B 34,336).
7,
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
DIVISION OE ECONOMICS AND HISTORY
JOHN BATES CLARK, DIRECTOR
PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC STUDIES OF THE WAR
EDITED BY
DAVID KINLEY
Professor of Political Economy, University of Illinois
Member of Committce of Research of the Eadowment
No, 8
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
BY
JOHN A. FAIRLIE
Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois
NEW YORK
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
DIVISION OF ECONOMICS AND HISTORY
JOHN BATES CLARK, DIRECTOR
PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC STUDIES OF THE WAR
EDITED BY
DAVID KINLEY
Professor of Political Economy, University of Illinois
Member of Committee of Research of the Eadowment
No. 8
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
BY
JOHN A. FAIRLIE
Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois
NEW YORK
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
AMERICAN BRANCH: 35 West 32ND STREET
LONDON. TORONTO, MELBOURNE, AND BOMBAY
1919
COPYRIGHT 1919
BY THE
CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE
2 JACKSON PLACE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
EDITOR'S PREFACE
This study of British War Administration by Professor Fairlie
is one of a series of war studies organized by the Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace to lay a preliminary basis
for future more thorough study of the effects of the war on
economic and social life. It is hoped at some later time, after
the distractions of the war are over, and the lives of men have
returned to normal conditions, that we shall be able to measure
more exactly and estimate more carefully the changes induced by
the war in the administration of governments, and particularly
the extent to which these changes are likely to be permanent. A
superficial view and a hasty judgment would indicate that the
world has taken great strides in the direction of state socialism.
It is not surprising that the demand of the socialists for an
extension of government activities in the sphere of economic life
should be strengthened in war time by the added call of a large
number of people who are impressed with the apparent efficiency
of the
management by government departments of certain indus-
tries for the purposes of the war. These new advocates of state
socialism are not to be classed with what we may call professional
socialists, but rather belong to that large class of the American
people, to be found in a considerable number in any intelligent
democracy, who are overimpressed with the temporary success
of a new political or social experiment carried on under pretty
definite conditions, with pretty definite ends in view. They for-
get that the economic and social life of the people is vastly more
complex and difficult to adjust in normal times of peace activity
than it is in time of war, when many of the ordinary industrial
and commercial activities of the world are much reduced in scope
and limited in number, Such people are impressed with the
splendid success which the British Government has had in many
of its wartime administrative expedients and organizations.
iii
iv
EDITOR'S PREFACE
They forget that while many of the demands of economic life
in normal peace conditions have disappeared or have been much
curtailed and that while many of the administrative devices and
organizations necessary to conduct these have also disappeared
or have been greatly modified under the stress of the war, they
will have to be restored after the war, unless in the succeeding
period of peace we are to be content with a narrower economic
life conducted under war methods of organization.
There is no doubt that the world has not yet found a scientific
solution of the problem of the line of division between private
and public enterprise. Each method has its evils. In a democracy
the possible evils of public enterprise in industry and trade are
numerous and great. There seems to be an inherent conflict
between democracy and what is called efficiency that does not
obtain in an autocratic form of government, assuming, of course,
that both governments are honest. Therefore, when the people
of a democracy find it necessary to act as a unit and so to lay
aside for a time and for some definite purpose their manifold
and multitudinous kinds of activity in order to achieve a single
end, they find it necessary to adopt, in appearance at any rate,
the methods of autocracy. That is to say, they consolidate and
centralize administrative authority—a consolidation and concen-
tration which exists in ordinary times in an autocracy. But such
concentration in a democracy is a result of the choice of the
people and, if the democracy survives, can be only temporary. In
an autocracy such concentration is imposed upon the people and
is not abandoned at the end of the crisis.
Some such experience the democracies of Great Britain and the
United States are passing through. They have abandoned the
ordinary rights, privileges and prerogatives of individual citizen-
ship for a time in order to achieve a great purpose, the failure of
which would make impossible in the future the pursuit of these
rights, privileges and prerogatives. It may be that as a result of
this experience we shall reach the conclusion that some of these
rights, privileges and prerogatives of the individual citizen can be
more surely perpetuated by a readjustment of the economic ac-
tivities of individuals on one side, and of the community at large,
EDITOR'S PREFACE
V
through government agencies, on the other. That is to say, we
may conclude, as a result of our war administration, to operate
through government agencies some industries that have hereto-
fore been wholly individualistic in their management. We will do
that only if we are convinced that such an extension of govern-
mental activity will conserve the political freedom which we have
inherited from our fathers, which is, after all, of first importance,
while at the same time adding something to the economic pros-
perity of individuals, or diversifying more richly the economic
life of the individual citizen.
But such a condition will be far from state socialism. Those
who clamor most loudly for governmental action in the economic
sphere seem to forget that after all the only important element in
society, so far as concerns the enjoyment of prosperity and wel-
fare, is the individual. There is no such thing as a more pros-
perous community excepting in the sense of a community of more
prosperous individuals; and there is no way of securing a more
prosperous community except by making individuals more pros-
perous. This does not mean that all individuals in a community
need to become economically better off. The improvement may
resuit as well from improved distribution as from improved pro-
duction. In short, government action is not a talisman for
greater prosperity. If we were to adopt it on a wholesale scale
it would soon show, outside of certain very limited spheres,
weaknesses far greater than any that have developed in an indi-
vidualistic system. The people of Great Britain and of the
United States need to proceed with caution in making perma-
nent, or in permitting to continue for too long a time, any of
the important extensions of government administration into the
economic sphere which have been made because of the necessities
of the war. Especially should the people of the United States
be on their guard against the continuance of the far-reaching
extension of the activities of the federal government and its
many bureaus.
Professor Fairlie's study was made, of course, principally for
the purpose of making a historical record of the facts in the case,
and he has limited his inquiry principally to the agencies of the
vi
EDITOR'S PREFACE
central government. He has kept off the dangerous ground of
speculation and inference. The story, however, is full of lessons
for the student of administration, and for the ordinary citizen
who is jealous of his freedom. He may willingly put up for a
period with the deprivation of his ordinary rights. To put up
with such a condition permanently would be to surrender in the
long run the very things for which he is fighting in this war.
The reader will be struck with the efficiency with which on the
whole the British people have organized themselves for war. The
story is certainly a fine tribute to the adaptability of British talent
and character. There have been many mistakes, as was to be
expected. There have been many grumblings and some insubor-
dination, but on the whole the record is one of the acceptance
of high ideals and the organization of excellent administrative
machinery to attain them with a regard for efficiency in operation
that far surpasses anything that could have been expected. The
agencies of the British war administration have reached into
every line of the life of the individual of the British Isles. They
have been welcomed or acquiesced in by the great majority of
the people as necessary to win the war. Hardships have been
endured and sufferings undergone for this great purpose in a
spirit that commands the admiration of the world. The people
of the United States have followed largely in their footsteps in
the matter of war organization and administration. Some things
in our administration are, of course, peculiar to ourselves, but
the readiness with which our people have acquiesced in the
measures which the government regards as necessary to obtain
our great purpose equals and perhaps, indeed, surpasses, that
which has been shown by the people of Britain herself. What-
ever else the future may have in store, we have good assurance
that the democracies of America, France and Great Britain will
not permit the destruction of individual freedom, individual
initiative and progress through individual action for the sake
of a fanciful idea that there is such a thing as community life
that needs to be promoted apart from the lives of the individuals
composing it. On the other hand, we may feel sure also that
the experiences of the war, the closeness into which classes of
EDITOR'S PREFACE
vii
society hitherto almost strangers to one another have been
brought by the war, the general spread of a better understanding
among these classes and the realization in all of them that the
ideals and aspirations of them all are substantially the same,
will go far to establish that real communal democracy of spirit
and service and sacrifice which will prevent exploitation of indi-
viduals and of the welfare and prosperity of the majority. Such
extension of governmental administration as may be necessary
for this purpose we will all gladly acquiesce in. To extend such
administration beyond this point would be to destroy liberty.
DAVID KINLEY.
University of Illinois.
FOREWORD
This report aims to present a systematic and somewhat com-
prehensive account of the manifold changes in the machinery of
governmental administration in the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland which have been made during and as a
result of the war. The extent of the report gives some indica-
tion of the great variety and number of special agencies brought
into existence; and it is hoped that the arrangement and treat-
ment of the data will help to explain the relations of different
agencies to each other, to show to some extent their relative im-
portance, and to emphasize some of the more significant and
fundamental alterations in the British Government.
It should, however, be clearly understood that the report
presents only a preliminary survey, and by no means gives an ex-
haustive account of the subject. Some of the limitations may
be briefly noted. Only the governmental agencies in the United
Kingdom have been included; and while some of these deal
with imperial affairs outside of the British Isles, the study does
not include the governmental war agencies of the British Do-
minions and possessions beyond the seas. Within the United
Kingdom, the study is limited in the main to agencies of the
central government; and does not cover the details of local or-
ganization and local agencies.
In dealing with the agencies included, considerable variation
will be found in the treatment given to different bodies. Most
attention has been given to the more important authorities; but
the treatment of many agencies has been affected by the material
available. In a good many cases no printed documents appear
to have been issued; and no doubt some of those issued have not
come to this country.
The scope of the report is confined to the organization of ad-
ministrative agencies; and while some account of work accom-
ix
X
FOREWORD
plished is given, there is no attempt to cover the activities of the
governmental agencies in detail, as this would involve duplicat-
ing the other monographs in this series.
Much of the data has been taken from the official publications
of the British Government; and the resources of the Library of
Congress, the New York Public Library and the John Crerar
Library in Chicago have been used to supplement each other.
But considerable use has also been made of data from reliable
secondary sources, which have filled gaps in the official publica-
tions.
It is believed that this report covers the ground with a fair
degree of completeness to the end of the year 1917. Data of
later date have also been used where possible; but both official
documents and secondary sources since the beginning of 1918
have been lacking in many cases.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
I
War Measures in Former Times
3
15
31
59
76
98
I 20
II Forms and Agencies of Action
III The Cabinet
IV Naval Administration
V Army Administration
VI Munitions and Aircraft ...
VII Defense of the Realm
VIII War Relief, Pensions and Prisoners
IX Trade and Transportation
X Agriculture and Food Control
XI Financial Administration
XII Other Departments
Appendix
Index
146
165
197
218
237
271
297
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
CHAPTER I
War Measures in Former Times
As a background for the study of methods of war legislation
and administration in the present world conflict, a brief survey
may be made of the measures and methods of the English and
British Government in earlier wars. No attempt will be made
at a comprehensive account of all the wars in which England
has been engaged, nor to cover completely even the periods se-
lected. But a sketch will be given showing the main lines of
legislative and administrative action in some of the more im-
portant contests. For this purpose there have been selected the
war with Spain in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and three wars
with France, at the end of the seventeenth and the middle and
end of the eighteenth centuries. These will illustrate the broad
lines of administrative development, and will furnish a basis for
a comparison and contrast of present day methods.
ELIZABETHAN WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
At the time of the danger from the Spanish Armada in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth the conduct of the defense of the
kingdom was exercised directly and mainly by the Privy Council.
This body acted almost entirely under the authority of its com-
mon law powers and earlier statutes; and the only important
Acts of Parliament passed relating to the war were those mak-
ing grants of taxation. Acts providing for subsidies and
fifteenths and tenths were passed in the sessions of 1584-5,
1586-7 and 1588-9.2 Assessments for these taxes were made
by commissioners for the shires and boroughs, appointed by the
Lord Chancellor, Lord Keeper, Lord Treasurer, Lord Steward,
1 The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii, ch. 124, pp. 42-45.
Statutes of the Realnı, iv: 27 Eliz. ch. 28, 29; 29 Eliz. ch. 7, 8; 31 Eliz.
ch. 14, 15.
2
4
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Lord Admiral and Lord Chamberlain; and collectors were ap-
pointed by members of Parliament, or in default by the Lord
Chancellor. An earlier statute for the encouragement of the
fishing industry as a means for developing the navy was con-
tinued. After the crisis several Acts of Parliament were passed
dealing with conditions resulting from the war. Thus an act
of 1589 made the embezzlement of military stores a felony, and
acts of 1593 and 1597 provided for parish rates to be levied for
the relief of maimed soldiers and mariners. The well known
Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 also provided special measures
for the relief of soldiers and mariners.
In contrast with the slight amount of parliamentary legisla-
tion, the records of the Privy Council of the time show this
body meeting at intervals of a few days and taking decisive
measures for dealing with the situation, not only by general
regulations, but also by specific orders and instructions to both
central and local officials and other individuals. The records of
the years 1586 to 1588.show a total of some twenty persons at-
tending the Council meetings at one time or another. But
some of these attended only occasionally, and the usual at-
tendance was from eight to ten. Those most often present in-
cluded Lord Burghley, Lord High Treasurer; Sir Christopher
Hatton, Lord Chancellor; Lord Hunsdon, Lord Chamberlain;
Sir Thomas Heneage, Vice Chamberlain; Sir Francis Knollys,
Treasurer of the Household; Sir Francis Walsingham, Princi-
pal Secretary of State, and John Wolley, Latin Secretary to the
Queen. Less regular were the Archbishop of Canterbury, the
Controller of the Household, the Lord High Admiral (Lord
Howard of Effingham) and the Lord Steward. A few other
officials and prominent noblemen attended occasionally.
Beginning early in 1586 the Council took measures for pro-
viding military supplies, and even authorized the imposition
of money levies for this purpose for which there seems to have
been no parliamentary authority. In March of this year the
* Statutes of the Realm, 5 Eliz. ch. 5 (1562-3); 13 Eliz, ch. 11; 27 Eliz. ch.
11; 29 Eliz. ch. 5; 31 Eliz. ch. 10.
WAR MEASURES IN FORMER TIMES
5
of money.
Council directed the lords lieutenant of the maritime counties
to make a collection for the supply of match and powder, to be
purchased at a reasonable rate from Henry Dale of London.
A special levy was laid on the clergy to furnish horses for serv-
ice in the Low Countries. County levies were to be raised and
trained at local expense; and directions were sent to the lords
lieutenant in regard to mobilizing the trained bands.
Orders were issued to provide for the defense of the Channel
Islands, the Isle of Wight and Portsmouth. The Sussex iron
workers were directed to forge guns. The east coast gentry
were instructed to raise contributions for coast ordnance. Sea-
port towns were required to furnish ships, and rates were levied
on other towns, forming a precedent for the later ship money
levies of Charles I.
The Council also issued instructions about the expenditure
The Treasury was directed to transfer necessary
funds to the Treasurer of the Navy; and a grant was made to
Kent for the defense of the Thames, Tilbury and Harwich.
Measures were also taken to suppress internal troubles and
to regulate trade. The justices of the peace were directed to
provide petronels, and also to repress carriers of news, and to
look to the landing of spies in the fashion of priests. In De-
cember, 1587, word was sent about suspicious visitors from
abroad, with instructions to keep watch in the ports and towns,
so that they might be apprehended and committed into close
prison without bail or conference.?
In June, 1586, the reexport of a cargo of imported grain was
forbidden. Later the export of grain was prohibited, to be
subsequently modified by permitting a limited export to friendly
places. Again, in October, 1588, the Lord Chancellor was di-
rected to restrain the transportation of grain beyond the seas,
unless by special license. At one time trade with the Low
Countries was forbidden and the export of provisions stopped.
The Admiralty Court was to sit for the trial of prize cases.
* Acts of the Privy Council, New Series, 297.
* Ibid., xiv, 156, 282; xv, 397 ; xvi, 321.
6
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
In October, 1587, letters were sent to the vice admirals of
the maritime counties concerning a general stay to be presently
made of all ships and other vessels that are able to cross the
seas, to be employed for Her Majesty's service, as occasion
should require.
Rumors were received about the approach of the Spanish
fleet. Scouting ships were sent out. The Royal fleet was re-
ported to be ready.:: And after the defeat of the great Armada
there were reports and instructions about Spanish prisoners of
war.
It will be noted that the activities of the Privy Council in-
cluded, not only much that later would have required parlia-
mentary authority, but also much that in later times would
have been done by specialized administrative officials and de-
partments. This was in part due to the absence of such admin-
istrative agencies. Only a few officials and organized depart-
ments had been established before this time; and no important
developments toward permanent administrative machinery
seems to have been made during the war. But even the officials
and agencies then in existence seem to have exercised much less
autonomous power than now; and the specific orders and in-
structions in particular cases came in large part from the Coun-
cil. The management of war administration was thus almost
entirely centralized in the hands of what was practically a small
committee of eight or ten officials, assisted at times by other
officials and prominent members of the nobility.
WARS WITH FRANCE
During the series of wars with France from the end of the
seventeenth century the formal authority for war measures was
based more largely on, and to a steadily increasing extent con-
ferred by, Acts of Parliament. There was also some develop-
ment of new administrative agencies. As a result of these two
factors the Privy Council was less active as the real source of
* Acts of the Privy Council, New Series, xv, 254.
WAR MEASURES IN FORMER TIMES
7
official decisions, although it continued to be an agency whose
formal action was necessary in many matters. But behind the
formal procedure, the effective direction over Acts of Parlia-
ment, Orders in Council and the orders and instructions of
officials and departments was in fact exercised by a small group
of ministers. In the first of this series of wars, the ministers
acted largely under the personal leadership of the King, William
III. During the eighteenth century, there was a progressive
tendency towards a coherent Cabinet. During the greater part
of the final contest, the Cabinet of that time was under the
active leadership of the younger Pitt.
King William's War
The formal supremacy of Parliament in the government after
the Revolution of 1689, and the recognition of the need for
parliamentary sanction to war measures, which in the time of
Elizabeth would have been taken on the initiative and authority
of the Privy Council, may be indicated by noting some of the
more important Acts of Parliament in the war which followed
the Revolution. In addition to the financial legislation authoriz-
ing taxes and expenditures, the following acts were passed from
1689 to 1692 : 1
An Act Impowering His Majestie to Apprehend and Detaine
such Persons as He shall find just cause to Suspect are conspir-
ing against the Government,
This authorized persons arrested. by order of the Privy Coun-
cil to be held without bail; and thus suspended the Habeas
Corpus Act.
An Act for punishing officers or soldiers who shall Mutiny
or Desert their Majesties' Service.
An Act for Renewing a former Act for Regulating the Meas-
ures and Price of Coal.
An Act for raising the Militia of the Kingdom, etc.
* Statutes of the Realnı, vi: 1 W. and M. ch. 2, 5, 7, 19, 34 (1687); 2 W.
and M. ch. 7 (1690); 3 W. and M. ch. 7, 13 (1691); 4 W. and M. ch. 19
(1692).
.
8
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
An Act against corresponding with Their Majesties' Enemies.
An Act for preventing suits against such as acted for Their
Majesties' Service in Defense of the Kingdom.
The last of these is of special importance, as indicating on
the one hand that measures had been taken without parliamentary
authority, but at the same time that parliamentary approval of
these acts was now considered necessary to give the officials
protection against suits for violating the law.
The Seven Years War
1
In this war, which involved a large part of Europe, and fight-
ing in India and America, there was another series of important
parliamentary statutes, of which the following may be noted:
An Act for the speedy and effectual Recruiting of his Maj-
esty's Land Forces and Marines.
An Act to impower his Majesty to prohibit the exportation of
Saltpeter, etc.
An Act for the Encouragement of Seamen and the more
speedy and effectual Manning of his Majesty's Navy.
An Act to prohibit for a Time to be limited the exportation
of Corn, Malt, Meal, Flour, Bread, Biscuit and Starch.
An Act to discontinue for a limited Time the duties upon
Corn and Flour imported, etc.
An Act to prohibit . . . the exportation of Corn, Flour .
Beef, Pork, Bacon and other Victuals (except Fish and Roots
and Rice to be exported to any part of Europe Southward of
Cape Finisterre) from his Majesty's Colonies and Plantations
in America except to Great Britain or Ireland or to some of
said Colonies.
An Act to prohibit for a limited Time the making of Low
Wines and Spirits from Wheat, Barley, Malt or any other sort
of grain, or from Meal or Flour.
An Act for the better Ordering of the Militia Forces in the
Several Counties of . . . England.
Statutes at Large, vii, viii: 29 Geo. II, ch. 4, 16, 34 (1756); 30 Geo. II,
ch. 1, 7, 9, 10, 25 (1757); 31 Geo. II, ch. 10' (1758); 32 Geo. II, ch. 34 (1759).
WAR MEASURES IN FORMER TIMES
9
An Act for the Encouragement of Seamen employed in the
Royal Navy, etc.
An Act for the better preventing the Importation of the
Woolen Manufactures of France into any of the Ports of the
Levant Sea, by or on behalf of any of His Majesty's Subjects,
and for the more effectual preventing the importation of Raw
Silk and Mohair Yarn into this Kingdom.
These acts furnish precedents for later and for some recent
legislation. They provided more definitely for recruiting the
army and navy; established important regulations and restric-
tions on foreign trade; and prohibited the use of grain for mak-
ing liquors. It may be noted that the act for recruiting land
forces provided for a levy of “such able bodied men as do not
follow any lawful calling or employment, or have not some other
lawful and sufficient support and maintenance," to serve as
soldiers. This act was to be enforced by the justices, borough
magistrates and commissioners of the land tax. Provision was
made for payments to parish officers, and for a special allow-
ance for men with wife or family.
Pitt's War Legislation
In the last great war with France, which continued with
little interruption for more than twenty years, statutory legisla-
tion reached its maximum; and this war may be said to have
been mainly conducted under Acts of Parliament. During the
first decade of this struggle the directing head of the British
Government was the younger William Pitt; and the altered po-
sition of Parliament is shown by the numerous series of statutes
enacted. “ Pitt crystallized the Common Law of national de-
fense into statutory form, he extended the Common Law princi-
ples to include compulsory purchase of land, he widely extended
the militia system, he introduced compulsory service in the navy,
he saw to it that Parliament was supreme in war finance."
This does not mean that no use was made of the older forms
· The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii, ch. 124, p. 45.
10
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
3
of public administration. Beginning some years before the war
and during the first years of the war, a series of Orders in
Council were issued imposing restrictions and regulations on
imports and exports, which were not only unauthorized by Act
of Parliament but were in conflict with existing legislation. But
the need for parliamentary sanction for these orders was rec-
ognized by a series of Indemnity Acts for those who had ad-
vised or executed them, and authorizing further measures of
the same kind.1
Other Acts of Parliament also authorized Orders in Council
for the regulation of exports and imports. The restriction of
cash payments by the Bank was first provided by a Minute of
Council (February 26, 1797), afterwards confirmed and con-
tinued by Acts of Parliament. Again, in the last decade of the
war, another well known series of Orders in Council were issued
dealing with neutral trade.
Some indication of the number and scope of the Acts of
Parliament passed at this period may be given by noting some
of the principal classes of statutes passed. The regulation of
foreign trade and intercourse form one important group.
In
addition to the Acts of Indemnity confirming Orders in Council,
dealing mostly with the exports and imports of grain, pot and
pearl ashes and rock salt, other acts were passed authorizing
restrictions on the export of naval stores, saltpeter, arms and
ammunition, candles, tallow, soap, provisions and food; to en-
courage importations of grain and provisions; to prohibit the
importation of cambrics and French lawns; and to regulate trade
with the British possessions in India.*
Other acts prohibited the circulation of financial obligations
issued by French authorities; protected money or property of
* Statutes at Large: 30 Geo. III, ch. 1 (1790); 31 Geo. III, ch. 42 (1791);
33 Geo. III, ch. 3 (1793); 34 Geo. III, ch. 34 (1794); 35 Geo. III, ch. 15
(1795); 36 Geo. III, ch. 53, 76 (1796).
Ibid., 33 Geo. III, ch. 45, 91; 38 Geo. III, ch. 1 (1797).
Orders of January 7, 1807, November 11, 1807, April 26, 1809, April 21,
1812.
Statutes at Large: 33 Geo. III, ch. 2 (1793) ; 35 Geo. III, ch. 4 (1795);
36 Geo. III, ch. 3, 5, 21 (1795-6); 37 Geo. 111, ch. 117 (1797); 41 Geo. III,
ch. 2 (1800).
2
WAR MEASURES IN FORMER TIMES
11
2
3
persons in France from the French Government; cut off financial
communications with Holland and Switzerland; and forbade
British subjects from going to or remaining in France.1
Related to these may be noted several acts for the conservation
of grain supplies, by prohibiting the making of low wines and
spirits from grain and flour; prohibiting the making of starch,
hair powder and blue from wheat; permitting, and later re-
quiring bakers to make bread with a larger proportion of bran
and by mixing other grains or potatoes with wheat.
Another series of statutes provided for the regulation of aliens
and the suppression of internal sedition, conspiracy and treason.
An act for establishing regulations respecting aliens, passed in
1793, required masters of vessels to file declarations as to
foreigners on board; and required aliens to furnish declarations,
to secure passports, to register and surrender arms. The land-
ing and residence of aliens might be restricted by Orders in
Council, and the Secretary of State might issue warrants for
searching the houses of aliens for weapons.
Legislation against internal dangers included acts to prevent
traitorous correspondence with the enemy; to authorize the
detention without bail of persons suspected of conspiracy (sus-
pending the Habeas Corpus Act); against treasonable and
seditious practices; and for preventing seditious meetings
and assemblies. One act authorized the Postmaster General
to open and return certain letters held in the post office;
and another regulated the printing and publication of news-
papers."
Numerous acts were provided for raising revenue. At each
session there were several acts authorizing loans by the issue of
exchequer bills; and as the war progressed larger loans were
Ibid., 33 Geo. III, ch. 1 (1793) ; 34 Geo. III, ch. 9, 79 (1794); 38 Geo.
III, ch. 28, 45, 79 (1798).
Ibid., 35 Geo. III, ch. 119 (1795) ; 36 Geo. III, ch. 6, 22 (1795); 41 Geo.
III, ch. 16 (1800).
Ibid., 33 Geo. III, ch. 4 (1793), cf. 34 Geo. III, ch. 82 (1794); 38 Geo.
III, ch. 80 (1798)
Ibid., 33 Geo. III, ch. 27 (1793) ; 34 Geo. III, ch. 54 (1794); 36 Geo. III,
ch. 7, 8, 27 (1795).
Ibid., 35 Geo. III, ch. 62 (1795); 38 Geo. III, ch. 78 (1798).
1
2
3
6
12
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2
authorized by means of annuities.' Loans made by the British
Government to its European allies were confirmed by Acts of
Parliament. New and additional taxes were imposed from
time to time. An act of 1798 provided for what was practically
a graduated income tax on persons with incomes over £60 a
year, with a maximum of one-tenth on incomes of £200 and
over. 3
There was also important currency legislation. The banks
in Scotland were authorized to issue notes for less than twenty
shillings; and, as already noted, a Minute of Council for the
restriction of cash payments by the Bank of England was con-
firmed, and later renewed, by Act of Parliament.
In marked contrast with previous wars, there was a volumi-
nous mass of legislation in regard to the army and navy. In
1795 acts were passed for raising men for the navy by apportion-
ment among the several counties and ports; and authorizing the
magistrates to make à levy on able bodied and idle persons for
this purpose. Other acts provided for augmenting the militia,
for raising volunteer forces, for increasing the artillery corps,
and for raising a force of cavalry. The rates of subsistence
for quartering soldiers were increased from time to time; and
the system of relief to families of men in the militia was read-
justed.” Acts of 1796 made a definite apportionment by counties
of the numbers to be raised for the army as well as the navy.
The Defense of the Realm Act of 1798 practically provided
for compulsory service for the army. The county and deputy
lieutenants were directed to procure returns of men of 15 years
of age and under 60, showing those in the volunteer corps and
those willing to be employed in the defense of the country; re-
* Ibid., 30 Geo. III, ch. 15 (1790); 34 Geo. III, ch. 1, 21, 28, 29, 62 (1794);
38 Geo. III, ch. 8, 20, 37, 82, 83, 84, 91 (1798).
Ibid., 35 Geo. III, ch. 93 (1795) ; 37 Geo. III, ch. 59 (1797).
Ibid., 38 Geo. III, ch. 16 (1798).
* Ibid., 37 Geo. III, ch. 40, 45, 62, 91; 38 Geo. III, ch. 1, 2 (1797).
Ibid., 35 Geo. IIÍ, ch. 5, 9, 34 (1795).
º Ibid., 34 Geo. III, ch. 16, 31 (1794) ; 35 Geo. III, ch. 83 (1795); 37 Geo.
Ill, ch. 3, 6, 22, 103 (1796); 38 Geo. III, ch. 17, 18, 19, 45, 55 (1798).
Ibid., 35 Geo. III, ch. 64, 81 (1795); 36 Geo. III, ch. 36 (1796); 38 Geo.
III, ch. 32 (1798).
Ibid., 37 Geo. III, ch. 4,5 (1796).
8
8
8
WAR MEASURES IN FORMER TIMES
13
turns of Quakers, aliens and infirm persons, and returns of
available boats, wagons, horses and provisions. If there were
not sufficient volunteers, the militia laws for compulsory serv-
ice were to be put in force. Requisitions on the largest scale
were authorized; and the principle of compulsory occupation
and purchase of necessary land by the government was intro-
duced."
Other acts of this year suspended the restrictions on impress-
ment for the navy, and provided for raising a force of miners
in Cornwall and Devon for the defense of the country.?
Administrative Agencies
Along with the great expansion of parliamentary legislation
during the eighteenth century wars, another important change
in war methods was the increasing development of admin-
istrative authorities. Neither in the voluminous statutes of
Pitt's régime, nor in the Orders in Council which were issued
do we find anything to correspond with the specific orders and
instructions of the Privy Council in the time of Queen Elizabeth.
These were now issued by the various administrative officials,
departments and subordinate agencies which had been established
from time to time, and some of the more important authorities
may here be noted.
The office of Lord High Admiral had been placed in commis-
sion; and in addition to the Admiralty Board there were other
agencies for naval administration, notably the Navy Board and
the Victualing Board. The office of Lord High Treasurer was
also in commission; and the Treasury Board during the eight-
eenth century was an active administrative agency. The prin-
cipal Secretary of State, who in the reign of Elizabeth had been
little more than a ministerial agent of the Privy Council, had
become one of the first officials of the kingdom; and during the
eighteenth century there were two, and for a time, three, Secre-
taries of State.
* Ibid., 38 Geo. III, ch. 27 (1798).
* Ibid., 38 Geo. III, ch. 46, 74 (1798).
14
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Colonial and trade affairs were looked after to a consider-
able extent by the Lords of Trade and Plantations, the predeces-
sor of the later Board of Trade. Army administration was still
but little developed; but the subordinate office of Secretary for
War had been established and exercised some administrative
powers.'
But the active control over the formal machinery of Acts of
Parliament, Orders in Council and orders and instructions of
administrative officials was exercised by the group of ministers,
developing into the extra-legal body known as Cabinet. This
body was in fact the agency which corresponded to the Privy
Council of Queen Elizabeth's day. Bills for parliamentary
statutes were drawn up under its direction, and passed by Parlia-
ment and approved by the King. Orders in Council were decided
by the same group
The administrative officials and depart-
ments also acted under the general directions and influence of
the Cabinet.
In several respects, however, the Cabinet of the eighteenth cen-
tury differed from the Privy Council of the sixteenth century.
It was not only an extra-legal body, but as such had no official
record of its proceedings, so that no definite account of its meet-
ings and decisions is available. At the same time, the min-
isters who formed the Cabinet became more and more respon-
sible to Parliament, and practically to the House of Commons.
This responsibility was not clearly recognized at the end of the
seventeenth century; but it became more definite after the resig-
nation of Walpole in 1742; and the great mass of statutory leg-
islation in the time of Pitt is an indication that the form of
parliamentary action was now needed to confirm the important
decisions of the group of executive officials.
CHAPTER II
Forms and Agencies of Action
INTRODUCTORY
In the conduct of the present war there have been startling
developments and contrasts in the forms and agencies of gov-
ernmental action by Great Britain, as compared both with peace
conditions and with the methods and machinery employed in
former wars. In the contest with Spain during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, the management both of the war and the in-
ternal administration of the country was exercised chiefly, and
almost entirely, by the Privy Council. There was no parlia-
mentary legislation, except for the levy of new taxes; and there
were few specialized administrative officials or other agencies
of the central government. In later wars parliamentary legis-
lation increased both in amount and importance; and there was
also some development of central administrative machinery. In
the time of the younger Pitt, parliamentary action reached its
maximum; and there was a voluminous and bewildering mass
of statutory legislation. There was also a larger use of special-
ized administrative officials; and the Privy Council was rela-
tively a much less important factor than either at earlier times
or in the present war. At the same time, the active control and
direction of the government was in fact exercised by the extra-
legal Cabinet, under the forceful leadership of Pitt, the Prime
Minister.
In the present war both the Privy Council and Parliament played an active
part in the conduct of affairs. The subservience of the Council to Parliament
was in theory, beyond doubt, but in fact the members of the Council exercised
a controlling force in the deliberations of Parliament, a reversion to the
Elizabethan model which was hardly accompanied by the same tenacity of
administration or grasp of the essential features of the problem.”
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii, p. 47.
1
15
16
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
This is an eclectic age, and there is hardly a possible form of legislative
activity to which the Government of Great Britain had not to resort in order
rapidly to create an economic screen between the nation and the war zone
and at the same time to carry on the war with efficiency. It was necessary
not only to secure success in the field and on the seas, but also to preserve
a national life immune from social and economic disturbance. Legislative
methods employed were both remarkable and complex.?
Acts of Parliament have been numerous—more so than at any
time except that of Pitt—and the legal supremacy of the King
in Parliament has been formally recognized by securing such
legislation for most of the unusual powers, at least in internal
affairs. But, besides the actual control exercised by the Cabinet
in the formulation of statutes, these measures have been for the
most part brief and have granted sweeping authority in the
broadest terms, leaving to Orders in Council and departmental
regulations much of what a century ago would have been found
in the statutes themselves.
Royal Proclamations and Orders in Council have been much
greater in number and more important in content than at any
previous time—more even than in the days of Elizabeth. To a
large extent these have been issued under the express authority
of Acts of Parliament, old and new; but there has also been a
significant revival of these forms of action based on the un-
written, prerogative and common law powers of the ancient
constitution.
But in addition to this return to the practices of earlier times,
there has also been a new and remarkable development of ad-
ministration through specialized departments, officials and other
agencies.
The progress of the war is affecting deeply our administrative organiza-
tion. It has imposed new duties on many of the old established departments
and has directed their energies on lines which may conduce to the more
efficient conduct of the war. The Home Office, the Board of Trade, the
rd of Agriculture and Fisheries, and even the Board of Education have
been considerably affected as regards their policy and procedure. Economies
have been made on normal services and new functions have been undertaken
to meet requirements which the war has made urgent."
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii
,
· The Political Quarterly, No. 7 (1916), p. 148.
{
1
P. 49.
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
17
As a result of these new functions and the formation of new
governmental agencies, there has been a remarkable increase in
the volume and importance of departmental regulations.
FORMS OF ACTION
Acts of Parliament
Between the declaration of war with Germany (on August 4,
1914) and the end of the regular session (on September 18),
no less than 37 Acts of Parliament of various kinds were passed
and received the Royal Assert.. The number of these is of itself
an indication that the examination and discussion in Parliament
was obviously formal and perfunctory. It is true that most of
the bills were brief; but they were brief mainly because they
gave wide powers to the executive to do whatever seemed ex-
pedient. “The Houses may be said to have agreed to a sort
of Ultimum senatusconsultum: videant consules.” 1
First may be noted the financial measures. A vote of credit
for £100,000,000 authorized expenditure for any war purpose,
without specification or estimate; and was followed by other and
larger votes. An act to authorize the postponement of payments
established a temporary moratorium; a currency and bank notes
act provided for the issue of paper bank notes; and later a grant
of
emergency powers to the courts was preliminary to the ter-
mination of the general moratorium. Other acts dealt with the
treatment of alien enemies and gave broad powers over persons
and property for the defense of the realm. There were acts
for the control of foreign trade, trading with the enemy
and the hoarding of supplies. An increase of 1,000,000 men
in the army was authorized; and provision was made for prize
courts.
Many of the emergency acts were departmental measures pro-
tecting those who entered active service from being penalized
for this action. Special provisions were made to permit police
constables and school teachers to join the army. The Insurance
1 The Political Quarterly, i, 162 (1914).
18
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Act was adapted to meet the case of those serving temporarily
with the army and navy. Other measures provided for the
relief of those dependent on the combatants. There was some
opposition to the measures authorizing restrictions on the sale
of intoxicating liquors and for the prevention of trading with
the enemy; but no important changes were made in the bills as
presented.
At the adjourned session of Parliament in November, addi-
tional measures were passed, including the amendment and
revision of the acts for the defense of the realm, providing com-
pensation for injuries in war, and placing restrictions on exports,
and the finance act providing means for raising funds for carry-
ing on the war.
During the sessions of 1915, some fifty war emergency Acts
of Parliament were passed. The most important, as involving
novel legislative principles and administrative agencies, were
those estáblishing the new Ministry of Munitions, regulating
the production of munitions of war, providing for a general
system of national registration, limiting the price of coal, and
restricting the increase of rent and mortgage interest. In addi-
tion there were statutes amending, revising and supplementing
the previous legislation relating to the defense of the realm (in-
cluding the control of the liquor traffic), the control of foreign
trade, trading with enemy, the system of compensation and pen-
sions for men in the armed forces, the national insurance system,
and war loans and other financial measures. The laws relating
to the exemption of trusts and evidence were amended; and
emergency powers were given to universities and colleges. More-
over, the duration of the House of Commons (which should
have expired under the Parliament Act of 1911 in 1915) was
extended; the reelection of ministers after changes in the Cabinet
was dispensed with, and local elections were postponed.
In 1916, the most significant Acts of Parliament were those
providing for compulsory military service and (in December)
those creating new ministries. There was also additional leg-
islation amending the defense of the realm acts, and granting
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
19
new emergency powers to courts and local authorities, as well as
on other subjects.
During 1917 acts were passed creating other new ministries,
also a Corn Production Act. Altogether 76 government bills
were introduced, of which 67 became law and 9 failed to pass.
The enlarging volume of parliamentary legislation may be
indicated by noting the increased number of acts. During the
three years (1911-1913) before the war, there was passed a
total of 133 public acts. In the three years (1914-1916) since
the war, the number of public acts has been 267, or double the
number for the previous three years. In practically all of this
legislation the action of Parliament has been substantially that
of passing the measures presented by the executive government,
conferring with little or no hesitation the enormous powers
asked. Indeed the principal criticism made of the Cabinet, up
to the end of 1916, was of its hesitation and delay in asking
for legislative authority. In one important case, when the pro-
posal for the second compulsory military service bill was first
presented, the dissatisfaction in Parliament with its limited
scope led to its withdrawal (without a formal vote) and the
presentation of a more sweeping measure.
It is significant of the relations that had come to exist be-
tween the Cabinet and Parliament (even before the war), that
any indication of dissatisfaction in Parliament with government
bills presented was discussed as an evidence of the weakness
of the Cabinet. It was assumed not only that the Cabinet should
present definite proposals for legislation, but that the Cabinet
proposals should as a matter of course be enacted, and if these
proposals were not acceptable the fault was necessarily with the
Cabinet. Thus the conventional fiction that the Cabinet is con-
trolled by Parliament has broken down.
On the other hand there has been a notable absence of “ Acts
of Indemnity,” which formed a striking feature of Pitt's war
legislation. Practically all of the enormous powers exercised
by the executive authorities seem to have been based on parlia-
mentary legislation or on recognized common law powers; and
t
20
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
there has apparently been little need for dispensing legislation
to protect the executive officers for technical violations of the
law.
The list below presents some of the more important Acts of
Parliament passed during the present war:
1914
Aug. 3
Aug. 5
Aug.
Aug. 6
4 and 5 George V.
Chapter 11 Postponement of Payments Act
12 Aliens Restriction Act
13 Prize Courts (Procedure) Act
14 Currency and Bank Notes Act
72 Amended Aug. 28
29 Defense of the Realm Act
Consolidation Act
30 Injuries in War (Compensation) Act
18 New Act
64 Customs (Exportation Prohibition) Act
2
(Exportations Restrictions) Act
60 War Loan Act
61 Special Constables Act
62 Isle of Man (War Legislation) Act
77 Intoxicating Liquor (Temporary Restrictions) Act
78 Courts (Emergency Powers) Act
79 Prize Courts (Egypt, Zanzibar and Cyprus) Act
83 Army Pension Act
82 Bills of Exchange Act
84 Irish Police Constables (Naval and Military Service)
Act
88 Suspensory Act
80 Police Constables (Naval and Military Service) Act
87 Trading with the Enemy Act
12
Amending Act.
11 Government War Obligations Act
7 Finance Act, 1914. Session 2.
Aug. 8
Nov. 27
Aug. 10
Nov. 27
Aug. 28
Nov. 27
Aug. 28
Aug. 28
Aug. 31
Aug. 31
Sept. 18
Sept. 18
Sept. 18
1
Sept. 18
Sept. 18
Sept. 18
Nov. 27
Nov. 27
Nov. 27
5 and 6 George V.
1915-16
Chapter 34; 37; 42 Defense of the Realm (Amendment) Acts
Mch. 16, May 19
31; 71 Customs (War Powers) Acts
Mch. 16, July 29
52
(Exportation Restrictions) Act · June 24
27
National Insurance (Pt. II Amendment) Act Mch. 16
36
Legal Proceedings against Enemies Act
Mch. 16
30; 73
Naval Discipline Acts
Mch. 16, July 29
22
Universities and Colleges (Emergency
Powers) Act
Mch. 16
21
British Ships (Transfer Restriction) Act Mch. 16
41
Police (Emergency Provisions) Act
May 19
50
Reelection of Ministers Act
June 4
51
Ministry of Munitions Act
June 9
Munitions of War Act
July 2
57
Prize Courts Act
July 2
60
War Loan Act
July 2
Supplemental Provision
Dec. 23
60
National Registration Act
July 15
76
Elections and Registration Act
July 29
54
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
21
1915-16
Chapter 75
79
98
62
89
81
83
97
5 and 6 George V.
Price of Coal (Limitation) Act
Trading with the Enemy (Amendment) Act
Extension of Powers
Finance Act
No. 2.
American Loan Act
Naval and Military War Pensions Act
Increase of Rent and Mortgage Interest (War
Restrictions) Act
Government War Obligations Act
Military Service Act
July 29
July 29
Dec. 23
July 29
Dec. 23
Oct. 13
Nov. 10
96
104
Dec. 23
Dec. 23
Jan. 27
6 and 7 George V.
1916
Chapter 11; 24 Finance Acts
April 19
12 Local Government (Emergency Provisions) Act May 17
13; 18 Courts (Emergency Powers) Amendment Acts
May 17, June 1
15 Military Service Act (Session 2)
May 25
26; 57 Output of Beer (Restriction) Acts Aug. 3, Dec. 18
33 Army (Courts of Inquiry) Act
Aug. 10
34 Special Commission (Dardanelles and Mesopo-
tamia) Act
43 War Charities Act
Aug. 23
63 Defense of the Realm (Acquisition of Land) Act Dec. 22
65 Ministry of Pensions Act
Dec. 22
68 New Ministries and Secretaries Act
Dec. 22
67 War Loan Act
Dec. 22
ay and 8 George V.
1917-18
War Pensions Act
Ministry of National Service Act
New Ministries Act (Reconstruction)
Military Service (Review of Exceptions) Act
Naval and Military War Pensions Acts
Munitions of War Act
Corn Production Act
Coal Mines Control Agreement (Confirmation) Act
Grand Juries (Suspension) Act
Courts (Emergency Powers) Act No. 2
Representation of the People Act
Royal Proclamations and Orders in Council
More numerous and more detailed than the Acts of Parlia-
ment have been the executive orders and regulations of the
first rank issued in the form of Royal Proclamations and Orders
in Council. No clear line of demarcation can be made between
these two forms of procedure, as both have been used for sub-
stantially similar purposes. As an indication of the extent to
which these forms of action have been used, it may be noted
that between August 1 and September 30, 1914, there were
22
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
issued 27 Royal Proclamations and more than 30 Orders in
Council. Since then, from time to time, many additional proc-
lamations and Orders in Council have been issued.
Several types of these executive acts may be recognized. In
the first place, there were proclamations issued under the Royal
prerogative, without statutory authority and without even the
formal approval of the Privy Council. Examples of these were
the proclamations of August 3, authorizing the Admiralty to
requisition British ships, and that of August 5, proclaiming the
giving of financial assistance to the enemy to be high treason and
announcing that traitors would be proceeded against with the
utmost rigor of the law. Neither of these was confirmed or
ratified by later Act of Parliament or the Privy Council.
Still more sweeping was the Royal Proclamation of August
4, asserting the prerogative power to take all measures neces-
sary for the public safety and the defense of the realm, and
authorizing the Admiralty.and Army Council to take such steps
as they deemed necessary for this purpose. · But before much
could have been done under this proclamation the first Defense
of the Realm Act was passed by Parliament (August 8) author-
izing regulation by Orders in Council for the same purpose; and
further action was taken under this statutory authority.
Another type was the Royal Proclamations and Orders issued,
also without express statutory authority, but by and with the
advice of the Privy Council. In this category may be noted the
proclamation of August 2 authorizing the postponement of pay-
ments and that of August 5, prohibiting trading with the enemy.
Both of these were confirmed by subsequent Acts of Parliament.
Orders in Council of the same class include that of August 3,
calling reserved and retired army and navy officers to active ser-
vice; that of August 4, for the detention of German ships in
British ports; that of August 5, authorizing the Admiralty to
constitute a prize court; and that of August 20, adopting the
rules of the Declaration of London with certain modifications.
Such Orders in Council, dealing directly with the conduct of
Manual of Emergency Legislation, pp. 557, 563.
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
23
military operations and enemy property, have in the past been
regularly made without statutory authority. As the war pro-
gressed, additional Orders in Council of this class were issued
from time to time, dealing with contraband, blockade and the
regulation of neutral trade. It should be noted, however, that in
the Zamora case, the Admiralty Court held that such Orders in
Council, not based on Acts of Parliament, were subject to the
established rules of international law. More notable was an
Order of August 28, canceling so much of a Royal Proclama-
tion of September 17, 1900, as related to the distribution of the
net proceeds of naval prizes.
Another illustration was given of the reserved powers of
the British Crown, by an Order in Council of April 13, 1915,
authorizing and directing the Ministers of Trade and Customs
in Australia and the Minister of Customs in New Zealand to
requisition insulated spaces in British ships trading between-
Australia or New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The Royal
authority was here asserted to control the actions of ministers
of two self-governing dominions, without the intervention of
the Dominion Parliament or the Dominion Cabinet.
It was a valuable instance of the fact that the prerogative powers of the
Crown, so far from being exhausted, were still in 1915 of vast economic use
in speedily arranging intercolonial affairs and concentrating the whole avail-
able forces of the Empire on any special or urgent problem."
Much more numerous than either or both of the foregoing
classes were the Royal Proclamations and Orders in Council
issued under the authority of Acts of Parliament. Of these, it
is advisable to distinguish between those issued under earlier
legislation and those issued under statutes passed during the
present war.
Thus, on August 3, three Royal Proclamations were issued :
one calling out the naval reserve, under the Royal Naval Re-
serve Volunteer Act of 1841; one prohibiting the exportation
of warlike stores, under the Customs and Inland Revenue Act
1
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii, p. 53.
24
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
of 1879; and one declaring August 4, 5 and 6 to be Bank Holi-
days, under the Bank Holidays Act of 1871. A proclamation
of August 4 called out the army reserve and territorial force,
under the Reserve Forces Act of 1882 and the Territorial and
Reserve Forces Act of 1907. Other proclamations were issued
on August 5, 10 and 20, under the Customs and Inland Revenue
Act of 1879.
So, too, an Order in Council of August 4, provided for taking
control of the railroads by the government, as authorized by
the Regulation of the Forces Act of 1871; and an Order in
Council of August 5, established prize court rules under the
Prize Court Act of 1894.
On the basis of new parliamentary war legislation there was
issued a proclamation under the Currency and Bank Notes Act,
and on September 17, a proclamation under the Articles of Com-
merce (Returns, etc.) Act authorizing the Board of Trade to
take possession of supplies of any articles of commerce which
were being unreasonably withheld from the market.
More numerous were the detailed regulations established by
Orders in Council under the Aliens Restriction and the Defense
of the Realm Acts. The orders first issued on August 5 and
12, were amended and added to from time to time. An Aliens
Restriction (Consolidation) Order was issued September 9,
and a Defense of the Realm Regulations (Consolidation) Order
on November 28. These in turn have been frequently amended
and supplemented, and at intervals new consolidation orders
have been issued. Other illustrations of Orders in Council
based on new legislation were those of September 30, 1914,
amending the Prize Court Rules and providing for prize courts
in Egypt, Zanzibar and Cyprus.
Many of the Orders in Council are comparatively brief; but
some of the more important are extended and detailed lists of
regulations. Thus the Aliens Restriction (Consolidation) Order,
1916, covers 32 pages; and the Defense of the Realm (Consoli-
dation) Order, 1917, covers 82 pages.
Royal Proclamations and Orders issued by and with the ad-
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
25
vice of the Privy Council are dated from Buckingham Palace,
and are supposed to be formally adopted or approved at a meet-
ing of the Council where the King is personally present, with or
without nominated councilors. But the public announcements
do not show what persons were present. Royal Proclamations
are signed in the name of His Majesty. Orders in Council
are signed by the Clerk of the Council (Almeric Fitzroy).
Even less is publicly known as to who are in fact responsible
for these Royal Proclamations and Orders in Council. Under
the usual practice of the British Government, they are presumed
to have been approved by the Cabinet. But until the formation
of the Lloyd George War Cabinet in December, 1916, there was
no official record of Cabinet proceedings; and the records of
the new Cabinet have not been published. It seems probable
that for many of the Proclamations and Orders in Council there
has been little or no detailed discussion in the Cabinet. There
has been a committee on the defense of the realm regulations,
which may be assumed to have had a good deal to do with
formulating these regulations. In other cases the rules and reg-
ulations have been drafted by subordinate officials within a par-
ticular department, and presented to the Cabinet on the respon-
sibility of one of the ministers.
Orders of Council
In addition to the Royal Proclamations and Orders issued by
and with the advice of the Privy Council there have also been
Orders of the Privy Council, dated from the Council Chambers
at Whitehall, formally adopted at council meetings at which
His Majesty was not present. These Orders of Council have
in all cases been issued under statutory authority to carry out
the recommendations of a government department; and have
dealt with the regulation of foreign trade.
Thus the Customs (Exportation Prohibition) Act, 1914,
amending section 8 of the Customs and Inland Revenue Act, au-
* 4-5 Geo. V, c. 64. August 28, 1914.
1
26
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
thorizing the prohibition of exports, provided that any procla-
mation or Order in Council made under this section may, while
a state of war exists, be amended or added to by an order
made by the Lords of the Council on the recommendation of the
Board of Trade. Under this act, an Order of Council of August
28, 1914, extended the proclamations of August 3, 5 and 10,
(issued under the act of 1879) to all articles during the war.
Other Orders of Council of September 1, 8, 11, 25 and later
made further amendments to these proclamations, withdrawing
and adding to the list of articles export of which was
prohibited.
Under a later Act of Parliament, Orders of Council were
issued prohibiting trade with specified business firms in neutral
countries, because of connections with enemy merchants.
1
Orders of His Majesty
1
Another class of official acts have been orders issued in the
name of His Majesty, without the formal advice or approval of
the Privy Council. These have to do with less important mat-
ters than those covered by Royal Proclamations or Orders in
Council; and these Royal Orders have in all cases been issued
under the authority of Acts of Parliament.
Thus, in accordance with provisions of the Army Act, such
orders were issued on August 4, 1914, authorizing general or
field officers to issue billeting requisitions, and to issue requisi-
tions of emergency for carriages, animals, vessels and aircraft.
Another similar order of August 10, extended the authority to
issue requisitions of emergency to include food, forage and
stores of every description.
While these orders were issued in the name of His Majesty,
they were not even formally signed by the King; but all of
those above mentioned were issued under the signature of Lord
Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War.
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, p. 558.
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
27
Departmental Orders and Regulations
Most numerous of all have been the orders and regulations
issued by and in the name of the various government depart-
ments. With apparently only one exception, such depart-
mental orders and regulations have been based on statutory au-
thority, or authorized by Orders in Council. In the early days
of the war, a number were issued on the authority of previously
existing legislation; but the greater number have been issued
under the provisions of the new war legislation.
Thus, on August 1, 1914, the Postmaster General, under the
Wireless Telegraphy (Foreign Ships) Regulations, 1908, made
by him under the Wireless Telegraphy Act of 1904, having
been informed by the Home Office that an emergency had arisen,
gave public notice that the use of wireless telegraphy on board
foreign ships in British waters should be subject to rules to be
issued by the Admiralty Board. So, too, on August 2, 1914, the
Home Office, as authorized by the Aerial Navigation Acts of
1911 and 1913, prohibited the navigation of aircraft.
Among the department regulations issued under new statutes
may be noted the general orders under the Defense of the Realm
acts and food orders issued by the Food Controller. These and
others are noted in later chapters of this report.
An important exception to the almost universal rule that such
departmental orders were based on statutory authority was a
Treasury Order of January 14, 1915, forbidding the issue of
new capital under the Companies Acts without the consent of
the Treasury. The issuance of this order in this way has, how-
ever, been severely criticized.
This order, which was tolerated by a puzzled financial world as being, in
the whole necessary and desirable, was, in fact, totally illegal, and it obtained
its sanction, if sanction it could be called, in a most curious way. By the
Stock Exchange Loan scheme, formulated by the Treasury on October 31,
1914, the Stock Exchange agreed with the Treasury not to reopen without
the consent and only upon the conditions agreed to by the Treasury. Under
the regulations issued in pursuance of this purely private agreement dealings
in new issues were dependent on Treasury approval, and so the Treasury was
28
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
in a position to check the issue of new capital by forbidding quotations on
the London Stock Exchange.
The fact that by the Government War Obligations Act, 1914, advances to
members of the Stock Exchange by the Bank of England were covered by a
statutory guarantee may be said, in a sense, to have justified the order, but,
even in war time, it would have been better to have kept within the limits
of a very elastic constitutional system, and not to have relied on the dis-
pensing power of a legislative authority which tended to become restive under
a process of delegation of powers which in the early decades of the twen-
tieth century tended to reach a limit beyond which the wit of man could
scarcely be expected to go.
The issue of new capital at the time required, no doubt, regulation,
but that regulation should have been made by Order in Council under the
Defense of the Realm Act.?
AGENCIES OF ACTION
In addition to the increased activity of the older departments
and officials, there has also been a startling development in the
formation of new governmental agencies. For the first two
years of the war, these were for the most part in the form of
special committees and commissions. A host of these (more
than 400) have been established, for one purpose and another.
Many have been of an ephemeral character, for some immediate
investigation and report. Others have been more lasting, some
only as advisory bodies, but a number have been vested with
executive and administrative authority.
The vast expansion in the scope of governmental action has
further led to important internal reorganization in some of the
older departments, and the creation of new divisions and sec-
tions- not to mention the enormous increase in the number of
officials, both central and local, and the staff employed.
In addition to all this, great and novel developments have
taken place outside of the older departments of the govern-
ment. This new stage in the development of war administra-
tion was begun by the creation, in 1915, of the War Trade De-
partment, the Ministry of Munitions, and the Board of Control
for the Liquor Traffic. Further steps in the same direction were
taken, at the end of 1916, by the establishment of the new Min-
* The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii, pp. 53-54.
FORMS AND AGENCIES OF ACTION
29
istries of Food Control, Shipping Control, Pensions, Labor,
Blockade, and the Air Board; and to these were added, in
1917, new departments of National Service and Reconstruction.
Still more significant has been the change, which has well been
called a revolution, in the central organ of control of the British
Government, the Cabinet. Before the war there had been es-
tablished a Cabinet committee on imperial defense, which soon
after the beginning of the contest became a war committee.
This was reorganized towards the end of 1915 into a smaller
War Council, for directing the active conduct of the war under
the supervision of the Cabinet. In the reorganization of the
government when Mr. Lloyd George became Prime Minister, in
December, 1916, both the War Council and the old Cabinet
were replaced by a new War Cabinet of five members. The
composition of this body and its relations to the Ministry and
to Parliament show vital and fundamental differences from the
former established conventions of the British constitution.
A further, and perhaps even more important, development took
place early in 1917. At the time of a special Imperial War
Conference of representatives of the British Government and
the Dominions and India, there was also held a series of meet-
ings of what was publicly called an Imperial War Cabinet, com-
prising the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, with the
other members of the new War Cabinet and the ministers most
directly concerned with imperial affairs, and also the Prime
Ministers of most of the self-governing Dominions and repre-
sentatives from India. It was decided to continue this Imperial
Cabinet as a permanent feature of the government of the "Im-
perial Commonwealth."
All of these remarkable changes in the organization of British
war administration will be examined in more detail in later sec-
tions of this report. But it is of special importance to note here
that both of the last mentioned and most radical reconstructions
of the governmental system—the formation of the War Cabi-
net and the Imperial Cabinet—have been accomplished, in pe-
culiarly British fashion, by an entirely informal and extra-legal
30
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
process. No Act of Parliament has been passed, and no Order
in Council or Royal Proclamation has been issued, establishing or
even announcing the new machinery of government. The ex-
istence of the new War Cabinet may be ascribed to the decision
of Lloyd George, in the process of constituting the new govern-
ment, and the change was accomplished when the new ministers
accepted their posts and Parliament silently acquiesced in the
result, announced in the Prime Minister's first speech to the
House of Commons. In the formation of the Imperial Cabi-
net, the new body itself decided that it should be a permanent
institution; and public announcement was first made, not by or
at any legalized governmental institution, but at a social func-
tion—a dinner to the delegates attending the Imperial Con-
ference.
Nevertheless, the new institutions are related in fact to one
of the oldest parts of the formal machinery of the British Govern-
ment. The members of the new War Cabinet and the new Im-
perial Cabinet are all members of the King's Privy Council; and
these new bodies will thus have the same basis as the old Cabinet
as an informal and extra-legal committee of the Council.
From this outline, it should be recognized that the broad
question of the effect of the war on the British machinery of
public administration is one that well deserves close study and
investigation. Many of the changes may prove but temporary,
and after the war a return to older methods and practices may
be anticipated. Even these are worthy of attention as important
events in one of the most stupendous crises in history. But some
of the new arrangements, and among them probably the most
fundamental, are likely to leave a permanent impress on the
British Government, and to form landmarks in the develop-
ment of its constitution and of political and administrative or-
ganization throughout the world.
CHAPTER III
The Cabinet
During the progress of the war there have been a remarkable
series of developments in the British Cabinet and Ministry, in-
volving not only many changes of personnel but also funda-
mental alterations in the constitution of the Cabinet and its re-
lations to Parliament.
.
THE LIBERAL CABINET
At the outbreak of the war a Liberal Cabinet was in office,
with the Right Honorable Henry H. Asquith as Prime Minister.
But the position of this Cabinet differed from that of the con-
ventional description of British institutions, in that the Liberal
party did not have a majority in the House of Commons. In-
deed the two leading parties--Liberals and Unionists--were
practically equal in numbers. But the Liberal Cabinet was or-
dinarily supported by the minor parties, the Irish Nationalists
and the Labor members.
Several Cabinet changes took place on the declaration of war.
The Prime Minister was temporarily serving as Secretary of
State for War; and this position was promptly given to Lord
Kitchener, the best known military commander in the country,
but a man without experience as a Cabinet member or in active
political work, and not identified with any political party. This
appointment involved a departure from established customs in
two respects—in admitting to the Cabinet a nonparty member,
and in placing a military officer at the head of the War Office.
At the same time two members of the Cabinet and one under-
secretary resigned, because of their objection to taking an active
part in the conduct of war. These were Viscount Morley, Lord
President of the Council; John Burns, President of the Local
31
32
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Government Board, and C. P. Trevelyan, Under-Secretary of the
Board of Education.
Outside of the ministry, J. Ramsay MacDonald resigned his
position as chairman of the parliamentary Labor party, because
his views on war were in conflict with the attitude of his party
in supporting the war policy of the government.
While the Cabinet remained substantially a Liberal Cabinet, a
party truce was promptly agreed to, on the basis of postponing
action on controversial party questions. A letter from Bonar
Law, leader of the Opposition Unionists, to the Prime Minister,
assuring him of the support of his party, was published. The
customary methods of parliamentary opposition and criticism in
the House of Commons were thus suspended; and for some
months the chief and almost the only parliamentary criticism
of the government was that voiced by individual members in
the House of Lords.
Under these conditions a large amount of emergency legis-
lation was rapidly passed in the six weeks between the declara-
tion of war and the adjournment of the regular session on Sep-
tember 18; and this was further supplemented at an adjourned
session later in the year 1914, and at the sessions in the follow-
ing years.
Early in the session of 1915, action was taken which empha-
sised the control of the Cabinet over the proceedings in Parlia-
ment. On February 3 the government proposed a resolution
taking the whole time of the House of Commons for its measures
until further notice.
This drastic proceeding was accepted almost as a matter of course. But
it deserves to be noted as a prominent landmark in parliamentary history.
For though the so-called parliamentary initiative" has often fallen into
practical desuetude, this is probably the first occasion in the history of any
Parliament in which it has been formally surrendered for an indefinite
period."
Another significant change in procedure at this session was
that the enormous votes of credit for war purposes now ab-
· The Political Quarterly, No. 6 (May, 1915), pp. 146, 163.
THE CABINET
33
sorbed the ordinary estimates for the army and navy. In every
previous war, including the Napoleonic wars, the votes of credit
have represented roughly the difference between war expenditure
and normal peace expenditure. But the army and navy estimates
were now dispensed with altogether, except for “token” esti-
mate of £1,000 for each vote and £100 for each appropriation in
aid, as a matter of form; and both normal and abnormal ex-
penditures were to be met out of votes of credit.
As the session of 1915 continued, evidence of uneasiness and
dissatisfaction appeared both inside and outside of Parliament.
The Cabinet still received general support, and there was no open
attempt to force its retirement. But the policy of the Cabinet
lacked stability and certainty. “Where the people looked for
leadership, they found the old inclination to wait and see.” 2
In the all important matter of munitions, the government confused and
irritated the House by alternate complacency and panic; in the matter of
liquor they embarked on an ill-considered venture, which led to inglorious
surrender; in the matter of alien enemies they were forced into a reversal of
policy by popular effervescence. These mishaps did not bring about the
change of government, but they went far to convince the doubtful that a
change was inevitable. 8
The resignation of Lord Fisher as First Sea Lord of the Ad-
miralty, on May 15, brought to light the internal difficulties of
the government; and helped to precipitate the crisis.
No formal action in Parliament preceded the change of
government; and what took place in private and informal con-
ferences will not be fully known for some time. But it has been
understood that the Unionist leaders informed Mr. Asquith
that they could no longer maintain their attitude of restraining
criticism unless important changes were made. As an outcome,
a reorganization of the Cabinet was agreed to, Mr. Asquith re-
maining as Prime Minister, but with the admission of a num-
ber of Unionist and Labor members, forming a Coalition Cabi-
* Ibid., pp. 146-147.
2 The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, v, ch. 90, p. 319.
The Political Quarterly, No. 7 (March, 1916), p. 122.
34
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
net. The Irish Nationalists were also offered representation;
but declined to serve so long as Home Rule for Ireland was
not put into effect.
THE COALITION CABINET
When formally constituted the new Coalition Cabinet con-
sisted of twelve Liberals, eight Unionists, one Labor member
and Lord Kitchener, a total of twenty-two members, an increase
of two over the old Cabinet. The new positions were the newly
created Minister of Munitions and Lord Lansdowne, as min-
ister without portfolio. Unionists were assigned to a number
of important departments: A. J. Balfour became First Lord of
the Admiralty; Bonar Law, Secretary for the Colonies; Austen
Chamberlain, Secretary of State for India; W. H. Long, Presi-
dent of the Local Government Board; and Sir Edward Carson,
Attorney General. The Liberal members were shifted to different
posts : Lloyd George was transferred to the new Ministry of
Munitions; Reginald McKenna became Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer; Sir John Simon, Secretary of State for Home Affairs;
Lord Buckmaster, Lord Chancellor; Lord Crewe, President of
the Council; Lord Selborne, President of the Board of Agri-
culture and Fisheries; and Winston Churchill was given the
sinecure post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. In Febru-
ary, 1916, an addition was made to the Cabinet by creating a
new Ministry of Blockade.
A Coalition Cabinet of this kind was something new in Brit-
ish political history. There have been Coalition Cabinets before;
but they had been only partial, and none had gone to the extent
of absorbing nearly all the chief political leaders of the different
parties, representing 88 per cent of the House of Commons,
and thus eliminating the organized opposition. Mr. Asquith,
writing to the Chief Liberal Whip, said of the new arrange-
inents :
The transformation implies a temporary abandonment of the system of
party government which has ever since 1832 dominated our political arrange-
THE CABINET
35
ments and which I hold to be, under normal conditions, the best adapted to
our national requirements. There is one reason and one only which
could justify or explain such a new departure—a clear and urgent case of
national necessity.'
The general result was, however, called by one writer a com-
bination of Front Bench politicians rather than a national Cabi-
net in the wider sense. But the same critic considered it a
definite and most necessary step in replacing party government
by a government for war. It was undoubtedly stronger than
the preceding Liberal Cabinet; but it was "too much to expect
that it would show itself permanently more efficient than its
predecessor." Its membership was limited to the politicians,
and party considerations were still the basis of its composition;"
and "it was likely to suffer, even more than its predecessor.
from its own unwieldy bulk, which necessarily hampered the
swift decisions of a Cabinet in time of war." 2
Such a sweeping reconstruction of the Cabinet and Ministry,
under the established law and practice, would have necessitated
a considerable number of bye-elections, to permit the newly
appointed ministers to retain their seats in the House of Com-
But as there was general agreement that it was inad-
visable to hold elections, an act was passed suspending the law
which prevented members of the House from accepting office.
Later, as the statutory limit for the duration of the House
of Commons, under the Parliament Act of 1911, approached, .
a bill was introduced and passed extending the life of the ex-
isting House for a few months; and similar measures have sub-
sequently been enacted from time to time, so as to avoid a par-
liamentary election during the war. Local elections have also
been suspended in the same way.
The Coalition Cabinet promptly gave evidence of a more ener-
getic policy, in measures for the creation of the new Ministry of
Munitions and the Munitions of War Act, and in the adminis-
trative conduct of the war. But disappointments as to the suc-
mons.
+
· The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, v, ch. 90, p. 316.
2 Ibid., pp. 314, 320.
36
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
cessful progress of both military and diplomatic affairs led to
gradually increasing dissatisfaction and criticism. Paradoxi-
cally the disappearance of any formally organized opposition was
followed by more openly expressed opposing, not enough to be
formidable, but troublesome guerilla attacks, from a small group
of doctrinaire Radicals and avowed Socialists. Moreover the
growing feeling of unrest was much broader than the avowed
opposition.
It was urged that the Coalition Government was defective be-
cause of the size of the Cabinet, its composition, and the character
of the Prime Minister. Members of all parties acknowledged
that the Cabinet was too large for the most effective action.
“ A body of 23 men of very unequal ability, tired by their de-
partmental labors, and meeting every few days for a couple
of hours, was, indeed, an impossible machinery for making
war.” As early as September, 1915, the London Times advo-
cated a smaller Cabinet, meeting every day, and relieved from
departmental detail.
In fact the traditional working of the British Cabinet system
had already been altered in important respects. The public
suspected that specific problems were referred formally to Cabi-
net committees and that the active direction of affairs was in the
hands of a small group within the Cabinet. But there was no
definite knowledge of the extent of the control of the Cabinet
over its committees or over the de facto directing group.
1
The War Committee
On November 2, 1915, the Prime Minister announced that
since the beginning of the war there had been something like
fifty different committees and advisory bodies formed out of
the Cabinet, though sometimes with outside assistance. Of
special importance had been a fluctuating body to which, by the
consent of the Cabinet, questions of state and questions of
strategy had been delegated. This War Committee was now
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 328.
}
THE CABINET
37
1
to be established on a more formal basis and to be limited to
five or six members, including the Prime Minister, the Secretary
of State for War, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Minister
of Munitions, the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the
Chancellor of the Exchequer. This committee should have a
staff of naval, military and diplomatic advisers and have the
general direction of war measures. The Cabinet at large was
to be kept informed of its decisions and to be consulted before
any new departure in policy was undertaken.
This announcement gave some satisfaction, as a step in the
right direction, though criticized because the committee was com-
posed of department heads who would be occupied with depart-
mental problems. Two members of the Cabinet resigned :
Sir Edward Carson, because not satisfied with the Balkan pol-
icy, and Mr. Churchill, as he was omitted from the War Com-
mittee.
In July, 1916, the size of the War Committee was increased
to seven by the addition of Lord Curzon, at the time when Mr.
Lloyd George became Secretary of War and Mr. Montagu suc-
ceeded him as Minister of Munitions. The balance of parties
in the committee was thus preserved. In practice the Cabinet
almost automatically ratified the decisions of the committee; but
the committee itself gradually expanded by the presence of
official advisers and ministerial visitors until it became almost
as cumbrous a body as the Cabinet.2
Further dissatisfaction developed with the acknowledged fail-
ure of the Dardanelles expedition and the internal conflict in
the Cabinet on the question of compulsory military service. A
preliminary step in this latter direction had been taken by the
passage of the National Registration Act in June, 1915. But the
first compulsory service act, for unmarried men, was not intro-
duced until January, 1916. This led to the resignation of Sir
John Simon, Home Secretary; and for a short time the active
opposition of the Labor and Irish Nationalists in Parliament
1 The Political Quarterly, No. 8 (September, 1916), p. 104. Cf. The Com-
mittee on Imperial Defense, p. 482.
2 The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 354.
38
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
neu-
appeared probable; but the Labor Ministers were persuaded to
withdraw their resignations, and the Nationalists adopted
tral policy of inaction, since the measure was not to apply to
Ireland.
Proposals to extend the application of conscription developed
further disagreement in the Cabinet, and when a compromise
measure was presented at a secret session of the House of Com-
mons on April 25, so much dissatisfaction was disclosed that
the proposed bill was withdrawn and a more sweeping measure
introduced early in May.
The hesitancy and delay in dealing with this and other prob-
lems led to a growing demand for a more positive leadership in
the government. As one writer stated :
A coalition government above all others should avoid the appearance of
sectional and merely departmental activity. In other words the Prime Min-
ister should show beyond the shadow of a doubt that he is the active director
of affairs. It is therefore unfortunate that he seemed during these few weeks
to withdraw himself from the eye of the House of Commons."
But it should also be noted that the principle upon which the
coalition was based called for a general agreement on all im-
portant questions of policy; and to have forced a decision against
any considerable minority would have involved a reconstruction
of the Cabinet.
In spite of these difficulties the Coalition Cabinet continued in
office, with minor changes, for a year and a half, until Decem-
ber, 1916. Its record has been summed up in these words:
The Coalition Government proved in almost every sphere of war direction
and war administration that it was stronger than its predecessor, but not
strong enough, that it acted more swiftly, but yet acted too late, that its
measures were better adapted to the needs of the time than the measures of
the first year of the war, but yet were almost invariably half measures.?
THE LLOYD GEORGE WAR CABINET AND MINISTRY
Towards the end of the year 1916 there was another general
reconstruction of the British Cabinet and Ministry, involving
· The Political Quarterly, No. 7 (March, 1916), p. 146.
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 325.
2
THE CABINET
39
1
not only numerous changes in personnel but fundamental altera-
tions in the structure of the Cabinet and in its relations to the
House of Commons.
As in the case of the reorganization of May, 1915, the change
was not preceded by any formal vote of the House of Commons;
but it was the result of criticism outside of Parliament and in-
ternal disagreement within the Coalition Cabinet. Dissatisfac-
tion had been growing more acute on a number of important
problems, including the most effective distribution of “man
power,” the reorganization of the Admiralty, more active con-
trol over shipping, and questions of food production and con-
trol. The London Times became more active in demanding a
sweeping reorganization in methods of administration.
Within the Cabinet the crisis developed on the question of
administrative reorganization. Plans were proposed for reduc-
ing the size of the War Committee and giving it more definite
authority, without the need for consulting the whole Cabinet.
This might have been agreed to without a general recasting of
the Cabinet but for the specific proposal that the Prime Minis-
ter should not be a member of the War Committee. It was in-
evitable that Mr. Asquith should not agree to this; and when an
attempted compromise failed, Mr. Lloyd George resigned. This
was promptly followed by the resignation of Mr. Asquith, which
necessarily involved the whole Cabinet.
On Asquith's resignation, the King first turned to Mr. Bonar
Law, the recognized leader of the Unionist party, as Mr. Asquith
was of the Liberal party. But in a short time Mr. Law reported
that he could not form a satisfactory Ministry. Mr. Lloyd
George was then called on; and after two days presented his
proposed Cabinet and Ministry, which then took office.
The War Cabinet
In the new Ministry the most striking feature was the dis-
appearance of the traditional Cabinet of department heads, and
the creation of a distinctly new type of War Cabinet of five
40
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
members. This took over the active functions of the former
War Committee; but instead of being subordinate to the Cabi-
net, was to be the superior directing body over the whole group
of ministers. This War Cabinet was composed of Mr. Lloyd
George, the Prime Minister; Lord Curzon, President of the
Council; Lord Milner and Mr. Arthur Henderson, ministers
without portfolio; and Mr. Bənar Law, Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer and leader of the House of Commons. Only the last
named held an important administrative office; and this Cabi-
net of five were to give their entire time to the general prob-
lems of the war.
Executive power and responsibility was thus concentrated in
the small body of five men, in place of the unwieldy Cabinet of
23 administrative officers who were also active leaders in Par-
liament. But this was accomplished by attempting to separate
the functions, formerly combined in the Cabinet, of executive
control, both from the active leadership of Parliament and from
the immediate direction of administrative action. The Prime
Minister ceased to be the leader of the House of Commons, and
attended but rarely. In a few months Bonar Law retired from
the War Cabinet, leaving no member of that body whose regu-
lar attendance at the House was to be expected.
The concentration of authority seems to have been generally
approved; but there were differences of opinion as to the form,
and as to its effect in the future. One writer remarked:
Everyone expected a much smaller Cabinet; few imagined that he would
cut it down to five. Twenty-three was a monstrosity, for which there was
no excuse and no palliation save that the party politicians could not bridle
their ambitions. A Cabinet of five can only be justified as a temporary war
measure, and leaves the perpetual problem of Inner and Outer Cabinet
untouched.
1
On the other hand, another observer has written:
The time imperatively calls for government by a single man, assisted by
the ablest experts. . . . The idea of governing a country by a committee of
men who must be unanimous in all their decisions, whether they number
Auditor Tantum, in Fortnightly Review, January, 1917, pp. 42-43.
THE CABINET
41
twenty-three or five, is monstrous. After all joint responsibility in accord-
ance with Cabinet fiction means irresponsibility. Twenty-three men, and
even five men, can not think and resolve alike in all matters. ... Although
it may be thought that a war committee of five able, honest, energetic men,
who are equally determined to win the war, is an ideal body for exercising the
supreme control, a dictatorship . . is inevitable. . . . The logic of events
must place the conduct of the war into the hands of a single man, although
his supremacy may be disguised by giving him a number of colleagues, who
in reality should be his subordinates. War government by debating society
is gone probably forever.'
0
In connection with this feature of the new War Cabinet,
notice may be taken of the nature of changes in some of the
other countries. In France there has also been a small war com-
mittee or council created; but this has been composed of the
heads of the administrative departments most directly involved
in the conduct of the war; while parliamentary commissions have
actively cooperated with the Cabinet. In Germany, where the
Chancellor has been nominally the sole minister, but whose au-
thority has apparently been limited by the decisions of the heads
of the military departments, there have been some steps taken
towards at least the form of consultation with the Reichstag
and a committee of that body.
It may also be noted that the new War Cabinet, like the War
Committee, but unlike the former Cabinet, while meeting in pri-
vate, has its own secretarial staff and has formal records of its
proceedings. The secretariat consists of a secretary and ten as-
sistant secretaries, and a total staff of about 40 persons. Their
duties are to keep records of the proceedings, to transmit deci-
sions to departments and officials, to prepare agenda papers, to
attend to correspondence and to prepare reports. They also
serve at interallied conferences, the Supreme War Council, the
Imperial War Cabinet and subcommittees. There are also a
number of liaison officers, connecting the War Cabinet with all
departments of the government, and a small secretariat to the
Prime Minister?
Pp. 22-23.
· Politicus, in Fortnightly Review, January, 1917,
2 The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 2-4; Parliamentary
Debates, 1917, vol. 91 : 598.
42
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The Ministry
The formation of the new War Cabinet did not abolish the
ministerial positions at the head of the administrative depart-
ments. But it materially altered the status of these ministers;
and other important changes were made in the constitution of
the Ministry. Ministers are freed from considering general ques-
tions of policy; and are thus able to devote more time to the ad-
ministrative duties of their offices.
In the matter of party representation both the War Cabinet
and the Ministry preserved the form of a coalition. In the War
Cabinet, Mr. Lloyd George was a Liberal, Mr. Henderson a
Labor member, and the other three were Unionists. In the
larger Ministry, the number of Unionists and Labor members
was increased; and while there was a considerable number of
Liberal ministers, none of the most prominent Liberal members
of the Asquith Cabinets remained in office. Moreover there
was a significant appearance of men of business rather than
parliamentary experience, some of whom could not be definitely
assigned to any of the regular parties. The new government
was thus a coalition including more than party elements.
On the other hand, the organization of the new Ministry was
followed by the reappearance of a formal opposition. Mr. As-
quith and his leading supporters took their seats in the Opposi-
tion benches, where their attitude towards the government has
been similar to that of the Unionists towards the Liberal Cabi-
net during the first period of the war.
While the new Cabinet was much smaller than the old, the
new Ministry was larger. A series of new ministers was ap-
pointed, and provision was made later for new departments,
and a considerable addition was made to the number of parlia-
mentary secretaries, both in the old and new departments. The
new ministries included Ministers of Labor and Pensions, a
Food Controller and a Shipping Controller. An Air Board
was also created. Later, additional Ministers of National Serv-
ice and Reconstruction were appointed.
THE CABINET
43
Altogether the new Ministry formed a total of 88, nearly
double that of prewar ministries. Of these 60 were members
of the House of Commons, 23 were members of the House of
Lords, and 5 were not members of either House. 1 The influ-
ence of 60 salaried officials of the Ministry as members of the
House of Commons may well become an appreciable factor in
controlling a majority of votes in that House to sustain the
government.
The declining importance of the House of Commons is fur-
ther indicated by the lack of attention given to it not only by
the members of the War Cabinet but also by the ministers.
This is indicated by the number of ministers not members of
either House, these departments being represented only by un-
der-secretaries. But even the ministerial members of the House
have often been absent. It was pointed out that during the de-
bate on a Consolidated Fund Bill, there was no one in the Govern-
ment Front Bench except a Junior Lord of the Treasury and
later the Chief Secretary for Ireland. 2
Under these circumstances attendance and interest in the pro-
ceedings of Parliament have declined. Important bills have
been discussed on behalf of the government by comparatively un-
known men. The most prominent speakers have been former
Liberal ministers, formally in opposition, who after presenting
their arguments do not appear on the division lists. The second
reading vote on a New Ministries Bill (to establish the Minis-
try of Reconstruction) was carried by a vote of only 92 ayes
to 30 noes.
More than one British writer has publicly called the new
governmental arrangements a constitutional revolution. The
general results have been summed up in these words, by Sidney
Low:
For the ministerial and administrative Cabinet collectively responsible to
Parliament, officered and recruited entirely from the parliamentary circle,
intimately related to the House of Commons, framed on rigid party lines,
1 Herbert Samuel, in Parliamentary Debates, 1917, vol. 96: 1609.
Parliamentary Debates, 1917, vol. 92: 1337.
44
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
and conferring with absolute secrecy, we have a Cabinet which is not a
Ministry and a Ministry which is not a Cabinet; a Cabinet which directs
but does not administer; a Ministry which has exchanged collective responsi-
bility for individual responsibility; a Cabinet which has a very loose con-
nection with the House of Commons, and for some purposes is virtually
independent of it; which stands outside our party divisions; which admits
to its confidential deliberations representatives of all the great States of the
Empire as well as those of the United Kingdom; and which still holds pri-
vate, but no longer in the strictest sense secret, meetings.
Like most revolutions it is really the result of a long process of evolution.
The Inner Cabinet had long existed in a more or less unacknowledged
form. Mr. Asquith regularized the Inner Cabinet and gave it definite status
as the War Cabinet, and he made a step towards abolishing the secret con-
clave by providing this committee with a secretary.
Parliamentary control had persisted in form, but had been sensibly relaxed.
The war which conferred quasi-autocratic authority on the Executive dimin-
ished it still further; and the formation of the Coalition reduced it to a
shadow. This also went far to release the Cabinet from the party system
and paved the way for a government in which that system is ignored.
Still another constitutional development of first importance,
not only for the Government of the United Kingdom but for
the loose aggregate of British Governments vaguely styled the
British Empire, was the sessions in the spring of 1917 of what
was called the Imperial Cabinet. This was from one point of
view an expansion of the War Cabinet formed in December,
1916; but in other respects may be considered to have developed
from an earlier Cabinet Committee on Imperial Defense.
Committee on Imperial Defense
In 1895 a national defense committee of the Cabinet had been
set up, with the Prime Minister as chairman. In 1904, after the
South African war, this was reorganized by the Balfour admin-
istration as a Committee on Imperial Defense. As reconsti-
tuted this consisted of the Prime Minister as chairman; the Sec-
retaries of State for War, Foreign Affairs, India and the Col-
cnies; the Chancellor of the Exchequer; the First Lord of the
Admiralty; the Chief of the General Staff; the First Sea Lord;
the Directors of Naval and Military Intelligence, with Viscount
* Fortnightly Review, February, 1917, pp. 214-215.
THE CABINET
45
Esher and Field Marshal Lord Nicholson. Other high imperial
and colonial officials were called into the council as occasion re-
quired. Records were kept of its conclusions and of the reasons
on which they were based. 1
The establishment of this committee was formally approved
by the House of Commons. While it in no way limited the
responsibility of the Cabinet as a whole, it provided machinery
by which the military policy of the country might be, so far as
possible, continuous, and based upon the authority of the most
competent experts.
Sessions of this committee were held during the Imperial Con-
ferences of 1909 and 1912; and in the latter year Mr. Asquith
explained its organization to the House of Commons. The full
committee met on an average six or seven times a year.
There
were four permanent committees in constant session : on home
ports defense, on overseas defense, on the coordination of ac-
tion at the outbreak of war, and on air matters. There were
also other committees on internal and overseas transport, wire-
less telegraphy, maintenance of commerce and censorship in time
of war.
After this statement another subcommittee was or-
ganized on possible invasions or raids.2
This committee had been active in formulating military policy
and making plans and preparations for war. With the outbreak
of the present war, its activities increased, and its membership
tended to enlarge. A list of those who usually attended the
meetings in 1915 includes, besides those noted above, the Min-
ister of Munitions, the Lord President of the Council, the per-
manent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, the
Second Sea Lord of the Admiralty, the Chief of the Admiralty
War Staff, the Director of Military Operations, the Inspector
General of Overseas Forces, and Admirals Lord Fisher and
A. K. Wilson-making a total of about twenty.3
From its membership this committee must have dealt to a
* Constitutional Year Book, 1916, pp. 20, 67.
· Parlianıentary Debates, 5th series, vol. 42: 1385; The Political Quarterly,
No. 5, pp. 67-68.
3 British Imperial Calendar, 1916, p. 365.
46
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
»
1
large extent with questions of administration and the execution
of policy.
The Imperial Cabinet
Some steps taken earlier in the war foreshadowed the Im-
perial Cabinet of 1917. In July, 1915, a meeting of the Cabi-
net was attended by Sir Robert Borden, Prime Minister of
Canada. In March, 1916, a Cabinet meeting was attended by
Mr. W. M. Hughes, Prime Minister of Australia, who had come
to Great Britain, after recent conferences with the Prime Min-
isters of New Zealand and Canada. These two isolated and
apparently unpremeditated incidents prepared the way for the
more general admission of representatives of the dominions to
the Cabinet.
In December, 1916, after the formation of the Lloyd George
Cabinet and Ministry, the British Government invited the gov-
ernments of the overseas dominions and India to a special war
conference, in connection with which there should be held a
continuous series of meetings of the new War Cabinet, of which
for this conference the Prime Ministers of the Dominions should
be members.
The conference was held during March and April, 1917,
including representatives from Canada, Newfoundland, New
Zealand and South Africa, and also from India. All the self-
governing Dominions were represented, except Australia, where
a parliamentary election required the presence of the ministers at
home. The Secretary of State for the Colonies presided; and
other ministers and permanent officials of the United Kingdom
attended, but not the Prime Minister nor other members of the
War Cabinet, This conference considered political and com-
mercial matters of joint concern; its proceedings were reported
and, in part, made public; but like previous Imperial Conferences
it was only an advisory body with no positive authority.
· During the same period, meeting as a rule on alternate days
to the Imperial Conference, were held the sessions of the Im-
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 341.
Sidney Low, in Nineteenth Century, August, 1917,
2
1
2
p. 234.
THE CABINET
47
perial War Cabinet. This included the Prime Minister and the
other members of the War Cabinet; the Secretaries of State for
India and the Colonies; and also Sir Robert Borden, Prime Min-
ister of Canada; Wm. Massey and Joseph Ward, Premier and
Finance Minister of New Zealand; Sir Edward Morris from
Newfoundland; General Smuts from South Africa, and the
Maharajah of Bikanir and Sir S. P. Sinha from India. The
representatives of India and the Dominions were not merely
witnesses and advisers, but in effect ministers without port-
folio, deliberating under the privy councilor's oath.
No official report of the meetings of the Imperial Cabinet has
been published; but it was announced that at the final session
the Prime Minister proposed that meetings of an Imperial Cabi-
net should be held annually, or at any intermediate time when
matters of urgent imperial concern require to be settled.
The Imperial Cabinet will consist of the Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom and such of his colleagues as deal specially with imperial affairs, of
the Prime Minister of each of the Dominions, or of some specially accredited
alternative possessed of equal authority, and of a representative of the Indian
people to be appointed by the Government of India.'
In the concluding resolutions of the Imperial Conference, it
was voted that the readjustment of constitutional relations of
the British Governments should be postponed to a special
Imperial Conference to be called after the war; and
that any such readjustment, while thoroughly preserving all existing powers
of self-government and complete control of domestic affairs, should be based
upon a full recognition of the Dominions as autonomous nations of an Impe-
rial Commonwealth and of India as an important portion of the same, should
recognize their right to an adequate voice in foreign policy and in foreign
relations; and should provide effective arrangements for continuous con-
sultation in all important matters of common imperial concern and for such
necessary concerted action founded on consultation as the several govern-
ments may determine.
A second meeting of the Imperial Cabinet in June, 1918, marks
another step towards establishing annual meetings of this kind
as a recognized convention of the British imperial constitution.?
1 J. B. Firth, in Fortnightly Review, August, 1917, p. 196.
? Political Science Quarterly, vol. 33, pp. 378, 394.
18
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
These developments mark important steps in the reconstruc-
tion of the constitution, both of the United Kingdom and what
has been formally called the British " Imperial Commonwealth.”
So far as the United Kingdom is concerned, it indicates a
further departure from the collective responsibility of the Cabi-
net to the House of Commons. The connection of the House to
the new War Cabinet is but slight. The House did not vote
Mr. Asquith out; nor did it vote in Lloyd George and his asso-
ciates.
But if the House of Commons has been losing control over
the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, how much less likely is it
to control the new Imperial Cabinet? How can the British
Parliament be the final authority in deciding policies which will
be framed and executed in part by statesmen in no way respon-
sible to British or Irish electorates ? It would seem to be im-
possible for a national Parliament to exercise effective control
over what in effect will be an international executive.
In the direction of imperial organization, the new Imperial
Cabinet is established as the corner stone of the new system.
And it has been recognized both by those opposed and those in
favor of an organization based on the federal idea, that the steps
taken signify that the development is proceeding on lines away
from the plan of an imperial federation.
Nevertheless the problem remains as to how the Imperial Cabi-
net shall be held responsible and to whom.
The formation of the Allied War Council in the autumn of
1917 marked another change in political institutions of the high-
est importance, with significant effects on the working of the
several Allied Governments. But an international agency of this
kind lies outside of the scope of this study; and an analysis of
its actual and probable results belongs rather to the field of in-
ternational problems.
In operation the new War Cabinet and Ministry has been more
active and aggressive than the Coalition Ministry. It has held
almost daily sessions, holding 300 meetings during the year 1917.
THE CABINET
49
At these meetings many other persons than the members of the
War Cabinet attend. The Secretary of State for Foreign Af-
fairs, the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty and the Chief of Staff
attend every meeting, to communicate the latest intelligence in
regard to the war and to consult on questions which arise from
day to day. Most meetings are also attended by other ministers,
with department officials and experts. A total of 248 persons
other than the members of the War Cabinet had attended meet-
ings up to the end of December, 1917.
At these meetings questions of general policy are considered;
and problems of overlapping and conflicting jurisdiction are de-
termined or coordinated. A considerable number of questions
have been referred to individual members of the War Cabinet,
or to committees of ministers or other persons-in some cases
with power to decide, in others to investigate and report. 1
The new system of government resulted in more prompt and
decisive action in a number of matters. The creation of new
ministries showed an attempt to meet the pressing problems of
the war by new administrative machinery. Some effort was
made to deal with the troublesome question of Ireland. The
problem of parliamentary reform was taken in hand, and the
bold decision to call an Imperial Cabinet marked an important
step towards a more effective organization of the Empire.
At the same time there has been evidence of internal difficul-
ties and some criticism of the new machinery; and a number of
changes have been made in the War Cabinet and also in the Min-
istry. In May, 1917, Mr. Henderson, the Labor member in the
War Cabinet, was replaced by Mr. Barnes, while the former was
on a mission to Russia; and after his return differences with his
colleagues led to the definitive retirement of Mr. Henderson from
the government. It appeared that even before the critical point
had been reached, Mr. Henderson had not been freely admitted
to meetings of the Cabinet; but his resignation emphasized the
continuation of the principle that the members of the Cabinet
must be unanimous in their public expressions.
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp: 2-4.
50
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
On the other hand the resignation of Austen Chamberlain as
Secretary of State for India (in July, 1917), on the adverse
report of an investigation into the first Mesopotamian campaign,
indicated that outside of the new Cabinet the individual respon-
sibility of ministers was tending to replace the collective respon-
sibility of the group. A series of important changes in both
Cabinet and Ministry was made at that time. Mr. Bonar Law re-
tired from the War Cabinet, though continuing as Chancellor of
the Exchequer, and Sir Edward Carson was transferred from
the Admiralty to the Cabinet—changes which further weakened
the connection between the Cabinet and the House of Commons.
Several other changes were made in the Ministry, including the
return of Winston Churchill to office as Minister of Munitions.
In the spring of 1918 some further changes were made. Lord
Milner became Secretary of State for War; and his place in the
War Cabinet was given to Austen Chamberlain. Some other
ministerial changes were made at the same time.
In Parliament Mr. Law has not proven a supreme leader; and
on several occasions Mr. Asquith, from the Opposition bench,
demonstrated his continued leadership of the House, and saved
the government in critical situations. But in May, 1918, on a
motion by Mr. Asquith to appoint a select committee to investi-
gate certain charges, the House of Commons upheld the Lloyd
George government by a vote of 293 to 106. But this vote
showed a large number of absentees, indicating that many mem-
bers while unwilling to vote out the Ministry, were not altogether
satisfied with the situation.
The meetings of the Imperial Cabinet involved a considerable
addition to the group of five, which had been supposed to be an
ideal number for securing prompt and effective decisions. After
the other colonial ministers had departed, General Smuts, the
representative from South Africa, continued to attend sessions
of the War Cabinet; and this gave rise to question in the House
of Commons as to his status in the government.
Practical experience has also indicated that it is difficult, if
not impossible, to divorce general policy from questions of ad-
THE CABINET
51
ministration. Lord Curzon admitted in the House of Lords that
most of the time of the War Cabinet was occupied in the adjust-
ment of internal disputes between the ministers. New depart-
ments, boards, commissions and committees continued to be es-
tablished, until the total number was more than 400; 1 and it be-
came evident that the multiplication of such agencies raised as
many problems as it solved. Questions arose as to the jurisdic-
tion of the Food Controller and the President of the Board of
Agriculture. The Ministry of Munitions became in large part an
extension of the former labor conciliation department of the
Board of Trade. Yet a new Ministry of Labor was created. The
director of the new department of National Service resigned be-
cause he had nothing to do. The Reconstruction Committee
practically abandoned its problems; and the proposed new Min-
istry of Reconstruction was generally ridiculed. The creation of
new departments, indeed, involved a process of decentralization
which contrasted with the policy of centralized control which the
new War Cabinet was supposed to typify.
In the conduct of the war no broad and coherent policy and no
effective means of systematic control over the numerous depart-
·ments seems to have been developed. Nor was there any definite
statement as to satisfactory terms of peace until January, 1918.
A well known writer views “ with some misgiving the recent
arrangements by which the Cabinet is to a great extent cut off
from the great offices which carry on the several branches of the
actual government, and by which a secretariat is interposed be-
tween the supreme governing committee and these offices. 3
Criticism arose in some quarters because the Cabinet did not
confine its attention to war problems. But the unwieldy multi-
plicity of ministries, departments and other agencies badly needed
some balance wheel; and the more serious defect was that the
Cabinet did not prove a sufficiently effective agency of control.
The problem of administrative organization is not one to be
See Lists in Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 7855; 1917, Cd. 8741; Liberal
Year Book, 1917, pp. 148-165; The Nation's Business, November, 1917; U. S.
Commerce Reports, No. 54, March 6, 1918.
? The New Republic, xii, 90-92 (August 25, 1917).
Spencer Wilkinson, in Nineteenth century, January, 1918, p. 45.
8
52
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
settled by any single principle or catchword of centralization or
decentralization. It involves a careful and systematic division
of functions, and arrangements for effective coordination and
correlation between the several agencies.
If an outsider may venture an opinion, there is need for a still
more radical reorganization of the British administrative system,
affecting not only the Cabinet, but the numerous ministerial de-
partments. The number of main departments should be reduced ;
and the less important services organized within one or the other
of the main departments. For example, it might be well to com-
bine the ministries of foreign and colonial affairs. There could
be a single ministry of military operations, embracing the army,
the navy, the air service, and the munitions service. A compre- '
hensive ministry of home or internal affairs might absorb the
functions of the Home Secretary, the Local Government Board,
the Board of Agriculture and the Food Controller. A minister
of trade and commerce could take over the work of the Board of
Trade and the Shipping Controller.
If the number of main departments were thus reduced to eight
or ten, many of the conflicts between what are now distinct min-
istries could be settled within the department. A Cabinet of
workable size could then be set up, including the ministers at
the head of each of the main departments, with the Prime Min-
ister as the general director of the whole system. Such a Cabi-
net might combine the advantages of centralized control aimed at
in the Lloyd George Ministry with those of the old Cabinet
system, which linked the central council with the administrative
services and with Parliament.
Such an organization would also lend itself to the further de-
velopment of imperial organization. The five or six ministers
dealing with imperial problems could sit with the colonial pre-
miers and a representative from India in an imperial cabinet
which would also be small enough for effective results; while
imperial conferences held from time to time with more repre-
sentatives from the overseas dominions would form a delibera-
tive agency for the consideration of larger questions of policy.
THE CABINET
53
•
1
2
8
1
Italics indicate members of the Asquith and Coalition Cabinets.
SMALL CAPITALS indicate members of the Lloyd George War Cabinet.
Asquith Ministry
Coalition Ministry
War Ministry
at the Outbreak of the War
June 3, 1915
December 10, 1916
Prime Minister and First Lord
of the Treasury
..H. H. Asquith.
H. H. dsquith (L)
.DAVID LLOYD GEORGE (L)
Lord President of the Council. Earl Beauchamp
Marquess of Crewe (L) EARL CURZON (U)
Chancellor of the Exchequer..David Lloyd George. .Reginald McKenna (L) Bonar LAW (U)
Ministers without Portfolio.
Marquess of Lansdowne (U). VISCOUNT MILNER (U)
ARTHUR HENDERSON (Lab)
GEORGE N. BARNES (Lab)
(May, 1917)
SIR EDWARD CARSON (U)
AUSTEN CHAMBERLAIN (May,
1918)
Dr. Christopher Addison (July,
1917)
Lord Chancellor.
Viscount Haldane.
.Lord Buckmaster (L) Sir Robert B. Finlay (U)
Lord Privy Seal.
Marquess of Crewe
Earl Curzon (U)
. Earl of Crawford (U)
Minister of Munitions.
David Lloyd George (L) Dr. Christopher Addison (L)
Edwin Sanıuel Montagu (L)
(June, 1916)
.Winston Churchill (July, 1917)
Secretaries of State:
Home Office.
.Reginald McKenna
.Sir John A. Simon (L) Sir George Cave (U)
Herbert Samuel (L) (Jan.,
1916)
Foreign Affairs.
..Sir Edward Grey
Sir Edward Grey (L) .Arthur J. Balfour (U)
War Office.
Earl Kitchener.
Earl Kitchener
. Earl of Derby (U)
David Lloyd George (L). .Lord Milner (U) (May, 1918)
(June, 1916)
* Bonar Law resigned from the War Cabinet to Sir Edward Carson, but continued as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
* Retired from War Cabinet in May, 1918, and appointed Secretary of State for War.
* Henderson, while on a mission to Russia, was replaced by Barnes, but never returned to an active part in the War
Cabinet.
• In charge of “reconstruction” plans.
• Held same position in Asquith Ministry.
o
6
54
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Asquith Ministry
Coalition Ministry
War Ministry
at the Outbreak of the War
June 3, 1915
December 10, 1916
Colonial
.Lewis Harcourt.
Bonar Low (U)
Walter Long (U)
India
. Marquess of Crewe.
.Austen Chamberlain (U) . Austen Chamberlain (U)
Edwin Samuel Montagu (L)
(July, 1917)
First Lord of the Admiralty..Winston Churchill.
Arthur J. Balfour (U). Sir Edward Carson (U)
Sir Eric Geddes (July, 1917)
Chief Secretary for Ireland... Augustine Birrell.
Augustine Birrell (L)", - Henry E. Duke (U)
Henry E. Duke (U) (July,
1916)
President of the Board of
Education
Joseph A. Pease.
Arthur Henderson (Lab) .Herbert A. L. Fisher
Marquess of Crewe (L) (Aug.,
1916)
President of the Board of
Agriculture
Lord Lucas
.Lord Selborne.
.Rowland E. Prothero (U)
Earl of Crawford (U) (June,
1916)
President of the Local Govern-
ment Board.
Herbert Samuel.
Walter Long (U)
Lord Rhondda (L)
W. Hayes Fisher (U) (July,
1916)
President of the Board of
Trade
.Walter Runciman
Walter Runciman (L)
Sir Albert Stanley (U)
Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster
.Edwin Saniuel Montagu Winston Churchill (L). Sir Frederick Cawley (L)
Herbert Samuel (L) (Nov.,
1915)
Edwin S. Montagu (L) (Jan.,
1916)
T. McKinnon IV ood (L)
(June, 1916)
Secretary for Scotland. .T. McKinnon Wood.
T. McKinnon Wood (L) . Robert Munro (L)
Harold John Tennant (L)
(June, 1916)
* Held same position in Asquith Ministry.
* Resigned in May. Position vacant until Henry E. Duke appointed in July.
THE CABINET
a
Cz
Asquith Ministry
Coalition Ministry
War Ministry
at the Outbreak of the War
June 3, 1915
December 10, 1916
First Commissioner of Works. Lord Emmott.
Lewis V. Harcourt (L) Sir Alfred M. Míond (L)
Attorney General.
Sir John A, Simon.
Sir Edward Carson (U) Sir Frederick E. Smith (U)
Sir Frederick E. Smith (U)
(Oct., 1915)
Minister of Blockade.
Lord Robert Cecil (U)
Lord Robert Cecil (U) (Feb.,
1916)
Food Controller.
Lord Devonport (L)
Lord Rhondda (L) (June,
1917)
Shipping Controller.
Sir Joseph Paton Maclay
Minister of Labor.
John Hodge (Lab)
Minister of Pensions
George N. Barnes (Lab)
Arthur Henderson (Lab)
(Nov., 1916)
Air Board.
.
Viscount Cowdray
Mlaj. Baird (July, 1916)
War Trade Department.
Lord Emmott
Walter Clive Bridgeman (U)
(July, 1916)
Asst. Capt. Visct. Wolmer (U)
Alinistry of National Service.
Neville Chamberlain
Ministry of Reconstruction..
.Dr. C. Addison (July, 1917)
Postmaster General..
.C. E. H. Hobhouse
Herbert Samuel (L)
. Albert Holden Illingworth (L)
J. A. Pease (L) (Jan., 1916)
Under-Secretaries of State:
Home Office.
. Ellis Griffith..
William Brace (Lab)
William Brace (Lab)
Cecil Harmsworth (Feb., 1915)
Foreign Affairs.
Francis Dyke Acland.
Lord Robert Cecil (U)
Hon. Neil Primrose (Feb.,
1915)
Colonial Office.
.Lord Islington
Arthur D. Steel Maitland (U). Arthur D. Steel-Maitland (U)
War Office.
Harold John Tennant.
Harold John Tennant (L)'..J. Ian Macpherson
Earl of Derby (U) (June,
1916)
India
.C. H. Roberts.
.Lord Islington (L)
Lord Islington (L)
* Held same position in Asquith Ministry.
Lord Robert Cecil (U)...... Additional—Lord Hardinge
.
56
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
1
Asquith Ministry
Coalition Ministry
War Ministry
at the Outbreak of the War
June 3, 1915
December 10, 1916
Parliamentary Secretaries to
the Admiralty.
T. J. Macnamara.
T. J. Macnamara (L) T. J. Macnamara (L)
Additional-Earl Lytton (U)
Board of Education.
Dr. Christopher Addison. J. Herbert Lewis (L)
J. Herbert Lewis (L)
Board of Trade.
.J. M. Robertson..
. Ernest George Pretyman (U). G. H. Roberts (Lab)
Local Government Board...J. Herbert Lewis.
William Hayes Fisher (U) William Hayes Fisher (U)
Treasury
Percy Illingworth
Tohn W. Gulland (L) .Lord Edmund Talbot (U)
John W. Gulland (Feb., 1915) Lord Edmund Talbot (U) Capt. F. E. Guest (Mar., 1917)
(L)
Financial Secretary to the
Treasury
.Edwin Samuel Montagu. .....Edwin Samuel Montagu (L) .S. H. Lever
Francis Dyke Acland (Feb.,
1915)
Parliamentary Sec. to Muni-
tions Dept.
.Dr. Christopher Addison (L).F. G. Kellaway (L)
Sir Worthington Evans (U)
Dr. to the Board of Agricul-
ture and Fisheries. .Sir Harry Verney
Francis Dyke Acland (L) Sir R. Winfrey (L)
Duke of Marlborough
Financial Secretary to the War
Office
.Harold Trevor Baker. Henry William Forster (U).. Fenry William Forster (U)
Junior Lords of the Treasury. John W. Gulland (went out Geoffrey Howard (L) James F. Hope (U)
Feb., 1915)
W. Wedgwood Benn
G. H. Roberts (Lab)
J. W. Pratt (L)
William Jones
Walter Clive Bridgeman (U) Stanley Baldwin (U)
H. Webb
Walter Rea (L)
James Parker (Lab)
Walter Rea (Feb., 1915)
Towyn Jones (L)
Cecil Beck (Feb., 1915)
Civil Lord of the Admiralty... George Lambert.
Duke of Devonshire,
Ernest George Pretyman (U)
Sir Arthur Lee (June, 1916)
(U)
Earl Lytton (U) (Oct., 1916)
'Held same position in Asquith Ministry.
THE CABINET
57
0
Asquith Ministry
Coalition Ministry
War Ministry
at the Outbreak of the War
June 3, 1915
December 10, 1916
Solicitor General.
Sir Stanley Buckmaster Sir Frederick E. Smith (U).. Sir Gordon Hewart (L)
Sir George Cave (U) (Oct.,
1915)
Paymaster General. Lord Strachie..
Lord Newton
Sir J. Compton-Rickett
Arthur Henderson (Lab)
(Oct., 1916)
Assistant Postmaster General. Capt. Cecil Norton.
H. Pike Pease (U)
.H. Pike Pease (U)
Parliamentary Secretaries to
the National Service Min-
istry
Stephen Walsh
Air Board.
Maj. Baird
Food Control Ministry
Capt. Charles Bathurst (U)
Minister of Pensions.
Col. Sir Arthur Griffith Bos-
cawen (U)
Shipping Controller
Sir L. G. Chiozza Money (L)
Minister of Blockades.
. Rt. Hon. F. Leverton Harris
(U)
Minister of Labor
Walter Clive Bridgeman (U)
Assistant Under-Secretary
Foreign Affairs.
.Lord Newton (Oct., 1916) Lord Newton
Scotland:
Secretary for.
T. McKinnon Wood.
T. McKinnon Wood (L) . Robert Munro (L)
Harold John Tennant (L)
(June, 1916)
Lord Advocate.
Robert Munro.
Robert Munro (L)
James A. Clyde (U)
Solicitor General.
Thomas Brash Morison. Thomas Brash Morison (L.) . Thomas Brash Morison (L) ?
1
Ireland:
Lord Lieutenant.
Lord Wimborne (L)
Earl of Aberdeen.
..Lord Wimborne (L)
Lord Wimborne (Feb., 1915)
· Held same position in Asquith Ministry.
* Resigned in May. Position vacant until reappointed in August.
58
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
.
1
1
1
Asquith Ministry
Coalition Ministry
War Ministry
at the Outbreak of the War
June 3, 1915
December 10, 1916
Chief Secretary
Augustine Birrell.
Augustine Birrell (L) ', .. Henry E. Duke (U)
Henry E. Duke (U) (July,
1916)
Lord Chancellor
Ignatius J. O'Brien.
Ignatius J. O'Brien (L) Ignatius J. O'Brien (L)
Attorney General
Jonathan Pim.
John Gordon (U)
.James O'Connor (L)
J. H. M. Campbell (March,
1916)
Solicitor General.
James O'Connor.
James O'Connor (L) James Chambers (U)
Ministers of the Royal House-
hold:
Lord Steward
.Earl of Chesterfield.
Lord Farquhar (U
Lord Farquhar (U)
Treasurer
Capt. Hon. F. E. Guest. James F. Hope (U)
Col. James Craig (U),
Controller
.Lord Saye and Sele.
Charles Roberts (L)
Sir Edwin Cornwall (L)
Lord Chamberlain.
.Lord Sandhurst.
.Lord Sandhurst (L)
.Lord Sandhurst (L)
Vice Chamberlain.
Hon. Geoffrey Howard. Cecil Beck (L)
Cecil Beck (L)
Lords in Waiting.
Lord Herschell
Lord Herschell (L)
Lord Herschell (L) 2
Lord Allendale
Lord Allendale (L)
Lord Kenyon (L)
Lord Stanmore
Lord Stanmore (L)
Lord Stanmore (L)
Lord Ranksborough
Lord Ranksborough (U) Lord Ranksborough (U)
Lord Granville
Lord Valentia (U)
Lord Valentia (U)
Lord Acton
Lord Hylton (U)
Lord Hylton (U)
Captain of
of Gentlemen-at-
Arms
Lord Colebrooke
Lord Colebrooke (L)
Lord Colebrooke (L)
Captain of Yeomen of
Guard
Earl of Craven
Lord Suffield (U)
Lord Suffield (U)
Master of the Horse. . Earl of Granard
Earl of Chesterfreld (L) Earl of Chesterfield (L)
.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Held same position in Asquith Ministry.
* Resigned in May. Position vacant until Henry E. Duke appointed in July.
CHAPTER IV
Naval Administration
At the outbreak of the war the British navy was by far the
largest and most powerful in the world; and it promptly entered
on war operations. During the progress of the war there has
been a large expansion of naval strength, though little definite
information has been published as to the forms and extent of this
development. There have also been some changes and develop-
ments in the internal administration of the navy, and some im-
portant changes in personnel in the higher posts. But there has
been no radical reconstruction in the machinery of naval organi-
zation and administration.
Some account of the development and organization of British
naval administration will, however, be of service, as a basis for
understanding the changes introduced, and also for comparison
with the organization of army administration. .
HISTORICAL
Until the beginning of the fifteenth century the English navy
was managed directly by the Privy Council, with executive con-
trol vested in officials known as keepers (afterwards called ad-
mirals) assigned to localized fleets and ports. In 1406 John
Branford, Earl of Somerset, was appointed “Admiral of Eng-
land”; and other Lord High Admirals followed in succession
until 1628 and at intervals thereafter. In the time of Henry VIII
a navy board was organized to take charge of civil administra-
tion under the Admiralty; and other officials were provided from
time to time. It was under this system of centralized control that
the Spanish Armada was overcome in the reign of Queen Eliz-
abeth.
59
60
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
In 1628 the office of Lord High Admiral was placed in com-
mission; and the general management of naval affairs has con-
tinued to be exercised by the Admiralty Board since that time,
with a few intervals. During the Commonwealth the functions
both of the Admiralty and the Navy Boards were discharged by
committees of Parliament. From 1660 to 1673 James, Duke of
York, was Lord High Admiral; and from 1701 to 1709 the Earl
of Pembroke held this position. It is also of interest to note that
from 1660 to 1689 Samuel Pepys, the writer of the well known
diary, was Secretary to the Admiralty; and from 1695 to 1742
Josiah Burchett held this post. An act of 1690 set forth the
powers of the Admiralty Board. 2
From time to time new agencies were created for special pur-
poses. In 1683 a board of victualing commissioners was estab-
lished; and in 1689 a transport board. By 1782 there were no
less than thirteen civil departments dealing with naval affairs,
with offices at different places. With this elaborate and appar-
ently unconcentrated machinery, the British navy was adminis-
tered during the series of wars in the eighteenth century. There
is also record of internal disagreement within the Admiralty
Board itself, when in 1795 Admiral Middleton, the First Sea
Lord, resigned owing to differences with Lord Spencer, the First
Lord. Some years later, however, Middleton, as Lord Barham,
became First Lord; and in this capacity exercised direct personal
control in the period leading to the battle of Trafalgar.
The need for a reorganization of the administrative system
was emphasized by the reports of a commission of inquiry ap-
pointed in 1801. In 1809 some improvements were made by
Order in Council. But further changes of greater importance
were made by Act of Parliament in 1832, and by Orders in Coun-
cil of 1869, 1872, 1882 and 1904.
Under the original patent of Queen Anne, the powers of the
Admiralty Board were granted to any three or more of the com-
missioners; and the act of 1690 provided that the Admiralty
2
? R. V. Hamilton: Naval Administration (1890), pp. 5-6.
* A. Hurd in Fortnightly Review, vol. 105, p. 249 (1916).
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
61
Board have all the powers lawfully vested in the Lord High Ad-
miral. By the act of 1832, the powers of the board could be ex-
ercised by any two members. This act also abolished the Navy
Board and the victualing commissioners, and vested in the Ad-
miralty the powers of the various civil departments. Five de-
partments were established, under the Surveyor of the Navy, the
Accountant General, the Controller of Victualing and Transport
and the Physician of the Navy. There was also to be a parlia-
mentary and a permanent secretary.
But, as has been pointed out:
It is in truth not the patent which regulates the business of the Admiralty,
but a body of usage; more or less flexible and variable in character which
has come down from time immemorial. According to this ancient usage
there has always been inherent in the First Lord an elastic power which
enables him to undertake duties which the public welfare may require."
In ordinary circumstances the First Lord acts only in concert
with the board; but in emergencies he may concentrate in his
hand all the powers of the board, as was done by Lord Barham.
The act of 1832 was passed through the influence of Sir James
Graham, then First Lord of the Admiralty; and the conduct of
business under this act, and continuity of practice was main-
tained through the long tenure of Sir John Barrow as permanent
secretary for thirty years.
An Order in Council of 1869 fixed the distribution of business
between the members of the Admiralty Board—and impaired the
flexibility of the former system. This order represented the First
Lord as "responsible to Your Majesty and to Parliament for all
the business of the Admiralty," with the other members as his
assistants. The effect of this change was soon evident in the
record of board meetings. In 1866 the board had held 249 meet-
ings; in 1870 there were only 33 meetings, most of them lasting
only a few minutes and none as long as half an hour.
In 1872 another Order in Council, while still recognizing the
First Lord as responsible, no longer represented the other mem-
? Quarterly Review, vol. 223, p. 59 (1915).
.
62
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
bers as his assistants. By this order the Controller ceased to be
a member of the board; but he was restored in 1882.
Orders in Council of August 10 and October 20, 1904, fur-
ther regulated the internal organization of the Admiralty Board.
The first of these provided that the First, Second and Fourth Sea
Lords should be responsible to the First Lord for matters of per-
sonnel; and the Third Sea Lord and Controller for business re-
lating to materiel assigned by the First Lord. The second order
assigned to the First Sea Lord the preparations for naval war,
the fighting and seagoing efficiency of the fleet, control of the
intelligence, hydrographic and ordnance departments; and pro-
vided that he should be consulted by the other members in cases
of great importance. This statement, while new in form, is said
to describe the previous practice; but it appears to recognize more
definitely the superior position of the First Sea Lord to the other
Sea Lords, while the order also relieved him of questions of
discipline and other routine duties. 1
THE ADMIRALTY BOARD
The board of commissioners for executing the office of Lord
High Admiral now consists of nine members. The First Lord
of the Admiralty is much more than the chairman of a committee.
He is the political head of the navy, responsible to the Cabinet
and to Parliament. With rare exceptions this post has been filled
by civilians; and until the Cabinet reorganization in December,
1916, he was always a member of the Cabinet. But the authority
of the First Lord is limited on the one hand by the Cabinet, and
on the other by the possibility of the resignation of the naval
lords in case of serious disagreement.
Four naval officers of high rank are designated as Sea Lords.
The first of these, as noted above, holds distinctly a superior po-
sition to the others; and he is the chief technical adviser of the
First Lord. Each of the naval lords is assigned to specific func-
tions, as noted hereafter.
1
Quarterly Review, vol. 223, pp. 207-212 (1915).
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
63
In addition there is a Civil Lord, an additional Civil Lord
(added a few years ago) and a Parliamentary and a Permanent
Secretary, whose functions are also set forth below.
Unlike many other boards in the British system, the Ad-
miralty Board holds frequent meetings at which important ques-
tions of policy and administration are discussed and decided.
The specific fụnctions of the several members of the Admiralty
Board are described in the following statement, from the Consti-
tutional Year Book for 1916 (pp. 61-62):
The First Lord of the Admiralty is responsible for the general direction and
supervision of all business relating to the navy. He also deals personally
with all matters relating to promotions and removals from the service of
naval and marine officers; honors and rewards (royal yachts and admiralty
yacht); appointment of admirals and officers in command (including engineers,
rear admirals, surgeons general and deputy surgeons general, and staff ap-
pointments of the Royal Marines; chaplain of the fleet, appointment and
entry of] naval chaplains and instructors; civil appointments and promotions
(higher posts) (nomination to naval cadetships and to assistant clerkships,
R. N.].
The First Sea Lord advises the First Lord on preparation for war, and on all
large questions of naval policy and maritime warfare. He is responsible for
the fighting and seagoing efficiency of the fleet, its organization and mobiliza-
tion; the distribution and movements of all ships in commission and in fleet
reserve; the control of the War Staff and the Hydrographic Department.
Questions of importance relating to discipline are also referred to the First
Sea Lord.
In any matter of great importance the First Sea Lord is always consulted
by the other Sea Lords, the Civil Lord, the additional Civil Lord, and the
Parliamentary and Permanent Secretaries, and refers to the First Lord for
any further action considered necessary. All members of the board com-
municate direct with the First Lord whenever they wish to do so.
The Second Sea Lord is responsible for the manning and training of the fleet,
which includes complements, barracks, training and educational establish-
ments, also all mobilization regulations for the personnel; service and ap-
pointments of officers of all branches (except as reserved to First Lord);
Royal Marines; Coast Guard and Reserve forces; hospitals; discipline and
signals.
The Third Sea Lord (Controller) is responsible for the design of the
materiel for the fleet, including ships and their machinery, armor, naval
ordnance and gun mountings, aeroplanes and airships, and docking facilities;
also alterations and additions to ships which affect design or fighting effi-
.64
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
ciency; preparation of estimates of cost of all new construction falling due
in any year under current and prospective programs; superintendence of the
departments of the director of naval construction, engineer in chief, director
of naval ordnance, director of air department, and superintendent of com-
passes; design questions affecting vessels proposed to be purchased for the
fleet or to be employed in auxiliary services; inventions relating to ships,
machinery, etc.; salvage of vessels, so far as technical and professional con-
siderations are involved.
The Fourth Sea Lord is responsible for matters connected with the transport
service, including hired auxiliary vessels other than armed merchant cruisers;
passages; the superintendence of naval stores, fleet coaling and victualing
services; ordnance and medical stores, etc., and all questions relating thereto;
full and half pay; allowances and compensations, including table money;
prize questions; pilotage and surveying; pay and freight of treasure and all
extra payments; debts of officers and men, naval and marine pensions; .char-
acter, conduct and badge questions; naval prisons; deserters-rewards for
apprehension; removals of “R”; general salvage money questions and money
demands for salvage of naval stores; collisions.
The Civil Lord has charge of works and buildings, including purchases of
land; coast guard buildings, sites and leases; staff of civil servants (except
as reserved to First Lord), including classification; appointment, promotion,
pay, allowances and pension; dockyard police; Greenwich Hospital business,
including appointments (except of naval chaplain to livings, superintendent
of Royal Hospital school, curator of the Painted Hall, and appointments to
Greenwich Hospital pensions); charitable fund, compassionate allowances,
subscriptions, etc., and allowances to ministers of religion and grants in aid
of churches and schools; marine and dockyard schools; special questions
affecting retirement and pay of naval and marine officers and men, when
discretionary power is provided for by Order in Council; works questions
of an important character are marked to him also.
The Additional Civil Lord is responsible for contracts for the materiel for
the fleet (including ships and their machinery, armor, naval ordnance and
gun mountings, aeroplanes and airships), works, yard machinery and stores
of all description. Contract arrangements in connection with the disposal,
salvage or loan of vessels or stores. Superintendence of the contract and
purchase department; general organization of dockyards, including provision
of labor and plant, and all business questions in connection with the building
and repair of ships and their machinery, whether in the dockyards or in
private yards.
The Parliamentary Secretary deals with finance, estimates and expenditure
generally; and all proposals for new and unusual expenditure; accounts
cash, store and dockyard expense; purchase and sale of ships and of stores
generally; payment of hire of ships as armed merchant cruisers, troop ships,
colliers, freight ships, etc.; questions involving reference to the Treasury
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
65
financially, except as provided for under the Civil Lord; questions connected
with exchequer and audit department; general labor questions, including
annual petitions.
The Permanent Secretary has control of the discipline of the various depart-
ments of the Admiralty; recommendations for appointments and promotions
in the Admiralty office; correspondence; communications with foreign naval
attachés ; communications with ministers of religion (other than Church of
England); appointment of messengers.
An examination of the above statement indicates that the di-
vision of labor between the several members of the Admiralty
Board is not sharply differentiated into a few main categories;
but that there seems to be considerable overlapping or more often
a subdivision of one main field between several members of the
board. This is also evident by noting that of the numerous sub-
departments into which the Admiralty is organized, a number are
under the supervision of two or more members of the board for
different phases of their work. Friction on this account is prob-
ably reduced by the general supervision of the First Sea Lord
and the First Lord of the Admiralty.
For example the engineers department is under the direction
of the Second Sea Lord in matters of personnel, and under the
Third Sea Lord in matters of materiel. The functions of the
civilian members appear to cover many matters also under the
control of the Sea Lords.
The various administrative departments and services under
the Admiralty Board are listed below, grouped so far as possible
under the several members of the board. The new departments
organized since the beginning of the present war are indicated by
italics; and these will be discussed more fully hereafter.
Lords of the Admiralty
First Sea Lord
Admiralty War Staff
Operations Division
Intelligence Division
Mobilization Division
Trade Division
Navigation Department
Hydrographic Department
66
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
-
Second Sea Lord (Personnel)
Educational Establishments
Royal Marines
Coast Guard
Royal Naval Reserves
Discipline (Courts Martial)
Third Sea Lord (Materiel)
Department of the Director of Naval Equipment
Department of the Director of Naval Construction
Department of the Engineer in Chief
Compass Branch
Department of the Director of Naval Ordnance
Air Department
Fourth Sea Lord
Department of the Director of Transports
Victualing Department
Department of Director of Naval Stores
Civil Lord
Department of the Director of Works
Greenwich Hospital
Additional Civil Lord
Contract and Purchase Department
Department of the Director of Dockyards
Parliamentary Secretary
Department of the Accountant General
Department of Inspector of Dockyard Expense Accounts
Permanent Secretary
Medical Department
Chaplain of the Fleet
Royal Observatories
Nautical Almanac
Admiralty Transport Arbitration Board
Board of Inventions and Research
Prize Claims Committee
Neutral Ships Detention Committee
Admiralty Coasting Trade Committee
NEW AGENCIES
The newly established agencies in the Admiralty include the
Admiralty Transport Arbitration Board, organized at the be-
ginning of the war, a Board of Invention and Research, created
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
67
in July, 1915, a Trade Division in the Admiralty War Staff
and committees on prize claims, detention of neutral ships and
the coasting trade. Closely connected with the work of the navy
and the Admiralty are the prize courts, established, as in previous
wars, to pass on the validity of the detention and seizure of ships
and cargoes.
Admiralty Transport Arbitration Board 1
A Royal Proclamation of August 3, 1914, authorized the Ad-
miralty Board to requisition any British ship or British vessel
within the British Isles or waters adjacent thereto, the compen-
sation for the use of such ships and vessels to be arranged either
by mutual agreement between the Admiralty and the owners or
by the award of a board of arbitration.
On August 11, notification of the appointment of the members
of this arbitration board was announced, and rules of procedure
were set forth. On August 31, another notification was issued
amending the constitution of the board. As first announced the
board was composed of a president (Rt. Hon. Lord Mersey,
P.C.), a vice president, and other members to be chosen from
panels, including 9 government nominees and 38 representatives
of various business interests. As amended the members in the
panels were increased to 11 government nominees (including 4
naval officers), 53 representatives of business interests, and repre-
sentatives of ships officers and crews, as follows: 14 ship owners,
2 general traders, 6 from the coasting trades, 2 oil tank steamer
owners, 3 cargo owners, 3 bankers, 6 underwriters, 5 from ma-
rine insurance companies, 6 (2) insurance brokers, 6 average
adjusters, 2 deck officers, 2 marine engineers, 2 seamen, I sea-
man and fireman, and I representing ships' stewards, etc. Those
indicated in italics were added to the panels in the second noti-
fication.
Under the rules of procedure, the arbitration boards were to
consist of two members selected by the president, or of the presi-
dent or vice president and two others selected by the president.
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, pp. 386-395.
68
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
A joint award by boards of the first named type should be final;
and in case of disagreement the president should act as umpire.
For boards of the second type the award of any two should be
final.
The president might authorize the panel as a body, or any of
them, to act as a board to consider questions of general applica-
tion, the arbitrators to have regard to but not to be bound by the
conclusions of such a board.
Board of Invention and Research
Shortly after the retirement of Admiral Lord Fisher as First
Sea Lord, he was placed (July, 1915) at the head of a newly
established Board of Invention and Research connected with the
Admiralty. This board consisted of a central committee, com-
prising, in addition to Admiral Fisher as president, Professor
J. J. Thomson, Honorable Sir Charles A. Parsons and Dr. G. T.
Beilby, with a secretary, a naval assistant, a staff of assistant
secretaries, and a consulting panel of 12 university professors of
science, members of the Royal Society (including Sir Wm.
Crookes and Sir Oliver Lodge).
In reply to a question in the House of Commons, on May 21,
1917, the functions of this board were described as follows: 2
1
(a) To concentrate expert scientific inquiry on certain
definite problems, the solution of which is of importance
to the naval service;
(b) To encourage research in directions in which it is
probable that results of value to the navy may be made by
organized scientific effort;
(c) To consider schemes or suggestions put forward by
inventors and other members of the general public.
The board had funds for trials and experiments and acts in
an advisory capacity to the Admiralty. The central committee
met once a week, the consulting panel once in six weeks, and
* The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, v, 318; British Imperial
Calendar, 1916, p. 235.
Parliamentary Debates (1917), vol. 93 : 1936.
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
69
subcommittees frequently. The president attended 54 sittings
in 12 months. He received his salary as a retired officer
(£1,350), and the naval member of the central committee re-
ceived a salary of £1,530 a year. The salary of the resident
director of research (£1,000) was refunded to the University
of London; and the director of engineering research was allowed
expenses up to £500 a year.
The Trade Division
This division of the Admiralty War Staff consists of a direc-
tor, as adviser in commerce, a naval staff, a marine staff, a civil
staff with clerks appointed for temporary service during the war.
The Prize Claims Committee
Notice was given on November 27, 1914, that a committee had
been appointed to receive and consider claims made by British
or neutral third parties against ships or cargoes condemned or
detained by order of prize courts, and to recommend to what
extent, in what manner and on what terms such claims should
be provided for out of prizes funds.
1
PRIZE COURTS
In the United Kingdom
On August 5, 1914, an Order in Council was promulgated
directing the issue of a commission under the Great Seal au-
thorizing the Admiralty to require the High Court to take cogni-
zance of and judicially proceed upon and determine captures,
prizes, seizures and reprisals and to condemn German vessels
and goods.
The same day the Prize Courts (Procedure) Act, 1914, be-
came law, repealing certain provisions of the Naval Prize Act,
1
Supplement No. 2 (Dec., 1914) to Manual of Emergency Legislation,
P. 180; Supplement No. 4 (Aug. 31, 1915) p. 392.
70
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
.
1864; and an Order of Council set forth a series of provisional
prize court rules. On September 17, the provisional rules were
made statutory rules; and from time to time these rules have
been amended.
On August 20, 1914, an Order in Council provided that dur-
ing the war the Declaration of London should, subject to cer-
tain modifications, be put in force as if it had been ratified, and
that all prize courts should construe and interpret the Declara-
tion by the light of the commentary forming the general report
of the drafting committee. The modifications affected the list
of contraband, neutral vessels having carried contraband, evi-
dence of destination, and the presumption of the knowledge of
blockade.
An Order in Council of August 21 extended the jurisdiction of
the prize court to Austro-Hungarian vessels and goods.
In the Dominions and Dependencies
The Prize Courts (Egypt, Zanzibar and Cyprus) Act, Sep-
tember 18, 1914, provided for the exercise of prize jurisdiction by
certain British courts in Egypt, Zanzibar and Cyprus. On Sep-
tember 30, an Order in Council directed the issue of a commis-
sion under the Great Seal to require the British courts in Egypt,
Zanzibar and Cyprus to act as prize courts. An Order in Council
of February 3, 1915, extended the jurisdiction of these courts
to include Turkish ships, vessels and goods.
On September 14, the Colonial Office issued a notification of
the constitution of prize courts in the overseas dominions. Fur-
ther notifications scheduling the constitution of additional co-
lonial courts were issued from time to time-on October 8, 1914,
December 31, 1914, and May 20, 1915. The last named showed
the following list of prize courts :
In Australia, the supreme courts of New South Wales, Vic-
toria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Tas-
mania; the supreme courts of the Bahamas, Bermuda, British
Guiana and British Honduras; in Canada, the exchequer court of
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
71
Canada or local judges in admiralty at Quebec, Halifax, St.
Johns, Victoria and Charlottetown; the supreme courts of Cey-
lon, Cyprus, Falkland Islands, Fiji, Gibraltar, Hong Kong, Ja-
maica and Leeward Islands; the commercial court of Malta; the
supreme court of Mauritius, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and
Sierra Leone; in South Africa, the Cape of Good Hope and Na-
tal provincial divisions of the supreme court; the supreme courts
of the Straits Settlements and Trinidad; the royal court of St.
Lucia (Windward Islands) ; His Britannic Majesty's Courts for
Zanzibar and in Egypt; in India, the high courts of judicature at
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and the court of the judicial com-
missioner in Sind; the chief court of Lower Burma; and the
court of the Resident at Aden.
1
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
During the progress of the war there has been a series of im-
portant changes in the personnel of the highest positions in the
British naval administration. These changes have indicated
the development of new views as to the type of men best adapted
for these posts, and have also involved some alteration in the
organization of the central administration of the navy.
At the outset, the chief posts were held by Winston Churchill
as First Lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Lord Fisher as First
Sea Lord, and Admiral Sir John Jellicoe in command of the
main fleet. Churchill was a brilliant and impetuous political
leader, for whom has been claimed the credit for having the
main fleet mobilized for action when war was declared. He
also initiated several venturesome actions, which were not suc-
cessful, notably the use of naval reserves in the defense of Ant-
werp, and the naval attack on the Dardanelles. Lord Fisher had
been the active leader in developing the policy of naval construc-
tion. Criticism of the Dardanelles attack brought forth the ex-
planation that this had not been approved by Lord Fisher, but
that he had not openly expressed opposition.' Lord Fisher's
resignation was a factor leading to the Cabinet reorganization
of May, 1915.
72
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
In the Coalition Cabinet, Churchill's place was taken by Sir
Arthur Balfour, formerly Prime Minister and leader of the
Unionist party, older, more experienced and more conservative.
Lord Fisher was replaced by Admiral Sir Henry Jackson; while,
as has been noted, Fisher was given a new post as head of the
newly established board of invention and research. Jellicoe re-
mained in command of the main battle fleet. This leadership
continued until the next Cabinet reorganization in December,
1916. This period was marked by a discontinuance of spectacu-
lar episodes, the maintenance of sea control, and the naval battle
of Jutland, which resulted in the retirement of the German fleet
to its base, but not in its destruction. But submarine attacks by
the enemy were not suppressed and continued to increase.
When the Lloyd George Cabinet and Ministry was formed, at
the end of 1916, Mr. Balfour was transferred to the Foreign
Office; and at the head of the Admiralty was placed Sir Edward
Carson, a younger and more energetic political leader, prominent
as an opponent of Irish Home Rule, and, like his predecessors,
without any special training in naval affairs. At the same time
Admiral Jellicoe was called from the main fleet to be First Sea
Lord; and the command of the fleet was given to Admiral Beatty.
These changes suggested a somewhat more active policy, but did
not result in any radical revolution in naval procedure. The sub-
marine offensive of the enemy continued to increase.
These changes in the high command were followed by others
and also by some administrative reorganization. A new anti-
submarine division of the naval war staff was formed with an
admiral of the grand fleet as director; and a director of naval air
services was appointed as a fifth Sea Lord on the Admiralty
Board.
In May, 1917, the former position of Controller of the Navy,
as a member of the Admiralty Board, was revived and this post
was given to Sir Eric Geddes, a successful business man who had
shown marked executive ability in charge of the transport serv-
ice for the British army on the Continent. The Controller of
the Navy was made responsible for shipbuilding, not only for the
+
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
73
1
Admiralty, but also for the War Office and the Ministry of
Shipping. Three deputy controllers were appointed, for dock-
yards and shipbuilding, for armament production and for aux-
iliary (mercantile) shipbuilding.
On May 14, a naval staff was organized with the First Sea
Lord as chief; and the deputy and assistant chief were made ad-
ditional members of the Admiralty Board.
In addition to these individual changes in the highest posi-
tions, there have been numerous other transfers and changes not
only within the navy and within the Admiralty, but also by trans-
fer between the naval forces at sea and the administrative offices
of the Admiralty. The general character of these changes has
been set forth by a writer in the Fortnightly Review for June,
1917, apparently in reply to criticism of the Admiralty, as
follows:
1
So far as the Admiralty is concerned with naval policy (not civil work]
that policy is settled and elaborated by officers of the navy with sea experi-
ence not inferior to that possessed by the officers at sea. The personnel of
the Admiralty is fed from the feet, and concurrently officers periodically
leave the Admiralty for service afloat. At a rough estimate there must be
between 400 and 500 officers of all ranks employed continuously at the
Admiralty, and hardly a week passes but some exchange is made between
Whitehall on the one hand, and the Grand Fleet or the patrol, submarine
or destroyer services on the other. Since the beginning of the present
year over twenty-five per cent of the members of the War Staff have been
appointed straight from the sea, where they had gained experience at first
hand of the present phase of naval warfare. . . . The Admiralty draws
its inspiration from the fleet, as the fleet draws its inspiration from the
Admiralty.
The Admiral who was in supreme command of the Grand Fleet on May 31
(Jellicoe] is today First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, and therefore, by
immemorial custom, in control of naval policy, exercising his influence over
the War Staff, which is under his direction, and over other sections of the
administration. He is associated with Vice Admiral Sir Cecil Burney, a year
ago second in command of the Grand Fleet and now Second Sea Lord, with
Rear Admiral Lionel Halsey,-then Captain of the Fleet and now Third Sea
Lord, and with Rear Admiral Hugh H. D. Tothill, then in command of a
battleship of the Grand Fleet and now Fourth Sea Lord. Each of these
officers, on coming to the Admiralty, brought with him others on whom from
experience he had learned to rely for assistance and support.
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 25 ff.
1
74
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
In July, 1917, when Sir Edward Carson was transferred to the
War Cabinet, his place at the head of the Admiralty Board was
given to Sir Eric Geddes. He had no more special training in
naval matters than his predecessors; but the appointment of this ·
business executive represented a new type of civil leadership for
the navy, in marked contrast to the long line of Admiralty chiefs
selected from the class of British political ministers.
The appointment of Sir Eric Geddes as First Lord was fol-
lowed by further changes in the internal organization of the Ad-
miralty. The Admiralty Board was divided into two committees,
one dealing with problems of maintenance and the other with
operations, each of which met at least once a week, while the
full board also held weekly meetings. The First Lord acted as
ex officio chairman of both committees, and Admiral Wemyss,
who was appointed to a new position as Deputy First Sea Lord,
served as liaison officer between the two committees. The naval
staff was strengthened by adding directors of plans, of train-
ing and of mercantile movements.
The effect of the reorganization of the Admiralty Board has
been described as "to decentralize the administration, but at the
same time to strengthen the control of the board over business
as a whole and speed up the machinery of production and de-
cision. 2
These and other changes did not, however, satisfy the critics
of the naval administration. Criticism tended to concentrate on
Admiral Jellicoe, whose position had been somewhat weakened
by the new post of Deputy First Sea Lord. Towards the end of
1917, Jellicoe was replaced as First Sea Lord by Admiral Wem-
yss. Perhaps, as a result, a more aggressive policy of naval ac-
tion was shown in the naval attacks on Zeebrugge and Ostend,
in the spring of 1918.
Detailed information as to the material expansion of the navy
has not been made public. But the total displacement tonnage
had increased from 2,400,000 tons in 1914 by 75 per cent at the
1
Whitaker's Almanack, 1918, p. 693.
· The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917.
NAVAL ADMINISTRATION
75
end of 1917. The total tonnage of vessels employed had risen
from 4,000,000 tons in September, 1914, to 6,000,000 tons at
the end of 1917. The number of auxiliary vessels had been in-
creased from 23 in 1914 to 700 in 1917. The naval personnel
had been enlarged from 145,000 to 420,000. The naval air sery-
ice—which in 1914 had included 7 airships, about 100 airplanes
and a personnel of 800—had grown in 1917 to 176 airships and
balloons, 2,500 airplanes and a personnel of 46,000."
· The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 35, 37.
CHAPTER V
Army Administration
In sharp contrast with the navy, the British army at the out-
break of the war comprised only a small volunteer force, insig-
nificant in comparison with the armies of the other great nations
of Europe recruited on the basis of universal military service.
At the very outset of the war provisions were made for a large
increase in the army; and further increases were authorized at
frequent intervals. For more than a year the volunteer system
was continued in form; but later the principle of compulsory
service was introduced, and afterwards extended. The result
was that from a nominal force of about 900,000 in all branches,
and perhaps 600,000 enrolled in the regular army and the re-
serves, and about 100,000 available for immediate service, the
army was increased to a total of more than 6,000,000 men.
This manifold expansion of the army necessarily involved a
corresponding growth in the administrative organization, and
much more important developments in the administrative agen-
cies than in the field of naval administration. There have also
been changes of first importance in the personnel of the higher
posts, which have involved the application of new ideas and the
selection of distinctly different types of officials for some of the
highest positions. Nevertheless the main principles of the cen-
tral administrative organization have remained substantially un-
changed. A brief account of this system and its development, in
comparison with that of the navy will serve to explain the changes
made during the progress of the war.
HISTORICAL
Until the middle of the nineteenth century army administra-
tion formed a confused medley of conflicting jurisdictions; and
76.
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
77
1
authority was distributed on no definite principles between the
commander in chief, the Secretary at War (not often a member
of the Cabinet), the Secretary of State for War and the Colo-
nies, the Secretary of State for Home Affairs, the ordnance
board, and the commissariat (a department of the Treasury).
There was no central control over these separate offices.
As a result of defects disclosed in the Crimean War a more
centralized system was organized. In 1854 a fourth Secretary of
State, for War, was provided; and a year later the various civil
departments of the army were transferred or absorbed by this
War Office—including the functions of the Secretary at War,
the ordnance board, the commissariat, the medical department
and the auditing staff. The commander in chief, however, still
retained an independent military control—this position being
held by the Duke of Cambridge, first cousin to the Queen.
After some minor changes, further reorganization was brought
about by statute and Order in Council in 1870, mainly through
the efforts of the Secretary of State for War, Edward Cardwell.
General control was vested in the Secretary of State for War,
with three main departments: military, under the commander in
chief, whose' headquarters were transferred to the War Office;
supply, including munitions, commissariat, quarters and trans-
port; and finance. At the same time the period of enlistment in
the army was reduced to a maximum of 12 years; and a year
later (1871), the purchase of army commissions was abolished
by royal warrant.
In 1888, by Order in Council, another redistribution was made,
dividing the work of the War Office into military and civil serv-
ices, both subject to the administrative control of the Secretary
of State for War. In 1895, on the retirement of the Duke of
Cambridge as commander in chief, the duties and importance of
this office were reduced; and the heads of the several military
staffs--the adjutant general, the quartermaster general, the in-
spector general of ordnance, and the inspector general of forti-
2
* Anson: Law and Custom of the Constitution, pt. ii, 2d ed., 374, 387.
Owen Wheeler : The War Office, Past and Present, pp. 16, 17.
78
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
fications—were brought into direct relations with the Secretary
of State for War. 1
By these measures the general control and responsibility of
the Secretary of State for War were increased; and the su-
premacy of civilian and political authority over the military was
emphasized. But on the military side power and responsibility
were dissipated; while as yet no provision was made for the com-
prehensive and systematic study of military policy or the con-
duct of war.
The South African War disclosed serious defects in army ad-
ministration; and after investigations and reports by the Elgin
commission in 1902 and a committee headed by Lord Esher in
1903-04, important changes were made in the central organiza-
tion in 1904. Two years later by the establishment of an Army
Council further changes affecting the army as a whole were made
under the leadership of Secretary of State for War Haldane,
including the establishment of a general staff, and a reorganiza-
tion of the military forces.
THE ARMY COUNCIL
The Army Council ? was constituted by letters patent in 1904,
and its organization and functions were defined by Order in
Council of August 10 of that year. This body was organized on
lines similar to the Admiralty Board, though with some points
of difference. It consists of the Secretary of State for War as
president, four military members, a civil and a finance member,
and the Permanent Secretary of the War Office. The powers
and duties may be executed by any three members; and docu-
ments may be signed by any two.
The Secretary of State for War was responsible to His Maj-
esty and to Parliament for all the business of the Army Council;
and the functions of the military members were not defined by
the Order in Council, but were assigned from time to time by
Anson: op. cit., pp. 387, 388.
* Constitutional Year Book, 1916, p. 63; Owen Wheeler : op. cit., pp. 294-
1
304.
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
79
the Secretary of State. This officer was therefore,' even more
distinctly than the First Lord of the Admiralty, the admin-
istrative head of the War Office. Directly under the Secretary of
State is his military secretary and a selection board, which pre-
sents names of officers for the various commands and for pro-
motion up to the rank of major general.
The four military members of the Army Council are definitely
appointed as Chief of the General Staff (who replaced the former
commanding general), the Adjutant General, the Quartermaster
General, and the Master General of Ordnance. They were re-
sponsible to the Secretary of State for the administration of so
much of the business relating to the organization, disposition,
personnel, armament and maintenance of the army as may be
assigned to them by the Secretary of State. The usual assign-
ment has given to the Chief of the General Staff supervision over
military operations; and his position was thus in some respects
comparable to that of the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty,
though less definitely indicated by the provisions of the Order in
Council.
The Adjutant General has supervision over recruiting, train-
ing, education, discipline and organization of the army and the
medical service. The Quartermaster General has charge of the
administration of transport, remounts, veterinary, ordnance,
supply (food, clothing and general stores), and barracks serv-
ices. The Master General of Ordnance looks after the supply of
armament, including arms and ammunition and coast defenses,
and the manufacturing departments. These assignments place
under each of these members certain directorates more definitely
than in the Admiralty.
The Finance Member of the Army Council is responsible for
the financial services, accounts and contracts. The Civil Mem-
ber is responsible for the non-effective votes and the territorial
forces. The Secretary of the War Office acts as secretary of the
Army Council, and is charged with the internal administration
of the War Office.
Two Inspectors General, acting under the Army Council but
80
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
not forming part of the War Office organization, were provided
to inspect and report to the council on the practical results of the
military system, including the training, efficiency and equipment
of the troops, fortifications and defenses, and generally on the
readiness and fitness of the army for war. One Inspector Gen-
eral covered the home forces and the other the overseas forces.
In addition to the above organization of the Army Council
and the subordinate directorates, there were also, before the war,
connected with the War Office the ordnance, army clothing and
aircraft factories, a number of miscellaneous establishments
(such as the judge advocate general, hospitals, paymasters, etc.)
and many departmental and interdepartmental committees, both
permanent and temporary, charged with various special prob-
lems. The total staff of the War Office was about 1,200, more
than half of whom were civilians, and about 500 were active or
retired army officers or soldiers.
WAR OFFICE ORGANIZATION
The general organization of the British War Office in 1916 is
indicated by the following outline, in which the new positions
and divisions created since the beginning of the war are given in
italics, while those discontinued or transferred are included in
brackets : 1
The Army Council
The Secretary of State for War
Military Secretary
Selection Board
The Chief of the Imperial General Staff
Director of Military Operations
Director of Staff Duties
Director of Military Training
Director of Military Intelligence
The Adjutant General to the Forces
[Director of Organization and Recruiting]
[Director of Mobilization]
· Army Estimates, 1914-15, vote 12; Hart's Army List, 1915; British
Imperial Calendar, 1916, pp. 452-466; Whitaker's Almanack, 1917, pp. 266 ff.
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
81
Director General of Recruiting
Inspector of Registration and Recruiting
Director of Organization
Inspector of Temporary Non-Effectives
Director of Personal Services
Director General Army Medical Service
Director of Prisoners of War
Director of Graves Registration
The Quartermaster General
Director of [Transport and] Movements
Director of Remounts
Director of Supplies and [Quartering] Transport
Assistant Director of Railway Transport
Director of Equipment and Ordnance Stores
Director General Army Veterinary Service
Inspector of Army Ordnance Service
Director of Quartering
Chief Inspector Quartermaster General's Services
ias
The Master General of Ordnance
Director of Artillery
Director of Fortifications and Works
Director of Barrack Construction
Chief Technical Examiner for Works Services
Inspection and Experimental Staff and Research De-
partment
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for War
Director General of the Territorial Forces
Comptroller of Lands
Finance Member of the Army Council
Director of Financial Services
Chief Paymaster (Accounts)
Director of Army Contracts
Superintendent Central Army Pension Issue Office
Inspector of Army Pay Offices
Secretary of the War Office
Director General of Military Aeronautics
Director of Air Organization
Director of Aircraft Equipment
Judge Advocate General's Office
Chaplain General
Inspectors of the Home Forces Appointed for the War
The Army Medical Advisory Board
82
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The Nursing Board
[The Territorial Forces Advisory Council]
The Army Purchase Commission
The Ordnance Board]
Ordnance Factories
Royal Army Clothing Factory
Royal Aircraft Factory
THE ARMY
Before 1914
Up to the time of the Revolution of 1689 the regular military
forces in England were: (1) the feudal array (limited to brief
periods of service) which declined with the commutation of
military service into money payments; and (2) the trained bands
or militia for the maintenance of order and home defense, in
earlier times under the supervision of the sheriffs and later un-
der the lords lieutenant of the counties. From time to time the
Crown raised other forces; but opposition to a permanent stand-
ing army was confirmed by the experience of the Commonwealth;
and the Bill of Rights declared the maintenance of a standing
army in time of peace without the consent of Parliament to be
contrary to law.
Nevertheless a standing army has been regularly maintained
since 1689 under the authority of the annual Army Acts, which
provides for the forces to be raised and renews the code of mili-
tary law for the maintenance of discipline. This army has ordi-
narily been recruited by voluntary enlistment; though com-
pulsory service was applied to the militia from time to time.
Additional forces were the mounted yeomanry, placed on a
statutory footing in 1804, and the volunteers, established on a
statutory basis in 1863. But the militia, yeomanry and volun-
teers were largely transferred to the new territorial force, pro-
vided for in 1907, liable only for home service. The army re-
serve was first created in 1859, and was later regulated by the
Reserve Forces Act of 1882, consisting of trained regulars re-
tired after service; while a special reserve was established in
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
83
1907, to act as a source of supply for forces in the field. Pro-
vision was also made in 1907 for an expeditionary force, to be
ready for immediate service abroad, comprising most of the
regular army in Great Britain.
In addition to the regular and auxiliary forces of the home
army, there was maintained an Indian army; and the various
self-governing colonies have also provided for militia and other
forces.
At the beginning of the war the numbers in the various
branches of the military forces were as follows:
Regular army, January 1, 1914:
Home and colonial establishments.
156,110
Indian establishment.
78,476
1
1
.
c
Total....
Army reserve.
Special reserve (authorized 80,000).
Territorial force (authorized 315,000)...
National reserve (old soldiers and sailors).
234,586
146,756
63,089
251,706
217,680
Grand total...
913,817
Of these, about 366,000 might be considered as forming the
first line—including the regular troops of the home and colonial
establishments, and the army reserve and special reserve. The
251,000 of the territorial force might be considered a second line.
A large proportion of the territorials promptly volunteered for
foreign service; and within a few weeks about 80,000 of the
national reserve had joined the regular army.
The original expeditionary force consisted of eight divisions.
Six divisions (about 72,000) were landed in France at first; and
the two others crossed in October and November.
The total number of regular army officers was about 10,600,
and the officers of the territorial force about 9,500; while there
were about 25,000 in the Officers' Training Corps.
2
1
The Volunteer System
On the declaration of war, steps were rapidly taken to au-
thorize a large increase in the army. The estimate in the annual
* The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, vi, p. 281.
· F. K. Puckle: The Army Service Corps of the British Army, p. 4.
84
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
army act authorized a regular army of 186,400. On August 6,
1914, an estimate authorizing an increase of 500,000 was oted.
A further increase of 500,000 was authorized on September 10;
and an additional million in November. Later a third million
was authorized; and a fourth million on December 21, 1915.
The work of recruiting and enlisting the authorized forces
proceeded more slowly. On August 7, 1914, a call was issued
for the first contingent of 100,000, to be men between the ages
of 19 and 30, to serve for three years or the war. Circulars were
sent to the lords lieutenant of the counties and the chairmen of
the territorial forces county associations. There was some mis-
understanding of the situation and lack of organized effort; and
it was not until August 25, that Lord Kitchener announced that
the first 100,000 had been secured. Three days later a call for a
second contingent of 100,000 was issued. The age limit was
raised to 35 years and an appeal was made to married men.
On August 31, a Parliamentary Recruiting Committee was
formed, consisting of nine members, representing different polit-
ical parties, for the purpose of utilizing the machinery of the po-
litical parties and associations, both in London and throughout
the country, in order to give general assistance to the work of
recruiting. This committee worked through three departments :
canvassing and information, meetings, and publications and pub-
licity. It continued active work until the passage of the military
service acts. 1 By September 15, 1914, the total number of re-
cruits was announced to be over 500,000. On September 17, a
new scale of separation allowances was issued; and on Novem-
ber 10, a new scale of pensions. On January 2, 1915, the forma-
tion of the fifth and sixth new armies was announced.
The new forces were brought together in part at the various
permanent military camps—such as Colchester, Shorncliffe, Al-
dershot or Salisbury Plain—where the barracks vacated by the
regular army were available towards the accommodations re-
quired; in part they were scattered in camps and billets in dis-
tricts not previously occupied by troops. During the autumn and
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 157.
7
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
85
8
1
2
winter of 1914, both living quarters and equipment were often
lacking; and improvised substitutes had to be used to a large ex-
tent. The voluntary system of recruiting was said to have been
a great impediment to efficiency. The flow of recruits was un-
even, and when slack, physical and mental standards were
lowered; industry was disorganized; and in turn the work of
training was interrupted by calls on the army for essential in-
dustries.
In the spring of 1915 a scheme of colliery recruiting courts
was established by the Home Secretary; and in June a committee
was appointed to consider the readjustment of conditions of em-
ployment in the distributing trades in Scotland so as to release
men for enlistment or other national services. During 1915
recruiting was also promoted by entrusting the raising of local
units to county and municipal committees, cooperating with offi-
cers appointed by the War Office. In some places this plan was
a pronounced success.
But the need for other measures became more urgent. On
May 18, the age limit was increased to 40 years, and the height
standard reduced to 5 feet, 2 inches. On the formation of the
Coalition Cabinet, steps were taken for a more systematic canvass
of the population. On June 29, 1915, a national registration bill
was introduced and rapidly enacted into law. The purpose of
this act was to form a comprehensive register of the population
between the ages of 16 and 65 (with certain exceptions), and
their occupations, and to ascertain whether they were able and
willing to perform other work. Men between the ages of 19 and
41 were listed on special blanks, and men engaged in government
work or in essential war industries were starred.
Early in September an interdepartmental committee was cre-
ated to advise the government as to the best method of utilizing
the national register. On the 15th, Mr. Asquith made a state-
ment that the total number in the army and navy (including those
enlisted before the war, reservists, territorial forces, and special
1 Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 150, 152.
2 The Nineteenth Century and After, vol. 80, p. 881.
86
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
services) was not far short of three million men. Nevertheless
further efforts were made to increase the forces. At the end of
September a labor recruiting campaign was begun. Early in
October the recruiting service of the army was reorganized, and
placed in charge of civilians, with the Earl of Derby as director
of recruiting. Arrangements were made for a canvass of the
unstarred” men and an examination of the "starred" list;
married and unmarried men were listed in separate age groups,
as a basis for determining the order of service; and khaki armlets
were given to those who had enlisted or who had been excused
on medical grounds.
These measures were obviously an approach to a policy of
conscription; and to meet objections Mr. Asquith publicly an-
nounced on November 2, that married men who offered their
services would not be called on unless substantially all unmarried
men had been secured.
On December 4, the recruiting canvass was completed; and a
report was made early in January, with the following results :
Single Men
2,179,231
690,138
Married Men
2,832,210
915,491
Number of military age.
Number starred.
Number enlisted...
Number attested-starred....
Number attested-unstarred.
Number rejected.
103,000
312,067
527,933
207,000
112,431
449,808
895,171
221,853
•
Total.....
1,150,000 1,679,263
Number unaccounted for.....
1,029,231 1,152,947
Deducting the number of starred single men who had attested
from the total of starred single men, and deducting this figure
from the number of single men unaccounted for showed a total
of 651,160 unstarred single men unaccounted for—about 43
per cent.
1
Compulsory Service
The result of this canvass led to the introduction of compul-
sory military service for unmarried men, in order to fulfil Mr.
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, vi, 318.
1
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
87
Asquith's pledge to married men who had offered their services.
A bill was introduced in the House of Commons on January 5,
1916, providing that unmarried men and widowers without
children between the ages of 19 and 41 (with certain exemp-
tions) should be deemed to have enlisted in His Majesty's forces.
This was read a first time by a vote of 403 to 105; passed second
reading on January 12, by a vote of 431 to 39; and after a brief
committee stage passed a third reading on January 24, by a vote
of 383 to 36. Two days later the bill passed the House of Lords;
it received the Royal assent on January 27 and came into opera-
tion on February 10, 1916.
The administration of the military service law involved the
creation of a new series of governmental agencies to pass on
claims for exemption. Local tribunals of 5 to 25 persons were
provided in every local registration district; and from the deci-
sions of these any person could appeal to one of the appeal tri-
bunals, from which on leave of the appeal tribunal a fur-
ther appeal could be taken to the central tribunal for Great
Britain.
By proclamation of February 10, the classes of unmarried men
between the ages of 19 and 30 were summoned for March 2;
further proclamations called up the remaining groups of un-
married men; on March 7, the attested married men between the
ages of 19 and 26 were called; and later the remaining classes,
those between the ages of 33 and 41, on April 27. On May 2, it
was announced that the total military and naval effort exceeded
five million men. 1
A second military service act was passed in May, including
all unattested men between the ages of 18 and 41, unless within
the excepted classes, in those enlisted in the armed forces. This
act also modified the grounds for exemption, and provided for
the prolongation of expiring terms of service, and for the medical
reexamination of men exempted at the first medical examina-
tion. The bill for this act passed second reading in the House
· The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, viii, 133.
2 6 and 7 Geo. V, ch. 15. (May 25, 1916.)
88
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
of Commons by a vote of 328 to 36, and third reading by a vote
cf 250 to 35.
This act closed some of the means of escape from military
service; but criticisms continued to be made of the system of
local tribunals and the provisions for exemptions, exceptions and
reservations. Conflicts between different government depart-
ments led, towards the end of September, to the appointment of
a Man Power Distribution Board, to determine such questions as
the allocation or economic utilization of man power, and to di-
rect the departments concerned to create the machinery neces-
sary to coordinate their activities. A good deal of improvement
was said to have been effected by this board.
Provisions for reopening the cases of men who had been ex-
cepted under the earlier military service acts were made in the
Military Services (Review of Exceptions) Act, 1917. 2 A com-
mittee on the employment of conscientious objectors was estab-
lished, to arrange for the most effective use of this class of those
excused from military service.
1
1
THE ARMY SERVICE CORPS
The enormous expansion of the army and the vast scale of
military operations have necessitated a corresponding develop-
ment in the services auxiliary to the combatant forces. Among
these special attention may be given to the Army Service Corps,
in charge of transport and supply.
Prior to 1870 the commissariat service for the British army
had been created afresh for each war, and disbanded when the
war was over. In that year the departments of transport and
supply were united under one head; and in 1875 the commissariat
and transport staff came into existence as a united body. In
1888 the Army Service Corps was reorganized.
When war was declared a plan of organization previously pre-
pared was put into force, under which all contracts and pur-
3
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 113, pp. 350, 353.
2 7 Geo. V, ch. 12.
* The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, iv, ch. 66, p. 282.
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
89
chases were taken over by the War Office, and all food, forage
and other stores were subjected to rigorous analysis and inspec-
tion. Magazines were established in home districts, with special
depots for the army abroad, including several home bases and
also bases in France—the latter at first at Boulogne, later at
Amiens, Havre and St. Nazaire. ? Advance bases were also estab-
lished, and field depots at the railheads.
The problem of railway, transportation became one of special
importance. At the beginning of the war the government took
control of all the railways in Great Britain. These were operated
by an executive committee of railway managers, officially con-
nected with the Board of Trade, cooperating with the War Office
and the Army Transport Service. Prominent railway officials
were appointed to important positions in the War Office; Sir Guy
Granet, general manager of the Midland Railway, became Deputy
Director General of Military Railways. Sir Eric C. Geddes,
deputy general manager of the Northeastern Railway, after sery-
ing as Deputy Director General of Munitions Supply, was
knighted in 1916 and made Director General of Movements and
Railways, and Director General of Communications in France.
Later he was transferred to the Admiralty, and he was succeeded
at the War Office by Sir Guy Granet. Mr. Thornton, general
manager of the Great Eastern Railway, became Honorable Lieu-
tenant Colonel of the Engineer and Railway Staff Corps, and
Deputy Director of Inland Waterways and Docks.
One of the notable features of the war has been the develop-
ment of motor transport for the armies in the field. After the
South African War, Great Britain (like France and Germany)
'adopted a subsidy plan to ensure a supply of motor vehicles for
use in war. A permanent mechanical transport committee was
formed at the War Office, connected with the transport branch,
under the Director of Transport and Movements, in the Quarter-
master General's Department. In August, 1914, there was a re-
2
* Ibid., p. 292.
?F. A. McKenzie: British Railways and the War. The administration of
British railways under government control will be further discussed in
another chapter.
90
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
organization, and this was transferred to a newly constituted
mechanical transport branch, under the Director of Supplies and
Transport.
Subsidized vehicles and their drivers were first mobilized.
Then other vehicles were impressed into service, and later the
whole output of British factories able to produce suitable
machines was requisitioned. For the first year, the main depot
was in South London; but later a tract of land in the western
district was secured. The organization for the supply of acces-
sories and spare parts had its headquarters in London.
A variety of special types of vehicles was developed—includ-
ing motor lorries or trucks for carrying supplies, motor ambu-
lances, motor tractors for moving heavy guns, and armored cars
for fighting purposes. The last named began with armoring or-
dinary touring cars; later special armored cars were built,
culminating in the caterpillar "tanks,” the design for which was
worked out by the Director of Naval Construction.?
War OFFICE COMMITTEES
3
Among the hundreds of committees created to deal with special
war problems, the following connected with the army and the
War Office may be noted:
In addition to the parliamentary and local recruiting commit-
tees, other committees established to cooperate in raising the new
armies included those on Retail Trade and Enlistment, the En-
listment of Aliens of Allied Nationality, the Release of Railway-
men for Military Service, and the Reserved Occupations Com-
mittee.
A Prisoners of War (British) Treatment by the Enemy Com-
mittee, of ten members, was organized in September, 1915, to
collect, verify and record information as to British subjects made
prisoners of war.
2
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 160, pp. 283-284.
Ibid., pp. 290-298.
8 Liberal Year Book, 1917; Lists of Committees, etc., in Parliamentary
Papers.
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
91
A War Office Expenditures Comunittee, of seven members,
was provided in January, 1916, to consider possibilities of econ-
omy in army expenditure.
An Army Canteen Committee was created in April, 1916, con-
sisting of sixteen members, with representatives of the military
commands in the United Kingdom.
A Soldiers' Liabilities Committee, of twenty-three members,
was appointed, in May, 1916, as an advisory body to deal with
questions of principle and the administration of the scheme for
enabling soldiers to meet their civil liabilities. This seems to
have been expanded into the Military Service (Civil Liabilities)
Department.
A Wool Committee was created in August, 1916, to advise
the War Department on matters arising out of the purchase and
distribution of English wool. This committee consisted of four
representatives of agriculture, three Bradford merchants, three
country merchants, six spinners and manufacturers, and three
official representatives of the Board of Agriculture, the Board of
Trade and the War Trade Department.
A Prisoners of War (Central) Committee, of eight members,
was formed in September, 1916, to centralize and coordinate
measures for the relief of prisoners of war.
A Prisoners of War (Employment) Committee was reconsti-
tuted in January, 1917, to consider applications for the employ-
ment of prisoners of war.
Other committees and agencies were provided on Army Con-
tracts, Army Supplies Commercial Department, Army Chaplains
Advisory Committee, Interdepartmental Army Chaplains Advi-
sory Committee, Expeditionary Forces Canteen Committee,
Expeditionary Forces Sanitary Committee, Permit Office, Pris-
oners of War Help Committee, Promotion of Officers, Distri-
bution of War Trophies, Raw Materials Finance Branch, Re-
quisitioning (Carriage of Foodstuffs), and Soldiers' Dependents
Appeal Assessments.
The War Office was also represented on other interdepart-
mental committees and commissions, such as the Committee on
92
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
the Official History of the War, the Defense of the Realm Regu-
lations Committee, the National Register Committee, the Pris-
oners of War Interdepartmental Committee, the Commission In-
ternationale de Ravitaillement, and the Dardanelles and Mesopo-
tamia Commissions.
Medical Research Committee 1
Brief mention may be made of some phases of the work of
the Medical Research Committee. During 1915 special atten-
tion was given to an investigation of cerebrospinal fever, in a
central laboratory at the Royal Army Medical College, with 37
district laboratories at various points throughout the country.
Another investigation of dysentery led to the discovery of a
remedy for curing the dysentery carrier. The campaign against
typhoid fever was an important part of the work; and other
studies resulted in the discovery of a valuable new antiseptic.
GRAVES REGISTRATION
A special branch or directorate of the Adjutant General's de-
partment was established to take charge of the registration and
care of the graves of British soldiers. This was made responsible
not only for graves in France and Belgium, but also for those in
Egypt, the Balkans and Mesopotamia, and for recording those in
the United Kingdom. In March, 1917, the number of graves
registered in France and Belgium was more than 150,000.
In January, 1916, on the proposal of the army, the Prime
Minister appointed a National Committee for the Care of Sol-
diers' Graves, to take over the work of the directorate after the
war, with the Prince of Wales as chairman. Commissioners
were appointed by the Dominion to serve on this committee, and
also a representative from India.
At the Imperial War Conference, in the spring of 1917, a reso-
lution was adopted for an Imperial War Graves Commission, to
*The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, xi, ch. 108, pp. 54, 68.
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
93
be constituted by Royal Charter; and the draft of a charter for
this
purpose was considered and revised.
A memorandum from the Director of Graves Registration was
presented to the Imperial Conference, reporting that the French
Government had undertaken the cost of providing in perpetuity
the land for the graves of Allied soldiers in French territory; and
that negotiations were under way with regard to Belgian terri-
tory.
1
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Dissatisfaction with the organization of the War Office and
the central administration of the army has been actively ex-
pressed from time to time; and important changes both in per-
sonnel and organization have been made during the progress of
the war.
Commenting on the administrative changes of the
twenty years before the war, one writer has said : 2
The changes which have taken place in the constitution of the supreme
authority over the armed forces of the Crown since the resignation of the
late Duke of Cambridge have not yet brought about a permanent settlement,
and a tendency exists to create different mechanism for each successive chief
of the military system. Earl Roberts had not the same position precisely
as Viscount Wolseley; the creation of the Army Council by the Balfour
administration was a revolutionary change, which in turn was somewhat
altered for the benefit of each successive Chief of the General Staff, Sir
Neville Lyttleton, Lord Nicholson, and Viscount French; while the appoint-
ment of Lord Kitchener, at the beginning of the present war entirely changed
the constitution of the War Office. Kitchener's administration was more-
over profoundly affected by fresh arrangements introduced during his tenure
of office, and these arrangements have had to undergo further modifications
on the accessions of a new Secretary of State for War. In short there seems
no appearance of finality in an organization which the highest interests of
the state require to be securely fixed on a sound basis for peace and war,
and which should proceed uninterruptedly with its all important functions
undisturbed by changes and chances of a nature to destroy the continuity
and therefore the efficiency of its work.
1
pp. 133-134.
Extracts from the Proceedings of the Imperial War Conference, 1917,
· Cecil Battine, in The Nineteenth Century and After, 80: 867-880 (October,
1916). "The Ministry of War and the Military Executive."
94.
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Criticism tended to be directed mainly at what was called the
overcentralization of responsibility in the War Office in the Sec-
retary of State for War. The writer above quoted states :
The principal authority at the time was vested in a slovenly makeshift
manner in the Secretary of State for War, who was apparently expected to
do the double task of being War Minister and of commanding the army, with
the natural result that the duties of both officers were very imperfectly per-
formed. The War Minister failed to arrange for the vital requirements of
the army in the matter of munitions during that first fateful winter, and
the departments of organization and command were managed in the most
reckless and haphazard manner.
.
1
Another writer states that
More and more the war outgrew the possibilities of an organization the
central feature of which was the concentration of responsibility in Lord
Kitchener's hands, while every day increased the necessity for delegation
of responsibility.
It is worth noting that along with this criticism of the army
administration for excessive centralization went an active criti-
cism of the government as a whole, and at times of the Admiralty,
for a lack of centralized responsibility. These different lines of
criticism seem to conflict with each other; and it may be that
deeper than any general principle of administrative organization
was the magnitude of the problems to be met, and the difficulty
of finding the most effective men for the leading positions.
In any event, along with the centralizing tendencies in the
Cabinet, there has gone a movement in the opposite direction in
the War Office. The creation of the Ministry of Munitions in
May, 1915, was the first large encroachment upon the powers and
responsibilities of the Secretary of State for War, placing in a
new and distinct department control over the supply of arms and
munitions. The reorganization of the recruiting service under
the Earl of Derby, although it continued to form part of the
War Office organization, seems to have involved a substantial
delegation of power from the War Minister to the civilian
Director General of Recruiting.
Cecil Battine, op. cit.
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 344.
2
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
95
tions.'
Just before Christmas, 1915, the Imperial General Staff was
reorganized, with Sir William Robertson as its Chief. Shortly
afterwards an Order in Council (January 27, 1916) provided
that: The Chief of the General Staff shall be responsible for
issuing the orders of the government in regard to military opera-
This meant that Robertson would enjoy far greater
powers than the Chief of the General Staff had hitherto en-
joyed, and that orders to commanders would go out in his name
and no longer in that of the Secretary of State for War. Even
after this, the conditions at the War Office remained the subject
of severe criticism.
Commenting on conditions in the latter part of 1916, one
writer, already quoted, has stated :
1
At the present moment the supreme authority is vested upon sounder
principles in the Chief of Staff and the Commander of the Army in France;
but the arrangement would seem to be temporary, nor is it quite clear which
of these two officers is the chief, or whether they are in a manner equal in
authority within their own spheres. There is in fact no military chief of
the whole army. The plan too of having the Ministry of Munitions inde-
pendent of the Ministry of War is not logical, and, though it may have been
necessary as an emergency measure, it should not be permanent.
The mechanism of the supreme command should be vested in a single
military officer. It is not of the greatest importance whether he is called
Commander in Chief or Inspector General. He should have the collabora-
tion of a principal lieutenant, his Chief of Staff. Commanders of armies
in the field, as of military districts at home, should be subject to his author-
ity, tho of course a competent chief will delegate wide powers as the
case may command. The heads of administrative departments, the Adjutant
General, Quartermaster General, and the head of the Ordnance Department,
have no logical right to sit on an Army Council, to confer with the Cabinet,
or to share in the executive command. They have enough to do to control
the great departments under the supreme commander of the army. But
such a Commander in Chief can not either in peace or war dispense with
the help of assistants which in Germany are known as the General Staff at
Headquarters.
After discussing the abuse of the term General Staff, and the
unsatisfactory method of selecting and training staff officers,
this writer adds:
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 344.
Cecil Battine, op. cit.
2
96
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
There is one concrete reform which should be delayed no longer. The
titular military chief of the army should alone be responsible for the pro-
motion of all the officers of the army.
On the tragic death of Lord Kitchener in June, 1916, Mr.
Lloyd George was transferred from the Ministry of Munitions
to be Secretary of State for War. The experiment of a mili-
tary officer as the administrative head of the War Department
was thus abandoned ; and a return made to the usual British prac-
tice of placing this office in the hands of a civilian with political
experience. This custom was continued when Mr. Lloyd George
became Prime Minister, by naming as Secretary of State for
War the Earl of Derby, who had been Director General of Re-
cruiting and later Parliamentary Under-Secretary for the War
Office.
The Allied War Council established in the latter part of 1917
with a permanent staff of military officers at Versailles raised
questions as to the relative authority of the joint Allied body
and the general staffs of the several countries. At a meeting of
the Allied War Council in February, 1918, it was decided that
the joint staff should exercise executive authority and that the
British representative should be a member of the Army Council.
This led to the retirement of General Robertson as Chief of the
British General Staff, as he was unwilling to divide authority
with the joint staff or to serve as the British member on the
joint staff. General Wilson, who had been serving as British
representative on the joint staff, was appointed as Chief of the
British General Staff, and General Rawlinson as British repre-
sentative on the joint staff.
Definite information as to the distribution of authority be-
tween the joint staff and the general staffs of the several govern-
ments is still lacking. The new arrangement was supported as a
necessary measure for centralizing control over 'the military
movements of the Allied forces. But it also appeared that the
Chief of the British General Staff had not been made distinctly
subordinate to the joint Allied staff; and so far as the British
army was concerned the new arrangement appeared to involve a
ARMY ADMINISTRATION
97
dual set of coordinate authorities, and a further decentraliza-
tion of power.
Following the German attacks beginning in March, 1918, a
more complete centralization in the military command of the
Allied armies in Western Europe was accomplished by the selec-
tion of General Foch as Commander in Chief. To the unity of
command thus established has been ascribed much of the suc-
cess of the military operations during the latter part of this year,
even by some who had criticized the partial measures taken dur-
ing the previous winter.
Attention may, however, be called to the problem, thus far
not publicly discussed, of reconciling the criticism of the over-
centralization in the hands of Lord Kitchener with the com-
mendation of the concentration of authority in Marshal Foch.
CHAPTER VI
Munitions and Aircraft
The magnitude of military operations and the development of
new devices, materials and methods of warfare in the present
contest has vastly increased the problem of supplying the com-
batant forces with their fighting equipment; and the attempts to
solve this problem have involved the creation of new adminis-
trative agencies, and a tremendous expansion in government in-
dustries and government control of private plants. After a va-
riety of temporary expedients had been tried, a new government
department of the first rank was established, under a Minister
of Munitions, to deal with the supply of arms and munitions.
Later the growing importance of aircraft led to the formation
of another government department for this work. This chapter
will present the steps leading to the creation of these novel de-
partments of public administration, and their organization and
activities.
MUNITIONS ADMINISTRATION
The First Period
Under the organization existing at the outbreak of the war, the
British Government had several ordnance factories-at Wool-
wich, Waltham Abbey, and Enfield Lock-for the manufacture
of arms for the army, under the department of the Master Gen-
eral of Ordnance in the War Office. There was also a Royal
Aircraft Factory. The Admiralty had other ordnance factories
for naval armament. But munitions of war were also furnished
to a large extent by contracts with five or six large private es-
tablishments.
In the autumn of 1914, after consultation with the leading
armament concerns, it was decided to extend greatly the system
98
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
99
1
2
of subcontracting—letting out the less difficult work to other con-
cerns which could adapt their plants most readily. Under this
policy from 2,500 to 3,000 business concerns were involved in the
production of munitions.
As the need for further increasing the supplies became more
evident, there was appointed, early in February, 1915, a Board of
Trade Committee on Production, to inquire into and report on
the best way to enlarge the output from the engineering and
shipbuilding establishments. This committee reported, on Feb-
ruary 20, that “there was a present and continuously increasing
need for shells and fuses"; and recommended a rearrangement
of piece work terms and a greater employment of female labor.
In the same month, an arbitration tribunal of five members
was formed to deal with questions of production in engineering
and shipbuilding establishments.
On March 19, a War Output National Advisory Committee,
of six members, was formed, " to increase and accelerate the out-
put and to see that the provisions of the Treasury agreement
are observed in war work." 2
An amendment to the Defense of the Realm Act, passed in the
same month, extended the powers of the government over muni-
tions factories. Regulations, issued on March 24, authorized the
Admiralty or the Army Council to occupy premises for housing
workmen, to requisition the output and take possession of fac-
tories and to regulate their operation.
In April, several additional committees were created. On the
7th, a War Office Committee was announced, “ to take the neces-
sary steps to provide such additional labor as may be required to
secure that the supply of munitions of war shall be sufficient to
meet all requirements.” Mr. G. M. Booth, an energetic ship-
owner, was an active member of this committee, which became
known by his name. This committee was in the main a recruit-
ing agency for the armament works, competing for men with
the recruiting agents for the army. A few days later a North
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, v, ch. 93, pp. 304, 402,
403.
2 Liberal Year Book, 1917.
100
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
East Coast Armaments Committee was formed, representing
the government departments, the employers and the men. Other
local munitions committees were formed at Leeds, Sheffield,
Birmingham, Glasgow, Dublin and elsewhere.
Several days afterwards a general Munitions of War Com-
mittee was established, with the Chancellor of the Exchequer
(Mr. Lloyd George) as chairman, and including representatives
of the Admiralty, the War Office, the Treasury, the Board of
Trade, and other departments; to ascertain the extent of the
problem, and to map out the country and to draw every available
factory and workshop into the scheme. This formed a large
step towards setting up a new department; and left the War
Office to concentrate upon the task of organizing and training
the new armies.
The Ministry of Munitions
On the formation of the Coalition Cabinet, Mr. Lloyd George
was transferred to the new position of Minister of Munitions.
An act establishing the Ministry of Munitions was soon passed,
and became law on June 9, 1915; and was followed on June 16
by an Order in Council defining the scope of the office. On July
2, a more comprehensive Munitions of War Act went into force.
The Ministry of Munitions Act is brief, providing for the
appointment of a Minister of Munitions, who "shall have such
administrative powers in relation to the supply of munitions for
the present war as may be conferred on him by His Majesty in
Council,” or as may be transferred from a government depart-
ment or authority. The Minister of Munitions may appoint such
secretaries, officers and servants as he may determine. The Min-
ister and two secretaries may be members of the House of Com-
mons. The Ministry is to cease not more than twelve months
after the cessation of the present war. Munitions are defined as
anything required to be provided for war purposes, and include
· The Times history and Encyclopedia of the War, v, pp. 307, 403-406.
2 5 and Geo. 'V, c. 51.
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
101
1
arms, ammunition, warlike stores or material, and anything re-
quired for equipment or transport purposes or for or in connec-
tion with the production of munitions."
The Munitions of War Act 1 is important, not only as the work-
ing basis for the new Ministry, but as a document making a far-
reaching extension of government control of industry, including
both labor and the profits of the employer. 2 The act is divided
into three parts: Part I makes provisions for the settlement of
labor disputes in munitions works, prohibits strikes and lock-
outs in certain cases, and provides for the extension of these pro-
visions by Royal Proclamation to other than munitions work, if
prejudicial to the supply of munitions of war. Part II deals
chiefly with the limitations on profits, the suspension of rules and
practices restricting output, and the employment and protection of
munitions workers in controlled establishments. Net profits are
limited to one-fifth more than the standard amount, for the two
financial years before the war, with provisions for referees. Dif-
ferences between employers and employes and questions as to re-
strictive rules and practices are to be referred to the Board of
Trade. Part III includes provisions authorizing the Minister of
Munitions to obtain information as to persons, machines and
works in any establishment; and provides for munitions tribu-
nals, one class to deal with all offenses under the act, and the
other to deal only with any contravention of the regulations in
controlled establishments--these tribunals to be chosen equally
from panels representing employers and employes.
An amending act of January 27, 1916, made further provi-
sions for the control of wages, hours of labor and conditions of
employment; extended the definition of munitions work to in-
clude ships or vessels, and certain classes of buildings and public
utilities; defined the powers of inspectors; and provided for ap-
peals from the decisions of munitions tribunals to a judge of the
high court.
3
15 and 6 Geo. V, c. 54.
2 The Political Quarterly, No. 7 (1916), p. 155.
5 and 6 Geo. V, c. 99.
8
102
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Administrative Organization
The new Ministry has to deal, on the one side, with the supply
of material, with factory equipment and with the correlation of
output. On the other side, it is concerned with the supply of
labor and the conditions of employment, and also with the limita-
tion of profits. Both on the side of material and mechanical or-
ganization, the Ministry of Munitions has exercised an influ-
ence of great importance not only on the immediate situation,
but also on the future of industrial production and the relations
of labor and capital to one another and to the government.
To carry out its manifold functions a complex and many sided
organization has been developed, both at the central offices and in
local districts. The nucleus of the Ministry was formed by the
staff of the Cabinet Committee on Munitions with that of the
Armaments Output Committee established at the War Office un-
der Lord Kitchener. To these were rapidly added some older
sections of the War Office organization, such as the branch deal-
ing with contracts for warlike stores and the committee for the
production of high explosives. New transfers from the War
Office were made; and by the end of 1915 the scope of the Min-
istry covered the supply of arms, ammunition, explosives, opti-
cal munitions materials, trench warfare supplies, munitions con-
tracts, munitions finance, inspection, invention, design and the
administration of the Royal ordnance factories.
The main headquarters organization in 1916 is shown in the
following outline:
Minister of Munitions
Four Parliamentary Secretaries
Secretariat and Labor Supply Department
Director of Munitions Recruiting
Director of Housing Construction
Munitions Supply Department
Director General
3 Deputy Directors General
1
2
· The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, p. 68.
2 British Imperial Calendar, 1916, p. 409 a-d.
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
103
16 Directors
Chief Superintendent Royal Ordnance Factories
Minister of Ordnance Board
Chief Inspector, Woolwich
Chief Inspector of Small Arms
Explosives Supply Department
Director General
Deputy Director General
3 Directors
General Manager Factories
Trench Warfare Supply Department
Director General
Deputy Director General
Adviser on Trench Ordnance
Scientific Advisory Committee
Scientific Commercial Committee (6 members)
Munitions Inventions Department
Controller
Secretary
Panel of Advisory Experts
The several departments of the Ministry were scattered in a
number of different buildings, in and near Whitehall.
During the year 1916, the Ministry of Munitions was further
charged with the storage of gun ammunition, supply of “ tanks,"
supply of tractors for heavy howitzers, supply of railway ma-
terials for the army, supply of mechanical transport vehicles, and
the supply of chemical glass and laboratory ware.
By the latter part of 1916, the administrative organization of
the Ministry had expanded, as follows:
1
1
Minister of Munitions
Parliamentary Secretaries
General Secretaries
Secretariat
Assistant General Secretary
Requirements and Statistics Branch
Establishments Branch
Special Intelligence Branch
* Whitaker's Almanack, 1917, pp. 234-237.
104
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
Department of Munitions Finance
Assistant Financial Secretary
Director of Munitions Finance
Director of Munitions Accounts
Controlled Establishments Division
Assistant General Secretary
Department of Munitions Design
Director General
Trench Warfare Research Division
Department of Munitions Supply
Director General
Director of Area Organization
Director of Contracts
Director of Steel Production and Factory Construction
Department of Ordnance Supply
Director General
Controller of Gun Ammunition Filling
Royal Ordnance Factories, Woolwich
Small Arms Factory, Enfield
Department of Shell Manufacture
Controller
American and Transport Department
Director General
Director of Railway Materials
Director of Overseas Transport
Director of Optical Munitions
Director of American Office
Director of Railway Transport
Department of Mechanical Transport Supply
Director General
Department of Mechanical Warfare Supply
Director General
Department of Munitions Inspection
Director General
Department of Munitions Labor Supply
Director General
Munitions Labor Regulation Department
Deputy Assistant General Secretary
Department of Explosives Supply
Director General
Department of Trench Warfare Supply
Director General
Department of Munitions Invention
Controller
1
1
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
105
In 1917, the functions of the Ministry were still further ex-
tended to include the supply of aeroplanes, agricultural machinery
supply, the manufacture, use and distribution of sulphuric acid,
and (after June) the supply of fuel oils; and the administrative
organization of the Ministry was again expanded and elaborated
to care for these additional activities. At the end of 1916 a cen-
tral clearing house for allocating machine tools was organized.
In February, 1917, a special organization was formed for scrap
metals and salvage; and in March a department of nonferrous
metals was formed.
The various departments in the Ministry were at first formed
into three groups-Supply, Finance and Secretariat-each under
a separate head. But this arrangement soon broke down, and the
several departments became practically independent, the head of
each having direct access to the Minister, who was assisted by an
Advisory Council of seven heads of important departments. In
August, 1917, a Munitions Council was established, consisting of
the Minister, two Parliamentary Secretaries and ten other mem-
bers, each of the latter being assigned to a group of depart-
ments. The relation of the members of the council to the de-
partments has not been altogether clear or consistent. Appar-
ently the heads of the subdepartments have more liberty of
reference to the Minister than has been usual with subordinate
officers in a government ministry. The several groups appear to
have been formed on the basis of convenience, and sometimes on
an accident of personality, rather than relationship or a logical
scheme. A strictly logical hierarchy has probably been impos-
sible; and the smooth working of the departments under the
council is an indication of the patriotic spirit and tact of the
officials. But the Munitions Council can not be compared with
the Army Council or the Admiralty Board, in each of which
there are more or less clearly defined divisions assigned to each
member. A munitions council based on well defined branches
could be smaller than the present body.
1
Select Committee on National Expenditure, 1918, First Report. Parlia-
nientary Papers, 1918, No. 23.
106
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The general plan of organization at the end of 1917 was as
follows:
1
Minister of Munitions
Two Parliamentary Secretaries
Representative in the House of Lords
Munitions Council-Secretary
Requirements and Statistics Department
Parliamentary and General Department-Assistant Sec-
retary
Establishment Department-Assistant Secretary
merican Department-Assistant Secretary
Special Intelligence
Special Services
Priority Department Controller
Munitions Council-Group F
Finance Department Controller
Contracts Department-Controller
Salvage and Stores Department-Controller
Munitions Works Board-Chairman
Lands Department-Director General
Munitions Council—Group D
Design Department Controller
Inspection Department-Controller
Trench Warfare Department-Director
Chemical Warfare Department--Controller
Inventions Department-Controller
Munitions Council—Group S
Iron and Steel Production—Controller
Factory Construction Director
Munitions Council-Group M
Raw Materials (nonferrous) Department--Controller
Railway Materials Department Director
Optical Munitions, Glassware and Potash Production
Department-Controller
Overseas Transport Department Director
Forwarding Department-Director
Inland Transport Department-Director
Mineral Resources Development Department-Controller
Government Rolling Mills—Director
Munitions Council-Group X
Explosives Supply Department–Director General
Whitaker's Almanack, 1918, pp. 225 ff.
.
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
107
Mineral Oil Department-Director
Trench Warfare Chemical Supplies—Controller
Munitions Council ---Group P
Gun Ammunition Manufacture-Controller
Gun Ammunition Filling—Controller
Trench Warfare Supply-Controller
Timber Supplies—Director
Area Organization-Director
Small Arms Ammunition_Controller
Central Clearing House-Director
Munitions Council-Group G
Gun Manufacture_Controller
Gun Forgings—Director
Trench Guns and Howitzers-Controller
Small Arms and Machine Guns—Controller
Gun Statistics-Director
Munitions Council-Group E
Aeronautical Supplies—Controller
Mechanical Machinery-Controller
Agricultural Machinery-Director
Machine Tools-Controller
Mechanical Transport-Director
Petrol Engines—Controller
Electric Power Supply—Director
Munitions Council-Group L
Labor Regulation Department
Labor Supply Department
Munitions Council-Group A
Imperial Munitions Board, Canada
The headquarters staff at first numbered less than 200. By
March 31, 1916, it had increased to 4,785; by June 30, to 5,305
and by June 30, 1917, to 12,190. This included unpaid officials,
officials and employes from other departments and those paid
by the Ministry. Nearly half were women. The monthly sal-
aries for June, 1916, amounted to £65,333, and for June, 1917, to
£163,815.
1
In July, 1915, the total staff of the Ministry consisted of 8,761
persons. In 1917 it included nearly 40,000 in the United King-
Solicitors Journal, August 4, 1917, p. 670.
1
108
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
dom, with more than 8,000 additional in the United States of
America. In March, 1916, women composed 28 per cent of the
total staff; in 1917 they formed 61 per cent, numbering about
29,000.1
For localized administration the United Kingdom has been
divided into eleven areas, in each of which has been placed an
office of the Ministry, with a secretary, superintending engineer,
trench warfare supply engineer, admiralty representative, a labor
officer and in some cases a railway transport officer. The func-
tion of the area office is locally to look after the development of
the production of munitions, and the administration of the Muni-
tions of War Act, and to report to and advise the central office.
The munitions areas have been, as a rule, divided into muni-
tions districts, each having a local munitions committee (a con-
sultative body) and a board of management which directs the
manufacture of munitions in national shell factories or arranges
for their manufacture by means of a cooperative scheme. In
some districts there have been subdistricts, each with its local
munitions committee.
In Ireland no districts have been established; but the work of
placing contracts and of direction has been carried out by the two
area offices at Dublin and Belfast.
In the Metropolitan area (including Surrey, Kent and southern
Essex), the administration has been divided into eleven districts,
each with a district manager in charge.
The aim has been to provide a large measure of decentraliza-
tion, with common lines of policy and control determined by the
central department and its inspectorate.
2
Additional Committees 3
In addition to the internal organization of the new department,
there began to appear before long a new series of committees, to
deal with special problems relating to the supply of munitions :
* C. Addison: British Workshops and the War, p. 14.
? The Political Quarterly, No. 9 (1916), p. 158.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917.
2
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
109
A Munitions Advisory Committee was provided to consider
general problems.
A Controlled Establishments Profits Board of Referees heard
appeals by owners of controlled establishments, not satisfied
with the standard rate of dividend fixed by the Minister of
Munitions.
The Central Control Board for the Liquor Traffic, established
in June, 1915, was appointed by the Minister of Munitions.
As early as July, 1915, a Munitions Parliamentary Committee
was formed, composed of 60 members of the House of Commons,
to encourage munitions workers to maintain and increase produc-
tion. Meetings were held at various works addressed by mem-
bers of Parliament, and pamphlets were prepared and issued.
A Munitions Labor Supply Committee was organized in Sep-
tember, with 17 members, including representatives from the Na-
tional Labor Advisory Committee and the Ministry of Munitions
and other members, to advise as to the transfer of skilled labor,
and the use of semi-skilled and unskilled labor. This committee
reported to the Ministry of Munitions and to the Admiralty.
A Health of Munitions Workers Committee was appointed
about the same time, with the concurrence of the Home Secre-
tary, "to consider and advise on questions of industrial fatigue,
hours of labor, and other matters affecting the personal health
and physical efficiency of workers in munitions factories and
workshops." This committee was composed of Sir George New-
man, M.D., chairman, three representatives from the Factory
Department of the Home Office, three physicians, one member of
Parliament and the Secretary of the Medical Research Com-
mittee.
As a result of its investigations, a series of memoranda was
prepared and issued on: Sunday labor, welfare supervision, in-
dustrial canteens, employment of women, hours of work, canteen
construction and equipment, industrial fatigue and its causes,
special industrial diseases, ventilation and lighting of munitions
factories and workshops, and sickness and injury. These showed
the need for preserving and the danger of abandoning regula-
110
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
tions and restrictions for the protection of labor, in the interest
of the greatest efficiency.
A Building Labor Interdepartmental Committee, of fifteen
members, was created in October, 1915, to control and regulate
the rates of wages paid to building labor on the construction of
buildings for the production of munitions of war.
A Committee on Women in Munitions Work was appointed, in
November, 1916 (consisting of nine members, including six
women), to consider the question of the supply and organization
of women's service (whether voluntary or paid) in canteens,
hostels, clubs, and other agencies connected with the welfare of
munitions workers, and to advise what steps should be taken in
connection therewith.
A Munitions Ordnance Committee was established in April,
1916, composed of thirteen army and navy officers.
In November, 1916, a Metals for Munitions Committee, of
three members, was appointed to advise on steps to secure the
most economical use of metals required for munitions of war.
In December, a special committee was appointed to advise the
Ministry of Munitions on the purchase and distribution of cop-
per; and another committee to advise and consult with the Min-
istry of Munitions as to the needs of the users of bleaching pow-
der.
In January, 1917, an Agricultural Machinery Advisory Com-
mittee was formed, with six members, representatives of the
Ministry of Munitions, the Board of Agriculture and the Food
Controller, to advise the agricultural machinery branch of the
Ministry of Munitions.
Other committees and agencies established in connection with
the work of the Ministry of Munitions include the following:
3
1
Anti-aircraft Equipment Committee
Explosions at Government Controlled Factories Committee
High Explosives Committee
Munitions Boards of Management Executive Committee
Munitions Hours of Labor Committee
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8741.
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
111
Munitions Interallied Bureau
Munitions Inventions Panel
Munitions Labor Priority Committee
Munitions Priority Committee
Munitions Works Board
Central Clearing House for Machinery
Oils and Fats Branch
Trench Warfare Chemical Advisory Committee
Trench Warfare Commercial Advisory Committee
Trench Warfare Mines Committee
Trench Warfare Advisory Panel
Trench Warfare Supply Department, Chemical Section
Financial Arrangements
Some time was required for the development of the system of
finance administration for the new Ministry of Munitions. Up
to July 1, 1915, expenditure was charged to one of the army
votes. The accounting officer for the War Office continued for
a time to be responsible for expenditures transferred from the
War Office; but later (from October 1) a separate accounting
officer was appointed for the new Ministry.
In November, 1915, a committee of three members was ap-
pointed to review the expenditure of the Ministry of Munitions,
and to secure economy. Expenditures were made in conformity
with general rules governing War Office expenditure, set forth
in Treasury Minutes early in the war; but the relations between
the new Ministry and the Treasury were not clearly defined un-
til a Treasury Minute of January 1, 1916. A later Treasury
Minute, of October 26, 1916, provided for an interdepartmental
emergency committee (including representatives of the Treasury
and the Ministry of Munitions) to deal with proposals for ex-
penditures in the same manner as the standing committee ap-
pointed at the outbreak of the war for emergency naval expendi-
ture.
Under the rules laid down, the Treasury named the heads of ac-
counts and asked to be informed of contracts. Lump sums were
approved for buildings and works; but Treasury sanction was
112
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
necessary for fixing rates of wages and for purchasing land or
leasing for more than seven years. An amendment to the De-
fense of the Realm Regulations, February 15, 1916, secured to
the Ministry control over prices, in common with the Admiralty
and the War Office, by authorizing the requisition of the out-
put of any factory at a fair cost, as shown by the contractors'
accounts. In the early months of the Ministry there was lack of
coordination and wide differences between the different branches
of the Ministry in fixing prices and making contracts.
After some time a Munitions Finance Committee and a Muni-
tions Financial Advisory Committee were established. Criti-
cism was made of the financial organization because the finance
department of this Ministry was coordinate with the several sup-
ply departments; while in the Admiralty and the War Office one
of the Parliamentary Secretaries was specially assigned to finance
matters.
These criticisms of the financial arrangements in the Ministry
of Munitions were repeated by the Select Committee on National
Expenditure, which recommended that one Parliamentary Sec-
retary in this Ministry be charged with financial matters; 2 and
this has since been provided.
Further criticism of the continuation of lax financial methods
was made in the report of the Controller and Auditor General
on the expenditure of the Ministry of Munitions during the year
1916-17.
1
.
Vast quantities of materials and components of immense value have been
issued "free" to various contractors no adequate record of issues from
the Ministry's stocks was kept nor had any effective steps been
taken to the end of 1.916-17 to secure that an equivalent . . . had been
returned. There had also been failure to keep an accurate and complete
record of repayable cash advances made to the firm.
The result was that firms were paid twice, advances were
not recovered, interest was not claimed. One firm received
Ministry of Munitions Appropriation Account, in Parliamentary Papers,
1917, No. 40, and Report of the Controller General; Liberal Year Book, 1917,
p. 155.
* First Report, September, 1917.
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
113
as much as £6,000,000 in loans, and took advantage of the
laxness to cease making its monthly repayments; this was ap-
parently never noticed in the Ministry, and the loan had not been
repaid at the date of the controller's report.
1
The Munitions Industry
2
Something of the scope and success of the Ministry of Muni-
tions may be indicated by presenting some statistical data as to
the development of the munitions industry in Great Britain since
the organization of the new department.
Early in August, 1915, there were 345 controlled establish-
ments operating under the supervision of the Ministry. By
October of that year there were 1,000 such controlled establish-
ments; 20 national factories had been established, and 11 more
were under way; and 18 cooperative areas had been organized.
Nearly 1,000,000 people were employed in the government and
controlled establishments on munitions productions.
By the latter part of the summer of 1916, there were 4,300
controlled establishments employing more than 2,000,000 workers
(some 400,000 women) engaged in constructing gun carriages,
ammunition wagons, and other supplies. There were 95 national
factories working for the land services—20 manufacturing ex-
plosives and materials, 18 filling gun and trench mortar ammuni-
tion, 6 making cartridges and cartridge cases, 32 shell factories
operated by local boards of management, and 12 heavy projec-
tile factories. 3 Later in 1916, there were 53 shell factories, 38
local boards of management, and others managed for the Min-
istry by experienced munitions firms. 4 The Woolwich arsenal,
which in August, 1914, employed 10,866 persons, by June, 1917,
had 73,571, about a third of whom were women. 5
By the end of 1917, there were 143 national factories and 20,-
* Parliamentary Papers, 1918, H.C. 24; The New Statesman, xi, 44 (April
20, 1918).
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, v, ch. 93, p. 412.
* Ibid., x, ch. 172, p. 321.
• Interview with C. Addison to the Associated Press.
• C. Addison: British Workshops and the War, p. 17.
114
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
000 private controlled establishments, with a total of more than
2,000,000 work people, of whom 644,000 were women. Includ-
ing those employed on admiralty work, more than 2,700,000 were
engaged in munitions works, of whom over 700,000 were
women. 1
The work of the Ministry has included much more than the
provision of arms and ammunition. Every machine tool maker
in the United Kingdom has been brought under its control. The
supply of motor transport was transferred to the Ministry of
Munitions in 1916, the supply of agricultural implements later in
the same year, and the supply of aeroplanes and seaplanes for
the army and navy early in 1917. 2
In addition to the building construction in connection with the
extension of former works and the erection of new plants, the
Ministry has also taken an active part in securing housing ac-
commodations for workers in the munitions factories. Exist-
ing accommodations have been taken over and adapted for muni-
tions workers; temporary housing facilities have been constructed
by the Ministry itself; and the government has made contribu-
tions to local authorities and others to provide permanent hous-
Whole villages have been built, accommodations for
60,000 people being provided in one year.
The supply and distribution of labor has been an important
part of the work of the Ministry. Many thousands of skilled
workmen have been withdrawn from the army for munitions
work. By cooperation with the trades unions, skilled workmen
have been transferred to where they could be of most service,
and skilled labor has been "diluted" with unskilled, and many
of the latter have been trained for special work. The employ-
ment of women has also been developed to a large extent, so that
in some lines from 60 to 80 per cent of the workers have been
women. 5
ing. 3
4
* The War Cabinet: Report for 1917, pp. 69-70.
· C. Addison: British Workshops and the War, pp. 20, 21.
Ibid., pp. 41-43.
* Interview with C. Addison to the Associated Press.
o Ibid.
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
115
Regulation of industrial conditions through the munitions
tribunals and settlement of labor disputes have also required a
good deal of attention. Rules for constituting and regulating
munitions tribunals were issued in July, 1915; and revised from
time to time.Up to July 1, 1916, these tribunals had acted on
5,354 prosecutions, 15,210 applications for leaving certificates,
and 1,100 claims for compensation. Forty-five labor advisory
boards have assisted the disputes section of the Ministry; and the
amount of time lost by suspensions of work was reduced in the
first part of 1916 to less than a fourth of that in the same period
of 1915; and a year later this had been further reduced to about
a third of that in 1916.3
Much has also been done in the regulation of wages, hours of
labor and conditions of employment, greatly extending the field
of government control of industry.
General Estimate
When Mr. Lloyd George became Secretary of State for War,
in June, 1916, his place as Minister of Munitions was taken by.
Edwin S. Montagu, who had been Financial Secretary to the
Treasury and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. At the
Cabinet and ministerial reorganization in December, 1916, Dr.
Christopher Addison, who had been Parliamentary Secretary to
the Board of Education, and later Parliamentary Secretary to
the Ministry of Munitions, was promoted to be Minister. In
July, 1917, Dr. Addison became Minister of Reconstruction and
Winston Churchill, who had been First Lord of the Admiralty
before May, 1915, was appointed as Minister of Munitions.
The Ministers of Munitions have thus all been men active in
political and parliamentary life; although the work of the Min-
istry would seem to be adapted to men of large business and
administrative experience.
From the point of view of material results the new Ministry
Parliamentary Papers, 1916, pp. 321, 348, 350, 351.
2 Return of Cases heard before Munitions Tribunals, Parliamentary
Papers, 1914, Cd. 8143 ; 1916, Cd. 8360.
C. Addison: British Workshops and the War, p. 39.
1
116
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
appears to have justified itself. When it was established, the
task of organizing and developing the munitions industry was of
such urgent importance that it required one of the strongest men
in the government, and this made it necessary to place this de-
partment in the front rank. The magnitude of the business under
its control continues to make the department one of the most im-
portant during the progress of the war.
But, as is clearly recognized in the act creating the Ministry,
as a temporary agency to expire shortly after the termination of
the war, a separate Ministry for the supply of munitions and war
material does not seem to be advisable as a permanent feature of
the administrative organization of the government. A similar
department has been established in France; but no such action
seems to have been considered necessary in Germany, although a
similar process of increasing the government munitions works
and controlling private works has been carried out without creat-
ing a new main department of government.
At the same time, it is not improbable that some features of
the government control of industry developed in connection with
the Ministry of Munitions will be continued in force; and, even
with a large measure of disarmament after the war, there are
likely to be measures provided for the more rapid organization
and mobilization of the industrial resources of the country for
military purposes, in the event of another war. Moreover the
work of the British Ministry of Munitions suggests the ques-
tion whether there may not be permanent advantages in a more
unified control over the work of furnishing war materials for all
branches of the combatant forces—army, navy and air service.
To secure this would require closer cooperation between the Ad-
miralty and the War Office, and would tend towards the develop-
ment of a comprehensive department of military and naval af-
fairs.
THE AIR SERVICE
At the beginning of the war, the army and the navy had each
a service of aircraft--the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
117
1
Naval Air Service—and each had a separate administrative or-
ganization for the supply of airplanes and seaplanes. There was
also a Joint Air Committee, under the Committee on Imperial De-
fense, composed of members from the War Office and the Ad-
miralty, to secure cooperation.
With the development of aerial attacks on Great Britain, the
need for a more definite division of labor and closer cooperation
between the army and navy air services became more pressing.
By the middle of February, 1916, a plan of division had been
agreed to, under which the navy was responsible for defensive
measures until hostile craft reached the British coast, and there-
after the army was responsible, under the control of Field Mar-
shal Sir John French, commander in chief for home defense.
A new Air Committee was appointed, with Lord Derby as chair-
man; but like the former committee it had no power of action.
More satisfactory results were secured with an increased supply
of anti-aircraft guns, more practice in night flying and improved
methods of attack. But continued criticism led, in April, 1916,
to the appointment of a committee of seven members to inquire
into and report on the administration and command of the Royal
Flying Corps. No investigation was made of the naval air serv-
ice. The committee, after examining more than fifty witnesses,
reported (August 3 and November 17) that the charges of crim-
inal negligence were without foundation; and that the Flying
Corps had made but few mistakes and those not of vital impor-
tance.
Meanwhile interdepartmental and interservice jealousy, and
the lack of real power, led to the resignation from the Air Com-
mittee of Lord Derby, the chairman, and Lord Montagu, and the
practical collapse of the committee.
In May, 1916, an Air Board was formed, with Lord Curzon
as chairman, to succeed the Air Committee, with larger powers
over questions of policy, but without executive functions. This
board is said to have done good work within its limited powers;
but to have suffered from the same defects as the Air Committee.
? The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 345.
118
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The refusal of the Admiralty to cooperate in any plan which
would in any way deprive the Royal Navy of its independence
led to incessant controversies. There was no proper coordina-
tion with the Ministry of Munitions, which was ultimately re-
sponsible for the materials and labor required. 1
Under the New Ministries Act, of December, 1916, the Air
Board was reorganized on a statutory basis, with the president
of the board (Lord Cowdray) ranking as a Minister. The act
provided that there should be such a board " for the purpose of
organizing and maintaining the supply of aircraft in the national
interest in connection with the present war.” The number of
members and the precise powers of the board were to be deter-
mined by Order in Council. In the words of the act:
The Air Board shall in relation to aircraft have such powers and duties
of any government department or authority, whether conferred by statute or
otherwise, as His Majesty may by Order in Council transfer to the board, or
authorize the board to exercise or perform concurrently with or in consul-
tation with the government department or authority concerned.
Provision was also made for the cessation of the board after the
war.
Viscount Cowdray was appointed as Air Minister; and served
in this capacity until the summer of 1917.
In January, 1917, the supply of aircraft was transferred to the
Ministry of Munitions. In February, the officials of the Ministry
of Munitions, the Admiralty and the War Office dealing with
aeronautics were transferred to the Air Board offices. In April,
a Civil Aerial Transport Committee was formed, with Lord
Northcliffe as chairman, to consider the development of aviation
after the war. An Aeronautics Advisory Committee was also
formed.
proposal by Lord Cowdray, in July, 1917, for a more com-
prehensive Air Ministry was approved by the War Cabinet, and
referred to an Air Organization Committee, composed of Gen-
eral Smuts and representatives of the Admiralty, War Office,
Treasury, and the Air Board. An Air Forces Bill was introduced
The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, p. 347.
a 6 and 7 Geo. V, ch. 68.
A
MUNITIONS AND AIRCRAFT
119
1
in Parliament and passed in November, providing for an Air
Council with a new Secretary of State as president. Lord Rother-
mere, who had succeeded Lord Cowdray, was appointed to the
new position.
It should be noted, however, that the Air Ministry did not
have complete jurisdiction over the entire air service. The task
of home defense against air raids remained under the army;
while airships continued under the control of the navy.
.
The establishment of the Air Board as a distinct ministry seems
to have been clearly less defensible as an administrative meas-
ure than the Ministry of Munitions, and to have been mainly due
to political factors. The supply of airships and equipment nat-
urally came within the scope of the Ministry of Munitions; and a
new administrative department for this purpose would have been
directly in conflict with the general movement towards greater
concentration of responsibility for the supply of war materials.
At the same time aerial operations are and must be for the most
part conducted in close cooperation with operations on land
or sea, if not with both; and the field for independent aerial ac-
tion is limited. Under these conditions a distinct Air Ministry,
independent of both army and navy, increases the dangers of
interdepartmental rivalries and conflicts.
On the other hand, there would seem to be possible advantages
if the army and navy air services could be united into a single
service, acting in close harmony with both the land and sea
forces. This could be most effectively accomplished if the army
and navy could both be brought together under a comprehensive
ministry of war, in which the air service should be one of the
main divisions.
· The War Cabinet: Report for the year 1917, pp. 56-63.
1
CHAPTER VII
Defense of the Realm
1
Perhaps of even more significance than the measures for the
development of the combatant forces has been the far-reaching
expansion of governmental authority in Great Britain for the
maintenance of internal order, the suppression and prevention
of acts at home which might interfere with the successful con-
duct of the war, and the regulation of business. Under the com-
mon law and statutes in force before the outbreak of war, a series
of defensive measures was authorized and taken. But these were
promptly followed by additional legislation conferring more and
more extensive powers on the executive authorities; and these
have been steadily amended and enlarged. Under these emergency
acts there have been issued long series of regulations by Orders
in Council, and orders by government departments and officials,
establishing an intensive system of police control, affecting
private property and personal liberty. To enforce these, new
and summary methods of procedure have been devised, which
limit or take away many of the former legal safeguards for the
protection of individual rights.
PRELIMINARY MEASURES
Mention may first be made of some preliminary measures
taken, under the prewar legislation, before the formal declaration
of war. On August 1, 1914, notice was given by the Postmaster
General in pursuance of regulations of 1908, made under the
Wireless Telegraphy Act, 1904, that an emergency had arisen
which made it expedient for the government to control wireless
telegraphy; and regulations were issued by the Admiralty pro-
hibiting the use of wireless telegraphy by merchant ships within
120
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
121
the harbors or territorial waters of the United Kingdom and
the Channel Islands. 1
On August 2, an order of the Home Secretary, under the
Aerial Navigation Acts, prohibited the navigation of aircraft over
the United Kingdom.2 On the same day, a Royal Proclama-
tion postponed for one month the payment of certain bills of ex-
change; 3 and on the following day another Royal Proclama-
tion, under the Bank Holidays Act, appointed August 4, 5 and 6
as Bank Holidays. * Another Royal Proclamation of August 3,
under the Customs and Inland Revenue Act, prohibited the ex-
portation of a specified list of warlike stores.
5
ROYAL PROCLAMATION OF AUGUST 4, 1914
Much more sweeping was the Royal Proclamation of August
4 (the date of the declaration of war against Germany), author-
izing the Admiralty, the Army Council or other officers to issue
instructions and regulations for the public safety and the defense
of the realm. This proclamation is of special significance be-
cause, issued in the name of the King, as an act of the Royal pre-
rogative, without the formal approval of the Privy Council or
the authority of any Act of Parliament, it asserted the preroga-
tive power to take all measures necessary for securing the public
safety and defense of the realm; nor were any limitations laid
down as to the instructions or regulations which might be issued
under the proclamation.
Very little, if anything, of importance appears to have been
done under this proclamation. Almost immediately Acts of Par-
liament were passed, in brief and comprehensive terms—though
not so sweeping as in the proclamation of August 4; and other
proclamations, regulations and orders soon followed, based on
the authority of these statutes. The decision of the King's Bench
Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, p. 402.
Ibid., p. 47.
Ibid., p. 238.
Ibid., p. 99.
Ibid., p. 160.
• Ibid., p. 145.
2
8
6
122
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Division and the High Court of Appeal in the Zadig case, in
1916, confirmed by the House of Lords in 1917, upholding the
Defense of the Realm Regulations, as authorized by the Defense
of the Realm Acts of Parliament, indicates clearly that no such
far-reaching powers would have been recognized as vested in the
executive under the Royal prerogative.
1
ACTS OF PARLIAMENT
2
On August 5, 1914, the day after the declaration of war, an
Aliens Restriction Act became law, authorizing the King, by
Order in Council, to make regulations restricting the landing,
embarkation or residence of aliens in the Unitea Kingdom, for
the regulation of aliens, and for the regulation of their
movements, and for other measures of police control. Provision
was made for the appointment of officers to enforce such regu-
lations and for the imposition of penalties.
On August 7, 1914, an act on British nationality and the sta-
tus of aliens became law, which consolidated the former law with
some amendments, and repealed the Naturalization Act of 1870
and much earlier legislation from the time of Edward III. This
measure, prepared before the war, and going into operation Jan-
uary 1, 1915, affected the steps which were taken to deal with
persons of alien origin; and was criticized for excluding from
British citizenship the children of British subjects born outside
of British jurisdiction, and for including the children of aliens
born in British dominions. 3
Much wider powers were conferred by the Defense of the
Realm Act of August 8. This was supplemented by another act
of August 28; and was further amended and revised by the De-
fense of the Realm Consolidation Act of November 27. Further
modifications were made by later acts in 1915 and 1916. This
2
? Rex v. Halliday. Cf. Revue du Droit Public et de la Science Politique,
vol. 34, 433 (1917).
4 and 5 Geo. V, c. 12; Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, p. 6.
4 and 5 Geo. V, c. 17; The Times History and Encyclopedia of the
War, viii.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
123
1
legislation authorized regulations by Order in Council, for secur-
ing the public safety and defense of the realm; and for the trial
and punishment of offenders against such regulations, and in
particular against provisions to prevent communications with the
enemy; to secure the safety of troops and ships, the means of
communication and railways, ports and harbors; to prevent the
spread of false and dangerous rumors; to secure the navigation
of vessels in accordance with Admiralty directions; or to prevent
assistance being given to the enemy or danger to the successful
prosecution of the war.
The original Defense of the Realm Act authorized the trial of
offenders against the regulations by court-martial; or in the case
of minor offenses, by courts of summary jurisdiction. The con-
solidation act of November was even more drastic, authorizing
the death penalty in the case of offenses “committed with the in-
tention of assisting the enemy.” Opposition was raised in the
House of Lords (by ex-Chancellor Lord Halsbury, Lord Par-
moor and Viscount Bryce) to thus authorizing, for the first time
in more than two centuries, a civilian to be sentenced to death
without trial by jury; but the revision was enacted as proposed.
A work on this emergency legislation, which appeared early in
1915, called attention to the far-reaching authority conferred on
the executive. 2 Other doubts appear to have arisen as to the
necessity for such arbitrary powers; and by an amending act of
March 16, 1915, British civilian subjects were given the right to
claim a trial by a civil court with a jury, unless for offenses tried
before a court of summary jurisdiction. But it was provided that
in case of invasion or other special military emergency, the right
to trial by civil court and a jury might be suspended by proclama-
tion, either generally, or as to any specified area. 3
14 and 5 Geo. V, c. 29, 61, 62; 5 Geo. V, c. 8. Manual of Emergency Leg-
islation, 1914, pp. 13, 20, 22; Supplement No. 2, p. 14.
2 Baty and Morgan : War, Its Conduct and Legal Results. Cf. H. M.
Bowman : "Martial Law in England” in Michigan Law Review, xv, 93
(December, 1916).
5 Geo. V, c. 34; Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 3,
p. 238. The measures taken in Ireland on the uprising in Dublin were taken
under the latter named proviso.
124
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
RESTRICTIONS ON ALIENS
Within an hour after the passage of the Aliens Restriction
Act, the first Aliens Restriction Order in Council was issued.
This was supplemented by several additional orders in August
and by a new consolidation order on September 9, 1914. Fur-
ther amendments were made from time to time; and another gen-
eral consolidation order was issued in 1916, which in turn was
followed by additional modifications.
These orders imposed restrictions on aliens entering and leav-
ing the United Kingdom, and on their residence and movements
in the kingdom. Aliens could enter or leave only from a list of
approved ports; and at these alien enemies were required to have
permits. Aliens were forbidden to enter with firearms, ammuni-
tion, signaling apparatus, carrier pigeons, motor vehicles, aircraft
or cipher codes, or with more than three gallons of petroleum or
other inflammable liquid.
Under the first orders, all alien enemies in the kingdom were
required to register with the police, and were forbidden to travel
more than five miles from their registered address without a
permit. Later all persons, whether aliens or not, coming to
boarding houses, lodging houses, hotels and inns, were required
to register, by filing certain forms with the landlord. The duty
of registration with the police was also extended, at the request
of the Belgian Government, to Belgian refugees. 2 Still later,
all aliens were required to register with the police and to carry
identity books.
From the first a number of “prohibited areas were specified,
in which no aliens could reside without registering with the
police; while alien enemies could reside in such areas only by
special permission of the local police. Alien enemies were for-
bidden to have in their possession firearms, ammunition, explo-
sives, more than three gallons of petroleum, any signaling appa-
ratus, motor vehicles, yachts, aircraft, telephones, cameras, mili-
Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, pp. 48, 63, 65, 66, 68.
2 Order of November 28, 1914. Manual of Emergency Legislation, Sup-
plement No. 2, p. 45.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
125
1
2
tary or naval maps, cipher codes, etc. Restrictions were placed
on the circulation among alien enemies of newspapers in enemy
language, and also on carrying on any banking business by alien
enemies.
Provision was made for alien officers to carry out these orders,
who were to be immigration officers under the Aliens Act of
1905, and other persons appointed by the Home Secretary.
On October 9, 1914, the Home Office issued a statement on
the control of aliens and espionage. About 9,000 Germans and
Austrians of military age had been arrested and held as prisoners
of war in detention camps.
The early regulations made no provisions for interning alien
enemies as a class, nor for dealing with naturalized British citi-
zens with enemy affiliations, unless in cases of special suspicion.
In March the Home Secretary announced that the responsibility
for the internment and release of aliens had rested, except for
a few weeks, with Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for
War. But popular violence, following the sinking of the Lusi-
tania, and other German war methods, led to a change of policy.
On May 13, 1915, the Prime Minister announced that all adult
male enemy aliens of military age would be interned; male aliens
above military age would be deported; and women and children
in suitable cases would be repatriated. By a regulation of June
10, naturalized citizens “of hostile origin ” were made subject
to restrictions or internment. An Aliens Advisory Committee
was established in the Home Office, presided over by judges of
the High Court, to consider appeals from persons against whom
orders of restriction or internment were made. 3 There was also
set up an Aliens Restriction Committee and a Civilian Intern-
ment Committee.
On June 10, the Home Secretary reported that large intern-
ment camps had been established on the Isle of Man; of 1,542 ap-
plications for exemption, 286 had been granted and 1,256 re-
* Order No. 2, August 10, 1914; Order No. 4, August 20, 1914.
Manual of Emergency Legislation, pp. 516-520.
• The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War, v, ch. 90, pp. 297-298.
126
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
fused. 1
Exemptions were usually granted to men supporting
British wives and families who established their claims to be
harmless; and also to those who while technically alien enemies
were of friendly nationalities such as Bohemians, Slovenes,
Serbs, Croats, Poles, Schleswig Danes, and Greeks, Armenians
and Syrians from Turkey. 2
DEFENSE OF THE REALM REGULATIONS
1
On August 12, 1914, the date of the passage of the first De-
fense of the Realm Act, a series of Defense of the Realm Regu-
lations were issued by Order in Council. These comprised 31
paragraphs, grouped in three parts: general regulations; regu-
lations specially designed to prevent persons communicating with
the enemy and obtaining information for disloyal purposes, and
to secure the safety and means of communications and of rail-
ways, docks and harbors; and supplemental. Additional Orders
in Council were issued on September 1 and 17 and October 14,
amending these regulations, under the larger powers of the
second Defense of the Realm Act. 3
On November 28, after the passage of the Defense of the
Realm (Consolidation) Act, a new series of consolidated regu-
lations were issued, which were afterwards amended and sup-
plemented from time to time. The consolidated regulations com-
prised 63 paragraphs, aggregating nearly three times the length
of the first series, and were classified under the following heads:
general regulations; provisions respecting the collection and com-
munication of information, etc.; provisions against injury to
railways, military works, etc.; provisions as to arms and explo-
sives; provisions as to navigation; miscellaneous offenses;
powers of search, arrest, etc.; trial and punishment of offenses;
supplemental. *
* The Political Quarterly, No. 7, p. 134.
• California Law Review, v, 444 (September, 1917); Order of January 7,
1915; Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement, No. 3, p. 246.
Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, pp. 146, 151, 154; Supplement,
No. 2, p. 99.
*Ibid., Supplement, No. 2, pp. 104-122.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
127
1
In 1915 a Defense of the Realm Regulations Committee was
established at the War Office, with representatives of all the gov-
ernment departments, to discuss details of proposed amendments
to the regulations.
From November, 1914, to May 31, 1917, there were issued 51
Orders in Council amending the Defense of the Realm Regula-
tions, making extensive revocations and additions. By the latter
date the code of regulations had increased from 63 to 206; and
the consolidated regulations comprised 132 pages in the Defense
of the Realm Manual issued at that time. ? Further amendments
and additions have continued to be made from time to time;
and revised editions of the regulations have been issued each
month.
The regulations begin with the following statement of general
principles :
The ordinary avocations and the enjoyment of property will be interfered
with as little as may be permitted by the exigencies of the measures required
to be taken for securing the public safety and the defense of the realm, and
ordinary civil offenses will be dealt with by the civil tribunals in the ordinary
courts of law.
At the same time the enormous scope of governmental con-
trol asserted by and exercised under these regulations may be
indicated by the headings under which they are grouped, in the
edition for October 31, 1917:
Occupation and control of land and buildings, control of food
supplies, securities, war materials and means of production.
Control of motor spirit.
Clearance of areas.
Control of meetings, recreations, fairs and holidays.
Control of mines.
Control of canals.
Control of licensed premises, intoxicants, hours of business,
and places of public entertainment.
Control of lights and sounds.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 151.
Defense of the Realm Manual, 4th edition, pp. iv, 29-160.
2
128
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Control of movements of civil population.
Power to require information as to businesses and agricul-
ture.
Preparation for destruction of public works.
By-laws.
Air raid precautions.
Unauthorized collection and communication of information
and reports.
Control of entry and approach to places of national or mili-
tary importance.
Munitions, metals and war material.
Power to make rules for explosives, factories and stores.
Bombs or articles from hostile aircraft.
Burial of enemies.
Power to make rules for naval, military or munitions area.
Navigation.
Intoxicants, drugs and malingering.
Unauthorized use of uniforms, badges, etc.
Duties of employers of males of 16 years or over.
Banking and exchange transactions.
Interference with military duties and with war supplies.
Falsification of reports, false representation, forgery and per-
sonation.
Certificates of exemption from military service.
Attestation of soldiers.
False passports, etc.
Assisting prisoners of war or interned persons.
General provisions as to offenses.
Powers of search, interrogation and arrest.
Special police and fire brigade areas.
Trial and punishment of offenses.
Saving of powers.
Notices and permits.
Definition of competent naval and military authorities, and
interpretation of regulations.
GENERAL ORDERS
Under powers conferred by the Defense of the Realm Acts
and Regulations hundreds of orders have been made by the vari-
ous government departments and officials. Most numerous have
been those issued by the Army Council, the Minister of Muni-
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
129
tions and the Board of Trade. But important orders of a gen-
eral character have also been issued by the Admiralty, the Treas-
ury, the Secretary of State for Home Affairs, the Local Gov-
ernment Board, the Secretary for Scotland, the agricultural de-
partments and the Food Controller. The general orders issued up
to May 31, 1917, filled 425 pages in the 4th edition of the De-
fense of the Realm Manual, grouped in 37 classes. 1
Some indication of the wide scope of powers exercised may be
indicated by noting some of the principal topics on which orders
have been issued by the several departments.
Admiralty orders have dealt mainly with navigation, includ-
ing general warnings to mariners, departures from former col-
lision regulations, rules as to ships' lights and mine protection
gear, and the pilotage of vessels. One order required information
from manufacturers and dealers in chronometers.
Army Council orders dealt largely with war materials—mainly
agricultural and animal products, including forage, textiles, tim-
ber, hides and leather. One class of such orders provided for
taking possession of such war materials; another class regulated
or prohibited their manufacture or sale; a third class provided
for the carrying on of work and the employment of workmen;
and a fourth class required particulars of businesses of persons
engaged in producing or dealing in such materials. Other orders
of the Army Council requisitioned the output of certain factories
and workshops; called for returns of agriculture; constituted
special military areas; regulated dealings in arms, ammunition
and military explosives; and regulated the supply of drugs for
the army.
One class of army orders were those issued by the Quarter-
master General of the forces, as a competent military au-
thority,” requiring censuses of horses and mules, live stock and
implements and wool.
Orders issued by the Minister of Munitions also dealt in large
part with certain classes of war materials—mainly those of min-
eral and metallic character, such as aluminum, brass, copper,
* Defense of the Realm Manual, 4th edition, pp. 161-585.
130
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
cranes, lead, motor engines and vehicles, nickel, optical instru-
ments and glassware, steel supplies, sulphuric acid, and also oils
and fats. The manufacture or dealing in a long list of such sup-
plies was regulated or prohibited; for a number of groups of
such articles particulars of those engaged in the business were re-
quired; and orders were issued for taking possession of a few
such articles.
Other orders made by the Minister of Munitions established
rules for carrying on work and the engagement or employment
of workmen covering restricted occupations, priority of work
and directions as to particular businesses. Other classes of orders
regulated and restricted building construction, provided for tak-
ing possession of road stone quarries, and declared unlawful the
possession of certain metals.
Board of Trade orders dealt with the following classes of
questions: railway traffic and fares; taking possession of coal
mines, and of canals and barges thereon; the maintenance of
supplies of potatoes and of paper and tobacco; directions as to
the loading of ships; and the supply of information as to motor
spirit.
Several classes of orders were made by agencies connected with
the Board of Trade. Directions to port authorities were issued
by the Port and Transit Executive Committee. The Port of
London authority and the Mersey Docks and Harbor Board is-
sued new schedules of rates, dues and charges. The Petrol Com-
mittee issued a notice authorizing the letting of motor cars for
hire for special purposes.
The Treasury made a series of orders under the Defense of
the Realm Regulations for taking possession of specified lists
of securities, principally American stocks and bonds.
Orders were made by the Secretary of State for Home Affairs
in regard to carrier pigeons, celluloid and cinematograph films,
regulating the use of lights, whistling for cabs, the early closing
of shops, restricting travel in the Orkney Islands and Zetland,
and prescribing forms of records for dealing in cocaine and
opium. The Local Government Board for England and Wales
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
131
made orders as to the powers of local authorities for the main-
tenance of food supplies.
Similar orders were made by the Secretary for Scotland con-
cerning films, lighting regulations, the early closing of shops and
the powers of local authorities.
The Chief Secretary for Ireland made orders prohibiting
drilling
Orders were issued by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
relating to the cultivation of lands, war agricultural executive
committees and the drainage of lands; birds and rabbits; forms
for agricultural returns required by the Army Council; and ag-
ricultural employment.
Similar orders were made by the Board of Agriculture for
Scotland in reference to the cultivation of lands, rabbits, and
forms for agricultural returns; and orders were also issued au-
thorizing the killing of deer causing injury.
The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland made orders excepting certain holdings of land from
cultivation; and also a series of local orders relating to fishing.
A numerous series of orders was made by the Food Controller
for the maintenance of supplies of articles of food, dealing with
beans, peas and pulse, bread and cereals, conditions on the sale
of food, fish, hoarding of food, intoxicating liquor, meat, milk
and cheese, public meals, sugar and tea. (Cf. Chapter X.)
SPECIAL CONSTABLES
By acts of August 10 and 28, 1914, Orders in Council were au-
thorized providing for the appointment of special constables un-
der the act of October 15, 1831, and the Municipal Corporations
Act of 1882, in the absence of riots or other disorders. Orders
in Council were issued on September 9, for Scotland on Sep-
tember 17, and for Ireland in March, 1915; and these were
amended from time to time.
1
14 and 5 Geo. V, c. 53, 61; 5 and 6 Geo. V, c. 47; Manual of Emergency
Legislation, 1914, pp. 19, 20, 370, 373, 374; Supplement No. 3, pp. 515, 516;
Supplement No. 4, pp. 9, 392, 393.
132
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Special constables appointed by the local police authorities un-
der these provisions rendered effective service in controlling
traffic, enforcing lighting regulations and in connection with
German raids on the East Coast.
Defense of the Realm Regulation 55 A, issued January 24,
1917, authorized a Secretary of State to establish special police
areas, and to place the police in any such area under the control of
a single authority. No order creating special police areas was
made up to May 31, 1917. 1
CONTROL OF LIGHTS AND BUSINESS HOURS
Regulations for the control of lighting were first issued for
London and the Metropolitan Police District on October 1, 1914;
and revised orders for this area were issued on October 31, and
December 9, with later amendments. From time to time special
orders restricting the use of lights were issued for particular
places on the east and south coasts; and on April 8, 1915, a
series of general orders were made covering prohibited areas in
the counties from Northumberland to Dorset, and coast points
from Dorset to Cumberland and in Scotland. 2
Zeppelin raids in the autumn of 1915 led to further regulations.
A new order by the Home Secretary on September 29 imposed
intensified restrictions for the metropolis; and still further re-
strictions were imposed by orders of March 10 and August 26,
1916. New general orders as to lighting outside of the metro-
politan area were made on July 22 and October 9, 1916; and re-
vised orders for Scotland were made on August 25 and October
25, 1916, with later modifications and additions.
Defense of the Realm Regulation 10 B, adopted October 24,
1916, authorized orders restricting the hours in the evening in
which any trade or business might be carried on. Orders for this
purpose were issued for the winter of 1916-17; and new orders
3
1
Defense of the Realm Manual, 4th ed., p. 146.
* Mánual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, p. 157; Supplement No. 3, pp.
341-347; Supplement No. 4, pp. 127-128, 139.
8 Defense of the Realni Manual, 4th ed., pp. 477-498.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
133
1
were issued in April, 1917, for the summer months, requiring
the closing of shops, with certain exceptions, at 9 o'clock in the
evening on Saturdays and at 8 o'clock on other days.
By the Summer Time Act of 1916, the time for general pur-
poses during the months from April to September was fixed at
one hour in advance of Greenwich mean time; and by Order in
Council this act was again put in force for 1917. 2
CENSORSHIP
3
Before the war no definite machinery or rules for a system of
censorship had been in existence; and in organizing an entirely
new service for this purpose, difficulties of administration arose,
and the earlier tentative measures were changed from time to
time. There had been created a press committee, consisting of
representatives of the principal newspapers and of the War Office
and the Admiralty, in which the military and naval representa-
tives gave indications as to the material the publication of which
was not considered desirable.
Early in August, 1914, a double system of censorship for the
press was established, by the War Office and the Admiralty-
one dealing with press cable dispatches, and the other with other
press news.
Press cable censors were appointed at each of the
ten or a dozen offices from which press dispatches were sent
abroad-a total of 80 or 90 censors, who served in relays so as
to provide a continuous service day and night. This arrange-
ment lacked unity of action, even among the cable censors; and
unusual and irritating delays were caused by duplicate censor-
ing of the same messages at several points.
In addition to the cable censors, the War Office and the Ad-
miralty also established a district press bureau " for the coordi-
nation and distribution of official news relating to military and
naval affairs and matters concerning the progress of the war
* Defense of the Realm Manual, 4th ed., pp. 76, 473-475.
6 and 7 Geo. V, c. 14, 45; Defense of the Realm Manual, 4th ed., p. 481.
8 F. E. Smith in Parliamentary Debates, vol. 66, p. 477; Revue du Droit
Public, etc., vol. 32, p. 254.
Revue du Droit Public, etc., vol. 32, p. 616.
4
2
134
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
which could advisedly be made public.” This bureau was placed
under the supervision of a civilian director (Right Honorable
F. E. Smith, M.P.), who had access for consultative purposes
to the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Secretary of State for
War, and in matters of doubt to the Prime Minister. The staff
of the bureau consisted of military and naval officers; and re-
quests that professional journalists be added were denied. There
were also several civilian secretaries and a number of
army
and
navy officers attached to this bureau, which gave out official state-
ments from the military departments and passed on non-official
information submitted by the newspapers.
The two groups of censors led to much inconvenience, and in-
consistent and conflicting decisions. At the end of August it
was announced that a central office for press cables would be es-
tablished under the press bureau, and a double register of de-
cisions would be kept. When transferred, the press cable cen-
sors brought with them instructions in considerable detail, issued
by the chief cable censor at the War Office. On September 9,
the Home Secretary announced that he had accepted responsi-
bility for the work of the press bureau. The same director re-
mained in charge until his departure in October for military
service, when his place was taken by another civilian, the Solici-
tor General Sir Stanley Buckmaster.
On October 26, 1914, a memorandum of instructions was is-
sued to all censors in the press bureau; and from time to time
instructions to the press were issued. An explanation of the
work of the bureau and the general policy was made by the di-
rector in the House of Commons on November 26.
In a memorandum on the official press bureau, issued early
in 1915, the staff of the bureau was announced as consisting of
the director, two assistant directors, a secretary and about 50
The latter included naval officers appointed by the Ad-
miralty, military censors appointed by the War Office (from
senior officers attached to the General Staff), and civilian cen-
1
censors.
The Political Quarterly, i, 182-183; Parliamentary Debates, vol. 66, pp.
454-511; vol. 68, pp. 121-137.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
135
.
1
sors appointed by the director, including former civil servants,
barristers and journalists.' In October, 1915, there were 122
persons employed by the press bureau. There were also 150 ca-
ble censors, under the chief cable censor, as well as 700 postal
censors.
All press cable messages to, from or through London, were
diverted to the bureau. Submission of other press matter was
optional; but those who published without submission did so at
their own risk. Most of the newspaper press submitted a large
amount of matter relating to naval and military matters, ques-
tions of foreign policy, etc. The voluntary feature was said to
account for many complaints. Some journals would print re-
ports without submission, which other journals had submitted
and had had rejected.
Reports on the war issued by any government department for
publication were sent to the press bureau, and from there distrib-
uted to the press.
Numerous criticisms of the press censorship appeared from
time to time. Objection was made to the lack of uniformity of
treatment; and to the failure to give out information of interest
and value though of no military benefit to the enemy. The press
bureau was said to be only a conduit to transmit what had been
sanctioned by the War Office and General Headquarters; and
special complaint was made of the absence of information as to
the service of particular units, even after operations in which the
units engaged must have been known to the enemy. It was urged
that the censor should be entrusted with positive as well as nega-
tive functions; and should be required to furnish newspapers
with material for articles on all matters the publication of which
would assist the cause of the Allies.
Further restrictions on the press were imposed by Orders in
Council of February 29 and April 22, 1916. The former made
it an offense for any person without authority to have in his
possession any document containing a report or statement pub-
Memorandum on the Official Press Bureau: Parliamentary Papers, 1915,
Cd. 7680.
Quarterly Review, vol. 225, pp. 156, 163 (January, 1916).
2
1
136
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
lication of which was prohibited. The latter of these orders
prohibited the publication of the proceedings of any Cabinet
meeting or of any secret session of either House of Parliament.
The latter order met with vigorous criticism in the press, in the
House of Lords and in the House of Commons. 1
Occasionally the circulation of certain journals has been sup-
pressed. This was done with the Globe, a Tory journal in No-
vember, 1915, and also with Forward, a Glasgow Socialist news-
paper, in January, 1916.2 A prohibition was placed on sending
the Labour Leader out of the country; and later, for a time, the
foreign circulation of the weekly Nation (Liberal) was pro-
hibited. The latter action was said to have been taken by the
Intelligence Department of the War Office, without consulting
the government nor the propaganda department of the Foreign
Office; though it was afterwards announced that the action was
approved by the Home Office and the propaganda department
of the Foreign Office.
In addition to the press censorship, a censorship of foreign
mails was also in operation early in 1915. This was based on a
provision of the Post Office Consolidation Act of 1908, empower-
ing a Secretary of State to authorize the opening or detaining of
postal packets. The Postal Censorship was under the control
of the War Office, acting in cooperation with the Post Office, and
under the authority of the Home Secretary. *
With the development of the blockade and the extension of
the doctrine of continuous voyage to restrict trade in neutral
ships held to be from or destined to enemy countries, a system-
atic censorship and examination of mails carried on neutral ships
was inaugurated. Neutral ships were required to enter British
ports for the examination of their cargoes for contraband; and
the mails were examined either at the port or at London.
This practice was objected to by neutral countries, and notably
by the United States. It was defended as a necessary measure
3
1
2
Revue du Droit Public, etc., vol. 33, p. 337.
Ibid., p. 13.
8 Section 56; Parliamentary Debates, vol. 69, p. 266.
Report of the Postmaster General, 1914-15.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
137
for the enforcement of the blockade and the detection of contra-
band. Parcel post was stated to be in the same class as other
merchandise; while contraband articles were frequently found
in letter mail. The seizure of securities and remittances to or
from enemy countries was considered as justifiable prize; and
it was urged that information obtained from examining the
mails was of value in detecting plots for evading the blockade
and transmitting supplies to the enemy. The prohibition on enemy
publications was said to be necessary to prevent the circulation
of propaganda and seditious and inflammatory publications. De-
lays caused by the examination of the mails were said to have
been reduced to a minimum. 1
CONTROL OF LIQUOR TRAFFIC
From early in the war the sale of intoxicating liquors was
subjected to special restrictions, which have been extended from
time to time; and from June, 1915, the regulation of this traffic
was placed under a newly created central board of control. Later
in connection with the regulation of food supplies, restrictions
have been placed on the manufacture of liquors, as a means of
conserving food supplies.
Under the first series of Defense of the Realm Regulations
(of August 12, 1914), any competent military or naval au-
thority could by order require all premises for the sale of intoxi-
cating liquor within or in the neighborhood of any defended har-
bor to be closed except during such hours as might be specified in
the order; and prohibit giving intoxicating liquor to members of
His Majesty's forces, with the intent of eliciting information,
or to any such member employed in the defense of any railway,
dock or harbor, or when on sentry or other duty. By the regu-
lations issued in September, these restrictions were made appli-
cable to any proclaimed area.
2
1
Pamphlets on The Mails as a German War Weapon," and "Why Mail
Censorship is Vital by Great Britain.” T. W. Koch in Library Journal, 42: 697
(1917).
* Regulations 7 and 17; Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, pp. 147,
149, 411, 414.
138
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
On August 31, 1914, an Intoxicating Liquors (Temporary
Restrictions) Act became law, which authorized the justices for
any licensing district, on the recommendation of the chief officer
of police, to direct that the sale or consumption of intoxicating
liquor in licensed premises or registered clubs be suspended dur-
ing such hours and under conditions and exceptions specified in
the order—with the proviso that any order to suspend before
nine o'clock at night should be subject to the approval of the
Secretary of State. 1
The need for further restrictions on the sale and use of liquor
became more evident in the spring of 1915, and proposals for
government purchase and management of the traffic were made.
A committee of nine members, with Herbert Samuel as chair-
man, was appointed to advise the government on the financial
arrangements needed if the state should purchase the breweries,
control the liquor trade and prohibit the retail trade in spirits.
This committee made a report in April, 1915, that the estimates
furnished indicated a total outlay of approximately £250,000,000
to carry out this policy. ? No action seems to have been taken on
this plan, probably in view of the new policy of regulation
adopted.
By the Defense of the Realm (Amendment) (No. 3) Act of
May 19, 1915, power was given, by Orders in Council, to define
areas for the control of the sale and supply of intoxicating liquor,
and to issue regulations, giving the prescribed government au-
thority power:
(a) of selling, supplying or controlling the sale or supply of
intoxicating liquor in any prescribed area;
(b) of acquiring, compulsorily or by agreement, either for the
period of the regulations or permanently, any licensed premises
or business in such area;
(c) to establish and maintain refreshment rooms;
(d) to make modifications or adjustments in the relations be-
tween persons interested in licensed premises; and
4 and 5 Geo. V, c. 77; Manual of Emergency Legislation, 1914, p. 33.
Report of the Advisory Committee on Proposals for the State Purchase
of the Licensed Liquor Trade, Parliamentary Papers, 1916, Cd. 8283.
1
2
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
139
(e) to give effect to the transfer of the control of the liquor
traffic in such area and to modify the provisions of acts relating
to the licensing or sale of intoxicating liquor. 1
By Order in Council of June 10, a series of liquor control
regulations was established, which provided for a Central Con-
trol Board, consisting of a chairman and other members, to be
appointed by the Minister of Munitions, with authority to ap-
point a secretary and other officers, inspectors and servants. This
board was given enumerated powers of control over the sale of
liquor and licensed premises; and any contravention of the board's
orders was constituted a summary offense against the Defense of
the Realm Regulations. 2
Further Orders in Council were issued from time to time ap-
plying the regulations to certain areas. An order of July 6 de-
fined ten restricted areas in England, and an order of July 28
defined two such areas in Scotland. Additional areas and modi-
fications of areas were later issued; and by February 15, 1916,
there were 27 areas scheduled. By May, 1916, the restricted
areas in England and Scotland had a total population of 30,-
000,000. From March 31, 1916, to February 23, 1917, 15 ad-
ditional orders were made, making a total of 42 such orders.
The later orders provided for the extension of areas; and a con-
siderable number of the districts first named were absorbed in
larger areas, and earlier orders were revoked. In February, 1917,
there were a total of 28 restricted areas, covering much the larger
part of Great Britain, with a population of 38,000,000 out of a
total estimated population of 41,000,000. No restricted areas
had been established in Ireland. 3
The main restrictions imposed under the orders of the Central
Control Board have been the limitation on the hours of sale-
from 16-20 hours to 442-572 hours a day. Sales of intoxicating
liquor for consumption on the premises in the restricted areas
15 and 6 Geo. V, ch. 42; Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement
No. 4, p. 3.
· Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 4, pp. 167-175.
Third Report of the Central Control Board (Liquor Traffic), April 30,
1917; Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8558.
140
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
have usually been limited on weekdays to two and a half hours
in the middle of the day and to three (sometimes two hours in
the evening—during the time of the principal meals. Sales have
been prohibited before the midday period, during the afternoon,
and after nine or half past nine in the evenings. On Sundays,
in areas where any sale has been permitted, the hours have been
slightly shorter than on weekdays. Treating and sales of intoxi-
cants on credit (except for meals) have been absolutely pro-
hibited. The same restrictions have been placed on clubs as on
licensed premises. Sales for consumption off the premises have
also been closely restricted.
Other restrictions imposed have required the dilution of spirits
in increased amounts, and limited the issue of new licenses; and
in some areas have provided for the sale of light beers (with not
over two per cent of alcohol), required the closing of licensed
premises (other than hotels, etc.) during prohibited hours, pro-
hibited the sale of spirits (in the north of Scotland), required
Sunday closing and provided for supervision of licensed premises.
The establishment of industrial canteens has been promoted by
the Central Control Board. These have been provided in some
cases by employers, in others by voluntary agencies, and in de-
fault of these by the board. On March 31, 1917, there were 150
canteens in national factories and 420 in controlled establish-
ments, a total of 570 in establishments with 800,000 employes,
out of a grand total of 1,890,000 in the national factories and
controlled establishments. In December there were 720 canteens
in operation or approaching completion. In addition there were
about 60 canteens for transport workers at the principal docks.
Such canteens have been financially assisted by allowances from
the profits of controlled establishments and by grants in aid to
voluntary agencies. The canteens established by the board have
not supplied intoxicants, except a few registered as clubs. 1
In several districts the Central Board has taken over the direct
control of the retail liquor traffic--as at Carlisle, Gretna, Annan,
Invergordon and Enfield. At Carlisle, under this arrangement,
* Third Report of the Central Control Board, p. 11.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
141
1
42 out of 118 licenses in the city were suppressed, and 30 out of
82 in the county district. Under the system of direct control,
enforcement of restrictions has been more effective and there
has been a greater reduction of excessive drinking
Administration of the board's restrictive orders rests mainly
with the local police. The board has held numerous local con-
ferences with chief constables, and received reports from its
officers appointed to confer with the chief constables and to in-
vestigate special local problems. Delegations of the Central
Board have conferred with military, naval and civil authorities
at important centers; and also with representatives of employers,
labor organizations and the licensed trades. A remarkable
absence of friction has been reported in carrying out the restric-
tive regulations. But supervision has been said to be easier and
excessive drinking less in the better and more comfortable
premises and in those furnishing food and recreation.
Statistics published in the reports of the Central Control Board
indicate a considerable improvement in conditions under the op-
erations of the restrictive regulations. The amount of spirits
charged with inland revenue duty for home consumption for
1916-17 was 25 per cent less than for 1913-14, and 30 per cent
less than for 1915-16. Consumption of beer was reduced from
32,000,000 to 26,000,000 barrels in 1916—more than 20 per cent
below that for 1913-14. In February, 1917, the maximum out-
put of beer for 1917-18 was fixed at only 10,000,000 barrels;
but discontent and protests led to an increase being authorized
for the summer months, to a total output of 14,000,000 barrels.
The manufacture of spirits for human consumption was stopped
in 1917; and the withdrawals cut down to one-half that for
1916. Convictions for drunkenness have been reduced to one-
fourth. There has also been a noticeable decrease in deaths due
to cirrhosis of the liver, and a relatively larger decrease in other
deaths reported as due to or connected with alcoholism.
2
1 Third Report of the Central Control Board, p. 4.
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917.
142
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
STATISTICS SHOWING RESULTS OF THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC
REGULATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN 1
BEER AND SPIRITS CHARGED WITH DUTY FOR HOME CONSUMPTION IN
UNITED KINGDOM
Financial Year
1913-14
1914-15
1915-16
1916-17 (prov.)
Beer
Standard Bbls.
33,372,000
32,525,000
29,626,000
25,905,000
Spirits
Proof Gallons
32,596,000
34,345,000
35,597,000
23,998,000
.
.
.
0
.
WEEKLY AVERAGE CONVICTIONS FOR DRUNKENNESS
London
Four weeks before issue of Orders 1,011
For 1916
568
Four weeks ending Jan. 28, 1917. 568
Feb. 25, 1917. 476
Mch. 25, 1917. 428
Dec., 1917.
Total Areas
E. & W. Areas in in
Areas Scotland Great Britain
2,471 1,485 3,956
1,487 947 2,434
1,314 813
2,127
1,193 752 1,945
1,075
680 1,755
855
507
CONVICTIONS FOR DRUNKENNESS
36 Boroughs
London over 100,000
1913.... 65,488 52,779
1914.... 67,654 49,835
1915.... 51,836 37,000
1916.... 29,453 23,330
LIVERPOOL
Deaths
Convictions Cases of from
for Delirium Excessive
Drunkenness Tremens Drinking
1913-14.. 13,201 511 126
1914-15.... 11,128 421 108
1915-16.... 6,277 205
49
0
In Glasgow convictions for drunkenness have been reduced from a weekly
average of 522 in the first six months of 1915 to 213 for the four weeks end-
ing March 25, 1917.
DEATHS CERTIFIED AS DUE TO OR CONNECTED WITH ALCOHOLISM IN ENGLAND
AND WALES, 1913-16
Excluding Cirrhosis of Liver Cirrhosis of Liver
Year
Male Female Total
Male Female Total
1913
1,112 719 1,831
2,215 1,665 3,880
1914
1,136 680
1,816
2,266 1,773 4,039
1915
867 584 1,451
2,107 1,525 3,632
1916
620 333 953
1,823 1,163 2,986
.
0
At the same time it can not be claimed that liquor drinking or
the evils connected with excessive drinking have been eliminated
or reduced to matters of little importance. Complaints have
been made, not only of continued drunkenness and serious social
Liquor Control Board Third Report (1917), pp. 17, 19.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
143
1
results therefrom, but also of direct interference with the success
of the war by the loss of time in munitions and other factories,
and by the use of cereals needed for food supplies. And it has
been urged that the situation demands the complete suppression
of the liquor traffic for the period of the war.
On July 11, 1917, there was published a memorandum by the
Central Control Board in favor of government purchase of the
liquor trade, which had been in the hands of the government for
six months. This memorandum stated that the limits of effec-
tive action along the lines in use had been almost reached, and
that “the successful prosecution of the war was still being ham-
pered by excessive consumption of intoxicating liquors." The
results of the experiments in direct control at Carlisle and else-
where, led the board to think that it "offered the most rapidly
effective and the best permanent solution of the problem.” On
financial grounds the plan of outright purchase was preferred to
any scheme for assuming control merely for the period of the
2
war.
Committees, for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, on
the financial aspects of direct purchase and control reported in
the spring of 1918.
HOME OFFICE COMMITTEES
The official press bureau, established early in August, 1914,
by the War Office and the Admiralty, was announced in Septem-
ber as having been placed under the supervision of the Home
Secretary. Mr. F. E. Smith, the civilian director, continued in
this position until October, when this place was taken by another
civilian, the Solicitor General.
A committee on Retail Trade and Enlistment was set up in
the Home Office by the first part of 1915.
On February 23, 1915, a committee was organized “to inquire
into the coal mining industry with a view to promoting such or-
1
See The Independent, March 2, 1918.
The Times History of the War, xi, ch. 192, p. 434.
2
144
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
ganization of work and such cooperation between employers and
workmen as, having regard to the large number of miners who
are enlisting for naval and military service, will secure the nec-
essary production of coal during the war." Three reports were
published by this committee.
A scheme of colliery recruiting courts was established by the
Home Secretary, with a Central Court, as an advisory body, con-
sisting of the Chief Inspector of Mines, the Coal Mining Organi-
zation Committee and a representative of the War Office. 1
On the adoption of a more restrictive policy in dealing with
aliens, in May, 1915, an Aliens Advisory Committee was pro-
vided, to deal with the appeals of persons against whom orders
of restriction or internment may be made under the Defense of
the Realm Regulations. This committee included two justices of
the High Court, with other members.
There were also organized an Aliens (Destitute) Committee,
an Aliens Restriction Committee, an Aliens Restriction Regu-
lations Committee, and an Enemy Aliens (Internment and Re-
patriation) Advisory Committee. A Civilian Internment Com-
mittee was provided to deal with civilian internment camps and
the employment of aliens. ?
On October 16, 1915, a committee was established at the Home
Office to consider the conditions of clerical and commercial em-
ployment, with a view to advising what steps should be taken,
by the employment of women or otherwise, to replace men taken
for the army.
A War Charities Committee was appointed by the Home Sec-
retary, on April 12, 1916; and following the report of this com-
mittee the Charities Registration Act was passed.
On March 28, 1916, a Committee on Conscientious Objectors
was established, to which a tribunal might refer for advice as to
what service of national importance an applicant for exemption
3
4
2
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 150.
Ibid., pp. 148-150.
Ibid., P. 150; Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 8110.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 162; The Political Quarterly, No. 8 (1916),
p. 164.
DEFENSE OF THE REALM
145
from military service on the ground of conscientious objection
should undertake.
A Summer Time Committee was established at the Home
Office, on September 29, 1916, to inquire into the social and
economic results of the Summer Time Act, 1916, and to con-
sider (1) whether it was advisable that summer time be reintro-
duced in 1917, and in subsequent years; and, if so, (2) whether
any modifications in the arrangements were required. This com-
mittee consisted of ten members (one woman), with Mr. J. W.
Wilson, M.P., chairman, and two secretaries.
Other Home Office committees include the following: Cocaine
and Opium Permits Committee, Fire Brigade Coordination Com-
mittee, Juvenile Organizations Committee, Passenger Traffic
with Holland.
The Home Office was also represented on the Defense of the
Realm Regulations Amendment Committee, the Women's War
Employment Advisory Committee, the Prisoners of War and
other interdepartmental committees.
· Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 161.
CHAPTER VIII
War Relief, Pensions and Prisoners
A host of committees and other agencies have been organized
for dealing with various social problems arising out of the war,
which are interrelated at various points in their objects and to
some extent in their operations. These numerous agencies have,
moreover, been under the supervision of several ministries.
Pensions and other allowances to those in military and naval
service were administered under the War Office and the Admi-
ralty, until the creation of the Ministry of Pensions. War chari-
ties and other relief agencies were connected with the Local Gov-
ernment Board and the Home Office; and many of these agencies
also dealt with phases of the employment problem.
In addition to the government and local official committees,
much was done by a great number of private voluntary organi-
zations--both those of old standing and many new societies or-
ganized for the present war problems. One list of such organiza-
tions included 147 societies; 1 and this was by no means com-
plete.
WAR CHARITIES
The organization of charitable relief agencies was looked after
to a considerable extent by the Local Government Board. In
some respects the war reduced the normal work of this depart-
ment, but the relief activities more than counterbalanced this,
and emergency services were improvised in connection with these
functions.
On August 4, 1914, a Central Government Committee on the
Prevention and Relief of Distress was appointed by the Prime
Minister, with the president of the Local Government Board
1 Helen Donald Smith: War Distress and War Help. it short catalogue
of the leading War Help Societies. Murray, 1915.
146
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
147
(Herbert Samuel) as chairman, to advise on measures neces-
sary to deal with distress arising in consequence of the war, and
to initiate, advise and coordinate action taken with a view to the
prevention and relief of such distress.” This committee con-
sisted of ten members, including six members of the House of
Commons and one woman. A special department was formed at
the Local Government Board to act under this committee.
In connection with this central committee, a series of sub-
committees was also established: on London (in August),
Women's Employment (August 20), Professional Classes (Oc-
tober 21), Urban Housing, Agricultural Districts, Intelligence
Advisory Committee, and London Intelligence Committee. The
four last named subcommittees appear to have been discontinued.
Circulars were issued by the Local Government Board to local
authorities calling attention to their powers to aid in relief work,
and inviting them to form local committees (in every county,
borough and urban district of over 20,000 population), to include
representatives of the municipal authorities, boards of poor law
guardians, trades unions and philanthropic organizations—in
particular the Soldiers' and Sailors' Families Associations. ?
Memoranda were issued to the local committees; and, in the first
week of September, the central committee announced the employ-
ment of inspectors, selected from the Local Government Board,
the Board of Education and the National Health Insurance Com-
mission, to act as intermediaries with the local committee. A
newly formed Intelligence Department of the Local Government
Board was strengthened and expanded, and acted as a central
bureau of information on the state of trade and industrial con-
ditions in the different districts.
The problem of unemployment among men did not prove seri-
The raising of the new armies and the demands for sup-
plies of all kinds for the government soon offset the disloca-
tion of trade. But for a time there was acute distress among
women, especially those employed in the luxury trades, and those
Qus.
1
1 The Political Quarterly, i, 189 (1915); Parliamentary Papers, 1914, Cd.
7603, 7763.
148
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2
in clerical service thrown out of work by the closing of the Stock
Exchange. The extent of these conditions is indicated by the
formation of Women’s ‘Employment committees—the central
committee in August, one for Ulster in October, and a central
Irish committee for the other provinces in November.
The Central Committee on Women's Employment marked a
new departure in the constitution of government committees.
It consisted of fourteen women, with Lady Crewe as chairman,
to consider and from time to time report upon schemes for the
provision of work for women and girls unemployed on account
of the war." It acted in close connection with the Central Gov-
ernment Committee on the Prevention and Relief of Distress-
aiming both at securing immediate relief and also at regular em-
ployment under economic conditions. 3 Gradually the situation
was improved, partly by relief agencies, but mostly by the in-
creasing employment of women in connection with the produc-
tion of army supplies for the government.
One of the important factors in the relief of distress was
the National Relief Fund, which was opened on August 6, 1914,
and by November, 1915, amounted to £5,615,905. This was
administered by an executive committee appointed by the Prince
of Wales. The Queen's Work for Women Fund was a useful
auxiliary. In the relief of the civilian population, the National
Relief Fund Committee acted only on the recommendation of
the Central Government Committee. In assisting unemployed
women, the Central Committee on Women's Employment de-
vised schemes for women's work, which were approved by the
Central Government Committee; and the National Fund Com-
mittee financed them out of money collected through the Queen's
Fund. 4
A large prgrimuon of the National Relief Fund was paid out
for the allowances due by the government to soldiers' and sailors'
dependents. The enormous increase in the number of such al-
* Quarterly Review, vol. 225, p. 112 (1916).
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 164.
2
3 Ibid.
The Political Quarterly, i, 189; Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 7756.
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
149
1
lowances had overwhelmed the pay office of the army; and the
National Relief Fund was used to meet the emergency.
The pressure on these funds raised by private subscription was,
after a time, relieved by the better organization and the increase
of the government allowances to the families of men in active
service, and by government grants to local authorities for works
to furnish employment.
The report on the administration of the National Relief Fund
for the six months ended September 30, 1917, showed receipts of
£6,240,000, and expenditures of £2,855,000 on naval and mili-
tary distress, £602,000 on civil distress, and £4,000 on adminis-
tration.
Something, but very little, was done by the subcommittee on
professional classes, by grants to various organizations; but the
most effective work for these classes (such as artists, who suf-
fered perhaps more than any other class) was by private organi-
zations, notably the Professional Classes War Relief Fund Coun-
cil, of which Major Leonard Darwin has been the chairman, and
the Professional Women's Patriotic Service Fund.
Among the other voluntary organizations special mention may
be made of the Young Men's Christian Association, especially in
providing canteens in the training camps and munitions areas.
BELGIAN REFUGEES
An important branch of relief work, for which special agencies
were organized, was that of looking after refugees from Belgium,
and later those from other countries. At first this problem was
dealt with by a voluntary War Refugees Committee; but later
the Local Government Board took over the reception of refugees
and arranged for their registration and temporary accommoda-
tion. Arrangements were made for a regular series of passenger
boats from Antwerp and later from Ostend; and agents of the
Local Government Board were stationed at Ostend and Folke-
stone. A large number of buildings were used for temporary
? Quarterly Review, vol. 225, p. 117.
150
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
accommodations; and as the numbers of refugees increased, the
local authorities, in London and elsewhere, were invited to assist
and to form local committees. The Registrar General compiled
a central register of refugees.
In October a Belgian Refugees Committee for Ireland was
formed, for organizing hospitality and collecting funds for their
maintenance.? In the same month a departmental committee was
appointed by the president of the Local Government Board, con-
sisting of sixteen members, with Sir Ernest Hatch as chairman,
to consider and report on questions arising in connection with the
reception and employment of the Belgian refugees. The Belgian
Government also appointed an official committee to look after
the interests of refugees, which acted as a consultative body.
The departmental committee held a series of meetings from
November 2 to December 7, hearing 72 witnesses, including gov-
ernment officials, employers, and representatives of labor unions
and of local and central relief committees. The report of this
committee, issued at the end of December, showed that about a
million refugees had left Belgium, about half of whom had gone
to Holland, and about 100,000 had come to England up to that
time, with more to come.
In accordance with the report of this committee a Belgian
Refugees Commission was established in January, 1915, consist-
ing of eight members, with Sir Ernest Hatch as chairman, to
put into execution the recommendations of the committee for
providing occupations for Belgian refugees. This commission
continued its work until July, 1915. 4
Later a Belgian Repatriation Committee was appointed, the
secretary of which was Mr. H. A. Leggett, who had served in
the same capacity for the Belgian Refugees Commission.
3
· The Political Quarterly, i, 194; No. 5, p. 164.
· Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 149.
3 Parliamentary Papers, 1915; Cd. 7750, 7779.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 149.
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
151
LOCAL AUTHORITIES
Available accommodations in local institutions for the poor
were used in a variety of ways: by the military authorities for
billeting troops and for the treatment of wounded soldiers; for
temporary relief of Belgian refugees; for housing alien enemies
and the wives and families of interned aliens. Repayment was
made by the Exchequer to the local boards of poor law guardians
for part or the whole of the increased expense due to these
services.
The public health division of the Local Government Board, in
consultation with the War Office, organized numerous measures
for securing cooperation between the local civil and military au-
thorities in regard to sanitary matters, such as the selection of
camp sites, water supply, drainage, hospital facilities for infec-
tious diseases and food inspection. The board's government
lymph establishment supplied the army and navy with a half
million tubes of vaccine lymph up to December, 1914. Medical
inspectors assisted in the medical examination of refugees at
Folkestone.
Distribution of food supplies from the colonies for the relief
of distress, the supply of coal in London, and clothing, toys and
food for children, sent from the United States by the Christmas
ship Jason, was also looked after by the Local Government Board.
There was not much need for relief of British citizens; but some
of these supplies were used for Belgian refugees, and a good deal
was offered to the War Office and the Commission for Relief in
Belgium.
At the outbreak of the war, the local authorities were asked
to provide employment. Later they were asked to dispense with
labor and restrict their activities. The restrictions on new capi-
tal issues applied to the local authorities, and caused the sus-
pension of improvement works. At the same time there was a
serious financial strain on the local authorities, on account of al-
1
The Political Quarterly, No. 5, pp. 170-172; Parliamentary Papers, 1914,
Cd. 7763.
152
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
lowances paid to employes in military service and to their depend-
ents, increased wages and the rise in the prices of materials, and
the service of untrained substitutes for those with experience.
As the war continued the use of local public buildings for pur-
poses connected with the war increased. School buildings were
occupied by the military authorities for troops and hospitals. The
employment of children of school age was extended.
The Local Government (Emergency Provisions) Act of 1916
regularized the action of local authorities in regard to leaves of
absence, payment of part salaries and allowances to dependents,
the inclusion of service with the colors on pension schemes for
officials and employes serving in the army and navy. This act
also legalized the use of local government buildings for military
purposes, and continued the provisions of the act of 1915 for
postponing local elections.
2
WAR LOSSES 3
Several committees have been appointed to deal with the relief
of those who have suffered direct losses as the result of hostile
operations and measures for the defense of the realm.
The East Coast Raid Committee was established in January,
1915, to investigate the damage to persons and property sustained
in the bombardment of the Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby,
with a view to affording relief from imperial funds to the per-
sons affected.
In April, 1915, a committee was appointed,
to consider any cases of hardship that may be brought before them on behalf
of masters, officers and seamen, including pilots and apprentices, of British
merchant and fishing vessels, who have lost personal effects through hostile
operations at sea, without being in a position to recover compensation or to
obtain adequate relief in respect to such losses from other sources, and to
grant such sums as they may think just in such cases.
On March 31, a Royal Commission on Defense of the Realm
Losses was appointed,
"The Political Quarterly, No. 6, pp. 179-188.
Ibid., No. 8 (1916), pp. 161-162.
8 Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 143-144, 151, 152, 155, 160, 161.
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
153
to inquire into and determine, and to report what sums (in cases not other-
wise provided for) ought in reason and fairness to be paid out of public
funds to applicants who (not being subjects of an enemy state) are resident
or carrying on business in the United Kingdom, in respect of direct and
substantial loss incurred and damage sustained by them by reason of inter-
ference with their property or business in the United Kingdom, through the
exercise by the Crown of its rights and duties in the defense of the realm.
1
The commissioners appointed were: Mr. H. E. Duke, chair-
man, Sir J. T. Woodhouse, and Sir M. G. Wallace. In 1917 Sir
J. T. Woodhouse was chairman, with Sir M. G. Wallace and Mr.
E. Shortt, M.P., as members.
The first report of this commission was made under date of
September 19, 1916. The commissioners had held 130 sittings
in London, 12 in Edinburgh and 1 in Dublin; and up to the end
of August had dealt with 1,094 applications. On claims for
£652,779, lump sum payments had been awarded amounting to
£276,965; and on claims for £355,694 a year, payments at the
rate of £191,857 a year had been awarded. Cases of loss arising
from the enforcement of any rule of general application had
been ruled out. Where agricultural land had been taken, the
commissioners had ruled against claims based on estimates of
future crops, and assessed losses on the basis of crops in being
and the occupation value of the land. The commissioners sug-
gested the expediency of acquiring the entire interest in lands
where buildings or works of a more or less permanent character
have been constructed.
In August, 1915, another Royal Commission was organized
on Compensation for War Disturbances,
to report what sums (in cases not otherwise provided for) ought in reason
and fairness to be paid out of public funds to applicants who (not being sub-
jects of an enemy state) are resident or carrying on business in the United
Kingdom, in respect of direct and substantial loss incurred by them by reason
of interference with their property or business in the United Kingdom through
the exercise by the prescribed government authority of its powers under the
Defense of the Realm (Amendment) (No. 3) Act, 1915—the Liquor Control
Act.
Second Report Defense of the Realm Losses Commission, Parliamentary
Papers, 1917, Čd. 8751.
154
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Committees were also appointed on Victims of the Irish Re-
bellion and on Property Losses in Ireland.
HOME OFFICE COMMITTEES
In addition to the committees previously noted, in some of
which the Home Office was represented, several other committees
were organized more definitely connected with this department of
the government for problems of relief and employment.
On October 16, 1915, a committee was established at the Home
Office to consider the conditions of clerical and commercial em-
ployment, with a view to advising what steps should be taken, by
the employment of women or otherwise, to replace men taken for
the army. This committee consisted of thirteen members (two
of whom were women) and a secretary. Its first report was
made under date of November 9, 1915. 1
On March 2, 1916, another committee was formed, to advise
the Board of Trade and the Home Office on questions arising
out of the measures taken by the departments to give practical
effect to the policy of the government of extending the employ-
ment of women in industrial occupations, and to watch and report
on the progress made in the extension of the employment of
women. This committee also consisted of thirteen members, in-
cluding two women. Mr. C. Harmsworth, M.P., the chairman,
and one other member had been members of the previous Clerical
and Commercial Employments Committee; and Mr. M. H. Whit-
telegge, who had been secretary of the earlier committee, was
one of the two secretaries of this committee.
A War Charities Committee was appointed by the Home Sec-
retary on April 12, 1916, to consider representations which
have been made in respect to the promotion and management of
charitable funds for objects connected with the war, and to ad-
vise whether any measures should be taken to secure the better
control or supervision of such funds in the public interest."
ci
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 150; Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 8110.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 164.
2
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
155
This committee consisted of eight members (including one
woman), with Mr. J. W. Wilson, M.P., as chairman. It recom-
mended that it be made illegal to appeal to the public for any war
charity unless the body asking the appeal is registered; and that
the Home Secretary be empowered to make the necessary regu-
lations and conditions. 1
Following this report the Charities Registration Act was
passed. This required registration of war charities by municipal
authorities—the councils of counties, boroughs, and urban dis-
tricts; and authorized the charity commissioners to make regula-
tions providing the forms for applications and registers and the
fees, and providing for the inspection of registers. The report of
the charity commissioners for the year 1916 showed that in the
first four months in which the act had been in operation 4,179
charities were on the combined register, 1,606 had been exempted,
and 18 had been refused registration.
2
PRISONERS OF WAR 3
For the assistance of British prisoners of war held by the en-
emy, and the care and employment of enemy prisoners, a number
of committees and other agencies were organized.
In order to relieve the immediate necessities of British pris-
oners, several voluntary prisoners of war societies were formed;
and a Central Prisoners of War Help Committee was estab-
lished in London, to act as headquarters for information, to co-
ordinate the work of different organizations, and to prevent over-
lapping. This central committee worked in close connection with
the Swiss Red Cross.
In September, 1915, the Home Secretary (Sir John Simon)
appointed a committee to collect, verify and record information
as to the treatment of British subjects, military and civil, who
1
Ibid., p. 162; The Political Quarterly, No. 8 (1916), p. 164.
26 and 7 Geo. V, c. 43, August 23, 1916; Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd.
8521.
3 Liberal Year Book, 1917, D. 158; The Times History of the War, xii,
ch. 187, pp. 254-258.
156
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
had been made prisoners of war. Mr. Justice Younger was
chairman of this committee, with representatives from the War
Office, Home Office and Foreign Office. This committee did
valuable work, and in a few cases reports were published on con-
ditions in some of the German prison camps (as at Wittenberg
and Gardelegen); but there was some criticism of the failure to
make public the facts as to the treatment of British prisoners.
Better treatment for some prisoners was secured by an agree-
ment, in May, 1916, that British and German wounded and in-
valided prisoners should be transferred to Switzerland.
While valuable service had been done, it became evident that
further organization was necessary. The central committee had
no power to compel obedience by voluntary agencies; there was
a vast amount of overlapping; and while some prisoners received
more than they could use, others received little and some none.
Many parcels were badly packed or wrongly addressed, or had
perishable goods; while there were also attempts to send for-
bidden articles.
In September, 1916, it was arranged that the joint war com-
mittee of the British Red Cross Society and the Order of St.
John should take over all questions relating to the welfare of
British prisoners. A new Central Prisoners of War Committee
was appointed, with Sir J. Starr Jameson as chairman, and Mr.
P. D. Agnew as managing director, to centralize and coordinate
the various measures taken for the relief of prisoners of war.
This committee undertook to furnish all British and Indian pris-
oners of war, whether military or civil, with a supply of food
and clothing. The several voluntary committees and associations
came to some extent under its direction, as their parcels could
not be sent without its approval, except to officers.
A joint committee appointed to inquire into the organization
and methods of the Central Prisoners of War Committee re-
ported, in 1917, that there had been conflicts between regimental
and local relief associations, and delay in organizing the central
office, and made some criticism of the regulations.
? Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8615.
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
157
For enemy prisoners, a prisoners of war department was or-
ganized in the War Office; and an interdepartmental committee
was established, with representatives from the Home Office, War
Office, the Admiralty and the Foreign Office, to deal with any
questions relating to prisoners of war labor in which two or more
of the departments might be concerned. In January, 1917, the
Prisoners of War Employment Committee was reconstituted, to
consider applications for the employment of prisoners of war,
combatant or civilian. Mr. J. F. Hope, M.P., was chairman of
this committee, and Mr. G. D. Roseway, secretary.
AID TO SOLDIERS AND SAILORS 1
In addition to the assistance furnished by the general relief
organizations, several special committees were formed to help
soldiers and sailors. In 1915 a committee on the employment of
disabled soldiers and sailors was appointed by the President of
the Local Government Board. In July of this same year, the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries established a departmental
committee to consider and report what steps could be taken to
promote the settlement and employment on the land in England
and Wales of soldiers and sailors, whether disabled or other-
wise, on discharge from the navy or the army. A committee was
also appointed on the employment of disabled soldiers and sailors
on British railways.
In connection with the new Labor Ministry, established at the
end of 1916, a series of trade advisory committees were or-
ganized, to provide for disabled soldiers and sailors. Such com-
mittees were provided for tailoring, basket, skip and hamper
trade, electricity trade, furniture trade, printing and kindred
trades, boot and shoe manufacture, and the cinematograph trade.
ARMY AND NAVY PENSIONS
At the beginning of the war, the only official organization for
the administration of the system of allowances and pensions for
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 154; Parliamentary Papers, 1914-16, Cd.
7915; Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8741.
1
158
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
the army was the commissioners of the Royal Hospital for
Soldiers at Chelsea. Not only was the scale of these payments
then in force so inadequate as to require additions from volun-
tary sources, but, owing to the wide variation in the circumstances
of the officers and men in the new armies, an elaborate examina-
tion into individual cases was needed to adjust the total to the
necessities of the recipients. This work of investigation and sup-
plementing the government payments was in the hands of three
voluntary organizations: the Soldiers' and Sailors' Families As-
sociation, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Help Society, and the Pa-
triotic Fund Corporation. By November these societies had been
overwhelmed by the growth of the army; and there was also
much dissatisfaction expressed at the inequalities, overlapping
and anomalies arising out of the voluntary system of supple-
menting the government payments.
Under these conditions a Select Committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to consider a scheme of pensions and
grants for officers and men in the military and naval service.
This committee was composed of G. N. Barnes, Austen Chamber-
lain, David Lloyd George, Bonar Law, Reginald McKenna and
T. P. O'Connor, representing all political parties. It presented
a series of reports during 1915, recommending an increased
scale of payments, with additional allowances dependent on the
age of widows and the number of children, and also proposed
the establishment of a new central body, representing the volun-
tary societies and the government, to have charge of a fund (to
be mainly voluntary) for supplementing the government grants.
After a somewhat stormy course through Parliament, a new
Naval and Military War Pensions Act was passed on November
10, 1915. 3 This followed the now familiar practice of setting
up another agency for every undertaking, by establishing as a
new central authority a Statutory Committee of the Royal Patri-
otic Fund Corporation, consisting of 27 members—one repre-
2
* The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163, pp. 347-348.
* The Political Quarterly, No. 5, pp. 161-163; Reports in Parliamentary
Papers, 1915, Nos. 53, 196, 328.
5 and 6 Geo. V, c. 83.
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
159
sentative of each of seven government departments (the Treas-
ury, Admiralty, Army Council, National Health Insurance, and
the Local Government Boards of England and Wales, Scotland,
and Ireland), two representatives of the Soldiers' and Sailors'
Families Association, six representatives of the Royal Patriotic
Fund Corporation, and twelve members nominated by the Crown.
The duties of this committee were to deal with doubtful points in
the allocation of government pensions and grants; to frame reg-
ulations for supplementary allowances and for allowances in
cases where no provision was made from public funds; and to
make provision for the care of disabled officers and men after
they left the service, including provision for their health, train-
ing and employment.
The act' also provided for new local authorities—a committee
in each county, county borough, and borough or urban district of
over 50,000 population, with subcommittees (or under special
circumstances independent local committees) for smaller areas.
These local committees were to be appointed under schemes
framed by the local councils and approved by the Statutory Com-
mittee. The chairman should be a member of the local council
and at least a majority of the members should be appointed by
the local council, with representatives of labor, women, a sub-
stantial representation of the Soldiers' and Sailors' Families As-
sociation or the Soldiers' and Sailors' Help Society or other
persons engaged in war relief work. The local committees were
to make inquiries, to act as local agents for the Statutory Com-
mittee, and to solicit and receive contributions from the public
for the supplementary allowances.
Following the precedent of the Unemployed Workmen Act of
1905 and the National Relief Fund, this measure endeavored to
bring into one organization public authorities and voluntary or-
ganizations, and to secure funds, in addition to the government
grants, by appealing to the charitable public. Criticism was made
of the multiplication of administrative machinery. It was argued
that the Old Age Pensions committees of the local councils had
performed satisfactorily the duty of dealing with dependents
160
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
other than the wives and children of soldiers; and that the trans-
fer of this work risked the loss of administrative experience,
good will and the bond established between the local councils
and the military and naval authorities. 1
More serious objection was made to the financial provisions.
There was controversy over the use of voluntary funds in any
government scheme; and demands were made in labor circles
that the government take over the whole burden. The question
whether the Statutory Committee should consider grants from
local funds delayed the operation of the local committees. 2
Nevertheless much good preliminary work was done. In 1916
a government grant of £1,000,000 was made as a nucleus for the
supplementary funds; and in October it was announced that the
nucleus fund would be increased to £6,000,000 and that the scale
of regular rates would be increased. Agreements were reached
between the Statutory Committee and the local authorities.
Draft regulations for grants to supplement pensions and other
regular allowances were published in July, 1916. 3
The report of the Statutory Committee on war pensions for
the year 1916 described the administrative organization estab-
lished to carry out the Pensions Act of 1915. The Prince of
Wales was chairman of the committee at first; but after the
Pensions Ministry was created, Mr. G. N. Barnes, Minister of
Pensions, became head of the committee. Five subcommittees
were appointed: organization and general purposes; finances;
pensions, grants and allowances; disablements, with sections on
health, and on training and employment; and officers' pensions,
grants and allowances. Local committees were organized in
every administrative county (128) and county borough (95);
and also in 19 municipal boroughs and urban districts, and in the
Isle of Man; a total of 302 local committees. In 12 cases pro-
vision was made for distinct district committees in counties; but
subcommittees were regularly provided under the county com-
1
The Political Quarterly, No. 8, p. 163.
* The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 348.
Parliamentary Papers, 1916, Cd. 8316.
3
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
161
2
mittees. The number of members on these local committees did
not usually exceed 31. 1
But the number of cases had become unmanageable; and con-
fusion was caused by the conflicting views of different author-
ities. There were no less than six chief authorities: the Ad-
miralty, Greenwich Hospital, the War Office, Chelsea Hospital,
the new Statutory Committee, and the Civil Liabilities Commis-
sion—established in May, 1916, to deal with questions of prin-
ciple in cases of doubt or difficulty arising in the administration
of the scheme for enabling soldiers to meet their civil liabilities.
There was also the Central Army Pensions Issue Office, respon-
sible for making the actual payments. There was more or less
overlapping and considerable delay and friction; and while the
conflicting authorities were composing their differences, the un-
fortunate soldier or his dependents received nothing. The most
common case was due to the War Office stopping separation al-
lowances on discharge, instead of waiting for local inquiry and
action.
In October, 1916, a new Cabinet committee was appointed to
inquire into the whole question. This recommended a pensions
board, with a responsible minister at its head, to coordinate the
work of the existing bodies. It was explained that this board
would deal only with military pensions, not including service
pensions nor the Admiralty. Criticism of this plan led to its
amendment, which was accepted by the government, and the
establishment of a more centralized system, with a Pensions
Minister and no board, including the Admiralty except as to
service pensions. 3
The act for establishing a Ministry of Pensions and for pur-
poses connected therewith became law December 22, 1916. 4
This provided for a Minister of Pensions, appointed by the King,
in order to unify the administration of pensions, grants and al-
lowances. To this Minister was transferred the powers and du-
2
* Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8750.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 160.
The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163, pp. 349, 350.
* 6 and 7 Geo. V, c. 65.
162
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
ties of: (a) the Admiralty with respect to pensions and grants to
the naval forces, other than service pensions, so far as payable
out of moneys provided by Parliament and not provided exclu-
sively for Greenwich Hospital; (b) the Royal Hospital for
Soldiers at Chelsea, with respect to disability pensions and grants
other than in-pensions; and (c) the Army Council and Secretary
of State for the War Department with respect to pensions and
grants to the military forces, other than service pensions. Orders
in Council were authorized to make adaptations in the enactments
relating to such powers and duties, and to fix the time or times of
transfer.
The powers and duties of the Statutory Committee under the
Naval and Military War Pensions, etc., Act, 1915, were to be
exercised and performed by that committee under the control of
the Minister of Pensions. Local committees under the same act
of 1915 were, at the instance of the Minister of Pensions, to ex-
ercise the functions exercisable by these committees at the in-
stance of the Statutory Committee.
Customary provisions were made in the act as to the salary of
the Minister; the appointment of a secretary, officers and serv-
ants; style, seal and proceedings; eligibility of the Minister and
the secretary to sit in the House of Commons; and the transfer
of officers.
By this act the administration of government pensions and
allowances to soldiers and sailors and their families was more
centralized. But the centralization was not complete; and the
new Ministry involved a further distribution of the former
powers of the Admiralty and War Office, without combining
either the central or the local administration of army and navy
pensions with other government pensions and relief agencies.
Moreover, there was some question whether the experiment of a
political minister for this work would prove satisfactory. Many
feared that it might result in pensions becoming the shuttlecock
of parties.
The new Ministry was inaugurated by the appointment of
George N. Barnes, a member of the Labor party, as Minister, in
WAR RELIEF, PENSIONS AND PRISONERS
163
1
the Lloyd George administration. Under date of February 26,
1917, there was published the draft of a Royal Warrant and of
an Order in Council for a new schedule of pensions to disabled
soldiers and sailors and to the families and dependents of de-
ceased soldiers and sailors in consequence of the present war.
This provided for a scale of weekly pensions to disabled soldiers,
in eight classes, ranging from maxima from 27s. 6d. for privates
to 42s. 6d. for warrant officers, for the loss of two or more limbs,
down to one-fifth of these amounts for the loss of two fingers,
with additional allowances for children. The minimum weekly
pensions to widows were from 13s. 9d. for privates to 21s. 3d.
for warrant officers, with the same scale of additional allowances
for children as for disabled soldiers. A Royal Warrant for pen-
sions to soldiers and their families and dependents and an Order
in Council with regulations for pensions to seamen, etc., were
issued under date of March 28, 1917. 2
Other documents were prepared providing for the retired pay
of disabled officers and for pensions for families and dependents
of deceased officers, nurses, etc., 3 and instructions for the assess-
ment of alternative pensions for those earning high wages
or salaries in civil life, providing that local committees should
consult with advisory wages boards of the Ministry of Labor.
In August, 1917, Mr. Barnes, the Minister of Pensions, reply-
ing to a question calling attention to complaints of delay in fix-
ing pensions, called attention to "the increasing, irregular and
vast growth” of the work of the new department. The staff
consisted of 3,500, mostly women, most of them with little more
than a year's service and none with any prewar experience.
Weekly payments had been authorized to nearly 750,000 men,
women and children; the number of “renewals " each month was
reaching tens of thousands; and the preparation of cases for the
new Appeals Tribunal promised to add still further to the
burden.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8485.
* Ibid., No. 64.
Ibid., Cd. 8631.
Solicitors Journal, August 4, 1917. By the end of 1917, there were more
than 1,000,000 cases.
4
164
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
A Naval and Military War Pensions, etc. (Transfer of
Powers) Act, 1917, transferred to the Minister of Pensions the
powers, duties and functions of the Statutory Committee.
In addition to the substantial increase of financial relief in
pensions, the policy of the government for the assistance of those
suffering as the result of military and naval service was extended
to include measures for their restoration to social and indus-
trial efficiency. These measures included continued medical
treatment after discharge, and assistance in education and in-
dustrial training.
1
* The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 185-189.
1
1
CHAPTER IX
Trade and Transportation
From the beginning of the war there was a great increase in
the extensive and multifarious duties of the Board of Trade;
and as the war progressed the expansion of the functions of this
Ministry and its agencies continued to develop. In addition to
a multitude of committees and commissions, a number of new
departments have been created; and after a time a series of new
Ministries was organized, which took over important sections of
the Board of Trade functions with new powers and duties.
THE BOARD OF TRADE
Before the war the Board of Trade had dealt with a numerous
variety of matters relating to transportation, by rail and by water,
trade, commerce, industry and labor. Its history can be traced
from the councils for trade and for foreign plantations created
in 1660, and the Board of Trade and Plantations which existed
from 1695 to 1781. After 1782 there was a committee of the
Privy Council on trade matters, whose functions were mainly
statistical and consultative. After 1840 new duties of an execu-
tive and administrative character were added. In 1862 the Board
of Trade in its present form was organized. It is one of a num-
ber of nominal boards in the British administration, consisting
of a group of older officials, who never meet, while the work of
the board is carried on under the direction of the president, who
is regularly a member of the Ministry and of the House of
Commons.
In addition to the president and the usual parliamentary and
permanent secretaries, there are five assistant secretaries, each
having charge of one of the principal departments into which the
work of the Board of Trade was divided, as follows:
165
166
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The Railway department had powers of regulation over rail-
ways and other public utilities, such as street railways, water,
gas and electric plants.
The Harbor department had control over ports and harbors,
and supervision over the bodies in charge of lighthouses.
The Marine department exercised an extensive control over
merchant shipping, registering vessels, examining officers, and
regulating the methods of operation.
The Labor Exchanges and Unemployment Insurance depart-
ment administered the agencies for dealing with labor and em-
ployment problems.
The Commercial department collected and published informa-
tion, mainly statistical, on trade and commerce of the United
Kingdom, British colonies and foreign countries.
Other matters entrusted to the Board of Trade included the
supervision of joint stock companies; bankruptcy; patents, de-
signs and trade-marks; standards of weights and measures; the
census of production; and trade boards. Connected with the
Board of Trade is the Light Railway Commission; and there is
also a Railway and Canal Commission.
1
RAILWAY AND CANAL ADMINISTRATION
On August 4, 1914, the day of the declaration of war, a plan
for the government control of the railway system of Great Brit-
ain through a central Railway Executive Committee was formu-
lated, and announced through an Order in Council, under the
Regulation of the Forces Act, 1871—which took effect at mid-
night.
The foundation for the governmental authority under which
the control of the railways was taken over had been laid in a
series of parliamentary acts from 1842 to 1888. An act of
1842, providing for the better regulation of railways and the
transportation of troops, made it mandatory upon the directors
of any railway to move troops, with their equipment and mili-
tary stores at prices and upon conditions to be arranged by con-
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
167
tract. Two years later another act specified the maximum rates
for conveying troops and military stores. The rates of military
fares were revised in the Cheap Trains Act of 1883. 1
Following the Franco-Prussian War, the Regulation of the
Forces Act of 1871 ? provided that in case of emergency, de-
clared by Order in Council, the Secretary of State might by war-
rant empower any person to take possession of any railroad in
the United Kingdom and to use the same at such times and in
such manner as the Secretary of State may direct. Such war-
rant could not be drawn for a longer period than one week; but
was renewable “ from week to week as long as, in the opinion
of the Secretary of State, the emergency continues."
The National Defense Act of 1888 3 gave the government, un-
der emergency conditions, power to dictate to the railways what
precedence should be given to special kinds of traffic.
Under this legislation plans of organization had been worked
out; and plans of mobilization had been prepared and tested on
a small scale in army maneuvers. In 1865 the Engineer and
Railway Volunteer Staff Corps had been organized, with the ob-
ject of directing the application of skilled labor and of railway
transport to the problem of national defense, and for preparing
plans to meet the actual conditions of war. This corps consisted
of railway officials, engineers and large contractors, who were
usually given honorary commissions in the British army. When
the Territorial Forces were created, the Engineer and Railway
Staff Corps was merged in the Royal Engineers of those forces,
but remained under the administration of the War Office. 4
.
In 1896 a Railway War Council had been created, to act in
an advisory capacity to the Engineer and Railway Staff Corps.
This consisted of fifteen members, of whom six were railway
managers, and nine represented different branches of the army,
navy and the Board of Trade, with the Deputy Quartermaster
15 and 6 Vict., ch. 55, sec. 20; 7 and 8 Vict., ch. 85, sec. 12; 46 and 47
Vict., ch. 34, sec. 6.
* 34 and 35 Vict., ch. 86.
3 51 and 52 Vict., ch. 31.
The Times History of the War, vi, ch. 100, p. 183.
168
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
General as president. In 1912, this council was superseded by
the Railway Executive Committee, composed of general managers
of railways, which served as a link between the army and the
railways. Before the war, this committee dealt largely with the
Engineer and Railway Staff Corps and with the Director Gen-
eral of Military Transport, in working out and testing plans and
methods for railway service in time of war.
For several years
before the war, operating railway executives from time to time
received sealed orders covering mobilization schemes in detail,
which automatically became effective on the outbreak of war.
As noted above, on August 4, 1914, an Order in Council was
promulgated under the act of 1871 declaring that an emergency
had arisen in which it was expedient for the government to have
control of the railways of Great Britain. On the same date a
warrant was issued by Mr. Asquith, as Secretary of State for
War, empowering the president of the Board of Trade to take
possession of all the railroads (excluding tramways) in Great
Britain and to use the same for the conveyance of naval or mili-
tary forces or stores or for any other purpose. This warrant
has been renewed from week to week. 2
From the beginning the government control has been exercised
through the Railway Executive Committee, previously organ-
ized. The official chairman of this committee was the president
of the Board of Trade. The acting chairman was Herbert A.
Walker, of the London and Northwestern Railway. The other
members consisted of the general managers of the important
railway systems in Great Britain, with the superintendent of one
railroad. The number of members, at first eleven, was later
increased to fourteen; and the railways represented operated
more than 15,000 miles, or about three-fourths of the entire
railway mileage of Great Britain. Since August, 1914, a few
changes in personnel have been made in the committee; but as a
whole it has remained substantially the same. The several mem-
bers of the committee, in addition to their work on the committee,
F. H. Dixon and J. H. Parmelee: War Administration of the Railways
in the United States and Great Britain, pp. 76-78.
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, September, 1914, pp. 368-369.
1
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
169
1
1
are also responsible for the management and operation of their
respective railways.
Commenting on these arrangements, one writer has remarked:
“It would be more correct to write that the railways were dur-
ing the war administered not by the government, but for the
government, the management of the railways and the staff con-
trol being the same as in the days of peace.
Orders for the
necessary facilities were issued by the Transport Department of
the War Office and the Railway Executive furnished the trains."
Moreover, the railway transport officers in the War Office were
often men who in civil life had been railway officials. 2
Distinct advantages appear to have resulted in the manage-
ment of the railways from the existence before the war of a
definite organization and plan of action. Moreover the concen-
tration of authority in the hands of one central body from the
beginning appears to have aided in securing more satisfactory
results than in other lines of activity. There is a noticeable
absence in the records of numerous special, investigating and
temporary committees, submitting discordant reports; and the
organization set up at the outset of the war has remained in ex-
istence without change in the general system.
At the same time, it may be said that the ordinary peace or-
ganization of the railroads had been already more generally com-
bined in a small number of companies, than in other lines of busi-
ness brought under government control; and the task of uniting
and coordinating their activities was perhaps less difficult on this
account.
By mutual agreement between the government and the rail-
ways it was provided that instead of paying for any specific
movement of troops or supplies, the government guaranteed each
road its normal net income for the year 1913, and would pay
such sums of money as would secure this result. Later the gov-
ernment agreed to assume the burden of increased rates of pay
allowed as a war bonus to railway employes. Early in 1917 the
* Dixon and Parmelee : op. cit., pp. 72, 78-80.
The Times History of the War, vi, ch. 100, pp. 183-184, 188.
2
170
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2
financial agreement was further modified so as to provide a four
per cent interest allowance by the government on all capital in-
vested in railway property since August 4, 1917; and also to
provide that reasonable charges for maintenance of road and
equipment could be carried in the operating expense accounts. 2
Reports of financial operations up to March 31, 1916, show
that the government had paid to the railroads £6,851,957 for the
eight months ending March 31, 1915, and £5,879,876 for the
next twelve months. These amounts were about nine and five
per cent, respectively, of the net revenues of the railways for
1913. In view of the tremendous movement of troops, munitions
and supplies, the indications are that the government has paid
a relatively small amount for the transportation business it has
furnished to the railways.
Important changes were made in railroad service arrange-
ments in 1916. Competitive trains on the different main trunk
lines were discontinued; cheap excursions were canceled; long
distance expresses were made to serve intermediate stations;
and hundreds of trains disappeared from the railway schedules.
As a further deterrent to passenger traffic, fares were increased
by one-half on January 1, 1917; and shortly afterwards passen-
gers were required to handle their own baggage, not to exceed
100 pounds each. On most railways restaurant cars ceased to
run.
Government control applied at first to all the steam railways
in Great Britain, except the underground and local railways of
London; but did not include the railways in Ireland. But on
January 1, 1917, the Irish railways also passed under govern-
ment control, under another Order in Council, and under virtu-
ally the same arrangements as for Great Britain except that a
separate railway executive committee was established for Ire-
land with the Under-Secretary for Ireland as nominal chair-
3
4
man.
* Dixon and Parmelee: op. cit., pp. 82-88.
Ibid., p. 121.
* The Times History of the War, xii, ch. 192, pp. 429-430.
Dixon and Parmelee: op. cit., p. 89.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
171
Included in the railway systems taken under government con-
trol was about half the mileage (1,025 miles) of inland canals
in Great Britain. The owners of and carriers on independent
canals found themselves unable to meet the competition of higher
wages paid on the railway routes; and a serious reduction of
canal traffic resulted. To meet these conditions, on January 1,
1917, the Board of Trade took over all the principal independent
canal companies, and subsequently took over the Irish canals, on
the same financial terms as the railways—embracing 1,202 miles
of waterways in England and 304 miles in Ireland.
A Canal Control Committee was appointed to manage the
canals, including representatives of the Board of Trade, the War
Office, the Ministry of Munitions and of the railway companies,
canal companies and canal carriers. Three subcommittees were
organized for the northern, midland and southern canals. The
committee has taken steps to secure and train men for canal
work, and to increase canal traffic in order to relieve the rail-
ways; and the decrease of canal traffic is said to have been
averted. 1
FOREIGN TRADE AND ENEMY PROPERTY
Various measures were taken for the regulation of foreign
trade and enemy property—both for preventing trading with the
enemy and for the protection and promotion of British trade
with other countries.
Under the common law, trading with the enemy was unlaw-
ful; and a Royal Proclamation of August 5, 1914, gave notice
warning any person resident, carrying on business, or being in
the British dominions against trading or having any commercial
intercourse with any person resident, carrying on business, or
being in the German Empire. Another Royal Proclamation of
August 12, extended this prohibition to trading with Austria-
Hungary. On September 9, a revised proclamation relating to
· Board of Trade Journal, January 10, 1918; reprinted in U. S. Commerce
Reports, No. 27, February 1, 1918.
172
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
3
trading with the enemy was issued, extending the prohibitions
and providing for exceptions by licenses given by a Secretary
of State or the Board of Trade. Further amendments and ex-
tensions were made from time to time. 1
Proclamations were also issued, under the Customs and Inland
Revenue Act, 1879, prohibiting the exportation from the United
Kingdom of certain warlike stores and provisions. On August
28, 1914, a new Customs (Exportation Prohibition) Act be-
came law, extending the provisions of the act of 1879 to all ar-
ticles, during a state of war, and providing that proclamations
made under that act might be amended by an Order of the Privy
Council, on the recommendation of the Board of Trade. 2
Under this act, Orders of Council were issued from time to
time amending, modifying and varying the proclamations pro-
hibiting exports.
An Act of Parliament relating to trading with the enemy be-
came law on September 18, 1914. This imposed severe penal-
ties on persons trading with the enemy in contravention of proc-
lamation, statute or common law; and gave powers to the Board
of Trade to inspect books and documents, and in certain cases
to apply to the High Court for the appointment of a receiver. 4
Under these acts and the proclamations, a number of prose-
cutions took place. In one case, a firm of Glasgow merchants
was convicted of being instrumental in supplying a cargo of iron
ore to Krupp and other German concerns.
Difficult legal questions arose as to what constituted an alien
enemy, in the case of corporations and others. In the case of
the Continental Tyre and Rubber Co. (Great Britain) Limited
v. Daimler Company, Limited, the Court of Appeals held (Jan-
uary 15, 1915) that the tire company was an English company.
It was incorporated in England, but was an offshoot of a Ger-
5
Manual of Emergency Legislation, September, 1914, pp. 98, 375, 378, 384,
,
530; Supplement
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, September, 1914, pp. 23, 160-168; 4
and 5 Geo. V, ch. 64.
3 Manual of Emergency Legislation, September, 1914, pp. 170-176, 520.
* 4 and 5 Geo. V, ch. 87.
• The Times History of the War, v, ch. 90,
p. 298.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
173
man company, which held most of the shares; and the rest were
held by Germans resident in Germany, except one held by the
secretary, a German by birth, naturalized in 1910. This deci-
sion was supported by five judges, with one judge dissenting.
But the House of Lords overruled the decision by the unani-
mous action of the eight judges sitting, on the ground that the
secretary had no authority from the company to commence the
action. Lord Halsbury, in his opinion, answered Lord Reading's
argument (in the Court of Appeals) that the company was a
" live thing,” and stated that "no one has authority to issue a
writ on behalf of an alien enemy.'
In the case of Porter v. Freudenberg, the Court of Appeals
held (January 19, 1915) that the test of a person being an alien
enemy is his place of residence or business, and not his nation-
ality; that an alien can not sue in the King's court unless he has
a license to reside in the realm; but that he may be sued, and if
sued may defend and appeal.
11
2
Custody of Enemy Property
In September, 1914, licenses were granted by the Home Sec-
retary to certain German, Austrian and Turkish banks, in the
United Kingdom, to continue in business to complete transactions
begun before the war under the supervision of a Treasury agent.
Other licenses were granted to certain enemy subjects by the
Home Secretary and the Board of Trade. 3
An act of November 27, 1914, amending the Trading with
the Enemy Act, provided for the appointment by the Board of
Trade of an official custodian of enemy property for England
and Wales, for Scotland and for Ireland respectively. The Pub-
lic Trustee (under the Public Trustee Act, 1906) was designated
* The Times History of the War, ix, ch. 150 pp. 467-468.
Ibid., ix, ch. 150, p. 471.
: The Times History of the War, ix, ch. 150, p. 446. A report of Sir
William Plender, appointed as Controller of German and Austrian banks in
London, showed that the number of enemy subjects in these banks had been
reduced from 440 on July 31, 1914, to 10 on December 1, 1916; and the
number of British subjects had been reduced from 473 to 148. Parliamentary
Papers, 1917, Cd. 8430. See also Parlianientary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8455.
174
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
as custodian for England and Wales; the Accountant of the
Court of Session as custodian for Scotland; and the Official
Assignee in Bankruptcy attached to the King's Bench Division
of the High Court (Ireland) as custodian for Ireland.
Under this act it was required that enemy property be regis-
tered with the custodian by trustees and incorporated companies,
dividends and other income for the benefit of an enemy to be
paid to the custodian; and the High Court was authorized to
vest any such property in the custodian, and to confer: on him
powers of selling, inanaging or otherwise dealing with it.
The report of the Public Trustee for the year ended March
31, 1915, showed that enemy property to the value of £84,000,000
had been registered; and that income of £700,000 had been re-
ceived. Arrangements had been made with the Bank of Eng-
land for investments. 2
The report of the Public Trustee for the year ended March
31, 1916, showed a temporary staff of 97 persons employed in
carrying out the provisions of the Trading with the Enemy Act.
The financial interests involved may be summarized as follows:
£134,000,000
Total enemy property, including debts, as notified or paid over
Total British property, including debts, in enemy countries,
estimated on the basis of voluntary registration...
90,000,000
£ 7,955,052
Total enemy property (including cash) paid over or vested in
the Public Trustee.
Investinents made by the custodian in accordance with Treas-
ury directions.
2,748,484
War Trade Department
On February 20, 1915, the Treasury announced the forma-
tion of a new War Trade Department, to replace the former com-
mittee on trade with the enemy in dealing with applications for
export and import licenses during the war, and to embrace an
intelligence division which should serve as a clearing house for
all war commercial information. The remainder of the work
15 Geo. V, ch. 12; Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 2,
p. 19; Supplement No. 3, p. 552.
: Parliamentary Papers, 1914-1916, Cd. 7833.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
175
1
2
of the Trading with the Enemy Committee (relating to the move-
ment of funds and other questions mainly concerning the Treas-
ury) was transferred to the Treasury, to be performed by the
Parliamentary Counsel and his staff. The Privy Council export
license department was moved to the offices of the War Trade
Committee to act in connection with the new department.
The Right Honorable Lord Emmott was appointed as direc-
tor of this department. In addition to the director and secre-
tariat, the department has been organized in three sections. The
licensing section deals with applications for licenses for the ex-
port of goods which are subject to prohibition or restriction on
export. It includes a statistical branch, and keeps records of all
applications for licenses and of the decisions given. The intelli-
gence section is a clearing house for war commercial intelligence.
The statistical section has for its main function the collection
of statistics of all imports into neutral countries in northern Eu-
rope contiguous to the enemy.
A War Trade Advisory Committee was formed on September
20, 1915, to advise on the restriction of enemy supplies, to co-
ordinate the administration of the War Trade Department with
the Contraband Committee (of the Foreign Office), and to ad-
vise the Cabinet on questions of policy arising from the work of
these bodies. This committee consisted of 25 members, with
Sir F. Hopwood as chairman; and included Sir Robert Cecil,
Under-Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Lord Emmott, Director of
the War Trade Department, and Mr. Steel-Maitland. 3
Several other laws amending the Trading with the Enemy Act
were passed during the latter part of 1915. An act of December,
1915 (ch. 98), gave powers to extend the prohibitions on trad-
ing to persons of enemy nationality or, enemy association though
not resident or carrying on business in enemy territory or enemy
occupied territory. A Royal Proclamation was issued under this
act on February 29, 1916; and after amendment was replaced
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 3, p. 551.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 163; cf. British Imperial Calendar, 1916,
3 Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 16.
P. 467.
176
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
by a new proclamation on May 23, 1916, which was afterwards
varied and extended from time to time. An extension of the
So-called Black List of business concerns in neutral countries
with whom trading was prohibited, issued in July, 1916, included
a list of houses in the United States. A foreign trade depart-
ment under a controller, was established to carry out the policy
embodied in this law. 1
In January, 1916, the Board of Trade was given power to
wind up businesses connected with the enemy, and authorized to
appoint a controller with large powers of management. ?
A new Trading with the Enemy Advisory Committee of four
members was appointed on February 9, 1916, to advise the Board
of Trade on matters connected with the Trading with the Enemy
Amendment Act, 1916.3
Other committees were appointed on rubber and tin exports
(January and March, 1915), diamond exports, coal and coke
exports, and exports.
Restrictions on imports were also begun early in 1916. A
Paper and Wood Pulp Royal Commission was established, on
February 15, 1916, for the grant of licenses and to arrange for
the importation of materials for the manufacture of paper, and
of paper and cardboard and manufactures thereof, and for their
distribution among paper makers and paper users on such terms
and subject to such conditions as may appear equitable to the
commission.
Other articles were added to the list of restricted imports--
raw tobacco, many building materials, furniture, woods, some
fruits, teas, coffee, rum, and some manufactured articles. Spe-
cial commissions were appointed to deal with each trade.
An Imports Restrictions Department was organized in March,
1916, for the grant of licenses under the provisions of the various
proclamations for prohibition of imports. Mr. R. E. Enthoven
15 and 6 Geo. V, chs. 79, 98, 195; List of Orders in Council, in Defense
of the Realm Manual, 4th ed., p. 133, note b; U. S. Commerce Reports, No.
23, January 28, 1916.
* The Times History of the War, ix, ch. 150, p. 462.
3 Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 162. .
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
177
1
was appointed Controller; and three committees were formed to
advise the Controller on the importation of (a) tobacco; (b)
preserved, etc., fruits; and (c) woods and stones, respectively.
There was also an advisory' committee on imports of oranges.
In December, 1916, another committee was formed, with Lord
Curzon of the War Cabinet as chairman, to report on further
restrictions of imports. New restrictions were put in force on
March 1, 1917, under the supervision of the Board of Trade;
and imports were decreased by 600,000 tons a month.
Insurance
For the protection of British trade a scheme for the insurance
of ships and cargoes, based on a report of a subcommittee of the
Committee on Imperial Defense, was announced on August 4,
1914. Under this the government was to insure 80 per cent of
the war risks on ships at flat rates (ranging from 1 to 5 per
cent), the existing mutual insurance associations to accept the
remaining 20 per cent, and to be responsible for administration.
For the insurance of cargoes a special government insurance
department was to be provided; with an advisory board, with
powers to fix rates of premium, within the limits of 1 to 5 per
cent. A similar scheme was arranged by the Board of Trade
with an association representing the owners of steam fishing
vessels.
The War Risks Advisory Committee, to carry out the govern-
ment scheme of cargo insurance, appointed in August, 1914, con-
sisted of 17 members, with Sir D. Owen as chairman, and Mr.
J. W. Verdier as secretary. On August 31, the premium rates
on cargo insurance were announced at 2 per cent.
A committee was appointed by the Board of Trade on June 21,
1915, consisting of five members, with Mr. F. H. Jackson as
chairman, to consider: "whether a scheme can be devised to
cover loss and damage by bombardment and aircraft, in so far
2
3
Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 154, 157; Times History of the War, xi,
ch. 169, p. 92.
2 The Political Quarterly, i, 165, 183.
8 The Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 163.
178
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
as such loss and damage are not covered by the terms of the or-
dinary fire insurance policy." The committee reported on July
9, recommending arrangements with fire insurance companies,
and the establishment of a government insurance office, to issue
policies and settle claims, at proposed rates from 2 to 10 shil-
lings. After this scheme was established the government should
not indemnify persons for loss due to aircraft or bombardment.
An Aircraft Insurance Committee was provided, with Mr. J.
W. Verdier, secretary of the Cargoes Insurance Committee, as
secretary. Those two insurance schemes appear to have been
later combined into a War Risks Insurance Office with a War
Risks Advisory Committee, having two sections, one on marine
insurance and one on aircraft and bombardment insurance. ?
An Insurance Intelligence Department was also organized in
connection with the Board of Trade.
During August, 1914, the Commercial Intelligence Department
of the Board of Trade issued a series of monographs on trade
conditions in markets formerly held by German and Austrian
traders. Reports on conditions and prospects, received through
the Colonial and Foreign Office from commissioners and con-
suls, were published.
The Imperial Institute, connected with the Colonial Office,
opened a new bureau for the supply of technical information on
sources of raw materials, methods of utilizing new products from
the colonies, India, etc.
On August 28, 1914, the Articles of Commerce (Returns,
etc.) Act became law, empowering the Board of Trade to require
returns as to the stocks of any articles of commerce in or in tran-
sit to the United Kingdom, and to take possession of the supplies
of any articles unreasonably withheld from the market, payment,
in default of agreement, to be decided by the arbitration of
judges of the High Courts. 4
3
1
Parlianientary Papers, 1915, Cd. 7997.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 163.
* The Political Quarterly, i, 184.
* 4 and 5 Geo. V, ch. 65.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
179
A committee, known as the Prize Executive Committee, was
formed in the Board of Trade, for the purpose of dealing other-
wise than in the prize court with detained cargoes which though
possibly liable in law to condemnation as prize might with advan-
tage be released.
1
DOMESTIC TRADE AND INDUSTRY
Internal commerce and manufactures were also brought under
active government regulation by a variety of committees and
other agencies. Those dealing with the supply of munitions and
other war materials have been discussed in the chapter on the
Ministry of Munitions; and other parts of this report deal with
railway and canal traffic, shipping and food supplies. Here at-
tention will be given to a varied list of other materials and
products of importance in commerce.
Chemical Products
2
In August, 1914, a government chemical products supply com-
mittee was established to consider and advise as to the best means
of obtaining for the use of British industries sufficient supplies
of chemical products, colors and dyestuffs of kinds hitherto
largely imported from enemy countries. This committee con-
sisted of 20 members, with Lord Haldane as chairman and Mr.
F. Gossling as secretary, and included a number of scientific
specialists and a representative of the Board of Trade.
In December, the Board of Trade announced a scheme for
the formation of a national joint stock company for the manu-
facture of aniline dyes, outlined in a circular by the Board of
Trade committee on aniline dyes. This scheme was not favor-
ably received by the industries concerned; and after conferences a
modified scheme was approved by the committee on January 29
(with financial arrangements approved by the Treasury), capable
of development into a more comprehensive scheme.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 158; The Political Quarterly, i, 184.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 150.
& The Political Quarterly, No. 5 (1915), pp. 163-164.
3
A
180
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
In connection with the dyestuffs schemes a commissioner for
dyes and a Dye Colors Distribution Committee were provided.
A Petrol Committee was appointed on April 20, 1916, to in-
sure that adequate supplies of petrol (or gasoline for motor
cars) shall be available for the purposes of the war and for other
essential needs, and, with that object, to regulate the use of
petrol for other purposes in the United Kingdom.
During the year 1917, the petroleum industry was brought
fully under government control. In February an interdepart-
mental committee on petroleum was formed. In May a special
department on the control of petroleum and petroleum products
was organized in the Ministry of Munitions. There was provided
a mineral oil production department, and a petroleum pool board
in charge of distribution. The petrol control department of the
Board of Trade issued licenses, and controlled the rationing of
the civilian population. In August a Petroleum Executive was
formed, to deal with large questions of policy, and to coordi-
nate the work of various departments, especially the Admiralty,
the War Office and the Ministry of Munitions.
Other committees and agencies on chemical products have in-
cluded the following:
1
Committee on the Use of Cocaine in Dentistry
Committee on Cocaine and Opium Permits
Advisory Committee on Lubricating Oils
Advisory Committee on Mineral Resources
Sulphate of Ammonia Distribution Committee
Sulphuric Acid and Fertilizers Trades Committee
Acetylene Committee
Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau
Potash Production
Committee on Supplies of Sicilian Sulphur
Coal and Coke
By February, 1915, problems connected with the supply of
coal required attention; and two committees were organized to
1 Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 157.,
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
181
1
make inquiries. One was appointed by the Home Office, to in-
quire into conditions prevailing in the coal mining industries,
with a view to promoting such organization of work and such
cooperation between employers and workmen, as, having regard
for the large number of miners who are enlisting for naval and
military service, will secure the necessary production of coal
during the war. This committee made several reports.
About the same time as the above committee, the Board of
Trade formed a committee to inquire into the causes of the rise
in the retail price of coal sold for domestic use, especially to the
poorer classes of consumers in London and other centers. This
committee held 15 meetings, examined 33 witnesses and signed
its report on March 24, 1915. It found a shortage of supplies
due to the large number of miners who had enlisted, the de-
crease of seaborne traffic and congestion of traffic on the rail-
roads. No definite “rings” were found, but conferences of
dealers led to concerted action; and the arrangement for Lon-
don and pit head prices was considered indefensible. Recommen-
dations were made for accumulating supplies, lowering freight
rates on domestic traffic and the use of prize ships; and if prices
should not return to a reasonable level, the government should
consider assuming control of the colliery output, with a view
to regulating prices and distribution during the war. 2
These two committees appear to have worked independently
of each other; and the later results do not indicate any plan for
coordinating their reports.
The Chief Inspector of Mines was appointed, with the Coal
Mining Organization Committee and a representative of the War
Office as an advisory body, to act as the central court in connec-
tion with the scheme of colliery recruiting courts established by
the Home Secretary. In March 130,000 miners had been en-
listed; by May, 1915, the number had increased to 220,000; and
recruiting continued for months in many mining areas. Prob-
+
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 150.
Ibid., p. 151; The Political Quarterly, No. 6, pp. 171-173.
182
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
ably 300,000 miners, 30 per cent of the men in the mines, joined
the colors.
In April, 1915, another committee was formed to consider and
advise on all questions relating to the exportation of coal and
coke and manufactured fuel to foreign countries. 2 Exports of
coal were restricted; and in July, 1915, a Price of Coal Limita-
tion Act was passed.
Still another Coal and Coke (Central) Supplies Committee
was organized, early in February, 1916, to consider all questions
relating to the distribution of coal and coke that may be referred
to them from time to time by the Board of Trade, or submitted
by district coal and coke supplies committees. 3
In June, 1916, a new committee was formed to consider the
position of the coal trade after the war, with especial reference
to international competition and to report what measures, if
any, are necessary to safeguard that position. *
In November, 1916, the government took over the South Wales
coal mines; and an interdepartmental committee of three mem-
bers was established, with representatives from the Board of
Trade, the Home Office and the Admiralty, to advise in regard
to directions to be given under the order for government control
of these mines.
A Coal Mines Department was organized in the Board of
Trade with an advisory board. In connection with the Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research, a Fuel Research
Board has been formed; also a Committee on Mine Rescue Re-
search, and a Committee on Peat Deposits in Ireland. In March,
1917, government control was extended to all coal fields.
5
1
p. 11.
2
3
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 150; The Political Quarterly, No. 7 (1916),
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 150.
Ibid., p. 150.
* Ibid., p. 151.
• The Tinies History of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 336; Liberal Year Book,
1917, p. 161.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
183
Timber and Alcohol
Early in the war, the Office of Works took over the purchase
of timber for the War Office. On November 24, 1915, a Com-
mittee on Home Grown Timber was formed in the Board of
Agriculture, to purchase and convert standing timber, to supply
such timber to the government departments, and generally to
make arrangements for the further utilization of native timber
resources.
A Commission Internationale d'Achats des Bois was formed
early in 1916. A War Cabinet committee recommended a re-
duction of timber imports. In 1917 a Timber Supplies Depart-
ment was created, which took over the functions of the Office of
Works and the Home Grown Timber Committee. At the end
of May, 1917, this department was transferred from the War
Office to the Board of Trade. 1
In December, 1916, an advisory committee was set up to con-
sider the best means to be adopted for securing adequate supplies
of alcohol to meet the demand for war purposes and the essen-
tial industrial trades. This committee consisted of representa-
tives of the distilleries, rectifiers, and methylators, and of the
Board of Agriculture, Board of Customs and Excise, Board of
Trade, and Ministry of Munitions.
2
Textile Industries
A committee to consider the position of the textile industries
after the war was formed in April, 1916, with Sir H. Briche-
nough as chairman.
In August, 1916, a central advisory committee for England
and Wales was established, to advise the War Department on
matters arising out of the purchase and distribution of English
wool This included representatives of agricultural interests,
Bradford merchants, country merchants, spinners and manu-
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 138-140.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 148.
2
184
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
facturers and several government departments—the Board of
Agriculture, the Board of Trade and the wool committee of the
War Department. The home wool clip of 1916 was purchased
by the Army Contracts department of the War Office, and this
policy was extended to the Australian clip at the end of 1916.
Further control of the woolen and worsted industries was
announced by the Army Council in September, 1917. A board
of control was established to regulate the allocation of wool,
tops and other products and by-products; subject to the power of
the Army Council to determine the amount of raw wool to be
maintained in reserve for military purposes, and to fix, in con-
sultation with the board, the amount to be released for civilian
trade; and subject also to the power of the War Department to
determine the terms and conditions of contracts for government
supplies. Directors of raw materials and of wool textile pro-
duction were to furnish information and cooperate with the
board of control.
Under date of January 1, 1918, the War Office issued a re-
vised, amended and consolidated order with regard to woolens
and worsted in pursuance of the powers conferred under the
Defense of the Realm Regulations. ?
In August, 1917, the Ministry of Munitions took possession
of all flax and the flax crop in the United Kingdom. A Cotton
Control Board was also set up in the summer of 1917.
Early in 1917 a Central Leather Supplies Advisory Committee
was formed, merging several previous advisory committees.
This committee included representatives of the chief federa-
tions of employers and the leading trade unions in the leather
trade. A number of subcommittees have been organized. 3
2
? Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 161, 165.
Reports from Consul General Robt. P. Skinner, in U. S. Commerce
Reports, No 237, October 10, 1917, and No. 25, January 30, 1918.
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1919, pp. 142-146.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
185
Other Agencies
In addition to the foregoing the following committees, boards
and departments have been established for various lines of busi-
ness:
Building Trades Central Advisory Committee
Committee on Production
Committee on Work of National Importance
Glass and Optical Instruments Committee
Industrial (War Inquiries) Board
Machine Tool Committee
Metals and Materials Economy Committee
Passenger Traffic between United Kingdom and Holland Com-
mittee
Registry of Business Names Committee
Road Stone Control Committee
Scottish Shale Industries Committee
Shops Committee
Tobacco and Matches Control Board
Trade between British Empire and Belgium
At the end of 1917, it may be said that the whole industry of
the country, production, transport and manufacture, had been
brought more or less under government control. The degree of
control varied from complete ownership, as with the national
munitions factories and national shipyards, to the fixing of max-
imum output such as in brewing, or, as in the case of farming,
the enforced transfer from private to public control in case of
inefficient production.
SHIPS AND SHIPPING
The First Year
From the beginning of the war the problem of ships and ship-
ping was one of vital importance to the British Government and
the British people in many ways. Ships were needed to trans-
port the armies and their supplies. They constituted the funda-
mental equipment of the navy, while the Admiralty also had di-
186
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
rect charge of the army transport service. They further were
essential for the economic life of the people, as the means of
importing necessary food and other supplies, and for carrying
on the export and domestic trade of the Empire.
Government supervision over merchant shipping interests
formed one of the principal functions of the Board of Trade;
and at the head of this department for more than two years of
the war was a president (Mr. Walter Runciman) “who by hered-
ity and early business experience should have been steeped in
shipping lore, and the country should have been infinitely the
gainer by the circumstance." Yet it was said of him that
with good intentions, industrious and self-confident, [he] entirely failed
throughout to cope with the issues raised. There were little signs of any
leading on the part of the Board of Trade, but there were so many com-
mittees—so many cooks each with his finger in the piethat it is difficult
to say whose was really the responsibility for the chaos into which shipping
was allowed to drift.1
Part of the difficulty, however, may be ascribed to the fact that
the Board of Trade did not have by any means complete control
of the situation. The Admiralty and the War Office exercised
far-reaching authority; and the requirements of the military
and naval authorities did much to complicate the situation.
At the outset of the war an Admiralty Transport Arbitration
Board was organized to arrange terms for shipping requisitioned
by the Admiralty, whether for the navy or for army transport.
This board was a numerous body of representatives of various
shipping interests, with Lord Inchape, chairman of the Penin-
sular and Oriental Navigation Company, as president. The
widely scattered ownership of shipping interests as compared
with railroads may explain the more cumbersome organization
provided for this work, as compared with the Railway Execu-
tive Committee.
The danger of serious interference with shipping movements
by naval vessels of the enemy, before the advent of the submarine
campaign, was not important. But before long a serious short-
* The Times History of the War, xi, ch. 169, p. 78.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
187
age in the supply of vessels became evident. This may be ex-
plained as the result of a combination of factors. Requisitions
for government service drew off many vessels from their normal
service; and there was complaint of the lack of organization for
the most efficient use of vessels for these purposes. There was
delay in loading and unloading vessels at ports, on account of
the congestion of traffic, due to the withdrawal of men for the
army, and the regulations to prevent trading with the enemy.
There was an increase of long voyages, for carrying sugar from
distant parts of the world to offset the loss of the German supply.
The blockade and internment of German vessels increased the
demand for neutral vessels.
There was also a marked decrease in the amount of new ship-
building for mercantile purposes. This was caused in part by
the enlistment of men in the shipyards for the army, and later
for the rapidly expanding munitions works. But another factor
was the increased demand of the Admiralty for building vessels
for the navy.'
2
Shipping Committees
In February, 1915, an Engineering and Shipbuilding Estab-
lishments Production Committee was formed, which served as
an arbitration tribunal under the Munitions of War Act.
Early in the second year of the war (November, 1915) a Ship
Licensing Committee was appointed, to deal with licenses for
ships to trade between foreign ports.
In March, 1916, licensing was extended to all ships of over
500 tons gross trading to and from the United Kingdom; and
licenses were refused for voyages to ports known to be congested.
In November, 1915, there was also established a committee on
requisitioning ships for the carriage of foodstuffs. Mr. J. P.
Whelpley, M.P., was chairman of this committee, which included
the three shipowners who had been advising the transport de-
· The Times History of the War, xi, ch. 169, pp. 81-84.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 153, 160.
188
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2
partment of the Admiralty. The policy of this committee was
to direct owners to load their vessels in trade where tonnage was
especially wanted. 1
At the end of the same month a Port and Transit Committee
was formed to inquire into difficulties and congestion at harbors,
ports and docks, to regulate the work and coordinate the require-
ments. This committee consisted of ten meinbers, including
representatives of the Admiralty, War Office and Board of Trade,
shipping and dock companies and the railways, with Lord In-
chape as chairman.
A Shipping Control Committee, with broader powers, was
created on January 27, 1916: “to consider the demands made
upon British merchant shipping tonnage to meet the essential
requirements of the United Kingdom and the Allies, and to de-
cide on the allocation of the available merchant shipping tonnage
with a view to meeting these demands as far as possible, having
regard to their relative importance." This committee consisted
of only four members, with Lord Curzon as chairman. 3
Another committee was appointed at the Board of Trade for
the purpose of dealing otherwise than in the prize court with
cargo which, though possibly liable in law to condemnation as
prize, might with advantage be released. 4
In March, 1916, still another committee was formed at the
Foreign Office to inquire whether any avoidable delay was caused
by the methods for dealing with ships and cargoes brought into
British ports under the Order in Council of March 11, 1915, and
to make such general recommendations as they may think fit
for improving such methods.
Later in March a committee was established to consider the
position of the shipping and shipbuilding industries after the war,
especially in relation to international competition.
5
6
8
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 159; The Times History of the War, xi, ch.
169, p. 69.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 157.
Ibid., p. 160.
Ibid., p. 158.
• Ibid., p. 160.
• Ibid., p. 160.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
189
Other committees were formed to deal with diverted cargoes,
delays in unloading, congestion at ports, and the detention of
neutral ships.
The restriction of imports by means of licenses begun in 1916
also served to regulate the use of shipping. This was first ap-
plied to paper and wood pulp, by the appointment of a Royal
Commission, in February; and was later extended to other ar-
ticles, special commissions or committees being formed for each
trade. 1
The Shipping Ministry
Difficulties with shipping, however, continued; and were ac-
centuated by the activities of enemy submarines, so that the need
for further measures to promote shipbuilding and to secure a
more effective organization of available shipping facilities be-
came more and more pressing. On the formation of the Lloyd
George Ministry in December, 1916, the appointment of a Ship-
ping Controller was announced; and the New Ministries Act
passed later in the same month made statutory provision for a
new Ministry of Shipping ?
The act authorized the appointment of a Minister of Shipping
under the title of Shipping Controller for the purpose of organ-
izing and maintaining the supply of shipping in the national in-
terest in connection with the present war, with the usual provi-
sions for officers, salaries and expenses, enabling the Minister
and secretaries to sit in the House of Commons, and providing
for the cessation of the Ministry after the close of the war.
No attempt was made in the act to define the functions of the
new Ministry; but these were to be transferred or conferred by
Order in Council. In the words of the statute:
It shall be the duty of the Shipping Controller to control and regulate any
shipping available for the needs of the country in such manner as to make
the best use thereof; having regard to the circumstances of the time, and to
take such steps as he thinks best for providing an efficient supply of shipping,
and for these purposes he shall have such powers and duties of any govern-
ment department or authority, whether conferrod by statute or otherwise, as
The Times History of the War, xi, ch. 169, p. 92.
a 6 and 7 Geo. V, ch. 68.
1
1
190
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
His Majesty may by Order in Council transfer to him, or authorize him
to exercise or perform concurrently with or in consultation with the govern-
ment department or authority concerned, and also such further powers as
may be conferred on him by regulations under the Defense of the Realm
Consolidation Act, 1914, and regulations may be made under that act ac-
cordingly
Joseph Maclay, a prominent shipowner, was appointed as the
first Shipping Controller. He preferred not to hold a seat in
the House of Commons; but was represented there by a parlia-
mentary secretary. A Director of Transports and Shipping and
other officers and employes were also appointed. There was fur-
ther formed, in December, 1916, a Merchant Shipbuilding Com-
mittee, of seven members, to advise the Shipping Controller on
the administration of a shipbuilding program. The president
and secretary of the Shipbuilding Employers' Federation were
chairman and secretary of this committee. A Shipbuilding Con-
struction Committee was also appointed. An Order in Council of
January 12, 1917, required official permission to charter neutral
vessels; and an Interallied Chartering Executive was provided,
to ensure that all charters of foreign vessels by private firms
were in the interest of the Allied nations. 1
Other committees have been appointed on a standard uniform
for the mercantile marine and on tonnage priority. A separate
branch of the Shipping Ministry was formed for the coasting
trade, which was brought under special control.
In February, 1917, Sir Edward Carson, First Lord of the
Admiralty, announced that the Transport Department, except
naval transport and the duty of naval transport to the army, had
been taken over by the Shipping Controller. The advisory com-
mittee to the Transport Department had resigned shortly after
the appointment of the Shipping Controller. The responsibility
for merchant tonnage construction was also transferred to the
Shipping Controller; but in May, when Sir Eric Geddes was ap-
pointed as Controller of the Navy, this reverted to the Admiralty.
Changes were made in the loading rules permitting an increase
from 106 to 150 tons for each ton of registered shipping. Steps
The Times History of the War, xi, ch. 169, p. 103.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
191
were taken to expedite the building of ships under construction.
Plans for the construction of standardized cargo vessels were
formulated and put under way. ?
As the result of the shipbuilding plans, merchant shipbuild-
ing, which had fallen off largely in the first years of the war,
was largely increased, though for some time not enough to offset
the losses from the increased submarine activity which began
early in 1917. Merchant shipbuilding had declined from 1,919,-
000 tons in 1913 to 542,000 tons in 1916, and increased to
1,163,000 tons in 1917. Competition from naval shipbuilding
was still a factor; but the total of both naval and merchant
shipbuilding for 1917 reached the record.
Although considerable improvement was made, the shipping
problems were not entirely solved. There has been some criti-
cism of the shipping ministers. Joseph Maclay was a shipowner
but not a shipbuilder; and Lord Pirrie, who succeeded him,
while a big business man at the head of a firm which built large
liners, had no familiarity with the building of tramp cargo vessels,
for which the need was most pressing. It has also been urged
that the Admiralty control over shipping had made mistakes.
On the other hand more effective use has been made of ship-
ping facilities. At the end of 1916 less than half the British
merchant tonnage had been requisitioned. A large proportion
of tramp vessels had been taken over, but only a part of the pas-
senger liners. In a few months practically all of the British
ocean going marine had been brought under requisition, includ-
ing nearly all the tramps and all the ocean liners. Vessels were
withdrawn from the longer routes and transferred to shorter
voyages. Special arrangements, complicated and transitory, were
made with reference to neutral tonnage.
The Port and Transit Executive Committee was housed with
the Shipping Ministry, and worked in cooperation with the Di-
rector of Ports of the new Ministry.
In February, 1917, the secretaries of the Shipwrights' Society
2
1
Ibid., pp. 98, 101, 103.
2 The New Statesman, March 23, 1918.
192
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
and of the Boilermakers' Society were appointed as labor ad-
visers to the Shipping Ministry. A Merchant Marine Concilia-
tion Committee was formed to review labor conditions on mer-
chant ships; and a National Wage Board was set up to establish a
standard rate of wages for seamen.
1
AFTER THE WAR COMMITTEES
As early as July, 1915, a subcommittee of the Advisory Com-
mittee to the Board of Trade on Commercial Intelligence was
appointed with respect to measures for securing the position,
after the war, of certain branches of British industry. This
subcommittee, of five members, made a report to the Advisory
Committee on January 11, 1916, which was adopted by the com-
mittee, presented to the Board of Trade and published for infor-
mation. This report dealt with paper and printing, stationery,
jewelry, cutlery, fancy leather goods, brushes and hardware; in-
dustrial research and training; copyright, patents and trade-
marks; transport facilities, financial assistance, trade exhibitions,
the establishment of a ministry of commerce, and tariff protec-
tion, with reservations by one member as to the tariff.
In the spring and early summer of 1916 a series of new com-
mittees was appointed to consider the position of particular trades
after the war, especially in relation to international competition,
and to report measures to safeguard that position. These in-
cluded committees on shipping and shipbuilding (March 27),
electrical trades (April 27), textile industries (April 28), coal
trade (June 2), the engineering and iron and steel trades (July),
and nonferrous metals trades. 3
2
1
Allied Economic Conference
Meanwhile on June 14-17, 1916, there had been held at Paris
the well known Economic Conference of the Allies for the pur-
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1911, pp. 107-116.
Parliamentary Papers, Cd. 8181.
3 Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 151, 152, 153, 160, 161.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
193
pose of proposing to their respective governments appropriate
measures for realizing solidarity of views. The recommenda-
tions of this conference covered: (a) measures for the war
period; (6) transitory measures for the period of reconstruc-
tion; and (c) permanent measures for mutual assistance and
collaboration among the Allies. In the third group were in-
cluded: (1) steps to render the Allies independent of enemy
countries as regards raw materials and essential manufactures,
such as government enterprises, government aid for scientific and
industrial research, customs duties, and prohibitions; (2) the
improvement of transport and communication facilities; (3)
meetings of technical delegates for the assimilation of laws relat-
ing to patents, trade-marks and copyrights; and (4) that the
governments should take necessary steps without delay. These
recommendations were general and indefinite in character; and
had of course no binding force on any of the governments.
Following the Economic Conference of the Allies two new
British committees of a general character were appointed in
July, 1916, on trade conditions after the war. One of these was
to consider the commercial and industrial policy to be adopted
after the war, with special reference to the conclusions of the
Allied Economic Conference. This committee consisted of 17
members, with Lord Balfour of Burleigh as chairman. ?
1
Financial Facilities for Trade
In the same month another committee was appointed by the
Board of Trade to consider the best means of meeting the needs
of British firms after the war as regards financial facilities for
trade, particularly with reference to large overseas contracts, and
to prepare a detailed scheme for that purpose. This committee
consisted of 12 members, with Lord Farringdon as chairman.
This committee submitted a report on August 31, 1916, recom-
mending the formation of a new British Trade Bank, with a cap-
Parlianientary Papers, 1916, Cd. 8271.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 162; U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 54, March
6, 1918, p. 854.
1
2
194
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
ital of £10,000,000, which should open accounts for parties pro-
posing to use its overseas facilities; establish foreign exchange
credit departments and information bureau; make banking agency
arrangements with existing colonial or British foreign banks;
and act as agent of the government in extending financial aid to
key industries. This new bank should not accept deposits at call
or on short notice, and should not interfere with any business for
which existing banks provided facilities. 1
A petition, deed of settlement and charter for a British Trade
Corporation were printed in the Parliamentary Papers for 1917. ?
Other Board of Trade committees formed to consider after the
war problems included those on Belgian trade, cotton growing
within the Empire, electric power supply, prewar contracts, and
trade relations after the war.
3
Scientific and Industrial Research
In July, 1915, a scheme for the organization and development
of scientific and industrial research was presented; and in ac-
cordance with this plan a Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research was established, under a committee of the Privy
Council, with an Advisory Council. *
To the new department there has been transferred from the
Royal Society the property of the National Physical Laboratory;
and there has been created an Imperial Trust for the encourage-
ment of scientific and industrial research, which holds on behalf
of the department the sum of £1,000,000 voted by Parliament
for this purpose. The Advisory Council has recommended that
this should be used as grants in aid to cooperative research asso-
ciations to be formed by the firms in any industry; and progress
1
2
* Parliamentary Papers, 1916, Cd. 8346. A later committee on financial
facilities was appointed by the Ministry of Reconstruction.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8567.
* U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 54, March 6, 1918. The committee to
foster British Trade with Belgium, appointed in the summer of 1917, con-
sisted of three representatives of the Foreign Office, three of the Board of
Trade, and six representing British commercial and financial interests. U. S.
Connierce Reports, No. 208, September 6, 1917, p. 892.
Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 8005.
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION
195
has been made towards the formation of such associations, for
cotton and other industries. For some fields which can not be
covered by research associations, research investigations will be
carried on by agencies established as part of the department,
such as the Fuel Research Board.
At the end of 1917, the following boards and committees
had been established by the department of scientific and indus-
trial research:
1
Cold Storage Research Board
Standing Committees on Engineering, Metallurgy, Mining,
and Glass and Optical Instruments
Joint Standing Committee on Illuminating Engineering
Mine Rescue Apparatus Research Committee
Abrasives and Polishing Powders Research Committee
Food Research Committee
Building Materials Research Committee
Electrical Research Committee
Committee for Research on Vitrous Compounds, and Cements
for Lenses and Prisms
Tin and Tungsten Research Board
Lubricants and Lubricating Inquiry Committee
Chemistry of Lubricants Subcommittee
Zinc and Copper Research and Inquiry Committee
Irish Peat Inquiry Committee
Provisional Committee on Research for the Wool and Worsted
Industries
Provisional Committee for the Internal Combustion Engine
Industry
2
A report on the resources and production of iron and other
metalliferous ores has been published.
3
OVERSEAS TRADE INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT
Early in September, 1917, plans for a new Overseas Trade In-
telligence Department were announced by the Board of Trade
and the Foreign Office. Both of these government departments
U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 226, September 27, 1917, p. 1172.
? Ibid., No. 54, March 6, 1918, p. 857.
* Report for 1916-17, Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8718
196
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
had been considering plans for developing the official arrange-
ments for commercial intelligence, which had hitherto been di-
vided between them. A committee appointed in January, 1917,
representing both departments, agreed that the appointment of
commercial attachés in foreign countries should continue to be
in the hands of the Foreign Office; but did not agree whether the
collation and distribution of commercial intelligence from for-
eign countries should be performed by the Board of Trade or the
Foreign Office. To meet this difficulty it was agreed to estab-
lish a new and enlarged joint department on commercial intelli-
gence, under the general direction of an additional parliamentary
secretary, who should represent both the Board of Trade and the
Foreign Office. The new department should absorb the com-
mercial intelligence department of the Board of Trade, and the
foreign trade department of the Foreign Office; and also take
over the intelligence and statistical sections of the War Trade
Department. It should deal both with the commercial attachés
in foreign countries, appointed by the Foreign Office, and with
the trade commissioners within the Empire, appointed by the
Board of Trade; and it is expected that there will be interchanges
of staff between the different services. An advisory committee of
business men is included in the plans for the new department.
It is expected by the coordination secured through this Over-
seas Trade Intelligence Department to eliminate overlapping and
to secure more efficient results.
Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland, M.P., has been named as head of
this department, which has been organized with three main di-
visions: an overseas division, a United Kingdom division, and
an exhibitions division.
}
1
1 Memorandum of the Board of Trade and Foreign Office, with respect
to the future organization of Commercial Intelligence. Parliamentary
Papers, 1917, Cd. 8716; U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 288, September 29,
1917; No. 3, January 4, 1918; The War Cabiriet: Report for the Year 1917,
pp. 150-151.
CHAPTER X
Agriculture and Food Control
IN FORMER WARS
1
The present war has seen a vast expansion of government
regulation and direct control of food supplies, far beyond that
of any previous time. But it will be of interest to note briefly
some examples of food regulation in previous wars, as prece-
dents for the measures of the present contest.
In the war with Spain, in the reign of Elizabeth, the export of
grain, and for a time the export of provisions, was prohibited.
During the Seven Years War, in the eighteenth century, the ex-
port of grain, meal, flour, bread and starch was prohibited;
and this prohibition was later extended to beef, pork, bacon and
other victuals. Duties on imported grain and flour were dis-
continued; and the making of wines and spirits from grain was
prohibited. In the war with France at the end of the eighteenth
century, the export of provisions and food was restricted, and
the importation of grain and provisions was encouraged; grain
supplies were conserved by prohibiting its use for making wines
and spirits, starch, hair powder and blue; and bakers were re-
quired to use a larger proportion of bran or to mix other grains
or potatoes with wheat.
Most of these measures have been repeated in the present war;
and in addition many other steps have been taken, including
government purchase and direct control of important articles
of food, the intensive regulation of the kinds and quantities of
different foods to be used, and the fixing of prices. In connec-
tion with these measures, as in dealing with other problems,
many new administrative agencies and advisory committees have
been established; and after a considerable period of uncertainty,
1
1
See Chapter I.
197
198
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
+
and sometimes of conflict between different agencies, a more
centralized system of regulation was organized under a new Min-
istry of Food Control.
FIRST MEASURES
1
At the outbreak of war, the actual and anticipated shortage
of food supplies led to sharp and rapid increase of prices. A
Cabinet committee on food supplies was organized, with the
Home Secretary as chairman. On August 5, this committee
met representatives of the Grocers' Federation and companies
and provided for a standing committee of these retail trades, to
advise as to maximum retail prices. Lists of prices were
promptly issued; and in a few days panic purchases had about
ceased. The Cabinet committee also obtained returns of the
stocks of all foodstuffs in the country, and made arrangements
for the periodical collection of this information.
There was also appointed in August, by the president of the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, a consultative committee to
consider matters affecting agricultural interests referred to them
by the board. 2
Still further there was organized in August a Commission
Internationale de Ravitaillement, as the result of an agreement
with the French Government, to assist in the purchase of food
supplies, munitions of war, and field equipment. The scope of
this commission was later extended to cover purchases for other
Allied Governments. Applications for permission to export
goods intended for Allied Governments were dealt with by this
body, which included representatives from the Foreign Office,
Admiralty, War Office, the Committee on Imperial Defense,
Board of Trade, Board of Agriculture and Ministry of Muni-
tions, with delegates from Allied Governments. 3
Exportation of food was prohibited; and after a few months
the prohibition was extended to feeding stuffs for animals.
* The Edinburgh Review, vol. 463, p. 108.
? Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 148.
Ibid., D. 161.
• The Edinburgh Review, vol. 463.
4
8
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
199
» 1
A special problem for which more active measures seemed
necessary was the supply of sugar. Two-thirds of the sugar used
in Great Britain came in normal times from Germany and Aus-
tria. Arrangements were promptly made for the purchase of
sugar by the government. A Royal Commission on sugar sup-
plies was formed, “to inquire into the supply of sugar in the
United Kingdom, to purchase, sell and control delivery of sugar
on behalf of His Majesty's Government, and generally to take
such steps as may seem desirable for maintaining the supply.
On the recommendation of the commission, extensive purchases
(900,000 tons) of cane sugar were made at prices much higher
than those obtaining before the war. In October, it was found
that the government had bought at higher prices than those which
subsequently ruled in the open market. The importation of sugar
was then prohibited, partly to prevent the indirect purchase of
enemy sugar, and partly to protect the government supply. The
latter was sold to refiners at prices which protected the govern-
ment from loss, and at the same time made possible reasonable
retail prices.
In the light of later events, the government action seemed for
a time an unfortunate speculation. But if nothing had been done
the consequences might have been much more serious; and in
view of the uncertainty at the commencement of the war the
action taken seemed to have been warranted. 2
The Cabinet committee on food supplies also arranged from
an early period in the war, for repeated purchases of large quan-
tities of wheat, and their gradual sale in the country. 3 In March,
1915, a committee was appointed to make arrangements, in co-
operation with the government of India, for the purchase, ship-
ment and disposal of Indian wheat.
Purchases of sugar are stated to have involved an expenditure
of £18,000,000; and the expenditures for the fiscal year 1914-15
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 160. This gives the date for this commission
as September 11, 1914. The Edinburgh Review (vol. 463) gives the date as
August 20.
* The Political Quarterly, i, p. 188; No. 6 (1915), p. 81.
The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 332.
* The Edinburgh Review, vol. 463.
4
200
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
included a total of £28,400,000 " invested ” in the purchase of
wheat, meal, sugar, and certain other commodities.
In April, 1915, the government decided not to make any fur-
ther purchases of wheat, on the ground that these operations had
had the effect of restricting neutral trade. 2
FOOD PRODUCTION AND FOOD PRICES COMMITTEES
On the advent of the Coalition Cabinet, another stage, involv-
ing a change of direction in government action relating to food
supplies, was begun by the appointment, in June, 1915, of a
series of Food Production Committees, to consider what steps
should be taken for the purpose of maintaining and, if possible,
increasing the production of food. The committee for Eng-
land and Wales, appointed by Lord Selborne, president of the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, was said to have been an
exceptionally strong body of experts. It included Lord Milner, as
chairman; Lord Inchape, an authority on shipping and freights;
A. D. Hull, Rowland Prothero and Edward Strutt-versed in
practical agricultural management and research; Charles Field-
ing, a business man who had made a special study of food supply;
Sir H. Verney and F. D. Acland, M.P., representing the
Board of Agriculture; and J. A. Seldon, representing the in-
terests of labor. Similar committees were appointed for Scot-
land (8 members) and for Ireland (17 members), the latter hav-
ing as chairman T. W. Russell, the well known vice president of
the Irish Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. 3
In July the committee for England and Wales presented an
interim report, recommending the encouragement of wheat rais-
ing by guaranteeing a minimum price of 45 shillings a quarter
for four years following the war; and that each county council
should appoint a small committee for each rural district to co-
operate with the Board of Agriculture in securing increased
1 The Political Quarterly, No. 6 (1915), p. 167.
· The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 332.
Ibid., p. 131 ; Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 154.
3
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
201
2
3
acreage of land under cultivation. The final report of this com-
mittee, on October 15, 1915, dealt with the supply of fertilizers,
feeding stuffs, agricultural labor and the cultivation of waste
land near cities and towns. 1
The report of the committee for Ireland favored a guaranteed
minimum price for oats and wheat, for one year only; loans to
small holders for implements and machinery; and the prohibi-
tion of the export of artificial manures. Sir Horace Plunkett,
in a minority report, urged the need for organization.
The report of the committee for Scotland did not recommend a
guaranteed minimum price; but urged the importance of artificial
fertilizers and the raising of more pigs and calves; dealt with
the labor problem; and favored the organization of district com-
mittees of the county councils. The Scotch Board of Agriculture
carried on an active campaign in support of this committee's
report.
After considering these reports, the government decided not
to accept the proposals for guaranteeing minimum prices. Pro-
vision was made for appointing agricultural war committees by
the county councils; but a systematic plan for district commit-
tees was not followed up.
In July, 1915, another departmental committee of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries was appointed to consider what steps
could be taken to promote the settlement and employment on the
land in England and Wales of soldiers and sailors, whether dis-
abled or otherwise, on discharge from the navy or army. This
committee consisted of ten members, including two members of
Parliament, with Mr. H. Hobhouse as chairman. 5
Two reports were presented. The final report recommended
government purchase and lease of land, to be rented to tenants;
and that county councils should be encouraged to frame their
small holdings policy on the lines of settlement in colonies. The
4
3
* Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 8048, 8095.
· The Political Quarterly, No. 7, p. 164.
Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 8046.
* The Political Quarterly, No. 7, p. 162.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 164.
202
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
majority report was averse to minimum wage legislation; and
presented for consideration suggestions for: (1) a government
guarantee of a minimum for wheat; (2) a government
bonus for grass land brought under the plow; and (3) import
duties on agricultural produce. A minority report definitely
proposed minimum wages to be fixed by district boards, a guar-
anteed price for wheat for a period of years, and a bonus for
plowing permanent pasture; and expressed doubt whether im-
port duties alone would give the necessary security.
One writer discussing these reports pointed out the difficulties
in the plans proposed, and urged the need for agricultural educa-
tion. 2
2
A Dominions Royal Commission issued, in 1915, a Memoran-
dum and Tables on the Food and Raw Materials Requirements
of the United Kingdom.
Some other agencies for dealing with agricultural problems
other than food supplies may also be noted. A Forage Committee
was established to advise upon the purchase of farm produce for
the army. In August, 1915, another committee was appointed
by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, to consider and advise
what steps should be taken to secure the production and main-
tenance of a supply of horses suitable and sufficient for military
purposes, especially on mobilization. 3
At the end of 1915, arrangements were again made for the
accumulation of certain food supplies. By agreement with the
French and Italian Governments a joint international committee
was organized for the purchase of wheat, flour and maize for
the three governments; and this committee began operations in
January, 1916. Lord Crawford was chairman of the British
committee, which had power to purchase, sell and control the de-
livery of wheat and flour in the United Kingdom, and to take
steps for maintaining the supply.
Towards the end of 1915, there had also been adopted a sys-
4
* The Political Quarterly, No. 8 (1916), pp. 146-153.
? Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 8123.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 154. .
* The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163.
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
203
>
tem of requisitioning ships for the carriage of foodstuffs, through
the Ships Requisitioning (Carriage of Foodstuffs) Committee
and the Ship Licensing Committee. 1
A Food Prices Committee was appointed at the Board of
Trade, in June, 1916, to investigate the principal causes which
had led to the increase of prices of commodities of general con-
sumption since the beginning of the war, and to recommend such
steps, if any, with a view to ameliorating the situation as appear
practical and expedient, having regard to the necessity of main-
taining adequate supplies. This committee consisted of 12 mem-
bers, with Mr. J. M. Robertson, M.P., as chairman, and Profes-
sor W. J. Ashley of the University of Birmingham as one of the
members. Referring to the report of this committee in the House
of Commons, Mr. Runciman, president of the Board of Trade,
stated that there was no evidence of exploitation. ?
An agricultural policy subcommittee of the Committee on Re-
construction was appointed in August, 1916, to consider and re-
port upon the methods of effecting an increase in the home grown
food supplies, having regard to the need of such increase in the
interest of national security. This subcommittee consisted of
fifteen members, with Lord Selborne as chairman. 3
A Wheat Supplies Royal Commission was appointed on Octo-
ber 10, 1916, to inquire into the supply of wheat and flour in the
United Kingdom; to purchase, sell and control the delivery of
wheat and flour on behalf of His Majesty's government; and
generally to take such steps as may seem desirable for maintain-
ing the supply. Lord Crawford, then president of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries, was chairman of this commission,
which took over the function of the grain supplies committee,
and early in January, 1917, took control of the maize trade in
the United Kingdom. Later its activities were extended to in-
clude barley, rice, oatmeal, corn flour, lentils, beans and peas.
1 The Edinburgh Review, vol. 463.
· Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 153; The Times History of the War, x,
ch. 163.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8506.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 164; First Report of the Committee on
National Expenditure, 1917.
4
204
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The Food Prices Committee presented an interim report in
September, 1916, on the prices of meat, milk and bacon; a second
interim report, on November 15, on the prices of bread, flour
and wheat, and freight charges; and a third and final report on
December 30, on the prices of potatoes, tea and sugar. None of
these reports were published until 1917. The first report pre-
sented a series of recommendations relating to shipping, more
labor for transportation, restrictions on imports and economy in
the use of foods; and seven members signed an additional recom-
mendation in favor of government control of prices for home
grown supplies. The second report included a recommendation
that the government should fix a maxiinuni price for wheat; and
five members recommended also an increase of ten per cent in
the amount of flour made from wheat. As the Food Controller
had been appointed before the third report was made, no gen-
eral recommendations were made in that document. 1
A committee of the Royal Society prepared, at the request of
the president of the Board of Trade, a report on the food supply
of the United Kingdom. This committee included representa-
tives of the Board of Trade and Board of Agriculture, and
several professors of physiology, biochemistry and agriculture,
with A. D. Wallace, professor of physiology at the University
of London as chairman.
It may be noted that the various bodies appointed up to this
time to deal with agricultural and food supply questions origi-
nated in several sources, and represented a variety of interests
not likely to be always in agreement. The original Cabinet com-
mittee on food supplies appears to have ceased its activities.
The other agencies set up included several departmental commit-
tees, connected with the Board of Trade and the agricultural
departments; two Royal commissions; and two international
committees. While in some cases distinguishable problems were
given to different agencies; in other cases there is distinct evi-
dence of overlapping jurisdiction; and no provision appears to
2
* Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8358, 8483.
Ibid, 1917, Cd. 8421.
1
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
205
have been made for coordinating the work of the several agencies,
nor for any comprehensive consideration of the interrelation of
the problem of production, supplies, consumption and prices.
Some indications also appear of the influence of different po-
litical factors. With the formation of the Coalition Cabinet,
some new lines of policy were started; but the difficulty of har-
monizing the conflicting traditions in the membership of that
composite body may account for the failure to develop a con-
sistent plan of action. It may be surmised that the Unionists
were more readily disposed to a policy of increasing govern-
mental authority, but that the old school Liberals were more
hesitant about embarking on schemes of aggressive action which
involved further restrictions on the freedom of the individual.
THE FOOD CONTROLLER
On November 15, 1916, the president of the Board of Trade
(Mr. Runciman) announced the forthcoming appointment of a
Food Controller, and the issue of new food regulations under
the Defense of the Realm Act. Shortly afterwards, new food
regulations and orders were issued by the Board of Trade. These
required millers to extract a higher percentage of flour from
wheat; prohibited the use of wheat in brewing; fixed a maxi-
mum price for milk; and restricted the number of courses to be
served at meals at public eating places. But the announcement
of a Food Controller seems to have been made without the con-
sent of the Prime Minister; and no appointment was made until
the formation of the new Lloyd George Ministry in December,
when Lord Devonport was named for this position.
The New Ministries and Secretaries Act, passed on December
20, provided for a Minister of Food, under the title of Food
Controller. It was made the duty of this official: “to regulate
the supply and consumption of food in such manner as he thinks
best for maintaining a proper supply of food, and to take such
1 The Times History of the War, x, ch. 163, p. 333; Edinburgh Review,
vol. 463; S. R. O. 56, December 5, 1916.
* 6 and 7 Geo. V, ch. 68.
1
2
206
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
steps as he thinks best for encouraging the production of food.
For these purposes he shall have the powers and duties of any
government department or authority, whether conferred by
statute or otherwise, as may by Order in Council be transferred
or vested concurrently with the department or authority con-
cerned, and such further powers as may be conferred by regu-
lations under the Defense of the Realm Consolidation Act,
1914.
The act contained the customary provisions about officers and
expenses; the seal, style and acts of the Minister; seat in the
House of Commons; and also provided that the Ministry should
cease twelve months after the war, or earlier by Order in Council.
It will be noted that this act left the powers and duties of the
Food Controller to be determined by Order in Council. These
were formulated by additional Defense of the Realm Regula-
tions, amended from time to time, vesting the Food Controller
with power: (1) as to maintenance of food supplies; (2) to
require returns; (3) to take possession of factories or premises in
which food is manufactured; (4) to make inquiries; and (5)
supplemental provisions. Other regulations were also adopted
extending the powers of the Board of Trade as to articles other
than food; and the powers of the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries to enter on and cultivate land for the maintenance of
food supply, and reducing the acreage for the cultivation of
hops."
Under these regulations the Food Controller undertook a cen-
sus of stocks of foods on hand and to estimate the visible supply
of important commodities; and the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries began a survey of the uncultivated land. These meas-
ures were followed by a long series of orders relating to specific
commodities—in some cases making inquiries, in others impos-
ing restrictions on use, fixing prices, or requisitioning stocks.
Thus in January further restrictions were placed on the milling
of wheat flour, requiring a minimum of 81 per cent of flour to
be extracted from wheat, and providing for the addition of other
? Defense of the Realm Regulations, 2 F to 2 T.
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
207
2
grains. Restrictions were also imposed on the use of sugar.
Maximum prices were fixed for potatoes and milk, and later for
wheat, barley and oats. In February a system of voluntary ra-
tioning in the use of bread, meat and sugar was inaugurated. At
the end of April the government took over all the flour mills in
the United Kingdom and a Mills Control Committee was
appointed. 1
Even with these measures, the shortage of some staples,-
notably sugar, potatoes and margarine—caused a good deal of
inconvenience in the spring of 1917. Lines of purchasers formed
in front of dealers' premises to secure limited allowances.
Early in 1917, a Director General of Food Economy was ap-
pointed; and a comprehensive canvass of the people was organ-
ized, by means of war savings committees in all parts of the
country. On May 2, a Royal Proclamation was issued urging
economy and frugality in the use of food supplies. But these
measures did not result in any great saving.
In June, Lord Devonport resigned as Food Controller, on ac-
count of ill health; and this place was accepted by Lord Rhondda,
who was transferred from the Local Government Board; J. B.
Clynes, a Labor member, was appointed parliamentary secretary.
Lord Rhondda increased largely the staff and organization of
the Food Ministry; and under enlarged powers he extended
still further the number and scope of food orders. During 1917,
180 orders and general licenses were issued. An accountancy
branch was organized to determine, by examining traders' books,
costs and the cause of increased prices. New orders were issued
fixing maximum prices and restricting the profits of producers
and dealers. The price of bread was kept down by a subsidy; and
the government also made up the difference between prices on
potatoes guaranteed to farmers and maximum prices for sales.
In cooperation with the Food Controllers in Canada and the
United States all imports of foodstuffs were brought under con-
trol. The distribution of sugar supplies was improved.
* H. L. Gray: War Time Control of Industry, p. 213.
· The Times History of the War, xii, ch. 192, pp. 441-442; xv, ch. 229.
208
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Great Britain was apportioned into sixteen food divisions,
for each of which a commissioner was appointed by the Food
Controller. Local authorities established food control commit-
tees (about 1,900 committees), each of which included represent-
atives of labor, women and the cooperative movement. These
committees were responsible for the local enforcement of food
orders. Supplies were commandeered and redistributed by local
committees. In the latter part of 1917, compulsory rationing
of some commodities was introduced in certain sections. On
January 1, 1918, a general scheme of compulsory rationing for
sugar was begun; and was extended in April to meat. ?
Some criticism has been made of the general policy of the food
administration, as tending to place foremost the reduction of
prices, the regulation of distribution and the restriction of con-
sumption, and subordinating to these the maintenance of sup-
plies. It has been claimed that in some cases the control of prices
led foreign dealers to reduce the amounts shipped, especially in
the case of American bacon. Direct efforts to stimulate home
production appear to have been left to the agricultural depart-
ments.
Indeed, there seems to be an almost inevitable conflict between
the policies of the different departments. On the one side was
the repeated demand for guaranteed minimum prices to stimulate
production. On the other side, a continued effort by fixing maxi-
mum prices to keep down the cost to the consuming classes. It
may be questioned whether a more coherent and consistent policy
might not have been developed if the different phases of the food
supply problem had been combined in one department instead of
setting up an additional ministry alongside of the three existing
agricultural departments. It has also been suggested that an ex-
tension of the excess profits tax to intercept high profits might
have been more successful than the detailed regulation of prices.
2
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 178-181.
2 The Edinburgh Review, vol. 463.
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
209
HOME PRODUCTION
Some measures taken to increase the home production of food
supplies may be noted.
A Food Production Department was established in January,
1917; and advisory committees to the agricultural departments
on food production were appointed in England and Wales, Scot-
land and Ireland. On January 30, 1917, the agricultural policy
subcommittee of the Committee on Reconstruction (appointed
in August, 1916) submitted an interim report. This favored the
establishment of minimum wages by means of county wage
boards and guaranteed minimum prices for wheat and oats. The
probable effect of guaranteed prices on rents was considered. One
member of the committee (Sir Matthew Wallace) dissented on
the proposal for guaranteed prices.
In April, 1917, a committee on the production and distribution
of milk was appointed by the president of the Board of Agricul-
ture, with the concurrence of the Food Controller, consisting of
eight members, with William Astor as chairman. This sub-
mitted an interim report on June 8, 1917. 1
In the spring of 1917 the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
took steps, througil the local authorities, to secure the cultivation
of unused land, both by farmers on a large scale and by towns-
people in small gardens. War agricultural executive committees
of not more than seven members were set up in every county in
Great Britain, appointed by previously existing county war agri-
cultural committees. Subcommittees and district committees
were also formed, and district commissioners in charge of two
or more counties. These measures added substantially to the
supply, especially of potatoes and other vegetables; and condi-
tions were materially improved early in the summer.
A corn production bill was introduced in Parliament, and was
read a second time on April 25—the Liberal members largely
abstaining from voting. This provided for guaranteed mini-
* Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8506, 8608.
· The Times History of the War, xii, ch. 192, pp. 443-444; The War Cabi-
net: Report for the Year 1917.
2
210
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
mum prices on wheat and oats for five years, for minimum wages,
for the regulation of arrangements between landords and ten-
ants, with powers of entry upon land to secure better cultivation.
This bill was read a third time in the House of Commons and
passed, on August 7, by a vote of 108 ayes to 14 noes.
During the year 1917, also, more effective coordination was
secured between the War Office and the Department of Agri-
culture, in connection with farm labor.
OTHER COMMITTEES
In addition to those already mentioned, the following com-
mittees on food and other agricultural supplies have been created.
Most of these in this list appear to have been connected with
the new Food Ministry.
British Supplies Advisory Committee
Cattle (British), Committee on Utilization of
Cotton Growing in the British Empire, Committee on
Fish (Coarse) Irish Committee
Fish (Cured) Cominittee
Fish Food and Motor Loan Committee
Fish Food Committee
Fish (Freshwater) Committee
Fish (Tinned) Imports Committee
Fisheries, Sea (Scottish), Committee
Food Production Advisory Committee
Food Production in Ireland Advisory Committee
Food Production in Ireland Departmental Committee 2
Fruits (Import Licenses) Committee
Grain and Potato Crops (1917) Committee
Grain Supplies Committee
Hops Control Committee
Horse Breeding Committee No. 2
Horses (Utilization and Feeding of) Committee
Kitchen (Central) Committee
Meat Committee
Meat Supplies Interdepartmental Committee
1
Connected with the Irish Departinent of Agriculture.
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
211
1
Oats Control Committee
Oranges, Advisory Committee on Imports
Pig Breeding Industry (Ireland) Departmental Committee
Poultry Advisory Committee
Rationing Consultative Committee
Spirits and Wine, Delivery of from Bond, Committee
Tea Advisory Committee
Tea Control Committee
Wheat Executive
Food Orders
S.R.O.
50 Seed Potatoes (Growers Prices) Order Jan. 19, 1917
51 Barley and Malt (Returns) Order
Jan. 26, 1917
53 Potatoes (Growers Returns) Order Nov. 21, 1916
54 Waste of Wheat Order
Nov. 25, 1916
56 Regulation of Meals Order
Dec. 5, 1916
59 Seed Potatoes Order
Dec. 14, 1916
60 Potatoes (Ireland) Order
Dec. 18, 1916
62 Manufacture of Flour and Bread Order Jan. 11, 1917
63 Oats (Export from Ireland) Order Jan. 11
64 Milk (Use in Chocolate) Order
Jan. 11
65 Sugar in Confectionery Order
Jan. 11
66 Feeding of Game Order
Jan. 11
67 Wheat (Restriction) Order
Jan. 11
68 Price of Milk Order
Jan. 26
89 Potatoes 1916 Main Crop (Prices) Order Feb. 1
90 Brewers' Sugar Order
Feb. 8
131 Dealings in Sugar (Restrictive) Order Feb. 8
132 Brewers' (Malt Purchases) Order
Feb. 3
159 Malt (Restriction) Order
Feb. 20
178 Potatoes 1916 Main Crop (Prices) Order Feb. 24
179 Seed Potatoes (Prices) Order
Feb. 24
187 Manufacture of Flour and Bread Order Feb. 24
189 Bread Order
Feb. 26
251 Freshwater Fish Order
Mch. 16
259 Malt (Restriction on Shipping) Order Mch. 21
260 Swedes (Prices) Order
Mch. 21
261 Food (Conditions of Sale) Order
Mch. 21
266 Oats and Potatoes (Ireland) Order Mch. 28
Connected with the Irish Department of Agriculture.
212
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
S.R.O.
"
270 Intoxicating Liquors (Output and De-
livery) Order
Mch. 29
281 Amending 252. (Sugar Restriction
Order)
Mch. 16
295 Seed Potatoes (Prices) Order No. 2
Apr. 3
314 Public Meals Order
Apr. 4
315 Manufacture of Flour and Bread Order
No. 3
Apr. 4
317 Food Hoarding Order
Apr. 5
318 Tea (Net Weight) Order
Apr. 5
315 Malt (Restriction) No. 2 Order
Apr. 12
363 Wheat, Barley and Oats (Prices) Order
Apr. 16
364 Barley (Requisition) Order
Apr. 16
372 Cake and Pastry Order
Apr. 18
376 Wheat, Rye and Rice (Restriction) Order Apr. 24
377 Flour Mills Order
Apr. 24
387 Freshwater Fish (Ireland) Order Apr. 25
402 Seed Potatoes (Prices) Order No. 3
Apr. 30
404 Maize, Barley and Oats (Restriction)
Order
May 2
Burmah Peas and Beans
May 1
424 Local authorities—Prosecution of offenses May 8
429 Oats and Maize Products (Retail Prices)
Order
May 9
439 Horses (Rationing) Order
May 11
444 Dealings in Oats (Restriction) Order
May 14
445 Amending 314 (Public Meals Order)
No. 2
May 15
457 Beans, Peas and Pulse (Requisition)
Order
May 16
458 Amending 252 and 281 (Sugar Restric-
tion Order)
482 Oats and Maize Products (Retail Prices)
Order No. 2
May 22
483 Bread Order
May 23
510 Cheese (Requisition) Order
May 29
520 Meat (Sales) Order
May 31
537 Sugar (Domestic Preserving) Order June 11
538 Inspectors of Weights and Measures June 11
613 Oats (Export from Ireland) Order No. 2 June 29
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
213
S.R.O.
664 Amending 314 (Public Meals Order)
No. 3
July 3
673 Beans, Peas and Pulse (Retail Prices)
Order
July 4
694 Stone Fruit (Jam Mfrs.' Prices) Order July 6
700 Intoxicating Liquor (Output and De-
livery) Order No. 2
July 7
702 Raspberries (Jam Mfrs.' Prices) Order July 10
703 Raspberries (Scotland) Delivery Order
July 10
721 1917 Crop (Restriction) Order
July 13
766 Winter Beans Order
July 27
767 Cattle and Meat (Returns) Order
July 28
768 Sea Fishing (England and Wales) Order July 30
769 Fisheries (Ireland) Order
July 30
770 Pickled Herring (Returns) Order
July 31
774 Flour Mills Order No. 2
July 31
776 Milk (Returns) Order
July 31
821 Barley (Restriction) Order
Aug: 15
822 Winter Oats and Rye (Restriction) Order Aug. 14
823 Peas, Beans and Pulse (Retail Prices)
Order
Aug. 14
824 Jam (Prices) Order
Aug. 15
863 Tea (Returns) Order
Aug. 20
868 Apricot Pulp and Bitter Oranges Order
Aug. 21
869 Food Control Committees Order
Aug. 22
[to be appointed by each local authority]
903 Meat (Maximum Prices) Order
Aug. 29
910 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Maximum
Prices) Order
Aug. 30
911 Cheese (Maximum Prices) Order
Aug. 31
Oats and Maize Products (Retail Prices)
Order No. 2
913 Butter (Maximum Prices) Order
Aug. 31
914 Hops (Restriction) Order
Aug. 31
as amended by Order No. 2
Sept. 3
915 Sea Fishing (Ireland) Order
Aug. 31
935 Seed Potatoes (Immune Varieties) Order Sept. 5
937 Flour and Bread (Prices) Order
Sept. 6
939 Milk (Prices) Order
Sept. 7
940 Dried Fruits (Restriction) Order Sept. 8
214
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
S.R.O.
Sept. 26
943 Amending 903—Meat (Maximum
Prices) Order No. 2
Sept. 11
949 Potatoes Order
Sept. 13
954 Horses (Rationing) Order No. 2
964 Pickled Herring Order
Sept. 20
965 Butter (Maximum Prices) Order No. 2 Sept. 20
974 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Maximum
Prices) Order
Sept. 21
998 Potatoes (Postponement of Date) Order Sept. 27
1002 Lard (Returns) Order
Sept. 29
1005 Cheese (Maximum Prices) Order No. 2 Oct. 1
Wheat (Channel Islands and Isle of Man
Export) Order
Oct. 1
1009 Butter (Maximum Prices) Order No. 3 Oct. 2
1025 Bread (Use of Potatoes) Order
Oct. 5
1029 Milk Order
Oct.
8
1030 Public Meals Order
Oct. 8
1032 Dried Fruits (Restriction) Order
Oct. 10
1033 Sea Fishing (Scotland) Order
Oct. 10
1048 Flour and Bread (Prices) Order
Oct. 12
1049 Sugar Order
Oct. 12
1051 Potato Bugs (Returns) Order
Oct. 13
1053 Currants and Sultanas (Requisition)
Order
Oct. 13
1058 Beer (Prices and Description) Order Oct. 15
1059 Intoxicating Liquor (Output and De-
livery) Order No. 3
Oct. 15
1062 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Maximum
Prices) Order
Oct. 17
1063 Tea (Provisional Prices) Order
Oct. 17
1065 Jam (Prices) Order
Oct. 16
1072 , Sugar (Sales for Ireland) Order
Oct. 20
1081 Milk Factories (Restriction) Order
Oct. 24
1093 Butter (Maximum Prices) Order No. 4 Oct. 26
1100 Potatoes Order
Oct. 30
1101 Potatoes (Growers Returns) Order
Oct. 30
1105 British Cheese Order
Oct. 31
1106 Order Revoking Winter Bean Order and
Winter Oats and Rye (Restriction)
Order
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
215
S.R.O.
1107 Cattle Feeding Cake and Meal and
Millers' Offals (Maximum Prices)
Order
Nov. 1
1110 Butter (Maximum Prices) (Amend-
ment) Order
Oct. 31
1122 Butter (Maximum Prices) Order
(No. 5)
Nov. 3
1123 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Maximum Prices)
Order
Nov. 6
1124 Pigs (Maximum Prices) Order
Nov. 6
1130 Enforcement (England and Wales)
Order
Nov. 19
1134 Oil Splitting Order
Nov. 9
1135 Sugar and Confectionery Order
Nov. 9
1138 Food Control Committee for Ireland
(Powers) Order
1140 Sugar Order
Nov. 8
1155 Seed Potatoes (1917 Crop) Order Nov. 12
1156 Testing of Seeds Order
Nov. 12
Oats Products (Retail Prices) Order Nov. 10
1160 Food Control Committee for Ireland
(Constitution) Order
Nov. 7
1162 Margarine (Maximum Prices) Order Nov. 10
1163 Butter (Distribution) Order
Nov. 14
1170 Potatoes Order
Nov. 8
1173 Horse and Poultry Mixtures Order Nov. 17
1174 Damaged Grain, Seeds and Pulse
(Prices) Order
Nov. 17
1180 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Provisional
Prices) Order
Nov. 17
1181 Potatoes Order, General License
Nov. 17
1182 Dredge Corn Order
Nov. 17
1185 Sugar (Brewers Restriction) Order Nov. 19
1186 Food Control Committees (Milk
Requisition) Order
Nov. 19
1188 Potatoes Order (No. 2
Nov. 19
1189 Food Control Committees (Scotland)
Powers Order
Nov. 20
1192 Cream Order
Nov. 20
1193 Pigs (Maximum Prices) Order
Nov. 20
1199 Potatoes Order
Nov. 23
216
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
S.R.O.
1200 Oats Products (Postponement of Date)
Order
Nov. 24
1201 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Distribution)
Order
Nov. 24
1203 Meat (Control) Order
Nov. 27
1213 Intoxicating Liquors (Output and De-
livery) Order No. 4
Nov. 28
1219 Manufacture of Flour and Bread Order
(No. 2
Nov. 27
1220 Dried Fruits (Restriction) Order
Nov. 28
1224 Oils, Oil Cakes and Meals (Requisition)
Order
Nov. 28
1225 Hardened Fat (Requisition) Order Nov. 28
1226 Seeds, Nuts and Kernels (Requisition)
Order
Nov. 29
1227 Milk (Ireland) Order
Nov. 28
1228 Coffee (Retail Prices) Order
Dec. 1
1233 Ships' Stores Order
Dec.
5
Bread (Use of Potatoes) Order No. 2 Dec. 8
1247 Dutch Cheese (Prices) Order
Dec. 8
1248 Pigs (Maximum Prices) Order
Dec. 10
1256 Sugar Order No. 2
Dec. 11
1257 Potatoes Order
Dec. 11
1259 Meat (Restriction of Retail Sales) Order Dec. 11
1292 Bacon, Ham and Lard (Provisional
Dec. 13
1295 Téa"(Provisional Prices) Order No. 2 Dec. 14
1296 „Milk (Use in Chocolate) Order No. 2 Dec. 14
1297 Condensed Milk (Returns) Order
Dec. 14
1298 Food Control Committees (Audit of Ac-
counts) Order
Dec. 14
1299 Live Stock (Restriction of Slaughter)
Order
Dec. 14
1305 Raw Coffee (Returns) Order
Dec. 18
1310 Food Control Committees (Margarine
Requisition) Order
Dec. 20
1311 Oils and Fats (Requisition) Order
Dec. 21
1312 Sugar (Brewers Restriction) Order No. 2 Dec. 21
1313 Bacon and Ham Curers (Returns) Order Dec. 21
1314 Refined Vegetable Oils (Requisition)
Order
Dec. 21
sPrices) Order
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD CONTROL
217
S.R.O.
Dec. 21
Dec. 22
Dec. 21
Dec. 22
1316 Cattle Feeding Stuffs (Committees)
Order
5 Permanent Feeding Stuffs Com-
mittees
35 Provisional Feeding Stuffs Com-
mittees (28 England and Wales, 7
Scotland)
1318 Meat (Maximum Prices) Order No. 3
1319 British Cheese Order
1325 Food Control Committees (Local Dis-
tribution) Order
Oats Products (Retail Prices) Order
No. 1157, as amended by Nos. 1200
and 1328
1350 Ice Cream (Restriction) Order
1353 Sugar (Rationing) Order
1368 Meat (Maximum Prices) Order
1 Ice Cream (Restriction Order
2 Committees (Disqualification for Mem-
bership) Order
5 Butter (Ireland) Order
8 Sugar Order, 1917, General License
9 Rabbits (Prices) Order
12 Whiskey (Restriction on Sales) Order
14 Bread (Use of Potatoes) Order
20 Flour and Bread (Prices) Order, 1917
21 Wheat (Seed) Order
22 Deer (Restriction of Feeding) Order
32 Meat (Maximum Prices) Order, 1917
33 Dutch Cheese (Prices) Order, 1917
34 Live Stock (Restriction of Slaughter)
Order, 1917
Dec. 29
Dec. 31
Dec. 24
Jan. 2, 1918
1
Jan. 2
Jan. 3
Jan. 4
Jan. 4
Jan. 5
Jan. 8
Jan. 9
Jan. 10
Jan. 14
Jan. 14
Jan. 14
Jan. 12
CHAPTER XI
Financial Administration
Financial problems arising out of the war have not only in-
volved an undreamed of expansion in the scale of the fiscal af-
fairs of the government, with radical changes in methods; but
have also led to far-reaching and in many respects novel steps.
for dealing with the financial transactions of the business world
and private individuals. At the outbreak of the war, the emer-
gency measures for preventing a complete breakdown in the fi-
nancial machinery of trade and business were indeed more strik-
ing and of more significance than the early steps for meeting the
fiscal needs of the government.
One of the first measures taken was the formation of
gen-
eral committee to assist the government in financial matters.
This committee included Austen Chamberlain and Lord St. Ald-
wyn (former Chancellors of the Exchequer), Lord Revelstoke,
the Governor of the Bank of England, the Lord Chief Justice of
England and Sir John Bradbury.
1
REGULATION OF PRIVATE TRANSACTIONS
On Saturday, July 31, 1914, the London Stock Exchange was
closed; and the rate of bank discount was doubled, from 4 to 8
per cent, and later increased to 10 per cent. August 2 was a
bank holiday, and this was extended for three days. On August
2 a moratorium was declared by a Royal Proclamation postpon-
ing for one month the payment of certain bills of exchange. An
Act of Parliament, passed on the 3d, confirmed this proclamation,
and authorized the postponement by Royal Proclamation of the
payment of bills of exchange and other obligations " for such
1
The Times History of the War, vii, ch. 114, p. 238.
218
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
219
time and subject to such conditions or other provisions as may
be specified in the proclamation." 1
Under this act a proclamation was issued on August 6, ex-
tending the moratorium of August 2 to certain other payments.
Further proclamations were issued on August 12, and on Sep-
tember 1, 3 and 30, extending and varying the provisions of the
moratorium, the last of these providing that the moratorium
should end on November 4.2
A Currency and Bank Notes Act was passed on August 6,
authorizing the issue by the Treasury of currency notes for one
pound and ten shillings, and the issue by the Bank of England and
Scotch and Irish banks of notes in excess of the former limit,
and making bank notes in Scotland and Ireland legal tender, a
Arrangements were made for issuing currency notes through
the Bank of England, as and when required, to a maximum
limit not exceeding 20 per cent of the liabilities of any bank
on deposit and current accounts. In Scotland and Ireland cur-
rency notes were issued as cover for bank notes. By January,
1915, £37,000,000 in notes had been issued; and gold had almost
disappeared from circulation. 4
The volume of currency notes has continued to show a marked
increase. Bank of England notes in circulation also show a mod-
erate increase, the additional issues being fully secured by metal-
lic reserve. The following table shows the currency notes and
Bank of England notes at the dates named. 5
Currency Bank of Eng-
Notes
land Notes
Outstanding in Circulation
July 29, 1914.
£29,706,350
August 26, 1914...
£ 21,535,065 35,571,435
December 30, 1914.
38,478,164 36,139,180
December 29, 1915...
103,125,099 35,309,255
December 27, 1916.
150,144,177 39,675,535
December 26, 1917...
212,782,295 45,943,966
February 20, 1918.
216,134,893 46,207,340
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, pp. 235, 238; 4 and 5 Geo. V, ch. 11.
2 Manual of Emergency Legislation, pp. 239-247.
3 4 and 5 Geo. V, chs. 14, 72.
* Parliamentary Papers, 1914, No. 457; Manual of Emergency Legislation,
p. 136; The Times History of the War, vii, ch. 114, p. 264.
• The Economic World, n.s., xv, 593 (April 27, 1918).
.
.
220
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
On August 12, 1914, notice was given of an arrangement be-
tween the government and the Bank of England, under which
the government guaranteed the bank from loss in discounting
bills of exchange accepted by British houses prior to August 4.
It was estimated that bills of exchange were in circulation
amounting to between £350,000,000 and £500,000,000; and un-
der the above arrangement bills amounting to £120,000,000 were
discounted. 1
As a preliminary to the termination of the general morato-
rium an act was passed on August 31, 1914, giving emergency
powers to the courts to protect debtors from hardships attrib-
utable to the war. Under this act the execution of judgments,
the foreclosure of mortgages and the lapsing of certain life and
endowment insurance policies and other debts could be enforced
only after application to the court, which had power to stay exe-
cution or defer the operation of remedies for such time and sub-
ject to such conditions as the court might see fit.
More direct assistance to exporters was provided by the ap-
pointment, on November 4, 1914, of a Foreign Trade Debts
Committee, to authorize advances in approved cases to British
traders carrying on export business in respect of debts outstand-
ing in foreign countries and the colonies. This committee had
six members, representatives of the Treasury, the Bank of Eng-
land, the joint stock banks, and the Association of Chambers of
Commerce of the United Kingdom.
On October 31, 1914, the Treasury announced its approval of a
scheme for government advances to lenders on stock exchange
securities (other than banks to which currency facilities were
open) up tu 60 per cent of the value of their securities, on con-
dition that they would not press for repayment of their loans
until after the war.
2
3
4
2
* Parliamentary Papers, 1914, No. 457; The Times History of the War,
vii, ch. 114, p. 239.
4 and 5 Geo. V, ch. 78; The Political Quarterly, i, 165.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 162; Manual of Emergency Legislation,
Financial Edition, June, 1915, D. 48.
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 2, p. 181; Supplement
No. 3, p. 527.
)
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
221
An Act of Parliament, of November 27, 1914, authorized
payments with respect to various obligations of the government
in connection with the war—including guarantees and advances
on bills of exchange, advances on loans to members of the
stock exchange, payments on contracts of
contracts of insurance, loans
raised by the Allies or British dominions or possessions, and
the maintenance of food supply, business or communica-
tions. 2
In December, 1914, the Treasury approved the reopening of
the stock exchange, from January 4, 1915, subject to certain
restrictions, set forth in Temporary Regulations. The objects
of the restrictions were: (a) to safeguard the London market
against forced realization of securities and against operations for
the purpose of depressing prices; and (6) to close the market
absolutely to the enemy both directly and indirectly. Many of
the transactions which the rules were designed to prevent were
illegal under the Trading with the Enemy Acts and proclamations
and at common law.
On January 19, 1918, a Treasury announcement was made
that fresh issues of capital would be subject to approval by the
Treasury before they are made, under the following general con-
ditions: New issues for undertakings in the United Kingdom
to be allowed only where it is shown that they are advisable in
the national interest; those for undertakings in the British Em-
pire overseas to be allowed only where urgent necessity and
special circumstances exist; and those for undertakings outside
the British Empire not to be allowed. 3
Announcement was made on January 27 of the appointment
by the Chancellor of the Exchequer of a committee to consider
and advise upon applications received by the Treasury for ap-
proval of fresh issues of capital. This committee, as first ap-
pointed, consisted of Lord St. Aldwyn, chairman, Lord Cunliffe,
the Governor of the Bank of England, Sir Frederick G. Ban-
2
15 Geo. V, ch. 11.
· Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 3, p. 533.
Ibid., p. 404.
8
222
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2
bury, M.P., Sir Thomas P. Whittaker, M.P., and Mr. G. Sta-
pleton Barnes—of the Board of Trade. 1
Notice was given that Treasury approval was required for
capital issues by a government, municipality or other public body,
as well as companies. But on March 25, 1915, a circular letter
of the Local Government Board announced that to avoid dupli-
cation of labor it had been arranged that the approval of that
body for loans by local authorities under powers conferred by
public general acts or by local acts or provisional orders should
suffice without further approval by the Treasury.
An Increase of Rent and Mortgage Interest (War Restric-
tions) Act, passed in 1915, made irrecoverable any increase in
rent (with some exceptions, as where a landlord had incurred ex-
penditures on improvements), or in interest on mortgages; and
prohibited orders for recovery or ejectment, as long as the ten-
a'nt complied with the agreement, or calling in mortgages except
under special circumstances.
An amendment to the Courts (Emergency Powers) Act, en-
acted on May 17, 1916, aimed to protect the financial affairs of
officers and men in the British forces. Under this no execution
or other enforcement of judgment can be had against any officer
or man in the British forces for money due and payable in pur-
suance of a contract except by special permission of a competent
court, which has absolute discretion to stay the execution.
Another Courts (Emergency Powers) Act No. 2, passed in
1917, broadened the general scope of the act of 1914, and aimed
to prevent some hardships.
3
FISCAL TRANSACTIONS
Votes of Credit
The war began when the regular session of Parliament for
the year 1914 was about to close, with the usual financial meas-
ures for the fiscal year practically completed. To meet the ex-
Manual of Emergency Legislation, Supplement No. 3, p. 405.
Ibid., p. 406.
6 and 7 Geo. V, chs. 13, 18; 7 and 8 Geo. V.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
223
1
traordinary expenditures of the war, resort was at once made to
a vote of credit, based on a lump sum estimate; and this procedure
has been followed at intervals of a few months. The form of
these votes of credit may be indicated by quoting in full the first
vote, passed August 5, 1914:
.
That a sum not exceeding one hundred million pounds be granted to
His Majesty, beyond the ordinary Grants of Parliament, towards defraying
the Expenses which may be incurred during the year ending the 31st of
March, 1915, for all measures which may be taken for the Security of the
Country; for the conduct of Naval and Military Operations; for assisting
the Food Supply; for promoting the Continuance of Trade, Industry, Busi-
ness and Communications, whether by means of insurance or indemnity
against risk or otherwise; for the Relief of Distress; and generally for all
expenses arising out of the existence of a state of war.
In the Appropriation Act of 1916, there was added to the list
of purposes for which the vote was made, “ the financing of the
purchase and resale of foodstuffs and materials."
Votes of credit had been used in previous wars—the last pre-
ceding vote having been adopted in 1885. The South African
war was financed on votes based on supplementary estimates.
A Treasury minute of August 20, 1914, referred to the nature
of a vote of credit, as described in a former Treasury minute
of February 1, 1880, and laid down certain rules for expendi-
tures. A vote of credit is not, like a vote of supply, made to
the army or navy or any of the spending departments, but is made
to the Treasury, which thus has general supervision of the
expenditures. Rules governing expenditures required the civil
service departments to earmark expenditures from votes of credit,
so as to distinguish them from expenditures from supply; but
this did not apply to the War Office and the Admiralty. A
letter from the War Office of August 14, 1914, related to ac-
counting for war expenditures.
For the fiscal year 1914-15 the expenditures from votes of
credit for the army and navy, as for other departments, were in
addition to the ordinary grants of supply previously made. But
1
* Manual of Emergency Legislation, pp. 396-401.
224
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
beginning with the year 1915-16, the army and navy estimates
were absorbed in the votes of credit, with only token votes of
£1,000 or £100 for each vote of supply. This was a departure
from former practice, where votes of credit had been in addition
to the ordinary grants based on peace expenditures. The usual
itemized estimates and votes of supply have, however, been con-
tinued for the ordinary expenses of the civil service and revenue
departments.
The following table shows the different votes of credit passed
by Parliament since the beginning of the war:1
1. August 6, 1914..
2. November 15, 1914.
3. March 1, 1915...
£100,000,000
225,000,000
37,000,000
Total for 1914-15......
£362,000,000
.
4. March 1, 1915.
5. June 15, 1915..
6. July 20, 1915..
7. September 15, 1915.
8. November 11, 1915..
9. February 22, 1916.
Total for 1915-16.......
£250,000,000
250,000,000
150,000,000
250,000,000
400,000,000
120,000,000
£1,420,000,000
...
.
10. February 21, 1916.
11. May 23, 1916.
12. July 24, 1916.
13. October 11, 1916..
14. December 14, 1916.
15. February 12, 1917..
16. March 15, 1917...
£300,000,000
300,000,000
450,000,000
300,000,000
400,000,000
200,000,000
60,000,000
0
Total for 1916-17
...
£2,010,000,000
.
17. February 12, 1917....
18. May 9, 1917.
19. July 24, 1917..
20. October 30, 1917.
21. December 15, 1917
£350,000,000
500,000,000
650,000,000
400,000,000
550,000,000
.
Total for 1917-18...
£2,450,000,000
.
1 Whitaker's Almanack, 1918, p. 701.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
225
War Loans
To provide the funds authorized by the votes of credit and
to meet expenditures, loans were made from the beginning of
the war; and while large increases have been made in tax rev-
enues, about three-fourths of the expenditures during the war
have been met by means of loans.
As the first measures Treasury bills were issued, and advances
were also secured from the Bank of England; and such tempo-
rary measures have been continued, in the intervals between the
loans for longer periods. The first of the larger war loans made
in November, 1914, was for £350,000,000, at 372 per cent, issued
at 95. Subscriptions up to the end of the fiscal year (March 31,
1915) yielded £290,000,000. In addition 3 per cent five year
Exchequer bonds were sold to the amount of nearly £48,000,000;
while the net receipts from Treasury bills and miscellaneous bor-
rowings amounted to about £220,000,000, making a total of
war loans for the year 1914-15 of £566,000,000.
In June, 1915, a second war loan of £600,000,000 at 472 per
cent was offered; and in September of the same year an Anglo-
French loan of $500,000,000 at 5 per cent was arranged for in
the United States. Including Treasury bills, Exchequer bonds
(at 3 and 5 per cent) and other borrowings, the total net re-
ceipts from loans for the fiscal year 1915-16 amounted to
£1,165,000,000.
In the fiscal year 1916-17, another general war loan was made
for nearly £800,000,000; Exchequer bonds (at 5 and 6 per cent)
were sold to the amount of £240,000,000; and Treasury bills
and other borrowing made a net total of loans for this year of
£1,620,000,000. In 1917-18, the net total of loans amounted
to about £2,000,000,000, including Treasury bills, Exchequer
bonds, additions to the 4 and 5 per cent loan of 1917, about
£500,000,000 loaned by the United States Government, war
savings certificates and national war bonds.
The principal items in the war loans for the several years are
shown in the following table : 2
* E. L. Bogart: Direct Costs of the Present War, pp. 6-13.
226
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
(IN MILLIONS OF POUNDS)
1914-15
£ 61.65
47.70
296.00
1916-17
£ *102.2
352.0
1917-18 to
Dec. 31, 1917
£1,058.0
82.0
Treasury bills (net)
Exchequer bonds...
312% War loan.
War loans...
5% Anglo-French loan.
Miscellaneous
Loan from U. S. Gov't.
1915-16
£ 488.8
$179.1
35.8
592.0
50.0
30.0
218.0
780.0
110.0
413.0
.
160.40
46.0
409.0
.
£ 565.75
Total...
Less repayments.
£1,375.7
160.4
£1,757.2
4.4
£1,813.0
25.0
Net loans.
£1,215.3
£1,752.8
£1,788.0
•
.
* Net amount retired.
† Net amount retired £25,800,000.
The London Economist (February 23, 1918) places the total
gross
indebtedness of Great Britain at £5,678,600,000 on Febru-
ary 16, 1918, as compared with £710,500,000 on August 1,
1914, an increase of £4,968,100,000, or 699.2 per cent. From
the total present debt there should be deducted the advances to
the Allies and Dominions which had reached £1,444,000,000 on
February 9, 1918, making the net debt on February 16, 1918,
approximately £4,430,000,000, or $21,558,600,000. Details of
the public debt are given in the following table.
1
(IN MILLIONS OF Pounds)
Aug. 1, Mar. 31, Mar. 31, Mar. 31, Feb. 16,
1914 1915 1916 1917 1918
Funded debt......
£586.7 £ 583.3 £ 318.5 £ 317.8 £ 317.8
Terminable annuities.
29.6 28.0 26.1 24.0 24.0
Unfunded debt:
312% war stock...
349.1 62.8 62.7 62.7
412% war stock.
900.0 20.0 20.0
4% and 5% war stock..
1,962.4 2,086.9
National war bonds..
363.9
Treasury bills...
15.5 77.2 556.8 463.7 1,054.8
Exchequer bonds.
20.5 67.4 177.0 320.3 402.6
War savings certificates
1.4 74.5 120.3
War expenditure cer-
tificates
23.6 23.5
Other debt..
9.2 316.5 861.9
American loans.
51.4 51.4 51.4
Temporary advances.
1.0
19.9 217.5 237.8
Other capital liabilities. 57.2 57.0 56.7 52.2 51.2
•
.
Total liabilities... £710.5 £1,162.0 £2,179.8 £3,906.6 £5,678.8
The Economic World, April 27, 1918, n.s., vol. xv, No. 17, p. 593.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
227.
1
Several committees were appointed to assist in encouraging in-
vestors to take part in the war loans. In July, 1915, a War
Savings (Irish) Committee was formed, to impress upon the
people of Ireland the necessity of effecting economies during the
war and the desirability of investing in the war loan.
In December, 1915, a committee was provided, at the National
Debt Office, to control the operations of the Treasury for the pur-
pose of carrying into effect the government scheme for the sale
to and deposit with the Treasury of American dollar securities
in connection with the regulation of the foreign exchanges.
About the same time another committee was appointed at the
Treasury, with Mr. E. S. Montagu as chairman, to consider the
best methods of obtaining contributions to war loans from small
investors. This committee reported on January 26, 1916.
A War Savings (National) Committee was established in
February, 1916, to inculcate the necessity of saving for the suc-
cessful and efficient prosecution of the war and investing in
government securities, especially war savings certificates.
In May, 1916, a War Savings Committee for Scotland was
appointed.
The War Loan Act of December, 1916, is especially notable
for the unlimited discretion vested in the Treasury as to the
manner and conditions of the loans authorized. The act pro-
vides that:
Any money required for the raising of any supply granted to His Majesty
for the service of the year ending the 31st day of March, 1917 ... may
be raised in such manner as the Treasury may think fit, and for that purpose
they may create and issue any securities by which any public loan has been
raised, or such other securities bearing such rate of interest and subject to
such conditions of repayment redemption or otherwise, as they think fit.
Taxes and Revenue
While the greater part of the war expenditures have been met
by means of loans, the British Government early provided for
additional taxation to meet part of the burden. The regular
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 149, 162, 163.
228
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
budget for 1914-15 had proposed new taxes amounting to more
than £15,000,000 over tiie preceding year. In November, 1914,
still further taxes were imposed, which were estimated to yield
over £15,000,000 additional, The exchequer receipts for the
year ending March 31, 1915, were £226,694,000, almost £30,-
000,000 more than for the previous year.
.
Chancellor of the Exchequer McKenna's budget for 1915-16
proposed further increases of taxation, the total revenue re-
ceipts being estimated at £270,000,000. But as the expendi-
tures mounted a more vigorous policy was adopted; and in
September still higher rates of taxation were imposed, especially
in the income and supertaxes, and a tax on excess war profits
was introduced, bringing the total estimated revenue to £305,-
000,000. The new and higher taxes proved more lucrative than
had been estimated; and the total revenue receipts for the year
amounted to more than £336,000,000, an increase of about 50
per cent over 1914-15.
For the year 1916-17 still more drastic taxes were imposed.
The normal income tax was raised to 25 per cent; the rate of the
excess profits tax was increased from 50 to 60 per cent; customs
and excise duties were doubled and quadrupled; and many new
indirect taxes were introduced. These were estimated to yield
£255,000,000 new revenue, or a total of £570,000,000. The
revenue receipts for the year slightly exceeded this, amounting
to £573,000,000, about 70 per cent more than for the previous
year, and nearly three times the revenue of the year 1913-14. 1
The budget for 1917-18 proposed only comparatively slight
additions to the tax revenues, hardly more than enough to care
for the increased interest charges on loans. The rate of excess
profits duty was again increased, to 80 per cent. The revenue
from excise taxes decreased sharply, on account of the reduction
in consumption of liquors; but other taxes, especially the income
and excess profits taxes, yielded substantial additions above the
previous year and the estimates. The revenue receipts for the
year exceeded the estimates by about £15,000,000, amounting to
* E. L. Bogart: Direct Costs of the Present War.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
229
£707,000,000, about 20 per cent more than the preceding year.
The new and higher taxes were administered by the boards of
customs and inland revenue, in existence before the war, and
did not involve any radical reorganization of the revenue serv-
ices. An additional agency of some importance was the Excess
Profits Duty Board of Referees, a body of 29 members, ap-
pointed to consider appeals and applications in connection with
the excess profits duty. 1
The following table shows the principal sources of revenue
receipts for each fiscal year, beginning with 1913-14:
BRITISH REVENUE RECEIPTS
(IN THOUSANDS OF POUNDS)
.
1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 1917-18
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Customs
£ 35,450 £ 38,662 £ 59,606 £ 70,561 £ 71,261
Excise
39,590 42,313 61,210 56,380 38,772
Estate duties
27,359 28,382 31,035 31,232 31,674
Stamps
9,966 7,577 6,764 7,878
8,300
Land tax
700
630
660
640
House duty
2,000 1,930 1,990
Income tax
47,249 69,399 128,320 205,033 239,509
Excess profits tax
140 139,920 220,214
Land value duties .
715 412
363
521
685
* -
Total tax revenue... £163,029 £189,305 £290,088 £514,105 £613,040
Nontax revenue.
35,214 37,389 46,679 59,323 94,194
1,940 } 2,625
Total revenue.....
£198,243 £226,694 £336,767 £573,428 £707,234
(a) The Times History of the War, vii, ch. 114, p. 259.
(b) Whitaker's Almanack, 1916, p. 494.
(c) Parliamentary Papers, 1916, No. 64.
(d) Ibid., 1917, No. 71.
(e) The Economic World, May 11, 1918, n.s., xv, p. 667.
The table below summarizes the tax and revenue receipts by
fiscal years:
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 153.
230
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
TAX AND REVENUE RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES 1
(IN THOUSANDS OF Pounds)
Total
Ratio Ratio
Net Revenue
of Tax of Total
Receipts Receipts
Receipts Revenue
Year
from of the Total Ex- to Ex- to Ex-
Ending Mar. 31
Taxation Exchequer penditure penditure penditure
1913
£154,854 £188,802 £188,622 82.1 100.1
1914
163,035 198,243 197,493 82.6 100.4
1915
190,054 226,694 560,474 33.9 40.4
1916
290,873 336,767 1,559,158 18.7 21.6
1917
* 516,256 573,428 2,198,113 23.5 26.1
1918
613,040 707,234 2,696,221 22.8. 26.2
Aug. 1, 1914, to March
31, 1918.
1,779,187
* Includes exchequer receipts from customs and excise and net receipts
from all other sources.
The revenue receipts for 1917-18 were more than three and
a half times those for the last fiscal year before the war; while
the expenditures for 1917-18 were thirteen times those for
1913-14.
Expenditures
In addition to the sums raised by the home government there
have been large amounts raised by the British colonies and de-
pendencies. The governments of Canada, Australia and New
Zealand have financed the cost of their armies. South Africa
has borne the whole cost of the war in South West Africa and
a large part of the cost of its forces in East Africa. The larger
part of the expenditure for the Indian forces has been met by
the British Exchequer; but the Indian Government has had con-
siderable payments and has contributed £100,000,000 towards the
cost of the war. Contributions have also been made by the
Crown Colonies, protectorates and the native princes and chiefs
in India.
· The Economic World, April 27, 1918, n.s., xv, p. 593 (Sources: London
Gazette, February 19, 1918; Statesman's Yearbook, 1917, pp. 42-48, 1918,
43; 60th Report of the Commissioners of His Majesty's Inland Revenue,
1917); The Economic World, May 11, 1918, n.s., xv, p. 667.
p.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
231
The following table shows the distribution of expenditure for
the fiscal year 1915-16:1
£ 73,488,000
86,018,000
.
Consolidated fund services.
Supply services..
Army (token votes).
Navy
Ministry of Munitions (token votes)
Civil services
Revenue departments
Post office services
O
£ 15,000
7,000
2,000
54,718,000
4,603,000
26,673,000
1,399,652,000
Votes of credit...
I Excesses of accounts of votes:
Army
Navy
Munitions
Civil services
Revenue departments
.
0
£526,698,000
205,717,000
224,639,000
2,118,000
3,538,000
Total
£962,710,000
II Outside parliamentary votes:
Oufriedes uparliament
Bank of England
Exchange account
£315,967,000
30,599,000
53,375,000
Total ..
Board of Trade
Other departments
£399,941,000
10,787,000
20,211,000
.
Total
£430,939,000
.
Total expenditure
Issues to meet capital expenditure.
Advances
Redemption of unfunded debt
£1,559,158,000
2,570,000
3,807.000
489,398,000
Balance, March 31, 1916
25,575,000
Grand total
£2,217,096,000
Control over Finances
The stupendous expansion of expenditures on account of the
war has involved a suspension in large part of much of the ma-
chinery for the control of government finances in Great Britain.
As already noted, the great bulk of the government expenditures
- have been authorized under lump-sum votes of credit for hun-
dreds of millions of pounds, with no detailed estimates or
* Parliamentary Papers, 1916, No. 54; 1917, No. 64.
232
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
i
itemized appropriations. The expenditures made from such
votes of credit included, not only the additional war expenses,
but also the ordinary expenses of the army and navy; and in
addition the expenditures of the new ministries, departments and
other agencies created during the war; and still further, con-
siderable amounts for many of the civil service departments over
and above the appropriations to meet the estimates still made for
these departments.
As a result, the usual forms of parliamentary control over ap-
propriations are no longer in force for more than 95 per cent of
the government expenditures. The primary control in effect has
been that of the Treasury, to which the votes of credit are
made. But while the Treasury has required preliminary esti-
mates for additional allowances from the votes of credit for the
civil service departments, these have not been required for the
great bulk of expenditures for the army and navy or for the
munitions and other new ministries, departments and agencies.
A first step to examine the possibilities of reducing expendi-
tures was taken by the Treasury in July, 1915, when a Retrench-
ment Committee was appointed: “to inquire and report what
savings in public expenditure can, in view of the necessities
created by the war, be effected in the civil departments without
detriment to the interests of the state." This committee con-
sisted of 12 members, with Chancellor of the Exchequer Mc-
Kenna as chairman, Mr. E. S. Montagu, Financial Secretary
of the Treasury, several other members of Parliament, and some
other members.
This committee submitted three preliminary reports, in Sep-
tember and December, 1915, and January, 1916, and a final re-
port on February 21, 1916." These reports discussed in turn
many of the civil service departments; but dealt for the most
part with minor details, although some plans for administrative
reorganization were proposed. The final report called attention
to the increase in the civil service estimates since 1895, from
* Parliamentary Papers, 1914-1916, Cd. 8048, 8139, 8180, 8200.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
233
£19,000,000 to £59,000,000, due to new grants and new services,
such as old age pensions, national insurance and education. At-
tention was called to measures already taken to secure economies.
The recommendations included the establishment of a uniform
eight-hour day in government offices, a reorganization of the sub-
ordinate departments of the Board of Trade, and a consolida-
tion of the four insurance commissions, and referred to other
suggested changes.
No thoroughgoing plans of reorganization nor far-reaching
plans for improvement were urged by this committee, even with
respect to the civil service departments; while its scope was
limited to what had become a relatively minor part of the field of
government expenditure.
Some measures were also taken by a few of the larger spending
departments to consider the problem of expenditures. In No-
vember, 1915, a Ministry of Munitions Committee on Expendi-
tures was appointed, to review the expenditure of the Ministry
and to secure economy. 1 Later a Munitions Finance Committee
and a Munitions Financial Advisory Committee were formed.
But, as is noted elsewhere in this report, the financial methods of
this Ministry continued to be extremely lax.
In January, 1916, a War Office Expenditure Committee was
appointed to consider possibilities of economy in the army ex-
penditure. Mr. W. H. Long was chairman of this committee, on
which General Sir W. Robertson, Chief of Staff, was a member.?
A Treasury Committee on War Expansion of Government
Departments was also appointed.
The opinion in favor of more effective supervision over finances
was indicated in the report of the House of Commons Committee
on Public Accounts, on July 31, 1917, which urged that estimates
more closely approaching those of normal times both for the fight-
ing services and for new departments be charged to the votes of
credit.3
A Treasury minute of November 1, 1917, replying to this
recommendation, considered the proposal impractical and against
1 Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 155.
Ibid., p. 162.
* Parliamentary Papers, 1917, No. 123.
234
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
the public interest; but stated that there would be submitted with
the estimates a statement of the services for which provision is
to be made from the votes of credit, and that the practice of
token estimates would be extended to all new departments pre-
sided over by responsible ministers. 1
Committee on National Expenditure
As the result of a discussion in the House of Commons in
July, 1917, on the control over finances, a Select Committee on
National Expenditure with broad powers of inquiry was ap-
pointed. Mr. Herbert Samuel (one of the former Ministers in
the Asquith Cabinets) said of the existing system, even before
the war:
By universal agreement ... the control of the House of Commons over
the expenditure of departments is a mere simulacrum of control. It is per-
functory; it is unreal. If expenditure goes up in any department in time
of peace by two or three million pounds the attention of Parliament is di-
rected to it, and the Minister in charge has to explain and justify his pro-
posal, but for the rest Parliament is unable to take cognizance of any of
the details of expenditure. Sometimes there may be a more or less amı
musing
discussion in Committee of Supply on some increase of £5,000, which the
Minister in charge is unable to explain because he has not sufficiently learned
up his brief; but real, effective, businesslike control of Parliament is entirely
absent.
Mr. Samuel also analyzed in turn the present methods of con.
trol: within the departments, by the Treasury, by the Controller
and Auditor General, and by the House of Commons. ?
The government agreed to the appointment of a Select Com-
mittee under the following proposed terms of reference:
That a Select Committee be appointed:
(1) to examine the expenditure which is now being defrayed out of moneys
provided by Parliament, and to report what if any economies consistent with
the execution of the policy decided upon by the government may be effected
therein;
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, No. 171.
Parliamentary Debates, vol. 95, 1554 (July 6, 1917).
1
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
235
(2) to make recommendations in regard to the form of parliamentary esti-
mates and accounts, the system of control within the departments and by
the Treasury, and the procedure of this House in relation to supply and
appropriation, so as to secure more effective control by Parliament over
public expenditure; and to have power to appoint one or more subcommittees
to investigate such matters as the committee may deem necessary for the
purpose of making such recommendations, and the committee may appoint
from outside its own members such additional members as it may think fit
to serve on such subcommittees. ?
The order for the committee was passed on July 25, the com-
mittee to consist of 26 members, with 5 as a quorum, and with
power to send for persons, papers and records. 2 Mr. Herbert
Samuel, a member of the Asquith Cabinets, not in office, was
appointed chairman.
A special report of the committee, on August 1, announced the
appointment of six subcommittees on (1) the War Office; (2)
the Admiralty and Ministry of Shipping; (3) the Ministry of
Munitions and Air Board; (4) the Ministry of Food, the Wheat
and Sugar Commissions, the Board of Trade, and the Ministry
of Blockade; (5) the Ministry of Works, the National Service
Department, the Ministry of Labor and the Post Office; (6)
the Treasury. 3
A first report was submitted by the committee on October 24
on the War Office, the Ministry of Munitions, the Wheat Com-
mission and the Ministry of National Service. The committee
criticized the departmental control of finance in the Ministry of
Munitions and recommended that one parliamentary secretary
of this Ministry be charged with finance, and also recommended
a larger degree of Treasury control.
A second and more important report was submitted by the
committee on December 13, 1917. Up to that time the committee
and subcommittees had held 132 meetings and examined 182
witnesses.
With reference to parliamentary estimates, the committee re-
ported that estimates for war expenditures would be almost
valueless, and for the more important votes not compatible with
* Ibid., vol. 96, 344-345 (1917).
Ibid., 1402.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, H.C. 125.
Ibid., H.C. 151.
4
2
236
PRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
the public interest; but recommended that estimates should be
submitted for some of the new departments, for example those
connected with the Board of Trade.
Because of the absence of parliamentary estimates the com-
mittee considered the Treasury control over expenditures of
special importance. The control exercised was far short of the
needs of the case, and should be increased and the Treasury
staff (of 38 persons) should be enlarged. Attention was called
to the fact that the staffs of the new Ministries of Munitions,
Labor, Food, Shipping, the Air Board and National Service
were not subject to Treasury control; while appointments on the
staffs of the new Ministries of Pensions and Reconstruction
were subject to Treasury sanction, as was usual in the case of
new services established before the war.
Conditions and methods in a number of departments were
discussed in some detail. Attention was called to the increase in
the War Office staff, from 218 to 1,500, and to the lack of co-
ordination between the War Office and the Admiralty in acquir-
ing lands. The revival of the Controller of the Navy, which
had been in abeyance for some years, was commended; but it
was noted that there were no estimates of costs in the national
shipyards, and that the cost of naval shipbuilding had increased
70 per cent. Some minor recommendations for concentration of
organization within the Board of Trade were made. More seri-
ous criticism was made of the Employment Department of the
Ministry of Labor with reference to salaries, office arrangements
and financial reports. 1
The Select Committee on National Expenditure was renewed
in 1918; and has made several additional reports. The creation
and the work of this committee indicates and emphasizes the
need for more active supervision over estimates and appropria-
tions, both by the Treasury and the House of Commons
2
* Parliamentary Papers, 1917, H.C. 167.
Ibid., H.C. 188; 1918, H.C. 23, 30.
2
1
CHAPTER XII
Other Departments
FOREIGN OFFICE
At the outbreak of the war Sir Edward Grey was Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs and he held this position until
December, 1916. When he had first become Foreign Secretary
in 1905 the British Government had already begun the policy
of entering into closer relations with France. Grey had con-
tinued this policy, and in 1907 reached an understanding with
Russia. Efforts were also made to keep on good terms with
Germany and shortly before the war the terms of a proposed
agreement had been formulated with regard to the Bagdad Rail-
way and the Portuguese colonies in Africa. During the Balkan
wars of 1912-1913, Grey's efforts were largely responsible for
confining these conflicts; but his efforts in the same direction in
the diplomatic correspondence of the end of July, 1914, were not
successful.
After the beginning of the war, under Grey's leadership, an
agreement was entered into between Great Britain, France and
Russia 'that none would make a separate peace with Germany.
This agreement was later joined by Italy and other Allies. In
1915 efforts were again made to revive the Balkan League; and
after the failure of this project, the crushing of Serbia and the
collapse of Roumania, Grey retired from the Cabinet with Mr.
Asquith in December, 1916.
As the war progressed a series of interallied organizations have
been formed for dealing with various problems. From time to
time there have been conferences of Allied ministers. More con-
tinuous agencies were established for economic and administra-
tive purposes. In August, 1914, a Commission Internationale de
Ravitaillement was formed. In December, 1915, arrangements
237
238
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
were made for the joint purchase of wheat, flour and maize for
the British, French and Italian Governments. A year later a
Wheat Executive was established for this purpose; and its func-
tions have since been extended to other cereals. Similar agencies
have been provided for meat and animal fats, vegetable oils and
oil seeds, sugar and nitrate of soda. Other joint agencies were
set up for hides, wool and wool products, certain explosives and
raw materials, Spanish lead, copper, Russian supplies, Roumanian
supplies, the chartering of neutral vessels, and for requirements
in the United States. 1
In the Lloyd George Ministry, the position of Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs was given to Mr. Arthur James Bal-
four, who had been Prime Minister and leader of the Unionist
party from 1902 to 1905. His administration in the Foreign
Office has been marked by the revolution in Russia and the with-
drawal of that country from the war and by the entrance of
the United States into the contest. In the spring of 1917 Mr.
Balfour came to the United States at the head of the British
mission to consult with reference to policies and plans. A spe-
cial mission was also sent to Russia in January, and another
in June, 1917.
During 1917 there were more frequent conferences of the
leading ministers of the western Allies--at London, Paris, Rome,
St. Jean de Maurienne, Calais, Folkestone and Rapallo. In
November, at the conference at Rapallo, an agreement was made
between Great Britain, France and Italy (afterwards joined by
the United States) to form a Supreme War Council, to consist
of the Prime Minister and one other minister from each country,
meeting once a month normally at Versailles. To this council
was attached a permanent joint military staff. In December a
permanent · Allied Naval Council was formed. These inter-
allied agencies have continued in operation during the year 1918.
Considerable expansion has taken place in the British Ministry
of Foreign Affairs during the war. At the head of this Ministry
is the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, with a parliamen-
!
· The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 18-20.
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
239
')
tary under-secretary and a permanent secretary.
Before the
war, the following departments were organized within the For-
eign Office: Chief Clerk, American Affairs, Commercial and Sani-
tary Affairs, Consular Affairs, Far Eastern Affairs, Treaties
(including Passports), Librarian and Keeper of the Papers, and
Registry.
By 1917, the following additional departments had been organ-
ized for the war; Parliamentary department, News department,
Passport Office, Prize Court department and Foreign Claims
Office. 1
Foreign Office committees have been established on contra-
band, detention of neutrals (claims to compensation), prize
claims and revision of treaties with enemy countries.
In March, 1916, a committee was appointed to inquire whether
any avoidable delay had been caused by the methods hitherto
adopted for dealing with ships and cargoes brought into British
ports under the Order in Council of March 11, 1915, and to make
such general recommendations as they think fit for improving
such methods. 2
An Enemy Debts Committee has been established at the Foreign
Office to report on the arrangements to be adopted for the liquida-
tion of the commercial, banking and other financial transactions
between British and enemy persons, the completion of which was
prevented by the outbreak of the war, and for this purpose to
consider the returns made to the Custodians of Enemy Property,
and to the Public Trustee and the Foreign Claims Office, and any
information on matters relating thereto.
A Belgian Trade Committee was announced in August, 1917,
consisting of representatives of the Foreign Office, the Board of
Trade and British commercial and financial interests, to investi-
gate means for the promotion and advancement of trade between
the British Empire and Belgium.
Reference has already been made to the Overseas Trade In-
3
1
The Foreign Office List for 1917, pp. 5-6.
· Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 160.
$ U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 54, March 6, 1918; Ibid., No. 208, Sep-
tember 6, 1917.
240
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
telligence Department, established in 1918, representing the For-
eign Office and the Board of Trade.
BLOCKADE MINISTRY
In February, 1916, a Blockade Ministry was established, with
the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
(Sir Robert Cecil) as Minister. This Ministry took over some
branches of the Foreign Office work; and in 1917 it included the
following departments: Contraband department (8 sections),
Foreign Trade department, Finance Section, War Trade Intelli-
gence department, Restriction of Enemy Supplies department,
War Trade Statistical department, and Prisoners of War
department.
1
COLONIAL OFFICE
At the beginning of the war Mr. Lewis Harcourt occupied the
position of Secretary of State for the Colonies. At the forma-
tion of the Coalition Ministry in June, 1915, his place was taken
by Bonar Law, leader of the Unionist party in the House of
Commons. In the Lloyd George Ministry, formed in December,
1916, Mr. Law became Chancellor of the Exchequer and Mr.
Walter Long, also a Unionist, became Secretary of State for
the Colonies.
Several committees have been established at the Colonial Office
to consider problems arising out of the war.
A Dominions War Contingents Committee was appointed in
August, 1914, to render any advice and assistance to the com-
mittees of the various Dominions War Contingents Associations,
and to act as a general channel of communication between these
committees and the public departments. This committee con-
sisted of eight members, including Viscount Bryce and Sir Gil-
bert Parker, with Mr. A. D. Steel-Maitland, M.P., Under-
Secretary for the Colonies, as chairman.
2
The Foreign Office List for 1917, pp. 5-6.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 152.
2
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
241
A Prize (Oversea) Disposal Committee was created on
November 11, 1914:
To report in what class of cases it is expedient that prize ships captured
or detained at ports outside the United Kingdom should be moved for sale
or disposal to other ports or should be chartered for purposes of trade, and
to make the necessary arrangements in such cases as are remitted to them by
the departments concerned in the administration of the territories where the
prize ships are detained, and to take the necessary steps for chartering for
use in British commerce such enemy ships detained in this country as may
be required for this purpose.
This committee consisted of eight members, with Vice Admiral
Sir E. J. Slade as chairman. 1
A West Indian Contingent Committee was formed in August,
1915, at the instance of the Secretary for the Colonies, Mr. Bonar
Law, to provide for the welfare and comfort of the men of the
Bermudian and West Indian Contingents, as well as of those who
had already come over independently and of others who may
come.
A Ladies Committee was also provided to assist this
committee. 2
A Nuts and Seeds Committee was appointed in August, 1915,
to consider and report upon the condition and prospects of the
West African trade in palm kernels and other edible and oil-
producing nuts and seeds, and to make recommendations for the
promotion in the United Kingdom of the industries dependent
thereon. 3
A Royal Commission on the Natural Resources, Trade and
Legislation of certain portions of His Majesty's Dominions, ap-
pointed in 1912, presented to Parliament in November, 1915, an
extended memorandum relating to the food and raw material
requirements of the United Kingdom. This included detailed
statistics from 1901 to 1913, showing the total requirements,
home supplies, amounts from overseas and from the dominions.
This commission included six members from the United King-
1
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 158.
2 Colonial Office List, 1916, P. xlii.
* Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 156.
242
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2.
dom, and one each from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa and Newfoundland. 1
A Committee on Colonial Blue Books has been formed to con-
sider, and report to what extent Blue Books and Blue Book
reports meet existing requirements, and whether any steps can
be taken to improve or supplement them or make them more
accessible. 2
An Empire Settlement Committee has been established at the
Colonial Office to consider and report on the measures to be taken
for settling within the Empire ex-soldiers who may desire to
emigrate after the war; to collect and prepare for distribution
information as to the facilities offered by the government of the
dominions; and to make recommendations for the constitution
of a central authority to supervise and assist such emigration.
A joint committee of the India and Colonial Offices has been
appointed to assist disabled or invalided officers who may be
desirous of obtaining employment in India, Burma, the Eastern
colonies and Malay States.
The Colonial Office also took an active part in the Imperial
Conferences of 1917 and 1918.
3
4
EDUCATION
The war has had important and far-reaching effects on the
educational institutions and educational system of Great Britain;
and has also led to important measures for the organization and
development of educational methods.
From the outbreak of the war, enlistment of young men from
the schools and universities caused a large and rapid falling off
in their attendance. Oxford University, which had an attend-
ance of 3,181 in 1914, had fallen to 491 in 1917. The attend-
ance in girls' schools was also affected by withdrawals for relief
and other auxiliary work.
* Parliamentary Papers, Cd. 8123.
2 U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 54, March 6, 1918.
8 Ibid.
4 lbid.
!
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
243
1
To meet the conditions caused by the large falling off in
attendance at the universities and colleges a University and Col-
leges (Emergency Powers) Act was passed on March 16, 1915.
This extended the purposes for which money might be borrowed
or applied to include the making good of deficiencies in revenues,
and also provided for extending the period for the repayment
or replacement of money borrowed or applied. This act also
contained special provisions authorizing the University of
Oxford and Cambridge and the colleges therein to make emer-
gency statutes postponing elections to fellowships, scholarships
and professorships, and payments in relation to such matters.
Conditions in the elementary schools were also affected. The
board of education, by a circular of March 12, 1915, authorized
local authorities to suspend the enforcement of compulsory at-
tendance by-laws. Many of the large towns (such as Birming-
ham, Bradford and Hull) declined to change their policy; but
in many other places the release of children for work in agri-
culture and other employment was encouraged. It was esti-
mated that 500,000 children under 14 were employed before the
Six hundred thousand additional were estimated to have
withdrawn during the first three years of the war. 2
The operation of the schools was also affected by the use of
school buildings for military and other governmental purposes.
At the end of May, 1916, some 200 buildings were employed in
this way in different parts of the country. This led to a
reduction of the school hours for younger children in some
war.
cases. 3
Disturbed conditions due to the war also led to considerable
unrest and an increase of juvenile delinquency, due in part to the
lack of parental and other control, as many of the men went into
the combatant forces. Efforts to meet this condition were under-
taken by the organization of boy scouts and girls' brigades. The
Home Office established a Juvenile Organizations Committee to
consider: (1) what steps can be taken to attract boys and girls
5 Geo. V, ch. 22.
* The Times History of the War, xiv, ch. 215, p. 262.
3 Ibid., p. 280.
244
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
to become members of brigades and clubs; (2) the possibility of
transferring a boy or girl from one organization to another when
this seems desirable; (3) the steps to be taken to prevent over-
lapping of work; (4) the strengthening of weaker units; (5)
the difficulty of obtaining officers; (6) difficulties in securing the
use of school premises as clubrooms or play centers, and other
matters relating to the effectiveness of brigades and clubs. 1
In the spring of 1916 several measures were taken towards
planning for the future in educational matters. Reference has
already been made (Chapter IX) to the formation of the Privy
Council Committee for Scientific and Industrial Research, which
was organized early in 1916. In April of this year, there was
also established a Royal Commission on University Education
in Wales to inquire into the organization and work of the Uni-
versity of Wales and its three constituent colleges, and into the
relations of the University to those colleges and to other institu-
tions in Wales providing education of a post-secondary nature,
and to consider in what respects the present organization of uni-
versity education in Wales can be improved and what changes,
if any, are desirable in the constitution, functions, and powers of
the University and its three colleges. This commission consisted
of nine members, with Viscount Haldane as chairman. 2
In the same month the Board of Education for England and
Wales established a departmental committee on Juvenile Educa-
tion in Relation to Employment after the War, to consider what
steps should be taken to make provision for the education and
instruction of children and young persons after the war, regard
being had particularly to the interests of those (1) who have been
abnormally employed during the war; (2) who can not immedi-
ately find advantageous employment; or (3) who require special
training for employment. This committee consisted of sixteen
members, two of whom were women, with J. Herbert Lewis,
M.P., as chairman. 3
An interim report was submitted by this committee on August
? Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 152.
Ibid.,
Ibid., p. 152.
2
!
p. 143.
8
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
245
1
24, 1916, and a final report in 1917. The committee had met on
35 days and examined 97 witnesses. It recommended a uniform
elementary school leaving age of 14, and the establishment of
continuation classes for children between 14 and 18, obligatory
for those not receiving other instruction for not less than 8 hours
a week for 40 weeks a year.
In August, 1916, two other committees were appointed, one
on the Teaching of Modern Languages and one on the Teaching
of Natural Science, to inquire into the position occupied by these
subjects in the educational systems of Great Britain, especially
in the secondary schools and universities, and to advise what
measures are needed to promote their study. The committee on
modern languages was to take into consideration the require-
ments of a liberal education, including an appreciation of the
history, literature, and civilization of other countries and the in-
terest of commerce and public service. The committee on the
teaching of science was to have regard to the requirements of a
liberal education, to the advancement of pure science, and to the
interests of the trades, industries, and professions which particu-
larly depend upon applied science.
Two committees have also been appointed by the Board of
Education on Principles of Arrangements Determining Salaries
of Teachers—one committee considering this question with refer-
ence to teachers in elementary schools and the other with refer-
ence to teachers in secondary and technical schools and other
institutions for higher education (other than university institu-
tions). These committees were to inquire into the principles
which should determine the fixing of salaries, due regard being
had to such differentiation in respect to locality, duties, qualifi-
cations, sex, and other relevant considerations as is consistent
with or necessary to the organization of the teaching service
throughout the country on a system conducive to the efficiency
of national education.
In the summer of 1916 it was announced that the Reconstruc-
2
3
* Parliamentary Papers, 1916, Cd. 8374; 1917, Cd. 8512, 8577.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 159.
* U. S. Commerce Reports, March 6, 1918, No. 54.
246
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
2
tion Committee should supervise and review changes in the
educational system.
After the organization of the Ministry of Reconstruction in
1917 an Adult Education Committee was established to consider
the provision for and possibilities of adult education (other than
technical or vocational) in Great Britain, and to make recom-
mendations.
At the beginning of the war Mr. Joseph A. Pease occupied the
position of President of the Board of Education for England and
Wales. On the formation of the Coalition Cabinet in June, 1915,
this place was assigned to Arthur Henderson, one of the Labor
members of Parliament. In August, 1916, Marquess of Crewe
became President of the Board of Education.
On the organization of the Lloyd George Ministry in De-
cember, 1916, the presidency of the Board of Education for
England and Wales was assigned to Mr. H. A. L. Fisher, Vice
Chancellor of the University of Sheffield. This appointment was
of especial significance, in assigning this post to a professional
teacher of high standing, whereas hitherto this place had gen-
erally been given to a leader in political life. Mr. Fisher's
appointment indicated that the new government expected to give
a good deal of attention to educational problems; and in August,
1917, an Education Bill was introduced for carrying into effect
the recommendations of the Committee on Juvenile Education
for the establishment of continuation schools for children be-
tween 14 and 18. There was general agreement in favor of the
educational principles of the bill, but on account of criticism of
some administrative features the bill was withdrawn in Decem-
ber. In 1918 another Education Bill was introduced, based on
the same main principles requiring children up to the age of 14
to give full time to school education and compulsory part tinie
education for children between 14 and 18.3 With some amend-
ments this bill became law.
· The Times History of the War, xiv, ch. 215, p. 284.
2 U. S. Commerce Reports, March 6, 1918, No. 54.
The Times History of the War, xiv, ch. 215, pp. 284-288.
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
247
SCOTTISH COMMITTEES
Most of the new government departments, commissions and
committees established for war purposes have had jurisdiction
over the United Kingdom; but in addition to local committees
formed throughout the kingdom for various purposes, there have
also been a number of central committees appointed for Scotland,
in connection with the Scottish administrative departments.
These have been noted in connection with the several topics; but
it may be of service to bring together a list of the more im-
portant Scottish committees, as follows:
Scottish Advisory Committee on Aliens, May 29, 1915.
Committee on Distributing Trades in Scotland, June 4, 1915,
to consider the readjustment of the distributing trades in Scot-
land, so as to release a larger number of men for enlistment or
the national service.
Scottish Food Production Committee, June, 1915.
Scottish Committee on Substitutionary Labor during the War
(Clerical and Commercial), November 1, 1915, to advise as to
the employment of women or otherwise to replace men with-
drawn for service in the forces.
War Savings (Scotland) Committee, May, 1916.
In other cases district agencies or subcommittees were estab-
lished for Scotland. 1
IRISH COMMITTEES
A similar list of committees for Ireland shows some cor-
responding to those for Scotland and some for distinctively Irish
problems, while no committees appear for Ireland for some pur-
poses where committees were appointed for the other parts of
the United Kingdom. The following is a partial list of Irish
committees :
Belgian Refugees (Ireland) Committee, October, 1914, the
first general committee on relief for the Belgians.
+
1
Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 152, 154, 159, 160, 163.
248
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
1
Women's Employment (Ulster) Central Committee, October,
1914.
Women's Employment Irish Central Committee, November,
1914.
Irish Food Production Committee, June, 1915.
War Savings (Irish) Committee, July, 1915.
In connection with the Easter Rebellion in the spring of 1916,
committees were appointed on Victims of the Rebellion and on
Property Losses in Ireland. A Royal Commission, created in
August, 1916, to inquire into the shooting of Sir Francis Skef-
fington and others, reported that there was no justification for
the shooting of these men, which had been done by order of
Captain Bowen Colthurst who was found by a court-martial to
have been insane at the time. ?
)
LABOR PROBLEMS
A number of committees and other agencies established to deal
with various labor problems have already been noted in other
parts of this report. Thus the relief agencies organized in the
early months of the war were active in finding employment for
those out of work, notably the Women's Employment and Bel-
gian Relief Committees. By the spring of 1915, problems of
readjusting the labor supply to meet the dislocation caused by
recruiting for the army and munitions works, and of extending
the policy of substituting women for men in many new employ-
ments led to the formation of new agencies for these purposes,
such as the Home Office Committees on Shops and on Clerical
and Commercial Employments, and the Scottish Committees on
the Distributing Trades and on Substitutionary Labor. During
the summer the new Ministry of Munitions developed an elabo-
rate organization, including a Labor Regulation and a Labor
Supply Department and Committees on Labor Supply and the
Health of Munitions Workers, with local advisory boards. In
connection with the development of the munitions industry, many
Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 149, 154, 163, 164.
Ibid., p. 143.
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
249
1
trade union restrictions were modified or suspended, and an ex-
tensive“ dilution" of labor was secured by the extensive employ-
ment of semi-skilled and unskilled labor and women. In October,
1915, a Building Labor Interdepartmental Committee was ap-
pointed to control and regulate the rate of wages paid to building
labor engaged on the construction of buildings intended for the
production of munitions of war.
As the result of trade conferences called jointly by the Board
of Trade and the Home Office at the request of the Army Council
agreements were also reached in other than engineering trades
for the substitution of women. In 1915 agreements were made
for textile, leather, printing, baking, woodworking, earthenware
and china industries; and in 1916 similar agreements were con-
cluded in lace making, silver plate, cutlery, brush making and
other industries.
In November, 1915, an interdepartmental committee of the
Home Office and Board of Trade was appointed “to consider
the question of utilizing to the full the reserve of women's
labor."
In March, 1916, a Women's War Employment (Industrial)
Advisory Committee was formed to advise the Board of Trade
and the Home Office on questions arising out of measures taken
by the departments to give practical effect to the policy of the
government of extending the employment of women in industrial
occupations, and to watch and report on the progress made.?
After the passage of the compulsory Military Service Act a
Home Office committee on the employment of conscientious
objectors was appointed.
In connection with the work of the various committees active
propaganda was carried on by means of publications issued by
various government departments. In February, 1916, the Min-
istry of Munitions published a large illustrated booklet, “Notes
on the Employment of Women in Munitions of War." By
July, 1916, the Board of Trade had established an information
1 Andrews and Hobbs: Economic Effects of the War upon Wonien and
Children in Great Britain, p. 55.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 164.
2
250
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
.
1
2
bureau for the collection and circulation of information on the
replacement of male by female labor; and soon after, in co-
operation with the Home Office, issued a series of pamphlets
on the substitution of women for men in industry. In Sep-
tember, 1916, the War Office put out a large illustrated pam-
phlet listing occupations on which women were successfully
employed.
In November, 1916, a new Women in Munitions Work Com-
mittee was formed to consider the question of the supply of
women's service (whether voluntary or paid) in canteens,
hostels, clubs and other agencies connected with the welfare of
munitions workers, and to advise what steps should be taken in
connection therewith. Six of the nine members of this com-
mittee were women.
Labor problems were thus being handled by a considerable
number of new committees and other agencies connected with
several different ministerial departments; while the Labor De-
partment and Employment Exchanges connected with the Board
of Trade continued to exercise their functions in this field. The
result was a large amount of overlapping and conflicting juris-
dictions; while no one Minister was responsible for the considera-
tion of labor problems as a whole.
When the Lloyd George Ministry was formed in December,
1916, not only was a prominent Labor member of Parliament
made a member of the small War Cabinet, but a new Minister of
Labor was appointed. The New Ministries Act, passed later in
the same month, made statutory provision for the new Ministry
of Labor, and provided that there should be transferred to the
Minister of Labor the powers and duties of the Board of Trade
under certain acts, and that he should have " such other powers
and duties of the Board of Trade or of any other government
department or authority relating to labor or industry, whether
conferred by statute or otherwise,” as may be transferred by
Order in Council, or as he might be authorized to perform con-
currently with or in consultation with the government depart-
* Andrews and Hobbs, op. cit., pp. 52, 60, 61.
Liberal Year Book, 1917, p. 164.
2
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
251
ment or authority concerned.
The powers of the Board of
Trade specifically to be transferred were those under the fol-
lowing acts: Conciliation Act, 1896; Labor Exchange Act, 1909;
Trade Boards Act, 1909; National Insurance (Unemployment)
Acts, 1911 to 1916; and Part I of the Munitions of War Act,
1915. 1
i
2
An Order in Council of July 2, 1917, transferred to the Min-
istry of Labor the duties performed by the department of labor
statistics of the Board of Trade.
The Estimates of the Ministry of Labor for 1917-18 show the
main divisions of this Ministry in the spring of 1917 as follows:
Ministry of Labor....
Employment Department.
Industrial Commissions Department.
Trade Boards..
£ 15,606
1,704,020
11,421
16,429
Total....
Appropriations in Aid.
£1,747,476
510,050
Net Total....
£1,232,426
The principal divisions of the Ministry of Labor at the end of
1917 were as follows:
Chief Industrial Commissioners Department
Employment Department
Claims and Record Office
Department of Labor Statistics
Office of Trade Boards 3
In connection with the Labor Ministry a series of advisory
committees have been appointed for different trades for the
employment of disabled soldiers and sailors as follows: tailoring;
basket, skip and hamper trade; electricity trade; furniture trade;
printing and kindred trades; boot and shoe manufacturing, and
cinematograph trades.
4
* 6 and 7 Geo. V, ch. 68.
2 S. R. O. 1917, No. 666.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, No. 26, vii; Whitaker's Almanack, 1918, p. 222.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8741.
252
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
The establishment of the Ministry of Labor did not, however,
bring under its control all of the governmental agencies dealing
with labor problems. Several government departments retained
overlapping and conflicting jurisdiction over some part of the
labor world. 1 This was most striking in the case of the Ministry
of Munitions, which continued its large powers of regulation and
control over labor matters in the munitions industries. But the
still newer Ministry of National Service, established in 1917,
also had powers of some importance affecting labor.
In the Second Report of the Committee on National Expendi-
tures, made in December, 1917, some criticism was made on
financial arrangements in the Ministry of Labor. Some salaries
seemed excessive; the various branches of the Ministry were
housed in a number of small rooms where proper supervision was
impossible; and the reports of the financial officer should be
made to the Permanent Secretary and not to the heads of
sections.
An Industrial Unrest Commission appointed on June 12, 1917,
submitted a series of reports within five weeks. Another series
of new labor agencies were the agricultural wages boards pro-
vided for in the Corn Production Act of 1917. By the end of
the year the central boards for England and Wales and for Ire-
land had been constituted. In Scotland district committees were
first organized. 3
1
2
MINISTRY OF NATIONAL SERVICE
What has been called the most ambitious and for a time at
least probably the least effective—of the government's attempts
to keep up the essential industries of the country under war con-
ditions was the National Service Department. In August, 1916,
a Man Power Distribution Board was formed to survey the field
of supply and to advise the Cabinet as to the most economical
method of its employment. In the Lloyd George Ministry Mr.
* The Times History of the War, xi, p. 450.
Parliamentary Papers, 1917, No. 167.
The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, p. 102.
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
253
Neville Chamberlain was appointed as Director General of Na-
tional Service; and before the passage of any Act of Parliament
providing for the new department, it had taken possession of the
hotel for its headquarters, assembled a large staff, and proceeded
to organize its work.
On March 28, 1917, an act for establishing the Ministry of
National Service and the purposes incidental thereto became law.
This provided for a Minister of National Service under the
title of Director General, and announced that the purpose of the
new Ministry was to make
the best use of all persons, whether men or women, able to work in any
industry, occupation or service. As in the case of other new ministries, the
act did not specifically define the function of the office, but provided that
the Director General of National Service should have "such powers and
duties of any government department or authority, whether conferred by
statute or otherwise, as His Majesty may by Order in Council transfer to
him or authorize him to exercise or perform concurrently with or in con-
sultation with the government department or authority concerned, and also
such further powers as may be conferred on him by regulations under the
Defense of the Realm Consolidation Act, 1914."
It is further provided that no Order in Council or regulation
should authorize the compulsory employment or transfer of any
person in or to any industry, occupation or service, or should
impose any penalty for any breach of a voluntary agreement
made by any person with the Director General of National
Service. 1
The first plan of the new department was to call for volunteers
to go wherever they were assigned. As this received only a slight
response, conferences with employers and employes were begun
to find out what men various firms could spare and to arrange
for their transfer to the essential war work by the substitution
offices of the department. The duplication of this work with
that of the employment exchanges formerly connected with the
Board of Trade and now in the new Ministry of Labor seems
evident. Enrollment and transfer were to be purely voluntary,
17 Geo. V, ch. 6.
254
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
.
though there was some suspicion among the labor groups that
the scheme was only a preliminary to industrial conscription. ?
In April the plan of the new department was called a “fiasco,"
and it was said that only a few hundred placements had actually
been made. Later it was described as one of the prize futilities
of the whole war." National Service
is dead. It
knows that it is dead. The government knows that it is dead.
And all other people know that its corpse has become offensive.
What National Service wants is not a hotel, but a mor-
tuary chamber and a post-mortem." 2
Some more definite information about the organization of the
work of this department may be presented from official sources.
In reply to a question in the House of Commons on April 19 as
to the practical results secured under the National Service
scheme since March 1, it was reported that the number of per-
sons employed in the department was 511 at headquarters and
121 in other parts of the country; in addition, 26 officers had
been loaned from other government departments, and 273 officers
were working as volunteers. The number of persons voluntarily
enrolled for service had been increased from 92,000 to 288,000.
Assignments to employment had been undertaken by the Min-
istry of Labor, but after May 1 the National Service Department
would make allocations. The agricultural section of the depart-
ment was said to have provided sufficient plowmen to meet the
needs of farmers. The trades section had classified trades in the
order of their importance and orders had been issued for re-
stricting the use of labor in certain trades. Thirty-five thousand
women had been registered in the women's section for service
behind the lines in France. Twelve thousand women were en-
rolled under an appeal for the Women's Land Army.
During the summer of 1917, Mr. Chamberlain resigned as
Director General of National Service, and it was said that he
did so because he had nothing to do. Sir Auckland Geddes was
3
? Andrews and Hobbs, op. cit., pp. 61-62.
The New Statesnian, April 7 and July 21, 1917, quoted in Andrews and
Hobbs, op. cit., p. 62.
Parliamentary Debates, 1917, vol. 92: 1831-1832.
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
255
.
appointed Minister in his place; and the functions of the depart-
ment were extended.
According to the first report of the Select Committee on Na-
tional Expenditure (October, 1917), the total staff of the Min-
istry of National Service, which had included 762 persons on
March 31, had been reduced to 431 by August 9, 1917. The total
expenditures of the department from December, 1916, to August
8, 1917, had been £223,720. £107,804 had been spent on the
publicity campaign. As a result of its work, 351,383 men and
41,984 women had been enrolled, a total of 393,367. Of these
the following had found employment:
Men as National Service volunteers.
Men on part time work..
19,951
9,817
Total men employed...
29,768
Women employed...
14,256
Total men and women..
44,024
Soldiers temporarily released from the army for special
work, mainly on the land.
68,595
1
The Select Committee was doubtful if there was any real
control over the expenditures of this department by the Treasury,
and was of the opinion that the results obtained were not com-
mensurate with the preparations made and the heavy preliminary
outlay of money.
A special report of the Select Committee on the Military
Service (Review of Exceptions) Act, made on August 2, 1917,
,
had recommended the transfer of the recruiting medical boards
and of medical examinations for the military service to civilian
control, and for the reexamination of the men waiting to be
called up for military service. This recommendation was car-
ried out, and much more, by the transfer of the whole work of
recruiting for the military service to the Ministry of National
Service in the latter part of 1917—a step which added much to
the importance of the work of this department.
2
Parliamentary Papers, 1917.
* Cf. Parliamentary Papers, 1918, No. 185.
256
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
In connection with this transfer there was issued on November
15, 1917, a series of instructions providing for the constitution
and organization of regions, regional headquarters, and recruit-
ing areas. Great Britain was divided into ten regions, and in
each regional headquarters there were to be provided a director
of recruiting, a deputy director of recruiting, commissioner of
medical service, deputy controller of registration and a deputy
controller of statistics. Each region was to be divided into
recruiting areas, each of which should be under the control of an
area commander with a headquarters staff of assistant directors,
commissioners and controllers of recruiting, medical service,
registration, and statistics, and an assistant in charge of
expenditure.
At the end of 1917, the main departments in the Ministry of
National Service were as follows:
1
Finance Department
Statistical Department
Trade Exemptions Department
Labor Supply Department
Medical Supply Department
Recruiting Department
Registration Department
At the head of the Recruiting Department was placed a director
general, with a commissioner of registration and a chief com-
missioner of medical services. The Reserved Occupations Com-
mittee was reconstructed. A War Priority Committee (com-
posed of General Smuts and several Ministers) was formed to
decide as to the direction of pressing labor needs. A Labor
Priority Committee, in the department of National Service, was
to set in motion the machinery for carrying out the instructions
of the War Priority Committee. 2
1 N.S.I. No. 2, 1917.
Whitaker's Almanack, 1918, p. 231; The War Cabinet: Report for the
Year 1917.
1
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
257
RECONSTRUCTION PLANS
1
Earlier in this report reference has been made to a considerable
number of departmental and other committees appointed from
time to time to consider and report on various problems of re-
construction which will arise at the close of the war. Among
these were the series of Board of Trade committees to consider
the position of certain trades with special reference to inter-
national competition, the Commercial and Industrial Policy Com-
mittee, a score of committees established by the Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research, and several committees on
educational problems.
In the latter part of 1916, a new general Committee on Re-
construction was appointed by Mr. Asquith as Prime Minister;
and a series of subcommittees was formed to deal with par-
ticular questions. Reports were made by a number of subcom-
mittees on agricultural policy, demobilization of the army,
acquisition of powers, coal conservation, aliens, forestry,
relations between employers and employed, and women's
employment.
In March, 1917, the Committee on Reconstruction was again
reorganized, with the Prime Minister as chairman and Mr. E.
S. Montagu as vice chairman and executive head. Fourteen
other members were appointed, who were selected, not from Min-
isters with heavy war duties, but from representatives of labor,
business and finance, and social workers, including several mem-
bers of Parliament. The former subcommittees were continued
and new subcommittees were appointed on adult education, civil
war workers, demobilization, acquisition of land, machinery of
government, local government and a Ministry of Health. The
scope of the committee was also extended to include problems of
housing, unemployment, physical training, juvenile enıployment
and apprenticeship, supply of raw materials and shipping.
In July, 1917, an Act of Parliament was passed providing for
a Ministry of Reconstruction; and Dr. Christopher Addison, for-
* Cf. Chapters IX, XII.
258
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
merly Minister of Munitions, was appointed as Minister of this
department. The functions of the Minister were:
to consider and advise upon the problems which may arise out of the present
war and may have to be dealt with at its termination, and for the purposes
aforesaid to institute and conduct such inquiries, prepare such schemes and
make such recommendations as he thinks fit.
For these purposes the Minister was to have such powers and
duties of any government department as might be authorized by
Order in Council. The functions were to be mainly advisory
and not to any substantial extent executive.
The Ministry of Reconstruction was organized in six branches :
commerce and production; finance, shipping and common serv-
ices; labor and industrial organization; rural development;
machinery of government, health, education, etc.; and housing
and internal transport. An Advisory Council was formed, with
four sections, three corresponding to the first three branches and
the fourth on social development, including agriculture, educa-
tion, health and housing.
Additional committees and other agencies on reconstruction
have been organized in connection with this new ministry and
with other ministries and departments of the government. A
list of the various agencies organized to deal with after the war
problems, published early in 1918, included no less than 87
odies, classified in 15 groups as follows:
1
1. Trade Development, including five committees and com-
missions dealing with general aspects and nine dealing
with specific trades and industries;
2. Finance, including two committees;
3. Raw Materials, including six committees;
4. Coal and Power, including two committees and four sub-
committees;
5. Intelligence, with two committees;
6. Scientific and Industrial Research, including two research
boards, five standing committees, seven research com-
mittees, four inquiry committees, and three provisional
organization committees;
'The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917, pp. 204-205.
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
259
7. Demobilization and Disposal of Stores, eight committees;
8. Labor and Employment, two committees;
9. Agriculture and Forestry, four committees;
10. Public Administration, six committees;
11. Housing, four committees;
12. Education, eight committees and commissions;
13. Aliens, two committees;
14. Legal, three committees; and
15. Miscellaneous, three committees. 1
Ministry of Reconstruction Committees
The following committees are directly connected with the
Ministry of Reconstruction:
Committee on the Chiemical Trades, to advise as to the pro-
cedure which should be adopted for dealing with the position
of the chemical trades after the war, with a view to the creation
of some organization which should be adequately representative
of the trade as a whole and by means of which the trade may be
enabled hereafter to continue to develop its own resources and
to enlist the closest cooperation of all those engaged in the
chemical industry.
Engineering Trades (New Industries) Conimittee, to compile
a list of articles suitable for manufacture by those with engineer-
ing trade experience or plant, which were either not made in the
United Kingdom before the war, but were imported, or were
made in the United Kingdom in small or insufficient quantities,
and for which there is likely to be a considerable demand after
the war, classified as to whether they are capable of being made
by: (1) women, (2) men and women, or (3) skilled men; and
setting out the industries to which such new manufactures would
most suitably be attached; and to make recommendations (a) on
the establishment and development of such industries by the trans-
fer of labor, machines, and otherwise; (6) as to how such a
transfer could be made, and what organization would be requi-
site for the purpose with due regard to securing the cooperation
of labor.
Financial Facilities Committee (Treasury and Ministry of
1U. S. Commerce Reports, No. 54, March 6, 1918; Parliamentary Papers,
1918, Cd. 8916.
260
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Reconstruction), to consider and report whether the normal ar-
rangements for the provision of financial facilities for trade by
means of existing banking and other financial institutions will be
adequate to meet the needs of British industry during the period
immediately following the termination of the war, and, if not, by
what emergency arrangements they should be supplemented, re-
gard being had in particular to the special assistance which may
be necessary: (a) to facilitate the conversion of works and fac-
tories now engaged upon war work to normal production; (b)
to meet the exceptional demands for raw materials arising from
the depletion of stocks.
Central Committee on Materials Supply, to consider and re-
port upon: (1) the nature and amount of the supplies of materials
and foodstuffs which, in the committee's opinion, will be required
by the United Kingdom during the period which will elapse be-
tween the termination of the war and the restoration of a normal
condition of trade; (2) the probable requirements of India, the
dominions, and Crown colonies for such supplies at the close of
hostilities; (3) the probable requirements of belligerents and neu-
trals for such supplies at the close of hostilities; (4) the sources
from which and the conditions under which such supplies can be
obtained and transported, and, in particular, the extent to which
they might be obtained from the United Kingdom or within the
Empire or from Allied or neutral countries; (5) the question
whether any measure of control will require to be exercised in
regard to the nature and extent of any such control.
Committee on the supply of Building Materials: (1) to in-
quire into the extent of the probable demand for building material
for all purposes which will arise in this country during the tran-
sition period, and the extent of the available supply and form of
such material; (2) to inquire how far the quantities of material
now available are capable of increase, what are the difficulties in
increasing them, and how these difficulties can be removed, and
to report to what extent an increase in production will affect the
price of the materials; (3) in the event of the supply of material
or labor being insufficient to fulfil the total building demand, to
consider the principles and method by which the priority of vari-
ous claims should be settled, and to report what steps are neces-
sary to insure that the manufacture of the materials, so far as
they are at present inadequate, shall be extended in time to secure
sufficient quantities for use when required on the cessation of
hostilities, and to recommend what steps should be taken during
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
261
the war to facilitate a prompt commencement of building work
at that time; (4) generally, to consider and report upon any con-
ditions affecting the building trades which tend to cause unduly
high prices, and to make recommendations in regard to any
measure of control which it may be desirable to exercise
over the purchase, production, transport, or distribution of
materials.
Coal Conservation Committee, to consider and advise: (1)
what improvements can be effected in the present methods of
mining coal with a view to prevent loss of coal in working and to
minimize cost of production; (2) what improvements can be
effected in the present methods of using coal for production of
power, light, and heat, and of recovering by-products with a view
to insure the greatest possible economy in production and the
most advantageous use of the coal substance; (3) whether, with
a view to our maintaining our industrial and commercial position,
it is desirable that any steps should be taken in the near future,
and if so, what steps, to secure the development of new coal fields
or extensions of coal fields already being worked.
Mining, Power Generation and Transmission, Carbonization,
and Geological Subcommittees, to consider the question of the
application of carbonization to the preparation of fuel for indus-
trial and commercial purposes.
Civil War Workers Committee, to consider and report upon
the arrangements which should be made for the demobilization
of workers engaged during the war in national factories, con-
trolled establishments, and other plants engaged in the production
of munitions of war and on government contracts, or in plants
where substitute labor has been employed for the duration of the
.
Disposal of War Stores Advisory Board, to expedite the prepa-
ration of any necessary inventories of property and goods of all
descriptions held by government departments, and to consider
and advise upon the disposal, or alternative form of use, of any
property or goods which have or may become, during or on the
termination of the war, surplus to the requirements of any de-
partment for the purposes of that department.
Committee on Relations between Employers and Employed:
(1) to make and consider suggestions for securing a permanent
improvement in the relations between employers and workmen;
(2) to recommend means for securing that industrial conditions
affecting the relations between employers and workmen shall be
war.
..
262
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
systematically reviewed by those concerned, with a view to im-
proving conditions in the future.
Women's Employment Committee, to consider and advise in
the light of experience gained during the war upon the oppor-
tunities for the employment of women, and the conditions of such
employment, in clerical, commercial, agricultural, and industrial
occupations after the war.
Agricultural Policy Coinmittee, having regard to the need of
increasing home-grown food supplies in the interest of national
security, to consider and report upon the methods of effecting
such increase.
Forestry Committee, to consider and report upon the best
means of conserving and developing the woodland and forestry
resources of the United Kingdom, having regard to the experi-
ence gained during the war.
Machinery of Governnient Committee, to inquire into the re-
sponsibilities of the various departments of the central executive
government, and to advise in what manner the exercise and dis-
tribution by the government of its functions should be improved.
Local Government Committee, to consider and report upon the
steps to be taken to secure the better coordination of public as-
sistance in England and Wales, and upon such other matters
affecting the system of local government as may from time to
time be referred to it.
Committee on the Acquisition of Land for Public Purposes, to
consider and report upon the defects in the existing system of
law and practice involved in the acquisition and valuation of land
for public purposes, and to recommend any changes that may be
desirable in the public interest.
Advisory Housing Panel. Certain members of the Recon-
struction Committee were invited by the Minister of Reconstruc-
tion to complete a general review, which they had undertaken
on behalf of the committee of the housing question as it would
present itself at the close of the war, and to prepare a memoran-
dum on the subject.
Adult Education Committee, to consider the provision for and
possibilities of adult education (other than technical or voca-
tional) in Great Britain, and to make recommendations.
Aliens Committee, to consider: (a) the questions which will
arise at the end of the war in connection with the presence in
this country of persons of an enemy nationality, and whether the
repatriation of such is desirable, and if so, in what cases; (6)
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
263
what restrictions, if any, should be imposed after the war on
admission of aliens to this country and their residence here; (c)
whether any changes in the law or practice of nationalization
have been shown by the experience of the war to be required
in the public interest.
Demobilization Committees
Committees on Demobilization and Disposal of Stores, in
addition to the Ministry of Reconstruction Civil War Workers
Committee and the Disposal of War Stores Advisory Board,
include the following:
Demobilization of the Army Committee, to consider and report
upon the arrangements for the return to civil employment of
officers and men serving in the land forces of the Crown at the
end of the war.
Officers' Resettlement Subcommittee, to consider and report
what arrangements require to be and can be made on demobili-
zation for resettlement of officers in civil life, and also of men
belonging to classes to which, in the main, officers belong.
Disabled Officers' Employment Committee (India and Colonial
Offices), to assist disabled or invalided officers who may be de-
sirous of obtaining employment in India, Burma, the Eastern
colonies, and Malay States.
War Office Demobilization Committee, to consider questions
requiring settlement in connection with the demobilization of the
army in so far as they fall within the province of the War De-
partment; to act as a link with the committee of the Ministry
of Reconstruction; and to prepare a draft scheme of demobili-
zation.
Demobilization Coordination Committee (Admiralty, War
Office, and Ministry of Labor): (1) to consider how far the pro-
posed special arrangements to demobilize immediately peace is
declared men specially required in connection with the work of
demobilization can or should be extended to other men belonging
to the public services or to similar "pivotal” men in industry;
(2) to coordinate the working of the demobilization scheme of
the War Department with the resettlement scheme of the Min-
istry of Labor; (3) to settle, during demobilization, instructions
with regard to priority which may appear to be rendered neces-
264
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
sary on public grounds or by the sort of employment in the dif-
ferent industries.
Horse Demobilization Committee (War Office), to frame pro-
posals for the demobilization of horses and mules in relation to
the general scheme of demobilization.
War Office Emergency Legislation Committee, set up by the
Army Council in July (1917) to consider which (if any) of the
emergency acts, and the regulations made thereunder, it may be
necessary or advisable to continue in force after the termination
of the war for the purpose of facilitating the process of demobili-
zation and reconstruction.
Ministry of Munitions Committee on Reconstruction and
Demobilization, to deal with all matters within the Ministry relat-
ing to reconstruction and demobilization.
The Ministry of Munitions has also appointed an Imperial
Mineral Resources Bureau Committee and a Nitrogen Products
Committee. The former of these is to prepare a scheme for the
establishment in London of an Imperial Mineral Resources
Bureau: (a) to collect information in regard to the mineral re-
sources and metal requirements of the Empire, and (b) to advise
what action, if any, may appear desirable to enable such
resources to be developed and made available to meet require-
ments.
The Nitrogen Products Committee is to consider the relative
advantages of the various methods for the fixation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen from the point of view of both war and peace
purposes, to ascertain their relative costs, and to advise on pro-
posals relevant thereto which may be submitted to the depart-
ment; (2) to examine into the supply of the raw materials re-
quired, e.g., pure nitrogen and hydrogen, and into the utilization
of the by-products obtained; (3) since some of the processes
employed depend for their success on the provision of large
supplies of cheap power, to ascertain where and how this can best
be obtained; (4) to consider what steps can with advantage be
taken to conserve and increase the national resources of nitrogen-
bearing compounds and to limit their wastage; (5) to carry out
the experimental work necessary to arrive at definite conclusions
as to the practicability and efficiency of such processes as may
appear to the committee to be of value; (6) as a result of the
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
265
foregoing steps, to advise as to starting operations on an indus-
trial scale.
Committees on India
Several agencies have been organized to deal especially with
problems relating to India.
The Industrial Development Commission (Government of
India), to examine and report upon the possibilities of further
industrial development in India, and to submit its recommenda-
tions with special reference to the following questions: (a)
whether new openings for the profitable employment of Indian
capital in commerce and industry can be indicated; (b) whether,
and, if so, in what manner, the government can usefully give di-
rect encouragement to industrial development—(1) by rendering
technical advice more freely available, (2) by the demonstration
of the practical possibility on a commercial scale of particular in-
dustries, (3) by affording, directly or indirectly, financial assist-
ance to industrial enterprises, or (4) by any other means which
are not incompatible with the existing fiscal policy of the govern-
ment of India.
India Cotton Growing Committee (Government of India):
(1) to consider the work that has already been done toward the
establishment of long-staple cottons; (2) to determine the meas-
ure of success achieved, or in the case of failure the reasons
therefor, whether these are due to agricultural or economic causes
or to administrative difficulties; (3) to carry out a detailed study
of local conditions in each cotton-growing tract and to inquire
into the methods of ginning and marketing; (4) to consider the
possibility of developing long-staple cottons in India if sufficient
funds and staff are devoted solely to that object and to submit
recommendations as to the staff required and the organization
necessary.
Interdepartmental Conference on Missions in India, to consider
the conditions on which aliens should after the war be allowed to
conduct missionary or educational work in India.
1
Reference has been made to the joint committee of the India
and Colonial Offices on the employment of disabled officers.
266
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
Local Government Board Committees
A number of committees have been established by the Local
Government Board, as follows:
National Registration Committee, to consider : (1) the question
of the registration of the population for administrative and other
national purposes, and (2) what changes, if any, are desirable in
the system of registration of births, deaths, and marriages in
England and Wales.
Committee on Road Locomotives and Heavy Motor Cars, to
consider the law and regulations relating to the construction and
use of road locomotives and heavy motor cars in Great Britain,
and to report what amendments, if any, are desirable.
Local Government Board Conference on Housing, to consider
(1) methods of ascertaining the housing needs of each district;
(2) the extent to which local authorities, public utility societies,
and private enterprise can be relied on to meet needs; (3) state
assistance; (4) amendments in law with a view to facilitating
building; and (5) definition of working classes.
Committee on Building By-Laws, to consider the control at
present exercised in England and Wales over the erection of
buildings and the construction of streets, by means of by-laws
and local regulations, and their effect upon building and develop-
ment, and to make recommendations.
Housing (Building Construction) Committee, to consider ques-
tions of building construction in connection with the provision of
dwellings for the working classes in England and Wales, and
report upon methods of securing economy and dispatch in the
provision of such dwellings.
A Committee on the Interpretation of the term "Period of
the War” has been appointed by the Attorney General: (a) to
inquire into the legal questions that may arise as to the determina-
tion of the date of the termination of the war for the purpose of
the various acts, orders, and regulations the duration of which
depends directly or indirectly upon the date; (b) to consider and
advise upon the meaning of the form or forms of temporary com-
mission and voluntary attestation in use in his Majesty's forces
since the beginning of the war, with a view to determining the
rights of officers and men to release from his Majesty's services
at its termination, and to make any recommendations thereon
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
267
which seem desirable; (c) to consider the effect of the termina-
tion of the war upon government and private contracts, and
whether any legislative or other steps are necessary to assist in
determining questions likely to arise in this connection; (d) to
consider the effect upon contracts of apprenticeship and other
arrangements for learning a trade or profession entered into by
officers and men now serving in his Majesty's forces of (1) vol-
untary acceptance of a commission or enlistment, (2) compulsory
service, and (3) the termination of the war, and to make any
recommendations thereon which seem desirable, and to report
thereon.
A Dentists Act Committee has been appointed under the Privy
Council, to investigate the extent and gravity of the evils con-
nected with the practice of dentistry and dental surgery by per-
sons not qualified under the Dentists Act, and to consider and
report upon: (1) the causes of the present inadequate supply of
qualified dentists and dental surgeons; (2) the expediency of leg-
islation prohibiting in the United Kingdom the practice of den-
tistry and dental surgery by unqualified persons; and, in the
event of such legislation being deemed expedient, the conditions
under which certain classes of unqualified persons at present en-
gaged in the practice of dentistry might be permitted to continue
in practice, by the institution of a special roll for the purpose; (3)
the practicability, without impairing the existing guaranties for
the efficient practice of dentistry, of (a) modifying the course of
study and examination prescribed for dental qualifications, (b)
reducing the time occupied, and (c) diminishing the cost of train-
ing dental students.
I
The work of the Ministry of Reconstruction necessarily cuts
across the lines of other departments, and there would seem to
be serious danger of overlapping, duplication and conflicts of
jurisdiction. The extensive and elaborate list of committees and
commissions established both within this Ministry and by other
departments indicates an active effort to face the problems; but
it may be questioned whether the machinery of organization set
up is not too complex and cumbersome, and at the same time
whether it is sufficiently comprehensive and systematic to cover
the field in the most effective manner.
268
BRITISH WAR ADMINISTRATION
2
Committee Reports
Several Reconstruction Committees have submitted reports on
matters assigned to them.
The Coal Conservation Committee presented an interim report
on Electric Power Supply on April 17, 1917, recommending the
formation of 16 main districts for each of which there should
be one authority for generation and main distribution of electric
power, in place of some 600 districts now in existence. Alterna-
tive plans of public, private and joint management were pre-
sented; but it was indicated that some government assistance
might be needed. 1
The Committee on Forestry submitted its final report in May,
1917, recommending a single Forestry Commissioner for the
United Kingdom, instead of placing this work under the separate
agricultural departments for England and Wales, Scotland and
Ireland.
The Committee on Chemical Trades presented a report on
November 1, 1917, recommending a standing committee and a
departmental organization in the Ministry of Reconstruction to
deal with chemical questions, action to be taken in collaboration
with representatives of the trade, such as the Association of
British Chemical Manufacturers. 3
The Local Government Committee, appointed in July, 1917,
submitted a report on December 19, 1917, on the transfer of
the functions of the poor law authorities in England and Wales.
This report recommends the abolition of the present poor law
unions and boards of guardians, and the merging of all the func-
tions of poor law authorities in the county councils and county
borough councils, with modifications for London and some ad-
ministrative counties; existing services should be unified; there
should be local committees on home assistance and on non-em-
ployment and training; and existing officials should be trans-
ferred and their rights protected. *
* Parliamentary Papers, 1918, Cd. 8880.
Ibid., Cd. 8881.
Ibid., Cd. 8882.
Ibid., 1918, Cd. 8917.
2
3
OTHER DEPARTMENTS
269
In the spring of 1918 there was published the report of the
Committee on Commercial and Industrial Policy, appointed in
1916. This report has been described as essentially a
" Pro-
tectionist " document, supporting (a) the prohibition of importa-
tion of goods of enemy origin for at least twelve months after
peace; (b) monopolization of Allied products for the Allies; (c)
a permanent government policy of making the British Empire
self-supporting; (d) the exclusion of foreign capital, but the re-
moval of all restriction on the use of British capital abroad; (e)
a government subsidy or tariff protection for "essential indus-
tries”; (f) "every encouragement . by the government to
the formation of combinations of manufacturers and others,"
coupled with the most determined resistance to any government
control over such combinations for the protection either of the
wage-earners or of the consumers; (g) stringent tariff protection
against dumping; and (h) placing all such tariff policy outside
ministerial and therefore parliamentary control.
This report has been styled a “stupid proposal," based upon
a series of reports on selected industries by committees of em-
ployers, avowedly self-interested capitalistic groups, and never
submitted to public criticism and only published after a long delay.
The one Labor representative on the committee of 22 had to
content himself with stipulating for the absolute exclusion from
foreign trade of any sweated goods." One member of the
committee protested against the proposed policy of removing all
legal restrictions from combinations of manufacturers. 2
While a good deal of valuable preliminary work has been done
by these various agencies there does not appear to have been
worked out any coherent and consistent policy of reconstruction,
nor any agreement as to definite principles on which such a
policy should be based.
*The New Statesman, xi, 85 (May 4, 1918).
APPENDIX
1
3
1°
List of Official Commissions and Committees Set up in the
United Kingdom to Deal with Public Questions
Arising out of the War
[See page 295 for reference notes]
1. Abrasives and Polishing Powders Research Committee
(Department of Scientific and Industrial Research).
2. Acetylene Committee. 2
3. Accommodation (War Departments, etc.) Committee. 3
Secretary: Sir A. Durrant, Office of Works, Storey's
Gate, S.W.1
4. Admiralty Board of Invention and Research. 3
Victory House, St. James' Square, S.W.1.
5. Admiralty Coasting Trade Committee.
Secretary: Lt. Col. A. K. Leslie, India House, Kings-
way, W.C.2.
6. Admiralty Transport Arbitration Board (1914).
7. Adult Education Committee (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion).
8. Aerial Transport Committee, Civil. 1,3
Secretary: Mr. D. O. Malcolm, Winchester House, St.
James' Square, S.W.1.
9. Aeronautics Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. F. J. Selby, National Physical Labora-
tory, Teddington.
10. Agriculture and Fisheries Board and Royal Agricultural
Society (Joint Committee).
Secretary: Mr. R. S. Langford, 4 Whitehall Place,
S.W.1.3
11. Agricultural Consultative Committee 5 (August, 1914).
12. Agricultural Machinery and Implements Branch of the
Ministry of Munitions (January, 1917). 2,4
13. Agricultural Policy Committee (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion). 1
14. Agricultural Wages Boards.
15. Air Board (1916).
Secretary: Sir Paul Harvey, K.C.M.G., C.B., Strand,
W.C.2.
3,4
B
3
271
272
APPENDIX
3
16. Air Committee (Joint)(Dissolved in 1916). 3,4,7
17. Air Ministry. 3,4
18. Aircraft Insurance Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. W. Verdier, 33-36 King William St.,
E.C.4.
19. Air Risks Insurance Scheme Committee 5 (June 21,
1915). 3
20. Alcohol Supplies for War Purposes Advisory Committee
(December, 1916). 3
Secretary: Mr. W. H. Rattenbury, 32 Old Queen Street,
S.W.1.
21. Aliens' Advisory Committee (May, 1915).
Secretaries: Mr. W. J. H. Brodrick and Mr. Paul M.
Francke, Home Office, S.W.1.
22. Aliens Committee (Ministry of Reconstruction). 1
23. Aliens in Prohibited Areas Committee. 3,5
24. Aliens of Allied Nationality (Enlistment) Committee. 3,5
25. Aliens' Restriction Committee.
Secretary: Lt. Col. W. Dally Jones, Committee of Im-
perial Defense, Whitehall Gardens, S.W.1.
26. Aliens' Restriction Regulations Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. C. E. M. Joad, Queen Anne's Chambers,
S.W.1.
27. Aliens—Scottish Advisory Committee (May 28, 1915).
Clerk: Mr. J. Phillips, Scottish Office, Whitehall, S.W.1.
Aliens, see India, Interdepartmental Conference on Mis-
sions in.
28. Allied Naval Council (1917).
29. Allied Supreme War Council (1917).
30. American Dollar Securities Committee (December,
3
)
3
B
B
1915). 3,4
3
3,4
Manager : Mr. G. E. May, 19 Old Jewry, E.C.
31. Anti-aircraft Equipment Committee.
Secretary: Lieut. G. Head, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
32. Army Canteen Committee (April 11, 1916).
Secretary: Major G. Henderson, Imperial Court, Basil
St., S.W.1.
33. Army Contracts, Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. R. L. Ramsbotham, War Office, White-
hall, S.W.1.
34. Army Supplies Commercial Department. ?
35. Artificial Limbs Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. D. Bailey, Royal Hospital, Chelsea.
APPENDIX
273
8
36. Belgian Refugees (January, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. H. A. Leggett, Winchester House. 8
37. Belgian Repatriation Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. H. A. Leggett, General Buildings, Ald-
wych, W.C.2.
38. Belgian Trade Committee (Foreign Office and Board of
Trade). 1,2
2,4
3
39. Black List Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. R. A. Higginbottom, 1 Lake Buildings,
St. James' Park, S.W.1.
40. Bleaching Powder Committee (December, 1916).
Chairman: Col. Alan Sykes, 4 Norfolk Street, Man-
chester
41. Blockade Ministry (February, 1916). 3
Foreign Office, S.W.1.
42. Blockade Ministry Committee.
Secretary: Mr. L. C. Liddell, M.V.O., Winchester
House, St. James' Square, S.W.1.
43. Building By-Laws, Committee on (Local Government
Board). 1
44. Building Labor Interdepartmental Committee (October
28, 1915). 4
Secretary: Mr. W. K. Aikman, C.I.E., Montagu House,
Whitehall
, S.W.1.
Secretary: Miss L. P. Johnston, 6 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.3
45. Building Materials, Committee on the Supply of (Ministry
of Reconstruction). 1
46. Building Materials Research Committee (Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research).
47. Building Trades, Central Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. G. E. Toulmin, Queen Anne's Chambers,
S.W.1.
48. Butter Supplies Advisory Committee.
49. Canal Control Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. R. B. Dunwoody, 7 Princes Street, S.W.1.
50. Capital Issues Committee (January, 1915). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. D. F. Buckley, Treasury, S.W.1.
51. Cargoes (Delay in Unloading) Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. L. W. Atkin Berry, Post Office, E.C.1.
52. Cargoes (Diverted) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. C. Honey, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
Cargoes—Insurance. See Insurance.
--
1
2
3
274
APPENDIX
3
3
53. Cattle, British Committee on Utilization of. 3
Secretary: Mr. W. Gavin, 4, The Sanctuary, S.W.1.
54. Central Colliery Recruiting Court (1915).
Home Office, Whitehall, S.W.1.
55. Chaplains (Army) Advisory Committee.
Secretary: Mr. A. C. Beckwith, 15 Albermarle Street,
W.1.
56. Chaplains (Army) Interdepartmental Advisory Com-
mittee.
Secretary: Mr. G. Monk, Chaplains' Department, Alber-
marle Street, W.1.
57. Chemical Products Committee 5 (August, 1914).
58. Chemical Trades Committee (Ministry of Reconstruc-
3
3,4
tion). 2,2
3
Civil Aerial Transport Committee, Lord Northcliffe, chair-
man. See Aerial Transport.
59. Civil War Workers' Committee. (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion). ?
60. Civilian Internment Camps Committee.
Joint Secretaries : E. Seberg-Montefiore and D. D. Reid,
Home Office, S.W.1.
61. Clerical and Commercial Employment Committee 5 (Oc-
tober 16, 1915; 1st report November 9, 1915, Cd.
8110) (Home Office). 3,4
62. Coal and Coke Supplies, Central Committee 5 (February
4, 1916). 3,4
1
3,4
63. Coal Conservation Committee (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion). 1
64-67. Coal Conservation Committee Subcommittees :
Carbonization,
Geological,
Mining,
Power Generation and Transmission.
68. Coal Exports Committee (April, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. E. J. Elliot, 3 Central Buildings, West-
minster, S.W.1.
69. Coal Mines (Controller of) Advisory Board. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. D. McNair, 8 Richmond Terrace,
S.W.1.
70. Coal Mines Department.
Secretary: Mr. H. F. Carlill, 8 Richmond Terrace,
S.W.1.
APPENDIX
275
1915). 3,4
5
3
71. Coal Mining Organization Committee 5 (February 23,
Secretary: Mr. R. G. Snart, Home Office, Whitehall, S.W.
72. Coal, Retail Price of, Committee' (February, 1915). 3,8
Secretary: H. E. Dale, 6A Dean's Yard, Westminster,
73. Coal Trade Committee (June 2, 1916) (Board of
Trade). 1,3,4
74. Cocaine in Dentistry, Committee on use of. 3,5
75. Cocaine or Opium-Permits-Committee.
Secretary: Mr. J. A. Johnston, Home Office, S.W.1.
76. Cold Storage Research Board (Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research). 1
77. Colonial Blue Books, Committee on (Colonial Office).
78. Commercial and Industrial Policy Committee (July, 1916)
(The Prime Minister).
Secretaries: Mr. Percy Ashley, Mr. G. C. Upcott, Treas-
ury, S.W.1.
79. Commission Internationale de Ravitaillement (August,
1914). 3
Secretary: Mr. R. F. H. Duke, India House, Kings-
1
1,3
way, W.C.2.
80. Compensation for War Disturbances Royal Commission
(August, 1915). 4
81. Conciliation and Arbitration Board. 3
.
Secretary: Mr. E. A. Gowers, New Government Ex-
tension Buildings, Great George Street, S.W.1.
82. Conscientious Objectors, Employment Committee.
Secretary: Mr. W. H. Stewart, Home Office, S.W.1.
83. Conscientious Objectors (Work of National Importance)
Committee (March 28, 1916). 3
Secretary: Mr. H. Gibbon Pritchard, 9 Bridge Street,
S.W.1.
84. Contraband Committee. 3
Foreign Office, S.W.1.
85. Controlled Establishments Board of Referees on Profits.3
Secretary: Mr. W. F. Wakeford, 27 Abingdon Street,
S.W.1.
86. Copper Committee (December, 1916). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. A. M. Stroud, 8 Northumberland Ave-
nue, W.C.2.
87. Cornhill Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. H. Wynne, 2 White Lion Court, E.C.
88. Cotton Control Board (1917).
6
276
APPENDIX
1,2
89. Cotton Growing in the British Empire, Committee on
(Board of Trade).
90. Cotton Industry, Provisional Committee on Research and
Education for the (Department of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research). ?
91. Custodian of Enemy Property (December 2, 1914)
(Board of Trade).
92. Dardanelles Commission. 3
Secretary: Sir E. Grimwood Mears, 2 Hare Court,
Temple, E.C.4.
93. Defense of the Realm Regulations Amendment Committee
(1915). 3,4
1
1
1
1
1
1
Secretary: Captain C. Shawe, War Office, Whitehall,
S.W.1.
94. Demobilization Committee of the War Office.
95. Demobilization Coordination Committee (Admiralty,
War Office, and Ministry of Labor).
96. Demobilization of the Army Committee.
97. Dentists Act Committee (Privy Council).
98. Destitute Aliens Committee. 8,10
Secretary: E. Seberg-Montefiore, Home Office.
Cf. Civilian Internment Camps Committee, No. 60.
99. Diamond Export Committee. 3
10-12 Union Bank Buildings, Ely Place, E.C.1.
Disabled. See Officers, Soldiers.
100. Disposal of War Stores Advisory Board (Ministry of
Reconstruction).
101. Distributing Trades (Scotland) Committee (June 4,
1915).
Secretary: Mr. P. R. Laird, Scottish Office, S.W.1.
102. Dominions Royal Commission. 1
103. Dominions War Contingents Committee (August, 1914). 3,8
Secretary: Mr. O. G. R. Williams, Colonial Office, S.W.1.
104. Dye Colors Distribution Committee. 3,5
105. Dyes, Commissioner for. 3
7 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.1.
106. East Coast Raids Committee (January, 1915). 4,8
Joint Secretaries : A. T. Lawrence and A. L. Hobhouse,
Board of Education.
Education. See Adult.
107. Education (Juvenile) in Relation to Employment after
the War Departmental Committee (April, 1916).
Secretary: Mr. J. Owen, Board of Education, S.W.1.
3,4
1,3,4
APPENDIX ·
277
1,3
108. Education, Position of Natural Science in Educational
System of Great Britain Committee (August, 1916)
(The Prime Minister). 1,3
Secretary: Mr. F. B. Stead, Board of Education, S.W.1.
. 109. Education, Position of Study of Modern Languages in
Educational System of Great Britain, Committee
(August, 1916) (The Prime Minister).
Secretary: Mr. A. Ē. Twentyman, Board of Education,
S.W.1.
110. Education (University) in Wales Royal Commission. 1,3
Secretary: Mr. A. H. Kidd, Board of Education, S.W.1.
111. Electrical Research Committee (Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research).
112. Electrical Trades Committee (April 27, 1916) (Board of
1
Trade). 1,3,4
1
1,3
Secretary: Mr. J. F. Ronca, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
113. Electric Power Supply Committee (Board of Trade). 1,3
Secretary: Mr. M. J. Collins, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
114. Emergency Legislation Committee (War Office). 1
115. Empire Settlement Committee. 1,3
Secretary: Mr. E. J. Harding, Colonial Office, S.W.1.
116. Employers and Employed, Committee on Relations be-
tween (Ministry of Reconstruction).
Employment. See Officers, Soldiers, Women.
117. Enemy Aliens (Internment and Repatriation) Advisory
Committee. 3
118. Enemy Debts Committee (Foreign Office).
Secretary: Mr. H. Mead Taylor, Gwydyr House, White-
hall, S.W.
119. Enemy Exports Committee.
Foreign Office, S.W.1.
120. Enemy Supplies Restriction Department. 3
Secretary: Mr. G. Blackwell, 6 Waterloo Place, S.W.1.
121. Engineering and Shipbuilding Establishments Production
Committee (February, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. H. J. Wilson, 5 Old Palace Yard, S.W.1.
122-123. Engineering and Steel Trades After the War Com-
mittees (July, 1916) (Board of Trade). 1,4
Secretary: Engineering Trades, Mr. A. F. Ilsley.
Secretary: Iron and Steel Trades, Mr. C. R. Woods. S
6 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.
3
3
278
APPENDIX
1
1
3
3
124. Engineering Industries Committee. 3,5
125. Engineering, Joint Standing Committee on Illuminating
(Department of Scientific and Industrial Research)
126. Engineering, Standing Committee on (Department of Sci-
entific and Industrial Research).
127. Engineering Trades (New Industries) Committee (Min-
istry of Reconstruction). 2
128. Engine Industry, Provisional Committee for the Internal
Combustion (Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research). 1
129. Excess Profits Duty Committee. 3
Registrars: Mr. D. duB. Davidson, Mr. J. K. F. Cleave,
Spencer House, St. James' Street, S.W.1.
130. Expeditionary Force Canteens Committee.
Secretary: Mr. W. H. Cherry, Imperial Court, Basil
Street, S.W.1.
131. Expeditionary Forces Sanitary Committee.
Secretary: Mr. E. T. Gann, Adastral House, Embank-
ment, E.C.
132. Explosions at Government Controlled Factories Com-
mittee.
Secretary: Mr. P. Tainsh, 32 Old Queen Street, S.W.1.
133. Exports Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. R. H. Hill, Gwydyr House, Whitehall,
S.W.1.
134. Fair Prices Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. C. Scott, 125 George Street, Edin-
burgh.
135. Farm Produce for H. M. Forces (Forage) Committee. 3,8
Secretary: Capt. C. B. Rolfe, 64 Whitehall Court, S.W.1.
136. Fertilizers Committee (January, 1917).
Secretary: Mr. H. Chambers, 72 Victoria Street, S.W.1.
137. Finance Department (Blockade) (May, 1916).
Secretary: Sir A. Block, K.C.M.G., Lancaster House,
SW.
138. Financial Facilities after the War Committee 5 (July,
1916) (Report August 31, 1916).
139. Financial Facilities Committee (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion and Treasury).
140. Fire Brigades Coordination Committee.
Secretary: Mr. Robert Warling, Home Office, S.W.1.
141. Fish (Coarse) Irish Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. G. McKnight, Department of Agricul-
ture, 4 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin.
3,4
1
3,4
3,4
1
APPENDIX
279
3
142. Fish (Cured) Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. R. A. C. Cholmeley, Grosvenor House,
W.1.
143. Fish Food and Motor Loan Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. H. Collingwood, 43 Parliament Street,
S.W.1.
144. Fish Food Committee.
Secretary: Mr. G. K. Hext, 43 Parliament Street,
S.W.1.
145. Fish, Fresh Water, Committee. 3
Secretary: The Hon. A. S. Northcote, 54 Parliament
Street, S.W.1.
146. Fish (Tinned) Imports Committee.
147. Fisheries Sea (Scottish) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. W. A. Goodchild, Scottish Office, White-
hall, S.W.1.
148. Flour Mills Control Committee.
Secretary: Mr. F. E. Dawson, Grosvenor House, W.1.
149. Food Ministry. :
Secretary: Mr. U. F. Wintour, C.B., C.M.G., Grosve-
nor House, W.1.
150. Food Prices Committee 11 (June, 1916).
)4
Secretary: Mr. E. C. Ramsbotham, Board of Trade,
S.W..
151. Food Production Advisory Committee.
Secretary: Mr. E. M. Konstam, 72 Victoria Street,
S.W.1.
152. Food Production Committees (June, 1915).
England and Wales: Secretary, Mr. H. L. French. 5
153. Scotland : Secretary, Mr. W. Barber, Board of Agricul-
ture, Edinburgh.
154. Ireland : Chairman, Mr. T. W. Russell. 4
155. Food Production Department.
Secretary: Mr. C. R. Pitt, 72 Victoria Street,
S.W.1.
156. Food Production in Ireland Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. D. J. McGrath, Department of Agricul-
ture, etc., 4 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin.
157. Food Production in Ireland Departmental Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. A. M. Morris, Department of Agri-
culture, etc., 4 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin.
158. Food Research Committee (Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research). 1
3
3,4
3
280
APPENDIX
!
3
3
>
159. Foodstuffs (Carriage of) Requisitioning Committee 5 (No-
vember, 1915). 54
Secretaries: Mr. J. A. Salter and Mr. F. P. Robinson,
7 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.
Forage Committee. See Farm Produce, etc., Committee,
No. 135.
160. Foreign Claims Office. 3
Secretary: Miss E. F. Collingwood, Foreign Office, S.W.1.
161. Foreign Trade Debts (November 3, 1914). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. H. Mead Taylor, Gwydyr House, White-
hall, S.W.
162. Foreign Trade Department.
Secretary: Mr. W. E. Eady, Lancaster House, S.W.
163. Forestry Committee (Ministry of Reconstruction). 1
164. Fruits (Import Licenses) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. J. Phillips, 22 Carlisle Place, S.W.1.
Cf. Import Restrictions Department, No. 184.
165. Fuel Research Board (Department of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research). 1,2
166. German Atrocities Inquiry Committee. 3,5
167. Glass and Optical Instruments Committee (Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research). 1,2
168. Government Employes (Non-manual) Conciliation and
Arbitration Board.
Secretary: Mr. E. A. Gowers, New Government Build-
ings, Great George Street, S.W.1.
169. Grain and Potato Crops (1917) Committee. 3
Grosvenor House, W.1.
170. Grain Supplies Committee. :
Secretary: Mr. H. D. Vigor, 3 St. James' Square, S.W.1.
171. Graves (Soldiers) Prince of Wales Committee.
Secretary: Captain G. C. Taylor, Winchester House, St.
James' Square, S.W.1.
172. Graves Registration Directorate. *
Director: Brig. Gen. Fabian Ware, C.M.G., Winchester
House, St. James' Square, S.W.
173. High Explosives Committee.
Ministry of Munitions, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
174. Hop Control Committee.
175. Horse Breeding Committee (No. 1) 5 (August, 1915). 3,4
176. Horse Breeding Committee (No. 2) (Board of Agricul-
ture).
Secretaries: Mr. E. B. Shine, Mr. E. B. Wilson,
4 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.1.
3
5
3
3
2
1,3
APPENDIX
281
3
1
2
3,4
1
1
177. Horse Demobilization Committee (War Office). 1
178. Horses (Utilization and Feeding of) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. C. R. Woods, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
179. Housing (Advisory) Panel (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion).
180. Housing (Building Construction) Committee. 1,3
Secretary: Mr. E. Leonard, Local Government Board,
Whitehall
, S.W.1.
181. Housing, Local Government Board Conference on.
Illuminating Engineering. See Engineering.
182. Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau (Ministry of Muni-
tions). 1,2
183. Imperial Preference, Ministerial Committee on.
184. Import Restrictions Department (March, 1916).
Secretary: Mr. H. J. Phillips, 22 Carlisle Place,
S.W.1.
185. India, Interdepartmental Conference on Missions in.
186. Indian Cotton Committee (Government of India).
187. Indian Wheat Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. H. D. Vigor, 3 St. James' Square,
S.W.1.
188. Industrial Development Commission (Government of
India).
189. Industrial (War Inquiries) Branch. 3
Director: Professor S. J. Chapman, Gwydyr House,
Whitehall, S.W.1.
190. Industrial Unrest Commission.
191. Information Department of Foreign Office. 3
Director: Lieut. Col. J. Buchan, Foreign Office,
S.W.1.
192. Insurance Intelligence Department. *
Officer in Charge: Mr. G. W. Russel, 13 Abchurch Lane,
E.C.4.
193. Insurance of British Ships' Cargoes.
Secretary: Mr. J. W. Verdier, 33-36 King William
Street, E.C.4. Cf. War Risks Insurance Office,
No. 386.
Insurance (War Risks) Office. See War.
Internal Combustion Engine Industry. See Engine.
Interpretation of the Term “Period of the War." See
Period.
194. Irish Peat Inquiry Committee (Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research). 1
1
6
3
282
APPENDIX
3
6
3
195. Irish Rebellion (Victims) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. C. Love, 14 St. Stephen's Green,
Dublin.
Iron and Steel Industries Committee. See Engineering and
Steel Trades Committees, Nos. 122, 123. 3
196. Joint Overseas Trade Intelligence Department (January,
1917).
Parliamentary Secretary: A. D. Steel-Maitland.
Juvenile Education. See Education.
197. Juvenile Organizations Committee. 1,3
Secretary: Mr. E. J. Metters, Home Office, S.W.1.
198. Kitchen (Central) Committee.
Secretary: Mrs. G. E. May, 104a, Westminster Bridge
Road, S.E.
199. Labor Advisory Committee (National Service Depart-
ment) (1917).
Secretary: Mr. J. B. Williams, St. Ermina, Westmin-
ster, S.W.1.
200. Labor Ministry (End of 1916). %
Secretary: Mr. D. J. Shackleton, C.B., Montagu House,
Whitehall, S.W.i.
Trade Advisory Committees (Disabled Soldiers and
):
201. Tailoring (Wholesale and Retail Trade)
Secretary: Mr. G. T. Reid, Old Sergeants' Inn
Chambers, W.C.2.
202. Basket, Skip and Hamper Trade
Secretary: Mr. A. L. Dakyns, Queen Anne's Cham-
bers, S.W.
203. Electricity Trade (Sub-Station Attendants)
Secretary: Mr. A. L. Dakyns, Queen Anne's Cham-
bers, S.W.
204. Furniture Trade
Queen Anne's Chambers, S.W.
205. Printing and Kindred Trades,
Queen Anne's Chambers, S.W.
206. Boot and Shoe Manufacture Trade
Queen Anne's Chambers, S.W.
207. Cinematograph Trade
Queen Anne's Chambers, S.W.
208. Labor, Substitutionary (Scotland) Committee 5 (Novem-
ber 1, 1915). 3
Secretary: Mr. P. R. Laird, Scottish Office, Whitehall,
S.W.
APPENDIX
283
209. Land (Employment on) for Sailors and Soldiers Com-
mittee 8 (July, 1915) * (Two reports presented).
Secretary: Mr. H. L. French, Board of Agriculture, etc.,
S.W.
210. Land for Public Purposes, Committee on the Acquisition
of (Ministry of Reconstruction). 1
211. Land Settlement after the War Committee (Board of Ag-
riculture). 1,3
Secretary: Mr. D. C. Barnard, 4 Whitehall Place,
S.W.1.
212. Leather Supplies Central Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. T. J. Marquis, Imperial House, Tothill
Street, S.W.1.
213. Licensed Trade Claims (Defense of the Realm) Royal
Commission (August 2, 1915, and September 13,
1916). 3,4
3
3
3,4
Secretary: Mr. D. dub. Davidson, Spencer House, St.
James' Street, S.W.1.
214. Licensing Committee (Exports and Imports).
Secretary: Sir N. Highmore, K.C.B., 4 Central Build-
ings, Storey's Gate, S.W.1.
Cf. War Trade Department, No. 390.
215. Liquor Trade (Financial Aspects of Control and Pur-
chase).
Secretary: Mr. J. S. Eagles, Latymer House, 134 Pic-
cadilly, W.1.
216. Liquor Traffic Central Control Board (May, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. J. C. Sykes, C.B., Latymer House, 134
Piccadilly, W.1. First report October 12, 1915;
second, May 31, 1916.
217. Local Government Committee (Ministry of Reconstruc-
tion). ?
218. Losses (Defense of the Realm) Royal Commission (March
31, 1915, and September 13, 1916. First report Sep-
tember 19, 1916). 3
Secretary: Mr. D. duB. Davidson, Spencer House, St.
James' Street, S.W.1.
219. Lubricants and Lubrication Inquiry Committee (Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1
220. Lubricants, Chemistry of, Subcommittee (Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research).
221. Lubricating Oil Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. W. G. Thomas, 8 Northumberland Ave-
nue, W.C.2.
1
284
APPENDIX
3
2
1
6
222. Machine Tool Committee.
Secretary: Mr. L. G. Wykes, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
Machinery and Implements, Agricultural. See Agricultural.
223. Machinery, Central Clearing House for.
224. Machinery of Government Committee (Ministry of Re-
construction).
225. Man Power Distribution Board (1916).
226. Materials Supply, Central Committee on (Ministry of Re-
construction)
227. Meat. 2
228. Meat Supplies, Interdepartmental Committee. 3,5
229. Medical War Committee, Central for England and Wales.
230. Mercantile Marine (Seaman), Conditions of Employ-
1
6
ment. 2
4
231. Mercantile Marine (Seaman's Effects) Grants for Losses
through Hostile Operations at Sea Committee (April
23, 1913). 3
Secretary: Mr. C. F. Bickerdike, 47 Victoria Street,
S.W.1.
232. Mesopotamia Commission. 3,5
233. Metal for Munitions Committee (November, 1916).
Chairman: Mr. C. W. Fielding, Ministry of Munitions,
S.W.
234. Metal (Non-ferrous) Trades Committee
Trades Committee (Board of
.
Secretary: Mr. J. F. Ronca, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
235. Metallurgy, Standing Committee on (Department of Sci-
entific and Industrial Research)
236. Metals and Materials Economy Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. E. Hunter, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
237. Military Service (Civil Liabilities) Department. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. R. Forber, Imperial House, Kings-
1
way, W.C.2.
3
Cf. Soldiers' Liabilities Committee, No. 349.
238. Milk Distribution Committee (April, 1917).
Secretary: Mr. J. Mackintosh, 72 Victoria Street,
S.W.1.
239. Mine Rescue Research Committee (Department of Sci-
entific and Industrial Research). 1,2
240. Mineral Resources Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. Taylor, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
241. Mineral Resources Bureau Committee.
i
285
APPENDIX
1
1
B
8
242. Mining, Standing Committee on (Department of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research).
243. Ministry of Munitions Committee on Expenditure (No-
vember, 1915?). 4
Armament Buildings, Whitehall, S.W.
244. Ministry of Munitions Committee on Reconstruction and
Demobilization,
245. Motor Drivers Physically Disabled Licensing Committee. 3,5
246. Munitions Advisory Committee (Ministry of Munitions). *
Secretary: Mr. W. Sutherland.
247. Munitions Boards of Management Executive Committee. 3
Secretary: The Hon. H. D. McLaren, Whitehall Place,
S.W.1.
248. Munitions Council (1917).
249. Munitions Finance Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. Collins, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
250. Munitions Financial Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. F. Ilsley, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
251. Munitions Hours of Labor Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. F. H. Shepherd, 28 Northumberland
Avenue, W.C.2.
252. Munitions (Interallied Bureau).
Secretary: Mr. O. C. Allen, 2 Whitehall Court,
S.W.1.
253. Munitions Inventions Panel. 3
Secretary: Mr. H. W. Dickinson, Princes Street, West-
minster, S.W.1.
254. Munitions Labor Priority Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. G. P. Lascelles, 6 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
255. Munitions Labor Supply Committee (September 20,
1915).
Secretary: Mr. G. E. Toulmin, Office of the Labor
Adviser, Great George Street, S.W.
256. Munitions Ordnance Committee (April, 1916).
Secretary: Major E. Tinker, R.A., Woolwich, S.E.18.
257. Munitions Parliamentary Executive Committee (July,
1915). 3
Secretary: Mr. W. Allard, Salisbury Hotel, Fleet Street,
E.C.4.
258. Munitions Priority Advisory Committee.
Secretary: Mr. A. Jones, 1 Caxton Street, Westminster,
S.W.
3
3
286
APPENDIX
3
1,4
3
259. Munitions Workers' Health Committee (September,
1915).
Secretary: Mr. E. H. Pelham, 19 St. James' Square,
S.W.1.
260. Munitions Works Board. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. P. Oppe, Whitehall Place, S.W.1.
National Importance (Work of) Committee. See Con-
scientious Objectors.
261. National Registration Committee (September, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. I. G. Gibbon, Local Government Board,
S.W
262. National Service Central Advisory Committee.
St. Ermins, Westminster, S.W.1.
263. National Service Department. 3
Secretary: Mr. A. Collins, St. Ermins, Westminster,
S.W.1.
264. National Service (Ireland) Department. 3
Secretary: Mr. S. W. Strange, 14 St. Stephen's Green,
Dublin.
265. Naval and Military Dependents (Medical Treatment)
Committee. 3,5
266. Neutrals, Detention of (Claims to Compensation), Com-
mittee.
Secretary: Mr. W. Stewart, Foreign Office, S.W.1.
267. Nitrogen Products Committee (Ministry of Munitions).
268. Nuts and Seeds Committee (August, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. J. E. W. Flood, Colonial Office, S.W.
269. Oats Control Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. H. A. Francis, Empire House, Kings-
way, W.C.2.
270. Officers' (Disabled) Employment Committee (India and
Colonial Offices).
271. Officers' Resettlement Subcommittee. 1
272. Oils and Fats Branch of the Ministry of Munitions. 2
273. Oranges, Advisory Committee on Imports.
274. Overseas and Government Loans Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. S. A. Sydney-Turner, Treasury, S.W.1.
275. Paper Supplies Royal Commission (February 15, 1916).3
Secretary: The Hon. J. S. Clemons, Central House,
Kingsway, W.C.2.
276. Passenger Traffic between United Kingdom and Holland,
etc., Committee. 3
Secretary: Lt. Col. H. S. Walker, Permit Office, 2 Down-
ing Street, S.W.1.
3
1
1,4
1
2
3,4
APPENDIX
287
2
3,4
277. Peat Deposits in Ireland, Committee on.
Peat (Irish) Inquiry Committee. See Irish.
278. Pensions Ministry. 3
Secretary: Rt. Hon. Sir M. Nathan, G.C.M.G., Great
George Street, S.W.1.
279. “Period of the War,” Committee on the Interpretation of
the Term? (Attorney General).
280. Permit Office. 3
Chief Permit Officer : Lt. Col. H. S. Walker, 2 Down-
ing Street, S.W.1.
281. Petrol Control Department (April 20, 1916).
Chief Clerk: Mr. H. W. Cole, 19 Berkeley Street,
W.1.
282. Petroleum Executive. 2
283. Petroleum Pool Board. 3
Secretary: Mr. C. E. Shepherd, Hotel Victoria, North-
umberland Avenue, W.C.2.
284. Petroleum Regulation of Supplies Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. H. Fry, 8 Northumberland Avenue,
W.C.2.
285. Pig-Breeding Industry (Ireland) Departmental Com-
mittee. 3
Secretary: Mr. O. W. N. Roulston, Department of Ag-
riculture, etc., 4 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin.
286. Port and Transit Executive Committee (November 30,
1915). 3,4
Secretary: Sir F. G. Dumayne, St. James' Park, S.W.1.
287. Ports Congestion Committee. 3,5
288. Potash Production Committee. 2
289. Poultry Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. R. Jackson, 4 Whitehall Place,
S.W.1.
290. Press Bureau. 3
Secretary: Mr. F. H. Meade, Whitehall, S.W.1.
291. Prewar Contracts Committee (Board of Trade). 1,3
Secretary: Mr. L. F. C. Darby, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
292. Prisoners of War (Central) Committee (September 21,
A
1916). 4
Secretary: Mr. A. C. Duff, 4 Thurloe Place, S.W.7.
293. Prisoners of War Central Committee of the British Red
Cross and Order of St. John of Jerusalem. *
Secretary: Lt. Col. L. Impey, C.I.E., 4 Thurloe Place,
S.W.7.
288
APPENDIX
8
294. Prisoners of War Department. ?
Secretary: Mr. R. G. Vansittart, M.V.O., Downing
Street, S.W.
295. Prisoners of War Employment Committee (Reconsti-
tuted January, 1917). 34
Secretary: Mr. G. D. Roseway, War Office, Whitehall,
S.W.1.
296. Prisoners of War (British), Government Committee on the
Treatment by the Enemy of (September 29, 1915). 3,4
Secretary: Mrs. Livingstone, Office of Works, Storey's
Gate, S.W.1.
297. Prisoners of War Help Committee.
Secretary: Mr. B. W. Young, Savoy Hotel, London,
S.W.
298. Prisoners of War Interdepartmental Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. G. R. Warner, Prisoners of War Depart-
ment, Downing Street, S.W.1.
299. Prize Cargoes Release Committee. 2
Secretary: Mr. H. C. Honey, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
300. Prize Claims Committee.
Secretary: Mr. L. F. C. Darby, Goldsmith Building,
Temple, E.C.
301. Prize (Oversea) Disposal Committee (November 11,
3
1914). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. C. B. L. Tennyson, C.N.G., Colonial
Office, S.W.1.
302. Procurator General's Advisory Committee. :3
Secretary: Mr. A. D. Stocks, Treasury, S.W.1.
303. Production, Committee on. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. H. Wilson, 5 Old Palace Yard, S. W.1.
304. Promotion of Officers Committee. 3
Secretary: Major Sir S. Scott, Bt., M.P., War Office,
Whitehall, S.W.1.
305. Property Losses (Ireland) Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. J. Healy, 51 St. Stephen's Green,
Dublin.
306. Purchases Department.
Gwydyr House, Whitehall, S.W.1.
307. Railway Executive Committee (August, 1914).
Secretary: Major G. S. Szlumper, 35 Parliament Street,
S.W.1.
308. Railway Executive Committee (Ireland). 3
Secretary: Mr. J. Ingram, 5 Kildare Street, Dublin.
3
3,4
APPENDIX
289
3
3
3
309. Railwaymen, Release of, for Military Service Committee.
Secretary: Mr. C. J. Salmon, 3 Harcourt Buildings,
Temple, E.C.4.
310. Rationing Consultative Committee. 3
Grosvenor House, W.1.
Ravitaillement. See Commission Internationale de.
311. Raw Materials, Finance Branch of the War Office. 2
312. Reconstruction Committee."
Secretary: Mr. V. Nash, C.V.O., C.B., 6A Dean's Yard,
S.W.1.
313. Reconstruction Ministry (Advisory Council). 2,8
314. Recruiting (Parliamentary) Committee (August, 1914).3.4
Clerk: Mr. R. H. Davies, C.B., 12 Downing Street,
S.W.1.
315. Registry of Business Names Committee. 2,3
Coleraine House, Coleraine Street, Dublin.
316. Relief of Distress Committee (August 4, 1914).
Secretary: Mr. A. V. Symonds, C.B., Local Govern-
ment Board, S.W.1.
317. London (August, 1914).
Secretary: Mr. A. N. C. Shelley, Local Govt. Board,
S.W.1.
318. Women's Employment (August 20, 1914). 3
Secretary: Miss Mary R. Macarthur, 8 Grosvenor
Place, S.W.1.
319. Professional Classes (October 21, 1914).
Secretary: Mr. J. E. Talbot, Board of Education, S.W.
320. Urban Housing
321. Agricultural Districts. 8
322. Intelligence Advisory Committee. 8
323. London Intelligence Committee. 8
324. Reserved Occupations Committee. *
Secretaries: Mr. C. W. K. MacMullan, Mr. Duncan
Todd, St. Ermins, Westminster, S.W.1.
325. Retail Trade and Enlistment.
Secretary: M. H. Whitelegge, Home Office.
326. Retrenchment Committee (July, 1915. The final, fourth
report issued in February, 1916, and the Committee
disbanded).
Chairman: The Chancellor of the Exchequer.
327. Road Locomotives and Heavy Motor Cars, Committee on.
(Local Government Board).
328. Road Stone Control Committee."
Secretary: Mr. J. B. Harvey, 35 Cromwell Road, S.W.7.
3
8
8
4
1
290
APPENDIX
2
3
1
329. Royal Flying Corps Committee of Inquiry 5 (April,
1916). 3
330. Rubber and Tin Exports Committee (January 19, and
March 16, 1915). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. J. K. Grebby, 3 Queen Anne's Gate,
S.W.1.
331. Salaries of Teachers in Elementary Schools, Committee on
Principles of Arrangements Determining (Board of
Education). 1
332. Salaries of Teachers in Secondary Schools, Committee on
Principles of Arrangements Determining (Board of
Education). 1
333. Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
334. Scottish Medical Services War Emergency Committee. 6
335. Scottish Shale Industries Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. J. Johnstone, 29 St. Vincent Place,
Glasgow.
336. Seaman's Effects (Cases of Hardship) Committee (April
23, 1915). +
Secretary: Mr. C. F. Bickerdike, 47 Victoria Street, S.W.
Cf. Mercantile Marine, etc., No. 231.
337. Shipbuilding Advisory Committee (December, 1916). 3
Secretary: Mr. A. R. Duncan, 9 Victoria Street,
S.W.1.
338. Shipbuilding Construction Committee, Ministry of Ship-
ping. 3 St. James' Park, S.W.1.
339. Ship Licensing Committee, Ministry of Shipping (Novem-
ber 13, 1915). 2 St. James' Park, S.W.1.
340. Ship (Neutral) Detention Committee. 3,0
Secretary: The Hon. S. O: Henn Collins, 1 Abbey Gar-
dens, S.W.
341. Shipping and Shipbuilding Industries Committee (March
27, 1916). 1,3
Secretary: Mr. E. H. S. Marker, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
342. Shipping Control Committee (January 27, 1916). 3
Secretary: Mr. J. Anderson, St. James' Park, S.W.1.
343. Shipping (International) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. R. A. Wiseman, St. James' Park, S.W.1.
344. Shipping Ministry.
Secretary: Mr. J. Anderson, St. James' Park, S.W.1.
345. Ships and Cargoes Committee (March, 1916).
Foreign Office, S.W.
3
3
4
APPENDIX
291
5
3
346. Shops Committee.
347. Soldiers and Sailors (Disabled) Employment for (1914-
1916). 8
Secretary: H. J. Comyns, Local Government Board.
348. Soldiers and Sailors (Disabled) Employment on British
Railways Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. P. Scott Main, 47 Victoria Street,
S.W.1.
Soldiers and Sailors (Disabled) Trade Advisory Com-
mittee. See Labor Ministry.
Soldiers and Sailors, Employment on Land for, Commit-
tee. See Land.
349. Soldiers' Dependents Appeals Assessment Committee.
Secretary: Mr. J. J. R. Bridge, 142 Cromwell Road,
S.W.7.
350. Soldiers' Liabilities Committee (May, 1916). 4
War Office, S.W.
Cf. Military Service (Civil Liabilities) Department,
No. 237.
351. South Wales Mines Committee (November, 1916). 4
Board of Trade, S.W.
352. Spirits and Wine, Delivery of, from Bond.
353, Standard Uniform for Mercantile Marine Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. B. Harrold, 7 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
354. Sugar Supplies Royal
Supplies Royal Commission (September 11,
2
1914). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. C. S. Rewcastle, Scotland House,
S.W.1.
355. Sulphate of Ammonia Distribution Committee. 3
Secretaries: Mr. J. S. Bowles, Mr. F. C. L. Speyer, 72
Victoria Street, S.W.1.
356. Sulphur, Sicilian, Committee on Supplies of. ?
357. Sulphuric Acid and Fertilizer Trades Committee. S
Secretary:
Mr. M. P. Appleby, Storey's Gate,
S.W.1.
358. Summer Time Committee 5 (September 29, 1916). 3,4
Secretaries: Mr. T. H. Davies and Mr. M. H. White-
legge, Home Office, Whitehall, S.W.
359. Tea, Advisory Committee.
Secretary: Mr. R. Alston, Grosvenor House, W.1.
360. Tea Control Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. C. E. Town, Grosvenor House, W.1.
3
i
292
APPENDIX
3
3
361. Textile Industries Committee (April 28, 1916) (Board
of Trade). 1,3,4
Secretary: Mr. T. M. Ainscough, 6 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.
362. Timber (Home Grown) Committee (November 24,
.
Secretary: Mr. H. G. Richardson, 4 The Sanctuary,
Westminster, S.W.
363. Timber Supplies Department.
Controller : Mr. J. B. Ball, Caxton House, Tothill Street,
S.W.1.
364. Tin and Tungsten Research Board (Department of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research). 1
365. Tobacco (and Matches) Control Board,2,3
Secretary: Mr. H. Footman, 1 Great George Street,
S.W.1.
366. Tobacco (Import Licenses) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. J. Phillips, 22 Carlisle Place, S.W.1.
Cf. Import Restrictions Department, No. 184.
367. Tonnage Priority Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. A. de Montmorency, St. James' Park,
S.W.1.
Trade Advisory Committees. See Labor Ministry.
Trade between British Empire and Belgium. See Belgian.
368. Trade Relations After the War Committee 5 (Board of
Trade). 1,3
369. Trading with the Enemy Advisory Committee (February
9, 1916). 3
Secretary: Mr. W. P. Bowyer, 38-39 Parliament Street,
S.W.1.
370. Treaties with Enemy Countries Revision Committee.
Secretary: Mr. C. S. Nicoll, Foreign Office, S.W.1.
371. Trench Warfare Chemical Advisory Committee. 3
Secretary: Dr. C. R. Young, King Charles Street, White-
hall, S.W.1.
372. Trench Warfare Commercial Advisory Committee.
Secretary: Mr. J. L. Jeffery, King Charles Street,
Whitehall, S.W.1.
373. Trench Warfare Mines Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. E. C. Jefferys, King Charles Street,
Whitehall, S.W.1.
374. Trench Warfare Research Advisory Panel. 3
King Charles Street, Whitehall, S.W.1.
3
3
APPENDIX
293
1
375. Trench Warfare Supply Department, Chemical Sec-
tion. 2
Tungsten, Tin and, Research Board. See Tin.
376. Vitreous Compounds, and Cements for Lenses and Prisms,
Committee for Research on (Department of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research).
377. War Charities Committee. 3,5
378. War Charities (Control) Committee (April 12, 1916. Re-
port issued June 19, 1916). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. J. A. Johnston, Home Office, S.W.1.
War Contingents, Dominions. See Dominions.
379. War Expansion of Public Departments Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. G. H. S. Pinsent, Treasury, S.W.1.
380. War (History of) Committee (August 27, 1914). 3
Secretary: Major E. Y. Daniel, 2 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
381. War Loans for the Small Investor Committee (Decem-
ber, 1915). 1
The Treasury, S.W.
War Office Demobilization Committee. See Demobiliza-
tion.
382. War Office Expenditure Committee (January, 1916).
Secretary: Mr. G. W. Lambert, War Office, S.W.1.
383. War Output National Advisory Committee (March 19,
3,4
1915). 3,4
i
3
Secretary: Mr. W. M. Mosses, 6 Whitehall Gardens,
S.W.1.
384. War Refugees Committee (Belgian Commission? Jan-
uary, 1915). 3
Secretary: Mr. A. Maudslay, General Buildings, Ald-
wych, W.C.2.
385. War Refugees (Ireland) Committee (October, 1914?).
Secretary: Mr. T. J. Fallon, 62 Upper Mount Street,
Dublin
386. War Risks Advisory Committee (August, 1914). 4
Secretary: Mr. J. W. Verdier, Board of Trade,
S.W
387. War Risks Insurance Office. 3
Secretary: Mr. J. W. Verdier, 33-36 King William
Street, E.C.4.
Cf. Insurance of British Ships' Cargoes, No. 193.
388. War Savings (Irish) Committee 5 (July, 1915). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. J. Brennan, Dublin Castle.
294
APPENDIX
3,4
3,4
3,4
3
1
389. War Savings (National) Committee (February, 1916).
Secretary: Mr. T. Chambers, Salisbury Square, Fleet
Street, E.C.4.
390. War Savings (Scottish) Committee (May, 1916).
Secretary: Miss J. E. H. Findlay, 25 Palmerston Place,
Edinburgh.
391. War Trade Advisory Committee (September 21, 1915).
Secretary: Mr. L. C. Liddell, M.V.O., Winchester
House, S.W.
392. War Trade Department (February 22, 1915). 3,4
Secretary: Sir N. J. Highmore, K.C.B., 4 Central Build-
ings, Westminster, S.W.1.
393. War Trade Intelligence Department.
1 Lake Buildings, St. James' Park, S.W.
394. War Trade Statistical Department. 3
Secretary: Mr. R. E. Harwood, 22 Queen Anne's Gate,
S.W.1.
395. War Trophies Distribution Committee. 3
Secretary: Mr. H. C. Perrott, War Office, Whitehall,
S.W.1.
396. West Indian Contingent Committee (August, 1915) (Co-
lonial Office).
397. Wheat Executive. 3
Secretary: Dr. Gertrude C. Dixon, Trafalgar House,
Waterloo Place, S.W.1.
398. Wheat, Flour, and Maize International Joint Com-
mittee.
Secretary: Mr. H. D. Vigor, Board of Agriculture, etc.,
S.W.
Wheat (Indian). See Indian.
399. Wheat Supplies Royal Commission (October 10, 1916).
Secretary: Mr. H. D. Vigor, Trafalgar House, Water-
loo Place, S.W.1.
400. Women in Munition Work Committee 5,9 (November,
1916). 4
Secretary: Mr. A. B. Cane, Canada House, Kingsway,
W.C.
Women's Employment, Central Committee. 5 See Relief
of Distress.
401. Women's Employment, Central Committee for Leinster,
Munster and Connaught (November, 1914). 3
Secretary: Mrs. H. Tickell
, 121 Lower Bagot Street,
Dublin.
3,4
APPENDIX
295
1
+
3
402. Women's Employment, Central Committee for Ulster-(Oc-
tober, 1914). 3
Secretary: Mrs. Mercier Clements (Hon.), 5 College
Gardens, Belfast.
403. Women's Employment Committee (Ministry of Recon-
struction).
404. Women's War Employment (Industrial) (Central Com-
mittee) (March 2, 1916). 3,4
Secretary: Miss G. Jebb, Montagu House, Whitehall,
S.W.1.
405. Woods and Stones (Import Licenses) Committee.
Secretary: Mr. H. J. Phillips, 22 Carlisle Place, S.W.1.
Cf. Import Restrictions Department, No. 184.
406. Wool and Worsted Industries, Provisional Committee on
Research for the (Department of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research).
407. Wool Purchase Central Advisory Committee (August,
1916). 3,4
Secretary: Mr. E. M. H. Lloyd, War Office, Whitehall,
S.W.1.
408. Woolen and Worsted Industries Board of Control.
Work of National Importance Committee. See Conscien-
tious Objectors.
409. Zinc and Copper Research and Inquiry Committee (De-
partment of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1
1
2
1
U. S. Commerce Reports, March 6, 1918, No. 54, pp. 854-862.
? From list printed in Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin,
November 16, 1917, and in the Natioii's Business, November, 1917.
* From list in Parliamentary Papers, 1917, Cd. 8741.
From list in Liberal Year Book, 1917, pp. 148-165.
These committees have ceased to exist.
• Noted in The War Cabinet: Report for the Year 1917.
The work of these committees has been taken over.
* From list in Parliamentary Papers, 1915, Cd. 7855, and not in other lists.
• The work of these committees has been completed or terminated.
The work of these committees has been merged with other committees.
11 In view of the appointment of the Food Controller, it is not expected
that this committee will meet again.
INDEX
Acland, Francis Dyke, 55, 56, 200.
Allied War Council, 48, 96.
Acts of Parliament-see Parliamentary
Ammunition-see Munitions.
legislation.
Anglo-French loan, 225, 226.
Addison, Dr. Christopher, 53, 55, 56, 115,
Animal products; regulations, 129, 197;
257.
committees, 184, 192, 210, 212-217.
Admiralty: officials, 54, 56; regulations con- Animals: regulations, 5, 13, 26, 129, 131;
cerning, 22, 23, 60, 61, 62, 67, 121; de- committees, 201, 202, 210-217, 264.
partmental orders of, 27, 129; early his- Arms-see Munitions.
tory, 59-62; committees, 69, 100, 117, 178, Army administration: early regulations, 7-
179; authority over: munitions, 98, 112, 9, 12, 76, 77, 82; Army Council, 78-82;
air service, 117, 118, censorship, 133, early history, 82, 83; volunteer system,
134, pensions, 161, 162, army transport 83-86; compulsory service, 86-88; Army
service, 185, 186, shipping, 190, 191. See Service Corps, 88-90; War Office commit-
also Naval administration.
tees, 90-92; graves registration, 92-93;
Admiralty Board: during Pitt's régime, 13; central administration, 93-97. See also
early history of, 60-62; members and War Office.
functions of, 62-65; departments and Army. Council: powers, 22, 162; establish-
services, 65, 66; new agencies, 66-69; ment, 78, 93; officers and their func-
changes in personnel, 71-74.
tions, 78-82; orders of, 128, 129; wool
Admiralty. Court: during Elizabethan era, regulations of, 184.
5; decision of, in Zamora case, 23.
Army Service Corps, 88-90.
Admiralty, Lords of the, 4, 13, 33, 34, 37, Army Transport Service, 89.
44, 49, 54, 56, 61-66, 71-74, 134, 190. Asquith, Rt. Hon. Herbert H., 31, 33, 34,
Admiralty Transport Arbitration Board, 66- 39, 42, 44, 45, 48, 50, 53, 85, 86, 168,
68, 186.
238, 257.
Aerial Navigation Acts, 27, 121.
Asquith Cabinet-see Liberal Cabinet.
After the war committees, 192, 194, 240,
Australia: trade regulations of, 23; repre.
241, 242.
sentation in Cabinet, 46, 47; prize courts
Agricultural administration: first measures, in, 70; purchase of wool from, 184;
198; departmental orders, 129, 131, 211,
finances, 230.
212; regulations concerning, 147, 206; Austria-Hungary: subjects of arrested, 125;
committees and other agencies, 110, 131,
prohibition of trade with, 171;
banks
183, 200-204, 209-211, 259, 262, 268; owned by subjects of, 173; report on
criticism, 208.
trading conditions, 178.
Agricultural machinery, 105, 110, 114.
Agricultural Policy Committee, 203, 262. Balfour, Arthur J., 34, 44, 53, 54, 72, 238.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Board of, 34, Balkans, the: graves registration in, 92.
56, 131, 157, 198, 201, 202, 206, 209.
Bank holidays, 24, 121, 218.
Agriculture, Board of, 51, 54, 91, 198, 200,
Bank notes-see Currency legislation.
Bank of England, 10, 12, 219, 220, 225.
204, 209.
Aiding the enemy regulations, 22, 123.
Banks: former war provisions, 10, I2;
Air Board: establishment of, 29, 42, 117;
transactions with and by aliens, 125, 173;
reorganization, 118; criticism of, 119.
British Trade Bank, 193, 194.
See also
Air Ministry, 118, 119.
Financial administration.
Air raid precautions, 117, 128, 132, 178. Barnes, Geo. N., 49, 53, 55, 158, 160,
Air service: officials, 55, 57, 63, 72; rela- 162, 163.
tions with Ministry of Munitions, 105, Beatty, Sir David, 72.
114, 118, 119; administration at begin- Beef-'see Animal products.
ning of war, 116; committees, 117, 118, Beer: regulations concerning, 21, 138, 140,
178, 235. See also Air Board; Air Min- 205; statistics, 141, 142.
istry.
Belgian refugees: registration of, 124, 149,
Aircraft: provisions concerning, 26, 27, 150; agencies for aiding, 149, 150, 151,
121, 124; responsibility for design of, 63; 247, 248; supplies for, 151.
increase in number of, 75; Royal fac- Belgium: registration of graves in, 92, 93;
tory, 80, 98; supply of, 105, 114, 117, trade with, 194, 239; refugees from-
118, 119; insurance committees, 178.
see Belgian refugees.
Airships. See Aircraft.
Bills of exchange, 121, 218, 220, 221.
Aliens: early regulations, II, 13; acts and Blockade Ministry, 29, 34, 235, 240.
orders during present war, 17, 20, 24,
Blue Books, Committee on Colonial, 242.
122, 124, 125; restrictions on, 122, 124, Board of Írade: early history, 14, 165;
144; registration, 13, 124; internment, personnel, 54, 56, 165; orders of, 26, 128,
125, 151; exemptions, 126; committees 130, 205; departments, 51, 166, 178, 182,
90, 125, 144, 247, 262.
195, 250; powers and functions, 89, 99,
Aliens Restriction Act, 20, 24, 122, 124. 172, 176, 186; licenses issued by, 172,
Allied conferences, 192, 237, 238.
173; insurance scheme, 177; criticism,
Allied Economic Conference, 192, 193.
186; powers transferred to Ministry of
Allied Naval Council, 238.
Labor, 250, 251; trade conferences, 249;
297
298
INDEX
committees, 99, 100, 101, 130, 154, 166,
171, 176, 178, 179, 181, 183, 198, 203,
204; reconstruction committees, 192-196,
257
Bombardment: insurance for damage from,
178.
Borden, Sir Robert, 46, 47.
Bread-see Food administration.
Bryce, Viscount, 123, 240.
Buckmaster, Lord, 34, 53, .57.
Building materials: restrictions on imports
of, 176; committee on supplies of, 260.
Building trades committees, 110, 185, 249,
266.
Commerce: foreign, 171-179; domestic,
179-185. See also Enemy, trading with
the.
Coinmission Internationale d'Achats des
Bois, 183.
Commission Internationale de Ravitaille-
ment, 92, 198, 237.
Commissions and committees, list of of.
ficial, 271-295.
Compulsory military service: early provi-
sions, 9, 12, 13, 26; measures leading
to,. 38, 86, 87; exemptions, 87, 128;
criticism, 88; committees, 88, 249; legis-
lation, 19, 21, 87, 88, 249, 255.
Conferences of the Allies--see Allied con-
ferences.
Conscientious objectors, 88, 144, 249.
Constables, 17, 131, 132, 141.
Contraband, 23, 70, 176, 240.
Corn-see Food supplies.
Cotton Control Board, 184.
Cotton growing, committees on, 194, 195,
265.
Courts, emergency powers of, 17, 18, 19,
20, 21, 123, 220, 222.
Cowdray, Viscount, 55, 118.
Crawford, Earl of, 53, 54, 202, 203.
Crewe, Lord, 34, 53, 54, 246.
Currency legislation: early regulations, 10,
I2; bank notes issue authorized, 17,
219; acts, 12, 17, 20, 24, 219; statistics,
219
Curzon, Lord, 37, 40, 51, 53, 117
Customs
excise duties: provisions
regulating, 8, 20, 23, 25, 121, 172; in-
crease in, 228; agencies, 183, 229; sta-
tistics, 229, 230.
See also War Trade
Department.
Customs and inland revenue
revenue regulations,
23, 24, 121, 172.
Cyprus: prize courts in, 24, 70.
177, 188.
and
Cabinet, during 18th century, 7, 14; re-
lations between Parliament and, 19; re-
organization under Lloyd George, 29;
Liberal Cabinet, 31-34; Coalition Cabinet,
34-36; Lloyd George War Cabinet and
Ministry, 38-46; Imperial Cabinet, 46-48;
criticism, 48-52; personnel, 53-58.
Cables: censorship of, 133, 134.
Canada: representation in Imperial Con-
ference and Cabinet, 46, 47; prize courts
in, 70-71; food control, 207; finances,
230.
Canals: government control of, 127, 130,
171.
Canteens: army, 91; industrial, 109, 140.
Carson, Sir Edward, 34, 37, 50, 53, 54,
55, 72, 74, 190.
Cecil, Lord Robert, 55, 175, 240.
Censorship: regulations at outbreak of war,
133; administration of bureau for, 134;
criticism, 135; journals suppressed, 136;
postal, 136, 137.
Central Control Board
Board for the Liquor
Traffic, 28, 109, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143.
Chamberlain, Austen, 34, 50, 53, 54, 158,
218.
Chamberlain, Neville, 55, 253, 254.
Charities: legislation, 21, 144, 152, 155;
committees, 144, 146-149, 154; organi-
zations, 146, 147, 149, 159. See also
Soldiers and sailors, aid to; Belgian
refugees.
Charities Registration Act, 144, 155.
Chelsea Hospital, 158, 161, 162.
Chemical products, 179, 180, 259.
Chemical Trades, Committee on, 259, 268.
Children: employment of, 152; pensions
and allowances to, 159, 163; education
of, 243, 244, 246.
Churchill, Winston, 34,
34, 37, 50, 53, 54,
71, 115
Clerical and Commercial Employments Com-
mittee, 144, 154, 247, 248.
Coal and coke: early regulations, 7; leg-
islation and departmental orders, 18,
130, 182; committees, 143, 144, 180, 182;
administrative agencies, 181, 182; after
the war committees, 192, 261, 268.
Coalition Cabinet: formation, 33; results,
35; criticism, 36, 38; personnel, 34, 53-
58; changes in, 72.
Coke-see Coal and coke.
Colonial Office: personnel, 54, 55, 241;
report of, 178; committees, 240-242, 263,
265; representation in Imperial Confer-
ence and Cabinet, 46, 242.
Colonies: Secretary for the, 34, 37, 44,
46, 47, 54, 79, 240; early administra-
tion, 14; prize courts in, 70, 71; mili-
tary forces of, 83; finances, 231; com-
mittees, 241, 242, 263. See also Colonial
Office.
112,
Dardanelles, 21, 37, 71, 92.
Declaration of London, provisions con-
cerning, 22, 70.
Defense of the Realm: preliminary meas,
ures, 120, 121; Royal Proclamation of
Aug. 4, 1914, 121, 122; Acts of Par-
liament,
I 2, 18, 20, 21, 22, 99,
122, 123; restrictions on aliens,
124-126; Orders in Council, 22, 24, 124,
126-128; general orders, 120,
121,
1 28-
131; special constables, 131, 132; con-
trol of lights and business hours, 132,
133; censorship, 133-137;
control of
liquor traffic, 137-143; Home Office com-
mittees, 143-145.
Demobilization Committees, 263, 264.
Derby, Earl of, 53, 55, 86, 94, 96, 117.
, 207
Disabled military forces-see Soldiers and
sailors, aid to.
Dominions: regulations concerning, 23;
representation in
in Imperial Conference
and Cabinet, 29, 46, 47; prize courts in,
70, 71; finances, 231; committees, 240,
241.
Drugs, 128, 129, 130, 145, 180.
Duke,' Henry, E., 54, 58, 153.
Dyestuffs--see Chemical products.
Education: legislation, 18, 243, 246; effects
of war on, 242, 243; measures taken to
remedy conditions, 243, 244; plans for
the future, 244, 245; committees, 244,
INDEX
299
21,
245, 258, 262; Board of, 54, 147, 244,
246.
Egypt: prize courts in, 24, 70, 71; graves
registration in, 92.
Elections, regulations concerning, 18, 20,
152.
Electrical trades, 192, 194.
Elizabeth, Queen of England: war admin-
istration during reign of, 3.
Emergency legislation, 17-19, 123, 152,
220, 222, 243, 264.
Emmott, Lord, 55, 175.
Employment: clerical and commercial, 144,
154, 247, 248; prisoners, 91, 155, 157;
returned military forces, 101, 121, 157,
159, 160, 263; agricultural, 201; indus-
trial- see Industry and trades. See
also Female labor.
Enemy, trading with the: regulations in
former wars, 8, II; acts, 17, 20,
172, 173, 175, 221; proclamations, 22,
171; committees, 174, 175, 176; punish-
ment for, 172; prosecutions, 172, 173.
Enemy aliens; treatment of, 17, 124, 125;
housing of, 151; litigation concerning,
172, 173; custody of property of, 173,
174, 239.
Engineer and Railway Staff Corps, 167,
168.
England and Wales: Local Government
Board for, 130; liquor control, 139,
142, 143; aid to returned soldiers and
sailors, 157, 201; enemy property cus-
todian, 173, 174; coal regulations, 182;
textile industry, 183; food administra-
tion, 200, 209; finances, 219, 227; edu-
cation, 244, 246; labor regulations, 252;
Local Government Committee, 262, 266,
268.
Exchequer, Chancellor of the, 34, 37, 44,
53, 218, 221, 228, 232.
Exchequer bonds-see Financial adminis.
tration.
Expenditures: statistics, 230, 231; agencies
to reduce, 232; committee on national,
234-237.
Exports: early provisions, 5, 8, 10, 197;
prohibition of, 18, 20, 23, 25, 121, 172,
198; licenses, 174;
committees, 175,
176, 182; assistance to exporters, 220.
Family allowances: in former wars, 9, 12;
provisions and agencies during present
war, 84, 148, 147, 151, 152, 158,
159, 162, 163.
Female labor: in munitions, 109, 110, 113,
114, 249, 250; clerical and commercial,
144,
154; substitution for males, do,
144, 154, 247, 248, 249, 250; relief
agencies, 109, 148;
enrollment under
National Service, 254; statistics, 113,
114, 249, 250, 254, 255; reconstruction
plans, 257, 259.
Financial administration: in former wars,
5, 12; emergency measures, 17, 18, 20,
21; regulation of private transactions,
218-222; votes of credit, 222-224;
loans, 225-227; taxes and revenue, 227-
230; expenditures, 230, 231; control over
finances, 231-234; Committee on National
Expenditure, 234-236.
Financial obligations-see Moratoria.
Fisher, Herbert A. L., 54, 246.
Fisher, Lord, 33, 45, 68, 71, 72.
Food Controller: appointment, 42, 205;
criticism, 51, 52; orders of, 129, 131;
powers and duties, 205, 206.
Food supplies: in previous wars, 5, 8, 10,
II, 197; measures taken at outbreak of
war, 198, 199; government control, 42,
198, 205-208; orders, 129, 131, 211-217;
home production, 209; committees, 91,
198, 200, 201, 204, 208-210, 262.
Foreign Affairs, Secretary for, 44, 49, 53,
237, 238.
Foreign Office: personnel, 53, 55, 72,
237, 238; jurisdiction, 196; relations
with Allies, 198, 237, 238, 239; depart- .
ments, 136, 195, 239; committees, 188,
239; expansion, 238.
Forestry, committees on, 259, 262, 268.
Forins of action: Acts of Parliament, 17;
Royal Proclamations and Orders in
Council, 21; Orders of Council, 25;
Orders of His Majesty, 26; depart.
mental orders and regulations, 27.
France: legislation during wars with, 6-13;
Cabinet of, 41; army depots in, 89;
registration of graves in, 92, 93; Muni-
tions department of, 116; agreement con-
cerning separate peace, 237;
women's
service in, 254.
French, Sir John, 93, 117.
Geddes, Sir Eric, 54, 72, 74, 89, 190.
Germany: detention of ships of, 22; au-
thority of Chancellor of, 41;, prison
camps in, 153; prohibition of trade with,
171; banks owned by subjects of, 178;
blockade and internment of vessels of,
187; subjects of, arrested, 125.
Graves registration, 81, 92, 93.
Greenwich Hospital, 64, 161, 162.
Grey, Sir Edward, 53, 237.
Haldane, Viscount, 53, 78, 179.
Harcourt, Lewis V., 54, 55, 240.
Health, government control of, 109, 147,
151, 159, 160, 248.
Henderson, Arthur, 40, 42, 49, 53, 54,
55, 57, 246.
Hobhouse, C. E. H., 55, 201.
Holland, II, 145, 150.
Home Affairs, Secretary of State for, 34,
37, 53, 77, 85,
143,
144, 154,
155, 198.
Home Office: personnel, 34, 37, 53, 55, 109;
orders, 27, 129, 130, , 132; censorship,
134, 136; committees, 143-145, 154, 155,
181, 243; licenses; 173; conference with
Board of Trade, 249.
Hope, James F., 56, 58, 157:
Housing conditions: munitions workers, ,
99, 114; alien enemies, 151; families of
interned aliens, 151; committees, 147,
262, 266.
war
Imperial Cabinet, 29, 30, 41, 44, 46, 50.
Imperial Defense, Committee on, 44, 45,
198.
Imperial War Conference, 29, 46, 92, 242.
Imports: early provisions, 8, 9, 10, 1.97;
restrictions on, 176, 177, 189, 199, 204,
269; licenses, 174, 176, 189; agencies,
176, 177, 189, 210.
Inchape, Lord, 186, 188, 200.
Income tax-see Taxation and Revenue.
India: early trade regulations, 10; rep.
resentation in Imperial War Conference
and Cabinet, 29, 46, 47; prize courts in,
71; representation on graves committee,
92; arrangements concerning wheat, 199;
finances, 230; committees, 199, 242, 263,
265.
300
INDEX
144, 181.
,
India, Secretary of State for, 34, 44, 47, Live stock-see Animals.
54.
Lloyd George, David, 24, 29, 30, 34, 37, 39,
Industry and trades: legislation, 21, 27, 40, 42, 48, 53, 96, 100, 115, 158.
101, 184; government control, 101, 120, Loans-see War loans.
130, 180, 182, 184, 185, 190; regulation Local Government Board: personnel, 31 ,
of wages and hours of labor, 109, 110, 34, 54, 56; orders,
129,
130; relief
115, 252; settlement
settlement of disputes, 101, , measures, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152, 157,
115; supply and distribution of labor, 262, 268; industrial aid, * 151, 157, 266;
109, 114, 247, 248; for disabled soldiers, act, 152; finances, 222; committees, 150,
157, 251; recruiting, 144, 181, 256; re- 151, 157, 266-269.
lations between employer and employe, Long, W. H., 34, 54, 234, 240.
101, 143, 261, 281; relief agencies, 109, Lord High Admiral, 4, 13, 59, 60, 62.
248; industrial supplies, 179, 181, 183. Lord High Treasurer, 3, 4, 13.
193, 260; committees, 109, 143, 157, 180-
185, 192, 249, 250, 251.
McKenna, Reginald, 34, 53, 158, 228, 233.
Insurance: legislation, 17, 18, 20, 157,
Maclay, Sir Joseph Paton, 55, 190, 191.
220, 221; military forces, 18, 157; in- Malay States, 248, 263.
dustrial, 166; ships, 177; aircraft and Medical Research Committee, 92, 109.
bombardment, 178; life and endowment,
Medical service: navy, 63, 66; army, 79,
220; committees, 177, 178.
81, 109, 151, 255, 256.
Intelligence: naval and military, 44, 136; Merchant ships-see Ships and shipping.
insurance, 178; commercial, 178, 192,
Metals and minerals, 8, 10, 106, 110, 129,
196; overseas trade, 195, 196, 239; com- 130, 180, 192, 264.
mittees, 147, 192, 258.
Military and naval supplies, provisions
Internment: enemy aliens, I 25, 128; concerning, 4, 10, 23, 102, 148, 166.
civilians, 144; German vessels, 187. Military service acts, 19, 21, 87, 88, 249,
Invention and Research, Board of, 68, 69, 255.
72.
Milner, Lord, 40, 50, 53, 200.
Ireland: munitions administration,
108;
Miners: recruiting and enlisting of, 13,
agricultural orders, 131; no liquor areas,
139; employment of women, 148; Bel- Montagu, Rt. Hon. Edwin S., 37, 53, 54,
gian refugees, 150; rebellion, 154; pen- 56, 115, 117, 227, 233, 257.
sions, 159; railway administration, 170; Moratoria: 8, 10, 17, 20,
20, 22,
22, 121,
121, 218,
enemy, property custodian, 173, 174; 219, 220.
peat deposits, 182; food administration, Motor transport, 89, 90, 114, I 24, 129,
200, 201, 209; finances, 219, 227; labor 266.
regulations, 252. See also Irish com- Munitions administration: organization in
mittees.
1914, 98-100; administrative organization,
Irish committees, 143, 148, 150, 154, 159, 102-108; additional committees, 108-110,
182, 200, 201, 209, 210, 211, 227.
financial arrangements, III-113; muni-
Irish Nationalists, 34, 37.
tions industry, 113-115; general estimate,
Italy, 237, 238.
. See also Munitions, Ministry
of.
Jellicoe, Sir John, 71, 72, 73, 74.
Munitions, Ministry of: establishment, 18,
28, 35, 53, 94, 100, 115; personnel, 34,
King William's War: administration dur- 37, 100, 115; development, 51, 102; criti-
ing, 7.
cism, 95; powers and duties, 100-102,
Kitchener,
Earl, 26, 31, 34, 53, 93, 105; departments and officers, 102-105;
94, 96, 97, 102, 125.
number on staff in 1915, 107; munitions
areas, 108; financial arrangements, 111;
Labor, Ministry of: establishment, 29, 42, general estimate, 116; orders of, 129,
51, 250; personnel, 55, 57; departments, 130.
163, 251; powers and duties, 250, 251; Munitions: former provisions concerning,
statistics, 251; criticism, 252; finances, 5, 10; emergency acts, 18, 20, 21, 35,
235, 236; committees, 157, 235, 251.
100, 101; manufacture of, at outbreak
Labor problems: legislation, 101, 159; ad- of war, 98; plans for increasing out-
ministrative agencies, 115, 147, 148, 151, put, 99; development of the industry,
166, 248, 252; committees, 109, 143, 157, 113-115; committees, 108, 109, 112, 233.
181, 200, 248, 249, 250; after the war,
116, 157, 182, 258, 259.
National registration: acts, 18, 20, 37, 85;
Lancaster, Chancellor of the Duchy of, committees, 85, 02, 266.
34, 54.
National Service, Ministry of, 29, 42, 51,
Lansdowne, Lord, 34, 53.
55, 235, 236, 253-259.
Law, Bonar, 32, 34, 39, 50, 53, 54, 158,
Naturalization legislation, 122, 125.
240, 241.
Naval administration: prewar history, 8,
Ileather-see Animal products.
9, 12, 13, 52-62; Admiralty Board, 62-66;
Lewis, J. Herbert, 56, 244.
new agencies, 66-69; prize courts, 69-71;
Liberal Cabinet: at outbreak of war, 31;
See also
relations with Parliament, 32; reorgani-
zation of, 33; personnel of, 53-58.
Navigation legislation, 128, 129.
Lighting regulations, 130, 131, 132.
Navy Board, early history of, 13, 59-61.
Liquor traffic: Central Control Board, 28, Neutrals: trade with, 23, 26, 136, 176,
109, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143; regulations 188.
and orders, 18, 20, 131, 137, 138, 139,
New Ministries Acts, 18, 43, 189, 205,
212, 216; restrictions concerning, 137-140; 250.
administration of orders, 141; statistics, New Zealand: trade regulations, 23; rep:
141, 142; criticism, 142, 143.
resentation at Imperial Conference and
INDEX
301
}
Cabinet, 46, 47; prize courts in, 71;
finances, 230.
Newfoundland, 46, 47, 71.
Newspapers: during Pitt's régime, 11; dur-
ing present war, 125; censorship of,
133-136.
Nicholson, Lord, 45, 93.
Orders and regulations, departmental: Post-
master General, 27; Home Office, 27,
129, 130, 132; Treasury, 27, 129, 130;
Admiralty, 27,
129; Board
of Trade,
128, 130, 205; Army Council, 128, 129;
Food Controller, 131; Secretary for Ire-
land, 131; Secretary for Scotland, 129,
131; Quartermaster General, 129; Muni-
tions Ministry, 128, 129, 130.
Order's in Council and Royal Proclama-
tions: in former wars, 4, 7, 9-11; several
types, 22-24; how issued, 25.
Orders of Council, 25.
Orders of His Majesty, 26.
Overseas Trade Intelligence Department,
195-196, 239.
Railway and Canal Commission, 166.
Railway Executive Committee, 166, 168,
186.
Railways: prewar provisions, 166, 168;
Order in Council for government con-
trol of, 24, 166, 168; officials, 89, 168;
regulation of traffic and fares, 130, 167,
170, 181; advantages of government con-
trol, 169, 170; financial arrangements,
169, 170; changes in service, 170; com-
mittees, 166, 168, 186.
Realm, defense of the see Defense of the
realm.
Reconstruction: committees on, 192, 203,
209, 245, 257, 259-267; Ministry of, 29,
257-259.
Recruiting measures: early provisions, 8,
9; at beginning of war, 84; industrial,
85, 86, 248, 254-256; committees, 84,
85, 90; transfer to Ministry of National
Service, 255, 256.
Relief organizations—see Charities; also
Soldiers and sailors, aid to.
Rent and mortgage interest; restriction of,
18, 21, 222.
Retrenchment Committee, 232, 233.
Revenue-see Taxation and revenue.
Rhondda, Lord, 54, 55, 207.
Robertson, J. M., 56, 203.
Robertson, Sir Wm., 95, 234.
Royal Flying Corps, 116, 117.
Royal Naval Air Service, 117.
Royal Proclamations: extent of, 21;
eral types of, 22-23; how issued, 24.
Runciman, Walter, 54, 186, 203, 205.
Russia, 237, 238.
157,
Paper: regulations concerning, 130, 176,
189, 192; Commission, 176.
Parliamentary legislation: in former times,
3, 7-12; during present war, 15-21; finan.
cial measures, 17; emergency acts, 17, 18;
military service and new agencies, 18,
19;
relations between Parliament and
the Cabinet, 19; list of important acts,
20, 21; Defense of the Realm Acts,
I 22, 123
Patents, trademarks, copyrights, 192, 193.
Pease, Joseph A., 54, 55, 246.
Pensions: early provisions, 4; legislation,
18, 20, 21, 84, 158, 160, 161, 164; ad-
ministration at beginning of war,
158'; new measures, 158, 159; financial
provisions,. 160; Statutory Committee,
158-160, 162; Ministry oi, 29, 42, 146, ,
160-164.
Pitt's war legislation, 9.
Police control, 17, 20, 120, 122, 132.
Port and Transit Committee, 130, 188,
191.
Ports and harbors: regulations, 123, 130,
187, 188; harbor department of Board
of Trade, 166; committees, 130, 188,
191.
Postal regulations, 11, 136, 137.
Press: censorship, 133;
official bureau,
133-135.
Prime Minister, 4, 13, 29, 37, 44, 53,
136, 138, 205.
Prince of Wales, 92, 148, 160.
Prisoners of war: treatment of and aid to
British, 90, 91, 155, 156; employment
of, 91, 157; committees, 155, 156.
Private transactions, regulation of, 218-
St. Aldwyn, Lord, 218, 221.
Samuel, Herbert, 53, 54, 55, 138, 147,
234, 235,
Scientific and Industrial Research, Depart.
ment of; established, 194; boards and
committees of, 195, 244, 245.
Scotland: Defense of Realm orders con-
cerning, 129, 131, 132; liquor control,
139, 140, 142, 143; enemy property cus-
todian, 173,
174; food administration,
200, 201, 209; finances, 12, 219, 227;
Secretary for, 54. See also Scottish
committees.
Scottish committees, 143, 200, 201, 227,
247, 248.
Secretary of State: Principal, 4, 13, 136,
138, 172.
Securities, 128, 130, 137, 220; American
dollar, 227.
Selborne, Lord, 34, 54, 200, 203.
Seven
Years War:
administration dur-
ing, 8.
Shipping Controller, 29, 42, 52, 190, 191.
Shipping Ministry: creation oi, 29, 189;
officials and functions, 189, 190; results
accomplished by and criticism of, 191.
Ships and shipping: early regulations, 13,
56; detention of German, 22, 187; in-
surance, 130; officers responsible for, 63,
74, 72; neutral ships, 136; administra-
tion during first year, 185-187; commit-
tees, 187-189, 190; Shipping Ministry,
189-192.
Shops, regulations for early closing of,
131, 132. .
Simon, Sir John A., 34, 37, 53, 55, 155.
Smith, F. E., 134, 143.
Smuts, General, 47, 50, 118.
Soldiers and sailors: aid to, 4, 91, 147,
148, 157-159, 201, 242, 251; employment
222.
Privy Council: in former wars, 3-6, 13,
14, 15, 59; during present war, 15.
Prize claims committees, 69, 179, 188, 241.
Prize courts: regulations, S, 20, 22, 24,
in the United Kingdom, 69, 70; in domin-
ions and dependencies, 70, 71; depart-
ment, 239.
Profits, government control of, 101, 102,
109, 207, 208.
Prothero, Rowland E., 54, 200.
Public Trustee for enemy property, 173,
174, 239
302
INDEX
?
!
of,'
101, 121, 157, 159, 160, 263; re-
habilitation, 164.
South Africa, 46, 71, 230,
Spirits-see Wines and spirits; also Liquor
traffic.
Statutory Committee (Pensions), 158, 159,
160, 161, 164.
Steel-Maitland, Arthur D., 55, 175, 196,
240.
Stock exchange regulations, 27, 218, 221.
Sugar, 131, 199, 204, 206, 207, 211; 238.
Summer Time Act, 132, 145.
Switzerland, provisions concerning: during
Pitt's régime, Il; aid to prisoners by
Swiss Red Cross, 155; transfer of pris-
oners to, 156.
Verney, Sir Harry, 56,200.
Victualing Board, 13, 60.
Volunteers: before 1914, 82; increase in
force of, 84; measures adopted for re-
cruiting, 85.
Yotes of credit: in 1914, 17, 224; in
1915, 32; in previous wars, 223; statis-
tics, 224; expenditures from, 231, 232.
i
Taxation and revenue: early provisions,
3, 5, II, 12, 15; votes of credit, 222-
224; war loans, 225-227; additional taxa.
tion, 227, 228; income
income tax,
I 2, 228,
229; excess profits tax, 208, 228, 229;
statistics, 229, 230.
Teachers and teaching—see Education.
Textile industries: 183, 184, 192.
Timber and alcohol, government control
of, 183
Tobacco regulations concerning, 130, 176,
177, 185.
Trade and commerce, early regulations,
5, 9, 10, 14; legislation during present
war, 17, 18, 20-26, 171, 172, 175; con-
trol of foreign, 17, 18, 25, 171-174, 176,
196;, with British possessions and do-
minions, 23, 179,
241; administrative
agencies, 166, 174; committees, 175, 176,
177, 239; financial facilities, 193.
Trade unions: 114, 147, 150, 184, 249.
Treasury: early administration, 4, 5, 13;
personnel, 53, 56, 58; orders, 27, 30;
relations with munitions administration,
100, 111, 112; relations with trade,
174,
175,
179; control
over finances, 219,
221-223, 231-236; regulation of stock ex-
change, 220, 221; committees, 100, 159,
220, 232, 236. See also Financial ad-
ministration.
Turkey: banks owned by subjects of, 173.
Wages: government control of, 101, 110,
115, 163, 192, 202, 209, 249, 252.
Wallace, Sir M. G., 153, 209.
War administration in 'former times:' in
Elizabethan era, 3; during King Wil-
liam's War, 7; during the Seven Years
War, 8; Pitt's war legislation, 9; ad-
ministrative agencies in 18th century, 13.
War Cabinet: creation of, 29, 39; per-
sonnel, 40, 41, 53; work accomplished by,
49; criticism of, 49, 51; changes in per-
sonnel, 49, 50, 72; suggestions concern-
ing, 52.
War Committee, 37, 39.
War Council, 29, 238.
War loans: in former wars, II, 12; acts
concerning, 18, 20, 21, 225, 226, 227;
Anglo-French, 225; American, 225, 226;
statistics, 226; committees, 227.
War losses: commissions for inquiry con-
cerning; 152; statistics, 153.
Wař Ministry: formation,
42; criticism
of, 43; personnel of, 53-58.
War Office: personnel, 37, 53, 55; depart-
ments transferred to, 77; organization,
80-82; committees, 90-92, 99, 102, 233,
235, 263, 264; changes in personnel and
organization, 93-95; criticism, 93-97, 236;
relations with munitions administration,
98-100, 102, III, 118; censorship, 133-
136; pensions, 146, 161, 162; war relief,
151; prisoners, 156, 157; transportation,
167, 169, 171; mining. 181; duties trans-
ferred from, 183184; shipping, 186;
food control, 198, 210; finances, 223,
230, 233, 235, 236.
War savings certificates, 227,
War Trade Department: creation of, 28,
174; functions of, 175, 196, 240.
Wars with France: administration dur-
ing, 6.
Wemyss, Sir Rosslyn Erskine, 74.
West Indian Contingents Committee, 241.
William II: war administration of, 7.
Wines and spirits, 8, 9, 11, 197.
Women officials: munitions, 107,
108;
charities, 147, 155,
241; Home Office
committees, 145, 154; employment of
women, 148; pensions, 163.
Wool, 9, 91, 129, 183, 184, 238.
United States: protests of, 136; coopera-
tion with Food Controller of, 208; gov-
ernment loans of, 225, 226; relations
with British Foreign Office, 238.
.
Universities and colleges: emergency pow-
crs granted to, 18, 243.
Vehicles: regulations, 13, 26,
, I 24,
various types developed by war,
committee, 266.
Verdier, J. W., 177, 178.
I 29:
90;
Zanzibar: prize courts in, 24, 70.
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