
for ſºlio. His Letter on the Genius and Disposition of
the French Government (1809) was received with favor
and went through four editions in England. In 1811 he
instituted the American Review, the first quarterly in
America, carrying it on for two years. He next pub-
lished his Correspondence with R. G. Harper respect.
ing Russia, which was followed by an Essay on the
Future State of Europe. From 18iT to 1819 he edited
the American Republic, and in the latter year appeared
his Appeal, from the Judgments of Great Britain
respecting the United States. In 1821 he founded, in
conjunction, with Mr. Frye, the National Gazette,
which shortly became a daily, and was enriched for 15
#º with his genial articles on books, art and science.
He was at the same time associate editor of the
American Magazine of Foreign Literature (the pre-
cursor of the Museum and Littell's Living Age), but
resigned his connection with it to resuscitate the Amer-
*can Review, which he conducted from 1827 till 1837.
His contributions to the Gazette were issued separately
under the title of Didactics (1837). . In 1845 he was
appointed U. S. consul at Paris, where he remained
till his death on Feb. 7, 1859. While abroad he was
a frequent correspondent to American periodicals, and
contributed to Lieber's Encyclopædia Americana the
articles on American biography.
His son, ROBERT Moyi,AN WALSH (1811–1872), dip-
lomat and litterateur, was born in Philadelphia, April
27, 1811, and was educated at William and Mary
College. At the age of 19 he went to London as
attaché to the American legation there, of which
Washington Irving was secretary. He subsequently
held various diplomatic appointments in different
countries, and was for a long time a resident of Italy,
where he held the positions of secretary of legation at
Naples and U. S. consul at Leghorn. He returned
to the United States in 1867, residing for a time in
Philadelphia, and finally in Camden, N. J., where he
died March 1, 1872. He inherited literary tastes from
his father ; contributed to the Encyclopædia Ameri-
cana : translated some French books; and, in the
intervals of his diplomatic engagements, assisted in
editing the National Gazette. During his later years
he contributed to Lippincott's and Scribner's Maga-
zines and other periodicals.
His son, WILLIAM SHEPARD WALSH, litterateur, was
born at Paris, Feb. 1, 1854. His boyhood was spent
in Italy, but in 1867 he returned with his parents to
the United States. He spent two years in Georgetown
College, D. C., and thereafter studied law in Philadel-
Shia, graduating in 1876 in the law department of the
É. of Pennsylvania. But his tastes, inherited
from his father and grandfather, were essentially
literary, and instead of entering on his profession he
accepted the position of literary reader in the establish-
ment of J. B. Lippincott Co., and in 1885 became
editor of Lippincott's Magazine... Mr. Walsh, under
the name of “William Shepard,” has published sev-
eral books, including The Literary Life Series, Young
Folk's History of the Roman Empire, Young Folk's
Josephus, and, under his own name, Faust the Legend
and Poem (Phila., 1887), and Paradoaces of a Philis-
time (Phila., 1888). As a literary critic Mr. Walsh
has few equals. is knowledge of books is exception-
ally wide, his tastes catholic, and his judgment,
matured by large experience, sound and unbiased.
WALTHER, CARL FERDINAND WILHELM, Lu-
theran theologian, was born at Langenschursdorf, Sax-
ony, Oct. 25, 1811. He graduated at the University of
Leipsic in 1833, and emigrated to the United States in
1838. He became in 1849 pastor of a Lutheran church
in St. Louis and president of Concordia Seminary. By
his ability and learning he took a prominent position
among the Lutherans of the Western States. He en-
deavored to restore the confessional orthodoxy, and
provoked a serious controversy as regards predestina-
tion. The Missouri Synod, under his direction, be-
came a separate body, and it has been largely increased
by immigration. Among his publications are Die
Evangelische Lutherische Kirche (1867); Americanisch-
Lutherische Evangelien-Postille (1871); A.-L. Pas-
toral Theologie (1872); Der Concordienformel Kern
wnd Stern §§ A.-L. Epistel-Postille (1882).
WALTON, GEORGE (1740-1804), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born in Frederick
co., Va., about 1740. He was first apprenticed to
the carpenter's trade, and during his term acquired
a fair education by private study. Subsequently he
studied law in Georgia and was admitted to the bar,
settling in Savannah for the practice of his profession
in 1774. Walton, a patriot from the first, was one of
four persons who called the first public meeting at
Savannah for the purpose of concerting measures for
resisting the aggressions of the crown and the defence
of Georgia, and the resolutions adopted on that occa-
sion were drawn up and largely suggested by him. In
February, 1776, he was appointed a delegate to the
Continental Congress, and as such signed the Declara-
tion, of Independence. He was re-elected in 1777 and
signed also the Articles of Confederation. Being com-
missioned colonel of militia in December, 1778, he took
part in the defence of Savannah, where he was danger-
ously wounded, and remained a prisoner till September,
1779. Next month he was chosen governor of Georgia,
and again attained that dignity in 1789. He was four
times a judge of the Superior Court of Georgia; was
appointed delegate to the Philadelphia Constitutional
Convention of 1787, but declined the office. In 1795
he was chosen U. S. Senator for one year. He died at
Augusta, Ga., Feb. 2, 1804.
WALWORTH, REUBEN HYDE (1789–1857), jurist,
was born at Bozrah, Conn., Oct. 26, 1789, and taken
at the age of four to Hoosick, N. Y. At 16 he began
to teach, and obtained 3 months’ tuition in Latin and
mathematics. Disabled a year later by an accident, he
became a clerk in a country store and studied law. He
was admitted to the bar in 1809, and entered on a suc-
cessful practice at Plattsburgh. In the war of 1812
he was a major of militia and acting adjutant-general,
serving as judge-advocate in two military trials, and
taking part in the local operations of 1814. . After the
war Gov. Clinton commissioned him division judge-
advocate, with the rank of colonel. He removed to
Saratoga, was sent to Congress 1821, made circuit
judge 1823, and chancellor of New York 1828. This
position he held with great credit for 20 years. Many
of his decisions are included in Paige's & Barbour's
Reports, 1830–49, and those delivered in the Court of
Errors, wherein he sat eac-officio, in the Reports of
Wendell, Hill & Denio, 1829–50. His adjudications
in MS. fill 39 folio volumes. His predecessor, Chancel-
lor Kent, testified to his merit, and Story called him
the greatest equity jurist living. In 1844 he was
strongly recommended for the U. S. Supreme Court,
and Pres. Tyler sent his name to the Senate, but it was
withheld in the judiciary committee till that of Judge
Nelson was substituted. The Court of Chancery was
abolished by the Constitution of 1846, but Walworth's
office and salary were continued a year longer. After
withdrawing from the bench he confined himself to cham-
ber practice, declining in 1847, and again in 1849, the
headship of a committee to codify the laws of New York.
He was a Presbyterian elder, first president of the
State Temperance Society, 1829–43, and then presi-
dent of the American Temperance Union, vice-presi-
dent of the Bible and Tract Societies, and a member
of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions. In 1832 he, with Dr. Nott and B. F. But-
lor, of New York, settled a dispute between Georgia
and the U. S. Supreme Court. Walworth published
Rules and Orders of the Court of Chancery (1829),
and prepared the Hyde Genealogy (2 vols., 1864), said
to be the most elaborate work of its kind at that time.
He died at Saratoga, Nov. 21, 1857.
WAR OF 1812, 753
WAR OF 1812. This second war between Greati
Britain and the United States was declared, pursuant
to Act of Congress, June 19, 1812, and continued 2
years and 9 months, being nominally terminated by
the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1813, but actually
ended, owing to delay in transmitting news, March
23, 1815.
Causes.—1. The seizure of U. S. seamen on board
of U. S. vessels; ostensibly a right to apprehend de-
serters; but, in enforcement, so many sailors were
forcibly taken as to cripple U. S. commerce, treating it
like that of an enemy. (See SEARCH, RIGHT OF..)
2. Continued efforts of the U. S. government to
obtain redress and guarantees against the repeated
acts of aggression were fruitless.
3. When at war with other powers Great Britain
claimed a right to make an extensive blockade beyond
the actual local enforcements. This led to the capture
of U. S. neutral vessels and goods and to the practical
destruction of American commerce.
4. In time of peace a British 50-gun ship attacked
the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, and the British sloop-of-
war Little Belt fired into the U. S. frigate President.
5. The main and repeated acts of violence were the
impressing of seamen. Six thousand cases of alleged
impressment of U. S. citizens into the British service
were recorded at Washington. When the war began
2500 such citizens had been committed to British
prisons.
First Conflict.—When it was proclaimed there was
in America little or no preparation for war. The fron-
tier military posts were not even apprised. Some
British merchants of New York promptly sent an
express to Sir Isaac Brock, then commanding the
Canadian troops, and he immediately sent orders to
Capt. Roberts, his post-commander at St. Joseph's,
to move at once against the nearest U. S. garrison
which was kept on the island named Michilimacinac
(now Mackinac). Capt. Roberts, adding volunteers
and Indians to his regulars, amounting to 900, with
two field-guns, embarked in boats the very day he re-
ceived the orders. At 3 A. M., July 17, 1812, he
landed at Michilimacinac and without delay took pos-
session of a neighboring hill which dominated the
fort, and there planted his artillery. Lieut. Porter
Hancks, with a battery of 57 men, including officers
and a few cannon, was holding the fort. At 11.30
A. M. Roberts sent in his demand for an unconditional
surrender, with a threat of extermination if resisted.
This proceeding was Lieut. Hancks' first intimation
of a declaration of war. Hence surprised, outnum-
bered, and his works already dominated, the lieu-
tenant surrendered without firing a shot. Thus the
war commenced.
Campaigns of 1812.
The North-west.—Gen. Wm. Hull, a veteran of
the Revolution, with 3000 raw troops, had marched
into Michigan, crossed the Detroit River, and occupied
Sandwich. Gen. Brock sent a force to Malden, which
disturbed Hull's line of supply. Hull, on Aug. 4, de-
tached Major Van Horn with 200 men to go to Raisin
River in order to strengthen Capt. Brush's company of
Ohio Volunteers and help bring up provisions. A British
Capt. Tallon with a few regulars, and Indians led by
the famous Tecumseh, ambushed Van Horn en route
near Brownstown. Van Horn was defeated, and re-
treated with a loss of 7 officers and 19 men, and the
mail for Hull's army passed into the hands of the
British.
In view of this defeat, Hull, on Aug. 8, recrossed
the river and occupied Detroit, and then again under-
took to reopen his communications southward, sending
out Lieut.-Col. Miller with 600 men. This force enl
99untered at the Maguaga some 400 British, including
Canadians and Indians, led by Capt. Muir and Tecum.
seh, and gained a victory, yet Gen. Hull for some reason
recalled the troops and so the fruits of Miller's victory
were lost. Gen. Hull's army had an out-post, near the
site of Chicago, Fort Dearborn, commanded by Capt.
Heald and garrisoned by about 50 soldiers; besides,
there were present several civilians. Hull ordered the
captain to evacuate the fort and join him, and Heald,
relying for support upon some Indians, apparently
friendly, commenced the march. He soon met an In-
dian ambuscade, and, after a severe battle, was com-
pelled to surrender with an aggregate loss of 66 soldiers
and citizens. The captain and his wife, both wounded,
were set at liberty, made their way to a near British
garrison and gave themselves up. This Fort Dearborn
affair has been named “ the massacre of Chicago.”
The able British Gen. Brock, with regulars, volun-
teers, and Indians, not much exceeding Hui's army in
numbers, followed up Hull's retreat and hemmed him
in at Detroit. Hull refused the first summons to sur-
render, made Aug. 15 ; but when the hostile forces
had drawn in closer to the fort and the artillery
was preparing to open fire, the beleaguered general
sent out a flag of truce and surrendered not only
his army present, and the fort, but absent detach-
ments and substantially the whole territory of Michi-
gan. Fourteen hundred men, much cannon and pro-
visions, were given up, and thus ingloriously the first
campaign was closed.
The British general sent Maj. Muir with a detach-
ment of regulars to assist the Indians that were
massed under Tecumseh, in attacking Fort Wayne.
The assault was planned for Sept. 1, 1812. Gen. W.
H. Harrison, then in Ohio, hearing of the hostile
movement pushed forward with a strong force to
strengthen the garrison. But the major and the In-
dians, quickly apprised of his march, retired north-
ward without a blow. Harrison reached the place
Sept. 12. On the 3d the threats against Fort Wayne
had already passed to the next frontier post, Fort
Harrison, on the Wabash, and two young men in its
neighborhood were killed and scalped. The next
evening a suspicious company of Indians begged for
admission. Capt. Zachary Taylor (afterwards Gen-
eral and President) was in command. That night In-
dians swarmed about the garrison ; and a blockhouse
close to the fort was set on fire. Taylor had less than
50 men, most of whom were sick in hospital, yet in-
spired by their captain all went to work to check the
fire which spread to other buildings, to raise a tempo-
rary breastwork, and for eight hours to resist repeated
assaults. For more than two days the little garrison held
its own against overwhelming numbers. The Indians
angered by this unexpected resistance brought cattle,
horses, and hogs from the neighboring farms and slew
them within sight of the garrison. At last, Sept. 5,
1812, the savages abandoned their fruitless efforts and
left. Capt. Taylor and his soldiers received abundant
thanks for their gallant defence.
The Indians, who were greatly excited and stimulated
by the promises of the wily Tecumseh, made another
attack on Fort Madison, which was situated not far
from St. Louis, M9. Some 200 Winnebagoes crept
up to the fort, on the evening of Sept. 5, and slew a
number of the garrison, found outside the fort. Lieut.
Hamilton, thus warned, having a detachment of regular
infantry, defended his fort against every expedient of
the enemy, who used flaming arrows, burning fagots,
and other means of firing the wooden roofs. Hamil'
ton invented on the spot.effective fire-extinguishers,
made from gun-barrels. , The conflict was kept up till
10 P. M. Sept. 7, when the Indians, despairing of suc-
cess, raised the siege and fled.
The Central Department.—Turning now from the
North-west department to the Central, the next battle
of importance was that of Queenstown, Oct. 13, is is.
Genk.Van Rensselaer, with about 1200 troops, crossed
the Niagara River and engaged a British force of about
the same numbers made up of regulars, volunteers
and Indians. His command were nearly all killed or
captured. Capt. (afterwards General) J. E. Wool and
754
WAR OF 1812.
Lieut.-Col. Winfield Scott (for whom see ENCYCLo-
PAEDIA BRITANNICA) greatly distinguished them-
selves during this conflict. The British commander,
Gen. Brock, was here slain. It was a remarkable in:
cident that a large force on the American shore beheld
their comrades in peril but refused absolutely to render
them any assistence. This wretched conduct doubt-
less arose from an absurd opposition to fighting beyond
the boundaries of New York. The Queenstown battle
was well planned, but the means were inadequate to its
execution. Before this battle, on Oct. 4, a skirmish
occurred which gave a little relief from the mistakes
and disasters of this department. A British force,
perhaps 800 strong, under Col. Lethbridge, in boats ap-
proached Ogdensburg, which was defended by Gen.
Jacob Brown, of the New York militia. He had about
1000 men. The British were sturdily met, defeated,
and forced to withdraw to the Canadian shore. But
not long after this success a similar British detach-
ment here defeated 300 militia, and took possession of
the town and fort. The attacking party lost about 60
men killed and wounded—the militia much less.
Campaigns of 1813.
Battle of Frenchtown.—Meanwhile in the North
Gen. Harrison had been pushing his operations, aim-
ing to recover Michigan. A portion of his army,
which had not yet joined the main body, was leading
the way northward under Gen. Winchester's command.
Not far from Maumee Rapids the general received a de-
spatch from Harrison warning him that the Indians
were gathering in his front. Other messages of like
nature reached him ; but on Jan. 16, 1813, messengers
from the Raisin River country came in haste and begged
for help in behalf of the threatened settlements. Win-
chester, leaning to humanity, detached Col. Lewis with
550 men, and a few hours later Col. Allen with 110
more. These two parties united at Presque Isle (now
Erie, Pa.). Near the Raisin IRiver 100 British and
400 Indians with one cannon were in waiting. During
Jan. 18 Lewis attacked the main position of his enemy
strongly posted in Frenchtown, and succeeded in de-
feating both the regulars and Indians and then slowly
drove them back till darkness ended the battle.
Raisin River Massacre.—During Jam. 19, as soon as
Gen. Winchester heard of Lewis' success he brought
up to Frenchtown all his force, except a small guard.
A French settler reported to him that a hostile move-
ment from Malden was on foot; yet the weather being
exceedingly cold proper precautions against attack
were neglected. About sunrise on the 22d Proctor
with some 500 whites and 600 Indians sprang upon the
general's lines. Notwithstanding the surprise the pit-
triot soldiers for a time fought desperately, but the angry
missiles seemed to come from every direction, so that
the men became discouraged and gave way. Then
followed the massacre of many prisoners and the com-
pulsion of Gen. Winchester after his own capture to
surrender a gallant remnant. The wounded were sel-
dom spared and the little town was burned by the
savages. This affair equals the Wyoming murders.
Proctor was promoted for his success, yet fair-minded
Americans and English condemned him for violating
every rule of honor. Out of 1000 men Winchester
lost 397 killed and missing, and 537 as prisoners of
war. Proctor's loss, surprisingly small, was but 24
killed and 158 wounded. The terrible news, produced,
especially in Kentucky, profound grief and soon the
most vigorous action; so that Gen. Harrison was
speedily reinforced. &
Siege of Fort Meigs.-At the Rapids of the Mau-
mee Harrison established Fort Meigs. This was
strategically excellent; it protected the country below,
and was a starting-point to recover Michigan. Proctor,
seeing this, soon started from Malden purposing tº
capture this fort. He took by water over 2000 mixed
troops, Tecumseh leading the Indians. A couple ºf
gunboats and some artillery aided his attempt. He
opened fire May 1, 1813, carefully drawing his cordon
around the fort; whilst Harrison strengthened his
work by every available contrivance. Happily, on May
4, he was largely reinforced. The incoming dislodged
the besiegers, but met with great losses at the hands
of Tecumseh owing to their too eager pursuit of fleeing
Indians. Yet Proctor was speedily compelled to aban-
don the siege and withdraw. Harrison's important
Victory here was dearly purchased, over 800 being put
hors de combat, while Proctor claimed that his loss
did not exceed 100.
Naval Battle on Lake Erie.—The British naval
çommander, Barclay, had already managed to get, on
Lake Erie near Malden, 6 war vessels into working
order. At the same time for the United States Lieut.
Elliott and later Commodore Perry were gathering and
constructing quite a squadron (8 or 9 vessels) in the
harbor of Presque Isle. Early on Sept. 10 Perry's
Squadron was anchored in Put-in Bay. Barclay made
his appearance and a battle ensued. Perry, after long
fighting and heavy loss, gained a decisive victory which
filled the country with joy and hope.
Battle of the Thames.—Lake Erie being thus re-
gained, Gen. Harrison hastened to bring up abreast
the land operations. With the help of the navy he
transferred his troops northward to a small island
named the Eastern Sister, about 12 miles from Malden,
Proctor's stronghold. Getting fairly ready, on Sept.
27 he pushed for Malden. Proctor, having destroyed
his stores, had already fled to Sandwich, having with
him Tecumseh and an army of perhaps 1800 whites
and Indians. Gen. Harrison, leaving a guard at Am-
herst, sped on after him with his 3500 men. Col.
Lewis Cass and Commodore Perry were Harrison's
volunteer aides. Proctor again escaped at Sandwich,
but after a swift pursuit was at last brought to bay
near the Moravian Town (Orford, Canada West). He
took up a strong position by the River Thames and
accepted battle Oct. 5, 1813; he was badly defeated,
and Tecumseh, who held out the longest, was slain.
For this Proctor was court-martialled and disgraced, for
alleged want of generalship. This battle of the
Thames, added to Perry's victory, gave back to the
United States the entire North-West.
. The North-East.—Farther east a singular campaign
was inaugurated. The Northern army, commanded
by Gen. Wilkinson, was much scattered, the right
under Gen. Hammond, at Plattsburg, the left under
Gen. Boyd, near Niagara River, while Wilkinson re-
tained the centre at Sackett's Harbor. Fifteen thou-
sand men comprised the whole. The British opposing
forces, extending from Niagara Falls through Kingston
to Montreal, numbered about 8000. There was a re-
markable parade about the proposed Canadian expe:
dition. The war department itself left the capital
and went to Sackett's Harbor. Gen. Armstrong, sec-
retary of war, had been a high officer in the Revolu-
tion, and must take an active part. Combined move-
ments were concocted, but, as one might anticipate,
there was a confusion of counsels and cross-purposes.
At last in Canada an American brigade-commander,
Gen. Izard, preceding one of the columns with his
brigade, came upon a British force under Lieut.-Col.
De Salberg in position near the Chateauguay and
Outarde confluence. There were breastworks manned
by at least 1000 men, some of whom were Indians.
Gen. Izard drove in the pickets of De Salberg and
then engaged the main body. He was progressing
finely, when scattered firing and blowing of bugles
(sent out by De Salberg) were heard from the woods
near at hand. This ruse had such an effect upon
Wade Hampton, the column commander, that he
ordered an instant retreat. A second showy attempt
against Montreal under the immediate charge of Gen.
Wilkinson proved equally futile. The entire cam-
paign was a sorry failure.
During the early part of 1813 Fort George, and
York, Canada, were taken by the Americans. Gens.
WAR OF 1812.
755
Chandler and Winder led from Fort George some
1500 men to farther invade Canada. These were de-
feated and largely captured, the remnant fleeing back
to Fort George for reluge. Some 600 Americans
under Col. Boerstler were captured by the smaller
force and suffered disgrace. The successful attack by a
British detachment on Black Rock had its reprisal in a
subsequent defeat at the hands of the American militia.
An instance of wanton destruction by Gen. McClure
(U. S. army), who burned Newark, Canada, and then
escaped to New York State in terror, marred the
American record. The capture of Fort Niagara with
its 400 by a night surprise from 600 British soon fol-
lowed McClure's folly. Another British attempt on
Black Rock succeeded ; 1500 American militia were
put to flight and Buffalo taken. So this Northern
frontier work ended the year 1813, a prey to many
fruitless conflicts.
Campaigns of 1814.
This irregular, ill-planned campaign was opened by
Capt. Holmes, with 100 men, defeating 300 British at
Longwood, Canada. A little after this, crossing Lake
Ontario, the British seized Oswego, but lost heavily in
an encounter that soon followed. Meanwhile the U. S.
Gens. Brown and Scott busied themselves in the drills
and discipline of new troops. Early in July they cap-
tured Fort Erie, and on the 4th Gen. Brown, with
whites and Indians 3000 strong, had a brisk engage-
ment, defeating Gen. Rial, coulmanding 2500 British,
at Chippewa. Here Gen. Winfield Scott won a victory
in a bayonet charge against English regulars.
Again the battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25, 1814)
brought 3000 Americans against 3500 British. Scott
made a harder fight than before, and was badly
wounded. His successor drew off his men in the en-
suing night. So the British Gen. Drummond, though
dislodged and put to flight, soon returned and always
claimed the victory. Drummond, unduly encouraged,
then undertook the recapture of Fort Erie, Gen.
Gaines commanding, but failed. Another small affair
occurred at Black Rock, where Col. Tucker attacked
Major Morgan's 300 Américans. Morgan, repelled the
assailants with loss. On Sept. 17, after Gen. Brown's
return to Fort Erie, he made a sally against the be-
siegers, now 4000 strong. Each arily claimed the
victory in this conflict, but the British gave up the
field. Yet the American troops, on Nov. 5, were with-
drawn from Canada.
An invasion of the United States farther east, from
Lake Champlain to Plattsburg, N. Y., by Sir George
Prevost with over 12,000 men, proved abortive. As
soon as Com. McDonough had defeated the British fleet
on the lake, Sir George, with the land troops, fled in
much haste. Small portions of Maine were conquered
by the British and held till peace. So Iuuch for oper-
ations in the North-east.
The Capture of Washington, D. C.–In the South
during August the British, about 5000 in number,
under Gen. Ross, came boldly up the Chesapeake and
the Patuxent, and landing, marched via Bladensburg
on Washington itself. Near Bladensburg Gen. Win-
der had gathered a small opposing force, and after a
skirmish was soon dislodged by a British bayonet
charge, having lost 26 killed and 50 wounded. Wash-
ington was taken and the public buildings burned.
Gen. Ross at once drew back, but made a similar ex-
pedition in September, against Baltimore. There was
a sharp battle at North Point which seemed favorable
to the British ; but Ross was killed and his losses were
288 killed and wounded. The American Gen. Stryker
had Î 13 killed, wounded, and Luissing. At Washing-
ton and Baltimore, on the part of the U. S. govern-
ment, there had been a shameful want of preparation.
But the British fortunately were content with the
daulage inflicted, and did not follow up their boldness
with any permanent advantage.
Naval Battles of the War—Besides those already
described the naval actions were mainly duels between
American and British vessels. The table shows the
principal. (The star indicates the victorious vessel.)
Naval Battles of 1812–15.

Date. |U. S. Vessel. Commander. British Vessel. Commander.
Aug. 13, 1812.............. Essex *............... ..... Cap. Porter.............. Alert...................... Cap. Ianghorne.
Ang. 19, 1812.............. Constitution * ......... Cap. Isaac Hull....... Guerriere................ Cap. Dacres.
Oct. 8, 1812................ Wasp *.................... Cap. Jones ............., | Frolie........... • * * * * * * ~ * . Cap. Whinyates.
Oct. 25, 1812...... tº tº º e º 'º e º 'º United States 3......... Cap. Decatur........... Macedonian............ Cap. Carden.
Dec. 29, 1812....... * * * * * * * Constitution *......... . | Cap. Bainbridge ...... Java. ............. , a m + e º 'º Cap. Lambert.
Feb. 24, 1813 ............. Hornet.*................. Cap. Lawrence........ Peacock.................. Cap. W. m. Peake.
June 1, 1813............... Chesapeake......... .... Cap. Lawrence......... Shannon *... .........., | Cap. P. B. Vere Broke.
A tig. 5, 1813........., ..... Decatur *..... .......... . | Cap. Diron .............. Dominica........ ....... Cap. Barrette.
Aug. 15, 1813..... ........ Argus .................... . . Lt. Wm. H. Allen.... | Pelican *................ Condr. Maples.
Sept. 5, 1813............... Enterprise * ........... . Lt. Burrows ........ ..., | Boxer .................... Comdr. Sam. Blythe.
June 28, 1814 ............ Wasp * .................. Cap. Blakely..... . ..... Raindeer.......... Cap. Manners.
March 23, 1815........... Hornet.* ................ . Cap. Biddle ............ Penguin ................. Cap. Diekinson.
June 23, 1815............. President *....... tº se e º & º Com. Rodgers........... Belvidere............... Cap. Byron.
Jackson's Campaigns.—As a result of Tecumseh's
influence among the Indians of the South-west, a
large body went on the war-path and made a stand
for battle at Tallushatchee settlement, situated on a
branch of the Alabama River. Against them Gen.
Andrew Jackson gathered a force of about 2500 men.
He ordered his lieutenant, Gen. Coffee, to destroy the
settlement. The latter, with 900 men, crossed the
river, and having approached within 13 mile of the
village, organized his force into two columns and en-
deavored to encompass the enemy. Not succeeding
in a surprise the expedient was tried of a small de-
tachment retreating before the savages until the eager
ursuers were brought under the fire of the main
º the Indians retreated to their families and are
said to have “
sit.” One hundred and eighty-six Indians were killed
in this engagement and S4 Women and children taken
fought so long as they could stand or
prisoners, while there were only 46 casualties in Coffee's
command. This battle was fought Noy. 3, 1813. On
Nov. 9, 1813, occurred the second battle, Talladega,
under Gen. Jackson's direction. The loss of the In-
dians in this action was 299 killed, while the Ameri-
cans' was but 15 killed and 80 wounded. On Nov.
18, while Gen. Jackson was negotiating with the Hil-
libee Indians, by some misunderstanding, detachments
under Gens. Cocke and White attacked the Indians'
village near the Tallapoosa River. The Indians, hav-
ing plighted their faith to Jackson, were attacked and
slaughtered without making resistance ; 60 were killed
and 256 captured, the assailants not losing a man. On
Nov. 29 occurred the battle of Autossee. A small
force of irregular troops under the immediate leader-
ship of Gen. Floyd, of Georgia, massacred some 200
Indians. There was but faint resistance, Floyd's men
suffering but little loss, viz., 11 killed, 54 wounded.
756
WARBLER—WARD.
On Dec. 23 the next battle, Eccanachaca, was fought
by Gen. Claiborne, who had a mixed force of whites
and friendly Indians. The hostiles suffered a com-
i. rºute, losing about 30 killed and their two vil-
ages of more than 200 houses burned. Claiborne's
loss in the engagement was 1 killed and 6 wounded.
In the next battle, that of Emuckfau, Jan. 22, 1814,
it is difficult to tell the numbers engaged. Gen. Jack.
Son was present in person and fell back to Fort
Strother the day after the engagement. The Indians
regarded this action as a victory for them and greatly
disturbed his retreat. A heavy skirmish at i.
chopco was a part of this retreat, resulting in a great
loss to the pursuers. Gen. Jackson was much incensed
at his losses and at the appearance of defeat. He
Soon reorganized his force and set on foot another ex-
pedition of about 3000 whites, with a body of friendly
Indian allies. On March 27, 1814, he fought the bat-
tles of Tohopaka or Horse-Shoe Bend, on the Talla-
p00Sa.
Jackson's loss in the attack was 202 killed and
wounded ; the hostile Creeks lost 557 killed on the
field, and about 300 more killed while trying to cross
the Tallapoosa; but few, if any, of those engaged in
battle escaped death. It is said that there were
about 300 women and children taken prisoners. Such
is a specimen of Gen. Jackson's severe Indian war-
fare. This last terrible engagement broke the power
of the Indians in the South and South-west.
The next time we meet Gen. Jackson is Dec. 2, 1814,
at New Orleans. He gathered there such an army as
he could, and made ready against a British force
already reported approaching from the Gulf of Mexico.
The latter was commanded by Sir Edward Packenham,
and numbered of all arms about 9500 men, including
over 1000 seamen. Jackson's whole command did
not exceed 3700 effectives, most of whom were raw
levies. The entire conflict was embraced between
Dec. 10, 1814, and Jan. 18, 1815. What is usually
called the Battle of New Orleans took place on Jan.
8, being a British assault on Jackson's prepared lines, in
which the assailants sacrificed nearly 3000 men and
lost also their commander, Sir Edward Packenham,
and two other generals. Jackson's loss was very
small, as he was fighting from behind breastworks.
The treaty of peace between the United States and
Great Britain had been agreed upon at Ghent, Bel-
gium, nearly a month before this battle, but the fact
was not known till long afterwards. (O. O. H.)
WARBLER. This º is given, with the neces-
t r y” ºr sary modifying terms, to a very great
See Yºhº; number of highly characteristic North
Km. tº. American birds. In a wide, sense all
the great family of Sylvicolidae may be
called Warblers; but the name belongs specially to the
sub-family Sylvicolinae, which includes 10 recognized
North American genera, namely: Mniotilta, the creep-
ing warblers; Purult, with four or more beautiful
species; Protonotaria, the swamp or prothonotary
warblers; Helmintherus and Helminthophila, the lat-
ter with 8 or more good species; Peucedramus, the
olive warbler; the great genus Dendroeca, the wood
warblers of some 35 species, mostly North American and
West Indian ; Siurus, the wag-tail warblers; Oporor-
mis, the bush warblers, and Geothlypis, the jº
warblers. To the sub-family Setophagina belong a
few North American and many South American
forms. Many of the warblers are exceedingly beauti-
ful little birds, and they are all of them, as active insect-
feeders, val nable friends to the farmer. Notwithstand-
ing their name, only a few are specially gifted in song.
They are closely allied to the Tanagers, and have cer-
tain affinities with the honey-creepers. Some of them
simulate the Tyrannidae, especially in their habits ;
others seem to approach the nuthatches, the titlarks,
the wrens, the titmice. Most later systematists group
the Icterſºnae or chats with the warblars; but upon
doubtfully sufficient grounds. (c. w. G.)
WARD, ARTEMAS (1727–1800), general in the Rev.
olutionary war, was born at Shrewsbury, Mass., Nov.
27, 1727. He graduated at Harvard College in 1748,
and in 1755 became major in the regiment of Col. E.
Williams, rising in Abercrombie's campaign against
the French near Lake Champlain to the rank of a
colonel. In 1774 he was elected a delegate to the pro-
Vincial council of Massachusetts, and his military
experience and high reputation secured his appointment
as a general officer in October of that year. In the
following May, when the Revolutionary war had
begun, he was commander-in-chief of the Massachu-
setts forces. During the battle of Bunker's Hill he
remained at his head-quarters at Cambridge. In June,
1775, the Continental Congress placed him first on the
list of major-generals, and, as such, he was command-
er-in-chief at the siege of Boston until the arrival of
Washington, when he became his second, with head-
quarters at Roxbury, and had command of the right
wing. He resigned in consequence of ill health in
April, 1776—a month after the capture of Boston.
In this year he was chief justice of common for Wor-
cester co., and in 1777 president of the Massachusetts
executive council. For 16 years he was a member of
the State Legislature of Massachusetts and its speaker
in 1785, and from 1791 to 1795 he was member of
Congress. He died at Shrewsbury, Oct. 28, 1800.
WARD, FREDERICK TownsenD (1831–1862), a
soldier of fortune who won distinction in China, was
born at Salem, Mass., and received his education in
the public schools. He early developed a roving,
adventurous, and military disposition and after serving
with the French army in the Crimea, (where by some
means he obtained a commission) was connected with
the filibustering schemes of William Walker, and then
wandered to Mexico. Making his way to China, he
obtained the confidence of the government and the
title of “admiral general,” and rendered very eminent
services in putting down the Tae-ping rebellion. His
first exploit was the taking of Sunkiang after one
unavailing attack. He was singularly useful in drilling
and organizing the native troops; out of this poor
material, despised by foreigners. he managed to evolve
‘‘ the ever-victorious army,” which was able to hold its
own in the field against ten times its number of
Tae-ping rebels, whom they defeated in several
engagements and drove from the Yung River valley.
Ward was brave, honorable, energetic, and possessed
of great executive and soldierly ability; his career is
comparable to that by which “Chinese ’’ Gordon won
his earliest fame. He deserved and gained the confi-
dence and respect of the mandarins, who reported in
his favor at Peking. His brilliant successes were
cut short at the early age of 31, in an action at Tyki
near Ningpo, Oct. 7, 1862. At Sunkiang, where his
remains were interred, a shrine was erected to him,
and semi-divine honors were paid there by the grateful
Chinese for some years, if not to the present day.
(See S. Welles Williams' Middle Kingdom, 1883.)
WARD, MARY AUGUSTA, English novelist, was
born at Hobart, Tasmania, June 11, 1851. She is the
eldest daughter of Thomas Arnold, fellow of the Royal
University of Ireland, and granddaughter of the fa-
mous Dr. Thomas Arnold. of Rugby. She was mar-
ried in 1872 to Thomas Humphry Ward, fellow of
Brasenose College, Oxford, who has since edited a
collection of The English Poets (4 vols.), and the
twelfth edition of Men of the Time (1884). Mrs.
Ward resides in Oxford. Her first publications were
a story for children, Milly and Olly (1880), and Miss
Bretherton (1884), in which one of the characters is
said to be modelled from the actress, Miss Mary Ander-
son. Much of her literary work had regard to foreign
languages, in which she is well versed, witness her
translation of Amiel's Journal (1885), to which she
prefixed an introduction, and her papers on Conti-
nental literature in the Quarterly Review and other
periodicals. She also wrote, for Smith and Wace's
WARD)—WARNER.
757
Dictionary of Christian Biography, lives of the early
Spanish saints, kings, etc. But all her former work,
however preparatory in its nature, was eclipsed by her
powerful . of modern spiritual unrest in
Robert Elsmere (1888). The work needed not the
elaborate criticism and answer by Mr. Gladstone in the
Contemporary Review (June, 1888) to obtain almost
instantaneously a wide reading. The plot of the story
is slight, but the dramatic power is unusually great,
and some of the characters are remarkably lifelike,
while against others the criticism is made that they are
rather impersonations of certain tendencies of thought
than actual persons. The popularity of the work,
however, is not due merely to its literary and artistic
excellence, but also to its bold attempt to tear aside
the veil which covers much contemporary skepticism.
Its admirers pronounce it a revelation of facts and
opinions which need to be declared, while others who
deny its truth as a complete picture acknowledge the
author's genius in compelling doubters and disbelievers
to recognize themselves. In faithfulness in recording
states of mind with which she does not agree she is
comparable to George Eliot, and the purity of her
motives is equally conceded by all critics. But the
ideal religion which the work seems intended to pro-
claim is a mere ignis fatuus.
WARD, John QUINCY ADAMS, one of America's
most noted sculptors, was born at Urbana, Champaign
co., Ohio, June 29, 1830. He spent about seven
years in the studio of Henry K. Brown, and in
1857–58 he found employment in Washington in
modelling busts of various prominent men. Since
1861 he has resided in New York, where he was
elected a national academician in 1863. A bronze
statuette, The Freedman, his first full-length figure,
was executed in 1861, and won the admiration of the
critics. The Indian Hunter, one of his best works,
was first sketched out about 1857–8, and the sculptor
subsequently went west to make further studies for this
subject. The statue is in New York, where are also
his Shakespeare; a colossal statue of Washington
(1882); The Pilgrim ; and some other works. He has
executed a number of portrait statues, among them
Commodore Perry (Newport, R. I.); Gen. Reynolds;
one of the few good statues of Washington that we
have (Newburyport, Mass.); and Gen. Geo. H. Thomas
(Washington, D.C.), which ranks with the best eques-
trian statues produced in this country. He is also en-
gaged on a statue of Henry Ward Beecher to be erected
in Prospect Park, Brooklyn. His work is vigorous,
characteristic, and original; it is, moreover, distinctively
American in subject and spirit. (F. L. W.)
WARD, NATHANIEI, (c. 1578–1653), author, was
born at Haverhill, Suffolk, England, and educated at
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He practised law for
some years, travelled on the continent of Europe, and
had “ distinguished associations.” After holding a
reachership in London, he became rector of Standon
Tassey, in Essex, and was silenced by Archbishop
Laud in 1633. Emigrating to Massachusetts, he was
astor at Agawam or Ipswich 1634–7, and bore a
ſº part in founding Haverhill in 1640. The
6eneral Court appointed him in 1638 to draw up a
code, which was adopted in substance as the “Body
of Liberties” 1641. That year he preached the elec-
tion sermon, which Winthrop found rather classical
than Biblical. His Simple Cobbler of Agawam (1647),
written in Massachusetts, but published after his
return to England, retains some reputation, and is
braised by Prof. Tyler as “a medley of wit and
}. “ the most eccentric and amusing '' Ameri-
can book of the colonial era. It bore the name of
“Theodore de la Guard,” and was a satire on the
politics, fashions, religious and other opinions of the
age, marked by sincere bigotry and punning whim-
sicality. One of its queer statements is that “poly-
piety is the greatest impiety.” Ward also put forth
several pamphlets, preached before the House of
Commons June 30, 1647, became minister of Shenfield
in Essex, and died there in 1653. J. W. Dean wrote
a Memoir of him (Albany, 1868).
WARD, WILLIAM HAYEs, editor, was born at
Abington, Mass., June 25, 1835. He was educated at
Phillips Academy, Andover, and at Amherst College,
graduating in 1856. He studied theology in Union
Theological Seminary and at Andover, graduating from
the latter in 1859, and having in the meantime been
tutor in Beloit College, Wis., for a year. He was pas-
tor of a church at Oskaloosa, Kan., from 1859 to 1861,
then became a teacher, and in 1865 was made professor
of Latin in Ripon College, Wis. In 1868 began his
connection with the New York Independent, of which
he beeane superintending editor in 1871. Under his
direction that journal has sought to foster genuine pro-
gress in theology and Christian union among all Evan-
gelical denominations. It has also opened its columns
to the representatives of all prominent movements,
social and political, as well as religious. Dr. Ward
has given special attention to Assyrian and Babylonian
archaeological studies, and he was director of the ex-
pedition to Babylonia, which was sent in 1884 at the
expense of Miss Catharine L. Wolfe of New York
city. He has contributed to the Bibliotheca Sacra
and to the Proceedings of Oriental societies. With
Mrs. Lanier he edited Sidney Lanier's Poems (1884).
WARE, HENRY (1764–1845), Unitarian theologian
and controversialist, was born of poor parents on a
farm at Sherborne, Mass., April 1, 1764, and assisted
through Harvard by his brothers. After graduating
in 1785, he taught for a time, and was ordained pastor
at Hingham 1787. His election as Hallis professor of
divinity at Harvard in 1805 opened the Unitarian con-
troversy in New England, and caused the college to be
given over by the orthodox. In 1816 Dr. Ware was
made professor of Systematic Theology in the newly
formed Divinity School. In 1839 he resigned his former
chair in the college. He published Letters to Trini-
tarians (1820), an Answer (1822); and a Postscript
(1823), in controversy with Dr. Leonard Woods, of
Andover; Inquiry into the Foundation, Evidences, and
Truths of Religion (2 vols., 1842), and some sermons.
He died at Cambridge, July 12, 1845.
His son, HENRY WARE, JR. (1794–1843), also a
theologian, was born at Hingham, Mass., April 21,
1794, graduated at Harvard 1812, and taught for two
years at Phillips Academy, Andover. He was pastor
ºf the Second Church in Boston 1817–29, having R.
W. Emerson as colleague for the last year, and profes-
sor of pulpit eloquence and pastoral care at Cambridge
1829–42. He edited The Christian Disciple for some
years from 1819, and contributed largely to periodicals.
His poetical talents were early shown ; a few of his
hymns have been widely used. He published Hints
on Ertemporaneous Preaching (1824); On the Forma-
tion of the Christian Character (1831); a Life of the
Saviour (1832); and Scenes and Characters Illustrat-
ing Christian Truth (2 vols., 1837). He died at
Framingham, Mass., Sept. 22, 1843. An edition of
his works in 4 vols, appeared iS46–7, and his Memoir
by his brother, in 2 vols., 1846; the latter was sur-
passed in popularity by that of his wife, Mary Lovell
Ware (1798–1849), by E. B. Hall, 1852.
His brother, WILLIAM WARE (1797–1852), the
most brilliant of the family, was a Unitarian pastor in
New York 1821-36, and won much reputation by his
classical novels, Zenobia and Aurelian ; these first ap-
neared as Letters from Palmyra (1836-7); and Probºs
§§ He also published Julian (1841); Sketches of
European Capitals (1851); Works and Genius of
Washington "#. (1852), and some sermons. His
later years were spent mostly at Cambridge, where he
died Feb. 19, 1852,
WARMING. See VENTILATION.
WARNER, CHARLEs DUDLEY, author, was born
Sept. 12, 1829, at Plainfield, Mass. On his fatheºs
death, the boy, then only five years old, went to live
758
WARNER—WARREN.
with a relative at Charlemont. Here he remained till
he was 13, as he tells in his Being a Boy, living the
life of a typical farmer's boy, while his toils were
lightened by a warm love for nature. In 1842 his
mother removed to Cazenovia, N. Y., where he at-
tended the Oneida Conference Seminary and was pre-
pared for Hamilton College, where he graduated in
1851, taking the prize for the best Eii essay. He
began to contribute to the Knickerbocker, and, soon
thereafter, to Putnam's Magazine. Two years later
he edited a Book of Elegance, which was published at
Cazenovia, and then formed a plan for publishing a
monthly magazine in Detroit. This miscarried, and
he joined a surveying party on the Missouri frontier.
Returning to New York city, he studied law, mainly
in the Astor library, and in 1856 was admitted to the
bar in Philadelphia, and practised in Chicago till
1860. He then became assistant-editor, and subse-
Quently editor, of the Hartford (Conn.) Press, and
soon went with the Press to the Courant, becoming
assistant editor and part-proprietor. In 1868–9 he
spent 14 months in lºurope, and his Saunterings is
the outcome of his tours there. His reputation began
with the republication of a series of papers called My
Summer in a Garden (1871). His later writings in-
clude My Winter on the Nile ; In the Levant; Wash-
ington Irving ; A Roundabout Journey; Life of Cap-
tain John Smith . The American Newspaper; Mum-
mies and Moslems; and Their Pilgrimage (1886). In
conjunction with S. L. Clemens (“Mark Twain '') he
also produced The Gilded Age in 1873. ... He resides
in Hartford, Conn., and is one of the editors of 1/ar-
per's Magazine. Warner belongs to the meditative
school of literature, with a seasoning of humor and
quaintness. His philosophical playfulness reminds us
of Holmes, his quaintness suggests Lamb, and the
lacidity and purity of his style recall Washington
}. “His works have a surface of smiles,” says
William A. Rideing, “but under the smiles lie deep
thoughts.”
WARNER, SETH (1743–1784), colonel in the Revo-
lutionary war, was born at Roxbury, Conn., May 17,
1743, son of Dr. Benjamin Warner. From his youth
up he was distinguished for his sound judgment,
energy, and courage—moral as well as physical. In
1765, with his father, he removed to Bennington in
the New Hampshire Grants (now Vermont), the terri-
tory being in dispute between the States of New York
and New Hampshire. During the contest Warner
and Ethan Allen (q. v.) were the leaders of the settlers
on the “grants’’ and the champions of their rights,
for which they were outlawed by the State of New
York and a reward offered for their arrest. On the
outbreak of the Revolutionary war Warner and Allen
led the “Green Mountain boys’’ to the capture of
Ticonderoga, May 10, 1775, and on the next day
Warner captured the important post of Crown Point
with 113 cannon. Both were made colonels by the
settlers and recognized as such by the army in the in-
vasion of Canada. In the siege of St. John's (where
Allen was captured) Col. Warner took part under
Montgomery, and defeated Gen. Carleton in the at-
tempt for its relief. ... When Ticonderoga, on the
approach of the English under Burgoyne, was evac,
uated on the night of Juby 6, 1777, the main body of
the American army took the road through Hubbard-
ton and Castleton, Warner's regiment and another
constituting the rear guard. When attacked next day
by Gen. Frazer with the élite of the British army,
Warner maintained a stubborn resistance till over-
whelmed by Hessian reinforcements. Few actions in
the war were more obstinately fought, and for his gal-
lantry here and other services Warner was offered the
rank of brigadier-general by Washington, but declined
acceptance on the ground that his education did not
qualify him for the position. At the battle of Ben-
nington Col. Warner arrived too late to take part in
the successful assault upon Baulu's defences, yet in
season to repel the enemy's reinforceměnts advancing
under Breyman and to share in the glory of the ex-
ploit. During the remainder of the campaign till
Burgoyne's surrender Warner was constantly on the
alert. For seventeen days he never took off his boots,
and, in consequence, a disorder settled in his feet which
Yroved incurable and disabled him for further service.
He transferred his residence from Vermont back to his
native Roxbury, and died there, Dec. 26, 1784. Col.
Warner was of noble appearance, being 6 feet 2 inches
in stature. His features were regular and indicative
of mental strength and fixedness of purpose, and his
manners at once pleasing and iºnic
WARNER, SUSAN (1818-1885), novelist and relig-
ious writer, was the daughter of a lawyer, who wrote
some books of a political or patriotic character. Her
earlier works, published under the name of “Elizabeth
Wetherill,” were very extensively circulated. The
Wide, Wide World (1849) and Queechy (1852) were
translated into French and German ; of the former,
meant for young girls, as were most of her books,
500,000 copies are said to have been sold in ten years.
The French critic, Taine, read it and in his History of
English Literature refers to it as a striking example
that lºnglish and American novelists are “not artists
but moralists. It is only in a Protestant country,” he
says, “that you will find a novel entirely occupied in
describing the progress of moral sentiment in a child
of twelve.” But Mliss Warner wrote books of other
kinds. American Female Patriotism, a prize essay,
appeared in 1852, and The Law and the Testimony, a
compilation from Scripture, in 1853. Among her later
fictions were The Hills of the Shafemuc (1856), The
Golden Ladder (1862), The Old Helmet (1863), Mil-
bourne House (1864), and 1)aisy (1868).
Her sister, ANNA WARNER, born in New York city,
wrote originally under the name of “Amy Lothrop.”
Dollars and Cents appeared 1852, My Brother's Keeper
(1855), Stories of l’inegar Hall (6 vols., 1871), The
Fourth Watch (1872), The Other Shore (1873), and a
small volume of Wayfaring IIymms (1869). Some of
her translations from the German appeared without
name in Ilymns of the Church Militant (1858), which
she compiled. In conjunction with her sister Susan
she produced Ellen Montgomery's Book-Shelf (5 vols.,
1853–9), Say and Seal (1860), which had a large sale,
and Wych Hazel (1876), besides the Word Series (3
vols., 1868), and others of a religious character or in-
tended for juvenile readers. The publications of the
sisters were often in two volumes; the character was
rather edifying than intellectual, and the earlier ones
had the larger share both of literary merit and popu-
lar success. From about 1860 the sisters lived on Con-
stitution Island in the Hudson, near West Point.
WARREN, Gouver NEUR KEMBLE (1830-1882),
general, was born at Cold Spring, N. Y., Jan. , 8,
1830, and graduated at West, Point in 1850. As-
signed to the corps of topographical engineers, he was
employed in surveys in the West, and was the first to
explore the district of the Black Hills. For four years,
1854–58, he was engaged in the construction of a map
of the trans-Mississippi region, and contributed to the
Picific IRailroad Reports, Erplorations in the Dakotah
Country, and other government publications. He was
assistant professor of mathematics at West Point from
1859 to the beginning of the civil war, which he entered
as lieutenant-colonel of a Zouave regiment, the Fifth
N. Y. At Big Bethel he brought off the body of Lieut.
Greble. Becoming colonel Aug. 31, he was for some
time employed in the construction department at
Washington. After serving before Yorktown, he was
in May, 1862, placed in command of the Third brigade
of Sykes' division of Porter's corps (the Fifth), at the
extrême right of the forces. He was engaged in all
the actions of that campaign, and at Gaines' Mill, where
he was slightly wounded, earned the brevet of lieu-
tenant-colonel in the regular army and the commission
of brigadier-general of volunteers. He went safely
WARREN.
7.59
through the battles of Malvern Hill and the second
Bull Run, and at Antietam half his regiment were
killed or wounded. He bore a part at Fredericksburg.
and on Feb. 2, 1863, he became chief of topographical
engineers on Gen. Hooker's staff, and June 8, chief
engineer of the Army of the Potomac. In the midst of
the war, June 17, he was married. On July 2 he
held and defended Little Round Top, the key of the
Union army's position at Gettysburg, where he re-
ceived a slight wound. This was followed Aug. 8 by
the commission of major-general of volunteers, dat-
ing from the battle of Chancellorsville, May 3. In
August he had temporary command of the Second
Corps, and in October repelled an attack by A. P.
Hill at Bristow Station and received the brevet of
brigadier general, with special praise from Gen.
Meade. At Mine Run, N. 30, a movement was
ordered by Meade which the changing circumstances
of the field made impossible of execution without
useless sacrifice of life; Warren in the exercise of a
reasonable discretion disobeyed the order, and was
sustained and commended by his superior officer for
so doing. On March 24, 1864, when the army was being
reorganized, he was placed in command of the Fifth
Corps, which he led gallantly in the battles of the
Wilderness, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, and minor en-
agements. His men trusted and loved him. Gen.
#. in his Personal Memoirs pronounces him “an
officer of superior ability, quick perceptions, and per-
sonal courage to accomplish anything that could be
done with a small command,” but declares that his
constitutional defect was an endeavor to superintend
in person the execution of all his orders, and to guard
against remote contingencies which his superior officer
had probably otherwise provided for. At the outset
of the campaign Grant thought of Warren as Meade's
possible successor, but early in the next year Grant
was so much dissatisfied with Warren's dilatory move-
ments that he called Sheridan's attention to his se-
rious defects and authorized him if Warren's “removal
were necessary to success not to hesitate.” On April
1, 1865, at Five Forks, Gen. Warren unfortunately
ventured to exercise discretion as he had successfully
done sixteen months before, but Gen. Sheridan, who
had been impatiently waiting for Warren's arrival, at
last sought him out and relieved him of his command.
Being sent to Gen. Grant, he was put in command
at Petersburg. This disgrace wounded Warren's spirit
deeply and permanently ; he afterwards defended his
conduct in a pamphlet, but a court of inquiry sustained
Sheridan. The brevet of major-general, bestowed
‘‘ for gallant and meritorious services in the field,”
failed to console Warren, and public opinion was not
inclined to meddle in a painful controversy between
two officers of such eminence. The war was nearly
over. After two weeks' service in the South-west he
resigned his volunteer commission. He remained in
the regular army, employed upon forts, harbors,
ridges, etc., as a major of engineers. He died at
Newport, R.I., Aug. 8, 1882.
WARREN, Joseph (1741–1775), a patriot of the
American Revolution, the son of a farmer and descend-
ant of an early settler at Boston, was born at Roxbury,
June 11, 1741. After graduating at Harvard 1759, he
studied medicine, and began to practise 1762, but zeal
in the cause of liberty soon rendered him indifferent to
bright prospects of professional advancement. The
Stamp Act set him thinking, and his evenings were
given to the study of the great questions then rising
into prominence. By 1766 his opinions were formed,
and they thenceforth ruled his actions; he gave him-
self heart and soul to American freedom, and labored
with tongue and pen to bring others to his mind. He
had every quality of a leader—popular manners, sweet-
ness of temper, ready and vivid eloquence, intense
energy, fearless ardor, and exquisite prudence. The
plan for town meetings was drawn up in September,
1768, by Warren, Otis, and Samuel Adams. He was
active in the caucus which at first met secretly in
private houses, but after 1773 in a hall, inviting, the
attendance and co-operation of workinguen. , Dr. War-
ren and Samuel Adams, intimately associated through-
out, were the brains and soul of the early movement
in Massachusetts; of the two, Warren was the more
conservative—the slower to abandon hope of a peaee-
ful settlement which should secure colonial rights.
Acting for the Committee of Correspondence, they
drew up in November, 1772, the two statements of
these rights and of the violations thereof a year later.
Warren was one of the committee to prevent the land-
ing of the tea. The “Solemn League and Covenant,”
to suspend commercial relations with England, sent to
every town in the province in June, 1774, was reported
by him to the Committee of Correspondence. The
progress of events had by this time made him ready
for extreme measures. He told the Suffolk County
Convention in September that “a sovereign who
breaks his compact with his people forfeits their alle-
giance,” and wrote to Quincy in November that if
recent acts were not repealed, the two countries had
better separate. He personally handed to Gen. Gage
papers protesting against the fortifications then being
built around Boston. Toward the end of 1774 he was
at the head both of the Provincial Congress and the
Committee of Safety, and practically dictator, but for
the British troops. His disinterestedness and wisdom
made him the safest depository of power and executive
of the popular will. He restrained the enthusiasts who
would have precipitated a local conflict, and insisted
that the colonies must act together through the Conti-
nental Congress. March 5, 1775, he was a second time
the orator on the anniversary of the Boston massacre.
The church was crowded, and he entered by a window.
British officers sat on the pulpit stairs, and one of them,
at some ringing sentence, displayed bullets in his open
hand, which Warren at once covered with his handker-
chief. This was improved into the story of a pistol
levelled at the speaker's head. Soon after he, with
Hancock and Samuel Adams, was, by order of the
ministry, excluded from the pardon offered to other
malcontents. His tireless vigilance penetrated the
secret of the British movement on Lexington, and
sent Paul Revere (q.v.) and Dana thither by different
routes to warn Adams and Hancock, thus making pos-
sible the initial victory of the war. He was present at
the fight, and was said to have had a lock of hair cut
off by a bullet. He urged the appointment of Wash-
ington as commander-in-chief in place of Artemas
Ward, whom some favored for local reasons. Declin-
ing the post of surgeon-general, he accepted from Mas-
sachusetts, June 14, that of major-general. The occu-
pation of Bunker Hill, ordered by the Council of War,
he thought unwise, but insisted on taking part in the
action there. A colleague in the Committee of Safety
strove to dissuade him from this step, saying it was
death to go. He replied : " Dulce et decorum est pro
patria mori.” Arrived at the hill, he refused to take
command, saying he came as a volunteer to learn from
older soldiers, and asked to be shown the place of
greatest danger. He fell, “the last in the trenches,”
as the retreat began, June 17, 1775. His death was
a woful loss to the colonies, but his example stimu-
lated and cheered patriotic zeal everywhere. No
American, from the founders to that date, had been
more prominent or more useful than he no life was
ever more freely consecrated to liberty or more cheer-
fully laid down. In the presence of such a memory as
Warren's, cold analysis gives way to grateful and
reverent affection. At all points he was the model of
a patriot hero. His zealous abilities would have taken
high rank in the councils of the young republic; but
the poetic beauty of his character seems fitly crowned
by an early and glorious death. His body was not re-
covered for a year. Congress voted in September,
1777, to erect a monument, but the column raised by
the Freemasons in 1794 was the first to mark the spot.
760
WASHIBURNE–WATER SUPPLY.
On June 17, 1857, the Bunker Hill Monument Asso-
ciation unveiled a statue of Warren with imposing
ceremonies. See R. Frothingham's Life and Times
of Joseph Warrem (1865). (F. M. B.)
WASHBURNE, ELIIIU BENJAMIN (1816–1887),
diplomatist, was born at Livermore, Maine, Sept. 23,
1816, and passed an apprenticeship in the office of the
Rennebunk Journal. In 1840 he removed to Illinois,
and began to practise law at Galena. He was in Con-
ress 1853–69—first as a Whig, then as a Republican.
f the latter party he was one of the organizers and
leaders. He was chairman of the Committee on Com-
merce 1857–65, and of other committees, and was
called the watch-dog of the Treasury. Though not
acquainted with U. S. Grant till after the outbreak
of the civil war, Washburne obtained for him a com-
mission of brigadier-general in September, 1861, and
was thenceforth his firm friend and officient helper.
On Grant's accession to the Presidency in 1869, Wash-
burne became his Secretary of State, but held the post
only a week, when he was sent as U. S. Minister to
France. Here he won the greatest distinction of his
life, and rendered conspicuous services to the cause of
humanity. At the outbreak of war with Prussia in
1870, that government sought his protection for its
citizens residing in Paris. He accepted the trust, and
discharged it with rare tact, ability, and success. Re-
spected and even trusted by the successive French
authorities, he occupied a position of singular influ-
ence, and used it for the benefit of distressed and en-
dangered foreigners. During the siege and the Com-
mune, he was the only representative of foreign coun-
tries remaining, and the only person in Paris permitted
to receive and send letters. By his means many Ger-
mans were enabled to communicate with their homes,
or to pass thither in safety through the French lines,
and to many others the horrors of that period were
mitigated, though his efforts to save Darboy, the
Archbishop of Paris, were fruitless. The gratitude of
Germany for his services was often and warmly ex-
ressed. On leaving his post after eight years' tenure
i. went to Berlin to receive the public thanks of the
Emperor. His later years were spent in Chicago. His
Jºecollections of a Minister to France, 1869–77, ap-
peared just before his death, which occurred Oct. 22,
1887.
Two of his brothers (all of whom spelt their name
without the final e) were in Congress at the same time
with himself, and otherwise attained distinction. IS-
RAEL WASHBURN, JR. (1813–83), was a representa-
tive from Maine 1851–60, governor 1861–63, and
then collector at Portland. CADWALLADER COLDEN
WAs.IIBURN (1818–82) emigrated to Wisconsin in
1841, was in Congress 1855–61 and 1868–72, en-
tered the civil war as colonel, was a major-general of
volunteers from 1862, governor of Wisconsin 1872–
74, and a leading merchant in flour and lumber.
Another brother, CHARLES AMES WASHBURN, born
1822, was an editor at San Francisco. He was sent in
1861 minister to Paraguay, where he had an eventful
career, wrote a History of Paraguay, 1871, and in-
vented the typograph and other instruments.
WATER MELON. See MELON.
WATER stºº j * cities wº built
and inhabited the question of water
jº ..º. supply has engaged the attention of
Knº. their people, and in early, times foun-
* ... ... Wº Wºº Kº e Z e tains and springs were dedicated to
the gods, who were supposed to keep them pure and
undefiled ; in ancient Rome the “Festival of Fontan-
alia” was annually kept, when fountains and wells
were crowned with flowers and wreaths were cast upon
the running streams. Aqueducts of wonderful mag:
nitude, supported in some instances by three ranges of
arches superposed, were built many centuries before
the Christian era, and even at this day there may be
seen similar grand conduits supplying the cities of the
Old World. (See AQUEDUCTS.) In modern times
aqueducts depending upon gravity for the delivery of
Water have been superseded aluost entirely by iron
pipes, and where gravity is insufficient steam-power has
taken its place, so that now we have the precious fluid
not only bubbling and sparkling in our parks and
fountains, but also brought to our very doors and de-
livered inside our dwellings. While we may boast of
these modern inventions which the discoveries of the
capabilities of steam and of iron have made possible,
we yet fail to vie with the ancients in the purity or
abundance of the water supplied to our great cities—
Rome with its nine aqueducts was lavish in serving its
people at the rate of over 300 gallons per diem for
each man, woman, and child, while we are supposed
to be contented with fifty.
The original source of all waters is found in the vast
Seas and Oceans of the world, from whence it is drawn
in perfect purity by the sun, and as vapor is waſted to
the ends of the earth where, accumulating and con-
densing in clouds, it falls as rain or snow and finds its
way back to the seas and oceans—thus completing its
cycle after furnishing its life-giving properties to all
living creatures and things. In the United States, as
in other countries, it is collected, stored, and distrib-
uted by means of wells, cisterns, reservoirs, aqueducts,
and pipes, the smaller cities depending upon wells
and cisterns, and the more populous upon reservoirs
which are supplied from rivers, streams, lakes, and
springs. In some instances, as at Chicago, Ills., what
is known as the “pump and stand-pipe ’’ system is
employed, and at others, as Kansas City, Mo., the
‘‘ direct ’’ or “Holly system ’’ is in use—in these sys-
tems no storage or other reservoirs are required, as the
water is pumped directly into the stand-pipe or into
the mains and thence distributed through the city.
“ Driven-wells” are an American invention and consist
in driving into the earth a hollow tube fitted with a
strainer properly protected and shod with a wedge-
shaped end ; the tube is usually 1% inches in diameter
and of convenient lengths for driving ; each length is
screwed into its fellow as it descends, the thread of the
screw being protected by a cap which receives the
blows of the hammer. Successive lengths of tubing
are added until satisfactory water is reached, which is
discovered by means of a pump applied at the top from
time to time. These tubes are driven to a surprising
depth, 40 to 250 feet, and as they are virtually a con-
tinuous pipe reaching to the supply, no contamination
from surface water is likely to occur if sunk deep
enough. Of course they cannot penetrate rock, but
where available are much thought of and are growing
in favor. Brooklyn, N. Y., is probably the largest city
in which they are extensively used.
It is now understood that water from shallow wells
is wholly unfit for drink and should never be used for
that purpose without boiling, filtering, and aerating.
The water from deep wells depends for its purity upon
the strata through which it percolates—chalk forma-
tions furnishing the best, Flowing artesian wells of
great depth (one at St. Louis, Mo., is 3800 feet deep)
are found in geological basins, and frequently furnish a
wholesome water in large quantities which can be sup-
plied without pumps or engines. (See ARTESIAN
WELLs.) More than 2000 years ago the Chinese
bored for water very much in the same manner that we
do to-day, by percussive action. By the use of a
tower or stand-pipe the water from wells may be util-
ized where the fiow-pressure is not sufficient; but
wells, like cisterns, cannot be depended upon to supply
the growing needs of cities. A number of cities in
the É. States are supplied from springs, notably
Huntsville, Ala., in the South, Salem, Mass., in the
North, Grand Rapids, Mich., in the West, and in the
far West quite a number are thus supplied : this is
probably the purest source of supply, as springs are
now regarded as furnishing more wholesome water
than rain itself.
In order that the water supply may be constant and
WATER SUPPLY.
761
to guard against accident, it has been found necessary
to provide storage; this is accomplished by means of
reservoirs. (See RESERVOIRS in ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA.) The capacity of these receptacles is
determined by the needs of the city, and it is found
best to provide a series of reservoirs, not only to meet
any emergency that may arise but also for the purpose
of permitting the water which has been pumped into
the initial receptacle to settle in the additional ones
before it is turned into the mains and pipes for distri-
bution. Filtration is also employed to free the water
of impurities, and many systems have been adopted
for this purpose, one of the latest being a proposal by a
New York company of a plan by which the filter beds
are erected over the reservoir and the water is pumped
into the beds, whence it percolates into the reservoir
below. Another is known as the “Hyatt pure water
filter,” so arranged that the water is filtered after it
leaves the reservoir and before its distribution. While
the construction of reservoirs requires engineering skill,
the location with reference to the surroundings is one
that should engage the attention of the sanitarian. The
water may become contaminated while stored from the
proximity of the reservoir to the cultivated or inhabited
lands which surround it, or from fungi or other for-
eign substances which may grow or be thrown or fall
into it. The sides should be well protected, and
if the ground rises above it, that should be sodded and
kept free from everything contaminating and objection-
able, such as swine, cattle, or other stock, etc. The
rainfall is an important factor in deciding the quantity
of water that may be obtained from whatever source :
it is estimated that one-third of the rainfall disappears
by evaporation and the absorption of vegetation, one-
third descends into the earth to reappear as springs or
remains as subterranean reservoirs that may be tapped
by wells; and one-third flows as rivers and streams or
forms lakes and pools.
While the question of cost ought not to have control.
ling weight where health is concerned, it is well in
determining between different sources of supply to ex-
amine into the relative cost of subsidence, precipita-
tion, filtration, ete., as applicable to the several sources
under consideration, always bearing in mind that rivers
or streams receiving sewage or refuse of manufactories
within a limit of twelve miles are never a proper
source of water supply whether chemical analysis or
biological research develop the existence of impurities
'Or not.
Referring to the question of a pure water supply and
the difficulty of determining whether organic matter is
present or not, Prof. J. W. Mallet, F. R. S., in an
exhaustive paper upon water analysis prepared by him
for the National Board of Health United States (see
N. B. H. Report, 1882, p. 207), in which he takes the
ground above indicated, sums up the result of different
processes of water analysis conducted by himself and
other experts in the following general conclusions:
1. It is not possible to decide absolutely upon the whole-
someness or unwholesomeness of drinking water by the
mere use of any of the processes examined for the estimation
of organic matter or its constituents.
2. I would even go further, and say that, in judging the
sanitary character of a water, not only must such processes
be used in connection with the investigation of other evi-
dence of a more general sort, as to the source and history
of the water, but should even be deemed of secondary im-
portance in weighing the reasons for accepting or rejecting
a water not manifestly unfit for drinking on other grounds.
3. There are no sound grounds on which to establish such
general “standards of purity’ as have been proposed, look-
ing to exact amounts of organic carbon or nitrogen, “albu-
minoid ammonia,” oxygen of permanganate consumed, etc.,
as permissible or not. Distinctions drawn by the applica-
tion of such standards are arbitrary and may be misleading.
4. Two entirely legitimate directions seem to be open for
the useful examination by chemical means of the organic
constituents of drinking water, namely: first, the detection
of very gross pollution, such as the contamination of the
water of a well by accidental bursting or crushing of soil-
WOL. IV.-2 X
pipes, extensive leakage of drains, etc.; and secondly, the
periodical examination of a water supply, as of a great city,
in order that, the normal or usual character of the water
having been previously ascertained, any suspicious changes
which from time to time may occur shall be promptly de-
tected and their causes investigated.
5. In connection with this latter application of water
analysis, there seems to be no objection to the establishment
of local “standards of purity" for drinking-water, based
on sufficiently thorough examination of the water supply
in its usual condition.
6. With the facts of this investigation before me, I am
inclined to attach special and very great importance to a
careful deterulination of the nitrites and nitrates in water
to be used for drinking.
7. If I had intrusted to me the charge of watching, a
large city's water supply I should use ail three of the
principal processes for the examination of the organic mat-
ter present; each gives a certain amount of information
which the others do not afford.
Under circumstances admitting only of the use of simpler
means of investigation, the albuminoid-ammonia and per-
manganate processes might be employed together, but in no
case should one only of these methods be resorted to, such a
course entailing practically the neglect of carbon on the
one hand or nitrogen on the other.
The Vienna Water Commissioners give the follow-
ing rules for determining healthy water :
1. Water must be clear, sparkling, colorless.
2. It must contain but a small quantity of solid materials
and be entirely free of organized matter (infusoria).
3. Of the alkaline earths (CaO, MgO) it must not contain
more than 18 parts by weight in 100,000 parts by weight of
Water.
4. It must contain but a small fractional part by weight
of soluble salts, particularly the sulphates and nitrates.
5. The solids held in solution and the temperature of the
water must vary within very narrow limits during the year.
6. It must be protected from contamination.
7. The above requirements are fulfilled in many cases by
soft spring water, which alone is suitable for drinking pur-
SèS.
pº The industries require water having nearly the same
properties.
9. Filtered river water, if at all times free of turbidity,
will answer for technical purposes, but on account of not
fulfilling requirements 5 and 6, is not fit for drinking.
10. To sprinkle or clean streets any water is ºãe pro-
vided it is odorless and does not contain a great amount of
offensive material.
A survey of the water supply of the cities of the
United States and the manner of securing it, etc., is
too comprehensive to be given in detail here ; for
complete statistics upon this subject, embracing all
necessary information and covering 16SS cities and
towns, the reader is referred to the Manual of Ameri-
can Water-Works just published (1889) by the Engi-
neering News, New York, to whose editors the writer
is indebted for the table showing the supply, etc., of
several of the principal cities. (See p. 763.)
The number of towns having a water-supply for
domestic use in the United States and Canada up to
'Jan. 1, 1889, and their geographical distribution is
here given :
New England—Maine, New Hampshire,Vermont, Mas-
sachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut........... 290
Middle--New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, District of Columbia................ 456
South Atlantic—Virginia, West Virginia, North Caro-
lina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida ......... 73
South Central—Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Ten-
nessee, Kentucky ............................................ . 52.
North Central–Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wis-
consin..................................................... * * * * * * * * . 330
North Western–Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska,
Dakota, Montana, Wyoming.............. … . 222
South Western—Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Colorado,
New Mexico........................................... .......... 130
Pacific-Washington, Oregon, California, Arizona, Ne-
Vada, Utah, Idaho................ “. . . . . . . ......... ......... 1
30
United States, Total.......... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 16SS
Canada............ 7S
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * c e e • * * * * * * * c & e P º º e º - tº e º ºr e º e
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The largest system in the United States is in New
York city, with an estimated population of 1,700,000
and daily consumption of 110,000,000 gallons, and
with reservoir capacity of 18,385,000,000 gallons.
With its new aqueduct, it will have a daily supply
of 500,000,000 gallons. . The smallest system is
at Drewsville, N.H., with a population of 90 Souls.
It has a gravity supply without reservoir, and
the daily consumption is unrestricted in amount.
The great cities of New York, Brooklyn, Philadel-
phia, and Chicago are contemplating increasing their
º to meet their increasing wants. j.
will more than double hers within a year, and when
the third section of the East Park reservoir is com-
pleted the storage capacity will be 900,000,000 gallons.
Chicago has, Lake, Michigan at its feet, and it is only
a question of duplicating its present method or other-
wise providing for furnishing an abundant supply.
New York has sufficient water for the present in its
supply from Croton and Bronx rivers, but its aque-
ducts are too small and are now being enlarged and
increased. A proposition has been ºi. by John R.
Bartlett and associates of New York and New Jersey
to furnish New York city, independent of the Croton
water-shed, an ample quantity of pure and whole-
Somé water from the lake regions of New Jersey.
This proposition contemplates supplying Montclair,
Newark, Jersey City, and surrounding towns in New
Jersey, as well as New York city .# Brooklyn, the
plan being to collect all the available waters in the
Passaic water-shed, including Greenwood Lake, and
storing them in convenient reservoirs. These waters
will then be conducted in pipes or in a permanently
constructed aqueduct to the Jersey City shore of the
Hudson River; tunnelling the river, the water will be
delivered in the lower portion of New York city with
a head-pressure of at least 300 ft. It will also be
conducted across to Brooklyn in the same manner. It
is claimed that by this combination plan all interstate
questions can be avoided and riparian rights protected,
and in addition there will be ample quantities pro-
vided for all the cities and towns of New Jersey that
are dependent on the Passaic water-shed for their sup-
ply. The tunnel from Jersey City to New York is
over one-third completed and can be finished in two
years. The advantage of a double source of supply
for New York city in case of war or serious accident
to its present sources requires no argument.
The water supply of cities and towns, it is now gen-
erally believed by sanitarians, ought to be placed under
the supervision of an intelligent board of health and
furnished by a responsible company instead of owned
and operated by the city. A properly constituted
board to watch and investigate the condition of the
water from time to time, and a company which could
be held responsible for the quality and quantity of the
water furnished, would be a great step in securing a
wholesome and abundant supply of uncontaminated
water. It is claimed that the system which prevails
in many of our large cities, whereby the city water-
works are made a means for political preferment in-
stead of a source of comfort to its inhabitants, soon
becomes a power for evil almost incalculable. (P. H. B.)
WATSON, ELKANAH (1758–1842), author and pro-
moter of internal improvements, was born at Ply-
mouth, Mass., Jan. 22, 1758, and apprenticed at 15
to a merchant of Providence, R. I. In 1779 he was
sent to Southern ports to purchase cargoes for Eu-
ropean shipment. His notes give historically valuable
descriptions of Charleston and other towns. In 1779
he carried despatches to Franklin in France, engaged
in business at Havre, and°suffered reverses in 1782.
His account of a Tour in Holland in 1784 was pub-
lished at Worcester, Mass., 1790. After 4 years in
North Carolina, he settled at Albany in 1789, and soon
after examined the Mohawk valley with reference to a
canal, and urged the project upon Gen. Schuyler and
the legislature. A Vindication of Watson's claim to
paternity for the idea, by R. Troup, appeared at
Geneva in 1821. A canal company was incorporated in
1792, though nothing was really done till much later.
Watson showed equal energy and public spirit in fur-
thering river navigation, routes of land travel, and
public education. His home was at Albany till 1807,
then at Pittsfield, Mass., till 1816, when he returned
to Albany. At both places he founded agricultural
WATSON.—WAYNE.
763
societies; of these he wrote a history, published 1820. Louisville to undertake the editorship of the Louisville
His History of the Western Canals appeared the same
year. After a journey to the lakes and down the St.
Lawrence, in the interest of internal navigation, he
removed to Port Kent, N.Y., in 1828, and died there editor.
Dec. 5, 1842. Men and Times of the Revolution. taken
from his journals and correspondence, and edited by
his son, appeared 1855. Both by his writings and by
the enterprises which he forwarded, and for which, he
did much to prepare the way, Watson made contribu-
tions to American history. His remarkable predictions
made in 1815 in regard to the increase of population
in the United States down to 1900 are commented
upon by Prof. Francis A. Walker in the article on the
NITED STATES in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
WATSON, JAMES CRAIG (1838–1880), astronomer,
was born in Elgin county, Ontario, Canada, Jan. 28.
1838. His parents, however, were citizens of the
United States, and he was soon taken to Michigan.
He graduated at the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, in 1857, and for the next two years was assist-
ant there in the Observatory. He acted as pro-
fessor of astronomy during the absence of Prof.
Brünnow till 1860, and then as professor of physics
till 1863, when he took permanently the chair of
astronomy in the University and directorship of the
Observatory, which he relinquished 1879 to accept
same positions in the University of Wisconsin. €
died at Madison, Nov. 23, 1880. He was one of the
most distinguished American astronomers. In his
19th year, on April 29, 1856, he discovered a comet,
and his computation of the orbit of the comet of 1858
(Donati's) is considered authoritative. He was thrice
deputed by the U. S. government to observe solar
eclipses—in 1869 to Iowa, in 1870 to Sicily, and in
1878 to Wyoming—and in 1874 to Pekin, China, to
observe the transit of Venus. His original planetary
discoveries amount to 23. He was a member of the
National Academy of Science, and other learned
bodies. He received the degree of Ph. D. from the
University of Leipsic 1870 and from Yale College 1871,
and the degree of L.L. D. from Columbia Čºllege in
1877. The Lalande gold medal was awarded to him
by the French Academy of Sciences in 1870 for the
discovery of six new planets in one year. He was for
some years actuary of Michigan Mutual Life Insurance
Company. His considerable fortune he willed to the
National Academy of Science. His genius was that
of originality, though he claimed it not. His intui-
tions escaped “the ordinary processes of calculation,
and gave him a masterly command of mathematical
logic and formulae.” His work, Theoretical Astronomy
Phila., 1869), was at once accepted as a text-book at
ipsic, Paris, and Greenwich. His literary contribu-
tions are in American Journal of Science, Brünnow's
Astronomical Notices, Gould's Astronomical Journal,
and foreign astronomical periodicals. He published
also Popular Treatise on Comets (Phila., 1860); Report
on Horological Instruments, to the Centennial Exposi-
tion (1876), and Tables for the Calculation of Simple
and Compound Interest (1878). (J. W. W.)
WATTERSON * HENRY, journalist, was born at
Washington, D. C., Feb. 16, 1840, his father, the
Hon. Harvey M. Watterson, being then a Democratic
representative in Congress from Tennessee. On ac-
count of his defective eyesight young Watterson was
educated chiefly by tutors at home. At a very early
age he became dramatic and literary critic for the
States, a Washington journal. At the age of 18 he
became editor of the Washington Democratic Review,
but in 1861 he returned to Tennessee to assume the
elitorship of The Republican Banner at Nashville,
Shortly after the commencement of the civil war he
entered the Confederate service, remaining in it till
the close of the struggle with the exception of one
year, during which he edited the Chattanooga Rebel.
At the end of the war he returned to Nashville and
h
revived The Republican Banner, and then removed to
Journal. in which he had purchased an interest. In
1868 this paper was consolidated with two others into
the Courier-Journal, of which he continues to be
It has become one of the foremost organs of
the Democratic party in the South. Mr. Watterson
was temporary dº of the National Democratic
Convention of 1876, and he was a member of Congress
from August, 1876, to March, 1877. He is an able
political writer, a brilliant and incisive orator, and an
uncompromising advocate of free trade.
WAYLAND, FRANCIS (1796–1865), president of
Brown University, was born in New York city, March
11, 1796. His parents, who were of English birth,
removed to Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1807. He gradu-
ated at Union College 1815, studied medicine and
divinity, entered the Baptist ministry, and was a tutor
at his alma mater 1817–21. For the next five years he
held a charge in Boston. and there won great reputa-
tion by a sermon on The Moral Dignity of the Mis-
sionary Enterprise (1823), and two on The Duties of
an American Citizen. In 1826 he returned to Union
College as professor of mathematics and natural
philosophy, but left it in February, 1827, for the
presidency of Brown University, which he held for 28
years with distinguished success. He anticipated some
of the chief educational reforms of our day in his
Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the
United States (1842), which favored a freer and more
practical curriculum for students of non-professional
aims. His Report for 1850 shows that these views had
to some extent been embodied in changes of the course
of studies at Brown the preceding year. As a maker
of text-books (which embodied his class lectures) he
stood in the front rank. Of his Elements of Moral
Science (1835) 90,000 copies had been sold in 1868,
besides sundry editions in England, and translations
into foreign languages. His Political Economy (1837)
attained a circulation about half as great. Both these
were used in the Sandwich Islands in a native version.
His Intellectual Philosophy (1854) was less successful
but is still in the market. Dr. Wayland retained his
eminence as a preacher and published Sermons (3 vols.,
1833, 1849, and 1858), besides Salvation by Christ
(1859), and Notes on the Principles and Practices of
the Baptist Churches (1857), the last being reprinted
from the N. Y. Ecaminer. He was easily the leader
of his denomination in America. Among his other
works are Limitations of Human Responsibility
(1838); Letters on the Ministry (1863), and memoirs
of Harriet Ware (1850), Dr. A. Judson (1853), and
Dr. Chalmers (1864). He was very active in the cause
of free libraries and public schools in and beyond his
own State; he founded the American Institute of
Instruction, and was long its president; and he did
much for prison reform and other benevolent enter-
prises. Concerning slavery his position was early and
clearly defined ; a correspondence between him and
Dr. Richard Fuller (q.v.), of Beaufort, S. C., ap-
peared in 1845. He resigned the presidency of Brown
in 1855, but continued to preach and write. He died
at Providence, Sept. 30, 1865. See Memoir by his
sons (2 vols., 1869).
WAYNE, ANTHONY (1745–1796), general, was born
Jan. 1, 1745, in Chester co., Pa." His grandfather
and father had seen service and his own youthful
inclinations were strongly military. He was sent to
School in Philadelphia, became a surveyo), and spent
a year, 1765–66, in Nova Scotia. He was a member of
the Pennsylvania provincial legislature in 1774 and of
the Committee of Safety in 1775. Soon after he
raised a regiment, was commissioned colonel in Jan-
uary, 1776, and sent in April, to Canada. . . At Three
Rivers, in June, he distinguished himself and was
wounded. He had command at Ticonderoga for six
months, was made brigadier-general May 21, 1777,
and joined Washington in New Jersey. He rendered
efficient service at the Brandywine, Sept. 11; having
©
764
*and of the left wing, he opposed the passage of
the British throughout the day, . led his ;. safely
off at evening. On the 16th an action which he j
menced was cut short by a storm. On the 20th he
Was surprised at Parker's Ferry and forced to retreat
with some loss : he demanded a court-martial, which
honorably acquitted him. In the battle of German.
town, Oct. 4, he commanded the right wing, but mis.
takes or accidents occurred, and he retreated with no
new.laurels. In the following months he was of much
service in fºraging, crossing into New Jersey and pro-
curing cattle and provisions for the army. At Mon-
mouth, June 28, 1778, he bore a prominent part and
Was praised by Washington. His most brilliant exploit
Was the storming of Stony Point, N. Y., July 15, at
night, only bayonets being used; for this he received
the thanks of Congress and a gold medal. His popular
title was “mad Anthony.”
no more such opportunities as this. He suppressed a
mutiny of Pennsylvania troops in New J ersey in Jan-
uary, 1781. At Green Spring, Va., July 6, he suddenly
encºuntered the enemy and retired : accounts of this
affair are conflicting. After Cornwallis' surrender he
Was sent to Georgia, where he cleared the State (except
Savannah) of the enemy; the Legislature voted him
thanks and a farm, on which he lived for some years.
Whatever his degree of prudence, his gallantry had
earned more than the brevet of major-general. He
was a member of the Pennsylvania convention which
ratified the constitution in 1789, and in 1791 claimed
a seat in Congress from Georgia, but lost it. In April,
1792, he succeeded St. Clair in the command of the
Western army in Ohio, which sadly needed recruits,
supplies, organization, and discipline. After two years
of preparation and negotiation he attacked the Indians
at Maumee Rapids, Aug. 20, 1794, and won a brilliant
yictory; the treaty of Greenville was made the follow-
ing year. Wayne was returning to the East when he
died at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie, Dec. 15, 1796.
His remains were interred at Radnor, Pa., and there a
monument was erected by the Society of the Cincinnati,
July 4, 1809. H. N. Moore published a memoir of him |f
(1845). (F. M. B.)
WEED, THURLow (1797–1882), journalist and pol-
itician, was born at Acra, Greene co., N. Y., Nov. 15,
1797. He had no early advantages but such as come
from the discipline of hardship; he was a cabin-boy
on the Hudson at 10, and began to learn the printer's
trade at 12. From one office he moved to another, and
in the war of 1812 he served on the frontier. At 20
he was editing the Agriculturalist at Norwich, N. Y.
From this time he was always connected with some
newspaper. In 1826 he was sent to the Legislature,
and as editor of the Anti-Masonic Inquirer at Rochester
took part in the agitation of that time (stirred up by
the Morgan murder), and helped to re-elect De W;
Clinton to the governorship. In 1830 he was again in
the Legislature and placed in charge of the Albany
Evening Journal, then started by the party opposed
to “the Regency'' and to Pres, Jackson. His life
for the next 32 years was bound up with this paper
and with New York politics, in which he became a
mighty power. He was a master of the art of hand-
ling voters and managing conventions; he was said to
have once turned a State election at the last moment
by the dexterous use of a moderate sum. , Yet he was
personally incorruptible and disinterested; he neither
sought nor *. office for himself; he was loyal to
his party and his country and so indifferent to his own
fortunes that friends looked after his financial affairs
with eminent success. With Seward and Greeley he
constituted a State triumvirate. While the former
was governor, 1839–43, Weed was considered by many
a power behind the throne. Though New York was
especially his province, he did not neglect, national
affairs, but assisted in nominating successively Harri-
son, Taylor, and Scott.
was transferred to the Republican ; he strove to make
Fortune favored him with T. W.
His zeal for the Whig party
WEED–WELLES.
Seward a presidential candidate in 1856 and 1860, but,
ºastering his disappointment, earnestly supported
Fremont and Lincoln. The latter sent him to urope
on an unacknowledged mission in the autumn of 1861,
3Rd the next year he ceased to conduct the Journal.
Removing to New York in 1865, he edited the Com.
nercial Advertiser for three years. After that, his
agtivity, though continued, was concealed: a new race
of managers had arisen, and at Saratoga in 1876 he
Was Warned to abstain from interference. He pub-
lished Letters from Europe and the West Indies (1866),
and contributed some Reminiscences to the Atlantſ.
Monthly in 1879. In his old age his sight almost
totally failed. He died in New York, Nov. 22, 1882,
leaving an Autobiography, which was edited by his
daughter, and appeared at Boston 1883 (2 vols.). To
his was, added in 1884 a Memoir by his grandson,
. W. Barnes. (F. M. B.)
WEEVIL. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. ix.
WEIR, Robert WALTER, artist, was born at New
Rochelle, N. Y., June 18, 1803. He was engaged in
mercantile pursuits until nearly twenty years of age,
and then adopted art as a profession, studying uniºr
Jarvis, and painting for some time in New York.
About 1824 he went to Italy, where he remained for
several years. In 1828 he became an associate of the
National Academy, and in 1829 he was elected an
academician. . Three years later he was appointed
professor of drawing in the West Point Military Acad-
emy, a position which he held for 42 years. His
works include portraits, genre pictures, and histor-
igal, compositions, and he is noted especially for the
faithful rendering of the accessories, the still-life in
his pictures. Among his best-known paintings are The
Belle of the Carnival (1836); Janding of Henry Hud-
son (1842); Embarkation of the Pilgrims (1845), in
the rotunda of the Capitol, Washington; The Evening
of the Crucifixion (1867); Christ in the Garden
§ Our Lord on the Mount of Olives (1877);
folumbus before the Council of Salamanga (1884), and
Various portraits, including one of Red Jacket, painted
or Dr. J. W. Francis.
His sons have also gained an honorable position
among our artists. John FERGUson WEIR, born at
West Point, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1841, studied under his
father. . In 1861 he opened a studio in New York,
where he became a National Academician in 1866.
After spending a year in Europe he was, in 1869,
appointed director of the Yale School of Fine Arts.
He was also appointed judge of the fine arts at the
Philadelphia Exhibition in 1876. His vigorous style
is perhaps best shown by such strong work as Forging
the Shaft (1868), which was burned, but of which a
replica was exhibited at Paris in 1878. He has painted
also portraits of S. Wells Williams and others, and in
1884 executed a statue of Benjamin Silliman.
JULIAN ALDEN WEIR, born Aug. 30, 1852, at West
Point, N. Y., also studied under his father, and later
(1872–76), under Gérôme, in Paris. He was elected a
National Academician in 1886, was one of the found-
ers of the Society of American Artists, and is also a
member of various other societies. His works include
Breton Interior and various other Breton subjects;
The Good Samaritan (1881); and portraits of R. W.
Weir (1880); Olin L. Warner (1881); Richard Grant
White (1883); Peter Cooper (1884); and John Gil-
bert (1888). He has been the recipient of various
honors at home and abroad, notably honorable mention
at the Salon of 1881 for his portrait of Warren Delano,
and the prize at the 4th Prize Fund Exhibition of the
American Art Association, New York, for his Idle
Hours. (F. L. W.)
WELLES, GIDEON (1802–1878), statesman, was
born at Glastonbury, Conn., July 1, 1802, being de-
scended from Thomas Welles, a colonial governor. He
was educated at Norwich University, studied law and
in 1826 became editor and proprietor of the Hart-
ford Times, in which he advocated the election of
WELLESLEY COLLEGE–WELLS.
765
Gen. Jackson to the Presidency.
Legislature in 1827 and served there for eight years.
In 1836 he was made postmaster of Hartford and soon
after gave up the management of his newspaper,
though he continued to be an active contributor to the
press. In 1842 he was made State comptroller. From
1846 to 1849 he was in Washington as chief of a bureau
in the navy department. During the Kansas-Nebraska
troubles Welles, who had heretofore been an ardent
Democrat, opposed the extension of slavery and when
the Republican party was formed was one of its earli-
est adherents. As chairman of the Connecticut dele-
gation to the Chicago convention, in 1860, he contrib-
uted to the nomination of Lincoln to the Presidency
and was called by the latter to be his secretary of the
navy. The civil war greatly enlarged the scope and
duties of this department, but Secretary Welles con-
ducted it with unflagging zeal, industry, and efficiency.
He maintained along 2000 miles of coast a blockade as
effective as the circumstances would permit, organized
on the Mississippi River a fleet of ironclads and trans-
ports, sent out well-equipped expeditions to various
points, and in various ways contributed to the numer-
ous victories which added to the renown of the Ameri-
can navy. After the war was over, Welles remained
in Pres. Johnson's cabinet, and supported his policy of
reconstructing the Southern States, thereby losing fa-
vor with the Republican party. After his retirement
he published “Memoirs of the War ’’ in the Galary.
He died at Hartford, Feb. 11, 1878.
WELLESLEY COLLEGE, a noted institution for
the higher education of women, is in the beautiful vil-
lage .# Wellesley, Norfolk co., Mass., about 15 miles
west of Boston. It was founded by Mr. Henry F.
Durant, who in 1855 purchased here 300 acres of land,
which he improved as a park. In 1875 the college
hall, which had been carefully built under his super-
vision, was opened. It is 475 feet long and 150 feet
wide at the wings. It is built of brick with free-stone
trimmings, and is four stories high, but in some parts
a fifth story is added, which serves as a studio and
museum. Besides this building there are now a Col-
lege of Music, Waban Cottage, Simpson Cottage, Stone
Hall, Norumbega, Freeman Cottage. Wellesley has
valuable collections of paintings and statuary, which are
distributed through the rooms and halls. The library
has 25,000 volumes. There are chemical, physical,
biological and botanical laboratories, and the rooms
used for scientific work have their appropriate collec-
tions of books. The college gymnasium was fitted up
under the direction of Dr. Dudley A. Sargent, of
Harvard University. Adjoining the college grounds
is Lake Waban, on which 14 boats are used in summer.
Entertainment in winter is furnished by concerts and
lectures. . The course of study is similar to that pur-
sued in American colleges, but special opportunity is
given for the study of art and music. Care of the
rooms and halls is required of the students, who thus
are taught the art of housekeeping, though they do
not perform heavy work. At the opening of the col-
lege in 1875, provision had been made for 300 students,
but 314 were enrolled in the first year. There were
then 28 instructors and officers, Miss Alice E. Freeman
being the president. She retired from this position in
1888 on her marriage to Prof. F. Palmer, of Harvard
University. There are now 75 instructors. The first
º class numbered 18 and that of 1888 num-
ered 60. The total number of students enrolled
exceeds 2300, and the graduates 300. Besides Mr.
and Mrs. Henry F. Durant, the principal benefactors
of the college have been Mr. M. H. Simpson, Mrs.
Valeria G. Stone, and George Smith.
WELLHAUSEN, JULIUs, German theologian, was
born at Hameln-on-the-Weser, May 14, 1844. He
was educated at Göttingen under Ewald, and there
began to lecture on theology in 1870. He was made
ordinary professor at Greifswald in 1872, but resigned
in 1882 on account of his divergence from Protestant
He entered the State
theology. He then entered the philosophical faculty
at Halle, and in 1885 accepted a similar position at
Marburg. Among his publications are Tect der
Bilcher Samuels (1871); Pharisaeer und Sadducaeer
(1874); Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (1878);
Skizzen und Vorarbeiten (2 vols., 1884–85). Well-
hausen has been the most prominent advocate and
exponent of the reconstruction of the history of
Israel by higher criticism of the Old Testament. He
wrote the article on “Israel” and other articles in the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
WELLS. See ARTESLAN
SUPPLY. ,
WELLS, DAVID AMEs, economist, was born at
Springfield, Mass., June 27, 1827. He graduated at
Williams College in 1846, and at the Lawrence Scien-
tific School, Cambridge, in 1851, where he was imme-
diately made assistant professor. In 1853 he was en-
gaged with Dr. A. A. Hayes, in Boston, in practical
chemistry, and in 1856 he obtained patents for improve-
ments in bleaching. He was afterwards connected
with a publishing firm in New York, and edited the
Springfield Republican for a year. In 1862 he was
sent to Europe on a special commission, and from 1866
to 1870 he was a commissioner of the revenue, and
roduced several very valuable reports. He had now
i. one of the most pronounced advocates of free
trade, and as such received high honor in Europe,
being made D. C. L. by the University of Oxford in
1874 and foreign associate of the French Academy of
Political Sciences. He has also been prominent in the
movement for civil service reform. He assisted in
preparing a History of Williams College (1847); and
edited the Annual of Scientific Discovery from 1850
to 1865. He also published Familiar Science (1856);
Science of Common Things (1856), and other popular
manuals on natural philosophy, chemistry, and
geology; Practical Economies (1885); A Study of
Mecico ''}i and treaties on tariffs and money.
WELLS, HoRACE (1815–1848), one of the discov-
erers of anaesthesia, was born at Hartford, Windsor
co., Vt., Jan. 21, 1815. He studied dentistry at Bos-
ton and began to practise it at Hartford, Conn., 1836.
Moved by the suffering attending some dental opera-
tions, he expressed in 1840 the idea that they might
be rendered painless by inhaling nitrous oxide gas.
In December, 1844, he attended a lecture on “laughing
gas, and noticed that a person to whom the gas was
administered, meeting with an accident while under its
influence, was unconscious of his hurts. Next day he
put this discovery to personal proof by having a molar
drawn while under the influence of that gas. From
that time he used it in his practice and other Hartford
dentists followed his example. Early in 1845 he went
to Boston, explained his discovery to Dr. J. C. War-
ren's class and attempted to demonstrate, but unluckily
removed the gas too soon and the experiment failed
and he, discomfited, was ill for weeks. W. T. G. Mor-
ton, formerly his pupil and partner, got the idea from
him but was persuaded by Dr. C. T. Jackson to use sul-
phuric ether instead of nitrous oxide, and applied it in
Qetober, 1846, in surgical as well as dental operations.
He and Jackson then published and patented their
discovery of “letheon" as an anaesthetic and presently
quarrelled, each claiming the sole honor from the
French Institute. Wells sailed for France in Decem-
ber and his claims were recognized by resolutions of
the Medical Society of Paris after three days' discus-
sign. On his return in March, 1847, he put forth a
History of the Discovery, but the embittered contro-
yersy and experiments with chloroform were too much
for his bodily and mental health. He went to New
York, but became insane and committed suicide Jan.
24, 1848. Hartford erected a statue of Wells in its
park, and saluted him as the discoverer of anaesthesia,
but this honor must be divided. Priestley discovered
nitrous oxide gas in 1790, and Sir H. Davy in his
Researches (1800) proclaimed a belief that it could be
WELLs and WATER
766
WESTCOTT–WHIG PARTY.
used in surgery. The properties of sulphuric ether
were known for the same period and played with by
college boys. Dr. Crawford W. Long, of Georgia,
used it in his practice in 1842, but never published
this application till after it was made and announced
by ºthers. Dr. Marcy, of Hartford, a friend of Wells,
in January, 1845, performed a successful operation by
its aid; but Dr. Morton appears to have been the first
to realize its importance for this use, and to seek and
gain the credit of its introduction. Flourens, of
Paris, showed the anaesthetic effect of chloroform on
animals in January, 1847, and in November following,
Sir James Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, introduced it in
surgical operations. Of all these contributors to the
greatest alleviation yet found for physical suffering,
pºrnaps the most memorable was the unhappy dentist
of Hartford.
WESTCOTT, BRookE Foss, English clergyman,
was born near Birmingham, Jan. 12, 1825. € WàS
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in
1848, and being chosen fellow of his college. He was
ordained priest in 1851 and became assistant master at
Harrow School, holding the position seventeen years.
He became canon residentiary of Peterborough in 1869,
and regius professor of divinity at Cambridge in 1870.
He was also rector of Somersham from 1870 till 1882,
and held various positions of honor. In 1884 he was
made canon of Westminster. He has given special
attention to the history of the English Bible, and
from 1870 to 1881 he was a member of the New Tes-
tament Revision Company. Among his publications
are History of the Canon of the New Testament
(1855); Introduction to the Study of the Gospels
(1860); The Bible in the Church (iS64); The Gospel
of the Resurrection (1866); History of the English
Auble (1868); Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882);
Revelation of the Father (1884). He has ublished
commentaries on the Gospel and Epistles of St. John,
and has contributed to Smith's Bible Dictionary and
IDictionary of Christian Biography. In company with
Dr. Hart he edited the New Testament in the Original
Greek (2 vols., 1881). Their labors were in great meas-
ure the basis of the revision of the English version.
WEST POINT. See MILITARY ACADEMIES.
WHEAT. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. W. 1.
WHEDON, DANIEL DENISON (1808–1885), theolo-
gian, was born at Onondaga, N. Y., March 20, 1808.
He graduated at Hamilton College in 1828, studied
law at Rochester, and was engaged in teaching. In
1833 he was made professor of ancient languages in
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. In 1843 he
engaged in pastoral work, but in 1845 he was made
rofessor of rhetoric and history in the University of
§. After ten years of service he returned to
the pastorate at Jamacia, L. I., but in 1856 he was
elected by the M. E. General Conference to be editor
of the Methodist Quarterly Review. This position he
retained by successive re-elections until 1884, when
failing strength compelled him to abstain from work.
He died at Atlantic Highlands, N. J., June 8, 1885.
Besides his editorial work he published many ad-
dresses and sermons and contributed to various peri-
odicals. His chief works were The Freedom of the
Will, as the Basis % Human Responsibility (1864);
Commentary on the New Testament (5 vols., 1860–75)
and Commentary on the Old Testament (7 vols.,
1880–86), the latter being left incomplete. Dr.
Whedon was the ablest exponent of Arminian theology
in the United States. e
WHEELER, WILLIAM . ALMON (1819–1887), nine-
teenth Vice-President of the United States, was born
at Malone, N. Y., June 30, 1819. Early left, an
orphan, he taught school, spent two years at the Uni-
versity of Vermont, studied and practised law. He
became superintendent of schools, district-attorney of
Franklin co., and Whig member of the Legislature in
1850. For fourteen years he was cashier of the Ma-
lone Bank, and for eleven president of the Ogdensburg
and Rouse's Point Railroad. In 1858–59 he was in the
State Senate, and in Congress 1861–63 and 1869–77.
His most conspicuous service was in adjusting political
complications in Louisiana by the “Wheeler compro-
mise" in 1874. In 1867 he was president of the
State constitutional convention, in 1873 a commissioner
of the State parks, and in 1876 of the State survey.
In the latter year he was a candidate for the fº.
ligan nomination for President, but accepted the second
place on the ticket with R. B. Hayes, and occupied
the Vice-President's chair till 1881. Then he retired
to Malone, and died there June 4, 1887.
WHEELOCK, ELEAZAR. See DARTMOUTH Col-
LEGE.
WHIG PARTY.. This American political organi-
Žation was the leading rival of the Democratic party
(q. v.) during the second quarter of this century. In
a measure it was the successor of the old Federalist
}; which had been first defeated at the election of
efferson to the Presidency, and finally destroyed by
the victorious close of the war of 1812, which it had
opposed. After the war, economic questions came to .
the front. The war had united the people of the sea-
board and of the interior more closely in spirit; but
the great natural barriers still obstructed their inter-
course. The former Republican party, as directed by
Jefferson, wished to refer all questions of internal in-
terest to local legislation, as more directly representing
the people affected by them. But the vast extent of
roads and canals required to overcome the natural ob-
stacles required larger plans and more liberal aid than
the States severally could furnish. Popular leaders
who saw the necessity called upon the national govern-
ment to exert its power for the general welfare. Jef.
ferson himself had waived his theory of government
in his purchase of Louisiana; and his successor, Madi-
son, had done the same in chartering the U. S. Bank.
National aid to internal improvements had also received
favor during the administration of these Presidents.
Monroe's administration also wavered in regard to
the theory of the strictly limited power of the Fed:
eral Government, and in that of John Quincy Adams
the liberal view prevailed. This was seen not only
in the promotion of internal improvements, but
especially in the passage of the protective tariff of
1828. Henry Clay was the leading exponent of this
view, but was still classed as a Republican, until the
partisans of his jealous rival, Andrew Jackson, suc-
ceeded in thrusting him from its councils on account
of his aiding the accession of Adams and then enter-
ing the cabinet as secretary of state. In succeeding
contests, Jackson, who had roused the mass of the
eople to a sense of their political power, carried with
i. the great bulk of the Republican party, which
now assumed the appropriate title, Democratic.
Clay's adherents, when forming a separate organiza-
tion, called themselves at first “National Repub-
licans,” but soon adopted the briefer title, “Whigs."
This name had been used first in Great Britain at the
close of the seventeenth century to denote those who
favored the authority of Parliament and advocated
constitutional limitations of the royal power. Before
the American Revolution it had been transferred
to this country to indicate in like manner those ..i.
porting the rights of the colonies against the encroach-
ments of King and Parliament; and it was, therefore,
still highly popular. The Whigs not only favored the
tariff of 1828 but also the U. S. Bank and certain in-
ternal improvements, which they declared were neces-
sary. *
The Whigs held their first national convention in
Baltimore in 1831, and nominated Henry Clay for
President. But Jackson won the day, with 219 elec-
toral votes against 49 for Clay. In 1832 Clay, in view
of the troubles with South , Carolina, propºsed a
compromise granting a reduction of the tariff; but
making the change gradual, that the manufacturers
might adapt themselves to it. To that end it was pro-
WHIG PARTY.
767
posed to aim at reducing all duties above 20 per cent.
ad valorem, to that figure as a uniform rate, but to
provide that only one-tenth of the excess should be de-
ducted annually—thus making the last reduction take
effect in 1842. Although this measure passed both
Houses, yet it was not favored, either by Jackson or
Webster.
The steadily increasing pressure of the slavery
question tended to divide and demoralize the Whig
party. When the House of Representatives in
1838 passed the Twenty-first rule, which declared that
every petition, etc., relating to slavery or the abolition
thereof should be laid upon the table without being
debated, printed, or referred, the Northern Whigs
voted against this rule, which became known as the
“Atherton Gag ; ” but the Southern Whigs joined
with Northern and Southern Democrats to sustain it.
The Whigs were apparently in favor of allowing the
Abolitionists the right of petition, yet they were ready
to fight them if they used it. They were jealous of
the increasing power of the Abolitionists, nearly every
vote of whose strength they saw would be taken from
their own party. The Whigs were again defeated at
the Presidential election of 1836 when William H.
Harrison was their candidate. Van Buren had 170
electoral votes, and 114 were distributed among four
Whig candidates—Harrison having 73. While the
victory of Van Buren was pronounced, he was consid-
ered the political legatee of Jackson, and, therefore,
all the bitter conflicts of the preceding administration
were continued in that of Van Buren. The com-
mercial crisis of 1837, which was undoubtedly due to
Jackson's policy, gave an opportunity to the Whigs
which was improved to the utmost. The nomination
for the Presidency in 1840 should have been given by
the Whigs to either Daniel Webster or Henry Clay,
had it been decided by the real value of their services,
but the working politicians considered that Gen. Wil.
liam H. Harrison was more “available,” and he was
nominated. The ensuing campaign was probably the
most stirring and personal that has ever been waged in
the United States. Harrison received 234 electoral
votes ; and Van Buren, who had been renominated
unanimously in his party's convention, had but 60.
Tyler, succeeding to the Presidency after Harrison's
death, soon proved himself not to be in sympathy with
the Whigs, and those of them who had been chosen by
Harrison to form his cabinet resigned shortly after-
ward. Daniel Webster, however, remained secretary
of state for some months, in order to complete the
negotiations with Great Britain about the boundary
line between Maine and Canada.
Meantime the Whigs, under the leadership of Clay
in the Senate, ºil, before a really open rupture
with the President came, in repealing the Sub-treasury
Act; in enacting a national bankrupt law; distributing
prospectively among the States the proceeds of the
public lands; and also in enacting the tariff of
1842. The movement to annex the republic of Texas
was, favored throughout the South, but was opposed
by the Whigs in the Northern States. Clay favored
the annexation of Texas as soon as that republic
ceased its war with Mexico; but the more aggressive
policy of the Democrats for such annexation and for
the occupation of the Territory of Oregon to the limit
of 54° 40' N. gave thenſ a stronger hold upon the
}. vote. Clay, in accepting the nomination for
President in 1844, expected Van Buren to be his
rival, and that the issues would be simply those of
internal º the national bank, and a pro-
tective tariff. . Had the campaign been fought upon
these issues it is likely that he would have been
elected. As it was, he received only 105 votes as
against 170 for Polk, another “available" candidate.
To gain support in the South, Clay had written a let.
ter on the annexation of Texas, declaring that he
would be glad to see it annexed “ without dissension,
without war, with the common consent of the nation,
and upon just and fair terms.” The effect of this
letter was greater in the North than in the South : it
carried many Northern Whigs over to the Free Soil
party. . This defection, more than any other cause,
gave the State of New York to Polk, by only 5106
votes. The Democrats, being thus thoroughly in-
trenched in power, repealed the tariff of 1842 and
enacted in 1846 a tariff for revenue only. The election
of Polk was also interpreted to mean the national ap-
proval of the annexation of Texas, and that step in-
volved a war with Mexico. The Northern Whigs
then began to recruit the ranks of the Free Soil party.
The Whigs of the South, along with Clay, regarded
slavery as a legitimate institution not to be hastily in-
terfered with. Both of the parties in the North were
also divided upon the question ; each had its faction
in favor of slavery and another against it. Thus the
Mexican war opened with the two political parties
divided almost upon Mason and Dixon's line, for the
annexation of Texas was an extension of the domain
of slavery, and the Mexican war opened up a long
vista of such extensions. Then followed a curious
phase of political history. Although the war com-
menced by a Democratic administration was successful
from the outset, yet the House of Representatives
elected in 1846 had a large Whig majority. The de-
feat of the Democrats was owing to the tariff of 1846,
the failure of the administration to sustain the ad-
vanced boundary of Oregon, and, more than all, be-
cause the war had been undertaken for the sake of
extending the area of the slave States. The Whigs,
having control of the popular branch of Congress,
attempted to pass the famous Wilmot proviso that
slavery should not exist in any territory acquired from
Mexico. The administration was strong enough to
defeat the proviso; but it was not strong enough to
bear down the returning tide of Whig power. The
glory which was acquired by Gen. Taylor led to his
nomination for President by the Whigs in 1848.
Once more Clay and Webster were rejected as the
standard-bearers of their party. The managers of the
Whigs, planned and executed a campaign which
avoided the issue upon the slavery question. Their
tion-committal course alienated some of their party in
New England who refused to support Taylor and be.
game known as “conscience Whigs.” William H.
Seward prevented a similar defection among the Whigs
of the State of New York, and Pres. Polk had alien-
ated many Democrats in that State by failing to recog-
nize Van Buren and Silas Wright, whom he distrusted
as rivals. The vote of New York went to Taylor and
elected him President. His electoral votes were 163,
as against 127 for Cass, the Democratic candidate, and
none for Van Buren, now the Free Soil candidate.
The latter days of that campaign will be ever memo.
rable in, the annals of American political history for
the combined efforts of William H. Seward, Thurlow
Weed, and Horace Greeley to carry the State of New
York. Pres. Taylor formed his cabinet in accordance
With the non-committal lines upon which the cam-
paign had been fought. The members were drawn in
about equal numbers from the North and the South,
but the more influential of them were from the North.
The re-entry of Calhoun into the Senate and the pro-
digious efforts of Clay and Webster in that body
showed that slavery was still the burning question.
It was now 43 years since Clay had first appeared in
the Senate, and he was still in full vigor. His resolu.
tions, which were afterward put in the shape of a
general measure known as the “Omnibus bill.” were
to the effect that Congress should not restrict slavery
in the Territories; that California should be admitted
Without restrictions; that Congress had no power to
obstruct the slave-trade between the slave States ; and
that a mºre effective fugitive slave law should be em.
acted. The Omnibus bill, though granting largely
the demands of the South, was opposed by Pres. Taş.
lor. Had he lived to finish his term it is probable
768
WHIPPLE-WHIPPOORWILL.
that the Compromise measures would have been de-
feated because, as a Southern man, he was enabled to
take ground which a President from the North could
never have suggested or held. Millard Fillmore, of
New York, succeeded to the Presidency, and it was
well known that he did not sympathize with Taylor's
attitude. He openly used his influence in favor of the
Clay Compromise. The Southern Whigs, under the
lead of Clay, favored the compromise, but there was
earnest opposition from Northern Whigs, who followed
William H. Seward. The President approved sepa-
rately all the bills which had formed the compromise.
These were the Fugitive Slave law, the admission of
California, the organization of New Mexico and Utah
without restrictions as to slavery, and the prohibition
of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia. The
wedge which had been inserted into the Whig party
upon the question of slavery was gradually driven
home. In 1852 the Whig Convention met in Balti-
more. The Southern members of the party were in
favor of Fillmore. Webster was a candidate ; but in
spite of his famous speech of March 7, 1850, in advo-
cacy of the compromise, he obtained little support
among the Southerners. Gen. Winfield Scott was
supported by the anti-slavery Whigs, for although he
was a Virginian, he had an established military repu-
tation. The votes were strictly upon geographical
lines, Fillmore having almost every Southern vote and
Scott every Northern vote, except 16 for Fillmore and
29 for Webster. Clay, from his death-bed in Wash-
ington, asked his friends to support Fillmore. After
a long contest some of the Fillmore delegates went
over to Scott and nominated him. The platform,
however, was designed to conciliate Southern voters;
it accepted the Fugitive Slave law and other kindred
enactments as a finality on the questions of the day.
In the earlier part of the campaign the Whigs had
apparently a very fair show of success; there was
much enthusiasm over Scott on account of his war
record. But the rival factions of the Democrats in
the State of New York came together. Van Buren
returned to them and their prospects brightened. The
Whigs found that although their platform was accept-
able to the Southerners, yet their candidate was not
acceptable because of his support by such anti-slavery
men at the North as Seward and Greeley. Thus, the
Whig party lost day by day, and finally Pierce received
254 electoral votes and Scott but 42. This was the
last contest in which the Whigs took an active part.
All subsequent efforts for the revival of the party Were
without avail because of the ever-increasing impor-
tance of the discussion upon slavery bore down every-
thing before it. The newly-formed Republican, party,
organized in opposition to the extension of slavery,
soon absorbed the anti-slavery Whigs, while the pro-
slavery Whigs, after some dallying with the Native
American party (q.v.) and a futile attempt to organize
a Constitutional Union party, found a more congenial
home among the Democrats.
Hildreth's History of the United States presents a
fair view of the Whig party. See also the Speeches
of Clay and Webster, and Carl Schurz's Henry Clay
(1887). See in this work REPUBLICAN º )
F. G. M.
WHIPPLE, EDw1N PERCY (1819–1886), essayist |h
and critic, was born at Gloucester, Mass., March 8,
1819. Soon taken by his widowed mother to Salem,
he attended the public schools. His education, except
as it was conducted by himself, ended at 15, when he
became a bank clerk; but he had written for the press
a year before this. In 1837 he was transferred tº a
bank in Boston, and thence to the Merchants Ex-
change, as secretary and superintendent of the read-
ing-room. This position, while securing him from
want, gave him leisure to follow his bent, which was
strongly literary, though his training had been much
more financial and practical than scholastic. In 1840
he read a poem with eminent success before the Mer-
cantile Association, but all his later work was done in
prose. His essay on Macaulay, printed in 1843, won
acknowledgment from that author, who became one
of Whipple's chief models in style. He soon became
a contributor to the North American Review and other
periodicals, wherein his writings attracted much atten-
tion, and were supposed to mark a point midway be-
tween the old manner and the new, as typified at the
two extremes by Channing and Emerson. Another
audience was brought within his reach by the lecture-
platform, on which he is said to have appeared a
thousand times, though rarely or never going farther
than the Middle States. He was never an agitator—
a pleader; but many welcomed his frank, dispassion-
ate, and kindly discussion of men and things, and
chiefly of ideas and books. His abundant material,
always carefully prepared with reference to the re-
quirements of the lyceum or ſmagazine, was but
sparingly gathered into volumes. Essays and Re-
views appeared in 2 vols., 1848, and Lectures on Sub-
jects Commected with Literature and Life the next
year. A judicious distrust of the patience of audi-
ences appeared in his terse, pithy sentences, neither
overloaded with ornament nor burdened with unduly
profound thought, but full of sensible observations,
fitted to make the every-day reader somewhat wiser.
These early books of his were fully up to the require–
ments of their time, and met unfriendly handling
only from Poe, who found the author too genial. Of
Poe's acerbity Whipple was incapable ; his happy,
even, amiable, and manly spirit made no enemies, and
had nothing in common with the supposed malignity
of critics. He and R. G. White, long the only Ame-
ricans of established repute in this profession, always.
wrote of each other in kindly terms; their spheres
were so different that they never clashed. In 1850.
Whipple was the Boston orator; his subject, suited to
July 4th, was Washington and the Principles of the
American Revolution. In 1860 he resigned his post
at the Merchants' Exchange, and gave himself up to
a purely literary life, for lecturing with him was
merely a convenient method of expression. He was
no eager bookmaker, for 17 years elapsed before the
appearance of Character and Characteristic Men
(1866). His lectures at the Lowell Institute, pub-
lished in 1869 as Literature of the Age of Elizabeth,
won high praise. Success and its Conditions followed
in 1871; his Essays were collected in six volumes the
same year. After his death at Boston, June 6, 1886,
two later books were published, with introductions by
Whittier and Dr. Bartol, American Literature and
Other Papers and Recollections of Eminent. Men, both
in 1887. Whipple was not a man of originality and
genius, but he had the respect and fellowship of those
who were. He was a figure in the literary life of
Boston at its best, and filled a place of his own—the
self-taught man who prefers truth by the way of liter-
ature to worldly affairs, and reads and thinks that he
may write, caring chiefly to sift intellectual and moral
values, and get facts and ideas into their true light and
relations. The choice was worthy, and nothing in his
career belied it. His fame and works are unlikely to
live forever, but he was for years a civilizing influence,
and to some the best teacher of the matters he took in
and. (F. M. B.)
WHIPPOORWILL, the common name of the
Antrostomus vociferus, one of the most common and
interesting of the North American birds, of the goat-
sucker or nightjar family. To an untrained observer
this bird bears a great resemblance to the common
night-hawk (Chordediles or Chordles, popétue), but its
voice and its more strictly nocturnal habits separate
the species very clearly ; and, on close observation,
quite a number of small but important physical
marks of distinction are perceptible. Its generic
name, Amtrostomus, or cave-mouth, is an apprºpriate
one; but the latest systematists, limit its application
by reserving it for the chuck-will's-widow (A. caroli-
WHISTLER—WHITE.
769.
mensis), and by putting its near relative, the whippoor-
will, back into the old European genus Caprimulgus,
or with the goat-suckers proper. The name “Poor-
will '' is given to several Western North American
species of Nyctidromus and Phalaenoptilus. The whip-
poorwill takes its name from its loud and plaintive
nocturnal cry. Country people consider it a bird of ill
omen, portending death, and especially the death of
young children. Its noiseless flight, strictly nocturnal
habits, and its loud cry are doubtless the causes of the
dread with which the ignorant rustics regard it. The
mother-bird lays her eggs generally on a stump or on
the bare ground, and makes little or no nest. The
bird is not often seen near by. Occasionally the bird
may be seen carrying one of its own eggs or one of its
unfledged young in its huge mouth. The novelist
Cooper calls this bird by the name “Wish-ton-wish,”
which is not an unapt imitation of its call ; but that
name properly belongs to the prairie-dog, being its
name in the language of the Osage Indians.
(C. W. G.)
WHISTLER, JAMES ABBOTT McNEILL, artist, was
born at Lowell, Mass., in 1834, and educated at West
Point. For two years he was a pupil of Charles
Gabriel Gleyre in Paris, and in 1863 settled in Lon-
don. His peculiar and original theories on art have
been the subject of much criticism, but he is an artist
of strong originality and undoubtedly great talent. In
Some of his paintings he has succeeded in producing
extraordinary and striking effects with but few and
quite subdued colors. Among his more important
works are White Girl, Gold Girl, Blue Girl, portraits
of his mother and Thomas Carlyle, Princesse des Pays
de la Porcelaine, and At the Piano. To many of his
later paintings he has given names defining more
closely his color-experiments, such as Nocturnes in
Blue and Silver, Blue and Gold, Blue and Green, etc.;
Harmonies in Brown and Black, in Gray and Green;
Arrangements in Black, in Gray and Green, in Gray
and Black, etc. He holds high rank as an etcher, and
has executed series of plates on several European
cities. (F. L. W.)
WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON, educator, was born
in Cortlandt co., N. Y., Nov. 7, 1832, and in childhood
was taken to Syracuse, N. Y. He graduated at Yale
College in 1853, having been while an undergraduate an
editor of Yale Literary Magazine. He then went to
Europe and for a time was an attaché of the U. S.
Legation at St. Petersburg. He also studied at the
University of Berlin and a year after his return to
America in 1856 became professor of history and Eng-
lish literature in the University of Michigan. He re-
signed in 1862 and in 1863 he was elected to the
State. Senate of New York where he at once took a
prominent part in legislation relating to education. He
introduced bills codifying the school laws and makin
a new system of normal schools, and especially j
Ezra Cornell in organizing the Cornell University (q.
v.). . He was then induced to accept the presidency of
this institution in 1867, and visited Europe to obtain
for it the necessary apparatus. In 1871 he was one of
the commissioners sent by Pres. Grant to Santo Do-
mingo and assisted in preparing the report. In the
same year he presided over the Republican State Con-
vention of New York. In 1879 he was sent as U. S.
minister to Germany, and on his return in 1881
resumed his duties as president of Cornell University.
President White has published Lectures on Mediæval
and Modern History (1861), several pamphlets and lec-
tures relating to Cornell University, including one on
the Co-Education of the Seces (1871); Warfare of
Science (1876); The New Germany (1882). e.
WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-85), critic, philolo-
gist, and Shakspearean scholar, was descended from one
of the first i. of Cambridge, Mass., and was born
in New York city, May 23, 1822. After graduating at
the University of New York, 1839, he studied medi-
cine and law, and was admitted to the bar in 1845, but
did very little practice. Either professionally or per-
sonally he was interested in the case of Bishop B. T.
Onderdonk, and published an Appeal from the Sen-
tence (1845); after the ºff trial. His news-
paper career began the same year as editor of the
short-lived Alleghanian and contributor to the Courier
and Enquirer, of which he was associate editor 1851–
58. He had been connected with Yankee Doodle in
1846, and later wrote for the World. His great ver-
satility was early and eminently shown in his writings
on music and art—topics which he never entirely
abandoned, and on which he was an authority. In
1853 appeared his first volumes, one of them a Hand-
book of Christian Art, and his first magazine article
on Beethoven. The civil war turned his literary ac-
tivity into a new channel; National Hymns (1861),
was followed anonymously by The New Gospel of
Peace, in four parts, a pungent and effective satire on.
Northern sympathizers with the South. A series of
letters to the London Spectator, from 1863 to 1867,
showed no less strong loyal feeling. He edited Bur-
ton's Book Hunter (1863), the Record of the New York.
Echibition, and Poetry of the Civil War (1866). He
was for thirty years a constant contributor to Putnam's:
Magazine, The Galaacy, and The Atlantic. In the
first of these he began to write upon his favorite sub-
ject, Shakespeare, or rather the plays, for of their
author he professed the lowest opinion ever put forth.
Shakspere's Scholar appeared 1853. A variorum edi-
tion of the plays in 12 vols. (1857–65) included a me-
moir and essay separately published in 1865. In the
same category belong his Authorship of the Three Parts:
of Henry VI. (1859), and in his last days Studies of
Shakspere (1886), previously printed in the Atlantic
under the more vigorous title of The Anatomizing of
William Shakspere. These essays are models of vigor
and suggestiveness, though their extreme position re-
pels the sympathy of most readers. White pushes.
the “no nonsense theory '' to all lengths, and berates
unmercifully the German and other philosophizers.
who insist on judging the man by his writings, and
finding a human being with a great soul behind so
much immortal poetry. His own view, however it
may seem to fit with some of the facts, ignores others,
and is less probable as well as less creditable to human
nature. According to White, the man and his genius
Were apart, and out of harmony : the man used his
genius blindly and basely, caring nothing for what he
Wrote, reckless of fame and literary values, aiming
only to fill his theatre and grow rich. Barely stated.
this theory defeats itself and leaves the Sonnets un-
accounted for; but White urged it with great bold-
ness, tenacity, force, and plausibility, and his essays
as well as his editorial labors on the text have an in-
portant, place in Shakspearean literature. The same
dogmatic and pugnacious positiveness, with the same
industry, ability, and wide reading, appear in his
philological books, Words and their Uses (1870; 3d
ed., revised, 1880) and Ecery Day English (isºg). In
a field where every point is hotly and rancorously con-
tested, White is thoroughly at home; had he lived a
few centuries earlier he would have been equally zeal-
ous as a theologian. In his later years he was much
abroad. His England Without and Within (ISS).
like mºst of his books, was a reprint of magazine arti.
cles; E. P. Whipple considered it the best account of
the mother country since those of Emerson and Haw.
thorne. He attempted the international novel with
less success in Adventures of Sir Lyon Bruce in Ame.
rica (1867) and, The Fate of Mansfield Humphrey.
(1884), Mr. White is entitled to a high place i.
American literature; but his great ability and exten
sive product have not met adequate popular apprecia-
tion, though, his record as a magazinist has scarcely
been exceiled. He had the virtues and some of the
Vices of a special pleader: he has been accused of
hard egotism, narrowness, unfairness to opponents;
but he was patient in investigation, honest in his
770
WHITE–WHITEFISH.
opinions, and fearless in stating them. His habits
were studious and retiring rather than social. With
all the enormous literary work that he accomplished,
he held the chief clerkship in the revenue bureau of
the New York Custom House from 1861 to Isis. He
died in New York, April 8, 1885. (F. M. B.)
WHITE, WILLIAM (1748–1836), first bishop of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in Pennsylvania, was
born in Philadelphia, April 4, 1748 (March 24, O.S.).
His father, Col. Thomas White, had emigrated from
London 1720, settling in Maryland, whence he removed
a year before the birth of his distinguished son. The
boy's grave, devout, and blameless character seemed
from earliest years to predict his future, and a friend
declared that he was “born to be a bishop.” From the
age of seven he attended the College of Philadelphia,
beginning with its English school, and graduated iT65.
After a long course of theological study under the
local clergy, Drs. Richard Peters and Jacob Duché, he
went to England for orders in the fall of 1770 and
passed his examination with great credit. He was
ordained deacon in December, 1770, and priest in June,
1772. Soon after his return in September, 1772, he
became assistant minister of Christ Church and St.
Peter's (then and long after united), and married in
February, 1773. His calm and gentle wisdom was
exhibited on the outbreak of hostilities; he would not
preach politics or make the church a recruiting station,
but promptly took the oath of allegiance to the United
States, retired to Maryland when the British ap-
proached the city, and on his appointment as one of
the two chaplains of Congress at once proceeded to
York and entered on the duties of this office, which he
retained as long as Congress met in Philadelphia. On
returning thither after the evacuation he was the only
Episcopal clergyman in the State; but for his presence
and example the prospects of his church would have
been much darker even than they were. He became
rector of the united parishes in April, 1779, stipulat-
ing for his resignation in case of the return of his
predecessor, Dr. Duché (Q. v.).
After the war had secured the independence of the
United States, Dr. White did far more than any other to
uplift the church from the confusion, depression, and
unpopularity into which she had fallen. Without wait-
ing for peace to be formally declared, he published in
August, 1782, a weighty and memorable pamphlet, The
Case of the Episcopal Churches Considered. Its pro-
posals, that in the councils and government of the church
all parishes should be equal and laymen admitted to a
share with the clergy, were soon adopted; another sug-
gestion, born of the crying needs of the times, that a su-
perior order of clergy be temporarily provided to take as
far as they could the duties of the episcopate till the
succession could be procured, was presently invalidated
by the conclusion of peace with England, which in-
volved the possibility if not the near prospect of
obtaining consecration there. Though few Episcopal
ministers remained in America, White did not despair
but opened a correspondence with them and with lay-
men of influence looking to measures of organization.
He presided at meetings held in 1784 in his own city
and at New Brunswick, N. J., and at the first General
Convention in Philadelphia, September, 1785. Here he
drafted an address to the English Bishops, which was
sent through the U.S minister, John Adams. At length
Parliament authorized these prelates to consecrate
Americans : conventions of the diocese of Pennsylva-
nia had met in May, 1785, and June, 1786, and White
was elected bishop Sept. 14, 1786. On Nov. 2 he sailed
with Dr. S. Provoost, who had been likewise chosen in
New York. They were consecrated in Lambeth
Chapel, Feb. 4, 1787, and landed in New York two
months later. Dr. Seabury had been consecrated in
Scotland, 1784, as Bishop of Connecticut; he joined
his brethren in the convention of 1789 at which the P.
E. Church in America was duly organized, Bishop
White drawing up its constitution, and with Bishop
Seabury taking the chief part in the revision of the
Prayer-Book.
As in forming, so in guiding, Bishop White was
the father of his church : his kindly serenity, his wise
tolerance, his dislike of extremes, the lofty purity of
his character, his lack of narrow and *::::
Views, adapted him to the part alike of leader and
peacemaker; his was the directing mind which shaped
the church's early course; he was to it “what Wash.
ington Was to the country,” and his writings were its
Federalist. His Lectures on the Catechism appeared
in 1813, his Comparative View of the Controversy between
Calvinists and Arminians in 1817, his Memoirs of the P
4. Church, in the United States, 1820 (enlarged 1836).
The latter has been criticised only as minimizing, if not
concealing, his own great services. For forty years he
was senior and presiding bishop, active in and beyond
his own diocese which under him grew to 86 ministers
and 91 congregations. He consecrated 26 bishops.
A society which he founded in 1816 was the beginning
of Episcopal home missions in the West. A third par.
ish, St. James, was organized in Philadelphia in 1809,
and he was rector of the three till his death. With
hardly any stipend as bishop, he travelled over the
State till 1827, when an assistant was provided. Mi-
nutely faithful to every duty, he never left his post, but
ministered alike to the sufferers from yellow fever in
1793 and from cholera in 1832. From 1787 he occupied
one house in Walnut street above Third. His views
were moderately “Low Church,” but he was the corre-
spondent of Priestley, the friend of all good men and
useful measures. He died July 17, 1836, universally
honored and beloved. His Memoir, by Dr. Bird
Wilson, appeared in 1836; his fittest epitaph is Words-
worth's line, Saintly White, patriarch of a wide-
spreading family.” (F. M. B.)
WHITEFISH, the common name of all the species
of the genus Coregonus, family Salmonidae, which are
abundant in the Great Lakes and in all the British
American Lakes perhaps as far north as the Arctic
Ocean. In this section of the Salmon family the body
is covered with scales of moderate size, the cleft of the
mouth is small, the teeth, if present, are extremely
minute and deciduous, the dorsal fin is of moderate
length, the caudal deeply forked. The body is elon-
gated but thick, the head small and pointed, the gen-
eral appearance being like that of the shad. There are
in all about two American species, all lacustrine in
habitat, each species being localized, though in some
cases three or more are found in the same lake. They
vary in size from the large lake whitefish, averaging
3 to 5 pounds in weight, to the little “lake herring ''
of the Saranac Lakes. The whitefish are the most
important food-fishes of the Great Lake region, and
are of vital importance to some northern tribes of
Indians. In quality of flesh they have no superior
among our food-fishes, the flesh being white, tender,
juicy, and of delicate flavor, and never producing a
feeling of Satiety like the Salmon.
The most important species is C. clupeiformis, the
large lake whitefish, which is found in all the Great
Lakes, attaining its largest size in Lake Superior, where
it averages over 5 pounds in weight, though a speci-
men has been taken of 23 pounds. In the other lakes
it is smaller, the usual size brought to market being
about 2 pounds. . It is in color bluish-gray on the back,
lighter on the sides, and white below. This species
is supposed to feed on the small crustacea and other
small animal forms of the lake waters. It comes in
vast shoals, into the shallow waters of the lakes to
spawn and is then caught in large quantities in nets.
Like the shad, it apparently eats nothing during the
spawning season. g
The species next in importance to the above is
C. arted, the “lake horring,” of smaller size but one
of the most abundant of the great lake fishes. It is a
valuable food-fish though considerably inferior in qual-
ity to C. clupeiformis. In the lakes of the Rocky
WHITEHOUSE—WHITING.
771
Mountain region occurs C. Williamsoni, a fish, ºf
about a pound weight which ranks high as a food-fish.
Another species, C. Otsego, known as the “Qtsego
bass,” has as yet been found nowhere but, in Otsego
Lake. It is about half the weight of the lake white-
fish and is said to surpass even this fine fish in excel-
lence. The whitefish were among the first which were
subjected to experiments in artificial reproduction,
The efforts in this direction were very successful, and
there is good promise of keeping up a full supply in
the lakes by this means. e º º
Many other fish are known as whitefish in certain
localities. This title has been given to the bluefish,
the menhaden, the tile fish, and the silver salmon, and
in Europe is applied to the numerous species of the
genus Leuciscus, a genus which includes the roach,
the chub, the dace, the smelt, the minnow, and other
fish of well-known common names. (C. M.)
WHITEHOUSE, FREDERICK CoPE, son of Bishop
H. J. Whitehouse (1803–1874), of the Episcopal Dio-
cese of Illinois, was graduated with honor from Colum-
bia College in 1861. Possessed of abundant means, he
has devoted his life to explorations in many fields of
learning and has especially distinguished himself by
his examination of Egyptian problems, chief of which
is the siting of Lake Moeris. He has by personal
and repeated visits and surveys assured himself of the
identity of the Fayoum, including the deep depression
of Raiyan, with the ancient lake and has suggested to
the Egyptian government the expedient of again
filling this region with the Nile i. the Bahr
Yusef and thus greatly enriching the land. His view
sustains the truth of Herodotus, and, although many
regard it as visionary, it has excited the interest of
Egyptologists and the government of Egypt and has
many supporters.
WHITE I,EAD. In the latter part of the last
century the first white lead manufactory was estab-
lished in the city of Philadelphia, and the success of
this establishment soon induced others to engage in
the business of corroding lead for the production of
the pigment. The growth of this industry was rapid,
and early in the present century corroding works were
established in the cities of Pittsburg and New York,
in the former of which the manufacture of red lead
was one of the principal articles produced. The
quality of the pigment produced by these pioneers in
the business was equal to the imported and the con-
sumption of the home product increased rapidly.
The process employed by these corroders was what is
known as the old “ Dutch process,’’ and it was not
until later years that new processes were employed,
but the product of these have never met with popular
favor, although the price of what was known as ‘’ new
process '' and “patent process '' white lead was lower
than the lead made by the older method. At the
present time there are thirty-six corroding works in
the United States, located in the States of Pennsyl-
vania, New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, Missouri,
Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, California, and Nebraska.
Those located in the city of Brooklyn are the largest.
Many of these have also added the manufacture of red
lead and litharge, while several produce orange
mineral superior to the imported.
The products of the corroding works in this country
are almost exclusively from the native mineral, and
that from the Rocky Mountain district is ordinarily
preferred. It is only during seasons of unusual high
cost of the native mineral and depressed value of
Spanish lead that the crude mineral from the latter
country is imported for corroding purposes. The
annual consumption of white lead in the United States
is about 65,000 tons and is growing rapidly, the
average annual increase being about 10 per cent.
capacity of the several corroding works is largely in
excess of the production, and for this reason the com-
etition between the corroders is keen and tends to
eep the price of their product so low that the busi-
The l
ness is not at all times profitable. . Associatiºns of
manufacturers have at different periods been formed
for the purpose of regulating the price, but they have
been only temporarily successful. A ,” white }ead
trust” has recently been formed which embraces a
majority of the corroding works in the country. The
product of the American works compares favorably
with that of the foreign. In former years adulteration
was almost universal; later the manufacturers produced
several grades with varying proportions of barytes,
but now nearly all the corroders sell the pure pigment
only, leaving the adulteration to others. The relia;
bility of the American brands has become so well
known that white lead of foreign manufacture is
being imported in yearly decreasing quantities. In
1871 the imports of white lead, mostly of English
manufacture, reached a total of over 8,300,000 lbs.,
since which there has been a decline in the imports
until for the past few years they have not averaged
above 1,000,000 lbs.
The average price of white lead in 1850 was 7 cents
per lb. During the late war, in common with all
other manufactures, the price advanced rapidly,
reaching the highest point in July, 1864, when 21
cents was paid in the New York market. In 1865
the highest price was 18 cents and the lowest price
13 cents per lb. Not until 1870 did the price go
below 10 cents, and the average price remained under
10 cents only 3 years. In 1873 the average price was
over 10 cents, as also during the succeeding 3 years.
In 1879 the average price had dropped to 93 cents per
lb., since which year there have been only moderate
fluctuations, with the average price gradually declining
until 6 cents was reached, from which the variations
have not been important, although the lowest price
reached was 53 cents in 1887.
Most of the red lead now manufactured in this
country, owing to the exacting requirements of manu-
facturers of glass, is made from refined lead, the silver,
copper, antimony, bismuth, arsenic, and other foreign
metals being removed, so that the oxide produced is in
a state of purity not equalled by the older processes.
There is also considerable red lead of the very best
quality made from the ‘’ scraps” produced in the pro-
cess of corroding white lead. These scraps are the
hard lumps of the imperfectly corroded white lead, and
are simply oxidized in a reverberatory furnace. As
the lead used in the manufacture of white lead must
be quite pure, the red lead made from these imper-
fectly corroded scraps is also very pure and particularly
well adapted for glass-making. No estimate of the
amount of red lead produced in the United States
can be given, as the manufacturers decline to state
their output. The imports during the year 1875 ex-
ceeded 1,000,000 lbs., but since then there has been a
gradual decline, the amount of late years averaging
about 250,000 lbs. The price varies with the price of
pig lead, while competition has always prevented
excessive fluctuations.
The manufacture of litharge in this country has
almost entirely excluded that of foreign manufacture,
the imports now averaging barely 50,000 lbs. annually,
while in 1868 the amount imported was 250,000 lbs.
This is due to the quality of º, domestic product, it
being in every respect equal to the best imported,
whereas the latter is of higher cost to the consumer.
In the manufacture of glass litharge is not used to the
same extent as formerly, red lead taking its place, but
for other uses the consumption has increased, and the
consumption is of steady growth. The amount pro-
duced is not available, as the manufacturers decline to
give the desired statistics, although stating “capacity''
of heir works. The price varies with the cost of pig
€801. (H. G. A.
WHITE PLAINS. See REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
WHITING, WILLIAM (1813–1873), lawyer, was
born at Concord, Mass., March 3, 1813. His ancestor
came to Boston in 1636, and was the first minister of
772
WHITMAN–WHITNEY.
Lynn. After graduating at Harvard, 1833, he studied
law, was admitted to the bar, 1838, and entered upon
Successful practice at Boston. His reputation as an
authority on the peculiar legal questions arising from
the outbreak of the rebellion and civil war attracted
the attention of the government and caused his ap-
pointment as Solicitor of the war department in 1862.
\{ere he wielded great influence in a Quiet way on the
çQunsels, and activities of Lincoln's administration.
His publications were confined to pamphlets, but one
of these attracted no little attention at home, and was
extensively sold in Europe. The War Powers of the
President, and the Legislative Powers of Com gress, in
Relation to Treason, Rebellion, and Slavery (1862)
opened and fully occupied a new field. This treatisé
passed through twenty-seven editions within a few years.
in Carpenter's painting of Lincoln and his Cabinet the
President directed that this book should have a prom.
inent place. . To its original chapters were added in
the later editions others on Military Arrests, Military
Government, and Reconstruction. Whiting was for
some time president of the New England Historical-
tºº." Society, and in his last year was elected
to Congress. He died in Boston, June 29, 1873.
WHITMAN, WAIT, poet, was born May 31, 1819,
at his parents' farm-house, West Hills, western Suf
folk Co., L. I. 3 of English stock from the father's
side and of Holland Dutch from that of the mother,
Louisa Van Velsor. The family moved to Brooklyn
early, and, in that place and New York city Whit.
man's boyhood and early manhood passed. He went
to the public schools, and in due time learned the
printer's trade and worked at it. He also lived in the
country on Long Island, taught school, labored at
farm toil and house-building, and published a weekly
newspaper. New York and Brooklyn, however, were
his principal head-quarters till he was nearly 30 years
of age, when he started travelling, first to Louisiana,
passing a year there, and then to leisurely visits and
occupation, in nearly all the Southern and Western
States, one after the other. Then, returning to Brook-
lyn, he put in shape and issued (1855) the first portion
of Leaves of Grass, which has been fashioned and
increased until now (1889) it is considered finished
by the author's last pieces, Sands at Seventy, as annex
to the previous ones. -
During 1862 to 1865, inclusive, Whitman was ardu-
ously occupied in the area of the civil war in Mary-
land and Virginia and in and around Washington
City, with the wounded and sick of the armies, both
Northern and Southern, giving fully three years to
those special ministerings. He had always possessed
the best health and strength, but about the close of
the contest he was prostrated by a severe stroke of
paralysis. , Though he surmounted it, a broken phy-
sique resulted, and some six attacks have at times fol-
lowed from it since.
His literary works are comprehended under three
titles, the Leaves of Grass, his main work and form
of poetic expression, passing through five stages or
increments, beginning in 1855 and completed in 1888;
his prose book, Specimen Days and Collect (1883),
forming biographical notes, personal memoranda dur-
ing the civil war, with various essays, including
‘. Democratic Vistas.” He has never recovered from
the physical paralysis of the war period and agitation
of 1860 to 1865; but, his mental powers remaining
unaffected, , he has worked steadily at his literary
plans, and during 1888, in his seventieth year, finished
the booklet of November Boughs, his last work, con-
taining both poems and prose. e
The time has probably not yet come for pronouncing
definitely on Walt Whitman's place in literature.
His main characteristics may safely be said to be
daring originality in thought as well as in form, con:
tempt for conventionalities, marvellous fecundity and
felicity of expression, and boundless admiration for
democracy as developed in the America of to-day, or
Father, it may be, in that ideal America that looms up
before his poetic eye. By not a few he is held tº
stand side by side with Emerson as one of America's
truly, representative geniuses. Others, startled by the
Oºtré appearange of his rhymeless verses, his defiance
of conventionalities, and his frequent mysticism, see
little to, admire, in him. He is highly appreciated in
England, and his pieces have been translated into sev.
eral modern languages.
His tender care for the wounded and sick during
our civil War have endeared him personally to every
true American. Nothing can be more touchingly
eloquent than some of his letters to his mother dé.
§§riptive of the scenes he witnessed in the hospitals.
He resides on Mickle street, Camden, in a plain frame
dwelling which has become a shrine where he receives
the homage of numerous devoted admirers, not a few
from, foreign lands. He is a bachelor, and his real
amiability and charm of character endear him to ali
who know him.
WHITNEY, ELI (1765–1825), the inventor of the
$9tton-gin, was a farmer's son, born at Westborough.
Worcester co., Mass., Dec. 8, 1765. His early advan.
tages were limited, but his mechanical gifts were
shown and utilized in childhood. . At 16 he began
tº manufacture nails, and followed with pins and canes.
Entering Yale College at 24, he worked his way
through the course, and after graduating, in 1793.
accepted a private tutorship in Georgia, but on arriv-
ing found the place given to another. The widow of
Gen. Greene took pity on his necessitous condition.
entertained him at her house near Savannah. and.
finding him useful in making or mending any sort of
implement, referred to him some neighbors who were
troubled by the slow and laborious process of separat-
ing cotton from its seed. Whitney had then no ac-
quaintance with the plant, but found specimens of its
seed and went to work. Full of inward resources,
though Sadly lacking in external facilities, he made his
own tools and wire, and had success in view when the
eager impatience and Selfish greed of unknown per-
Sons delayed the execution of his plans and opened the
way to innumerable vexations and disappointments.
His first machine, kept secret and under lock, was
stolen when yet incomplete, copied, and put in opera-
tion before he was able to produce another and secure
a patent. He would now i. been helpless, but that
Miller, tutor to Mrs. Greene's children and afterward
her husband, entered into partnership with Whitney
in May, 1793, and supplied funds till his death in
1803. Whitney went N orth to construct the gins and
obtained a patent March 14, 1794, which was contested
in Georgia. His history embraces all the proverbial
trials of inventors, which he met with indomita-
ble patience, resolution, and tenacity. One difficulty
after another arose in his path. He could not manu-
facture enough machines to supply the demand of an
increased crop of cotton, planted in reliance on the in-
vention, and the stolen gins, however inferior to his,
were eagerly purchased. Obliged to borrow money at
high rates, the burning of his shop with all its con-
tents made him a bankrupt. The gins were brought
into discredit for a time by an unfounded idea in Eng-
land that they weakened the cotton in cleaning it.
When this prejudice subsided, the market was stocked
with pirated machines, which became yet more abun-
dant when the first suit brought for violation of patent
was decided against the inventor. Worn out with the
injustice of Georgia, he sought relief in other States.
The Legislature of South Carolina in 1801 voted him,
$50,000 for the State right to his gin, but many delays,
annoyances, insults, and expenses ensued before the
sum was paid. In Tennessee he received fair promises,
which were soon disowned. In North Carolina alone
was he fairly treated ; a tax imposed in 1802 for five
years on every saw employed in ginning supplied him
with means to prosecute his suits in Georgia. There
in 1807 he obtained a tardy injunction on infringe-
WHITNEY_WEHITTIER, 773
ments of his patent. Under the urgency of the
Southern members, Congress in 1812 declined to renew
this patent; though its inventor had doubled the
wealth of the cotton States by developing their chief
industry, he was not entitled to a continued reward.
His chief means were drawn, not from the cotton-gin,
but from the manufacture of implements of destruc-
tion. Seeing the need of another resource, he had
begun to make arms in 1798, and obtained a large
contract from Oliver Wolcott, secretary of the treasury.
Obliged to do everything from the first steps on, he
was unable to furnish 10,000 muskets in 2 years, as
he had agreed ; but the time was extended to 10 years
and the funds advanced as he needed them. The treat-
ment he received from government in this case was in
happy contrast to the ingratitude and injustice which
repaid his far more useful and important Services.
By degrees he built up a great arsenal at Whitneyville,
Conn., filled large orders for the United States and
New York, introduced improvements in firearms and
other iron commodities, and realized a fortune. Yet
it was the cotton-gin alone which, in Fulton's opinion,
placed him with Watt and Arkwright among the
greatest recent benefactors of mankind. He married
Oriental and Linguistic Studies appeared 1872, and a
second series 1874. His Life and Growth of Languages
1875) formed part of the ‘’International Scientific
eries,” and was translated into French and German
1876. His Sanskrit Grammar was published at
Leipsic, 1879. He aided in the preparation of the
Sanskrit Lecicon at St. Petersburg (1872–5), and has
written for several German publications, and at home
for Appleton's Cyclopædia, the Bibliotheca Sacra, the
New Englander, etc. He was the first president of
the American Philological Association. e is chief
editor of the Century Dictionary of the English Lan-
|
w
guage (1889). He has a European no less than a
national fame, and is considered by many the foremost
expositor of the science of language. -
§ John GREENLEAF, one of the most
opular and representative of American poets, was
i. at Haverhill, Mass., Dec. 17, 1807, in the farm-
house built by his ancestor, Thomas Whittier (1620–
96), who came from Southampton, England, to Boston
in 1638, and settled at Salisbury on the Merrimac and
10 years later at Haverhill. The family, for a genera-
tion or more before the poet's time, were Quakers,
and to that connection i. has adhered. On his
a descendant of Jonathan Edwards in 1817, and his mother's side he had in Stephen Bachilor, first minister
later years were passed in peace and comfort. He of Hampton, N. H., a common ancestor with Daniel
died at New Haven, June 8, 1825. (F. M. B.)
WHITNEY, Josia H. Dwight, geologist, was born
at Northampton, Mass., Nov. 23, 1819. He gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1839, and spent five years in
Scientific studies in Europe. He has been engaged on
the geological surveys of Ohio, Mississippi, Michigan,
and California, beside the U. S. government surveys of
the Territories. In 1865 he was made professor of
geology in Harvard University. He is a member of
the American Association for the Advancement of
Science and of other scientific bodies. His publica-
tions include The Metallic Wealth of the United States
(1854), and Reports on the Lake Superior region, the
upper Mississippi lead region, and the Geological
Survey of California (1864–70). He contributed to the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA that part of the article
UNITED STATES which relates to physical geography.
His brother, WILLIAM Dwight WHITNEY, philolo-
gist, was born at Northampton, Mass., Feb. 9, 1827,
and graduated at Williams College in 1845. After three
years spent as a bank-clerk, he began the study of
Sanskrit at New Haven, 1850, and went abroad the
next year to pursue it more fully. For three years he
labored at Berlin and Tübingen, and planned with
Prof. Roth an edition of the Atharva-Veda-Sam-
Jútá, which appeared in 1856. For this he made
copies, and collations of all the MSS. in Europe. In
1854 he was appointed to the chair of Sanskrit in
Yale College, founded for him by Prof. E. E. Salis-
bury (q.v.); to this was added comparative philology in
1870. Besides these he has long held an instructor-
ship in modern languages. He joined the American
Oriental Society 1849, was its librarian 1855–73, and its
corresponding secretary from 1857, spending much
time in its service, and contributing largely to its
Journal, of which he was long the chief editor; the
greater part of vols. v.-ix, is from his pen. His edi-
tion of the translation by E. Burgess and others of
the Siirya-Siddhánta, or text-book of Hindu as-
tronomy, appeared at New Haven 1860. Two years
later he i. lished , the Atharva-Veda-Prăticăkhya,
text, translation, and notes, and in 1871 another Hin-
du grammatical book, Taittirriya-Práticăkhya, which
received a prize from the Royal Academy of Berlin.
His lectures on Language and the Study of Lan-
guage, delivered at the Smithsonian Institution 1864,
and later at the Lowell Institute in Boston, appeared in
1867, and a German translation by Dr. J. Jolly, 1874.
His labors have not been confined to Sanskrit: his
German Grammar (1869) and German Reader (1873)
have been much praised and used, and he has pre-
pared similar wº in French and English. His
|
\
t
Webster. His early life on the farm, and the various
members of the family, are described in his poem
Snow-Bound, and other of his writings record his
childish experiences. He was fond of reading, and
began to rhyme at fourteen, stimulated by the loan of
a volume of Burns. His first printed verses appeared
in a local paper in 1826, and W. L. Garrison, thea
editing the Newburyport Free Press, called at the
farm-house, encouraged and praised the young poet,
and urged him to seek further educational advantages
than the district school had afforded. By making
shoes during the winter he earned enough to cover his
expenses for six months at the Haverhill Academy,
which he entered in April, 1827. In the winter fol.
lowing he taught school at West Amesbury, now Mer-
rimac. He began to write verses for the Haverhill
Gazette 1828, and continued these contributions for
nearly forty years. In the fall of 1828 Garrison, then
in Boston, found him a place as writer on the Ameri-
can Manufacturer. This sheet he practically edited
for some months, receiving $9 a week, and meanwhile
he wrote some verse for John Neal's Yankee. From
June, 1829, to July, 1830, he was at home, working
on the farm, the latter months editing the Gazette,
and writing for the Hartford New England Weekly
Review. He assumed the editorial chair of this paper
in July, 1830, succeeding G. D. Prentice, and retained
it eighteen months ; during that time, besides many
prose sketches and tales from his pen, it contained 42
poems of his, among them. The Taudois Teacher,
which in a French version was greatly valued in the
lower Alps, long before its authorship was known.
His first volume, New England Legends in Prose and
Jerse, appeared at Hartford in February, 1831. Most
of these early efforts were lightly regarded and sup-
º by their author in after years, but they gave
him a certain repute at the time. Before leaving
Hartford he edited Brainard's Poems, and prefixed a
sketch of that writer's life ; the book was published
early in 1832. That year Mr. Whittier was at home
Writing for Buckingham's New England Magazine, in
Whigh, appeared Mogg Megone (in a volume, 1s56).
lſall Pºtcher was published at Boston IS32. Garrison's
Liberator, begun 1831, much influenced Whittier, who
pºinted at his own expense a well-reasoned pamphlet
of 23 pages, Justice and Erpediency, or Slavery Con-
sidered with a View to its Rightful and Effectual Remi-
edy, Abolition (Haverhill, 1833). Of this Arthur
Tappan (q. p.), of New York, soon had 10,000 copies
Struck off for gratuitous distribution. This was the
beginning of the poet's long and active share in the
anti-slavery agitation. He handled the same topic in
774
WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN.
five pages of the Providence Journal, J uly, 1833, and
again in the Essex Transcript. He was a delegate to
the National Anti-slavery Convention at Philadelphia,
Dec, 4–6, 1833, and as one of the secretaries signed its
Declaration of Sentiments. An anti-slavery’society
was formed at Haverhill, April 3, 1834, of which he
Was an officer and doubtless a leading spirit. The un-
popularity of the cause did not prevent his being sent
to the Legislature in 1835. The same year he had
several experiences with mobs. He concealed George
Thompson for two weeks, and soon after, with that
English leader, narrowly escaped ill treatment at Con-
gord. Meantime he continued to write prose and verse,
largely on this subject. His spirited attacks on the clergy
~ * * ©
of Southern opinions and sympathies, as a Pastoral Let.
ter (in the Liberator, October, 1837), called forth by a
Congregational council at Brookfield, which tried to
silence the Grimké sisters, Clerical Oppressors, etc., won
the honor of liberal denunciation. His Poems chiefly
relating to Slavery were published by Isaac Knapp, of
the Liberator, Boston, 1838. The poets were generally
for freedom, but S. J. May with abundant truth
called Whittier “our laureate,” and testified that
“from 1832 to 1865 his harp of liberty was never hung
up.” The effect of these fiery strains in moulding the
slow-growing popular sentiment which at last swept the
land was inestimable. From his father's death in
1832 to 1837 the poet managed the farm, just making
ends meet for the family. From May to December,
1836, he again edited the Haverhill Gazette. In the
Summer of 1837 he spent three months in New York as
a secretary of the National Anti-slavery Society. At
the end of that year he went to Philadelphia to
write for the Pennsylvania Freeman, and was its
editor from March 15, 1838, to Feb. 20, 1840.
Nearly a third of this time he was at home in
Massachusetts, or travelling for the society in West-
ern Pennsylvania. His Ballads (180 pp.) were pub-
lished in Philadelphia by the society, November,
1838. In May, 1838, the office of his paper was in
the new Pennsylvania Hall, which was promptly
sacked and burned by a mob. In May, 1840, he
left Philadelphia for Amesbury, Mass., whither his
family had removed (partly to be nearer their meet-
ing-house) after selling the farm. Here he lived by
his pen, and continued his anti-slavery labors, trav-
elling much with H. B. Stanton in the interest of
the cause ; Wendell Phillips called him ‘‘ a superb
hand” at lobbying. Lays of my Home, etc., appeared
in 1843. In 1844 he spent six months at Lowell,
Mass., writing for the Middlesex. Standard: some of
these articles were reprinted in Boston as The Stram-
er in Lowell (1845). The Mexican war called out
is active opposition. Voices, of Freedom appeared
at Philadelphia in 1849, and added much to his repu-
tation. From 1837 to 1846 he wrote much for the
Democratic Review: in this some of his best poems
appeared, as The Bridal of Pennacook (1844-5). The
Supernaturalism of New England was published in
New York and London in 1847. The National Era was
established at Washington in January, 1847, and Whit:
tier was its assistant and corresponding editor till
September, 1859. During these years he contributed
to its columns more than eighty poems and a great
quantity of prose, including Old Portraits and Modern
Sketches (collected, 1850), Literary Recreations (1854),
and Margaret Smith's Journal, 1678–99, a historical
novel reprinted in Boston in 1849, and called by Miss
Mitford a clever mystification. An illustrated collec-
tion of his poems in octavo was brought out 1849 by
B. B. Mussey & Co.; the plates were afterward
bought by his later publishers, Ticknor and Fields.
Songs of Labor (1850) were gathered from the Re-
view and Era. A selection from his poems was pub-
lished in London, 1852, by Routledge. The Chapel
of the Hermits and A Sabbath Scene appeared in 1853,
The Panorama, etc., 1856, and a complete edition of
his poems to date, 1857. Of his more notable short
pieces, Ichabod (on Webster) was first printed in the
Era, May 2, 1850, to C. S. (Sumner) and Maud
Muller in December, 1854. But many of his lyrics
cannot be traced thus. He bore a partin founding
the Atlantic Monthly, and was one of its writers from
the start. Of his Home Ballads, etc. (1860), the Lon-
don Athenaeum said, “Here is poetry worth waiting
for, and a poet worth listening to.” In War Time,
etc. (1863), contained some of his most fiery deliver-
ances. National Lyrics (1865) was a small volume of
Selections. His Prose Works were collected in two
volumes in 1866. With the abolition of slavery and
the restoration of the Union, the great cause he had
championed so earnestly was won, and the fighter
could lay aside his weapons and turn gladly to con-
genial themes of peace. After the tremendous war-
song, “We wait beneath the furnace blast,” came
the triumphant Laus Deo. His muse, always pious,
now became eminently sweet and saintly. My Psalm
(1859) was a forerunner of The Eternal Goodness and
Our Master (1867). From the last several hymns have
been extracted, to be used and greatly valued both in
England and in America; nowhere has the inmost
spirit of Christianity been more exquisitely portrayed.
Snow-Bound appeared 1866. The Tent on the Beach,
etc. (1867), records a camping experience with Bayard
Taylor and J. T. Fields. Several of the lyrics are
among his strongest and loveliest. It was followed by
Among the Hills, etc. (1868), Miriam, etc. (1870), The
Pennsylvania Pilgrim, etc. (1872), Mabel Martin (1874),
and Hazel Blossoms (1875): the last includes a few
poems by his sister, Elizabeth Hussey Whittier (1816–
64). On the poet's seventieth birthday, Dec. 17,
1877, the publishers of the Atlantic gave a memorable
dinner in his honor: the Literary World issued a
special Whittier number, with tributes in verse and
prose from many eminent writers. Before this a
college at Salem, Iowa, had been named from him.
His later books are The Vision of Echard, etc. (1878),
The King's Missive, etc. (1881), The Bay of Seven
Islands (1885), and St. Gregory's Guest, etc. (1886).
A complete edition of his Works, including both poetry
and prose, has been supervised by himself (7 vols.,
1888–89).
The poet and the man are not easily separable in
Whittier. Vice-President Wilson said on his death-
bed, “I believe him, the purest man living on earth."
Channing saw in him “noble simplicity of character,
and the fire and energy of an ancient prophet."
Whipple bore witness in 1844 to his “vehement sensi-
bility, the stormy qualities of his mind,” and “the soul
of a great poet.” H. T. Tuckerman in 1852 saw in
him “the imaginative fervor of a devotee, both of
nature and of humanity,” as well as “a prophetic
anathema and a bardlike invocation.” apereau
(1858) called him “full of élan and vigor.” These
great qualities have their defects. His task is not
always perfect ; his “fiery protesting spirit'' is some-
times indifferent to literary detail and finish. Lowell
wrote in 1864, “If the most fervid of our poets, he is
sometimes hurried away by this very quality into
being the most careless. His rhymes are often faulty
beyond the most provincial license of Burns.” That
was in his polemic time, when his loveliest lyrics
were not yet written. So Fraser's Magazine in 1850
ointed out ‘‘ his faults, harshness, and want of pol-
ish,” but recognized “more life and spirit and soul in
his verses” than is apt to be found in those of more
patient and elaborate workmen. Mr. Whittier, in a
green old age spent between Amesbury and Danvers,
Mass., enjoys the fruit of his faithful planting, in
“love, honor, troops of friends.” . His life has
already been written by W. S. Kennedy (1882) and by
F. H. Underwood (1884). (F. M. B.)
WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN, THE. This title is
intended to include the series of engagements in the
American civil war fought during Grant's overland
march to Richmond, embracing the battles of the
WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN.
775
Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court-House, down to COLD
HARBOR, already described in this work. It comprises
a succession of great conflicts and skilful marches,
occupying a single month of time (from May 3 to
June 3, 1864), which radically changed the aspect of
the war and placed the army of the North in position
to successfully terminate the long-continued struggle.
The whole campaign demands to be dealt with as but
a single event of the war, its several incidents being
parts of one great whole.
From the battle of Gettysburg, in July, 1863, to the
beginning of May, 1864, no important military events
had taken place in Virginia, the operations of the
armies being confined to inconsequent marches in
unsuccessful efforts to obtain advantages of position.
On March 9, 1864, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was
made commander-in-chief of all the United States
armies with the rank of lieutenant-general. He at
once placed Sherman in command of the Western
armies and took the field in person with the Army of
the Potomac, though Meade still retained its imme-
diate command. Grant's plan embraced a movement
in concert of all the armies of the Union. The Army
of the Potomac at that time lay just north of the Rap-
idan, a branch of the Rappahannock River, facing
the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, under
Gen. Robert E. Lee, which lay south of the Rapidan
with a strongly-intrenched position at Mine Run.
The force under Gen. Grant is stated by himself to
have been about 116,000 men ; that under Lee is
claimed by Confederate historians to have been only
64,000 men, but is estimated by Grant at 80,000. Such
discrepancy in numbers as existed was negatived in the
succeeding engagements by the reversed relations of
the two armies, Grant constantly fighting on the
offensive, Lee usually on the defensive and behind
intrenchments.
Shortly after midnight, on the morning of May
4, 1864, the movement of Grant's army toward the
Rapidan began. At the same time Butler with 20,000
men moved from Fortress Monroe up the south side
of the James River, and two days afterwards Sherman
advanced from Chattanooga on his march towards At-
lanta. The grand movement of all the armies had sim-
ultaneously begun.
right wing crossed the Rapidan, followed during the
day by the remainder of the army. Grant states in
his Memoirs that he expected severe opposition in
crossing the river, and considered that he had gained
a great advantage in being suffered to cross unopposed.
He believed that his success was due to Lee being
taken by surprise by the suddenness of the advance
unovement.
The army now pushed immediately into that diffi-
cult country known as The Wilderness, in whose wilds
Hooker had received so severe a repulse just a year
before at Chancellorsville (q. v.). The region thus
named was an exceedingly šićlt one for military
operations, being covered by a dense thicket of second
growth, replacing the primeval forest which had been
cut to supply fuel to neighboring smelting furnaces.
This thicket extended for miles but was intersected by
several roads, by which alone could troops be moved.
The right column pushed directly into the Wilderness,
the left to Chancellorsville, where it bivouacked for the
night. Grant hoped that another day's march would
take him through this region and that by a rapid ad-
vance on Gordonsville he might place himself in the
rear of Lee's army. In consequence, early on the
morning of the 5th, the whole army was put in motion
for this purpose. -
Lee, meanwhile, was well aware of the advantages
of the Wilderness as a battle-ground, its intricacies
being familiar to him and his generals while unknown
to his opponents. He had already gained a victory
over a superior force there and hoped to do so again.
He therefore resolved to give Grant battle in those
wilds. The thicket was traversed by a turnpike and a
On the morning of the 4th the
plank road which ran eastwardly, nearly parallel to
each other, from Lee's head-quarters near Orange
Court-House. Along these roads Lee's army advanced
on the morning of the 5th, Ewell's columns following
the turnpike, the more northerly road, and Hill's the
plank road." Longstreet's division, which had been
stationed at Gordonsville, 20 miles off, did not arrive
in time to take part in the battle of that day, This
was the case also with Burnside's division of Grant's
army, which had been lying on the Rappahannock.
Grant's army had not advanced far before the heads
of the enemy's columns were felt. It was at first sup-
osed that this was but a strong rear-guard to cover
}. retreat, and dispositions were made to sweep, it
away and seize the intrenchments on Mine Run, the
day being well advanced before it was clearly perceived
that Lee's army was there with the intention of fight-
ing. The affray opened with a *: of skirmishers
and of small parties of cavalry and infantry sent tº
their support, but action in force did not begin till
about noon, when Ayres's and Bartlett's brigades of
Griffin's division were sent through the thicket to the
right and left of the turnpike to disperse the force in
front. The Confederates were driven in, not being
prepared for this onset, and a larger force might have
crushed Ewell's corps had the true state of the case
been known to the tº. commanders. But the dan-
ger to the Confederates was averted by the quick
advance of Stewart's brigade and the timely arrival of
Rodes's division, these new troops at once attacking
vigorously. Orders had been issued to support War-
ren's advanced brigades by the left of Sedgwick's
corps, but the passage through the thicket proyed so
difficult that Ayres and Bartlett were hurled back
before support could reach them. The fighting was
desperate and ended in a decided advantage to the
Confederates, who captured two guns and a number
of prisoners and won the contested ground. Gen.
Wadsworth, who had advanced to co-operate with
Griffin, went somewhat astray in the woods and was
met by a flank fire which drove him back in some con-
fusion. On the left of Wadsworth the brigade of
McCandless found itself isolated and nearly sur-
rounded, and lost two full regiments in the effort to
escape from its dangerous position. The result of the
engagement was a loss of about 3000 men to Warren's
corps and the possession of the contested ground by
the enemy, Warren retiring to form a new line a little
in the rear. Shortly after 1 P. M. the head of the
Sixth corps, which was advancing to support the Fifth,
was attacked by Ewell. In the conflict that ensued
the Confederates were at first repulsed, then the Sixth
was driven back by a furious charge of Rodes's divis-
ion, and finally the Confederates were again driyen, the
Union forces holding the ground. This ended the
fight for the day in that quarter.
Two hours before Griffin's advance Grant had fath-
omed Lee's intention to give battle in the Wilderness
and made the necessary preparations. To Hancock,
who was advancing with the Second corps, he sent
word to march with all haste by the Brock Road
which crosses the plank road nearly at right angles,
while Gen. Getty, of the Sixth corps, was ordered to
hold the junction of these roads . his division until
joined by Hancock. He did so, though pressed
severely by Hill, who was seeking to gain possession
of the same strategic point. Hancock's advance
reached Getty's position about 3 P. M., and soon the
whole Second corps was there and the junction secured.
Shortly afterward Hancock, who had begun to throw
up breastworks, was ordered to advance on Hill and
drive him back. A sanguinary battle ensued at close
quarters, but Hill maintained his ground firmly until
after nightfall, when the fighting ceased, the combat-
ants resting for the night so near each other that both
drew water from the same brook. Thus ended the
first day's battle in the Wilderness.
The battle was resumed early in the morning of the
776
WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN.
6th. During the night Longstreet had bivouacked
near the intrenchments on Mine Run, and was ordered
to take, position on Hill's right; while Burnside
arrived before daybreak and marched to occupy the
position between Warren and Hancock. Grant's line
of battle, now fully formed, extended from Todd's
Tavern on the Brock road to near Germanna Ford,
crossing the turnpike and plank road nearly at right
angles and presenting a front of about five miles.
Sedgwick occupied the right; Warren joined him on
the left, his line crossing the turnpike ; Burnside took
position on Warren's i. and Hancock lay on the
extreme left, occupying the Brock road and its junction
with the plank road. Lee's army remained as on the
day before, Ewell on the turnpike, facing Sedgwick
and Warren ; Hill on the right, across the plank road ;
while Longstreet was advancing towards his position
on Hill's right, facing Hancock.
So stood the opposing armies on the morning of May
6, ready to engage in one of the most singular and
desperate conflicts the world had ever known. Swinton
well states the case: “Manoeuvring here was necessarily
out of the question, and only Indian tactics told. The
troops could only receive direction by a point of the
compass, for not only were the lines of battle entirely
hidden from the sight of the commander, but no officer
could see ten files on each side of him. Artillery was
wholly ruled out of use ; the massive concentration of
300 guns stood silent, and only an occasional piece or
section could be brought into play in the roadsides.
Cavalry was still more useless. But in that horrid
thicket there lurked 200,000 men, and through it lurid
fires played, and, though no array of battle could be
seen, there came out of its depths the roll and crackle
of musketry like the noisy boiling of some hell-caldron
that told the dread story of death.”
Grant recognized the difficulty of the situation and
gave but a single general order: “Attack along the
whole line at five o'clock.” Lee, however, began the
battle, by an assault a little before this hour, with the
purpose, as is asserted, of occupying the Union lines
till Longstreet could get into position, when he hoped
by a sudden and vigorous attack on Hancock's flank to
drive his antagonist back to the Rapidan. If such was
his design it was defeated, Longstreet not reaching
his position as early as hoped for. The battle began
in a fierce musketry assault on the extreme right of
Scdgwick's corps and a desperate effort to break
through his lines. This was easily repelled, and Sedg-
wick made a partial advance, while at the same time
Warren and Hancock attacked the foe in their front.
Hancock's movement was at first successful.
Confederates were forced out of their rifle-pits, many
prisoners with five battle-flags were captured, and
#. troops driven back in confusion....At this criti-
cal juncture Anderson's division of Hill's corps came
up and checked the retreat, and the head of Lºng-
street's column, which had been marching to flank
Hancock, made its appearance in front. e
It was now 9A. M. Hancock reformed his lines, which
had received reinforcements from Burnside,and resumed
his advance, but found himself speedily checked by a
large force. Longstreet had been recalled from his
flanking march and ordered to Hill's assistance, and
Hancock had the greater portion of the Confederate
army before him. The battle that ensued was fierce
and sanguitary, Hancock making vigorous efforts to
break the stiong lines in his front, and losing heavily
in the effort. About 11 A. M. a fierce assault was made
on his left, by a strong force which Lee had sent to
carry out his original plan of flanking the Union line
with the hope of doubling it up, and driving the whole
army back to the Rapidan. Hancock was forced to
faii back before this overwhelming charge, Gen.
Wadsworth falling with a bullet through his brain as
his line was forced to retreat. º e
At this point in the contest a serious misfortune be-
fell the Confederate cause. Longstreet was pressing
The d
forward with the vigor which he had shown since his
first arrival on the field, pushing back Hancock in front
and endeavoring to seize the Brock road on his flank,
where he himself fell by a bullet from one of his own
men. He was riding, with his staff, in front of his
column, when he came upon the van of his flanking
force. His men, mistaking the group of officers for
Union cavalry, fired, and Longstreet fell with a severe
wound, which disabled him for months. This accident
seriously deranged the Confederate plans. The lines
were thrown into confusion and the advance ceased,
while Lee, as soon as he heard of the misfortune,
hurried to the spot to take charge in person of the im-
portant movement he had ordered. This check was
of vital importance to Hancock. While Lee was ral-
lying and reforming the troops and preparing for a fresh
advance, a labor which consumed four hours, Hancock
had reoccupied his intrenchments on the Brock road
and made preparations for the threatened attack.
At 4 P. M. the columns of Longstreet and Hill, led
by Lee in person, advanced in serried masses upon
Hancock's position, and vigorously assailed the line,
which lay behind a strongly built breastwork of logs.
The contest soon became hot and furious. The inces-
sant volleys of musketry set fire to the woods, which
quickly became filled with flame and smoke. Soon the
Union breastworks were on fire, and ere long the whole
line of logs was a mass of Seething flames, the smoke
and ashes being driven by the wind in the face of the
Union troops. The battle went on through smoke and
flame, a portion of the breastworks not yet on fire being
taken by a fierce Confederate charge. The moment was
a critical one, but Col. J. W. Hoffman rushed forward with
a small body of men, drove the assailants out, and re-
took the works. This, as Hancock declared, saved the
day on the left. The intrenchments had proved too
strong to carry, and no further effort was made.
On the right the fighting was less severe. Sedgwick
had made a strong effort to carry Ewell's intrenched
lines, and had lost heavily in doing so. Warren had
remained mostly on the defensive. As night ap-
proached it was supposed the battle was at an end, but
Lee had another surprise in store. Just at Sunset a
heavy column, led by Gen. Gordon, advanced from
Ewell's extreme left, and fell heavily and unexpectedly
on Sedgwick's wearied troops, who were utterly un-
prepared for such an assault. It was a moment of
peril. The right wing of the army seemed in immi-
ment danger. The charging column fell first on the
brigades of Seymour and Shaler, of Rickett's division,
drove them back confusedly, and captured several hun-
red prisoners, including both commanders. But
Sedgwick swiftly hurried men to the defence, the Con-
federate advance was checked, and the darkness of
night soon put an end to the violently contested battle.
During the day the cavalry had taken no part, except
a brief contest between Sheridan and Stuart in the
open country far to the left of Hancock's lines.
The losses were severe. Careful estimates place the
Union loss during the two days' battle at nearly 18,000
men, of whom 6000 were made prisoners... The Con-
federate loss was probably about 11,000. Fierce as the
battle had been no advantage in position was gained by
either party. The Union army rested during the night
on precisely the grounds it had occupied in the morn-
ing. With the dawn of the 7th the men rose ready
to renew the battle, if necessary. . But Lee had evi-
dently had enough of offensive fighting, great as was
the advantage to him of his knowledge of the ground.
The skirmish line sent out at daybreak found the Con-
federates behind intrenchments, to attack which, in
that impracticable wilderness, would have been a des-
perate and dangerous attempt for the Union army,
Grant at once decided not to do so, but to get out of
the wilderness and into more open country without de-
lay. Thus ended the first act of the Wilderness cam-
3,194 Il.
p . 9 P. M. on the 7th Warren moved from his lines
WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN.
777
and began a march along the Brock road, towards
Spottsylvania Court-House, 13 miles distant. Han-
cock was to follow him, and Sedgwick and Burnside to
march by way of Chancellorsville. The hope was en:
tertained that the point in question could be reached
before Lee became aware of the movement. Warren,
however, met with obstructions, first from Union cav-
alry which occupied the road, and afterward from barri-
cades of heavy trees which had been felled across it.
Hours were lost in consequence, and it was 8 A. M. be-
fore the head of the column reached a point 2 or 3
miles from the Court-House. No opposition had been
met except from dismounted cavalry, but at this point
an unexpected and severe check was received, in a
murderous fire of musketry which hurled the leading
brigades backward, until met by Warren, who rallied
and reformed them. Griffin's division was similarly
received, and Warren's corps, as its divisions succes-
sively came up, formed into line of battle, and at once
began to intrench.
This check was due to the head of Longstreet's col-
umn, then commanded by Gen. Anderson, which was
already on the ground. The attempt to surprise Lee
by a flank movement had, in fact, failed. He had been
apprised by Gen. Stuart that the Federal wagon trains
were moving southward. At once conceiving of Grant's
design, though ignorant of the threatened point, he or-
dered Anderson to move from the breastworks, and en-
camp at a point where he would be in position for a
march on Spottsylvania in the morning. The burning
woods, however, rendered bivouacking impracticable,
and Anderson marched on through the night, so that
it was rather by accident than design that he reached
Spottsylvania in the early morning, in time to throw
the head of his column across Warren's line of march.
Mingled accident and design had foiled the attempt to
flank Lee's army. -
The remainder of the day was consumed in the
march of the two armies, and night found them both
in place, Lee's veterans planted directly across the south-
ward course of the Army of the Potomac. There had
been several collisions during the day, but no events of
importance. Anderson had occupied a range of hills
about a mile north and north-east of the Court-House,
where he hastily intrenched, the remaining corps of the
army, as they came up, falling into line with him and
throwing up defensive works. This process continued
during the 9th, the Union forces similarly intrenching,
so that by nightfall each army was covered by a contin-
uous line of formidable breastworks.
Grant had decided to attack on the 10th. On the
preceding evening Hancock had crossed with three of
his divisions the Po River, a small affluent of the
Mattapony. Two of these divisions were ordered to
be recalled to take part in the designed attack. The
third, Barlow's, soon found itself in a perilous position.
While it was repelling a sharp attack, the woods be-
tween it and the river burst into flames, and it became
necessary to fight the Confederates and the fire at the
same time. The stream was recrossed, but not with-
out heavy loss, the assailants also losing heavily. During
the day two assaults were made on Lee's lines, one at
10 A. M., the other at 3 P. M. The point assailed was
a thickly wooded eminence known as Laurel Hill:which
was crowned with earthworks. Both attacks were re-
pulsed with heavy loss to the assailants. At 5 o'clock
the main assault began. The Second corps had now
joined the Fifth, and Hancock and Warren led their
men against the position which had already been twice
attacked. A desperate struggle ensued. The Union
lines advanced with great intrepidity, and penetrated
the breastworks at one or two points. But they were
met with a storm of shot and J. that flesh and blood
could not withstand, and were driven back with fear-
ful slaughter. An hour later they marched to the as-
sault again, and were again repulsed with heavy loss.
The attempt was attended with far more serious con-
sequences to the Union than to the Confederate troops.
VOL. IV.-2 Y
Nearly 6000 of the former had fallen, while the latter
had lost not more than 600. The losses of the whole
day's dreadful work, however, were more evenly dis-
tributed. It is stated that the total losses by death,
wounds, and captivity were 9000 Union and 8000 Con-
federate troops.
Thus ended the first day of the battle of Spottsyl-
vania Court-House. Great as were the difficulties he
had met and the losses he had sustained the determin-
ation of Gen. Grant was not weakened. On the
morning of the 11th he sent to the secretary of war, a
despatch whose closing words have become historical :
“I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all
summer.”
The 11th passed in preparations for another battle.
Grant had determined to attack Lee's line at its right
centre, which seemed a vulnerable point. We are told
by Southern historians that Lee had weakened this
point by the withdrawal of artillery, having reason to
believe that Grant was contemplating another flanking
march, and that a deserter had conveyed information
of this fact across the lines. Hancock's corps was des-
ignated for the assault, and moved into the requisite
position during the night. In the early morning, under
cover of a dense fog, the attacking column swiftly and
silently advanced towards the weakened salient, held
by Johnson's division of Ewell's corps. The Confed-
erates first knew of their danger by a sudden outburst
of cheers, as Barlow's and Birney's brigades dashed
upon and across the works, breaking down all opposi-
tion, and capturing Johnson and almost his entire divis-
ion while unsuspectingly at breakfast. In addition
two brigades under Gen. Stewart were taken, with
nearly 30 guns and many colors. More than 3000
prisoners were captured. Lee's army was cut in two,
and the most desperate efforts were necessary to avert
irretrievable disaster.
One of the most terrible conflicts of the war ensued.
Lee hurried up troops from both directions, while the
flying Confederates, who had been pursued through
the woods for about a mile, rallied behind a second line
of breastworks and turned on their pursuers. The re-
inforcements from Hill's and Longstreet's corps drove
back Hancock's men to the position they had captured,
and heavy masses of troops pouring upon them con-
fined them within the triangular area of the salient.
On the other hand the Sixth corps was sent to the as-
sistance of Hancock, while Warren and Burnside at-
tacked the Confederate lines along their whole front.
These lines, however, were so strong that, despite the
attack, their defenders could spare men for the central
struggle. , Here the fight was furious and sanguinary.
Lee, was determined to retake the lost portion of his
Works, and hurled all the force he could gather on Han-
cock. The battle was hand-to-hand; both parties at
times planted their flags on the breastworks within a
few feet of each other. The carnage on both sides was
dreadful, but despite Lee's persistence all his efforts
Were in vain. He continued to fight till after night had
fallen, when he withdrew his shattered columns, leav.
ing Hancock in possession of the works he had Cap-
tured.
Thus ended the battle of Spottsylvania Court-House,
one of the most desperately contested and Sanguinary
of the war. The losses during the campaign, from the
crossing of the Rapidan to the close of the battle just
described, were, according to the official report, 29,410
Imen killed, wounded, and missing. The Confederate
loss is not known. It was less severe than the Union,
in consequence of their defensive attitude and the
strength of their intrenchments, but was Severe, and
probably greater in proportion to the disparity of forces
than the Union, loss. Lee could not as well as Grant
afford to have his army depleted. On the morning of
the 13th. he withdrew his troops behind an inner and
shorter line of intrenchments. His position seemed as
strong as ever, and Grant hesitated to attack, confront.
ing the enemy till the 18th, on which day an unsuccess-
77S
WILKES,
ful attempt was made to carry a portion of the Con-
federate works. The repulse of this column was
avenged on the Succeeding day by a similar repulse of
Ewell, who had been sent by Lee to demonstrate against
the Union right, under the belief that another flanking
movement was in progress. Ewell was repulsed, with
a loss of about 900 men.
During these events the cavalry, under Gen. Sheri-
dan, had made a dash on Richmond. The North Anna
was crossed on the 9th, much railroad property and
military stores destroyed, and on the 11th some Confed-
erate cavalry under Gen. Stuart was encountered a few
miles north of Richmond. A sharp fight ensued, in
which the Confederates were routed" and their general
mortally wounded, the latter a severe loss to their cause,
since Stuart had proved himself one of the ablest cav-
alry leaders of the war. Sheridan pushed on and at-
tacked the defensive works of Richmond, but found
them too strong and too well defended for success in a
cavalry charge.
army on May 25.
Meanwhile the army was in motion. On the 20th
it disappeared from the front of Lee's army, and be-
ſº a flank march to turn the position of Spottsylvania.
t had sent its sick and wounded men and its prisoners
to the rear, received abundant reinforcements and sup-
plies, and moved jubilantly forward, restored to its
original strength. The movement was hardly begun
before Lee was aware of it and had put his own army
in motion. Once more a race between the two armies
began, in which Lee, having the shorter line, had the
advantage. The point aimed for was Hanover Jung-
tion, an important railroad intersection, on the South
side of the North Anna River. Lee occupied this
position on the 22d, immediately threw up defensive
works, and when Grant arrived on the 23d, it was to
find his antagonist again in his front, strongly in-
trenched, and with a river as part of his line of defence.
Lee's army occupied a singular position. Its centre
touched the stream while both wings were thrown back
at an obtuse angle, facing the corps of Warren and
Hancock respectively. This put Grant at a decided
disadvantage, for after his two wings had crossed the
stream they were isolated from each other, and to re-
inforce either wing from the other it was necessary to
make a double passage of the river. Lee's army, on
the contrary, lay compactly behind its intrenchments.
Despite this disadvantage Grant at once attempted to
force his antagonist from his path. Warren, on the
He leisurely returned and rejoined the
right, reached the river at an unguarded ford, and J
crossed without opposition. Ere he had advanced far,
however, he was attacked by a strong Confederate force,
and a severe conflict ensued, which ended in the re-
pulse of the Confederates with the loss of nearly a
thousand prisoners. Warren at once proceeded to in-
trench his chosen line without further opposition.
Hancock crossed on the left, but not with the same
ease. A division of Longstreet's corps held the river
at this point, occupying the bridge and a redan-shaped
battery in front of it. This battery was stormed and
taken, and during the night the Confederates attempted
to burn the bridge. Failing in this, they withdrew
from their advanced works to a stronger position in the
rear, and Hancock crossed in the morning without op;
position. At the same time Wright crossed above and
joined Warren's corps. , Burnside, in the centre, en-
deavored to cross, but without success.
The position of the Army of the Potomac Was a
perilous one. Its two wings were on the south side of
a river difficult to cross and liable at any moment to a
sudden swelling by rains, while the weaker centre lay
north of the river. Lee's army lay between the two
wings, isolating them from each other, and holding the
river so strongly in front of Burnside that he was un-
able to cross. For two days the armies lay thus facing
each other, when Grant, evidently considering that it
would be madness to risk a battle under such disadvan-
tages of position, secretly withdrew his forces to the
|
north of the river on the night of the 26th, and put
his army in motion on another flanking movement.
This march was made well to the eastward, so as to
avoid a blow on the flank, its objective point being the
passage of the Pamunkey, an affluent of the York
formed by the junction of the North and South Anna
Rivers. Possession of this point would give Grant an
excellent water base of supplies at White House,
while forcing Lee to abandon the line of the rivers
named.
Sheridan led the way with the cavalry in this move-
ment, and was rapidly followed by the infantry, the
Pamunkey being reached and crossed on the 28th, at
Hanovertown, about 15 miles from Richmond. Lee
had at the same time abandoned his works on the North
Anna, and marched quickly southward by the shorter
line, and awaited Grant on the Totopotomoy, near
Mechanicsville. There had been a cavalry struggle in
this vicinity on the 28th, Sheridan driving back Hamp-
ton and Fitzhugh Lee, who lost nearly 800 men, his
loss not being more than half that number. On the
30th the advancing infantry came into contact with
Lee's forces, and some sharp fighting took place, with
no decisive advantage on either side. Grant, deeming
it injudicious to make a direct attack on Lee's front,
moved slowly by his left flank towards the Chicka-
hominy, while Lee kept pace with him by a similar
movement to his right, confronting him at every stage.
This movement continued till a flank of each army
rested upon the Chickahominy, both armies protecting
themselves with breastworks at every point of the
movement. They were now on the old battle-field of
Gaines' Mill, where so fierce a struggle had taken place
in 1862. (See PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN.) For the de-
tails of the battle which succeeded, and the conclusion
of Grant's overland march to Richmond, see COLD
HARBOR. (C. M.)
WILKES, CHARLEs (1801–1877), naval officer aud
explorer, was a nephew of the celebrated John Wilkes,
of England, and was born in New York city. He en:
tered the U. S. navy as a midshipman in 1818, and
served five years on the Mediterranean and Pacific
squadrons. In 1826 he became a lieutenant, and in
1830 was assigned to the department of charts and
instruments, where his bent for science was exercised.
In 1838 he received the important appointment of
commander of the U. S. Exploring §. for
which great preparations were made. With six ves:
sels well equipped and an able staff of officers (Prof.
Dana being the geologist and mineralogist) he
sailed from Norfolk, Va., Aug. 18, and visited Madeira
and the Cape Verde Islands. Touching South America
at Rio de Janeiro, he coasted down the Atlantic and
up the Pacific as far as Callao, and thence crossed the
ocean to Australia, stopping at the Samoan Islands
and sundry other groups. In December, 1839, he
started from Sydney on a voyage of discovery along
the Antarctic Continent, as far as latitude 101 E. The
Fiji and Sandwich Islands were next visited and 9b-
servations taken on the summit of Mauna Loa. After
examining the Californian and Mexican coasts in 1841;
the expedition sailed for Borneo and the Cape of Good
Hope and returned to New York June 10, 1842, after
nearly four years at sea. Charges were soon pre-
ferred against Wilkes by some of his subordinates;
he was court-martialled, acquitted, and promoted to
commander the next year. His memorable Narrative
of the expedition, one of the most notable of govern-
ment publications, came out in six quarto Volumes in
1845, yet material remained for more. An abridg-
ment appeared in 1851, a volume on Western America
in 1849, and one on the meteorological observations of
the expedition in 1851. The London Geographical
Society honored Wilkes with a gold medal in 1848, in
recognition of the gains to science through his labors;
of these there was in general but one opinion, though
some of his observations on the Antarctic Continent
were afterwards contested by those of H. M. S. Chal.
WILKINSON.—WILL.
79
lenger. He was made captain in 1855, and the next
year published Theory of the Winds. After many
years of special duty at home the outbreak of the
rebellion brought him again to the front, and afforded
an opportunity of supposed service and abundant
distinction of which he was iust the man to avail
himself. He was in the West Indian waters in search
of the Confederate cruiser Sumter, when, in the
Bahama Channel, he came upon the British steamer
Trent, carrying the mails and having on board as pas-
sengers two commissioners of the Confederate States,
Mason and Slidell, accredited respectively to France
and England. Valuing the end far above the means,
and taking the law into his own hands, he promptly
overhauled the vessel, Nov. 8, 1861, disregarding all
protests, took from her the Confederate officials and
conveyed them to the North as prisoners of war. No
early event of the conflict caused greater sensation.
In the fervor of patriotic feeling legal questions were
apt to be overlooked. Wilkes was loaded with dem-
onstrations of popular applause and received the
thanks of Congress. But in England his action was
regarded in a very different light ; the British ministry
inclined to make a declaration of war for the outrage
on its flag, but Prince Albert is said to have caused the
way to be left open for reconsideration by the American
government. It was plain on reflection that interna-
tional law had been violated with however praise-
worthy intentions. The U. S. government bowed to
necessity and released the commissioners, and Secre-
tary Seward, by an adroit stroke of diplomacy, repre-
sented Great Britain as having acceded to the applica-
tion of international law long insisted upon by America.
Yet Wilkes did not suffer, but was presently made a
commodore in 1862. Placed in command of a flotilla
on the Potomac, he destroyed City Point, Aug. 28.
In 1863 he was busy along the Southern coast in
enforcing the blockade and capturing blockade-runners.
He was retired July 25, 1866, with the rank of rear-
admiral. He died at Washington, Feb. 8, 1877. A
hero is nearer to the public heart than a scientist, and
Wilkes' great services to geographical and other knowl-
edge hardly made him so famous as the momentary
deed of a patriotic but reckless impulse, which might
have involved ruinous consequences to his country had
it not been quietly but practically disavowed by the
cooler heads of his superiors. (F. M. B.)
WILKINSON, JAMES (1757–1825), for some years
commander-in-chief of the U. S. army, was born in
Charles co., Md., and at 18 was a captain in the Revo-
lutionary War. He served under Arnold and Gates,
became adjutant-general to the latter, and carried to
Congress the tidings of Burgoyne's surrender. He
was to some extent involved in the Conway cabal, and
left the army as a colonel in 1778, but the next year
was appointed clothier-general to it. Going into busi-
ness in Kentucky, he rendered great service to that
region by opening the Mississippi to its trade; having
gone to New Orleans in 1787 with a flat-boat, he man.
aged not only to sell his cargo, but to obtain free en-
trance for ºthers and for himself a contract to supply
tºbacco. This won him great local repute and pop-
ularity, and in 1789 Louisville sent 25 flat-boats loaded
with provisions to New Orleans. His adventurous
and speculative character was never above reproach;
he was soon accused of complicity with Spanish
intrigues in Kentucky, then disaffected. He took part
as lieutenant-colonel in the expedition against the
Indians on the Wabash, was commissioned brigadier.
general, in March, 1792, and commanded the right
wing of Wayne's army at the Maumee, Aug. 20, 1794.
e was commander-in-chief, 1796–98, and again,
1800–12, though laboring under constant suspicions
and accusations of the gravest nature. He was one
of the two commissioners who received the cession of
Louisiana from the French in 1803, and in 1805–6 was
its territorial governor. At this time he was charged,
not without apparent reason, with corruption and
complicity with the treasonable plans of Burr, with
whom he had sustained close relations and conducted
a correspondence in cipher. The charges were ein-
bodied by Daniel Clark, of New Orleans, in an octavo
volume of 349 pages (1809). The inmost facts of this
connection and the general's real motives are matters
of conjecture; but he suddenly assumed an attitude
of vehement and energetic loyalty, put Burr's agents
to the question, arrested certain persons as conspir-
| ators, sent a report to Pres. Jefferson in October, 1806,
and made vigorous preparations to repel any hostile or
insidious attack. The affair made a great Stir, not
only on the spot, but throughout the country and at
the seat of government, where it presently became a
º issue. Jefferson and his followers, defended
Wilkinson, while the Federalists accused him of ille-
gality and abuse of power in the arrests. ... Randolph
i. him in Congress, and was challenged to a
duel in 1808. Wilkinson's conduct was a burning
question for four years; he was indicted by the grand-
jury, investigated by two committees of Congress, and
tried by a court-martial, in which Taney pleaded his
cause and procured an acquittal in 1811. After this
he went bºck to New Orleans, improved the defences
of the city, and came into collision with Jackson. He
received a major-general’s commission in March, 1813,
| reduced Mobile the next month, and in May went to
the Canada border, where he accomplished nothing.
His movement on Lake Champlain in 1814, through
lack of co-operation between himself and Wade Hamp-
ton, was such a fiasco that he laid down his command
and asked for a court-martial, by which he was again
acquitted. At the reorganization of the army in 1815
he was not included, but received a pension from
| Maryland, which adhered to him as a favorite son.
Disgusted with the ingratitude of republics, he put
forth his own side of the story in Memoirs of My Own
Times (3 vols., 1816), purchased an estate near the
city of Mexico and spent his latter years in self-imposed
exile, dying there Dec. 28, 1825. His large volumes
are vigorously written and show no mercy to his
numerous enemies, but documentary evidence has been
published which establishes his guilt. See Gayarré's
History of Louisiana : . Spanish Domination (1854).
(F. M. B.)
WILL in law denotes the disposition of one's prop-
See vol. xxiv. º.º.º. º effect after º Wills
p. 570 (p. 306 are usually written, yet they may be
Am. Rep.). unwritten or nuncupative. To make
a valid nuncupative will, the person
must be in extremis and in immediate prospect of
death. . In England the power of making such a will
is restricted by statute to soldiers in military service,
i. e., on an expedition, and sailors at sea. In some of
the United States these wills are specially restricted
by statute, while in others they exist as they did in
England previous to the limiting statute, i. e., confined
to a small amount of personal estate. Wills written
in pencil have been held valid.
The Testator's Capacity.—He must be of the age
of discretion, which is fixed by statute in England and
in most of the United States at twenty-one years.
Under the common law in England aliens could no:
devise real estate, but in the several States this has
been altered by statutes. Formerly married women
did not have testamentary capacity, but, together with
Imost other of their disabilities, this has very generally
been removed by statutes. In the case of wills of
º who are blind or deaf and dumb, there must
be prººf that the testator understood the contents of
Idiots
|
the will and communicated with the witnesses.
fire Wholly incapable of executing a will; so also are
lunatics, except during a lucid interval allowing the
exercise of memory and judgment. It has been held
that mere weakness of understanding will not invali-
date, a will, if the testator were capable of compre-
bending the object in view. Delirium, whether ºn
disease or stimulus, while the paroxysm continues to
780 WILLARD–WILLIAM II.
such an extent as to deprive a person of the right ex-
ercise of reason, is a sufficient impediment to the
execution of a will. It differs from ordinary insanity,
however, in that there is no presumption of its con-
tinuance. Senile dementia, or loss of mental faculties
through old age, if shown, will also invalidate a will.
If, however, the testator has sufficient memory left to
collect the elements of the transaction, i. e., the amount
and kinds of his property, the number of his children,
etc., and to form an understanding judgment concern-
ing them, he has proper testamentary capacity,
though his mind be not so strong as it once was.
Fraud or undue influence, by which a person is induced
to make a will, will invalidate it.
The Mode of Ececution.—The statutes of the States
differ as to the number of witnesses required. In
Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Mas-
sachusetts, Mississippi, New Hampshire, South Caro-
lina, and Vermont, three witnesses are required. In
most of the other States two are sufficient, though in
some the number is not specified. As a general thing
the witnesses must sign in presence of the testator,
and should not be interested parties. The testator
may sign in their presence or may produce the instru-
ment already signed, and acknowledge his signature
in their presence.
Revocation.—A will may be revoked by the testator
effacing his signature thereto, or by an evident attempt
on his part to destroy it. The same capacity is requi-
site to revoke as to make a will. Moreover, the
making of a new will purporting to be testator's last
will, and containing no reference to any other paper,
and being a disposition of all the testator's property,
and so executed as to be operative, will be a revocation
of all former wills, notwithstanding that it contains
no express words of revocation. A will is revoked by
the subsequent marriage of the testator and the birth
of issue. This is generally regulated in the different
States by statute.
Republication.—As a general rule a will revoked can
only be republished by an instrument of as high a na-
ture as that which revoked it, e. g., a will revoked by
written declaration cannot be republished by parol
such a republication has, however, been allowed in
Pennsylvania.
Probate.—A will must be proved in the probate
court. . . In England the probate of a will is not evi-
dence in regard to real estate, but in the United States
the probate courts have, as a general thing, exclusive
jurisdiction of wills and estates, whether the property
be real or personal. The probate of Wills passing
realty is governed by the law of the place where it is
situated ; of personalty by the law of the testator's
domicile. Any one interested in a will may compel
probate of it by application to the probate court, who
will summon the executor or person having the cus-
tody of it. The witnesses must appear and prove the
authenticity and execution of the will amd the com-
petency of the testator. If, however, they are absent
from the State, deceased, or disqualified, their hand-
writing must be verified. Wills more than thirty
years old, appearing regular and perfect and coming
from proper custody, are said to prove themselves.
Wills lost, mislaid, or stolen at the time of the testa-
tor's death may be admitted to probate upon proper
proof of the loss and execution. In mºst of the
United States there are statutes providing for the pro-
bate of foreign wills by exemplified copy.
As a general rule a will is said to speak from the
death of the testator, unless a contrary intention be
very plainly indicated.
farol evidence is admissible to show the state of the
testator, the nature and condition of his property, his
relation to the contestants, and all the surrounding
circumstances. It is inadmissible to supply any. Wor
or defect in the will or to indicate the testator's inten:
tion, which is to be gathered from the º: of
the instrument alone. As a general rule where a
wrong name has been inserted by the Scrivener, parol
evidence is not admissible to carry into effect the tes-
tator's intention, though the contrary has been held in
Some instances. Where there are portions of a will
wholly incapable of standing with other portions, gen-
erally speaking the later provision will control, as
being the latest declaration of the testator's intention.
T. R.
WILLARD, EMMA HART (1787–1870), Giºr
was born at Berlin, Conn., Feb. 23, 1787, the young-
est but one of seventeen children. She entered upon
her vocation at seventeen, was invited to Westfield,
Mass., in 1807, soon removed to Middlebury, Vt., and
there was married in 1809 to Dr. John Willard, State
marshal. His fortune becoming impaired five years
later, she reopened her School and by degrees intro-
duced new studies. Her plans for the higher educa-
tion of girls, previously little thought of, were so
extensive as to require State aid and practically to aim
at a college. They were laid before Pres. Monroe,
and, in an Address to the Public, 1819, before the New
York Legislature. In that year her school was re-
moved to Waterford, N. Y., chartered, and promised
public help, of which little came. She was induced to
remove to Troy in 1821 by the offer of a large building
and other facilities. Over 300 pupils entered at once,
and the seminary became famous. For 17 years she
conducted it with eminent success, aided by able teach-
ers, especially her younger sister, Mrs. Almira Lincoln
(afterwards Mrs. Phelps), who was with her 1823–32.
Her series of tººl. began in 1822 with a Geog-
Taphy, and was continued in Sundry publications of
which over a million had been sold at her death. Her
History of the United States, called by another name
in its first edition 1828, was translated into German and
Spanish and much used by Daniel Webster. Her
Universal History was very widely circulated. Her
Poems (1830), suppressed by her, contained the familiar
lyric ‘ Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep ;” Lafayette
shed tears at another in his honor, 1825. A foreign
trip in 1830–31 furnished material for a Journal aud
Letters (1833), the profits of which went to found a
missionary school at Athens. Dr. Willard died 1825,
and in 1838 his widow gave up her School and con-
tracted an unfortunate marriage from which she was
released by a divorce. After this she travelled much,
took part in educational conventions and the like, and
published treatises on The Circulation of the Blood
(1846), and on Respiration (1849) ; Last Leaves of
American History (1849); an Autobiography (1853);
Morals for the Young (1857); and Via Media (1862).
The last followed sundry efforts to avert the civil war,
wherein she overrated her influence. She died at
Troy, N. Y., April 15, 1870. Her Life was written
by Dr. John Lord (1874).
WILLARD, FRANCEs ELIZABETH, noted for her
temperance work, was born near Rochester, N. Y.,
Sept. 28, 1839. Her parents removed to Wisconsin
and she was educated at the Milwaukee and North-
western Female Colleges. She taught in several
schools and academies and contributed to various jour-
mals. While teaching in the Pittsburg Female College
in 1863 she wrote a memoir of her sister under the
title, Nine Beautiful Years. In 1868 she went to
Europe and spent eighteen months there. On her
return she began lecturing on reform in women's edu-
cation, and in 1871 she was made ſº of the
Women's College at Evanston, Ill. . In 1874 she was
made secretary of the Women's Christian Temperance
Union, and in 1876 she assisted Mr. Dwight L. Moody
in his evangelistic work. In 1878 she became chief.
editor of the Chicago Evening Post, but afterwards
resigned to devote all her time to temperance work.
As president of the Women's Christian Temperance
Union she has travelled through the country address-
ing legislatures and people in behalf of temperance
and prohibition.
ÍñM II, emperor of Germany and king of
WILLIAMS-WILLIAMSON.
TS1
Prussia, eldest son of the crown-prince of Prussia
(afterwards Emperor Frederick III. of Germany) and
Victoria, princess-royal of England, was born Jan. 27,
1859, and succeeded to the throne June 15, 1888, on
the lamented death of his father after his brief reign
of 99 days. His full name is in German Friedrich
Wilhelm Victor Albert. He received his early edu-
cation, military as well as literary, from tutors at home,
and in 1874 entered the gymnasium of Cassel, where
he studied till his graduation in 1877. He was then
assigned to the 1st regiment of foot-guards, in which
he completed his military training under the professors
of the Potsdam military academy, and was soon made
colonel of the hussars of the guard, of the 1st Pomer-
anian regiment of grenadiers, and of the 2d Landwehr
regiment of grenadiers. On Feb. 27, 1881, he married
the Princess Augusta Victoria, daughter of the de-
ceased Duke Frederick VIII. of Schleswig-Holstein,
by whom he has four sons, the eldest, the present
crown-prince, having been born May 6, 1882. During
the last illness of his grandfather, Emperor William
I., the present emperor (in the absence of his father
in consequence of the malady of which he died) acted
as the aged monarch's representative, and at his obse-
quies again took the place of his father, of whom he
afterwards continued to be the representative on im-
portant occasions.
On the present emperor's accession the political
sky of Europe was much overcast. Both France
and Russia seemed to be preparing for war, and Ger-
many responded in the end of 1887 by an augmenta-
tion of the Landwehr and other reserve classes of her
army through extending the age of service, so that she
was in a condition to place 3,850,000 men in the field,
while in February, 1888, a further warning was given
to the suspected powers by the simultaneous publica-
tion of the Germano-Austrian treaty—defensive and
offensive—to which Italy shortly after gave in her
adhesion. . In such conditions the military predilec-
tions of the emperor and his supposed strongly pro-
nounced character were regarded with widespread
anxiety. His first public act was an energetic address
to his army and navy. This was followed by an ad-
dress to his people in which he pledged himself to
walk in the paths of his just and peace-loving father.
The Reichstag met on June 25, and was opened by
William with much pomp. In his speech from the
throne he declared himself resolved “to live at peace
with all men so far as in him lay.” On June 27 the
new king took the oath to the constitution before the
Prussian Landtag and again declared for a pacific
policy. In July and August he paid visits to the
northern courts of Europe—Russia, Sweden, and
Denmark. In the beginning of October he visited the
court of Vienna, whence he proceeded to Rome on a
visit to King Humbert of Italy. Before going to the
Quirenal he waited on the pope, and his Catholic sub-
jects drew good auguries from this. In September
there appeared in the Deutsche Rundschau, excerpts
from the diary kept by his late father during the
eventful epoch of 1870–71, by which it was made to
appear that the consolidation of Germany into an em-
pire was due in a much higher degree to the late
emperor than to Prince Bismarck, to whom the orig-
inal conception had been accredited. These extracts
are said to have been given by a confidant of Emperor
i"rederick to Professor Geffeken, who communicated
them to the Rundschau. The emperor, and Prince
Bismarck especially, were seriously offended by the
publigation. Prof. Geffeken was cast into prison but
was finally released, though he had been threatened
with trial for high treason, the revelation of state.
secrets being a treasonable offence in Germany. Even
the ex-empress became the object of obloquy as having
connived at the publication. She had returned to her
mother in England in November, 1888, and her son
*ppears, estranged from her and full of antipathy to
England and English customs. In Germany this is
popularly accounted for by saying that he attributes
the malformation of his left arm, which is shorter than
the other and hangs listlessly by his side, to his hav-
ing been brought unskilfully into the world by an
English accoucheur recommended by Queen Victºria.
It is yet too early to speak with confidence of William
II.'s policy and character as a ruler. From measures
announced as about to be submitted to the diet in be-
half of industry and of the working classes, it is inferred
that he is opposed to socialistic schemes. His foreign
policy is indicated by his choosing for his special confi-
dant his war-minister, Count Herbert Bismarck, Son
of his great chancellor, Prince Bismarck.
A somewhat severe ear trouble prevented him from
appearing much in public during the latter part of
1888. The emperor's personal appearance is in his
favor. He stands nearly six feet high and is well built,
though inclined to stoutness. In complexion he is a
fair blonde, though his hair inclines to a darkish
brown. His features are regular and prepossessing, the
eyes blue and honest and capable of smiling when he
is pleased, his mouth small, and nose demi-Roman.
When he stands, his left hand rests quite naturally on
the hilt of his sword, so that an onlooker would not
readily detect the deformity; when he sits, it hangs in
seemingly soldierly fashion by his left side. Some
critics accuse him of coldness and unattractiveness of
manner and an aggressive bluntness in speech and
action with little regard to the feelings of others.
WILLIAMS, SAMUEL WELLs, (1812–1884), sino-
logue, was born at Utica, September, 1812. He was
educated at the Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N. Y.,
and went to China in 1833 as a printer for the Ameri-
can Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions.
He was engaged at Canton in printing and editing,
and also visited Japan for the same purpose. From
1845 to 184S he resided in the United States teaching.
In 1853 he was made interpreter to Commodore M.
C. Perry's expedition to Japan, and rendered most
valuable service. In 1855 he became secretary and
interpreter of the American Legation at Pekin, where
he assisted U. S. Minister W. B. Reed in negotiating
the treaty of 1856. Returning to the United States
finally in 1876, he was appointed lecturer on Chinese
at Yale College, and became president of the Ameri-
can Bible Society in 1881. e died at New Haven,
Feb. 17, 1 SS4. Of his various text-books and die.
tionaries, published in China, the most important is
the Syllabic. Dictionary of the Chinese Language
(1874). He is best known by The Middle Kingdom
(iS4S; but greatly improved, 2 vols., 18S3). He also
published Chinese Immigration (1879). See his Life
by his son, F.W. Williams (1889).
WILLIAMSON, HUGH (1735–1819), scholar and
statesman, was born in West Nottingham, Pa., Dec.
5, 1735. His parents were Irish. After graduating
at the College of Philadelphia 1757, he studied the
ology, was licensed to preach and admitted into the
Philadelphia Presbytery, but was never ordained, and
Soon turned to secular pursuits. His abilities and
tastes were of such varied character that he found it.
difficult, if not impossible, to concentrate on any one
field of activity; and, indeed, he attained distinction
in several which had little natural connection. He
was professor of mathematics in the College of Phila-
delphia .1760-3, then turned to medicine, and went
abroad in 1764 to study at Edinburgh, London, and
Utrecht, , Returning to Philadelphia, he entered upon
successful practice, but his own health became in-
paired. , Cultivating astronomy and other sciences, he
made observations on the transits of Venus and Mer.
cury in 1769, and studies of climate in 1770; these
Were inserted in the Transactions of the Philosophical
Society. He went to the West Indies in 1773, and
the , next year to England to solicit funds for ºn
academy at Newark, Del. The political feeling against
the colonies, prevented success for such a mission.
Questioned before the Privy Council in February,
782
WILSON.—WINCHELL.
1774, as to the state of things in America, he told the
story of the destruction of the tea at Boston, and
frankly said that war was probable if the policy of
coercion were not abandoned, at which Lord North
expressed much surprise. The tale of his obtaining
the Hutchinson letters, though long believed and
often repeated, has been disproved. After his return
he entered into business, removed to Edenton, N. C.,
and during the war served as an army surgeon, and
was sent to the legislature. He was a member of
Congress 1782–5 and 1787–8, and of the Constitu-
tional Convention in 1787; at home he pleaded the
cause of the Constitution, and bore a part in bringing
North Carolina into the federal Union. In 1793 he
removed to New York, where he attained a conspicu-
ous place as a citizen and scholar. He contributed to
the American Museum and to the Transactions of
several learned bodies, wrote upon comets and canals,
and delivered an address before the New York His-
torical Society in 1810 on The Benefits of Civil His-
tory. His Observations on Climate (1811) had a pa-
triotic object—to defend America from the aspersions
of certain foreigners in this respect—and received praise
from Jefferson. His History of North Carolina (2
vols., 1812) added less to his reputation. He died in
New York, May 22, 1819. A Memoir of him by Dr.
Hosack is preserved in the Collections of the New
York Historical Society.
WILSON, DANIEL, Canadian scientist and archae-
ologist, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1816.
After a full course of study in its High School and
University, he went to London to engage in literary
work, but soon returned to his native city. Here his
devotion to archaeology procured for him the appoint-
ment of secretary of the Scottish Antiquarian Society.
In 1843 he removed to Canada, where he was made
professor of history and English literature in Univer-
sity College, Toronto. In Canada Dr. Wilson found a
wide field for his favorite researches, while he also de-
voted himself assiduously to his academic duties. In
1881 he was chosen to be executive head of the college.
His first publication was Memorials of Edinburgh in
the Olden Time (2 vols., 1847), and, after an interval
of thirty years, he produced a similar work, Réminis-
cences of Old Edinburgh (1878). His more ambitious
work, The Archaeology and Prehistoric Ammals of
Scotland (1851; 2d ed., 1863), won the praise, of
Hallam as the most scientific treatment of the archae-
ological evidences of primitive history ever Written.
Yet this work was only preparatory to his greater
achievement, Prehistoric Man: Researches into the Ori-
gin of Civilization in the Old and the New Worlds (1863).
its later editions have been considerably rewritten, but
it still stands conspicuous not only for scientific value
but for grace of literary style. Besides these archae-
ological works, Dr. Wilson has published Chattertou:
a Biographical Sketch (1869); Caliban, the Missing
Link (1873), and Spring Wild Flowers, a volume of
verse. He has also contributed to the Proceedings of
antiquarian, anthropological, and other scientific Socie;
ties." The Marquis of Lorne, in instituting the Royal
Society of Canada, nominated Dr. Wilson its Vice-
resident. To the ninth edition of the ENCYCLOPAEDIA
łºck he has contributed not only the articles
on “Canada” and “Toronto,” but even that OI)
* Edinburgh,” besides biographical notices ºf.” Fer-
guson” and “Chatterton.”. Dr. Wilson still lives in
the city of his adoption and discharges the duties of
his professorship.
Włºś. , J ºurs (1742–1798), signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence, was born near. St. Andrew S,
Scotland, and passed from the University of that placº
to those of Glasgow and Edinburgh. Having finished
his studies, he crossed the sea abºut, 1763, and taught
fºr a time in the college at Philadelphia. He and
William White, afterwards bishop, became friends,
and wrote in company some essays called The |Wisitant
(iTéï-9). After studying law under Dickinson (q.v.),
and practising for a few years at Carlisle and else-
where, he returned to Philadelphia, and soon attained
very high rank in his profession. His pamphlet on
The Authority of the British Parliament (1774) was
much praised. By this time he was a colonel of militia
and member of the convention of the province. Sent
in 1775 to the Continental Congress, he won repute as
a scholar and debater, but did not favor independence.
In February, 1776, he sought to open the ports, and
offered an address to the country, ...,' being highly
conservative in substance and spirit, met with no favor,
and was not even voted on. He continued to oppose
all measures of separation until the will of his con-
stituents was declared for independence ; then, July 4,
he signed the l)eclaration with his colleagues. In the
same month he proposed a tax upon slaves. The next
year he was made a commissioner to treat with Indians.
He defended certain Tories and merchants who refused
to lower their prices to a scale proposed in popular reso-
lutions, and by these and similar acts incurred much
odium. A mob attacked his house with cannon Oct.
4, 1779; he and his friends defended it, the City Troop
came to his aid, and blood was shed. He acted as ad-
vocate-general of France in the United States 1779–81,
and continued to give advice for some time after ; the
post was more laborious and honorable than lucrative.
But his gains at the bar, of which he was long the
ºiciº head in his city and State, were large:
He was a director of the Bank of North America from
1781, and its counsel 1785, agent for his State in 1782
in the controversy with Connecticut concerning the
Wyoming tract on the Susquehanna; again a leading
member in Congress in 1782 and 1786. In the Conven-
tion of 1787 he was “the best-read lawyer,” and chair-
man of the committee which reported the draft of a
constitution, August 6. His services here and after-
ward were perhaps more illustrious than in Congress.
At the State Convention which followed he lauded the
Constitution as “the best form of government ever
offered to the world,” and in the ceremonies which
celebrated its adoption, delivered at the State House,
July 4, 1788, a weighty and memorable oration. Yet as
a member of a committee to harmonize the State con-
stitution with that of the United States, he took the
other side in objecting to the choice of Senators by elec-
tors. Washington appointed him in October, 1789, one
of the first judges of the U. S. Supreme Court. This
post he retained till his death, though his talents were
thought to shine more brilliantly at the bar than on the
bench. One of his decisions, in a case concerning
Georgia, asserted the sovereignty of the nation; in
this Chief-Justice Jay and two others concurred. He
received in 1790 the first appointment as professor of
law at the City College, which was united with the
University of Pennsylvania in 1792. Here he delivered
but three courses of lectures. Appointed in March,
1791, to revise and digest the laws of Pennsylvania,
he submitted in August an elaborate plan. The Senate
did not concur, and he carried on the task for his own
satisfaction, without authority or º His
later practice was chiefly, in the admiralty, Courts.
Large as were his gains, they were swallowed, by the
land speculations then so disastrously rife; he became
involved, and to avoid arrest for debt, exchanged cir-
cuits with a Southern colleague. He died at Edenton,
N. C., Aug. 28, 1798, of strangury, according to the
older accounts. Prof. McMaster goes so far as to say
that he “died a broken-hearted fugitive from justice.”
His Works, including his law-lectures, were edited by
his son, Rev. Bird Wilson (3 vols., lsº )
F. M. B.
WINCHELL, ALEXANDER, geologist, was born at
North East, Duchess co., Dec. 31, 1824.
While still young he evinced a strong inclination
towards what has been the pursuit of his life, and
began teaching at the early age of 15. After several
years, thus engaged, he entered Wesleyan University,
Middletown, Conn., from which he graduated in 1847.
WINDMILLS.–WINLOCK.
783
During the two or three succeeding years he taught the
natural sciences in New York seminaries, engaged in
the study of botany, and in 1849 married Miss Julia
Frances Lines, of Utica, N. Y. In 1850 he removed
to Alabama, where for several years he had charge of
institutions of learning, and continued actively his
natural history studies, sending a valuable collection of
plants, animals, and fossils to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in 1853. In the same year, on the recommenda-
tion of Prof. Louis Agassiz, he was nominated pro-
fessor of physics and civil engineering in the Univer-
sity of Michigan, and early in 1854 entered upon his
duties in this institution, with which he has been so
long connected. In 1855 he was made professor of
geology, zoölogy, and botany, which chair he continued
to fill until June, 1873.
During this period he performed other labors of
importance. In 1859 he served as President of the
State Teachers' Association, and edited and published
the Michigan Journal of Education, and about the
same time began that system of popular writing and
lecturing on science which he has diligently kept up
since. From 1859 to 1861 he occupied the position of
State geologist of Michigan, and again from 1869 to
1871, acting also as director of the geological survey
of Minnesota in 1870. The results of his labors in
this field of duty were embodied in several volumes of
reports of the surveys.
They include The Grand
Prof. Winchell occupies a high rank among Ameri-
can scientists. His long continued services as an edu-
cator in advanced institutions of learning, his labors in
the field as a practical geologist, the valuable reports
in which his geological observations are embodied, the
collections he has made and the new genera and
species described, and his many works devoted to the
popularization of science, constitute a vast amount of
important labors, indicative of unusual industry in the
field of scientific study. His works of popular Science
are written in a clear and interesting manner which
goes far to explain their popularity, while at the same
time they are of a fulness and accuracy and possess an
abundant reference to authorities which are indicative
of the carefulness and very wide reading of the author,
and make them of value to learned as well as un-
learned readers. He is a Christian scientist. While
a believer in the theory of evolution, he does not con-
sider that this is irreconcilable with the teachings of
Christianity. He has done important work in the di-
rection of harmonizing the doctrines of religion and
science. Prof. Winchell contributed to this work the
article on DARWINISM. (C. M.)
WINDMILLS. See AGRICULTURE, Chap. III.
WINEBRENNER, JoFIN. See CHURCH OF GOD.
WINES, ENOCH CoBB (1806–1879), prison reformer,
was born at Hanover, N. J., Feb. 17, 1806. After
graduating at Middlebury College, Vt., 1827, and
Traperse Region of Michigan ; a Geological Map of teaching for two years in Vermont, Virginia, and
Michigan; and an Official Geological Survey of the Salt Washington, he was attached to the U.S. ship Con-
Lands of Minnesota, with numerous papers in scien- stitution, 1829–31, and described the Mediterranean
tific journals. His study of the zoölogical and palae-
ontological material collected during the survey yielded
Seven new genera and 304 new species of animals,
mostly fossil. During this period also he filled from
1866 to 1869 a chair in the Kentucky University
similar to that occupied in the University of Michigan.
In 1872 he accepted the position of chancellor of
Syracuse University, N. Y., but resigned in 1874, and
during several successive years held the chair of
geology and zoölogy in that institution, while lectur-
ing on the same subject at Vanderbilt University,
Tenn. In 1879 he was recalled to the University of
Michigan and assumed the chair of geology and pa-
labontology, which he still holds.
While thus actively engaged as a geologist and edu-
cator, Prof. Winchell has been an industrious writer,
and, in addition to the works named, has produced a
considerable number of works of popular science.
His first production of this kind was Sketches of Crea-
tion (1870). About the same time appeared a work
on The Genealogy of the Winchell Family in America.
Later works comprise Geology of the Stars (1872);
The Doctrine of Evolution (1874); Reconciliation of
Science and Religion (1877); Preadamites (1880);
Sparks from a Geologist's Hammer (1881); World
Jºſe (1883); Geological Eccursions (1884); Geological
Studies (1886), and Shall we Teach Geology 2 (1889).
In addition to the foregoing, Walks and Talks ºn the
Geological Field (1886) was written for the “ Chau-
º Literary and Scientific Circle.”
Within recent years Prof. Winchell has been en-
gaged 9n geological work under the auspices of the
U. S. Geologicaſ Survey, and in the summers of 1886
and 1887 served on the Minnesota Geological Survey
in the region north of Lake Superior, publishing ex-
tended reports of each year's explorations. In ISSS
he was chairman of a committee to organize the
American, Geological Society, and became vice-presi-
‘lent of the society when organized. Early in isss,
he, with six others, established the American Geolo.
gºt, to whose pages he has since been an active con-
tributor. In 1867 he received the degree of Doctor
9f Laws from the Wesleyan University. He has
been a member of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science since 1850, and is a corre.
sponding or honorary member of most of the scientific
societies in the United States and of many in Europe.
and other experiences in Tºo Years and a Half in the
American Navy, 1832. He taught , in a Princeton
school, 1833–38, in the Philadelphia high-school,
1838-44, and at Burlington, N. J., 1844–48. After
entering the Congregational ministry 1849 and .#
charges in Vermont and Long Island, he was appointe
classical professor in Washington College, Pa., 1853,
and was president of the City University of St. Louis,
1859. His specialty was not discovered till 1862, when
he became secretary of the New York Prison Associa-
tion, and gave himself to its line of work. In 1870 he
was transferred to a similar position in the National
Prison Association, then organized at Cincinnati,
chiefly by his means. In 1871 he was sent to Europe
by the U. S. government to bring about an interna-
tional penitentiary congress.
don,
sented, and Wines was made chairman of a permanent
international committee, which after several meetings
called together a second congress at Stockholm in 1877.
At its meeting in Lon-
uly 4, 1872, twenty-six countries were repre-
Qf this he was as before the directing aad inspiring
mind. His work in these later years is shown by his
Various reports, and in The State Prisons and Child-
Saving Institutions throughout the World (1SSO), which
he did not live to see in print. Of his earlier books
the more notable are Houſ shall I Govern My School. 2
(JS38) and Commentaries on the Laws of the Ancient
{{elreics (1853); the latter received much praise. He
died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 10, 1879. His work
in gathering the statisties of prisons, etc., has been
carried on by his son, F. H. Wines.
WINLQCK, Joseph (1826–1875), astronomer and
mathematician, was born in Shelby county, Ky.,
Feb 6, 1826, and died suddenly in Cambridge, Mass.
june 11, 1875. His father, Fielding Winlock, was a
lawyer, and his grandfather, Gen. Joseph Winlock, a
y irginian by birth, was one of the early settlers of
Kentucky, and for some years a member of the State
Senate. The latter having joined the American army
at the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, when he
Was only eighteen years old, was promoted to the rank
of ensign, lieutenant, and captain, and in the war ºf
1812 held the commission of brigadier-general. His
grandson was graduated with distinction from Shelby
Çollege in 1845, and was immediately appointed pro-
fessor of mathematics and astronomy in that institu.
tion. He held this position till lS52, when he went to
784
WINSOR-WITHERSPOON.
Cambridge to take part in the computations for the
newly established American Ephemeris and Nautical
Almanac, and remained in this service till 1856, when
he was appointed professor of mathematics in the U.
S. Navy. He was first assigned to duty at the Naval
Observatory in Washington, but in September, 1856,
was placed in charge of the Nautical Almanac office,
in Cambridge. In 1859 he was ordered to the Naval
Academy, Annapolis, as head of the department of
mathematics. At the outbreak of the war in 1861 he
was again appointed superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac and held this post till he resigned from the
navy in 1866 to accept the position of Phillips profes-
sor of astronomy in Harvard College and director of
the observatory. Up to this time his work had been
almost entirely in theoretical astronomy and in class
instruction, but upon assuming the directorship of the
observatory, he devoted himself to practical astronomy,
to the improvement of the instrumental equipment of
the observatory, and to the establishment of its time-
service upon a very effective and simple plan. In the
new meridian circle mounted at the observatory in
1870, he introduced a number of modifications which
have been generally adopted in the large meridian
circles constructed since that time. In 1869 Prof.
Winlock was chief of the party organized under the
U. S. Coast Survey (of which he was consulting as-
tronomer), for observing the eclipse of the sun of Aug.
7, and he was here the first to obtain a direct photo-
graph of the corona. In 1870 he had charge of a
similar party to observe the solar eclipse of Dec. 22 at
Xerez de la Frontera in Spain, numbering among his
colleagues Profs. Young, Langley, and Pickering.
While preparing for this second eclipse he devised
the form of “ photoheliograph '' (see TELESCOPE)
used by the American parties in observing the transits
of Venus in 1874 and 1882. In August, 1874, he was
appointed by Pres. Grant chief of the commission
established by act of Congress for the purpose of in-
quiring into the causes of steam-boiler explosions, and
his preparations for preliminary experiments were
nearly completed at the time of his death.
Professor Winlock wrote but little. His published
work is found chiefly in the Ammals of the Harvard
Observatory and among the official publications of the
Almanac office and the eclipse Reports of the Coast
Survey. He was a Fellow of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science and of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member of the
Astronomische Gesellschaft, and a corporate member
of the National Academy of Sciences. (W. C. W.)
WINSOR, JUSTIN, librarian, was born in Boston,
Jan. 2, 1831, and received his education at Harvard
and Heidelberg. He was superintendent of the Boston
Public Library during 1868–77, and then became
librarian of the Harvard University, Library. . From
1876 to 1886 he was president of the American Library
Association, being the first to hold that office. Widely
known as a librarian, he has also gained, an enyiable
position as an author. His writings include History
of Duzbury, Mass. (1849); Reader's Hand Book ºf
the American Revolution, 1761–83 (Boston, 1880);
Was Shakespeare Shapleigh 2 (Boston, 1887); and
various pamphlets on historical subjects. He has also
edited the Memorial History of Boston (4 yols., 1880.
81), the valuable Narrative and Critical History ºf
America, the IIarrard University Bulletin (since 1877);
Pibliographical Contributions, for which he has him;
self furnished several valuable... bibliographies of
Ptolemy's Geography, J. O. Halliwell Phillips, etc.;
and the Record of the Commemoration 5–8 Nov., 1886,
on the 250th Anniversary of the Founding of Harvard
College (Cambridge, 1887). He received the degree
of Lí, D. from the University of Michigan.
(F. L. W.)
WIRE. See ROLLING-MILLS.
WiSE HENRY ALpxANDER (1806–1876), Goyer-
nor of Virginia, was born at Drummondtown, Va.,
Dec. 3, 1806. He graduated at Washington College,
Pa., 1825, was admitted to the bar in 1828, and after
a year or two of practice at Nashville, returned to Vir-
ginia in 1830. In the national Democratic convention
of 1832 he supported the nomination of Jackson, but
opposed that of Van Buren. Steering a middle course,
he approved neither the doctrines of nullification nor
the stern repression of them by the government. In
Congress, 1833–44, he won considerable reputation as
a speaker, opposed Jackson's removal of the deposits,
favored Clay's nomination in 1840, and urgéd that of
Tyler as Vice-President. After Tyler's accession to
the Presidency, Wise was one of his chief friends and
counsellors. Named in 1843 as minister to France,
but not confirmed by the Senate, he was appointed to
Brazil in 1844, and remained there three years. He
was a member of the Virginia Constitutional Conven-
tion of 1850. In 1855 he was an Anti-Know-Nothing
candidate for Governor, and was elected. His four
years in this office, 1856–60, cover a period of great
historical importance. In September, 1856, he called
upon the governors of other Southern States to meet
in October for consultation as to the steps to be taken
in the event of Fremont's election. In 1858, as a
Douglas Democrat, he sketched and attacked, in a
letter to W. Sargent, the scheme of the disunionist in-
trigues, as carried out two years later. In February,
1861, he urged pacific measures of compromise ; these
failing, he soon went with his State. #. Cà l'ééI aS 3.
Confederate brigadier was a succession of disasters,
ending with the capture of his forces and the death of
a son at Roanoke Island, Feb. 7, 1862. His later years
were spent in the practice of law at Richmond. He
died Sept. 12, 1876.
WITHERSPOON, JOHN (1722–1794), president of
Princeton College and signer of the Declaration of In-
dependence, was the son of a Scotch minister at Yester,
near Edinburgh, and descended on his mother's side
from John Knox, whose vigor, tenacity, and cont-,
bativeness he in some degree inherited. Born Feb.
5, 1722, he was educated at the University of Edin-
burgh, licensed to preach in 1743, and ordained minis-
ter of Beith 1745. The next year he witnessed the
battle of Falkirk, was arrested with other spectators
by the victors, and imprisoned in Donne Castle. . His
earliest honors were won in the controversies of the
time, wherein he warmly espoused the stricter side
against Robertson and the Moderates. His first book,
Ecclesiastical Characteristics (1753), an anonymous
satire, made much stir, and was followed by a Serior's
Apology, which bore his name. An Essay on Justift :
cation (1756) retains fame among treatises of the higº
Calvinistic order. An Inquiry into the Nature and
Effects of the Stage (1757), was aimed at Home and
his tragedy of Douglas ; the guilty author soon left
the ministry. The Moderate faction in Presbytery
opposed Witherspoon's preferment to the Low Church
at Paisley, but he was installed in January, 1757, and
shortly became moderator of the Synºd of Glasgow
and Ayr. Here he was prosecuted and fined for preach-
ing against certain sinners by name. , His literary
career, arrested for a time, was resumed by the pub-
lication in London of his Essays (3 vols., 1764). He
now received the degree of D. D. from Aberdeen, and
invitations from Dublin, Dundee, and Rotterdam.
These he declined, as also a first call in November, 1766,
from the College of New Jersey | v.), but when this
call was renewed he bade farewell to Scotland in the
spring of 1768 in a volume of Practical Disºquºises.
He was inaugurated as president at Princetºn College
Aug. 17, and began an active and, fruitful adminis:
tration, introducing lectures—then a new experiment
in American colleges—and the study of French and
Hebrew. The latter he taught himself, besides di-
vinity, moral philosophy, and rhetoric ; in additiºn to
all this he was pastor and preacher to the town. These
labors did not prevent his travelling in New England
in search of funds, and seeking them in Virginia and
WOLSELEY. 785
South Carolina, and even Jamaica, the hearts of whose
inhabitants he strove to win by a published Address.
He obtained books and apparatus, with an orrery said
to be the first made by Rittenhouse. He promptly
took a leading place in Presbyterian councils, and }.
a hand in training many of the chief ministers and
laymen of that church.
Dr. Witherspoon's expansive energies found even a
larger field in the American struggle for independence,
in which he was as warm as any , he said he had “be-
come an American the moment he landed.” His fast-
day sermon, May 17, 1776, on the Dominion of Provi-
dence over the Passions of Men, was dedicated to John
Hancock as president of the Continental Congress,
and reprinted with notes in Glasgow to show the
wickedness of rebels. The war, which closed the col-
lege for a time, enabled him to devote himself to the
service of the State. He was a member of the New
Jersey convention called to frame a cºnstition for
the State, and of its first Congress, which he opened
with prayer. Here his gift of sarcasm was exercised
upon William Franklin, son of Benjamin and royalist
governor, who when arrested by the Congress strove
to treat it with supercilious contempt. Witherspoon
was sent to the Continental Congress June 21, and
almost his first act in Philadelphia was to sign the
Declaration. “ The Colonies,” he said, “were not
only ripe for independence, but rotting for want of it.”
His patriotism was as solid and consistent as it was
ready and outspoken. Except in 1780, when he made
an effort to revive the college, he sat in Congress till
November, 1782, always in clerical attire, and account-
ing himself “God’s minister both in a sacred and in a
civil sense.” Already noted as a theologian, he took
equal rank as a civilian, drew up many of the papers
of Congress, and did his full share of work in its
committees and on the floor. He was a member of the
Board of War in 1777, and in February, 1781, pro-
posed to give Congress power to regulate trade. He
supported the financial measures of Robert Morris,
and opposed paper issues after the second ; his Essay
on Money had solid value. His last work was The
Druid (1781). Few civilians of the revolutionary
period occupied a more prominent place in the public
eye ; of all the leaders of that time, after Washington,
he was thought to have the most impressive presence.
His important work seemed to be ended with the war.
Against the advice of Franklin and Jay, he unwisely
undertook in 1783–84 to solicit aid for the college in
Great Britain, where popular irritation against America
made the attempt useless. He yielded to the mania
for land speculation, and had trouble thereby. At the
age of 69 he married a lady of 23. The chief duties
at Princeton in these later years were assumed by his
son-in-law, the vice-president, for Dr. Witherspoon
was afflicted by failing health and sight. He died at his
house, “Tusculum,” near Princeton, Nov. 15, 1794.
His Works were collected in 4 vols., N. Y., 1800–1 (re-
printed in 3 vols., Phila., 1803, and in 9 vols., Edin-
burgh, 1804). A Life of him by Dr. Ashbel Green
remains in MS. in the library of the N. J. Historical
Society. His statue was unveiled in Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia, Oct. 20, 1876; the Proceedings and Ad-
dresses on that occasion were published in 1877.
WOLSELEY, SIR GARNET Joseph, Wiscount, an
eminent British general, son of a major of the same
name, was born at Golden Bridge House, County Dub-
lin, Ireland, June 4, 1833. Educated at a private
School and by tutors at home he early showed a fond-
ness for military studies, especially engineering. He
entered the army on March 12, 1852, as ensign, and
went to Burmah, arriving in March, 1853. He led an
attack on the works of the insurgent Myubtoon, was
dangerously wounded, and lay six months in a critical
condition. In the Crimean war he arrived before Se-
bastopol Dec. 5, 1854, and was under fire the next day;
was actively engaged in repulsing the Russian sorties,
and was posted at the right in the attack. of Dec.
30. He soon volunteered as an assistant engineer, was
made a captain in January, 1855, took a prominent
part in the siege, serving often in the trenches, and re-
ceiving several wounds, one of which gave him trouble
years after. On Dec. 30 he lost an eye and was dis-
abled by numerous wounds, through a round shot
striking a gabion close to him. Recovering he was
appointed on the staff of the quartermaster-general.
Of twelve officers in three messes he was the only one
not killed or sent home wounded. He remained in the
Crimea till the last soldier had left it. After brief Ser-
vice at Aldershot he was sent to India and wrecked in
the Transit, July 10, 1857, on the island of Banca.
He marched under Sir Colin Campbell to the relief of
Lucknow, commanded the storming party which car-
ried the mess-house and drove the enemy from the
Motu Maheel palace, took part in the later actions
with the rebels, and had charge of the quartermaster-
general's department of Sir Hope Grant's division
during the operations in Oude and on the Nepaul
frontier. Made lieutenant-colonel in April, 1859, he
went to China with the same commander, reaching
Hong-Kong March 13, 1860, and took part in the ex-
pedition to the island of Chusan, which surrendered.
In June he went with Grant to the north of China,
and in the movement toward Pekin he had charge of
the topographical department, surveying the country
in advance of the troops, carrying his life in his hand
and twice narrowly escaping capture. He witnessed
the sacking of the Summer Palace and the surrender
of Pekin, Oct. 15. After the embarkation of the
troops he made a trip to Japan, went on a confidential
mission to Nankin to inquire into the condition and
prospects of the Taeping rebels, and reached England
in May, 1861. He sailed in December as assistant
quartermaster-general to an army of 10,000 ordered to
Canada. Disregarding the orders of his government
he visited in August the Confederate armies in Vir-
ginia, meeting Lee and Jackson. The succeeding
years were uneventful; he became colonel in 1865.
The breaking out of an old Crimean wound in the leg
sent him back to England, whence he returned to
command a camp of exercise in Canada, and took the
field against the Fenian invasion near Niagara, 1866.
In 1870, he commanded the expedition which put
down Riel's rebellion on the Red River. Leaving
Toronto May 21 with 1200 men, he made a road from
Thunder Bay, on Lake Superior, took Fort Garry in
August, restored order, installed a new governor of
Manitoba, started eastward Sept. 10, and returned to
England to be knighted and placed on half-pay.
Six months later he was appointed assistant adju-
tant-general of the Horse Guards, and was a member
of Cardwell's commission for the reorganization of the
army. In August, 1873, he was ordered to the Gold
Coast of Africa as governor and major-general to con-
duet the , Ashantee war. Embarking at Liverpool
Sept. 12 he arrived at Cape Coast Castle Oct. 2 with
27 Selected officers, and twelve days later attacked Essa-
Iman with success. After a dangerous attack of fever
he received reinforcements, instructed them in bush-
fighting, and marched into the interior. With 1500
English and 500 natives he defeated King Coffee Cal-
culli at Amsapel, Jan. 31, 1874. He entered Coomas-
file Feb. 4, and burned and left it three days later.
The king now submitted, and the treaty of Fommanah
was concluded, Feb. 13. Sir Garnet sailed for Eng-
land March 4, having rapidly and successfully finished
this war at a cost of £900,000. At home he received
the thanks of Parliament, the permanent rank of
major-general, a grant of £25,000, the ribbon of the
Bath, and various other honors.
He was presently made inspector-general of the
auxiliary forces, and sent, February, 1875, to Natal to
reform the administration and secure the defences of
the cºlony. After acting as governor five months, in-
stituting many reforms, he returned to England in
October and resumed his duties at the war office. In
786
WOMEN.
Nºembº, 1876, he accepted a seat in the Council of
India. While war with Russia threatened, 1877–78,
he was chief of staff to Lord Napier of Magdala, who
was in command of the expeditionary army. , Cyprus
having been ceded by Turkey to Great Britain, he
sailed July 15, 1878, as high commissioner and com-
mander-in-chief of that island, where he reformed the
administration. He predicted the Zulu war, and in
June, 1879, was sent to South Africa as governor and
high commissioner of Natal and the Transvaal to re-
organize Zulu affairs. The natives had been subdued
at Ulundi before his arrival, but he settled the country
by dividing it under a number of petty chiefs. Re-
turning to England May, 1880, he was quartermaster-
general at army head-quarters till April, 1882, when
he succeeded Sir Charles Ellice as adjutant-general.
Placed in command of the expeditionary force sent
to Egypt in 1882 to crush Arabi, he landed at Alex-
andria on Aug. 15, stormed Arabi's lines at Tel-el-
Kebir Sept. 13, received his surrender, and finished
the campaign without much loss, leaving Egypt Oct.
14. He again received the thanks of Parliament, was
gazetted Baron Wolseley of Cairo and of Wolseley in
county Stafford, and raised to the rank of general. In
1883 he received the degree of D. C. L. from Oxford,
and that of LL.D. from Cambridge and Dublin. In
1884 he was again sent to Egypt as commander-in-
chief to direct the expedition for the relief of Khar-
toum and Gen. Gordon. This was a task greater than
had previously been laid upon him, and perhaps
beyond human skill; at any rate his previous successes
were not now repeated. Leaving England Aug. 30 he
went up the Nile, and by Dec. 31 had a large force at
Rorti. Sir H. Stewart was sent across the desert to
Metemuch, which he found too strong to be attacked.
Sir Charles Wilson went up the Nile by steamer, but
learned of the fall of Khartoum and the death of Gor-
don, Jan. 28, 1885. This disaster changed the aspect
of affairs. Lord Wolseley, feeling that Khartoum
should be retaken, but unwilling to exceed his limits
of responsibility, sent to England for instructions, and
received orders to retire upon Korti. Gen. Earle had
meantime advanced up the Nile, but was killed, and
Col. Brackenbury withdrew his troops. By the end
of May the British forces had retired to the frontier of
Upper Egypt. This somewhat inglorious campaign
appeared to demonstrate the inability of European
armies to cope with a large and organized force of
Arabs on their native sands of the remote Soudan.
The Mahdi has never been overthrown, and Gordon is
still unavenged. The commander, though much criti,
cised, was sustained by the government and by general
opinion. Returning home he was a third time thanked
by Parliament, and made K. P. and Viscount Wolseley
of Wolseley, county Stafford.
He is still adjutant-general to the forces, and repre-
sents the modern school of the British army. His
many accomplishments and honors afford a natural
mark for detraction; he has been sneered at as a skilled
concocter of despatches, a courtier, º and car-
pet-knight. To such accusations the facts of his life
are a sufficient answer. He has published A Narrº-
tipe of the War in China in 1860 (1862); Soldier's
Pocket. Book for Field Service (1869), which has been
called “invaluable” and has reached a fourth edition
(iss»); System of Field Manoeuvres, in Essays for the
Weſlägton Prize (1872); Field Pocket-Boºk for the
Anaciliary Forces (1873); and various contributions to
periodicals, among them France as tº Military Power
#, is 70 and 1878 in the Nineteenth Century for Jan-
uary, 1878. His Life was written by Charles Rath-
bone Low (1878). ©
WOMEN, LAw Rºº. º In the Nº.
States the national government, being
See Vºl. XX|Y; a government of ceded powers, has
%. ". (p. 673 .o power by legislation to determine
m. Rep.). the status of the citizens of the sev-
eral States or of its own citizens resident within the
A&.
States, or to make laws governing the rights of real or
personal property situate within the States; hence
there can be but little national legislation in regard to
women. Each State makes laws governing the status
of its own citizens and of the United States citizens
resident therein, also of property located within its
borders, the only restrictions upon State legislation
upon this or any other subject exclusively, within the
jurisdiction of the State governments being that it
shall not be in conflict with the United States Consti-
tution and the laws made in pursuance thereof. From
this peculiar construction of the United States govern-
ment the laws in regard to women, their personal and
gº rights, are not uniform throughout the United
tateS.
1. Law of the United States.—Amendment XIV.,
Section 1, of the United States Constitution declares
that “All persons born or naturalized in the United
States º subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citi-
zens of the United States and of the State in which
they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
citizens of the United States; nor shall any State de-
prive any person of life, liberty, or property without
due process of law ; nor deny to any person within
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
Amendment XV. declares that “The right of citizens
of the United States to vote shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or any State on account
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude,”
and Section 2 of Amendment IV. provides that “The
citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges
and immunities of citizens in the several States.”
Under these provisions of the United States Con-
stitution no State can, by its legislation or by constitu-
tional amendment, deprive women resident within its
borders, either native-born or naturalized by the nat-
uralization laws of the United States, of citizenship
of the United States and of the individual State in
which they reside nor of the “essentials” of such
citizenship. * -
But what are the essentials and rights of citizenship
has been the subject of judicial construction in both
the Federal and State courts, and notwithstanding the
express recognition of the “right to vote '' as a right
of the United States citizens, given in Amendment
XV. of the national Constitution, it has been held
that although all United States citizens are capable of
becoming voters, the right to vote is not a right, in-
munity or essential of citizenship, and that the States
may so regulate its exercise as to determine what
class of inhabitants may vote, and may deny this right
on account of sex and upon all grounds except race,
color, or previous condition of servitude, an anomalous
construction of the fundamental law of a government
whose existence depends upon the exercise of the
elective franchise by its citizens.
A similar construction has been given as to the civil
rights apparently guaranteed to all citizens of the
Ünited States by these constitutional provisions; hence
in general terms it may be stated that the political and
civil rights of women citizens of the United States are
determined not by the Constitution and law of the
Ünited States, but by the constitution and law of the
State in which they reside, and are indiges of the pro.
gressive intelligence of the States. The subject of
naturalization being exclusively within the jurisdiction
of the general government, the naturalization laws
are national and provide for the naturalization of
women aliens, either upon direct application or as
wives and children of naturalized citizens; also as
children of native-born citizens resident abroad, that
is, outside of the jurisdiction of the United States, at
the time of their birth.
As citizens of the United States women may be
commissioned by the general government as post-mis-
tresses, U. S. marshals, captains of steamboats, sur;
geons in the army, nurses and matrons in governmental
WOMEN.
787
hospitals, clerks in the several departments of govern-
ment, and by special act of Congress women, Inay be
commissioned as attorneys-at-law of the Supreme -Y.
as yet extended equal suffrage to, Women, hor has any
Court of the United States. Her right to a commis-
sion as an attorney-at-law of the Circuit and District
Courts of the United States depends upon the pro-
visions of the law of the State in which such cºurt
holds its sessions. * º -
States may also pre-empt lands under the laws of the
general government. They are counted in the basis
of representation, both in the State and national gov-
ernments, and are subject to the general laws govern;
ing taxation; are capable of committing treason and
for treasonable acts are held responsible to the general
government.
2. The State Law.—The characteristic difference
in the personal rights of men and women in the United
States consists in the enjoyment of political rights by
the former. In every State and Territory of the
United States every man not convicted of an igno-
minious crime is a yoter ºr capable of becoming a
voter, clothed with all political rights, and eligible to
the highest office in the government, if he be native-
born, although in many instances exempt from many
of the corresponding political duties of citizenship,
while women are very generally deprived of political
rights. From this deprivation of political rights arise
all the legal disabilities of women in the United
States which are not incident to the marriage relation
under the common law of England. Each State has
the power to extend the right of suffrage to its Women
citizens, either by constitutional amendment or by vir-
tue of a constitutional provision already existing—as
in Wisconsin and Colorado—by a majority vote of its
qualified electors at any general election; also by a three-
fourths vote of the States the national Constitution
may be amended so as to secure to women throughout
the United States the right to vote. Strenuous and
continued efforts have been made to secure these eon-
stitutional amendments, and it is believed that soon
women in the United States will be very generally
clothed with political power. |
Already in the Territories of Wyoming, Washing-
ton, and Utah women vote, serve upon juries, and are
eligible to office; in short, are clothed equally with
men with full political rights, and are subject to the
corresponding political duties of citizenship. *
In Kansas women have equal suffrage upon all mu-
nicipal questions and at all municipal elections, and are
eligible to all municipal offices—absolutely filling the
office of mayor of the municipality in several instances,
but may not vote at Presidential and Congressional
elections.
Since the adoption of Amendments XIV. and XV.
to the national Constitution, the right of women citi-
zens of the United States to vote at Presidential and
Congressional elections has been tested in New York,
Illinois, Missouri, California, Connecticut, and Penn-
sylvania. In Pennsylvania, in 1872, the right of women
to vote at the State elections under the word “free-
men’’ in the State Constitution describing the qualifi-
cations of voters in that State was claimed and resulted
in a change in the State Constitution, by which the
words “male citizens” were substituted for the word
“freemen,” thus confining suffrage to men.
Pennsylvania recognizes the right of women to direct
representation upon the public school question, by
making her eligible to an elective office upon the school
board, thus indirectly recognizing the correlative right
of suffrage. At the present time more than half of
the States recognize the right of married and unmar-
ried women to the school franchise ; noted among
which in the East are Massachusetts and New York. .
In several instances married women have been called
upon to serve upon the school board—always an elective
office—and in one instance to fill the office of State
school superintendent,
In a number of the States strenuous efforts have
!
Women citizens of the United
of the
Sta.es
the governor as a notary public.
sachusetts, New York, and generally in the Western
| States woman may act as notary public, United States
and State commissioner of deeds, and very generally
as administratrix and executrix. The University of
Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Howard University in
Washington. Washington University in St. Louis, Co-
lumbia Law College of New York, also many other law
colleges east and west, afford women equal opportunity
with men to become qualified as legal praetitioners and
* . ޺ *
confer upon them the degree of Bachelor of Law.
been made by those opposed to woman suffrage to have
the right to vote upon the question of license or pro-
hibition” generally extended to woman. No State has
woman yet been called upon to fill the higher political
and judicial offices of the State or natiºn; England,
accustomed to women occupying the highest office in
the kingdom, more easily extends the franchise, subject
to a property qualification, to unmarried women and
| widows.
Professional Rights.-The civil right of choosin;
one's profession of trade apparently guaranteed to all
citizens by the Declaration of Rights, adopted as a
constitutional provision in all of the States and in
Amendment XIV. of the U. S. Constitution—has not
until recently been practically recognized as a right of
women in any of the States, and now but partially pre-
vails throughout the United States. {º
The profession of medicine is open to Women in all
States, and thousands of wºmen in the United
are successfully engaged in this profession.
Women are admitted upon equal terms with men intº
the medical department of many American colleges and
universities. There are also numerous medical colleges
chartered and well-endowed—for women exclusively,
and medical societies, both State and national, are grad-
ually recognizing their right as medical practitioners to
become members thereof in full fellowship.
All of the States in which the question has been
raised have either by direct legislation or by a generie
interpretation of the existing law recognized women's
right to enter the legal profession—Pennsylvania being
one of the first in which application was made, and one
of the last to extend this recognition to women.
Pennsylvania a woman attorney-at-law may, as an offi:
cer and appointee of the court. serve as master and
examiner in equity cases, in which office she is clothed
with the power of the court to subpoena witnesses and
to administer the oath, but may not be appointed by
In
In Connecticut, Mas-
Probably, not more than one hundred women in the
United States are actually engaged in the legal pro-
fession.
The government neither recognizes nor denies
woman's right to enter the elerical profession. The
orthodox religious denominations very generally refuse
to ordain her as a minister, but the Society of Friends
and the most liberal religious sects give her official ree
ognition. Women oecupy high and responsible posi-
tions as educators, public and private, authors, editors,
artists, and musicians, and in eommercial life, and
although they may receive the well-earned degree of
Doctor of Medicine, Doetor of Dental Surgery, Doctor
of Philosophy, Baehelor of Laws, Bachelor of Arts,
Bachelor of Music, and Master of Arts—no theolog-
ieal school is yet open to them, and as yet they are in-
eligible for the degree of Doetor of Divinity.
Neither do the oldest colleges and universities admit
women in all departments to a full eourse of instrue-
tion, Harvard, to meet the demand for their higher
education, has created a department known as the
Harvard Annex, in which they may study and receive
a certificate of proficiency. Nº. sehools of training
are now being established in connection with sehools
for girls, and normal and art schools, also business and
commercial colleges very generally afford educational
opportunities to women and girls.
Women and girls are generally admitted into all
788
trades, subject to the laws prohibiting child labor, and
are very generally admitted into labor organizations,
but are not found at the stock exchange. Female chil.
dren may be bound out or apprenticed to learn a trade
9, as domestic servants by their guardians, parents, or
if paupers by the town or municipal authorities.
Family Rights.--A girl generally becomes of age at
twenty-one ; but in some of the States, as in Vermont,
she is of age at eighteen, or, as in some parts of the
United States, at the time of marriage, provided the
marriage takes place before she arrives at the regularly
prescribed age of legal majority. She however, arrives
at the age of consent so as to be capable of committing
crime at from twelve to sixteen years, and may at this
age generally contract a valid marriage—although in
many of the States to marry a girl who is a minor
Without the consent of her parents or guardians is a
misdemeanor punishable with fine and imprisonment.
In Louisiana marriage is a partnership in which there
is community of interests. In all the other States
Huarriage is a civil contract, regulated and controlled
by the law of the State in which the parties reside,
and may generally be solemnized by a clergyman or by
3.justige of the peace, or other civil magistrate, in
New York, Pennsylvania, and some other States this
contract may become completed by any sufficient words
or fºrm chºsen by the parties in the present tense.
The legal disabilities of married women, arising un-
der the common law legal merger of the wife's indi.
viduality in that of her husband, who thereby becomes
the head of the house and family, obtains in some of
the States so that a married woman may not make a
Valid $9ntract except as to her own estate. In Ohio,
New York, Georgia, Nebraska, and Wyoming, in con-
sequence of this inability to contract, a married woman
may not act as an administratrix. These disabilities
are gradually, being superseded by a general recogni-
tion of a reciprocity of duties and a joint tenancy in
rights and responsibilities in the married relation, so
that in many States married women may make con-
tracts and enforce them by legal action; also are liable
on their ante- and post-nuptial COntracts.
In the Eastern States a married woman is entitled to
respect and honor from her children, but generally is
not entitled to their custody nor bound for their main-
tenance and education, unless she has a separate es-
tate and the father is unable to support them. On
becoming a widow the mother is invested with full
parental authority, is bound for their support and en-
titled to their earnings.
In the newer Western States the more liberal law is
that the father and mother have equal parental rights,
duties, control, and custody of their legitimate children,
and in all of the States, in case of a separation of the
parents, the custody of their children is determined by
the court, having reference only to the welfare of the
child and the ability of the parents, which provision
may be inserted, in case there is a judicial separation,
in the deed of separation. te
An unmarried woman has all the rights and duties
of parental control of an illegitimate child, and may
inherit from and transmit property by the laws of de-
scent through said child. Female heirs in the United
States are under no disability as to their intestate suc-
cession to real estate, as in England, but their right to
administration is in some States postponed in favor
of an older male heir.
Marriage may be dissolved by the law of the State
in which the parties reside, or by the law of the State
in which the husband has his domicile, or in that
where the wife has acquired a legitimate residence and
citizenship, and is the libellant in the case, for causes
specified by the laws of the several States. But very
, generally desertion, cruel and barbarous treatment,
wanton indignities to the person too great to be en-
dured, adultery, imprisonment for three years, and
conviction of an ignominious crime are grounds upon
which to found a proceeding in divorce, subject to the
WOMEN.
Fules of practice in the State in which the action is
brought. In this proceeding the husband and wife
stand upon an equality, the husband being compelled
to furnish the wife with counsel fees and alimony
during the pendency of the suit if she has not jº
elent separate estate. A woman may not testify to
any confidential communications of her husband, nor
against her husband, nor the husband against his
Wife, unless in case of a proceeding in divorce. Neither
can a wife be sued by her husband for her tort con.
mitted during coverture unless in a proceeding in the
nature of a divorce.
Married women may maintain an action of slander
against their husbands. They may also maintain an
action against their husbands upon an ante-nuptial
contract, in which the husband abrogated his maritai
rights under the statute law in consideration of mar:
riage, such contract being good as between the parties.
Married women may not be arrested or imprisoned
for debt in any State, but may be imprisoned for con-
tempt of court. They are generally liable for their
tºrts, and all women, married or single, are liable to
the criminal law of the State to the full penalty of the
law, even though that be death. Women may main-
tain an action in damages for breach of promise and
for seduction in their own right. -
Property, Rights.--The laws governing the rights of
property, of married women form a large part of the
laws of the several States in regard to women. There
is nothing peculiar in the law governing the property
rights of unmarried women and widows, except in
those States, in which there is a property qualification
of suffrage, the rights of unmarried women and widows.
arising from the ownership of property are not the
same as those of men.
Prior to 1848 the common law of England, as to the
property rights of married women, prevailed very
generally, throughout the United States. In the
years 1848 and 1850 several of these existing States
passed a Married Woman's Property Act, securing to a
married woman all legal and equitable estates owned
by her at the time of her marriage or acquired by her
during coverture by gift, devise, or purchase, other
than from or through her husband, for her sole and
Separate use, to be hers absolutely, and not liable to
be taken in execution for her husband's debts.
These acts very generally empowered her to dispose
of her separate estate by sale, |. husband giving his
consent thereto and joining in the deed of conveyance,
also by last will and testament (her husband having first
given his written consent thereto), subject to the hus-
and's right of curtesy, or otherwise to dispose of it
according to the terms of the articles of settlement
by which her separate estate was created.
These acts, designed only to protect the separate
estate of the wife from execution for the husband's
debts, were so construed as to give to the husband, as
the natural guardian of the wife, the exclusive right
of control and management, also the rents and profits
of her separate estate, thus depriving her entirely of the
rights of ownership—so “jealous º was the law for the
“protection of the rights of the wife.” These laws all
failed to emancipate jºr person from the common law
control of the husband, so as to recognize her right to
her earnings after marriage, or to any interest in their
joint earnings other than her dower, which, as at com-
mon law, she had in all lands possessed by the husband
during coverture. Many of these older States have
since so modified their laws as to give to married
women absºlute power to dispose of their separate
estate by will, subject only to º: husband's right of
statute or common law curtesy, and to secure to a
married woman her own earnings, either as a feme sole
trader, or by petition filed declaring her intention to
claim her earnings subsequent to the date of the pe-
tition, the effort being to gradually remove the legal
disabilities of married women as to property, and to
secure to them all the rights of ownership consistent
WOOD-WRIGHT.
789
with the common law idea of marriage. The newer
States erected since that period have very generally
made more liberal laws, equalizing the property rights
of the husband and wife in the separate estate of t
other, making a statutory dower and curtesy whi
shall be equal, or abolishing all dower and curtesy an
giving widow and widower equal rights under the in-
testate laws, both in their separate and joint estates;
in short, recognizing the legal individuality of the
º
the husband destined soon to be relegated like its other
visions to the past. (See DIvoBCE, HUSBAND
NNWIFE, INTERNATIONAL LAW, etc.) (C. B. K.)
º, WOOD, GEORGE B. (1797–1879), physician and
jihedical author, was born in Greenwich, Cumber-
and co., J., March 13, 1797. He began his
education in New York but afterwards entered the
University of Pennsylvania where he graduated
in 1815, and received his degree of M. D. in
wife, and giving a community of interests with equal
rights of control over the property secured by their
joint earnings after marriage.
Some of the States, as Mississippi, Delaware, and
Indiana, have also abolished all dower and curtesy,
and given instead statutory rights under the intestate
laws, while Florida, West Virginia, and Louisiana
have created a statutory dower of a life-interest
in all, of the estates of the husband and in their
joint earnings. In general both the husband and
wife must join in the deed of conveyance of the joint
property, and of the property acquired by either before
marriage; but in many of the States the husband may
yet mortgage his property and the property secured by
their joint earnings, such property standing in his
name, without the wife joining in the deed of convey-
ance. Massachusetts gives all the property to the
widow if there are no children, if the property does
not exceed in value $5000. Some other States make
the limited value which the childless widow may take
$20,000, the surplus being divided among the relatives
of the husband; but if there are no kindred of his
living, then the widow may take the entire estate.
Pennsylvania gives the widow and widower equal shares
in the separate estates of husband and wife; if there
are no children, the husband and widower possesses
absolutely the joint property secured and acquired by
their joint earnings after marriage, unless during the
lifetime of the wife she is recognized as a business
partner, while the widow, if there are no children, has
one-half of the personalty absolutely, and but a life-in-
terest in one-third of the realty, the remaining portion
being given to the relatives of the husband; but in
case there are no kindred of the husband living, she
takes, under the intestate laws, the entire property, as
does the widower, without regard to her kindred
if there are no children.
In New Jersey, Maryland, and South Carolina the
common law rights of the husband and widower still
prevail as to the property acquired after marriage and
the separate property of the wife, while the widow takes
but the common law portion in the husband's estate.
A very general provision is made for the exemption
of certain property from execution for the benefit of
the family, ranging from the sum of $300 to a home-
stead of 160 acres of land; or if located within a town
or city, a homestead of the value of $5000, which
homestead can neither be mortgaged nor sold unless the
wife joins in the deed of conveyance and a separate
acknowledgment is taken from her. These homestead
laws are for the benefit of the wife and children. To
understand the laws governing the rights of property
of married women accurately it is necessary to become
familiar with the statutes of each State, but in general
it may be stated that the wife has the absolute control
and management of her separate estate, and is entitled
to receive therefrom the rents and profits, and appro-
priate the same to her own use, and may make valid
contracts for the benefit of her own separate estate,
upon which she may sue and be sued; and while the
tendency is uniform and steady throughout the United
States to equalize the property rights of married
men and women, and while married women may very
generally have the rights of ownership over their own
Separate earnings after marriage secured to them, the
husband has generally the superior right of control
and ownership of the property acquired by their joint
efforts after marriage--a vestige of the common law
y
1818. In 1820 he delivered a course of lectures on
chemistry, and in 1822 was appointed to the chair of
chemistry in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy,
and in 1831 to that of materia medica in the same
school. In 1835 he was appointed professor of chemis-
try and pharmacy in the University of Pennsylvania,
which position he filled for 15 years, with eminent dis-
tinction. In 1850 he was transferred to the chair of the
theory and practice of medicine, which he continued to
fill till 1860, when he resigned and was appointed pro-
fessor emeritus. Dr. Wood had devoted himself ear-
nestly to the advancement of his students and had
promoted the interests and enhanced the reputation of
the University of Pennsylvania. He procured at
great expense living specimens of exotic plants for ex-
hibition to his students. In 1865 he endowed, in con-
nection with the university, an auxiliary faculty of
medicine consisting of five chairs : zoölogy and com-
parative anatomy, botany, geology and mineralogy, hy-
iene, medical jurisprudence and toxicology. In 1859
r. Wood was elected president of the American Phi-
losophical Society. He died March 30, 1879. Besides
preparing a History of the University of Pennsylva-
mia (1827), Dr. Wood was author of a number of works
which rank high in medical literature. Among these
were Treatise on the Practice of Medicine (2 vols.,
1847), which passed through several editions and was
adopted as a text-book by the University of Edinburgh ;
and A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology
(2 vols., 1856). Pharmacopoeia (1850), prepared with
the aid of Dr. Bache, was adopted by the national con-
vention of physicians, and became the basis of the
present United States Pharmacopoeia. His Dispensa-
tory of the United States (1st ed., 1833), a work thor-
oughly exhaustive in its description of many medical
agents peculiar to the American practice, has gone
through 16 editions, the later editions having been re-
vised by his son, Dr. Horatio C. Wood, and others.
WOOL See SHEEP.
WOOLSEY, THEoDoRE Dwight, president of
Yale College, was born in New York City, Oct. 31,
1801. He graduated at Yale in 1820, studied law and
theology at Princeton, and was a tutor at Yale for two
years. He then spent three years in Germany, study-
ing Greek at Leipsie, Bonn, and Berlin. On his re-
turn in 1831 he was made professor of Greek at Yale
College. In 1843 he assisted in founding the New
Englander, and was one of its editors. In is 46 he was
chosen president of Yale College, and held this office
for 25 years, during which the institution was enlarged
and improved in many ways. Since 1871 he has retired
from public duties, but was president of the American
Company of revisers of the English New Testament
from 1871 to 1881, and has been engaged in a variety of
literary work. He edited as college text-books, Eu-
ripides' Alcest's (1834); Sophocles' Antigone (1835) and
Electra (1837); AEschylus' Prometheus (1837) and
Plato's Gorgias (1843). He also published Introduc-
tion to the Study of International Law (1860; 5th ed.,
1879); Divºrce and Divorce Legislation (l 869; 2d ed.,
|SS3); Religion of the Present and the Future (isii).
Jºlitical Science (2 vols., 1877); Communism and
Socialism (1880). He has also contributed to the
leading reviews.
WORM. See EARTH-worxt.
WRIGHT, SILAs (1795–1847)
at Amherst, Mass., May 24, 1795; removed in infancy
to Addison co., Vt. His father was a farmer in modi.
, Statesman, was born
merger of the legal individuality of the wife in that of
erate circumstances; his ancestor had been one of the

790
WYMAN–WYTHE.
first settlers of Springfield and Northampton. He ſtures of the most noted anatomists, physiologists, and
graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., 1815, and after
admission to the bar in 1819 settled at Canton, St.
Lawrence co. Here he became an active member and
officer of militia, and rapidly rose to prominence in
State affairs, opposing Clinton and espousing the cause
of Van Buren. He was sent to the State Senate in
1823, and to Congress in 1827, where he helped to
frame the tariff of 1828, which he afterwards consid-
ered “a great error.” Re-elected 1829 his seat was
disputed, and he resigned it to succeed Marcy as comp-
troller of New York. This post he held four years,
and during that time was a member of the Democratic
State and national conventions. He was sent to the
U. S. Senate 1833 for an unexpired term, and re-
elected 1837 and 1843. In this i. he won a high
reputation and the compliments of Webster, Benton
entitled him “the Cato of the Senate.” He supported
Pres. Jackson's measures, opposed the U. S. Bank,
and voted for Clay's compromise bill. He was a
delegate to the convention which nominated his friend,
Van Buren, and strove to prepare the public mind for
the independent treasury plan. The bill, after three
failures, was passed July 1, 1840. He favored Van
Buren's bankrupt bill, and labored for his re-election
in 1840; supported the tariff bill of 1842, and the
bank vetoes of Tyler, but opposed the other measures
of that President. On the slavery question he occu-
pied a middle ground, favorable neither to the med-
dling with the institution as it stood nor to the exten-
sion of its area ; he resisted the extreme proposals of
Calhoun, and approved measures looking towards
abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. A
speech at Canton, July 4, 1839, promulgated his opin-
ions on this topic. He declined the Chief-Justiceship,
offered by Tyler in 1844, and in that year be defeated
Fillmore in the contest for the governorship of New
York, and resigned his seat in the Senate. This, as
the issue proved, was a mistake, for he was better
fitted to the national arena than to a smaller one, and
to a legislative than to an executive office. Long prac-
tice had made him more familiar with measures than
with men, a statesman rather than a politician. His
term was troubled by the agitations of the Anti-renters
and outrages of the “Indians; ” these he suppressed
with a strong hand, putting down an insurrection in
Delaware co., and declining to pardon persons Sen:
tenced to terms of imprisonment, though he advised
the mitigation of future laws by abolishing distress
for rent, and other measures to modify a system which
had become oppressive. His party was then divided
into “ Hunkers” and
would lead neither, but followed a middle course,
first opposing revision of the State constitution and
then approving the bill for a convention after it had
passed. He was renominated and defeated in 1846,
and died at Canton, Aug. 27, 1847. In manners he was
always a plain countryman, and this failure at home
may have gone to his heart. See his Life by J. S.
Jenkins (1847) and by J. D. Hammond (1848).
WYMAN, JEFFRIES (1814–1874), comparative anat-
omist, was born in Chelmsford, Mass., Aug. 11, 1814,
his father, Dr. Rufus Wyman, being the first physi-
cian of the Maclean Insane Asylum, the earliest in-
stitution of its kind in New England. Young Wyman
was prepared for college at º Academy, Exeter,
enteed'Harvard in 1829 and graduated in 1833. He
studied medicine with his father and Dr. Dalton and
took the degree of M. D. in 1837. His first appoint-
ment after graduation was as demonstrator to Dr. J.
C. Warren, professor in Harvard University. Soon
afterward he received the appointment of curator of
the Lowell Institute, and in 1841 delivered a course of
iºctures before the Institute. He used the money earned
by this for a voyage to Europe and attended the lec-
“Barnburners '' (q. v.); he
natural historians in France and England. In 1843 he
was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology
in Hampden College, Richmond, Va., ..". 1847,
Hersey professor of anatomy in Harvard ; and began
the formation of the museum of comparative anatomy
with which his name is associated. In its behalf he
was wont to make long voyages in America, Europe,
and Asia, In, 1856 he was made president of the
Boston Natural History Society, filling this position
till 1870, and in 1857 was chosen president of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
On the foundation of the archaeological museum by
Mr. Peabody of London in 1866, he was appointed its
curator, an office which, as well as the Hersey pro-
fessorship, he held till his death. Prof. Wyman
was one of the four members in addition to Prof. Agassiz
who constituted the faculty of the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, and entered with unflagging interest
into all the large designs of his illustrious colleagues,
who regarded him as ranking among the greatest
comparative anatomists. A threatened attack of peri-
odical catarrh compelled him in August, 1874, to leave
Cambridge for the White Mountains, but before doing
so he put both his museums into the most perfect
order. On Sept. 4, 1874, he succumbed to a sudden
hemorrhage wº proved almost immediately fatal,
the place of his death being Bethlehem, N. H. Prof.
Wyman was the author of numerous scientific papers
on anatomical and physiological subjects, the titles of
64 of which appear in the Catalogue of Scientific
Papers, published by the Royal Society of London.
WYTHE, GEORGE (1726–1806), statesman, jurist,
and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was
born in Elizabeth City co., Va., of a wealthy family.
His education was mostly private, and largely his own
work in later years : his youth was spent in reckless
dissipation. At thirty he altered his course, was ad-
mitted to the bar 1757, and the next year entered the
House of Burgesses, where he acquired the greatest
consideration and influence. He was one of the earliest
and most ardent of patriots, and near the end of 1764
was a member of the committee appointed to draw up
a petition to the king and addresses to Parliament.
The remonstrance to the Commons on the proposed
Stamp Act was written by Wythe, and his colleagues
found it much too outspoken for prudence or propriety.
As a member of the Continental Congress, 1775–7, he
held the same views, and was ripe for independence.
With Mason and R. H. Lee he framed the Virginia
constitution in 1776; some months later, with Pendle-
ton and his pupil Jefferson, he was set at a revision of
the State laws. The next year he was Speaker of the
House of Delegates and one of the three judges of
Chancery; in this court he disregarded his popularity
in maintaining the rights of British creditors. The
war, which he so strongly favored, caused the loss of
much of his property. He was professor of law at
William and Mary College 1779–89. In the Constitu-
|tional Convention, and in that of Virginia, which rati-
fied the document, he was active and prominent on the
side of union. The court was reorganized in 1786 and
he made sole chancellor. He was “singularly able to
foresee the latent powers of great men, and help them
to great careers.” . One of the most determined of the
Virginia abolitionists, his will freed his slaves, and
made provision for them. To legal abilities and ac-
quirements of a high order he united a liberal taste for
letters, eminent social gifts, and a fondness for instruct:
ing and influencing the young. He lived at Richmond
from 1789, and there died § poison, June 8, 1806;
judicial proceedings failed to bring the supposed mur-
derer to punishment. Jefferson, to whom his library
and instruments were bequeathed, said that “no man
ever left a character more venerated.”
YALE UNIVERSITY –YANCEY.
Y.
YALE UNIVERSITY. This famous institution Degrees were first given in law in 1843, in philo-
of learning at New Haven, Conn., was named from sophy in 1852, in theology in 1867. The present
an early benefactor, Elihu Yale, F.R.S. (1648– number of graduates is about 13,000. . There are
1721), born at New Haven, to which his father some 72 professors, 50 or more tutors, instructors,
Thomas had emigrated 1738. The family re- lecturers, etc.; 117 students in divinity, 26 in medi-
turned to England 1658, and he never revisited cine, 94 in law, 58 in fine arts, 291 in the scientific
America, but went about 1678 to India, where he school, 69 in the graduate courses, and 614 in the
acquired wealth, married a native lady, and was college proper, making a net total of 1245. The
governor of Fort St. George, at Madras, 1687–92. annual cost of tuition in the college and Scientific
Taking home a quantity of Eastern products about school is $150, and in the other departments some-
1700, he had them sold at the first auction known in what less; in that of theology it is free. Beneficiary
England. He became governor of the East India. aid is given to students needing it, and there are
Company. But his name is preserved by his gifts of sundry fellowships, scholarships and prizes. Changes
books and money, amounting in all to nearly £500, have recently been made in the direction of greater
to the nascent school at his birthplace. In 1717 freedom of study, though to a less extent than at
Cotton Mather had advised these donations, and on Harvard ; in 1885 four-fifths of the work of the
their account the collegiate house, erected in 1718, seniors, and over half that of the juniors, was made
received his name, which in the charter of 1745 was elective. Over ninety elective studies are now
extended to the institution. He died in London, open, besides several courses of lectures. The
July 22, 1721. A college had been in view from Sheffield Scientific School received in 1863 through
the settlement of New Haven in 1638, but Mas- the legislature the national appropriation under the
sachusetts urged that Harvard was enough for all law of July, 1862, for agriculture and the mechanic
New England. The project was revived by a few arts, yielding some $8000 per annum ; it gives the
ministers and on Oct. 9, 1701, a charter was granted degree of Ph.B. and of Civil and Mechanical (or
for a “collegiate school,” and the government vested Dynamic) Engineer.
in a rector and ten fellows, all clericai. Saybrook The University buildings occupy a square of some
was chosen as “the most convenient place at pre- nine acres in the midst of New Haven, adjoining
sent,” and Pierson, pastor of Killingworth, put in the public green. They are numerous and of various
charge. For six months he taught a solitary stu- |dates; the most recent are the Sloane Memorial
dent at home ; in September, 1702, seven more came, laboratory for physics, opened 1884; Lawrence and
a tutor was chosen, and a commencement held. | Dwight halls, 1886; and the Kent chemical labora-
The transfer to New Haven in 1716 was vehemently tory. The handsomest is that of the School of Fine
opposed, and most of the library lost in the process. Arts, which cost $175,000 : to this the Trumbull
For many years the rector was assisted only by two paintings were removed in 1868. The Peabody
or three tutors; the charter of 1745 changed his title Museum of National History was erected 1876, at
to president. A professor of divinity was added in a similar cost, from the proceeds of a gift made in
1755, and in 1771 one of mathematics, physics, and 1866; it has geological, zoological and mineralogical
astronomy, though this chair was not permanently | collections, with a curator for each. The observa-
filled till 1794. Before the Revolution occasional tory was built from a bequest of O. F. Winchester.
grants were made by the legislature ; in 1792, the
State gave some $30,000, and added to the Board
of Fellows the governor, lieutenant-governor and
the six senior assistants in the Council. For the
last senators were substituted from 1818, and these
by request of the corporation were in 1872 displaced
by graduates, one to be chosen annually, to serve
six years. These have been the only changes in
the government.
The presidents have been Abraham Pierson,
$150,000.
1701–7 ; Samuel Andrew, pro tem., 1707–19 and
1722–5; Timothy Cutler, 1719–22; Elisha Williams,
1725–39; Thomas Clap, 1739–66; Naplºtali Daggett,
1766–77; Ezra Stiles, 1777–95; Timothy Dwight,
1795–1817 ; Jeremiah Day, 1817–46; Theodore D.
Woolsey, 1846–71; Noah Porter, 1871–SG : Timothy
Dwight (a grandson of his namesake), 1886. The
growth of the institution has been chiefly within
the present century. Under the vigorous admin-
istration of the first Dr. Dwight the faculty was
strengthened in 1802 by the acceptation of Benjamin
Silliman (for whom see ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITAN-
NICA), as professor of chemistry ; in 1805 J. L.
Kingsley was made professor of Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin. A department of medicine was established
in 1812, of theology in 1822, of law in 1824. As re-
organized in 1871, the college has also departments
of philosophy and the arts. The last now includes
the academical department or “Yale College,” the
Sheffield Scientific School, begun 1847 and endowed
1869, the courses for graduates first arranged in
1847, and the School of the Fine Arts, founded in
1864 by A. R. Street.
The University Library contains about 135,000
volumes, the Linonian and Brothers' Library 29,500,
and those of various departments bring the sum
total up to 188,000. The invested funds amount to
$2,000,000, and the annual income from tuition over
The Ammals of Yale were written to 1766
by President T. Clap, and to 1831 by E. Baldwin.
Prof. W. L. Kingsley prepared its History (2 vols.,
1879), and Prof. Franklin B. Dexter is engaged on
a still more elaborate one, of which one volume has
appeared. He has also published a neat Handbook
of the College.
YANCEY, WILLIAM LowNDEs (1814–1863),
proslavery politician, was born at Ogeechee Shoals,
Ga., Aug. 10, 1814. After admission to the bar and
a brief sojourn in South Carolina, he removed to
Alabama, 1837, became an editor, was sent to the
State Assembly and Senate, and to Congress 1844–7.
For the next ten years he was little known to the
country at large, but was gathering reputation and
influence in what he considered his country. His
Whole mind and heart were given to the South and
to her “peculiar institution,” and of that cause he
was the most adroit, brilliant and indefatigable
champion, though he long labored, conspirator-like,
in the dark. General attention was first drawn to
him by the unauthorized publication of his so-called
“Scarlet Letter,” dated June 15, 1858, to James
Slaughter ; in this he assumed for the South a revo-
lutionary attitude, urged the formation of commit-
tees of safety, and organization in the Cotton States
to resist Northern aggression. Undaunted by this
premature exposure of his plans, he continued his
Q
4-d
79
Crusade with almost
unexampled energy and the permanent use of the people.
YELLOW FEVER—YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.
It was well worthy
activity, laboring with tongue and pen throughout of this prompt action, for in its special range of phé-
his section to bring Southern sentiment to a point
at which continued union with the North would be
no longer possible. He wrote, Sept. 4, 1858: “I am
a secessionist and not a revolutionist, and would
not precipitate, but carefully prepare to meet an
inevitable dissolution,” which became inevitablº
largely through his efforts. The biographers of
Lincoln call him “the Wendell Phillips of the South,
a born agitator, the brain and soul of the proslavery
reaction.” The course of the National Democratic
Convention of 1860 was outlined and almost dic-
tated by him three months before it met ; at the
Alabama Convention in January, he said: “The
States’ Rights men should present their demands.
If denied, they should secede from the convention,
appeal to the whole people of the South, and Organ-
ize another.” In the event of the election of a
Republican to the presidency, he provided a plan
for State conventions, whereby “the South should
seek her independence out of the Union.” As he
said, so it was done. At the Charleston Convention
in April, he was the leading spirit and (to Southern
ears) the most welcome and persuasive orator. He
showed the Southern members their mistake in ad-
mitting theoretical objections to slavery, and as-
sured them that the only logical Democratic position
was one of reverence for the institution as essen-
tially good and holy. A majority having accepted
Douglas's platform, the Alabama delegate set the
example of withdrawal from the Convention, April
30, and were followed by those of the other Cotton
States. At the Baltimore Convention in June,
Yancey and his co-workers were present, and effected
(if they had not done it before) a complete sever-
ance of the party, passing to a convention of their
own at Richmond. These schemes of disunion had
already been explained and denounced in the Senate
(May 16) by Douglas, who bore witness to the
“ability, courage and sincerity” of Yancey. He was
in his element for the last time at the Convention of
his State in January, 1861, requiring submissive
reverence to the ordinance of secession from the
Union, and urging “ the penalties of treason” for
those who disobeyed it, the members from the
Northern counties, not then prepared to go all
lengths at once, scoffed at his position, and burned
him in effigy. He went abroad in March as a Con-
federate Commissioner to seek for recognition in .
Europe, but was unsuccessful ; he was an agitator
rather than a diplomatist, and could better kindle a
fire than support or direct the flame. Returning in
February, 1852, he was sent to the Confederate Sen-
ate, but died near Montgomery, Ala., July 28, 1863.
YELLOW FEVER. See FEVER.
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. Of
the many striking examples of natural
sº phenomena in America there are none
. (p }s, to surpass those included within the
Am. Rep.). Jimits of the government reservation
known by the above title, which, by Act
of Congress of March 1, 1872, was “dedicated and
set apart as a public park or pleasuring grºund, for
the benefit and enjoyment of the people.” The
marvels of this locality, of which rumors had for
some years been afloat, were first made knºwn in
1869 by a party of surveyors who visited the Yellow-
stone region, and who were followed in 1870 by an
expedition under Gen. Washburn, surveyor-general
of Wyoming Territory. The report of its wonders
excited much interest, and in 1871 a government ex-
ploring party under Professor F. V. Hayden visited,
explored, and mapped the district, and gave the first
detailed report of its striking features of natural
scenery and phenomena. Congress at once, tºok
measures to preserve it from Spoliation or speculative
occupation, by setting it aside as a national park for
nomena it has no rival upon the earth, and is well
worthy the name of “The Northern Wonderland,”
which Professor Hayden gave it, in distinction from
“The Southern Wonderland” of New Zealand.
The Yellowstone Park is situated in the extreme
northwestern portion of Wyoming Territory, extend-
ing slightly beyond its boundaries into Idaho and
Montana, and embraces an oblong tract 55 miles
east and West, and 65.miles north and south. Its
area is 3575 Square miles, the whole of which is at
an altitude of more than 6000 feet above sea level.
The Yellowstone Lake, which is included within its
borders, has an altitude of 7788 feet, while its bor
dering mountain ranges are from 10,000 to 12,000
feet high, and covered with perpetual snow. This
region, while containing varied examples of striking
natural Scenery, is specially notable for the hot
Springs and geysers which it possesses in extraordi-
nary abundance, they being without parallel in the
World in number and magnificence. These are the
final stages of a great volcanic activity which seems
to have affected the whole region in recent geologi-
cal times, and whose temperature conditions still
exist at no great distance below the surface. Out-
side this region, geysers (periodical eruptive springs)
are found only in Iceland and New Zealand, the so-
called geysers of California being rather fumaroles,
or vapor vents. In magnificence of display, how-
ever, the great geysers of Iceland are far surpassed
by those of the geyser basin of Firehole River,
in Yellowstone Park.
The Yellowstone region is, in its geographical
features, one of the most interesting of North
America. Within its limits or in its vicinity are
the sources of several of the great rivers of the con-
tinent, which flow from that centre to the east, west,
asd south.
On the north are the head waters of the Yellow-
stone ; on the west those of the principal forks of
the Missouri ; on the South and Southwest those of
the Snake, an affluent of the Columbia, and of the
Green, a branch of the Colorado; and on the south-
east, those of the Wind River. The Yellowstone,
a tributary of the Missouri, is, with the exception
of the Colorado, the most remarkable river on the
continent. It has its source in Yellowstone Lake,
near the southeast corner of the park. This lake,
22 miles long by 10 to 15 wide, is nearly surrounded
by snow-clad mountains, its waters are exquisitely
clear, its shores rugged but picturesque. The lake
is fed by the Upper Yellowstone, after a run of 25
miles from its sources. From its north end flows
the main stream of the Yellowstone, with a course
of 1300 miles to the Missouri. Near its point of
exit from the lake is a belt of hot springs 3 miles
long by 3 mile wide, some of them extending into
the lake. About 15 miles below the lake the river
descends to the lower level in two magnificent cata-
racts, that known as the Upper Falls being 140
feet in vertical height. About a quarter of a mile
below this are the majestic Lower Falls, one of the
principal attractions of the park. There the stream
falls down a declivity of about 330 feet in height
forming a cataract which far surpasses that o
Niagara in beauty, though not its equal in grandeur.
Below this the river enters the Grand Cañon, a
mighty cleft in the volcanic rocks, 20 miles long,
with perpendicular sides from 200 to 500 feet high.
There is no scenery of the kind in the world that
surpasses this cañon in sublimity, even the Grand
Cañon of the Colorado, though exceeding it in di-
mensions, not surpassing it in grandeur of effect,
while its many colored walls give it a magnificence
of aspect not to be indicated by any description.
Just below the cañon the main stream is joined by
Tower Creek, which flows for 10 miles through a
4
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.
793
deep and gloomy cañon known as Devil's Den, in
which the basaltic rock is evolved into multitudes
of tower-like pinnacles and columns, just above its
mouth the creek breaks into a highly picturesque
and beautiful fall of 156 feet in vertical height,
which constitutes one of the chief attractions of the
locality. Below this point the Yellowstone flows
through an open country, bounded by lofty hills.
The Yellowstone, though not the region of the
great geysers, possesses a remarkable abundance of
hot springs, significant of excessive volcanic activity
in past times. Some of these are dead, their former
existence being indicated by calcareous deposits:
others are evidently failing ; but many are still in
full activity. There is an interesting group of these
springs on the east side of Mount Washburn, extend-
ing over an area of 10 to 15 square miles. But the
most remarkable group, not merely in that locality
but in the world, is that of the Mammoth, or the
White Mountain Hot Springs, near the northern
boundary of the Park. These extend from the mar-
gin of Gardiner’s River, up the sloping side of White
Mountain, to an elevation of nearly 1000 feet above
the river level. As springs they are less remarkable
at present than some of those in other regions of the
Park, but the conditions produced by their former
history give them peculiar value. An area of about
two square miles is covered by snow-white calca-
reous deposits, which extend over the entire side of
the mountain, and present the appearance of a series
of frozen cascades.
The steep mountain sides
are ornamented with a succes-
sion of semi-circular basins,
with margins from a few inches
to 6 or 8 feet in height, which
are scalloped and adorned with
bead-like tracery in every
shade of scarlet, green, and
yellow, on a white ground-
work. The water from the
active springs gathers in pools.
in these basins, and flows over
their margins in cascades,
gradually losing its heat as it
descends the mountain slope.
On the summit of the hill is a
large spring, whose dimensions
are 25 by 40 feet. Its water is
perfectly transparent, while
the sides and rim of basin are
beautifully ornamented with
coral-like and other forms of
calcareous deposits, of many
shades of color. The over-
flowing water of this basin
makes its way down the hill
in the cascades described,
while the whole scene, with the delicate fretwork of
its terraces and its exquisitely soft shades of color,
is of a beauty seldom equalled. The branch of the
Northern Pacific Railroad which enters the Park
from Livingston, ends near this locality at Cinnabar,
whence coaches convey tourists six miles further to
the Mammoth Hot Springs Hotel, which is the initial
point of the usual Park tours.
Another interesting locality on the Yellowstone,
about ten miles below the falls, is Sulphur Moun-
tain, which rises on the west side of the river to a
height of 150 feet from a nearly level plain. This
hill is perforated by numerous fissures and craters,
from which sulphurous vapors issue in profusion,
while the sides of the fissures are lined with crystals
of sulphur, and the ground is hot from internal fires.
Near by are some springs of boiling mud. Two
miles to the east of this locality is another remarka-
Volcano, a crater of boiling mud 25 feet across. The
surface of the mud is about 30 feet below the crater
level, and is in constant ebullition, while dense
clouds of steam rise to a height of several hundred
feet. By the occasional explosive outbursts masses
of mud are hurled to great distances. There are
three large hot springs in the vicinity, one of them
a geyser, with a period of activity about every six
hours.
The whole region of the Yellowstone Park contains
from 5000 to 10,000 hot springs. These are chiefly
of two kinds, calcareous and silicated, and deposit
lime or silica around their borders, often in elabo-
rate and elegantly ornamented forms, whose colors
vary almost as greatly as their shapes. The tem-
perature of the calcareous springs range from 160
to 170 degrees or over, the boiling point of the region
being from 198 to 199 degrees. The Gardiner River
hot springs are principally calcareous; in other
places, as on Firehole River, the springs are sili-
cated.
The most surprising phenomena of the Park, its
geysers, are principally found on the stream just
named, and near Shoshone Lake, at the head of
Lake Fork of the Snake River. Firehole River
is a fork of the Madison, which in its turn is a
tributary of the Missouri. Within the locality here
indicated there are probably 50 geysers which throw
columns of water to a height of from 50 to 200 feet,
while the vents of all kinds number thousands. On
every side is seen evidence of volanic activity on
Pulpit Terrace.
a stupendous scale in past ages, of which the gey-
sers and hot springs form the slowly subsiding
remnant, throughout the Park, indeed, the work ºf
ancient lava outflows is visible in broad sheets of
ble group of mud springs, and a few miles above
Sulphur Mountain occurs what is known as Mud
Vol. IV.-2 z
basalt, which form mesas or tablelands in the valley
while on the hills volcanic breccias are weathered

794
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.
into varied and fantastic forms. On the Firehole
River the geysers compose two large groups, in-
ºluded within an area of about 30 square miles.
Here much of the ground is covered with a Snowy
Mud Volcano.
deposit from the geyser waters, while the surface
of the variously shaped mounds from which the
waters spring is in some cases exquisitely orna-
mented by deposits like “scalloped embroidering
set with pearly tubercules.” In other cases the
deposit of silica assumes the most fantastic forms.
Occasionally it is deposited in a gelatinous condi-
tion to a depth of 3 or 4 inclies, resembling starch
paste. Trúnks and branches of trees immersed in
these waters quickly become covered with a stone-
like deposit of silica; or are petriſied, in popular
language.
Of the two geyser basins on the Firehole, the
I, ower Basin contains a number of interesting gey-
sers, about half a dozen in all, one of which throws
a column of water to the height of 60 feet and an-
other to half this height. Its boiling springs number
693 in all. Between the two basins are the Half-
way Springs, the principal one of which is a large
caldron of 250 feet diameter, with walls of about 20
teet high. From it rise constant clouds of steam,
while its overflowing waters make their way to the
river over a snowy platform of their own deposits.
In this locality is the great Excelsior Geyser, whose
eruptions are very irregular, but whose great power
is attested by the roar which accompanies its out-
bursts, and the dense volume of steam which it
emits.
The Upper or Great Geyser Basin is far more
wonderful than the lower in its manifestations of
subterranean activity, and as a geyser group has no
parallel in the world. It covers an area of about
three square miles, extending for several miles along
the river, with a width from half a mile to a mile.
The river banks here are composed of silicious de-
posits of the springs, and, in the words of Professor
Hayden, are “literally honey-combed with springs,
pools and geysers that are constantly gurglinº, spit-
ting, steaming, roaring and exploding.” Most of
the springs and geysers are near the river. The
springs are very numerous, there being 414 boiling
springs, and many others of lower temperature and
tranquil. The average temperature is about 1700.
The large geysers number 26 in all. At the head
of the valley, near its southern extremity, appears
the remarkable geyser, known as Old Faithful,
from the frequency and regularity of its discharges.
At intervals of about an hour it shoots up a column
of water 6 feet in diameter to a height of from 100
to 150 feet, continuing to play for about 6 minutes.
When it ceases the water disappears, but an under-
ground hiss of steam indicates the continued activity
of the eruptive forces.
On the other side of the river from Old Faithful
is the Beehive, so called from the shape of its
mound. It throws a column of 2 or 3 feet dia-
meter to a height of from 100 to 220 feet, and con-
tinues to play from 5 to 15 minutes. About 200
yards distant is the Giantess, one of the largest of
the geysers. This has an oval aperture of 18 by 25
feet, down which one can look for a hundred feet
without seeing water, though it can be heard gurg-
ling below. At intervals of about 11 hours, how-
ever, the water is hurled upwards in a grand column
of 20 feet diameter, to a height of 60 feet, while several
smaller jets rising through this carry the discharge
occasionally to the extreme height of 250 feet. The
eruption continues for about 20 minutes. At a
short distance, Sawmill Geyser throws an almost
continuous steam to a height of 10 or 15 feet; while
near by is Grand Geyser, one of the most powerful,
its column of 6 feet diameter at bottom being thrown
in a succession of jets to a height of 175 to 200 feet,
and continuing for 20 minutes. Its period of erup.
tion is irregular, and is preceded by rumbling noises
and shaking of the ground, while the cloud of steam
which accompanies the eruption ascends to a height
of more than 1000 feet.
Near Grand is a small geyser, known as the Tur-
ban, from the peculiar shape of its mound, and
beyond this is Giant Geyser, whose water is thrown
from a cone 10 feet high and 25 feet diameter at
base, diminishing to 8 feet at top. This throws
a column of 6 feet diameter, and plays for hours.
In 1871. Dr. Hayden found it to play 1 hour and
20 minutes, the water being thrown to a height of
140 feet, but Lieut. Doane, who visited the locality
in the preceding year, describes it as playing 34
hours at times, and throwing its column from 90 to
200 feet. In addition to the geysers described may be
named the Castle, which in 1870 threw a column 3
feet in diameter to a height of 140 feet for 3 hours
together, and in 1874 played for 40 minutes to a
height of 250 feet; the Grotto, throwing its stream
from 25 to 60 feet; the 1'unch Bowl, the Soda, the
Pyramid, the Bath, etc., all named from certain
peculiarities of form or character, while others
worthy of notice are yet unnamed.
Another geyser basin exists at the west end of
the western arm of Shoshone Lake, its springs and
geysers being said by Prof. Hayden to be not sur-
passed in beauty and hardly less active than those
of Firehole Creek. North of the Firehole geyser
basin is the Norris basin, which contains two im-
portant geysers, the Monarch and the Hurricane,
the latter a recent outburst, and one of the most

YOSEMITE WALLEY.
70s
vigorous displays of subterranean energy to be seen
gers within the northern boundary of the Park.
nº park"; tween this and the Firehole basin Hotels have been built, and several others are to he
is the Gibbon paint Pot basin, with 500 springs of erected, so that ere long the whole Park promises to
boiling mud, of every shade of color, and the Gib-
“old Faithful” Geyser.
bon Cañon and Falls, the latter a beautiful cascade
of 160 feet height.
The curiosities here named are by no means all
the marvels of the Park; there are hot springs
falls, and other attractions in several other locali-
ties, and there is scarcely a portion of the Park
without its objects of interest. It is doubtful if
there is any locality on the face of the globe that
contains so much of the attractive and wonderful,
while it is said to surpass in the number of its hot
springs and geysers all the remainder of the earth.
The Park was formerly difficult of access, but the
railroad extension of recent years has overcome this
difficulty, there being a Yellowstone Park branch of
the Northern Pacific Railroad which lands passen-
be well provided with accommodation for travellers.
Then, too, excursion arrangements, are so
shaped, that tourists can enjoy the pleasures
of the Park in complete safety and at greatly
reduced cost. The way to see the wouders
of the Park to best advantage, is, at present.
by camping out, while all its important locali-
ties can be readily visited on horseback. In
addition to the marvels of scenery there is
excellent hunting and fishing, the Park being
full of large and small game, while the rivers
and lakes afford excellent sport to the angler.
The Act of Congress forming the Park, low-
ever, provides that the Secretary of the Inte-
rior shall take steps to prevent a wanton de-
struction of fish and game within its bounda-
ries, and against their capture or destruction
for merellandise or profit.
This provision is destined to prove of great
advantage in the preservation of the herbi-
vora of the West, the bison, elk, antelope,
Rocky Mountain sheep, etc., which have of
late years leen so recklessly slaughtered, and
which are threatened with speedy extinction.
It is reported that of those animals a few
hundred bisons, and several thousand elk,
deer, antelopes, and mountain sheep have
found a place of refuge within the limits of
the Park, and with proper protection, which
will no doubt be accorded, there need be no
need of these interesting species becoming
extinct. Their presence here, if they become
extinct elsewhere, will in the future add another to
the many attractive features of the Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. - (C. M.)
YOSEMITE WALLEY. The remarkable and
famous mountain cleft or valley known under this
title (which is of Indian origin and signifies “large
grizzly bear”) is situated on the course of the Mer-
ced River, in Mariposa County, California, on the
western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and
nearly midway between the northern and southern
extremities of the State. It is distant 140 miles
from San Francisco, in a line nearly due east, but
over 220 miles by the usually travelled routes. The
valley through which flows the Merced is nearly
level, its length being about 6 miles, its width vary-
ing from 3 mile to nearly 2 miles, but in that small
space is found some of the most magnificent natu-
ral scenery in the world. The valley, in fact, is in-
closed between lofty granite walls, which rise almost
vertically, and are from 3000 to 6000 feet in height;
this height being rendered more impressive by the
absence of a talus, or sloping heap of debris, at their
feet. At several points over these precipitous walls
flow streams, which in the season of rains and melt-
ing snows form cataracts of unrivalled beauty and
magnificence. In the early spring, indeed, to the
larger waterfalls are added numerous cascades, as
the minor streams and rivulets made by the rains
flow over the edge of the mountain walls, and dart
downward in lines of glancing light to the valley
below. At this season the combined effects of cas-
cades and cataracts give an indescribable beauty and
grandeur to the scene. The nearly vertical walls of
the valley and their great height, both absolutely
and as compared with the width of the space be-
tween them, with the added charms of the water-
falls, form features of unusual attractiveness, to
which may be added the fact that during the proper
season the valley is one vast flower bed, the ground
being carpeted thickly with plants of great variety,
which bear flowers of every hue and of great bril-
liancy of color, while the air is filled with their fra-
grance. Trees also in great variety adorn the val-


pºe
WALLEY.
796 YOSEMITE
ley level, some of them of centuries' growth and
great loftiness, though they are dwarfed by the tow-
ering cliffs against which they measure their height.
To these varied elements of beauty must be added
the stream Which Wanders down the centre of the
valley. It is of mountain origin and icy cold, while
its water is so clear that every detail of its bottom
can be seen, the mountain trout Which haunt its
depths being revealed in all their graceful charms
to the eye of the eager angler.
The Yosemite was discovered in the spring of
1851 by a party of soldiers in pursuit of a band of
i. Indians, who made this valley their strong-
hold, considering it inaccessible to the whites. The
report of its great beauty quickly brought tourists
thither, and has spread until the Yosemite Valley
has become one of the places of pilgrimage of the
sightseers of the world. In 1864 Congress took
measures to preserve this remarkable locality from
the greed of speculation by setting it aside as a per-
manent national park. The Yosemite Valley and
the Mariposa grove of big trees were granted to
California on the express conditions that they should
be kept ‘‘ for public use, resort, and recreation,”
and “be imalienable for all time.” They were
placed under the care of guardians appointed by
the government, the guardian of the Yosemite re-
siding in the valley during the season in which it is
accessible to visitors, and having under his direction
a small army of guides, drivers, care-takers, and
others who make up the resident population. In
addition to the residence of the guardian, the valley
contains three well-kept hotels, a post-office, a small
chapel, in which religious services are held, and
various minor buildings, such as stables, guides’
cottages, etc., these being all so situated as to detract
in no sense from the attractions of the natural
scenery.
In passing up the valley from its outlet the first
grand feature that meets the eye is the huge and
lofty cliff known as “El Capitan.” This is not so
high by several thousand feet as some of the others,
yet rises so vertically from base to summit, and
stands out so prominently from the general line of
the mountain wall as to make it the most striking
feature of the valley, and the chief of its lofty cliffs.
“El Capitan” is 3300 feet high, its sides are bare
and smooth, and, in the words of Prof. J. D. Whit-
mey, “it is doubtful if anywhere in the world there
is presented so squarely cut, so lofty, and so impos-
ing a face of rock.”
As if to soften the grandeur of this great cliff, on
the opposite side of the valley there descends in in-
describable charim one of the most beautiful of its
many cascades, the celebrated Bridal Veil Fall. In
this fall the stream leaps from the brow of a cliff 900
feet high, and comes down in a broad sheet of tre-
mendous white spray, which is converted into mist
by the depth of the descent. As it is swayed by the
wind in ever changing yet ever pleasing outlines, the
title given it seems most appropriate to its fleecy
beauty. Opposite this fall, down a deep recess of
rock near the lower corner of El Capitan, the
Virgin's Tears Fall flows over the cliff and descends
1000 feet, in a beautiful cascade, which, however, is
only visible during the early spring, the stream
completely disappearing during the dry season.... In
fact a visit in the season of rains and of melting
snows is necessary to see any of the falls in their
perfection, the largest of them losing much of its
beauty in the period of drought.
A short distance above the Bridal Veil Fall ap-
pears Cathedral Rock, a nearly vertical cliff, 2660
feet high ; and just beyond it tower The Spires, two
graceful columns of granite which are in part isolated
from the valley walls, and rise above the edge of the
cliff like the towers of a Gothic cathedral. . From
one point of view they appear of equal height and
Y
Symmetrical form, and add much to the charm of
this portion of the valley. Further up, and on the
9pposite, side, rises a triple group Küown as the
Turee Brothers, or, as named by the Indians, the
Pompoupasus or Leaping Frog Rocks. They seem,
indeed, from below, like three huge frogs sitting
With their heads all turned in the same direction.
The highest of them is 3830 feet in altitude, and
atfords from its summit a superb view of the valley
and its surroundings. Nearly opposite these pro-
jects a clill which terminates with a slender obelisk
of granite. The total height is 3043 feet, and its re-
sºlublance to a gigantic watch tower has gained it
the name of Sentinel Rock. *>
Directly opposite Sentinel Rock appears what is
justly regarded as the most wonderful feature of the
Valley scenery, the grand and lofty Yosemite Falls,
Which descends in all 2660 feet in two cataracts and
a series of cascades. The first of these is a sheer
fall of 1500 feet. Then the stream descends 626 feet
in a series of cascades, and makes a final plunge of
400 feet to the bottom, seeming to shake the earth as
it strikes the ground, while its roar can be heard far
a Way. The stream is about 25 feet in width at the
crest, while the total depth of the descent is more
than a lalf mile. No other cataract in the world
can compare with this in height and romantic
beauty, the celebrated Stubbach of Switzerland be-
ing greatly its inferior both in height and volume.
It is seen at its best from May to July. In August
and September both this and the Bridal Veil Fall
shrink almost to nothing from decrease in volume of
their feeding streams. East of the fall is a cliff 3030
feet high whose summit is easily reached by a trail
up Indian Cañon and aflords a magnificent view of
the whole region.
At a short distance above the Yosemite Falls an
affluent flows into the Merced, making its way to
the level below, not by a cataract but down a deep
gorge known as Teneya Cañon. At this point are
Some of the most remarkable cliff effects of the
whole valley. From the northern wall rises a lotty
columnar mass known as Washington Column, ini-
mediately to the left of which is a series of immense
arches in the rock strata named The Royal Arches.
Above these towers the symmetrical North Dome
to the height of 3568 feet. Opposite to this, on the
other side of Teneya Cañon, rises the loftiest and
most imposing of all the cliffs of the valley, the vast
granite crest known as the Half Dome, which as-
cends to a height of 4737 feet. This mighty cliff,
nearly a mile in vertical height, was long considered
inaccessible, but in 1879 improvements were made
by which tourists can now reach its summit, though
not without a long and weary climb. Between
these domes lies in the bed of the cañon the exqui-
site little Mirror Lake, formed by an expansion of
Teneya Fork, while beautifully reflect in its spark-
lingly clear surface the surrounding cliff and the
overhanging mass further up the cañon called
Mount Watkins.
The main valley ends about two miles above
Yosemite Falls. Here it branches into two caſions,
one traversed by the main stream of the Merced,
the other, or South Fork Cañon, traversed by a
stream of minor size, yet which, at some distance
up the rough and difficult cleft, descends in a fine
fall estimated at 600 feet ºn height, which has re-
ceived the soft sounding name of Illilouet Fall.
Down the main cañon flows the Merced River, its
waters making their way from the upper level in
two grand cataracts and a series of rapids and cas-
cades which are among the most attractive features
of the valley scenery. The first fall reached in as-
scending the cañon has been named Vernal Fall.
Here the whole stream, of perhaps 100 feet in width
and of considerable depth, plunges vertically down-
ward about 400 feet in a cataract of gºat grandeur.
797
YOUMANS-YOUNG.
A steep path, whose difficult portions have been
made easy of ascent by a stairway, lead to, the
summit of this ledge, from which a fine view down
the cañon can be had. For a mile beyond this
point the river flows in a series of cascades and
rapids of striking character, the Water rushing with
a force approaching that of the rapids at Niagara,
while on the north side of the cañon appears a huge
isolated, and nearly perpendicular mass, known as
the Cap of Liberty, 2000 feet high, and little inferior
to the Half Dome in grandeur. Beyond this is seen
the second fall of the Merced, Nevada Fall, which
in height, volume, and impressive character of the
surrounding scenery, ranks with the grandest Water-
falls of the world. The height is about 600 feet,
but the descent is not quite vertical, there being a
rocky ledge near the summit which throws a part
of the water aside with a peculiar twist which gives
the fall a character of its own and adds greatly to
its scenic effect.
Such are the principal features of this remarkable
valley, which, taken as a whole, with its great
variety and profusion of grand and beautiful scenery,
is matchless among the valleys of the world. In
the vicinity of the Yosemite are waterfalls which
elsewhere would be considered as marvels of scenery,
but which are left unnoticed by travellers in conse-
quence of the much greater attractiveness of those
of the valley. The canon of the Tuolumne River,
parallel with and a few miles north of the Merged,
is full of attractive scenery, the stream descending
4650 feet in a ſlow of 22 miles, and presenting at
short intervais cascades of great beauty and Variety.
At its mouth the gorge opens into a valley resen)-
bling the Yosemite in its general features, yet in-
ferior to it in grandeur, and lost sight of in the
superior charm of its neighboring rival.
Of the several localities from which a general view
of the valley may be had, three deserve special men-
tion. One of these, well named Inspiration Point,
is situated at the entrance of the valley. Here the
Merced flows through a deep and narrow gorge, and
entrance can be effected only by a climb over the lofty
cliffs at one side or other of the river. In this climb the
tourist suddenly finds himself on Inspiration Point,
and the whole valley laid out before him in one
grand bird’s-eye view, in which its looming cliffs and
gleaming falls are all visible up to the point where
the Merced ſlows out from its cation to the broad
level of the valley. The first view but adds zest to
the delight with which the marvels revealed are
afterwards to be seen near at haud. Up the Valley
nearly opposite the mouth of Teneya Cañon is an-
other outlook, known as Moran’s Point, being the
point of view from which the artist, Thomas Moran,
sketched his celebrated picture of the Yosemite
Valley. This point of view is 2000 feet high, and
brings under the eye most of the scenic effects of
the valley. A yet more embracing view can be had
from Glacier Point, just east of Moran's Point, and
about 3000 feet high. From this height the tourist
can look over the obstructions to view at lower alti-
tudes, and take in almost the entire valley at a
glance. -
As to the formative agencies of this noble pro-
duction of nature scientists somewhat disagree,
though the balance of evidence seems in favor of
the active agency of glaciers in scooping out the
valley. Abundant traces of glacial action can yet
be seen, some of the cliffsides being polished to a
slippery smoothness by the action of the ice. Earth-
quakes also seem to have had their share in the work,
and huge fragments of rock now lie on the valley level,
which have evidently been torn from the summits of
the cliffs above. Probably still other agencies were at
work, for nature seldom performs such mighty labors
with a single tool. The whole surrounding scenery
is full of evidence of titanic forces, and from the
summit level above the valley the Sierras present a
magnificent panorama of mountain and valley
scenery, unsurpassed even in Switzerland. (C. M.)
YOUMANS, EDw ARD LIVINGSTON, editor of
scientific publications, was born of poor parents,
June 3, 1821, in Albany co., N. Y. Assisting his
father in the work of the farm, the want of means,
and also an affection of the eyes, that adhered to him
throughout life, prevented him from entering col-
lege. Later he studied medicine, and devoted him-
self to popularizing the sciences, in which he dis-
covered a remarkable aptitude, both as a lecturer
and as a compiler. He avoided technicalities, and
his style was distinguished by a clearness of 1:hrase
and elegance of diction little known till then in the
scientific domain. It was doubtless owing to the
reputation he had acquired, in these respects, as
well as to his powers of broad, though strictly
scientific generalization, that he was named, though
himself a non-collegian, for the presidency Of
Antioch College, which he declined. However, he
accepted there, in 1866, the chair of chemistry, as
non-resident professor, and delivered a course of
lectures. In 1856 the writings of Herbert Spencer
attracted his attention, and thereupon a corres-
pondence ensued which led to a life-long friendship,
which brought about the publication of Spencer’s
works in America. In 1872 Prof Younians induced
Messrs. Appleton & Co., of New York, to start the
Popular Scientific Monthly, which, under his editor-
ship, attained deservedly high position annong the
scientific periodicals of the world. He also planned
the “International Scientific Series,” comprising
works by the ablest European and American autho-
rities, and went to Europe to perfect the scheme
by which the sinnultaneous publication in London,
Paris, New York, Leipsic, Milan, and St. Peters-
burg was inaugurated. Besides his contributions
to the two works, Correlation and Conservation ºf
Forces (1864) and the Culture demanded by Modern
Life (1867), Youmans prepared the “Class-book ºf
Chemistry” (1851), the “ Hand-look of Household
Science” (1857), and other manuals. In his editorial
labors he was constantly and ably assisted by his
sister, Miss Elizabeth L. Youmans. He died at
New York, Jan. 1S, 1887. (J. W. W. )
YOUNG, CHARLES AUGUSTUS, astronomer, was
born at Hanover, N. H., Dec. 15, 1834. He gradu-
ated at head of his class at Dartmouth College, in
1853, then taught classics at Phillips Academy,
Andover, Mass... until 1856, when he accepted chair
of mathematics, natural plailosophy, and astronomy
in Western Reserve College, at Hudson. Ohio. He
was called thence in 1865 to Dartmouth College to
assume the same chair, in which he had been pre-
ceded by his father and grandfather. In 1877 he
removed to Princeton College, N. J., to take the
chair of astronomy. He was entrusted with an
expedition to Denver, Col., to observe the eclipse of
the sun on July 29, 1878. As member of the observing
party at Burlington, Iowa, of another eclipse, Aug.
7, 1869, he discovered the green line of the corona
spectrum, and identified it with line 1,474 of the solar
spectrum. As member of the Coast Survey observing
party, on Dec. 22, 1870, at Jerez, Spain, he discovered
what is called the “reversing layer” of solar atmos-
phere, giving a bright-line spectrum correlative to the
ordinary dark-line spectrum of sunlight. As mem-
ber of the Coast Survey party at Sherman, Wyoming
Territory (summit of the Pacific Railroad), he made
solar spectroscopic observations. In 1874 he was
assistant astronomer in Prof. Watson's party to
Peking, to observe the transit of Venus. He de-
vised a form of automatic spectroscopic ; established
what is known as Doppler's principle applied to light
experimentally, and measured the sun's rotation by
the displacement of the lines in the spectrum. Prof.
Young is a member of the National Academy of
703
Science, and other prominent learned societies.
He holds high rank as a writer of scientific papers.
He has lectured in various cities, and by his treatise
The Sun (International Science Series) 1881), he
has popularized the topics of solar physics and spec-
troscopy. His latest publication is a Manual of AS-
tronomy (1888). (J. W. W.)
YOUNG, EDWARD, statistician, was born Dec.
11, 1814, at Falumouth, Nova Scotia.
ing academic education, and spending some years in
Windsor, N. Y., in mercantile affairs, he emigrated
in 1835 to Indiana, where he engaged in business.
In 1840 he returned to his native province, married
and settled in Halifax, N. Y., where besides his conn-
mercial pursuits he edited the Olive Branch, a pio-
neer temperance publication. After sustaining
losses in shipping, he removed in 1849 to Boston,
and, in 1851, to Philadelphia where in partnership
with E. T. Freedley, he published books and a weekly
newspaper devoted to American industries. Their
most important publication was A History ºf Ameri-
can Mungſ actures from 1608 to 1836 (3 vols.), edited
by Dr. J. L. Bishop, his wife’s brother. A statisti-
cal work compiled by Mr. Young having attracted
attention he was offered and accepted a place in the
TJ. S. treasūry department, removing to Washington
in 1861. Here, as chief of division, he superintended
the compilation of the statistics of industry and pre-
pared for publication a voluminous report on the
Manufactures of the United States, the precursor of
all such reports. In 1865 he accepted a place on
the revenue commission tendered by its clairman,
IIon. D. A. Wells, but soon resigned. On Mr.
Wells’ recommendation Congress authorized the
establishment of a bureau of statistics, and when this
was organized in 1866 Mr. Young was made its
chief clerk. After a few months, he was promoted
to be chief of the bureau, which under his manage-
ment became the peer of the older similar institutions
in Europe. In addition to the official reports, Mr.
Young published a Special Report on Immigration
(1871), which was translated into German, French,
and Swedish, and circulated by tens of thousands
throughout Europe, the result being a great annual
increase in the influx of immigrants. In the same
year he published a Special Report on the Customus-
Tariff Legislation of the United States. For these
two works the Columbian University conferred on
him the degree of Ph.D. His most important work
is Labor in Europe and America (1875), which gives
the results of personal investigation of the condition
of the working classes.
the bureau of statistics in 1878, and lent his services
for a few months to the Canadian government in the
construction of tariff-tables, etc. He has since been
U. S. Cousul at Windsor. (J. H.)
YOUNG, ROBERT (1822–1888), author of the
Analytical Concordance, was born at Edinburgh,
Scotland, Sept. 10, 1822. IIe became a printer, then
a bookseller, editor and publisher of many works
in Hebrew and other Oriental languages. In 1856
he went to India to superintend the Mission press
at Surat. After his return in 1861, he conducted
for some years a missionary institute, and in 1897
visited the United States. He was still diligent in
labors connected with the Bible, its original lan-
guages, and its interpretatiºn. In his well-known
Anſlytical Concordance he gives 311,000 references,
and furnishes various means of comparing the En-
glish text of any passage with the ºriginal. He
afterwards prepared Contributions to a New Recisiºn ;
Concordance to 8000 changes of the Ferised Nelſ. Tºs-
tament : Dictionary and Comcordance ºf Bible JWorls
and Synonyms; Twofold Concordºnce to lhe Nºw
Testament, and other helps to the study of the
Scriptures, besides an excellent, translation of the
New Testament. He died Oct. 14, 1888.
After receiv-
YOUNG—YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION.
YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION.
Within the past half century organizations of men
have been formed under this name for the purpose
of carrying on evangelical work in addition to that
commonly performed by the system of Protestant
churches. In 1845 the first Association of this
kind was formed in London, and in 1851 the
first one in America was organized in Boston.
The second Association was formed in Mon-
treal ; the third in Buffalo ; and the fourth in
New York city. The general American Association,
in its early days, met in annual conference ; but
latterly has convened once in two years. It was at
the instance of the American Association that the
first International Conference was held in Paris in
1855. At that conference the “Evangelical Test.”
was adopted, which limits the active membership to
members of Evangelical churches. Every associa-
tion admits others as associate members, but they
are not allowed to vote upon annendments to the
constitutiou, or to hold offices.
The latest reports (1888) of the condition of the
organization show that there were 3804 associations
in the world at the time when the tabular state-
neuts were prepared, of which 1240 were in the
United States and Canada. Great Britain has (24,
Germany 673, and the rest of Europe 1171. The
remaining associations are scattered through Asia,
Australasia, South Africa, South America, Mexico,
and other countries. The island of Ceylon has 15.
Full statistics of membership, property owned, and
like details are available only in regard to the
A merican associations, but the strength of the
Y. M. C. A. in the world may be inferred from
the fact that in 1888 the American associations,
one-third of the total number, have 175,811 men-
hers, showing an increase of about 29,000 or 13
per cent. in one year. These American associa-
tions have real estate to the value of $6,708.230,
showing an increase of about $1,100,000, or nearly
20 per cent. in a year. The total value of the pro-
perty owned is put –at $7.261,058, and there are
pledges for building funds to the amount of
$1,325,000. In 1887 about $1.200,000 was spent to
carry on the associations in the United States and
British America, or $200,000 more than in 1886.
The buildings erected for the several associations
in the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Boston,
Buſlalo, Cleveland, and Albany are of a most beau-
Dr. Young withdrew from
tiful and substantial claracter.
Briefly stated, the work accomplished by the
associations may be given as follows:–1. They
have founded such listoric union prayer meetings as
those in Fulton Street, New York, from 1856 to
| ~ + 4 + * , -, , , ", , i. Xls * ,
the present time, and in Jayne's Hall, Philadelphia,
from 1857 to 1863. 2. They have acted the part of
IIoward societies in seasons of devastating epi-
(lenics. 3. During the civil war they organized
and supported the U. S. Christian Commission,
which followed the armies with beneficent minis-
trations to the bodily and spiritual wants of the
soldiers. (See CHRISTIAN COMMISSION.) 4. The
American associations originated and secured
stringent legislation in the United States for the
suppression of obseene literature, and began the
vigorous efforts still continued for the thorough
enforcement of this legislation. 5. They have stimu-
lated a taste for the best reading by carefully selected
libraries. 6. They have encouraged the most instruc-
tive class of lectures. 7. They have been foremost
in evangelistic services in their home fields and
throughout entire states and provinces. , 8. In
times of sudden calamity to any co:::munity by fire,
storm or flood, they are ever ready as almoners of
the benevolent to distribute wisely their contribu-
tions in aid of sufferers, and in scores of cities and
towns during the trying season of the year they
secure and discriminatingly use funds for the
YUCCA–ZEISBERGER. -- 799
relief of the deserving destitute poor of the com- ground, and sending up a tuft of bayonet or dagger-
munity.
In reviewing the work of the American associa-
tions since the close of the civil War, the following
points seem worthy of special notice : 1. The Ameri-
can associations have sought to give rightful promi-
nence to specific work for the improvement of young
men. 2. They have maintained their organizations
for the purpose of associating Christian young men
in this work for their fellows. 3. They have in-
sisted that this improvement is to be sought
:
i
t
i
!
!
t
|
primarily by the conversion of the soul and the
consecration of the life to the love and service of
Jesus Christ. 4. They have united Christians of
the various churches in this work and in other work
that can best be performed by united effort. 5. In
|
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}
summer they hold hundreds of open-air services every
week. 6. In thinly settled districts they have united
the active members of various churches in holding
meetings in homes and school-houses. 7. They carry
the gospel annong the 800,000 railroad employés of
the country. 8. They organize the young men in
colleges for Christian work. 9. They co-operate
with German-speaking Christian young men for
the salvation of their fellows. 10. They bring to-
gether into Christian sympathy aud companionship
its magnificent inflorescence. The flowers of the
the young men of Canada and the United States,
the young men of the North and the South, so
promoting peace upon earth, good will to men. 11.
This broad, deep work they accomplish by insisting
tive at all hours, but particularly so in the evening,
when the flowers are fully expanded. The fruit of
that Christian laymen are called of God to give time
aud eſtort as well as money to active service lu
winning souls and leading them to Christ. 12.
While these associations are each individually active
in carrying on this varied and useful work, they also
meet yearly in international, state and provincial
conventions, and by means of deliberative action
and ethicient committees promote the common cause.
shaped leaves; while the more southerly have an
aerial stem, palm-like in some species, the trunk,
which reaches 10 to 20 feet in height, being crowned
with a dense tuft of leaves. The yucca is known by
various common names, as bear-grass, Adam’s
needle, and Spanish bayonet. Y. filamentosa, to
which the first two of these names are given, is
found in sandy soil from Florida to Virginia and
westward. The trunk rises to a foot or less above
the ground, and is crowned with the lance-shaped,
unarmed, coriaceous leaves, which bear delicate
filaments on the margins. It is from these threads
and the sharp-pointed leaves that the name Adam’s
needle is derived. Y. angustifolia, which is abun-
daut between the Mississippi and the Rocky Moun-
tains, is known as the soap plant, the root stocks of
this as of other species being full of mucilaginous
and saponaceous material, which, under the name
of a mole, is used as a substitute for soap in many
Mexican houses, and also by the negroes of the
South. Its leaves are from 1 to 3 feet long, and
very stiff and pointed.
Two other United States species, Y. aloifolia, the
Spanish bayonet, and Y. gloriosa, occur from North
Carolina southward. The latter gets its title from
yucca are borne on a flower stem, which rises from
the centre of the leaves, and bears a large panicle
of snowy white lily-like blossoms, which are attrac-
the yucca is dry in some species, fleshy in others,
and in the latter cases is edible and savory. It is
eaten by the negroes of the coast regions of South
Carolina and Georgia under the name of banana,
The several states have passed laws incorporating
nearly all of these associations within their borders.
A state executive committee of the Young Men's
Christian associations of the State of New York
was incorporated in 1886. The same state, in 1883,
passed a law incorporating the International Com-
mittee of Young Men's Christian Associations.
This committee is to be composed of not less than
27 members, one-third of whom are to be elected
at each of the international conventions.
As a consequence of the great and good work
which it somewhat resembles. The fruit of Y.
baccata, a species of Arizona and the neighboring
States, is largely eaten in the fresh state by whites
and Indians, and is cured by the Indians for winter
use. The roots of some species abound in farina,
and are used by the Indians as food. Another
species is Y. recurrifolia, of the sea-coast of Georgia,
;
accomplished by the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation, Women's Christian Associations have also
been organized to carry on a similar work among
females. (F. G. M.)
Y UCCA, a peculiar genus of the family of Lili-
* acete, which is a native of North America
See Vol. from New Jersey and Iowa to Yucatan.
XXIV. p. s - - - - * º' sºvº
760 (p. 808, § nd is most abundant between 25C and
Am. Rep.). 35° N. lat. There are about a dozen well
characterized species and many varieties,
the stems of the more northerly species being under-
whose white flowers are occasionally tinged with
green and purple.
Several species of yucca are planted for ornament
in landscape gardening, while all the plants of the
genus have an in portant economical use, as they
yield a fibre of great strength and value. Sisal hemp
comes from a member of this genus, and from the
lºaves of every species may be obtained a long staple.
Y. gloriosa furnishes a fibre of extreme durability,
which is used for cordage, rope, and packing cloth.
Y, filamentosa also yields a strong fibre, from which
ropes have been made of unsurpassed strength. As
these plants grow spontaneously on light sandy
soils, often of the poorest character, from Virginia
to Florida, and are very liardy, they may become of
considerable economic value as fibre-yielding plants.
(C. M.)
Z.
ZECH ARIAH. See PROPHETS.
ZEISBERGER, DAVID (1721–1808), missionary
to the American Indians, was born April 11, 1821,
at Zauchtenthal, Morovia, and educated at Herrnhut.
In 1738 he followed his parents, who were descended
from the 13ollemian Brethren, to Georgia and two
years later removed with them to Pennsylvania,
and had a share, in founding Bethlehem and Naza-
reth. In 1743 he narrowly escaped being sent back
to Germany with Zinzendorf. In 1745 he began to
preach and labor amous the Delawares at Shamo-
kin, and soon transferred his efforts to the Iroquois
at Onandaga, N. Y. For 63 years he lived in the
Woods, devoted to his pious calling, in which he dis.
played zeal and fortitude not surpassed by any of
the Canadian Jesuits, taking long journeys on foot
and by canoe, indifferent to hardships and perils.
At first he met a good degree of apparent success.
the Six Nations adopted him (as did afterwards the
Monseys), made him a sachem, and entrusted him
With their records. . The commotions of those times
sadly disturbed and interrupted his peaceful work,
: and between contending parties or armies, he was
exposed to troubles and suspicions, as in the French
800
ZEPHANIAH_ZUNZ.
Wal'.
on the Susquehanna, after the conspiracy of Pon-
tiac, and in 1767 started a mission on the Alle-
He settled with his converts at Wyalusing,
ghany. In 1772 he founded Schoenbrunn on the
Tuscarawas, in Ohio. After nine years of increas-
ing prosperity and influence, his loyal service to the
Aumerican government, in preventing the Dela-
wares from taking the field against it, was punished
by the British authorities at Detroit, who instigated
the Wyandots to destroy his settlements, and had
Zeisberger and his assistants triud as spies. What
was left of his work was ruined in 1782 by the mas-
sacre at Gnadenhutten, in which ninety-six Christian
Indians, peacefully returniug to their fields, fell at
the hands of settlers. Zeisberger, with such of his
converts as remained faithful, sought refuge in Mich-
igan, then at New Salem, Ohio, and in 1791 at Fair-
field, in Canada. In 1798 they were aliowed to re-
possess their old lands in the Tuscara was valley.
Here, at Goshen, he spent his last years among a
few forlorn and drunken Indians, to whom he
preached industry and sobriety in vain. He died
Nov. 19, 1808, leaving the memory of a devoted if
defeated life, and some valuable contributions to
philological lore. His Delaware Spelling-book (1776 :
and again 1806 and 1816), Hymn-book (1803, re-
printed 1847), Sermons to Children (1813) and Har-
onomy of the Gospels (1821), are all in the Delaware
tongue. His German and Onondaga Lexicon (7
vols. 4to.), two Onondaga Grammars, a Deltatſtre
Grammar and Dictionary, and sonne Vocabularies,
are preserved in MS. in Philadelphia, or at Cam-
bridge, Mass. His Life and Times was written by
E. De Schweinitz (1870; 2d ed. 1886); his Diary,
translated by E. F. Bliss, was published in 2 vols.
1SS5, by the Ohio Historical and Philosophical So-
ciety.
ZEPH AN IAH. See PROPHETS.
ZOECKLER, OTTO, German theologian, was
born at Grünberg, Hesse, May 27, 1833. He was edu-
cated at Giessen, Erlangen, and Berlin Universities,
graduating in 1856. He began to teach at Giessen,
and in 1863 was made professor extraordinary. In
1866 he became ordinary professor at Greifswald,
and in the next year began to edit the Allgemeine
literarische Anzeiger which he conducted for seven
years. In 1882 he was made editor of the Evangel-
ische Kirchenzeitung. Among his works are Théo-
logia Naturalis (1860); Kritische Geschichte der As-
kese (1863); Hieronymus (1864); Die Urgeschichte
der Erde und des Menschen (1868); Das Kreuz Christi
(1875); Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie
und Naturwissenschaft (2 vols. 1877–79); Die Lehre
vom Urstand des Menschem (1879) ; Gollés Zewgen im
Reich der Natur (2 vols. 1881); Hamd-buch der theo-
logischen Wissensch(ºften (3 vols. 1833–84), in which
he was assisted by others.
ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (1794–1886), Jewish author,
was born at Detmold, Lippe, Germany, Aug. 16,
1794. He was a teacher for some years before he
went to Berlin to study philology. There he be-
came preacher to the Jewish congregation in 1820,
editor of a newspaper in 1824, and principal of a
Jewish school in 1825. In 1835 he was called to
Prague as a preacher, but in 1839 returned to
Berlin to take charge of a normal school. In 1845
he was appointed member of a government commis-
sion to devise measures for the educational im-
provement of the Jews in Prussia. In 1850 he re-
signed his position in the normal school, and was
afterwards chiefly engaged in literary labor. II is
researches shed much light on Hebrew literature.
He died at Berlin March 17, 1886. As early as 1818
he had published Etwas iller die rabbinische Lillera-
tur, but his chief works were Die gottesdienstlichen
Vorträge der Judem (1832); Die synagogale Poésie
des Mittelalters (1855); Die Iritus des splagogalem
Gottesdienstes geschichtlich entwickelt (1859); and
Litteraturgeschächte der synagogalem Poesie (1865).
His collected works appeared in three Volumes
(1875–76). He was also engaged with other Jewish
scholars on a German translation of the Bible.

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