C 55,922/3 ºzº
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE ALASKAN
CONTINENTAL SHELF
: : * ~ *
KODIAK INTERIM.SYNTHESIS REPORT - 1980
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Prépared under the Guidance of the
• *. • . . . . . . . .
* - - - - - . . . ;
Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program
. . . . . . . . º.
Science Applications, Inc.
2760 29th Street
Boulder, Colorado 80301
March 1980
UNITED STATES
§ ºf . NATIONAL OCEANIC AND
- - DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE OFFICE OF MARINE POLLUTION
% 5
ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION ASSESSMENT
R.L. Swanson, Director
º, St. * Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary Richard A. Frank, Administrator
20; cº-
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NOTICES
This interim report has been reviewed by the U. S.
Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration's Outer Continental Shelf Envi-
ronmental Assessment Program Office, and approved for
publication. Approval does not necessarily signify
that the contents reflect the views and policies of the
Department of Commerce.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion (NOAA) does not approve, recommend, or endorse any
proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned
in this publication. No reference shall be made to
NOAA or to this publication in any advertising or sales
promotion which would indicate or imply that NOAA
approves, recommends, or endorses any proprietary
product or proprietary material mentioned herein, or
which has as its purpose an intent to cause directly or
indirectly the advertised product to be used or pur-
chased because of this publication. .
ii
SYNTHESIS REPORT UPDATING
This volume represents an INTERIM edition of the
Kodiak Shelf Synthesis Report and is intended to pre-
sent a multidisciplinary overview of information rele-
want to possible Alaskan Outer Continental Shelf oil
and gas development. OCSEAP-supported research is
still continuing in the Kodiak region, making addi-
tional relevant information continually available.
In order to assist with this updating procedure,
it is requested that the users of this report inform
the following of major omissions or errors or of any
new relevant information:
OMPA Alaska Field Office
P. O. Box 1808
Juneau, Alaska 99802
iii.
Foreword
Expeditious development of the Outer Continental
Shelf (OCS) is essential to energy requirements of the
United States. The OCS oil and gas deposits may pro-
vide a national source of petroleum during a time when
it is greatly needed. In each OCS area for which
development is proposed, extensive environmental
studies must be conducted before such development can
safely proceed. As manager of the Alaskan Outer Con-
tinental Shelf leasing program, the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) has asked the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to conduct the Outer
Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program
(OCSEAP).
This program focuses on several lease areas on the
Alaskan Outer Continental Shelf, ranging from the sub-
arctic Northeast Gulf of Alaska to the arctic Beaufort
Sea. This vast geographic area encompasses extreme
environmental conditions. The harsh environment and
resultant severe working conditions are largely respon-
sible for the fact that much less is known about the
marine environment of the Alaskan OCS than about any
other shelf and coastal area of the United States. The
existence of oil under the shelf, the demand for new
domestic sources of energy, and the recognition of the
lack of basic environmental information have accented
the need for a well-developed research program.
An essential part of a research program is the
reporting of its results. OCSEAP is reproducing and
widely distributing the annual reports received from
each project as well as some specialized technical
summaries. A listing of these reports, as well as the
reports themselves, may be secured from OCSEAP's
Editor, NOAA, Rx4, Boulder, CO 80303. More impor-
tantly, OCSEAP is producing synthesis reports like this
one for each lease area. This current synthesis or-
ganizes all available marine environmental information
pertinent to OCS development for the given lease area,
tailoring the presentation to needs of the users.
A synthesis chapter is provided to tie the scien-
tific and technical information chapters together. It
presents a picture of the operation and vulnerability
of the environmental system in such a way that the
user, or decision maker, will have a sound basis for
tract selection and location of pipelines or other
facilities, will be aware of stipulations and regula-
tions, and will know where problems exist.
The task of gathering, selecting, analyzing, and
presenting needed pertinent information for the lease
areas will take years to accomplish; yet the user needs
information immediately. In order to resolve this
dilemma and to secure a wide review of the information
before the work is finished, OCSEAP provides interim
syntheses, intending to update them regularly to incor-
porate data from current studies. These reports will
be discussed at future meetings with OCSEAP staff and
contract scientists to expedite the updating. The
final synthesis, to be published when the OCSEAP scien-
tific community has completed its studies in this lease
area, will thus be a product tailored to current and
future needs of decision makers.
This study was supported by the Bureau of Land
Management through interagency agreement with the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, under
which a multi-year program responding to needs of
petroleum development of the Alaskan continental shelf
is managed by the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental
Assessment Program (OCSEAP) Office.
Successful completion of this Interim Synthesis
Report reflects the enthusiastic support received from
the entire OCSEAP community. Special thanks are ex-
tended to the respective staffs of the OCSEAP Program
and Project Offices, Principal Investigators, and
Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage Office, for their
continuing support, advice, and encouragement.
This report was prepared by Science Applications,
Inc. contract (03-7-022-35213) to NOAA, OCSEAP. The
following SAI staff contributed to the report:
Joseph G. Strauch, Jr., Ph.D. Principal Investigator,
Text Editor, Birds
Robert E. Peterson, Ph.D. Graphics Editor,
Geology
Kenneth W. Fucik, M.S. Chemistry, Micro-
biology, Plankton
William H. Lippincott, Ph.D.
Bruce R. Mate, Ph.D.
Edwin J. C. Sobey, Ph.D.
George R. Tamm, M.S.
Edward G. Wolf, M.S.
Littoral Zone
Mammals
Physical Oceanography
Benthos, Fish
Effects
Andy Oesterle, B.S.
Patricia Martin Gibby, B.A.
William J. Trujillo
Spafford C. Ackerly, B.S.
Robert Kemp, B.S.
Marina Ossipov
Sharon I. O'Brien
Vicki J. Crawford, B.G. S.
Kay M. Jentsch
Mairi Nelson, B.A.
M. Jawed Hameedi, Ph.D., Kodiak Lease Area coordinator,
prepared Chapters 6 and 7 and reviewed the entire
report. The following OCSEAP staff provided support
Technical Support
Technical Editor
Graphics Supervisor
Draftsperson
Draftsperson
Draftsperson
Division Administrator
Services Supervisor
Typist
Typist
and/or review of the draft report:
Teresa L. Baker
Cheryl G. Brower, B.S.
Herbert E. Bruce, Ph.D.
John A. Calder, Ph.D.
Rodney A. Combellick, B.S.
Marian S. Cord, M.A.
Rosa Lee Echard, A.A.
Robert C. Farentinos, Ph.D.
Laurie E. Jarvela, B.S.
Typist
Assistant Data Integrator
(Glossary) &
Manager, Alaska Field
Office (Entire Report)
Lead Scientist
(Chemistry)
Geologist (Geologic
Hazards)
Staff Writer-Editor
(Entire Report)
Editor (Entire Report)
Information Synthesizer
and Integrator
(Entire Report) and Lead
Scientist (Mammals)
NEGOA Lease Area Coordi-
nator (Fish, Plankton)
Lead Scientist (Micro-
biology)
Lead Scientist (Geologic
Hazards)
Lead Scientist (Ecology,
Birds)
Lead Scientist (Physical
Oceanography)
Oceanographer (Physical
Oceanography)
Tracker (Mammals)
State of Alaska Liaison
(Entire Report)
Lois A. Killewich, Ph.D.
Joseph H. Kravitz, M.S.
David Nyquist, Ph.D.
Roy Overstreet, M.S.
Mauri J. Pelto, M.S.
Roddy J. Swope, B.S.
Frederick F. Wright, Ph.D.
The staff of the BLM Alaska OCS Office reviewed por-
tions of the report and supplied information used in
Chapters 6 and 7.
The following people have reviewed drafts of the
report and/or supplied information for it. Their help
is greatly appreciated.
P. Arneson Alaska Department of Fish &
Game, Anchorage
P. A. Baird U. S. Fish & Wildlife Ser-
vice, Anchorage
E. A. Best International Pacific Hal-
ibut Commission, Seattle
Alaska Department of Fish &
Game, Kodiak
J. E. Blackburn
H. W. Braham Marine Mammal Division, NWAFC
Seattle
D. K. Button University of Alaska, Fair-
banks
D. G. Calkins Alaska Department of Fish &
Game, Anchorage
Pacific Marine Environmental
Laboratory, Seattle
J. Cline

vi
. D. Darling
. E. Donaldson
. R. Dunn
. M. Feder
. A. Gharrett
. J. Gould
. A. Hampton
. A. Hatch
. C. Jewett
. Kienle
. MacIntosh
. C. Powell
. Pulpan
. J. Rabin
. P. Ray
. E. Rogers
. C. Royer
. H. Ruby
. A. Sanger
University of California,
San Diego
Alaska Department of Fish &
Game, Kodiak
National Marine Fisheries
Service, Seattle
University of Alaska, Fair-
banks
Northwest & Alaska Fisheries
Services, Auke Bay
U. S. Fish & Wildlife Ser-
vice, Anchorage
U. S. Geological Survey,
Menlo Park
University of California,
Berkeley
University of Alaska, Fair-
banks
Geophysical Institute, Uni-
versity of Alaska, Fair-
banks
Northwest & Alaska Fisher-
ies Center, Kodiak
Alaska Department of Fish &
Game, Kodiak
Geophysical Institute, Un-
iversity of Alaska, Fair-
banks
Fisheries Research Insti-
tute, University of Washin-
ton, Seattle
Shell Oil Co., Houston
Fisheries Research Insti-
tute, University of Washing-
ton, Seattle
Institute of Marine Sci-
ence, Fairbanks
University of South Caro-
lina, Columbia
U. S. Fish & Wildlife Ser-
vice, Anchorage
K. B
J. D
H. H.
C. A
G. B
P. F
G. P
. Schneider
. Schumacher
. Shippen
. Simenstad
. Smith
. Springer
. Thrasher
Contributions
Alaska Department of Fish &
Game, Anchorage
Pacific Marine Environmental
Laboratory, Seattle
National Marine Fisheries
Service, Seattle
Fisheries Research Insti-
tute, University of Washing-
ton, Seattle
National Marine Fisheries
Service, Seattle
U. S. Fish & Wildlife Ser-
vice, Arcata
U. S. Geological Survey,
Anchorage
from others whose names may have
been inadvertently omitted from the lists above are
gratefully acknowledged.
also
vii
Table of Contents
Foreword . . . . . V
Acknowledgments . . . . vi
Table of Contents ... viii
List of Figures . . . . . X
List of Tables ... xvi
Chapter 1. Introduction . . . . . 3
Chapter 2. Geology . . . . 11
2. l Introduction . . . . 11
2.2 Seismicity . . . . 13
2.3 Wolcanic activity . . . .29
2.4 Offshore surface geology . . . .32
2.5 Coastal geological hazards . . . .39
Chapter 3. Physical oceanography . . . .47
3. 1 Introduction . . . . 47
3.2 Forces controlling circulation . . . . 48
3.3 Circulation determined by indirect
methods . . . .55
3.4 Circulation determined by direct methods . . . . 71
Chapter 5. Biology
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Microbiology
5.3 Plankton
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Phytoplankton
5.3.3 Zooplankton
5.4 Benthic invertebrates
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Commercially important species
5. 4.3 Non-commercial benthic inverte-
brates
5.4.4 Feeding relationships
5. 4.5 Effects of OCS development
5.5 Intertidal and shallow subtidal zones
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Vertical zonation in the Kodiak
a rea
5.5.3 Shallow subtidal
5.5. 4 Seasonal variation
5.5.5 Environmental control of community
structure
... 103
... 103
... 103
... 106
... 106
... 106
... 108
... 109
... 109
... 110
... 128
... 132
... 136
... 138
. . 138
5.6 Fish
5. 6. l Introduction
5. 6.2 Distribution, abundance, and popu-
lation dynamics
5.6.3 Feeding relationships and marine
fish communities
5. 7 Birds
5.7. 1 Introduction
5. 7.2 Marine birds of Alaska
5. 7.3 Distribution and habitat usage by
Kodiak birds
5. 7.4 Population dynamics
5. 7.5 Trophics
5.7.6 Effects of Pollution
5.8 Mammals
5.8.1 Introduction
5.8. 2 Cetaceans
5. 8.3 Pinnipeds
5.8.4 Sea otter
5.8.5 Terrestrial mammals
Chapter 6. Petroleum industry development
6. 1 Relevance
6. 2 Data Evaluation
6.3 Location, nature, and timing of the
development of platforms, pipeline, and
. . 150
. . . 150
. . 150
... 182
... 188
... 188
. . 190
... 194
. .212
. .218
. .224
. .227
. .227
. .228
. .237
. .245
. .249
. .253
. .253
. .253
3.5 Simulation of currents . . . . 81
3.6 Circulation summary . . . .84
Chapter 4. Chemistry . . . . 89
4. 1 Introduction . . . . 89
4.2 Distribution and concentrations of
petroleum hydrocarbons . . . .90
4.3 Distribution and concentration of trace
metals . . . .98
4.4 Summary …” ... 100
5.5.6 Beaches
5.5.7 Vulnerability of the Kodiak Island
intertidal zone to potential oil
spills
. . 139
... 144
... 144
... 145
... 146
... 148
facilities
. . .254
viii
6.4 Quantities and physicochemical nature
of contaminants anticipated from vari-
OUlS SOUllſ CeS
6.5 Nature and amount of environmental
disturbance likely to accompany de-
velopment
. . .259
. .263
Chapter 7. Kodiak marine environment and planned petro-
7.
7
leum development
Introduction
The marine environment
The proposed action
Major environmental issues
Relative significance of different areas
Environmental implications of the proposed
action
Summary and conclusions
Glossary
References
. .267
. .267
. .267
. .275
. .276
. . 281
. . 284
. . 287
. .291
. .303
ix
Figure 1.1 Proposed lease areas of the Alaskan outer
continental shelf (USDI, 1980a).
4
Figure 1.2 Kodiak shelf proposed lease areas (USDI,
1980a).
5
Figure 1.3 Locality map and gazetteer for the Kodiak
region and the Gulf of Alaska.
7
Figure 2. 1 Plate tectonics relationships in the NE
Pacific Ocean. Star indicates epicenter of February
28, 1979, St. Elias earthquake, the most recent large
event in the region (from Lahr and Stephens, 1979).
11
Figure 2.2 Generalized geologic cross-section across
Kodiak Island and the Kodiak shelf (adapted from von
Huene and Shor, 1969).
12
Figure 2.3 Location of local Alaskan seismic networks
in Cook Inlet, Kodiak Island, and the Alaska Peninsula
as of March 1979 (Pulpan and Kienle, 1979b).
13
Figure 2.4 Epicenter plot of all earthquakes between
1964 and 1977 with focal depths of 70 km or less. Data
are from NOAA/EDS earthquake file and do not contain
local Alaskan network data. Plot produced by NOAA/EDS/
NGSDC.
14
Figure 2.5 Epicenter plot of all earthquakes between
1964 and 1977 with focal depths greater than 70 km.
Data are from NOAA/EDS earthquake file and do not
contain local Alaskan network data. Plot produced by
NOAA/EDS/NGSDC.
15
Figure 2.6 Geologic and seismicity cross-section
through the Aleutian Trench and Kodiak Island. Hypo-
centers from an area 320 km wide have been projected
onto a vertical plane (from von Huene et al., 1979).
16
Figure 2.7 Epicenter plot of major earthquakes (mag-
nitude greater than 6) recorded in the Kodiak Island
region between 1899 and 1977. Data sources are identi-
fied in Table 2. 1. Plot produced by NOAA/EDS/NGSDC.
© e 17
Figure 2.8 Epicenter plot of earthquakes recorded by
the local Alaskan network between April and June 1978.
Plot produced by University of Alaska Geophysical
Institute. Size of symbol is proportional to magni-
tude, and letter refers to depth category (i.e., A =
0-25 km, B = 26-50 km, etc.).
19
Figure 2.9 Hypocenters of earthquakes projected onto
a vertical plane oriented perpendicular to the Aleutian
Trench, and passing through Ukinrek Maars (Pulpan and
Kienle, 1979b). Note the well-defined Benioff zone,
the shallow diffuse seismicity, and the clustering of
events under Ukinrek and under the main volcanic arc
slightly east of the maars. Epicenter data are from
the local Alaskan seismic network. -
20
Figure 2. 10 Intensities of felt effects on Kodiak
Island due to the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake (Buck et
al., 1975).
21
Figure 2. 11 Land level changes in the vicinity of
Kodiak Island due to the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake
(Plafker, 1972).
21
Figure 2. 12 Strain release calculated from aftershock
data for the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake. Large
numbers indicate greater amount of seismic energy
release per unit area and time (from von Huene, 1972).
22
Figure 2. 13 Damage on Kodiak Island resulting pri-
marily from the tsunami generated by the 1964 Great
Alaska Earthquake (Selkregg, 1974).
23
Figure 2. 14 Aftershock zones and seismic gaps along
the Aleutian Island/southern Alaska plate boundary
(modified from Sykes, 1971; McCann et al., 1978; Lahr
and Stephens, 1979).
25
Figure 2. 15 Example b value curve for an area near
the Kodiak 00S. Earthquake data are from the 75 km
radius circle shown in the index map inset (modified
from Meyers et al., 1976).
26
Figure 2.16 Empirical relationships between magnitude
(M), maximum intensity (I ), and distance (D) to the
limit of perceptibility of"ºlt effects. Equations are
from Meyers et al. (1976).
27
Figure 2. 17 Location map for Alaska Peninsula volca-
IlO eS .
29
Figure 2. 18 Distribution of volcanic ash from the
1912 eruption of Mt. Katmai and Novarupta (from Wilcox,
1959).
31
Figure 2.19 Location map for the Kodiak shelf, show-
ing the major physiographic features (modified from
Hampton et al., 1979b).
32

Figure 2.20 Generalized isopach map of unconsolidated
sediment on the Kodiak shelf, constructed from seismic
reflection data (Hampton et al., 1979b).
33
Figure 2.21 Surface geologic units on the Kodiak
shelf (Thrasher, 1979).
34
Figure 2.22 Weight percent of volcanic ash, relative
to the total terrigenous fraction, in surface sediment
of the Kodiak shelf (Hampton et al., 1979a). Ash is
from 1912 Katmai/Novarupta eruption.
35
Figure 2.23 Locations of environmentally significant
geologic features on the Kodiak shelf (modified from
Hampton et al., 1979b). The maximum length of the
sediment cores analyzed for methane gas was about 3.5
II] .
36
Figure 2.24 Surface faulting on the Kodiak shelf
(from Thrasher, 1979; USDI, 1976a).
38
Figure 2.25 Major substrate types in the Kodiak
Island intertidal zone (adapted from Sears and Zimmer-
man, 1977).
40
Figure 2.26 Oil Spill Vulnerability Index as applied
to the NE coastline of Kodiak Island in vicinity of
Chiniak Bay (Hayes and Ruby, 1979). The numbers in
boxes refer to locations where beaches were studied in
detail. See Table 2.5 for an explanation of the OSVI.
42
Figure 2.27 Locations where landslides were generated
by the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake (Buck et al.,
1975).
43
Figure 3. 1 Vector mean wind speed and direction (for
marine area B) and scalar mean wind speed (for marine
areas B and C). For January the vector mean wind was
about 1.6 m/sec from the northwest. Marine areas B and
C are shown in the inset. Values obtained from surface
marine observations are archived at the National
Climatic Center (Brower et al., 1977).
48
Figure 3.2 Climate types for northeastern Pacific
Ocean. Surface weather charts can be described as some
combination of these six climate types. Slight varia-
tions in the patterns of these climate types, called
subtypes, also have been described by Overland and
Hiester (1978). Contours are of surface atmospheric
pressure in millibars.
49
Figure 3.3 Seasonal frequency of occurrence curves
for the six climate types shown in Fig. 3. 2. For
example, Type 2 (Aleutian low) occurs on the average 37
percent of the time during spring (Overland and
Hiester, 1978).
51
Figure 3.4 Upwelling indices for two locations in the
Gulf of Alaska. The vertical axis is the vertical
velocity in mm/day through the bottom of the Ekman
layer. Values are computed from geostrophic winds
derived from charts of surface atmospheric pressure.
Wind-induced divergence and convergence in the surface
layer can cause upwelling and downwelling, respectively
(Ingraham et al., 1976).
52
Figure 3.5 Fabric diagrams for winds observed at an
offshore buoy and on Kodiak Island (lower figure) for
January, March, and June. Wind speed is represented as
radial distance from the center. Wind direction corre-
sponds to the azimuth direction; the probability of
occurrence is represented by the contours (Reynolds et
al., 1979).
53
Figure 3.6 Surface temperature contours in degrees C
for 2-10 March 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1978).
© 55
Figure 3.7 Surface salinity contours in g/kg for 2-10
March 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1978).
56
Figure 3.8 Contours of near bottom salinity in g/kg
for 2-10 March 1977. These data were obtained just
above the bottom or at 200m depth, whichever was more
shallow (Schumacher et al., 1978).
57
Figure 3.9 Surface salinity contours in parts per
thousand for 26 May to 6 June 1978 (Reed et al., 1979).
58
Figure 3. 10 Approximate bottom temperatures in de-
grees C for May 1972 (Favorite and Ingraham, 1977).
59
Figure 3. 11 Surface temperature contours in degrees C
for September 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979 c).
© 61
Figure 3. 12 Surface salinity contours in g/kg for
September 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979.c).
62
Figure 3. 13 Temperature and salinity vertical pro-
files along transects across southeastern Shelikof
Strait (A), northeastern Shelikof Strait (B), and
across Kennedy and Stevenson Entrances (C) (Schumacher
et al., 1978).
64
Figure 3. 14 Surface dynamic topography, relative to
100 dB, for September 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979.c).
67
xi
Figure 3. 15 Twenty-five-year means of monthly sea
level at Kodiak Island. Sea level has been corrected
for atmospheric pressure (Ingraham et al., 1976).
68
Figure 3. 16 Distribution of total suspended matter, 5
m above the bottom (Feely and Cline, 1977).
69
Figure 3. 17 Circulation based on indirect evidence.
70
Figure 3. 18 Drift card recoveries from a release on
Portlock Bank, June 1976 (Burbank, 1977).
72
Figure 3. 19 Sea-bed drifter release and recovery
sites (Ingraham and Hastings, 1974).
73
Figure 3.20 Sea-bed drifter release and recovery
sites. Releases were made between November 1977 and
November 1978 (Dunn et al., 1979a).
74
Figure 3.21 Trajectories of surface Lagrangian drift-
ers (Hansen, 1977).
75
Figure 3.22 Trajectory of a satellite-tracked drifter
buoy deployed on 26 May, 1978. Marks along the trajec-
tory show the passage of a day (Hansen, 1978).
& © 76
Figure 3.23 Trajectories of two satellite-tracked
drifter buoys (Hansen, 1978).
77
Figure 3.24. Mean currents from current meters moored
at shallow depths in winter. The data are from differ-
ent sampling periods (Schumacher et al., 1978 and
1979b).
78
Figure 3.25 Mean currents from current meters moored
in deep water in winter. The data are not from simul-
taneous periods (Schumacher et al., 1978 and 1979b).
79
Figure 3.26 Computed surface current field from a
diagnostic model using data from spring, 1976. Surface
wind stress is 1 dy/cm" from the northeast (Galt,
1977).
82
Figure 3.27 Computed bottom current field from a
diagnostic model using data from spring, 1976. Surface
wind stress is 1 dy/cm from the northeast (Galt,
1977).
83
Figure 3. 28 Speculative summary of surface currents
based on all available information.
84
Figure 4.1 Sampling locations for hydrocarbons, trace
metals, and microbiological parameters in the Kodiak
region (see text for sources).
90
Figure 4.2 Methane distributions within 5 m of the
bottom, July 1977 (Cline et al., 1978).
94
Figure 4.3 Surface ethane distributions, July 1977
(Cline et al., 1978).
95
Figure 4.4 Surface ethene distributions, July 1977
(Cline et al., 1978).
96
Figure 4.5 Surface propane distributions, July 1977
(Cline et al., 1978).
97
Figure 5.1 Commercial catch of crabs and shrimp in
ADF&G Kodiak management district in 1978, compared to
total Alaskan catch. The Kodiak catch is given in
metric tons (mt). Values are based on the average
price paid to the fishermen (ADF&G, 1979a).
109
Figure 5.2 Kodiak shellfish management area (ADF&G,
1979a). º
109
Figure 5.3 King crab distribution in the Kodiak
region (Feder et al., 1979; Blackburn, 1979a; Ronholt
et al., 1978; ADF&G, 1976, 1979a).
110
Figure 5.4 Generalized life history tables for com-
mercially important crabs and shrimp in Kodiak area
(ADF&G, 1976; Buck et al., 1975; Bright, 1967;
Eldridge, 1972a,b; Fox, 1972; Hoopes, 1973; Mayer,
1972).
111
Figure 5.5 Annual commercial catch of king crab by
stock in Kodiak management district for 1960-79. Catch
reported in metric tons (mt) (ADF&G, 1979a).
$ 112
Figure 5.6 Fishing effort for king crab in Kodiak
management district, 1960-79 (ADF&G, 1979a).
113
Figure 5.7 Areas of high commercial catches of king
crab by U.S. fishermen, 1969-75. King crab were har-
vested in smaller amounts throughout the region
(Ronholt et al., 1978).
113
Figure 5.8 Major stocks of king crab in the Kodiak
management district (ADF&G, 1976).
114
Figure 5.9 King crab schools which are most heavily
exploited by the fishery in the Kodiak management
district (ADF&G, 1979a).
115
Figure 5. 10 Tanner crab distribution in the Kodiak
region (Feder, 1977c; Feder et al., 1979; Blackburn,
1979a; ADF&G, 1976, 1979a; Donaldson et al., 1979).
117
Figure 5. 11 Annual commercial catch and fishing
effort for Tanner crab in the Kodiak management dis-
trict, 1967-78 (ADF&G, 1979a).
117
Figure 5. 12 Areas of high commercial catches of
Tanner crab by U.S. fishermen, 1969-75. Tanner crabs
were harvested in lesser amounts throughout the region
(Ronholt et al., 1978).
118
Figure 5. 13 Dungeness crab distribution in Kodiak
region, excluding areas in Lower Cook Inlet and adja-
cent to the Kenai Peninsula (modified from Murturgo,
1975).
119
Figure 5.14 Areas of high commercial catches of
Dungeness crab by U.S. fishermen, 1969–75. Dungeness
crab were harvested in lesser amounts on the inner
continental shelf throughout the region (Ronholt et
al., 1978).
120
xii
Figure 5.15 Annual commercial catch and fishing
effort for Dungeness crab in the Kodiak management
district, 1962-78 (ADF&G, 1979a).
121
Figure 5. 16
Dungeness crab.
ADF&G fishery management areas for
121
Figure 5. 17 Pandalid shrimp distribution in the
Kodiak region (Murturgo, 1975; Buck et al., 1975; ADF&G
1976, 1979a; Feder, 1977b; Feder et al., 1979; Black-
burn, 1979a).
123
Figure 5.18 Annual commercial catch and fishing
effort for pandalid shrimp, predominantly pink shrimp,
in the Kodiak management district, 1960-79 (ADF&G,
1979a).
123
Figure 5. 19 Management areas for shrimp in Kodiak
district (ADF&G, 1979a). 4
12
Figure 5.20 Percent composition of shrimp catch, by
fishing area and season (data from ADF&G, 1979a).
125
Figure 5.21 Distribution of scallops near Kodiak
archipelago (modified from Murturgo, 1975).
126
Figure 5.22 Areas of high commercial catches of
scallops by U.S. fishermen, 1969-75 (Ronholt et al.,
1978).
127
Figure 5.23 Distribution of benthic invertebrate
feeding types (Shevtsov, 1964a; Semenov, 1965).
ge . .129
Figure 5.24 Epifauna sampling stations 1976-79 (Feder
and Jewett, 1979b; Feder et al., 1979).
130
Figure 5.25 Generalized food web based on stomach
analysis of epifauna taken in Alitak and Ugak bays and
inshore waters around Kodiak Island, Alaska (Feder and
Jewett, 1979b).
132
Figure 5. 26 Food web for king crab in Alitak and Ugak
bays and inshore waters of Kodiak Island, Alaska (Feder
and Jewett, 1979b).
133
Figure 5.27 Sampling stations for king crabs, 1979
(Feder et al., 1979).
133
Figure 5.28 Principal prey of king crabs based on
stomach content analysis of crabs taken in Kodiak bays
and continental shelf, 1979 (Feder et al., 1979).
134
Figure 5.29 Food web for Tanner crab in Alitak and
Ugak bays, and other inshore waters of Kodiak Island
(Feder and Jewett, 1979b).
136
Figure 5.30 Intertidal sites sampled in the Kodiak
area, 1975-76 (Zimmerman et al., 1978).
139
Figure 5. 31 Relationship between average biomass of
predominant intertidal species as related to tidal
height. The relative contribution of each species to
the average biomass is also shown (data from Zimmerman
et al., 1978).
141
Figure 5. 32 Relative biotic cover at intertidal
sampling sites (Zimmerman et al., 1978).
143
Figure 5.33 The location of kelp beds on Kodiak
Island and areas for which 50 percent or more of the
rocky intertidal is covered with biota (Zimmerman et
al., 1977).
144
Figure 5.34 Beaches with known populations of Pacific
razor clams. Asterisk denotes those beaches surveyed
during the 1976 field season (Kaiser and Konigsberg,
1977).
146
Figure 5.35 Intertidal distribution of the razor clam
Siliqua patula and mean sediment grain size at two
Kodiak Island beaches (after Kaiser and Konigsberg,
1977).
148
Figure 5.36 Vertical distribution of abundant sandy
beach invertebrates sampled at twelve sites on Kodiak
Island and adjacent Alaska Peninsula (Kaiser and
Konigsberg, 1977).
148
Figure 5. 37 Generalized migratory pathways of matur-
ing Pacific salmon approaching the Kodiak archipelago.
152
Figure 5.38 Time table of Pacific salmon life histo-
ries (Buck et al., 1975).
153
Figure 5. 39 Spawning locations of Pacific salmon on
the Kodiak archipelago (Buck et al., 1975; ADF&G,
1976).
154
Figure 5.40 Commercial catch of Pacific salmon, by
species, for the Kodiak region from 1948-78. Small
catches of coho and chinook are not shown for 1973-78
period (Lechner et al., 1972; ADF&G, 1979b).
155
Figure 5.41 ADF&G Pacific salmon management dis-
tricts, Kodiak region.
155
Figure 5.42 Generalized migratory pathways of juve-
nile Pacific salmon leaving the nearshore zones in the
vicinity of Kodiak.
156
Figure 5.43 Distribution of Pacific herring, capelin,
Pacific sand lance, and Atka mackerel in the Kodiak
region (Macy et al., 1978; J. Blackburn, ADF&G, Kodiak
office, pers. comm.).
159
Figure 5.44 Pacific herring catch and effort data for
the Kodiak area, 1958-78 with locations of major fish-
ing effort (Lechner et al., 1972; ADF&G, 1979b).
© º 160
Figure 5.45 Principal spawning areas for capelin
along the shores of the Kodiak archipelago (ADF&G,
1976; J. Blackburn, ADF&G, Kodiak office, pers. comm.).
161
Figure 5.46 NMFS ichthyoplankton survey cruise track,
fall 1977 and spring 1978 (Dunn et al., 1979).
e 162
xiii
Figure 5.47 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of roundfish, based on NMFS survey data (Ronholt
et al., 1978). *
164
Figure 5.48 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of flatfish, based on NMFS survey data (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
165
Figure 5.49 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of rockfish, based on NMFS survey data (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
166
Figure 5.50 Statistical areas near Kodiak considered
in the demersal fish resource surveys (Ronholt, et al.,
1978).
166
Figure 5.51 Distribution of Pacific halibut in the
Gulf of Alaska with major fishing grounds highlighted
(IPHC, 1978).
171
Figure 5.52 Two known spawning grounds of Pacific
halibut on the Kodiak outer continental shelf (Skud,
1977; IPHC, 1978; E. Best, IPHC, pers. comm.).
© 173
Figure 5.53 Catch statistics of Pacific halibut based
on U.S. and Canadian setline fishing in the IPHC
Regulatory Areas 2 and 3, 1960-77 (IPHC, 1977; IPHC,
1978).
174
Figure 5.54 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of walleye pollock, based on NMFS survey data
(Ronholt et al., 1978).
175
Figure 5.55 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of Pacific cod, based on NMFS survey data
(Ronholt et al., 1978).
177
Figure 5.56 Distribution of sablefish (adult) in the
Kodiak area (based on data in Low et al., 1976; Ronholt
et al., 1978).
178
Figure 5.57 Distribution of Pacific ocean perch in
the Kodiak area (Lyubimova, 1963; Lisovenko, 1964;
Ronholt et al., 1978).
179
Figure 5.58 Distribution of mean annual demersal fish
catch by Japanese trawl and longline fisheries, 1964–74
(Ronholt et al., 1978). Units are metric tons.
181
Figure 5.59 Diet composition of walleye pollock taken
in the northern Gulf of Alaska, by fish size class.
"N" indicates the number of stomachs analyzed (data
from Smith et al., 1978). -
183
Figure 5.60 Percent composition by weight of major
food items in the stomachs of juvenile fishes taken
from Kodiak nearshore waters (modified from Rogers et
al., 1979).
183
Figure 5.61 Percent composition by weight of major
food items in the stomachs of adult fishes taken from
Kodiak nearshore waters (modified from Rogers et al.,
1979).
183
Figure 5.62 Prey spectra of four common flatfishes of
the Kodiak region (Harris and Hartt, 1977). Diet
composition is reported as Index of Relative Importance
(IRI). See text for explanation of scales.
185
Figure 5.63 Temporal apportionment of total energy
demand among the species groups recorded during tran-
sect censuses in the Kodiak area (Wiens et al., 1978).
189
Figure 5.64 Seabird feeding methods (modified from
Ashmole, 1971).
191
Figure 5.65 Seasonal distribution of pelagic birds
from a combination of shipboard and aerial survey data
from 1975 to 1977. See text for data sources.
194
Figure 5.66 Bird densities recorded from aerial and
shipboard surveys of Kodiak Island waters, 1977 (Gould
et al., 1978).
200
Figure 5.67 Distribution of large bird flocks in
Kodiak waters (Gould, USFWS, pers. comm.).
201
Figure 5.68 Winter densities of Kodiak coastal birds
(Arneson, ADF&G., pers. comm.).
203
Figure 5.69 Distribution of birds among Kodiak coas-
tal habitats, winter 1977 (Arneson, ADF&G, pers.
comm.).
204
Figure 5. 70 Types of Kodiak coastal habitats used by
various kinds of birds, winter 1977 (Arneson, ADF&G,
pers. comm.).
205
Figure 5.71 Distribution of bird colonies in the
Kodiak area (Sowls et al., 1978).
207
Figure 5. 72a-l Gulf of Alaska distributions of
colonies of representative species of marine birds
(Sowls et al., 1978).
208
Figure 5. 73 Distribution of Bald Eagle nests on Kodiak
National Wildlife Refuge (Troyer and Hensel, 1965).
211
Figure 5.74. Distribution of the Aleutian Canada Goose
(after Palmer, 1976). Only known breeding location is
Buldir Island but there is evidence that it may also
breed elsewhere (see text for details).
211
Figure 5.75 Breeding phenologies for nine species of
marine birds breeding on Kodiak Island (Baird and Moe,
1978; Nysewander and Hoberg, 1978; Baird and Hatch,
1979, Nysewander and Barbour, 1979). Light symbols
represent the year-to-year variation in the start
and/or end of the different breeding stages. Solid
symbols represent the periods used in two or more study
seasons. Arrows indicate that stage extended beyond
observation period.
213
Figure 5. 76 Breeding phenologies for ten species of
marine birds breeding on the Barren Islands (Manuwal
and Boersma, 1978; Manuwal, 1979). Light symbols
represent the year-to-year variation in the start and/
or end of the different breeding stages. Solid symbols
represent the periods used in two or more study
seasons. Arrows indicate that stage extended beyond
observation period.
214
xiv
Figure 5.77 Time to recovery as a function of one-time
mortality of various age-class combinations of Common
Murres, Thick-billed Murres, and Black-legged Kitti-
wakes (Wiens et al., 1979).
217
Figure 5.78 Time to recovery as a function of one-time
adult mortality at different levels of change in the
mean adult annual survival rate of Common Murres
(Wiens et al., 1979).
218
Figure 5.79 Diet of five species of marine birds,
Kodiak area, summer 1977 (Sanger et al., 1978).
* 219
Figure 5.80 Diet of three species of marine birds,
Gulf of Alaska, 1969 through 1976 (Sanger and Baird,
1977).
219
Figure 5.81 Seasonal variation in the diets of five
species of marine birds, Kodiak area, summer 1977
(Sanger et al., 1978). Shaded areas represent total
fish consumption.
220
Figure 5.82 Diets of marine birds from Chiniak Bay,
February 1978 and Izhut and Kiliuda Bays, spring and
summer 1978 (Krasnow et al., 1979).
221
Figure 5.83 Diets of the chicks of five species of
marine birds from Sitkalidak Strait, Kodiak Island, and
the Barren Islands (see text for sources).
222
Figure 5.84 Principal foraging areas for birds breed-
ing in the Chiniak/Marmot Bay areas and the Sitkalidak
Strait area (Baird, Gould, and Sanger, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, pers. comm.).
223
Figure 5.85 Probable migratory route of the gray
whale (Braham, National Marine Mammal Laboratory,
unpublished data; Hall, 1979).
229
Figure 5.86 Distribution of sightings of four species
of baleen whales for all seasons from 1958 through 1976
(Fiscus et al., 1976).
Figure 5.87 Seasonal distribution of fin whale, 1958
through 1977 (Braham, National Marine Mammal Labora-
tory, unpublished data).
231
Figure 5.88 Generalized food web showing predation by
swallowing and skimming baleen whales on main food
sources. "Skimmers" strain a long column of water with
their mouth continuously open, whereas "swallowers"
gulp a mouthful at a time, then close the mouth,
squeeze the water out, and retain the food (modified
from Mitchell, 1978).
233
Figure 5.89 Distribution of sightings of four species
of toothed Cetaceans for all seasons from 1958 through
1976 (Fiscus et al., 1976; Mercer et al., 1977).
tº e 234
Figure 5.90 Seasonal distribution of Dall porpoise,
1958 through 1977 (Braham, National Marine Mammal
Laboratory, unpublished data).
235
Figure 5.91 Abundance of Dall porpoise as a function
of sea surface temperature (Braham and Mercer, 1978).
236
Figure 5.92 Distribution of northern (Steller) sea
lion haulout areas and rookeries (Calkins and Pitcher,
1977; 1978).
238
Figure 5.93 Marine sightings of northern (Steller)
sea lion for various seasons (Mercer et al., 1977).
239
Figure 5.94 Movements of branded northern (Steller)
sea lions (Calkins and Pitcher, 1977).
240
Figure 5.95 Sightings of northern fur seals in the
Gulf of Alaska for 1958 through 1974 (Marine Mammal
Division, 1978).
241
Figure 5.96 Locations of major (greater than 150
seals) harbor seal concentrations in the Kodiak Island/
Shelikof Strait area (Pitcher and Calkins, 1979). The
number of seals observed at each numbered location is
listed in Table 5.57.
Figure 5.97 Distribution of marine sightings of
harbor seals, 1958 through 1976 (Fiscus et al., 1976).
243
Figure 5.98 Distribution and range expansion patterns
of sea otter populations around the Kodiak archipelago
(Schneider, 1976; pers. comm.).
246
Figure 5.99 Diagram of interactions within nearshore
communities with and without sea otter populations
(Palmisano and Estes, 1977).
248
Figure 5. 100 Winter coastal distribution of Sitka
black-tailed deer (ADF&G, 1973).
249
Figure 6.1 Economic criteria leading to field devel-
opment (Reeds and Trammell, 1976). &
257
Figure 6.2 Possible marine pipeline routes for
natural gas production (USDI, 1980b).
258
Figure 6. 3 Schematic diagram of a drilling mud system
and circulation path of the drilling fluid (Ray, 1979).
sº 260
Figure 7. 1 Kodiak lease tract clusters discussed at
the Kodiak Synthesis Meeting (KSM, 1979).
282
230
242
Table 2. 1 List of major earthquakes (magnitude 2 6)
recorded from the Kodiak shelf between 1900 and 1977.
18
Table 2.2 Tsunamis observed in the vicinity of the
Kodiak shelf.
28
Table 2.3 Volcanic activity in the Kodiak Island
region.
30
Table 2.4 Methane levels in sediment cores.
37
Table 2.5 Abundance and characteristics of shoreline
types for the Kodiak Archipelago, classified according
to Oil Spill Vulnerability Index (OSVI).
41
Table 4.1 Concentrations of hydrocarbons of low molec-
ular weight in surface waters of the open ocean and
contaminated coastal waters of the world's oceans.
91
Table 4.2 Hydrocarbon levels (ppm) in the sediments of
the northwest Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak Island.
Q 91
Table 4.3 Concentrations of total hydrocarbons in the
mussel Mytilus edulis from the Aleutian Islands and
Kodiak Island.
92
Table 4.4 Typical seasonal range of hydrocarbon con-
centrations observed in the near-bottom waters of
selected OCS areas.
93
Table 4.5 Trace metals concentrations (Hg/1) measured
in the water of the northwest Gulf of Alaska near
Kodiak Island.
98
Table 4.6 Selected heavy metals and total major cation
(A1) contents (Hg/1) of suspended sediments of the
northwest Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak Island.
99
Table 4.7 Ranges of heavy metals concentrations of
sediment extracts and total metals content of bottom
sediments from the northwest Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak
Island.
99
Table 4.8 Heavy metals content (Hg/g dry weight) in
Mytilus and Fucus specimens collected in Summer 1976
from Kodiak and intertidal waters.
. . . 100
Table 5.1 Counts of various microbes isolated from
water and sediments in the vicinity of Kodiak Island.
. 104
Table 5.2 Direct bacterial counts in the water and
sediments of the northeast Gulf of Alaska measured in
March 1976.
. . . 104
Table 5.3 Microbial species isolated from Dungeness
and Tanner crabs collected in Kodiak waters.
105
Table 5.4 A Summary of microbial characteristics from
Shelikof Strait and around Kodiak in April and November
1977 and April 1978.
105
Table 5.5 The effects of crude oil on the uptake and
respiration of glucose and glutamic acid by natural
marine microbial populations found in water and sedi-
ment samples taken from the Lower Cook Inlet and the
Beaufort Sea.
... 106
Table 5.6 Rankings of the most abundant phytoplankton
species in the Gulf of Alaska.
108
Table 5. 7 Commercially important invertebrates of the
Kodiak Area.
111
Table 5.8 King crab commercial catch, 1978, by dis-
trict and crab school.
115
Table 5.9 Percent Tanner crab catch by ADF&G Fishing
area and season.
118
Table 5. 10 Dungeness crab commercial catch and effort,
by fishing section, Kodiak management district, 1978
Sea SOIl .
122
Table 5.11 Relationship between the distribution of
trophic groups of benthos and types of bottom sedi-
ments.
128
Table 5.12 Common epibenthic organisms of Alitak,
Ugak, Izhut, and Kiliuda Bays that are not commercially
harvested.
130
Table 5. 13 Number, weight, and density of major epi-
faunal invertebrate phyla of Alitak and Ugak Bays,
June, July, August 1976 and March 1977.
130
Table 5. 14 Densities of epibenthic organisms by
weight, for inshore and offshore stations sampled in
1978.
130
Table 5.15 Percent biomass composition of epibenthic
organisms trawled in Izhut and Kiliuda Bays, 1978.
131

Table 5.16 Percent biomass composition of the leading
epibenthic species, 1978.
131
Table 5.17 Present frequency of occurrence of prey
organisms in king crab stomachs collected in the Kodiak
area, 1978.
135
Table 5. 18 Distribution (percent) of intertidal coast-
line among substrate categories for various Alaskan
coastal areas.
138
Table 5. 19 Number of kilometers and percent of major
substrate types in the Kodiak Island area.
138
Table 5.20 Generalized zonation of rocky intertidal
areas of the Kodiak Island area.
140
Table 5. 21 Weights of Laminariaceae in quadrat samples
in May 1976 at these areas of S. Kodiak Island.
© 144
Table 5.22 Relationship between species diversity
(counts of taxa), biomass, and intertidal site charac-
teristics.
145
Table 5.23 Intertidal sandy beach fauna: Taxonomic
composition of twelve samples from Kodiak Island and
adjacent Alaskan Peninsula.
- 147
Table 5. 24 Sediment characteristics, taxonomic diver-
sity richness (counts), and density of Siliqua patula
in the Kodiak area.
147
Table 5.25 Life history data for five species of
Pacific salmon.
151
Table 5.26 Common demersal fishes in the Kodiak re-
glon.
163
Table 5.27 Average catch rates and estimated abundance
of roundfish.
167
Table 5.28 Average catch rates and estimated abundance
of flatfish.
167
Table 5.29 Average catch rates and estimated abundance
of rockfish.
168
Table 5.30 Average catch rates and estimated abundance
of elasmobranchs.
168
Table 5. 31 Percentage of total Gulf of Alaska fish
Populations (estimated biomass) occurring in four
Statistical districts near Kodiak (0-400 m), based on
1973-75 data.
169
Table 5.32 Estimated biomass during the 1960 and 1970
resource assessment surveys in the Gulf of Alaska.
169
Table 5.33 Comparison of mean (geometric) catch rates
(CPUE) of fish groups caught during two resource sur-
veys conducted around the Kodiak archipelago.
170
Table 5. 34 Ratio of IPHC to NMFS Geometric mean CPUE
index.
170
Table 5.35 Release and recovery location of tagged
adult Pacific halibut, 1925–76.
172
Table 5.36 Total Japanese trawl and longline catch of
fishes harvested in the Kodiak Lease Area and vicinity,
1969–74.
180
Table 5. 37 Total foreign and domestic groundfish catch
(in mt) in the "Chirikof-Kodiak" INPFC areas in 1978 by
species and groups related to optimum yield (OY).
181
Table 5.38 Major prey of age 0.1 pink salmon in near-
shore waters of the Kodiak archipelago.
182
Table 5.39 Principal prey of common fishes in the
Kodiak region.
186
Table 5.40 Dominant prey items (ranked) in stomachs
of some common fishes in Kodiak bays, Summer 1976-1978.
187
Table 5.41
region.
Marine fish assemblages in the Kodiak
187
Table 5.42 Estimated energy demands (kcal/km/day) Of
bird populations in the Kodiak area.
189
Table 5.43 Relative abundance of marine birds from
combined shipboard and aerial pelagic transects, 1975-
1977.
198
xvii
Table 5. 44 Seasonal occurrence and abundance (order
of magnitude) of marine birds over Kodiak Island
WaterS.
199
Table 5.45 Estimated sizes and biomass levels of
pelagic marine bird populations off eastern Kodiak
Island, 26 May-19 September 1977.
202
Table 5.46 Relative abundance of intertidal and in-
shore birds of the Kodiak Archipelago by region and
Sea SOIl .
202
Table 5.47 Waterfowl counts from nearshore and estu-
arine areas of Kodiak Island.
203
Table 5.48 Estimates of breeding populations at
Kodiak area bird colonies.
206
Table 5.49 Reproductive success of Kodiak marine
birds.
215
Table 5.50 Reproductive success of Barren Islands
marine birds.
216
Table 5.51 Species roles in mixed species feeding
flock formation.
223
Table 5.52 Species' response (%) to behavioral cues
of Black-legged Kittiwakes in feeding flock formation.
223
Table 5.53 Oil Vulnerability Indices of Kodiak marine
birds.
226
Table 5.54 Principal food types and feeding strata of
baleen whales.
232
Table 5.55 Principal food types and feeding strata of
toothed cetaceans.
236
Table 5.56 Population estimates of northern (Steller)
sea lions.
239
Table 5.57 Observed harbor seal populations over 150
individuals.
243
Table 5.58 Identification of the prey from the
stomachs of northern sea lions, northern fur seals, and
harbor seals.
244
Table 5.59 Identification of prey from the stomachs
of 309 sea otters from Amchitka Island.
247
Table 6.1 Some drilling mud constituents which are
normally discharged into the sea.
260
Table 6.2 Estimates of platform collapse and well
blowout assuming blowout preventer valve is 96 percent
reliable.
262
Table 7. 1 Hypothesized activities for development of
mean estimated hydrocarbon resources in the western
Gulf of Alaska (Sale #46).
276
Table 7.2 Mean and standard deviation of annual com-
mercial catch of salmon and shellfish in the Kodiak
region 1960-78.
277
xviii
1. Introduction
7
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
J. G. Strauch, Jr., SAI
Origins of the Program
The Alaskan Outer Continental Shelf Environmental
Assessment Program (OCSEAP) originated in May 1974,
when the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), manager of
the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil leasing program,
requested that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) initiate an environmental assess-
ment program in the Northeastern Gulf of Alaska
(NEGOA), in anticipation of possible oil and gas lease
sales in 1976. In October 1974, BLM requested that the
program be expanded during 1975 and 1976 to include
five additional areas of the Alaskan continental shelf.
In response to a further request by BLM in December
1975, OCSEAP was expanded to include the northern
Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, and lower Cook Inlet. The
Program Development Plan (PDP) (NOAA, 1976) outlined
Studies in progress and presented study plans for nine
proposed lease areas of the Alaskan OCS. Since then
the Northern Aleutian and Navarin Basin have been added
to the lease schedule (Fig. 1.1).
Objectives of OCSEAP
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
called for the protection of the marine and coastal
environment. The primary objective of OCSEAP is to
obtain information on the OCS environment so that
preventive or corrective measures can be taken before
serious or irreversible damage to the environment
OCCurs .
Specific objectives of the BLM environmental
studies program for all OCS areas are:
O To provide information about the OCS environ-
ment that will enable the Department of the
Interior and BLM to make sound management
decisions regarding the development of min-
eral resources on the federal OCS.
O To gather information that will enable BLM to
identify elements of the environment likely
to be affected by oil and gas exploration and
development.
O To establish a basis for predicting of the
effects on the environment of 00S oil and gas
activities.
O To measure the effects of oil and gas explo-
ration and development on the OCS environ-
ment. These data may result in modification
of leasing and operation regulations to
permit efficient recovery of resources with
maximum environmental protection.
OCSEAP divided the evaluation of potential effects
of OCS oil and gas developments into six areas or
tasks:
A. Existing Contaminants: Determination of
background levels of potential contaminants
commonly associated with oil and gas develop-
ment.
B. Sources: Identification of probable sources
of contaminants and environmental distur-
bances likely to accompany oil and gas explo-
ration and development.
C. Hazards: , Identification and assessment of
environmental hazards which may affect petro-
leum exploration and development.
D. Transport: Determination of how contaminants
move through the environment and how they are
altered by physical, chemical, and biological
processes.
E. Receptors: Identification of the biological
populations and ecological systems likely to
be affected by petroleum exploration and
development.
F. Effects: Determination of the effects of
hydrocarbon and trace metal contaminants on
ecological systems and their component organ-
isms.
The first Kodiak Interim Synthesis Report was
organized according to the list of tasks. At the
Kodiak Synthesis Meeting (KSM, 1979), it became evident
that this organization hindered use of the report.
Therefore, the present report is organized along more
traditional lines. First the physical characteristics
of the environment are discussed, then the biology,
beginning with microbes and ending with mammals. Each
of the disciplinary chapters addresses one of the
OCSEAP tasks:
Chapter 2. Geology: Task C, Hazards
Chapter 3. Physical Oceanography: Task D,
Transport
Chapter 4. Chemistry: Task A, Contaminants
Chapter 5. Biology: Task E, Receptors
Chapter 6 deals with potential petroleum development
(Task B) and Chapter 7 is a summary of current know-
ledge of the lease area. Material on Task F (Effects)
has been integrated into the other chapters.
Introduction 3
15O’ 156° 162° 168° 1749 180° 174° 168° 1629 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 126° 12O2 114°
7—7—7—7–7–7–7–7–7—H-T-T—r -
!--- BASIN
100 O 100 200 300 400 km
50 O
50 100 150 200 miles
60'ſ
52° - _T
º "... - N ALEUTIAN ºn, § \ 6°
50° & * gº º -> * GULF OF ALASKA SHEL
48"|
PROPOSED LEASE AREAS OF THE ALASKA OCS 52°
A A Z 1 / / I / 1 I / I I I I | | | | l \ \ \ \ \ \ \
1749 180° 1749 168° 162° 156° 150° 14.4° 138° 132°






















4 Introduction
The OCS oil and gas lease sale proposed for the
Western Gulf of Alaska-Kodiak (USDI, 1980b) includes
1570 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148° 1479
564 separate lease blocks covering about 1.3 million
hectares (3.2 million acres). The individual lease
20 40 60 80 100 km
E. ET
blocks are grouped together in the eleven lease areas
1O Q 10 20 30 40 50 miles
indicated in Fig. 1.2. ***TE EI-
Each lease block contains 2,304 hectares. For
purpose of identification and sale the blocks have been
numbered, starting with the first tier north of the
equator as "N 1." The first range of blocks west of
the central meridian of each UTM zone is designated
"E 100." Thus, a block numbered "N-200-E 96" would be
the 200th block north of the equator and the 5th block
west of the central meridian of the respective UTM
ZOne.
56°
-
PROP — Rºo
Figure 1.1 Proposed lease areas of the Alaskan outer OSED LEASE AREAS 56
continental shelf (USDI, 1980a).
- | I 1 l l
Figure 1.2 Kodiak shelf proposed lease areas (USDI, 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°
1980a).






Introduction 5
Maps
Science Applications, Inc. (SAI) has produced a
series of base maps for use by participants in OCSEAP.
The coastline and coordinate grids were drawn by a
computer plotter using World Data Base II. The com-
puter plots were produced by the National Geophysical
and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center in Boulder, Colorado.
Computer smoothing of coastline contours was corrected
by hand, using USGS and NOAA charts for reference.
The lease area base maps use the Universal Trans-
verse Mercator (UTM) system. The UTM is not, strictly
speaking, a projection, but rather a grid system based
on the Transverse Mercator Projection. As a cylindri-
cal, conformal projection, the Transverse Mercator
provides true angles of direction at all points within
the grid and true North-South measuring lines (that is,
it correlates straightline coordinates of a surveying
grid with the curvedline coordinates of the earth). In
the UTM system central meridians define every 6° of
longitude between 80°N and 80°S. A uniform rectangular
grid is overlaid onto zones which extend 3° to each
side of the central meridian. On the UTM grid each
square in each zone represents an area of the same size
The blocks of this grid are
4,800 m on a side; from them were selected the lease
on the earth's surface.
blocks identified by BLM for possible sale and develop-
ment.
Locality map and gazetteer
Figure 1.3 is a locality map of the Kodiak region
that includes all localities mentioned in the text.
The shallow banks and troughs of Kodiak's continental
shelf are identified. Place-names have been listed
both alphabetically and numerically.
KODIAK AREA : Numerical List of Placenames
. Cape Trinity
. Alitak Bay
. Tanner Head (beach)
. Middle Reef
. Sukhoi Lagoon
. Upper Station Region
. Low Cape
. Dog Salmon Creek (Frazer River)
. Fraser Lake
. Ayakulik River
. Red River
. Bumble Bay
. Cape Ikolik
. Halibut Bay
. Cape Karluk
. Karluk River
. Larsen Bay
. Uyak Bay
. Alf Island
. Zachar Bay
. Spiridon Bay
. Cape Ugat
. Uganik Bay
. Uganik Lake
. Viekoda Bay
. Kupreanof Strait
. Raspberry Cape
. Raspberry Strait
. Malina Bay
. Cape Paramanof
. Blue Fox Bay
. Big Bay
. Latax Rocks
. Lax Rocks
. Sud Island
. Ushagat Island
. Nord Island
... West Amatuli Island
. East Amatuli Island
. Sugarloaf Island
. Shuyak Island
. Big Fort Island
. Sea Otter Island
. Seal Bay
. Sea Lion Rocks
. Marmot Island
. Afognak Island
. Izhut Island
. Kazakof Bay.
. Dolphin Point
. Afognak Lake
. Hog Island
. Marmot Bay
. Anton Larsen Bay
. Whale Passage
. Kizhuyak Bay
. Port Lions
. Spruce Island
. Monashka Bay
. Long Island
. Pillar Mountain
. Buskin Pass
. Womens Bay
. Middle Bay
. Chiniak Bay
. Kalsin Bay
. Cape Chiniak
. Narrow Cape
. Ugak Island
. Pasagshak Point
. Pasagshak Bay
. Saltery Cove
. Ugak Bay
74.
75.
76.
. Kiliuda Bay
. Cape Barnabas
. Lagoon Point
. Sitkalidak Strait
. Port Hobron
. Old Harbor
. Three Saints Bay
. Kaiugnak Bay
. Sitkalidak Island
. Ocean Bay
. Sitkalidak Lagoon
. Twoheaded Island
. Cape Kaguyak
. Horsehead Basin
. Aliulik Peninsula
. Geese Islands
. Cape Sitkinak
. Sitkinak Island
. Tugidak Island
. Dolina Point
. Sitkinak Strait
. Aiaktalik Island
. Sundstrom Island
. Unalaska Island
. Unimak Island
. Shumagin Islands
. Mitrofania Island
. Chirikof Island
. Nagai Rocks
. Semidi Islands
. Ugaiushak Island
. Wide Bay
. Ukinrek Maars
. Becharof Lake
. Upper Ugashik Lake
. Dry Bay
. Puale Bay
. Alinchak Bay
. Kashvik Bay
. Katmai Volcano
. Trident Volcano
. Dakavak Bay
. Takli Island
. Cape Gull
. Kukak Bay
. Hallo Bay
. Village Beach
. Big River
. Swikshak Beach
. Cape Douglas
. Mount Douglas
. Kamishak Bay
. Augustine Volcano
. Augustine Island
. Iliamna Island
. Chisik Island
. English Bay
. Kachemak Bay
. Aia lik Bay
. Resurrection Peninsula
. Barwell Island
. Montague Strait
. Montague Island
. Prince William Sound
. Middleton Island
. Copper River
. Cape Saint Elias
. Kayak Island
. Icy Bay
. Cape Fairweather
Gull Point
Dangerous Cape
Shearwater Bay
. Afognak Island
. Afognak Lake
. Aiaktalik Island
. Aialik Bay
. Alf Island
. Alinchak Bay
. Alitak Bay
. Aliulik Peninsula
. Anton Larsen Bay
. Augustine Island
. Augustine Volcano
. Ayakulik River
. Barwell Island
. Becharof Lake
. Big Bay
. Big Fort Island
. Big River
. Blue Fox Bay
. Bumble Bay
. Buskin Pass
. Cape Barnabas
. Cape Chiniak
. Cape Douglas
. Cape Fairweather
. Cape Gull
. Cape Ikolik
. Cape Kaguyak
. Cape Karluk
. Cape Paramanof
. Cape Saint Elias
. Cape Sitkinak
. Cape Trinity
. Cape Ugat
. Chiniak Bay
. Chirikof Island
. Chisik Island
. Copper River
. Dakavak Bay
. Dangerous Cape
: Dog Salmon Creek (Frazer River)
. Dolina Point
. Dolphin Point
. Dry Bay
. East Amatuli Island
. English Bay
. Fraser Lake
. Geese Islands
. Gull Point
. Halibut Bay
. Hallo Bay
. Hog Island
. Horsehead Basin
. Icy Bay
. Iliamna Island
. Izhut Island
. Kachemak Bay
. Kaiugnak Bay
. Kalsin Bay
. Kamishak Bay
. Karluk River
. Kashvik Bay
. Katmai Volcano
. Kayak Island
. Kazakof Bay
. Kiliuda Bay
. Kizhuyak Bay
. Kukak Bay
. Kupreanof Strait
. Lagoon Point
. Larsen Bay
. Latax Rocks
. Lax Rocks
. Long Island
KODIAK AREA: Alphabetical List of Placenames
7. Low Cape
29.
53.
46.
64.
4.
141.
103.
59.
139.
138.
127.
. Nagai Rocks
. Narrow Cape
. Nord Island
. Ocean Bay
. Old Harbor
. Pasagshak Bay
. Pasagshak Point
. Pillar Mountain
. Port Hobron
. Port Lions
. Prince William Sound
. Puale Bay
. Raspberry Cape
. Raspberry Strait
. Red River
. Resurrection Peninsula
. Saltery Cove
. Sea Lion Rocks
. Sea Otter Island
. Seal Bay
. Semidi Islands
. Shearwater Bay
. Shumagin Islands
. Shuyak Island
. Sitkalidak Island
. Sitkalidak Lagoon
. Sitkalidak Strait
. Sitkinak Island
. Sitkinak Strait
. Spiridon Bay
. Spruce Island
. Sud Island
. Sugarloaf Island
. Sukhoi Lagoon
. Sundstrom Island
. Swikshak Beach
. Takli Island
. Tanner Head (beach)
. Three Saints Bay
. Trident Volcano
. Tugidak Island
. Twoheaded Island
. Ugaiushak Island
. Ugak Bay
. Ugak Island
. Uganik Bay
. Uganik Lake
. Ukinrek Maars
. Unalaska Island
. Unimak Island
. Upper Station Region
. Upper Ugashik Lake
. Ushagat Island
. Uyak Bay
. Viekoda Bay
. Village Beach
... West Amatuli Island
. Whale Passage
. Wide Bay
. Womens Bay
. Zachar Bay
Malina Bay
Marmot Bay
Marmot Island
Middle Bay
Middle Reef
Middleton Island
Mitrofania Island
Monashka Bay
Montague Island
Montague Strait
Mount Douglas
6 Introduction
140° 135°
160 ° 155° O
390km
T
200miles
155° 150 ° 140° 135
Figure 1.3 Locality map and gazetteer for the Kodiak region and the Gulf of Alaska.



Introduction 7
-
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2. Geology
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CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGY
R. E. Peterson, SAI
2. 1 INTRODUCTION
2.1. 1 Relevance of geologic hazards study
The continental shelf around the Gulf of Alaska,
the Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands is
situated in a dynamic tectonic environment. Several
prominent crustal features are associated with this
setting: the deep Aleutian Trench and Aleutian vol-
canoes which result from the underthrusting of the
oceanic plate; rugged mountain ranges produced by
compressive forces generated during the collision of
the two plates; and major fault systems, which reveal
the structural failure of crustal rock as the motion
can no longer be accommodated by plastic deformation.
The most immediate and perhaps spectacular hazard
posed by this tectonic activity involves the occurrence
of earthquakes. Earthquakes have been particularly
destructive in heavily populated areas, due to the
variety of effects produced. Open fissures and cracks
with offsets along fences and roads are dramatic, but
the conflagrations resulting from ruptured natural gas
lines and gasoline storage tanks and broken electrical
power lines are far more destructive. Structural
failure and weakening of oil pipelines, platforms, and
buildings may be caused by soil liquefaction induced by
earthquake shaking.
The risk of destruction by earthquakes is directly
proportional to the extent of human development in a
region. The probability that an earthquake will occur
at a particular location may be reasonably forecast by
seismologists; the risk posed to life and property is
much more difficult to assess. The financial commit-
ment in equipment, the increase in population, and the
dire environmental consequences of a blowout or major
pipeline break are important reasons for evaluating the
earthquake risk to petroleum industry development on
the Gulf of Alaska continental shelf.
Hazards due to tectonic activity are not the only
ones resulting from geological processes. Rapid ero-
sion and deposition of seafloor sediment may adversely
affect pipelines, for instance, as may slumping and
sliding of unstable slopes. Dispersion of sediment in
the water column, along the seafloor, and along coast-
lines may affect the fate of spilled oil. Knowledge of
the presence and location of gas-charged sediment is
important, since encountering such deposits during
offshore platform construction and drilling operations
is a serious hazard.
A thorough understanding of geological processes
in this region of anticipated petroleum industry de-
velopment is essential for a complete evaluation of the
risk posed to the development by the natural envi-
ronment.
2. l.2 Geologic setting of Kodiak Island
Kodiak Island is located along the zone of crustal
subduction caused by convergence of the northerly
moving Pacific lithospheric plate and the more station-
ary North American plate (Fig. 2. 1). The Pacific plate
is underthrusting the North American plate, and the
C
uſſº-Tºº
§
>J
5–6 cm/yr :
rºl
Jº
-
PACIFIC #
-0
PLATE -n
>
C
º
Figure 2. 1 Plate tectonics relationships in the NE
Pacific Ocean. Star indicates epicenter of February
28, 1979, St. Elias earthquake, the most recent large
event in the region (from Lahr and Stephens, 1979).



Geology 11
Aleutian Trench is the surface expression of the place
at which initial downwarping of the descending oceanic
plate occurs (Fig. 2.2). The interaction of these
converging plates includes not only subduction and
associated major thrust faulting, but also major
strike/slip faulting on the eastern boundary, where
relative plate motion is accommodated along the Fair-
weather-Queen Charlotte fault system (Fig. 2. 1). The
earthquake seismicity and volcanism which affect the
Kodiak Island region are primarily associated with
active tectonic deformation resulting from the subduct-
ing oceanic plate and continental accretion of crustal
material which is "scraped off" as subduction proceeds
(von Huene, 1978).
The "Benioff zone," the region of intense seismic
(Fig.
is usually well defined in projections of hypo-
activity associated with the subducting plate
2.2),
centers onto vertical sections oriented perpendicular
to the subduction zone axis. In the Kodiak region,
Benioff
about 50 km depth and extends to about 200 km (refer to
Fig. 2.9). The
zone seismicity becomes distinguishable at
deeper earthquakes associated with
subduction are generally of lesser magnitude and less
hazard to life and property than are the shallower
events (Pulpan and Kienle, 1979a).
Above the Benioff zone, in the zone of accretion
of material onto the continental plate, there is a more
diffuse pattern of earthquakes (refer to Fig. 2. 6); it
is in this shallow zone that the large destructive
earthquakes occur. According to current ideas on
subduction zone seismicity, great earthquakes occur
along the main thrust plane between descending oceanic
crust and overlying continental crust, at depths shal-
lower than about 40 km (Davies and House, 1979). In
this main thrust zone, seismic energy is released in
great earthquakes, separated at varying time intervals
N
W
:
#
Continental Plate
Vertical exaggeration X5
O 50 km «s
——1–1–1–
Figure 2.2
and Shor, 1969).
by periods of low seismic activity. Oceanic crustal
segments seem to become locked to the continental
block, stress builds until the strength of the rocks is
exceeded, and extremely violent adjustments ensue
(McCann et al., 1978). The 1964 Great Alaska Earth-
quake is an example of such an adjustment. Identifi-
cation of the boundaries of these segments will have
important significance in forecasting large earth-
quakes. Below 40 km in the Benioff zone, seismic energy
seems to be released in a continuous
(Davies and House, 1979).
Kodiak Island and
more manner
its continental shelf overlie
SE
.
i
.
|
|
Generalized geologic cross-section across Kodiak Island and the Kodiak shelf (adapted from von Huene
the main thrust zone just described,
high risk. As the
converge at a rate of 5-6 cm/yr (Minster et al., 1974),
in a region of
earthquake lithospheric plates
the accretionary zone strata are subjected to con-
siderable deformation--folding, faulting, and vertical
motions--with accompanying earthquakes.
The volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska
Peninsula are also a result of the subduction process.
As the descending oceanic plate reaches a depth where
rock begins to melt, at about 100 km, magma is formed
surface. When the
which works its way back to the
rising magma breaches the surface, a volcano is formed.


12 Geology
2.2 SEISMICITY
2.2.1 Earthquake catalogues
Of the more recent catalogues of earthquakes which
include data for Alaska (Duda, 1965; Tobin and Sykes,
1966 and 1968; Rothé, 1969; Sykes, 1971; Kelleher et
al., 1973), the file maintained by NOAA's Environmental
Data Services in Boulder, Colorado, is in general the
most complete. Pulpan and Kienle (1979b) estimate that
the NOAA/EDS file approaches completeness for all
magnitude 7 or larger events which have occurred since
1899, all magnitude 6 or larger since 1928, and all
magnitude 3.5 or larger since 1969. Data for this file
are obtained from a variety of sources which are des-
cribed by Meyers and von Hake (1976). The main (but
unavoidable) shortcomings of the file are the short
time period for which instrumental records exist, the
heterogeneity of magnitude determinations for some
parts of the file, and the wide variation in accuracy
of identifying epicenter locations.
The amount of data on Alaskan earthquakes has in-
creased considerably since the establishment of local
seismic networks to monitor the extremely active plate
boundary of the southern and southeastern parts of the
State. These local networks, which began operating
about 1976, are capable of recording earthquakes with
magnitudes as small as 1.5 in some portions of the net-
work. The network which covers the Kodiak region is
shown in Fig. 2.3. In addition to acquiring more data
on smaller earthquakes in the Alaskan OCS, efforts are
now being directed at producing more homogeneous data,
especially calculations of magnitude and location
(discussions at NOAA/OCSEAP sponsored Alaskan OCS
Seismology and Earthquake Engineering Workshop, Mar.
26-29, 1979, Boulder, Colorado). Homogeneity in these
data is required for studies of the distribution of
o
sº 155° !.
T NU 1
o 50 100 km
—— P
DIAMOND RIDGE
e”.
SAT, LINK TO
DAMOND RIDGE --->
D
589 – SAT, LINK To O
DIAMOND RIDGE + 58
SAT, LINK To
DAMOND RIDGE
Univ. Alaska
seismic sta
Repeater location
NOAA seismic sta
USGS seismic sta.
— VHF radio link
•
:
55° ſ 8. 55°
l
o
160 1559 1500
Figure 2.3 Location of local Alaskan seismic networks
in Cook Inlet, Kodiak Island, and the Alaska Peninsula
as of March 1979 (Pulpan and Kienle, 1979b).
seismicity in space and time (e.g., Kelleher, 1970)--
studies which show the most promise for improving
earthquake forecasts (see section 2.2.4).
2.2.2 Distribution of earthquakes
In order to present an unbiased description of the
seismicity of an area via epicenter plots, it is neces-
sary that an equal detection capability exist for the
entire area of interest. During the early 1960's,
coordination of worldwide seismic networks was initi-
ated to improve this equal detection capability. About
this time, the United States organized the Worldwide
Network of Standard Seismographs (WWNSS; Glover, 1977)
which has contributed greatly to a more homogeneous
earthquake data set.
For events of magnitude 4 or greater in Alaska,
equal detection capability has existed since about 1963
(Meyers et al., 1976); before then many of the smaller
events went unrecorded due to insufficient seismograph
station coverage. In addition, before 1963, calcula-
tion techniques were less reliable, data varied in pre-
cision, and velocity models for the crust in the region
were inadequate. The epicenter plots were generated
from the NOAA/EDS earthquake file; they are restricted
to events larger than magnitude 4 which have occurred
since 1964. They do not show events recorded by the
local Alaskan seismic network.



Geology 13
Figure 2.4 illustrates the shallow earthquakes
1579 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
that are common throughout the Kodiak region; they are
associated with thrust faulting in the zone of con- 60°
tinental accretion. The apparent horizontal and verti-
cal alignments of epicenters are caused by plotting
10 O 10 20 30 40 50 miles
E. EC
locations to the nearest tenth of a degree, and not by
fault lineations. Figure 2.5 shows the deeper earth-
quakes associated with Benioff zone faulting along the
59°
58°
A *A A A a
A A A A A. A
A. A. A. A A. A. A
57°E. 4. * A
A * A A
& / —1579
** A. A. A. A
--- .* A A a • *.* * .* a a * * * *
... * A. ** A. A A f * * * ****** ** a -
º º A. A A a A. A. A .** AA fº *A A A A A.
- - *A A :::::::::::: 4–4–4. A A
- A. A * ******** * * . . MAGNITUDE
A A. .** 4 • *-*** * * . . . A A - 4.0
- A. * , *.* * * *... . . . A. A a 60
* A A A a 4. A -
A. AAAAA A A A 7.5
56° A A A A. A ‘. . , - a -
A. A --- . . . • A 8.5 —H56°
/ • Sº * A A A. A. A
- & a A.
A $.” A.
Figure 2.4 Epicenter plot of all earthquakes between _º '.
1964 and 1977 with focal depths of 70 km or less. Data A A
are from NOAA/EDS earthquake file and do not contain I * | I 1 I | l l
local Alaskan network data. Plot produced by NOAA/EDS/ 155° 1549 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°
NGSDC.





















14 Geology
Figure 2.5 Epicenter plot of all earthquakes between
1964 and 1977 with focal depths greater than 70 km.
Data are from NOAA/EDS earthquake file and do not
contain local Alaskan network data. Plot produced by
NOAA/EDS/NGSDC.
1579
1569
155°
154°
1519
150°
149°
148°
60°
59°
58°
579
MAGNITUDE
• 4.0
: 99
56° 7.5
A 8.5 - 56°
| l l
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°

Geology 15
main thrust plane of the descending oceanic plate. The
deeper earthquakes tend to be smaller in magnitude, and
their distribution is displaced somewhat to the west of
the shallow events. In Figure 2.6 these hypocenters
have been projected onto a vertical plane which is
oriented perpendicular to the earthquake source struc-
ture below Kodiak Island. Three features are immedi-
ately evident: first, the deep seismicity caused by
the descending oceanic plate as it slides past the
continental plate; second, the diffuse shallow seis-
micity in the zone of continental accretion where
considerable strain readjustment by faulting occurs;
and third, the seismic activity associated with magma
rising from the 100-km depths of the Benioff zone,
which culminates in the volcanoes of the Aleutian
Islands and Alaska Peninsula.
Figure 2.6 Geologic and seismicity cross-section
through the Aleutian Trench and Kodiak Island. Hypo-
centers from an area 320 km wide have been projected
onto a vertical plane (from von Huene et al., 1979).
50 -
100-
ALASKA PENINSULA
non-accretionary terrane
volcanic arc
SHELIKOF STRAIT
KODIAK ISLAND
shelf & slope deposits
* f.
o
* e o
e-
e°
• * * *
-
• * ->
->
->
-> •e.
•".
->
o
© o
*e
O km 50
V. E. – 2:1
accretionary complex & overlying
A"
KODIAK SHELF
fore arc basin
ALEUTIAN TRENCH
modern subduction
Zone
2nd Oceanic
layer
---, 3rd Oceanic
layer
Mantle
-
5
-50
-100



16 Geology
Figure 2.7 is a plot of all seismic events of
magnitude 6 or greater by depth class. Nearly equal
detection capability exists for these large events
throughout the entire time span of the NOAA/EDS file.
Table 2.1 lists and describes each of the events
plotted on Fig. 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Epicenter plot of major earthquakes (mag-
nitude greater than 6) recorded in the Kodiak Island
region between 1899 and 1977. Data sources are identi-
fied in Table 2. 1. Plot produced by NOAA/EDS/NGSDC.
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153°
60°
20 40 60 80 100 km
E. E. J
20 30 40 50 miles
E. ET
59°
58°
579
56°
1529
1519 150° 149° 148°
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES
1470
Magnitude
Shalloy (<70 km) Deep (>70km)
• 60 m 6.O O
• 7.5 - 7.5 —56
© 8.5 | | 85
. I | l _l
156° E. 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°











Geology 17
Table 2. 1 List of major earthquakes (magnitude 2 6) recorded from the Kodiak shelf file. See text for references to other Alaskan earthquake catalogues, which may contain
between 1900 and 1977. Epicenters are plotted in Fig. 2.7. Maximum Mercalli intensity additional events or revised data on events listed here.
associated with the earthquake is also listed. Data are from the NOAA/EDS earthquake
DATA YEAR MO DAY HR MIN SEC LAT LONG DEPTH MAGNITUDES INT DATA YEAR MO DAY HR MIN SEC LAT LONG DEPTH MAGNITUDE INT
SOURCE* (km) MAX SOURCE* (km) MAX
BODY SURFACE UNSPEC- LOCAL - BODY SURFACE UNSPEC- LOCAL
WAVE WAWE IFIED (RICHTER) WAVE WAVE IFIED (RICHTER)
CFR 1903 06 02 13 17 00.0 57.000N 156. 000W 100 8. 30 ISS 1959 12 26 18 19 08. O 59. 740N 151. 380W 6.25
EQH 1909 09 29 19 00 00.0 60. 600N 149. 270W 7. 40 V CGS 1960 09 0 1 15 37 14. 4 56. 300N 153. 700W 24 6.13
G-R 1911 09 22 05 0 1 24.0 60. 500N 149. 000W 60 6.90 VIII CGS 1961 01 20 17 09 15.7 56. 600N 152. 300W 46 6. 38
G-R 1912 Ol 31 20 11 48.0 61.000N 147. 500W 80 7.25 V CGS 1961 0 1 31 00 48 36.5 56.000N 153.900W 26 6.25
G-R 1912 06 07 09 55 54. 0 59. 000N 153.000W 25 6. 40 V CGS 1961 09 05 11 34 37. 3 60.000N 150. 600W 43 6.13 WI
G-R 1912 06 10 16 06 06.0 59.000N 153. 000W 25 7.00 CGS 1963 05 12 20 08 40.8 57. 300N 154.000W 60 6. 10
G-R 1912 1 1 07 07 40 24.0 57. 500N 155.000W 90 7. 50 V CGS 1963 06 24 04 26 37.9 59. 500N 151. 700W 52 5. 70 6.75 VII
G-R 1912 12 05 12 27 36.0 57. 500N 154.000W 90 7.00 CGS 1964 O2 06 13 07 25.2 55. 700N 155. 800W. 33 5.60 6.88 V
G-R 1923 05 04 16 26 39.0 55. 500N 156. 500W 25 7. 10 CGS 1964 O3 28 04 54 0.7. 9 59. 800N 149. 400W 25 6. 10
G-R 1931 12 24 03 40 40.0 60.000N 152.000W 100 6.25 IV CGS 1964 03 28 06 43 57. 4 58. 300N 151. 300W 25 6. 10
G-R 1932 09 14 08 43 23.0 61. 000N 148.000W 50 6.25 V CGS 1964 O3 28 07 10 21.4 58. 800N 149. 500W 20 6. 10 6. 20
G-R 1933 01 04 03 59 28.0 61.000N 148. 000W 25 6.25 WI CGS 1964 03 28 08 33 4.7.0 58. 100N 151. 100W. 25 5. 60 6.50
G-R 1933 06 13 22 19 47.0 61. 000N 151. 000W 25 6.25 V CGS 1964 O3 28 09 01 00. 5 56. 500N 152.000W 20 6.00 6. 20
G-R 1934 05 14 22 12 46.0 57. 750N 152. 250W 60 6.50 WI CGS 1964 03 28 10 35 38.9 57. 200N 152. 400W 33 6.00 6.30
G-R 1934 06 18 09 13 50.0 60. 500N 151.000W 80 6. 75 V CGS 1964 03 28 12 20 49.8 56. 500N 154,000W 25 6. 10 6.50
G-R 1934 07 28 21 36 57.0 55. 500N 156. 750W 25 6.75 CGS 1964 O3 28 14 49 13.7 60. 400N 147. 100W 10 5. 80 6.50
G-R 1938 11 10 20 18 43.0 55. 500N 158. 000W 25 8. 70 VI CGS 1964 O3 28 20 29 08. 6 59. 800N 148. 700W 40 5. 80 6. 60
G-R 1940 10 1 1 07 53 10.0 59. 500N 152.000W 25 6.00 CGS 1964 03 30 02 18 06.3 56. 600N 152.900W 25 5.80 6. 60
G-R 1941 04 0 1 10 40 59.0 56.000N 153. 500W 6.50 CGS 1964 04 04 17 46 08. 6 56. 300N 154. 400W 25 5. 70 6.50
G-R 1941 07 30 0 1 51 21.0 61.000N 151. OOOW 6.25 VI CGS 1964 04 04 17 59 43.3 56. 400N 154. 500W 25 5.50 6. 10
G-R 1941 09 28 05 34 12.0 56. 500N 157. 500W 100 6.50 CGS 1964 04 05 01 22 13.3 56. 200N 153. 500W 25 5. 40 6.00
G-R 1942 12 05 14 28 40.0 59. 500N 152.000W 100 6.50 CGS 1964 04 12 01 24 31.2 56.600N 152. 200W 22 5. 60 6.25
G-R 1944 08 14 11 07 23.0 59. OOON 155.000W 100 6.25 CGS 1964 04 16 19 26 57.4 56. 400N 152.900W 30 5.50 6.63
G-R 1945 1 1 03 22 09 03.0 58. 500N 151.000W 50 6. 75 CGS 1964 08 02 08 36 16.9 56. 200N 149. 900W 31 5. 40 6.00
G-R 1946 01 12 20 25 37.0 59. 250N 147. 250W 50 7.20 IV CGS 1965 06 23 11 09 15. 7 56. 500N 152. 800W. 33 5. 70 6. 38
G-R 1948 05 26 09 16 42.0 56. OOON 156.000W 6.00 CGS 1965 09 04 14 32 46.7 58. 200N 152. 700W 10 6. 20 6.88
G-R 1949 09 27 15 30 45. 0 59.750N 149.000W 50 7.00 V CGS 1965 12 22 19 41 23. 1 58.400N 153. 100W 51 6.50 6.88 V
G-R 1951 02 13 22 12 57.0 56.000N 156.000W 7.00 CGS 1966 01 22 14 27 07. 9 56.000N 153. 700W 33 5.80 6.00
ISS 1952 11 29 23 46 27.0 56. 300N 153. 800W 6.75 CGS 1966 04 16 01 27 13. 5 56.900N 153. 600W 23 5. 70 6.25
ISS • 1953 02 25 21 16 12.0 56.000N 156. 200W 6. 75 USE 1967 07 0 1 23 10 07.2 54. 400N 158. OOOW 33 6. 20 IV
ISS 1953 06 15 17 47 14. O 56. 300N 153. 800W 6.50 USE 1968 04 23 20 29 14.5 58. 700N 150.000W 23 6. 30 6.13
CGS 1954 06 17 O1 42 22.0 56.000N 154, 500W 6.50 CGS 1968 11 15 00 07 09. 7 58. 326N 150. 367W 26 5. 10 6. 38
USE 1954 10 03 11 18 46. O 60. 500N 151. 000W 100 6. 75 VIII USE 1968 12 17 12 02 15.0 60. 200N 152. 800W 86 5.90 6.50 WI
ISS 1955 07 19 23 52 23. O 56. 500N 153.000W 6.00 USE 1969 11 24 22 51 50. 1 56. 200N 153. 600W 33 5. 50 5. 7 5. 70 6.00 IV
CGS 1955 07 26 04 04 18. O 56. 500N 153.000W 6.00 USE 1970 01 16 08 05 39.6 60. 300N 152. 700W 91 5. 60 6.00 V
CGS 1955 07 27 18 19 O8. O 56. 500N 153.000W 6.25 USE 1970 03 11 22 38 34.6 57. 500N 153.900W 29 6.00 6.0 6.50 6. 40 V
ISS 1955 l l 15 10 06 47. O 55. 400N 155, 600W -- 6.50 ERL 1972 O3 24 O3 38 27. 1 56. 142N 157. 18OW 69 6.00 IV
ISS 1957 04 04 00 13 04.0 58. 17ON 155.040W 89 6.00 IV GS 1974 08 01 05 07 59.0 56. 516N 152. 315W 10 5. 20 6. 1
ISS 1957 04 10 1 1 30 00. O 55.960N 153. 860W 7. 10 GS 1974 08 0 1 05 55 38.2 56.670N 152. 105W 33 5. 70 6.3
USE 1958 01 24 23 17 29. O 60.000N 152.000W 60 6.50 IV GS 1974 08 01 07 59 56.9 56.632N 152. 265W 33 5. 20 6.0
CGS 1959 04 19 15 03 26. O 58. OOON 152. 500W 6.25
*Data sources for NOAA/EDS earthquake file: -
EQH-Coffman and von Hake, 1973; CFR - Richter, 1958; G-R - Gutenberg and Richter, 1954; ISS – International Seis- 1970, National Ocean Survey 1970 to 1971, Environmental Research Laboratories 1971 to 1973, and U. S. Geological
mological Summary, Kew, England; USE - United States Earthquakes, published annually by the Coast and Geodetic Survey since 1973. See Meyers and von Hake, 1976, for additional information on data sources for this earthquake
Survey and successor organizations from 1928 to 1972, and jointly by NOAA/USGS thereafter; CGS, NOS, ERL, and GS - file.
Agency operating the Preliminary Determination of Epicenter (PDE) program: Coast and Geodetic Survey prior to
18 Geology
The local Alaskan seismic network (Fig. 2. 3) has
been providing a detailed description of seismic source
structures by detecting much smaller events--as small
as magnitude 1.5 in some areas--than those recorded at
teleseismic distances. Figure 2.8 is a plot of epi-
centers recorded by the local network April–June 1978.
Most of these events have magnitudes of 2 or 3 and
focal depths of less than 50 km. The cluster of small,
shallow events southeast of Kodiak Island can be ident
tified in most seismicity plots of the Kodiak region,
regardless of the time interval plotted. During the
year following the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake, after-
shocks filled the area northeast of this cluster;
presently, that area is again relatively quiet seis-
mically (Fig. 2.8).
ss.biº. 49 sa.m. 1st, ſº
R
|
|
| R l
R
B B
F H
58. OD - SE
R
R
57. DD - ſy S.
E
p
D B R
O Cºl B
Q
R
º |
S5 - º -
-PSSIOC 1S8.00 157.00 156.00 1SS. 00 1Sl!. 00 - 15.55
Aff-JUN 78
Figure 2.8 Epicenter plot of earthquakes recorded by the local Alaskan network between April and June 1978. Plot
produced by University of Alaska Geophysical Institute. Size of symbol is proportional to magnitude, and letter
refers to depth category (i.e., A = 0-25 km, B = 26-50 km, etc.).



Geology 19
:
:
i
:
:
º
DISTANCE (KM)
— 100 O 1OO 200 3OO 400
1 I I : I l I I I I I |
O - e e^@ *****'. •: O e?” •" **.
O O .** Qe .*.*. sº 3-
AMERICAN O * * * **
- PLATE O O
O © a •
:*.* *
3.
* 100 - º
I <\.
H.
D-
Lll
O -
O
Q O
O
200 —
40
& O
Ş
- &
^:
Figure 2.9 Hypocenters of earthquakes projected onto a vertical plane oriented perpendicular to the Aleutian
Trench, and passing through Ukinrek Maars (Pulpan and Kienle, 1979b). Note the well-defined Benioff zone, the
shallow diffuse seismicity, and the clustering of events under Ukinrek and under the main volcanic arc slightly east
of the maars.
The cluster of small shallow events on the Alaska
Peninsula in Fig. 2.8 is associated with recent vol-
canic eruptions at Ukinrek Maars on the Alaska Penin-
1977).
hypocenters onto a vertical plane oriented perpendic-
sula (Kienle et al., A projection of these
ular to the continental margin dramatically reveals the
relationship between seismicity and the crustal sub-
duction process (Fig. 2.9).
2.2.3 Major earthquakes affecting the Kodiak region
In spite of the numerous earthquakes that occur in
the immediate vicinity of Kodiak Island and Shelikof
Epicenter data are from the local Alaskan seismic network.
Strait, none has as yet caused extensive damage by
ground rupture or shaking, due in large part to the
undeveloped nature of the region. If Kodiak were to
become a major industrial and population center, the
events that do occur could have more serious consequen-
Ce S.
However, an earthquake does not have to occur in
the immediate vicinity of a region to cause extensive
damage. The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964 is an
example. The epicenter of this (magnitude 8.5) event
was located near Anchorage, yet it had a significant
impact on Kodiak Island, some 320 km or so distant.
The effects of this earthquake were so widespread that
a special committee was established by the National
Academy of Sciences to study it. Their efforts re-
sulted in the most comprehensive and detailed account
of an earthquake ever compiled (National Academy of
Sciences, 1972).
Figure 2. 10 shows the Mercalli scale intensities
produced by that earthquake at various
Kodiak Island.
locations on
The intensities ranged between VI and
IX and indicated the following felt effects (Brazee,
1976):
VI. Felt by all, many frightened and run
outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved;
a few instances of fallen plaster or
damaged chimneys. Damage slight.
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage
negligible in buildings of good design
and construction; slight to moderate
in well-built ordinary structures;
considerable in poorly built or badly
designed structures; some chimneys
broken. Noticed by persons driving
motorcars.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed
structures; considerable in ordinary
substantial buildings with partial
collapse; great in poorly built struc-
tures. Panel walls thrown out of
frame structures. Fall of chimneys,
factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
Sand and mud ejected in small amounts.
Changes in well water. Persons driv-
ing motorcars disturbed.
IX. Damage considerable in specially
designed structures; well-designed
frame structures thrown out of plumb;
great in substantial buildings, with
partial collapse. Buildings shifted
off foundations. Ground cracked con-
spicuously. Underground pipes broken.
land level
shelf off Kodiak Island
(Fig. 2. 11), although to date no single offshore fault
The earthquake produced extensive
changes on the continental


20 Geology
15.4°
| |
|
155° 154° 153° 152°
Figure 2. 10 Intensities of felt effects on Kodiak
Island due to the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake (Buck et
al., 1975).
Figure 2. 11 Land level changes in the vicinity of
Kodiak Island due to the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake
(Plafker, 1972).
60°:
59°
58°
579
56°
1579
1569
1O 20 30 40 50 miles
ELET)
15.4° 153°
1519
F-- Gulf of Alaska --
150° 149° 148° 1470
–59°
– 58°
Contours in feet.
Dashed where approximately
located; dotted where inferred.
*—a—a Thrust fault; barbs on
overthrust side
TTT Axis of maximum
subsidence
–H Axis of maximum uplift +57°
Cl —56°
:
C
+40
30 # } |
º 20 - 3 n. 2 Postearthquake land surface 20
sº Shelikoſ × n^ *--_2 2
º -—si- —l _2~ | T --—?— 2 º
-10 | P Yeearthquake land surface |- 10
| I I I | I | l l
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°














Geology 21
scarp on the sea floor has been positively identified
as having been produced by the earthquake. The strain
release map shown in Fig. 2. 12 demonstrates that while
the epicenter of the earthquake was in Prince William
Sound, the rupture propagated to the southwest along
the continental shelf, continuously releasing stress in
the form of aftershocks (Wyss and Brune, 1967).
Figure 2. 12 Strain release calculated from aftershock
data for the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake. Large
numbers indicate greater amount of seismic energy
release per unit area and time (from von Huene, 1972).
150° 149°
15.4°
153° 152° 151°
6O
— 2O 40 60 80 100 km
- E. E. T]
O 10 20 30 40 50 miles
*** E. EIT,
148°
59°
1479
58°
. —H58°
|H 50
25
—157°
STRAIN RELEASE CONTOURS
1964 Earthquake
Shaded area represents inferred
zone of faulting
56'll
—H56°
O
| I L | I | l l
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°


















22 Geology
The most serious damage resulted from the seismic
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 1479
sea wave, or tsunami, generated by this earthquake.
Damage to fishing boats and port facilities occurred at 60°
nearly every city on Kodiak Island (Fig. 2. 13), with
Kodiak receiving extensive damage (Plafker and Kacha-
doorian, 1966; Buck et al., 1975).
59°
58°
579
e Major property damage
a Damaged and/or inundated shoreline
64 Approximate highest runup in feet
above tide level
56°
—56°
º º
__
Figure 2. 13 Damage on Kodiak Island resulting Priº I I I I I 1
marily from the tsunami generated by the 1964 Great 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 l —1–
15O2 149° 148°
Alaska Earthquake (Selkregg, 1974).


Geology 23
2.2.4 Earthquake occurrence rates
In planning for future development, it is impor-
tant to make every effort to estimate the rate of
occurrence and the likelihood of future occurrence of
earthquakes of various magnitudes. While precise
prediction of the location, magnitude, and time of
large earthquakes has not yet been attained, progress
has been made in "forecasting" the location, general
size (e.g., great, large), and time of occurrence to
within a few tens of years (McCann et al., 1978). A
working hypothesis to do this involves analysis of
seismicity gaps.
The seismic gap hypothesis suggests a higher
earthquake potential for those segments of lithospheric
plate boundaries which have experienced fewer large
earthquakes in the last three decades than adjacent
segments. It can be seen in Fig. 2. 14 that the after-
shock zones of large earthquakes tend not to overlap;
the areas separating adjacent aftershock zones are de-
signated "seismic gaps." Studies have revealed several
gaps’ along the Aleutian Island chain and the southern
Alaskan borders (Kelleher, 1970; Sykes, 1971; McCann et
al., 1978; Fig. 2. 14).
Both the 1972 magnitude 7.3 earthquake near Sitka
and the 1979 magnitude 7.7 Mt. Saint Elias earthquake
occurred within seismic gaps identified before either
event by Sykes (1971). Recent study of the 1979 event
indicates that the seismic gap in the NE Gulf of Alaska
has not been completely filled by the aftershocks of
that earthquake (Lahr et al., 1979), and therefore
should still be considered an area of high potential
for a large earthquake.
The Shumagin seismic gap is of particular signifi-
cance in assessing earthquake risk for the Kodiak OCS.
Several lines of evidence are cited by Pulpan and
Kienle (1979b) to indicate that the Shumagin gap
actually extends from the southwestern tip of Kodiak
Island to the eastern edge of the 1957 magnitude 8.2
aftershock zone:
1. The segment has experienced a relatively low level
of activity during historic times, and a lower
level of activity compared to the Kodiak shelf as
recorded by the local network in the past several
years.
2. Pronounced changes in geological features and an
offset in the line of Alaska Peninsula volcanoes
occur at the southwest margin of the 1964 after-
shock zone, suggesting the possibility of arc
segmentation in which each segment accumulates and
releases tectonic stresses.
3. Higher stress levels exist between Kodiak Island
and the end of the Alaska Peninsula, than in other
parts of the Aleutian-Alaska subduction zone arc
(Archambeau, 1978).
In a recent analysis of the seismic potential of
plate boundaries, McCann et al. (1978) assigned the
eastern half of the Shumagin gap to their category 2,
and the western half to category 3, defined as follows:
Category 2
The region has experienced at least one large
shock in the past with the most recent event
occurring between 1879 and 1949, i.e., more
than 30 years ago, but less than 100 years
ago.
Category 3
The region has an incomplete history of large
earthquakes. No historic event is clearly
documented as having ruptured the plate bound-
ary. There is no evidence, however, that
would indicate that the region may not be the
site of a future large earthquake. A compari-
son of the tectonic framework with that of
other areas known to be sites of historic
large shocks may also suggest that the region
is capable of being the site of a future large
shock.
Seismologists agree in general that seismic gaps
have the highest potential for future large earth-
quakes. However, the discovery of a means to calculate
the recurrence intervals of large earthquakes for a
given region has proved to be an elusive goal. Esti-
mates of recurrence intervals of very large earthquakes
in Alaska range from 800 years (Plafker, 1971) to 33
years (Sykes, 1971). Recent research relating the
width of the main thrust zone of the descending oceanic
crust to the recurrence times of great earthquakes
along the Alaskan convergence zone (Davies et al.,
1979) indicates a recurrence interval on the order of
80 to 140 years for the Shumagin Islands region. It is
therefore within the realm of possibility that a great
earthquake will occur in the Shumagin seismic gap
during the course of petroleum industry development on
the Kodiak shelf.
mº-
Figure 2. 14 Aftershock zones and seismic gaps along
the Aleutian Island/southern Alaska plate boundary
(modified from Sykes, 1971; McCann et al., 1978; Lahr
and Stephens, 1979).
24 Geology

Geology 25
The rate of occurrence of earthquakes can be
described statistically by the frequency distribution
of past earthquakes, principally those recorded instru-
mentally. This distribution follows the formula
log N = a – bM
where N is the cumulative number of events per year
greater than magnitude (M), and a and b are the inter-
cept and slope of the equation when graphed on semilog-
arithmic scales. The b value is the rate parameter of
interest. It has been shown to vary as a function of
several earthquake source parameters: geographical
region, time, depth of focus, type of shock (foreshock,
aftershock, etc.), and level of stress in the rocks.
Wyss (1973) provides a further discussion of the physi-
cal significance of b values. Unless the data selected
for frequency distribution analysis are restricted to
as few source parameters as possible (e.g., all events
which occur in a geographic region defined by geolog-
ical features), the frequency distribution is not a
reliable indicator of frequency of occurrence.
Meyers et al. (1976) have calculated b values for
Alaskan earthquakes of magnitude 4 or greater which
occurred within a circle of 75 km radius about points
at whole-degree increments. An example of frequency
distribution for Kodiak Island is shown in Fig. 2. 15.
Since many of the source parameters of earthquakes, as
described in the preceeding paragraph, were not con-
sidered in this analysis, the b values represent an
average of the effects of several physical parameters
which influence the b value; hence, these data should
not be used to estimate the recurrence of specific
magnitudes for discrete time intervals.
Future research is planned which will interpret b
value data for all of the Aleutian/Alaska arc. Data
from local seismograph networks will be assembled and
standardized with respect to magnitude and location
calculations, and may be useful in describing temporal
and spatial variations in the recurrence rate of earth-
quakes in Alaska.
100E
E 57°N, 153°w
C LOG N= 6.1 1-1.08M
3. |-
|-
->
Al 10E
- E
º -
Q)
> -
- |-
Q)
C. |-
º
Q
# 1
- -
or C
-- |-
+ -
º |-
Q)
- -
O
- -
GD
.C.
5 .1 E
~ T
|-
.O1 | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Magnitude M
Figure 2. 15 Example b value curve for an area near
the Kodiak OCS. Earthquake data are from the 75 km
radius circle shown in the index map inset (modified
from Meyers et al., 1976).
2.2.5 Attenuation of earthquake energy
The energy released as elastic shock waves at an
earthquake hypocenter is dissipated by geometrical
spreading and absorption by geological formations
through which the waves pass. A subjective measure of
the degree of attenuation at a distance from the hypo-
center is referred to as intensity. It is an evalua-
tion of felt effects of the earthquake, i.e., duration
and severity of shaking, physical damage, and psycho-
logical response of the population.
The scale used today in the U.S. to quantify
intensity is the Modified Mercalli Scale of 1931 (Wood
and Neumann, 1931; Brazee, 1976). Surveys are made in
the area experiencing an earthquake and contours,
called isoseismals, are drawn connecting observation
points of equal intensity. Presently, there are no
means of assigning intensities to offshore areas,
except for effects experienced on offshore platforms.
Attenuation of earthquate energy by formations near the
seafloor surface may be quite different from that on
land.
Meyers et al. (1976) have completed a study which
relates earthquake magnitude to intensity at some
distance from the epicenter, for all Alaskan data (Fig.
2. 16). Note that the number of significant figures in
the relationship is not indicative of precision. This
type of research allows engineers to anticipate the
effects on structural designs of events of various mag-
nitudes in unpopulated areas where no intensity data
exist. The primary limitation of this research comes
from the subjective nature of the intensity data that
were used. For engineering design purposes, a more
objective, quantified approach must be taken.
A significant amount of research has been con-
ducted as part of the Offshore Alaska Seismic Exposure

26 Geology
XIII
X
×
(J
5
# VIII
§
."
# VI
º:
(J
==
IV
|
g H-5 § 1O
Magnitude
1OOO r
500k.
F
sº
O
>
#
1OOH-
3.
#
$5 50H
# In D = 2.3 + 0.4 Imax
r
| | | | I
10 IV | Wi VIII X XII
Maximum intensity Imax
Study (OASES) in an effort to produce a seismic expo-
sure map for the Alaskan OCS which will be useful for
engineering design (Woodward-Clyde, 1978). As part of
this research in modeling earthquake risk, it was
define the
necessary to attenuation
of earthquake
energy between a source and possible development site
much more objectively than by simply relating felt
intensity, distance, and magnitude. The measurements
required for this objective approach are made by
strong-motion instruments, which are triggered by an
earthquake. since strong-motion data
the OASES
researchers had to rely on data from areas in southern
Unfortunately,
for Alaska are essentially non-existent,
California and Japan to develop their models. As more
in Alaska,
strong-motion installed
instruments are
attenuation data will become available which will
further improve the output from the models, and provide
engineers with the data they need to design platforms,
pipelines, and other structures that are as earthquake
resistant as possible.
Figure 2.16 Empirical relationships between magnitude
(M), maximum intensity (I_...), and distance (D) to the
limit of perceptibility of"ºlt effects. Equations are
from Meyers et al. (1976).
2.2. 6 Seismic sea waves (tsunamis)
Offshore earthquakes may produce displacements at
the seafloor which result in seismic sea waves, or
tsunamis. Seawater attenuates seismic wave energy much
less than geologic formations, allowing these waves to
travel great distances from their earthquake source at
speeds of several hundred km/hr in deep water (Murty,
1977).
Water during approach to a shoreline, and the wave
A tsunami slows down as it enters shallower
height may build considerably. An extensive tsunami
warning system developed at the Palmer, Alaska, Seismo-
logical Center can issue warnings in response to the
Prediction of the
arrival time of a tsunami is based on the distance
and the
occurrence of a major earthquake.
between the epicenter location along the
Alaskan coastline (Cox and Pararas-Carayannis, 1976).
Tsunamis can also result from major landslides
which enter ocean areas or bays, as has occurred in
Lituya Bay in NEGOA several times (Coffman and von
Hake, 1973). The U.S. Geological Survey in Anchorage
estimates that if part of Pillar Mountain slides into
the Port of Kodiak entrance, a 3-m wave could be gen-
erated in the harbor that would cause as much damage as
the 1964 earthquake (Geotimes, 1978).
eruptions may also produce tsunamis; the 1883 eruption
Violent volcanic
of Mt. Augustine in Cook Inlet produced a 10-m tsunami
80 km away at Port Graham in English Bay (Kienle and
Forbes, 1976).
Table 2.2
Kodiak Island and illustrates the variety of possible
Summarizes tsunamis observed around
Sources. The tsunami risk for offshore structures is
low, due to the small wave heights attained during
travel through deep water. However, the risk of damage
to pipelines in shallow water and to shoreline facil-
The Kodiak
shoreline, particularly such bays as Marmot, Chiniak,
ities in bays around Kodiak Island is high.


Geology 27
Table 2.2
Tsunamis observed in the vicinity of the
Kodiak shelf (from Cox and Pararas-Carayannis, 1976).
Location
Earthquake or
Volcanic Eruption
Remarks
Three Saints Bay, on
Kodiak Is.
Three Saints Bay,
on Kodiak Island
Kodiak
Kodiak
Women's Bay, on
Kodiak Is.
Women's Bay, on
kodiak Is.
Kodiak
Kaguyak
Old Harbor
Kodiak
Women's Bay
Kodiak
(unknown cause)
about July 22, 1788
1827
August 13, 1868
Earthquake in N. Chile
August 27, 1883
(Krakatoa eruption)
November 5, 1952
Mag. 8.25
East Kamchatka
March 9, 1957
Mag. 8.3
Unimak Is.
May 22, 1960
Mag 8.5
S. Chile
March 27, 1964
Mag. 8.5
Prince William Sound
February 3, 1965
Mag. 8
Rat Island
Effects uncertain, but inclu-
ded inundation, loss of life
and hogs, and a ship thrown
onshore; apparently a signif-
icant event, judging by the
number of old reports des-
cribing it.
"Agitation" and anomalous
waves; possible offshore quake
and seiche.
Tsunami observed, no damage.
Small waves (0.1 m height)
were generated by atmospheric
pressure waves resulting from
Krakatoa explosion.
Great tsunami ; considerable
damage and some loss of life
at Kamchatka ; wave height 0.4
m at Women's Bay.
Wave height 0.2 m at Women's
Bay; no reported damage on
Kodiak; observed throughout
Pacific, with major damage at
Hawaii and Japan.
Wave height 0.7 m at Kodiak
great damage in Chile, Hawaii,
and Japan.
Wave heights of 6 to 20+ m
reported around Kodiak Is. ;
great damage to towns, can-
neries, and fishing boats;
12 deaths; over $40 million
in damages.
Small wave (0.1 m) at Kodiak;
no reported damage.
Ugak, and Kiliuda,
is exposed to tsunamis generated
anywhere in the Pacific, and especially to those gener-
ated in the highly earthquake-prone Aleutian/Alaska
seismic belt.
2. 2.7 Summary of earthquake hazards and risk analyses
Earthquakes produce a variety of effects that must
be considered in any hazard analysis for a region. A
generalized list of effects for the Kodiak Island
coastline, the OCS, and Shelikof Strait includes the
following:
Effect Consequences
Collapse of structures, weakening,
and future collapse; failure of
unstable terrain, landslides.
Ground shaking
Ground rupture Water and sewer line failures,
contamination of water supplies;
gas and oil line failures, fires;
electrical line failures, fires,
power outages; disruption of trans-
portation lines
Tsunamis Destruction of port facilities and
boats
Panic, injury, loss of life; crime,
looting
Population trauma
The proximity of the Kodiak shelf and Shelikof
Strait lease areas to the active subduction zone of the
Alaskan margin and its attendant seismicity places the
region in a high earthquake risk category. Very large,
destructive earthquakes have occurred near the Kodiak
shelf, and most of the major damage resulted from
tsunamis rather than ground shaking. The tectonics of
the region suggest the possibility of a very large
earthquake in the Shumagin seismic gap (Pulpan and
Kienle, 1979b; McCann et al., 1978), so the risk of
damage from severe ground shaking and tsunamis around
Kodiak Island is indeed present.
The risk of disastrous destruction due to an
earthquake during the exploratory phase of oil industry
development is probably lower than during the later
production and transportation stages. This is because
the semisubmersible exploratory drilling rigs (Wills et
al., 1978) are less susceptible to damage from seismic
Waves than are structures permanently attached to the
ground, such as pipelines, tanker terminals, and stor-
age tanks.
Statistical recurrence rates have been used along
With various other parameters to produce a "seismic ex-
posure value" for 00S development areas in Alaska
(Woodward-Clyde, 1978). The results of this research,
primarily useful for engineering design purposes, are
given in terms of the spectral velocity of seismic
waves and expected ground accelerations caused by an
earthquake with an expected return period of 100 years.
The seismic exposure value for Shelikof Strait and most
of the Kodiak shelf is minimal relative to the other
lease areas considered, and the suggestion is that the
predicted value "will not significantly impact the
design of typical pile-founded structures." However,
the predicted values south of Kodiak Island and
throughout the Shumagin seismic gap "will dominate the
design of structures" (Woodward-Clyde, 1978).
A second seismic risk assessment of Alaska and the
adjacent OCS has been undertaken by the U.S. Geological
Survey in Denver, Colorado (Thenhaus et al., 1979). In
this study, the historical earthquake record has been
used along with geological information to produce maps
of peak ground acceleration to be expected during
periods of 10, 50, and 250 years. As in the OASES
study, the USGS models produce information that is
primarily used for engineering design.
28 Geology
2.3 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY (Fig. 2. 17), a number of which have eruptive histories ceptionally violent eruptions during historic times--
2 - - during this century (Table 2.3). This volcanic arc is Katmai/Novarupta in 1912, Trident in the 1950's and
. 3. 1 History of eruptions - >
a direct consequence of the subduction of the Pacific 60's, and Augustine in 1883, 1963/64, and 1976.
The Alaska Peninsula northwest of the Kodiak 00S plate under the North American plate, as previously de- F
- igure 2. 17 L - - -
and Shelikof Strait contains numerous active volcanoes scribed. Three of these volcanoes have produced ex- . ocation map for Alaska Peninsula volca
O O O O O O O
17O 165 16O 155 150 145 140 135° 130°
N
200miles
58° O
58
56°
|- 56°
N- LOCATION MAP FOR ALASKA VOLCANOES
1 Makushim 20 Mageik
2 Akutan 21 Novarupta
3 Pogromni 22 Trident
4 Westdahl 23 Griggs
------ 5 Fisher 24 Katmai
-------- 6 Shishaldin 25 Snowy
7 is anotski 26 Denison
8 Roundup Mtn. 27 Stellar
9 Frosty Pk. 28 Kukak
|- 10 Pavlof 29 Kaguyak
11 Pavlof Sister 30 Fourpeaked Mtn.
12 Dana 31 Douglas
13 Veniaminof 32 Augustine
14 Purple 33 lliamna
52° |- 15 Aniakchak 34 Redoubt
16 Chiginagak 35 Double
17 Ukinrek Maars 36 Black
18 Peulik 37 Torbert
19 Martin 38 Spurr
l | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | l l | l | \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
O O O O O
1.65 160 155 150 145 140° 135°







Geology 29
Table 2.3 Volcanic activity in the Kodiak Island
region. "Historic activity" refers to the period since
about 1700 (adapted from Selkregg, 1974; Kienle and
Forbes, 1976; J. Kienle, University of Alaska, pers.
comm.).
Number on Volcano Description of Activity
Figure 2. 1 7
16 Chiginagak Smoke, steam-- 1976, 1954, 1929, 1852
Fumaroles on flank
1 7 Ukin rek Explosive maar eruption-- 1977
18 Peu lik Ash eruptions-- 1852, 1814
19 Martin Possible ash eruption-- 1912
Smoke, steam-- intermittently since 1912
20 Mageik Ash eruptions'-- 1953, 1936, 1927, 1912
Smoke, steam-- 1946, 1929
21 Nova rupta Explosive eruption--1912*
*Vent believed to be one of the main
sources for ash and pumice flows in the
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes.
22 Trident Explosive eruptions--1968, 1967, 1964,
1963, 1962 thru 1957, 1954, 1953, 1951;
Fumarole activity
23 , Griggs Sulfurous fumaroles on summit and
flanks;
No known historic eruptions
24 Katmai Major explosive eruption--1912*
Smoke, steam-- 1931
*Vast pumice and ash deposits accom-
panied by caldera collapse caused
extensive damage to crops and buildings
on Kodiak Island, and corrosive rains
at Seward and Cordova
25 Snowy No known historic activity
26 . Denison No known historic activity
27 Stellar No known historic activity
28 Kukak Fumaroles on summit and flanks;
No known historic eruptions
29 Kaguyak No known historic activity
30 Fourpeaked Mtn. No known historic activity
31 Douglas Fumaroles on summit;
No known historic eruptions
32 Augustine Explosive eruption--1976, 1964-63,
1935, 1884-83*, 1812
Smoke, steam-- continuous in recent
years, 1971, 1902, 1895, 1885
*Generated a ten meter tsunami at Port
Graham in 1883
The 1912 Katmai/Novarupta eruption was one of the
most severe in recorded history. Over a period of only
two days, it ejected over 25 km.” of pyroclastic materi-
al (AEIDC, 1974), some of which flowed down a valley to
form the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. A great quan-
^
tity of ash was ejected into the atmosphere, and a
significant amount was deposited on Kodiak 160 km away
(Fig. 2. 18). Novarupta appears to have been the main
source of eruptive material; it has been suggested that
Novarupta acted as a relief valve for the pressures and
magma building up under Mt. Katmai (Alaska Geographic
Society, 1976). The release of pressure and subsequent
draining of magma reservoirs under Katmai during the
eruption caused the mountain to collapse and form the
deep caldera of Mt. Katmai that is visible today.
In 1953, Mt. Trident burst into activity with a
30,000-foot column of smoke and ash (Ray, 1967).
During the 1950's and 60's, it was the most active
volcano in the Katmai area, having discharged several
lava flows and produced major eruptive columns in 1960,
1962, 1963, and 1964. No damage to property or loss of
life has been attributable to eruptions of Trident,
however.
Most recently, Augustine volcano in Lower Cook
Inlet erupted during January, February, and April 1976,
producing eruptive columns up to 11 km high, glowing
debris avalanches with nuées ardentes, regional ash
falls, and a new lava dome at the summit. This most
recent activity has been described in detail by Kienle
and Shaw (1979), and Kienle and Forbes (1976).
The main eruption began on January 23 and consist-
ed of major explosions and ash falls characteristic of
the vent-clearing phase. Pyroclastic debris flows,
nuées ardentes, and additional explosions continued
into early February. Extrusion of a lava dome began
about February 12, heralding the decline of explosive
activity. A second extrusive phase occurred between
April 13 and 18, 1976, and was the last of the major
eruptive phases (Kienle and Shaw, 1979). Post-eruptive
stages at Augustine consist of gas and steam expulsion,
and relatively quiet seismicity.
Eruptions characterized by violent ejection of
solid or semi-solid hot rock fragments, glowing ava-
lanches, and short, thick lava flows or lava domes are
termed "Peléean" eruptions. The previous eruptions of
Augustine (since its discovery in 1778), probably all
Peléean in nature, occurred in 1812, 1883, 1935, and
1963-64. The 1883 eruption was violent enough to
produce a 10-m tsunami at Port Graham in English Bay
during one blast, causing considerable damage to fish-
ing boats and docking facilities (Davidson, 1884).
Researchers from the University of Alaska's Geo-
physical Institute have assembled a large amount of
information on Augustine volcano, and have a good
understanding of its eruptive history, geology and
geochemistry, internal structure, and associated seis-
mic activity (Pulpan and Kienle, 1979b). Seismic
activity is particularly noteworthy in that shallow
seismic activity under the volcano appears to precede
eruptions. The 1976 eruption, for example, occurred
after eight months of precursor seismicity.
In April 1977, volcanic activity began at the
Ukinrek Maars between Becharof Lake and Upper Ugashik
Lake, slightly to the west of the main arc of Aleutian
volcanoes (Fig. 2. 17). This activity apparently resul-
ted from the heating of groundwater from below by hot
basaltic magma, causing violent steam and gas eruption,
and eventually extrusion of lava (Kienle et al., 1977).
Recent geochemical research on gases emitted at the
maars (Barnes and McCoy, 1979) indicates that explosive
release of mantle-derived carbon dioxide from a basal-
tic magma may also have been instrumental in their
formation. Geochemical and petrologic data (discussed
in Kienle et al., 1980) support the hypothesis that the
basalt has a deep origin, 80 km or greater, in the
mantle.
Continuing shallow seismicity is associated
with the volcanic activity at Ukinrek Maars (Fig. 2.9).
30 Geology
The inferred conduits between the deep mantle source
area and the surface eruptions are aseismic (Pulpan and
Kienle, 1979b). 60°
2. 3.2 Summary of volcanic hazards
The phenomena associated with volcanic eruptions
that should be considered in assessing volcanic hazards
in Shelikof Strait, Kodiak Island, and the Kodiak 00S
are: 59°
• Violent, explosive eruptions, directed
blasts, glowing avalanches with nuees
ardentes, heavy debris falls, and volt
canically induced tsunamis.
• Hazardous atmospheric phenomena, including
turbulent ash clouds, noxious gas clouds,
ash falls, corrosive rains, and lightning
discharges.
58°
• Pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and mud-
slides.
Most of the above phenomena occurred during
Katmai's eruption, and may occur in future eruptions of
Augustine and other Alaska Peninsula volcanoes. Since
the risk to facilities and offshore development de-
creases rapidly with increasing distance from the 57°
volcano, volcanic hazards are significantly greater in
Shelikof Strait than in the Kodiak 00S lease areas.
However, the effects of airborne ejecta can be
serious throughout the Kodiak region. Airborne ash can
easily be transported from volcanoes such as Katmai to
Augustine and the Kodiak OCS region. The 1912 Katmai
eruption deposited about 0.3 m of ash on the city of
Kodiak, some 160 km distant, and acid rains fell on
Cordova, at a distance of 750 km (AEIDC, 1974; Fig.
2. 18).
Figure 2.18 Distribution of volcanic ash from the
1912 eruption of Mt. Katmai and Novarupta (from Wilcox,
1959).
56° Eruption of Katmai and Novarupta
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 1519 15O° 149° 148° 1470
2O 4O 60 80 100 km
E. E.
20 30 40
50 miles
J
59°
—H58°
—157°
VOLCANIC ASH DISTRIBUTION – 1912
Contours in feet 56°
*— I I I l l
15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°

















Geology 31
1579 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148° 1470 Heavy ash falls produce physically uncomfortable
conditions; water supplies may become laden with ash or
turn excessively acid. Corrosive rains formed by
60°
60 80
H EI
100 km
acidic volcanic gases combining with precipitation may
accompany eruptions and damage equipment. In addition,
30 40 50 miles
ash clouds, corrosive rains, and lightning storms, all
atmospheric phenomena accompanying an eruption, could
pose hazards to aircraft. Radio communications may
also be impaired by these atmospheric phenomena.
59°
& 59° 2.4 OFFSHORE SURFACE GEOLOGY
2.4.1 Surface sediments
100 m PORTLOCK
( The distribution of unconsolidated surface sedi-
BANK ment on the Kodiak shelf is strongly related to the
se! o S. – physiography of the seafloor, shown in Fig. 2. 19. The
. º ’s, - —H58° physiography, in turn, is a product of past glacial
º $ºs
activity and geomorphic processes that have been oc-
NORTH o
A. ALBATRoss
%
curring since the retreat of glaciers about 10,000
%2. years ago. As sea level rose after the last glacial
* BANK - º sº period, wave activity and the influence of longshore
woole * º currents sorted and redistributed the sedimentary
57° – ** deposits associated with the glaciers. This sorting
º ) 3. —157° continues today on the shelf, although probably with
© BANK less intensity than when sea level was at a lower
º º stand. Estimates of the thickness of unconsolidated
2 º surface sediment have also been made by the USGS (Fig.
2 2. 20; Hampton et al., 1979b).
- º
BANK
56° O
Zºo PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KODAK shBLF 15°
%,
I I I | | | l l Figure 2.19 Location map for the Kodiak shelf, show-
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148° ing the major physiographic features (modified from
Hampton et al., 1979b).





























32 Geology
O 155° 154° 153° 152° 1519 150° 149° 148° 1470 A map of surface geologic units on the Kodiak
157 156 ... 3" shelf has recently been assembled by the U.S. Geo-
60° logical Survey (Fig. 2.21). The map has been con-
100 km Structed by delineating different characteristics on
15 O 2O 4O 60 8O
ETETD
seismic reflection records and correlating the seismic
10 20 30 40 50 miles
— ]
characteristics with sediment samples from the same
areas. The seismic profiling records were obtained by
Petty-Ray Geophysical in 1976 and 1977 and were
recently released to the public (Thrasher, 1979). The
59° sediment samples that were used to correlate with the
seismic records were obtained by Wright (1970) and by
Bouma and Hampton (1976 and 1978) as part of 00SEAP.
The legend for this map includes a narrative descrip-
tion of sediment types found on the shelf, and il-
lustrates the variety in composition and textural
characteristics of the unconsolidated material.
58°
570
GENERALIZED THICKNESS MAP OF
UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT
Sontours in milliseconds of two-way travel time
(equates to meters for acoustic velocity of —H56°
2000 m/sec in the sediment).
569
I | l 1– Figure 2.20 Generalized isopach map of unconsolidated
O O sediment on the Kodiak shelf, constructed from seismic
1519 15O 149° 148 reflection data (Hampton et al., 1979b).












Geology 33
profile) well-defined, continuous, horizontal reflectors. These deposits, which rarely 155° 153° 151° 149°
exceed 100 msec of two-way travel-time (approximately 75 m) in thickness, allow excel-
lent penetration of the 3.5 kHz subbottom profiler signal. Side-scan sonographs over this unit
are generally feature less with occasional grainy texture, boulders, and water column anomalies.
In Stevenson Trough, however, large areas of these deposits show indistinct scattered dimples or
blemishes, 5-10 m in diameter, on the sonographs. These features are of unknown origin.
Samples are mostly gray-green, ash-rich silts and clays, with occasional sands, pebbles, shells,
and glass shards.
QS Holocene Soft Sediments Shallow basins of Holocene sediments that exhibit (in seismic
Holocene Bedforms and Sand-Fields Mappable regions of bed forms and, where possible,
Qb the massive sand unit with which they correlate. Bedforms and sand units identified
by cross section on sparker records, by side-scan sonographs, or both. Subbottom pro-
filer penetration is nonexistent. All samples recovered from this unit consist of clean, well-
sorted sand of various grain sizes.
Holocene and Pleistocene Undifferentiated Deposits In seismic profile these deposits
Qu exhibit well-developed, nonhorizontal, parallel layering, with occasional indications
of internal deformation. Sparker records show the upper layers conformable to the
sea floor and often show poorly resolved internal reflectors. The 3.5 kHz subbottom profiler
records indicate occasional poor penetration, with fair penetration in the Chiniak Trough
deposit. Sample lithologies are diverse, ranging from green muddy ash to gravelly sand.
m generally located a long the sides and across the mouths of sea valleys that cut across
the continental shelf. There is no subbottom profiler penetration in these units.
Sparker records indicate no, or very little, internal structure, and thicknesses are rarely more
than 100 m.sec. The few observable side-scan sonograph features are mainly lateral variations of
sediment type (* 5 m texture variations on the sonographs) with occasional boulders, water
column anomalies, and trawl marks. Dominant sample lithology is gravelly sand, with rare
samples of volcanic ash or stiff gray mud.
Q Pleistocene Glacial Lateral and Terminal Moraines These fairly linear deposits are
ture in seismic profile and no subbottom profiler penetration. These fairly thin (gen-
erally 100 msec thick) deposits commonly lie in troughs and, in most cases, are over-
la in by Holocene soft sediments (Qs). The upper surface is hummocky and often constitutes the
3.5 kHz acoustic basement in areas of Holocene sediment fill. Sonographs obtained over these
deposits exhibit coarse bouldery bottom. Samples from this unit are predominantly muddy sands
to sandy muds, with occasional ash, shards, shell fragments, and pebbles.
Q Pleistocene Glacial Ground Moraine Sparsely exposed deposits with no internal struc-
Pleistocene Glacial-Fluvial and Glacial-Marine Deposits Thick deposits (often exceed-
Qgf ing 100 m.sec.) exposed on bank areas of the continental shelf. In seismic profile
these deposits exhibit some discontinuous, nonparallel, nonhorizontal reflectors. The
surface is generally smooth and gently sloping with occasional ridges and scarps. The 3.5 kHz
subbottom profiler exhibits only scattered, very poor penetration. On side-scan sonographs this
unit is almost completely covered with fine to coarse texture variations (< 5 m to 2 50 m) and
has very numerous scattered bed forms (ripples, comet marks, ribbons, and sand waves). Bedforms
are more numerous on the southern banks than on the northern banks. Trawl marks, boulders, and
boulder patches are also commonly observed on the sonographs. Samples recovered from this unit
are diverse in lithology, which is mainly sandy, and contain considerable shell debris.
Pebbles, gravel, ash, and mud are also common.
Plio-Pleistocene Sedimentary Rocks Exposures of gently dipping, truncated sedimentary
Q rocks that exhibit well-developed, parallel, internal reflectors. Numerous folds and
faults deform the unit internally. The upper surface of this map unit is a regional
angular unconformity that underlies the entire outer shelf. Side-scan sonographs show all sizes
of texture variations, much of it in linear patterns. Numerous hogback ridges, scarps, and
boulders are also identified on the sonographs as well as numerous, scattered, diverse bed forms.
Most of the bottom samples recovered from exposures of this unit were claystones and siltstones.
In some areas, the mapped exposures of this unit are covered by a very thin layer of recent sed-
iment and debris. The dominant lithology of nonbedrock samples was pebbly, shelly sand, or
sandy gravel. Occasional samples of silty sand, ash, and shell debris have also been recovered.
Amaruu Though
Between Tugi dak and Chirikof Islands, this unit corresponds with the Pliocene Tugi dak For-
mation exposed on both islands (Moore, 1967). In the northeast corner of the mapped area (sheet
1), this unit may correlate with the Yakataga Formation of late Tertiary to Quaternary age, as
exposed on Middleton Island to the east (Plafker, 1967). This unit may contain, as does the
Yakataga Formation (Plafker, 1967), some Miocene rocks (Michael Fisher, oral communication,
1979).
Pontlock
----
~
- ** -
w --
north ºw
º
cy. ALBATRoss %,
2.
e-
*, º -
2 * º
º
º
Tertiary Sedimentary Rocks. These rocks are observed only in small outcrops a long the
T landward edge of the mapped area and have no seismically determinable internal struc-
ture. The ocean floor is highly reflective, allowing no 3.5 kHz subbottom profiler
penetration, and only diffractions are returned from below the ocean floor on the sparker sys- -
tem. Side-scan sonographs show coarse, irregular bottom on some lines and well-defined, jointed º
and folded, outcropping beds on other lines. All the exposures are adjacent to capes and
islands, and hence, these rocks probably correspond to the exposed formations. The outcrops ad- 56° -
jacent to Sitkinak, Sitkal idak, and Ugak Islands may correspond to the Eocene-Oligocene
Sitkal idak Formation, and outcrops adjacent to Cape Chiniak may correspond to the Paleocene
Ghost Rocks Formation (Moore, 1967; 1969). There are no samples available from the offshore ex-
posures.
--
-
-
------
º ---TRoss 57-
º --- -
*
- \ - -
south º º O
- -
AL-TRoss 5
---
C-
sº
*w –56-
*oo PHYSIOGRAPHY of kodiak shelf
Gay
Quaternary Undiſ ferent lated Continental Slope Deposits Large seismic vertical exag-
QuC geration and steep slopes seaward of the continental shelf edge preclude accurate map-
ping on the continental slope, water depths are too great for subbottom profiler or
side-scan sonar operation. Samples from these deposits are highly variable, ranging from olive-
green mud through coarse peºbly sand. Some of these deposits, especially near Kiliuda Trough, | | | | | | |
appear to be in active mass movement.
Quaternary Undifferentiated Sediment Basins on the Upper Continental Slope Basins of O O O O
Qus sediments that exhibit well-defined, near-horizontal, continuous reflectors in seismic 155 153 151 149
profile.
154 153- 152- 15t- 150- 149- 148-





34 Geology
By volume, most of the surface sediment consists
of Pleistocene glacial material that is being reworked
under the present sedimentary regime. The influx of
additional sediment to the shelf is low due to a lack
of nearby sources of detritus. However, several
sources are currently providing small amounts of de-
trital material to the shelf, and some of this material
can be traced as it is incorporated into shelf sedit
ment. The distribution of volcanic ash from the 1912
eruption of Mt. Katmai is a good example of the fate of
modern detritus influx. This ash behaves as fine-
grained, low density particulate matter, and is pre-
sently accumulating in some of the troughs and depres-
Sions on the shelf (Fig. 2.22). There are major ash
accumulations in Kiliuda, Chiniak, and Amatuli Troughs,
and minor accumulations in Stevenson and Sitkinak. The
troughs are characterized by a hydraulic regime of
lower energy than that of the intervening banks, where
deposition and preservation of fine sediment are pre-
vented by current and storm wave activity. The ash is
an excellent indicator of present-day sediment disper-
sal patterns (Hampton et al., 1979a).
Other modern sources of detrital influx to the
shelf are the Copper River and, to a lesser extent, the
erosion of seafloor outcrops and runoff from Kodiak
Island (Hampton et al., 1979b; Hein et al., 1977).
These sources provide fine-grained clay minerals, which
*re good indicators of source rock (provenance).
Biological production in the water column is a source
ºf siliceous and carbonate detritus.
*º-
Figure 2.21 Surface geologic units on the Kodiak
shelf (Thrasher, 1979).
Figure 2.22 Weight percent of volcanic ash, relative
*9 the total terrigenous fraction, in surface sediment
9f the Kodiak shelf (Hampton et al., 1979a). Ash is
*om 1912 Katmai/Novarupta eruption.
1579
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°
1569
155°
15.4°
153°
1529
151°
150° 149° 148° 1479
DISTRIBUTION OF KATMA ASH
•” Weight percent —H56
l l l
15O2 149° 148°


Geology 35
The direction of sediment transport on the Kodiak
shelf is generally from the banks into the troughs.
The blanket of fine-grained surface sediment in
Kiliuda, Chiniak, and Amatuli Troughs reaches 20 m in
thickness (Hampton et al., 1979b; Fig. 2.21) and is
predominantly Katmai ash. Accumulation in these
troughs is enhanced by the presence of sills which are
about 30 m shallower than adjacent landward sections of
the troughs (Hampton et al., 1979a) and prevent seaward
transport of trough sediment. These sills are pri-
marily the result of tectonic uplift along the outer
continental shelf, although some of the sills are
formed by glacial moraines as shown by the location of
Qgg deposits in Fig. 2.20.
An exception to the general dispersal pattern is
Stevenson Trough, which contains abundant sand-sized
material, sandwave bedforms, and low percentages of
Katmai ash compared to other troughs (Fig. 2.22). In
addition, the sediment on the slope off Stevenson
Trough is similar to that in the trough, suggesting
seaward transport of material (Hampton et al., 1979a).
These features are all evidence that Stevenson Trough
is a route for high-energy bedload transport of sedi-
ment across the Kodiak shelf. The region between
Chirikof and Trinity Islands also contains bedforms of
well-sorted sand-sized material. Data from the 1979
field season reveal an asymmetry in sandwaves, which
are oriented northeast-southwest, that suggests a bed-
load transport direction towards the Alaska Peninsula
(M. A. Hampton, USGS, Menlo Park, pers. comm.).
Figure 2.23 Locations of environmentally significant
geologic features on the Kodiak shelf (modified from
Hampton et al., 1979b). The maximum length of the
sediment cores analyzed for methane gas was about 3.5
In .
56°
60°
157°
—l
150° 149°
GEOLOGIC FEATURES
~ Sandwaves
- Acoustic anomalies
----- Large slides
1470
ENVIRONMENT ALLY SIGNIFICANT
56°
156°
------ Small slides
348 Sediment core
• Gas-charged
O NO gas
150° 149°







36 Geology
Recent data suggest that natural gas (methane) is
Common in marine sediment on the Kodiak shelf (Hampton
*nd Bouma, 1979). The locations where sediment cores
$9ntaining methane-charged sediment were recovered are
*hown in Fig. 2.23, and the data for all cores analyzed
**e listed in Table 2.4. The source of the gas is
Probably decomposition of organic detritus in the
**diment, rather than seepage from deeper petroleum or
8as reservoirs (Kvenvolden and Redden, 1978). A high
**relation between gas-charged sediment cores and
*Soustic anomalies in seismic reflection records sug-
8°sts a cause-and-effect relationship; hence the fre-
*ent appearance of these anomalies in areas where core
*amples are not available allows us to infer that
*allow gas-charged sediment is fairly common (Hampton
and Bouma, 1979).
The high concentrations of methane in the cores
**covered from Chiniak Trough (core 329, Fig. 2.23) and
Horsehead Basin (cores 348 and 344, Fig. 2.23) corres-
P°nd to high concentrations observed in the near-bottom
**ters (Fig. 4. 2; Cline et al., 1978). It is possible
that methane seepage from the sediment is responsible
for the high levels observed in the water column in
*9me areas. A gas seep was recently detected on seis-
* reflection records in Kiliuda Trough, in an area of
*Soustic anomalies (M. A. Hampton, USGS, Menlo Park,
Pºrs. comm.). Gas bubbles were observed emanating from
* moundlike structure on the seafloor, and trailing off
** a down current direction in the water column.
Table 2.4 Methane levels in sediment cores.
Measurement by gas chromatography, on board ship
immediately after core recovery. Analyses by George
Redden and Keith Kvenvolden (Hampton and Bouma, 1979).
Core locations are plotted in Fig. 2.23.
Stati -
nº" Location Water Distance Below Methane
Depth Top of Core (x106 n.1/l)
(m) (cm)
O t
329 ſº ;. 218 0- 10 0.301
. 8 'W 50-60 42. O70
100-110 32.093
200-210 36.250
O t
343 1% §§§ 153 0- 10 0.003
.5'W 65–75 0.073
1 10-120 0. 112
187-197 0.237
O f
344 ſº :::::: 155 0- 10 0.022
5. 6'W 50-60 0.640
117-127 2.075
200-210 31. 300
O
347 ſº 36 ºn 138 0- 10 0.003
17. 8 'W 50-60 0. 105
100-110 0.227
O º
348 ſº 37.3'N 143 0- 10 0.002
18.6 'W - 50-60 0.148
100-110 0.443
200-210 2. l 10
O º
349 ſº #9 N 145 0- 10 0.001
19.4 'W 50-60 0.034
100- 110 0. 127
197-207 0.288
300-310 0.696
O * e
355 ſº 2: 3.N 314 0-10 0.011
29. 6'W 50-60 0.002
206-216 0.004
348-358 0.039
O ſ
356 ::..."; N 250 56-66 0.439
31. 3'W 175-185 5 l. 492
310-320 29.375
O t
357 lº ºn 233 0- 10 0.005
3. 38.4 ° W 50-60 0.011
129-139 0.026
O t
358 ſº $7.3'N 122 0- 10 0.003
3 l l . 6' W 48-58 0.004
100- 1 10 0.005
150-160 0.008
O º
359 1% $5.6M 152 0- 10 0.002
10. 7 'W 56-66 0.049
Geology
37
2.4.2 Surface faults
- 1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149°
Surface faults that have been located on the 60°
Kodiak shelf are shown in Fig. 2.24. The map was
produced primarily from the seismic profiling data that
were used to develop the surface geology map in Fig.
2.20 (Thrasher, 1979). It is based on interpretation
of the most recently available data. A zone of near-
surface faults is apparent along the inner shelf off
Kodiak. This zone roughly coincides with the zone of
59°
abundant aftershocks from the 1964 earthquake (refer to 59°
Fig. 2. 14), with a map of strain release calculated on
the basis of aftershock data (Fig. 2. 12), and with the
northeasterly trending axis that separates subsidence
from uplift resulting from the 1964 earthquake (Fig.
2.11). To the northeast, the zone goes onshore at
Montague Island where Plafker (1972) found two steeply
O
dipping reverse faults with northwestern sides raised 58
58°
about 6 m during the 1964 earthquake. The maximum
vertical offset observed on these faults is on the
order of 20 m (Thrasher, USGS, Anchorage, pers. comm.,
1979).
579
579
SURFACE FAULTING
Tr" Offshore surface faults,
with tick marks on down—
thrown block
A-AA-A Onshore faults; high angle
or thrust, with triangles on —H56°
overthrust block
(faults dashed where
inferred)
56°
I | l | | l
Figure 2.24 Surface faulting on the Kodiak shelf 156° 155° 1549 O O O 150° 149° 148°
(from Thrasher, 1979; USDI, 1976a). 5 54 153 152 151 49 8

38 Geology
To date, no single offshore fault scarp has been
positively identified as having been formed during the
1964 earthquake. One of the objectives of the 1978
field season of OCSEAP research by the USGS was to
determine how recently these faults had moved. Unt
fortunately, the data collected did not provide cont
clusive evidence for the age of movement (Hampton and
Bouma, 1979). However, the faults appear to cut sedi-
ment deposited during the last 10,000 years.
Seaward of the Kodiak OCS on the upper continental
slope, short faults are present which are probably
related to tectonic activity (uplift, folding, fault"
ing, and earthquakes). The relatively steep slopes in
this area, along with a triggering mechanism such as
tectonic deformation, enhance the potential for slumps
and gravity slides of unconsolidated sediment, which
may also appear as short faults on seismic records
(Hampton and Bouma, 1977; Figs. 2.23 and 2.24).
2.4.3 Seafloor instability
The upper slope off Kodiak is the area of greatest
Seafloor instability, by reason of the slumps and
slides just described (Fig. 2. 23). To date, no signi-
ficant slumps or slides have been identified on the
shelf. Some localized slope failures in the vicinity
of Sitkinak Trough have been reported by Self and
Mahmood (1977), but subsequent study of that area has
revealed no large-scale or widespread occurrences
(Hampton et al., 1979b).
Relative slope stability on the Kodiak shelf has
been evaluated using as criteria slope steepness,
sub-bottom soil type, and evidence of past mass "97°."
ment (self and Mahmood, 1977). The mapping is based on
seismic reflection surveys and sediment sampling co"
pleted by private industry before the work performed by
the USGS (described above). The principal conclusion
reached by the Self and Mahmood study (1977) is that
the areas of greatest concern for potential slope
failure are the banks of the major troughs crossing the
shelf and the upper slope.
Seafloor instability due to rapid erosion or
deposition will probably not be a major concern on the
Kodiak OCS. The bedload transport occurring in
Stevenson Trough (refer to section 2.4.1) and possibly
a similar sand wave region between Chirikof Island and
the Trinity Islands (Hampton et al., 1979b) are the
only areas of known potential risks to structures or
pipelines associated with undermining or loading prob-
lems.
2.4.4 Summary of surface geology hazards
In a geo-environmental assessment of the Kodiak
shelf, Hampton et al. (1979b) have found risks posed by
active tectonic deformation and earthquake shaking to
be more significant than the hazards from surface
geology features described above. The main problems
associated with seafloor sediment and sediment dis-
persal will involve the fate of pollutants rather than
risks to platforms and pipelines. However, the ap-
parently widespread occurrence of gas-charged sediment
may have consequences for platform design and drilling
operations.
A list of geo-environmental concerns on the Kodiak
shelf includes (Hampton and Bouma, 1979):
1. Shallow faulting with probable present-day activ-
ity and future seafloor offset.
2. Storage sites for fine-grained sediment (and
possibly pollutants) in Kiliuda, Chiniak, and
Amatuli Troughs.
3. Localized transport routes of sediment (and pos-
sibly pollutants) across the shelf break, espe-
cially on northern Albatross Bank and in Stevenson
Trough.
4. High-energy sediment transport, with possible
scour and fill problems, in Stevenson Trough and
between Chirikof and Trinity Islands.
5. Localized deposits of volcanic ash in Kiliuda,
Chiniak, and Amatuli Troughs, with possible ab-
normal compaction during loading. Also thick
deposits of fine sediment in Sitkinak Trough,
which may be weak and/or compressible.
6. Coarse-grained unconsolidated and fine-grained
semiconsolidated sediments on Albatross and
Portlock Banks that appear to be stable foundation
material but may pose some problems to drilling
because of the presence of boulders.
7. Lack of sediment slides on the shelf except for
some apparently localized occurrences reported by
Self and Mahmood (1977).
2.5 COASTAL GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS
2.5.1 Shoreline description
Hayes and Ruby (1979) provide the most recent and
complete description of the Kodiak shoreline; the
following is a summary of their report. The southeas-
tern coastline of Kodiak Island consists of numerous
wide estuarine embayments that have formed partially in
response to tectonic activity associated with crustal
subduction; these embayments have also been modified by
glacial activity. The igneous and metasedimentary
rocks comprising Kodiak Island result in a youthful
topography and rugged coastline, typically consisting
of steep rocky cliffs and headlands, with small inter-
vening pocket beaches of boulders or coarse gravel.
The shoreline reflects exposure to severe fall and
winter storms in the Gulf of Alaska. The coastline of
Afognak Island is similar to the southeastern coast of
Kodiak, but less rugged.
Geology 39
The side of Kodiak Island facing Shelikof Strait
is different from the southeast coast in that it shows
the effects of Pleistocene glaciation more dramatical-
ly. The shoreline is characterized by narrow fiords
and U-shaped valleys, which lie perpendicular to the
trend of the mountains and which formed during mountain
glaciation. Straight, narrow gravel beaches backed by
steep valley walls occur along the numerous fiords.
The southwest tip of Kodiak Island has been sub-
jected to continental glaciation, which has produced
relatively gentle topography and deposits of glacial
till. This material is more easily eroded than the
rock outcrops on other parts of the island, and results
in beaches of sand, gravel, and large glacial erratics.
In general, the Kodiak coastline is erosional,
although a few depositional features such as spits and
sand bars occur. Salt marshes and tidal flats are
present at the heads of some fiords. Rivers draining
the island contribute little sediment to the shoreline,
but they do add to the deposits at the heads of fiords.
A generalized map of substrate types in the intertidal
zone (Fig. 2.25) illustrates the predominance of bed-
rock and boulder substrates (Sears and Zimmerman,
1977).
Figure 2.25 Major substrate types in the Kodiak
Island intertidal zone (adapted from Sears and Zimmer-
man, 1977).
56°
60° :
59°
58°
57.1
1579
155°
40
50 miles
149° 148°
SUBSTRATE TYPES
m Bedrock
e BOulders
A Sand
© Mud
1479
56°
156°
15.4°
149°





40 Geology
2.5.2 Oil spill vulnerability of the coastline
A much more detailed analysis of coastline dyna-
mics, beach sediments, and susceptibility to long-term
oil residence has now been completed by Hayes and Ruby
(1979). Their approach to assigning an oil spill
vulnerability index (OSVI) to a coastline relies pri-
marily on estimating the residence time of spilled oil,
and considers the controls that beach morphology,
Sediment grain size, and incoming wave energy have on
longevity. Details on the development of their 95W
can be found in Ruby and Hayes (1978) and Ruby (1977).
The primary product of the research by Hayes and
Ruby (1979) is a set of 42 USGS topographic quadrangle
maps upon which the entire Kodiak coastline is classi-
fied according to the OSVI. The detail presented on
these maps precludes a single-figure representation of
all the information. However, a narrative description
of the characteristics of each of the vulnerability
classes, and the percentage of shoreline in each class,
is presented in Table 2.5. A sample OSVT map (Fig.
2.26) shows the shoreline around Chiniak Bay, and is a
Table 2.5 Abundance and characteristics of shoreline types for the Kodiak Archipelago, classified according to
Oil Spill Vulnerability Index (OSWI; Hayes and Ruby, 1979).
Kilometers Percent
Of Total
Shoreline Shoreline OSWI
1083. 2 25.3 1 & 2
38. 6 0.9 3, 4, & 5
942.4 22. 1 6
634.2 14.9 7
1462.0 34.2 8
109.8 1.6 9 & 10
Discussion
Oil easily removed by wave action. Some problems in areas of gravel ac-
cumulation and in tidal pools. Pocket beaches may be particularly hard
hit. Do not recommend human intervention once oil is on beach.
Generally low risk areas; quite rare in the study area. Fine sands and
sands and mud tidal flats will not permit much penetration of oil. Low
wave energy areas will require as much as a year for natural cleaning.
Mechanized cleaning on sand beaches is quite feasible but represents a
very small area. Recommend no human effort in these areas.
Sand and gravel beaches represent a large percent of the shoreline and
tend to be relatively high risk beaches. They permit rather deep burial
of oil and can retain oil for about 2 years, especially if it is emplaced
high on the beach face (as during a spring tide). Mechanized clean up
can be very difficult due to low bearing strength of the sediments.
Removal of sediments may accelerate erosion.
Pure gravel beaches will permit immediate deep burial of oil. Retention
periods, especially in a lower wave energy area can be many years. Mech-
anized clean up will be impossible without removal of sediment and in-
creased erosion. The increased erosion, may not be of particular impor-
tance in uninhabited areas.
Sheltered rock headlands and their associated gravel pocket beaches will
be highly damaged in the event of a spill. They occur primarily in fjords
and on the very irregular areas on Afognak Island. These areas should
receive first protection priority in the event of a spill. All possible
means should be used to prevent oil from entering these areas (booms,
skimmers, etc.). Once these beaches are oiled, expect severe biological
damage, deep penetration, difficult clean up and longevity up to 8 years.
These bayhead and river mouth systems are highly vulnerable. They are,
however, rare in the study area. Further, they occur in areas which
will receive maximum protection from river flushing. If oiled, bio-
damage will be extreme, recovery slow and spill longevity up to 10 years.
Geology 41
-
-
w - - º
º
Sº
º
\º)\\
i is
Nºjº --
--
R º - --~
- oºs
-
==
N
Rºss
composite of four quadrangles. Exact photographic
reproductions of their detailed coastline classifica-
tion have been produced, and are available from Science
Applications, Boulder, Colorado. These reproductions
should be extremely useful, when combined with data on
the shoreline biota, in further assessing environmental
risk due to oil spills.
Figure 2.26 Oil Spill Vulnerability Index as applied
to the NE coastline of Kodiak Island in vicinity of
Chiniak Bay (Hayes and Ruby, 1979). The numbers in
boxes refer to locations where beaches were studied in
detail. See Table 2.5 for an explanation of the OSVI.

2.5.3 Coastline subject to slope failure
During the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake, numerous
landslides were generated along the southeastern coast
of Kodiak Island (Fig. 2.27).
slopes have perhaps been reduced to a stable configura-
Although many unstable
tion by that earthquake, it is also possible that the
jolt placed other areas in a more unstable posture,
just short of failure, thus creating a potential hazard
to industrial or residential developments during future
shocks.
The landslide alert issued by the U.S. Geological
Survey's Alaska branch regarding Pillar Mountain (Geo-
times, 1978) identifies the potentially most dangerous
unstable slope near a coastline development today.
Analyses of steep slopes, and of fractures within the
bedrock forming them, will be required before shoreline
facilities are built in undeveloped areas.
154°
57°
EARTHQUAKE –
GENERATED
LANDSLIDES
| | | |
155° 154° 153° 152°
Figure 2.27 Locations where landslides were generated
by the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake (Buck et al.,
1975).



Geology
43
3. Physical Oceanography
N\ºza
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//~~.
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- Ž ^ w | !/? º §§ \\ ºm º º ºn tº º
% º N |/ 23 - * , º, º' "º
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W.
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Z Ø % % % §§§ {\\\\\\
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% %
% % Ø - º | % % §§ º | |
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º
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| º \\\\\ T T Z - % º
tº tº º %/ ||
\RNNº|| // Z// º |-
§º º º "N.
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/ & wº º, º º #ſº | N
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& Sº -
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Ø -
&SN Nº

































CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
B. J. C. Sobey, SAI
3. 1 INTRODUCTION
3.1. 1 Transport of oil in the marine environment
Oil spilled in a marine environment is subject to
a multitude of forces that control its subsequent
history. These forces can be categorized as transfort
"lation and transportation processes. Transformation
Processes are those that affect the physical and chemi-
cal properties of the oil. Examples are evaporation,
emulsification, photochemical oxidation, and solution.
Although dependent on environmental conditions, these
processes are not specific to individual lease areas:
Thus transformation processes will not be discussed
here. They have been summarized by Payne and Jordan
(unpubl. Ms).
Transport of an oil slick has two components:
*Preading and drift. Spreading is controlled by gravi-
tational, hydrostatic, and surface forces, which are
not site-specific, and by turbulent mixing, which is
site-specific. Mixing and drift are highly specific to
the location of the slick and are the subject of this
chapter.
By oil drift is meant the movement of the center
°f mass of the slick. Winds, waves, and currents all
Contribute to drift and interact in ways that are not
fully understood. Wind-induced drift generally is
*ccepted to be about three percent of the wind speed at
a small angle (e.g., 20°) to the right of the wind.
9il is assumed to move in the same direction and at the
*ame speed as surface currents (neglecting wind drift).
Furthermore the effects of wind drift and surface cur-
*ents are assumed to be additive.
None of these assumptions is entirely true; all
are approximations that work reasonably well. For
example, Schwartzberg (1970) showed that oil is not
advected at the same rate as wooden chips (used as a
reference) because of the difference in the depth of
penetration (draft). When waves were added to his
laboratory experiments, however, the two materials were
advected at nearly the same rates. He also showed that
the coupling between surface currents and an oil slick
is reduced in the presence of wind. Reisburg (1973)
showed that drifts induced by waves and wind are not
strictly additive. For high wind speeds, waves "cause
a net decrease in the coupled drift velocity"; this
decrease continues as wind speed increases.
Further complicating the transport of oil are the
effects that the oil itself has on the environment.
That oil calms surface water (by reducing capillary
waves) has been known by sailors for centuries. How-
ever, the mechanisms by which surface oil affects the
transfer of energy between wind and currents have
received only limited attention (Liu and Lin, 1979).
To predict where oil will go, data on ocean circu-
lation are used. The problem of determining where the
the oil will go has been reduced to determining where
the water will go. Predicting oil motion even when
circulation and winds are known is inexact, at best.
However, experiments have shown that standard oceano-
graphic techniques can reliably predict oil movement
(e.g., Audunson, 1978). Thus we will assume that oil
movements follow ocean circulation.
3. 1.2 The Kodiak environment
The dominant physical phenomenon in the Gulf of
Alaska is the seasonal change in the position of the
Aleutian Low, the center of which moves clockwise
through the year. In early autumn the Aleutian Low
migrates out of the northern Bering Sea and crosses the
Alaska Peninsula. In winter the low is usually located
in the Gulf of Alaska (about 55°N, 155°W). The winds
at Kodiak, which are caused by the low in this posi-
tion, are from the northeast.
The bathymetry of the Kodiak Island continental
shelf is rugged. On the eastern side of Kodiak Island
is a series of shallow banks (as shallow as 50 m)
separated by troughs. These troughs lie approximately
perpendicular to the shelf break and act as corridors
between. Kodiak Island and the edge of the shelf.
On the western side of Kodiak Island is Shelikof
Strait. Through it flow the waters leaving Lower Cook
Inlet. The depth of the Strait varies from about 165 m
at the northeast end to 275 m at the southwest end.
The influx of fresh water along the coast might be
expected to have an important role in the circulation.
Large quantities of fresh water are introduced "up-
stream" of the Kodiak lease area. By lowering coastal
surface salinities (and their densities) this fresh
water contributes to the baroclinic component of flow.
The circulation throughout the Gulf of Alaska is
dominated by the Alaska Stream (or Current). It flows
counterclockwise, advecting warm water from the south.
Off Kodiak Island the flow is intensified. Farther to
the southwest, part of the current enters the Bering
Sea and the rest continues westward, parallel to and
north of the North Pacific Current.
An estimate of the mean surface circulation is
shown in Section 3.6. In that section all of the
available data are summarized to give a conceptual
model of the transport in the Kodiak Island region.
Oceanography 47
3.2 FORCES CONTROLLING CIRCULATION
3. 2. 1 Tides
Tides in the Kodiak lease area are mixed semi-
diurnal. The mean range at Kodiak (the difference
between mean high water and mean low water) is about
2 m and the diurnal range (the difference between mean
higher high and mean lower low water) is about 2.6 m.
The maximum range between higher high and lower low
water is predicted to be over 4 m and the minimum
diurnal range is about 0.4 m. The highest tide predic-
ted (above mean level, using 1973 data) is about 3.3 m
and the lowest tide is -0.9 m (Brower et al., 1977).
The semidiurnal principal lunar (M2) and diurnal
soli-lunar (K1) components progress counterclockwise in
the Gulf of Alaska.
side of Kodiak Island from the northeast to the south-
Tides progress along the seaward
east. Although in NOS (1978) tidal progression appears
to be in the opposite direction, this is probably due
to the location of the gauges in bays and estuaries
(Pearson, pers. comm.). On the western side of Kodiak
Island tidal progression is northeastward from lower
Shelikof Strait but southwestward from upper Shelikof
Strait (Pearson, pers. comm.).
The largest components of tidal forcing on Middle
Albatross Bank are the K1,
(0.1), and diurnal principal solar (P1) components, ac-
diurnal principal lunar
cording to spectral analyses of current meter data from
shelf 1979b).
However, semidiurnal tides are dominant on the adjacent
the continental (Schumacher et al.,
banks to the northeast and southwest (Schumacher, pers.
comm.).
3. 2. 2 Winds
Monthly mean winds
Monthly scalar-averaged wind speeds exhibit a
large seasonal fluctuation (Fig. 3. 1). Means in Marine
Areas B and C (areas covering the Kodiak Island Shelf;
see the insert on Fig. 3. 1) show the same seasonal
pattern. Scalar-averaged winds are at a maximum in
fall and winter (October through February) and at a
minimum in June or July.
Monthly means of vector wind speeds are not as
clearly seasonal. However, the mean vector wind direc-
tion shows strong variation. Winds are from western
points of the compass for each month except June.
Predominant winds are from the north to west-northwest
from fall through mid-spring (October through April).
Winds during the rest of the year (May through Septem-
ber, except June) are from the southwest. In June
winds are from the south-southeast.
By comparing the scalar mean wind speed to vector
mean speeds one can obtain a qualitative estimate of
the directional variability of winds during each month.
In winter (January through March) the scalar mean
speeds are high while the vector mean speeds are low.
The conclusion is that wind direction is highly vari-
able in winter. Winter storms are probably responsible
for winds and variable direction. Wind direction is
most consistent in July and August, when storms are few
and meteorological conditions are governed to a large
degree by the North Pacific high pressure cell located
at about 4.3°N, 143°W.
;
11'ſ SCALAR MEAN WIND SPEEDS
1O-
4L VECTOR MEAN WIND SPEED
AND DIRECTION
Vector mean wind speed and direction (for
marine area B) and scalar mean wind speed (for marine
Figure 3. 1
areas B and C). For January the vector mean wind was
about 1.6 m/sec from the northwest. Marine areas B and
C are shown in the inset. Values obtained from surface
marine observations are archived at the National
Climatic Center (Brower et al., 1977).


48 Oceanography
Climate types
Overland and Hiester (1978) have developed a set
of six climate types (Fig. 3.2) of the Northern Gulf of
Alaska (Yakutat to Kodiak Island).
pattern of sea-level atmospheric
A climate type is a
Subjectively defined
pressure distribution which represents a generalized,
quasi-steady state of atmospheric circulation. Each
type represents a distribution pattern that is fre-
quently observed. The types were identified and clas-
The
types selected are modifications of those reported by
sified by a meteorologist from daily weather maps.
162 156 150
I T T
144°
150°
T-7
162°
138°
Sorkina (1963) and Putnins (1966).
sea-level pressure can be approximated by one of the
Any pattern of
climate types. A set of twelve subtypes showing slight
variations in location or intensity were also identi-
fied (Overland and Hiester, 1978), but are not discus-
sed here.
132° 126° 120° 114°
I-v-
70°
174° 168° 162 156 150
7 7 I-I-I T I I-T-
168°
138° 132° 126°
T-I T T w V-vi-V. w V w V w w v
144°
I
62°
60° 54." M. woo? ‘.
So”
58° 52°- ALEUTIAN LOW
Low ON GULF OF ALASKA TYPE 2.0
TYPE 1.0 % O
& -- " S
50° --- 50°-
* . %. --
* º ---…&
48° --- 48 *…
l l l l l l l l l l \ \ A. 1. 1. 1 1. 1 1. 1. 1 1. l 1. 1 I l l l l l l l l l l * \
— 1. 1 1. 1 1. 1 1 º I I 1 º 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 174 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150 14.4° 138° 132°
- 180° 174° - -
Figure 3.2 Climate types for northeastern Pacific Ocean. Surface weather charts can be described as some combination of these six climate types. Slight variations in the
patterns of these climate types, called subtypes
been described by overland and Hiester (1978).
also have
Contours
are of surface atmospheric pressure in millibars.









Oceanography 49
150° 156° 162° 168° 174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144 138° 132° 126° 120° 114° 150° 156° 162° 168° 174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 126° 120° 114°
7–7–7–7–7–7–7– 7
7 7—H-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-
HIGH PRESSURE OVER ALASKA. INTERIOR
TYPE 3.0 Low Over CENTRAL ALASKA
º: & TYPE 4.0
50°- 50°
* . -----
* * ->
*3.2 --
481. - *… . . . . 48 ||
— r 1 1. 1. 1 1 I 1 l 1 1 l I l l — —l- l l l l l l 1. A. A. z 1 1. 1.
174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144° 138° 132°
174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 126° 120° 114° - 150° 156 162° 168° 174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 126° 120° 114°
r—w - 7–7–7–7—I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-
too
**o zoo mu-
STAGNATING LOW OFF GREEN
52"| CHARLOTTE ISLANDS
PACIFIC ANTICYCLONE TYPE 6.0
3. TYPE 5.0 %
- … "
50° 50°
--- - --> -
*. - - %. ->
48 - * > 48"| --- ‘…. ---
1. 1. 1 1. 1 1 l 1 1 1. 1. 1. 1 1. l 1
174 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150° 144° 138° 132° 174° 180° 174° 168° 162° 156° 150 144° 138° 132°




















50 Oceanography
Climate type 1.0 represents the condition of a low
in the Gulf of Alaska. This distribution is common in
all seasons except summer (Fig. 3.3). Lows tend tº
stagnate due to high coastal mountain ranges around the
Gulf and the cooler air over Alaska.
Type 2.0 is the Aleutian Low. This is the domi-
nant pattern throughout the year, but it is at a maxi-
mum in spring. In summer, the low is usually about 499
km to the northeast of this position shown for type
2.0. This
Aleutian Low.
alternate pattern is a subtype of the
Type 3.0 is at a maximum in winter. It is a high
pressure cell over the interior of Alaska caused by
land mass. When
air cooled over the continental
cyclones are absent along the coast in winter this type
1S dominant.
Figure 3.3 Seasonal frequency of occurrence Suryº
for the six climate types shown in Fig. 3·4. For
example, Type 2 (Aleutian low) occurs on the average 37
percent of the time during spring (Overland and
Hiester, 1978).
40 r-
º
36 - • *.
32 –
w:
- 3% . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
&
28 - .."
- = /A
ſ/
24-
|- • 2. Y\
O Xº,
20|- N, 2°
N_***
o. *
Nº ºv
|- .” N6 \, 2
4- N * 47
•o ** A
16|- & N. A
& N \ A O
\ * ( /
- 47
"O, ), A \/
N./\, A
12|- ^ 47
N \, A /
W. N * A Z
|- *
& \ \ \, A /
8|- A- N. º / |
/X o N /
&
& \/ 2
^ ºf
4- `N/
O I I I
Winter Spring Summer Fall
Season
In summer, cyclones or lows are typically found
farther to the north than in winter. This situation is
represented by type 4.0. This pattern occurs rarely in
winter (7 percent of the time) but fairly frequently
(26 percent of the time) in summer.
Type 5.0 is the north Pacific high-pressure cell.
This distribution is seldom encountered in summer. In
subtype 5.1 the axis of the high pressure ridge is
farther to the west, south of Kodiak Island.
Type 6.0 is a
Charlotte Islands.
stagnating low off the Queen
This condition is most frequently
encountered in winter. Associated with it is a high
pressure cell over northeast Alaska and another over
the Bering Sea.
Overland and Hiester (1978) found that 75 percent
of the patterns on daily weather charts (from 1969 to
1974) correlated with one of the climate types with a
correlation coefficient equal to or greater than 0.7.

The seasonal frequency of occurrence of each type is
shown in Fig. 3. 3.
Upwelling indices
Upwelling indices reflect the alongshore coastal
wind field. Winds favorable for upwelling are those
that blow to the northeast along the Kodiak Island
coast and force surface waters offshore. Winds favor-
able for downwelling are in the opposite direction and
force surface waters onshore. The indices show coastal
upwelling and thus are a measure of potential biolog-
ical productivity.
various
Ingraham et al. characterized
(1976)
coastal regions around the Gulf of Alaska according to
the seasonal dominance of divergence (upwelling) or
convergence (downwelling). An area northeast of Kodiak
Island (59°N, 151°W) has a nearshore convergence and
offshore divergence for eight months of the year. This
Oceanography 51
dominant situation can be visualized (looking south-
westward along the coastline) as a clockwise (in an
offshore-vertical plane) circulation. Southwest of
Kodiak Island the same circulation pattern is dominant
only six months of the year. In general, the propor-
tion of time when upwelling occurs increases to the
southwest of Kodiak Island and decreases to the north-
east.
Coastal upwelling indices for two regions near
Kodiak Island (as reported by Ingraham et al., 1976)
are shown in Fig. 3. 4. Strongly negative (downwelling)
values are encountered during winter months; only weak
positive values are encountered from June to September.
Numerical values of the index correspond to the verti-
cal velocity (mm/day) through the bottom of the Ekman
layer required to balance the divergence (or conver-
gence) in the surface layer caused by the wind.
Winds on Kodiak Island versus those on the shelf
Reynolds (1978) showed that marine winds within
100 km of the coast in the northeast Gulf of Alaska are
severely affected by the mountainous coast. He noted
two types of effects: diurnal winds, which could be
either katabatic winds or sea-land breezes, and mech-
anical blocking by coastal mountains. On Kodiak Island
mountain ridges lie mainly perpendicular to the coast-
line and funnel coastal winds. Kodiak Island has lower
topographic features than the Northeast Gulf. The
difference in height could be important for wind block-
ing and for the generation of katabatic winds. The
lower elevations are less likely to maintain extensive
snow fields that generate katabatic flows. However,
whether winds measured on Kodiak Island are representa-
tive of winds over the continental shelf must be
questioned.
20- J F M A M J J A S O N D J
Upwelling indices for two locations in the
Figure 3.4
Gulf of Alaska. The vertical axis is the vertical
velocity in mm/day through the bottom of the Ekman
layer. Values are computed from geostrophic winds
derived from charts of surface atmospheric pressure.
Wind-induced divergence and convergence in the surface
layer can cause upwelling and downwelling, respectively
(Ingraham et al., 1976).
Reynolds et al. (1979) compared wind observations
of the National Weather Service on Kodiak Island to
winds measured at a data buoy (EB-46008 at 51°7'N,
151°45' W) situated 75 km east-southeast of Kiliuda Bay.
Data from three months (January, March, and June) were
examined.
For January the buoy data and Kodiak Island data
are similar. Winds on Kodiak Island are weaker than on
the shelf. Vector mean speeds were 3.4 m/sec and
6.0 m/sec. March winds are less similar with lower
speeds still observed on Kodiak Island: 1.4 m/sec
compared to 2.4 m/sec. There is little similarity in
June. Vector mean speeds were 0.5 for Kodiak Island
and 3.4 for the data buoy.
Wind data from January, March, and June for Kodiak
Island and an environmental buoy are shown in fabric
diagrams (Fig. 3.5). Contours on the diagram represent
the probability of occurrence of winds of various wind
speeds (radial distance from the center) and wind
direction (direction from which the wind was blowing).
For January the two wind diagrams are similar.
However, Kodiak Island winds have a substantial prob-
ability of coming from the west-northwest not found in
the buoy winds.
(Buskin Pass).
This is caused by orographic control
In March the buoy winds are much more
variable while Kodiak Island winds appear to be domi-
nated by orographic effects.
Buoy winds during June are much less variable than
in previous months and less variable than June winds on
Kodiak Is and (see Fig. 3. 1). The predominantly north-
west-southwest winds on Kodiak Island could indicate
sea-land breeze effects or katabatic winds.
To test the blocking effects of coastal mountains
Reynolds et al. (1979) computed a parameter to suggest
tº - ??
persistence of wind direction. The parameter "r" is

52 Oceanography
WINDS FABRIC DIAGRAMS
January
Buoy contour Interval-2
Kodiak º
> Contour Interval-2
Island c
June
Contour Interval–1 Contour Interval-4
;
;
Contour Interval—3 Contour Interval-2
:
:
- - - - for January
Fi ic di ms for winds observed at an offshore buoy and on Kodiak Island (lower figure) y
. º ...”.º. is represented as radial distance from the center. Wind direction corresponds to the
> -
azimuth direction; the probability of occurrence ** represented by the contours (Reynolds et al., 1979).
y
the ratio of vector mean wind speed to scalar **
Speed. The more persistent a wind direction, the
larger the vector mean speed will be relative to the
scalar mean speed. Conversely, for winds that are
variable in direction, r is low. Winds that blow
consistently from one direction will have * * value
near 1.0.
To compute r, average wind data were obtained from
the climatic Atlas (Brower et al., 1977). In Winºº
when Kodiak Island winds were strongest, winds "***
consistent in direction (r = 0.47). In the summer this
Sonsistency disappeared. An unexplained high value
(0.32) was recorded for Marine Area B (see Fig. 3. 1) in
July, however. In winter Kodiak winds appear tº *
somewhat controlled by orography (in this case Buskin
Pass, which is near the observation site).
Reynolds et al. (1979) concluded that Kodiak
Island winds do not represent offshore conditions. The
meteorological environment at the buoy site (51°7'N,
151°45'W) seems to be beyond the area of land influ-
en Ce.
Summary of Kodiak marine climatology
Since winds observed on Kodiak Island are not
representative of winds over the continental shelf, it
is necessary to obtain information from ships and buoys
to describe winds over the lease area.
Wind climatology can be seasonally classified into
two types. In winter (roughly October through April)
the predominant regional patterns are Overland and
Hiester's (1978) types 2.0, 4.0, 1.0, and 6.0 (see Fig.
3.2). Vector mean winds are from the northwest (Fig.
3.1) and wind speeds are high. These conditions favor
downwelling at the coast (Fig. 3.4). Directional
variability is high, probably the result of frequent
passage of storms.
In summer (May through September) winds are mainly
from the southwest; types 2.0, 4.0, and 5.0 dominate.
Wind speed is lower than in winter with minimum winds
occurring in June and July. Directional consistency is
high.
3. 2.3 Coastal influx of fresh water
Royer (1979) has shown that the influx of fresh
water at the coast greatly influences dynamic heights
measured on the shelf as well as coastal sea level. A
cross-shelf pressure gradient results from the coastal
influx of fresh water, and this drives a longshore,
baroclinic coastal current. In the Northeast Gulf of
Alaska, where this work was performed, the baroclinic
coastal current is an important advective system.
Similar conditions occur along the Kenai Peninsula
(Schumacher et al., 1978, 1979 c). Thus we may expect
the similar forcing of a coastal current along Kodiak
Island.
The great influence of precipitation and runoff on
dynamic heights in the Northeast Gulf of Alaska has
several causes. There is a high annual pulse of preci-
pitation and runoff (see Roden, 1967, for monthly mean
discharge of major rivers in the Gulf of Alaska). This
runoff occurs over much of the long Alaskan coastline;
the more fresh water remains near the shore, the larger





Oceanography 53
the dynamic heights downstream because of the accumu-
lation of fresh water. Low temperatures also con-
tribute to this effect, since at low temperatures
changes in density are controlled largely by changes in
salinity (Royer, 1979).
Off Seward the dynamic heights on the shelf are
highly correlated with sea level at Seward. Over 80
percent of the variation in sea level can be accounted
for by changes in the 0-200 db dynamic height. Varia-
tions in the upwelling index can account for only 4
percent of the changes in the shelf dynamic height
(0-200 db.) but account for 70 percent of the variation
in the deep, off-shelf dynamic height (200-1000 db).
Thus fresh water effects appear to mask the effects of
winds on dynamic heights for the continental shelf off
Seward.
At Yakutat the correlation between sea level and
the 0-200 db dynamic height was weaker (0.587) than at
Seward (0.934). However, the correlation using 200-
1000 db dynamic heights was higher at Yakatut (0.478)
than at Seward (0. 132). These differences in the
correlations could be caused by either the narrower
shelf at Yakutat or the location downstream from
Yakutat of several major rivers that influence the
shelf off Seward (Royer, 1979).
Predicting the influence of fresh water influx at
Kodiak Island is difficult. Precipitation is less
there (137 cm/year) than at Seward (170 cm/year) or
Yakutat (335 cm/year) (Royer, 1979). There are major
sources of fresh water (e.g., the Susitna River) that
could influence Kodiak Island but not Seward. However,
this water and much of the water of low salinity ad-
vected by the Coastal Current probably pass Kodiak
Island via Shelikof Strait. Since there are no large
sources of fresh water on Kodiak Island, and since much
of the fresh water contributed upstream of Kodiak
Island travels through Shelikof Strait, it is unlikely
that the continental shelf east of Kodiak Island is
heavily influenced. Thus, although Kodiak Island and
Kenai Peninsula are adjacent, the continental shelves
off these coasts may be influenced differently by the
influx of coastal fresh water. When analyses like
those carried out off Seward are repeated off Kodiak
Island the role of coastal fresh water in the circula-
tion around Kodiak Island will be better understood.
N-
54 Oceanography
3. 3 CIRCULATION DETERMINED BY INDIRECT METHODS
1570 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 1470
3.3. 1 Temperature and salinity distributions 60°
Winter conditions
_ 10 20 30 40 50 miles
-*-*- E. E. I
Surface temperatures for March 1977 (Fig. 3.6)
show the influence of mixing over shoal regions. The
coldest surface temperatures (< 5°C) occurred over
North Albatross and Middle Albatross Banks. The
warmest temperatures (> 6°C) occurred over Stevenson 59°
Trough and Kennedy Entrance. 59°
A similar pattern occurs in bottom (or 200 m)
temperatures (see Schumacher et al., 1978). The cold-
est water was found on the banks and seaward of the
shelf break and the warmest water was found in the
troughs. Thermal stratification (the temperature
difference between surface values and those at the
bottom, or 200 m) was small or nonexistent over North 58°
and Middle Albatross Banks. Over Kiliuda and Chiniak
Troughs and over the Amatuli Trough/Kennedy Entrance,
thermal inversions as large as 0.6°C occurred
(Schumacher et al., 1978).
The inversions resulted from surface cooling:
Since salinity is the major factor determining water 579
density, these thermal inversions did not cause gravi" 57°
tational instability. Over the banks tidal energy and
storm winds were strong enough to cause mixed condi-
tions. However, over the deeper troughs the available
energy was insufficient to mix the water column com"
Pletely.
56°
SURFACE TEMPERATURE —H56°
I | L | l l
Figure 3.6 Surface temperature contours in degrees C 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
for 2-10 March 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1978).



Oceanography 55
Surface salinities from March 1977 (Fig. 3. 7) had
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 1470
two bands of low values: along the shelf break and
along the southern end of the Kenai Peninsula. The
band of low salinity at the shelf break off Kodiak was 60°
reported by Favorite and Ingraham (1977) from hydro-
50 miles
T]
graphic data taken in May 1972. Royer and Muench
(1977) also reported a "streamer-like lens of low
density water" near the shelf break off Kodiak. Their
infrared data (obtained by NOAA 3 and 4 satellites)
suggest that nearshore water flows around Kayak Island
O
and some of it is diverted offshore by this island. 59 59°
These less saline waters travel counterclockwise around
the Gulf of Alaska with the Alaska Current. This band
may be a continuous feature in the western half of the
Gulf of Alaska.
The second region of low salinity (as low as 29.0
g/kg) is near the southern edge of the Kenai Peninsula. 58°
This region consistently has low salinities throughout 58°
the year (see Figs. 3.9 and 3. 12). Fresh water con-
tributed by rivers and glacial storms throughout the
Gulf of Alaska, Southeastern Alaska, and British
Columbia and accumulating along the coast is the source
of this low salinity.
Between these two regions of low salinity is an O
area of higher salinities (as high as 32.3 g/kg). 57 57°
Seaward of the shelf break salinities increase to the
maximum value observed in this data set, 32.6 g/kg.
56° –
SURFACE SALINITY (g/kg) —H56°
March 1977
I
I I I l l l
155° 1549 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°
Figure 3.7 Surface salinity contours in g/kg for 2-10 156°
March 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1978).



56 Oceanography
Salinity data from the bottom (or 200 m) show
three features. There are high salinities (> 32.6
g/kg) in the troughs (Fig. 3.8). These can be seen in
the Amatuli, and Kiliuda Troughs. In
Chiniak Trough there is a suggestion of a high-salinity
Stevenson,
intrusion which could indicate circulation up the
troughs toward Kodiak Island and Lower Cook Inlet (see
Section 3.4 for further evidence of this circulaton).
Portlock, North Albatross, and Middle Albatross
Banks all are identifiable by the lower salinity (32.4
g/kg) contours. Since salinity increases with dePºº.
the increased tidal mixing over the banks lowers the
bottom salinities.
A second feature of the bottom salinity cont”
is the region of low salinity near the southern edge of
the Kenai Peninsula. This corresponds to the low
values for surface salinity in this region.
There is also a low-salinity band and dense pack-
ing of salinity contours along the shelf edge: This
area could be expected to have great variation in h9***
zontal density corresponding to the Alaska Curren".
Figure 10 of Schumacher et al. (1978) confirms this
Prediction.
The same pattern seen in the bottom salinity
contours can be seen in the differences between surfº
and bottom salinities (Fig. 8, Schumacher et al.,
1978). Over the banks mixing has reduced the dif-
ference to a small value (typically 0.2 g/kg). Greater
differences occur off the Kenai Peninsula and **** the
shelf break. Along the shelf break the contours ºf
Figure 3. 8 Contours of near bottom salinity in g/kg
for 2-10 March 1977. These data were obtained just
*bove the bottom or at 200m depth, whichever was more
*hallow (Schumacher et al., 1978).
1579
60°
1569
155°
59°
58°
3O 40
E_E.
50 miles
J
154°
153°
1529
150°
149° 148° 1470
BOTTOM SALINITY
2–1 O March 1977
1 Chiniak Trough
2 Stevenson Trough
O
56 3 Kiliuda Trough —56°
4 Portlock Bank
5 North Albatross Bank
6 Middle Albatross Bank
I I I | l l
153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°







Oceanography 57
surface-bottom salinity difference are crowded and
reach 1.6 g/kg at this seaward edge of the study area
157° 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148° 1470
(approximately over the 2,000 m isobath). 60°
Surface salinities from March 1978 show no major
differences from those of March 1977 (Fig. 3. 7). (See
Fig. 2(c) in Reed et al., 1979; unfortunately, their
data set does not include stations on the shelf and
thus we can compare only contours at the shelf break. )
The 1978 data show contours of surface salinity to be
clustered near the shelf break and parallel to it. 59°
Spring conditions
Surface salinities from late spring (26 May to 6
June) 1978 were very similar to those from March 1978
along most of the shelf break (Reed et al., 1979).
100 m
One difference is a disruption of the southwest-tending
contours seaward (southeast) of Stevenson Trough, where
58°
an intrusion of low-salinity water (32.4 g/kg) extends
well offshore of the shelf break (Fig. 3.9). This
58°
intrusion apparently developed between the March and
mid-May hydrographic cruises. The 0/1000 decibar
dynamic topography (see Fig. 3(b) in Reed et al., 1979)
shows this feature as an anticyclonic (clockwise) eddy
or eddy-like feature. It apparently formed inshore
579
over Stevenson Trough, intensified, and moved south- 57°
eastward toward the shelf break. No subsequent data
are available.
Surface salinities for May 1972 were sampled in
the near coastal waters of Kodiak Island and the upper
end of Shelikof Strait (Favorite and Ingraham, 1977).
SURFACE SALINITY
56° 26 May–6 June 1978
—56°
l 1–
Figure 3.9 Surface salinity contours in parts per 153° 1529 1519 149° 148°
thousand for 26 May to 6 June 1978 (Reed et al., 1979).

58 Oceanography
A region of very low surface salinities off Cape
Douglas probably reflects low-salinity water flowing
out of Lower Cook Inlet along its western side. A
Salinity maximum occurs over the shelf. Farther off-
shore is another continuous band of water of lower
This zone of minimum salinity lies approxi-
mately over the shelf break.
(1977) band
salinities of the shelf (due to vertical mixing) from
Salinity.
Favorite and Ingraham
the maximum
that this separates
State
the high salinities offshore in the oceanic region.
They also note a perturbation in the contours of sur-
face salinity and speculate that this eddy-like feature
formed on the inshore side of the Alaska Stream. This
"eddy" was at 56°N, 153°W, southwest of the one shown
in Fig. 3.9
1977).
Favorite and Ingraham (1977) also recorded cont
(see Figure 8, Favorite and Ingraham,
tinuous surface salinities across the region from the
observed salinity minimum to the offshore salinity
maximum. A surface salinity front was shown clearly.
As one traveled offshore, the salinity rose from about
32.65 g/kg to 32.75 g/kg over 1-3 km.
30-hour period of observations the front moved seaward
about 10 km.
an estimated period of 8-10 hours and an estimated
amplitude of 3–5 km were reported.
Water temperatures for May–June 1972 (Fig. 3. 10)
During the
Horizontal oscillations of the front with
Were generally lower inshore and higher (2 5.0°C) sea-
Ward of the shelf break.
values for bottom temperatures (from March 1977) shºw"
These data contradict the
-
Figure 3. 10 Approximate bottom temperatures in de-
8rees c for May 1972 (Favorite and Ingraham, 1977).
60°
59°
58°
1579
1569 155° 154° 153° 1529
2O 3O 40
EI E.
50 miles
|
3~~
57°
56°
\ \
--- \
º • Stevenson Troug
o - –
1519 150° 149° 148°
O H
N O
O w 5 52 oğº 29
O
O
O || 25 /e _2^
ºf-
Chiniak / 7
Trough ^
y JZ A
& &
O º
APPROXIMATE BOTTOM TEMPERATURE
Degree C May 1972
—H56°
1470
—H58°
—1579
153° 1529
1519 150° 149° 148°















Oceanography
59
(Fig. 4) in Schumacher et al. (1978). They are sup-
ported by the distributions of sea surface temperatures
reported by Royer and Muench (1977), however. The
coldest water (< 19C) was found in southern Shelikof
Strait. Water colder than 2°C occurred at the bottom
along the east coast of Kodiak and Afognak Islands.
Water this cold was found only adjacent to the coast
(Favorite and Ingraham, 1977).
Water farther south and southwest of Kodiak Island
was 2-3°C colder than water north and east of Afognak
Island. Favorite and Ingraham (1977) speculated that
this temperature difference might be due to atmospheric
cooling at the surface. Meteorological data that could
substantiate or refute this hypothesis were not pre-
sented.
Bottom temperatures for May 1972 are shown in Fig.
3.10. (See Favorite and Ingraham for an explanation of
how these temperatures were derived.) Warm water
extended offshore up into Stevenson, Chiniak, and
Kiliuda Troughs. Cooler water dominated the banks.
Warm water also occurred at each end of Shelikof
Strait. Other observations (Fig. 3. 15) suggest an
inflow of warm water along the bottom through the
southwestern entrance of Shelikof Strait.
A thermal front overlies the shelf break. The
temperature contours closely parallel the bathymetry.
The small bank seen in the 200 m isobath south of South
Albatross Bank is outlined by temperature contours.
This is also the approximate location of the eddy-like
feature seen in Favorite and Ingraham's (1977) surface
salinity distribution. (This distribution was dis-
cussed above but is not shown. Refer to Figure 8 in
Favorite and Ingraham.)
60 Oceanography
Summer conditions
Surface temperatures for September, 1977 (Fig.
3.11) were warmer than those of March of the same year
(Fig. 3.6). Surface waters were relatively warm
(11-14°C) throughout the region with highest temper"
atures seaward of the shelf break and near the Kenai
Peninsula. In general, cooler waters overlay the
banks; however, sampling was inadequate to show pos-
Sible temperature differences between troughs and
adjacent banks. No differences were expected.
Figure 3.11 Surface temperature contours in degrees C
for September 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979 c).
1579 1569 155°
60°
50 miles
T]
59°
58°
57°
56°
154° 153°
1529
1519
150° 149° 148°
1479
SURFACE TEMPERATURE
September 1977
| l
—H56°
15.4° 153°
1529
1519
150° 149°
148°



Oceanography 61
Surface salinities were low (28.5 g/kg) (Fig.
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 151° 15O° 149° 148° 1470
3.12) in September 1977. The lowest values for
September, as for March (Fig. 3.7) and October–November 6O2
(Fig. 21 in Schumacher et al., 1979.c), occurred off the
2O 40 60 80 100 km
EGED
Kenai Peninsula. In general, September salinities were
20 30 40
50 miles
lower than those in March, May–June (Fig. 3.9), and
October–November. (Note that the May–June data are
from 1978, the other data from 1977.) The 32.0 g/kg
contour closely follows the 200-m isobath. The contour
shows onshore intrusions of water of higher salinity 59°
(32.0 g/kg) in Stevenson and Kiliuda Troughs. The
highest salinity observed (32.5 g/kg) in September was
seaward of the 2,000 m isobath.
Unlike the surface salinity distributions for
March (Fig. 3.7) and for May (Favorite and Ingraham, 100 m
1977), the September salinities increase seaward from
Kodiak Island, and no region of minimum salinities was
observed. (Contour intervals are different for the —H58°
- - co º
different data sets, but the lack of a region of mini- 2
mum salinities does not appear to be an artifact of the
contour interval.) Neither is there a zone of minimum
salinity in the October–November 1977 data (Fig. 21 in
Schumacher et al., 1979.c).
In his September salinity data, Schumacher (pers.
comm.) found a slight surface minimum. The minimum —157°
extends only as far south as a line drawn southeast
from the northern end of Afognak Island. In his
October data he found a weak salinity minimum over 32.5
Stevenson Trough. Data collected in March and May/June
1978 showed a region of minimum salinity but Schumacher
- SURFACE SALINITY -
56° *… September 1977
considered it too limited to affect flow dynamics.
—56°
I I I I l l
153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
Figure 3. 12 Surface salinity contours in g/kg for
September 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979.c).
















62 Oceanography
Autumn conditions -
By mid-October to early November 1977 (see Fig. 20
in Schumacher et al., 1979c) surface temperatures had
lowered by 4°C or more. The warmest temperature re-
corded was 10°C along the eastern side of the Kenai
Peninsula. Warm waters were found both along the
Peninsula and east of Afognak Island along the edge of
the shelf. Cooler water (7°C) was found between these
areas of warm water. Temperatures were 2-3°C cooler in
March (Fig. 3.6) than in October–November.
The salinity distributions for September and
9ctober–November are similar. September values inshore
along Kodiak Island were slightly (0.5 g/kg) lower in
Salinity while those near the edge of the shelf were
higher by about 0.5 g/kg.
The distribution for bottom (or 200 m) salinities
observed in October–November 1977 (Fig. 37 in
Schumacher et al., 1979c) was similar to the distribu-
tion of March 1977 (Fig. 3.8). However, salinities
later in the year were lower by as much as 0.4 g/kg.
Minimum salinities in October–November occurred along
the Kenai Peninsula and over North and Middle Albatross
Banks (32.0 g/kg) and over Portlock and South Albatross
Banks (32.5 g/kg). The highest salinities (33.5 g/kg)
were found over Amatuli Trough and along the shelf
edge. Intrusions of high salinity bottom water can be
seen clearly in Stevenson, Chiniak, and Kiliuda
Troughs.
Vertical sections of temperature (Schumacher et
*1. , 1979c) show two regions of warm temperatures:
inshore and over the shelf break. These surface temp-
*rature maxima appear to be continuous along the Kenai
Peninsula and Kodiak Island. In each band of temper"
*ture maxima cooler temperatures occurred farther to
the Southwest.
Storm-induced changes in temperature and salinity
Sampling at two stations on Portlock Bank immedi-
ately before and after high winds (approximately 50
knots) in October 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979.c)
showed decreases in surface temperature (about 1°C at
one station and almost 1.5°C at the other) and a sig-
nificant increase in surface salinities (by about 0.5
g/kg) over 41-42 hours. The water column at each
station showed both thermal and haline stratification
before the winds. Afterwards the water columns were
isothermal and isohaline. The authors attribute the
changes in temperature and salinity over Portlock Bank
to localized upwelling. Regardless of the mechanism,
it is apparent that meteorological events can greatly
influence physical conditions and the distribution of
petroleum within the water column on the shelf.
Temperature environments near Kodiak Island
Favorite and Ingraham (1977) categorized bottom
temperature environments around Kodiak Island according
to temperature distribution. One environment is over
shoal regions where the depth is less than 100 m.
Winter overturning occurs to this depth and mixing by
tides and winds ensures that water is nearly isothermal
over the shoals throughout the year. Temperatures as
low as 1-2°C occur in winter and as high as 6-9°C in
SUIIIlſler .
In the troughs, at depths greater than 150 m,
overturning and mixing do not occur throughout the
water column. Thus the difference between surface and
near-bottom temperatures is at a maximum over troughs.
At the shelf break bottom temperatures are con-
stant throughout the year: 4-5°C.
The fourth thermal environment is Shelikof Strait.
Here winter temperatures are influenced by the influx
of warm water from the continental shelf and by cold
Water from Lower Cook Inlet.
Favorite and Ingram (1977) represented these four
environments on a T-S diagram (their Fig. 12). The
characteristics of waters seaward of the shelf edge, of
those in Stevenson Trough, and of those overlying
shoals near Portlock Bank all lie along a straight line
on the T-S diagram. It is tempting to infer that water
would move onto the shelf into troughs and mix with the
lower-salinity and cooler (in winter) water that is
probably moving offshore. Additional mixing would
result in the water characteristics observed on the
shoals. Thus the differences in thermohaline proper-
ties among the four environments could reflect differ-
ing contributions of the two water types.
Shelikof Strait
Temperature and salinity sections (Fig. 3. 13) were
also obtained across the northeast and the southwest
ends of Shelikof Strait in March 1977. Strong strati-
fication was found near the surface along the Alaska
Peninsula side of the northeast section, the result of
outflow from Lower Cook Inlet. The maximum salinity
observed along this cross-section was 32.19 g/kg at the
eastern side of the Strait. Throughout almost all of
the northeastern section salinities were less than or
equal to 32.0 g/kg. At the southwest end of the Strait
only weak stratification was noted across the section.
Maximum salinities in the section were greater than
32.75 g/kg.
The water of highest salinity (> 32.0 g/kg) did
not originate at the northeastern end of the Shelikof
Strait, where highest salinities were 32.0 g/kg or
less. Rather it probably entered the Strait from the
southwest. Schumacher et al. (1978) suggest that this
Oceanography 63
inflow of deep water occurs to balance the loss of deep
water entrained by the outflowing shallow water. -
157. 156 155 15.4° 153° 152: 151° 150° 149° 148 º
Temperatures were, in general, higher at the
southwestern section. The difference in temperatures
between the two sections might have been caused by a SW SHELIKOF STRAIT
NW
change in the temperature of the source water which was O O
being advected past only the northeastern stations at KENNEDY
ENTRANCE
the time of the survey. The warmest waters in either 50 5O STEVENSON
ENTRANCE
of the sections were found near the bottom of the
southwestern section. 1OO 1OO —H58°
The absence of inclined isohalines in these sec-
tions (except for the near-surface stratification at
150 150
the northeast end) suggests that the flow through
157°
Shelikof Strait is predominately barotropic. For
- - - - - - - - 2OO 2OO
baroclinic current shears to exist, a tilting of iso-
pycnals relative to a level surface would have to
- - - - - - 250 250 56-3 -
occur. Since salinity largely determines density in º —H56
this region, the isohalines would have to tilt. Cur- l L l I l l l l l
3OO - - - - - - - - -
rent meter data in Shelikof Strait indicate some cur- 3OO 156 155 154 153 152 151 150 149 148
rent fluctuations that may be associated with winds.
The presumably barotropic mean flow is probably driven
by a pressure (sea elevation) difference between the STEVENSON KENNEDY
two ends of the Strait and, to a lesser degree, by N NE SHELIKOF STRAIT SE SW ENTRANCE sº ENTRANCE NE
local wind forcing. O O
50 50
1OO 1OO
150 150
2OO | 200 - 29-30 March 1977.
Figure 3. 13 Temperature and salinity vertical pro-
files along transects across southeastern Shelikof
Strait (A), northeastern Shelikof Strait (B), and
across Kennedy and Stevenson Entrances (C) (Schumacher
et al., 1978).






64 Oceanography
Kennedy and Stevenson Entrances
A temperature and salinity section for March 1977
through the Kennedy and Stevenson Entrances of Cook
Inlet is shown in Fig. 3. 13. There is very little
thermal or haline stratification. In general, the
water in Kennedy Entrance is cooler and less saline
than that in Stevenson Entrance. However, a small core
of warm water was observed along the Kenai Peninsula at
a depth of about 130 m.
Conclusions
Warm waters of low salinity flow near shore along
the Kenai Peninsula and appear to enter Lower Cook
Inlet through Kennedy Entrance. Dilution by coastal
rivers probably accounts for the low salinity, while
insolation on the shallow, inshore areas may cause the
high temperatures.
Warm water of low salinity is also found along the
shelf edge. Several authors (Royer and Muench, 1977;
Favorite and Ingraham, 1977) have discussed the conti-
nuity of this band along the shelf break off Kodiak
Island and in the Northern Gulf of Alaska. Favorite
and Ingraham (1977) suggest that the surface salinity
front where oceanic water of high salinity lies next to
the waters of minimum salinity may be a navigational
aid for migrating fish. Royer and Muench (1977) *ē"
gest that this band of low-density water may augment
baroclinic flow toward the southwest on its seaward
side and retard it on its shoreward side. This band
was not observed during hydrographic cruises *
September and October–November 1977, but this may have
been caused by inadequate sampling.
Flow occurs along the shelf break. Isolines ***
generally densely packed in this region. In most data
sets the isolines closely parallel the bathymetry.
However, perturbations were observed in two data sets.
These eddy-like features probably originate on the
shore side of the Alaska Current.
Saline water appears to flow shoreward in the
troughs that cut perpendicularly across the Kodiak
Island shelf. Over the banks and shoals the water
column is nearly isothermal and isohaline as a result
of thorough mixing. Over the deeper troughs mixing is
incomplete, and thermal and saline stratification is
the result.
3. 3.2 Baroclinic geostrophic circulation
Temperature and salinity profiles across the
continental shelf indicate the direction and strength
of currents relative to some specified level by means
of the geostrophic assumptions. The data presented in
this section are contours of dynamic topography. The
geostrophic component of flow parallels these contours.
In the Northern Hemisphere highest dynamic heights are
on the right when the observer faces downstream. The
speed of the flow is inversely proportional to the
spacing between adjacent contours.
The problem in using dynamic topography is decid-
ing what level to use as a reference. (For a dis-
cussion of reference levels, see Fomin, 1964, or
Neumann and Pierson, 1966.) It is generally assumed
that for surface dynamic heights, a reference level of
1500 decibars (db) is sufficient to represent both
temporal and spatial variations, although estimates of
volume transport will be in error (Reed et al., 1979).
On the continental shelf, where depths are much less, a
reference level of 1500 db cannot be used directly.
The simplest solution is to choose an arbitrary refer-
ence level (e.g., 100 db) that is attained in the
hydrographic data. The geostrophic assumptions are
probably invalid in shallow water, as on the Kodiak
Island continental shelf. However, the dynamic topo-
graphy can be interpreted as baroclinic flow or as
lenses of water of varying density. The dynamic height
of the water column then is a measure of the density of
Water integrated over the column. Interpreting the
topographies as currents appears to be valid in the
Kodiak lease area. Directions of flow are representa-
tive in many cases although the speed of the flow may
not be. It has not been shown that the dynamic method
represents Currents on the Kodiak Island shelf ac-
curately, but it has been demonstrated to be accurate
elsewhere (e.g., off Oregon: Huyer et al., 1978).
A second solution is to project, with a chosen
algorithm, the slope of isopycnals near the bottom onto
shallower depths. Comparisons of dynamic heights can
then be made between inshore and offshore areas by use
of deep reference levels. The algorithm selected by
Reed et al. (1979) is the method of Jacobsen and Jensen
(Fomin, 1964). This method assumes that the isopycnals
are parallel to the isobars at some depth (1500 db for
this study). The difference between specific volume
anomalies at the deepest level common to two adjacent
stations is multiplied by the difference in depths
between the common level and 1500 db. (This value is
multiplied by 0.5 to represent the dynamic height
midway between the two stations.) This adjustment is
then added to the surface dynamic height relative to
the common level.
Deep reference levels
The dynamic topography of the sea surface, rela-
tive to 1500 db, for the entire Gulf of Alaska was
developed by Roden (1969). The baroclinic geostrophic
flow is cyclonic (counterclockwise) toward the south-
west off Kodiak Island. The contours are compressed
off Kodiak Island, representing an increase in the
speed of the flow. (For a discussion of the theory on
Oceanography 65
the intensification of the Alaska Stream near Kodiak
Island, see Thompson, 1972.) Roden estimated that
maximum speeds of about 20 cm/sec occur near the shelf
edge. However, his data were few and his estimates of
speed appear to be low.
In a dynamic topography (0/1000 db) for early
March 1978 (Reed et al., 1979) the contours are par-
allel to the bathymetry and no large perturbations
exist. Baroclinic geostrophic surface flow, relative
to 1000 db, is toward the southwest. In a 0/1000 db
dynamic topography for late May/early June (Reed et
al., 1979), the values of dynamic height are lower by
about 0.20 dynamic meters than in March. Although the
May–June data contours largely parallel the bathymetry,
a large perturbation is centered at 57°30' N, 149°30'W.
The distribution of surface salinity shown in Figure
3.9 shows this perturbation. The eddy-like feature has
a maximum value of dynamic height, and an anticyclonic
(clockwise) circulation is inferred around this maxi-
mum. Reed et al. (1979) noted that the center of this
feature was almost 0.1 dynamic meters higher than the
dynamic height at the same location eight days before.
In addition the isolines had deepened by almost 100 m.
Data (0/1000 db.) from May 1972 (Favorite and
Ingraham, 1977) show almost uniform flow along the
shelf break. Minor perturbations are suggested at the
extreme northeastern and southwestern inshore ends of
the data set. More interesting is a potential flow
reversal, with flow of about 4 cm/sec to the northeast
(relative to 1000 db) at about 55°N, 152°30' W, 96 km
miles seaward of the shelf break. This is well off-
shore of the zone of minimum salinity reported by
Favorite and Ingraham. These are the only hydrographic
data that show a flow reversal in this region.
The only other data with a deep reference level
were reported by Schumacher et al. (1979.c). They used
a 500 decibar reference level for the surface topo-
graphy. Data for September 1977 show uniform flow
towards the southwest, parallel to the shelf break. In
the October–November data the flow was also fairly
uniform.
Shallow reference levels
Several calculations use shallow reference levels
so that dynamic topographies near shore can be comput-
ed. Favorite and Ingraham (1977) used a reference
level of 50 db for surface dynamic heights. These data
(from May 1972) show a westward surface flow north of
Afognak Island which brings low-salinity water into
Lower Cook Inlet through Kennedy Entrance and directly
into Shelikof Strait through Stevenson Entrance. East
of Afognak Island is a region of weak cyclonic circula-
tion. The densest packing of contours, and thus the
highest speeds, occur just seaward of the shelf break.
Here dynamic heights are at a maximum. Between this
maximum and the high values along Kodiak Island is a
decrease in dynamic height. This trough lies generally
shoreward of the 150-m isobath. A flow reversal, or
flow towards the northeast, which results from this
trough extends continuously along (inshore of) the
shelf break .
The dynamic topography correlates well with the
surface salinity. The trough corresponds to the sur-
face salinity maximum, and the ridge corresponds to the
band of minimum salinities reported by Favorite and
Ingraham (1977). At about 55°30' N, 155°W, a perturba-
tion appears which has been contoured as a cyclonic
eddy.
East of Portlock Bank is an indication of an
anticyclonic eddy. In general, the dynamic height
contours over the shelf do not strictly parallel the
bathymetry but oscillate shoreward and seaward.
The 0/100 db dynamic topography for September
differs substantially from the 0/50-db topography for
May. The September data do not show a trough in dy-
namic heights; the largest values occur inshore, and
values decrease seaward (Fig. 3. 14). Flow toward the
southwest occurs near the shelf break. As in the data
discussed above, there is a westward flow around the
southern end of the Kenai Peninsula. East of Afognak
Island is a well-developed anticyclonic (clockwise)
gyre (Schumacher et al., 1979.c). Favorite and Ingraham
(1977) reported a weak cyclonic gyre in this area.
In September the anticyclonic gyre was situated
over Stevenson Trough. Water flowed eastward along the
southern edge of Portlock Bank and westward along the
northern edge of North Albatross Bank. Schumacher et
al. (1979 c) suggest that the gyre may have resulted
from a southerly offshoot of the westward flow along
Kenai Peninsula (see the 0.29-dynamic meter contour in
Fig. 3. 14). The distributions of surface temperature
and salinity (Figs. 3. 11 and 3.12) support this hypoth-
esis. If water of low density were advected into the
trough, it could be constrained from flowing out onto
the shelf by the southwesterly flow on the shelf
(Schumacher et al., 1979.c).
Values of dynamic height were lower on the Kodiak
Island shelf in October–November 1977 than they were in
September. However, they were higher along the Kenai
Peninsula in October–November (see Fig. 19 in
Schumacher et al., 1979.c). The volume transport was
0.4x10° m*/sec in September and 1.0x10° m*/sec in
October–November, more than double the September value.
A combination of increased discharge of fresh
water along the coast and wind-caused coastal conver-
gence appear to be responsible for the increased trans-
port. Rainfall is usually heavier later in the fall,
but surface salinities for the two periods are similar;
66 Oceanography
decrease in salinity occurred near Kenai
no large
However, the low-
Peninsula in October–November.
salinity near-surface layer deepened (compare Figs. 16
and 31 in Schumacher et al., 1979.c). Before the
October–November hydrographic cruise there were two
periods of strong winds from the northeast which could
have caused coastal convergence and a deepening of the
low-salinity layer. If the increased transport along
the Kenai Peninsula were due solely to wind conver-
in the dynamic topography
8ence, comparable
along Kodiak Island would be
changes
expected. Since the
latter did not occur, the increased runoff from the
Alaska mainland, along with the winds, must have been
responsible for the increased volume transport.
An anticyclonic eddy was still evident over
Stevenson Trough in October–November. However, some of
the contours extend the length of the trough and indi-
in the trough. A flow from the
Sate seaward flow
Western end of Amatuli Trough into the western end of
Stevenson Trough, which may supply low-density water
that contributes to the large dynamic heights, is still
evident.
Figure 3. 14 Surface dynamic topography, relative to
100 dB, for September 1977 (Schumacher et al., 1979 c).
1570
60°
59°
1569 155° 154° 153° 1529
1519 15O2 149°
&
|
T T l
1 2 3
meters/second
Portlock Bank
Oo.30 / /
\ - O.28
Stevenson O.27
1470
60°
59°
58° Trough -
A- O.28 —H58°
57°
º: —157°
O.24
2TO.23
56°
SURFACE DYNAMC TOPOGRAPHY Tº
O/100-dB Sep 1977
I | _l l
1519 15O2 149° 148°











Oceanography 67
Transport of the Alaska Stream
Reed et al. (1979) studied the seasonal variabil-
ity of the baroclinic transport of the Alaska Stream
off Kodiak Island. , Apparently, large gains or losses
of water do not occur there between the Alaska Stream
and the oceanic region. The authors assumed little
variation in the volume transport between different
locations along the Alaska Stream. (Royer (pers.
comm.) disagrees. He found a smaller transport across
a hydrographic line southwest of Kodiak Island than on
a line off Lower Cook Inlet.) This assumption allows
the comparison of data taken at different times regard-
less of its exact location.
The assumption of no gain or loss of water is
plausible. The dilute warm band of water associated
with the Alaska Stream shows no large shoreward or
seaward tendencies that might represent losses or gains
(Reed et al., 1979).
Use of a reference level of 1500 db instead of
3000 db (where horizontal gradients of geopotential
typically vanish) probably reduces the calculated
transport by 5x10° m*/sec. However, the direction of
flow and spatial and temporal variations in flow are
probably depicted accurately when 1500 db (Reed et al.,
1979) is used.
For stations where the hydrographic data do not
extend down to a 1500 db reference level, the method of
Jacobsen and Jensen was used. However, transport in
water of 300-m depth or less was neglected by Reed et
al. (1979). Neglecting this flow probably results in
an underestimate of the volume transport by about 1x10°
m*/sec.
The mean adjusted transport is 11.6x10° m*/sec.
while the unadjusted transport is 9.4x10° m*/sec. The
variability in both transport values is about the same
(standard deviation of about 2.2×10° m*/sec). However,
the variability between values computed at the same
time at adjacent locations is slightly less for the
adjusted transport than for the unadjusted transport.
The maximum adjusted transport, 17x10° m*/sec,
occurred in July 1976. The minimum, 8 x 10° m’see, OC-
curred in June 1978. Variation is large, but there are
no apparent seasonal trends. In a more recent study
Royer (pers. comm.) found a seasonal variation in
transport values. The differences between the results
of these two studies have not been resolved.
The lack of a seasonal pulse in the transport is
unexpected, since the wind stress transport has such a
strong seasonal peak. Wind stress typically has values
during October-February that are an order of magnitude
(or more) greater than spring and summer values.
3.3.3 Seasonal sea level variations
Variations in sea level can be used to estimate
the condition of the baroclinic or barotropic com-
ponents of flow along the coast. Off Seward, Royer
(1979) found that seasonal variations in sea level can
be accounted for by changes in local dynamic height.
He inferred no seasonal change in the barotropic com-
ponent. The changes in dynamic height off Seward are
caused by seasonal fluctuations in the influx of
coastal fresh water.
It is not known if the influx of fresh water is as
important along Kodiak Island as it is off Seward.
Since much of the fresh water accumulated along the
Gulf of Alaska coast passes through Kennedy or
Stevenson Entrance and through Shelikof Strait, sea
level at Kodiak may reflect changes in the barotropic
component of alongshore currents. Direct observations
over periods long enough to determine whether there is
a seasonal signal in the shelf currents are unavail-
able.
A twenty-five-year mean of monthly sea levels
(adjusted for atmospheric pressure) for Kodiak Island
(Fig. 3. 15) shows a seasonal pulse. Sea levels in the
summer are low while winter values are about 20 cm
higher.
If all of the seasonal variation in sea level were
attributable to changes in the barotropic component of
flow, seasonal changes in the latter would be about 20
cm/sec. Maximum barotropic flow toward the southwest
would occur in late fall and winter; minimum flow in
this direction would occur in mid-summer. Wind speed,
coastal upwelling indices (Ingraham et al., 1976), and
the curl of the windstress all have similar seasonal
cycles.
While it is unlikely that all of the seasonal
variations in sea level are associated with changes in
the barotropic component of the longshore flow, it is
also unlikely that they are entirely attributable to
influx of fresh water along the Kodiak Island coast as
they are off Seward.

* 15
5 -
©
º
3 10-
º
>
©
‘o
5-
al-
* -5-
*:
s
3 -10-
U U I U T U T U U U U U
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Figure 3. 15 Twenty-five-year means of monthly sea
level at Kodiak Island. Sea level has been corrected
for atmospheric pressure (Ingraham et al., 1976).
68 Oceanography
3.3.4 Distribution of suspended matter
In the Lower Cook Inlet/Shelikof Strait region
large horizontal variations in the concentration of
total suspended matter exist which give some clue to
ſnean circulation.
Gulf of Alaska water, flowing into Lower Cook
Inlet around the Kenai Peninsula, has little suspended
matter (0.5–5.0 mg/1). Water exiting Lower Cook Inlet
on the western side has a high concentration of
Suspended matter (typically 5.0-200 mg/1). Much of
this heavy suspended load is deposited in Kamishak Bay.
However, water flowing past Cape Douglas has a higher
Concentration of suspended matter than the water
farther to the north (Feely and Cline, 1977).
The distribution of total suspended matter near
the bottom (Fig. 3. 16) suggests a flow from Lower Cook
Inlet towards the southwest along the western side of
Shelikof Strait. The Gulf of Alaska water enters Lower
Cook Inlet and then flows southwestward into Shelikof
Strait or travels westward into Shelikof Strait along
*he northern coast of Afognak Island.
Data from other cruises (see Burbank, 1974) show
slightly different distributions, but all show a conti-
*uity of suspended matter from Lower Cook Inlet into
Shelikof strait. The horizontal distribution of sat
linities indicates a circulation similar to that of the
*istribution of suspended matter (Feely and Cline,
1977).
Figure 3. 16 Distribution of total suspended matter, 5
" above the bottom (Feely and Cline, 1977).
1570
1569
155°
153°
1529
151° 150° 149°
148° 1470
60°
— 10 20 30 40 50 miles
**-*- E. E. |
59°
58°
579
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED
MATTER 5M ABOVE THE BOTTOM
{ 28 June– 12 July 1977
O
56 lº | <1.0 mg/L
1.0–5.0 mg/L —H56
4. 5.0–50.0 mg/L
>50.0 mg/L
| I I I I | —l l l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°






Oceanography 69
3. 3.5 Circulation inferred from indirect observations
157° 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148° 1470
Along the outer continental shelf of Kodiak Island
60°
the flow is toward the southwest (see Fig. 3. 17). The
coastal influx of fresh water into the Gulf of Alaska
30 40 50 miles
supplies water of low salinity to the shelf. The
resulting increase in dynamic heights found on the
shelf (compared to those seaward of the shelf) con-
tributes to the baroclinic flow, counterclockwise
around the gulf. Surface fronts of temperature and 59°
salinity have been reported near the shelf break.
The dense packing of dynamic contours off the
Kenai Peninsula suggests a large baroclinic coastal
flow to the southwest. Much of this water probably
- 100 ºn
passes through Kennedy Entrance and into Shelikof
Strait. Also, a plume of low density water enters
Shelikof Strait by Cape Douglas. The fact that no
vestige of the plumes remains at the southwestern end 58°
of the strait indicates mixing. Unlike the flows along
Kenai Peninsula and the shelf break, the flow through
Shelikof Strait is largely barotropic.
Onshore bottom flows in the troughs leading to
Kodiak Island are probable. There is also evidence of
a bottom flow toward the northeast, into the lower end
of Shelikof Strait. 57°
Eddies which have been found on the continental
shelf could play a significant role in determining the
distribution of contaminants.
—- Surface Currents
-----------> Bottom Currents –56°
56°
I I | l l
155. 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
Figure 3. 17 Circulation based on indirect evidence.







70 Oceanography
3.4 CIRCULATION DETERMINED BY DIRECT METHODS
3.4.1 Lagrangian methods
Lagrangian current-tracking devices are drogues or
drifters advected by the current. A "parcel" of water
can be tracked either by locating the device Peri"
odically or by recovering it if it makes a landfall.
It is assumed that a pollutant released at the same
location and time (and staying at the same vertical
position as the drogue) will follow the trajectory of
the drifter.
Determining the trajectories of pollutants float-
ing on the ocean surface is difficult if not impºs"
sible. Expendable devices such as drift cards and
drift bottles probably follow paths most similar tº
those a pollutant would follow, because they have
little sail area exposed to the wind and they do not
extend deep into the water column where currents may
differ in speed and direction from those of the Sur-
face. However, drift bottles or cards give no infor-
mation on trajectories; we know only the starting and
ending locations. Trackable buoys give trajectories
but are influenced by winds and non-surface currents.
Their trajectories, however, imply circulation that is
8enerally similar to circulation estimated by other
methods.
Drift cards
About 4,500 drift cards were released in three
batches (early March, late May, and early October,
1978) (Schumacher et al., 1979b). Approximately *
Percent have been reported.
The March drift cards were released at five sites
northeast of Afognak Island and at eight sites (mainly
in a straight line parallel to the bathymetry) east of
Afognak and Kodiak Islands. Cards released northeast
of Afognak were recovered mainly along the western
coasts of Afognak and Kodiak Islands. The release site
closest to the Kenai Peninsula produced the only re-
covery in Lower Cook Inlet (north of Cape Douglas).
Apparently most of the cards were advected directly
into Shelikof Strait and did not enter Lower Cook Inlet
(hence the recoveries on the east side of the strait).
Cards released on the continental shelf east of
Kodiak and Afognak Islands were advected to the south-
west. Cards were recovered along the east shore of
Kodiak Island. Several cards were recovered in the
Bering Sea.
In May cards were released along a line extending
south and east from the Kenai Peninsula. Although
recoveries were concentrated densely in Kamishak Bay,
those around Kodiak and Afognak Islands were widely
distributed.
The pattern of recoveries is puzzling in that some
cards released at offshore locations seem to have been
advected to the west (into Lower Cook Inlet), while
some cards released farther inshore landed on the
eastern side of Kodiak Island.
Concurrent with, and shortly after, the release of
drift cards in May, satellite-tracked drogues were de-
ployed near the card release sites. All of the buoys
moved toward the entrances to Lower Cook Inlet, and
three (the one released nearest to shore and the two
released farthest from shore) entered the inlet. After
a month in Lower Cook Inlet, one of the buoys drifted
through Shelikof Strait. Of the other two buoys, one
malfunctioned and the other was advected southward
along the Afognak and Kodiak Islands coast. (See the
section on satellite-tracked drifters.)
Cards released near Kenai Peninsula in October
were found mainly on the west coast of Kodiak Island.
Those released over the central Kodiak shelf were re-
covered south of Sitkalidak Island.
The data show that material released on the water
near the Kenai Peninsula probably will enter Lower Cook
Inlet. Within the inlet landings can be anywhere but
are most probable in Kamishak Bay. Material that
beaches in Shelikof Strait will probably land on the
west coastline of either Kodiak or Afognak Island. Re-
leases made east or northeast of Kodiak Island could
land in the embayments along the eastern side of Kodiak
Island. They are less likely to land in the south-
eastern Bering Sea.
In drift card studies in Lower Cook Inlet by the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Burbank, 1977),
cards were released at several locations throughout
Lower Cook Inlet; recoveries were common on either side
of Shelikof Strait. Of two releases in Kennedy
Entrance (in April and June 1976), most of the subse-
quent recoveries occurred in Kamishak Bay or Shelikof
Strait, but a few cards apparently did not enter Lower
Cook Inlet. One was recovered on Spruce Island just
north of Kodiak Island and two were recovered on the
northern shore of Afognak Island.
Oceanography 71
Cards released over Portlock Bank were recovered
in Shelikof Strait and along the east side of Kodiak
1570 156° 155° 154° 153° 152° 1519 15O2 149° 148° 1470
and Afognak Islands as well as in the straits between 60°
60°
these two islands (Fig. 3. 18). The latter recoveries 2O
E ET
were the first to be reported (about two weeks after
10_0 10 20 30 40 50 miles
ECEIT]
release).
One drift-card experiment conducted in June 1976
yielded an unexpected recovery. Most of the cards
released in Southern Lower Cook Inlet were recovered in
Kamishak Bay and along the western side of Shelikof 59°
Strait. However, one card was recovered in Shearwater 159°
Bay, on eastern Kodiak Island. The trajectory of these
cards is unknown.
Drift bottles
Drift bottles released by Thompson and Van Cleve
(1936) east of Kodiak Island were recovered only along O
the south coast of Kodiak Island and along the Alaska 58 58°
Peninsula, north and west of Kodiak Island (Ingraham,
et al., 1976).
570
57°
DRIFT CARD RECOVERIES FROM A RELEASE SITE
56° ON PORTLOCK BANK – JUNE 1976
—56°
I I I | | | l
15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°
Figure 3. 18 Drift card recoveries from a release on
Portlock Bank, June 1976 (Burbank, 1977).











72 Oceanography
Sea-bed drifters
Sea-bed drifters were released (Fig. 3. 19) north-
east of Kodiak Island by Ingraham and Hastings (1974).
Of the 475 released only 16 were recovered. Most of
these had a net drift southwestward at a minimum aver-
age speed of 0.4 km/day. One drifter released over
Portlock Bank moved northwestward. Only those that
were released inshore of the shelf break were
recovered. It is assumed that the remainder were en-
trained in the Alaska Stream and advected southwest-
Ward.
Figure 3. 19 Sea-bed drifter release and recovery
**tes (Ingraham and Hastings, 1974).
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°
157°
1569
2O 40 60
10 20 30
E. E.
40
155° 15.4°
8O 100 km
]
50 miles
T]
153°
1529
151° 150° 149°
SEABED DRIFTER
148° 1470
—H56°
| _-- | © Release position
- \ ~ \ - - -
s \- * Recovery position
º
__
__
-Hº- I I I I l | l l
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°











Oceanography 73
Another group of sea-bed drifters were released
between November 1977 and November 1978 (Dunn et al.,
1979a). Of the 3,536 drifters released, 33 were re-
covered (Fig. 3. 20). Recoveries were generally made
inshore and southwest of release points. The three
recoveries of drifters released from Middle Albatross
Bank were made in Kiliuda Trough. Three drifters
recovered at the head of Chiniak Trough had been re-
leased at the seaward edge of that trough.
Recoveries were made in Kaiugnak Bay from releases
just offshore. The data show a generally onshore flow
in the troughs and a southwesterly flow over the banks.
Figure 3.20 Sea-bed drifter release and recovery
sites. Releases were made between November 1977 and
November 1978 (Dunn et al., 1979a).
60°
59°
58°
570
56°
1579
1569
155°
I
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
100 m
150° 149° 148°
SEA BED DRIFTERS
–56°
1470
60°
59°
58°
57°
156°
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
150° 149°
148°

74 Oceanography
Satellite-tracked drifters
Hansen (1977) launched three satellite-tracked
Lagrangian drifters northeast of Kodiak Island in
October 1976. The drogues attached to the drifters
were set at a depth of 30 m. The resulting traject
tories are shown in Fig. 3.21.
The drifters were deployed in a line tending
southwest from the Kenai Peninsula. The two drifters
deployed on the continental shelf rotated counter-
clockwise, indicating the possibility of an eddy over
Portlock Bank. The drogue deployed farthest offshore
"eandered generally southwestward.
Nine drifters were released in May and July 1978
(Hansen, 1978). A buoy released east of the southern
end of the Kenai Peninsula went into Lower Cook Inlet
through Kennedy Entrance (at an approximate speed of 20
km/day). Apparently it remained about two weeks in
Southern Lower Cook Inlet before entering Shelikof
Strait, where it had an approximate speed of 16 km/day.
It drifted eastward out of the strait. This trajectory
supports the conceptual model of circulation in which
Gulf of Alaska water enters Lower Cook Inlet and leaves
Via Shelikof Strait.
Figure 3.21 Trajectories of surface Lagrangian drift-
°rs (Hansen, 1977).
1579 1569
155° 15.4° 153° 1529
1519
150° 149° 148°
1470
60°
–60°
— 10 20 30 40 50 miles
-*-*- E EC
59° 59°
DAY 303 _^ /
º
\ \
START ps 294 )
DAY 301 / /
58° (LOST) | º
§§5? – 58%
sº
DAY 301
57°
–57°
DAY 349
[RELOCATED] LAGRANGIAN DRIFTERS
©–O Buoy No. 1473
56° A-A Buoy No. 1540
| H Buoy No. 1576 —H56°
s Deployed Oct. 22,1976
n>
- \, I / I I | I | l _l
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°



















Oceanography 75
Three other buoys also support this model. One
launched due east of the Barren Islands on the 150th
meridian functioned for only a week, but during that
time it travelled almost due west, toward the entrances
to Lower Cook Inlet. Its net speed was about 16 km/
day. The other two buoys were launched near the 150th
meridian but farther to the south (at about 58°30' N and
57°20'N).
The buoy released at the more northern site probably
Both were advected into Lower Cook Inlet.
went through Kennedy Entrance and on into Lower Cook
Inlet. The other buoy travelled (Fig. 3.22) through
Stevenson Entrance towards Cape Douglas and went south,
then east into the strait between Kodiak and Afognak
Islands. The buoy travelled at a net speed of about 51
km/day, or roughly one knot.
The direction and speed of this last buoy seem
remarkable. 3.9 sheds some insight on
However, Fig.
the trajectory.
(The same day the buoy was launched a
hydrographic
survey was begun. ) The buoy launch site
1569
1579
60°
155°
154°
59°
58°
153°
1529
1519
15O°
149°
148°
1470
(approximately 57°20'N, 149°45'W) was on the left flank
of a strong, anticyclonic eddy. The buoy was advected
to the northwest, up Stevenson Trough and then into
Stevenson Entrance.
The
initial
buoy's
trajectory
corresponds to the inferred direction of flow of the
0/1000-db dynamic al.
579
topography given in Reed et
(1979). Unfortunately, since the hydrographic survey
did not extend farther inshore no comparisons could be O
nº
d ith the later part of the traiect - - º -
Ina Ole W1 p e trajectory - - BUOY TRAJECTORY
--~~~ __
56° º
-- - º O
s –56
-
Figure 3.22 Trajectory of a satellite-tracked drifter º I | I I I | l l
buoy deployed on 26 May, 1978. Marks along the trajec- 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
tory show the passage of a day (Hansen, 1978).






76 Oceanography
Two more buoys (Fig. 3. 23) were deployed at nearly
the same location but had different trajectories. Both
were deployed between 58 and 59°N on the 200-m isobath;
One was and the second was
on the 149th meridian
farther to the east at about 148°30'W. The buoy re-
speed of about 9 km/day) towards the southwest. Its
trajectory undulated westward and eastward. The second
buoy was more
quickly advected southwestward on an
almost straight path. While travelling next to Kodiak
Island, this buoy had a net speed of almost 30 km/day.
advected by a weak flow inshore of the Alaska Stream.
The other
buoy continued southwestward
along the
Aleutian Islands; its trajectory probably traces the
flow at 30 m depth in the Alaska Stream.
Figure 3.23 Trajectories of two satellite-tracked
leased farther to the west was advected slowly (net The buoy released farther to the east probably was drifter buoys (Hansen, 1978).
170° 165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°
60 P-
58°
52"|
e Trajectory of buoy 1157,
deployed 24 (July 1978
a Trajectory of buoy 1220,
deployed 24 July 1978
200miles
140° 135°






Oceanography 77
Summary
1579 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 1479
Many of the drifters released east or northeast of
Afognak Island entered Lower Cook Inlet and Shelikof 60°
Strait. Those that did not were advected to the south-
west. Drifters released in Lower Cook Inlet left the
inlet along the western side and passed through
Shelikof Strait. Some buoys on the continental shelf
east of Kodiak Island had trajectories that imply the
presence of eddies. Sea-bed drifters moved onshore,
and up the troughs that lead to Kodiak Island. 59°
3.4.2 Current meter data
Shelikof Strait
The mean flow through Shelikof Strait is parallel
to the bathymetry (Figs. 3.24 and 3.25). Scatter
PORTLOCK
BANK
diagrams for the low-pass filtered currents (Schumacher 58°
et al., 1978) show that the flow had relatively little —58°
scatter about its southwesterly mean, especially at the
K2A mooring. There is little shear between the shallow
(20-m) currents and the deep (100-m) currents except at
mooring C10. Weak reversals did occur, but only infre-
quently.
579
—157°
O 1 O 20 30
Speed cnn/sec
6° WINTER CURRENT METER RESULTS (SHALLOW)
5
—56°
Figure 3.24 Mean currents from current meters moored
at shallow depths in winter. The data are from differ- l | l l
ent sampling periods (Schumacher et al., 1978 and
1519 150° 149° 148°
1979b).



78 Oceanography
The mean currents in Shelikof Strait (approxi-
mately 30–40 cm/sec) are faster than the net speed of
the satellite-tracked drifter (about 19 cm/sec).
However, the period when the current meters were in use
(mid-October 1976 to late March 1977) coincides with
the seasonal increase in sea level (see section 3.3.3
and Fig. 3. 15). Thus the higher mean speed is expect
ted. Also, since the drifter did not travel in a
straight line, the computed net speed is less than the
*Verage speed of its movements.
The lack of vertical shear in the current meter
records suggests that the mean flow is largely baro"
tropic. Schumacher et al. (1978) calculated the Sur"
face baroclinic component of flow relative to 150 db.
At the northeast end of Shelikof Strait the calculated
flow was about 5 cm/sec toward the northeast. This
flow was opposite in direction to the mean flow and was
a fraction of the observed speed. At the southwest
end, the 0/215 db flow was 10 cm/sec toward the south-
West. This was much less than the long-term mean
(roughly 27 cm/sec) at mooring K1. Thus the flow
through Shelikof Strait is largely barotropic.
Schumacher et al. (1978) discount wind forcing as
the dominant driving force for the waters in Shelikof
Strait. They suggest that the most important forcing
mechanism is a longitudinal pressure gradient estab-
lished by the coastal flow through Stevenson and
Kennedy Entrances.
Figure 3.25 Mean currents from current meters moored
ln deep water in winter. The data are not from simul-
taneous periods (Schumacher et al., 1978 and 1979b).
60°
1579
1569 155° 154°
59°
56°
Q 10 20 30 40 50 miles
*a*-CETET)
153°
I
1529
I
1519
NORTH
ALBATROSS
150° 149°
>J-T ~
PORTLOCK
10 2O
Speed cnn/sec
200 °
30
WINTER CURRENT METER RESULTS (DEEP)
|
l
l
—H56°
1470
60°
59°
—H58°
—157°
153°
1529
1519
150°
149°
148°









Oceanography 79
Stevenson Entrance
A 37-day record (28 October to 15 November 1976)
of 20-m deep currents was obtained in Stevenson En-
trance. The mean velocity of these currents was 30 cm/
sec, towards the northwest. The maximum speed recorded
was about 70 cm/sec. Weak currents to the southeast
were observed for a few days at mooring K3A. During
the same period, currents at mooring K2A were very weak
also (Schumacher et al., 1978).
The baroclinic geostrophic current component in
Stevenson and Kennedy Entrances for March 1977 was
calculated by Schumacher et al. (1978). For Stevenson
Entrance a speed of 15 cm/sec (0/116 db) towards the
northwest was calculated. The mean current at Mooring
K3A had twice that speed (the sampling periods do not
overlap, however). The calculated surface speed
through Kennedy Entrance was 11 cm/sec using a 116 db
reference level.
Current meter data in Stevenson Entrance and
Shelikof Strait strongly suggest that flows in these
areas are closely coupled. Lagrangian current records
(Fig. 3.22) support this hypothesis.
Northern continental shelf
Currents on North Albatross Bank measured at
mooring WGC-2E were weak (see Figs. 3.24 and 3.25).
During October and November 1977 they were mainly
southwesterly with speeds of approximately 15 cm/sec.
In February, however, the direction was variable; flow
reversals (from the mean direction) which usually
lasted two to three days occurred several times.
Currents with maximum speeds (about 30 cm/sec) were
oriented parallel to the local bathymetry.
The weak mean currents on North Albatross Bank
contrast with the strong means at mooring WGC-2A. The
mean speed of near-surface currents at WGC-2A was over
30 cm/sec and that for deeper currents was about 25
cm/sec.
The currents at two moorings (WGC-2C and WGC-2D,
not shown) about 15 km apart were compared. The
positions of these moorings correspond to those of
WGC-2E and WGC-2A. The mean speed of each of the
near-surface currents (at WGC-2C and WGC-2D) is approx-
imately 30 cm/sec. However, the net drifts are quite
different: 3 cm/sec on North Albatross Bank (WGC-2C)
and 22 cm/sec on the shelf seaward of the bank
(WGC-2D). (Net drift is the vector average of currents
and represents the mean motion along a straight line
between the start and finish points of a progressive
vector diagram. Mean speed is the scalar average,
regardless of the direction of flow.) Thus the mean
flow at the shelf break was less variable in direction
than that on the bank.
The contribution to the variance for each of the
current records was analyzed. The total variance of
the current record on North Albatross Bank (WGC-2C) was
more than twice (1412 cm”/secº) that of the shelf break
record (604 cm”/secº) but the net drift at the shelf
break was more than seven times that on the bank (Hayes
and Schumacher, 1977). This difference is caused by
the much higher level of high-frequency (every 6 to 25
hours) variance on the bank (1400 cmé/secº) than at the
shelf break (140 cm”/secº). This high-frequency vari-
ance contributes 91 percent of the total variance on
the bank but only 67 percent at the shelf break.
Tides are the dominant driving force in the high-
frequency part of the current variation. Thus, we can
assume that tidal energy concentrated on the relatively
shallow bank is responsible for the high level of
variance there compared to that of the shelf break.
Tidal energy also accounts for the mixing of waters
over the banks in contrast to the more stratified water
in the deeper troughs.
Kiliuda Trough
Between October 1977 and March 1978 Schumacher et
al. (1979b) investigated processes affecting circula-
tion over a bank-trough environment. Five moorings
(K6A through K10A) were placed on Middle Albatross Bank
and in Kiliuda Trough.
Current meters had been placed at mooring K5A at
20 m and 80 m during an earlier experiment (October
1976 to March 1977). Currents at both meters were
predominantly aligned with the bathymetry. The mean
flow was seaward. However, fluctuations in the current
record suggest that wind-induced flow reversals or
shifts in boundaries of currents did occur. Such
changes in the currents could carry water of high
salinity (> 32.5 g/kg) from the shelf into Kiliuda
Trough (see Fig. 3.8) (Schumacher et al., 1978).
At the moorings on Middle Albatross Bank (K6A and
K7A) the flow was generally onshore with typical speeds
of 10 cm/sec. However, the near-surface currents at
K6A were divided about equally between onshore and
alongshore flow. The four current meter records from
the bank area are similar but those from moorings over
the trough differ substantially. Mean directions and
speed also differ greatly among current meters at these
three moorings.
Tidal variance was higher (by a factor of 3 to 4)
on the banks than in the troughs and contributed a
larger percentage of the total variance (50-60 percent
of the total) than that in the troughs (20-40 percent).
Subtidal variances were similar in both environments
although total variances were about twice as large on
the bank as in the trough. Thus, tidal forces are
80 Oceanography
responsible for the higher energy levels on Middle
Albatross Bank. This is further evidence that the
water column over banks is mixed more thoroughly than
that of troughs and that the energy source for this
mixing is the tides.
Southwestern continental shelf
The flow at mooring K12a appears to be a contin-
uation of the shelikof strait flow. The trajectory of
buoy 1775 (Fig. 2 in Hansen, 1978) provides further
evidence for this hypothesis. The buoy followed a path
Parallel to the bathymetry through Shelikof Strait and
out into the Kodiak Island Continental Shelf. *
Vertical shear in the mean currents was much larger at
K12A than at the moorings in Shelikof Strait: *
presence of water of high salinity in southwester"
Shelikof Strait (see Fig. 3. 13) has led to the theory
that a northeasterly flow might occur along the bottom.
High-salinity water was not found in the northeastern
salinity sampling and the only other source would be
water from seaward of the continental shelf. Pe*P
water could be entrained by the high-speed flow out of
Shelikof Strait, thus causing a shoreward replacement
flow.
3.5 SIMULATIONS OF CURRENTS
3.5.1 Diagnostic models
Galt (1977) employed a steady-state diagnostic
model to simulate the circulation of the Kodiak Island/
Shelikof Strait region. The model was described by
Galt (1975, 1978). It is a linear combination of
geostrophic and Ekman dynamics and includes the effects
of bathymetric variations and bottom friction. Geo-
strophic currents are composed of barotropic and baro-
clinic components. The barotropic component is gener"
ated by calculating the wind-driven sea surface set-up.
A bathystrophic balance is assumed in which the cross-
shelf sea surface slope is considered to be propor-
tional to the alongshore component of wind stress. It
is assumed that the barotropic component instantane"
ously responds to wind forcing on a time scale which is
short compared with the period of baroclinic adjust-
ment. The baroclinic component is computed from avail."
able hydrographic data. Frictional Ekman boundary
layers at the surface and at the bottom are determined
from observed surface winds and bottom geostrophic
flow, respectively. The model can, in principle,
simulate circulation at any depth in the water column.
To date, however, simulations have been made only for
surface and bottom currents.
Since the wind-driven flow is represented by
classical Ekman dynamics, the model is restricted to
water depths that exceed the local Ekman depth. Ad-
ditional restrictions are that shelf waves are not
included and that high-frequency motions (time scales
shorter than the geostrophic adjustment period) are not
represented. The importance of shelf waves in the
Kodiak Island region has not been assessed; however,
the rugged bathymetry suggests that shelf waves are
probably scattered by the bathymetry and are not im-
portant. Verification of the simulated currents by
comparison with actual field observations has not yet
been accomplished.
The two simulations reported here (Figs. 3.26 and
3.27) depict the surface and the bottom currents under
the influence of a wind stress of 1 dyne/cmé (which
corresponds to a windspeed of approximately 7 m/sec)
from the northeast. Several interesting features of
these simulations were noted by Galt (1977). Along the
edge of the continental shelf, flow is dominated by the
Alaska Stream. The stream appears to intensify toward
the southwest and it broadens southwest of the Trinity
Islands, possibly because of the bathymetry upstream
of the islands. The dynamic topography for April 1976
(see Royer, 1977) also suggests an intensification of
the flow in this region.
The deep channels that cross the shelf tend to
have onshore flow when winds are blowing toward the
southwest. When the winds are toward the northeast, no
flow through the channels is observed.
Between Cape Trinity and Dangerous Cape the well-
developed coastal current approaches speeds of two
knots when there are strong winds to the southwest.
With winds toward the northeast, the coastal flow is
Oceanography 81
reversed. The strongest flow (about half a knot)
occurs off Dangerous Cape, apparently in association
with the channel across Albatross Bank.
Weak counterclockwise eddies appear both northeast
and southwest of Kodiak Island. A third, weak counter-
clockwise eddy may exist between the nearshore and
offshore southwesterly flow. Dynamic topographies
indicate weak flows in these locations. Eddies can
also be inferred from dynamic topographies and
Lagrangian current data (e.g., Fig. 3.21).
The simulated flow in Shelikof Strait is toward
the southwest, but it has current reversals and compo-
nents that cross bathymetric contours. In addition,
bottom currents flow eastward through Stevenson
Entrance (Fig. 3.27); in Fig. 3.26 the direction of
surface flow through this entrance is not clear.
Cross-sections of hydrographic data (Fig. 3. 13) do
not indicate a baroclinic current reversal. Further-
more, current meter observations (Schumacher et al.,
1978) indicate that the currents in Shelikof Strait are
aligned with the axis of the strait and have few rever-
sals. The current vector that is oriented toward the
southeast (south of Kodiak Island) has not been corro-
borated by observational evidence. It and the flow
reversal in Shelikof Strait indicated by an arrow
probably are caused by boundary effects.
The simulated bottom currents (Fig. 3.27) are
similar to the surface currents, but weaker. The
direction of the bottom currents is oriented (across
the local bathymetry) so that the flow compensates for
Figure 3.26 Computed surface current field from a
diagnostic model using data from spring, 1976. Surface
wind stress is 1 dy/cm" from the northeast (Galt,
1977).
56°
1570
1569
155°
150°
SIMULATED SURFACE CURRENTS
50 Cm/sec
=-
149°
148°
1470
–56°
15.4° 153° 1529 151°
I I I I
15.4° 153° 1529 1519
150°
149°
148°




82 Oceanography
the surface Ekman flow. No reversals are seen in the
bottom currents except south of Portlock Bank.
The results of the simulation agree qualitatively
with the field observations on which the model is based
and with current-meter results (Figs. 3.24 and 3.25).
Simulations using winds toward the southwest have
Currents in Kiliuda Trough similar to the mean cur-
rents shown in Figs. 3.24 and 3.25. When winds from
the southwest are used, the current flow in Kiliuda
Trough reverses (see Figs. 4 and 8 in Galt, 1977).
Harding (1976) calculated tidal heights and asso-
Giated currents for a two-layer region extending from
eastern Kodiak Island to Unimak Pass. Wind forcing, in
addition to tidal forcing, was simulated in some cases.
An interesting result of the simulations with no wind
stress is an apparent convergence zone in the south-
western region of Shelikof Strait. Such a convergence
*one is suggested by drift bottle data reported by
Ingraham et al. (1976).
3.5.2 oil spill risk analysis trajectory simulation
The USGs used a model to determine the risks of
°il insulting the Kodiak Island coastline from releases
within proposed lease areas and along two transPorta"
tion corridors (Slack et al., 1977). The objectives
were to determine the probability of a spill, to deter"
"ine likely trajectories for spilled oil, and to de-
termine the location of vulnerable resources. This
study was recently updated by USGS (Lanfear, Pers:
Comm.). Results probably will be available in 1989.
w
Figure 3.27 Computed bottom current field from *
agnostic model using data from spring, 1976. Surface
Wind stress is 1 dy/cmº from the northeast (Galt,
1977).
60°
59°
58°
157°
1569
155°
15.4° 153° 1529
/
151°
15O°
22° ſº
Ze’
Ar
149° 148° 1479
57°
56° SIMULATED BOTTOM CURRENTS O
50 Cm/sec —56
=-
I l l _l
155° 15.4° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°


Oceanography 83
3. 6 CIRCULATION SUMMARY
All the available data have been used to summarize
the surface circulation around Kodiak Island (Fig.
3.29). This summary is based, in part, on preliminary
analyses of data and unverified results of numerical
models and thus is speculative.
Figure 3. 28 Speculative summary of surface currents
based on all available information.
60°
59°
58°
579
56°
151° 15O°
100 m
~ (ºr Net Drift
and Eddies
149°
\ oo º —H58°
--~ \ ^*
$ 2^
sº & sº
& 9 º'
s sº
& o° / —157°
s”
SURFACE CURRENTS
SPECULATIVE SUMMARY —H56°
I I 1 I l l
153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°









84 Oceanography
Source waters
The general circulation in the Gulf of Alaska is a
counterclockwise gyre. Thus the water in the Kodiak
Island lease area comes largely from shelf areas lying
to the northeast. In the eastern Gulf of Alaska the
Alaska Current overlies the shelf break and is separt
ated from the (nearshore) coastal current. Kayak
Island deflects the coastal current seaward, and it
continues towards the west along with the Alaska Cur-
rent. Middleton Island shoals direct the Alaska 9”
rent farther seaward. The Alaska Stream lies jº"
seaward of the shelf break off Kodiak Island. In the
northwestern Gulf of Alaska a coastal current generated
by the influx of local fresh water, especially from the
Copper River, flows along Kenai Peninsula into Lower
Cook Inlet.
A band of warm water of low salinity extends
throughout the western Gulf of Alaska. The temperature
signal has been tracked as far east as Kayak Is”.
Off Kodiak Island this band is found along the she ºf
break. The low-salinity band has not been found in
Samples taken in late summer and autumn, probably
because of sampling problems.
The Alaska Current appears to bifurcate near
Amatuli Trough (Schumacher et al. , 1978). One part of
the flow moves up the trough toward the Barren Islands
while the second continues toward the southwest along
the shelf break.
*eteorological influence
It is to be expected that meteorological condit
*ions, and especially winds, would play a dominant role
in determining the circulation. These conditions are
controlled seasonally by the migration of the Aleutian
Low and the North Pacific High. Winds off Kodiak
"sland are generally from the northwest quadrant during
winter (October–April) and from the southwest quadrant
in summer (May–September). Unfortunately, we do not
know how these conditions affect circulation.
Undoubtedly, the strong seasonal variation in the
influx of coastal fresh water (due to precipitation
and runoff from snow melt) influences the circulation.
It has been shown that the influx of fresh water east
of Kodiak Island is a major driving force for coastal
circulation in the Gulf of Alaska (Royer, 1979).
Whether fresh water added along Kodiak Island or the
adjacent Alaska Peninsula is important to circulation
is not known.
Although the curl of the wind stress over the Gulf
of Alaska varies seasonally by an order of magnitude,
no corresponding seasonal change in the baroclinic
transport of the Alaska Stream is evident. The lack of
response of the Alaska Stream could be an inability to
adjust baroclinically to a seasonal time scale.
Seasonal changes in coastal sea level elevations do
occur, however. .
The baroclinic transport around Kenai Peninsula
can change dramatically from month to month. In one
instance a combination of winds and the influx of fresh
water appeared to be responsible for a doubling of the
transport. Two episodes of strong winds favoring
convergence kept waters of low salinity and low density
near the Kenai Peninsula, thus increasing the baro-
clinic component of geostrophic flow. The net speed of
the Kenai Peninsula current is typically 10–20 cm/sec.
Peak speeds can be greater than 100 cm/sec (Schumacher,
1979, pers. comm.).
On a smaller scale, it has been shown that winds
measured on Kodiak Island are not representative of
winds over the continental shelf. Orographic and
diurnal effects contaminate the Kodiak Island measure"
ments. The difference between winds measured onshore
and those measured offshore illustrates the need for
measurements of atmospheric parameters over the shelf.
Kenai Peninsula coastal current
The coastal current lies inshore, close to the
Kenai Peninsula. Most dynamic topographies in this
shallow water depict the baroclinic geostrophic current
as flowing around the peninsula and into Lower Cook
Inlet. Low surface salinities (as low as 28 g/kg) and
large relative dynamic heights are found adjacent to
the coast. Thus, there appears to be a contribution of
fresh water to this flow. This fresh water originates
in coastal streams and rivers along the peninsula and
as far east as the Copper River. In general, surface
contaminants near Kenai Peninsula (probably within 100
to 200 km of the peninsula) may be expected to enter
Lower Cook Inlet. Once in Lower Cook Inlet, they are
most likely to beach in Kamishak Bay. (They could,
however, be widely dispersed and land almost anywhere
in Lower Cook Inlet or along either side of Shelikof
Strait. See Burbank (1977) for drift card results in
Lower Cook Inlet.)
Water leaves Lower Cook Inlet on the western side
and enters Shelikof Strait. There it mixes with Gulf
of Alaska water entering directly into the strait,
probably via Stevenson Entrance. Although the water
from Lower Cook Inlet has low salinity adjacent to the
coast, traces of it are obliterated by tidal mixing.
The Lower Cook water also carries a high concentration
of suspended matter.
The transport of the coastal current adjacent to
Kenai Peninsula varies with the contribution of fresh
water and with winds. Winds from the northeast tend to
cause coastal convergence that augments the geostrophic
flow. An increased influx of fresh water also probably
augments this flow.
Oceanography 85
Although the conceptual model of circulation shows
the coastal current flowing into Lower Cook Inlet and
Shelikof Strait, it sometimes actually flows toward the
southwest instead, across the entrances to Lower Cook
Inlet. In these instances the low-density water accu-
mulates over Stevenson Trough, possibly blocked from
entering the shelf by the Alaska Stream. An anti-
cyclonic gyre can form here over a period of about two
months. These gyres have high velocities and greatly
affect the direction and speed of surface contaminants.
Instead of having relatively weak net currents, the
area east and north of Afognak Island develops fairly
intense currents that could draw surface contaminants
from the area into Lower Cook Inlet or Shelikof Strait.
Shelikof Strait
Water in Shelikof Strait comes either from the
Gulf of Alaska, via Stevenson Entrance or Kennedy
Entrance and Lower Cook Inlet, or from fresh-water
sources in Upper and Lower Cook Inlet. Water from the
Gulf of Alaska is of relatively high salinity and has
low levels of suspended matter, while water from Lower
Cook Inlet has been diluted with fresh water that has
high loads of suspended matter.
The baroclinic component of flow in Shelikof
Strait appears to be small compared to the barotropic
component. The dominant force appears to be an along-
shore pressure gradient between Kennedy and Stevenson
Entrances and the southwestern end of Shelikof Strait.
This force can ultimately be attributed to the wind
patterns that dominate the Gulf of Alaska. Forcing by
local winds also may be important in augmenting or
retarding the southwesterly flow. Flow reversals in
Shekilof Strait occur rarely, if at all. However, an
inflow of water of high salinity along the bottom of
the southwestern end of Shelikof Strait is apparent.
Water leaves Shelikof Strait at the southwest end.
Mean currents (Fig. 3.24) tend to follow the bathy-
metry. The presence of water of high salinity (> 32.5
g/kg) near the southwestern end suggests that shelf
water enters the strait from this end along the bottom.
If this occurs it is probably the result of episodic
flows along the bottom rather than a mean near-bottom
flow into the strait (see Fig. 3.25).
Alaska Stream
The Alaska Current appears to intensify as it
becomes a western boundary current (the Alaska Stream)
in the western Gulf of Alaska. The Alaska Stream lies
just seaward of the shelf break off Kodiak Island. As
indicated by the position of the surface salinity
front, the Alaska Stream can move laterally 3–5 km in
about 10 hours. It has baroclinic geostrophic currents
estimated at 50-80 cm/sec.
The mean baroclinic transport of the Alaska Stream
is estimated to be about 12x10° m*/sec (with a standard
deviation of about 2x10° m*/sec), relative to 1500 db.
Large variations from this mean do occur; the maximum
estimate for transport is about 17x10° m*/sec and the
minimum is 8x10° m*/sec. The variations in baroclinic
transport do not appear to be seasonal, which is sur-
prising. The barotropic component of the Alaska Stream
probably does have a seasonal signal, the result of the
seasonal wind pattern.
Kodiak Island shelf
The net alongshore flow on the Kodiak Island shelf
is small. However mean speeds (a scalar description of
currents as opposed to a vector description) can be
substantial (30 cm/sec).
The bathymetry of the shelf creates two distinct
shelf environments. Over the relatively shallow banks
(depths less than 100 m) tidal mixing plus wind-induced
mixing and thermal convection overturning effectively
mix the water column. Surface contaminants of negli-
gible buoyancy could be mixed downward over the banks.
Currents 15-20 km apart on the banks appear to be
correlated.
Over the troughs the water column is stratified.
Mixing by winds and winter overturning do not penetrate
to the bottom (at depths greater than 150 m) and mixing
by tides is not complete throughout the longer water
column. Currents in the troughs seem to be highly
variable. There is little correlation among currents
even over horizontal separations of 20 km or less.
Onshore flow into the troughs appears to be the agent
that introduces water of high salinity. In at least
one instance, circulation in a trough was dominated by
an anticyclonic gyre apparently fed by low-density
waters from the Kenai Peninsula Current.
Speculative summary of surface currents
A speculative summary or model of surface currents
is shown in Fig. 3.28. Lengths and breadths of arrows
indicate relative strengths of mean currents (net
velocity not speed). The model has much greater detail
in Kiliuda Trough than in other troughs because more
data were gathered there. (The bank-trough experiment
was conducted there.) The dotted arrow northeast of
Afognak Island indicates that a baroclinic flow was
observed there but that it was not permanent. The
ephemeral gyre over Stevenson Trough is not shown.
t
$.º


86 Oceanography
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CHAPTER 4 CHEMISTRY
K. W. Fucik, SAI
4. l INTRODUCTION
Hydrocarbons in the marine environment may be
either terrigenous, biogenic, or petrogenic. Terrig"
enous and biogenic hydrocarbons are naturally occurring
compounds. One of the goals of OCSEAP is to assess
changes in the environment of Alaskan waters resulting
from offshore petroleum development. First, however,
it is necessary to identify present levels of hydrocar-
bons and their probable origins.
Hydrocarbons in the water are likely to increase
during the exploration, production, and transportation
Phases of development. Because some of the hydrocar-
bons common to petroleum are also produced by marine
°rganisms, natural background levels of hydrocarbons
must be established before contributions from petroleum
development can be determined. Techniques developed
for tracing the sources of hydrocarbons will also be
Valuable in future monitoring and assessment programs
The few studies of the chronic effects of Petrº"
leum operations on marine environments have reported
little damage.
fects of almost 30 years of petroleum operations on the
In a comprehensive study of the ef-
*stuarine and offshore waters of Louisiana, the Gulf
Universities Research Consortium (GURC) Offshore Ecol-
ogy Investigation (OEI) found that concentrations of
all compounds associated with drilling or production
were too low to be a persistent biological hazard; the
region, which is very productive, appears to be ecolog-
ically healthy; and study sites in Timbalier Bay showed
no significant ecological change as a result of petro-
leum operations, which began in 1952 (Oppenheimer,
1977).
Another study has been monitoring the effects of
an oil and gas field in approximately 60 feet of water
off Galveston, Texas. Although production and develop-
ment began in 1960, petroleum operations appear to have
had little effect on the local environment. Hydrocar-
bon levels in the water have been low (<35 ppb), and
petroleum hydrocarbons have been detectable in the
sediments only in the immediate vicinity of the plat-
forms (Jackson et al., 1978). -
In the same area, Armstrong et al. (1979) examined
the effects of an oil separator platform in the shallow
waters (=2 m) of Trinity Bay, Texas. Reduced benthic
populations near the platform were correlated with
naphthalene concentrations in the sediments. The most
drastic changes were noted within 150 m of the plat-
form. Total concentrations of naphthalenes ranged from
6 ppm to 22 ppm. No changes were evident 500 m from
the platform.
The effects of major oil spills have been varia-
ble. The Argo Merchant spill appears to have had
little lasting effect on the environment (Kuhnhold,
1978; Morson, 1978), probably because the oil remained
in open waters and did not come ashore. The ultimate
impact of the Metula spill is as yet unknown but may be
significant at heavily oiled sites (Straughan, 1978).
The Amoco Cadiz spill immediately contaminated littoral
communities (Hess, 1978); the long-term effects of this
Studies of the effects of the
IXTOC I blowout in the Gulf of Mexico have just begun.
spill are under study.
In gas and oil field operations heavy metals can
enter the marine environment in formation waters,
drilling muds, crude oil, or sediments. Studies in the
Buccaneer oil and gas field off the Texas coast showed
elevated levels of barium, lead, strontium, and zinc in
the sediments; these may have come from petroleum
operations (Anderson et al., 1979). If these toxic
metals are incorporated into the marine food web, they
may ultimately contaminate human food and are thus a
potential health hazard to man. They may also cause
permanent changes in local animal communities. Knowl-
edge of the present concentrations of heavy metals in
the water, sediments, and biota of Alaskan marine
waters is required before oil development begins so
that future changes in metals concentrations can be
accurately measured.
Chemistry 89
4. 2 DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF PETROLEUM
HYDROCARBONS
4.2.1 Horizontal and vertical distributions of petro-
leum hydrocarbons in the water column
The distribution of hydrocarbons in surface waters
has been studied throughout the Gulf of Alaska and Cook
Inlet by Shaw (1975, 1976, 1977). The hydrographic
stations sampled near Kodiak are shown in Fig. 4.1.
Concentrations were low throughout the Gulf of Alaska,
with measured hydrocarbon concentrations generally less
than 1 ppb. These values are as low as or lower than
hydrocarbon levels in other unpolluted areas of the
Figure 4.1 Sampling locations for hydrocarbons, trace
metals, and microbiological parameters in the Kodiak
region (see text for sources).
579
6O2:
59°
58;
157°
1569 155° 154°
153°
152°
151° 15O2 149° 148°
STATION SITES
© Heavy metals sample stations
e Standard hydrographic grid
1470
56° Stations
m Sediment hydrocarbon Sample –56°
Stations -
A Microbiological Sampling stations
I | l l
153 152 151 150 149 148 —




90 Chemistry
World's oceans (Table 4.1) (for a summary of these
levels, see Clark and MacLeod, 1977). Hydrocarbon
Concentrations of April samples were generally higher
than those of February samples but seasonal trends have
not been established. The higher levels in April are
correlated with the spring plankton bloom, supporting
the theory that the hydrocarbons are biogenic.
*—
Table 4.1 Concentrations of hydrocarbons of low
molecular weight in surface waters of the open ocean
and contaminated coastal waters of the world's oceans
(Swinnerton and Lamontagne, 1974).
Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon content
type (mean) (nl/l)
Clean CHA 31-80 (495)
Open
Water C2H6 0. 1-1.7 (0.5)
(n=452) 4 (0.34)
. 05-1. gº
C3H8 0
(0.05)
°45'10
0.7-12. 1 (4.8)
C2H4
0.1-5.8 (1.4)
C3H6 Q
°ontaminated CHA 103-3800 (12500)
Coastal
Waters C2H6 1. 4-650 (71)
(n=452) 0 (95)
1.0-110
C3H8
1.9-35 (11.0)
C2H4
O. 1-16 (2.8)
C3H6
T-
Floating tar was collected in three of 19 Seston
*ows in the Gulf of Alaska (Shaw, 1977). An average of
8.5 x 1073 mg/mº of tar was obtained. This level is
*o to three orders of magnitude less than tar residues
"easured in other parts of the world's oceans (see
°lark and MacLeod, 1977).
4.2.2 Distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons in bottom
sediments
In aquatic ecosystems the sediments are the ulti-
mate sink for many contaminants. Processes that in-
crease the specific gravity of petroleum, causing it to
sink, are (1) evaporation and dissolution, (2) degra-
dation and oxidation, (3) formation of dispersed par-
ticles and subsequent agglomeration, (4) absorption and
adsorption by particulate matter, and (5) uptake of
seawater during emulsification (Clark and MacLeod,
1977). Several examples in which the incorporation of
petroleum hydrocarbons into the sediments has resulted
in chronic pollution have been reported (e.g.,
Armstrong et al., 1979; Blumer and Sass, 1972;
Vandermeulen and Gordon, 1976).
Present levels of hydrocarbons in the sediments of
the Gulf of Alaska are those of a pristine environment.
Sediment hydrocarbon levels measured near Kodiak
(Fig. 4.1) during 1975 ranged from K1 to 27 mg/g dry
sediment (Table 4.2; Kaplan et al., 1977). These values
are low; petroleum levels of unpolluted coastal sedi-
ments elsewhere are usually below 70 ppm (Clark and
MacLeod, 1977). Hydrocarbon levels of polluted coastal
sediments may range from 100 to 12,000 ppm. The range
of concentrations observed near Kodiak may be due to
variations in sediment grain size and organic carbon
content, with higher hydrocarbon concentrations in
fine-grained sediments near the shelf edge and lower
concentrations in coarse-grained sediments close to
shore.
Additional samples collected during the summer of
1976 at 14 stations on the Kodiak shelf (Fig. 4. 1)
(Kaplan et al., 1978) showed hydrocarbons much lower
than 1975 levels (Table 4.2). Gas chromatographic
analyses indicated that levels of terrigenous hydro-
(Kaplan et al., 1979). Distinct patterns in hydrocar-
bon distributions were not found, although the highest
hydrocarbon levels and percentages of organic carbon
were found at the southernmost stations. Overall,
hydrocarbon levels in the Kodiak area sediments Were
similar to or lower than those in other Alaskan sedi-
ment (Kaplan et al., 1978).
Table 4.2 Hydrocarbon levels (ppm) in the sediments
of the northwest Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak Island
(Kaplan et al., 1978).
Organic
Carbon Total
Station % Nonsaponifiable Aliphatic Aromatic Hydrocarbons”
1975
103 0.53 242.0 4.0 3.2 7.2
104 0.39 110.0 5.6 17.8 23.4
105 0.76 166.7 6.7 3.8 10.5
119 0.74 188.4 5.8 14.3 20. 1
120 * = 382.2 6.5 12.5 19.0
121 0. 13 270. 1 13.5 13.2 26.7
122 0.18 36.6 0.6 n.d. n.d.
124 0.92 201.6 6.4 11.9 18. 3
1976
52 0.34 42.2 1.2 2. l 3. 3
57 0.36 28.3 1.4 1.4 2.8
60 0.31 37.7 2. 1 2.8 4.9
68 0.60 69.5 2.3 1.4 3. 7
72 0.23 22.3 1.6 0.9 2.5
75 0.33 33.2 2. l 0.4 2.5
80 0.35 13.0 0.5 0.5 1.0
81 e 24.9 0.7 0.6 l. 3
81 0.50 71 .. 1 2.7 2.9 5.6
87 0.45 29.2 0.8 1.5 2.3
92 1. 17 130.9 5. 1 6.6 11.7
93 1.01 26.1 1.9 2.3 4.2
97 2.45 98.7 4.2 5.2 9.4
98 2. 15 205. 1 7.8 10.9 18. 7
130 0.91 36.6 1.9 3.0 4.9
* Total hydrocarbons = aliphatic + aromatic fractions
n.d. = not determined
From analysis of sediments from south-central
Alaska waters, Shaw (1978) determined that adsorption
of hydrocarbons onto the sediments is unlikely to be a
major factor in the dispersal of spilled oil. In the
immediate vicinity of oil spills, however, oil droplets
may coat sediments and sink, thereby increasing concen-
carbons were much lower than those from marine sources
trations of oil in the sediments.
Chemistry 91
4.2.3 Distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons in selec-
ted marine organisms
Marine organisms accumulate petroleum hydrocarbons
either directly from the water or by ingestion. Labor-
atory and field studies have shown that some organisms
continued to accumulate hydrocarbons until they died or
were removed from the hydrocarbon source. Once removed
from the source, most organisms could rid themselves of
the hydrocarbons accumulated in their tissues. Crus-
taceans and fish can also metabolize hydrocarbons.
Little is known of fate or effects of the metabolic
products of hydrocarbons on organisms.
Petroleum hydrocarbons may be acutely lethal or
chronically sublethal to marine organisms. Their ef-
fects vary with the species, life stage, level of
exposure, the nature of the oil (i. e., crude or re-
fined), and the duration of exposure (Rice et al.,
1977). Most of our present knowledge has been derived
from laboratory studies.
In one of the few field studies on the subject
carried out in Kodiak nearshore waters, mussels Mytilus
edulis from Sitkalidak Lagoon were collected and their
tissues analyzed for hydrocarbons (Shaw, 1977). Gas
chromatography (GC) showed low levels of hydrocarbons,
suggesting that no petroleum has entered the waters of
the Kodiak and Aleutian region (Table 4.3). Similar
levels have been obtained from organisms from other
Alaskan waters.
Table 4.3 Concentrations of total hydrocarbons in the
mussel Mytilus edulis from the Aleutian Islands and
Kodiak Island (from Shaw, 1977).
Hydrocarbon
Station Location Concentration mg/kg
Fraction Fraction
1 2
Unimak Island (Sennett Pt. ) < . 01 4.3
Unimak Island (Cape Lupin) 0.4 5.2
Unalaska Island (Ercter Pt. ) 0.6 7.3
Sitkalidak Lagoon (Kodiak Is.) 0.4 5.5
Fraction 1--saturated and olefinic hydrocarbons
Fraction 2--unsaturated hydrocarbons, aromatics, and
some non-hydrocarbon organic compounds
92 Chemistry
4.2.4 Distribution of methane, ethane, propane, butane,
and olefinic homologs in the water column
Low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (LMWH) are
ubiquitous in the Alaskan shelf regions (Cline et al. '
1978). Methane is found in moderate concentrations and
the C2-C4
localized areas of Cook Inlet and Norton Sound) (Table
4.4). These compounds can be used to identify the
Source of hydrocarbons and to trace mesoscale circula-
tion (Cline et al., 1978). The distribution of
methane, for example, adds evidence to support the
cyclonic circulation in the outer part of Norton Sound
and the clockwise gyre south and west of Kayak Island
in the Gulf of Alaska.
The LMWH distributions discussed below come from a
July 1977 survey of the Kodiak region.
hydrocarbons in low concentrations (except in
Table 4.4 Typical seasonal range of hydrocarbon concentrations observed in the near-bottom waters of selected
OCS areas. Unusually high concentrations occurring singly have not been included in the ranges. Number of ob-
servation periods in each survey area is given in parentheses (data from Cline et al., 1978).
Region NEGOA LCI* Bristol Bay Norton sound' chukchi Sea Kodiak shelf
(3) (2) (2) (1) (1) (1)
Component nl/l (STP)
Methane 100-1500 100-900 60-600 200-2000° 200-3000° 150-2000
Ethane 0.2-1.0 0.3-0.8 0.5-2.0 0.3-1. 3 0.3-3.0 0.2-0.8
Ethene 0.5-3.0 0.5-5.0 0. 5-5. 0 0.3-4.0 1-4.0 0.5-3.5
Propane 0.2-0.6 0.1-0.6 0.2-0. 7 0.2-0.5 0.2-1. 3 0.1-0.5
Propene 0.2-0.6 0.2-0.8 0.2-2.0 0.2-0.9 0.3-0. 8 0.8-2.0
Isobutane 3 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 * 0.05 < 0.05 * 0.05
n-Butane * 0.05 3 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
°2:0/92:1 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 1. < 0.5 < 1 < 0.5
*The range does not include observations from region of gas seep.
*The range does not include observations from the region north of Kalgin Island.
The upper value is the result of strong thermal stratification that existed at the time of the measurements.
Chemistry
93
Methane O O 147°
1570 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150 149° 148
- … _º
Methane concentrations in surface waters were
highest along the southern coast (200 to 300 n1/1) with 6O°
an elongated distribution northward. This distribution
40 60 80
E. E
1OO km
T]
may be related to biological activity or the result of
40
2O 50 miles
3O
a countercurrent along the inner shelf (Cline, pers.
comm.). Favorite and Ingraham (1977) have hypothesized
the presence of a cyclonic gyre along the southern
Kodiak shore, but existing data on circulation do not
support this hypothesis (see Chapter 3). A gyre could 59°
cause materials to be trapped and concentrated in this
a rea . Near-bottom concentrations were distributed
similarly to surface concentrations (Fig. 4.2).
Methane concentrations were highest over sediments
rich in clay (e.g., Kiliuda Trough). These sediments
contain organic material which supports the microbial
production of methane. The highest value (1880 n1/1) O
was obtained from the Chiniak Trough. The high methane 58
concentrations in the waters of Chiniak Trough were an
exception, as sediments here are sand and silt in a 3:1
ratio. This suggests that high bottom values are a
result of either strong biological activity at the
sea/bottom interface or gas seepage from the sediments.
Redden and Kvenvolden (in Hampton and Bouma, 1979) 579
found high methane values in the sediments in this
area, lending support to the latter hypothesis (Chapter
2). Concentrations were lowest over Portlock Bank,
where sediments are mainly coarse sands and gravels.
56°
METHANE -
(nl/l)
I I I 1 | l 1 —
15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O9 149° 148 °
Figure 4.2 Methane distributions within 5 m of the
bottom, July 1977 (Cline et al., 1978).












94 Chemistry
E
*ne/ethene
1570 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 1470
*hane concentrations in the surface waters were
dist.,
*ributed like those of methane (Fig. 4.3). A maximum 6O”
Conc -
*ration of 0.9 n1/1 was measured in the waters
1OO km
J
2O 40 60 80
EI E.
*lon
i 8 the Southern coast. The lowest values were found
In
the
north, where the minimum concentration was 1O 40 50 miles
"4 m/1.
Bottom concentrations ranged from 0.2 to
.8
*/l, with a mean of 0.5 n1/1. They were highest
the Coast and decreased off shore.
59°
58°
579
56°
ETHANE —H56°
(nl/I)
ºre 4.3 Surf istributi Julv 19 I I I | l l
Cli - urface ethane distributions, July 77 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
*e et al., 1978).











- Chemistry 95
Ethene concentrations were uniformly high in the
surface waters over the shelf (Fig. 4.4; Cline et al.,
1978), where they ranged from 3.2 n.1/1 in the north to
5 n1/1 off Marmot Bay. The highest concentrations
extended south along the coast from Sitkalidak Island
to just off Marmot Island. The bottom concentrations
were higher near the coast, with a high of 3.4 n.1/1 on
Portlock Bank.
The distribution of ethene in the Kodiak region
appears to be controlled by primary productivity or by
processes related to primary productivity (Cline et
al., 1978). Thus, the high ethane levels observed in
the surface layers near the coast could be related to
the rate of production of ethene. This hypothesis has
not yet been confirmed, however.
Figure 4.4 Surface ethene distributions, July 1977
(Cline et al., 1978).
157°
155°
59°
58°
579
56°
3O
40
50 miles
154°
153°
1529
1519
150°
3.9
Portlock Bank
149°
ETHENE
(n|/|)
148°
15O2
156°
153°
1529
1519
149°
148°
58°
57°
56°








96 Chemistry
Propane/propene
1570 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149°
1470
Propane concentrations of 0.5–0.8 n1/1 were found
nearshore and 0.3-0.5 ni/1 offshore (Fig. 4.5). Sur- 60°
face concentrations averaged 0.5 n1/1. Bottom concent
trations were variable with levels north of Afognak
Island ranging between 0.1 ni/1 and 0.3 n1/1. The
— 10 20 30 40
-*-*- E. E.
50 miles
T]
maximum bottom concentration was 0.5 ni/l measured
along the southern coast of Kodiak.
The distribution of propene was similar to that of
ethene. Surface concentrations ranged from 0.8 n1/1 to 59°
2 n.1/1, while near-bottom levels ranged from trace
amounts (<0.5 n1/1) to nearly 1 n1/1.
Butane
Butane concentrations were below the limit of
detection of 0.05 n]/1 throughout the area.
58°
57°
56° PROPANE
(n|/|) —H56°
Figure 4.5 Surface propane distributions, July 1977 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°
Cline et al., 1978).








Chemistry 97
4.3 DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF TRACE METALS
4.3.1 Distribution of trace metals in the water column
Water for analysis of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Zn,
Se, Cr, Pb, Ni, Hg, and V) was sampled at several sta-
tions along two transects northeast and southwest of
Kodiak Island (Fig. 4. l; Burrell, 1976, 1977, 1978).
Concentrations of dissolved manganese and vanadium from
a few locations in the Shelikof Strait were also
measured (Robertson and Abel, 1979).
Concentrations of heavy metals in the water column
of the western Gulf of Alaska are low and are distrib-
uted uniformly (Table 4.5). They are generally below
Table 4.5
Trace metals concentrations (Hg/l) measured in the water of the northwest
Island (data from Burrell, 1976, 1977; 1978).
Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak
Station
No.
104
106
108
110
119
120
121
122
124
Depth (m)
0
95
81
10
226
10
175
273
O
240
0
280
0
220
O
40
O
105
Ca
0.03
0.05
0.025.
0.025
0
0
3
0
.
:
5
:
:
:
.04
. 05
. 035
. 07
. 025
. 025
. 025
. 035
. 13
.06
. 05
.08
. 07
. 15
... 10
:
. 20
.24
. 16
. 16
. 15
. 15
. 26
. 16
.42
. 26
. 26
. 33
. 28
. 23
. 28
.24
º
:
H
Hgº
4 (4)?
3.94:0.4 (9)*
9 (6)+
V
;
the oceanic mean:
Gulf of Alaska Oceanic
Element In ea Il In ea Il
Hg/l Hg/l
Ag 0.009 0.04
Col 0.03 0.
Cu 0.2 0.5
Hg 0.007 0.03
Ni 0.65 1. 7
Pb 0.04 0.03
W 1. 2.
Zn 0. 5.
;
Se Cr
n.d 0.23
n.d n.d
n.d. n.d.
n.d. 0.06
* ng/l first number is inorganic Hg; number in parentheses is total Hg.
98 Chemistry
The particulate metals fraction is correlated with
the overall concentration of suspended particulate
Imatter. It is thus highest in nearshore and near-
bottom waters (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6 Selected heavy metals and total major
cation (A1) contents (pg/1) of suspended sediments of
the northwest Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak Island (data
from Burrell, 1976; 1977; 1978).
T-
Station Depth -
No. (m) Cr Mn V Al Ti Na
T--
103 l 0.13+0.04 <0. 020 3.79:0. 43
125 0.26+0.02 0.02 lit0.012 7.40t0. 19
104 l 0.06 lit0. 0 1 0 <0.0056 2.46+0.08
96 0.67+0.03 0.059:0.014 27.38t0. 13
106 81 0. 54t(). 12 <0.057 26. 3+ 1 . 0
108 10 0. 19:0. 12 <0.052 4. 53+0.86
226 0.33+0. 13 <0.055 30. lit0.8
l 10 10 O. 17:0. 10 <0.046 4.42t0.82
173 0.27+0. 20 <0. 080 17. 1+ 1 .. 5
l 19 l 0.68+0.09 0.070+0.051 32.4+ 1.0
204 n.d. 6. 48+0.08 0.094+0.045 35.3+0.8
120 l 0.38+0. 07 <0.036 16.5+0.6
28 l 7. 1 0:0.09 0.224+0.063 1033:1
121 l 0.26+0.04 <0.025 15.0+0.6
220 2.64t(). 08 0.1484.0.051 69.9t0.8
122 l 0.24t(). 04 <0.036 15. 1 + 1 . 0
35 0.35+0.04 0.053+0.024 28.33:0.5
124 1 Tr 0.28t(). 03 0.028+0.020 14.6+0.4
105 0.30+0.04 0.0303:0.029 25.530.6
SS-2 14.6+0.5 0.66+0. 14 41 lit 11 24.2+9.0 680:50
SS-4 0.93:0.04 O. l l to . 03 37.7+ 1 .. 7 <4.0 170+ 10
SS-6 1 1. 4tſ). 4 0.27+0.09 1423:6 42 5 10:30
SS-11 0. 59:0.03 <0.06 21.2t 1.5 3.3+1.6 150+10
SS-13 6.5+0.2 O. 15+0.05 74+3 <6.2 260+20
T-
n.d. --
not detectable above background
Tr--
***0.04-0. 10 pig/l above background
4.3.2 Distribution of trace metals in seafloor sedi-
ments
Sediment samples for analysis of trace metals were
collected from transects northeast and southwest of
Kodiak Island (Burrell, 1976, 1977, and 1978) and in
Shelikof Strait (Robertson and Abel, 1979). The metals
content of these sediments is related to mineralogy and
grain size. Metals are adsorbed onto the coarser
sediments of the western gulf much less readily than
they are onto the fine-grained sediments of the north-
east Gulf of Alaska. The ranges of metals concentra-
tions measured in the sediments are shown in Table 4.7.
No unusually high concentrations of metals were found.
Similar data have been obtained in all areas of the
Alaskan Gulf.
tained in unpolluted areas of the continental shelf.
These data are similar to levels ob-
The available fraction of trace metals in Sur-
ficial sediments is defined as the fraction leached by
dilute solutions of H2O2 and HCl (Robertson and Abel,
1979). Determinations of the available metals fraction
show that generally less than 1 percent of the metals
examined are associated with organic phases. The
extractable metals fraction in the Shelikof Strait was
lower and more uniform than that measured in the
eastern and western Gulf of Alaska. This may be due to
differences in sediment types and textures.
Table 4.7 Ranges of heavy metals concentrations of
sediment extracts and total metals content of bottom
sediments from the northwest Gulf of Alaska near Kodiak
Island (data from Burrell, 1977 and Robertson and Abel,
1979).
Surface Sediment Extracts (Hg/g)
SC nd-0. 20
Cr nd- 1.3
Al 117-599
V (%) 10-14
Mn(%) 37-51
Total Heavy Metals Content (pg/g)
Mn 312-1074
V 27-167
As 1.8- 14.1
Ba 260-1100
Co 3-21
Cr 15-192
Fe(%) 0.83–5. 22
Sb 0. 17-1. 27
Al(%) 7.59-8.21
Ti(%) 0.34-0.54
Na (%) 3.00-3. 82
K(%) 1. 39–1.85
La 15. 1-23. 1
Sm 3.3-4.4
SC 16. 20-18.45
Cs 2. 17-5. 02
Eu 0.91 - 1.05
Tb 0.35–0. 53
Ta 0.30-0. 84
Tn 3.50-6. 64
Chemistry 99
4.3.3 Distribution of trace metals in benthic organisms
Samples of a mussel (Mytilus sp.) and a rockweed
(Fucus sp.) from Kodiak intertidal waters were analyzed
for Se, Cr, Cd, Cu, Ni, and Zn (Table 4.8; Burrell,
1976; 1977; 1978; Robertson and Abel, 1979). Total
metals concentrations in these organisms were low and
showed no metals contamination. The levels observed
are similar to levels throughout the Gulf of Alaska.
They are as low as or lower than those reported for
more temperate regions.
Table 4.8 Heavy metals content (pg/g dry weight) in
Mytilus and Fucus specimens collected in Summer 1976
from Kodiak and intertidal waters. Numbers represent a
mean of duplicate samples (data from Burrell, 1976;
1977; 1978).
4. 4 SUMMARY
Sampling of concentrations of hydrocarbons and
metals on the Kodiak Shelf have been too limited to
show clear seasonal and spatial trends. As in other
areas of the Alaskan OCS, however, the measured levels
indicate an essentially unpolluted environment. Levels
of soluble hydrocarbons and of floating tar were as low
as or lower than those reported in open ocean waters
elsewhere. Hydrocarbon levels were also low in the
sediments and in certain organisms.
Low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (LMWH) were
sampled only once, in July. Their composition indi-
cated them to be biogenic rather than petrogenic. The
levels of LMWH were within the range of concentrations
measured in other areas of the Alaskan OCS and other
unpolluted regions of the world's oceans.
Limited sampling of the water, sediments, and
biota of the Kodiak area indicated no contamination by
Mytilus sp.
Locality Ca Cu Ni Zn w"
Sundstrom Island 10.3 8.0 3.4 107
Sundstrom Islandº 5.2 8.4 <5 e
Three Saints Bay? 6. 1 10.2 <5 gº
Lagoon Point 5.8 9.6 1. 3 102
Pasagshak Point 2.5 9.3 1.6 115
Fucus sp.
Sundstrom Island 483:13
Sundstrom Island” 2.3 2.0 5.3 8
Sundstrom Island 3.0 3. 8 6. 1 19
Three Saints Bayk 3. 1 3.5 5.5 18
Lagoon Point 3.9 1.5 6.7 17
Pasagshak Point 3.5 1.8 4.3 23
*Summer 1975
'us's dry weight
trace metals.
100 Chemistry
5. Biology
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CHAPTER 5 BIOLOGY
J. G. Strauch, Jr., G. R. Tamm, W. H. Lippincott, B. R.
Mate, and K. W. Fucik, SAI
5.1 INTRODUCTION
OCSEAP has as its underlying objective the Pro***"
tion of the environment compatible with oil and gas
development. Alaskan ecosystems have evolved over mil-
lions of years with minimal human influence. *y of
the interactions in these systems are not understood;
it is often difficult to assign them precise quanti-
tative values, anticipate the impact of human activi-
ties, and determine to what extent perturbations are
inevitable.
With increasing industrial expansion and rapid
Population growth, resulting in a greatly increased
need for food, living space, and energy, the world is
rapidly losing natural habitat areas. In Alaska tº
remains a great opportunity to plan for development so
that environmental damage is minimized or possibly com-
Pletely avoided. The data base necessary for such
Planning, however, is scanty.
Before the impact of oil and gas development on
the marine biota of Alaska can be predicted, it is
necessary to establish its distribution and in”
actions. Distributional data, as well as informat”
°n the breeding biology, feeding behavior, physical re-
quirements, and the physiology of different species “”
* used to estimate vulnerability at specific locations
*nd times of the year.
The cycling of nutrients and energy through bio-
*gical communities depend on complex predator-prey re-
*ationships or food webs. Microbes, plankton, *
larger species are all integral parts of these food
webs. Both marine and terrestrial species may be im-
portant members of the same food web. The loss or
drastic population reduction of even one key member of
these webs could have detrimental effects on many other
species. The details of these interrelationships are
little understood and some key species remain uniden-
tified.
The fishing industry represents an important com-
ponent of the economy of the State of Alaska. In ad-
dition Japan, Russia, and Korea exploit a large portion
of the Alaskan fisheries. The recent establishment of
a 200-mile territorial limit will have significant ef-
fects on both international relations and the Alaskan
economy. Wise ecological studies are needed if serious
political and resource-conflict problems are to be
avoided.
The material presented here represents a signifi
cant increase over previous knowledge of Alaskan eco-
systems. Of necessity much of it is preliminary, in-
complete, and descriptive in nature. It does, however,
represent a first step toward a better understanding of
what needs to be done in the future. Some OCSEAP work
toward understanding the dynamics of these natural
systems is already in progress, but much more needs to
be done. Work to date has demonstrated the rich and
pristine nature of the Alaskan marine environment.
Such information can help planners to preserve this
5.2 MICROBIOLOGY
Microorganisms are essential members of marine
ecosystems. The productivity of a region is strongly
dependent on the distribution, diversity, and abundance
of its microbial communities. A source of food for
many organisms, microorganisms also convert organic and
inorganic compounds into nutrients essential to the
primary producers. Certain bacteria capable of degrad-
ing petroleum are important in the cycling of pollu-
tants in areas of acute or chronic pollution.
Microbial populations at several stations around
Kodiak (see Fig. 4.1) were sampled during October 1975
(Atlas, 1976). The results of both direct counts and
indirect plate counts are summarized in Table 5.1.
Direct microbial counts from water samples ranged from
1.8 x 10°/ml to 4.3 x 10°/ml. Direct counts give the
best estimates of the numbers of microorganisms present
but do not differentiate between living and dead organ-
isms. In contrast the viable counting method is selec-
tive for a given population capable of growth under
sampling conditions. The direct method thus tends to
overestimate microbe populations whereas the viable
method greatly underestimates them. Less variation and
much lower numbers were obtained by viable (plate)
counts. The numbers of culturable mesophilic, psychro-
philic, and psychrotrophic heterotrophs were similar
throughout the Kodiak area, although the heterotroph
counts in the water increased slightly from Kodiak
toward Unimak Pass in the Aleutians. Counts in the
sediments of 10°-10°/g were observed, but sediment
samples were insufficient to determine distributions.
Four samples taken from the Kodiak shelf in April 1977
Were counted, using epifluorescent microscopy
(Griffiths and Morita, 1978). Counts in the water were
heritage.
similar to the direct counts of Atlas's October 1975
Biology 103
Table 5.1 Counts of various microbes isolated from
water and sediments in the vicinity of Kodiak Island.
(Atlas, 1976).
Water Sediment
(per ml) (per gram
dry sediment)
5
Direct Count 1.8-4.3 x 10 &
Aerobic 35-97
Heterotrophic
Psychrophiles &
Psychrotrophs
Aerobic 43-80 8.4 x 10
Heterotrophic
Mesophiles
Psychrophilic & 1.0-8. 7 2.8 x 10
Psychrotrophic
Fungi
Mesophilic 7.0-12 1.5 x 10
Fungi
K
Pseudomonads 0.1 < 100
Salmonella- < 0. 1-1 < 100
Shigella
Enteric < 0. 1
< 100
Bacteria
vibrio 12-15 4 x 10
Mesophiles -
Oil-utilizing 0.5-15 < 100
Psychrophiles &
Psychrotrophs
Oil-utilizing 1 - K 10 < 100
Mesophiles
samples but sediment counts were about 10°/g. Bacteri-
al counts by epifluorescent microscopy are easily
misinterpreted, however. Although microbial popula-
tions in the northwest Gulf of Alaska appear to be
lower than those in the northeast Gulf (Table 5.2),
this conclusion is very likely erroneous, since samples
were obtained in different seasons and different years
and since marine microbial populations demonstrate a
marked seasonal dependence in the Arctic (Button, in
litt.).
Counts of culturable fungi in the water were
generally less than 10/ml, whereas the sediment counts
were generally greater than 10"/ml. Counts of meso-
philic fungi were about the same as those of the
psychrophilic and psychrotrophic fungi.
Table 5.2 Direct bacterial counts in the water and
sediments of the northeast Gulf of Alaska measured in
March 1976 (Morita and Griffiths, 1977).
Station Cells/g Dry Weight
No. Cells/ml x 10° Sediment x 10°
d 2.0 0.02
1 1.4 2.2
4 1.4 1.4
7 1.9 1.9
68 1.6 { }
59a 2.0 1.4
57 1.2 2.1
55 2.6 &
e 2.0 tºº
53a 1.2 * †
53b 1.6 1.4
52 1.6 2.6
50 1.5 3.0
42 2.3 1.6
44 2.0 -
37 2.3 0.1
41 1.8 3. 1
30 2.7 0.3
32 2.0 1.3
f 1.5 0.01
8 2.2 &
29 1.6 tº e
28 2. 1 1.2
27 2.2 2.4
a 2.5 0.9
b 2.7 1. 7
C 2.4 * -
Average Values 1.9 1.5
Counts of oil-utilizing microorganisms were gener-
ally low in both water and sediments throughout the
Gulf of Alaska, but were somewhat higher just south of
Kodiak and near Unimak Pass than in other areas of the
Gulf (Atlas, 1976). However, some workers believe that
a substantial oil-utilizing population exists which
remains undetected by present methods (Button, in
litt.).
Microbial isolates were obtained from the tissues
of Tanner and Dungeness crabs collected from Chiniak
and Ugak Bays. These crabs had higher bacterial counts
than crabs taken from the Bering Sea. Bacterial con-
centrations were highest in the gill (9.0 x 10°-1.66 X
10°) and muscle (50-3.8 x 10°) tissue. High levels of
gram-negative microorganisms were found in crabs taken
near Kodiak Island Harbor (Table 5.3). The presence
of many species of gram-negative bacteria is indicative
of human pollution. Fewer gram-negative isolates were
observed in Ugak Bay, which is farther from human
activity.
Bacterial populations in the Gulf of Alaska are
highly diverse (Atlas, 1977). In a study of the utili-
zation by bacteria of various nutritional substrates,
more populations of bacteria from Kodiak samples than
from Aleutian samples were found to use test sub-
strates. Kodiak bacteria also utilized more kinds of
substrates, suggesting a wider tolerance to varying
environmental conditions.
In a study measuring the tolerance of bacteria to
changes in temperature, salinity, and pH, water popula-
tions were more tolerant of high temperatures than
sediment populations, but both were intolerant to
changes in salinity from 3 percent to either 0.5 or 5
percent NaCl. Both groups tolerated a pH range of 7 to
9 or 10.
Various microbiological characteristics were
104 Biology
Table 5.3 Microbial species isolated from Dungeness and Tanner crabs collected in Kodiak waters (Atlas, 1976).
Isolated from Gill Muscle Eggs
Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Staphylococcus epidermidis
Pseudomonas maltophilia Sarcina spp.
Pseudomonas fluores Cens
Group D streptococcus, including Group D streptococcus
one isolate--EnterococCuS Pseudomonas spp.
Alcaligenes spp.
Enterobacter agglomerans Moraxella spp.
Citrobacter freundii Pasteurella spp. gº
Klebsiella pneumoniae, possibly Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
Dungeness K. ozonae Micrococcus spp.
Crab Aeromonas hydroxyla tº * &
Staphylococcus epidermidis
(Coag. neg.)
Sarcina spp.
Yersinia enterolitica
Alcaligenes spp.
Moraxella spp.
Pasteurella spp.
T-
Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus epidermidis
Micrococcus spp. Micrococcus spp. Micrococcus spp.
Tanner Alcaligenes spp. Sarcina spp.
Crab #. Spp . #: *icosceticus
g eticus CILIle to Da Cler
Acinetobacter calcoac Pseudomonas fluorescens
T-
"easured during November and April 1977 and April 1978
at a series of stations around Kodiak Island (Griffiths
*nd Morita, 1978; Table 5.4).
*S part of a sampling program which included Cook
ºnlet. In the Kodiak area, the majority of the samples
"ere taken from Shelikof Strait.
Relative microbial activity in samples from Kodiak
Waters was quite variable and showed no spatial or
The samples were taken
temporal patterns. High activities were found in water
from the Kodiak side of Shelikof Strait in April; their
Sause is unknown. Activity in sediment samples was
*igher than that in water samples. Overall, microbial
*ctivity was lower than that observed in northern Cook
Inlet and similar to those in the northeast Gulf and
Table 5.4
A summary of microbial characteristics from
Shelikof Strait and around Kodiak in April and November
Numbers in parentheses refer to
1977 and April 1978.
sample size (Griffiths and Morita, 1978; 1979).
Microbial
Activity"
WATER
She likof Strait
Apr - 2.83:2.8 (12)
Nov 0.8+0.3 (12)
S. E. Kodiak
Apr 7. 6+ 1 1 (03)
Nov 1. 1:0.3 (03)
SEDIMENT
She likof Strait
Apr 15.3+ 10.6 (10)
Nov 22:5 (11)
S. E. Kodiak
Apr 9.5+2. 1 (02)
Nov 68+ 10 (02)
Respiration
(percent)
65+9.8 (10)
64tó (0.9)
71+7.8 (03)
62+5 (03)
55.4+13. 1 (05)
58.5+2. 1 (02)
56+2 (02)
Nitrogenb
Fixation
0.383.0.07 (02)
1.1+ 1. 1 (19)
0.5:0.3 (05)
Crude Oil
Degradation
Potential
74t 18 (20)
272+ 188 (12)
542t235 (02)
* in terms of Glutamic Acid uptake, units = ng Glutamic Acid/liter/hr
units = ng/dry wt/hr
units = DPM/g dry wt
Lower Cook Inlet. Respiration percentages exceeded 50
percent in both sediment and water samples, Suggesting
that the Kodiak bacterial populations are stressed by
their environment since they respire most of the carbon
they assimilate. -
The nitrogen fixation rates measured in Shelikof
Strait were much higher than rates measured in Kamishak
Bay but lower than those measured in Kachemak Bay.
They indicate a high rate of microbial productivity in
the Strait.
Microorganisms which degrade petroleum are found
universally. Hydrocarbon utilizing microbes have been
identified wherever careful attempts have been made to
isolate them; their populations are denser in areas
where oil is present (Karrick, 1977). Over 200 Species
of bacterial, yeasts, and filamentous fungi have been
shown to metabolize one or more hydrocarbon compounds,
which range in complexity from methane to compounds of
over 40 carbon atoms (Zobell, 1973a).
Because marine bacteria are mainly psychrophilic
(cold-adapted organisms that grow fairly rapidly at
temperatures near the freezing point), it is not sur-
prising that microbial degradation of petroleum hydro-
ZoBell (1973b) has
demonstrated petroleum degradation at temperatures as
low as -1.1°C. (1969) found that bio-
degradation was more important than physical flushing
carbons can occur in cold regions.
Kinney et al.
in removing hydrocarbons from Cook Inlet. They esti-
mated that the crude oil in Cook Inlet is completely
Karrick (1977)
believes that microbial degradation is the most impor-
biodegraded in one to two months.
tant process involved in weathering and eventual disap-
pearance of petroleum from the marine environment.
Rates of microbial degradation of hydrocarbons in
the marine environment depend on the chemical complex-
ity of the oil, the characteristics of the microbial
populations, and environmental conditions; therefore,
Biology 105
it is difficult to predict the rate of microbial oil
removal in the marine environment (National Academy of
Sciences, 1975). Comparative estimates can be ob-
tained, however, on the potential rates of microbial
degradation in marine environments.
Measurements of the crude oil degradation poten-
tial (defined as the amount of “co, produced when a
culture of microorganisms is inoculated with crude oil
to which has been added a pure “c-hydrocarbon) Were
made from samples taken near Kodiak in November and
April (Griffiths and Morita, 1978). The data were too
limited to draw conclusions concerning spatial or
temporal variability. The levels were similar to those
obtained in Cook Inlet (although some areas of Cook
Inlet have very high biodegradation potentials). There
appeared to be no differences between the crude oil
potential in the water and that in the sediments.
Data collected by Atlas (1978a) suggest that ex-
posure to crude oil selects for and enriches hydro-
carbon utilizers but at the same time reduces the
species variation within a given microbial population.
Griffiths and Morita (1979) found a reduced glucose and
glutamate uptake when bacteria were exposed to crude
oil (Table 5.5). While no changes in nitrogen fix-
ation rates were observed during eight hours of ex-
posure, nitrogen fixation appeared to be reduced after
several months' exposure (Griffiths and Morita, in
litt.).
These results have certain implications for oil
and gas development. If hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria
are selected for in chronically oiled areas, oil that
enters the marine system will be more quickly degraded.
However, the concomitant decrease in microbial divers-
ity predicted by Atlas implies that the structure of
bacterial populations might be altered, suggesting that
some of the functions normally performed by the
microbes might not be performed. It is not known,
however, how an alteration in bacterial population
would affect higher levels of the marine food web.
Table 5.5 The effects of crude oil on the uptake and
respiration of glucose and glutamic acid by natural
marine microbial populations found in water and
sediment samples taken from the Lower Cook Inlet and
the Beaufort Sea. The percent reduction is reported as
the mean value for all observations (Griffiths and
Morita, 1979).
GLUCOSE GLUTAMIC ACID
Study Area Date Percent Number of Percent Number of
Reduction Observations Reduction Observations
WATER
Beaufort 1/78 °45 8
Beaufort 4/78 O 3 O - 2
Beaufort 9/78 c5? 40
Lower Cook 11/77 41 21
Lower Cook 4/78 45 32 33 35
SEDIMENT
Beaufort 9/77 °35 20 °33 20
Beaufort 4/78 24% 5 7k 5
Beaufort 9/78 32% 30
Beaufort 1/79 12% 6
Lower Cook 4/78 1.4% 26 18% 7
*These values are for average percent reduction in respiration only.
* e e º º
These difference were not significant at the 0.05 level.
In the Beaufort Sea studies, Prudhoe Bay crude oil was used and in the Lower Cook Inlet
study, Lower cook Inlet crude oil was used.
5.3 PLANKTON
5. 3. 1 Introduction
The organic matter produced by phytoplankton
through photosynthesis is an essential component of the
food web in marine waters. The rate of phytoplankton
productivity fluctuates seasonally according to changes
in various physical, chemical, and biological para-
meters.
In the higher latitudes the greatest productivity
occurs during the spring and summer. The increased
light and stability in the water column stimulate the
onset of the spring bloom. Lack of light is the major
factor limiting productivity in the higher latitudes
during the winter.
The water column is stabilized by the formation of
the thermocline (a region of the water column charac-
terized by a rapid temperature change). The presence
of a thermocline reduces turbulence, which carries the
plant cells into deeper waters and effectively de-
creases algal productivity. The same turbulence in
winter is important in bringing nutrient-rich deeper
waters to the surface where they are available to the
phytoplankton during the spring bloom.
The lack of nutrients is probably the major cause
of slowed phytoplankton growth after the spring bloom.
Because the water column is stratified, nutrients are
not regenerated in the surface waters as quickly as
they are utilized by the phytoplankton. Usually ni-
trates are the limiting nutrient, but phosphate or
silicate may also be important.
Soon after phytoplankton populations begin to in-
crease, zooplankton populations, which feed on phyto-
plankton, also begin to increase. The increased graz-
ing pressure also limits phytoplankton growth.
5.3.2 Phytoplankton
Presently there are few data on the distribution
of phytoplankton in Kodiak waters. In a compilation of
phytoplankton data for the entire Gulf of Alaska, the
only data for the Kodiak area are a few samples col-
lected during the summer in offshore waters (Anderson
et al., 1977). The paucity of data is unfortunate in
light of the high productivity of the Kodiak shelf.
106 Biology
Data on primary productivity are too sparse to in-
fer seasonal patterns of spatial variability. Larrance
et al. (1977) found concentrations of chlorophyll at a
maximum in July near the mouth of Cook Inlet. At
Station 10, about 100 km northeast of Afognak Island,
the maximum value occurred in early May, possibly indi-
Cating a shelf bloom of phytoplankton. The chlorophyll
concentration at Station 11, 200 km east of Afognak
Island, did not change markedly during the sampling
Period of April to August. The highest primary produc-
tivity values (5-10 mc/mº/day) in this study were re."
Corded at Station 11 in May 1976.
Anderson et al. (1977) described phytoplankton
trends from data collected from the neritic and oceanic
zones of the Gulf of Alaska. Similar trends Prº***
occur in the Kodiak area. These authors found a marked
seasonal variation in levels of chlorophyll a * *
surface layers of neritic areas, i.e., areas shoreward
of 200 m depth. Spring averages were generally higher
than summer averages. Similar trends were observed in
chlorophyll a levels in the euphotic zone.
In surface waters and at depths down tº 25 m pri-
*ary productivity peaked in summer in oceanic Zones ,
but it peaked in spring in neritic zones, and remained
higher throughout the summer than in oceanic Zones
(Anderson et al., 1977). Below 25 m productivity is
low in spring in neritic zones and in summer in oceanic
*ones. Productivity below 50 m was negligible in both
*ones because of the low light intensity.
surface levels of nutrients (phosphate, nitrate,
silicate) also vary seasonally (Anderson et al., 1977).
They peak during winter and then steadily decrease
until summer. An increase between summer and *****
*een attributed to regeneration and mixing. Average
*itrate concentrations approach zero in neritic areas
in summer but remain well above those neeeºº" for
Phytoplankton growth in oceanic areas. The difference
has been attributed to the shorter growth period in
oceanic areas and to the lower biomass of oceanic phy-
toplankton resulting from grazing (cf. Anderson et al. ,
1977). Surface concentrations of phosphate and sili-
cate are similar, both seasonally and geographically,
to those of nitrate. Average phosphate concentrations
do not drop as low as nitrate concentrations in neritic
areas, suggesting that nitrate is probably a limiting
nutrient in those areas.
Little information is available on the seasonal or
geographic variations in phytoplankton composition of
Kodiak waters. Larrance et al. (1977) found that the
microflagellates, which are members of the Chrysophytes
and Cryptophytes, are numerically dominant in the
oceanic areas of the Gulf of Alaska, while larger dia-
toms, such as Thalassiosira sp. and Chaetoceros SP. ,
are dominant in the neritic areas. Anderson et al.
(1977) did not distinguish between oceanic and neritic
species because of the limited number of neritic sta"
tions sampled. For the most part, however, the
subarctic phytoplankton communities are widely distri"
buted. The species distributions could not be corre"
lated with biological differences among subarctic
water, mixed water, Alaska gyre water, and Alaskan
stream water. Table 5.6 shows rankings for the most
abundant phytoplankton of the Gulf of Alaska based on
121 ship of opportunity samples.
Effects of petroleum on phytoplankton
Petroleum in the marine environment may inhibit
the growth of phytoplankton. Laboratory studies have
shown that the toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons to
phytoplankton varies with species, environmental con-
ditions, and the type and concentration of oil
(Anderson et al., 1974; Pulich et al., 1974; Mironov,
1970). At low levels, however, oil has been shown to
stimulate phytoplankton growth (Dunstan et al., 1975).
Anderson et al. (1974) showed that crude oils with a
high percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons are the most
toxic. Other studies, however, have shown that
aliphatic hydrocarbons inhibit phytoplankton photosyn-
thesis more than do aromatics (Parker, 1974).
Because of their drifting habit and rapid genera-
tion time, coastal or open water populations of phyto-
plankton are unlikely to be chronically polluted by
petroleum. Nearly forty years of petroleum operations
off the Louisiana coast have had no detectable effect
on the phytoplankton of that region (Fucik, 1974).
This may not be true, however, of enclosed basins or
bays where exchanges of bay water with open ocean water
are limited and where phytoplankton are restricted to
the bays. Hydrocarbon levels in the Bedford Basin,
Nova Scotia, were calculated to be sufficient to
depress photosynthetic activity by a few percent
(Gordon and Prouse, 1973). Decreases in phytoplankton
productivity from chronic oil pollution have also been
reported from the Caspian Sea (Clark, 1971).
Major oil spills, for the most part, have affected
the phytoplankton only minimally. After the Torrey
Canyon spill, all stations sampled except one had
healthy phytoplankton populations. At the exceptional
station algae of the family Prasinophyceae showed
shrinking of the cell contents from the cell wall.
Diatoms and dinoflagellates seemed unaffected, however
(Smith, 1968). Studies after the Santa Barbara oil
spill in 1969 failed to show contamination of phyto-
plankton by the oil (Oguri and Kanter, 1971).
Biology 107
Table 5.6 Rankings of the most abundant phytoplankton species in the Gulf of Alaska. Compilations were made from
121 ship of opportunity samples (modified from Anderson et al., 1977).
Mean No.
Occurrences cells/l
Diatoms
Thalassiosira lineata 1 * > . . .
Nitzschia sp. 2 4
(Pseudonitzschia group)
Nitzschia pseudonana 3 1
Denticula seminae 4 2
Corethron hystrix gº tº e- 5
Rhizosolenia alata tº º 3
f. inermis
Asteromphalus spp. * > . . . .” {- -- º
Ethmodiscus rex tº - tº ( . . . . . . .
Dinoflagellates
Ceratium pentagonum { . . . . . . . . i. e º
Gyrodinium spp. 5 tº º º
Coccolithophorids
Cyclococcolithus sp. "B. '+ gº tº . . . . . * , a tº
RELATIVE RANK
Max. . of Mean Max. . of
total cells carbon/l total carbon
e- - - 1 tº e º 'º -º
5 3 tº º ºs º-e
l 5 2
2 4 4
4 gº- ºr a cº- tº & º
3 * - 3
* - ºr e º tº tº e- 5
tº & 1
* … 2 2 tº e º 'º
* Cyclococcolithus sp. "B.' resembles Cyclococcolithus fragilis.
5.3.3 Zooplankton
Zooplankton are the most important consumers of
phytoplankton. In turn, the zooplankton are consumed
by organisims at higher trophic levels. In spite of
their importance in the food web, however, little is
known about zooplankton numbers or distributions on the
Kodiak shelf.
The NORPAC Atlas (1960) shows that off Kodiak
Island zooplankton biomass values (presumably settled
volume) were about 200 cm”/1000 m”. North of Afognak
Island 400 cm”/1000 m” were reported. These data are
for summer only and are based on very few samples.
Damkaer (1977) found (320 km east of Afognak
Island) that zooplankton volume varied from about 1 to
10 ml/m” in the upper 25 m with maximum values in late
May and early July. For the entire water column (1400
m deep) zooplankton volume estimates varied from 750
ml/m” in early April to 1260 ml/m” in early July.
Since these samples were taken from deep oceanic waters
these data may not be representative of the nearshore
waters of the lease area.
Copepods were the most abundant holoplankters in
the nearshore zone off Kodiak (Dunn et al., 1979a).
Cnidarians, pteropods, amphipods, chaetognaths,
larvaceans, and euphausiids were also important
(present at > 70 percent of the stations). Sipho-
nophores, heteropods, mysids, and thaliaceans were
present at less than 5 percent of the stations. Zoo-
plankton were more abundant on the shelf during the
fall than in the spring.
Euphausiids are an important food source of fish,
birds, and marine mammals. Dunn et al. (1979a) found
that euphausiids spawn from early March until early
fall. They are found throughout the Kodiak shelf area.
Effects of petroleum on zooplankton
Holoplankton populations show large seasonal
fluctations; they have generation times of weeks or
months. Thus it is likely that effects of oil spills
on open-water populations would be negligible or short-
lived. Studies of the effects of oil on zooplankton
lend support to this hypothesis. Zooplankton were
found to have ingested small particles of oil after the
Arrow spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. As much as
10 percent of the oil in the water column was found in
zooplankton feces (Conover, 1971). No permanent effect
on zooplankton was observed after either the Arrow or
the Torrey Canyon spill (Smith 1968), but an entirely
different outcome is possible in chronically polluted
basins or enclosed bays where the organisms would be
continuously exposed to the hydrocarbons.
108 Biology
5.4 BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES
5.4.1 Introduction
Continental shelf and slope waters surrounding the
Kodiak archipelago are biologically very productive.
Large populations of commercially harvested species of
Crabs, shrimp, and fishes use these waters as principal
spawning, rearing, and foraging grounds. In addition,
large populations of noncommercial, yet ecologically
important, benthic invertebrates are found throughout
the region. Benthic invertebrates play a key role in
the trophic structure of the Kodiak marine environment.
If invertebrate populations are adversely affected by
Petroleum development or natural phenomena , populations
of many marine fish, birds, and mammals will also be
affected.
Major fishing grounds for crabs and shrimp are
located in Kodiak waters; small quantities of scallops
and clams are also harvested. Total value * *
shellfish catch to the fishermen in 1978 was $38.6
million (Fig. 5.1). Nearly 21 percent of the entire
Alaskan shellfish catch was taken within the Kodiak
"anagement Area (Fig. 5.2). Most of the Kodiak OCS
lease tracts are located within this zone.
The oil industry and Bureau of Land Management
have designated 1.3 million hectares of offshore tracts
*o the east of Afognak, Kodiak, and Trinity Islands to
* leased for OCs development in December 1980 (Lease
Sale #46). These tracts are located in 30–250 m of
water. The possibility of conflicts between explora-
tion, refining, and transportation of oil and gas and
the fishing industry will have to be faced by develop"
ers, (see
resource managers, and Kodiak CitizenS
"hapter 7 for further explanation).
1978 KODIAK VALUE S38.6 MILLION
KING CRAB TANNER CRAB
5,412 mt 15, 123 mt
$19.7 million
$14.3 million
Figure 5.1
PERCENT OF ALASKA CATCH 20.8
DUNGENESS CRAB SHRIMP
10,373 mt
$1 million $3.6 million
Commercial catch of crabs and shrimp in ADF&G Kodiak management district in 1978, compared to total
Alaskan catch. The Kodiak catch is given in metric tons (mt). Values are based on the average Price Paid to the
fishermen (ADF&G, 1979a).
A thorough understanding of the invertebrate
populations is a prerequisite to assessing the conse-
quences of oil and gas development on the Kodiak shelf.
Knowledge of the life histories, seasonal distribu-
tions, population dynamics, and feeding relationships
of invertebrates will allow researchers to determine
the vulnerability and sensitivity of species to envi-
ronmental disturbances. It can also be used by re-
source managers in decision-making and in reducing
conflicts among users of the various resources. Where
to build an LNG plant, or how to route tanker traffic
so as to minimize disturbance of commercial crab and
shrimp populations near Kodiak are examples of the
Cape Douglas
56."
Cape Kumlik Kodiak
Shellfish
**H. . … * Management 454"
º -- - Area
52" - º
Figure 5.2 Kodiak shellfish management area (ADF&G,
1979a).
kinds of decisions which will have to be made.







Biology 109
This chapter provides an overview of commercially
important benthic invertebrate populations in the
Kodiak area and briefly describes their value as a
Non-commercial,
fishery. ecologically important spe-
cies are also discussed.
5.4.2 Commercially important species
Information concerning the distribution and abun-
dance, population dynamics, and trophics of benthic
invertebrates is compiled by the Alaska Department of
Fish and Game (ADF&G), International Pacific Halibut
Commission (IPHC), National Marine Fisheries Service
(NMFS), International North Pacific Fisheries Commis-
sion (INPFC), North Pacific Fisheries Management Coun-
cil (NPFMC),
benthic invertebrates in the Kodiak area that are of
and 00SEAP-supported personnel. Common
commercial value are listed in Table 5.7.
King crab
King crabs (Paralithodes camtschatica, P.
platypus, and P. brevipes) are found in the North
Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea, and Okhotsk Sea (Marukawa in
1967). In the Kodiak, P.
camtschatica is distributed from the sublittoral zone
1965; Feder et al., 1979) to
water depths of about 275-350 m (Bright, 1967; ADF&G,
1976). The
36-200 m of water (AEIDC, 1974).
usually found at shallower depths than adults (Fig.
5.3).
Bright, vicinity of
(Powell and Nickerson,
fishery typically takes adult crabs in
Juvenile crabs are
Figure 5.3 King crab distribution in the Kodiak
region (Feder et al., 1979; Blackburn, 1979a; Ronholt
et al., 1978; ADF&G, 1976, 1979a).
60°
59°
58°
579
1579
156°
155°
15.4°
153°
1519
15O2
149° 148°
DISTRIBUTION OF
KING CRAB
Adult range
Juvenile nursery grounds
155°
153°
1529
1519
150°
149° 148°
1470
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°

110 Biology
Table 5.7 Commercially important invertebrates of the
Kodiak Area.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Red king crab
Tanner (snow) crab
Dungeness crab
Pink shrimp
Humpy shrimp
Spot shrimp
Soonstripe shrimp
Sidestripe shrimp
Razor clam
Weathervane scallop
Paralithodes camtschatica
Chionoecetes bairdi
Cancer magister
Pandalus borealis
Pandalus goniurus
Pandalus platyceros
Pandalus hypsinotus
Pandalopsis dispar
Siliqua patula
Patinopecten caurinus
Adult king crabs migrate annually from deep water
to shallower areas along the Kodiak coast and onto
°ffshore banks such as
Portlock and Marmot Flats to
"reed (Powell, 1964; McMullen, 1967). During migration
females and males school separately. Females precede
"ales to the breeding grounds by a month or so, and
have been observed on these grounds as early as January
(Fig. 5.4; Powell et al., 1974). While migrating
*horeward, king crabs probably follow the submarine
**lleys on the shelf which usually lead them to embay-
"ents (Powell, 1964; Powell and Reynolds, 1965). King
Crabs may travel as far as 100-115 km to reach their
*eeding grounds (ADF86, 1976).
KING CRAB
Breeding
Larval Development
Movement Inshore
Movement Offshore
TANNER CRAB
Breeding
Larval Development
Movement Inshore
Movement Offshore
DUNGENESS CRAB
Breeding/Hatching
Larval Development
Movement Inshore
Movement Offshore _
PINK SHRIMP
Spawning
Hatching/Larval Release _
Larval Development _
Movement Inshore
T I I I I I I I I 1–1
Month
Figure 5.4 Generalized life history tables for commercially important crabs and shrimp in Kodiak area (ADF&G, 1976;
Buck et al., 1975; Bright, 1967; Eldridge, 1972a, b; Fox, 1972; Hoopes, 1973; Mayer, 1972).
Biology
111
Female crabs must molt before mating, but males
need not. Males generally molt annually, but old males
(> 8 years old) shed their exoskeletons only once every
two or three years. Molting takes place on the breed-
ing grounds from February through May; younger adults
molt earlier in the season than older crabs. Males
molt earlier than females of the same size (Gray and
Powell, 1966).
Copulation occurs shortly after the female molts.
If it does not take place within several days, fertili-
zation will not occur (Kurata, 1960). Older males may
play a more significant role than younger males in
reproductive success of the stock because they are able
to mate throughout the entire season, while young males
are hampered by the stress of ecolysis and cannot mate
as often (Powell, pers. comm.).
Ova are extruded, fertilized, and then carried by
the female for about 11 months. Fecundity increases
with the size of females, the largest producing 400,000
eggs (Eldridge, 1972a). Ovigerous females and adult
male king crabs apparently feed heavily in coastal bays
of Kodiak after mating before returning to deep waters
(Feder et al., 1979).
Free-swimming zoea larvae are released the next
season as females return to their breeding grounds.
Zoea larvae molt through four instars, then metamor-
phose into a glaucothoe benthic larval phase. Glau-
cothoe larvae molt into a juvenile stage that resembles
the adult (Buck et al., 1975).
Juveniles live solitary, secretive lives on rocky
substrates until they are a year old, or about 15 mm in
length. They usually inhabit intertidal areas, often
associated with algae, molluscs, and echinoids (Bright,
1967).
about actively and aggregate,
At one to two years of age, they begin to move
forming dense pods.
These usually contain up to several thousand individ-
uals (Powell and Nickerson, 1965; Bright, 1967), al-
though an immense pod of perhaps 500,000 crabs was
observed in Chiniak Bay in April, 1962 (Powell and
Nickerson, 1965). Older juveniles (> 60 mm carapace
length) again disperse, and, like adults, move offshore
to feed in summer and fall, returning to shallower
waters in spring. King crabs do not reach maturity
until their seventh or eighth year (Powell, 1967).
Most studies have shown that king crabs segregate by
sex and age class on their offshore feeding grounds
(literature cited in Pereyra et al., 1976).
The growth of king crabs, as measured by frequency
of molt and increase in size, is affected primarily by
the abundance of food (Bright, 1967) and by temperature
(Kurata, 1960). Crabs molt up to 11 times during their
first year. In the next two years they grow to about
60 mm carapace length (CL). After three years, both
sexes usually molt annually. Males increase about 16
mm in carapace length per annum, whereas females grow
more slowly. Males grow to a maximum size of 200 mm
CL, females to 160 mm CL (Weber, 1967).
probably live for about 14 years (Powell, 1967).
King crabs
The abundance of king crab has been estimated from
catches taken during exploratory trawl surveys (Ronholt
et al., 1978; ADF&G, unpub. data). In 1973–75, 22,000
mt of crabs were estimated to be on the Kodiak Shelf
and in Shelikof Strait. The estimate for 1961 was 2.7
times as great for the same sampling area (Ronholt et
al., 1978).
was the main cause of the decline.
Intensive fishing for the species probably
The ADF&G closely monitors the commercial catch of
king crab. The fishery for king crab in the Kodiak
area began in the late 1940's. In the early 1960's,
the harvest increased significantly, peaking in the
1965–66 fishing season (Fig. 5.5). Since then there
has been a major decline in the commercial catch, even
—
45r-
4OH-
35-
~ 3OH.
E
ºn
3 KING CRAB HARVEST
O
Sc 25- (KODIAK)
--
º
§ All stocks
7.
5 20-
Q
E 18- Stock ||
5
Ö 16H-
14-
12- Stock I
10-
8 - Stock III
6 - - - - -
4k- --~~~
2| 2/ >, A NSS, ....…?’ ‘ss,” 2 .....º.
O IT I I T-I--I I I T i I I i T I T T T T
5 § 3 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
.
3 : ; ; ; ; ; ; # 3 R S S 3 s : £ $ &
Fishing Season
Figure 5.5 Annual commercial catch of king crab by
stock in Kodiak management district for 1960-79. Catch
reported
in metric tons (mt) (ADF&G, 1979a).






112 Biology
though the fishing effort has remained high (Fig. 5.6).
Key fishing areas for the 1969–75 period are shown in
Fig 5.7, but smaller amounts of crabs also were taken
*hroughout the region (ADF&G, 1979a).
KING CRAB FISHING EFFORT
250
# ,---,
-
: 200 ,”---~~~~ ^ _2^---
> * * e”
J. 150- - - * ,’
s ** ,”
.C.
s
= 50
O -T&T. Tº Tºo To Tºo To To T-Ts "Tº "s" to ' d' N' go 'o'
* f ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
O co ºr un Qo N- Co
Q o & 3 3. 3 3 º 3 3. s s s N- N- N- N- N- N-
Fishing Season
Fi - - - - - -
lgure 5.6 Fishing effort for king crab in Kodiak
"anagement district, 1960-79 (ADF&G, 1979a).
jºre 5. 7 Areas of high commercial catches of king
.* by U.S. fishermen, 1969–75. King crab were har-
6. in smaller amounts throughout the region
*onholt et al., 1978).
1579 156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519
I I I | |
150° 149° 148°
KING CRAB
Average Annual Production 1969–75
1470
—56°
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519
1OO – 399 mt
15O2 149° 148°



Biology
113
From tag return data, the king crab population of
the Kodiak management district has been separated into
six large stocks (Fig. 5.8; Powell and Reynolds, 1965).
Within each stock are found segregated groups called
schools. The three stocks historically most important
to the Kodiak fishery are located northeast (I), south-
east (II), and southwest (III) of Kodiak. Important
schools within these three districts are illustrated in
Fig. 5.9.
The 1978-79 fishing season extended from September
10 through January 15. Total catch was 5121.4 mt, down
10 percent from the previous season,
(194) fishing for
Eighty-six percent of the catch was taken
even though the
number of vessels king crab in-
creased.
during the "seven-inch" season (Sept. 10 to Nov. 30).
The distribution of catches among districts and schools
The
total harvest of crabs was 98 percent of the maximum
for the 1978-79 season is given in Table 5.8.
harvest guidelines in the southwest district, 62 per-
cent in the southeast district, and 48 percent in the
northeast (ADF&G, 1979a).
Figure 5.8 Major stocks of king crab in the Kodiak
management district (ADF&G, 1976).
157° 1569 155° 154° 153° 152° 1519 15O2 149° 148° 1470
6O
30 40 50 miles
59 59°
AFOGNAK º
ISLAND 9
58° –58°
57; –57°
56° - º O
KING CRAB STOCKS –56
| ~ I I I I | l l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°







114 Biology
Table 5.8 King crab commercial catch, 1978, by
*istrict and crab school. Percent of catch that has
°ntered the fishery for the first time (recruits) is
given. Number in parentheses corresponds to area
designation in Fig. 5.4 (ADF&G, 1979a).
Catch
Northeast District (Stock I) metric tons
percent recruits
Portlock (6) 208.4 18
Marmot Bay (5) 18.7 53
Inner Marmot Gulley (10) 97.1 37
Outer Marmot Gulley (12) 89.2 25
Chiniak Bay (9) 9.7 57
Chiniak Gulley (14) 137. 9 30
Barnabas (18) 206. 2 47
Kiliuda Bay (13) 27.2 86
TOTAL 794. 4 (15.5% Kodiak catch)
Southeast District (Stock II)
Sitkalidak (17) 11.7 --
Horse's Head (20) 299.5 31
Trinity Islands (22) 225.2 17
East Chirikof (24) 375.6 26
TOTAL 912.0 (17.8% Kodiak catch)
Southwest District (Stock III)
Alitak Bay (21) 205.6 75
West Chirikof (26) 531.8 14
Compass Rose (30) 1,623.9 38
Ikolik-Alitak (34) 992.5 56
TOTAL 3,353.8 (65.5% Kodiak catch)
Shelikof Strait (Stock IV)
TOTAL 61.2 (1.2% Kodiak catch)
Recruitment is a process in which individuals
become available to the fishery. It may be achieved by
"ovement into a region fished or by growth (Ricker,
1975). A recruit is defined here as an individual that
has attained a size or age that is exploitable for the
Figure 5.9 King crab schools which are most heavily
*Ploited by the fishery in the Kodiak management
*istrict (ADF&G, 1979a).
1570
60°
1569 155° 154° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 1470
60°
30 40 50 miles
59°
58°:
56°
1569
E EC
58°
&
school. DESIGNATION
B : 5 Marmot O
9 Chiniak 57
13 Kiliuda
17 Sitkalidak
21 Alitak
6 Portlock
10 Inner Marmot Gulley
12 Outer Marmot Gulley
14 Chiniak Gulley
18 Barnabas
20 Sitkalidak
22 Trinity Islands O
24 East Chirikof 56
26 West Chirikof
30 Compass Rose
34 |kolik-Alitak
155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°




Biology 115
first time during that fishing season. For instance,
male king crabs that molt and become larger than 178 mm
CL are recruits of that year. Percent recruitment is
often used as one index of viability of a stock. A
large proportion of recruits in the catch usually indi-
cates a strong year-class and several years of rela-
tively successful fishing thereafter. Stocks of king
crabs appear healthiest in the southwest district,
according to the percentage of recruits in the catch
(Table 5.8). This figure was 51 percent in the south-
west, 26 percent in the southeast, and 38 percent in
the northeast (ADF&G, 1979a).
King crab stock assessments have been conducted by
the Kodiak office of the Alaska Department of Fish and
Game for the past eight years. Unfortunately, funding
of research was cut back severely in 1978–79, and only
the southwest and southeast districts could be studied
in detail. The relative abundance of crab size-classes
in these areas suggests that recruitment will be very
good in the 1979-80 and 1980-81 seasons. Harvest
guidelines for the 1979-80 season range from 9,500 to
14,100 mt with a probable catch of 11,800 mt or 2.3
times that taken in 1978-79. Predictions for the
1981-82 and 1982-83 seasons, though, are for only
"fair" catches (ADF&G, 1979a).
Tanner crab
Three species of Tanner crabs occur in Alaska:
Chionoecetes bairdi, C. opilio, and C. angulatus, with
C. bairdi the species common in the Gulf of Alaska
(Bright, 1967). Tanner crabs are probably the most
widely distributed invertebrate of commercial impor-
tance in the Gulf (Feder and Jewett, 1978a; Ronholt et
al., 1978). Tanner crabs occur from the shallow lit-
toral zone (B. Donaldson, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.)
to depths of 475 m (Fig. 5. 10); greatest concentrations
are found in water deeper than 100 m (Bright, 1967;
Eldridge, 1972b; ADF&G, 1976; Feder and Jewett, 1978a;
Ronholt et al., 1978).
In early spring adult Tanner crabs move into
shallower depths to spawn (Bright, 1967; AEIDC, 1974;
ADF&G, 1975; NPFMC, 1978). The timing of these move-
ments in the Kodiak area is shown in Fig. 5.4. Tanner
crabs move onto the inner Aleutian shelf to breed from
January through May (AEIDC, 1974). The species mi-
grates into Cook Inlet from March through September,
with the peak of spawning occurring from May to August
(Bright, 1967). Tanner crabs spawn in the Copper River
delta in April and May (Hilsinger, 1976). In the fall,
after breeding, crabs move back into deeper water.
Tagging studies have shown that, except for spawning
migrations, male Tanner crabs do not wander over great
distances (Watson, 1970).
Females are mature when they have completed their
puberty molt, and mating commences shortly thereafter
while their shells are still soft. Males breed in a
hard-shelled condition. Successful mating between two
hard-shelled adults occurs in this species (Hilsinger,
1976; NPFMC, 1978) but is less common. Mature male
Tanner crabs, like other male decapods, are probably
attracted to females by chemical odors released by the
females (Kittredge and Takahashi, 1972).
After egg extrusion and fertilization, females
carry their egg masses for about eleven months. Gravid
females brood an average of 30,000-80,000 eggs (El-
dridge, 1972b; ADF&G, 1975), although egg masses of up
to 318,000 ova have been recorded (Hilsinger, 1976).
In the Copper River area about 80 percent of the eggs
are produced by females 90-109 mm in carapace
width (CW) (Hilsinger, 1976).
It is suspected that females control hatching
times, as larval release appears to coincide with
phytoplankton blooms (ADF&G, 1975). Bright (1967)
found that captive Tanner crab larvae develop in 12-14
days. Ambient temperatures and food availability most
assuredly influence the rate of development and larvae
might take much longer to mature into juveniles in the
field. Larvae molt through two zoeal stages, a mega-
lops form, and finally metamorphose into juveniles
(Bright, 1967; Buck et al., 1975). Juvenile Tanner
crabs, which resemble adults, are bottom-dwellers.
The frequency of molting and growth in juveniles
is inversely proportional to age. A growth model for
the species is presented in the Tanner crab fisheries
management plan (NPFMC, 1978). Males and females have
similar growth rates until maturity. Females do not
molt after their puberty (maturity) molt, whereas males
continue to molt annually. Older males, however, molt
only once every two or three years (Bright, 1967;
Pereyra et al., 1976). Female size at 50 percent
maturity is 80 mm CW (Hilsinger, 1976). Males may
attain a maximum size of 185 mm CW, females 125 mm.
Tanner crabs are thought to have a lifespan of 12-17
years (Pereyra et al., 1976).
Information on natural mortality in Alaskan Tanner
crab stocks is summarized by Pereyra et al. (1976).
Disease, parasites, and predation are the main causes
of death.
Tanner crabs have been harvested commercially in
the Gulf of Alaska since 1951, but the domestic fishery
started on a large scale only in 1968 (Ronholt et al.,
1978). The commercial catch and effort in the Kodiak
region are shown in Fig. 5.11. As the fishery for king
crab in Kodiak decreased during the 1970's, that of
Tanner crab expanded (ADF&G, 1979a). Improved process-
ing techniques and higher prices for Tanner crab
($0.40/lb. in 1978) have also stimulated this fishery
in Kodiak.
116 Biology
Figure 5. 10 Tanner crab distribution in the Kodiak
region (Feder, 1977c; Feder et al., 1979; Blackburn,
1979a; ADF&G, 1976, 1979a; Donaldson et al., 1979).
It has not yet been determined whether there are
distinct biological stocks of Tanner crabs near Kodiak
(Donaldson et al., 1979). While management of the
fishery is still in its early phases, the North Pacific
T ANNER CRAB HARVEST (KODIAK)
16- = Catch
m = m Effort - 150
14-
-125
- 12- 7,
S º
ºn §
O Q)
S 10- -100 }
- -
^- O
C -
S. V. §
§ 8- W. E
W. –75 =
º v +
Lll
S -50 O)
Q ſº
O --
4- º
Li-
-25
2-
O S ' go 'o "To T-T&TCT 'to 'N' O
ă ă ă （; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Go N- N- N. N. N. N. N. N-
Fishing Season
Figure 5. 11 Annual commercial catch and fishing
*ffort for Tanner crab in the Kodiak management dis-
*ict, 1967-78 (ADF&G, 1979a).
— T]
149° 148°
TANNER CRAB
Adult range
Juvenile nursery grounds
DISTRIBUTION OF
–59°
58°
57°
—H56°
149°







117
Fisheries Management Council has prepared a fisheries
management plan for Tanner crab. In this plan they
specify an Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC) of 9, 100-
15,910 mt of Tanner crabs for the Kodiak region (ADF&G,
1979a). The 1977-78 harvest of 15,813 mt (ADF&G,
1979a) approached the upper limit of the ABC (Table
5.9).
Key areas for Tanner crab fishing during the past
decade are shown in Fig. 5.12 and Table 5.9. The most
productive regions are to the south of Kodiak Island,
but catches vary from year to year in each area.
The Tanner crab fishing season in 1978 ran from
January 5 to May 15. Most crabs were caught between
February 16 and April 15.
Table 5.9 Percent Tanner crab catch by ADF&G fishing
area and season. Total Kodiak catch given in metric
tons (mt) (ADF&G, 1979a).
Fishing Season
Fishing Area 72–73 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78
Northeast 14.7 20.6 20.3 14.8 13.6 11.7
East 17.4 18.8 17.8 18.4 14.8 11.7
Southeast 5.4 6.3 4.6 21.4 28.5 15. 7
Southwest 30. 1 24. 1 28.9 19.6 8.6 26.5
N. Mainland 22.4 23.5 25.9 16.7 16.6 20.4
S. Mainland 0.4 0.2 0.1 t t t
West 9.4 5.8 1. 3 15.9 17.5 13.8
Total Catch 13,925 13,527 6, 191 12,400 9,399 15,096
(mt)
t = catch less than 0.05 percent
Figure 5. 12 Areas of high commercial catches of
Tanner crab by U.S. fishermen, 1969–75. Tanner crabs
were harvested in lesser amounts throughout the region
(Ronholt et al., 1978).
1579 156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 1479
º
2O 40 60 80 tº km Ž
10 O 10 20 30 40 50 miles
*** E. EC
–59°
200 ° –58
–57°
TANNER CRAB
{ Average Annual Production 1969–75
561 & | 100-399 mt
- 400–800 mt –56°
>800
I I I | l l
15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° —

















118 Biology
Dungeness crab
Dungeness crabs are distributed in coastal waters
*long the Pacific coast of North America from Baja
“alifornia to Amchitka Island in the Aleutian chain
(McKay 1943, Hoopes, 1973). In the Kodiak area, they
°Scur in bays, estuaries, and the open shelf along the
°ntire coast from the intertidal zone to 90 m water
(Hoopes, 1973; ADF&G, 1975; Buck et al., 1975). Areas
of major concentrations of the species are shown in
Fig. 5. 13. Adult crabs move into the deepest part of
their range in winter, apparently avoiding the low
"emperatures and salinities found in the nearshore
*ne. Adults move inshore in spring with the onset of
the reproductive period (Mayer, 1972; Hoopes, 1973).
Pungeness crabs are found on most substrates but prefer
**ndy or sand-mud bottoms (ADF&G, 1975). Juvenile
*abs inhabit intertidal and subtidal waters. They
typically hide among protective strands of algae and
**lgrass, or lie buried in the sand (McKay, 1943;
Butler, 1960). Planktonic larvae are found in inshore
*Pipelagic waters in late spring (Mayer, 1972).
The life cycle of Dungeness crab has been sum-
"ºrized by Mayer (1972), Hoopes (1973), ADF&G (1975),
*uck et al. (1975), and Fig. 5.4. Females spawn in
**rly spring and summer in shallow water. They produce
** many as 1.5 million eggs and carry them for seven to
**n months before releasing planktonic larvae. Larvae
molt through six zoeal stages in three to four months,
*hen into a megalops stage. Megalops larvae molt into
"enthic-dwelling juveniles, which resemble adults.
"ungeness crabs mature in about three years. Males and
females have approximately 140 mm and 100 mm CW respec-
igure 5. 13 Dungeness crab distribution in Kodiak
*egion, excluding areas in Lower Cook Inlet and adja-
º: to the Kenai Peninsula (modified from Murturgo,
5).
56°
1579 156° 155°
20 40 60 80 100 km
E E. D
10_0 1O 20 30 40 50 miles
-*-*- E. ET]
15.4° 153°
1529
1519 150° 149° 148° 1470
59°
58°
57°
DUNGENESS CRAB –56°
1529
1519 15O2 149° 148°
















Biology 119
- itv. - id in D
tively at maturity. Growth is more rapid in Dungeness 157° 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148° 147
crabs than in king and Tanner crabs. Male Dungeness
crabs may reach 200 mm CW in eight years, while females
attain 150 mm CW. Data on natural mortality are lack-
60 80 100 km
EL ET)
ing, but these crabs presumably face natural hazards
40 50 miles
similar to those of king and Tanner crabs.
The abundance of Dungeness crab in the Kodiak area
is unknown (ADF&G, 1976). Some estimates for popu-
lations in the early 1960's are given by Ronholt et al.
(1978), but they are probably low because of limited
sampling inshore. Extrapolation of catch levels to 59°
biomass estimates is more difficult for this species of
crab than for king or Tanner crab because the fishing
effort for Dungeness is related to the fishing and
markets for king and Tanner crab. For example, a
decline in the Dungeness crab catch may be a result of
large catches of king and Tanner crab earlier in the
year rather than the reflection of a decline in –58°
Dungeness crab standing stock. Because fishermen try 200 °
to optimize effort, however, the areas where high
catches occur probably coincide with the location of
dense populations of harvestable crabs. Key fishing
areas during 1969-75 are mapped in Fig. 5. 14.
The fishery for Dungeness crab started in Alaska
in 1913 (Hoopes, 1973) and in the Kodiak management
district in 1962 (ADF&G, 1979a). It is primarily a
–57°
domestic fishery in which crabs are caught with pots
fished in 7–50 m of water (Mayer, 1972). The Kodiak
fishery extends from May 1 to December 31, with most DUNGENESS CRAB
crabs taken from June through September. In 1978, 58 Average Annual Production 1969–75
percent of the catch was harvested in July and August ---
(ADF&G, 1979a).
140-99 mt
31OO-2OO mt –56°
>200 mt
Figure 5.14 Areas of high commercial catches of
Dungeness crab by U.S. fishermen, 1969-75. Dungeness
crab were harvested in lesser amounts on the inner sº I I I I i l l l
continental shelf throughout the region (Ronholt et 156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°












120 Biology
The catch and effort data for Dungeness crab in
the Kodiak management district for 1962 through 1978
*re presented in Fig. 5. 15. The reduced catches and
fishery effort in the early 1970's were, in part, a
30- DUNGENESS CRAB HARVEST
(KODIAK)
- Catch
25- - - - Effort -50
E
ºn -
C 20- - º
g 20 40 #
- ºn
- º
# g
º 'S
Ö 15- * -30 -
º * 3.
S E
# =
E 10- -20 +
O o
O S-
Lu
on
.C.
5- I - 10 f
I u-
I
º
O I T —T- T T T T I T T T i I T i T O
ºw co ºr un Qo N- co o o v- ºv co º up Qo N- co
Qo CO QC co Qo Qo Qo co rº- N- N- N- N- N- N- N- N-
Fishing Season
Figure 5.15 Annual commercial catch and fishing
effort for Dungeness crab in the Kodiak management
*istrict, 1962-78 (ADF&G, 1979a).
**sult of the rapid expansion of the Tanner crab fish-
*y (Figs. 5.10 and 5.11). In 1978 the price per pound
*hat fishermen received for Dungeness crab increased
from $0.30 (in 1977) to $0.75, and catches were notably
higher than (ADF&G,
1979a).
in the previous several years
The Westward Regional Office (Kodiak) of ADF&G
"ºnitors the catch and effort within subsections of the
"*nagement district (Fig. 5. 16). In the past several
Figure 5.16
*ngeness crab.
ADF&G fishery management areas for
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148
60°
2O 40 60 80 1OO km
E. ET
10_Q 10 20 30 40 50 miles
-º-º- E. ET
+59.
–58°
—157°
FISHING SECTIONS —H56°
I | | l l
15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°


















Biology 121
years, fishing has been conducted close to ports in the
Eastside and Westside districts. With the increased
economic stimulus in 1978, the fishing fleet also
worked the historically productive areas in the south
(Table 5.10). e
Table 5. 10 Dungeness crab commercial catch and
effort, by fishing section, Kodiak management district,
1978 season. Crab weight given in metric tons (mt).
Percent of total Kodiak catch for each fishing section
shown in parentheses (ADF&G, 1979a).
Catch Effort
Fishing 110. average 10 e ſlo. In O.
Section at (#) crabs crab/pot vessels landings pot lifts
Northeast 16.1 (2.6) 16,863 5 5 35 3,290
Eastside 191.2(30.9) 197,389 5 14 90 36,407
Southernº 111.3(18.0) 111,371 12 3 14 8,571
N. Mainland 8. 1 (1.3) 8,479 8 22 4 1,030
S. Mainland 166.5(26.9) 164,923 7 2 22 21,086
Westside 126.0020.3) 119,332 5 4. 20 23,249
Total 619.2 618,357 6 30 185 93,633
#Data for Southeast and Southwest sections combined.
The stock of Dungeness crabs in the Kodiak area is
apparently healthy. Recruits accounted for 69 percent
of the catch in 1978 for the entire Kodiak district
(ADF&G, 1979a). The average number of crabs caught per
pot in areas little fished over the past several years
(Southern districts) was much higher than the rates for
the more intensively fished Eastside and Westside
districts (Table 5.10). The age composition of popula-
tion, determined by mark-recapture methods, confirms a
healthy stock (ADF&G, 1979a). The ADF&G predicts a
commercial harvest of 900-1,800 mt in 1979, if markets
remain profitable (ADF&G, 1979a).
Pandalid shrimp
Fourteen species of pandalid shrimp occur in the
Gulf of Alaska (Fox, 1972). Species common in Kodiak
waters are listed in Table 5.7. Pink shrimp is the
predominant form caught in trawl surveys (Feder and
Jewett, 1977; 1978a; Blackburn, 1979a; Ronholt et al.,
1978) and accounts for more than 95 percent of the
commercial catch in Kodiak (Buck et al., 1975). Small
quantities of humpy shrimp are caught by the fishery in
Alitak Bay (ADF&G, 1979a); coonstripe and sidestripe
shrimp are taken incidentally to the harvest of pink
shrimp. Spot shrimp, the largest pandalid in the
region, is harvested in rocky inshore areas by a small
pot fishery (B. Donaldson, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).
Adult pandalid shrimp inhabit waters from the
intertidal zone to beyond the continental shelf. The
distribution of shrimp in the Kodiak area is mapped
from data of Murturgo (1975), Buck et al. (1975), and
Blackburn (1979a) (Fig. 5.17). Pink shrimp prefer
depths of 75-180 m (Fox, 1972; AEIDC, 1974) and concen-
trate within 40 miles of the coast in submarine ravines
Ol muddy bottom (Ivanov, 1969). The preference for a
green mud habitat by both pink and ocean shrimp
(Pandalus jordani) has been correlated with the high
organic content of these clayey substrates (Fox, 1972).
Substrates with a high organic content also support
large numbers of infauna such as polychaetes and clams
which pink shrimp eat (Feder, pers. comm.). Pink
shrimp also avoid water warmer than 8 C and concentrate
between the 3.5 and 4.2 C isotherms (Ivanov, 1964).
Fox (1972) describes the depth range for other
pandalids in the north Pacific. The typical capture
depths and preferred substrates of the commercially
sought pandalids in Kodiak are reviewed by Buck et al.
(1975) and Ronholt et al. (1978).
Adult shrimp migrate seasonally. In August and
September shrimp move into shallow bays and adjacent to
islands to spawn (Ivanov, 1969; Buck et al., 1975).
Spawning sites around Kodiak have not been located, but
they are probably widespread. After mating the female
extrudes eggs, remaining ovigerous for five to six
months (Fig. 5.4). Pandalids are less fecund than
crabs; they produce only 900 to 3,000 eggs per brood
(Fox, 1972). Free-swimming nauplii are released in
February and March. Within two and a half months these
mature into a juvenile form that is benthopelagic.
Juvenile shrimp are found at shallower depths than
adults (Buck et al., 1975).
Pandalid shrimp, with the possible exception of
humpies and coonstripes, are protandric hermaphrodites.
They initially develop as males, mature in two years,
breed as males through their third or fourth year, then
transform into females and continue to breed as females
until six years of age (Fox, 1972; Buck et al., 1975).
Information on growth and natural mortality in
Kodiak shrimp stocks is lacking. Predation by fishes
is significant, however (Section 5.6).
The shrimp fishery in Alaska has existed at least
since 1918, with its center in southeastern Alaska
until the 1950's (Wiese, 1971; Fox, 1972). A Kodiak
fishery developed in 1958 and was a major industry in
the late 1960's and early 1970's (ADF&G, 1979a). At
present, however, the Kodiak stocks appear to be in a
major decline (ADF&G, 1979a). The 1960–78 catch and
effort record for the management district is shown in
Fig. 5. 18.
122 Biology
Figure
1976,
5.17
1979a;
Pandalid
Feder,
1977b; Feder et al.,
shrimp distribution in the
Kodiak region (Murturgo, 1975; Buck et al., 1975; ADF&G
1979; Black-
burn, 1979a).
PANDALID SHRIMP HARVEST (KODIAK)
4
O
-
- Catch º
* - - Effort a
-60
3
O
-
2
O
-
10- |-20
-
4
O
O -T-
O * on tº ºr un (o N- Co on o ºr cu co ºr un (o r- co on O
to Go Go (o go co co wo go wo - - - - | | || || ||
co ºr un Qo N- Co
N- N- M. N. M. n-
Fishing Season
Figure 5.18 Annual commercial catch and fishing
$ffort for pandalid shrimp, predominantly pink shrimp,
i; the Kodiak management district, 1960-79 (ADF&G,
79a).
– T]
150° 149° 148°
200°
PANDALID SHRIMP
Low density
High density
I I
15O2 149°
1479
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°





Biology
123
Management efforts have increased in the past
several years as stocks continued to decline. The
Kodiak management district has been divided into fish-
ing sections and subsections (Fig. 5.19).
set up in 1972. In 1973 a harvest season (May 1 to
February 28) was established that halted fishing during
Quotas were
the time of larval release. Seasons are closed early
Thus,
from year to year according to stock
if quotas in sections are met. the harvest
season varies
abundance. Most sections remain open for fishing only
two to three months each year (ADF&G, 1979a).
Figure 5. 19 Management areas for shrimp in Kodiak
59°
58°
57°
56°
157°
1569 155°
10 20 30 40 50 miles
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
150° 149°
1
:
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
&
SHRIMP SECTIONS
Inner Marmot Bay
Ugak Bay
Kiliuda Bay
Twoheaded Island
Southern
5A Alitak Bay subsection
5B Olga Bay subsection
Uyak Bay
Uganik Bay
West Afognak
North Afognak
Kukak Bay
Marmot Island
Chiniak Bay section
12A Kalsin Bay subsection
12B Inner Chiniak Bay subsection
I l 1
59°
58°
–57°
–56°
district (ADF&G, 1979a).
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
15O2 149° 148°




124 Biology
The 1978 shrimp harvest in Kodiak was the poorest
in over a decade, even though fishing effort remained
Strong (Fig. 5. 18). There was a 22-percent decline
from the 1977–78 catch. Large quantities of shrimp
have been caught in past years from Marmot Island, Two
Headed Island, Kiliuda Bay, and the Southern districts.
Virtually no shrimp were harvested in these Northeast
and Eastside areas in 1978-79 (Fig. 5. 20). Alitak Bay
Was one of the few areas around the archipelago that
Continued to have large populations of shrimp. Because
of reduced catches in previously productive areas, the
shrimp fleet exploited several new locations. Two
areas were productive: Wide and Puale Bays on the
Alaska Peninsula across the Shelikof Strait from
Kodiak. In Puale Bay, 2,292 mt of shrimp were har-
Wested in 1978–79; 2,071 mt were taken in Wide Bay.
This combined catch represented 46 percent of the
Seasonal catch for the Kodiak management district.
Catch quotas had not been established in these two new
*reas and 95 percent of the seasonal catch there was
taken from August 6 to September 16 (ADF&G, 1979a).
This finding not only indicates the high efficiency of
the fleet but also suggests that stocks were rapidly
depleted by the intense fishing effort.
Harvest projections for shrimp in 1979-80 remain
Poor. The ADF&G has set guidelines of 3,636-10,455 mt
*nd estimates a probable harvest of 4,545 mt, only half
the 1978–79 shrimp catch in the management district.
The projected catch in 1979-80 is only 12 percent of
the peak harvest, in 1971 (Fig. 5.18).
The reasons for the sharp decline in shrimp popu-
*ations around Kodiak are not well understood. The
following causes have been suggested: (1) larval sur-
Vival and recruitment were severely affected by harsh
"inters in 1970–71; stocks have not recovered those
losses; (2) changing environment around Kodiak; (3)
poor fishery management; (4) increased incidence of
diseased egg masses; and (5) synergistic effects of
these factors (ADF&G, 1979a). Whatever the causes, the
shrimp populations of Kodiak are in a precarious state.
Abundance levels may already be below the reproductive
capacities of species to maintain their populations.
PANDALID SHRIMP
--
9 FISHING AREA
º
O
's Other
5 Southern
O
§ Kiliuda Bay
Twoheaded Island
Marmot Island
s § § S § g
. . . .
$2 St g º S §
Fishing Season
Figure 5.20 Percent composition of shrimp catch, by
fishing area and season (data from ADF&G, 1979a).
Clams and scallops
The razor clam is the primary mollusc harvested in
Kodiak. In the past, weathervane scallops were the
main species commercially sought.
Razor clams accounted for the largest percentage
of the biomass of both total fauna and bivalve molluscs
on the intertidal sandy beaches along the Alaska Penin-
sula and Kodiak coasts (Kaiser and Konigsberg, 1977).
They are found in highest concentrations along exposed
beaches, rather than protected ones (Paul and Feder,
1976). The principal harvest areas near Kodiak have
been on the Alaska Peninsula in Kukak Bay, Hallo Bay,
Big River, and Swikshak Beach (ADF&G, 1979a). Commer-
cial quantities of clams are also taken in Cook Inlet
and on beaches near Cordova in Prince William Sound
(Paul and Feder, 1976).
The razor clam fishery is slowly recovering from
the 1964 earthquake that destroyed many of the popu-
lations and their habitat. Between 1970 and 1974, 45
to 90 mt of the species were harvested per year, but
from 1975 to 1978 harvests have been almost nil. The
1978 harvest was 0.6 mt, worth $1,000, and accounting
for 2 percent of the Alaskan catch (ADF&G, 1979a).
Razor clams spawn in summer, requiring specific
water temperatures for incubation and fertilization
(Nosho, 1972; Nickerson, 1975). Prolific egg producers
(6-10 million), razor clams also have high larval and
juvenile mortality. Juveniles settle into the top few
centimeters of windswept beaches and are subjected to
frequent heavy surf (Kaiser and Konigsberg, 1977).
Razor clams burrow actively as juveniles and may also
move inshore, offshore, and along the coast. By their
third year they are more stationary, remaining so for
the rest of their lives. Maturity is at 4.5-5.5 years
and a length of 115 mm. They may live more than 15
years (Nosho, 1972).


Biology 125
Scallop beds are generally restricted to 55-130 m
water depths, 30-70 km offshore, and to substrates that
are a mixture of sand, gravel, and mud (Hennick, 1970,
1973; ADF&G, 1975). The Marmot and Portlock Banks
support the major concentrations of scallops in the
Kodiak area (Fig. 5.21). Large beds of weathervane
scallops are also located from Cape Fairweather to Cape
St. Elias, with small concentrations found east of
Montague Island.
The weathervane scallop spawns in June and July,
releasing gametes into the water column. Fertilization
depends on local water movements. After brief egg and
planktonic larval stages, juvenile scallops settle,
preferably on mud, clay, sand, or gravel (Eldridge,
1972c). Scallops mature in three years, when they are
80-125 mm (measured from the umbo to the outer shell
margin). As scallops grow, they add additional bands
of shell (about one per annum) (Hennick, 1970). Scal-
lops may live for more than 15 years. Some specimens
measure 225 mm or more in size (Hennick, 1970).
Figure 5.21 Distribution of scallops near Kodiak
archipelago (modified from Murturgo, 1975).
1570
156°
155°
15.4°
153°
152°
151°
150°
149°
148° 1479
59°
58°
57°
SCALLOPS –56°
l
149°
148°



126 Biology
Areas of historically high commercial scallop
Satches are illustrated in Fig. 5.22. The total catch
for the area east of Kodiak Island was 1,667 mt or 51
Percent of the gulf-wide harvest in 1969-75 (Ronholt et
*l., 1978). The 1974 catch of 67 mt was worth $200
thousand, down sharply from catches in the early 1970's
(ADF&G, 1976). No scallop catch was reported in the
Kodiak management district in 1978 (ADF&G, 1979a).
Figure 5.22 Areas of high commercial catches of
lººps by U.S. fishermen, 1969-75 (Ronholt et al.,
8).
56°
— T]
SCALLOP
150° 149° 148°
º
Average Annual Production 1969–75
- 20-49 mt
15O2 149° 148°
1479
60°
259°
58°
57°
56°





Biology
127
5. 4.3 Non-commercial benthic invertebrates
Benthic invertebrates which are not harvested
commercially are, however, of great importance in the
marine ecosystem surrounding the Kodiak archipelago.
Their biomass is substantial, they are an integral part
of marine food webs, and many are sensitive or
vulnerable to hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Thus they
are important organisms to study with respect to 00S
development.
Shevtsov (1964a, 1964b) and Semenov (1964)
reported the distributions of invertebrates from the
Gulf of Alaska. In a more comprehensive study, Semenov
(1965) described marine benthic assemblages or
communities (biocenoses in the Russian literature). He
showed the relationship between water depth, substrate
type, and prevalent mode of feeding among benthos. The
biomass densities of the benthos in the Gulf of Alaska,
grouped by feeding mode and substrate type, are shown
in Table 5.11. Non-mobile filter feeders (e.g.,
barnacles, mussels) Were found in greatest
concentrations among rocky substrates. They were
common at moderate water depths (45–90 m) and most
abundant in between submarine canyons and on banks such
as Albatross Bank. The strong currents in these areas
prohibit sediments from accumulating, thus maintaining
a rocky or gravelly habitat which provides attachment
sites for these animals. Mobile filter-feeders (e.g.,
scallops) were found on sand and gravel substrates and
were common between 50 and 150 m water depths,
especially on coarser sediments such as those found on
the Portlock Banks. Browsers (e.g., ophiuroids, hermit
crabs) were found at about the same water depths as
mobile filter-feeders; they were abundant around
Chirikof and the Trinity Islands and were associated
with all substrate types. Non-selective feeders (e.g.,
Table 5.11 Relationship between
(Semenov, 1965).
the distribution of trophic groups of benthos and types of bottom sediments
Filter feeders Detritus feeders Carnivores
No. of Total
Substrate Stations nonmobile mobile browsers nonselective biomass
2 2 2 2
g/m g/m g/m g/m g/m”
Mud 12 0.80 0.66 1.27 ll. 16 41.90 8.15 63. 14
Sandy mud 10 0.50 0.19 2.65 ll. 51 39.54 4.03 57. 92
Muddy sand ll 0.51 12.88 1.08 15. 55 5. 75 4.54 39.80
Sand 9 0.39 0.64 19. 13 20.26 0. 51 7. 17 47.71
Mud with ad-
mixture of
pebbles & 7 { tº 7.09 7.09 15.05 5. 71 6.66 41.60
gravel
Sandy mud,
gravel,
pebbles 6 tº- 32. 36 4.62 17. 99 13.53 l. 88 70.38
Muddy sand,
gravel, peb- 20 & 62. 69 18.76 22.27 4. 16 12.35 120.23
bles
Pebbles, gravel,
sand, stones, wº
shells 14 tº-e 15.82 9.55 12. 22 l. 35 ll. 00 49.94
Rocks • 3 i., § 470. 30 4.78 ll. 90 0.04 30. 27 517. 29
sipunculid worms) were typically found in 100-244 m of
Water. These were COmmon West of Kodiak
entrance to the Shelikof Strait (Fig.
COntent. Carnivores typically were found
environments.
5. 23).
in the
They
prefer substrates with a relatively high organic
in rocky
Benthic invertebrates
(all types) were found in
greatest concentrations on the continental shelf in the
western Gulf; here the average biomass was 180 g/mº.
In the northern and eastern Gulf of Alaska, biomasses
of 64 and 23 g/m” of benthic invertebrates were
reported, respectively.
128 Biology
1570 156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 15O° 149° 148° 1479
º
40
30
50 miles
BENTHIC FAUNA
Browsers
Non-mobile filter feeders
Mobile filter feeders —H56°
Non-Selective feeders
56 H.
Figure 5.23 Distribution of benthic invertebrate - o O
feeding types (Shevtsov, 1964a; semenov, 1965). 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 151 150° 149 148





Biology 129
More recently a team of researchers from the
University of Alaska and the NMFS has studied the
benthic invertebrates of the Alaskan Continental Shelf
and Slope. The distribution and abundance of epifauna
and infauna and their trophic relationships are
by Feder (1977a, 1977b, 1977c); Feder,
Hoberg, and Jewett (1979); Feder and Jewett (1978a,
1978b, 1979a, 1979b); Feder and Matheke (1979); Feder,
et al. (1976a); Feder et al. (1976b); Feder and Paul
(1979); Paul and Feder (1976); Paul, Feder, and Jewett
(1979); Ronholt et al. (1978).
discussed
Feder and Jewett (1979b) surveyed the epibenthic
fauna of Alitak and Ugak Bays (Fig. 5.24) with otter
trawl gear in June, July, and August, 1976 and March,
1977. Twelve phyla, 23 classes, 66 families, 79
genera, and 106 species were identified. A list of
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
EPIFAUNA SAMPLING STATIONS
a March
• June–July —H56°
1 l l l 1–
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148°
Figure 5.24 Epifauna sampling stations 1976-79 (Feder
and Jewett, 1979b; Feder et al., 1979).
common epibenthic organisms found in Kodiak bays is
shown in Table 5.12.
predominant in number of individuals
Table 5.12 Common epibenthic organisms
Ugak, Izhut, and Kiliuda Bays that are not commercially
harvested (Feder and Jewett, 1979b; Feder et. al.,
1979).
Arthropoda (Crustacea) were
and biomass;
of Alitak,
Scientific Name
Common Name
Cnidaria
Metridium senile
Mollusca
Mytilus edulis
Clinocardium ciliatum
Macoma spp.
Nucula tenuis
Nuculana fossa
Axinopsida serricata
Fusitriton oregonensis
Nucella lamellosa
Arthropoda
Balanus crenatus
Balanus rostratus
Eualus biunguis
Crangon dalli
Crangon communis
Agris lax
Agris dentala
Pagurus ochotensis
Pagurus capillatus
Oregonia gracilis
Hyas lyrata
Cancer oregonensis
Echinodermata
Evasterias echinosoma
Stylasterias forreri
Pycnopodia helianthoides
Echinarachnius parma
Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis
Stronglyocentrotus purpuratus
Ophiura sarsi
Sea anemone
blue mussel
Iceland cockle
clam
clam
clam
clam
Oregon triton
frilled dogwinkle
barnacle
barnacle
shrimp
sand shrimp
gray shrimp
rock shrimp
rock shrimp
hermit crab
hermit crab
decorator crab
lyre crab
Cancer crab
Sea Star
Sea Star
sunflower star
sand dollar
green urchin
purple urchin
brittle star
Porifera, Cnidaria, Annelida, Mollusca, and
Echinodermata accounted for only 2 percent of the
observed biomass (Table 5.13). Commercially important
king crab, Tanner crab, and pink shrimp were the
organisms taken most commonly from these bays. The
biomass was greatest in both bays in March. The lowest
biomass occured in August in Alitak Bay and in June in
Ugak Bay. The average epifaunal biomass during all
sampling months was 4.7 g wet wt/m”
Table 5. 13 Number, weight, and density of major
epifaunal invertebrate phyla of Alitak and Ugak Bays,
June, July, August 1976 and March 1977 (Feder and
Jewett, 1979b).
Number of Percent of Biomass density
organisms Weight (kg) total weight (g/nº
Porifera 649 1037 44 89 0.38 1.25 0.02 0.04
Cnidaria 71 275 12 45 0.10 0.63 0.01 0.02
Mollusca 276 570 17 6 0.14 0.09 0.01 d
Arthropoda 29,4718 162337 11587 6820 99.10 95.85 5.94 3.39
Echinodermata 77 57.7 23 137 0.19 1.93 0.01 0.07
TOTAL 2957.91 1647.96 11683 7097 99.91 99.75 5.99 3.52
average biomass <0.018/m”
Epifauna were sampled with try net and otter trawl
gear in Izhut and Kiliuda Bays from April to November
1978 and on the Kodiak Shelf in March, June, and July
1978. Monthly average biomass estimates for each area
are given in Table 5.14 (Feder et al., 1979). They are
Table 5.14 Densities of epibenthic organisms by
weight, for inshore and offshore stations sampled in
1978 (Feder et al., 1979).
Location Mean Biomass (g/mº.)
Inshore Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Nov.
Izhut Bay - 1.56 1.63 5.27 2.26 3. 72 1.76
Kiliuda Bay - 2.04 - 2.80 2.06 5.58 4.89
Offshore
Portlock Bank 0.47 - - - - - -
Kodiak Shelf - - - 3.94% - - -
*biomass is average for June and July sampling.

130 Biology
Similar in magnitude to . the estimates reported for
Alitak and Ugak Bays (Feder and Jewett, 1979b, Table
5. 13). Both of these studies, however, indicate much
less dense concentrations of benthic invertebrates than
those reported by Semenov (1965; Table 5.11). One
explanation is that the Russian samples were collected
With grab samplers, which presumably captured infauna
as well as epifauna whereas samples taken with otter
trawl gear contained few infauna. Most of the epifauna
taken in the four bays were carnivorous crabs, shrimp,
and echinoids. When the biomass densities of these
forms are compared with those reported by Semenov
(1965), the disparity in biomass values decreases. In
8eneral, biomass densities are less than 10 g/m”
(Tables 5.12–14). Since rocky offshore areas were not
Sampled by Feder et al. (1979), comparison with
Semenov's (1965) data for rocky areas is not possible.
The composition of the epifauna, by phylum, in
**hut and Kiliuda Bays in 1978 is shown in Table 5. 15.
Populations in Kiliuda Bay are similar to those in
*litak and Ugak Bays (Table 5.13). Commercially
Valuable populations of king crab, Tanner crab, and
Pink shrimp account for most of the trawled biomass.
* Izhut Bay a large percentage of the epibenthic
*iomass in all months was composed of the sunflower
*tarfish. Average biomass estimates for this echinoid
*anged from 15 to 61 percent of the epibenthic catch.
*her noncommercial species (i.e., sponges, anemones,
*nd starfish) were also consistently found in catches
*lthough in much smaller amounts. Of the commercially
Sought species, only Tanner crab was taken in large
*mounts throughout the year in Izhut Bay. Pink shrimp
did comprise 45 and 23 percent of the biomass in August
and May, respectively. King crabs were virtually
*bsent from the samples taken in Izhut Bay (Feder et
*l., 1979).
Table 5.15 Percent biomass composition of epibenthic
organisms trawled in Izhut and Kiliuda Bays, 1978
(Feder et al., 1979).
Phylum Apr May Jun Jul Aug Nov
Izhut Bay
Porifera 21.9 0 O 0.3 0 t
Cnidaria 7.5 2.3 0.3 2.8 t 2.2
Mollusca 2. 1 2.9 0.1 4.6 2.1 0.2
Arthropoda 5.8 44.0 83.4 58.7 64.7 56.9
Echinodermata 61.7 50.8 15.6 33.3 33.0 40.3
Other 1.0 0 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.4
Kiliuda Bay
Porifera 0.1 - O t 0 t
Cnidaria O ſº ºn O 13.9 t 0.9
Mollusca 6.9 — O 3.6 2.4 2.8
Arthropoda 90.4 – 100.0 81.9 97.0 96.1
Echinodermata 2.4 - 0 t 0 0
Other 0.2 - 0 0.6 0.6 0.2
In addition to sampling epifauna in selected bays
of Kodiak, Feder et al. (1979) conducted preliminary
sampling on the Kodiak Shelf (June and July) east of
the Archipelago and in the vicinity of the Portlock
Bank (March) (Fig. 5.24). Sea stars and sea urchins
were the major epibenthic forms, in terms of biomass,
near Portlock Bank with king and Tanner crabs of
secondary importance. King and Tanner crabs were the
principal species collected on the Kodiak Shelf in June
and July (Table 5. 16), however.
Table 5.16 Percent biomass composition of the leading
epibenthic species, 1978 (Feder et al., 1979).
% Biomass of 7. Biomass of 7. Biomass of
Phylum All Phyla Predominant Taxa Phylum All Phyla
Portlock Bank: March
Echinodermata 4.1.1 Dipsacaster borealis 60. 1 24.7
Strongylocentrotus spp. 24.8 10.2
Diplopteraster multipes 5.4 2.2
90.3 37. 1
Arthropoda 30.8 Chionoecetes bairdi 79.9 24.6
Paralithodes camtschatica 16.2 5.0
96.1 29.6
Mollusca 28.0 Fusitriton oregonensis 51. 7 14.5
Neptunea lyrata 24.8 6.9
Octopus sp. 15.6 4.4
92.1 25.8
99.9
Kodiak Shelf: June–July
Arthropoda 80.5 Paralithodes camtschatica 50.9 41.0
Chionoecetes bairdi 42.4 34. 1
Pandalus borealis 5.2 4.2
98.5 79.3
Cnidaria 8.8 Ptilosarcus gurneyi 40.4 3.6
Metridium spp. 28.6 2.5
Actiniidae 26.0 2.3
95.0 8.4
Echinodermata 7. 9 Echinarachnius parma 47. 1 3.7
Holothuroidea 41.2 3.3
88.3 7.0
97.2
The sampling of benthic invertebrates around
Kodiak to date provides some information on the types
of large forms present and on their seasonal
distribution and abundance. This information, combined
with the data from fish studies, is a starting point
for describing the marine communities on the Kodiak
shelf. The largest gap in our knowledge of the Kodiak
marine benthos is the lack of information on infaunal
populations. It is apparent from trophic analysis
(reported in detail later) that the large crab and
shrimp populations of Kodiak waters prey heavily on the
infauna and small epifauna. To comprehend the
interactions among the various populations and to
Biology 131
predict the effects of 00S development on them, more
extensive sampling is needed. Epibenthic surveys
should be extended to other areas; a more complete
seasonal record is required, and sampling of the
smaller-sized species must be performed.
5.4.4 Feeding relationships
Predator-prey interactions are identified and
community dynamics predicted, at least in part, by
examining the stomach or gut contents of the species in
question. Food webs from these analyses indicate the
major dependencies among infauna, epifauna, pelagic
invertebrates, fish, marine birds, and mammals. These
graphical models show pathways energy transfer within
the ecosystem. Together with information on uptake
rates, physiological tolerances, depuration abilities,
and vulnerability to contaminants, food webs can be
used to predict the fate and effects of particular
pollutants on marine communities.
Trophic relationships of several dominant
epibenthic invertebrates occurring in Kodiak (Feder and
Jewett, 1979b; Feder et. al., 1979), Lower Cook Inlet
(Feder, 1977a; Feder and Jewett, 1978b; Feder and Paul,
1979; Paul et al., 1979), the northeast Gulf of Alaska
(Feder and Matheke, 1979), and the Bering Sea (Feder,
1977a) have been examined. A generalized food web
containing the principal prey and predators of common
invertebrates and fishes of the Kodiak nearshore region
is presented in Fig. 5.25 (Feder and Jewett, 1979b).
Although the prey species have been identified, their
relative importance in the diets of predators is not
yet known. The degree to which infauna are consumed is
also unknown. Many infauna are soft-bodied forms that
cannot be identified in the gut of crabs, shrimp,
echinoderms, and fishes.
\ \
Paguridae
Copepoda
Crangonidae
Mysidacea
\
\ \
** =
Sis
isis
oregonensis
Fusitron
Misc.
Pink Red Coho Chum King
Salmon Salmon Salmon Salmon Salmon
Pacific
Halibut
Pacific Ling Cod
Cod Misc.
Flatfish Yelldwfin Arrow tooth
Chaetognatha Herring Sole Flounder Starry
Mallotus Flounder
villosus
Cottidae Lyconectes Ammodytes Rock Flathead
Scorpaenidae Osmeridae Sole Sole
Misc.
Larval
Walleye Inver.
Pollock k
Cephalopoda Misc.
Fish
Pink
Shrimp No
Other Tanner
Pandalidae Crab
/
Misc. Shrimp
Misc. Crabs
Nuclanidae
Material
Polychaeta
Yoldia
Euphausiacea Gastropods Nuculana Misc. Siliqua
Amphipoda Margarites fossa Pelecypods
Ophiuroidea
—
Figure 5.25 Generalized food web based on stomach analysis of epifauna taken in Alitak and Ugak bays and inshore
waters around Kodiak Island, Alaska (Feder and Jewett, 1979b).































132 Biology
Feeding relationships of dominant benthic epifauna
*re discussed below. They are based on stomach content
analyses of specimens taken from the western Gulf of plankton blooms in Kachemak Bay (Bright, 1967) and
Alaska or from the adjacent waters of the Bering Sea. probably in Kodiak as well. Juvenile king crabs are
Larval king crabs consume planktonic diatoms, omnivores that eat algae, coelenterates, polychaetes,
barnacle larvae (Buck et al., 1975), and probably a clams, octopi, crabs, other crustaceans, echinoderms,
Variety of copepods, hyperid amphipods, and fish and fish (Bright, 1967; Pereyra et al., 1976; IPHC,
larvae. Larval development coincides with nearshore 1978).
KING CRAB
Misc. Fishes
Nuculana sp.
Misc.
Pelecypoda Spisula sp.
Misc.
Majidae Atelecyclidae Fusitriton sp. Margarites sp. Polychaeta Gastropoda Balanus spp.
Plants
Pycnopodia sp. Small Benthic Animal Remains Deposited Organics Suspended Organics
Invertebrates Detritus Phytoplankton
Bacteria Zooplankton
Benthic Diatoms
Meiofauna
-
*igure 5.26 Food web for king crab in Alitak and Ugak bays and inshore waters of Kodiak Island, Alaska (Feder and
Jewett, 1979b).
Adult king crabs are, by and large, top carnivores
in the nearshore marine environment around Kodiak. A
proposed food web with king crab as the apex predator
is shown in Fig. 5. 26. King crabs were recently
collected in Izhut, Anton Larsen, Chiniak, and Kiliuda
Bays and the Kodiak Shelf (Fig. 5. 27). Gut contents
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
º º too--ºn
KING CRAB SAMPLING LOCATIONS
º l l l l l l l l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 1519 150° 149° 148°
Figure 5.27 Sampling stations for king crabs, 1979
(Feder et al., 1979).








Biology 133
were examined, and the principal prey are shown in Fig.
5.28 and Table 5. 17. Clams and barnacles appear to be
of chief importance to the nearshore populations of
king crabs in Kodiak Island bays, whereas fish were
most frequently observed in the crab specimens
collected from Izhut Bay on Afognak Island. Feder et
al. (1979) believe that the king crabs fed
opportunistically on fish that were wounded or killed
by surface-feeding shearwaters, Black-legged
Kittiwakes, and northern sea lions and sank to the
bottom of the bay. The birds and sea lions were
foraging in schooling Pacific sand lance and capelin.
Offshore populations of king crabs fed primarily on
clams and cockles (Feder et. al., 1979). In their
discussions of the diets of king crab, Feder et al.
cite other studies that show that pelecypods and
gastropod molluscs are the most frequently observed
prey, although the species of molluscs making up the
diet commonly vary among regions. Prey taken by king
crabs also varies with the crab molt cycle.
Hard-shelled crabs in the Okhotsk Sea fed on Siliqua
media, a razor clam, but recently molted king crabs
with soft shells consumed large numbers of young
Tellina clam, a species with a very thin shell
(Kulichkova in Feder et al., 1979). The apparent
preference for barnacles in the diets of recently mated
(and soft-shelled) king crabs may also indicate a
temporal change in preferred prey.
King crabs as adults have few predators. Pacific
cod and Pacific halibut are known predators (Buck et
al., 1975; Pereyra et. al., 1976; IPHC, 1978), and
other gadids, scorpaenids, and elasmobranchs are
suspected. Adult crabs are most susceptible to
predation just after molting, when their shells are
still soft.
Larval Tanner crabs feed on various plankton
McLINN NEAR ISLAND
IZHUT BAY ANTON LARSEN BAY SOUND BASIN KILIUDA BAY | KODI AK SHELF
3%
April
N=49
D May
Q \, \! \
G G
Site + 1 Site * 2 N=49 N=35
E
& & June
\ſ &’ (Jun-Jul)
N=22 N=31 N=21 N=32
º C
July
N=18
Aug
KING CRAB PREY
A Fish F Polychaetes and tube dwelling worms
N=44
B Shrimp and crabs G Unidentifiable plant matter A
2
c Starfish and Sea urchins H Unidentifiable animal matter Nov
D Barnacles 2 Unreported G | F
E Clams and cockles
N=55
—
Figure 5.28 Principal prey of king crabs based on stomach content analysis of crabs taken in Kodiak bays and
continental shelf, 1979 (Feder et al., 1979).



134 Biology
Table 5.17.
Percent frequency of occurrence of prey organisms in king crab stomachs collected in the Kodiak area,
1978. Number of stomachs given in parentheses (Feder et al., 1979).
E O
-3 O
#| || $ fl. 3|3|| 3 | # Ú)
U) U) q} }- •r- UD U) Q (U C. O U) ~5
3 || 3 || 5 || |3|. 3. . . sº a || 3 | #|#| || 3 | g| | # 5
4–) O r- r- || C. O || O. O || C. H | C E. UD 5|É g à 3. 3 §
C $– Q) 3 || 0 || G | O. C | O. E | Q) O 4–2 | 4–) 4–0 (U CU •r- .c
# # à |#|*||5|* | #|*| #|*|| || || |#|*|| 3 || | | | | | | #
Location P- T. < 2. O <g 2. > >. P- Cº) CO C [x] Pr4
Izhut Bay
Jun (22) 32 14 23 5 55
Jul (18) 28 ll ll 6 78
Anton Larsen Bay
Jun #1 (31) 71 52 16 3 16 10 10 39-H
Jun #2 (21) 76 14 24 48+
Near Island Basin
May (35) 66 37+ 29 9 14 23 14
Jun (32) 50+ 31 19 38 63
McLinn Island
May (49) 69 4l 18 29 27 40
Kiliuda Bay
Apr (49) 8 4 6 4 8 2
Jun (83) 30 22 42 ll 23 28 35 40 7
Jul (71) 63 31 39 || 38 27+ 27 8
Aug (44) 23 20 || 41 ll 2
Nov (55) 47 24 44 13 24 7
Kodiak Shelf
Jun-Jul (196) 57 26 56 27+ 29
(Bright, 1967) although the exact composition of their
"iet has not yet been reported. Diatoms, algae, and
hydroida have been found in the gut of juvenile Tanner
Srabs (Bright 1967); detritus is also consumed (ADF&G,
1975). It is likely that juvenile Tanner crabs feed on
* wide variety of prey as young king crabs do; however,
*his has not yet been documented.
Feeding habits of adult male Tanner crabs from
Alitak and Ugak Bays have been studied by Feder and
Jewett (1979b). A preliminary food web with this crab
as the apex predator is shown in Fig. 5.29.
Pelecypods, caridean shrimp, and polychaetes occurred
most frequently in Tanner crab stomachs (Feder and
Jewett, 1979b). Only 70 crabs were examined in this
Thus the findings, though accurate, are based
(1979), a
more complete description of Tanner crab feeding habits
shortly. The diet
Cook
of more than 700 crabs
study.
on limited data. According to Feder et al.

is forthcoming of Tanner crab
populations in Inlet is more fully known.
Analysis showed that clams
(particularly Macoma sp.), pagurid hermit crabs, and
shrimp,
barnacles are the Crangonid
chief prey.
polychaetes, amphipods, and ophiuroids are of secondary
importance. In all, prey from four phyla and 17 genera
were identified from Tanner crab stomachs. The species
appears to be an opportunistic consumer, feeding on
whatever prey is abundantly available (Paul et al.,
1979).
Amphipods
1976).
Octopi,
prey on Tanner crab eggs (Hilsinger,
A variety of fish eat Tanner crab juveniles.
and the yellowfin sole take
1976; Feder and Jewett
gadids, liparids,
adult crabs (Pereyra et al.,
1979b).
Dungeness crabs feed on shrimp, crabs, barnacles,
bivalves and polychaetes (Hoopes, 1973). Clams seem to
1972). Predators of
be the preferred prey (Mayer,
Dungeness crab larvae include herring, salmon, and
smelt. Adult crabs are eaten by Pacific halibut,
gadids, sculpins, and rockfishes (Mayer, 1972). To
date, no detailed analysis of the trophic relationships
of this species in Kodiak waters has been reported.
Pandalid
selecting brachyuran crab larvae (AEIDC, 1974; Pereyra
et al., 1976).
Adults
whose main prey consists of polychaetes and crustaceans
(AEIDC, 1974).
include other marine invertebrates, birds, and mammals.
A detailed analysis of the trophics of pink shrimp in
1979).
shrimp larvae feed on zooplankton,
Juvenile shrimp are opportunistic
Scavengers. are carnivorous benthic feeders
Predators of shrimp are numerous and
Kodiak waters is forthcoming (Feder et al.,
Biology 135
TANNER CRAB
Polychaeta Nuculanidae Pelecypoda Tellina sp. Mytilus sp.
Small Benthic
Invertebrates
Animal Remains Deposited Organics Suspended Organics
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
Benthic Diatoms
Meiofauna
Figure 5.29 Food web for Tanner crab in Alitak and Ugak bays, and other inshore waters of Kodiak Island (Feder and
Scallops and clams are filter-feeders, utilizing The feeding habits of echinoderms are not well
phytoplankton, zooplankton, and resuspended detritus as Sunflower starfish, the dominant echinoderm
primary food sources. They are thus important links in trawl samples taken from Izhut Bay,
between benthic microfauna and macrofauna populations. small gastropods and clams. starfish probably
scallops and clams are long-lived in northern competes with king and Tanner crab for food (Feder et.
waters (Robertson, Intertidal
1979) and can store heavy metals in populations sunflower
in Prince William Sound appear to
small gastropods (Paul and Feder, 1975).
indicators of man's the blue mussel, other molluscs,
ecosystem. Farther south
off the U.S. coast, starfish prey heavily on bivalve
molluscs and barnacles (Paine 1969). Sea urchins are
herbivores. They feed on kelp in the Aleutians (Estes,
Smith, and Palmisano, 1978) and the North Atlantic
(Mann and Breen, 1972).

5. 4.5 Effects of OCS Development
Potential effects of OCS development on the marine
benthic invertebrate populations around Kodiak are
unknown. Information on life histories, population
dynamics, and trophic relationships is available for
only a few of the large, commercially important crabs,
shrimp, and molluscs. The lack of comprehensive data
on the distribution and abundance of infauna and small
epifauna on the Kodiak shelf does not permit the
prediction of the effects of toxicants, effluents, and
building activities related to 00S development on
benthic communities. Long-term studies of natural
fluctuations in populations have not been done;
therefore, it is impossible at this time to
differentiate between natural variations in population
characteristics and those caused by industrial
activity.
Laboratory research has been conducted on the
effects of hydrocarbons on biochemical, physiological,
and behavioral responses of Alaskan marine species.
Tanner crabs in a post-molt phase autotomized their
legs after exposure to Prudhoe Bay crude oil (Karinen
and Rice, 1974). Molting and survival of larval king
crab and coonstripe shrimp were adversely affected
after exposure to 0.8-0.9 ppm concentrations of the
water-soluble fraction (WSF) of Cook Inlet crude oil
(Mecklenburg, et al., 1976). When king crabs were
exposed for three days to WSF (concentrations
unreported) of Cook Inlet crude oil, there was

extensive vacuolization in the gill cytoplasm and
disruption of the cell surfaces. Presumably,
respiratory activity was impaired (Smith, 1976) and
this may have been the immediate cause for the
decreased larval survivorship reported by Wells and
Sprague (1976) and Mecklenberg et al. (1976). Smith
(1976) also reported that the WSF of oil was ingested
and incorporated into the hepatopancreas, the main
digestive organ of the king crab. The effects of this
action are not known. Water-soluble fractions of oil
are known to affect adversely respiration in certain
shrimp species (F. G. Johnson, 1977); spot shrimp may
be narcotized and eventually die (Sanborn and Malins,
1977). In other static bioassay research, the
Sensitivities of 39 Alaskan marine species to Cook
Inlet crude oil were examined by Rice et al. (1979a).
Pandalid and crangonid shrimp, king crab, and the
littleneck clam, Protothaca staminea, showed high
Sensitivity to the oil (refer to Table 5E. 18 and
accompanying text for further discussion). Similar
*eactions may occur in individuals in the natural
°nvironment; however, further testing in situ is
Recessary for confirmation of the laboratory results.
Several aspects of the life histories of crabs
"lake them particularly sensitive to exposure to oil,
8as, waste water effluents, and heavy metals. During
*heir spawning season, males are attracted to mature
females by chemical substances released by the females.
the extreme sensitivity of male decapods to the
*Pecific character and concentration of these
Pheromones is well documented (for example, McLeese,
1970; Kittredge et al., 1971; Atema and Gagosian, 1973;
Bales, 1974). If a contaminant interferes with either
the production of the signal or its reception, then the
**productive behavior, and hence species viability, may
be drastically affected. Minute quantities of crude oil
have been shown to affect feeding behavior (another
Shemosensory response) in American lobsters. These
animals are attracted to and consume food contaminated
with oil derivatives (Atema and Stein, 1974). The same
behavioral response may occur in king, Tanner, or
Dungeness crab.
OCS development in the Kodiak lease area increases
the likelihood of industrial contaminants being
released into the sea or being carried downstream from
their source and dissolving or settling to the
substrate. The severity of the effect on the benthic
ecosystem depends on the nature of the contaminant, the
amount released, the chemical reaction of the pollutant
to seawater, the timing of the release, weather
conditions, and a host of other factors. The most
likely type of contamination during the construction
and exploration phases of OCS development would be
localized, chronic, low-level pollution around oil
platforms. Construction wastes and drilling muds would
settle to the substrate and smother some species,
particularly sessile forms. Some deposit-feeding
infauna and epifauna would probably ingest these wastes
with as yet undetermined effects. The species
composition in the vicinity of the platforms would
probably change. Using in situ methods, Atlas et al.
(1978) showed that, following a 60-day exposure to
crude oils, amphipods were much less abundant in
contaminated sediments while some polychaetes were
attracted to the area.
In an oil well blowout or tanker accident, large
quantities of hazardous material could drift to the
substrate over a large area, be carried downstream, and
settle out in the biologically productive troughs that
transect the Kodiak shelf. The pollutant would likely
admix with the fine-grained sediments in the troughs
(see Chapter 3) and remain there for tens of years as
the Katmai ash has done after the 1912 eruption of
Mount Katmai (Wright, 1970; Bouma and Hampton 1976 and
1978, Hampton et al. 1979a). The chemical activity of
the pollutant will vary with physical location,
temperature, depth, and the nature of the sediment.
Thus, its effects on the biota are difficult to
predict. Deposit-feeding infauna and epifauna probably
would ingest some of the contaminants and transfer them
to detritus-based food chains. As previously
discussed, such commercially valuable species as king
crab, Tanner crab, and pink shrimp seem to prefer these
troughs as habitat (Ivanov, 1964; Powell, 1964; Feder
et al., 1979). King and Tanner crabs are known to feed
extensively on deposit-feeding clams (Feder and Jewett
1979b; Feder et al., 1979). Thus a large oil spill in
the Kodiak area would probably have both direct and
indirect deleterious effects on local crab and shrimp
populations.
The effects of 00S development on nearshore
benthos would probably be more severe and apparent than
those on offshore populations. If crude or refined
petroleum products were released inshore, some soluble
or insoluble mixture of hydrocarbons would be borne by
currents into coastal embayments. The pollutants would
probably become stranded on shore, adhere to rooted
vegetation or algae, and settle out onto the substrate.
The resident biota would thus be chronically
contaminated by varying concentrations and forms of
hydrocarbons.
00S development on the Kodiak Shelf will result in
an increase in industrial activity in and around the
city of Kodiak and the bays on the east side of the
Island. Tanker docks, water and sewage treatment
plants, and housing will all be built. If gas or oil
is discovered, LNG facilities or oil refineries may
also be required. Water quality in the littoral and
sublittoral zone is almost certain to decline, and the
biota will have to adapt to altered environmental
conditions. It is too early to predict what changes
will occur.
Biology 137
5.5 INTERTIDAL AND SHALLOW SUBTIDAL ZONES
5.5.1 Introduction
The intertidal zone is the area between the high-
est and lowest tides of the year. The boundaries of
this area are inexact and highly modified by local
physiography and exposure to wind and waves. The
intertidal is notable for the often abrupt vertical
stratification (zonation) of biota produced by the
interplay of tides, waves, desiccating wind and in-
solation, and biologic interactions. The diverse com-
munities living in this complex environment may be par-
ticularly vulnerable to the effects of petroleum devel-
opment associated with stranding of floating oil, shore
construction, and dredging.
The shallow subtidal, as defined here, includes
the algal (seaweed) beds often continuous with those of
the rocky intertidal and extending offshore to depths
of 20 m. Many seaweed and invertebrate species occur
in both zones but usually predominate in one or the
other. A prominent feature of the shallow subtidal is
the forest canopy effect produced by such large kelps
as Nereocystis luetkeana.
The intertidal and shallow subtidal zones of the
Kodiak Island area are highly productive. Although
world-wide plankton productivity is believed to be
greater than that of marine kelps and seaweeds (Ryther,
1969), the productivity density of coastal areas such
as those of Kodiak Island is higher than that of open
waters. In an area of Nova Scotia with a high coast-
line-to-water ratio, macrophyte production was esti-
mated to be three times as much as phytoplankton (Mann,
1972a). In the Kodiak Island area, seaweeds form a
lush band from the 20-m isobath to mean high water in
the rocky intertidal. The complex bay and headland
geography of the Kodiak area results in more than 3,900
km of shoreline, although the length of the main
archipelago is only 280 km.
Sand and gravel beaches, though not as stable or
obviously lush as the rocky intertidal, nonetheless
harbor significant infaunal communities. Some species,
such as the ubiquitous razor clam, Siliqua patula, are
of some commercial importance but are mostly taken for
individual use.
The rocky intertidal of the Kodiak area had been
little studied before the OCSEAP investigations (e.g.,
Rigg, 1915; Nickerson, 1975; Nybakken, 1969; Weinmann,
1969; see Feder and Mueller, 1972, for a review of the
Gulf of Alaska literature in general). More recent
work in the Gulf has been reported by Calvin and Ellis
(1978) and Rosenthal and Lees (1977). The descriptions
reported here are based on field studies conducted by
personnel of the Auke Bay Laboratory, National Marine
Fisheries Service (Zimmerman et al., 1978) and the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Kaiser and Konigs-
berg, 1977). Study site locations are shown in Fig.
5. 30.
Substrate type is critical in determining inter-
tidal community composition. Table 5.18 shows the
relative apportionment of substrate categories among
various Alaskan areas. The Kodiak area can be seen to
have a high proportion of bedrock and boulder sub-
strates, which support rich macrophyte and invertebrate
communities. Only the Aleutian chain is similar in
this regard. This means that the Kodiak area may be
especially vulnerable to oil spills because of its
preponderance of epilithic biota (oil spill vulner-
ability indices have been derived for Kodiak Coastal
subenvironments by Hayes and Ruby (1979)). Most com-
munities of this type are concentrated on the seaward
side of the archipelago (Table 5.19).
Table 5.18 Distribution (percent) of intertidal
coastline among substrate categories for various
Alaskan coastal areas (Zimmerman et al., 1977).
Region
Kodiak Aleutian St. George Bristol Norton
Substrate Island Islands Basin Basin Sound
Bedrock 48. 1 56.0 8.0 7.0 Ha-
Boulder 12.4 30.0 16.0 7.0 18.0
Gravel 31.5 6.0 16.0 12.0 24.0
Sand 7.8 7.0 36.0 32.0 16.0
Mud 0.2 O 24.0 43.0 26.0
Table 5. 19 Number of kilometers and percent of major
substrate types in the Kodiak Island area (Zimmerman et
al., 1978).
Region
Kodiak and
Afognak Barren Trinity Chirikof Total
Substrate Islands Islands Islands Island km Percent
Bedrock 1,775 90.0 15. 3 26.5 1,907 48.1
Boulder 479 2.4 5.6 3.2 490 12.4
Gravel 1, 191 2.4 55.0 O 1,248 31.5
Sand 127 6.4 151.0 23. 3 308 7.8
Mud 9 O O O 9 0.2
Total km 3,581 101.2 226.9 53.0 3,962 100.0
138 Biology
5.5.2 Vertical zonation in the Kodiak area
Rocky intertidal communities commonly exhibit
distinct vertical zonation over a relatively short
height interval as a result of differing periods of
exposure by the tides to the atmosphere.
Biotic conditions such as competition for space
and light, predation, and grazing also play a role in
establishing intertidal zones. The average length of
exposure tends to set the upper bounds of many inter-
tidal species, while biotic interactions are often
responsible for the lower limits. Many species are not
at all limited in the lower direction, but flourish in
the shallow subtidal as well. The zonational structure
9f the Kodiak Island area is similar not only to that
of other subarctic areas of Alaska but even to that of
9ther northern temperate locales. Many species occur
from the Bering Sea to Baja California in Mexico.
(1978), the
Stephenson model with three main compartments best
According to Zimmerman et al.
describes zonation in the Kodiak area (Stephenson and
Stephenson, 1972).
*oral or splash zone, the littoral or true intertidal
The major zones are the supralit-
*one, and the subtidal zone. Within these major zones
Subzones can often be delineated (Table 5.20). Zones
*re usually defined by the presence and/or abundance of
Sonspicuous indicator species. For example, in the
Figure 5.30 Intertidal sites sampled in the Kodiak
*rea, 1975-76 (Zimmerman et al., 1978).
1570
1569
151° 150° 149° 148°
1479
— 40 60 80 100 km
E. E. ]
— 1O 20 30 40 50 miles
-*-*- E. EC
59°
–59°
58°
—H58°
579
—157°
SAMPLING SITES
e Sites sampled in conjunction with
ADF & G razor clam studies
A Sites sampled twice quantitatively
m Sites sampled once quantitatively
56° () Sites sampled once qualitatively
—H56°
| I I I I I | l l
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°



















Biology 139
Table 5.20 Generalized zonation of rocky intertidal areas of the Kodiak Island area (Zimmerman et al., 1978). Kodiak Island area, the mussel Mytilus edulis is often
found in a dense band on large rocks in protected
Zone Approximate Biological Name Characteristic Organisms a Cea S. Similarly, the rockweed Fucus distichus is
Tidal Range
found nearly everywhere in the upper intertidal, while
- one or more species of the brown kelp Alaria are common
ZONE 1: Highest reach Porphyra-Prasiola zone = Prasiola meridionalis, Porphyra sp.,
Supralittoral fringe of spray to mean Littorina zone (Stephenson Littorina Sitkana in the lower intertidal. In the lower intertidal and
higher high water and Stephenson, 1972, p. 20) shallow subtidal the growth of organisms, especially
= Littorina-Verrucaria zone
(Lewis, 1964, p. 82)
seaweeds, is more lush than in the higher zones (Fig.
5.31).
The following discussion indicates the dominant
ZONE 2: Mean higher high and conspicuous rocky intertidal organisms common to
Littoral zone Water to low Water the Kodiak Archipelago and outlines their zonal signif-
of spring tides
icance. Tidal heights are relative to MLLW (mean lower
Subzone 2A Barnacle-Endocladia zone Littorina sitkana, low water)
= barnacle zone (Nybakken, Chthamalus dalli, Balanus Q
1969, p. 75) = upper glandula, Acmaea digitalis, The rocks of the splash zone (+3 to 5 m) are fre-
barnacle zone (Lewis, diatom colonies, Collisella e
1964) pelta, Endocladia muricata, quently bare except for a thin veneer of bluegreen
sterile Fucus distichus algae and small populations of snails (e.g., Littorina
Subzone 2B Fucus zone = Fucus zone Fertile Fucus distichus, sitkana) or amphipods. The green alga Prasiola
Nybakken, 1969, p. 123) = Mytilus edulis, Nucella meridionalis is the highest-occurring seaweed, growing
Fucus zone (Stephenson and lima, N. lamellosa, & © e tº e
Stephenson, 1972) = Balanus, Odonthalia floccosa principally in the splash zone where seabirds hav
Patella, Fucus zone (Lewis, deposited guano. The leafy red alga Porphyra is also
1964, p. 82) = upper mid-
littoral zone (Kozloff,
1973, p. 124) the mid-intertidal.
The dominant seaweed in the true littoral zone
found in the splash zone, though it is more common in
Subzone 2C Rhodymenia zone = red algae Rhodymenia palmata,
belt (Lewis, 1964, p. 82) = Ulva-Monostroma, Balanus (MLLW to +3 m) is the brown alga Fucus distichus.
Rhodyphyceae zone (Lewis cariosus, Cumaria tº a * tº & & a dº wº
1964, p. 78) y pseudocurata Within this area four subzones may be distinguished.
- The uppermost (+2 to 3 m) is characterized by patchy
Subzone 2D Alaria zone = Alaria zone Alaria, SPP; ; Lithothamnion growths of sterile Fucus, tufts of the red alga
(Weinmann, 1969, p. 29) sp., Ptilota filicina, grºsmºmºmºmºmºs
Crisia, Halichondria Endocladia muricata, and clusters of small barnacles
panicea, Katharina tunicata (Chthamalus dalli and Balanus glandula). Other inhabi"
= = = = = e = * * = = * = = = m = a sm as a sm an eme a sm are e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = = = * = * * * * * * * * * = e = e = sm me • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * T T * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * * * = tants are the limpets Collisella digitalis (the high"
e gº t- e limpet) and C. pelta. Much of the upper
ZONE 3: Low waters of Laminaria zone Laminaria longipes, est-occurring limpet) sº pelta pp
Infralittoral fringe spring tides to Laminaria dentigera, littoral consists of bare rock.
true subtidal (below Lithothamnion SP . , The mid-littoral subzone is covered by tides twice
lowest low water) Corallina sp., Acmaea mitra
a day. Algal and invertebrate cover is almost com"
plete. The principal component of the mid-littoral is
140 Biology
10 ft :
3.05m E---------------.
8 ft §
2.44 m -----
:
:
Laminaria spp.
Alaria marginata
Balanus cariosus
6 ft E Mytilus edulis
1.83m
FuCus distichus
4 f - - -
- t ||||| Littorina Sitkana
5. 1.22 m
º Other
r 2 ft
º, .61m
S
H.
Oft
Om
-2 ft
-.61m
- 4 ft
-1.22m
L l I I l I I I I I I —l
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 1O 11 12 13 14 15 16
Cumulative Average Biomass (x10°g/mº.)
Figure 5.31 Relationship between average biomass of predominant intertidal species as related to tidal height.
° relative contribution of each species to the average biomass is also shown (data from Zimmerman et al., 1978).
Fucus. Although Fucus may be abundant throughout the
littoral zone, making designation of this subzone some-
what arbitrary, it is in this height interval that the
**Ckweed is dominant. That is, above the mid-littoral
Fucus are not well developed and canopy-forming, while
below it they are being replaced by red algae. Other
°nstituents of the mid-littoral include the sac-like
*d alga Halosaccion glandiforme, the red alga
*onthalia/Rhodomela and the polysiphonous red alga
P
Odonthalia floccosa and Rhodomela
terosi honia.
larix, which are sometimes difficult to separate in the
field-- hence their combination into one taxon - TOCCur
only in flat, surf-swept beaches, where they may form
dense, narrow bands at the lower margin of the Fucus
fertile zone.
The mussel Mytilus edulis occurs as a local mid-
littoral dominant in protected waters or on the pro-
tected sides of large hummocks. It is an important
space competitor that provides secondary interstitial
space and substrate for many small invertebrates. The
barnacle Balanus cariosus may occur throughout the
littoral zone, but is most abundant in the mid-lit-
toral. It is a significant space competitor and pro-
vides habitat for worms and other small invertebrates.
Two predatory snails of this subzone, Nucella lima and
N. lamellosa, feed on mussels and barnacles by drilling
through their shells. N. lima is the most frequently
observed throughout the Kodiak Island area, but N.
lamellosa may be locally abundant in protected waters.
Below the mid-littoral is a dense band of red
algae named the Rhodymenia subzone for its principal
component Rhodymenia (= Palmaria) palmata. While this
subzone is a prominent feature of the Gulf of Alaska
above 55° N, it is absent at lower latitudes in the
north Pacific. These red seaweeds may be scattered or
dense; at their heaviest densities they may exclude all
barnacles, littorines, whelks, and limpets. Several
other species have their upper distributional limits in
the Rhodymenia subzone. The ephemeral green algae
Monostroma and Ulva may be common, especially if
Rhodymenia is not prominent. They are rapidly coloniz-
ing, leafy seaweeds, often indicative of mechanical
disturbance. They sometimes grow epiphytically on old
growths of Rhodymenia. Among the numerous chitons
whose distributions begin in the Rhodymenia subzone are
the leather chiton Katharina tunicata, common at most
studied sites, the mossy chiton Mopalia muscosa, and
the lined chiton Tonicella lineata. The last two
usually occur lower in the intertidal than Katharina.
Chitons are grazing herbivores and are preyed upon by
birds and sea stars. The limpet Notoacmea scutum, the
six-rayed sea star Lepasterias hexactis, and the small
sea cucumber Cucumeria pseudocurata are also often
found in the Rhodymenia subzone, though their inter-
tidal distribution extends above and below it.






Biology 141
Sea stars are predatory animals which belong to a
small group of organisms called ecological dominants.
The term "ecological dominant" means that their influ-
ence on community structure is greater than would be
suggested by their abundance. The sea star Pisaster
ochraceus, which occurs in the north Pacific and
southern California as well as in the Gulf of Alaska,
has been shown to be instrumental in maintaining com-
munity diversity by facultative choice of prey (Paine,
1966) and to regulate the lower limit of distribution
of the mussel Mytilus californianus (Pianka, 1978).
Some algae exhibit similarly disproportionate ecolo-
gical roles by competition for space and light or by
provision of a protective canopy beneath which
flourishes an understory community. The brown kelp,
Hedophyllum sessile, which has been recorded at
Sundstrom Island in the Kodiak Archipelago, forms a
significant canopy in the lower intertidal of exposed
areas of the Pacific Northwest (Dayton, 1975).
The strongest break in floral distribution usually
occurs at MLLW, above which relatively small foliose
red and brown algae dominate and below which the large-
bladed brown kelps take over. The break is not
complete in the Kodiak Island area, however, and zonal
"transgressions" are frequent. Along the coast of
North America the flowering surf grass, Phyllospadix,
is often taken as an indicator of MLLW (Ricketts and
Calvin, 1968). In the Kodiak Island area as elsewhere,
however, Phyllospadix is also found at the edges of
tide pools and in standing-water areas of flat bedrock
shores higher in the intertidal. Organisms below MLLW
are exposed only during minus tides, which occur about
half the days of the year. Exposure to air is brief
and often mitigated by splash and spray.
The lowest subzone of the littoral is termed the
Alaria subzone (MLLW to lowest spring tides) for its
domination by this long-bladed brown kelp genus. The
most common species is A. marginata, but A. nana, A.
tenuifolia, and A. fistulosa (normally a subtidal form)
are also found occasionally. Feathery, fern-like
Ptilota spp. and Neoptilota asplenoides, red algae, are
abundant in this subzone at some sites. Prominent
invertebrates include the highly colored sponge,
Halichondria panicea, and the bright red sea star,
Henricia leviuscula; both are common in the Kodiak
Island area. Two other residents of this and lower
zones are the encrusting ectoprocts (bryozoans or moss
animals), Crisia and Filicrisia. Encrusting sponges
and ectoprocts serve as food for Henricia (Mauzey et
al., 1968).
The true subtidal zone, or sub-littoral fringe,
has its upper boundary at the lowest spring tides. The
large brown kelp, Laminaria, begins dominance in the
shoreward extreme of this zone. The most common
species in the Kodiak Island area is L. dentigera.
Red, calcified coralline algae are also abundant in
this zone. These include erect, articulated species
such as Bossiella or Corallina and encrusting forms
such as Lithothamnion. The corallines and other
species also occur in tide pools throughout the lit-
toral and on exposed rocks around MLLW, but not in such
abundance. The limpet, Acmaea mitra, is found only at
lower subtidal elevations and in large tide pools.
Large, predatory sea stars and other invertebrates are
also important.
The zone model proposed here consists of a com-
posite of components found at various study sites.
Wave exposure, slope, and substrate all play a part in
determining community structure, and these differ from
site to site. For example, many areas are essentially
flat or uneven in slope, so that distance from the
water line may be more important than actual height.
Moreover, the vertical extent of the intertidal may be
quite limited so that intertidal variation is subtle
and poorly defined. Nevertheless, the model is useful
as a predictor of the probable constituents of a par-
ticular biotic assemblage.
The essential characteristics of rocky intertidal
study sites are given in station models in Fig. 5.32.
142 Biology
T-
SPECIES KEY
A–Alaria SO.
*SP-ealanus Sp.
FV-Evasterias
G-Gigartina SO.
*C-Halosaccion
HP-Halichondria
2ONES
"-
Subzone A
Subzone C
Subzone D
^-
^-
|-| Subzone B
"-
^-
"-
`--
figure 5.32
AS-Acmaea Scutum
BB-Balanus balanoides
BC-Balanus cariosus
BG-Balanus glandula
90-corailine algae
P-couisetia pelta
°U-cucumaria Sp.
F-Endocladia muric at a
Fl-Enteromorpha intestinalis
F-Fucus distic hus
glandiforme
panic ea
Supra littoral fringe
Littoral zone
Infralittoral fringe
Relative biotic
HS-Hedophyllum sessile
KT-Katharina tunicata
L-Laminaria sp.
LS-Littor in a sitkana
ME- Mytilus edulis
N-Nereocystis luetkeana
NL-Nuce IIa Iameliosa
OF-odonthalia floccosa
PO-Pisaster ochraceus
POR-Porphyra sp.
PR-Prasioſa meridionalis
PY-Phyllospadix
RH-Rhody menia palmata
RX-Rhodomela larix
USP-Uiva sp.
RELATIVE BIOTIC Cove R
[ ] Zero to sparse
C Over
|||| Inter mediate
C Over
Dense cover
*"Pling sites (Zimmerman et al., 1978).
cover at intertidal
6O2
59°
58°
57°
56°
157° 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 15O° 149° 148° 1470
–59°
—H58°
—157°
F “e Rx, OF USP USP
BC BSP Fº RH RH —H56°
A BC A A
OF Rºs A, HS
A RH, HP RH, HP
L L.PY L.PY
I I PY I I I I l 1
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°



Biology 143
5.5.3 Shallow subtidal
Quantitative estimates of subtidal brown seaweed
cover and biomass were made along 30-m diver transects
at nine sites in the Kodiak Island area (Calvin and
Ellis, 1976). Floating kelps (Alaria fistulosa,
Nereocystis luetkeana) were not counted, though rough
estimates of their abundance were made. The distribu-
tion and relative abundance of floating kelp beds in
the Kodiak Archipelago are shown in Fig. 5.33. While
these estimates hold for the period of study, values
155° 154° 153° 152°
– 58°
today may be very different, since kelp beds are known
to exhibit radical growth and regression under the
influence of storms, high water temperature, low nutri-
ent concentration, and grazing.
Six species of the Laminariaceae were found in the
quadrats in addition to some species of Alaria:
Laminaria dentigera, L. Yezoensis, L. longipes, L.
groenlandica, Pleurophycus gardneri, and Agarum
cribrosum. On the exposed outer coast L. dentigera was
the numerical and biomass dominant (26-90 percent and
57-91 percent of the outer coast samples,
respectively). At Cape Barnabas the site sampled under
a heavy Nereocystis canopy was exceptional, with
Pleurophycus comprising 50 percent of the individuals
and 94 percent of the biomass. Agarum was dominant (49
percent of the individuals and 37 percent of the bio-
mass) at the protected estuarine site of Ugak Bay.
Except for the site at Ugak Bay, where the sub-
strate was unsuitable for kelp, the average combined
weights (per m*) of all species of kelp were similar
KELP BEDS
| O6-12 sightings/miles of Coastline
12-19 sightings/miles of Coastline
% - 19 sightings/miles of Coastline
INTERTIDAL BIOTA
> 50% COverage
Figure 5.33 The location of kelp beds on Kodiak
Island and areas for which 50 percent or more of the
rocky intertidal is covered with biota (Zimmerman et
al., 1977).
among sites. Individual quadrats, however, showed a
substantial range (Table 5.21). The quadrat at Bumble
Bay with the heaviest kelp stand (35.0 kg/m") contained
only L. dentigera.
Table 5. 21 Weights of Laminariaceae in quadrat samples
in May 1976 at these areas of S. Kodiak Island (Calvin
and Ellis, 1976).
weight (kg/º
Number
Area of Site Mean Range
Outer
Coast 6 12.3 2.4 to 35.0
Semi-
Protected
(Sitkalidak
Strait) 2 15.4 6.8 to 28.8
Protected
(Ugak Bay) l 4.8 2.0 to 11.2
5.5. 4 Seasonal variation
Since few sites were sampled more than once in the
Kodiak Island area and these instances did not involve
sampling the same transect on return visits, no valid
seasonal data were acquired. Inferences of seasonal
differences must therefore be drawn from studies of
adjacent Gulf of Alaska areas (e.g., Lees, 1977;
O' Clair et al., 1978) with similar climatic regimes:

144 Biology
The severlty of the subarctic winter in the
Kodiak Island area is greatly mitigated by the maritime
influence of the surrounding waters. Since icing
Sonditions probably occur only in the most protected
heads of fiords, many species can overwinter as adults
* the intertidal zone. Summer (June through August)
is the period of greatest biological activity. Sub-
tidal kelp samples in late May showed new growth with
"eveloping reproductive sori and old growth with de-
Senerating sori, suggesting the onset of a reproductive
Period (Calvin and Ellis, 1976). Seasonal sampling at
*Pecific intertidal heights at Gull Island and Seldovia
Point in Kachemak Bay, Lower Cook Inlet, revealed cover
*d biomass minima for some abundant dominants in the
Period October through May, especially in the mid- to
"Pper intertidal. A rockweed Fucus distichus exhibits
*his pattern at Gull Island, with cover and biomass
being greatest in late summer and least in the winter.
The trend is less distinct for F. distichus at Seldovia
Point, where biomass and, to a lesser degree, cover
**main relatively constant throughout the year. Alaria
Sºispa at Gull Island is similar in its pattern to F.
“stichus, with cover and biomass maxima occurring in
**rly summer. The biomass of Spongomorpha spp.,
*nostroma spp., Odonthalia floccosa, and Rhodomela
*rix is greater in the summer and decreases during the
*ll. In fact, the total biomass of Gull Island and
Seldovia Point is greatest for all tidal heights during
the summer, decreases during the fall, and is at a
"inimum in winter.
No general pattern of seasonal cover or biomass is
SVident among the dominant species (i.e. , Agarum
Šibrosum and Laminaria groenlandica) in the lower
*ertidal and shallow subtidal zones.
5.5. 5 Environmental control of community structure
A primary objective of intertidal sampling has
been to describe the community composition and abun-
dance throughout the Kodiak Island area before petro-
leum development.
It is clearly impossible to survey all sites
adequately for this purpose, although extensive,
low-resolution aerial surveys were made by Sears and
Zimmerman (1977). It is therefore desirable to corre-
late biotic variability with physical variables and/or
experimentally document the controlling and interactive
forces operating at representative study sites to
extrapolate to unstudied locales. The limited field
sampling program conducted during the OCSEAP study was
inadequate; the sampling effort varied among stations,
and intertidal height intervals were not sampled uni-
formly. However, the cursory site descriptions do
permit some tentative observations.
Bedrock (exposed reef) and large-boulder sub-
strates appear to promote the development of taxonom-
ically rich communities with large biomass (Table
5.22). The site at Cape Sitkinak, which is exposed to
extremes of wind and waves, is excluded from this
discussion because the abundant kelp stands visible
under shallow standing water on the survey date were
not sampled.
The site ranked highest in average biomass, Three
Saints Bay, also had a rich community whose diversity
was largely attributable to a high number of inverte-
brate taxa. This site harbored unusually dense popula-
tions of Porphyra, Mytilus, and heavy-walled Balanus
cariosus. A second, more protected area surveyed at
Three Saints Bay was found to have fewer Alaria, B.
cariosus, and Katharina than the partially protected
area but more encrusting corallines and Tonicella. The
Table 5.22 Relationship between species diversity
(counts of taxa), biomass, and intertidal site
characteristics (Zimmerman et al., 1978).
Number of Taxa
Study. Site Wave Profile Substrate Plants Invertebrates Total Biomass”
Exposure (kg/**)
Sundstrom
Island full sloped bedrock 58 138 196 6. 1
Sud Island full sloped large boulders 68 130 198 3.0
Chirikof
Island full flat bedrock 65 106 171 3.4
Cape Sitkinak full flat bedrock 21 31 52 0.93
Dolina Point full flat small boulders 29 37 66 1.7
Low Cape full flat small boulders 14 45 59 0.47
Three Saints
Bay partial sloped bedrock 4l ll 4 155 19. 1
Cape Kaguyak partial sloped large boulders 23 47 70 3. l
Lagoon Point partial sloped small boulders 35 71 106 7.3
* Wet weight of 16 plant and invertebrate species.
upper zone at this second area was characterized by
unusually high densities of B. glandula, Chthamalus
dalli, and littorine snails. The branched Odonthalia/
Rhodomela taxon was also abundant here in contrast to
the partially protected area.
The high wave exposure/small boulder sites at
Dolina Point and Low Cape yielded low numbers of taxa
and low biomass. The exposed, flat shoreline was
strewn with small boulders and cobbles which were
frequently disturbed by waves. Biotic cover was so
sparse at Dolina Point that extra large sampling
quadrats were used. At Low Cape, 10 of ll quadrats
sampled contained Mytilus edulis, but these were small,
suggesting recent settlement. At both sites the most
developed assemblages were found in stable areas of
immovable boulders.
Three transects differing in substrate stability
were surveyed at Lagoon Point, and the biotic assem-
blages reflected this difference. The large-boulder
Biology 145
transect revealed the highest species diversity and
cover. The intermediate transect had less cover except
for Rhodymenia, and the upper third of the transect was
barren except for some scattered, leafy Porphyra. The
third transect had only small boulders and a corre-
sponding decrease in invertebrate species and overall
biotic abundance. The relatively high species count at
Lagoon Point may be an artifact of the extended sampl–
ing there.
As sites were unbalanced with respect to the
various physical characteristics, no further corre-
lation is possible. It is interesting, however, that
the three richest sites were all small islands
(Sundstrom, Sud, and Chirikof).
5.5.6 Beaches
Beaches composed of unconsolidated sedimentary
substrates create a far different set of environmental
conditions from those commonly found in the rocky
intertidal zone. Habitat extremes range from the
quiet, burrow-ridden mudflats of protected tidal back-
waters to the constant churning of sand and gravel on
unprotected beaches, and the communities they support
are naturally quite different. Of the 30 beaches in
the Kodiak area with known populations of the com-
mercially important razor clam, Siliqua patula (Fig.
5. 34), 12 were systematically sampled by Kaiser and
Konigsberg (1977).
Figure 5.34 Beaches with known populations of Pacific
razor clams. Asterisk denotes those beaches surveyed
during the 1976 field season (Kaiser and Konigsberg,
1977).
149°
o º
&
RAZOR CLAM
150° 149°
BEACHES


146 Biology
The collections produced a number of species of
bivalves (clams), polychaete worms, and nemertean or
*ibbon worms. The taxonomic composition of the beach
*amples is shown in Table 5.23. The razor clam was the
*st abundant clam; Scolelepis squamatus was the most
Sommon polychaete. The low abundance of ribbon worms
Probably reflects their natural fragility and the size
* the sampling mesh.
Table 5.23 Intertidal sandy beach fauna: Taxonomic
composition of twelve samples from Kodiak Island and
adjacent Alaskan Peninsula (Kaiser and Konigsberg,
1977).
Species Number
Mollusca
Bivalves (Clams)
Siliqua patula 1280
Macoma lama 257
Spisula polynyma 116
Siliqua alta 63
Clinocardium nuttallii 30
Macoma balthica 30
Mya arenaria 20
Tellina lutea alternidenta 20
Macoma yoldiformis 8
Macoma nasuta 3
Macoma loveni 2
Macoma calcarea 2
Protothaca staminea 1
Tellina nucleodes 1
Tresus capax 1
Annelida
Polychaeta (Segmented worms)
Scolelepis squamatus 2905
Nephtys caeca 254
Nephtys californiensis 155
Haploscoloplos elongatus 181
Ophelia assimilis 165
Eteone longa 18
Glycinde picta 14
Anaitides groenlandica 10
Nephtys ciliata 3
Cistenides brevicoma 4
Nemertea (Ribbon worms)
Cerebratulus californiensis 13
Other Nemerteans 14
Because of sampling bias toward the razor clam
habitat, the results are not representative of all
Kodiak beaches. Very gravelly beaches probably harbor
a depauperate infauna compared to that of flat, fine-
grained beaches. Table 5.24 shows the relationship
between sediment size and taxonomic diversity in the
razor clam habitats and demonstrates some of the physi-
cal requirements of Siliqua. Halibut Bay had the
Table 5.24 Sediment characteristics, taxonomic diver-
sity richness (counts), and density of Siliqua patula in
the Kodiak area (Kaiser and Konigsberg, 1977).
Tide Level Mean No.
Stations Grain S. patula Number of Taxa
Site Surveyed Size sample Bivalves Polychaetes
Tanner
Head 7 0.26 24 5 3
Halibut
Bay 10 0.21 268 7 8
Swikshak 6 0.22 121 6 7
Village 5 0.28 208 3 8
Big River 5 0.25 211 6 6
Hallo Bay. 8 0.39 63 10 7
Kukak Bay 10 0.25 105 9 8
Bumble Bay 6 0.60 4 1 3
Tugidak 5 0.23 23 1 5
Dakavak 7 0.27 50 1 8
Kashvik 7 0.40 117 4 7
Alinchak 4 0.33 85 3 3
Biology 147
finest mean grain size (though not too fine; see
Nickerson's 1975 discussion on limiting effects of silt
on settling Siliqua veliger larvae) and also the high-
est yield of razor clams. The lowest density was at
the beach with the coarsest sand sampled, Bumble Bay
(Fig. 5.35). The close geographic proximity of these
two beaches suggests that sediment characteristics are
HALIBUT BAY BUMBLE BAY
ro-
c -
-
º 60-
C. -
g|
## so-
#|# -
* c. 40- 30-
S 3 - -
s - -
.C. 30 2O
E - -
-
~ 20- 1O-
--~
.7-
5 — - -
s E 3 - .6-
on E - -
Q) - ---
: ; - -
ă ă 4-
; : -
—I i i i i i i i T i i T I-I-I
T
–2 –1 o 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 O 1 2 3 4 5
Tide level (feet) Tide level (feet)
Figure 5.35 Intertidal distribution of the razor clam
Siliqua patula and mean sediment grain size at two
Kodiak Island beaches (after Kaiser and Konigsberg,
1977).
important in controlling infaunal populations and
associations.
The cumulative intertidal distributions of the
most dense infaunal organisms from the twelve beach
surveys are given in Fig. 5.36. The polychaete
Scolelepis showed the broadest range. Although Siliqua
is found primarily in the intertidal, it has been
recovered by dredge at a depth of 55 m (Nickerson,
1975).
Tidal Elevation (ft)
+ + + + +
& S → o * * * * *, *, *, 3,
I I I I I I I . i I I I
Siliqua patula
Macoma lama
Spisula polynyma
Scolelepi gyamatus
|
§
Nephtys caeca
Nephtys californiensis
Haploscoloplos elongatus
Ophelia assimilis
I I I I I I 1 I
- - O + + + + +
- O O - - No No
O &n On O On o On
Tidal Elevation (m)
Figure 5.36 Vertical distribution of abundant sandy
beach invertebrates sampled at twelve sites on Kodiak
Island and adjacent Alaska Peninsula (Kaiser and
Konigsberg, 1977).
5. 5. 7 Vulnerability of the Kodiak Island intertidal
zone to potential oil spills
An oil spill vulnerability index (OSVI) based on
substrate type has been developed for the Kodiak Archi-
pelago by Hayes and Ruby (1979; see Section 2.5.2).
The index predicts the residence time of oil on a
particular type of coastline. Kodiak is a moderate-to-
high-risk area, 71.2 percent of the coastline having
indices from 6 to 8, with a predicted spill longevity
of from one to eight years. The rest of the coast is a
relatively low-risk area (indices 1 and 2).
Site-specific information for the Kodiak
Archipelago suggests greater vulnerability than is
depicted by the Hayes and Ruby model. First, because
of long periods (especially in summer) of low wind and
wave energy, the exposed rocky headlands and eroding
wave-cut platforms (ideally cleansed by wave action)
may increase the index value from 1 and 2 to 6 and 7.
Second, the many fiords on the island will act as oil
traps, causing the oil to move into rather than out of
the most vulnerable areas located deep in fiords and
embayments.
The Hayes and Ruby model concerns expected resi"
dence time in various physical environments. Biologi"
cal sensitivities to oil are far more difficult to
model and essentially impossible to predict, despite
the efforts of a number of post-spill studies. Among
the factors that must be considered in attempting to
resolve this uncertainty are: type and amount of
petroleum spilled, slick structure, oil weathering
stage, season, weather, tides, life history stage of
impinged species, community composition, and local





148 Biology
**bstrate and beach morphology. Thus far, each spill
incident has resulted in the elucidation of a new
*nvironmental response scenario and has raised more
*stions than it has answered (Clark and Finley,
1977). It seems also clear from the results of these
*dies (e.g., Sanborn, 1977; Thomas, 1978; Southward
* Southward, 1978; Hampson and Moul, 1978; Clark et
al., 1978; Notini, 1978) that while some dramatic
effects may be evident, the intertidal is far too
*P*tially variable to attribute subtle changes to the
*ction of spilled oil on the basis of post-spill
*dies. These subtle changes may ultimately prove
"*e important than the more obvious short-term mani-
‘estations. An obvious problem has been the difficulty
in Selecting study areas that serve as true controls
*th which to compare affected areas.
We may, however, make some general predictions, in
Pºrt based on the previously cited studies and in part
based on speculation. The most obvious is that the
more complex communities will tend to be more disrupted
than will those simpler ones subject to chronic natural
*isturbance. This disruption may take the form of
Selective declines (or sometimes long-term enhancement)
* various populations. At one extreme, the barren
site at Cape Sitkinak would probably not be materially
*fected at the macrobiotic level. Natural disturbance
Sommunities tend to be populated by opportunistic
“Pºemerals such as the sea lettuce Ulva. These species
are frequently the first to recover or recolonize
*llowing petroleum insult.
The mechanical effect of waves is important in
*termining the outcome of oil spills in the inter-
tidal. Wave energy (combined with tides) can result in
the Stranding of oil in the splash zone, but can also
**Celerate the natural clearing of rocky intertidal
a & a de
reas. Thus, it is expected that exposed coasts would
tend to recover faster than protected areas, although
the latter may not be as susceptible to impingement in
the first place.
Substrate is also important, although one cannot
make a blanket prediction comparing impacts at rocky
versus sedimentary habitats. High . energy, coarse-
grained beaches should be cleansed during times of
erosion, but may accumulate buried oil strata if oil
comes ashore during the accretion part of the sand
transport cycle. These may later be uncovered with
renewed oil release to the environment. Oil may perco-
late rapidly in gravelly substrates, but lie on the
surface in a weathered, asphaltene pavement on flat,
fine-grained or muddy protected beaches. Where oil is
not persistent at the surface of sediments, the effect
on mobile, frequently recolonizing sandy-beach infauna
should be transient. In contrast, the structurally
stable rocky intertidal communities may be subject to
greater impact because of the inability of species to
escape the mechanical or toxic effects of oil. In the
rocky intertidal, shelled organisms such as barnacles,
limpets, and mussels may survive short-term insult by
simply closing up while the slick is coming ashore. If
thick stranding does not occur, they may escape alto-
gether. Heavy or protracted exposure to oil, however,
can produce massive kills of both algae and inverte-
brates. Algae may become bleached over time despite
their mucilaginous coating that tends to prevent direct
adhesion of oil. Invertebrate losses may be accompa-
nied by algal increases in response to reduced grazing
pressure from limpets and chitons. Conversely, some
grazers (e.g., Littorina) show long-term growth en-
hancement because of increased ephemeral algal cover
during the recovery phase. These algae take advantage
of space created by the death and removal of large
grazers and large, canopy-forming seaweeds.
A very important factor affecting vulnerability is
the timing of a spill relative to species-specific
patterns of recruitment. Larval and molting stages of
many organisms are known to be highly sensitive to
toxic components of petroleum. If not killed outright,
these stages may otherwise be adversely affected, such
as by inhibition of settling response. By the same
token, random spatial patterns of larval recruitment
may cause selective increases of a given species at
some, but not all, affected or unaffected areas. This
"noise" tends to obscure the differences due to oil
impingement.
The time span of detrimental effects has been
highly varied, ranging from a few days in cases of
lightly oiled sandy beaches or wave-swept rocky coasts
to many years in heavily oiled protected areas. It is
likely that within any area of diverse habitat such as
Kodiak Island, the entire range of previously observed
effects is possible.
Biology 149
5. 6 FISH
5. 6. 1 Introduction
Continental shelf and slope waters surrounding the
Kodiak archipelago are some of the most biologically
productive areas in the Gulf of Alaska. Large popula-
tions of salmon, herring, smelt, halibut, pollock,
other groundfish, crabs, and shrimp use these waters as
their principal spawning, rearing, and foraging
grounds. Coastal fiords and embayments are the nursery
areas for many key pelagic (e.g., salmon, herring,
capelin) and demersal (e.g., halibut, pollock, cod)
fishes that, as adults, are far-ranging. Migratory
routes of economically important stocks from other
Alaskan regions (e.g., Bristol Bay sockeye salmon,
Unimak Pacific ocean perch, southeastern Alaskan
Pacific halibut) lie along the outer continental shelf
to the east of the Kodiak Island group.
Major fishing grounds for salmon, halibut, crab,
and shrimp are located in Kodiak waters. The total
value of the catch to fishermen in 1978 was $86.7
million (ADF&G, Kodiak office, pers. comm.). The
only population center of any size, the port of Kodiak,
ranks second in the nation in the value of fishery
products landed.
The oil industry and Bureau of Land Management
have designated 1.3 million hectares of offshore tracts
to the east of Afognak, Kodiak, and Trinity Islands to
be leased for OCS development in December 1980 (Lease
Sale #46). These tracts are located in 30 to 250 m of
water. Potential conflicts between exploration, re-
fining, and transportation of oil and gas and the
fishing industry are major issues that developers,
resource managers, and the Kodiak populace must face.
A thorough understanding of the fish populations
is required to assess the consequences of development
on the Kodiak Shelf. Knowledge of the life histories,
seasonal distributions, population dynamics, and feed-
ing relationships of fishes will allow researchers to
predict the vulnerability and sensitivity of species to
environmental disturbances. It can also be used by
resource managers in decision-making and in minimizing
resource conflicts. Where to build an LNG plant, or
how to route tanker traffic, so as to minimize distur-
bance of commercial fish populations near Kodiak are
examples of the kinds of decisions which will have to
be made.
This chapter provides an overview of fish popula-
tions in the Kodiak area and briefly describes the
extent and value of the commercial fisheries. Informa-
tion on fishes of commercial value or of potential
commercial value, as well as ecologically important
species, is emphasized.
5.6.2 Distribution, abundance, and population dynamics
Submarine topography, circulation patterns, sea-
sonal changes in temperature and salinity, location of
preferred habitats and prey, and fishing effort are
some of the major conditions that influence the distri-
bution and abundance of fish populations. Marine
habitats surrounding the Kodiak Island group are di-
verse. The nearshore marine environment is charact
terized by numerous reefs, skerries, terraces, and in
places, luxuriant algal growth. Water depths are
generally less than 60 m. Inlets and fiords are com-
mon, providing relatively protected deep-water (up to
200 m) habitats for marine life. The offshore contin-
ental shelf is a broad plateau with several large banks
(e.g., Marmot Flats, Albatross, and Portlock Banks)
rising above it. Additionally, several major submarine
canyons, such as the Chiniak and Kiliuda Troughs ,
transect the shelf (see Fig. 2.19). Beyond the shelf
the seafloor slopes down steeply into the Aleutian
trench. The irregularities of topography and water
depths, and consequently of substrate types and assor
ciated benthos, within relatively short distances
provide many potential niches for marine fishes. (For
a more detailed discussion of the physical marine
environment seaward of the Kodiak archipelago and
seasonal density distributions of plankton and benthos,
See Chapters 2, 3, 5.3, and 5.4. )
The preferred habitats of many marine fishes found
in Kodiak waters vary with life stage and season. For
instance, maturing salmonids feed in oceanic, epipela"
gic habitats hundreds of kilometers away from Kodiak,
yet these anadromous fishes are abundant as adults in
coastal waters from June through September each year,
staging for their spawning runs (ADF&G, 1976). Salmon
Smolts emigrate in spring and summer from freshwater
streams and lakes into estuaries, where they remain for
several months before migrating to the open ocean (Buck
et al., 1975; Gosho, 1977). Many fishes that as adults
occur in deeper water on the continental shelf and
slope inhabit the littoral and sublittoral areas of the
Kodiak Island group as juveniles (Harris and Hartt,
1977; Rogers and Rogers, 1978; Rogers et al., 1979;
Hunter, 1979). Populations of many fishes (e.g. ,
Pacific halibut, cod, walleye pollock) range into
shallower depths in summer than in winter (Hughes,
1974; Ronholt et al., 1978; IPHC, 1978). Although
larval fishes have only limited control over their
movements, there is a pronounced seasonality in their
appearance in Kodiak waters (Dunn and Naplin, 1974;
Dunn et al., 1979a).
The distribution of fish populations is constantly
changing. Their typical distribution patterns and
150 Biology
level of abundance can be estimated from long-term
°bservations, but populations should be monitored regu-
*rly to determine shifts in their composition and
Patterns like
those of walleye pollock, are expanding rapidly in the
of movement. Some fish populations,
Gulf of Alaska, while others, such as those of Pacific
°Sean perch, are apparently declining (Ronholt et al.,
1978). Knowledge of natural long-term changes in fish
Populations is necessary to differentiate them from
"man effects such as ocs development.
Sampling procedures
Information on the distribution, abundance and
Population dynamics of fishes in the Gulf of Alaska has
*en collected by OCSEAP scientific teams, the Bureau
* Commercial Fisheries (BCF), National Marine Fish-
**ies Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish and
Game (ADF&G), International Pacific Halibut Commission
(IPHC),
"ission (INPFC), North Pacific Fisheries Management
°ouncil (NPFMC),
Survey methods
Fisheries Com-
International North Pacific
and various university personnel.
have included exploratory trawl
*ampling, egg and larval surveys, mark and recapture
studies, aerial surveys, catch and escapement counts,
*d monitoring catch and effort data of the commercial
*heries. Each of these methods has advantages and
*sadvantages; each is best suited for a particular
‘ype of fish or life stage. For instance, benthopelag-
* fishes like Pacific ocean perch are not as easily
*"pled by otter trawl as many pleuronectids, nor are
fishes that occur in rocky areas. Thus, estimates of
these less accessible populations based solely on otter
trawl collections do not yield a true picture of the
**pulations. Gear selectivity is discussed in depth by
*land (1969), Ricker (1975), steele (1977), and Smith
*d Richardson (1977).
Because sampling effort, location, and season have
varied among surveys, it has often been difficult to
compare the data on a year-to-year or area basis. As
scientific sampling has usually taken place from April
through October, there is little information on the
behavior and movements of fish in winter.
Additional problems arise in analyzing commercial
statistics. Productive areas and marketable
species are sought within limited fishing seasons.
Extrapolating the seasonal distribution and abundance
catch
from these data is obviously risky. Other constraints
in interpreting survey data will be discussed later.
Table 5.25 Life history data for five species of Paci
1970; Hartman, 1971). *
Salmonids
Salmon and trout are seasonally distributed
throughout Kodiak offshore waters, coastal embayments,
and freshwater watersheds. These habitats are used by
one or more life stages of salmonids (Table 5.25). The
principal species occurring in and near the Lease Area
gorbuscha),
nerka), chum (O. keta), coho (O. kisutch), and chinook
are: pink ( Oncorhynchus sockeye ( 0.
salmon (O. tshawytscha), rainbow or steelhead trout
(Salmo gairdneri), and Dolly Warden char (Salvelinus
malma) (Buck et al., 1975; Stern et al., 1976).
fic salmon (adapted from Burner, 1964; Bailey, 1969; Merrell,
Species
Characteristics Pink Sockeye Chum Coho Chinook
Freshwater habitat Short Streams Short streams Short and Short streams Large rivers
and lakes long streams and lakes
Length of time young one day or 1 to 4 years Less than 1 to 2 years 3 to 12 months
stay in fresh water less 1 month
Length of ocean life 1-1/3 years % to 4 years % to 4 years 1 to 2 years 1 to 5 years
Year of life at 2 3 to 7 2 to 5 2 to 4 2 to 8
maturity (years)
Average length at 50. 8 63.5 63.5 61 91.4
maturity (cm)
Average weight at 1.8 2.7 4. 1 4.5 10
maturity (kg)
Range of weight at 0.9 to 4.1 0.7 to 4.5 1.7 to 20.4 1.7 to 13.6 1.1 to 56.8
maturity (kg)
Principal spawning Jul-Sep Jun-Sep Sep-0ct Sep-Dec Aug.-Sep
months
Fecundity (number of 2,000 4,000 3,000 3,500 5,000
eggs)
*Exceptions to these general descriptions occur frequently.
Biology 151
In general, maturing salmon are found in oceanic,
epipelagic waters far from Alaskan coasts (Godfrey et
al., 1975; French et al., 1976; Neave et al., 1976).
Royce et al. (1968) report that pink, sockeye, and chum
salmon are widely dispersed in the Gulf of Alaska south
to 41°N latitude in winter and 48°N latitude in summer.
Stocks originating in Asia, Alaska, Canada, Washington,
and Oregon are all found in this broad region, and
cohorts move across the Kodiak continental shelf when
returning to their sites of origin (Foerster, 1968;
Royce et al., 1968; Stern et al., 1976). Many coho and
chinook salmon inhabit more coastal regions during
their entire oceanic phase. Steelhead trout and Dolly
Varden char are common inshore along the Kodiak
archipelago (Buck et al., 1975; ADF&G, 1976; Stern et
al., 1976).
Following an oceanic phase of variable duration
(Table 5.25) in which salmon feed abundantly and reach
maximum size, maturing cohorts return to coastal waters
and search the shorelines for environmental clues
(Hasler, 1966) that will lead them to their natal
streams, lakes, and estuaries, where they spawn.
Maturing salmon usually enter Kodiak waters from the
northeast; however, routes are not fixed, and consider-
able wandering may occur before fish enter their spawn-
ing waters (Fig. 5.37). Wandering has been observed in
sockeye tagged on the northwest coast of Kodiak Island.
Salmon tagged in this area were recovered in Alitak
Bay, Chignik Bay on the southern Alaska Peninsula,
Bristol Bay, and Cook Inlet.
Figure 5. 37 Generalized migratory pathways of matur-
ing Pacific salmon approaching the Kodiak archipelago.
59°
58°
56°
57.1
157°
156°
155°
15.4°
153°
1529
1519 150° 149° 148° 147°
MATURING SALMONID SPAWNING
M|GRATION -
I | l l
60°
58°
15.4°
153°
1529
1519 15O2 149° 148°



152 Biology
Arrival time at the spawning streams is nearly the
Same from year to year (Royce et al., 1968; Buck et
al., 1975; Stern et al., 1976). The spawning season
for five salmon species returning to Kodiak is given in
Fig. 5.38. Commercial fishing for each species takes
Place during their respective spawning seasons. The
timing of spawning runs varies slightly from area to
***a around Kodiak (ADF&G, Kodiak office, pers. comm.).
T-
Upstream migration
Spawning
#
ºntragravel development &
Juvenile rearing salt water
Juvenile outmigration
T-
U U U
Upstream migration
Spawning
ºntragravel development &
i
Juvenile rearing §
Juvenile outmigration
T U U
Upstream migration
Spawning
ºntragravel development &
;
Juvenile rearing
Juvenile outmigration
U
Upstream migration
Spawning
ºntragravel development &
;
Juvenile rearing #
Juvenile outmigration
T-
Uſ
Upstream migration
Spawning
*sº
ºntragravel development &
i
Juvenile rearing &
Juvenile outmigration
jºure 5.38 Time table of Pacific salmon life histo-
**s (Buck et al., 1975).
Pink salmon
Pink salmon are abundant in the Kodiak area,
spawning in 240 streams as well as in intertidal areas
(ADF&G, 1976). Streams that sustain large spawning runs
of pink salmon are shown in Fig. 5. 39. Pinks account
for about 80 percent of the total salmon catch in the
region each year (Fig. 5.40). Largest catches are
regularly recorded from ADF&G Management Districts 258,
257, and 252 (Fig. 5.41), which include the southeast
coast of Kodiak Island, Alitak Bay, and Uganik Bay
(Buck et al., 1975; Stern 1976). Peak spawning runs,
as measured by catch and escapement counts, occur from
mid-July through mid-August. Pink salmon migrate on an
odd/even-year basis, which has resulted in the evolu-
tion of two distinct genetic races (ADF&G, 1976). For
the entire Kodiak region, the even-year pink salmon
stocks consistently produce larger return populations
(Fig. 5.40), but this trend is not true for each indi-
vidual district. A record 15 million pink salmon were
caught in the Kodiak region in 1978. The escapement
estimate (those fish that avoid being caught and are
able to spawn) of 4 million fish was also a record, and
very large catches (ADF&G, Kodiak Office, pers. comm.)
are forecast for 1980. Further aspects of spawning,
fry development, and smolt migration into salt water
are given in Table 5.25 and Fig. 5.37.
Between 1925 and 1972 an estimated average of 274
million juvenile pink salmon entered the Kodiak marine
waters annually; in peak years estimates ranged to 719
million fry (Stern, 1976). These estimates were based
on the number of females spawning (calculated by as-
suming escapement equal to 30 percent of the total run
and an even sex ratio), average fecundity (Table 5.25),
and a 10-percent survivorship from the egg phase. In
1978, an escapement of 4 million spawners was estimated
(21 percent of the total run), and about 400 million
fingerlings were produced. Stern (1976) may have
slightly overestimated historical production values.














Biology 153
Figure 5. 39
the
Kodiak
1976).
Spawning locations of Pacific salmon on
archipelago
(Buck et al.,
1975;
ADF&G,
56°
157°
156°
155°
15.4°
1529 1519 150° 149°
SALMON MAJOR SPAWNING SITES
------ Pink
< Chum
~ Sockeye
- Intertidal
148°
1529 1519 150° 149°
148°

154
Biology
i
i
16-
15-
14-
13-
12–
11-
Chum
Pink
Coho
Sockeye
Chinook
48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
Ye a r
67 68 69 7O 71 72 73 74 75
76 77 78
Figure 5.40 Commercial catch of Pacific salmon,
species, for the Kodiak region from 1948-78.
catches of coho and chinook are not shown for 1973-78
period (Lechner et al., 1972; ADF&G, 1979b).
by
Small
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152°
151° 150° 149° 148°
147°
59°
—157°
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152°
151° 150° 149°
148°
Figure 5.41 ADF&G Pacific
tricts, Kodiak region.
salmon management dis-












Biology
155
The principal juvenile salmonid outmigration route
follows the periphery of the northern Gulf of Alaska
and then turns southwest past Kodiak Island (Royce et
al., 1968) (Fig. 5.42). Juvenile pink salmon enter the
ocean from streams and estuaries during July, August,
and September (Fig. 5.38). They do not scatter random-
ly but migrate in a narrow band (about 30 km in width)
along the coast. Other salmonid migrants travel a
route similar to that followed by juvenile pink salmon
(Royce et al., 1968). The migration includes not only
locally spawned fish but also some spawned in streams
hundreds of miles to the northeast (Stern, 1976). The
migration in the Kodiak area continues into October and
November, then juvenile pinks leave the coastal zone,
and move south into the open ocean (Royce et al.,
1968). -
Figure 5.42 Generalized migratory pathways of juve-
niie Pacific salmon leaving the nearshore zones in the
vicinity of Kodiak.
151° 150° 149° 148°
JUVENILE SALMONID OUTMIGRATIONS
- - - - - Approximate Seaward boundary
I | l l
1519 15O2 149° 148°


156 Biology
Sockeye salmon
Sockeye rank second to pink salmon in importance
*o the Kodiak fishery. The 30-year record of catches
is shown in Fig. 5.40. In 1978 the total catch of
*,072,000 fish was worth $5.47 million (ADF&G, Kodiak
Office, pers. comm.). It was the first time in 30
Wears that the catch of sockeyes exceeded one million
fish. The average annual catch for the 1948 through
1978 period was 495,000 fish. About 60 percent of the
**Ckeyes are taken incidental to the pink salmon fish-
ery in July and August. Sockeyes are caught primarily
in ADF&G's management districts 255 and 256 (Fig. 5.40)
* the southwest side of Kodiak, en route to their
Primary spawning sites in the Karluk, Red, and Frazer
*iver systems (Fig. 5.41). Several minor spawning
*eas on the archipelago include Uganik, Afognak, and
*aul Lakes, and Saltery Cove (ADF&G, 1979b). Sockeye
**lmon typically select spawning sites close to lakes.
The free -swimming fry move into these and remain for
*e or more years. Preferred spawning habitats are
Streams flowing into lakes, the upper sections of large
*tlet rivers, and along the shores of lakes (Foerster,
1968). Sockeye are generally the earliest salmon to
*Pawn in Kodiak (Fig. 5.38) and are the primary species
$9mmercially sought in June. In 1978 peak catches took
Place in the third week of June (ADF&G, 1979b).
Juvenile sockeye migrate into salt water somewhat
*ater in the year than other salmon (Fig. 5.38). Stern
(1976) estimated that an average annual population of
* million smolts enter the sea with peak production
*hree times as great. The 1978 outmigration was esti-
"*ted at 40 million smelts, based on Stern's assump-
tions of sex ratio, escapement, fecundity, and Smolt
*rvivorship.
Chum salmon
Chum salmon are the only other salmon of commer-
cial importance in the region. Historical catch sta-
tistics are given in Fig. 5.40. In 1978, 8.14,000 chum
were caught, considerably above the average since 1934
of 624,000. The total catch was worth $2.6 million to
the fishermen (ADF&G, Kodiak Office, pers. comm.).
Largest catches of chum salmon have been taken within
Management Districts 253, 254, and 258 (Buck et al.,
1975) (Fig. 5.41). Many of the prime spawning sites
for chum are similar to those for pink salmon (Fig.
5.39), and the two species are the only salmon that
spawn in intertidal waters to any extent. The chum
salmon run in Kodiak generally occurs between late July
and late October (Fig. 5.38), with peak catches in
early August (Stern, 1976; ADF&G, 1979b). Chum Smolt
begin to enter salt water in mid-March (Fig. 5.38);
juveniles inhabit coastal nursery grounds for three to
four months prior to offshore migrations. Stern (1976)
estimates that an average of 40 million fingerlings
enter the sea each year; the young-of-the-year class
was estimated at 64.3 million fish in 1978 (ADF&G,
1979b).
Coho and chinook salmon
Coho and chinook salmon have relatively small
spawning populations in the Kodiak region. In 1978
fewer than 50,000 coho valued at $273,000 were har-
vested (ADF&G, Kodiak Office, pers. comm.). Coho spawn
in streams concentrated in the northeast and southwest
corners of Kodiak Island (Buck et al., 1975). Typical
spawning times are given in Fig. 5.38 and Table 5.25.
Because of their late arrival, commercial interest in
this species is low. They are usually taken inciden-
tally to the pink and chum salmon. Fifty percent of
the coho caught in 1978 were taken in the Afognak
region in September. Only 3,228 chinook salmon were
harvested in 1978; however, this was the highest catch
in 33 years (ADF&G, 1979b).
begin to enter the nearshore zone during early June,
Maturing chinook salmon
and the migration continues into autumn. In the Kodiak
Archipelago populations have spawned historically in
the Karluk and Red River systems, while introduced
populations have used the Dog Salmon River/Fraser Lake
system (ADF&G, 1976). Additional features of the life
histories of both species are given in Fig. 5.38, Table
5.25, and Stern (1976).
Biology 157
Dolly Warden char and steelhead trout
Historical data on catch statistics and apparent
abundance of Dolly Warden char and steelhead trout in
the Kodiak region are lacking (Stern, 1976). During
the spring and summer char are commonly caught by sport
fishermen in areas adjacent to Kodiak City, Pasagshak,
Womens, Middle, Kalsin, Monashka, and Anton Larsen
Bays. They are typically found within 100 m of shore
(D. Rogers, Univ. Washington, FRI, pers. comm.) and are
extensively distributed throughout the Kodiak Island
group. Char probably spawn in every stream in the
region (J. Blackburn, ADF&G, Kodiak, pers. comm.).
Spawning occurs in autumn along the British Columbia
coastline (Hart, 1973), and probably takes place a
month or two earlier in Kodiak.
Steelhead trout return from extensive oceanic
migration in the north Pacific to spawn in streams
along the Kodiak archipelago (Hart, 1973). Maturing
and adult steelheads are taken by commercial fishermen
from June through August in offshore waters near Kodiak
(Stern, 1976). These fish have spent one to five years
at sea (Hart, 1973), prior to these spawning migra-
tions. Although not well documented, steelheads are
thought to spawn in numerous streams on the archi-
pelago. These spawning fish are sought by sport fish-
ermen. The Karluk River and its tributaries are impor
tant sites for this fishing (L. Jarvela, OCSEAP,
Juneau, pers. comm.).
Non-salmonid pelagic species
Information on the distribution and abundance of
non-salmonid pelagic fishes near Kodiak is for the most
part limited to data on species commercially sought, or
on those prominent as incidental catches of U.S. and
foreign commercial fishing fleets. A synoptic review
of the existing literature on the distribution, abun-
dance, life histories, and fisheries of 34 common
pelagic fishes (15 families) is given by Macy et al.
(1978). These pelagic species generally live near the
water surface, often feeding or migrating over long
distances. The forms which occur in dense schools are
most easily caught, and thus are most intensively
fished. These pelagic species provide valuable forage
for many commercially and ecologically important
fishes, birds, and mammals.
Distributions of several dominant pelagic fishes
are shown in Fig 5.43. These are generalized data
based on commercial fisheries statistics and experiment
tal survey catches. The offshore seasonal movements of
these fishes are poorly understood. Some species like .
capelin (Mallotus villosus) are suspected of seasonal
migrations across the Kodiak shelf to specific spawning
sites along the coast because the species behaves in
this manner in the North Atlantic and Barents Sea
(Jangaard, 1974).
m_*
Figure 5.43 Distribution of Pacific herring, capelin,
Pacific sand lance, and Atka mackerel in the Kodiak
region (Macy et al., 1978; J. Blackburn, ADF&G, Kodiak
office, pers. comm.).
158 Biology
1 - - o - o o o - o - - - -
57° 156 155 154 153 152 151° 150 149 148 147 157° 156° 155° 154 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147° Pacific herring
Unlike those of most pelagic fishes, the life
0 0 20 30 40 to miles
*-E-B-
history and seasonal movements of Pacific herring
(Clupea harengus pallasi) in Kodiak coastal waters have
been fairly well documented. Knowledge of the species
59° can be attributed, in part, to the existence of a
fishery in the Kodiak area since 1912 (ADF&G, 1976).
Between 1934 and 1950 the average annual catch was
34,440 metric tons, with a range of 15, 280-109,925 mt;
there was no harvest in 1949 (ADF&G, 1979b). In the
+58°
-
º º
sº yº º
- º
- - –57°
/
past twenty years the catch has drastically declined
(Fig. 5.44), but in 1964 increased effort in the
fishery coincided with the advent of the Japanese
market for sac roe (ADF&G, 1976). Thus, most of the
current fishing effort coincides with the spawning
PACIFIC HERRING CAPELIN
season of the Pacific herring. The ex-vessel value of
the catch in 1978 was $100,000 (ADF&G, Kodiak office,
152° 1519 150° 149° 148° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 1519 150° 149° 148°
pers. comm.).
In the Kodiak area spawning occurs primarily from
May through mid-June (Rounsefell, 1930; ADF&G, 1976).
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
--- - - * -- - M
—H6OP
\
-- o ~ -o tºo Bo ---
-E-E-
In the Prince William Sound/Copper River Delta vicini-
o wo zo. 3d 40 to males ty, herring spawn from early March to early June (Reid,
1972). Peak spawning times vary somewhat from year to
59° year, and populations do not necessarily return to the
same area in successive years to spawn. Water tempera-
tures may play an important role in the exact timing
and location of spawning (ADF&G, 1976).
On the east side of the island preferred spawning
substrates are found in the Chiniak Bay and Old Harbor
areas (Fig. 5.44). Most large bays along the west and
—157° east sides of Kodiak and Afognak Islands are spawning
areas for herring and consequently are considered good
fishing grounds (Buck et al., 1975).
ATKA MACKEREL
&
SAND LANCE ** Gravid females extrude their eggs onto algae, sub-
merged tree branches, and other stabilized substrates
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° along shallow, rocky shores (Reid, 1972). Attendant


















Biology 1.59
males release milt at the same time. Spawning herring
can be so dense that they appear to generate milky
1570 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
º ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: º
plumes when viewed during aerial overflights.
Most schools of mature herring disappear after
spawning and swim into deeper, offshore water to feed
(Taylor, 1964) then move into shallower waters in au-
tumn, where they overwinter. Large concentrations of
Pacific herring have been noted in recent years on the
west side of Kodiak Island in Uyak, Uganik, and Viekoda
Bays.
Larval and juvenile herring use bays in Kodiak as
nursery grounds, feeding extensively on calanoid cope-
pods (Harris and Hartt, 1977). By late fall young
herring move into deeper, offshore waters (Reid, 1972).
Whether herring follow migratory routes or merely show
general inshore-offshore movements has not yet been
ascertained (Macy et al., 1978).
#
à
HERRING
4° ~~ PACIFIC HERRING
Present
- Major concentration
y Apr 15 – Sep 15 –56°
S.
º
__
L I I | | | l l
155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
56°
58'59 60' 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
Year
No. Vessels 4 6 o O o O p 2 2 5 10 21 2 3 4 11 26 2 1 11 40
Figure 5.44 Pacific herring catch and effort data for
the Kodiak area, 1958-78 with locations of major fish-
ing effort (Lechner et al., 1972; ADF&G, 1979b).




160 Biology
Capelin
Capelin are abundant in Kodiak waters and a prin-
*Pal prey of many fishes (Harris and Hartt, 1977;
Rogers and Rogers, 1978; Rogers et al., 1979), marine
birds (Sanger et al., 1978), and pinnipeds (Calkins and
Pitcher, 1978; Pitcher and Calkins, 1978). Young-of-
the-year and juvenile capelin were the predominant
Pelagic fish captured in Kaiugnak, Alitak, and Ugak
Bays in May–September 1976 at surface and midwater
depths (Harris and Hartt, 1977). Smelt larvae, proba-
bly Capelin, were clearly preponderant in ichthyoplank-
* hauls taken from Izhut, Kalsin-Chiniak, Kiliuda,
* Kaiugnak bays during the summer of 1978 (Rogers et
*l., 1979).
Capelin spawn along exposed pebbly beaches (Hart,
*73) which have rather narrowly defined habitat char-
*Steristics. Water temperatures, substrate grain size,
tidal stage, and ambient light conditions all affect
*Pawning (Jangaard, 1974). Suitable spawning sites are
found along small sections of beaches in most bays on
the east side of Kodiak Island. The only extensive
**ndy beaches are located west of Alitak Bay on the
**uthwest side of the island. Approximately 50 percent
* the Trinity Islands shoreline is suitable for cape-
lin Spawning, and capelin apparently spawn here in
*rge numbers (Fig. 5.45). Spawning probably occurs
along Kodiak shores in May and June (J. Blackburn,
ADF&G, Kodiak Office, pers. comm.). It occurs in
*eptember and October in the Strait of Georgia, British
*igure 5.45 Principal spawning areas for capelin
..ºg the shores of the Kodiak archipelago (ADF&G,
976; J. Blackburn, ADF&G, Kodiak office, pers. comm.).
1579 1569
2O 40 60
155°
80 1OO km
20 30 40
E EC
50 miles
ELET)
154°
153°
1529
1519
150°
149°
148°
1470
60°
59°
58°
57 570
56° —H56°
CAPELIN SPAWNING AREAS
I I I I l
155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°

















Biology 161
Columbia (Hart, 1973) and in June through July in the
Bering Sea (Musienko, 1970).
composed mainly of individuals of ages III and IV.
Spawning populations are
Most fish die after spawning. Demersal eggs attach to
beach substrates and hatch in 15-30 days at 5-10°C.
(Jangaard, 1974).
Capelin larvae are epipelagic and were concentrat-
ed over North and Middle Albatross Banks and the
Chiniak Trough in fall 1977, suggesting major spawning
grounds shoreward of these areas. They were caught in
greatest numbers in the Kiliuda Trough and 20-50 km
northeast of the Trinity Islands during spring 1978
cruises (Dunn et al., 1979a). It is not clear where
these larvae were spawned. In the fall survey the
areas sampled were to the east of Kodiak and Afognak
Islands. Spring sampling was more extensive and in-
cluded tows both north and south of the archipelago
(Fig. 5.46).
in the Shelikof Strait,
No hauls were made to the west of the
islands, in either of the
surveys. Smelt larvae (probably capelin) were the most
prevalent species caught in Izhut, Chiniak, Kiliuda,
and Kaiugnak Bays during ichthyoplankton surveys con-
ducted in 1978-79. However, they were collected only
1979).
These data also confirm that the spawning season is in
during June through August (Rogers et al.,
late spring and early summer in Kodiak waters.
Apart from these recent surveys and anecdotal
data, little information is available on the seasonal
movements of capelin in the region. Considering the
apparent importance of the species, more investigations
are necessary to further describe its seasonal distri-
bution, abundance, life history, and trophic relation-
ships.
NMFs (cHTHYoplankton cruise TRACK
Fall 1977
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
1-2- l l l l —l l l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148°
57°
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
Sº Y-
Cºlº
Xºft. Trough
NMFS ICHTHYOPLANK TON CRUISE TRACK
Spring 1978
Trinity Islands
º º
ºn- º l
Figure 5.46
Pacific sand lance
Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes hexapterus) probably
occur throughout the continental shelf region from near
shore to the edge of the shelf (Fig. 5.43). As adults
they are more abundant near shore (Macy et al., 1978).
According to Trumble (1973), sand lance spawn in winter
at depths of 25-100 m in areas of strong currents.
Eggs are demersal and are buried in the sand. Larvae
are epipelagic and disperse farther offshore with age.
Large concentrations of larval sand lance were found
1. l l 1– l l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148°
NMFS ichthyoplankton survey cruise track, fall 1977 and spring 1978 (Dunn et al., 1979).
over the Portlock and Albatross Banks (Favorite et al.,
1975).
ing sandy substrates (Macy et al., 1978) but rising in
1977).
Juvenile sand lance are found at shallower depths than
Juvenile sand lance are benthopelagic, inhabit"
the water column to feed (Harris and Hartt,
adults, and both life stages move into deeper water in
the fall and winter (Andriyashev in Harris and Hartt,
1977). Pacific sand lance are an important prey of
many other fish (see Fish Trophics section). They are
common in both pelagic and benthic fish assemblages and
are important in energy transfer between systems.






162 Biology
Atka mackerel
Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) are
"idely distributed in epipelagic waters of the north
Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea. Seaward of Kodiak they
*re taken most frequently along the continental shelf
break (Fig. 5.43). Adults migrate annually to inshore
*Pawning grounds. Optimal spawning conditions occur in
the straits between islands, where swift currents pre-
Vail. Rocky substrates at depths of 10-17 m and tem-
Peratures from 5 to 8°C are preferred. Exact spawning
*ites near Kodiak have not been determined, but large
Soncentrations of adult Atka mackerel have been noted
inshore, along the south coast of the Aleutian chain
from May through October (see Macy et al., 1978, for
*View). Larvae were collected over the Kiliuda Trough
in fall surveys, and in the Albatross Banks region in
*Pring (Dunn et al., 1979a), but sites of their origin
*re unknown. In recent years this hexagrammid has been
* major target of Soviet fisheries (Ronholt et al.,
*978). It is not harvested by domestic fishing fleets
°Perating out of Kodiak. The total foreign catch in
*78 was 18,800 mt or 97 percent of the estimated
°Ptimum yield (M. Alton, NMFS, Seattle, pers. comm.).
Other important pelagic fishes, in terms of ap-
*rent abundance and trophic relationships, are Pacific
sandfish (Trichodon trichodon) (Harris and Hartt,
1977), prowfish (Zaprora silenus) (Macy et al., 1978),
*d several smelts (Osmeridae) (Hart, 1973). Brief
"escriptions of their distribution, population dy-
**mics, and feeding habits have been summarized by Macy
*t al. (1978).
Demersal fishes
Demersal (bottom-dwelling) fishes are often refer-
red to simply as groundfish, especially when discussed
in relation to the commercial fishery. OCSEAP studies,
however, usually refer to them as flatfish
(Pleuronectiformes), rockfish (Scorpaenidae), round fish
(all other Osteichthyes), and elasmobranchs (Chondrich-
thyes) (Ronholt et al., 1978). In this review the last
classification is used. To date, 138 species repre-
senting 26 families of demersal fishes have been cap-
tured in the Gulf of Alaska. The most diverse families
are Hexagrammidae (30 spp.), Cottidae (24 spp.), and
Pleuronectidae (16 spp.) (Quast and Hall, 1972).
Abundance is not necessarily related to diversity,
however. Common demersal fishes in Kodiak are listed
in Table 5.26. All of them probably have preferred
habitats and depth ranges throughout the region, and a
particular species may be considered "common" in only
part of its total range (e.g., sablefish, rock sole).
Resource surveys have been conducted periodically
by federal and state agencies in waters surrounding the
Kodiak archipelago to determine the species composi-
tion, distribution, and relative abundance of demersal
fish populations. The most extensive survey of demer-
sal fishes in recent years was done by the NMFS (1973
through 1976). They collected samples from 96 stations
in the Kodiak-Shelikof-Chirikof area. Fish were taken
with otter trawl gear from water depths down to 400 m.
(Ronholt et al., 1978). The NMFS sampling occurred
from May through October; distribution patterns may
differ in winter. Hughes (1974) has shown this to be
Table 5.26 Common demersal fishes in the Kodiak
region (Buck et al., 1975; ADF&G, 1976; Harris and
Hartt, 1977; Ronholt et al., 1978; Rogers et al., 1979;
Hunter, 1979).
Flatfish
*Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis)
Rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata)
Yellowfin sole (Limanda aspera)
Flathead sole (Hippoglossoides elassodon)
Starry flounder (Apltichthys stellatus)
Butter sole (Isopsetta isolepis)
Sand sole (Psettichthys melanostictus)
*Arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias)
Rex sole (Glyptocephalus zachirus)

Roundfish
*Walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma)
*Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus)
Pacific tomcod (Microgadus proximus)
Alaska eelpout (Bothrocara pusillum)
*Sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria)
Kelp greenling (Hexagrammos decagrammus.)
Rock greenling (H. lagocephalus)
Masked greenling (H. octogrammos)
Whitespotted greenling (H. stelleri)
Lingcod (Ophidon elongatus)
Yellow Irish lord (Hemilepidotus jordani)
Red Irish lord (H. hemilepidotus)
Great sculpin (Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus)
Tubenose poacher (Pallasina barbata)
Sturgeon poacher (Agonus acipenserinus)
Alaskan ronquil (Bathymaster caeruleofasciatus)
Searcher (B. signatus)
Snake prickleback (Lumpenus sagitta)
Crescent gunnel (Pholis laeta)
Rockfish
*Pacific ocean perch (Sebastes alutus)
Black rockfish (S. melanops)
Tiger rockfish (S. nigrocinctus)
Elasmobranchs
Big skate (Raja binoculata)
Blake skate (R. kincaidi)
Starry skate (R. stellulata)
Spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias)
*Species of major importance to fishing industry.
Biology 163
true for fish populations sampled in this vicinity in
1961. No single survey can provide sufficient data to
describe the distribution of fish populations thor-
oughly; their movements are too dynamic. The work of
Ronholt et al. (1978) is the most comprehensive to
date, however. Additionally, their comparisons of
survey data from the 1960's and the 1970's provide some
insight into long-term fluctuations of standing stocks
of demersal fishes.
Roundfish, particularly walleye pollock, and a
number of flatfish are abundant throughout the Kodiak
region; rockfish are less frequently caught. The den-
sity distributions of these three classes of fish,
based on the NMFS survey, are shown in Figs. 5.47-5.49.
Elasmobranchs were infrequently caught on the continen-
tal slope east of Kodiak and in the Chirikof-Shelikof
Trough. Overall, largest populations of demersal fish
appear to be located southeast and southwest of Kodiak.
Figure 5.47 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of roundfish, based on NMFS survey data (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
1579
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°
1569
6O
155°
80 100 km
40
E ET)
50 miles
154°
153°
1529
1519
15O2
149°
|
ROUNDFISH
Distribution of Catch Rates
(May–Oct 1973, Jun-Aug 1975)
CPUE
• E 100 kg/hr
• 100–1000 kg/hr
> 1000 kg/hr
l l
1529
1519
150°
149° 148°
58°











164 Biology
Fi
(C
et
8ure 5.48 Distribution of standardized catch rates
PUE) of flatfish, based on NMFS survey data (Ronholt
al., 1978).
60°
59°
58°
57°
1579
155°
154° 153° 1529 151° 150°
FLATFISH
Distribution of Catch Rates
(May–Oct 1973, Jun-Aug 1975)
1470
CPUE
• * 100 kg/hr
56° • 100-1000 kg/hr
> 1000 kg/hr —H56°
I l I
15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148°





- Biology 165
O O O O Figure 5.49 Distribution of standardized catch rates
1579 1569 155° 154° 153° 152° 151° 150 149 148 147 (CPUE) of rockfish, based on NMFS survey data (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
60°
The average catch rates (CPUE), number of stations
sampled, and estimated abundance of demersal fishes
caught in four statistical areas (Fig. 5.50) are given
59° in Tables 5.27-5.30. For comparison, data collected
during the 1961-62 IPHC resource survey are also pre-
sented. The highest catch rates of round fish, flat-
58°
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
ROCKFISH
- Distribution of Catch Rates
(May–Oct 1973, Jun-Aug 1975)
CPUE
X No catº º
- 100 kg/hr &
- 100-1000 kg/hr —56° 56.1% canor- KODIAK
> 1000 kg/hr *
-
s
l l I l 1 1
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148
I | l l Figure 5.50 Statistical areas near Kodiak considered
153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148° in the demersal fish resource surveys (Ronholt, et al.,
1978).







166 Biology
Table 5.27
Average catch rates and estimated abundance of roundfish (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
T-
*tatistical
Area
T-
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
irikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
hirikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
irikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
hirikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
hirikof
T-
1 - 100
* Estimated
X CPUE Abundance # Stations
(kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
* } * = (0)
130. 9 35,779.6 (24)
112.3 7,059.3 (1)
57.1 16,550.6 (26)
122.0 33,365.0 (7)
& Cº. tº tº (0)
36.7 10,614.6 (10)
96.7 10,089.4 (3)
* . tº (0)
tº- tº (0)
450.0 64,448.0 (6)
75.9 491.8 (3)
83.5 9,981.6 (8)
Average catch rates and estimated abundance of flatfish (Ronholt
Depth Zones (m)
101-200
cº-º Estimated
X CPUE Abundance # Stations
(kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
May - Oct 1961
321.6 112,000.0 (8)
155.1 30,563.0 (42)
88.1 8,212.3 (28)
212.4 43,368.0 (28)
Sept - Nov 1961
Not Data
276.6 54,507.2 (22)
46.0 4,288.8 (13)
186. 2 38,010.9 (11)
June - Aug 1962
91.5 31,858.7 (61)
No Data
No Data
No Data
Sept - Nov 1962
43.9 15, 283.6 (19)
No Data
No Data
No Data
May – Oct 1973-75
313. 7 76, 182. 1 (25)
1,088.2 134,313.0 (15)
261.7 10,679.8 (9)
1,270.2 205,001.0 (19)
Table 5. 28
et al., 1978).
201 – 400
Estimated
x CPUE Abundance # Stations
(kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
54.0 7,345.9 (1)
23.7 673. 2 (2)
32.9 3,461.6 (44)
59.8 7,456.8 (33)
4.1. 1 1, 169.6 (2)
78.3 8,229.5 (28)
163.0 20,336. 1 (12)
39.8 5,412.8 (31)
65.3 8,882.0 (12)
76.3 7,656. 1 (8)
624.5 34,820.5 (10)
79.4 8,275.7 (7)
89.7 12,019.4 (19)
Statistical
Area
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
Chirikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
Chirikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
Chirikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
Chirikof
Kenai
Kodiak
Shelikof
Chirikof
1- 100
sº- Estimated
X CPUE Abundance # Stations
(kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
tº-e º (0)
270. 9 74,059. O (24)
108.0 6, 785. 6 (1)
149.5 43,303. 4 (26)
172.5 47, 172.4 (7)
gº * = (0)
142.5 41,282.6 (10)
155.3 16, 201.4 (3)
* * e (0)
tº- * > (0)
482.6 69, 107.7 (6)
85. 1 551. 3 (3)
73. 4 8, 774. 2 (8)
Depth Zones (m)
101-200
wº-ºº: Estimated
X CPUE Abundance # Stations
(kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
May – Oct 1961
143.4 43,931.8 (8)
•250.3 49,325.4 (42)
178.5 16,631.6 (28)
163.4 33, 368. 3 (28)
Sept - Nov 1961
No Data
253.7 49,997.6 (22)
207. 9 19, 373. 1 (13)
344. 2 70,266.2 (11)
June - Aug 1962
169. 5 59,024.0 (61)
No Data
No Data
No Data
Sept - Nov 1962
89.1 31,036.0 (19)
No Data
No Data
No Data
May – Oct 1973-75
249. 2
297.2
221.2
93. 5
60,516.5
36,682.9
9,028.2
(25)
(15)
(9)
(19)
201–400
tº- Estimated
X CPUE Abundance # Stations
(kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
215. 7 29,352.8 (1)
176.8 5,029. 1 (2)
199. 1 20,931.8 (44)
488. 2 60,919.7 (33)
38. 3 1,090.7 (2)
227.7 23,938. 1 (28)
264.7 33,034.5 (12)
184.9 25, 169.8 (31)
144.7 19,686.2 (12)
130. 7 13, lll .3 (8)
757.2 42,220.4 (10)
135.9 14, 167.0 (7)
251.8 33,741.6 (19)
Biology 167
Table 5.29 Average catch rates and estimated abundance of rockfish (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
Depth Zones (m)
1- 100 101-200 201–400
sº Estimated tº- Estimated tº- Estimated
Statistical x CPUE Abundance # Stations x CPUE Abundance # Stations X CPUE Abundance # Stations
Area (kg/hr) (mt) Trawled (kg/hr) (mt) Trawled (kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
May – Oct 1961
Kenai tº- - (0) 81.8 28,239.0 (8) 33. 1 4,506.3 (1)
Kodiak 5.4 1,463.4 (24) 25. 6 5,045.5 (42) 4.0 112.9 (2)
Shelikof O O (1) 2.6 239. 5 (28) 10. 9 l, 14.1.1 (44)
Chirikof <0. 1 1.9 (26) 135.4 27,635.4 (28) 83.8 10,463. 1 (33)
Sept – Oct 1961
Kenai No Data
Kodiak 0. 1 40.7 (7) 16.5 3,254. 7 (22) 3.2 89.7 (2)
Shelikof º q-e (0) 4.2 396.0 (13) 22.6 2, 374.3 (28)
Chirikof O O (10) 32.0 6,518.5 (11) 71. 1 8,868.0 (12)
June - Aug 1962
Kenai 1.0 105.2 (3) 34.4 11,997.5 (61) 76. 6 10,422.7 (31)
Kodiak No Data
Shelikof No Data
Chirikof No Data
Sept - Nov 1962
Kenai wº tº.º. (0) 32.9 11,488.0 (19) 80. 6 10,966. 1 (12)
Kodiak No Data
Shelikof No Data
Chirikof No Data
May – Oct 1973–75
Kenai tºº * : (0) 11.8 2,862.4 (25) 3. 1 312.9 (8)
Kodiak 0.2 21.7 (6) 2.6 320. 2 (15) 108.8 6,066. 1 (10)
Shelikof O 0 (3) 2.5 102.8 (9) 1.0 108.1 (7)
Chirikof <0. 1 4. 1 (8) 24. 1 3,897. 1 (19) 2.6 345.5 (19)
Table 5.30
et al., 1978).
1-100 101-200 201-400
º Estimated tº-3 Estimated q- Estimated
Statistical x CPUE Abundance # Stations x CPUE Abundance # Stations x CPUE Abundance # Station3
Area (kg/hr) (mt) Trawled (kg/hr) (mt) Trawled (kg/hr) (mt) Trawled
May - Oct 1961
Kenai * - * † (0) 26.7 9,291.3 (8) 40.8 5,555.7 (1)
Kodiak 1.5 423. 1 (24) 6.6 1,298.4 (42) 0.1 1.4 (2)
Shelikof 3.6 228. 1 (1) 9. 4 879. O (28) 5.2 542.9 (44)
Chirikof 0.2 43.8 (26) 2. 7 550. 1 (28) 23.9 2,984.9 (33)
Sept - Oct 1961
Kenai No Data
Kodiak 6.7 1,827.9 (7) 0.8 150. 5 (22) 4.1 117.2 (2)
Shelikof * - * - (0) 14. 1 1, 310.6 (13) 5.2 543. 1 (28)
Chirikof 2.4 698.9 (10) 0.4 89.6 (11) 7.5 933. 1 (12)
June - Aug 1962
Kenai O O (3) 10. 2 3, 551.4 (61) 12.4 1,681.7 (31)
Kodiak No Data
Shelikof No Data
Chirikof No Data
Sept – Nov 1962
Kenai * * (0) 6.2 2, 170. 7 (19) 9.9 1,345.6 (12)
Kodiak No Data
Shelikof No Data
Chirikof No Data
May – Oct 1973–75
Kenai * - (0) 1.2 290.8 (25) 3.2 324.3 (8)
Kodiak O O (6) 1.5 179.2 (15) 0.2 8.6 (10)
Shelikof 1.2 7.8 (3) 0. 5 20.6 (9) 6.7 702. 5 (7)
Chirikof O O (8) 1.7 269. 7 (19) 7.8 1,049.3 (19)
-T
Depth Zones (m)
Average catch rates and estimated abundance of elasmobranchs (Ronholt
168 Biology
fish, and rockfish were trawled during the NMFS survey
ºn the Kodiak statistical area. About 58 percent of
*he roundfish in Kodiak were caught at depths of 101-
200 II] . Relatively high concentrations were in the
*iliuda and Chiniak Troughs (Fig. 5.47). Highest
Soncentrations of flatfish occurred in 0-100 m of water
in Kodiak, but in deeper zones elsewhere (Table 5.28).
Flatfish were prevalent in the seaward entrance of the
"hirikof-Shelikof Trough (Fig. 5.48). Rockfish were
*bundant along the continental slopes (201-400 m) east
°f Kodiak (Fig. 5.49). The importance of the four
*tatistical areas around Kodiak relative to the entire
*lf of Alaska catch is indicated in Tables 5.31 and
5.32.
Table 5. 31 Percentage of total Gulf of Alaska fish
population (estimated biomass) occurring in four
statistical districts near Kodiak (0-400 m), based on
1973-75 data (Ronholt et al., 1978).
PERCENT OF GULF OF ALASKA ESTIMATED BIOMASS
Statistical Area
Fish Group Kenai, Kodiak Shelikof Chirikof X
Round fish 8.9 24.7 2. l 24.0 59.7
Flatfish 12.5 25. 1 4.0 9.8 51.4
Rockfish ll. 2 22.2 0.7 14.7 48.6
Elasmobranchs 2.2 0.7 2.6 4.7 10.2
Table 5.32 Estimated biomass during the 1960 and 1970
resource assessment surveys in the Gulf of Alaska
(Ronholt et al., 1978).
1960 1970
Region 2 2
mt/km Rank mt/km Rank
Fairweather 20.4 1 5.4 8
Yakutat 9. 0 5 7.5 5
Prince 2.5 9 7.8 4
William
Kenai 9.2 4 6.7 6
Kodiak 9.7 3 18.6 1
Shelikof 6.3 7 5.7 7
Chirikof 11.4 2 9.5 4
Shumagin 5.8 8 tº gº tº tº e º is
Sanak 6.7 6 18.4 2
Total 8.9 10. 9
Comparisons between the catches recorded during
the IPHC and NMFS trawls are shown in Tables 5.33 and
5.34. According to Ronholt et al. (1978), the only
significant change in abundance occurred for elasmo-
branchs in the Kenai area. Some catch rates for fish
groups in specific area/depth zones were remarkably
dissimilar when the decade comparisons were made,
however (Table 5.24). Although not statistically
significant, the following trends were evident: (1) a
marked increase in roundfish, flatfish, and rockfish
stocks on the Kodiak/upper slope zone, and (2) moderate
increases in roundfish and flatfish stocks on the
continental shelf east of Kodiak (Ronholt et al.,
1978).
Biology 169
Table 5.33 Comparison of mean (geometric) catch rates
(CPUE) of fish groups caught during two resource sur-
veys conducted around the Kodiak archepelago (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
IPHC NMFS
(1961-1963) (1973–76)
X CPUE X CPUE
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Flatfish
Kenai 118.21 103.96
Kodiak 134.76 363. 40
Shelikof No data
Chirikof 158. 14 68.60
Roundfish
Kenai 55.82 112.43
Kodiak 76. 40 233. 18
Shelikof No data
Chirikof 59. 47 125. 10
Rockfish
Kenai 21. 12 4. 40
Kodiak 2.46 1.53
Shelikof No data
Chirikof 4.66 2.23
Elasmobranchs
Kenai 19.91 1.73%
Kodiak 1.52 1. 11
Shelikof No data
Chirikof 2.49 1.46
* Significant decrease in population
Table 5.34 Ratio of IPHC to NMFS geometric mean CPUE
index (from Ronholt et al., 1978).
Depth Zones (m)
1 - 100 101-200 201-400
Flatfish
Kenai tº - 1.23 0.40
Kodiak 2.86 2. 07 4.92
Shelikof No Data
Chirikof 0.46 0.35 0. 55
Roundfish
Kenai tº- 3.01 0.80
Kodiak 2. 12 4.27 13.71
Shelikof No data
Chirikof 1.47 3.32 1.63
Rockfish
Kenai tº- 0.28 0.06
Kodiak º 0.51 24.83
Shelikof No data
Chirikof e- 0.05 0.19
Elasmobranchs
Kenai ſº 0.10 0.06
Kodiak tº- 0.65 tº -
Shelikof No data
Chirikof tº º 0.66 0.30
Pacific halibut
Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) have
been the primary target species of a commercial fishery
in the North Pacific since 1888, and they have been
taken in the Kodiak region since 1922 (IPHC, 1978).
Although their stocks have been stressed by fishing for
decades, the fishery remains viable and is of chief
concern to the populace of several Alaskan communities,
most notably Kodiak City (IPHC, 1977).
Halibut occur on or near the continental shelf
along the entire southern coast of Alaska south to
California and northward into the Bering Sea. Pre"
ferred water depths vary with season and age. During
the NMFS survey, the species comprised about 5-10
percent of the flatfish catch in the Kodiak vicinity
(Ronholt et al., 1978). Halibut are usually found in
30-275 m of water, although the setline fishery has
recovered fish from 1,100 m (Fig. 5.51; Bell and St.
Pierre, 1970; IPHC, 1978).
170 Biology
140° 135° 130°
170° 165° 160° 155° 150° 145
PACIFIC HALIBUT
| Primary distribution
Major fishing areas
— l | | — | | | |--|--|-- 1– |- | | |-|- \ |- \ \-A
165 160 155° 150 ° 145° 140° 135
—
Figure 5.51 Distribution of Pacific halibut in the Gulf of Alaska with major fishing grounds highlighted (IPHC, 1978).



Biology 171
The seasonal movements, migratory routes, Spawn-
ing, and early life history of Pacific halibut have
been studied in detail since 1923, with the inception
of the IPHC (Thompson and Herrington, 1930; Thompson
and Van Cleve, 1936). Tagging studies indicate that
adult halibut migrate annually from their shallow
feeding grounds, such as the Portlock Banks, to deeper
winter spawning grounds, then return to their summer
grounds. Some adults emigrate long distances and do
not return to the same grounds (Bell and St. Pierre,
1970; skud, 1977; IPHC, 1978). Mechanisms that trigger
these pioneer emigrations are unknown. Most tagged
fish were recovered within 150 km of their initial
release site (Table 5.35).
Halibut spawn from November to March at 180-450 m
depths along the edge of the continental slope. Major
spawning sites in Alaska are Yakutat, Cape Suckling-
Yakataga ("W" grounds), and Portlock Banks (Fig.
5E. 16); Cape Spencer, Cape St. Elias, Chirikof, and the
Trinity Island "outside" grounds are other known spawn-
ing areas (Skud, 1977; IPHC, 1978; E. Best, IPHC, pers.
comm.). Eggs have been collected throughout the entire
region, and spawning is likely to occur at suitable
depths all along the slope.
Halibut eggs have been recovered from 40-935 m of
water, with highest densities at depths of 100-200 m
near the edge of the continental slope, between Yakutat
and Portlock Banks (Thompson and Van Cleve, 1936).
Currents in the Gulf of Alaska carry the eggs and
larvae northward and westward for six to seven months.
Larval buoyancy is such that at first they passively
drift in water deeper than 200 m, then rise slowly
toward the surface (Thompson and Van Cleve, 1935; Skud,
1977; IPHC, 1978). Favorite et al. (1977) have con-
cluded that eggs released along the southeastern coast
of Alaska would be transported to the northern Gulf of
Alaska and advected shoreward at speeds of 5-10 cm/sec,
equivalent to 4-8 km/day, or 700-1400 km over a six-
month larval period.
Juvenile halibut settle out of the plankton in May
and June and are found in shallow bays along the coast
of Alaska including the Aleutian Islands, where water
depths are less than 100 m (Thompson and Van Cleve,
1936). Halibut one to three years old are more likely
to be found farther inshore than older prerecruits four
to eight years old according to IPHC (Best, 1974) and
NMFS (Ronholt et al., 1978) trawl survey data from
stations sampled throughout the Gulf of Alaska. Impor-
tant halibut nursery grounds near the Kodiak OCS lease
Table 5.35 Release and recovery location of tagged adult Pacific halibut, 1925-76 (adapted from Skud, 1977).
Recoveries by Region
Release Number Bering SE
Region Released Sea Shumagin Chirikof Kodiak Yakutat Alaska BC Total
Bering Sea 20,435 756 21 69 125 116 83 53 1,223
Shumagin 5,992 0 202 104 35 20 24 11 396
Chirikof 9, 193 O 37 473 91 20 17 10 648
Kodiak 16,501 0 17 119 1,294 40 36 25 1,531
Yakutat 11,431 0 31 122 428 1078 62 52 1,773
SE Alaska 9,729 0 0 O 1 4 1945 85 2,035
British Columbia
and South 59,642 O 1 0 7 39 194 17,288 17,529
TOTAL . 132,642 756 309 887 1,981 1,317 2361 17,524 25, 135
areas are Alitak Bay, the shallow shelf region sur"
rounding the Trinity Islands, Cape Chiniak, and Port"
lock Bank, but these areas are by no means inclusive
(Best, 1974). A reexamination of the IPHC data base
indicates that movements of juvenile halibut may be
quite extensive (Skud, 1977).
Skud (1977) hypothesizes that juvenile halibut
display compensatory emigration movements which count
teract the westward drift of eggs and larvae. From age
and size data taken during IPHC trawl surveys (IPHC,
1966) it has been demonstrated that the mean age of
juvenile halibut is progressively older from west to
east. The three-year-olds were dominant at Unimak and
172 Biology
Chirikof, four-year-olds at Chiniak, five-year-olds at
1579 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 1479
Cape St. Elias, and five- and six-year-olds in British
* /tº
*/
/
Zº
°lumbia (Best, 1968, 1974). In addition, of the
Jºvenile halibut tagged west of Cape Spencer (Area 3),
|
\–160°
15 — O 2O 40 60 80 100 km
E. E. T] -
30 percent of the recoveries were taken in British
°olumbia. These findings led Skud (1977) to suggest
. .9 10 20 30 50 miles
**-*- EI EC
that, contrary to earlier findings (Thompson and
Herrington, 1930), there is extensive intermingling of
halibut stocks north and south of Cape Spencer. Fur-
thermore, it is the juvenile fish, not the adults, that 59°
59°
*** primarily responsible for maintaining the pop-
*ation distributions.
Portlock Ba
—H58°
+57°
PACIFIC HALIBUT
SPAWNING GROUNDS
56°
—56°
Figure 5.52 Two known spawning grounds of Pacific I I 1 I l l
**ibut on the Kodiak outer continental shelf (Skud
y 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 O O O O
1977; IPHC, 1978; E. Best, IPHC, pers. comm.). 55 54 52 151 150 149 148
















- Biology 173
Abundance estimates of Pacific halibut are in-
ferred from catch and age data using a cohort analysis
technique. Abundance of adults has declined sharply in
IPHC's regulatory Areas 2 and 3, from about 10 million
fish per area in the 1950's to 5 million fish per area
in the 1970's.
effort (CPUE),
5.53.
halibut as an
One index of abundance, catch per unit
is shown for halibut (1960–77) in Fig.
The IPHC uses the abundance of three-year-old
indicator of juvenile stocks. After
increasing during the 1930's, abundance peaked in the
1940's at more than 10 million fish in both Areas 2 and
3. Stock estimates declined to about five million fish
in the late 1940's.
1950's and 1960's,
abundance has declined in the Gulf of Alaska through
1976 (IPHC, 1977), in 1977
(Skud, 1978). The most recent reports still estimate
juvenile stocks in the Gulf at less than three million
fish (IPHC, 1977).
Occasional strong year-classes ap-
peared in the but the trend in
with a slight increase
30 - .
1960
1964
1968
YEAR
1972
IPHC REGULATORY AREAS
-
1976
- 200
2OO
150
1OO
50
150
1OO
50
Figure 5.53
on U.S.
Regulatory Areas 2 and 3,
1978).
—
l
tºo." -º-, "
and Canadian
setline fishing
1960-77 (IPHC,
in the
1977;
Catch statistics of Pacific halibut based
IPHC
IPHC,
Arrowtooth flounder
Arrowtooth flounder (turbot) (Atheresthes stomias)
is another commercially important flatfish. It was the
most abundant flatfish species caught in the Gulf of
Alaska during the 1973-76 NMFS survey. This species is
widely distributed throughout the region. Arrowtooth
flounder comprised 52 and 53 percent of the flatfish
catch in the Kenai
and Chirikof districts, respec-
tively; they were less common in the Kodiak (10 per
cent) and Shelikof areas (14 per cent) (Ronholt et al.,
1978). Highest
between 201
concentrations of turbot were found
and 400 m water depths 1974;
1978), but they also occur at even
greater depths (Hart, 1973). Larvae have been recorded
from the surface down to 200 m (Hart, 1973).
(Hughes,
Ronholt et al.,
Juveniles
probably occur in shallower water than adults, as they
do in the Bering Sea (Shuntov, 1970). Large catches of
arrowtooth flounder were taken from 1973 to 1975 in the
Chirikof-Shelikof Trough (Ronholt et al., 1978). These
flounders probably inhabit deeper waters in winter than
summer (Shuntov, 1970). Other than some data from the
Commercial which will be discussed later,
fishery,
little is known about the life history of this species
in Kodiak waters. In the Bering Sea it spawns from
December to February (Shuntov, 1970), but exact spawn-
ing grounds have not been determined
1976).
Other flatfishes
(Pereyra et al. ,
(flathead sole, rex sole, rock
sole, and Dover sole) were caught regularly from 1973
to 1976. Details of their distribution and relative
(1978).
Feeding relationships of these species are discussed
abundance are reported by Ronholt et al.
below.


174 Biology
Walleye pollock
Walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) is perhaps 156 155 154 153 152 151 150 149 148 > 147
the most important roundfish, commercially and ecolog- 6O2
**lly, in the entire Gulf of Alaska. They were found
* 90 of 96 stations around Kodiak in the 1973-75
*rvey (Ronholt et al., 1978) (Fig. 5.54) and at 87
**cent of the stations in the northeast Gulf of Alaska
in 1975 (Ronholt et al., 1976). Pollock appear to be
, Q 10 20 30 40 50 miles
-*-*- TE ET
*Placing Pacific ocean perch as the ecological domi-
*t fish of the Amchitka region (Simenstad et al., O
*77). In general, walleye pollock inhabit the outer 59
°ontinental shelf region and the troughs around Kodiak.
Preferred depths appear to be between 100 and 200 m
(Ronholt et al., 1978), although commercial fishermen
"ºrking in the Shelikof Strait report taking large
**tches from depths as great as 300 m (J. Blackburn,
ADF&G, Kodiak office, pers. comm.). Juvenile pollock
inhabit more coastal waters and are routinely taken in 58°
the bays and fiords of the Kodiak Archipelago (Rogers
** al., 1978; Feder et al., 1979).
579
WALLEYE POLLOCK
Distribution of Catch Rates
(May–Oct 1973, Jun-Aug 1975)
CPUE
No catch
< 100 kg/hr
100–1000 kg/hr
X
56° . o
O = 1000 kg/hr —56
I l l l
1519 15O2 149° 148°
Figure 5.54 Distribution of standardized catch rates
(CPUE) of walleye pollock, based on NMFS survey data
(Ronholt et al., 1978).







Biology 175
Walleye pollock are extremely abundant in the
Kodiak region. In sampling conducted in April and May
1972 by NWAFC in waters contiguous to Kodiak Island,
walleye pollock eggs accounted for 97.2 percent of the
fish eggs captured; they were most abundant just west
of Kodiak (Dunn and Naplin, 1974). Pollock were also
the predominant larvae, constituting 62 percent of the
total catch. The highest density occurred southwest of
the Trinity Islands. In 1973-75, 441,000 mt of the
species were estimated to inhabit the four statistical
areas (Fig. 5.50) at depths of 0-400 m. This estimate
equaled 43.3 percent of the entire biomass of all
fishes and invertebrates combined. Pollock accounted
for 90 percent of the roundfish catch in Chirikof, 72
percent in Shelikof, 67 percent in Kodiak, and 79
percent in Kenai (Ronholt et al., 1978). During the
past several years trawl fishermen working in the
Shelikof Strait from Malina Bay south to Chirikof
Island have often reported catches of up to 1.8 mt/hr
composed of 80 percent pollock, 7 to 8 percent Pacific
cod, and 2 to 3 percent sablefish (J. Blackburn, ADF&G,
Kodiak office, pers. comm.).
Walleye pollock were far less abundant in the ear-
ly 1960's. For instance, in the May–October 1961
period an estimated biomass of 32,640 mt of pollock
inhabited the four statistical areas in 0-400 m of
water (Ronholt et al., 1978), or only about 7 percent
of the 1973-75 estimates. To the east of Kodiak,
including the proposed lease areas, stocks increased
30-fold from the early 1960's to mid-1970's. Within
the next decade a domestic fishery for pollock in this
area is likely.
Some life history data on pollock in the Gulf of
Alaska are provided by Hart (1973) and Hughes and
Hirschhorn (1979). Prime spawning periods are noted as
March and April for stocks throughout the Gulf of
Alaska (Hughes and Hirschhorn, 1979). Pollock probably
spawn in the Kodiak region during April and May (J.
Dunn, NMFS, Seattle, pers. comm.). Females with ripen-
ing ovaries have been observed in the Shelikof Strait
during February–April (J. Blackburn, ADF&G, Kodiak,
pers. comm.). These times are similar to those re-
ported for the stock of walleye pollock in the eastern
Bering Sea (Smith, 1979).
Size at 50 percent maturity of Gulf of Alaska
pollock stocks is 29-32 cm fork length (FL) for males
and 30-35 cm FL for females. By age three both sexes
are fully mature (Hughes and Hirschhorn, 1979). Smith
(1979) presents data that indicate that pollock reach
maturity slightly older in the Bering Sea.
There are insufficient data to map pollock spawn-
ing grounds near Kodiak. However, high concentrations
of eggs were taken with bongo nets and neuston gear in
March and April of 1978 in the Chirikof-Shelikof Trough
northwest of the Trinity Islands, south and east of the
Trinity Islands, and in the Kiliuda Trough east of
Sitkalidak Island (Dunn et al., 1979a). These findings
suggest that pollock may be spawning in the Kiliuda
Trough and along the shelf break in the Chirikof-
Shelikof Trough. High concentrations of larvae were
observed in summer tows (1978) east of Trinity Island
and near the slope of the Chirikof-Shelikof Trough,
supporting this hypothesis (J. Dunn, NMFS, Seattle,
pers. comm.). Pollock spawn in the southeast Bering Sea
along the edge of the continental shelf at midwater
depths (Smith, 1979), an environment similar to that
associated with the troughs near the Kodiak archi-
pelago.
176 Biology
Pacific cod
Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) is the second
"9st abundant roundfish in the Kodiak waters. It is
*istributed from inshore embayments (Harris and Hartt,
1977; Rogers et al., 1979) to the continental slope
(Hart, 1973).
*sually caught in waters less than 100 m deep (Ronholt
et al., 1978).
during the NMFS 1973–75 survey is plotted in Figure
5.55.
Around the Kodiak archipelago it is
The distribution of cod catch rates
At that time an estimated 67,700 mt of Pacific
$93 were available to trawling in the four statistical
*reas, or about 12 percent of the roundfish biomass for
*his region. During May–October 1961, an estimated
*17,006 mt of cod inhabited the region, mainly in the
Kenai/outer continental shelf zone (Ronholt et al.,
1978).
Little information on the life history and
**asonal movements of Pacific cod in Kodiak waters is
*Vailable. In the northeast Pacific they are believed
*9 migrate to deeper waters (unspecified depths) in
autumn, spawn in winter, and return to shallower areas
in Spring (Hart, 1973).
**ast, cod seem to shift their distribution but remain
"ithin the 6-9°C isotherms.
banks (90-145 m) in winter and return to 30-75 m water
Along the British Columbia
They move to offshore
depths in spring and summer (Ketchen, 1961). (Ketchen
also provides growth and mortality data for Pacific cod
* Canadian waters.)
*:::::: 5. 55 Distribution of standardized catch rates
§.) of Pacific cod, based on NMFS survey data
*onholt et al., 1978).
60°
59°
58°
579
56°
1570
10 O 10 20 30 40 50 miles
1569 155° 154° 153°
1529
151°
I
150° 149° 148°
1479
PACIFIC COD
Distribution of Catch Rates
(May–Oct 1973, Jun-Aug 1975)
CPUE
x No catch
• * 100 kg/hr
• 100–1000 kg/hr
O > 1000 kg/hr
I 1– l
—H56°
1519
15O2 149° 148°







Biology
177
Sablefish
Sablefish (blackcod) (Anoplopoma fimbria) is
another commercially important roundfish. It is common
along the continental slope from the Queen Charlotte
Islands to the Shumagins, where about 67 percent of the
north Pacific stocks occur (Low et al., 1976). Its
distribution near Kodiak is shown in Figure 5.56. The
species was only occasionally caught by NMFS crews in
1973-75 (Ronholt et al., 1978), but they were sampling
in shallower areas than the preferred habitats of the
species. Sablefish comprised 68 to 100 percent of the
roundfish catch in the northeast Pacific at depths
greater than 200 m in an earlier survey (Alverson et
al., 1964). At those depths it ranked second to
flounders in relative abundance in the demersal fish
community (Low et al., 1976).
--~~~~~~~
Surface
Juveniles _y
YY
Eggs Larvae -
(1 to 4 years) 1OO
22 - 200
3OO
400
|500
Day
Diurnal (daily)
t
movemen Night
-
i
<==<
Adult
(3 to 20 years)
2
1,000
1,200
Surface
- 200
- 400
- 600
- 800
1,000
1,200
28%
29 %
i
ſ
i
Figure 5.56 Distribution of sablefish (adult) in the
Kodiak area (based on data in Low et al., 1976; Ronholt
et al., 1978).
56°
149° 148°
DISTRIBUTION OF
SABLEFISH (ADULTS)
l l
147°
60°
59°
58°
1579 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 1519 150°
60 80 100 km
E EC
40 50 miles
I I |
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150°
149° 148°










178 Biology
It is evident from tagging studies that large-
Scale migrations of sablefish occur. Bering Sea stocks
apparently intermingle with those as far south as
California (Low et al., 1976).
Maturity is attained at five to seven years of
*ge. Spawning takes place during winter at depths of
250-750 m (Thompson, 1941).
Spawning migration; sablefish in spawning condition are
There is no evidence of a
found throughout the range of the species (Low et al.,
1976). Buoyant eggs rise to the surface, and in the
Kodiak area a high percentage drift over the shelf,
where they develop into larvae.
Sablefish biology are discussed by Shubnikov (1963),
Kulikov (1965), Hart (1973), and Low et al. (1976).
Further aspects of
Pacific ocean perch
Pacific (Sebastes alutus) is the
rockfish
*egion at this time.
ocean perch
Primary commercially sought in the Kodiak
Its range extends from southern
California north into the Gulf of Alaska and westward
along the Aleutian chain. Populations also occur in
the Bering Sea along the shelf break and as far west as
Kamchatka 1970).
Island to Prince William Sound, Pacific ocean perch
Populations are centered in 100-800 m of
(Lyubimova, 1963). The distribution of this rockfish
"ear Kodiak is shown in Fig. 5.57.
(Major and Shippen, From Unimak
Water
Figure 5.57 Distribution of Pacific ocean perch in
the Kodiak area (Lyubimova, 1963; Lisovenko, 1964;
Ronholt et al., 1978).
157° 1569 155°
— 40 60 80
-*- EI H
. .9 10 20 30 40 50 miles
-*-*- EI EC
100 km
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
150° 149° 148°
PACIFIC OCEAN PERCH
1470
56° Distribution
Major foraging/spawning —56
areas (May–Sep)
I L | l 1
1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1520 1519 150° 149° 148°






Biology 179
Pacific ocean perch migrate seasonally. Major
concentrations of perch forage south of Unimak Pass
from May through September. The Portlock Banks, Kodiak
(Fig. 5.57), and Shumagin grounds are of secondary
importance to feeding rockfish. Dense schools composed
of both sexes consume vast quantities of pelagic
euphausiids and calanoid copepods. Fish are typically
observed in 100-150-m water depths at this time. In
September feeding ceases and mating is believed to
occur on the feeding grounds (Lyubimova, 1963). After
mating, females migrate to the northeast areas of the
Gulf and are found widely dispersed from October
through April. Males remain in their primary foraging
grounds; small schools are sharply localized at 250-
450-m depths from November through March (Lyubimova,
1963). The species is viviparous and the times of fry
emergence at different latitudes are given by Major and
Shippen (1970). Fry emergence around Kodiak begins in
April (Lyubimova, 1963). After spawning, females
return to their foraging grounds, and dense aggregates
of heterosexual schools form again.
The distribution of Pacific ocean perch larvae in
the Gulf of Alaska has been studied by Lisovenko
(1964). However, as taxonomic identification of
scorpaenid larvae is very difficult, Lisovenko assumed
all rockfish larvae he collected were Sebastes alutus.
Major and Shippen (1970) point out the difficulties in
ascertaining life histories when larval identification
is in doubt. Alverson and Westrheim (1961) deduced
that young juvenile Pacific ocean perch inhabit surface
waters during daylight hours; they probably are demer-
sal at night. Older juvenile fish prefer waters 125-
150 m deep until they mature (Paraketsov in Major and
Shippen, 1970).
The abundance of Pacific ocean perch is difficult
to ascertain because of their benthopelagic habits.
They are much less easily caught by trawling gear than
many other demersal species. Hence, estimates of their
abundance are likely to be low (Ronholt et al., 1978).
In 1961, 75, 141 mt were thought to be present in the
four statistical areas around Kodiak, with 91 percent
of the biomass located in the Kenai and Chirikof areas.
By 1973–75, however, the estimate was only 5,278 mt
(Ronholt et al., 1978). This sharp decline in abun-
dance probably resulted, at least in part, from heavy
fishing pressure by Soviet and Japanese fleets in the
intervening years (Major and Shippen, 1970).
Extent of demersal fishery
Except for Pacific halibut and a few pollock and
cod, domestic fishermen are not fishing for demersal
fishes near Kodiak to any extent. This is not true,
however, of foreign fishing fleets.
Japanese and Soviet fleets catch most of the fish
taken by foreign nationals; Poland, the Republic of
Korea, and Taiwan also fish in the northeast Gulf of
Alaska (Ronholt et al., 1978). Ninety percent of the
Japanese catch in Alaskan waters consists of three
species: Pacific ocean perch, sablefish, and walleye
pollock. Pacific ocean perch and walleye pollock are
caught mostly by trawling; sablefish are harvested by
long-lining (Ronholt et al., 1978). The total Japanese
fisheries catch for 1969-74, broken down by species and
areas, is presented in Table 5.36. Japanese fishing
productivity for 1964–74 is illustrated geographically
in Fig. 5.58.
Table 5.36 Total Japanese trawl and long line catch of
fishes harvested in the Kodiak Lease Area and vicinity,
1969-74. Data are reported in metric tons (Ronholt et
al., 1978).
—- ſº
Statistical Areas
Species Kenai Kodiak Shelikof Chirikof Total Percent Gulf
of Alaska
(catch)
Pacific ocean perch 33,800 19,700 O 28,600 82, 100 44
Sablefish 17, 100 10,900 10 10,700 38,710 34
Walleye pollock 10,000 21,200 O 12,700 43,900 70
Arrowtooth flounder 3,200 l,800 0 3,200 8,200 58
Miscellaneous fishes" 6,100 4,700 O 5,000 15,800 7
TOTAL 70,200 58,300 10 60,200 188,700 45
Percent of Gulf of
Alaska" (catch) 17 14 KI 14
—-"
* Miscellaneous fishes are mainly Pacific cod, flatfishes, rockfishes and elasmobranchs.
b
The reported Japanese catch for the entire Gulf of Alaska was 419,000 mt.
The Soviets have fished in the Gulf of Alaska
since 1960. By 1963 they had established a year-round
fishery in the gulf. A complete catch record for the
1960's is not available. Pacific ocean perch was the
main species sought. Soviet fishing increased in the
1970's, and since 1973 a more complete record of Soviet
catch statistics has become available. In 1973-75,
walleye pollock, Atka mackerel, and Pacific ocean perch
were the principal species caught by the Soviet fishing
fleet. Soviet fishermen landed 34,000 mt of Atka
mackerel and 60,300 mt of walleye pollock in this
period, or about 41 percent of the total Soviet catch
in the gulf (Ronholt et al., 1978).
Other foreign fleets began fishing in the Kodiak
180 Biology
*rea within the last decade, but catch and effort have
1978). The
°Verall foreign groundfish catch in the Kodiak region
"as 100,305 mt in 1978 (Table 5.37), up from previous
years (Ronholt et al., 1978), but still only 60 percent
*9t been well documented (Ronholt et al.,
ºf the estimated optimum yield (OY). This suggests
that the groundfish stocks as a whole are not over-
fished, and more could be harvested without impairing
the resource.
be fully
Pacific
Atka mackerel stocks, however, appear to
exploited. Flounders, cod, pollock, and
ocean perch stocks could withstand heavier
fishing pressure without stressing their reproductive
Sapacities (M. Alton, NMFS, Seattle, pers. comm.). The
Sonclusion that perch are underutilized (Table 5. 37)
*iffers from the earlier findings of Ronholt et al.
(1978). Optimum yield values are based on factors in
T-
Table 5.37 Total foreign and domestic groundfish
Satch (in mt) in the "Chirikof-Kodiak" INPFC areas of
978 by species and groups related to optimum yield
(OY) (M. Alton, NMFS, Seattle, unpub. data).
Species Total
or Foreign Domestic Foreign & Optimum . of
Group Catch Catch? Domestic Yield OYºrk
Follock 61,499 514 62,013 95, 200 65
*ka mackerel 18,806 --- 18,806 19,400 97
*lounders 6,284 81 6,365 14,700 43
*acific cod 5,584 631 6, 215 19,400 32
*ablefish 3,088 1 3,089 3,800 81
Pacific ocean perch 2,023 --- 2,023 7,900 26
*her rockfish 581 1 582 800 73
ºther fish 2,440 113 2,553 8,600 30
Total 100,305 1,341 101,646 169,800 60
*Includes Kodiak westward, but most of catch in Kodiak to Shumagin area.
* - -
"Optimum yield is the amount of fish that can be continuously harvested from a stock
"er current environmental conditions, + an amount considered for the purposes of pro-
ºting economic, social, or ecological objectives as established by law and public par-
*ipation processes (for a legal definition see PL 94-265).
T-
Figure 5.58 Distribution of mean annual demersal fish
Satch by Japanese trawl and long line fisheries, 1964–74
Ronholt et al., 1978). Units are metric tons.
1569
60°
155°
10...Q 10
20 30 40
50 miles
Fº EI
59°
58°
E.
T
154° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 1470
–60°
59°
58°
—
579
56°
—157°
–56°
15.4° 153° 1520 1519 150° 149° 148°







Biology 181
addition to biological ones; however, relying on them
alone for making decisions on fishery management with-
out frequent stock reassessments is unwise.
With the passage of the "Fishery Conservation and
Management Act of 1976," which became effective 1 March
1977, the United States extended its jurisdiction over
the fisheries resources to the 200-mile seaward limit.
The Act was designed to establish a regulatory program
to regulate all fisheries in the conservation zone.
Domestic and foreign fish quotas, time-area closures,
minimum size limits, and gear restrictions have been,
or are being, formulated for the demersal fishes of the
Gulf of Alaska. Foreign nations are permitted to fish
in the Conservation Zone under bilateral treaty agree-
ments with the U.S. However, the domestic fisheries
are given primary consideration in these agreements.
The long-term effect of this action will be to restrict
foreign fisheries and to increase domestic efforts and
catches within the U.S. Fisheries Management Zone (J.
H. Branson, North Pacific Fisheries Management Council,
pers. comm.). The implications of this change in
fisheries resource utilization are still unclear, but
domestic fisheries and foreign policy may be appreci-
ably altered.
5. 6.3 Feeding relationships and marine fish communi-
ties
Knowledge of predator-prey relationships is impor-
tant in assessing the effects of OCS development on
faunal populations. Data on seasonal variations in
distribution and abundance of organisms alone are
insufficient. Predator-prey relationships can be
ascertained and food web models constructed by analyz-
ing the gut contents of organisms and, when possible,
by watching them eat. Marine food web models show
major dependencies among infauna, epifauna, pelagic
fishes and invertebrates, birds, and mammals. They
increase our understanding of energy flow through the
ecosystem and help elucidate community structure and
function. They may thus be used to predict the trans-
fer and accumulation of industrial contaminants in a
community of marine animals.
All life stages of the fishes of the Kodiak region
thrive on a rich complement of zooplankton, benthic and
pelagic organisms, and other fishes. The trophic
relationships are complex and may vary with life stage,
season, location, and physiological condition of the
predator and prey. Generalizations are difficult, and
predicting the fate and effect of pollutants in marine
food webs is fraught with uncertainties at present.
Nonetheless, some typical feeding strategies and common
energy pathways may be mentioned.
It is suspected that many fishes time their pro-
duction of eggs so that larvae will coincide with
zooplankton blooms, thereby utilizing available food
resources optimally and increasing their survival.
Spring runoff from Kodiak Island probably increases the
nutrients in the nearshore waters, triggering the onset
of phytoplankton blooms similar to those in temperate
estuarine systems (Pratt, 1965). Zooplankon popula-
tions, in turn, increase as they graze on the abundant
diatom populations (Martin, 1965). Zooplankters such as
calanoid and harpacticoid copepods, hyperid amphipods,
and euphausiids are the principal prey of numerous
juvenile fishes inhabiting the coastal waters of the
Gulf of Alaska. (Simenstad, et al., 1977; Rogers and
Rogers, 1978; Rogers et al., 1979; Smith et al., 1978).
Some common fishes (e.g., capelin, yellowfin sole, and
ronquils) of Kodiak waters have larval populations that
peak in late spring and early summer (Harris and Hartt,
1977; Rogers et al. 1979), a time coinciding with the
spring bloom of phytoplankton and subsequent succession
of zooplankton populations.
Juvenile fish tend to change their diet as they
grow. The variety of prey taken increases with age
which probably reflects a more mature mouth and diges-
tive tract. Older juvenile fish are also more adept at
capturing a variety of prey. As an example of expand-
ing diets with age, the prey of fingerling pink salmon
during their first summer in the marine environment is
shown in Table 5.38. Most of the prey of young walleye
pollock are benthic: polychaetes, majid crabs, and
amphipods in the northern Gulf of Alaska. Older pol-
lock take more pelagic prey (Fig. 5.59), especially
euphausiids (Euphausia spp., Thysanoessa spp.) and
teleost fishes such as Pacific sand lance (Smith et
Table 5.38 Major prey of age 0.1 pink salmon in near-
shore waters of the Kodiak archipelago. Size of prey
Spectra reported as number of taxa (data from Rogers
and Rogers, 1978; Rogers et al., 1979).
Average Percent
Number Weight
April May June July
Dominant Prey (N=22) (N=220) (N=371) (N=119)
Copepods
Harpacticoid 91 172 44 44
Calanoid 3 4 45 8
Amphipods
Gammarid 6 23 6 9
Euphausiids 0 0 14 1
Cumacea O 4 4 17
No. Taxa 3 12 21 26
Mean Fish 2 2 49 68
Length (mm)
182 Biology
50
20
O
N=24 N=19
N=1.51 N=56
Size classes (mm)
WALLEYE POLLock PREY SPECTRA
š Polychaete worms
Euphausiids
|||| Majid crabs
Pandalid and crangonid shrimp
Figure 5.59 Diet composition of walleye pollock taken
. the northern Gulf of Alaska,
"" indicates the number of stomachs analyzed (data
from Smith et al., 1978).
Amphipods
Teleost fishes
º
Misc. spp. and unidentified fauna
100-199 200-299 300-399 400-499 500-599
N=3
by fish size class.
al., 1978), Pacific herring (Hart, 1973), and juvenile
salmonids (Armstrong and Winslow, 1968). Mysids, sand
lance, and rock sole are the principal prey of adult
populations of pollock near Amchitka (Simenstad et al.,
1977). Diets of some common juvenile and adult fishes
in Kodiak waters are compared in Figs. 5.60 and 5.61.
JUVENILE FISH DIETS
|- * Masked
2OH- I greenling
- - Rock
2OH- - greenling
- - Whitespotted
2OH- T greenling
- T. Yellowfin
- 20 - T sole
5 * - — E
§ - Rock sole
> -
.C.
5 -
# 40P I Flathead
3 - - sole
# 2OH- -
O - __L -_
° 40'- Pacific
--
5 20P Cod
*
# TE -
* 60- Yellow
|- Irish lord
4OH-
2OH-
|- –– -
4OH- - Myoxocephalus
20R - Spp.
O
to go to Gº tº o, tº c
# 3 # 3 # # 3 # 3 :
'G 3 F : O O º º: º Il-
3 : 3 º' s 3 & E 5
ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă
§ 3 ; ; ; ; ;
O O
# Lll di O &
Figure 5.60 Percent composition by weight of major
food items in the stomachs of juvenile fishes taken
from Kodiak nearshore waters (modified from Rogers et
al., 1979).
ADULT FISH DIETS
|- T. Masked
*H J greening
|- - Rock
20E I greenling
- - Whitespotted
20E E greenling
- - Yellowfin
20E I sole
Rock sole
2O
--
-º-
# 8 |- - Flathead
> ot I sole
# 60E -
5 40E I
-
-- 2O -
3 “E -
#
|- - Pacific
O |- -
O 60E - Cod
†: 40)- -
G) |- -
§ 20E I
Cl.
|- Yellow
40E Irish lord
2OH.
|- I Myoxocephalus spp.
60 H. -
- -
4OH- -
2OH- -
O
º º UD º Cl º --
re 3 3 $ E 3 #
- Q) º - il-
# # 3 ; # 5
5 § E 3
# * : *
9 & 3 &
Figure 5.61 Percent composition by weight of major
food items in the stomachs of adult fishes taken from
Kodiak nearshore waters (modified from Rogers et al.,
1979).










Biology 183
Geographic location and depth play a large role in
determining the availability of prey. Physiographic
features, currents, proximity to river drainages,
seismic activity, and prevailing storm tracks all
affect the distribution of offshore sediments (see
Chapter 3), which, in turn, affects the distribution of
benthic fauna (Thorson, 1957; Rhoades, 1974; see Ben-
thos section for further discussion). Dover sole feed
on crustaceans and molluscs in water depths of about
100 m off the coast of Oregon, but take polychaetes at
greater (100-150 m) depths (Pearcy and Hancock, 1978).
This modification in diet corresponds to changes in
prey availability (Bertrand, 1971) and substrate type
(Pearcy, 1978). In the northern Gulf of Alaska, Dover
sole fed almost exclusively on terebellid polychaetes
in 0-200 m, onuphid polychaetes, amphipods, and pelecy-
pods at 201-300 m, and onuphid polychaetes and
ophiuroids at 301-600 m (Smith et al., 1978). Unfor-
tunately, the corresponding distributions of benthic
invertebrates were not reported; thus prey availability
could not be determined from this study. Bottom sedi-
ments, however, have been mapped (Carlson et al., 1977)
and vary considerably with depth, suggesting corre-
sponding changes in the distribution of benthic fauna.
Pacific cod take a wide variety of prey on the Kodiak
shelf; juvenile Tanner crab, Chionoecetes bairdi, is
taken most frequently (Jewett, 1978). Inshore popula-
tions of cod in Izhut and Kiliuda Bays feed mostly on
pink shrimp, Pandalus borealis, however (Feder et al.,
1979). -
Though some fishes have been shown to alter their
diets considerably with life stage, season, geography,
depth, and prey availability, other species tend to
feed on specific classes of prey. For instance,
DeGroot (1971) presents evidence that pleuronectids
(flatfishes) specialize in feeding on either fish,
crustaceans, or a combination of polychaetes and mol-
luscs. In addition, all flounders are known to take an
array of incidental prey. Flatfish such as Pacific
halibut and arrowtooth flounder that prey on fish and
pelagic macroinvertebrates have large symmetrical jaws
and sharp dentition suited for grasping mobile organ-
isms, whereas flounders such as rex and rock soles,
which feed on polychaetes, molluscs, and amphipods,
have asymmetrical, small mouths and an alimentary tract
adapted to digest benthic organisms. A species is
limited by its morphology in the type of prey it can
ingest, but it may take a variety of taxa within that
type. Arrowtooth flounder fed on walleye pollock and
Pacific sand lance on the Kodiak shelf (Feder et al.,
1979) but on capelin near Kayak Island and on Pacific
herring at other sites in the northern Gulf of Alaska
(Smith et al., 1978). Rex sole preyed on onuphid
polychaetes in the northern Gulf of Alaska (Smith et
al., 1978), but mostly on other families of polychaetes
and gammarid amphipods off the coast of Oregon (Pearcy
and Hancock, 1978). Mysids are of primary importance
in the diet of walleye pollock in the Aleutians
(Simenstad et al. 1977), while euphausiids are their
principal prey in the Gulf of Alaska (Smith et al.
1978). The fact that arrowtooth flounder and walleye
pollock populations are increasing in the Gulf of
Alaska (Ronholt et al., 1978) may be related to their
opportunistic food habits.
Co-existing species, especially those that are
closely related taxonomically, often appear to parti-
tion the food resources, thereby reducing competitive
interactions. Yellowfin, rock, and sand sole and
starry flounder are common flatfishes in the Kodiak
region (Harris and Hartt, 1977; Hunter, 1979) which
have quite different diets. These are graphically
displayed according to a measure of relative impor-
tance, IRI (Pinkas et al., 1971), in Fig. 5.62. Per-
cent frequency of occurrence, the proportion of
stomachs examined that contain a specific prey item, is
plotted on the horizontal axis. Percent total by
number of each prey is shown on the positive vertical
axis; percent total by weight is drawn on the negative
vertical axis. The relative sizes of the areas in the
figure indicate the importance of the prey to the
consumer. Clams are the chief prey of yellowfin sole,
whereas polychaetes are important to rock sole (Harris
and Hartt, 1977). A detailed analysis of food resource
partitioning of other pleuronectids from the Kodiak
shelf is presented by Hunter (1979). Partitioning of
food resources for hexagrammids (greenlings) in near-
shore waters of Kodiak has also been studied (Rogers et
al., 1979).
184 Biology
PREY SPECTRA
º
=
2
C.
º
×
O º
-- º
- º
< O
* = tº
º -
Mysidacea Gammar idea Polychaeta 2 : £3.
Ž ~~ & º 3. - O
- tº go o
2 : 33
5 # #E-Teleostel (excluding sand lance)
º -
Rock sole
N=1 14
$ 40-
- ~
g º E -
# 3 # %N 20-
: # 5 - %FO
z - C -
ŽF- O-H-I-T-T—r—i Gammaridea
%W _J 10 30 50 -
20–
40- 7,
E
O
Sand sole º
º º
N=16 3 : 2 : • 3 :
5 * º 3 c : 3 &
c 2 º :- - o - tº
- « - - © º > -
'G > 9 : E = ? :
O 7. > d > • F
O 3 : ; ; ; 5.
: _^!9**_&_* > *ta º in
Echiuroidea
Valvifera
Harpacticoida
|-
|
i
i
i
#
Starry flounder
Yellowfin sole N=10
N=59
~
Figure 5.62 Prey spectra of four common flatfishes of the Kodiak region (Harris and Hartt, 1977). Diet composition
*s reported as Index of Relative Importance (IRI). See text for explanation of scales.





















Biology 185
Table 5. 39 Principal prey of common fishes in the Kodiak region.
º up
º : º
3 ºr, º:
-: º on
; : É 3. 2: 3 3.
* -: - -> É 2. É
- C — -
ºr. - É — 8- 5 24
2 * : = % ſº §
ſ | T vº | T T | —
g ~
º = vº
Qu 'C º #
g + !- r-
C ºn C Pi—
QU
& ſ — ſ | | - ſ QU QU |
2. wn QU +- § { 3 & § a
- E % g -- ~ -- QU -- º: ~ -
- o -- !- E -- !- QU QU º: +- ~ -- C
O !- o º: wº wn !- QU +- QU º: r: ~ r: •r- +- QU
+- ~ wº vº vº Q *- ~ vº ~ QU vº QU º ^, QU - +- ~ ~ -- E E O c
-> > QU wn vº ~ vº ~ -- wn vº -- ~ -- -E ~ vº º: ~ º: r: C vº •r- Qu -- c C E QU QU QU cº
- + +- ~ ~ o ~ -- - QU - ~ -- •r- - -- ~ ~ -- ~ QU "c ~ º: QU cº +- QU º r: c º: - r-
r: QU o o º C O O r- º vº O v. *- o Qu º !- QU C -- -- - -- r: -- C 5. cº ~ > º: C !- ~ ~ C r-
- wº - º vº P. o Q c r: O vº QL ~ º -: r: oo cº QU º: ºn !- o QU QU C !- ~ O -E + -- ~ a. r- oo •r- -- !- QL
º Qu ºn -E c o g r- º r: º r: ~ O o -- r: ~ - > CO c > 4- ~ c º: º E QU -- !- Q ~ O r- O !- P. r: +- c ~ O
ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ă ş E : ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
5. 5 s º : º * 3. º § # : 3. 5 vº 5 - ºn- C — >. E- — wº º- & od cr: C Up o C N 8- º vº ºn- vº < - C < P- >
PREDATOR .c. c. o o E & Gu du C - - a : C → . * : . . . : = ~ * * = . . . - - ; : . - - - - : - : .
a- ºn C a- C Qº ºn- C - - - - - - - - - -
Clupeidae Pacific herring E AE AE E E E E E B
Salmonidae *Pink salmon (juvenile) A - - - - AB - - B AB AB B B AB - - B - - - B A AB - - A A - - A
Chum salmon (juvenile) - - - - - A - - B AB AB AB A AB B AB AB . - B - A A AB . - AB B B - - - - - - - B - - - - B
Sockeye salmon - - - - - J - J J J J J - J - J J J J J - - - - - - - -
Coho salmon (juvenile) - - - B - - - - - - - - - A - AB . - - - B - AB AB . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AB
Chinook salmon - - - - - - - - I H H H - - - H HI I - - - - HI . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - H
Dolly Warden A - - A - - - - - - - - A - - A - - - - - - - A - - A - - - - - - - - - - A - - - - - - A
Osmeridae Capelin - - - A - - - - - ABC A - C - - AC C - B A - - B - - - - A - - -
Gadidae *Pacific cod AB B D ABD . BD BD D B B AB B ABD A B ABD BD BD BD - BD AD - - D D - - BD B BD D D D B D - BD D - D BD D BD
- *Walleye pollock - - - BC - C C C - BC - - B B - BC BC BCK BC B B BC B - - - - B - - - - - - - - - B
Stichaeidae Snake prickleback A - A AB - B AB - B B AB B A AB - AB B B - - - B - - B B AB
Trichodontidae Pacific sandfish (juvenile) . - - - - - - - - - - - A - - AB B AB . A B A B A B B B
Ammodytidae Pacific sand lance - - A - - AB AB - B AB AB AB AB B - AB B - - B A B A AB
Scorpaenidae Pacific ocean perch - - - - - - - - - FG F F FG G G
Anoplopomatidae Sable fish - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - BK - B B B K B
Hexagrammidae Kelp green ling B - - B - B B B B B
*Rock greenling B B B B B B B B - B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
*Masked green ling AB - B AB AB B AB B B B AB B B AB AB AB AB B B AB B B AB AB B B AB B B A
*White spotted greenling AB - - AB B AB AB B B AB AB B B B B AB B B B B B B B B B B B B B
Cottidae *Yellow Irish lord B B - BK . BK BK BK . B B B B BK BK BK BK . BK BK B - BK B B K BK B B K
Red Irish lord B - - - B B B B B B - B
*Great sculp in B - B AB - - BK K - B AB B B B B A ABK BK B ABK A B B BK BK K K - AB A B - B K ABK ABK
Pleuronecticae Arrow tooth flounder - - - - C - - C C - - - - - - C - C C - - C - - C - - - C C C CK C C K C C CK
Rex sole - - - C - - C - - C - - - C - C C C C - C - - - C C
*Flathead sole - - - BK C BCK C B B B B B BK BC BK BK BK BCK . B - BCK . - B K - B K B B B - B B B C
Pacific halibut B BL L . - - - B B BL BL . - - - - . BL . • L . - - - . BL L BL . L L B
*Rock sole ABK . B ABK B B ABK B B B B BK AB AB B AB BK K BK B B B B BK BK AB B B - B - - - - BK B ABK . - B B B B AK
*Yellowfin sole AB . B AB B AB . - AB AB B B AB B AB B B B - B B - B B AB B B - - B - - - - B - AB B B
Dover sole - - - C C C C C C C C C C
*Starry flounder A - - A - - A - - - - - - - A A A
*Sand sole - - - - - - - - - - - - A A A
A - Harris and Hartt, 1977 C - Smith et al., 1978 E - Macy et al., 1978 G - Major and Shippen, 1970 I - Major et al., 1978 K - Feder et al., 1979 * Dominant prey shown in Figs. 5.59 thru 5.62
B - Rogers et al., 1979 D - Jewett, 1978 F – Lyubimova, 1965 H - Hart, 1973 J - Foerster, 1968 L - IPHC, 1978 and Table 5. 38
186 Biology
An overview of prey, consumed by fishes common to
the northern Gulf of Alaska with emphasis on predation
in the Kodiak area is shown in Table 5.39. The prin-
cipal prey of some additional fishes, which are common
to several bays of Kodiak and Afognak Islands (Alitak,
"sak, Kaiugnak, Izhut, Kalsin, and Kiliuda) from April
through September are shown in Table 5.40.
Pacific halibut, although not studied in detail in
the aforementioned fish food surveys, is of major
Sommercial importance to the Kodiak groundfish fishery.
Adult Pacific halibut consume mostly fishes (other
flatfishes, walleye pollock, Pacific cod, rockfishes,
*nd Pacific sand lance), squid, octopi, and large
*ecapods such as king and Tanner crabs (Simenstad et
*l., 1977; Smith et al., 1978; IPHC, 1978). Juvenile
halibut are also piscivorous, but tend to take a
&reater proportion of crustaceans. Cook Inlet popu-
*ations feed mainly on shrimp (IPHC data in Smith et
al., 1978).
Table 5.40 Dominant prey items (ranked) in stomachs
%f some common fishes in Kodiak bays, Summer 1976-1978
(Harris and Hartt, 1977; Rogers et al., 1979).
T-
Prey Predator
Chum Coho Dolly Capelin Snake Pacific Pacific
salmon salmon Warden prickleback Sandfish Sand lance
(juv.) (juv. ) *mem=== (juv.) (ad.) (juv.) (ad.)
*lychaetes 3
*lanoids 2 l l 1
**pacticoids 1 2 2
Mysids 3
**marids 2 l l l 3
*Phausiids 2
Shrimps 3
Crab larvae l 2
Fish larvae 2
Fish 2 l
T-
The fishes of the Kodiak shelf can be grouped into
assemblages (Table 5.41) on the basis of distribution
and feeding relationships; they occur primarily in the
following habitats:
(1) epipelagic: 0-100 m deep
(2) offshore/demersal: X 30 miles from shore;
> 100 m deep
(3) coastal/demersal: < 30 miles from shore, in-
cluding embayments; 25 m deep
(4) littoral-sublittoral/demersal: tidally in-
fluenced nearshore zones, substrate generally
< 25 m deep
(5) littoral-sublittoral/pelagic: nearshore water
column, generally < 25 m deep.
Our knowledge of the seasonal movements and bio-
logical requirements (such as food and shelter) of
fishes in the Kodiak area is incomplete. For example,
extensive work on pelagic fish fauna has not yet been
done and the life histories of many of the noncom-
mercial, yet numerically abundant, species are poorly
known. Therefore, to describe these assemblages as
true communities (Whittaker, 1970) may be premature.
Perhaps it is best to consider them as most likely
interacting fish fauna in a given area. Further work
is necessary to elucidate these relationships.
Knowledge of marine communities can be used to
predict which species are most likely to be harmed by
OCS development on the Kodiak shelf. By knowing the
source, composition, and amount of contaminants to-
gether with the physical oceanography of the area,
trajectory models can be constructed (see Physical
Table 5.41 Marine fish assemblages in the Kodiak
region
Epipelagic
Pacific herring Capelin
Salmon (maturing) Pacific sandfish
Mainly: Pink Pacific sand lance (juv. )
Chum Atka mackerel
Sockeye
Littoral/Pelagic
Pacific herring (seasonal) Dolly Warden
Salmon (juv. ) Capelin (juv., seasonal)
Mainly: Pink Pacific sand lance (ad.)
Chum Larvae: many species
Sockeye
Littoral-Sublittoral/Demersal
Snake prickleback Crescent gunnel
Pacific sandfish (juv. ) Snailfish
Greenlings (ad. and juv. ) Juveniles:
Kelp greenling Flounders
Rock greenling Rockfish
Musked greenling Sculpins
Whitespotted greenling Codfishes
Coastal/Demersal
Pacific sand lance (juv.) Red Irish lord
Pacific cod (juv. ) Other sculpin
Pacific halibut (juv. ) Poaches
Yellowfin sole Rock greenling
Rock sole Kelp greenling
Dover sole Whitespotted greenling
Great sculpin Masked greenling
Yellow Irish lord
Offshore/Demersal
Sablefish
Pacific halibut
Arrowtooth flounder
Rex sole
Flathead sole
Walleye pollock
Pacific cod
Pacific sand lance (ad.)
Eelpouts
Searchers (ronquils)
Shortspine thornyhead
Biology 187
Oceanography chapter), and predictions can be made
regarding which organisms will come into contact with
the pollutant. Once a heavy metal, petroleum deriva-
tive, or synthetic chemical has been taken up by a
species, further predictions concerning the fate of the
pollutant through the marine food chain can be made.
For instance, a lightweight hydrocarbon spilled from an
oil tanker, pipeline, or well head would probably
remain in surface water and be advected shoreward and
to the southwest along the Kodiak shelf (see Chapter
2). Epipelagic fishes, many of which have dense
schooling habits (e.g., Pacific sand lance, Atka
mackerel) could be directly fouled by the oil-laden
water. Struhsaker (1977) showed that exposing Pacific
herring to one fraction of petroleum (benzene) induced
premature spawning, impaired ovarian and larval devel-
opment, and reduced survivorship of adult fish.
Groundfish such as Pacific halibut, rock sole, and
Pacific cod prey on a variety of clupeids, including
Pacific herring (IPHC, 1978; Rogers et al., 1979, Table
5.39). Pollutants ingested or adhering to herring may
accumulate in these fishes and eventually be incorpo-
rated into benthic food chains. Even if epipelagic
fishes do not come into immediate contact with the
discharged pollutants, their principal prey (copepods,
mysids, euphausiids, crustacean and fish larvae) may.
Prey populations may die, or they may accumulate and
concentrate pollutants that will eventually be incor-
porated into epipelagic food chains. -
OCS development on the Kodiak shelf will result in
increased onshore development along the east side of
the archipelago. Kodiak harbor in Chiniak Bay will
have increased ship traffic; the city will have addi-
tional pressure on its sewage and water treatment
facilities; a coastal LNG facility may be built, and
the overall risk of environmental impairment increases.
Recent studies have shown that nearshore, estu-
arine waters are used as spawning grounds for such
commercially important species as salmonids, herring
(Buck et al., 1975), and king crab (Feder et al., 1979;
Guy Powell, pers. comm.). They are also important
nursery areas for most larval and juvenile fishes
(Harris and Hartt, 1977; Rogers et al., 1979). Chron-
ic, low-level exposure of young fish to pollutants
could affect their physiology and behavior, impeding
growth and decreasing survivorship (Patten, 1977).
Furthermore, heavier-grade oils may sink, become incor-
porated into the littoral sediments, be consumed by
deposit-feeding invertebrates (such as polychaetes),
and enter the benthic food chains (Feder and Jewett,
1977; Feder et al., 1979). As few in situ studies on
the fate and effects of industrial pollutants in
Alaskan marine ecosystems have been made, much of this
discussion awaits verification.
5. 7 BIRDS
5. 7. 1 Introduction
Marine ecosystems support distinctive communities
of birds, whose composition, distribution, breeding
season, and movements are determined mainly by the
spatial and temporal distribution of the food supply.
Generally, higher concentrations of birds are found in
neritic waters (those over the continental shelf) than
in oceanic waters (those seaward of the shelf). Pri-
mary productivity and zooplankton concentrations are
usually higher in neritic waters because of the influx
of nutrients from land drainage, vertical mixing over
the shelf, and local upwellings close to shore. Oceanic
birds generally feed on the surface or a short distance
under water. Crustaceans, squid, and in tropical
areas, flying fish, are their major prey. Many birds
in neritic waters and in regions of upwellings, how"
ever, feed on fish, which they catch by diving. Many
birds are attracted to convergent fronts or rips
(boundaries between unlike water masses) where prey are
concentrated for feeding. In areas where upwellings
bring nutrient-rich waters to the surface, successive
blooms of phytoplankton, herbivorous zooplankton, and
Carnivorous zooplankton occur. Since currents continu"
ously carry water away from the center of upwelling,
however, these members of the food chain are displaced
away from the upwelling. Birds which specialize on
zooplankton and micronekton thus find food most abun."
dant at some distance from the center of upwelling.
Small fish which eat mainly phytoplankton are also
found near upwelling areas, and birds which prey on
these fish often are found nearby.
Upwellings are not regularly found in the waters
near Kodiak. There is, however, frequent mixing in the
water column over the banks which brings nutrients to
the surface. Seasonal changes in plankton growth are
not yet well documented. Over the shelf a spring
increase in zooplankton is thought to occur. In deep
waters, away from the shelf, the zooplankton breed
independently of the increase in phytoplankton biomass ,
and, by grazing, prevent a preliminary phytoplankton
bloom. Euphausiids swarm to the surface while spawning
and thus provide a food source independent of upwell"
iſlg.
The distribution of suitable breeding areas and
the seasonal variation in the food supply are probably
the major selective forces on the breeding biology of
marine birds. The distribution of islands and other
safe nesting places may either restrict birds to only *
188 Biology
Small fraction of the total available feeding area or
*equire them to spend much time flying to and from more
distant feeding grounds. The timing of egglaying is
Slosely governed by seasonal availability in the food
Supply.
General information on the breeding phenologies of
Alaskan marine and coastal birds has long been avail-
able (Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959). As one proceeds
*orthward from the equator, the length of the breeding
Season of birds becomes shorter. The reproductive
Period of more northern populations of a species is
*sually compressed and may be several weeks shorter
than that of more southern populations. Superimposed on
this geographic trend are local year-to-year fluctu-
*tions in weather and in food supply. An unseasonably
late spring may delay the start of breeding, while a
Poor food supply may lead to increased mortality of
young or may even prevent breeding altogether. Natural
Populations can compensate for these year-to-year
ºncertainties. In late seasons the breeding effort at a
Solony is usually more highly synchronized and com-
Pressed into a shorter period; when conditions are
favorable, individual pairs and the population as a
"hole produce greater numbers of more vigorous young,
thus offsetting poor years.
True marine species tend to have low fecundity but
high survivorship (Ashmole, 1971); a pair may thus
enjoy many breeding seasons, and the success or failure
of a particular season is not so critical for individ-
*al fitness or maintenance of a population as it is for
shorter-lived species. On the other hand, such popu-
*ations increase very slowly, and recovery of the
breeding population from significant mortality may take
"any generations.
Birds are believed to be important members of
"arine ecosystems, but quantification of their role in
such systems has hardly begun. In terms of numbers and
the amount of food they consume, they must play an im-
portant role, at least locally. Wiens and Scott (1975)
estimated that four species feeding in the neritic zone
along the Oregon coast consumed 22 percent of the
annual production of pelagic fish. Marine birds may
contribute to the stability of the ecosystem by
foraging on prey species that are temporarily abundant
(Wiens et al., 1978b). The approximately 420,000 birds
breeding at Cape Thompson consumed an estimated 13, 100
metric tons of food during a four-month breeding period
(Swartz, 1966). The 1,200,000 breeding birds in the
Kodiak area must therefore consume about 36,000 metric
tons of food during the breeding season, or over 50
Table 5.42 Estimated energy demands (kcal/km") of
bird populations in the Kodiak area. Values in italics
are percentages of the total energy flow for a lease
area at that time (Wiens et al., 1978a).
Species April May June Aug.-Sept Oct
Northern Fulmar 8 13, 212 168 252
2 t 7 1 7
Sooty Shearwater -- 2,030 859 22, 220 6
32 28 91 t
Short-tailed Shearwater 11 34 1, 780 348 1,910
3 1 58 1 55
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel -- 86 71 358 62
1 2 1 2
Herring Gull 21 12 -- 6 --
6 t t
Glaucous-winged Gull 193 101 20 27 --
54 2 1 t
Black-legged Kittiwake -- 2,030 51 230 --
32 2 1
Arctic Tern -- 45 23 -- --
1 1
Common Murre 112 126 6 57 12
32 2 t t t
Tufted Puffin 11 1,900 24 934 61.2
3 30 1 4 18
Horned Puffin -- -- 11 15 610
t 18
TOTAL 335 6,380 3,060 24, 300 3,460
t
= trace
percent of the weight taken annually by the shellfish
and finfish fisheries (see Sections 5.4 and 5.5).
The estimated total energy flow through pelagic
bird populations in the Kodiak area was greatest
(24,300 kcal/km/day) during August and September
(Table 5.42) but varied with season (Fig. 5.63) because
of the movements of the species (Wiens et al., 1978a).
Shearwaters accounted for up to 92 percent of the total
energy demand of the community.
Shearwaters Murres and puffins
Gulls and kittiwakes Others
Apr May Jun
Aug.-Sep Oct
Figure 5.63 Temporal apportionment of total energy
demand among the species groups recorded during tran-
sect censuses in the Kodiak area (Wiens et al., 1978).




Biology 189
The role of marine birds in recycling nutrients is
not yet well understood. While Pomeroy (1970) believes
that birds and mammals are unimportant in the cycles of
essential elements in marine systems, Tuck (1960)
points out that seabird excrement is rich in nitrates
and phosphates. He describes the murky, excrement-laden
water which flows continuously from murre colonies and
which may discolor the surrounding waters for many
square miles. Unlike the 100,000 tons of guano which
accumulate annually on the sites of Peruvian seabird
colonies, the excrement of Arctic seabirds is continu-
ously washed into the sea and becomes available to
marine nutrient cycles.
Birds in the Subarctic Pacific Region consume an
estimated 0.5 to 1.1 million metric tons of food and
return from 110,000 to 220,000 metric tons of feces to
the sea each year (Sanger, 1972). High nutrient levels
and high densities of certain species of algae and
fishes have been found in waters adjacent to seal and
seabird colonies along the California coast (Morejohn,
1971).
Seabirds may play a vital role in Alaskan marine
ecosystems by recycling nutrients during seasons when
oceanic circulation does not supply nutrients to photo-
synthetic strata, thus "smoothing out" the seasonal
distribution of primary production (Weller and Norton,
1977). Manuring by seabirds and seals is an important
agency for the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus to
island soils (Smith, 1978; 1979).
5. 7.2 Marine birds of Alaska
The marine birds of Alaska can be placed in three
categories:
1. Those that spend most of their life on
marine waters and obtain their food
from the sea while flying, swimming,
or diving; these include members of
the Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes,
and Charadriiformes.
2. Those that occupy freshwater habitats
while breeding but feed in marine
waters at other times; these include
members of the Gaviiformes, Podicipe-
diformes, Ciconiiformes, Anseriformes,
Gruiformes, Charadriiformes, and Cora-
ciiformes.
3. Terrestrial birds which forage on the
coast; these include members of the
Falconiformes and Passeriformes.
The first category consists of the true seabirds
and includes the most abundant marine birds found in
Alaska in the Summer.
Members of the Procellariiformes are known as
tubenoses because all members of the family have tubu-
lar nostrils. Other characteristics of the order are a
deeply grooved, hooked bill, webbed feet, thick plum-
age, and a peculiar musky odor. All members are to-
tally marine, feeding alone or in groups dispersed over
open water according to the distribution of their food.
They normally come ashore only to breed. They have a
long breeding cycle, a low reproductive rate (clutch
size is one), a long period of immaturity, and a long
life expectancy (Bourne, 1964). Members of three of the
four families in the order are found in Alaskan waters.
Three species of the Diomedeidae (albatrosses)
have been recorded in Alaskan waters (Gabrielson and
Lincoln, 1959; Kessel and Gibson, 1979). None of them
breeds in Alaska. The Short-tailed Albatross (Diomedea
albatrus), which breeds in Japan, may once have been
common in Alaska, but the present world population is
probably less than 200 pairs. Individuals are oc"
casionally seen off the Aleutian Islands (AOU, 1975).
The Black-footed Albatross (D. nigripes) and the Laysan
Albatross (D. immutabilis) both breed mainly on the
Leeward Chain of the Hawaiian Islands (Palmer, 1962).
Both species are common in Alaskan waters, the Black"
footed being more frequent in the Gulf of Alaska, while
Laysan are probably more numerous in the Bering Sea and
near the Aleutian Islands.
Albatrosses are among the largest seabirds. They
have exceptional powers of gliding flight. The Laysan
Albatross feeds mainly on squid, while the Black-footed
is a feeding generalist, taking dead or living fishes,
squid, crustaceans, and other animals (Ainley and
Sanger, 1979).
Nine species of the Procellariidae (petrels and
shearwaters) have been recorded from Alaskan waters.
Five are rare or casual in the Alaskan region; a sixth,
the Scaled Petrel (Pterodroma inexpectata), is uncommon
in Alaskan water (Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959; Kessel
and Gibson, 1979). The Sooty (Puffinus griseus) and
the Short-tailed (P. tenuirostris) Shearwaters are the
most abundant summer pelagic birds in Alaskan waters.
Both species breed in the Southern Hemisphere and spend
the austral winter on waters in the Northern Hemis"
phere. The Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) is the
only Alaskan breeding species.
190 Biology

Typical petrels are of medium to large size. Most
*Pecies nest in burrows. They have a rapid and gliding
flight, usually close to the surface of the water.
Many species feed on the surface, but the Sooty and
Short-tailed Shearwaters are wing-propelled divers
(Storer, 1971), feeding by what Ashmole (1971) calls
Pursuit plunging (Fig. 5.64). Fulmars are scavengers
(Ainley and Sanger, 1979); the more specialized diets
°f the Alaskan shearwaters are discussed later.
Two species of the Hydrobatidae (storm-petrels),
*he Fork-tailed (Oceanodroma furcata) and the Leach's
(0. leucorhoa) Storm-Petrels, occur in Alaska as breed-
ing Species. They breed in crevices and burrows,
usually in colonies. They spend the winter on the open
°Sean; the wintering grounds of the Alaskan species are
*ot fully known. When feeding, they flutter character-
istically over the water, often striking the surface
"ith their feet; the feeding method is known as pat-
*ering (Fig. 5.64). They eat a variety of prey and are
the smallest members of the generalist groups of tube-
*oses (Ainley and Sanger, 1979).
The only family in the Pelecaniformes which is
found in Alaska is the Phalacrocoracidae (cormorants).
It is represented by four species: the Double-crested
(Phalacrocorax auritus), Brandt's (P. penicillatus),
Pelagic (P. pelagicus), and Red-faced (P. urile) Cor-
"orants. The Brandt's Cormorant is rare and very local
in Alaska, known only from a few sight records and a
*all colony in Prince William Sound (Kessel and Gib-
*on, 1979); the other three species are common along
the coast. The Double-crested Cormorant breeds
*hroughout most of North America in freshwater and
*rine habitats. The Pelagic and Red-faced are common
Soastal species throughout most of the North Pacific.
Most species are colonial, breeding on ledges or rocky
islands along marine coasts (Thomson, 1964). Although
Aerial piracy
Jaegers
Surface plunging
Dipping Terns
Gulls & Terns Pattering
~ Storm-Petrels &
sº
e Pursuit diving: wings
Alcide Å. _º.
e Pursuit diving: feet
Pursuit plunging **
Shearwaters
Cormorant C
Bottom feeding
Diving Ducks
Figure 5.64
Ashmole, 1971).
Surface seizing
Phalaropes *::
S:
the young have functional nostrils, those of adults are
almost completely closed, and the birds must breathe
through their mouths. Their plumage is easily wetted
in contrast to that of most other marine birds.
Cormorants enter the water only to feed. They feed by
pursuit diving (Fig. 5.64), using their feet for pro-
pulsion. They eat mainly fish.
The Charadriiformes are a diverse group of birds
represented in Alaska by the Scolopacidae (sandpipers
and their allies), Phalaropodidae (phalaropes), Cha-
radriidae (plovers), the Haematopodidae (oyster-
catchers), the Stercorariidae (skuas and jaegers), the
Laridae (gulls and terns), and the Alcidae (auks). The
phylogenetic relationships among these birds have
recently been analyzed by Strauch (1978). Some or all
members of these families spend most of their lives on
marine waters. For the present discussion, all members
of the Scolopacidae, Phalaropodidae, Charadriidae, and
Haematopodidae, which in North America are commonly
called shorebirds, will be classified in the second
group mentioned above: those birds that breed near
fresh water but otherwise feed on salt water. The last
three families will be discussed here even though not
all of their members are true seabirds.
Seabird feeding methods (modified from
Four species of Stercorariidae are known from
Alaska. The South Polar Skua, Catharacta maccormlcki,
is a very rare visitor to the North Pacific (Kessel and
Gibson, 1979). The Pomarine (Stercorarius pomarinus),
Parasitic (S. parasiticus), and Long-tailed (S. longi-
caudus) Jaegers are common breeding birds on the arctic
tundra. Their ecology in northern Alaska has recently
been described (Maher, 1974).
similar to gulls but have raptor-like habits and hooked
Skuas and jaegers are
bills. During the winter they are independent of land;
they take food from the surface of the water while in
flight (Wynne-Edwards, 1964).
grounds, they eat mostly rodents and birds (Maher,
On their breeding
1974). Near the colonies of other species they prey on
the eggs and young of these birds, and they chase and
harass other birds until they drop or disgorge their
prey (Fig. 5.64). Off the breeding grounds and at sea,
they are opportunistic, taking a variety of prey
(Maher, 1974; Ainley and Sanger, 1979). They are common
spring and fall migrators off Alaska.
Seventeen species of gulls and five species of
terns have been recorded from Alaska (Kessel and Gib-
son, 1979), but only three species of gulls, the
Glaucous-winged (Larus glaucescens) and Mew (L. canus)
Gulls and the Black-legged Kittiwake
tridactyla), and two species of terns, the Arctic
(Rissa
(Sterna paradisaea) and Aleutian (S. aleutica) terns,
are to be considered here by virtue of their numbers
or their breeding distribution in the Gulf of Alaska
marine habitat. A few other species, especially the
Herring Gull (L. argentatus), may prove to be important
winter residents in the Gulf. Of these, only the
Black-legged Kittiwake, and perhaps the Arctic Tern,
are true seabirds. The other species are essentially
coastal. However, small numbers of Glaucous-winged and
Herring Gulls occur regularly on Gulf of Alaska pelagic
Biology 191
waters (Sanger, 1973). Gulls and terns are cosmopoli-
tan in distribution and are among the most familiar
marine birds. Gulls are larger and heavier, with
stouter bills and shorter tails, while terns are small
and slim, with narrow, pointed bills and long tails.
Both are strong fliers; terns appear lighter and more
buoyant. Gulls often soar whereas terns frequently
hover. Both gulls and terns are gregarious and nest in
large colonies, although isolated pairs and small
groups of breeders are common in the Kodiak region.
Kittiwakes are unique among gulls in nesting on the
faces of cliffs; their breeding biology exhibits many
adaptations to this habitat (Cullen, 1957). Both gulls
and terns feed by dipping (Fig. 5.64) and shallow
pursuit plunging; in flight they pick prey from just at
or slightly below the water surface (Ashmole, 1971).
Gulls also frequently feed while walking in shallow
water or on land and by pecking at prey while sitting
on the water. They seldom dive. Terns, on the other
hand, feed mostly by surface plunging (Fig. 5.64). They
do not pursue prey underwater, but rather rely on the
force of the plunge to carry them deep enough to
capture prey. Gulls are omnivorous. The large gulls
have become serious pests to other avian species and
aircraft in many areas because human garbage offers a
plentiful winter food supply. Kittiwakes and terns eat
mostly fish.
Sixteen species of the Alcidae have been recorded
in Alaska. Fourteen of them are breeding species on
the Gulf of Alaska. Alcids are the northern ecological
equivalents of penguins (Spheniscidae) and diving
petrels (Pelecanoididae). Most species breed in the
north Pacific (Udvardy, 1963). Alcids are compact and
streamlined and have short, narrow Wings and webbed
feet. The various species have specialized nesting
habitats. Some use rock ledges, while others prefer
crevices in rock; some excavate burrows in soil, while
others nest directly on the ground. Alcids always nest
within flying distance of the ocean. Most species are
colonial nesters.
Alcids are wing-propelled diving birds. They feed
by pursuit diving (Fig. 5.64); they dive from the sur-
face and actively pursue prey underwater. Some species
feed on the bottom.
The alcids which breed in the Gulf of Alaska can
be placed in four groups (Bédard, 1969). The first
group consists of the large, fish-eating species: the
Common (Uria aalge) and Thick-billed (U. lomvia)
Murres, and the Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba).
Murres nest in dense colonies on cliffs while guille-
mots nest in more dispersed colonies or as isolated
pairs in natural crevices, usually in rock.
The second group consists of the small, fish-
eating species: the Marbled (Brachyramphus
marmoratus), Kittlitz's (B. brevirostris), and Ancient
(Synthliboramphus antiquus) Murrelets. The species of
Brachyramphus nest in a variety of habitats including
mountains above timberline on the bare ground and in
trees. Although both species are common or abundant,
few nests have ever been found. The Ancient Murrelet
is nocturnal, and the young leave the burrow within two
days of hatching.
The third group consists of the small, plankton-
eating species: Cassin's (Ptychoramphus aleuticus),
Parakeet (Cyclorrhynchus psittacula), Crested (Aethia
cristatella), Least (A. pusilla), and Whiskered (A.
pygmaea) Auklets. Cassin's Auklet nests in burrows,
but the others nest in natural cavities and crevices.
The fourth group consists of the puffins, which
eat mainly fish and squid: the Rhinoceros Auklet
(Cerorhinca monocerata), and the Horned (Fratercula
corniculata) and Tufted (Lunda cirrhata) Puffins.
Although called an auklet, the Rhinoceros Auklet is
structurally and behaviorally a puffin. Puffins are
colonial and nest in burrows or crevices. The
Rhinoceros Auklet enters and leaves its burrow only at
night, while the other two species are active through-
out the day.
The second category of Alaskan marine birds, those
that occupy freshwater habitats during the breeding
season but feed in marine waters at other times, can be
subdivided into four groups:
1. Those that spend all or most of the
nonbreeding season on coastal waters.
These include members of the Gaviidae
(loons), the Podicipedidae (grebes),
the Anseridae (waterfowl), and the
Phalaropodidae (phalaropes).
2. Those that feed mainly by wading.
These include members of the Ardeidae
(herons) and the Gruidae (cranes).
Herons and cranes are rare on Kodiak
and will not be considered further.
This group also includes the Scolo-
pacidae (sandpipers and allies), the
Charadriidae (plovers), and the
Haematopodidae (oystercatchers).
3. The Belted Kingfisher (Megaceryle
alcyon), a member of the Alcedinidae.
This fish-eating species is common
throughout much of Alaska including
marine coasts where it feeds on fish
and possibly intertidal invertebrates.
It is only peripherally a member of
the marine ecosystem and will not be
considered further.
192 Biology
Four species of loons and two species of grebes
*re found regularly in the Gulf of Alaska. They nest
°n inland waters and spend their winters in ice-free
*egions, mostly on marine coasts. An unknown fraction
°f Alaskan populations leaves the state for the winter.
Loons and grebes are highly adapted for an aquatic
*xistence and are almost helpless on land. They seldom
fly except in migration; they dive when disturbed by
Predators or man. They are fish-eating, foot-propelled
diving birds.
Three species of swans, seven species of geese,
fifteen species of dabbling ducks, seven species of
diving ducks, twelve species of sea ducks, one species
°f stiff-tailed duck, and four species of mergansers
*re known from Alaska. Almost all the waterfowl spe-
Sies make use of coastal environments, especially
*uring migration and in winter. Swans, geese (with the
*ception of the Brant, Branta bernicla, and the Emper-
°r Goose, Philacte canagica), and dabbling and stiff-
tailed ducks make extensive use of coastal wetlands,
estuaries, and bays. These often roost on open water
but seldom feed there. On the other hand the Brant,
the Emperor Goose, diving/sea ducks, and mergansers
*ely extensively on marine waters during the winter.
the distribution of Brant during the nonbreeding season
is highly correlated with the distribution of eelgrass
(Zostera marina), its major food at that season (Bell-
*ose, 1976). The majority of the Alaskan breeding
Population of Brant winters south of the state (Palmer,
1976). Up to 20 percent of the Alaskan breeding popu-
lation of Emperor Geese may winter in Kodiak coastal
Waters (Palmer, 1976). They feed on eelgrass and a
Variety of algae and intertidal invertebrates
(Bellrose, 1976: Palmer, 1976; Eisenhauer and Kirk-
Patrick, 1977).
One species of diving duck, eleven species of sea
ducks, and two species of mergansers are common or
abundant wintering species on Kodiak waters. One of
the sea ducks, the Common Eider, Somateria mollissima,
is also a common coastal breeding species. Common
Eiders incubate their eggs without feeding, and mother
and ducklings enter the sea soon after the young hatch.
Diving ducks eat a considerable amount of plant materi-
al inland during the breeding season, but all of the
ducks mentioned here rely on animal food during the
winter. Diving and sea ducks feed on the bottom (Fig.
5.64), where they eat a variety of invertebrates.
These species undergo an annual simultaneous molt of
the wing feathers that leaves them flightless for three
to five weeks (Weller, 1976). Details of the diet of
Kodiak area ducks are discussed later.
The large numbers of breeding or staging shore-
birds that are found in other areas of Alaska do not
occur on the Kodiak Archipelago, possibly because of
its mostly rocky coastline and location west of the
major shorebird migratory pathways (see Gill et al.,
1979). Probably the most important species are the
Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus bachmani), which is a
common permanent resident of rocky coasts on the Gulf
of Alaska, the Rock Sandpiper (Calidris ptilocnemis),
which commonly winters on Kodiak's rocky shores, and
the Northern (Phalaropus lobatus) and Red (P.
fulicarius) Phalaropes, which are found during migra-
tion in large flocks in Kodiak waters. Oystercatchers
feed in rocky habitats on molluscs, mainly mussels
(Mytilus) and limpets (Acmaea), which they stab or jab
off rocks (Hartwick, 1976). Rock Sandpipers frequently
feed on wave-washed rocks. Their diet is poorly known
but probably consists of small gastropods and crusta-
ceans. The two common Alaskan phalaropes spend most of
their migration and winter on open Water. Red
Phalaropes tend to stay further offshore than do
Northern Phalaropes. They feed by surface seizing
(Fig. 5.64) of small invertebrates.
The third category of birds which use Alaskan
marine habitats, the terrestrial birds which forage on
the coast, includes raptors and songbirds.
The most important raptors along the Kodiak Coast
are the Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, and the
Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus. These species are
of special concern because their populations in other
areas of North America are endangered. The coastal
population along the Gulf of Alaska, however, appears
not to have suffered the losses observed elsewhere
(Hamerstrom et al., 1975; Cade, 1975). Along the Gulf
of Alaska Bald Eagles nest in trees, on cliffs, and
occasionally on the ground (Gabrielson and Lincoln,
1959; Troyer and Hensel, 1965). Bald Eagles eat a
variety of food, including birds, fish, and carrion.
During the salmon spawning season, they join with
gulls, Ravens (Corvus corax), and bears in feeding on
the remains of spawned-out salmon (Gabrielson and
Lincoln, 1959). Peregrine Falcons usually nest on high
and inaccessible ledges. They feed mainly on birds
(White et al., 1973; Ainley and Sanger, 1979), which
they capture on the wing. They have been observed
feeding on storm-petrels far at sea (Craddock and
Carlson, 1970).
Several species of passerine birds feed on beaches
and in the intertidal zone. Most conspicuous of these
are the Raven and the Northwestern Crow (C. caurinus),
both of which feed on invertebrates and carrion.
Ravens also prey on eggs and young at seabird colonies.
Winter Wrens (Troglodytes troglodytes) in Alaska west
of Prince William Sound are found only along marine
coasts. They build their nests in crevices and cran-
nies in cliffs and talus slopes along the shore. They
forage on the beach and eat amphipods (beach fleas),
insects, and other small invertebrates. Water Pipits
(Anthus spinoletta) and Song Sparrows (Melospiza
melodia) also forage frequently in intertidal areas.
Biology 193
5. 7.3 Distribution and habitat usage by Kodiak birds —-
1579 156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
Pelagic distribution
Information on the distribution of marine birds on
BIRD DENSITIES
|| 0 birds/Km.
O. 1–10.0 birds/Km2
10. 1–50.0 birds/Kma
50.1–999.9 birds/Kma
>1000 birds/Km.
the waters in the Kodiak area is available from a
series of aerial and shipboard transects for the Gulf
of Alaska (Lensink and Bartonek, 1976; Lensink et al.,
1976; Gould, 1977; Harrison, 1977; Wiens et al., 1978b)
and a more intensive survey along the south and east
coast of Kodiak during 1977 (Gould et al., 1978).
The results of the general Gulf of Alaska surveys
are shown according to season for all birds in Fig.
5.65 and by month for several bird groups in Table
5.43. While coverage is spatially and temporally
spotty, it appears that areas with bird densities of at
least 50 birds/km.” can be found in the Kodiak area zºº” y \{ * * * * * – º –
throughout the year. These data show that no area
stands out as being consistently more important to
birds than any other area. Shearwaters are clearly the
most abundant birds from May through September (Table
5.43). In October, shearwaters and Northern Fulmars
were the most abundant species. In January and March,
alcids, mainly murres, were most abundant.
56°
March–May
Figure 5.65 Seasonal distribution of pelagic birds I I I | l l
from a combination of shipboard and aerial survey data | O - o o O O o O O
from 1975 to 1977. See text for data sources. 156 154 153 152 151 15O 149 148














194 Biology
Figure 5.65 continued
1579
56°
156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 151° 150°
BIRD DENSITIES
| | 0 birds/km.
O. 1-10.0 birds/Km2
10. 1–50.0 birds/Kma
50.1–999.9 birds/Kma
>1000 birds/Km.
15O2
149° 148° 1470
59°
58°
—157°
June–August
9 —H56°
149° 148°














Biology 195
Figure 5.65 continued
157°
156° 155° 154° 153° 152° 1519 150° 149° 148° 147°
BIRD DENSITIES
| | 0 birds/Km.
O. 1–10.0 birds/Km2
10. 1–50.0 birds/Kma
50.1–999.9 birds/Kma
>1000 birds/Km.
September–November
I I | l l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148°
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°









196
Biology
Figure 5.65 continued
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 1519 150° 149°
BIRD DENSITIES
| | 0 birds/km.
0.1-10.0 birds/Km.
10.1-50.0 birds/Km.
| 50.1-999.9 birds/Km.
_ >1000 birds/Km,
56°
1 | I I l
% –60°
ww.
December-February
148° 1470
–59°
58°
57°
—56°
153° 1529 1519 150° 149°
148°

















Biology 197
Table 5.43
Relative abundance of marine birds from combined shipboard and aerial
(data from several sources, see text).
pelagic transects, 1975-1977
Species
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Loon
Albatross
Northern Fulmar
Shearwater
Storm-Petrel
Unidentified tubenose
Cormorant
Dabbling duck
Diving duck
Bald Eagle
Phalarope
Other shorebird
Skua/jaeger
Glaucous-winged Gull
Black-legged Kittiwake
Other gull
Tern
Murre
Guillemot
Murrelet/auklet
Puffin
Unidentified alcid
Passerine bird
Unidentified bird
+
+
+
+
:
+
+
++++
+
+
++
++
++++
+
+++
+
+
+
+
+++
+
+++
++
++
+
+
+
J = no birds, t = <1 bird/kmé, + = 1-9 birds/kmé, ++ = 10-29 birds/kmé, +++
birds/km .
30-99 birds/km”, “
100 +
Maps are not yet available for the data from the
intensive survey around Kodiak. Table 5.44 summarizes
the seasonal occurrence and abundance of 88 species of
marine birds for this area (Sanger et al., 1979). Many
of these species are found in the area throughout the
year and over both shallow and deep waters. Some are
more restricted in their spatial or temporal distri-
bution. Albatrosses, Pink-footed (Puffinus creatopus),
Flesh-footed (P.
carneipes), and New Zealand (P.
bulleri) Shearwaters, Scaled Petrel, Leach's Storm-
Petrel, and Red-legged Kittiwakes (Rissa brevirostris)
are rare in Kodiak waters and were found only over
shelf and oceanic waters. Dabbling and diving ducks
were found mainly on bays and estuarine waters. There
were no records for any of the shearwaters or petrels
(except the Northern Fulmar) storm-petrels, phalaropes,
jaegers, or terns in the winter. Cormorants were found
only on bays and estuarine waters during the winter.
198
Biology
Table 5.44 Seasonal occurrence and abundance (order of magnitude)" of marine birds over Kodiak Island waters (Sanger, Gould, Baird, and Krasnow, 1979).
T-
Family Species Bay and estuarine waters shelf and oceanic waters” Family Species Bay and estuarine waters shelf and oceanic waters"
Spring Summer Fall Winter Spring Summer Fall Winter Spring Summer Fall Winter Spring Summer Fall Winter
T-
Gaviidae Common Loon 1C Q 7 1 1 1 I Anatidae Harlequin Duck 2 2 2 2 l l l tº
Yellow-billed Loon tº sº e * > 1 º 1 Steller's Eider 2 * 2 3 1 I
Arctic Loon 1 tº º º 1 gº tº º 1 Common Eider 2 2 2 3 2 * > &= l
Pod; Red-throated Loon 1 I l tº º tº * * King Eider 2 * * {-} 3 l *_ tº º 1
9dicipedidae Red-necked Grebe 1 -> {- 1 gº * tº Spectacled Eider {- tºº tº- I * = tº e * * tº
Di Horned Grebe gº- * : Q 2 1 º tº White-winged Scoter 3 l 2 3 l 2 1 {-
lomedeidae Black-footed Albatross tº tº- tº º 2 3 2 Surf Scoter 2 I 1 2 * : * = 1 1
P Laysan Albatross º {- * > tº- 2 2 2 Common Scoter 3 1 1 3 1 I tº e I
"ocellariidae Northern Fulmar 2 2 * > 4 4 4. Smew 1 tº * - 2 tº cº- gº
Pink-footed Shearwater * * tº- º * - l tº e 4 º' Common Merganser l 2 2 1 tºº 1 - º
Flesh-footed Shearwater gº g- *_º # tº 1 1 Gº Red-breasted Merganser 1 I l 1 gºs l * e º
New Zealand Shearwater :- * - tº-e & 1 1 sº Phalaropodidae Red Phalarope I gº Q_º tº 1 1 I *
Sooty Shearwater 2 3 3 tº 5 5 5 Northern Phalarope 1 l 1 gºe 3 3 3 * *
Short-tailed Shearwater 2 3 3 * - 6 5 5 Stercorariidae Pomarine Jaeger 2 2 2 e 3 3 3 tº
H Manx Shearwater tº I * > gº tº 1 wº Parasitic Jaeger 2 2 2 tºº 2 2 2 {-
ydrobatidae Scaled Petrel e tº- & º * * 2 3 3 Long-tailed Jaeger 1 I 2 * > 1 I tº {-
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel * * 2 2 * * 4. 4 4 Skua gº l * * * * 1 1 gºe º
Ph Leach's Storm-Petrel º tº a * * * : 3 3 3 Laridae Glaucous Gull 1 1 1 l I l g- l
alacrocoracidae Double-crested Cormorant 2 l 1 2 1 l 2 Glaucous-winged Gull 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Pelagic Cormorant 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 Slaty-backed Gull tº gº 1 * > g-e * - tº 1
Red-faced Cormorant 2 2 2 3 l 1 1 Herring Gull l l 1 1 1 1 1 l
Anatidae Whistling Swan l * . * > 1 tº º tº e tº Thayer's Gull * > gº ſº 2 sº gº 1 {-
Canada Goose 2 * - 1 * * l l cº- Ring-billed Gull º gº * > * = 1 * > * > sº
White-fronted Goose l tº I tº- * * º gº Franklin's Gull tº wº * > tº tº e I tº º
Black Brant 2 º e tº 4 tº gº Bonaparte's Gull tº º 1 gº e cº- g- tº a * {
Emperor Goose 2 tº e tº 2 e- * * * . Mew Gull 3 3 3 3 1 1 l * -
Mallard 3 º 3 1 * - 3 gº Sabine's Gull gº 1 2 gº º 1 l * .
Gadwall 2 g- tº º 2 * : tº º * * Black-legged Kittiwake 4 4 4 2 4 4. 4 5
Pintail 3 1 1 2 gº 1 Red-legged Kittiwake gº tº tº- tº º 1 1 1 I
Green-winged Teal l 1 I 2 º tº ſº Arctic Tern 3 3 3 {- 3 3 3 tº
Blue-winged Teal 1 1 e tº º * - * : * > Aleutian Tern 2 2 * wº 2 2 * * * *
*natidae American Wigeon 2 Q 2 2 gº tº * * Alcidae Common Murre 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5
European Wigeon 1 sº 1 & B tºº tº º Thick-billed Murre 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1
Northern Shoveler I * . l l gº º Pigeon Guillemot 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 tº
Redhead tº * * * * l º wº gº Marbled Murrelet 3 3 3 3 4 4. 4 tº
Canvasback l * : 2 1 tº º ſº a tºº Kittlitz's Murrelet l l 1 * > 1 l l * -
Ring-necked Duck l & º 1 * - tº * * Ancient Murrelet 1 1 l 1 2 3 cº- tºº
Tufted Duck º * - gº 2 gº tº º tº Cassin's Auklet 3 2 2 2 3 4 4 2
Greater Scaup 2 2 Q 2 º tº º * - e. Parakeet Auklet tº 1 gº * * 3 2 2 º
Lesser Scaup I tº e dº 1 * tº tº Crested Auklet gºe * - 3 4 2 1 2 3
Common Goldeneye 3 2 2 2 tº º tº Least Auklet sº gº tºº 2 1 l º 2
Barrow's Goldeneye l 2 2 1 tºº * > tº Rhinoceros Auklet tº 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Bufflehead 1 * - 2 2 * - tº tº Horned Puffin 3 3 3 1 3 3 4 l
Olds quaw 3 tº Gº- 4 2 * > &= Tufted Puffin 4 4 4 I 5 4 5 5
`--
d
bºgnitude of abundance based on a bay area of 2,857 km
**ter surveys of the shelf/oceanic area are few and in most cases the data are not as reliable
°ther areas and seasons.
2
and a shelf/oceanic area of 58,825 km
Monthly estimates of densities from the south and
**st coasts of Kodiak from both aerial and shipboard
*urveys are shown in Fig. 5.66.
*ade from March through June.
Aerial surveys were
* May and a falling off in June.
Veys were
They show a peak density
The shipboard sur-
carried out from late May through mid-
2
as those for
1 = probably less than 100; 2 = hundreds; 3 = thousands; 5 = hundreds of thousands; 6 = probably 1,000,000
Or InC) re
September. They show an increase in densities in the
bays in July, a peak in August, and a falling-off in
September. On the shelf, they
densities from May through July, high levels maintained
show an increase in
into August, and a gradual falling off in September.
The overall densities reported from aerial surveys were
higher in May, but lower in June than those reported
for shelf waters from shipboard surveys. The aerial
surveys show a sudden increase in shearwaters in Kodiak
waters in May (Fig. 5.66). In spring the numbers of
murres in deep waters decrease while those in shallow
waters remain stable (Fig. 5.66). This may indicate
Biology 199
Figure 5.66 Bird densities recorded from aerial
and shipboard surveys of Kodiak Island waters, 1977
(Gould et al., 1978).
WATER DEPTH
180m
2OO 2OO
1OO- 100E
soſ soſ
- -
E 20- 2O-
.x:
^
ºn
E
tº 10E 10E
C t
5- 5-
TOTAL BIRD DENSITY – SHIPBOARD SURVEY'S TOTAL BIRD DENSITY – AERIAL SURVEY'S
Shelf areas
*H –––– Bay areas 2}-
1 H. 1|-
1 l 1 l |- —i. 1 l
May 25- June July Aug Sept March April May June
June 6 18-28 6-29 1 1-23 7-19
-- - - - 180-1800m
O-O
1800m
:
i
2OO
1OO
50
2
O
1
O
10
SOOTY/SHORT-TAILED SHEARWATER
- A---
- - *-
- A *~~~
I A ***
|- A
*
|- A
|- A
A
A
|- A
*
Af
Af
C A
- A
|- A.
|- wº
A --------,
|- ,” Z ^
A / N.
|- A Z N.
A / N.
A / ^
A / N.
: / Yº
- (ol
T ſol
- [O]
|- I l l I
March April May June
:
|-
|-
.
|-
|-
R COMMON/THICK-BILLED MURRE
March April May
2OO
1OO
50
2O
1O
1O
BLACK-LEGGED KITTIWAKE
|-
K-
March April May June
—-
: TUFTED PUFFIN
March
April May




200 Biology
that many of the murres which winter in the Kodiak area
1579 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 1519 150° 149° 148° 1470
Some from other breeding areas. The pattern shown in
tufted puffin sightings is more complex. Between March
*nd April there is a large increase in puffin numbers
in all Kodiak waters, indicating that birds which
30 40 50 miles
E. ET
Winter in other areas are moving into the area. Be-
*ween April and May puffins move into shallower waters
though there may also be a movement of some birds away
from Kodiak. The increase in bird densities found in
bays in August may be attributed to the fledging of the O
year's young. 59
Gould et al. (1978) found no differences in den—
sity between bank and trough areas of the continental
*helf, but rather an indication that the areas over the
*teep slopes occurring between them are important
feeding habitat for birds. The distribution of large
*ird flocks (Gould, U. S. Fish and Wildlife service,
58°
*nchorage, pers. comm.) supports this suggestion (Fig.
5.67).
SPECIES
C – gºn's Auklet
G - |ls
F - Northern Fulmar
K- Kittiwakes
m-MurreS
M-Mixed flocks
S–Sooty and/or Short- —157°
579
tailed Shearwater
sp— Storm-petrel
T - Tufted Puffin
FLOCK SIZE
1,000 to 9,000 birds
10,000 to 24,000 birds
25,000 to 49,000 birds
50,000 or more birds
56°
—H56°
| | l
Figure 5.67 Distribution of large bird flocks i
- ge 1 r OCKS LI1 O O o O o O O O O
Kodiak waters (Gould, USFWS, pers. comm.). 156 155 154 153 152 151 150 149 148








Biology 201
The summer Kodiak shelf marine bird population is
1978;
Shearwaters comprise about 84
estimated at two million birds (Gould et al.,
1979).
percent of total numbers and 83 percent of the biomass
of this population (Table 5.45).
Sanger et al.,
The three dominant
breeding species (kittiwakes, murres, and puffins) thus
comprise less than 20 percent of the numbers or biomass
of the Kodiak spring-summer bird community.
The paucity of winter data remains a serious
deficiency in our knowledge of the distribution and
abundance of Gulf of Alaska birds; surveys by BLM/USFWS
in the winter of 1979-80 have not yet been analyzed.
Table 5.45 Estimated sizes and biomass levels of
pelagig marine bird populations off eastern Kodiak
Island", 26 May - 19 September 1977 (Sanger et al.,
1979).
Numbers* biomas."
X Sp 1,000's Z of Metric Ž of
Species wt . . g . of birds Total Tons Total
Sooty Shearwater 935 615 28.0 575 34.8
Short-tailed Shearwater 645 l, 235 56. 3 79.5 48.2
Black-legged Kittiwake 440 75 3.4 35 2. 1
Common Murre 1,060 105 4.8 1 10 6.7
Tufted Puffin 815 165 7. 5 135 8.2
2, 195 1,650
*The area considered includes 2,885 kn” of bays and fjords, from Point Banks on Shuyak
I., south to the Aliulik Peninsula, plus 30,464 km of shelf waters due east and
south of this area, offshore to the 200, m curve, or longitude 150 W., whichever is
closer to shore (total area - 33,348 km")
X weights of birds sampled
Average densigies (birds/km") in study area during 1,232 10-minute transect counts
x 33,346 km
Numbers x X weight of species
Coastal distribution
The surveys of Kodiak birds reported above include
considerable information on the occurrence of birds on
Kodiak bays and estuaries (see Table 5.44) during the
spring and summer. Information on the winter use of
Kodiak coastal marine habitats has been reported by
Arneson (1977), Dick (1979), and Sanger et al. (1979).
Arneson (pers. comm.) summarized the seasonal status of
Table 5.46
Relative abundance of intertidal and inshore. birds of the Kodiak Archipelago by region and season-
(Arneson, pers. comm. ; Dick, 1979).
Family
Species
Geog
l
:aphic Region
3 4
Afognak.
f
S;
h
Ul
2
;
k
Chiniak
South
W S S F
W S S F
§
Gaviidae
Podicipedidae
Phalacrocoracidae
Ardeidae
Anatidae
Accipitridae
Falconidae
Gruidae
Rallidae
Haematopodidae
Charadriidae
Scolopacidae
Common Loon
Yellow-billed Loon
Arctic Loon
Red-throated Loon
Red-necked Grebe
Horned Grebe
Double-crested Cormorant
Pelagic Cormorant
Red-faced Cormorant
Great Blue Heron
Whistling Swan
Trumpeter Swan
Canada Goose
Black Brant
Emperor Goose
White-fronted Goose
Snow Goose
Mallard
Gadwall
Pintail
Green-winged Teal
Blue-winged Teal
European Wigeon
American Wigeon
Northern Shoveler
Ring-necked Duck
Canvasback'
Greater Scaup
Lesser Scaup
Common Goldeneye
Barrow's Goldeneye
Bufflehead
Olds quaw
Harlequin Duck
Steller's Eider
Common Eider
King Eider
Spectacled Eider
White-winged Scoter
Surf Scoter
Black Scoter
Sºmew
Common Merganser
Red-breasted Merganser
Bald Eagle
Golden Eagle
Marsh Hawk
Peregrine Falcon
Gryfalcon
Sandhill Crane
American Coot
Black Oystercatcher
Semipalmated Plover
American Golden Plover
Black-bellied Plover
Surfbird
Ruddy Turnstone
Black Turnstone
Common Snipe
Whimbrel
Bristle-thighed Curlew
Spotted Sandpiper
Wandering Tattler
Greater Yellowlegs
Lesser Yellow legs
r
::W
U
C.:
:
:;C;
R
U
:;|CS
:
U
U
C:
O
:
º.
.
:
:
:C
C
C
:;
U
i
C:
:C
::C
UUU
C
C
;
:i;
:
:
:§CF
::
i
:;
:i
:
C::C
UUU.:iU
::C
C
C
:C
.C
;
:C
U C C C
|
C
U
C
:
::
:§
C
:
i:
U
:
:
.
C::U
C::
C::
U
U
ſU
;
U
U;
R|
C
:::
C::
U::
C
::#
:;C#
:
:
R
i
:
C
:.
;C
:i;C
;CF
iR:U
::
C
Family
Species
–-
-"
Geographic Region
2 3 4
t
1
&
:
East–
Shuyak
W S S
f
;
Chiniak
S S F
South
#
#
S
S
F
W
S
Scolopacidae
Phalaropodidae
Stercorariidae
Laridae
Alcidae
Alcedinidae
Corvidae
Troglodytidae
Turdidae
Motacillidae
Fringillidae
Rock Sandpiper
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
Pectoral Sandpiper
Baird's Sandpiper
Least Sandpiper
Dunlin
Sanderling
Semipalmated sandpiper
Western Sandpiper
Short-billed Dowitcher
Long-billed Dowitcher
Bar-tailed Godwit
Marbled Godwit
Red Phalarope
Northern Phalarope
Pomarine Jaeger
Parasitic Jaeger
Long-tailed Jaeger
Skua
Glaucous Gull
Glaucous-winged Gull
Herring gull
Thayer's Gull
Ring-billed Gull
Mew Gull
Bonaparte's Gull
Black-legged Kittiwake
Red-legged Kittiwake
Sabine's Gull
Arctic Tern
Aleutian Tern
Common Murre
Thick-billed Murre
Pigeon Guillemot
Marbled Murrelet
Kittlitz's Murrelet
Ancient Murrelet
Cassin's Auklet
Parakeet Auklet
Crested Auklet
Least Auklet
Rhinoceros Auklet
Horned Puffin
Tufted Puffin
Belted Kingfisher
Black-billed Magpie
Common Raven
Northwestern Crow
Winter Wren
Varied Thrush
Water Pipit
Savannah Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
Song Sparrow
Lapland Longspur
Snow Bunting
i
i
F
i
*
:
:S
g:
ºi
:
º§º
::F
:§#
.§
W
A
U
O
O
O
R
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
.;
:
:ºi
.§W
:
:§:
:
;;
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
;
:
:
;
:
:
:
;
:
:
:
:
:
:
::
:
C:C:
:
:
:
:
:
:
U::
.
:
:
::
C
C:
:
C
:
:
:
:
:
C:
C
C
C
C
C
:C:
C
C
C
C:
C:
U
:
:
:
;
C;
:U
U
C
:OUC:
C
i
C
:
:
;
C;
C:
C:C:
C
C
C
C
C
C
7
7
C
C
iO
C
:O
i
i
i
iOUC
iC
iO
i
:O
i
iO
i
iO
i
C
O
C
:O
i
iC
winter (Nov-Mar)
spring (Apr-Maw)
:
:
fall (Aug.-Oct)
A
C
summer (June–July) U
R
O
abundant
COLT On
Ulſh CO On
rø re
absent
uncertain
unknown
5
Afognak-Shuyak: Dolphin Point to Raspberry
Cape
NW side: Raspberry Cape to C. Ikalik
Chiniak: Dolphin Point to Cape Chiniak
South side: Cape Ikalik to Cape Kaguyak
(+ Trinities)
SE side: Cape Chiniak to Cape Kaguyak

202 Biology
about 120 in Kodiak intertidal and inshore
(Table 5.46).
Coastal birds during February and March 1976, Arneson
species
areas In an aerial survey of Kodiak
(1977) found the highest densities of birds on the
north and east coasts of the archipelago (Fig. 5.68).
Ducks, especially sea ducks, were the most abundant
birds. Highest densities were observed on Chiniak and
Kizhuyak Bays. Counts of waterfowl in nearshore and
estuarine areas conducted by Kodiak National Wildlife
Refuge personnel in the period December through April
lected by several observers, using different methods,
and covering different areas, and since they were
probably gathered under different weather conditions,
they
they should be compared with caution. Overall,
indicate that in December and April 70 to 80 percent of
all the waterfowl counted were dabbling ducks, while in
January through March about 65 percent of all waterfowl
counted were sea ducks.
Figure 5.68 Winter densities of Kodiak coastal birds
are shown in Table 5.47. Since these data were col- (Arneson, ADF&G., pers. comm.). * >
Table 5.47 Waterfowl counts from nearshore and estuarine areas of Kodiak Island (Sanger et al., 1979).
Date (Mo/Yr)
12/66 12/72 01/66 01/72 01/73 02/66 02/72 02/75 03/66 03/77 04/66 04/69 04/76
Area NW Misc. NE NE All NW SW All NW All NW All Chiniak
Miles º º º º 682 112 º 596 º 87.2 112 º º
Platform Plane Plane Plane Plane Ship Plane Plane Ship Plane Plane Plane Plane Plane
SPECIES
"nidentified swan 42 34 +%
Emperor gº. 770 98 621 90 52 113 750 200
ite-fronted Goose +
Black Brant 200+
Mallard 1412 3.298 2448 1068 700 1140 447 2556 1576 3512 4533 2864 +
Gadwall 30 75 12 2562
Pintail 882 2 200 4 75 º
reen-winged Teal 601 1
erican tº 3.71 90 550 60 200+
Northern Shoveler 12
"hidentified scaup 150 80 8 15 10 700 100 +
Common Goldeneye 146 +
*rrow's Goldeneye 24 30 +
"hidentified goldeneye 553 6.13 272 1142 323 86 1205 1001 2025 1772
Bufflehead 100 99 36 29 27 30 403 +
91dsquaw 158 1018 7863 126 1400 94.10 213 1875 200 +
Harlequin 522 370 691 33 675 70 1109 8 +
Steller's Eider 200 340 10 1176 677 +
Ommon Eider 4512 58 108 +
ing Eider 4654
hidentified eider 86 67 1745
ite-winged Scoter 3059 2073 1764 +
Surf Scoter 1194 327 167 +
9mmon Scoter 2154 1402 1691 +
"hidentified scoter 343 330 344 3.192 176 65 984 282 5987 140
9mmon Merganser 21 21 13 .
*d-breasted Merganser 13 34 10
"identified merganser 24 39 27 21 120
×
+ - present
O
155° 154° 153° 152
– 59°
– 58°
– 57°
DENSITY (birds/km”)
E 20–30
[II] 31–50
E 51–70
© Count areas
|
153° 152°
Densities (birds/km”)
Group of birds A B C D E Average
Loons Tx T T T T T
Grebes T 0 0 T T T
Cormorants 2 2 T l T l
Swans and Geese 0 0 0 T T T
Dabbling Ducks 3 2 8 4 l 4
Diving Ducks 14 9 2 4. 2 5
Sea Ducks 13 44 12 23 12 20
Mergansers T T T ſ T T
Raptors T T T T T T
Shorebirds 2 2 T 2 l 2
Gulls and Jaegers l 4. l l 3 2
Alcids l 2 3 9 T 3
Corvids 2 T T l T l
Other Passerines T 0 0 0 T T
Other birds T 0 T T T T
Total Densities 40 67 28 48 20 39
* T = less than l bird/km”


Biology 203
Summaries of Arneson's (1977) surveys are shown in
Figs 5.69 and 5. 70. Figure 5.69 shows the kinds of
birds found in each habitat type, whereas Fig. 5. 70
shows the types of habitats each kind of bird uses.
Most kinds of birds show habitat specificity. One type
of bird accounted for over 50 percent of the usage of a
type of habitat for 17 out of the 20 habitats. One
type of habitat accounted for over 50 percent of the
usages of a type of bird for 11 out of 15 types of
birds. Overall, about 78 percent of the birds were
found in bay water, and 4 to 5 percent were found on
exposed inshore waters and lagoon waters. The re-
maining habitats held 2 percent or less of all the
birds observed. Sea ducks accounted for 51 percent of
all birds, and dabbling ducks, diving ducks, and alcids
accounted for 9 to 13 percent. The remaining kinds of
birds accounted for 5 percent or less of all the birds
observed. Unfortunately, the relative availability of
the habitat types has not been reported.
Current evidence from several sources thus indi-
cates that during the winter, coastal Kodiak supports
large populations of sea ducks.
Figure 5.69 Distribution of birds among Kodiak coas-
tal habitats, winter 1977 (Arneson, ADF&G, pers.
comm.).
Exposed INSHORE WATER
BAY ROCK BEACH
SALT MARSH
N=443
UNIDENTIFIED LAGOON
UNIDENTIFIED ALLUVIAL
ExPOSED SAND BEACH ExPOSED ROCK BEACH
N = 299
PROTECTED DELTA waſ ER PROTECTED DELTA SAND
BAY WATER
N=25,812
BAY ISLAND ROCK
N=334
ALLUVIAL FLOOD PLAIN
BAY SAND BEACH BAY GRAVEL BEACH
N=132
LAGOON WATER
UNIDENTIFIED BAY
N-308 N=1,343
CormorantS
Dabblers
Divers
Sea ducks
Raptors
Shorebirds
Jaegers and gulls
Alcids
Corvids
Non-corvid passerines
Others (loons, grebes, swans, geese
or merganser)
















204 Biology
Figure 5. 70
Types of Kodiak coastal habitats used by
Various kinds of birds, winter 1977 (Arneson, ADF&G,
Pers. comm.).
LOONS GREBES
DIVERS SEA DUCKS
CORMOR ANTS
MERGANSERs
N=4,465 N=16,975
JAEGERS, GULLS ALC IDS
N=2O7
CORVIDS
NON-CORVID PASSERINES
SWANS, GEESE
N=131
RAPTORS SHOREBIRDS
N=1,343
UNKNOWNS
Exposed rock beach
Bay water
. N
§ Bay sand beach N
Bay island rock
Lagoon water
Salt marsh
N=2,936 N=590 N=1 O 6
COAST AL HABITATS
| - %
Exposed inshore water - Bay gravel beach 2. Protected delta water
2
Exposed sand beach % Bay rock beach Unidentified exposed
Unidentified bay
Unidentified lagoon
Other habitat














Biology
205
Kodiak bird colonies
Approximately 1.2 million birds nest in the colo-
nies of the Kodiak area (Table 5.48; Sowls et al.,
1978). Of these, about 650,000 (56 percent) nest on
the Barren Islands, 380,000 (32 percent) on the Kodiak
Archipelago, and 140,000 (12 percent) on the north
shore of Shelikof Strait.
are the Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel (26 percent), Black-
legged Kittiwake (12 percent), and Tufted Puffin (37
The most abundant species
percent). Murres, of which about 99 percent are Common
Murres, represent 16 percent of the total number of
birds. The distribution of these colonies is shown in
Fig. 5. 71.
species of marine birds in the Gulf of Alaska is shown
in Fig. 5. 72.
The distribution of the colonies of 12
Of the species surveyed, about 50 percent or more
of the Gulf of Alaska populations of Fork-tailed Storm-
Petrel, Mew Gull, Arctic Tern, Aleutian Tern, and
Common Murre breed in the Kodiak area. One of the two
known major colonies of Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel in the
gulf is located on the Barren Islands (Fig. 5. 72a).
However, since the species is active at its colonies
only at night, and nests in talus, many colonies prob-
ably remain undetected. Most of the larger colonies of
Mew Gulls in the Gulf are on Kodiak (Fig. 5.72e. ). The
centers of abundance for breeding Arctic Terns in the
Gulf are on Kodiak and in Prince William Sound (Fig.
5.72g). Known breeding colonies of Aleutian Terns are
found in the Gulf only on Dry and Icy Bays and the
Kodiak Archipelago (Fig. 5. 72h). The major colonies of
Common Murres on the Gulf are found on the Shumagin
Islands, Mitrofania Island, Semidi Island, north shore
of Shelikof Strait, Barren Islands, on Chisik Island in
Cook Inlet, and on Barwell Island just off Resurrection
Peninsula (Fig. 5.72i).
Table 5.48 Estimates of breeding populations at Kodiak area bird colonies (Sowls et al., 1978).
REGIONºk
e A B C D E F G Total Total GOA
Species
Northern Fulmar 20 20 474,560
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel 300,000 Xºk 300,000 607,000
Leach's Storm-Petrel X X 889,400
Double-crested Cormorant X 163 42 7 30 242 2,942
Pelagic Cormorant X 1,350 366 1,955 369 X 4,040 15,389
Red-faced Cormorant 40 663 110 985 1,573 935 4,306 19,878
Cormorant (sp. ) 1,450 2,291 427 591 677 2,716 5,505 13,657
Harlequin Duck P&#k 194 37 25 13 269 1, 141
Common Eider 78 46 X 124 1, 143
Bald Eagle 17 4 6 6 19 3 55 205
Peregrine Falcon 2 2 4 30
Black Oystercatcher P 312 93 45 19 2 6 477 1,202
Glaucous-winged Gull 5, 170 9,324 13,390 4, 114 4,570 2,855 8,350 47,773 171,485
Mew Gull z 430 345 452 220 50 1,497 3, 121
Black-legged Kittiwake 33,800 4,951 9,500 27,547 3,080 62,202 1,750 142,830 944,570
Arctic Tern 441 80 709 1,760 2,830 5,820 10,776
Aleutian Tern 40 388 50 300 778 1, 128
Common Murre 91,000 240 1,780 X X 93,030 201,702
Thick-billed Murre X 300 X 300 1.547
Murre (sp.) 510 92,800 93,310
Pigeon Guillemot 194 903 156 512 42 307 137 2,251 26,999
Ancient Murrelet 302 302 105,802
Parakeet Auklet 910 479 60 150 1,599 88,673
Rhinoceros Auklet 1,000 1,000 112,588
Horned Puffin 12,700 496 650 737 2 850 6,657 22,093 594,359
Tufted Puffin 204,600 15,750 32,502 91, 462 31,350 36,333 23,092 435,089 1,222,224
Totals 651,219 38,413 57,662 131,425 41,778 111,098 139,278 1, 170,866 5,497,864
* e tº *
A = Barren Islands; B = Afognak-Shuyak: Dolphin Point to Raspberry Cape; C = NW Kodiak: Raspberry Cape to Ayakulik; D = Chiniak: Dolphin Point to
Cape Chiniak; E = S Kodiak: Ayakulik to Cape Kaguyak, including the Trinity Islands; F = SE Kodiak: Cape Chiniak to Cape Kaguyak;
G = North shore of Shelikof Strait.
ºrk
X = Present; P = Probably present
More than 25 percent of the Gulf's breeding popu-
lations of Pelagic Cormorants, Bald Eagles, Black
oystercatchers, Glaucous-winged Gulls and Tufted Puf-
fins are found in the Kodiak area. Since Bald Eagles
and Black oystercatchers do not nest in colonies and
are difficult to detect by the methods used by Sowls et
al. (1978), the results reported may not reflect their
actual distribution and abundance. Pelagic Cormorants
(Fig. 5.72b), Glaucous-winged Gulls (Fig. 5.72d), and
Tufted Puffins (Fig. 5.721) are widely distributed
throughout the Gulf of Alaska.
Black-legged Kittiwakes are among the dominant
breeding species of the Kodiak area. Though their
colonies on the Shumagin Islands are numerous, those on
the Semidi Islands and Middleton Island are equally or
IIMOICe Iluline ICOUlS .
206 Biology
156°
155°
I
15.4°
153°
152°
1519
150° 149°
Colony Size
• 1–100 birds
* 101–1,000 birds
© 1001–10,000 birds
1O,OO 1–100,000 birds
O 1OO,OO 1–1,000,000 birds
w Unknown
| l l
156°
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
150° 149° 148°
1479
+59°
58°
—157°
—H56°
Figure 5. 71 Distribution of bird colonies in the
Kodiak area (Sowls et al., 1978).
* >
Figure 5. 72a-l Gulf of Alaska distributions of col-
onies of representative species of marine birds (Sowls
et al., 1978).


Biology 207
52°
165°
160°
150
FORK-TAILED STORM-PETREL
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101-1,000 birds
* 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001-1,000,000 birds
60
PELAGIC CORMORANT
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101-1,000 birds
1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001-1,000,000 birds
k
v. Unknown v. Unknown
— l l l I I l l l | I l l l l l l l l l l 1–1 1– l 1–1
I —l — l l |-l l l 1–1– l l l l l l l l l 1– - 65° 160 ° 155° 150° - o 35°
165° 160 ° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 1 145 140 1
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel
Figure 5.72b
Pelagic Cormorant
l
RED-FACED CORMORANT
Colony Size
- 1-100 birds
* 101-1,000 birds
1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001-1,000,000 birds
v. Unknown
165°
160°
60°
Red-faced Cormorant Figure 5. 72d
Figure 5.72c
l l l l l l l l
160° 155°
Glaucous-winged Gull
GLAUCOUS-WINGED GULL
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101-1,000 birds
* 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001-1,000,000 birds
v. Unknown
l l l l l l l l l l l l l —l l
150° 145° 140° 135°






208 Biology
58°
56°
5.4°
52"|
l I I
MEW GULL
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101–1,000 birds
1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001–1,000,000 birds
165°
160 °
Figure 5.72e
Mew Gull
BLACK-LEGGED KITTIWAKE
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101–1,000 birds
© 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001–1,000,000 birds
52°
-L- I I
º 165°
Figure 5.72g
160 °
Arctic Tern
v. Unknown
l l l l l l
150° 145°
150° 145°
ARCTIC TERN
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101–1,000 birds
1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001-1,000,000 birds
v. Unknown
l l l l l
150°
v. Unknown
I I I —l I I I l l l | l l l l l l l l l
165° 160 ° 155° 150° 145° 135°
Figure 5.72f Black-legged Kittiwake
160° 155° 150° 145° 135° 130°
gº
52°
l I I l l I l l l
ALEUTIAN TERN
Colony Size
• 1-100 birds
* 101–1,000 birds
* 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
100,001-1,000,000 birds
v. Unknown
l l l l l
165°
160° 155°
150° 145°
Figure 5. 72h
Aleutian Tern






Biology
209
170 145° 140° 135° 130°
165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130° 170° 165° 160° 155° 150
60° 6OT
200m---
54." 5.4° -
COMMON MURRE THICK-BILLED MURRE
Colony Size Colony Size
• 1-100 birds • 1-100 birds
52° * 101-1,000 birds 52° * 101–1,000 birds
° 1001-10,000 birds © 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds 10,001-100,000 birds
- 100,001-1,000,000 birds - - 100,001-1,000,000 birds -
v. Unknown v Unknown
I l I l l I l I I l l | ! I l l I l l l l l l l l l l l l l \ \ l l l l l l I l l l I l L l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l \ \
165° 160° 155° - - o - 165° 160 ° 155° - o -
150 145 140 135 5 150 145 140 135 —T
Figure 5.72i Common Murre Figure 5.72.j Thick-billed Murre
o o o - —T
170° 1.65 160 155° 150." 145° 140° 135° 130 170 165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°
60°r
5.4°
HORNED PUFFIN TUFTED PUFFIN
|- Colony Size H Colony Size
• 1-100 birds º: • 1-100 birds
52° * 101-1,000 birds 52"|
* 101–1,000 birds
* 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
* 1001-10,000 birds
10,001-100,000 birds
- 100,001-1,000,000 birds - -
100,001-1,000,000 birds -
v. Unknown v. Unknown
I l I I I l I I I l l | l l I l l -1- l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l I I l I l I I l I I I l L I l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l -
165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 165° 160 ° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135°
Figure 5.72k Horned Puffin Figure 5. 721 Tufted Puffin





210 Biology
The distribution of Bald Eagle nests on the Kodiak
National Wildlife Refuge (Fig. 5. 73) was surveyed in
1963 (Troyer and Hensel, 1965). One hundred fifty-
eight active nests were located by aerial observations.
The results of a ground search in a small area of high
nesting density indicated that about 20 percent of the
active nests were missed in the aerial survey. From
these results it was estimated that there were 190
active nests in 1963. Most of the nests were in cot-
155° 154° 153° 152°
* .
– 58°
BALD EAGLE NESTS
------- Refuge boundary
| | |
154° 153° 152°
155
Figure 5.73 Distribution of Bald Eagle nests on
ºak National Wildlife Refuge (Troyer and Hensel,
965).
tonwood trees (Populus trichocarpa), below 60 m above
sea level, and near the coastline.
In May, 246 eagles were found and in July and
August, 372 eagles were found along salmon streams.
These results are 25 to 100 percent greater than those
reported by Sowls et al. (1978) (Table 5.48), but
probably better reflect current Kodiak populations
since the observation of Sowls et al. (1978) were
collected incidentally to surveys of colonial birds.
Endangered species
The endangered Aleutian Canada Goose (Branta
canadensis leucopareia) is not known to occur in the
Gulf of Alaska (Paul Springer, U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, Aleutian Canada Goose Recovery Team, pers.
comm.). The only known breeding ground is Buldir
Island at the western end of the Aleutian Chain
(Woolington et al., 1979). A small flock of Canada
Geese has been found on the Semidi Islands each summer
since 1977 (S. Hatch, University of California, pers.
comm.). At least three pairs bred in 1979. Sufficient
information to determine the subspecies of these birds
is not yet available, but they are known to have sev-
eral of the characteristics of leucopareia. Current
evidence indicates that in fall the geese breeding on
Buldir migrate east along the Aleutians to about Uni-
mak, and then fly across the Pacific to California
(Fig. 5. 74). In the spring they move north along the
Oregon and Washington coasts before making a direct
flight to the Aleutians. Recently a flock of about 80
Aleutian Canada Geese suspected to represent an unknown
breeding flock was found staging on the Oregon coast
(P. Springer, pers. comm.). Most of the birds on
Buldir have been marked with leg bands or neck collars;
none of the birds in this Oregon flock were marked. On
the basis of current knowledge, it appears unlikely
that development in the Kodiak area would present a
hazard to the preservation of this goose. On the other
hand, current knowledge is too incomplete to be certain
that the Aleutian Canada Goose does not occur in the
Kodiak area.
Three subspecies of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco
peregrinus) breed in Alaska. Pealei is a dark-plumaged
race which is resident along the southern coast of
Alaska and on the Aleutian Islands. Its populations
are not considered to be threatened. The two endan-
gered light-plumaged subspecies (anatum and tundrius)
breed in the interior and in northern Alaska. Both
races are highly migratory and winter from the southern
United States to southern South America. The birds can
be found throughout North America during migration.
Buldir
ALEUTIAN CANADA GOOSE
--- Probable migration route
Main wintering area
Figure 5.74. Distribution of the Aleutian Canada
Goose (after Palmer, 1976). Only known breeding loca-
tion is Buldir Island but there is evidence that it
may also breed elsewhere (see text for details).






Biology 211
The current status of North American Peregrine Falcon
populations has been reviewed in Schaeffer and Ehlers
(1978).
A total of five light-plumaged Peregrine Falcons
have been observed wintering on Kodiak Island between
1973 and 1979. It was originally believed that these
birds were members of the endangered subspecies, but
they are now thought to be representatives of the
light-colored "Queen Charlotte" subgroup of pealei (R.
A. MacIntosh, National Marine Fisheries, Kodiak, pers.
comm.). Individuals of the endangered races regularly
occur along the southern Alaska coast, including Kodiak
Island, during migration (Gabrielson and Lincoln,
1959). It is unlikely, however, that petroleum de-
velopment in the Kodiak area would influence the main-
tenance or recovery of endangered populations.
5. 7.4 Population dynamics
The population dynamics of a species comprise the
birth and death statistics for the population. For
birds these include the number of eggs laid per clutch,
the frequency at which clutches are laid, the survi-
worship of eggs and young, the age of first repro-
duction, and the subsequent survival of adults through-
out their lifetime (Ricklefs, 1973).
Current evidence is consistent with the theory
that the clutch and brood size of seabirds correspond
to the most young the parents can adequately feed
(Lack, 1968; Ricklefs, 1973; Nelson, 1978). Species
which feed offshore, such as tubenoses, murres, auk-
lets, and puffins, have a clutch of one, while species
which feed inshore, such as cormorants, gulls, terns,
guillemots, and murrelets, have clutches of two to four
(Lack, 1968; Ashmole, 1971); thus clutch size is nega-
tively correlated with the distance adults travel to
obtain food. In Alaska the breeding season is so short
that marine birds can rear only one brood per season.
Many species will, however, lay a second clutch if the
first is lost early in the season.
The breeding phenologies recorded for nine species
of marine birds breeding on Chiniak Bay (Nysewander and
Hoberg, 1978; Nysewander and Barbour, 1979) and
Sitkalidak Strait (Baird and Moe, 1978; Baird and
Hatch, 1979), Kodiak Island, in 1977 and 1978 are shown
in Fig. 5.75 and those for ten species breeding on the
Barren Islands (Manuwal and Boersma, 1978; Manuwal,
1979) in 1976 through 1978 are shown in Fig. 5. 76. For
the three study sites egglaying typically occurs from
mid-May through mid-July, hatching from mid-June
through mid-August, and fledging from mid-July through
mid-September. The initiation, and ending of these
activities have varied by two to three weeks during the
few seasons in which data were gathered. Thus breeding
activity at these colonies can be expected to occur
from early May through late September. In addition to
nesting, many of these species make preliminary visits
to participate in courtship at or near the colonies a
month or more before actual nesting begins. Colonial
species thus are vulnerable to disturbances and pol-
lution near the colonies for at least the period April
through September.
\
Two patterns of the relative mortalities of eggs
and nestlings are found in marine birds. In tubenoses,
cormorants, and alcids egg mortalities are usually
higher than nestling mortalities, whereas in gulls and
terns nestling mortalities are generally higher
(Ricklefs, 1969). Eggs are lost primarily by being
rolled out of the nest by the parents, overheated in
212 Biology
Figure 5.75 Breeding phenologies for nine species of
marine birds breeding on Kodiak Island (Baird and Moe,
1978; Nysewander and Hoberg, 1978; Baird and Hatch,
1979, Nysewander and Barbour, 1979). Light symbols
represent the year-to-year variation in the start
and/or end of the different breeding stages. Solid
Symbols represent the periods used in two or more study
Seasons. Arrows indicate that stage extended beyond
observation period.
Pelagic Cormorant
Common Eider
Black Oystercatcher
Glaucous-winged Gull
Mew Gull
Black-legged Kittiwake
Arctic Tern
Aleutian Tern
Tufted Puffin
CB Chiniak Bay
SS Sitkalidak Strait
CB
CB
CB
CB
SS
CB
CB
SS
CB
SS
CB
SS
CB
SS
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
BREEDING STAGE
==== = Egg laying
- - - - - - - - Hatching
10 2O 3O 10 2O 30 10 2O 3O 1O 2O 3O 10 2O 3O
I i i i i T I i I I i i I i T
- - - - - - × :
© - - - - - & 3.
_
& - - - - - - - - &
- & & © - O - - - - & & & & &
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
& & 8 × 8 & © - - - - - - - - & & & 3
<= = = = m = m = m = m = m m
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
mº-
<= m = m = m = m = m × &
& & & & & & & & & & & & 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 - - - - - - 3 & 3.
&m).
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - × - - - - - - - 3 & & & &
& - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 &
- - - - -: &
3 & & 37- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - &
& & O C - - - - & 3.
<ºm
- - - - - - -
m = m ºr
× 3 × - - - - - - - - - - 3 &
mº-
&= - - - - - - - - &
: - - - - - - - - - - - - - & 3 × 3 ×
-:::::::::::::::
l I I I I I I I l I L I I I
10 2O 3O 10 2O 3O 10 2O 3O 10 2O 3O 10 2O 3O
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP


Biology
213
Figure 5.76 Breeding phenologies for ten species of
marine birds breeding on the Barren Islands (Manuwal
and Boersma, 1978; Manuwal, 1979). Light symbols
represent the year-to-year variation in the start and/
or end of the different breeding stages. Solid symbols
represent the periods used in two or more study
seasons. Arrows indicate that stage extended beyond
observation period.
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel
Pelagic Cormorant
Black Oystercatcher
Glaucous-winged Gull
Black-legged Kittiwake
Common Murre
Parakeet Auklet
Rhinoceros Auklet
Horned Puffin
Tufted Puffin
BARREN ISLANDS
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
& & & - - - - - - - &
& & & 3 & & & & © - e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e : 3 &
- - - -3& & &
& - O - o 'o - © & & & & & 3 & & & &
& 3- - - -
& 8 × < e < e < e < e < e < e < e < e e
& & - - - -
- - - - - 3 &
-
m).
& :- - - - - 3: :
mº-
: 3 & & - - - - - &
- - - - - - - - -
& & - - - & & &
& © e o O & 3 & 3 × 3.
& = - - - & & &
x & & © - - - - - - e : :
l I l 1 I 1 l I I I I I
10 2O 3O 10 2O 30 10 2O 3O 1O 2O 30 10 2O 3O
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
BREEDING STAGES
- - - - - - - - - Hatching


214 Biology
tº
the sun, or destroyed by predators. Chicks are fre-
Quently lost to predators, starvation, extreme weather
Conditions, and by falling off ledges. Information for
Several species has been summarized and discussed by
Ricklefs (1969).
Cess (young fledged per egg laid) of 0.04 to 0.62
He reports a range of breeding suc-
(average 0.32); tropical species had less success than
northern species.
The reproductive success of nine species of marine
birds breeding on Chiniak Bay (Nysewander and Hoberg,
1978; Baird and Hatch 1979), Kodiak Island, in 1977 and
1978 is shown in Table 5.49 and that for seven species
breeding on the Barren Islands (Manuwal and Boersma,
1978; 1979) 1976 through 1978 is shown in
Table 5.50. On Kodiak breeding success for all species
and seasons averaged 0.48 and on the Barren Island
Manuwal,
Table 5.49 Reproductive success of Kodiak marine birds (see text for sources).
a Total Nests Clutch Hatching” Fledging" Breeding" e
Species Location Year IneSts with eggs size SU1C CeSS Sll CCC SS SUlC CeSS Productivity
Pelagic Cormorant CB 1977 26 25 3.52 0.69 0.62 0.42 1.42
Pelagic Cormorant CB 1978 28 21 2. 17 0.35 0.44 0.15 0.25
Red-faced Cormorant CB 1977 77 57 2 2 2 1.91
Red-faced Cormorant CB 1978 78 30 © 2 2 2 1.33
Common Eider CB 1977 2 19 4.55 0.68 1.00 0.68 2.95
Common Eider CB 1978 º 20 4.55 0.36 1.00 0.36 1.65
Black Oystercatcher CB 1977 10-12 5 2.40 0.83 1.00 0.83 0.83–1. 00
Black Oystercatcher CB 1978 14 12 2.08 0.52 1.00 0.52 0.93
Glaucous-winged Gull CB 1977 40 33 2.64 0.90 0.62 0. 55 1. 20
Glaucous-winged Gull CB 1978 38 35 2.49 0.60 0.60 0.36 0.82
Glaucous-winged Gull SS 1977 84 54 2.48 0.75 0.89 0.67 1. 07
Glaucous-winged Gull SS 1978 117 53 2.28 0.48 0.74 0.36 0.38
Mew Gull CB 1977 66 60 2.63 0.84 0.30-0.50 0.25-0.42 0.60- 1.00
Mew Gull CB 1978 40 40 2.51 0.86 0.21-0. 32 0.18–0. 28 0.45-0. 70
Black-legged Kittiwake CB 1977 210 177 1.91 0.85 0.90 0.76 1.46
Black-legged Kittiwake CB 1978 259 171 1. 72 0.70 0.96 0.68 0.77
Black-legged Kittiwake CB 1977 136 114 1.68 0.74 0.76 0.57 0.74
Black-legged Kittiwake SS 1978 121 65 1.28 0.36 0.71 0.26 0.16
Arctic Tern CB 1977 2 96 2.21 0.85 º 2 “)
Arctic Tern CB 1978 2 67 1.91 0.53 Q 2 2
Arctic Tern SS 1977 2 44 2.05 0.82 . 20-0. 66 . 17-0.54 . 34-1. 11
Aleutian Tern CB 1977 º 45 1.89 0.88 2 2 •)
Aleutian Tern CB 1978 Q 121 1.78 0.16 º º 2
Aleutian Tern SS 1977 2 37 1.60 0.81 . 17-0.54 . 14-0.44 . 22-0. 70
Tufted Puffin CB 1977 30 25 1.00 0.88 0.91 0.80 0.67
Tufted Puffin CB 1978 51 46 1. OO 0.84 0.89 0.76 0.69
Tufted Puffin SS 1977 93 67 1.00 0.61 0.85 0.52 0.38
Tufted Puffin SS 1978 103 69 1.00 0.52 0.89 0.46 0.31
T-
a
Locations: CB = Chiniak Bay,
Success = chicks
Sitkalidak Strait;
Breeding
SUlC Ce SS =
"Hatching SUlC Ce SS
Chicks
Eggs hatched/eggs laid; ‘Fledging
fledged/eggs hatched;
fledged/eggs laid; *Productivity = young
Produced/pair, includes pairs which started to nest but failed before any eggs were produced.
0.45.
(1969) reports for a similar group of northern species.
These values are somewhat higher than Ricklefs
The productivity (young produced per pair, including
pairs which started to nest but failed before any eggs
were produced) of a species varied from year to year.
On both Kodiak and the Barren Islands cormorants and
gulls had the largest year-to-year differences while
storm-petrels, oystercatchers, and puffins had the
smallest year-to-year differences.
The productivity for all study locations of
Pelagic Cormorants was about 90 percent in 1977 and 30
percent in 1978 of that reported from a two-year study
(Drent et al., 1964). For
Glaucous-winged Gull the productivity in 1977 was about
in British Columbia
125 percent and in 1978 about 55 percent of that re-
ported by Drent et al. (1964) for a four-year period in
British Columbia. For Black-legged Kittiwakes the
productivity reported for 1977 was about 75 percent and
for 1978 about 40 percent of that reported by Coulson
and White (1958) for a rapidly growing population in
Britain.
About one-third of the eggs and young produced in
the Kodiak region were lost during the nesting cycle.
Often the cause of mortality was unknown;
On the Kodiak Island
study sites the eggs of gulls and terns were regularly
an egg or
nestling merely disappeared.
collected for food by natives. The predation of the
eggs and chicks of other species by gulls appears to be
lower on Kodiak than it is in the Aleutian region.
Thus the apparent depression of gull populations by
native egging may be beneficial to other birds. Bald
Eagles appear to prey regularly on colonies near their
1978).
(Lutra canadensis) are locally destructive of eggs and
nests (Nysewander and Hoberg, River otters
young (Manuwal and Boersma, 1978, Manuwal, 1979) but
are not a major cause of mortality. Storms and contin-
ued bad weather were observed to cause significant
Biology 215
mortality to the chicks of Fork-tailed Storm-Petrels,
Pelagic Cormorants, Mew Gulls, Black-legged Kittiwakes,
terns, and puffins.
Human activity in and near colonies often
frightens away adult birds, exposing eggs and young to
predation. A common theme in the reports of workers on
bird colonies in the Gulf of Alaska is the high inci-
dence of nest abandonment by puffins because of human
disturbance. Birkhead (1977a) observed that regular
visits to measure chicks of the Common Murre greatly
increased mortality. While the restricted activities
of OCSEAP
effect on these populations, sustained human activity
investigators appear to have had little
in or near marine bird colonies will wreak havoc among
them. e
The post fledging survival of marine birds is
difficult to measure, especially since the onset of
sexual maturity is usually delayed.
gulls, terns, and alcids continue to feed young after
(Ashmole, 1971).
Survival rates of young birds have been found to be Iow
they leave the breeding colonies
during their first winters but they increase to adult
rates by the time they reach maturity (Ashmole, 1971;
Ricklefs, 1973).
late as nine to twelve years in large seabirds. The
The age of sexual maturity may be as
age at onset of reproduction is correlated with the
annual survival rate of adults. Delayed reproduction
thus has the effect of restricting the recruitment of
young into the breeding population to a rate which
corresponds to adult losses (Lack, 1966; 1968).
Once marine birds reach the age of reproduction,
they have high survival rates, typically 93 to 97
percent for tubenoses, 80 to 85 percent for cormorants,
and 81 to 96 percent for gulls, terns, and alcids.
Several species of
Table 5.50 Reproductive success of Barren Islands marine birds (see text for sources).
Total Nests Clutch Hatching” Fledging” Breeding" d
Species Year nests with eggs size SUlC Ce SS SUlC Ce SS SUlC Ce SS Productivity
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel 1977 2 100 1. 00 0.84 0.69 0.58 0.58
Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel 1978 100 85 1.00 0.73 0.94 0.68 0.58
Pelagic Cormorant 1977 63 63 2.84 0.64 0.89 0.57 1.62
Pelagic Cormorant 1978 67 61 3.64 0.29 0.66 0.19 0.64
Black Oystercatcher 1977 º 12 3.00 0.92 1.00 0.92 2.76
Glaucous-winged Gull 1977 º 44 2.45 Q º 0.55° 1. 35
Glaucous-winged Gull 1978 2 25 2.52 0.35 0.18 0.06 0.16
Black-legged Kittiwake 1977 49 49 1.76 0.83 0.62 0.51 0.90
Black-legged Kittiwake 1978 52 46 1.41 0.28 0.39 0.11 0. 13
Horned Puffin 1976 2 14 1. 00 0.79 0.36 0.28 0.28
Horned Puffin 1977 2 14 1.00 0.93 0.69 0.64 0.64
Horned Puffin 1978 18 18 1. 00 0.88 0.75 0.66 0.66
Tufted Puffin 1976 2 40 1.00 0.40 0.68 0.32 0.32
Tufted Puffin 1977 2 56 1.00 0.5%) 0.78 0.39 0.39f
Tufted Puffin 1978 2 25 1.00 0.8% 0.79 0.68 0.47
*Hatching success F eggs hatched/eggs laid;
chicks fledged/eggs laid;
before any eggs were produced;
plot (Manuwal, 1979).
The growth potential of populations
Bird populations appear to maintain themselves
(Ricklefs, 1973). The
growth potential of a population determines how rapidly
near some equilibrium size
it can return to this equilibrium after a reduction in
size or at what rate it can be exploited without
change.
The theory of population growth and regulation has
been developed from observations and experiments on
1954; 1978). The
relative importance of the many factors which regulate
Small
populations with unlimited resources have been found to
many species (Lack, Hutchinson,
populations, however, is still hotly debated.
3.
. \
—sº
Lºw-
b © c
Fledging success = chicks fledged/eggs hatched; ‘Breeding success F
Productivity = young produced/pair, includes pairs which started to next but failed
Indirect estimate (see Manuwal and Boersma, 1978); “Estimate from undisturbed study
grow exponentially. Most of the evidence concerning
such populations comes from experiments, since natural
populations in this stage are rarely available for
study. The classic field birds is
(1945) study of a Ring-necked Pheasant
(Phasianus colchicus) population introduced on Protec"
example for
Einarsen's
tion Island, Washington. In five years the population
grew from 8 to 1,325. As a population grows, it even"
tually strains its resources and becomes more vulner"
able to predation and disease. The result is that
reproduction and recruitment
survival fall until
balances mortality. The regulation of most bird popu"
lations appears to depend on density, but density"
216 Biology
independent sources of mortality, such as storms or
landslides, are sometimes important, at least locally.
Because density-dependent factors act most strong-
ly on dense populations, the growth potential of a
Population is least restricted when its numbers are
least. This, however, is also the time at which it
faces the greatest probability of extinction by random
accident. The balance between the capacity for popu-
lation increase and population density, which can
°rdinarily carry a population through most of its
difficulties, may be completely inadequate in the
Presence of a new source of mortality. If a population
is to maintain its numbers, mortality must not remove
"lore than the reproductive surplus produced each year.
The surplus is the difference between the mortality of
adults and the recruitment of new birds into the breed-
ing population.
Recruitment depends on survival of the young until
they breed for the first time. Although OCSEAP workers
have gathered information on mortality up to the time
young fledge, no information has been gathered on
Post-fledging mortality. Recruitment also depends on
the emigration and immigration rates of the young.
There is considerable information on seabirds which
indicates that some colonies do not produce enough
young to maintain their numbers while others produce
Surpluses. The maintenance of a population of a
Species over a large area thus may depend on the suc-
Sess of only a few key colonies.
Using computer simulations, Wiens et al. (1979)
examined the responses of Black-legged Kittiwake and
Common and Thick-billed Murre populations to the death
of a given fraction of their numbers by a hypothetical
one-time event, and to changes in the rate of annual
adult survival. They used Birkhead's (1977b) survivor-
ship data for North Atlantic populations of the murres,
Coulson and his associates' (Coulson and White, 1959;
Coulson and Wooller, 1976; and Wooller and Coulson,
1977) survivorship data for British populations of
Black-legged Kittiwake, and estimates of fecundity for
these species from the Pribilof Islands. The trends
that they found in the recovery of populations from
loss are expected to hold for the Kodiak area, though
details may be somewhat different.
In their simulations Wiens et al. used the follow-
ing scenarios of imposed mortality:
1. mortality on first-year age-class only
2. equal mortality on all sub-adult age
classes
mortality on adults only
4. equal mortality on adults and chicks
equal mortality on all age-classes.
The first two scenarios were used to contrast the
relative importance of breeding and non-breeding birds
to the maintenance of the population. There may not be
any real situation in which only these age-classes
would be killed.
effect of oil spills early in the breeding season when
Scenario three could represent the
only the adults were present at a colony. Scenario
four could represent the effect of oil spills during
the period when adults accompany chicks at sea. Sce-
nario five could represent the effect of oil spills
during the winter when all age groups may occur to-
gether.
Figure 5.77 Time to recovery as a function of one-time
mortality of various age-class combinations of Common
Murres, Thick-billed Murres, and Black-legged
Kittiwakes (Wiens et al., 1979). -
100-
| COMMON
MURRE
8O-
- All classes
60-
40-
All subadult
20-
- First year
% one-time mortality
1OO- All classes
THICK-BILLED
T MURRE
80-
Adult & first year
Adult
All subadult
\ _ -
- First year
i i i T i i
60 8O 1OO
20 40
% one-time mortality
100-
J BLACK-LEGGED
so. KITTIWAKE
All classes
60-
Adult & first year
Adult
All subadult
First year
2O 40 60 80 1OO
% one-time mortality














Biology 217
The time to recover (defined as the time for
population to attain its original size) from a one-time
imposed mortality for the five scenarios is shown in
Fig. 5.77. These results indicate first, that the time
for recovery is an exponential function of the one-time
mortality rate. The recovery time from an event which
causes the death of 50 percent of the population is
more than twice that from an event which causes the
death of 25 percent of the population. Second, the
death of adults affects the time of recovery more than
that of any other age-class. Mortality of as many as
all of the sub-adults has only about one-third the
effect of mortality of the adults.
It is predicted that a Common Murre population
would take about 50 years to recover from a catastrophe
that killed 50 percent of the adults, a Thick-billed
Murre population about 20 years, and a Black-legged
Kittiwake population about 10 years. These differences
are due to the differences in estimates of the fe-
cundity or survival of the species. Thick-billed
Murres had a higher fecundity rate than Common Murres,
and Black-legged Kittiwakes had a higher rate of adult
survival than murres.
Changes in the annual survival of adults were
found to have drastic effects on recovery time (Wiens
et al., 1979). For Common Murres a one-percent de-
crease in annual adult survival is predicted to cause a
fourfold increase in recovery time, whereas a one-
percent increase would cause only a 1.7-fold decrease
in recovery time (Fig. 5.78). This outcome suggests
that the population could not recover if annual adult
survival decreased more than 1.3 percent. The model
does not, however, include any density-dependent com-
ponents which could influence fecundity and survival
rates and thus decrease recovery times.
The model predicts that the effects of long-term
chronic sources of mortality could cause more damage to
— 1.2% – 1.0% -0.5% O%
1OO- +O.5%
8O-
+ 1.0%
> -
g
o 60-
O
9 –
O
-
sº 40-
º
* - +5.0%
2O- T -19.9%
i i I I i i i i
TI
2O 40 60 8O 1OO
% one-time adult mortality
Figure 5.78 Time to recovery as a function of one-time
adult mortality at different levels of change in the
mean adult annual survival rate of Common Murres
(Wiens et al., 1979).
a population than a short-term catastrophe. While
Wiens et al (1979) were concerned mainly with the
effects of oil development on bird populations, dis-
turbances caused by the fishing industry, such as the
death of birds in fishing gear or reduction of the food
supply, could also be important.
The results presented here vary with changes in
the values of survivorship and fecundity used in the
simulations (Wiens et al., 1979). The environmental
causes of the variability in these and other population
parameters are not well understood. In a 28-year study
of breeding Northern Fulmars in Orkney, Dunnet et al.
(1979) found a year-to-year variation in the number of
breeding birds of -37 to +50 percent while the colony
was in a long-term growth, and of -34 to +26 percent.
while the colony was in a long-term decline. The
causes of this variability were not identified, but
were thought not to be from human activities. Growth
and decline in seabird populations are highly unpredic"
table, and will remain so as long as we are ignorant of
the environmental causes of the variation in annual

survival and fecundity.
5. 7.5 Trophics
An understanding of the feeding ecology and diet
of marine and coastal birds gives insight into the
roles that various species play in local ecosystems.
To identify their roles in food webs and in nutrient
and energy cycles, however, specific dietary infor"
mation is needed. Specializations in prey and habitat
requirements are often identified from trophic data .
Currently, little information is available on the
ability of birds to alter their diet or on the kind of
habitat in which they feed when the availability of
food changes suddenly. Many species have been observed
to change their diet according to seasonal changes in
prey populations, to have different food preferences in
different geographic regions, and to exploit feeding
habitats during migration which differ from those used
on the breeding or wintering grounds. These differ"
ences, however, occur gradually in time and space and
are highly predictable. If the change is sudden and
unpredictable, as when the food supply is suddenly
reduced during the occurrence of El Niño along the
Peruvian coast (Ashmole, 1971), vast numbers of marine
birds may die.
Diet of adults
Information on the diets of Kodiak marine birds
comes from surveys which covered large areas of the
Gulf of Alaska during 1969-76 (Sanger and Baird, 1977),
open-water habitats near Kodiak in summer 1977 (Sanger
et al., 1978), and Chiniak, Izhut, and Kiliuda Bays in
winter, spring, and summer 1978 (Krasnow, et al. '
1979).
218 Biology
Figure 5. 79 displays composite diets of five
Species of marine birds from near Kodiak Island in
Summer 1977 (Sanger et al., 1978), and Fig. 5.80 shows
Similar but less detailed information for three other
Species from the Gulf of Alaska (Sanger and Baird,
1977). On the basis of percent volume and frequency of
9ccurrence, fish, especially capelin, were the major
Prey of six species. Euphausiids were the principal
Prey of Short-tailed Shearwaters, and squid were the
most important for Thick-billed Murres. While fish
support most of the species, because Short-tailed
Shearwaters are so numerous, euphausiids may support
greater numbers of individuals (Sanger et al., 1978).
In contrast to these results, Wehle (1976) found that
Horned and Tufted Puffins ate mostly squid around
Buldir Island in the western Aleutians.
The diets shown in Fig. 5.79 are composites of
five sampling periods. The variation in diet for these
Frequency of Occurrence
percent prey Capelin Pollock
| by volume)
Osmeridae Gadidae
Sooty Shearwater
N–33
Short-tailed Shearwater
N-142
Black-legged Kittiwake
N-88
Common Murre
N-27
Tufted Puffin
and unidentified and unidentified Sand Lance Other fish
Euphausiids Squid Polychaeta
Q) OOOO () (7)
OOOOOO (D
OOOOOOOO
(DOC) (DOOO
* @ ) (DC) (DOC) () (D
Figure 5.79 Diet of five species of marine birds, Kodiak area, summer 1977 (Sanger et al., 1978).
Frequency of Occurrence
Crustacea
Fish Squid
NA
Northern Fulmar
P
Thick-billed Murre
2
Horned Puffin
Figure 5.80 Diet of three species of marine birds,
Gulf of Alaska, 1969 through 1976 (Sanger and Baird,
1977).
sampling periods (from the end of May to mid-September,
(1977) is shown in Fig. 5.81. Because of the small
sample sizes and the large proportion of unidentified
fish, there is little basis for identifying seasonal
trends in the diets of these bird species. For the
shearwater species, however, it does appear that the
proportion of fish in the diets increases through July
and August.
Data on the prey of Kodiak marine birds are avail-
able from Chiniak Bay in the winter and from Izhut and
Kiliuda Bays in the spring and summer (Krasnow, et al.,
1979). Olds quaws and Black Scoters were studied only
in the winter; Common Murres and Marbled Murrelets were
studied in winter, spring, and summer; while Sooty and
Short-tailed Shearwaters, Black-legged Kittiwakes,
Pigeon Guillemots, and Tufted Puffins were studied only
in the spring and summer.




Biology 219
SOOTY SHEARWATERS
1OO
º
.9
ºp 8O-
3.
E
O •
: §
9 6OH- º
C. §
- 75.
-
E
Q)
9 40- §
3. 2
Q)
o
co
5 20H-
>
º
O
31 MAY - 1 JUN 20-24 JUN 10- 17 JUL 13- 21 AUG 8-18 SEP
N - O N-6 N-5 N-6 N-16
ABBREVIATIONS
EPH EUPHAUSIIDS OTH OTHER
FSH FISH SL SAND LANCE
GAD GADIDAE SQD SQUID
PLK POLLOCK THY THYSANOESSA
OSM OSMERIDAE UNID UNIDENTIFIED
Figure 5.81 Seasonal variation in the diets of five
species of marine birds, Kodiak area, summer 1977
(Sanger et al.,
fish consumption.
1978). Shaded areas represent total
SHORT-TAILED SHEARWATERS
1OO
80
60
40-
EUPHAUSIIDS
BLACK - LEGGED KITTIWAKES
1OO -
80-f
60
40
2O
O
31 MAY - 1 JUN 20-24 JUN 1O-17 JUL 13- 21 AUG 8-18 SEP
N-8 N-12 N-21 N-21 N-26
TUFTED PUFFINS
1OO
80.
6O
4ok
20
31 MAY - 1 JUN 20-24 JUN 10-17 JUL 13-21 AUG
N-27 N-26 N-43 N-33
COMMON MURRES
1OO
80k.
2O
O º
31 MAY - 1 JUN
N-3
20-24 JUN
10- 17 JUL
N-4 N-8 N-4
13- 21 AUG
31 MAY - 1 JUN 20-24 JUN 10-17 JUL 13-21 AUG 8-18 SEP
N-17 N-19 N-22 N-25 N-6
collection dates/birds collected





220 - Biology
The two ducks fed mostly on sessile or slow-moving
invertebrates; Black Scoters preferred blue mussels,
whereas Olds quaws ate a variety of bottom-dwelling
forms (Fig. 5.82). In both seasons, Common Murres ate
mostly fish. In winter walleye pollock was the princi-
Pal prey, while in spring and summer walleye pollock,
Capelin, Pacific sandfish, and Pacific sand lance Were
all important. One bird, however, had eaten only
euphausiids. Marbled Murrelets ate crustaceans (mostly
mysids) and fish in all seasons, with a shift from
mostly mysids in the winter to mostly fish in the
Spring and summer. Short-tailed Shearwaters ate mostly
euphausiids, while fish were the major prey of all of
the other species studied only in the spring and sum-
mer.
Although sample sizes are small, there are clear
trends in the utilization of the three major prey
(euphausiids, capelin, and Pacific sand lance). Eu-
Phausiids were taken only in April through June, indi-
Cating that they were available only during that
Period. Capelin generally constituted a greater pro-
Portion of the volume of prey consumed in early summer,
while Pacific sand lance were more important in July
and August. The extent to which this pattern is deter-
mined by seasonal migrations of these organisms is
unknown.
A comparison of the 1977 and 1978 summer data
indicates an increased use of Pacific sand lance in
1978. The percentage volume of capelin consumed was
about the same in both years, but there were shifts in
its importance to individual species between the years.
Comparisons between these two years are preliminary
because the results were analyzed differently. The
1977 data are currently being reanalyzed (Krasnow et
al., 1979).
Sooty Short-tailed
Shearwater Shearwater
N=74 N=5
Common Pigeon
Murre Guillemot
N=32 N=23
| Polychaetes
Gastropoda
||||| Bivalves
Crustaceans
Black
Scoter
N=4
Marbled
Murrelet
N=39
PREY OF KODIAK BIRDS (aggregate present volume)
Olds duaw
N=21
Tufted
Puffin
N= 1 OS
= Echinoderms
Fish
Other
Black-legged
Kittiwake
N-6O
Figure 5.82 Diets of marine birds from Chiniak Bay, February 1978 and Izhut and Kiliuda Bays, spring
and summer 1978 (Krasnow et al., 1979).









Biology
221
Diet of young
The diets of the chicks of five species of marine
birds from Sitkalidak Strait, Kodiak Island, and the
Barren Islands are shown in Fig. 5.83. Food samples
were obtained by collecting material regurgitated by
chicks and food samples left in burrows by adults when
their chicks were prevented, by taping their beaks
shut, from eating, and by capturing feeding adults
(Baird and Moe, 1978; Baird and Hatch, 1979; Manuwal
and Boersma, 1978; Manuwal, 1979). Capelin and Pacific
sand lance were heavily utilized as food by all
species. The use of capelin decreased and that of
Glaucous-winged Gull SS
Black-legged Kittiwake SS
Horned Puffin BI
Tufted Puffin SS
Tufted Puffin B|
1976 1977
DIETS OF NESTING BIRDS
(% total numbers)
| Mollusks
| Crustaceans
= Echinoderms
Pacific sand lance
|||| Other fish
Other
SS Sitkalidak Strait, Kodiak Island
B | Barren Islands
Figure 5.83 Diets of the chicks of five species of marine birds from Sitkalidak Strait, Kodiak Island, and the
Barren Islands (see text for sources).
Pacific sand lance increased in 1978 compared to 1977.
The heavy use of capelin, a species rich in oil, paral-
lels the preference for oil-rich sprats (Sprattus
sprattus) by common puffins (Fratercula arctica) as
food for their young (Harris and Hislop, 1978). Harris
and Hislop (1978) reckon that puffins obtain the best
return for effort expended by feeding their young a few
large, oil-rich species. They also report that young
puffins are easy to raise in the laboratory when fed
exclusively on sprats, but all die if fed exclusively
on whiting (Merlangus merlangus), a fish with a higher
protein but lower fat content. The productivity of
Glaucous-winged Gulls and Black-legged Kittiwakes at
these colonies was lower in 1978 than in 1977, while
that of the two puffin species was essentially the same
(Tables 5.49 and 5.50). It is suspected that dietary
differences between the two years are directly related
to the differences in gull productivity. Since gulls
feed on or near the surface while puffins dive for
their food, the dietary difference observed among gulls
and puffins in 1978 may reflect an absence of capelin
in surface waters in 1978 (P. Baird, USFWS, Anchorage,
pers. comm.). Studies on the nutritive value and
behavior of the various prey would give insight into
how changes in prey populations might affect marine
bird breeding populations.
Feeding areas
The principal foraging areas for birds breeding in
the Chiniak/Marmot Bay and Sitkalidak Strait areas are
shown in Fig. 5.84 (Baird, Gould, and Sanger, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, pers. comm.).
Information on foraging areas is also available for the
Semidi Islands (Leschner and Burrell, 1977) and
Ugaiushak Island (Wehle et al., 1977).



222 Biology
155° 154° 153° 152°
– 59°
– 58°
O
– 57°
MARINE
BIRD
FORAGING
AREAS
| | l
155° 154° 153° 152°
*-
Figure 5.84 Principal foraging areas for birds breed-
ing in the Chiniak/Marmot Bay areas and the Sitkalidak
Strait area (Baird, Gould, and Sanger, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, pers. comm.).
Pigeon Guillemots fed within several hundred
"eters of shore at both locations; the species is well
known as a littoral feeder (Bédard, 1976). Cormorants
fed primarily within 2 km of shore, Horned Puffins
Soncentrated within 3 km of shore (Ugaiushak), Black-
legged Kittiwakes near shore and out of sight of land
(Ugainshak); murres fed more than 0.5 km from shore
(Ugaiushak), Parakeet Auklets occasionally fed in
riptides near islands, but usually over 1 km offshore
(Semidis); Tufted Puffins were rarely seen feeding near
land (Semidis), while Rhinoceros Auklets were never
Wehle (1976)
reported that around Buldir Island Horned Puffins fed
observed feeding near land (Semidis).
in shallower waters, usually within 1 km of the island,
while Tufted Puffins fed in deeper water up to at least
15 km from land.
Wiens et al. (1978b) found that in Alaska waters
most feeding flocks of marine birds occur within 5 km
of land, usually in areas of greatest coastline com-
Baird (1978)
Sitkalidak Strait feeding flocks usually formed along
plexity. and Moe reported that in
convergence currents, especially in areas where there
was a rapid change in bottom topography (Fig. 5F.22).
Bédard (1976) suggests that coastline and slope config-
uration, water circulation, and seasonal and local
characteristics (tidal rips, fronts, etc.) may be more
important than simple distance from land in determining
the feeding locations of marine birds. Hunt (1978)
reported that foraging birds were concentrated within
ten nautical miles around the Pribilof Islands and in
the vicinity of the 100-meter shelf break.
Formation of flocks
(1978b) studied the formation of
feeding flocks in pelagic areas near Kodiak Island.
Wiens et al.
They found that Black-legged Kittiwakes initiated 84
percent of the mixed feeding flocks they observed to
form (Table 5.51). They concluded that other species
rely on kittiwakes to locate food. Their observations
of the responses of cormorants and Horned Puffins to
foraging kittiwakes (Table 5.52) support this conclu-
sion. They also present evidence that puffins have
Table 5.51 Species roles in mixed species feeding
flock formation (Wiens et al., 1978b).
Number of
flocks in Number of Percent
Species which species flocks species of flocks
occurred initiated initated
(N = 1.12)
Sooty Shearwater 3 1 33
Short-tailed
Shearwater 27 9 33
Cormorants 31 2 6
Glaucous-winged
Gull 23 2 9
Black-legged
Kittiwake 101 85 84
Horned Puffin 52 7 14
Northern sea lion 4 4 100
Harbor seal 2 2 100
Table 5.52 Species' responses (%) to behavioral cues
of Black-legged Kittiwakes in feeding flock formation
(Wiens et al., 1978b).
Kittiwake behavior
Plunge & Plunge &
leave circle
Species Response (N=54) (N=26)
Black-legged
Kittiwake Positive 94 100
Negative 6 0
Horned Puffin Positive O 73
Negative 100 27
Cormorants Positive 2 88
Negative 98 12




Biology
223
difficulty in locating schooling fish and suffer im-
paired breeding success when kittiwakes are scarce. It
thus appears that a decrease in kittiwake populations
caused by petroleum development activities at their
nesting cliffs could have detrimental effects for other
species.
Baird and Moe (1978) suggest that Arctic terns
initiate feeding flocks in Sitkalidak Strait, but they
do not present sufficient evidence to establish the
role of each bird species in flock organization.
Both research teams cited above observed the
occasional participation of mammals in these mixed
feeding flocks. Wiens et al. (1978b) found that, in
the formations observed, northern sea lions and harbor
seals initiated all of the mixed feeding flocks in
which they occurred (Table 5.51).
5. 7.6 Effects of pollution
Two kinds of hazards to bird populations in the
Kodiak area can result from petroleum development:
contamination of the environment by oil and disturbance
by humans. Most dramatic and visible are the oiling
and death of large numbers of birds and the littering
of beaches with their bodies from a catastrophic spill
or blowout. An estimated 100,000 birds, mostly alcids
and waterfowl, died near Kodiak during the winter of
1970 as the result of petroleum contamination, thought
to be ballast dumped by tankers entering Cook Inlet
(Bartonek et al., 1971, cited in McKnight and Knoder,
1979).
Less spectacular, but more likely to occur, is
chronic spillage from platforms, pipelines, terminal
and storage facilities, and tankers. Indeed, chronic
pollution in "areas where oil development and transport
activities are taking place probably kills more birds
every year than die after a single catastrophic spill"
(McKnight and Knoder, 1979). Most oil-caused mortality
of seabirds in Danish waters was found to result from
generally unnoticed pollution (Joensen, 1972).
The effects of oil pollution on birds may be
direct or indirect. Most obvious is the direct fouling
of the plumage by floating oil. Even small amounts of
oil on the plumage can destroy buoyancy, waterproofing,
and insulation. Affected birds may drown, starve, or
die from exposure. Clark (1970) has pointed out that
"by mischance, the species most vulnerable to oil
slicks have an exceptionally low reproductive rate."
Oil may be ingested during feeding or preening.
The effects of ingested oil on birds are under in-
vestigation. Miller et al. (1978) reported that young
gulls ceased to grow when fed crude oil, due to altera-
tion in the intestinal transport of nutrients. Gorman
and Simms (1978) asserted that the ingestion of crude
oil had no effect on the growth of young chickens ,
ducks, and gulls. They suggest that Miller et al. used
experimental animals which had completed their natural
growth before the experiment began. Szaro (1977)
suggested that oil ingestion, while perhaps not a major
cause of seabird mortality, could affect the birds'
physiology and reproduction.
Holmes and Cronshaw (1977) found that ducks main"
tained under laboratory conditions tolerated the
chronic administration of oil-contaminated food well.
Those subjected to cold stress, however, showed in"
creased mortality.
In addition to indirect effects on reproduction
through ingestion of oil, breeding seabirds can trans"
mit oil from their plumage to their eggs Experiments
have shown that "minute quantities" of No. 2 fuel oil
applied to eggs caused significant embryo mortality and
reduced hatchability in the eggs of aquatic birds
(White et al., 1979). Albers (1978) showed that oiling
of eggs was most lethal when adult birds were in the
early stages of incubation. Grau et al. (1978) studied
effects of oil on eggs of Cassin's Auklets
(Ptychoramphus aleuticus) on the Farallon Islands in
California. They found a reduction in reproductive
success of auklets which ingested Bunker C oil, as well
as in auklets whose brood patches had been smeared with
oil. Egg production of smeared birds was even lower
than that of birds that had been fed oil. This seems
to indicate that eggs are indirectly vulnerable to oil
even before they are laid, as well as being harmed
directly by oil after laying (Albers, 1978; White et
al., 1979).
Another important indirect effect of oil pollution
on birds is contamination of their prey and of the food
source of their prey. Prey not killed outright could
224 Biology
be ingested. If prey organisms were killed before they
could be eaten, a food source for the birds would have
been lost. This could have serious implications if it
happened when the birds were staging for migration or
during the breeding season.
The second kind of hazard to bird populations from
oil development is human interference. These distur-
bances may be in the form of drilling rigs in foraging
areas or in major migratory pathways, aircraft and
Vessel traffic, or construction activities near coastal
nesting and foraging habitat. When adult birds are
frightened from their nests, whether by vessel noises,
aircraft noises, or by foot traffic, they leave their
young vulnerable to exposure and predation. Repeated
disturbance to a seabird colony can cause long-term
reduction in productivity (Birkhead, 1977a). Other
phases of the life cycle which can be upset by human
interference are molting and staging before migration.
When aircraft traffic disrupts molting, which usually
takes place where the birds are safest from predation,
increased predation on the flightless birds may ensue
(McKnight and Knoder, 1979). Staging geese were found
to be disturbed by the noise of gas compressors
(McKnight and Knoder, 1979). This might have the same
effect as reducing the food supply directly, for geese
which do not feed adequately before migration are less
likely to survive their flight south.
Perhaps the greatest potential risk to Kodiak
Solonial marine birds as a result of human disturbance
is predation by gulls. Gull population numbers, es-
Pecially around the North Atlantic, have skyrocketed
since the turn of the century as human activities have
provided them with abundant winter food supplies. The
increase in gull populations has usually led to greatly
increased predation on other colonial-nesting birds.
Indeed, Nettleship (1972) found significantly greater
chick mortality for Common Puffin colonies where gull
populations were high. If the disposal of human refuse
is not carefully controlled in areas where oil develop-
ment takes place, gull populations will soar at the
expense of the populations of other species. Further-
more, gull/aircraft collisions are a serious problem
worldwide, and increased Alaskan gull populations would
intensify the probability of such collisions.
Bird populations in the Kodiak area are at greater
risk from oil contamination than those at lower lati-
tudes. More northerly populations are "characterized
by numerical dominance of a few species, relatively
simple food chains, and an inherent instability or
fragility" (Dunbar, 1968, in McKnight and Knoder,
1979). They must endure extremes of weather condi-
tions, uncertain food supply, and the need to reproduce
in a brief period. Already under stress from the harsh
environment, they are thus particularly vulnerable to
the man-caused stress of oil developments (Dunbar, 1968
in McKnight and Knoder, 1979). The ingestion of
spilled oil by birds under the stressful natural con-
ditions of the Kodiak marine environment might be
expected to result in increased mortality, as in the
experimental results cited by Holmes and Cronshaw
(1977).
Contamination of the food supply would be es-
pecially serious, owing to the short food chains and
lack of alternative food sources. An expected result
would be lowering of the carrying capacity of the
habitat for marine birds (McKnight and Knoder, 1979).
Other elements of the food chain would then be affected
as well. The bird groups most likely to be affected by
oil development are alcids, which constitute the ma-
jority of birds inhabiting coastal areas in winter, and
the sea ducks, because of their diving and flocking
habits and their flightless molt period (McKnight and
Knoder, 1979). King and Sanger (1979) have devised an
Oil Vulnerability Index (OVI) for marine birds of the
northeast Pacific. It is based on such characteristics
of the species as range, population, habits, mortality,
and exposure to oil development. Birds with high
indices are more vulnerable to oil development than
those with lower indices. King and Sanger (1979)
confirm that alcids and sea ducks are the most vulner-
able groups. Table 5.53 shows OVI's for water birds of
the Kodiak area. They are arranged according to ranges
of OWI. According to King and Sanger (1979), an OVI of
1-20 indicates species with low vulnerabilities; damage
or future costs would not be expected. An OVI of 21-40
indicates species for which there is low concern. An
OVI of 41-60 indicates species for which it would not
be considered catastrophic if some birds were adversely
affected. These species should, however, be monitored
to be sure that their status is not adversely affected.
An OVI of 61-80 or 81-100 indicates species where
concern is high. Comparing this table with King and
Biology 225
Sanger's Tables 4 and 5, which illustrate OVI's for 109 Table 5.53 Oil vulnerability indices of Kodiak marine birds.
species of birds of Southeast Alaska and 123 species of
birds of the Aleutian Islands, respectively, shows that
OWI 1 - 20 OWI 21-40 OWI 41-60 OWI 61-80 OVI 81-100
there are more species lin Kodiak with a higher OWI than Flesh-footed Shearwater 1 Canada Goose 34 Common Loon 47 Yellow-billed Loon 65 Pigeon Guillemot 82
& e º g º & tº º & gº 4.
the areas show New Zealand Shearwater 1 White-fronted Goose 36 Arctic Loon 58 Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel 67 Marbled Murrelet 8
there are in either of Il by King and Manx Shearwater 1 Mallard 36 Red-throated Loon 49 Leach's Storm-Petrel 63 Kittlitz's Murrelet 88
Qº e indicates that the birds of the Kodiak Scaled Petrel 1 Gadwall 38 Red-necked Grebe 44 Pelagic Cormorant 63
Sanger This Blue-winged Teal 1 Green-winged Teal 34 Horned Grebe 48 Red-faced Cormorant 63
a ſea as a whole, are more vulnerable to oil develop- European Wigeon 1 American Wigeon 36 Black-footed Albatross 50 Black Brant 70
9 Ring-necked Duck 1 Northern Shoveler 34 Laysan Albatross 52 Emperor Goose 70
ment than are those of Southeast Alaska or of the Tufted Duck 1 Long-tailed Jaeger 39 Northern Fulmar 57 Oldsguaw 66
Smew 1 Herring Gull 38 Pink-footed Shearwater 47 Steller's Eider 72
Aleutian Islands. Skua 1 Ring-billed Gull 36 Sooty Shearwater 51 Common Eider 68
Slaty-backed Gull 1 Bonaparte's Gull 40 Short-tailed Shearwater 53 King Eider 70
Another hazard to birds living in the Kodiak area Franklin's Gull 1 Arctic Tern 32 Doubled-crested Cormorant 52 Spectacled Eider 78
Whistling Swan 50 White-winged Scoter 72
relates to the physical environment. An oil spill in & Redhead 52 Surf Scoter 72
& Canvasback 52 Common Scoter 72
cold regions "could have greater adverse consequences Greated Scaup 52 Northern Phalarope 62
& gº & Lesser Scaup 50 Common Murre 70
than an equivalent spill at lower latitudes" (Norton, Common Goldeneye 48 Thick-billed Murre 70
& © tº & Barrow's Goldeneye 56 Ancient Murrelet 74
1977). Degradation of spilled oil by microbes would Bufflehead 52 Parakeet Auklet 80
& Harlequin Duck 60 Crested Auklet 76
take place slowly because of lower temperatures than in Common Merganser 56 Least Auklet 80
g e g Red-breasted Merganser 56 Rhinoceros Auklet 74
temperate regions (Atlas, 1978b). Natural oxidation Red Phalarope - 58 Horned Puffin 72
o gº e g Pomarine Jaeger - 41 Tufted Puffin 72
would also be slower. Bird species which feed in large Parasitic Jaeger 43 l
* Glaucous Gull 45
flocks are numerous. Large populations could thus be Glaucous-winged Gull 56
tº dº gº & e Thayer's Gull 42
eliminated by a single spill. Finally, cleanup and Mew Gull 44
o & & wº Sabine's Gull 44
containment might be slow and difficult because of the Black-legged Kittiwake 43
Red-legged Kittiwake 49
lack of manpower and technology (Norton, 1977) and Aleutian Tern 53
because of the storms which are so common in the Kodiak
TOTALS 12 433 1,666 1,761 254
area in winter. -—T
226 Biology
5.8 MAMMALS
5.8.1 Introduction
Four distinct types of mammals inhabit the marine
environment in the Gulf of Alaska: the cetaceans,
which include the whales, dolphins, and porpoises; the
pinnipeds, which include the seals, fur seals, sea
lions, and the walrus (Odobenus rosmarus); the sea
otter (Enhydra lutris); and several land mammal species
which frequent the beaches, littoral zone, and occa-
Sionally shallow marine water, principally to feed.
The last category includes bears, foxes, the river
otter (Lutra canadensis), and deer. All of these spe-
Cies have been exploited by man. Native peoples and
others have used them as sources of food, pelts, and
other by-products; several species have been hunted for
sport and some have been widely killed as pests.
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972
(PL-92-522) fully protects most marine mammal species
from any exploitation except: (1) harvest for subsis-
tence or cultural use by native peoples; (2) scientific
studies by permit; (3) incidental take by fisheries
under permits; (4) northern fur seal management; (5)
capture for public display by permit; and (6) return of
management to states complying with federal regula-
tions. The State of Alaska has attempted to regain
management authority for nine species since passage of
the act, but has been unsuccessful, except for walrus.
After litigation on regulation of subsistence harvests,
walrus management was given back to the federal govern-
ment. As a result, virtually all marine mammal manage-
ment is under federal statute (MMPA, Endangered Species
Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1531–1543; 87 Stat. 884)) or
international treaty (Convention on Conservation of
North Pacific Fur Seals). Most populations of the
large cetacean species have been so depleted that they
have been designated as endangered or threatened under
the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and by the Inter-
national Whaling Commission. Northern fur seals are
harvested by the U.S. under the CNPFS (Convention on
Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals), signed by
Japan, the USSR, Canada, and the U.S. The most signif-
icant law for planning OCS development is the Marine
Mammal Protection Act, which requires that marine
mammal
stocks should not be permitted to diminish
beyond the point at which they cease to be a
significant functioning element in the eco-
system of which they are a part, and, consis-
tent with this major objective, they should not
be permitted to diminish below their optimum
sustainable population.
Furthermore, it is required that such stocks
should be protected and encouraged to develop
to the greatest extent feasible commensurate
with sound policies of resource management and
that the primary objective of their management
should be to maintain the health and stability
of the marine ecosystem.
Considerable knowledge of the biology of Alaskan marine
mammals and of the marine ecosystems in which they live
is necessary to design a plan for the development of
Alaska's petroleum resources which meets the letter and
spirit of this act. OCSEAP research on marine mammals
has focused on obtaining such knowledge.
Relatively little is known of most marine mammal
species. Even enumeration of the population can be
difficult. As a result most studies being conducted
are basic, emphasizing descriptive natural history.
Comprehensive data may never be available even for a
single tract. As a result, data collected from other
areas may have to suffice for a specific tract until
comparable site-specific data are developed or there is
good reason to doubt their applicability. Further, the
highly migratory nature of most marine mammals may
require lease decisions including an examination of the
status of the entire species although the site in
question may only be of seasonal importance.
Marine mammals are all modified for living in the
sea and share many characteristics. These species
spend much of their time in cold waters and most have a
variety of adaptations to maintain body temperature,
such as thick layers of subcutaneous fat and counter-
current heat exchangers in the circulation to extremi-
ties. Some species also have heavy pelage. The
species which rely almost exclusively on their fur for
insulation, such as the northern fur seal (Callorhinus
ursinus) and the sea otter, are particularly vulnerable
to oil, since even a small amount of it fouling their
pelage destroys their insulation. All Alaskan marine
mammals are carnivores and are frequently at the
highest trophic level in their food webs. Because of
this they may be vulnerable to significant changes in
the abundance and quality of organisms lower in the
web.
Current knowledge of the marine mammals which
occur in the Kodiak area is discussed below in an order
emphasizing their dependency on the sea. The discus-
sion starts with the cetaceans, which spend their
entire lives in the water, and ends with species which
venture into marine environments only occasionally.
Biology 227
5.8.2 Cetaceans
Of all mammals, cetaceans are most highly adapted
to aquatic life. Their bodies are streamlined and
fusiform (cigar-shaped), some have a dorsal fin, the
forelimbs (flippers) are paddle-shaped, the hind limbs
are vestigial and not visible externally, and the tail
has developed into a horizontally flattened fluke.
They are nearly hairless, lack sebaceous glands, and
are insulated by thick blubber. Their skulls are
highly modified through the migration of the external
nares (nostrils) to the top of the head. The baleen
whales are the largest living (or fossil) animals
known. Among the cetaceans are the fastest animals in
the sea; dolphins have been observed to maintain speeds
of about 32 km/hr for up to 25 minutes (Johannessen and
Harder, 1960) and a blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
was observed swimming for 10 minutes at 37 km/hr (Gawn,
1948). Like all other mammals, cetaceans must breathe
air, but unlike most other mammals, they are able to
alternate between periods of eupnea (normal breathing)
and long periods of apnea (cessation of breathing).
Small cetaceans may surface to breathe several times a
minute, but some whales can remain submerged for over
one hour. Fin whales (B. physalus) have been recorded
diving to depths of 500 m, and there is a record of a
sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) becoming entangled
in a cable at 1, 134 m. The latter have been tracked on
sonar to nearly 1,828 m and by hydrophone to 2,427 m.
Inferential evidence suggests diving capability in
excess of 3, 150 m and there is speculation they have no
depth limit. The physiological and morphological
adaptations of cetaceans to deep and prolonged dives
are discussed by Slijper (1962), Elsner (1969), Kooyman
and Andersen (1969), and Lenfant (1969).
Baleen whales (Mysticeti)
Baleen whales differ from other cetaceans in
several ways but particularly in their dentition
(Vaughan, 1972; Nishiwaki, 1972). Although baleen
whales develop teeth in the fetal stage, these never
erupt; after birth a series of baleen plates develops
from the palatine ridges. All baleen whales are
filter-feeders; they allow food-rich water to pass into
the mouth and through the baleen plates. The fringed
medial surface of baleen overlaps with adjacent baleen
fringes to form a sieve-like filter. The food strained
from the water by the baleen is gathered by the tongue
and swallowed.
Distribution
Seven of the nine known species of baleen whales
are known to occur in the Gulf of Alaska: gray whale
(Eschrichtius robustus), minke whale (Balaenoptera
acutorostrata), sei whale (B. borealis), fin whale (B.
physalus), blue whale (B. musculus), humpback whale
(Megaptera novaeangliae), and right whale (Balaena
glacialis). All of these except the minke whale have
been designated as endangered or threatened. Bryde's
whale (Balaenoptera edeni), which occurs in the temper-
ate North Pacific, and the bowhead whale (Balaena
mysticetus), which is found in arctic waters, could
stray into the gulf, although this seems unlikely and
there are no records of its occurrence.
It has long been known that the entire eastern
Pacific population of gray whales migrates annually
from wintering grounds along the southwestern coast of
North America to summering grounds in the Bering Sea
and Arctic Ocean. They perform the longest known
mammalian migration, traveling from 10,000 to 22,000 km
round trip (Vaughan, 1972). The details of routes
taken between the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea,
however, have been the subject of considerable debate
(Gilmore, 1978). Recent work (Braham, 1977; Braham et
al., 1977; Hall, 1979) indicates that the route shown
in Fig. 5.85 is probably the one taken by this species.
The species closely follows the coastline during both
north- and southbound migrations in the Gulf of Alaska;
in some areas during good weather about 70 percent are
found within 700 m of the shore during the autumn
southbound migration (Rugh and Braham, 1978).
Whaling records show that the area southwest of
Kodiak was once an important area for sei, fin, and
blue whales (Nishiwaki, 1966). Recent sightings of
minke, sei, fin, and humpback whales have been made
228 Biology
1579 1569 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 1519 15O2 149° 148° 1479
A Hé0.
sº fºr R& [. º § § 3. º ~ º
— 10 20 30 40 50 miles º º - rº
-*-*-C EL ED - *V l *
º - * - § & º
59°
159°
58°
58°
º
* º
O º ſº
57 º ſº
º 57°
GRAY WHALE
[T] Probable migratory route
Observed spring
56° COncentrations
* Aerial sightings —H56°
April 1977
jºre 5.85 Probable migratory route of the gray | l l
Whale (Braham, National Marine Mammal Laboratory, O O O O O O O O O







Biology 229
near Prince William Sound and in the region south of
Montague Island (Fiscus et al., 1976). The distribu-
tion of sightings of minke, sei, blue, and humpback
whales near Kodiak (Fiscus et al., 1976) for all
seasons from 1958 through 1976 is shown in Fig. 5.86.
The seasonal distribution of sightings of the fin whale
throughout the Gulf of Alaska (Braham, National Marine
Mammal Laboratory, NOAA, unpub. data) is shown in Fig.
5.87. These
spring fin whales are distributed throughout the Gulf
sightings demonstrate that during the
of Alaska, perhaps indicating migration into the
There
whales in the gulf.
gulf.
are no recent reports of sightings of right
The distributions shown in Figs.
5.86 and 5.87 are concentrated near or within the shelf
Figure 5.86 Distribution of sightings of four species
of baleen whales for all seasons from 1958 through 1976
(Fiscus et al., 1976).
6O”
59°.
58°
15 O 2O 40
60 8O
===TE
3O 40
ET
57°
56°
100 km
2O
50 miles
100 m
–58°
157°
BALEEN WHALES
© Minke Whale
A Sei Whale O
- Humpback whale -18°
4- Blue Whale
Ł | I I I | | 1 l
O O 1 O O O O O O O
156 155 54 153 152 151 15O 149 148 —











230 Biology
145° 140° 135° 130°
150
FIN WHALE
Spring Sightings
58°
FIN WHALE
Fall Sightings -
Winter Sighting O
I l I l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l \ l l
165° 160 ° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135°
* -
170° 165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°
60°-
200miles
170° 165° 160° 155° 150
FIN WHALE
Summer Sightings
165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135°
Figure 5.87 Seasonal distribution of fin whale, 1958 through 1977 (Braham,
National Marine Mammal Laboratory, unpublished data).




Biology 231
break and indicate that baleen whales have been sighted
most frequently in waters less than 2,000 m deep.
Unfortunately, sampling throughout the gulf was not
uniform. Sightings of humpback whales within the 2,000
m depth contour adjacent to the entire southeastern
shore of Kodiak Island are frequent (Fiscus et al.,
1976). Nasu (1974) suggests that in summer baleen
whales prefer areas where coastal and oceanic waters
mix. The general migratory hypothesis is that most
baleen whales migrate to polar waters in summer months
to feed and to more temperate waters in winter to breed
and calve. Humpback whales in Alaska have been identi-
fied from photographs by distinctive coloration (and
other features) off Hawaii and the Revillagigedo
Islands (20°S) south of Baja, Mexico (Darling, unpub.
data).
Population dynamics
At least four different aspects of the natural
history of whales must be known to understand their
population dynamics and to make predictions of how the
population might respond to environmental perturba-
tions. These are the immature mortality rate, the age
of first reproduction, the fecundity of the females,
and the adult mortality rate (Eberhardt, 1977). This
information is extremely difficult to gather, as it may
necessitate collecting whales to determine age, struct
ture of the population, and reproductive status of
individuals. Even population estimates for cetaceans
are difficult due to the short period of time they
spend at the surface, especially if their populations
are small and/or widely distributed. Reproductive
rates are usually low for large, long-lived animals.
The gestation period for most baleen whales is about 10
to 12 months, and females probably breed only once
every two years (Nishiwaki, 1972; Vaughan, 1972) but
may breed as infrequently as every four years as sus-
pected for southern right whales (Payne, unpub. data).
Whether females breed the year after an early termi-
nation of pregnancy or loss of a calf soon after birth
is not known.
The large species of baleen whales have been
over-exploited, and their populations have declined to
such an extent that most are now recognized as endan-
gered (Nishiwaki, 1972; Scheffer, 1972; Rice, 1974).
Recent estimates of North Pacific stocks are gray
whales: 15,000 (Rugh and Braham, 1978); minke: 10,000
(Nishiwaki, 1972); sei: 28,000 (Rice, 1974); fin:
17,000 (Tillman, 1975); blue: 1,500 (Tillman, 1975);
humpback: 850 (MMPA, 1978); and right: 200 (Tillman,
1975). Only the gray whale population, which was
almost exterminated early in the century, has recovered
significantly under protection.
Trophics
Most baleen whales eat mainly large quantities of
planktonic species (amphipods, copepods, and euphau"
siids), although gray whales feed almost exclusively on
benthic amphipods, and small fishes can be regionally
important to humpbacks (Pike, 1962; Nemoto, 1970;
Nishiwaki, 1972; Table 5.54, Fig. 5.88). Baleen whales
exhibit two typical pelagic feeding patterns: swallow"
ing, in which large patches of clumped prey are swal"
lowed at one time, and skimming, in which dispersed
prey are caught by swimming with the mouth open for
extended periods (Mitchell, 1978; Pivorunas, 1979).
Gray and sei whales apparently use both methods; minke,
fin, blue, and humpback whales are swallowers, and
Table 5.54 Principal food types and feeding strata of
*::::: whales (Pike, 1962; Nemoto, 1970; Nishiwaki,
& Principal
Species food types Feeding strata
Gray Whale amphipods Coastal-benthic
Minke Whale fish Surface-photic zone
euphausiids
Copepods
Sei Whale Copepods Surface-photic zone
Fin Whale euphausiids Surface-photic zone
Copepods
fish
Blue Whale euphausiids Mid-water
Humpback Whale euphausiids Surface-photic zone
fish
Right Whale copepods Surface-photic zone
euphausiids
232 Biology
right whales are skimmers. Swallowers rely on heavy
patches of prey, such as euphausiids and gregarious
fish, while the skimmers feed on more sparse plankton
patches. Humpbacks are known to concentrate fishes by
the use of exhaled air underwater to form a "bubble-
net." Skimmers may be more vulnerable to the presence
of oil, whether benthic or pelagic, since they must
process large volumes of water per volume of food
ingested.
Information on the carrying capacity of the Gulf
of Alaska for cetaceans is lacking. Generally, the
larger species of whales feed heavily for four or more
months in arctic and subarctic regions where food
Supplies are abundant during long polar summer days,
then migrate to subtropical regions to breed and calve
during winter, where they appear to fast (Brodie,
1975). During the feeding season they build up large
quantities of fat, which are then metabolized during
the winter fasts. Crude estimates of dietary needs
(Brodie, 1975) and current cetacean populations in the
North Pacific (Scheffer, 1972; Fiscus et al., 1976)
indicate that baleen whales there consume about 50,000
metric tons of food per day. These species thus rely on
a seasonal superabundance of food and are vulnerable to
its reduction or contamination.
SWALLOWERS
Ž Fish N
2 1
Fin & Bryde's Humpback & Minke
1 2
3
Euphausiids
2
21 s
SKIMMERS
Blue
1 Sei
Aſ
Copepods
i
Amphipods Gray
\
Phyto 2
Bowhead
& ~sº Mysids tº:
Zooplankton
Figure 5.88 Generalized food web showing predation by
swallowing and skimming baleen whales on main food
sources. "Skimmers" strain a long column of water with
their mouth continuously open, whereas "swallowers"
gulp a mouthful at a time, then close the mouth,
squeeze the water out, and retain the food (modified
from Mitchell, 1978).
Toothed whales, dolphins, and porpoises (Odontoceti)
Odontoceti are distinguished by their teeth.
Unlike most other mammals, they have permanent den-
tition at birth. They are the most important cetaceans
in terms of abundance, diversity, and widespread dis-

tribution.
Distribution
The Odontoceti include about 74 recent species.
Of these, about six occur regularly or frequently in
the Gulf of Alaska: Pacific whitesided dolphin
(Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), killer whale ( Orcinus
orca), harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), Dall por-
poise (Phocoenoides dalli), beluga (Delphinapterus
leucas), and sperm whale. The sperm whale has been
designated an endangered species. Fiscus et al. (1976)
list six more species which are of casual or hypo-
thetical occurrence in the gulf. It is likely that
other Pacific species will occasionally enter gulf
WaterS.
The area southwest of Kodiak was once an important
area for sperm whales. The distribution of sightings
of Pacific whitesided dolphin, killer whale, harbor
porpoise, and sperm whale near Kodiak (Fiscus et al.,
1976; Mercer et al., 1977) for all seasons 1958 through
1976 is shown in Fig. 5.89. The distribution of these
sightings, like those of baleen whales, indicates that
these species may prefer areas within the shelf break.
The beluga is a summer resident in Lower Cook
Inlet and a year-round resident in the Bering Sea. The
Lower Cook population is considered by Sergeant and
Brodie (1969) to be geographically isolated and there-
fore it may be genetically distinct from the Bering Sea
population. The wintering grounds of the Cook Inlet
population are unknown. Harrison and Hall (1978) made
only two sightings of belugas near Kodiak (one in March
Biology 233
155° 154° 153° 1529 151° 150° 149° 148° 1470 and two in July) in the course of 40,000 km of aerial
- - - surveys in the gulf.
6O” Although the Pacific whitesided dolphin is rarely
sighted in the gulf, a school of over 500 was seen just
outside Montague Strait in October 1976 (Hall and
10 20 30 40
EL EL
50 miles
J
Tillman, 1977). This species is thought to occur in
association with warm surface temperatures; it was not
seen in the gulf in 1977 when surface temperatures were
cooler than in 1976.
O In general, relatively little is known about the
59 movements and abundance of the small cetaceans because
they are difficult to study and of little commercial
value (Scheffer, 1972). Of the smaller cetaceans, only
the harbor porpoise and the Dall porpoise are con-
sidered common. The harbor porpoise is a rather shy
species which appears to prefer quiet bays and never
plays at the bows of ships (Scheffer, 1972). Its
58° status in the Kodiak area is unknown. The Dall port
poise, on the other hand, feeds in large groups and
often plays at the bows of ships (Scheffer, 1972). As
would be expected, it is frequently reported from
shipboard surveys. The seasonal distribution of sight"
ings of Dall porpoise is shown in Fig. 5.90. These
sightings show that Dall porpoise are ubiquitous
57 : throughout the Gulf of Alaska in all seasons, with an
TOOTHED CETACEANS
© Killer Whale
A Harbor Porpoise
- Sperm Whale —H56°
<!-Pacific Whiteside Dolphin
56°
I l l Figure 5.89 Distribution of sightings of four species
h
o O O o O 1519 150° 149° 148° of toothed cetaceans for all seasons from 1958 throug
156 155 154 153 152 1976 (Fiscus et al., 1976; Mercer et al., 1977).








234 Biology
DALL PORPOISE
Spring Sightings
-
• DALL PORPOISE
Summer Sightings
l I I l l
165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135°
160°
DALL PORPOISE
Winter Sightings
I I l I I
160°
135
52°L
- DALL PORPOISE
Fall Sightings
l l l I I I I l l I I l I l I l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
es' 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135°
Figure 5.90 Seasonal distribution of Dall porpoise,
1958 through 1977 (Braham, National Marine Mammal
Laboratory, unpublished data).



Biology 235
apparent concentration from Kodiak waters to Prince
William Sound in the spring. The frequency of occur-
rence of the species in the Gulf of Alaska appears to
be strongly influenced by water temperature (Fig. 5.91)
(Braham and Mercer, 1978). Dall porpoises are believed
to be migratory, but the details of their seasonal
movements are unknown. Because of the relatively large
incidental take of Dall porpoises by Japanese high sea
gillnetters harvesting salmon, studies are being con-
ducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service to
learn more about this species.
400-
3OO-
2OO-
100-
Temperature *C
Figure 5.91 Abundance of Dall porpoise as a function
of sea surface temperature (Braham and Mercer, 1978).
Population Dynamics
The gestation period for the smaller toothed
whales, dolphins, and porpoises ranges from about 8 to
14 months and females produce one young every one to
four years (Vaughan, 1972). For the sperm whale the
gestation period is about 15 months, and a female bears
one young every four or five years; sperm whale calves
may nurse for two years before weaning (Rice, 1978).
There are few data on which to base population
estimates for the toothed cetaceans in the Gulf of
Alaska. Those of Scheffer (1972) appear to be educated
guesses. Fiscus et al. (1976) suggest that Scheffer's
estimate of a population of 1,000 harbor porpoise for
the northwestern Gulf of Alaska is too low to account
for the number of sightings of the species. ADF&G
(1973) estimates that the beluga population of Cook
Inlet is about 500. Tillman (1975) estimates the North
Pacific stock of sperm whales to be about 200,000. The
Japanese high sea gillnet salmon fishery is reported to
kill more than 10,000 Dall porpoises annually (Mizue
and Yoshida, 1965; Mizue et al., 1966). Fiscus et al.
(1976) believe that this kill rate has "only indirect"
effect on the gulf population, as it is thought not to
migrate routinely as far west as 175° W, the fisheries'
Trophics
Toothed cetaceans in the Gulf of Alaska eat mainly
fish, cephalopods, and, in the case of killer whales,
some other marine mammals (Table 5.55).
Table 5.55 Principal food types and feeding strata of
toothed cetaceans (Pike, 1962; Nemoto, 1970; Nishiwaki,
1972).
Principal
Species food types Feeding strata
Killer whale fish Surface-photic zone
Ceta Ceans
pinnipeds
Harbor porpoise fish Surface-photic zone
Dall porpoise fish Surface-photic zone
cephalopods
Beluga fish Benthic-ocean floor
Surface-photic zone
Sperm whale cephalopods Benthic-ocean floor
fish Mid-water
Effects of oil and gas development on cetaceans
Because of their size, the expense of capture and
maintenance, and legal concerns, only limited experi-
mentation has been carried out on the effects of human
activities on cetaceans. At present most predictions
of the possible effects that OCS development might have
on Cetaceans are based on fixed observations and are
often extrapolated from what is known about other
mammals. Work has recently begun to investigate the
direct effects of oil on cetaceans. Additional work on
the possible effects of noise and baleen fouling by oil
eastern limit.
has also been initiated.

236 Biology
Cetaceans produce a wide variety of sounds which
have been shown or hypothesized to be important in
their communication and navigation (Caldwell and
Caldwell, 1972; Thompson et al., 1979). Background
noise from human activities might cause social disrup-
tion or echo-confusion.
The effects of oil on Cetaceans are unknown.
There appear to be no documented cases of cetacean
mortalities directly attributable to oil. Brownell
(1971) was unable to find any evidence that petroleum
Caused the deaths of 11 Cetaceans found stranded on
California beaches after the Santa Barbara Channel oil
Spill. Possible effects of oil on cetaceans can be
inferred from current knowledge of these animals.
Tinyakov et al. (1973) and Dargoltz et al. (1978)
report that the cetacean epidermis has high metabolic
activity. Since the outermost layer is unkeratinized
(Ling, 1974), oil contacting the skin surface might
affect ionic regulation and water balance. Heavy oils
might clog baleen plates, while light oils might damage
their structural integrity. Studies currently in
progress may contribute more information in the near
future. The effects of ingested or inhaled oil are
unknown. Carpenter et al. (1978) report that prolonged
inhalation of hydrocarbons by rats caused central
nervous system disturbance, bronchopneumonia, and
5. 8.3 Pinnipeds
Pinniped morphology and behavior are modified for
an amphibious marine life. All species use the land
(or ice) to breed, give birth, or molt, to varying
degrees. The harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) may spend
time on land daily, while the northern fur seal may
spend from six to eight months at sea. Pinnipeds
appear awkward on land, but some can move quickly and
many species haul out only near the water's edge, per-
haps to reduce the risk from land-based predators.
Perhaps in response to land-based predators and human
harassment, many rookeries and haulouts are on islands.
The northern fur seal is believed to have the longest
migratory path of all pinnipeds and may cover 10,000 km
a year. Scheffer (1958) estimated the top swimming
speed of a northern (Steller) sea lion (Eumetopias
jubatus) to be 29 km/hr. The body is enveloped in a
thick layer of fat, which provides insulation and an
energy reserve during lactation and fasting. They have
large eyes, which may be an adaptation for feeding at
night and in deep or murky waters. Pinnipeds have
slit-like nostrils, which are closed except when volun-
tarily opened to breathe. The Weddell, an Antarctic
species, can dive to depths of at least 600 m or stay
submerged over 45 minutes on a single breath (Kooyman
and Andersen, 1969). Dives of up to 20 minutes have
been reported for several species, including the harbor
seal (Scheffer and Slipp, 1944; Backhouse, 1954).
Among their adaptations to prolonged dives are slowing
of the heart rate, reduced blood flow to the limb
muscles thus conserving the available oxygen in the
blood primarily for the heart and brain, a high toler-
ance to CO2 in the tissues, large amounts of oxygen-
storing myoglobin in the muscles, and a more pronounced
capability for anaerobic (oxygen-less) metabolism than
death.
terrestrial mammals.
Members of two pinniped families occur regularly
in the Gulf of Alaska. The family Otariidae, the eared
seals, includes the northern (Steller) sea lion and the
northern fur seal which are found year round and the
California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), which is
seen occasionally during winter. The family Phocidae,
true or earless seals, is represented year round by the
land-breeding harbor seal (P. V. richardsi) and the
northern (Mirounga
occasional elephant seal
angustirostris).
Otariids swim primarily with their foreflippers
and rotate their hind flippers beneath their bodies for
quadripedal locomotion on land. They are also charac-
terized by small external ears and heavy pelage (espe-
cially the fur seals). They are gregarious throughout
the year and gather in large breeding rookeries.
Typically the mature males are much larger than the
mature females. All species are polygynous, with males
fighting for breeding territories or access to estrous
females. Pups may be suckled for over eight months in
some species.
Phocids swim primarily with their hind flippers
and as a result cannot rotate them forward to be used
on land. Instead these animals rhythmically undulate
the torso forward or pull themselves forward using
Biology 237
their foreflippers. Phocids lack external ears, and
they have a relatively short pelage. There are both
monogamous and polygynous species in the family. Pups
usually wean within six weeks (Pitcher and Calkins,
1979).
Distribution
The northern sea lion is distinctive in its use of
a few specific locations along the coast as breeding
and pupping rookeries and hauling grounds. In late May
the adults gather on the breeding rookeries, where
dominant bulls fight for territories. Females arrive
and pupping, followed by mating, takes place on these
territories. The bulls usually desert their terri-
tories by early July toward the end of the breeding
season. Mature males unable to obtain territories on
the rookeries and females without pups gather on haul-
ing grounds, where mating sometimes takes place
(Calkins et al., 1975).
Northern sea lion haulout areas and rookeries
occur throughout the Kodiak area (Fig. 5.92) (Calkins
and Pitcher, 1977, 1978). The population size is
probably in excess of 30,000 (Table 5.56). Available
data do not indicate that the 40-50 percent population
decline of the species over the last 10 years identi-
fied in the Eastern Aleutian Islands (Braham et al.,
1977) is also occurring in the Kodiak Area. Major
Figure 5.92 Distribution of northern (Steller) sea
lion haulout areas and rookeries (Calkins and Pitcher,
1977; 1978).
60°
59°
58°
57°
56°
157°
1569 155°
154°
153°
1529
1519
150°
60 80
E. E. |
40
3O 50 miles
100 km
|
NORTHERN SEA LION
© Known haulout areas
149°
A Major rookeries
157°
58°
56°
155°
1549
1529
1519
15O2
149°
148°









238 Biology
Table 5.56 Population estimates of northern (Steller)
sea lions (Calkins and Pitcher, 1977; 1978).
1957 1975 1976 1977
Location Mar Jun Oct Mar Jun Oct Mar
Barren Islands 585 12797 7547 388 8100 - -
Latax Rocks - 3334 466 322 1164 1 -
Sea Otter Island - - 398 51 541 227 -
Sea Lion Rocks 1600 302 121 127 432 21 -
Marmot Island 1425 4,157 8.256 3655 98.62 7670 -
Long Island - - O 62 O - -
Cape Chiniak - - - 883 365 122 -
Gull Point - - - 28 145 - -
Cape Barnabas 540 1598 - 120 364 28 -
Twoheaded Island 2740 28.10 - 1636 1615 1469 -
Cape Sitkinak 470 343 - 257 120 302 -
Chirikof Island - 1742 - 3879 2391 5332 -
Nagai Rocks - - - 1401 657 554 -
Cape Ikolik - - - 425 385 1213 -
Cape Ugat - - - 222 O O -
Cape Gull - - - O 207 - -
Takli Island Rocks - - - 1014 1877 700 413
Puale Bay - - - 1014 1877 10000 14234+
TOTALS 7360 27.083 16788 15484 301.02 27639 14647+
rookeries are present on Sugarloaf (Barren Islands),
Marmot, and Chirikof Islands (Fig. 5.92). In 1976
these three rookeries produced about 11,000 pups, or an
estimated 93 percent of the Kodiak Area production and
about 60 percent of the pup production of the entire
Gulf of Alaska (Calkins and Pitcher, 1977).
The seasonal pelagic distribution of sea lions is
shown in Fig. 5.93. These observations indicate that
Sea lions range out to the shelf break throughout the
year (Mercer et al., 1977).
Figure 5.93 Marine sightings of northern (Steller)
sea lion for various seasons (Mercer et al., 1977).
NORTHERN SEA LION
January–March
150° 149° 148°
147°
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149°
NORTHERN SEA LION
July–September
150° 149° 148°
147°
59°
57°
NORTHERN SEA LION
April-June
150° 149°
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149°
NORTHERN SEA LION
October–December
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149°



Biology
Considerable movement of sea lions in the Gulf of
Alaska (Fig 5.94) has been detected by observing indi-
viduals branded on their natal rookeries (Calkins and
Pitcher, 1979). Fig. 5.94 illustrates the extent of
some of this movement. These movements appear to be
a combination of dispersal of the young and seasonal
movements. Calkins and Pitcher (1979) report that of
6,429 pups branded in 1975 and 1976 at Marmot Island
(66 percent) and Sugarloaf Island (34 percent), only a
few (less than 4 percent) were resighted in 1978 as
two- or three-year-olds. Of those resighted at Sugar-
loaf, 53 percent were branded there as pups and the
150°
- 0 - - - - -oo-
---
- 0 in 20 ºn 40 to male-
-E-i-
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148°
Figure 5.94 Movements of branded northern (Steller)
sea lions (Calkins and Pitcher, 1977).
remainder were branded at Marmot Island. Sea lions
have largely moved away from their rookeries of birth
and have been sighted at haulouts from Chirikof and the
Semidi Islands in the southwest to Cape St. Elias in
the northeast. Studies at the latter site and Sugar-
loaf Island indicate differences in haulout patterns
for branded sea lions. Branding studies such as these
yield considerable information on the dispersal and
seasonal movements of sea lions, which may be extremely
important in estimating any long-term impact of spills
or blowouts, should adverse effects to this species be
found (Calkins and Pitcher, 1979).
Northern fur seals occur throughout the Gulf of
Alaska (Fiscus et al., 1976; Marine Mammal Division,
1978). During April through June they are most abun-
dant along the continental shelf and on the banks off
Kodiak Island, where large schools of capelin and
Pacific sand lance are also found (Fig. 5.95). Almost
all of the approximately 1,500,000 animals in the
Pribilof Islands breeding population migrate through
the Kodiak area (Baker et al., 1963). Southward migra"
tion begins in August with immature animals, and older
animals continue through the area until the end of
March. The northward migration to the Pribilof breed-
ing grounds begins in March and continues through June.
Peak populations are present in the gulf during June
and are lowest from August through October. Calkins
(ADF&G, pers. comm.) reports that six northern fur
seals, including females up to six years old, spent two
to three weeks on the Barren Islands during June and
July 1978. The harvest of this species in the
Pribilofs employs about 450 people. The cost of the
harvest program, about $3.2 million annually, is
slightly in excess of the value of the furs when sold
(USDC, 1979).
The land-breeding harbor seal is the most abundant
pinniped of coastal Alaska from Dixon Entrance to the
Bering Sea. An ice-breeding harbor seal Phoca larga is
found in the Bering Sea and Arctic waters. A common
resident of coastal waters throughout the area, harbor
seals are found at times in rivers and even some fresh-
water lakes. Haulout areas include offshore rocks,
sandbars, and beaches of remote islands. Floating ice
pans calved from glaciers, when available, are used for
hauling out. During winter, ice shelves which form at
the heads of bays are frequently used as hauling plat"
forms.







240 Biology
170° 165° 160 ° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°
200miles
E
NORTHERN FUR SEALS
| O seals/hr. of effort
<2 seals/hr. of effort
2–5 seals/hr. of effort
>5 seals/hr. of eff
O
140° 135
165° 160 ° 155° 150 ° 145
Figure 5.95 Sightings of northern fur seals in the Gulf of Alaska for 1958 through 1974 (Marine Mammal Division, 1978).

Biology 241
Harbor seals occur all along the shoreline of the
Kodiak Archipelago (ADF&G, 1973; Pitcher and Calkins,
1977; Fig. 5.96). Although this species is not usually
believed to congregate in dense colonies, many areas of
high density (10 or more animals) are found in the
Kodiak area (Table 5.57). The largest known concentra-
tion of harbor seals is found on Tugidak Island
(13,000). Concentrations of 100 to 800 animals have
been observed on Sitkinak Island, Geese Islands,
Aiaktalik Island, Ugak Bay, and Ayakulik River. The
pupping and molting seasons frequently produce the
highest population counts, suggesting that the species
needs to haul out at these times. If so, it may be
particularly sensitive to human disturbance during
pupping and molt periods (B. W. Johnson, 1977).
Figure 5.96 Locations of major (greater than 150
seals) harbor seal concentrations in the Kodiak Island/
Shelikof Strait area (Pitcher and Calkins, 1979). The
number of seals observed at each numbered location is
listed in Table 5.57.
60°
59°
58°
579
56°
155°
I
149°
MAJOR HARBOR SEAL CONCENTRATIONS
l
155°
15.4°
153°
1529
1519
150°
149°
148°
56°


242 Biology
Table 5.57 Observed harbor seal populations over 150
individuals (Pitcher and Calkins, 1979).
Location Number of
Seals Observed
1* Latax Rocks 175
2 Hog Island 160
3 Kalsin Bay 200
4-8 Ugak Bay and Islands 2,367+
9 NE Kiluda Bay 160
10-13 Sitkalidak Island area 248
14 Geese Islands 670
15 Aiaktalik Island 635
16–18 Sitkinak Island 1,450
19-20 Tugidak Island 13,960
21 Aliulik Peninsula 200
22 Middle Reef 150
23 Sukhoi Lagoon 350
24-25 Ayakulik River and Island 175
26 Alf Island 250
157° 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148° 147°
-- 0 ~ - tºo º too ºn
----E-E-
to o to 20 30 -0 -m-
------E-E-
HARBOR SEAL
ºr- l l l 1 l l 1– l
156° 155° 15.4° 153° 152° 151° 150° 149° 148°
*Localities indicated by number on Fig. 5.96.
Pelagic sightings of harbor seals in April through
October 1958 through 1976 (Fiscus et al., 1976) are
shown in Fig. 5.97. These sightings indicate that
harbor seals are usually found in waters less than
200 m deep during these months.
Figure 5.97 Distribution of marine sightings of
harbor seals, 1958 through 1976 (Fiscus et al., 1976).
Population Dynamics
Northern sea lion females become sexually mature
at three to six years of age and males at about four
years of age, although males may have to be much older
to successfully compete for breeding territories and
access to estrous females. Eighty-one percent of all
collected females were found to be pregnant (Calkins
and Pitcher, 1978). Pupping takes place from late May
to mid-July, with a peak early in June (Calkins and
Pitcher, 1977, 1978).
This species is polygynous. Males control breed-
ing territories. Most breeding by males occurs by
territorial bulls with estrous females on their terri-
tories. Some males have semi-aquatic territories,
which could result in an increased exposure to oil.
Mortality of a significant percentage of the breeding
male population, even though it represented only a
small percentage of the total male population, could
have long-term genetic effects on the population as
reproduction would necessarily be carried out by less
competitive males. Because males frequently fast
during the breeding season, they may be more vulnerable
to disease, pollution, or changes in prey abundance
after the season than other age/sex classes. Data on
the vulnerability of the breeding males to petroleum
development activities are needed.
Braham et al., (1977) have documented a 40-50
percent decrease in the sea lion population of the
eastern Aleutian Islands over the last 10 years, but
have not identified a single cause. There is currently
no evidence that a similar decline is taking place in
the Kodiak area (Table 5.56).
The Alaskan northern fur seal population (about
1.5 million) is managed by harvesting subadult males to
produce the maximum net productivity (largest harvest-
able numbers on a sustained basis; Scheffer, 1972).
The population is therefore held below carrying
capacity (maximal numbers). The sex ratio and age dis-
tribution of the population is also manipulated for
maximum harvest (Marine Mammal Division, 1978). Most
of the Pribilof population migrate through, or winter
in, the Gulf of Alaska. Northern fur seal movements
through the Gulf of Alaska are complex, with seasonal
variations in number, age, and sex. During the winter
adult males probably concentrate in the Gulf of Alaska,
while adult females move farther south along the coast,
reaching as far south as California (Fiscus et al.,
1976). The movements of immature animals resemble
those of adult females. By April the adult males start
to move toward the breeding grounds as females become
more numerous in the Gulf of Alaska. With the major

Biology 243
movement of adult females, the gulf population reaches
a peak in May. By late June or early July the popu-
lation in the gulf consists almost entirely of im-
matures. As the immatures also move toward the breed-
ing grounds, the gulf population reaches its lowest
numbers during August through October. Adult males
would be most vulnerable to the effects of OCS develop-
ment during spring, early summer, and early winter.
Immatures might be exposed on a year-round basis to
potential oil-related impacts, but less so during
August through October.
Harbor seal females become sexually mature at four
to five years of age, males at about seven years of
age. About 91 percent of all collected females five
years old or older were found to be pregnant. Pupping
takes place from mid-May to late June, with a peak in
mid-June. About 23 to 36 percent of females and 32 to
50 percent of males collected were immature (Pitcher
and Calkins, 1978; 1979).
Trophics
Pinnipeds eat a variety of invertebrates and fish.
Generally, small schooling fish such as herring
(Clupeidae) are swallowed whole under water while
larger prey are consumed at the surface, where they are
reduced to small pieces by violent shaking (Spalding,
1964).
In a large sampling effort, Calkins and Pitcher
(1978) reported on the stomach contents of 193 northern
sea lions collected in the Gulf of Alaska. They found
that the species eats about 6 percent by volume inver-
tebrates, 93.9 percent fish, and 0.1 percent mammals,
with capelin and walleye pollock the most commonly
eaten fishes. In the Kodiak area they report that, of
total prey items, the species eats about 54 percent
capelin and 25 percent walleye pollock (Table 5.58).
The remains of a harbor seal were found in one of the
71 stomachs they examined from the Kodiak area.
Spalding (1964) reports that sea lions feed mostly
during darkness.
The diet of the northern fur seal in the Gulf of
Alaska consists of about 32 percent cephalopods and 68
percent fish (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission, 1975),
with Pacific sand lance (about 25 percent) and walleye
pollock (18 percent) the most common fishes (Table
5.58). Combined data for western Alaska and the Gulf
of Alaska indicate a diet of 25 percent invertebrates
and 75 percent fish, with squid (26 percent) and wall-
eye pollock (32 percent) the major prey (North Pacific
Fur Seal Commission, 1975). During the winter fur
seals feeding off the Washington and British Columbia
COasts Were found to eat 20 percent salmon
(Oncorhynchus spp.), 18 percent each of Pacific herring
(Clupea harengus pallasi) and northern anchovy
(Engraulis mordax), 12 percent of each of rockfish
(Sebastes spp.) and squid (Teuthoidea), and 6 percent
capelin (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission, 1975). In
general, fur seals collected over the continental shelf
tend to feed on fishes, while those collected beyond
the shelf feed mostly on Squid. Like northern sea
lions, this species feeds mainly at night (Spalding,
1964), but also during daylight.
Harbor seals feed during daylight, mostly in
nearshore waters (Spalding, 1964). Their diet in the
Gulf of Alaska is about 30 percent invertebrates and 70
percent fish (Pitcher and Calkins, 1978). In the
Kodiak area octopus (Octopus sp.) (30 percent) and
capelin (23 percent) were found to be the major prey
(Table 5.58).
Table 5.58 Identification of the prey from the
stomachs of northern sea lions (N = 71), northern fur
seals (N = 172), and harbor seals (N = 102). *
Northern Harbor
Northern
Prey species sea lion fur seal seal
(percent (percent (percent
total) volume) total)
Invertebrates
Gastropods tº- * > tr
Cephalopods 1.4 32.5 29.5
Crustaceans 0.4 tr 2.2
Unid. Invertebrate 0.1 tº º tr
Fishes
Skates 6.6 tº tº tr
Salmon 1. 7 5.2 2.9
Herring * - º 1.5 4.2
Capelin 54.0 12.3 21.2
Eulachon tº-e {- 4.6
Walleye pollock 24.8 18.0 5.8
Other gadids 8. 1 7 tr
Eelpouts 0.1 tº- tr
Rockfish * > tºº tr
Greenlings tº- tº- tr
Cottids 0.1 iſ a 6.6
Pacific sandfish tº 5 0.1 tr
Ronquil {- t- tr
Pacific sand lance - 25. 0 1. 1
Pleuronectids 0.7 tº º 5.8
Unid. fish 0.3 1.4 0.5
Mammals
Harbor seal 1. 7 tº º tº
* Data on Northern Sea Lions and Harbor Seals are from
animals collected in the Kodiak Area (Calkins and
Pitcher, 1978; Pitcher and Calkins, 1979); data on
Northern Fur Seals are from animals collected in the
#, of Alaska (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission,
1975).
244 Biology
Effects of development on pinniped activity near rook-
eries and haulout areas
Harbor seals and other pinnipeds are known to
panic easily when disturbed by humans or low-flying
aircraft (B.W. Johnson, 1977; Loughrey, 1959). Such
disturbances could lead to separation of mothers and
pups and accidental injury or death of pups in any
Species. When adults return to colonies after such
panics there may be an unusually high level of terri-
torial aggression, which is potentially injurious to
pups and adults. Intentional repeated harassment in
British Columbia was effective in causing abandonment
of traditional northern sea lion rookeries (Bigg, pers.
Comm.).
Petroleum
Oiled and dead pinnipeds have been found after
Several oil spills, but in almost all cases investi-
gators have been unable to directly attribute mortality
to oil (Simpson and Gilmartin, 1970; Brownell and
LeBoeuf, 1971; LeBoeuf, 1971; Spooner, 1967; Warner,
1969; Davis and Anderson, 1976).
Kooyman et al. (1976) and Kooyman et al., (1977)
showed that oiling doubled the thermal conductance of
the pelts of northern fur seals, increased the con-
ductance somewhat in the pelt of a Weddell seal
(Leptonychotes weddelli), but had no effect on the
pelts of a California sea lion or a bearded seal
(Erignathus barbatus). These results indicate that
oiling would seriously reduce the insulative properties
of northern fur seals' pelage, which could make them
unable to endure prolonged immersion in cold water.
Geraci and Smith (1977) placed ringed seals (Pusa
hispida) in oil-covered water and observed irritation
and inflammation of the eyes within eight minutes.
After 24 hours of exposure the seals' eyes had severe
conjunctivitis, swollen nictitating membranes, and
evidence of corneal erosions and ulcers. Twenty hours
after the seals had been placed in clean sea water the
eyes showed no signs of irritation. No other effects
of oil immersion were observed in these seals.
Animals may ingest oil from a spill either direct-
ly or through feeding on contaminated prey. Moore and
Dwyer (1974) have reported that ingested volatile
petroleum fractions of low molecular weight can cause
acute cytotoxic damage in many marine organisms. More
subtle organ damage may result from repeated ingestion
of less volatile fractions. Geraci and Smith (1976)
found that ringed seals rapidly absorbed crude oil into
body tissues and fluids, ultimately excreting them via
the bile and urine. Harp seals fed 75 ml of crude oil
showed evidence of tissue damage. These results
suggest that accidental ingestion of oil may not be
immediately harmful to phocids. The long-term effects
of ingestion of oil-contaminated food have not yet been
studied. Geraci and Smith (1977) reported "transient"
kidney and liver lesions in ringed seals in oil-covered
water. They attributed these to the inhalation of
volatile hydrocarbons.
Pups may depend more on their pelage for heat con-
servation than adults because they have little blubber
at birth and a poor surface-area-to-volume ratio. Some
phocid pups have a thick lanugal coat and swim soon
after birth. Otariid pups usually do not swim until
several weeks after birth. Both may be adaptations for
heat conservation until blubber layers are built up.
If so, pup vulnerability to oil-induced hypothermia may
be significantly greater than that of adults.
5.8. 4 Sea otter
The sea otter is the only member of the family
Mustelidae that is exclusively marine. There is ap-
parently no record of wild sea otters entering fresh
water (Kenyon, 1972). The species inhabits inshore
waters rich in bottom fauna, usually along rocky
coasts. This is the smallest of the marine mammals.
The forepaws are adapted for grasping food and groom-
ing, and are not usually used for swimming. The hind-
paws are broadly flattened and adapted for the sea
otter's unique habit of swimming on its back on the
surface. The fur consists of a layer of guard hairs
about 3.8 cm long and an underlayer of dense fur about
3.2 cm long. Sea otters have no blubber and rely on
air trapped in the fur for insulation. Much time is
spent grooming.
The species is unique in that it sleeps, eats, and
carries and nurses its young while resting or swimming
on its back on the surface. Its normal swimming speed
on the surface is about 3 km/hr, and its escape speed
under water has been estimated at about 10 km/hr
(Kenyon, 1972). Otters can dive to about 60 m. Estes
(1977) found that the mean diving time during feeding
in water up to 9 m was about 45 seconds, and in water 9
to 27 m deep, about 84 seconds.
Biology 245
Distribution º
1570 1569 155° 154° 153° 1529 151° 15O2 149° 148° 147°
High densities of sea otters are found on the
60°
Barren Islands, Shuyak-Afognak Islands, and the Trinity lº. º
Islands and Chirikof Island areas (Schneider, 1976) %
(Fig. 5.98). The Barren Islands population is thought
to be at the carrying capacity of the habitat. This EI
population does not appear to be supplying animals to
repopulate areas where the species occurred before
being almost exterminated by commercial hunting (1742
to 1911). The Shuyak-Afognak population is now quite
dense and appears to be supplying animals which are 59°
repopulating the former range of the species to the
southwest. Sea otters have been sighted throughout the
shallow waters southeast of Kodiak Island, but only two
established breeding groups have been found: the
Trinity Islands (the larger) and around Chirikof
Island. Sea otter densities in these areas are be-
lieved to be well below the capacity of the habitat but 58°
numbers are increasing. Sea otters have been present
in the Semidi Islands at least since 1957. The present
population is small and does not occupy all available
habitat.
57°
SEA OTTER
Present but not well established
| | Well established but below carrying
CapaCity
At or near Carrying capacity
- Direction of range expansion
- 56°
Figure 5.98 Distribution and range expansion patterns
of sea otter populations around the Kodiak archipelago
(Schneider, 1976; pers. comm.).
I I l l
1519 15O2 149° 148°




246 Biology
Population Dynamics
The Kodiak area population of sea otters was
hunted to a very low level by the turn of the century.
Under protection the species has recovered, and some
areas may have reached carrying capacity. Animals from
these areas are now recolonizing the former range of
the species (Schneider, 1976). Moderate-to-high densi-
ties are expected to build up in Marmot and Chiniak
Bays within the next 5 to 10 years. Eventually this
population will probably merge with the Trinity Islands
population. The Trinity Islands/Chirikof Island popu-
lation is below the habitat's carrying capacity and is
increasing in size. The population is expected to grow
for many years and eventually repopulate the almost
10,000 kn” of suitable sea otter habitat lying between
Kodiak and Chirikof Islands (Schneider, 1976). Sea
Otters breed throughout the year, with a peak in breed-
ing activity and births in the fall and winter.
Trophics •
Kenyon (1969) found that sea otter feeding habitat
on Amchitka Island was limited to the intertidal and
sublittoral regions within the 60-m depth contour.
From the examination of 309 sea otter stomachs he found
that about 98 percent of their diet consisted of
molluscs, echinoderms, and fish (Table 5.59). The
species has a relatively high metabolic rate for its
size (Morrison et al., 1977), which is supported by a.
daily food consumption of from one-fifth to one-fourth
of body weight. Estes and Palmisano (1974) estimated
that sea otters eat about 35,000 kg/kmé/yr of animal
biomass on Amchitka. Sea otters thus are key members
of nearshore marine communities and are important in
determining community structure.
Table 5.59 Identification of prey from the stomachs of
309 sea otters from Amchitka Island (Kenyon, 1969).
Prey Item % Volume Minimum Frequency
of Occurrence
Annelids 1 2
Crustaceans <1 5
Molluscs 37 16
Echinoderms 11 58
Tunicates <1 4
Fish 50 35
Role as a key species
Considerable evidence, both from California (Estes
and Palmisano, 1974) and the Aleutian Islands
(Palmisano and Estes, 1977; Simenstad et al., 1978),
indicates that the sea otter is a key species in deter-
mining the structure of nearshore communities. Sea
otters control herbivorous invertebrate populations and
indirectly affect wave exposure and the composition of
the rocky intertidal community (Fig. 5.99). In areas
with dense sea otter populations, sea urchins, limpets,
and chitons are reduced to sparse populations of small
individuals; macroalgae flourish, providing food and
shelter for a variety of organisms, especially crusta-
ceans; wave exposure is reduced, siltation increases;
and overall productivity is high. In contrast, similar
areas with few or no sea otters have dense populations
of large herbivores; macroalgae are severely over-
grazed; bare rocky substrates are exposed to wave
action; and overall productivity is low.
Effects of petroleum development
Sea otters are especially vulnerable to the ef-
fects of petroleum development in the region. Because
they rely on their dense pelage for insulation, fouling
of it by oil may cause severe thermal stress. Labora-
tory studies show that oiling of sea otters has re-
sulted in death and severe stress (Kooyman and Costa,
1979). These results have led to the prediction that
mortality among oiled sea otters would be high. How-
ever, during the summer of 1979 several wild sea otters
were oiled, fitted with radio collars, and released in
Prince William Sound (costa and Kooyman, 1979). These
animals were then tracked and observed for several
weeks. During the course of the experiment there was
Biology 247
no known mortality nor evidence that the oiling af-
fected the health of any of the otters. Sea otters DENSE Low herbivore Extensive s] Reduced wave Increased Reduction of Reduction
tº gº densities littl zed exposure siltation sessile in the size
have a basal metabolic rate about 2.5 times that of (sea urchins) º: ; Hºte: * #: predators
tº e tº © - - barnacles Sea Stars
other mammals of their size. Captive animals support beds * Increased algal and mussels) and snails)
e - - \ © E &
their metabolic rate by consumption of about 25 percent e | |= for
e & g © e M gº
of their body weight daily. The species thus is also .*.*.* \ 1.
& gº º Abundant \ Reduction of
vulnerable to any reduction in its food supply. wº algal drift, z- Hiqh densi f snail shells
tº tº gº & © gº debris, detritus High density *~ º ensity.o
The available evidence indicates that in mild of herbivorous predaceous fish
& tº * tº Crustaceans
weather sea otters can survive the effects of oiling (amphipods, Reduction of
e isopods, and hermi
s. In cold weathe V º ermit Crab
for several week I r, however, mortality mysids) populations
would probably be high. Long-term effects are not
known, but could endanger some local populations and \
& © Abundance of Bald Eagles Abundance of Harbor seals
seriously retard the repopulation of former sea otter
habitats (Costa and Kooyman, 1979).
SEA OTTER
POPULATION
High herbivore Dense populations of Large predaceous
ABSENT densities (sea z- iº, * Sessile invertebrates sea stars and Yº... *::::
urchins) grazed (barnacles and mussels) snails
marine
algal
\ beds Sparse populati f Sparse
zº- On S O gº
§:"#. herbivorous crustaceans populations of Dense hermit.
(amphipods, isopods, etc.) predaceous fish crab population
\ \
> Bald Eagles absent Fewer Harbor
or fewer Seals

Figure 5.99 Diagram of interactions within nearshore communities with and without sea otter populations (Palmisano
and Estes, 1977).
248 Biology
5.8.5 Terrestrial mammals
Kodiak and adjacent islands hold a population of
2,000-3,000 brown bears (Ursus arctos), which has
changed little in recent times (ADF&G, 1973). Denning
areas, where the bears winter, are found inland at
higher elevations. In the spring the bears move to
lower elevations, especially to coastal areas, to make
use of limited herbaceous forage. From July through
September, and on some streams until November, brown
bears concentrate on all of the salmon streams in the
area. This food resource is thought to be critical to
the maintenance of this high-density population, es-
pecially for the segment of the population which enters
winter dens late in the year (ADF&G, 1973).
The Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus
Sitkensis) was introduced between 1923 and 1934 to
Kodiak, where it has done well and is still increasing
(ADF&G, 1973). During the winter these populations are
forced into a narrow strip along the beach (Fig.
5. 100), where forage is usually of poor quality.
During these periods plant material (beach grass,
Sedges, and kelp) on beaches and in the intertidal zone
may be the only available food. Contamination by oil
of this limited food supply in winter would probably be
fatal to a large proportion of these already-stressed
populations.
Murie (1959) reports that river otters (Lutra
canadensis) and red (Vulpes fulva) and Arctic foxes
(Alopex lagopus) make heavy use of the coastal and
marine environments. River otters are reported to
frequent salt water and often swim to islands near the
coast. River otters are also vulnerable to fouling of
their pelage. Both species of foxes depend on a diet
of beach fleas, clams, crabs, marine birds, and fish
and other beach carrion.
155°
|
|
SITKA BLACK–TAILED
DEER
Winter range
I |
155°
154°
153° 152°
58°
57°
Figure 5. 100
Winter coastal distribution of Sitka
black-tailed deer (ADF&G, 1973).



Biology
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CHAPTER 6 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT
M. J. Hameedi, OCSEAP
6. 1 RELEVANCE
In order to achieve a reliable environmental
assessment, we must attempt to predict the amounts and
nature of petroleum resources and the magnitude of
potential environmental disturbances and contaminant
discharges, as well as to foresee what changes develop-
ment activities themselves will bring. We need infor-
mation about:
O the forms and relative amounts of petroleum
hydrocarbons development is expected to
produce (i.e., natural gas, gas condensate
fluids, or crude oil)
O the number and locations of logistical sup-
port and supply bases
O the technology and facilities required for
the extraction, processing, storage, and
transportation of petroleum hydrocarbons
O the probable quantities and nature of regu-
lated or accidental discharges of contami-
nants.
This information, combined with environmental data
on the transport of pollutants, locations of sensitive
habitats, and probable adverse effects of contaminants
on biota, can be used to guide offshore petroleum
development in such a way as to reduce to a minimum
both conflicts among users of the resources and harmful
effects on the environmental quality of the region.
The analysis of combined data forms an integral part of
the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) prepared in
anticipation of the lease sale. The Kodiak lease sale
is scheduled for December 1980.
OCSEAP has identified three subtasks to obtain
data and information on the probable sources, nature,
and magnitude of environmental disturbances that might
be associated with offshore petroleum development.
These subtasks are:
1. Obtain and continually update estimates of
the location, nature, and timing of platform,
pipelines, and facility development in each
lease area.
2. Estimate the quantity and physical and chemi-
cal nature of contaminants from each poten-
tial source based on projected design charac-
teristics and operating methods, as well as
on experience with petroleum development
operations in other locations.
3. Estimate the nature and amount of possible
environmental disturbance likely to accompany
development.
The Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Geological
Survey are the major sources of information on petro-
leum development offshore. Other sources are the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, the Council on Envi-
ronmental Quality, the U.S. Coast Guard, the State of
Alaska, and the petroleum industry. But because there
has been no petroleum exploration in this area, much of
the information on which these tasks are based is pre-
liminary, initial projections of sources and amounts of
pollution and other environmental conditions are impre-
cise and largely speculative, and the prospects of the
commercially attractive petroleum reserves are uncer-
tain. More reliable estimates of development activities
will become available as the size and types of petro-
leum resources become known after exploration. This
account will be modified and updated as additional data
6. 2 DATA EVALUATION
Much of the information about development activi-
ties in this chapter is based on development scenarios
included in the draft Environmental Impact Statement
for Sale #46 and related studies conducted for the
Bureau of Land Management (BLM, 1979b; BLM, 1979 c; and
USDI, 1980b). It is based on current estimates of mean
resources and several production assumptions made in
the draft EIS. For example, it was assumed that geo-
logical formations exist in this area favorable to the
accumulation of petroleum hydrocarbons that can be
recovered in commercial quantities, and that all pro-
duction will consist of natural gas and gas condensate
only. Data on different production alternatives and
modifications of the proposed action are given in USDI
(1980).
Current projections of the types and number of
platforms, location of onshore facilities, and the
timing of development activites are imprecise and
largely speculative. They will be modified as explora-
tion proceeds and development plans are submitted. A
part of the account of environmental disturbances is
based on data from other parts of the world where
offshore petroleum production and associated activities
have taken place, e.g., the North Sea. Such data may
not be applicable to the Kodiak region.
The statements and data in this chapter are not
intended to suggest a development scheme or a predic-
tion of events in Kodiak. Any specific facility site
mentioned represents only one plausible location within
the wide range of alternatives that might be considered
become available.
before final selection.

Development 253
6.3 LOCATIONS, NATURE, AND TIMING OF THE DEVELOPMENT
OF PLATFORM, PIPELINE, AND FACILITIES
The continental shelf east of the Kodiak Archi-
pelago has been proposed for petroleum exploration and
development. According to the current OCS leasing
schedule, up to 564 tracts may be offered for sale in
December 1980 (Sale #46). Geological and seismic data
obtained by the U.S. Geological Survey indicate re-
coverable petroleum hydrocarbon resources in the
western Gulf of Alaska. However, estimates of petro-
leum resources in the area are poorly defined and have
changed significantly over the years. A large part of
the resources is believed to be in the Albatross Basin.
Much lesser quantities are expected in Tugidak and
Portlock Basins.
Geologically, Albatross Basin is divided into
several discontinuous arches or smaller basins. The
western, shoreward side of the basin appears to be
formed by a faulted and deformed zone that may be a
major crustal boundary. This zone could serve either
as a barrier or as a passageway to oil and gas migrat-
ing from the deeper sedimentary basin to the east (BLM
1979b). The outcrops along the eastern coast of the
Kodiak Archipelago are both marine and non-marine in
character and overlie metamorphic rocks of pre-Tertiary
age. This evidence suggests that the Sale #46 area is
more likely to produce natural gas and gas condensate
than crude oil. Natural gas consists principally of
methane (as much as 90 percent by volume) and small
amounts of ethane, propane, isobutane, and nonhydrocar-
bon gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
Occasionally it contains small amounts of liquid hydro-
carbons such as pentanes and hexanes. Gas condensate
is a low-molecular-weight hydrocarbon mixture that is
gaseous in the ground but condenses into liquid when
produced (Hunt, 1979).
paraffins with five to ten carbon atoms (comparable to
It may include short-chained
the gasoline fraction). Its extraction in liquid form
may require some sort of chilling process.
Natural gas, specifically methane, is formed
during diagenesis from microbial alteration of organic
matter and during cata genesis and metamorphism by the
thermal degradation of organic matter. The heavier
hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane, and butane are
formed principally after diagenic methane formation and
before the peak cata genic generation of methane. This
difference in the time of formation of hydrocarbons
causes them to be distributed vertically in many ba-
sins. Thus dry gas is found on the stable shelf in the
diagenic zone, heavier gas in the deeper catagenic
zone, and dry gas in the deepest parts of the basin.
This pattern occurs in many sedimentary basins through-
out the world (Hunt, 1979), but it is not known if such
a pattern also occurs off Kodiak. Further, the type of
organic matter and the amount of source material deter-
mine the relative amounts of natural gas and gas con-
densate reserves: sapropilic marine material (spores
and planktonic algae with high lipid content), besides
generating ethane, propane, and butane, produces about
twice as much methane as humic material does. Humic
material of continental origin generates mainly methane
with only traces of higher hydrocarbons (Hunt, 1979).
Accurate information on this subject for the
Kodiak region is not presently available to OCSEAP.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USDI, 1980) estimates
resources as of March 1979 as follows:
—-mm-
Maximum Mean Minimum
Gas condensate, 501 176 22
million barrels (MMbbl.)
Natural gas, 13.9 5. 35 0.91
trillion cubic feet (tcf)
Proprietary data from three stratigraphic tests
conducted along the central part of the Albatross Bašin
(probably in synclinal areas) between May and October
1977 suggest potential petroleum reserves in the area
(BLM, 1979b).
Post-lease petroleum operations can be divided
into four phases--exploration, development, production,
and shutdown. Since tracts within a lease area vary in
potential, these phases vary in duration from one tract
to another, and often overlap. Other factors determin-
ing the timing and extent of activities during the
various phases include market conditions, proximity of
logistical support and shore facilities, environmental
conditions, Federal, state, and local development
policies, and the availability of suitable land for the
construction of onshore service and supply bases.
Should initial exploration efforts prove successful,
follow-up sales in the vicinity may cause a consolida-
tion of these activities and/or overlap of phases.
When the supplies of extractable petroleum hydrocarbons
are exhausted in the producing field, the production
platforms are removed, and the associated equipment and
structures are dismantled and carried away.
254 Development
6.3.1 Exploration
Exploratory drilling usually starts within five to
twelve months after a lease sale. In the northeastern
Gulf of Alaska (NEGOA Sale #39) drilling of exploratory
Wells was begun on the most promising tracts within one
year of the sale date. Exploration wells were usually
3,000-4,500 m deep. There are insufficient geological
data to identify ranges of reservoir depths that may be
encountered in the Kodiak region. In the draft En-
vironmental Impact Statement for Sale #46, the average
well depth of forty production wells is assumed to be
1,980 m (USDI, 1980b). Exploration drilling ordinarily
takes about three months to complete under optimum
conditions. Upon completion, whether a find has been
made or not, the wells are plugged and the rig moved to
another tract. Plugging a well does not always signify
abandonment of the field; often where a strike is made
near unleased tracts findings may be kept secret by the
operators pending a sale of unleased tracts. If re-
sources approximate the mean case, 24 exploration and
delineation wells will probably be drilled in the Sale
#46 area (USDI, 1980b).
If a discovery is made, additional wells are
drilled nearby to determine the extent of the resource.
Where the reservoir underlies tracts held by different
companies, the leaseholders may choose to unitize the
leases, that is, to agree who is to operate the block
and how costs and profits are to be shared.
In the Sale #39 tracts, exploratory drilling was
carried out by semisubmersible rigs such as the SEDCO
706 (Shell), Ocean Ranger (ARCO), Alaskan Star (Exxon),
Ocean Bounty (Texaco), and Aleutian Key (Gulf). It is
expected that semisubmersibles or possibly drillships
will be used off Kodiak, although jack-up rigs may be
used in water less than 50 m deep. Severe environmen-
tal conditions (including high waves, storms, and
potential geological hazards) in the western gulf, have
limited the use of other types of rigs in the area. A
semisubmersible or drillship is much less vulnerable to
geological hazards than a jack-up rig.
The requirements for shore facilities supporting
petroleum exploration are varied. Often facility
siting is the result of a compromise between technical
criteria and environmental and socioeconomic suita-
bility. Temporary service bases established for the
exploration phase following Sale #39 were established
at Yakutat, Seward, and Yakataga. Of these sites, only
Seward is close enough to the proposed lease tracts of
Sale #46 to serve as a service base. A new service
base could be constructed in the Chiniak Bay area.
Aircraft support could probably be supplied from air-
fields at Seward, Kodiak City, and Cape Chiniak.
Several deep bays in the western gulf are potential
sites for the construction of a new service base
(Woodward-Clyde Consultants 1977, cited in BLM 1979b).
The Municipality of Kodiak, Coast Guard facili-
ties, and a large seafood processing facility are
located at Chiniak Bay. In order to make sites in this
area acceptable for operations beyond the exploration
phase, extensive dredging would be required. On the
other hand, Kiliuda and Ugak Bays, although little
developed, have deep water close to shore, ample turn-
ing space for tankers, and relatively flat land adja-
cent to the coastline (BLM, 1979b). Biological and
other environmental considerations will undoubtedly
influence the final selection process.
Ancillary support equipment during the exploratory
stage will include supply boats to serve exploratory
rigs and helicopters to transport personnel and some
supplies. The extent to which these are required will
depend on the number of exploratory rigs and their
proximity to onshore service locations. In the Sale
#39 area as many as 13 service vessels used the Seward
service base during peak exploratory operations, with
six in port at one time. This high level of activity
is not expected in Kodiak, two rigs requiring four or
five service vessels seem likely.
According to Kramer et al. (1978), typical supply
vessels have a range of 300-500 km and are from 49 to
64 m long. Large helicopters are used wherever pos-
sible because they conserve fuel and work better in
inclement weather. In Sale #39, one or two trips from
Yakutat were made to each rig every day.
6.3.2. Development and production
Even if exploration is successful, petroleum
production is not likely to begin until 1987. The
development and construction of shore facilities and
pipelines could be started in 1984. Definitive devel-
opment scenarios, probable levels of industrial activi-
ties, and site-specific environmental data are not now
available but will be before the approval of deve-
lopment plans. This account should, therefore, be read
with reservations. It is based on the development of
mean estimates of hydrocarbon resources. It also
reflects the judgement that all production will consist
of natural gas and gas condensate only. Different
assumptions regarding future levels of exploration and
development costs, operating expenses, the price and
market for natural gas and gas liquids, taxation, and
depreciation would determine the extent and timetable
of industrial activities predicted for this area.
Assuming successful exploration, the following
factors, in addition to those related to market poten-
tial and economics of investment, will affect decisions
for development.
Development 255
Potential reserves and delineation of field size.
Estimates of resources in the Sale #46 area are
small compared with the 19 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas now used annually in the United States
and 292 million barrels of oil produced annually
from offshore U.S. wells. However, the use of
natural gas and petroleum liquids in Alaska is
expected to increase markedly. According to the
data compiled by the Division of Minerals and
Energy Management, State of Alaska, a 90-percent
increase in natural gas consumption and a 130-per-
cent increase in petroleum liquids consumption is
possible by the year 2000 (The Anchorage Times,
January 26, 1980).
Drilling depths. The time and effort required for
drilling depend on geological formations, the
number of wells to be drilled, and the depth of
resources. The depth of the sedimentary basins in
the Kodiak Tertiary Province is uncertain; deeper
portions of basins may be as much as 6,000 m below
the surface. According to the draft EIS (USDI,
1980b), 40 producing and service wells will have
an average depth of 1,980 m. Continental Offshore
Stratigraphic Test (C.O.S.T.) wells drilled in the
mid-region of Albatross Basin were from 2,596 to
3, 188 m deep (BLM, 1979b).
Water depth at the potential production field.
Resource economics, technical considerations, and
the time required for development of a particular
field are greatly affected by the water depth.
The minimum size of gas fields in Kodiak will
probably be 0.5–1.75 trillion cubic feet depending
on the total costs involved and the desired rate
of return on the investment. From price structure
and regulations specified by the National Gas
Policy Act of 1978 one study calculated that no
gas field regardless of size can earn a 15-percent
return in 183 m (600 feet) of water with produc-
tion limited to 24 wells producing 576 million
cubic feet per day over a year (BLM, 1979b). The
development of gas fields in deeper shelf areas
may not be attractive to the petroleum industry.
Operating conditions. Only the most extreme
weather and ocean conditions, such as storms or
high sea states, hamper drilling, development, or
production operations. Earthquakes and other
geological hazards pose a much bigger problem.
Offshore platform designs that might be used in
this area take into account seismicity and dif-
ferent soil responses; some are specific to
Alaskan conditions. Several recent papers on
seismic design for offshore platforms, cited in a
study sponsored by BLM (1979b), consider soil re-
sponses, soil-pile-structure systems, and re-
sponses of concrete platforms. Nonetheless, a
serious seismic event could halt drilling and
other operations and cause damage to pipelines and
onshore facilities.
Environmental impacts. Operators will have to
satisfy requirements of environmental safety and
comply with operating orders and specific stipu-
lations that will govern industrial activities.
Some of these regulations may limit certain ac-
tivities for a specific period. For example,
aircraft operations might be curtailed or banned
in the southern lease tracts during the harbor
seal pupping season (mid-May to mid-July). Noise
disturbance from low-flying aircraft is known to
have caused significant pup mortality at Tugidak
Island because of trampling by panicking adults
and abandonment by mothers.
6. Economic criteria. Since field development after
a discovery is guided principally by economics,
market conditions, and government regulations, a
decision criteria table is included here (Fig.
6.1). The economic criteria leading to field
development show the relationship of exploratory
data and environmental factors in the development
of a hypothetical offshore petroleum resource.
Such a relationship may be typical of the decision
process used by lease holders to develop their
tracts. An analysis of operating costs is not
included here because it requires identification
of technologies to develop, produce, process,
store, and transport hydrocarbon resources. A
standard resource economics model for the western
Gulf of Alaska is described by Dames and Moore
(BLM, 1979b).
Although it is too early to know the extent of OCS
petroleum development activities in Kodiak, some pro"
jections can be made.
Platforms
By the year 1989, four steel-jacketed, bottom"
founded production platforms may be installed. In this
platform type, the steel latticework is lowered to the
sea bottom and secured by piles driven 30–45 m into the
seabed. Then the deck is set on the base by a derrick
barge. The modules containing the production equip"
ment, support facilities, crew accommodations, and *
helicopter pad are also installed. Steel-jacket plat"
forms have been used successfully elsewhere and may be
256
Development
economically desirable in the Kodiak area. However,
they have no storage capacity and installation in the

seabed makes them vulnerable to geological hazards. At
GEO/POLITICAL FACTORS: EXPLORATORY DATA:
- Location f – Geophysical peak production, after 1989, some 40 production wells
- Water depth * - Geological © R. R. tº could be drilled from the four platforms (USDI, 1980b).
– Weather - Exploratory drilling &
- Governmental regulations - Delineation drilling The probable locations of these platforms cannot be
| | predicted.
| Although the use of steel-jacket platforms is
OPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS assumed, newly designed platforms evolving from those
| proposed for use in the North Sea may have applications
in the Kodiak area. Several "hybrid" platform designs
BOTTOM SUPPORTED PLATFORM DEVELOPMENT:
One or more drilling and production platforms SUBSEA DEVELOPMENT: combining facets of the steel-jacket, concrete gravity,
to bring field on Stream. All wells completed on ocean floor. and semisubmersible platforms are now available. Such
designs have evolved to offset the increasing costs of
| | "conventional" platforms with increasing water depth
MODIFIED PLATFORM DEVELOPMENT: and at the same time to meet the need for platforms
One or more satellite subsea DEEP WATER: & tº º
wells producing to initial Floating production platform suitable for developing small-to-moderate-size offshore
platform(s). reserves (BLM, 1979b).
APPROACH 1 APPROACH 3 APPROACH 5 APPROACH 7
PURE PLATFORM: COMBINATION PLATFORM &
No subsea well S. SUBSEA DEVELOPMENT: SHALLOW WATER: ANCHORED SEMI-
Additional drilling and Subsea wells for develop- Jack-up production SUBMERSIBLE
production platform(s) ing extensive areas beyond platform. SHIP OR BARGE
as required. initial platform(s).
APPROACH 2 APPROACH 4 APPROACH 6
CONTINUED MODIFIED PLATFORM
DEVELOPMENT: tº A
Additional platform(s) as †iers TENSION LEG PLATFORM
required with satellite ore site nearby
subsea well S as Warranted.
| | |
|
0IL AND GAS TRANSFER ALTERNATES COMMON TO
ALL DEVELOPMENT PLANS.
|
| |
PIPELINES TO SHORE. OFFSHORE LOADING
Figure 6.1 Economic criteria leading to field devel-
opment (Reeds and Trammell, 1976). &
Development 257
Pipelines
According to the mean resource development sce-
nario, natural gas and gas condensate would be sepa-
rated at the well head and pumped to shore through two
parallel 56 cm diameter pipelines. The route length
from production platforms to Kiliuda Bay will probably
be about 400 km (Fig. 6.2). All pipe, except for the
final few kilometers, will probably be installed off-
shore by a lay or reel barge (USDI, 1980b).
Marine pipeline systems consist of a pressure
source, gathering lines, transmission lines, and
booster stations. Gathering lines bring petroleum
hydrocarbons from the production platforms to the pipe-
line itself, which will probably terminate ashore in a
cryogenic, air-cooled, liquefied natural gas (LNG)
plant. The design of the pipeline system will depend
on field production rate, rate of arrival of carriers,
location of production fields, and such physical fac-
tors as bottom profiles, benthic fauna, bottom cur-
rents, and seismicity.
Figure 6.2 Possible marine pipeline routes for
natural gas production (USDI, 1980b).
56°
157°
1529
151° 15O2 149° 148°
PROPOSED OCS SALE NO. 46
ALTERNATIVE 1
- Area of Call
Tracts selected for further studies
• Proposed pipeline routes
I | l l
–56°
147°
156°
1569 155° 15.4° 153°
I I I
155° 15.4° 153°
1529
1519 150° 149° 148°




258 Development
Lay or reel barges may be used to install the
pipeline. Precoated sections of pipe are welded to-
gether, then lowered to the seafloor from the lay barge
as it is winched forward on its spread of anchors. The
pipe is then buried by a bury barge using high-pressure
water jets to remove sediments under the pipe. Small
gathering lines may be installed by reel barges. Pipe
lowered from a reel barge is welded, tested, and coated
onshore (Kramer et al., 1978). Modern lay barges have
catamaran-shaped, semisubmersible hulls which provide
greater stability than the older types; they can oper-
ate in rough seas (~6 m significant wave heights). It
is estimated that under the conditions present in the
western Gulf of Alaska, approximately 100-150 km of
pipeline may be laid in one year with a single barge
(J. P. Ray, Shell Oil Company, pers. comm.). Thus it
is important that pipeline construction mesh with other
development and production schedules.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant
Economically recoverable natural gas and gas
condensate are assumed to be present in the Sale #46
area. Current resource estimates reflect no production
of crude oil (USDI, 1980b). Since there is no major
local market, most of the gas and gas condensate found
would be shipped to the west coast of the United
States. Natural gas, principally methane, is liquefied
by chilling it to -162°C in a liquefaction facility,
the LNG plant.
weight, such as propane and butane, can be liquefied
Hydrocarbons of higher molecular
under pressure at room temperature. Liquefaction
reduces the natural gas to one six-hundredth of its
original volume. The production of LNG can be reduced
or halted to accommodate unexpected shipping delays.
Thus a lower storage capacity is required for LNG faci-
lities than for crude oil terminals (Kramer et al.,
1978).
LNG plants require high capital expenditures,
proximity to harbors suitable for LNG carriers, and
access to fresh water and electrical power. Four basic
elements constitute a LNG liquefaction facility: a
liquefaction train, storage tanks, a marine loading
facility, and support structures. Since the Kodiak LNG
plant may be air-cooled, thermal effluents will not be
produced. An LNG plant could be operational in Kodiak
by 1987.
LNG storage tanks and loading
LNG is stored in insulated steel or concrete tanks
designed to keep the natural gas liquefied. According
to Kramer et al. (1978), industry now uses 9-percent
nickel steel or aluminum tanks. The annular space
between the inner and outer tanks is packed with insu-
lation. The bottom of the tank is also insulated. A
storage area is surrounded by a high concrete dike or
other structures which can hold spilled LNG in case of
tank failure. Only one jetty or berth will be required
for loading. The LNG plant, storage tanks, and loading
facility may be established on the southern side of
Kiliuda Bay (USDI, 1980b). Kiliuda Bay has enough deep
water and turning room for LNG carriers. Another
suitable site is a headland east of Saltery Cove, on
the north side of Ugak Bay.
LNG carriers
An LNG carrier, due to the light weight of its
cargo, has a shallower draft than an oil tanker of
comparable size. LNG carriers presently using Alaska
facilities, Polar Star and Arctic Tokyo, are each about
244 m long and 34 m wide with a draft of 9.5 m and
capacities of 72,000 m.". Larger LNG carriers, as long
as 320 m, are planned (Kramer et al., 1978).
The frequency of visits of LNG carriers to marine
terminals depends on production rates and ship size.
One ship visit every 8-10 days for the LNG plant is
predicted for the Kodiak region based on the current
loading frequency at the Phillips LNG plant in Kenai,
Cook Inlet.
6.4 QUANTITIES AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL NATURE OF CONTAMI-
NANTS ANTICIPATED FROM WARIOUS SOURCES
Several potential contaminants and hazards associ-
ated with petroleum exploration, development, and
production activities can be identified for the Kodiak
region. Their points of origin and relative magnitudes
and the probability of the occurrence of pollution
incidents cannot be specified at this time. The fol-
lowing account considers, in general terms, some of the
Sources of environmental disturbance and contamination.
6.4.1 Offshore platforms
Offshore platforms produce gaseous, liquid, and
solid wastes. Discharges from drilling platforms are
regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) through National Pollution Discharges Elimination
System (NPDES) permits and 00'S operating orders and
stipulations. Eight different types of discharges were
produced by the exploratory drilling platform Ocean
Bounty in the lower Cook Inlet:
1. treated effluent from the sewage treatment
system,
2. brine from the domestic freshwater distil-
lation unit,
Development 259
3. seawater from the ballast system,
4. seawater and rainwater from the deck drains,
5. treated effluent from the hydrocarbon/water
separator,
6. drill cuttings, mixed with seawater and
drilling muds,
7. seawater, drilling mud, and cement from the
drilling mud system, and
8. freshwater, water-soluble fractions of oil,
and antifreeze from the blowout preventer.
These discharges could be expected from drilling
rigs exploring the Kodiak region. Because of the small
amounts and short duration, some of these sources may
not have a significant adverse effect on the environ-
ment.
6.4.2 Drilling muds and fluids
Specially compounded drilling muds are used to
lubricate the drill bit, control pressure in the well,
seal the strata until casings are in place, support the
bore hole walls, and carry drill cuttings up to the
surface. They may contain a variety of substances in a
freshwater, saltwater, or oil base, including special
clays and inorganic and organic compounds, some of
which are toxic to biota.
A typical mud system on a drilling rig consists of
a series of tanks which hold muds of different weights,
a pump and associated plumbing, various mixers and
screens, and a mudhose leading to the drill pipe (Fig.
6.3). The selected mud mixture is pumped into the
drill bit, where it hydraulically assists in the re-
moval of cuttings. The used drilling muds are returned
to mud tanks. They can be recirculated into the drill
hole after processing and treatment.
In the early stages of drilling, clays and sea-
water are the primary constituents of the drilling mud.
At increasing depths other substances, including a
MUDHOSE MIXING HOPPER
SWIVEL
KELLY
DRILL
PIPE
MUD TANKS
UCTION TANKS)
Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram of a drilling mud system
and circulation path of the drilling fluid (Ray, 1979).
variety of chemical compounds, are added to control
viscosity, filter loss, and cation contamination (Ray,
1979). Oil-based muds are seldom used in the explora-
tory phase offshore. In the development phase, they
are used when a well must be deflected at a severe
angle or when numerous wells are drilled from a single
platform. Occasionally, abnormal formation pressures,
exceptionally tight formations, or other problems
require the use of oil-based or highly treated drilling
muds.
At a given well about a dozen of the approximately
55 substances used to formulate the more than 500
commercial mud products are used in drilling (Ray,
1979). A particular makeup is determined by site"
specific considerations and is usually proprietary in
nature. Barite, caustic soda, bentonite clays, and
lignosulfonates are the most commonly used components
of water-based drilling muds; barite and bentonite
contribute the bulk of the suspended solids content of
muds (Table 6.1). Caustic soda and lignosulfonates are
the most toxic components of muds (Dames and Moore,
1978).
Table 6. 1 Some drilling mud constituents which are
normally discharged into the sea (after USDI 1977).
Constituent Type/Use Typical Substances
Weighting and gelling agents Barite, siderite,
attapulgite clay,
bentonite clay
Thinning agents Tannin, sodium acid
pyrophosphate
pH control Caustic soda, sodium
bicarbonate
Dispersant and emulsifier Ferrochrome
lignosulfonate
Conditioner and texturizer Organic polymer
(starch, cellu-
lose derivatives)
Flocculant Gypsum, potassium
chloride
Fluid loss agent Carboxymethyl cellur
lose
Bactericide Formaldehyde, penta"
chlorophenol
Defoamers and other specialty Proprietary
products









260 Development
After use, drilling. muds and fluids are separated,
but substantial amounts of the muds could be discharged
intermittently because of incomplete separation.
Normal industry practice also involves routine dischar-
ges and periodic "dumps" if the mud formulation is
changed or at the end of the operation. Assuming an
average well depth of 1,980 m, 60 m° of drilling muds
are expected to be discharged per well in the Kodiak
area (USDI, 1980b).
6.4.3 Drill cuttings
Drill cuttings, consisting of chipped and pul-
verized sediment and rock, are usually dumped directly
into the water near rigs and platforms. The amount of
drill cuttings is related to the drilling depth.
Drilling to an assumed average well depth of 1,980 m in
Kodiak would produce 131 m3 of cuttings per well (USDI,
1980b). Drill cuttings are heavier and coarser than
drilling mud, and thus settle out faster. In the water
column and on the seabed, these cuttings will disperse
and be carried away. Local accumulation of large
particles is usually not a major problem, but if sever-
al wells were drilled from a single platform large
accumulations could result. For example, ten wells
drilled from a single platform could yield 1,310 m3 of
cuttings. Under such circumstances, after determining
the dispersion potential at selected sites, appropriate
mitigating measures may be proposed. Such measures
could include a specific stipulation requiring trans-
portation of drill cuttings to disposal sites approved
by the Environmental Protection Agency (USDI, 1980b).
6.4.4 Formation waters
Formation waters may be transported to shore for
cleansing and eventually disposed of, reinjected into
wells for pressure maintenance, or discharged into the
sea. The amount of formation water extracted with
natural gas or gas condensate is expected to be much
lower than that extracted with crude oil. If only gas
and gas condensate are produced the volume of produced
formation water in Kodiak will be negligible (USDI,
1980b).
6.4.5 Dredging and burial of pipeline
The dredging and burial of pipeline cause local
and probably temporary destruction of marine habitat,
resuspension of sediment, and increased turbidity. It
is estimated that pipeline burial would disturb ap-
proximately 1,859 mº
of sediment per kilometer of pipe
route. If 384 km of pipe were installed in Kodiak
during the course of development, BLM estimates that
714,000 m3 of sediment would be disturbed (USDI,
1980b). Some of the disturbed sediments would be
resuspended and would resettle to the bottom, both
locally and at a distance from the source.
The extent to which harbor dredging might be
required is unknown.
6.4.6 Well blowouts and other accidents during drill-
ing
The control of imminent blowouts can be accom-
plished by increasing the weight of mud and activating
the blowout prevention equipment. If the control
systems fail, hydrocarbons and/or other effluents will
be released in large quantities into the environment.
In a gas well blowout, escaping gas will either burn or
disperse into the atmosphere. In calculating the
probabilities of accidental blowouts and spills, it is
assumed that realistic estimates of future accidents
can be based on previous data, that accidents (and
spills) occur independently of each other, and that the
accident rate depends on the volume produced and trans-
ported (and indirectly on the duration of activities).
Such statistics, largely based on data from the Gulf of
Mexico, indicate that one blowout occurs for every
2,860 wells drilled (USDI, 1977). But the Kodiak lease
area is a frontier area where no previous drilling has
occurred, subsurface pressures are unknown, and the
physical environment poses hazards to technology; hence
the probability of a blowout may be higher than in an
established field. BLM estimates that one blowout may
occur in this area during the life of the field (USDI,
1977).
Accidents from platform collapses attributable to
storms and earthquakes were included in a risk analysis
for Sale #39 (USDI, 1976b). The predictions were based
on the probabilities of platform collapse and well
blowout, a safety factor of 1.5 or 2.0 in the platform
design, and 96-percent reliability of the blowout
protector valve. Table 6.2, extracted from data pre-
sented in the BLM analysis, presents selected probabil-
ities. The information contained in this table can be
illustrated by the following example: If a platform in
the proposed area is designed with a margin of safety
of 1.5 to withstand a 100-year storm and if the field
life is 30 years, then the probability of a storm
exceeding platform design specifications during the
life of the field is 0.14 (1 chance in 7). If a sub-
surface valve system is installed with a reliability of
0.96, the probability of a blowout is 0.006 (1 chance
in 167). For a valve reliability of 0.99, the proba-
bility of a blowout is 0.0014 (not included in the
table). The table also shows that the likelihood of
platform collapse increases linearly with the age of
Development 261
Table 6.2 Estimates of platform collapse and well
blowout assuming blowout preventer valve is 96 percent
reliable (adapted from USDI, 1976b).
Field life (years)
Event 20 30 40
Severe storms
100-yr storm
1.5 safety margin 0.09/0.0036 0.14/0.0056 0.19/0.0076
2.0 safety margin 0.04/0.0016 0.07/0.0028 0.08/0.0032
200-yr storm
1.5 safety margin 0.05/0.002 0.07/0.0028 0.09/0.0036
2.0 safety margin 0.02/0.0008 0.03/0.0012 0.04/0.0016
Earthquakes
Richter 7.2
1.5 safety margin 3.3/0. 13 4.9/0.20 6.5/0.26
2.0 safety margin 2.8/0. 11 4.2/0. 168 5.6/0.22
Richter 8.6
1.5 safety margin 0.33/0.013 0.49/0.02 0.65/0.026
2.0 safety margin 0.28/0.011 0.42/0.017 0.56/0.022
the field and decreases linearly with improved platform
design. For example, a platform designed for a 100-
year storm in a 20-year field will have the same like-
lihood of failure (0.09) as a platform designed for a
200-year storm in a 40-year field. Further, a platform
is much more likely to collapse because of a major
earthquake than because of a severe storm. For ex-
ample, the likelihood for platform collapse from an
earthquake of magnitude 8.6 is three to seven times
higher than from a severe storm during the 20-year
field life.
6.4.7 Waste discharge and accidents associated with
liquefied natural gas (LNG)
A large amount of waste water is discharged into
the marine environment from LNG plant operations.
Phillips' LNG plant discharges about 189,000 me of
waste water annually into Cook Inlet (Kramer et al.,
1978). The amount of discharge and separation of
solids or toxic chemicals can be regulated to conform
to water quality standards.
Because it is extremely cold, volatile, and flam-
mable, LNG is potentially hazardous. A major spill at
sea or in a harbor presents the greatest danger of
serious fire and explosion (Kramer et al., 1978).
Although LNG itself is not explosive, the greatest
hazard of released LNG is the potential formation of a
large, low-lying, flammable cloud. It is unlikely that
such a vapor cloud could drift for a long time without
encountering an ignition source. The smaller the
populated area over which this cloud forms, the smaller
the potential hazard. An accidental spill of 4,536 mº
of LNG from the East Ohio Gas Company plant in Cleve-
land, Ohio, in 1944 resulted in the formation of a
vapor cloud which flowed into the city streets and
storm drain system. Upon ignition, the resulting fire
and explosion killed 133 people, injured 300, and
caused widespread property damage. The type of storage
tanks and containment dike which were used in that
plant are no longer permitted (SAI, 1976; Kramer et
al., 1978). Another hazard of LNG is that if spilled
on water, it can explode without a source of ignition.
This happened in 1973 at the Canvey Island LNG terminal
at the mouth of the River Thames east of London.
Whether such spills explode or not depends on the exact
composition of LNG, the size of the spill, and the rate
of evaporation (Davis, 1980).
The probability of a major accident involving LNG
is extremely small. Possible causes of accidents
include malfunction of the plant, transfer, and trans-
portation systems, natural catastrophes (e.g., an
earthquake), collision of ships, and aircraft hazards.
The potential risks and probability of damage at the
proposed Pacific Alaska LNG Company at Nikiski, Alaska,
have been analyzed by SAI (1976).
6.4.8 Effluents and Emissions
Potential sources of low level, chronic contami"
nation include support and supply bases, LNG carrier
operations and routes, and increased automobile and
aircraft traffic. The possible effects of such activi"
ties on surface and ground water (such as the introduct
tion of inorganic plant nutrients, increased organic
load, changes in the populations of microorganisms ,
incidence of disease) and the air quality have not yet
been studied.
Water and air quality may deteriorate as a result
of increased municipal sewage, increased utilization of
ground water, and industrial activities, particularly
during construction of shore facilities. The current
industrial use of water in Kodiak is low and limited to
fish processing. No additional large consumers can be
supplied by the present water system, although slow
development and foresight in planning could alleviate
this problem. Little air pollution is predicted. If
no petrochemical industry is located in Kodiak, the
major sources of air pollution will be emissions from
LNG carrier loading, accidental spills, and increased
automobile traffic and residential fuel consumption.
Air pollutants from these sources include suspended
particulates, petrochemical oxidants and hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides. The amount and
ultimate effect of emissions would depend on the size
and complexity of operations, siting of facilities •
local air circulation, other emissions in the area, and
the level of emissions control and enforcement (Kramer
et al., 1978).
Another potential problem is increased noise and
air pollution from aircraft transporting materials and
personnel between the coastal and offshore facilities •
262 Development
6.5 NATURE AND AMOUNT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE
LIKELY TO ACCOMPANY DEVELOPMENT
In addition to pollution from accidental, uncon-
trolled spills or discharges, normal exploration,
development, and production activities may remove or
alter habitats, increase turbidity of the water, impair
fishing, and affect aesthetic values. Site-specific
information cannot be provided until there are dis-
coveries and potential development sites have been
identified. The following account outlines possible
environmental disturbances.
6.5.1 Increased land use and loss of habitat
Space--water, land, and air--will be needed to
explore, develop, produce, and transport hydrocarbon
resources. According to a preliminary estimate fur-
nished by BLM, 10 hectares of land might be required
for each support/supply facility and about 80 hectares
for an LNG terminal and related facilities (USDI,
1980b). In addition to land for support/supply bases
and LNG facilities, other land requirements will in-
crease as more people move into existing or new com-
munities. This new population could affect land-use
patterns, services and utilities, and subsistence/rec-
reational use of coastal and marine resources. Some
loss of habitat will result from emplacement of plat-
forms and pipelines. More space will be needed for
access to harbor frontage and marine facilities.
About a dozen harbor locations have been identi-
fied in the Kodiak region as possible sites for OCS-
related onshore development. These sites were selected
on the basis of information from the U.S. Geological
Survey topographic maps and open-file reports, nautical
charts, the Coastal Pilot, local comprehensive plans,
and various agencies of the State of Alaska (Kramer et
al., 1978). Some of these sites are located in Barling
Bay, Kalsin Bay, Kizhuyak Bay, and Ugak Bay. An LNG
plant could be established in Kiliuda Bay (USDI,
1980b). It is likely that most industry operations
will be carried out from one or two onshore bases (J.
P. Ray, Shell Oil Company, pers. comm.).
The ultimate selection of sites and transportation
routes will be determined by the needs of industry, the
policies and controls of local, state, and Federal
governments, and an evaluation of environmental im-
pacts. Sites will have to be evaluated in terms of
resource requirements, conflicts of interest, effects
on natural and socioeconomic environments, and geologi-
cal and meteorological hazards. According to its
resource management policies, the State of Alaska, in
selecting sites for development, must also protect
"ecologically sensitive areas, including but not limit-
ed to : estuaries, wetlands, river deltas, fish spawn-
ing grounds, intensive use habitats, bird nesting
areas, migration routes, wildlife wintering habitat and
sea mammal rookeries and hauling-out grounds" by re-
quiring environmentally acceptable technology or, if
necessary, by recommending alternate sites (Kramer et
al., 1978).
6.5.2 Preemption of fishing areas
Commercial fisheries and seafood processing are
important elements of the regional economy and life-
style in Kodiak. Any significant harm to commercial
fisheries would cause severe economic hardship to the
community. Commercial fisheries could be hurt by
preemption of fishing areas; loss of gear and buoys
through entanglement with structures, vessels, and
debris; contamination of fish or their prey; and compe-
tition for limited harbor facilities.
Major conflicts between the petroleum and fishing
industries in the North Sea are related to accessi-
bility of fishing areas and loss of fishing grounds
(University of Aberdeen, 1978, cited in BLM, 1979b).
If jack-up rigs are used in exploration one or two
hectares of the seafloor will be needed for each struc-
ture. A semisubmersible rig, with its anchor system of
450 m radius, would occupy 130 hectares. Production
platform and vessel activity could compete for sea lane
space and preempt 50-200 hectares for 20-25 years. In
view of the total area likely to be involved, such loss
of fishing areas should not be a serious problem. On
the positive side, platforms can help fishermen to
navigate and can supply information on weather and sea
conditions. The structures also provide substrate for
marine organisms, including fish and their prey. There
is, however, no evidence indicating increased bio-
logical productivity as a result of offshore petroleum
Structures.
6.5.3 Turbidity increase
Kodiak shelf waters are very clear, like deep
oceanic areas. Several of the bays also have clear
water; there are no major riverine sources of sediment,
although a small amount of turbid water may enter the
bays during spring and summer runoff. Typical concen-
trations of suspended matter in the oceans are less
than 0.5 mg/l; in deltas and large river estuaries,
concentrations exceeding 1 g/l are not unusual.
Turbidity will increase from disposal of drill
muds and cuttings, resuspension of bottom sediments as
a result of pipeline trenching and burial, and dredging
to maintain navigation channels. The increased tur-
bidity will probably not last long, but it may be
deleterious where circulation and/or bottom currents do
Development 263
not rapidly disperse suspended sediments and waste
materials. Small particles can accumulate pollutants
ranging from heavy metals to hydrocarbons, and thus
introduce pollutants into marine food chains. Further-
more, abnormally high concentrations of suspended
material could reduce the productivity of phytoplankton
through reduced penetration of sunlight and adsorption
of particles on phytoplankters. Major changes in
sedimentation patterns can affect benthic assemblages.
Any adverse effects are expected to be temporary.
Drilling muds observed in the vicinity of a lower Cook
Inlet Contintental Shelf Stratigraphic Test (C.O.S.T.)
well were quickly diluted; suspended portions of the
effluent were reduced to 6 mg/l within 100 m of the
drilling vessel (Dames and Moore, 1978). In this area
currents are strong and ambient suspended sediment load
is high, 2 to 20 mg/l. In regions of weak and incon-
sistent net currents such as on the Kodiak shelf banks,
the dilution and dispersion of sediment plumes may be
relatively slow.
6.5.4 Aesthetic considerations
The Kodiak Archipelago, with the exception of the
City of Kodiak, is nearly or totally undeveloped, and
in some places uninhabited by humans. Many islands
have large and unique biological populations, coastal
areas have biologically rich and diverse communities,
and the numerous secluded fiords and bays are pastoral
and serene. The placement of platforms and shore
facilities, with the attendant human activities, could
alter the environment, detracting from its aesthetic
value. Drilling rigs, barges, flaring, work vessels,
and storage and processing facilities will be highly
visible. Small oil slicks from work vessels could be
noticeable, particularly in confined areas. Pipeline
burial and drilling will produce localized and tempor-
ary water turbidity. The magnitude of the effect can
only be measured qualitatively from low to high depen-
ding upon the sensitivity of Siting, structural design,
and subsequent landscaping.
6.5.5 Increased human activities, vessels, and air
traffic
Petroleum development in the Kodiak lease area
will cause an increase in air and sea traffic, con-
struction of buildings, and human population and acti.
vities. These events may be detrimental, beneficial,
or have no effect on the regional biota. A knowledge
of the behavior of species (including interactions,
feeding and reproduction, and mortality rates) likely
to be affected by petroleum development is essential.
Human disturbance of birds could result from
petroleum development activities such as increased
traffic, construction of facilities near bird habitats,
and the placement of offshore structures in foraging or
migration areas. When adult seabirds are frightened
off nests they leave their chicks vulnerable to preda-
tion. The loss of chicks and eggs from nests of cliff-
nesting species during hurried departures by frightened
adult birds has been observed in the Pribilof Islands
and on Chisik Island. .
Offshore petroleum development activities and the
noise of increased sea traffic can cause marine mammals
to abandon or curtail the use of hauling grounds,
breeding rookeries, and foraging areas or alter their
migratory routes. Observations of the reactions of
marine mammals to human disturbance are summarized by
BLM (USDI, 1980b). On Tugidak Island, panic in harbor
seal populations caused by low-flying aircraft in early
summer resulted in a stampede which caused about 20
percent of the pups to be crushed to death.
There is circumstantial evidence that low-fre-
quency sound from large vessels interferes with commu-
nication of some of the baleen whales.
Shoreside and offshore structures, utility corri-
dors, and the activities associated with them may repel
or attract animals. Scavengers such as gulls and crows
might benefit, but other birds, perhaps in migration,
might be fatally attracted to lights. Animals may
collide with or be entrapped by supply vessels or rig
equipment. An increase in hunting and other recrea-
tional activities may disturb the populations of some
species.
264 Development
7. Kodiak Marine Environment and
Planned Petroleum Development
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CHAPTER 7 KODIAK MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND PLANNED PETRO-
LEUM DEVELOPMENT
M. J. Hameedi, 00SEAP
7. 1 INTRODUCTION
The present national need for energy resources,
coupled with recent advances in the technology of
offshore petroleum extraction, has accelerated explo-
ration of offshore petroleum resources. Many potential
oil and gas production areas over the continental shelf
of the United States under Federal jurisdiction, beyond
the three-mile limit of state sovereignty, are being
leased for development. The Alaskan continental shelf,
74 percent of all U. S. continental shelf area, ex-
tending as far as 960 km off the coast in the south-
eastern Bering Sea, constitutes the nation's largest
unexplored petroleum area. Consequently, Alaska has
received special priority in the planning schedule for
the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas develop-
Inent.
The Bureau of Land Management, Department of the
Interior, as manager of the OCS Leasing Program, has
implemented an environmental studies program. The
principal objective of this program is to obtain and
interpret information needed for the prediction, as-
sessment, and management of impacts on the human,
marine, and coastal environments which may be caused by
OCS petroleum development (BLM, 1979a). Marine envi-
ronmental studies are managed by the Outer Continental
Shelf Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP), Nat-
ional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Results of these studies are provided to BLM before
specific leasing decisions are made.
Several sedimentary basins in the Alaskan OCS
region are scheduled to be leased for petroleum devel-
opment. Lease sales were held in the northern Gulf of
Alaska in April 1976 and in lower Cook Inlet in October
1977. Kodiak Sale #46 was initially planned for Decem-
ber 1976 in response to the accelerated leasing
schedule of June 1975. The sale date was postponed to
November 1977 and has now been rescheduled for December
1980.
In this chapter, an attempt is made to provide an
overview of our knowledge of the Kodiak marine environ-
ment and discuss the implications of probable impacts
of petroleum development. Much of the information is
based on OCSEAP investigators' reports, development
scenarios furnished by BLM, and discussions held at
information synthesis workshops conducted in March 1977
and May 1979. Early funding was insufficient, sites
were difficult of access, long periods of time were
necessary for field sampling and analysis of fisheries
data, and until recently some important sampling devi-
ces and techniques (e.g., ocean bottom seismographs)
had not been invented; hence, studies of the area have
been slow, and some results are not yet available.
Some research projects are nearly finished and final
reports are expected by the end of September 1980.
Significant new findings will be reported to BLM before
the decision to award leases is made. Additional,
site-specific studies will be initiated after the lease
sale, when plans for exploration and development have
been made.
7.2 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
The Kodiak Archipelago extends from the Barren
Islands to Chirikof Island in the western Gulf of
Alaska. Sixteen major islands of the archipelago
(Kodiak, Afognak, Sitkalidak, Sitkinak, Raspberry,
Tugidak, Shuyak, Uganik, Chirikof, Marmot, Spruce,
Whale, Amook, Ban, Ushagat, and Aiaktalik) cover ap-
proximately 12,750 kn” of land area. Kodiak Island,
the largest of the island group, has an area of 9,200
knº. Most of the islands are mountainous; some peaks,
such as Mt. Glottof (off Ugak Bay) and Konig Peak (west
of Kiliuda Bay) exceed 1,300 m in elevation above sea
level. Relief is usually about 300 m.
The geology of the western Gulf of Alaska is
dominated by the interaction between the North American
and Pacific Plates. The Kodiak region has been classi-
fied as an island arc collision coast where the rela-
tively thin, but dense, oceanic crust is being thrust
under a less dense continental crust at a fairly rapid
rate. The two lithospheric plates converge at a rate
of approximately 5 cm per year (Minster et al., 1974).
The Alaskan Trench axis marks the initial downbending
of the oceanic plate, and the active volcanic arc
approximately traces its 100 km depth contour (Pulpan
and Kienle, 1979b). The archipelago is composed of
highly deformed and uplifted marine sedimentary, meta-
morphic, and volcanic rocks. Seven major lithologic
units have been identified in the Kodiak region (Hayes
and Ruby, 1979).
There is widespread evidence of tectonic activity,
primarily uplift, in the form of wave-cut platforms as
much as 300 m above the present sea level. Often these
areas have terraces or stair steps, indicating relict
still stands of the sea level. The physiography has
been greatly modified by periods of glaciation (Hayes
and Ruby, 1979).
Petroleum, which forms by decomposition and chemi-
cal alteration of organic matter under high temperature
and pressure, is most often found in areas which were
once covered by ancient seas. The Kodiak Tertiary
Sedimentary Province, which extends across the contin-
ental shelf from Kodiak Island to the continental
slope, is identified as a potential petroleum bearing
area in the western Gulf of Alaska. This province is
Environment and Planning 267
bordered on the west by a complex fault zone; offshore
the structure is less complex and culminates in an
anticlinal arch at the edge of the continental shelf.
The geometry of the anticline and the orientation of
the sedimentary rocks are conducive to the formation of
petroleum reservoirs and hence make this an attractive
area for petroleum exploration (BLM, 1979b).
7.2.1 Physical characteristics
Meteorology and oceanic circulation in the Gulf of
Alaska are dominated by the presence of the Aleutian
low pressure system and the counterclockwise Alaska
gyre. The Aleutian low pressure system, which is
evident virtually the year round, increases in inten-
sity from August until January as its center moves from
the north Bering Sea southeastward to the Gulf of
Alaska. In January, it shifts to the western Aleutian
Islands. The system then progressively weakens and is
least evident in July. The interaction between this
system and the eastern Siberian and eastern Pacific
high pressure systems determines the mesoscale wind
patterns in the area (Favorite et al., 1974). The
relative position and intensity of these systems dic-
tate the presence of intense cyclonic winds over the
gulf in January and moderate anticyclonic winds in
July. In winter, the Aleutian low pressure system
causes storms. A mid-latitude cyclone with resulting
strong southeasterly winds over Albatross Bank was
recorded in March 1978 (Reynolds et al., 1979). Such
large-scale features and wind fields are not represen-
tative of local wind patterns, which are notably dif-
ferent both on the shore and over the shelf (Brower et
al., 1977). This variation is due to the near
orthogonal position of major mountains on Kodiak Island
relative to the orientation of the archipelago, and
katabatic winds funneled by the mouths of fiords and
estuaries. Orographic steerage of winds in the Kodiak
region is effective for about 60-100 km (Reynolds et
al., 1979). The passage of a single storm can cause
substantial deviation from the mean wind pattern. On
March 12, 1978, climatic mean winds from the northwest
at Kodiak were distorted by the passage of an extra-
tropical cyclonic storm which produced strong easterly
and southwesterly winds. The resultant progressive
vector diagram (PWD) yielded a vector mean wind of 1.4
m/sec from the north (Reynolds et al., 1979). The
climatic mean conditions for Kodiak and the adjoining
marine area, compiled by Brower et al. (1977), indicate
that strong winds at Kodiak are primarily northwesterly
and westerly, between four and six m/sec from September
to April; from May to August mean winds are weaker,
three to four m/sec. and variable in direction, but
with a southeasterly and easterly sense. On the shelf
and over offshore waters, mean winds are usually
stronger and more variable.
The Alaska current, which flows in a counter-
clockwise direction in the Gulf of Alaska, is a major
element of the subarctic North Pacific circulation. In
the northwest Gulf of Alaska, it begins to assume the
character of a western boundary current, becoming the
narrower and higher speed Alaska Stream which flows
southwestward off the Kodiak continental shelf at
50-100 cm/sec. The Alaska Stream is about 50 km wide.
Its mean volume transport is about 12 million m°/sec,
but higher (17 million m°/sec) and lower (8 million
m3/sec) values have been recorded during OCSEAP studies
in July 1976 and June 1978, respectively (Muench et
al., 1979). Published information does not support the
existence of any significant seasonal variation in
volume transport as a result of seasonal variation in
wind stress over the Gulf of Alaska, as both the ob-
served maximum and minimum transport occurred in sum-
mer, a period of minimum wind stress curl. Royer
(pers. comm.), however, has recently found evidence
showing seasonal variation in volume transport in the
Gulf of Alaska. It is speculated that since the plan-
etary divergence becomes relatively small at high lati-
tudes, mean transport response to the imposed wind
stress curl is also small. The changes in volume
transport are presumed to occur at the lateral boun"
daries rather than through deepening or shoaling of the
stream (Muench et al., 1979).
Whereas there may not be a strong seasonal cycle
in the volume transport of the Alaska Stream, there is
evidence that currents over the continental shelf are
stronger in fall and winter than in spring and summer,
largely because of persistent wind direction and in-
creased wind speed during the fall-winter period. Over
the shelf, an additional influence of the trough-and-
bank bathymetry characteristic of the Kodiak region
results in an irregular flow regime and may lead to
bathymetrically trapped "eddies" (Schumacher et al.,
1979a). There is ample evidence that currents on the
continental shelf, particularly over the banks, are
characterized by weak mean flow (as much as an order of
magnitude lower than those off the shelf), frequent
reversals in direction, and strong tidal components
(Muench et al., 1979).
The waters over the banks and troughs show dif"
ferences in density profiles and the extent of vertical
stratification. North Albatross, Middle Albatross, and
Portlock Banks show little or no stratification most of
the year. This condition probably results from a
combination of winter thermohaline convection, tidal
mixing, turbulence resulting from currents impinging on
the banks, and effects of episodic meteorological
268 Environment and Planning
events (even in June and July, winds approaching and
exceeding 10 m/sec are known to occur off Kodiak).
Over the troughs, stratification is generally Stronger,
primarily caused by salinity. The occurrence of high-
salinity water in troughs (salinity values greater than
33 °/oo have been observed in Kiliuda Trough) strongly
suggests that the source of this water is the shelf-
edge portion of the Alaska Stream. Current meter
records also show flow events which might transport
shelf-edge waters shoreward into Kiliuda Trough. The
greater duration of such events in the upper water
column suggests that initial forcing is applied at the
surface by winds. Strong northeasterly winds would
reverse the generally offshore flow. Sea level setup
may establish a deep return flow, a feature observed in
current meter records from Kiliuda Trough during winter
(Muench and Schumacher, KSM, 1979). These data show a
pronounced but weak flow (5-10 cm/sec) into the trough
along the northeastern side of the trough and seaward
flow on its southern side. Flow at the head of the
trough was relatively strong (20 cm/sec) and south-
westerly. Current meter moorings on Middle Albatross
Bank showed a typically onshore current of the order of
10 cm/sec, but with considerable offshore and along-
shore components. A generally onshore flow is also
inferred from drift card and sea-bed drifter release
and recovery data in Chiniak and Kiliuda Troughs and
Kaiugnak Bay (Dunn et al., 1979b). It can be surmised
that deep, shelf-edge water episodically flows shore-
ward in the troughs. This influx accounts for the
observed high-salinity bottom water in the troughs and
probably contributes oceanic materials and biota to the
shelf and the bays.
The general circulation pattern that emerges as a
result of OCSEAP studies strongly suggests that cur-
rents seaward of the shelf edge are characterized by
strong mean flow, weak low frequency, and moderate
tidal components. This implies a rapid transport of
contaminants released or trapped in this area in the
direction of the mean flow. On the other hand, cur-
rents over the shelf, particularly over the banks, are
characterized by weak mean flow (as much as an order of
magnitude lower than those on the shelf) and weak low
frequency components, but a strong tidal component.
This implies that, on the shelf, contaminants will
remain for a longer period of time but their concentra-
tion will be readily reduced through tidal mixing.
Tidal variance in currents over the banks is expected
to be higher than in the troughs. Under certain condi-
tions, contaminants released on the outer shelf could
be expected to impinge upon shorelines and bays, par-
ticularly those at the heads of troughs. However, the
contaminant dispersion and trajectories will always be
greatly influenced by prevalent wind conditions and the
occurrence of episodic events. For example, spilled
oil on the North Albatross Bank would be pushed off-
shore into the Alaska Stream by strong southwesterly
winds and advected out of the area, or, if the prevail-
ing Winds were strong and northeasterly, it would be
advected into Chiniak Bay. A review of historic
records of offshore winds shows that either of these
wind types (as well as any other) can occur in the
Kodiak region in a given period (Brower et al., 1977).
The influence of shelf topography on water mixing
and circulation is also reflected in the distribution
of sediment types and amounts on the banks and in the
troughs. Much of Portlock and Albatross Banks is
covered with a thin veneer of coarse-grained sediment,
generally sparse in clay sizes and in some places
containing abundant shells. The veneer is absent over
large areas, exposing semi-lithified to lithified
siltstones, silty sandstones, and pebbly mudstones.
Coarse debris covered with fine-grained sediment can be
found in shallow depressions on the banks. Chiniak and
Kiliuda Troughs, on the other hand, contain surficial
layers of fine-grained sediments up to 20 m thick, with
surface sediments composed almost entirely of ash from
the 1912 eruption of Katmai volcano. These troughs
appear to be quiet areas of sedimentation, receiving
fine-grained material winnowed from adjacent banks.
They are likely to act as storage sites of pollutants
that reach the sea floor of the Kodiak Shelf (Hampton
and Bouma, 1979; Hampton, KSM, 1979).
Stevenson Trough, which may connect with the
tidally dominant Cook Inlet, contains relatively well-
sorted sand that has been molded into seaward-facing
sand waves. Apparently, a high-energy bottom current
regime in Stevenson Trough transports sediment seaward
past the shelf toward the sea floor. Pollutants car-
ried into this trough can be expected to experience a
similar fate. The presence of such a flow regime has
not been verified by actual current measurements; it is
probably dominated by storm-related events as observed
in the Bering Sea during summer 1978 (Schumacher et
al., 1979b).
The coastline of the Kodiak Archipelago is charac-
terized by the presence of a large number of fiords,
especially in the northern region. These fiords were
formed during the Pleistocene by valley glaciers, which
deepened and widened the pre-existing river valleys.
Kodiak fiord circulation, unlike that of typical
fiords, is generally not restricted; either there are
no moraine deposits or they lie submerged deep enough
to permit free water exchange with the adjoining open
water (Hayes and Ruby, 1979). Olga Bay, which is not a
fiord, is connected to the open water by a narrow,
shallow passage and probably has reduced water exchange
and flushing of the basin. Water circulation in fiords
Environment and Planning 269
and bays is dominated by freshwater runoff, tidal
currents, and winds. Tidal motion also introduces a
large amount of turbulence which leads to effective
mixing of the inflowing and outflowing water. Typi-
cally winds in fiords are locally generated and flow
downslope from the mountains toward the mouth of the
fiord.
The wave energy in different parts of the archi-
pelago varies greatly because of the variable fetch and
the orientation of shoreline with respect to incoming
waves, which are predominantly westerly and north-
westerly (Hayes and Ruby, 1979).
No site-specific studies on coastal or fiord
oceanography have been conducted as part of OCSEAP.
However, the coastal geomorphology of the region,
nearshore oceanographic features, and sedimentology
have been described by Hayes and Ruby (1979). They
concluded that the Kodiak Archipelago represents ex-
tremely diverse subenvironments which are predominantly
erosional in character. Sheer exposed rock scarps or
exposed rock scarps with wave-cut platforms constitute
about 25 percent of the coastline, protected rocky
headlands about 34 percent. Sand and gravel beaches
(22 percent) and gravel beaches (15 percent) lie along
predominantly erosional shorelines cut into bedrock or
semiconsolidated tills. Of the depositional shore-
lines, sheltered tidal flats and marshes represent only
about 3 percent of the total coastline. Short
stretches of fine-sand beaches and exposed tidal flats
represent less than 1 percent of the shoreline.
The index of coastal vulnerability to oil spills
(Hayes and Ruby, 1979), is based on the potential
longevity of spilled oil in each subenvironment.
Longevity is primarily a function of the intensity of
the coastal processes, sediment grain size distribu-
tion, and transport trend. Sometimes biological
features, e.g., the presence of a kelp bed, and sensi-
tivity were also considered. The index ranges from 1
to 10 in order of increasing vulnerability of the
environment and duration of oil retention. Nearly 70
percent of the Kodiak coastline falls in categories
6-8, having a spill longevity of one to eight years.
Most of the remaining coastline falls in low vulner-
ability classes 1-2, having spill longevity of the
order of a few days. However, because of the comp-
lexity and spatial irregularity of coastline character-
istics (for example, a low-risk scarp may lie seaward
of a large embayment with high-risk gravel beaches),
the entire archipelago is considered a high-risk area.
Furthermore, during periods of low wind and wave
action, particularly in summer, many areas of low
vulnerability would become high-risk areas.
7.2.2 Biological characteristics
The Kodiak shelf and overlying waters are highly
productive and maintain diverse and abundant fauna and
flora. The utilization of living marine resources is,
and has been for centuries, of central importance to
the existence and way of life of the people in this
region. For decades, salmon, crab, shrimp, halibut,
clams, and oysters have been exploited commercially or
for subsistence and sport fishing. The importance of
commercial fishing to the regional economy is illus-
trated by the annual value of the Kodiak area catch to
fishermen, estimated at $90 million in 1978. Com-
mercial fishing and fish processing industries are the
most important part of the Kodiak economy, accounting
for 36 percent of the total payroll for non-agricul-
tural industries and involving about 40 percent of the
non-agricultural work force (1977 statistics, Alaska
Department of Labor).
The shelf areas are heavily utilized for feeding
by spring and summer resident populations of birds,
such as Black-legged Kittiwake and Tufted Puffin,
winter residents, such as Mallard, Oldsquaw, and
Steller's Eider, and transient populations of Short"
tailed and Sooty Shearwaters. Shearwaters dominate the
spring-summer pelagic bird community, comprising about
84 percent of the estimated total numbers and 83 per-
cent of the biomass. More than 1.8 million shearwaters
were estimated to be over the shelf east of the Kodiak
Archipelago between May and September 1977. These
birds feed in open shelf waters on pelagic organisms
and obviously are important, though transient, cont
sumers of the shelf productivity (Sanger et al., 1979).
Marine mammals are abundant throughout the area
and extensively utilize the habitats and resources for
feeding and breeding activities. Northern (Steller)
sea lions, harbor seals, and sea otters are the most
evident and possibly dominant marine mammals. Several
species of cetaceans, including some listed as endan"
gered species, migrate through and feed on the shelf or
offshore. | Some species, such as Dall porpoise and
humpback whale, may also use the shelf area for calvº
ing. th
Sustenance and growth of these large and varied
animal populations require abundant food supplies,
which in turn require high levels of productivity at
lower trophic levels. Because the emphasis of OCSEAP
research has been on species of direct economic and
aesthetic value, systematic studies of lower trophic
levels and primary productivity and the determination
of functional roles of species which may be of ecologi"
cal importance have not yet been undertaken. Neverther
less by using available information on the food habits
of important Kodiak species (king crab, salmon, shear"
waters, ducks, kittiwakes, alcids, pinnipeds, sea
270 Environment and Planning
otter, etc.), local circulation, and mixing regimes,
extrapolating the available data on primary producti-
vity and plankton, and using the findings from studies
of similar areas in other parts of the world, a rea-
sonable speculation about the function of the Kodiak
shelf ecosystem can be made. Available data do not
permit a community structure analysis of the Kodiak
ecosystem and no estimate of its resiliency and stabil-
ity is presently possible.
The speculative account which follows is based on
the following assumptions:
(1) The physical environment affects and modifies
population distributions and productivity of
smaller organisms (e.g., plankton) more readily
than those of larger organisms.
(2) Short food chains consisting of large prey species
support larger populations of harvestable fish
than do long food chains (Greve and Parsons,
1977). &
(3) Large mobile species aggregate where food is
available and where conditions are suitable for
reproduction.
The observed high populations of fish, birds, and
mammals on the Kodiak shelf are assumed to be supported
by the water column primary productivity, benthic algal
productivity, and detritus. The trophic significance
of detritus is not well understood.
A significant part of the productivity that re-
sults in commercial fish harvest in Kodiak comes not
from the immediate region of Kodiak, but from oceanic
waters. Chinook salmon juveniles, for example, migrate
well out into the Pacific Ocean, as far as 1,600 km,
and return to coastal water as maturing fish usually in
their fourth or fifth year. While offshore, this
species feeds on herring, other small fish, and euphau-
siids, grows from about 10 cm to 80 cm, and attains an
average mass of 10 kg (length and mass vary according
to stocks, environmental conditions, etc.). Thus, the
biological productivity of other regions contributes to
the fisheries harvest of Pacific salmon on the Kodiak
shelf and nearshore.
Water column productivity
There is substantial evidence that physical envi-
ronment and processes significantly influence the
timing and level of biological productivity (Landry,
1977; Greve and Parsons, 1977). It is well known that
vernal phytoplankton growth in most areas begins soon
after the upper mixed layer becomes shallower than the
critical depth (the depth at which the total primary
production beneath a unit surface area is equal to
total respiration). This phenomenon marks the initial
control of productivity by the physical environment.
Algal productivity in the water column continues at
high levels in the "renewal mode" of nutrient availa-
bility and later, at a reduced rate, in the "regener-
ative mode." In late spring or summer the system
shifts from the renewal to the regenerative mode in a
relatively short time (Wangersky, 1977). However, a
single spring phytoplankton bloom, no matter how large,
cannot sustain the variety of life forms and trophic
levels on the Kodiak shelf throughout the year. Of
particular interest on the Kodiak shelf, as indeed on
other highly productive shelves marked with shallow
banks such as Georges Bank and Sable Island Bank, are
short-term increases in primary productivity observed
in late spring and summer that are superimposed on
relatively low background levels. While of shorter
duration and more limited extent, these increases in
primary productivity depend on essentially the same
conditions: mixing of the water column followed by
stabilization, nutrients, and sunlight. On the shelf
off Kodiak, particularly over the banks, such increases
in productivity are facilitated by shallow depth and
periodic mixing induced by highly variable winds and
the passage of storms. It can be calculated that a
persistent 10-m/sec wind is capable of deepening the
mixed layer to about 80 m (Sverdrup et al., 1946).
However, the extent of mixing depends on the degree of
stratification in the water column. Rapid deepening of
the mixed layer and replenishment of nutrient-rich
water in the photic zone are often observed immediately
after a strong wind (Hameedi, 1978). Any internal
waves produced by winds or tides can augment mixing
either through shear instablities or interactions with
topography. It appears that the prevalent water mixing
which occurs on the Kodiak shelf is responsible for a
high and sustained level of primary productivity, which
in turn supports the observed high general productivi-
ty.
Although not as widely recognized as the influence
of physical oceanographic conditions on primary produc-
tivity, the influence of the physical environment on
the community structure and individual size of plankton
primary producers is also profound. Size-selective
feeding at succeeding trophic levels has important
implications for apex predator populations and po-
tential fisheries harvests (Landry, 1977; O'Brien,
1979). The predominant phytoplankton size and trophic
structure of plankton communities have been shown to
affect the position of fish relative to the source of
primary production (diatoms vs. flagellates). The
importance of large species of phytoplankters, partic-
ularly pelagic diatoms, increases in environments where
nutrients are plentiful and leads to a food chain which
yields high levels of harvestable fish. Decreased
nutrient levels and increased stratification in the
water column shift the growth advantage to dinoflagel-
lates and microflagellates, often leading to food
chains which culminate in jellyfish and chaetognaths
(Greve and Parsons, 1977).
Environment and Planning 271
The effectiveness with which herbivores and suc-
ceeding trophic levels utilize primary productivity in
the water column is also important in determining the
economy of the sea. There seem to be energetic bene-
fits from preferential feeding on larger prey. The
seasonal presence of large oceanic copepods, such as
Calanus plumchrus and Calanus cristatus, on the Kodiak
shelf and the timing of their grazing on plankton are
assumed to produce an efficient transfer of organic
matter to higher trophic levels. Since no systematic
studies of plankton have yet been carried out, only
sporadic reports of the occurrence of these species on
the Kodiak shelf are available. The onshelf advection
of oceanic water which is documented in Kodiak, parti-
cularly through the troughs, probably accounts for
their presence inshore. In C. plumchrus and C.
cristatus, which are characteristic zooplankters of the
northern North Pacific and the Bering Sea, neither the
onset of breeding nor the size of brood depends on the
presence of abundant phytoplankton (in contrast to C.
finmarchicus, an Atlantic species, and small copepods).
These species reproduce in winter at depths between 200
and 400 m. Early developmental stages ascend toward
the surface in early spring. The environmental cue
that triggers their breeding at depth and subsequent
ascent is not known although temperature is probably
important. The early copepodite stages of these
oceanic copepod species are ready to graze the spring
production of phytoplankton. There is no lag between
intensive grazing pressure and phytoplankton primary
production; consequently, only a relatively small loss
of organic matter occurs. Smaller neritic and oceanic
copepods in the Kodiak shelf region, such as
Pseudocalanus sp. and Oithona spp., breed after inten-
sive feeding; the size of their brood depends on the
amount of food consumed. Their maximum grazing pres-
sure occurs two to six weeks after spring phytoplankton
growth (a phytoplankton bloom will occur if only small
copepods are abundant). This delay in maximum utili-
zation of organic matter results in an unbalanced
plankton cycle, a loss of a large quantity of organic
matter to the bottom, and inefficient resource utiliza-
tion in the water column. On the bottom, this food
resource is consumed by benthic organisms, thus
coupling the pelagic and benthic trophic pathways.
The energetic benefits of preferential feeding on
large prey by fish have been demonstrated theoretically
and experimentally (Kerr, 1971; O'Brien, 1979).
Studies of the feeding of young salmonids have demon-
strated that juveniles can eat between five and ten
times their daily ration from large copepods (4 percent
per day growth when fed on C. plumchrus, average mass 3
mg) compared with small copepods (no growth when fed on
cyclopoids, average mass 0-1 mg) at the same concentra-
tion (LeBrasseur, 1969). Large copepods, on the other
hand, are not a preferred food for jellyfish such as
Pleurobrachia sp., which shows much larger food intake
and growth when feeding on small copepods (Greve and
Parsons, 1977). In addition to this experimental
evidence, some field data support more effective and
desirable (in terms of production of harvestable fish
resources) trophic links. In the seasonal succession
of plankton, planktivorous fish, and jellyfish, the
maximum abundance of planktivorous fish (mainly young
salmonids) in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia,
occurs after or in association with the maximum abun-
dance of C. plumchrus. Smaller copepods, such as
Pseudocalanus minutus, occur in summer when ctenophore
and jellyfish populations are also at a maximum
(Parsons et al., 1970). The trophic pathway toward
jellyfish and ctenophores could be favored when nutri-
ents are low, usually in summer, on the Kodiak shelf.
However, intermittent replenishment of nutrients in the
photic zone, as discussed earlier for Kodiak banks,
favors diatoms and a trophic pathway toward salmon
through large copepods.
These observations have important implications for
oil and gas development. Limited data suggest that
natural changes toward small phytoplankton, notably
flagellates, occur in the marine environment as a
result of various forms of pollution, including petro-
leum (Dickie, 1973; Fisher, 1976; O'Connors et al.,
1978). Thus it is not unreasonable to postulate that
release of hydrocarbons in oceanic areas could cause a
decrease in harvestable fisheries through disturbance
of natural food webs.
Other important components of the food web involv"
ing carnivorous amphipods and the usually omnivorous
euphausiids should also be considered. Amphipods and
euphausiids, in addition to copepods, are important and
sometimes dominant food items in the pelagic environ-
ment. They are consumed by a variety of fish such as
juveniles of all Pacific salmon species, herring,
capelin, Atka mackerel, Pacific sand lance juveniles,
pelagic birds such as shearwaters and alcids, and
marine mammals, notably cetaceans (Nemoto, 1970; Harris
and Hartt, 1977; Rogers et al., 1979; Smith et al.,
1978; Sanger et al., 1979). Food webs involving
euphausiids as the principal intermediate element may
be similar to those based on large copepods. The
significance of amphipods as important food organisms
to shelf predators has only recently been recognized.
For example, Cross et al. (1978) have shown that of the
55 species of nearshore fish, 53 preyed upon gammarid
amphipods. Gammarids composed more than 50 percent of
the total Index of Relative Importance (IRI) for 31
fish species, and more than 75 percent for 9 species.
The role of carnivorous amphipod species is not yet
272 Environment and Planning
established. Food webs leading to or including carniv-
orous amphipods, such as the genus Parathemisto, are
distinct from, but probably exist concurrently with
food webs involving large copepods. They may be of
this form: small phytoplankton -> protozoans, small
Copepods, larvae -> carnivorous amphipods -> larger
carnivores (Nemoto, 1970). Such food webs will allow
food resources to be more available to animals of
commercial and aesthetic value and may counteract the
formation of food chains culminating in jellyfishes.
It is not known whether such a trophic pathway exists
in the Kodiak region.
Productivity of the benthos
The richness and productivity of the benthic
environment also depends to a large extent on primary
productivity in surface layers. Certain species of the
Kodiak shelf epifauna, such as king crab, Tanner crab,
and pink shrimp, are harvested commercially in large
quantities. Some demersal fish species, notably the
commercially important Pacific halibut, Pacific cod,
and walleye pollock, also depend to a large extent on
the benthic environment for food and as a major habi-
tat. Besides benthic microalgae and bacteria, the
source of primary organic matter in the benthic envir-
onment is sinking phytoplankton and animal remains.
Phytoplankton sinks slowly, 1-10 m/day, but it is so
concentrated in the surface layers that a steady rain
of unconsumed cells falls to the bottom. In shelf or
oceanic areas where most of the phytoplankton is con-
sumed in the epipelagic zone, as probably happens on
the Kodiak shelf, the amount of unconsumed phytoplank-
ton sinking to the bottom is probably low. Zoo-
plankters and their fecal pellets sink to the bottom
much more readily, 100-1000 m/day (Smayda, 1970). They
also form an important food source for suspension and
deposit-feeding fauna. King crab, Tanner crab, and
pink shrimp are omnivorous, but a large part of their
food is detritus and detritivores. Pacific halibut,
Pacific cod, and walleye pollock are carnivorous and
eat miscellaneous benthic and demersal fauna including
shrimp and flatfish, which directly or indirectly feed
on detritus.
Jewett (KSM, 1979) presented a dramatic example of
the opportunistic feeding habits of king crab. In June
and July about 80 percent, both by weight and volume,
of king crab stomach contents in Izhut Bay were pelagic
fish remains. At the same time, shearwaters and sea
lions were feeding intensively in the surface layers.
Evidently the crabs consumed fish that were wounded but
not ingested by the shearwaters and sea lions and had
sunk to the bottom; normally king crabs do not feed on
fish. It was speculated that these crabs moved from
Marmot Bay, their usual habitat, to Izhut Bay in re-
sponse to food availability, indirectly following
feeding activity by vertebrate predators in surface
WaterS.
Although no attempt has yet been made in Kodiak to
determine mass balance of organic matter at different
trophic levels on the shelf, the contribution of detri-
tus originating nearshore cannot be overlooked. On
highly productive shelf banks, such as off Nova Scotia,
for which mass balance estimates are available, it is
noted that observed primary productivity is not able to
sustain the requirements of benthic and pelagic chains
simultaneously (Mills and Fournier, 1979). The poten-
tial contribution of the extensive littoral and sub-
tidal macrophytes to shelf food chains, including those
in Kodiak, is substantial. For example, eelgrass
meadows in Izembek Lagoon, Alaska Peninsula, contribute
an estimated 10° metric tons of organic matter to the
adjacent Bering Sea per year (McRoy, 1970).
The canopy kelp, Alaria fistulosa and Nereocystis
luetkeana, and other brown algae such as Laminaria
dentigera, are widespread and often very abundant on
the east side of the Kodiak Archipelago. The mean
standing stock of kelp between 1 and 10 m is of the
order of 10–20 kg/m3, although much higher values are
also noted (Calvin and Ellis, 1978). This range is
comparable to the macrophyte biomass of some of the
richest seaweed producing areas, such as Nova Scotia
and Scotland. Although no data about productivity are
available for Kodiak brown algae, it is probably high,
approximately 1 kg/mº/year, or an order of magnitude
higher than shelf plankton primary productivity. This
high growth may be due to the occurrence of kelp and
other brown algae in nearshore areas, where sunlight is
available throughout the water column, nutrient concent
trations are high, and energy subsidy provided by Waves
(causing water movement over algal surfaces) speeds up
the growth process. Experimental work by Westlake
(1967) has shown that much increased algal growth
occurs under conditions of water movement. However,
very little of the macrophyte production, probably less
than 10 percent, enters the food web through the graz"
ing pathways; only a few animals, both in terms of
species and numbers, feed directly upon macroalgae
(Velimirov et al., 1977). The tendencies of marine
macrophytes to generate detritus as algal drift and
litter, and to export organic matter are considerable
and well documented (Mann, 1972b). Such detrital
matter can be identified by its mean carbon to nitrogen
ratio (13:1), which is markedly different from the
normal ratio of phytoplankton (6:1). In the Kodiak
region, it is probable that organic matter thus gener"
ated is transported to the shelf area, notably on the
banks, where it can be retained and recirculated, and
utilized for long periods. Kelp blades are often torn
Environment and Planning 273
by wave action and carried away by coastal currents.
The total amount of macrophytes thus contributed to the
detrital mass depends on the season and severity of
wave action. A strong storm can uproot as much as 10
percent of the primary producer stock (Velimirov et
al., 1977). Although actual data are lacking for
Kodiak, significant algal drift and litter can be
predicted from the occurrence of high wind waves and
severe storms typical of this area. The drift offshore
and retention over the banks are probably caused by
coastal circulation and eddies over the banks. Detri-
tal matter of appropriate size and state of degradation
may be directly consumed by detritivores (e.g., certain
crustaceans and molluscs) and indirectly by those
organisms which eat the detritivores (e.g., king crab).
Microorganisms are important consumers of marine
macrophytes and a very significant link in the detrital
food web. It is likely that some detritus-feeding
invertebrates derive their nourishment from stripping
the microorganisms from the plant material as it passes
through their digestive tracts. A plausible scenario
for the process of utilization and decomposition of
macrophyte litter may include: epiphytic communities
are torn off along with blades and fronds and removed
from the region; initial autolysis results in dissolved
organic matter which is acted on by bacteria (and
possibly fungi); populations of small predators such as
nematodes and ciliates build up on drifted material;
animals feeding on detritus strip off the fauna and
their feces are recolonized by bacteria; detritivores
are consumed by larger, benthic predaceous species,
some of which are commercially harvested. The cumula-
tive role of microorganisms may be viewed as making
macrophyte energy stores available to higher forms
(Mann, 1972b). The pathways taken by dissolved organic
matter are much more difficult to describe.
Spatial distribution of biota
It is well recognized that marine biota, most
notably the plankton, are neither evenly nor randomly
distributed. Many species or taxa are spatially
clumped or aggregated in patches. The patchy dis-
tribution of plankton and other small prey organisms
determines the foraging areas and feeding strategies of
various bird, mammal, and fish species. The causes and
mechanisms of patchy population distributions are
believed to be both biological and physical. Biologi-
cal factors include feeding and reproductive patterns,
social behavior, and species interaction. Physical
factors include boundary conditions of light, temper-
ature, and salinity as well as periodic forces such as
tides. Many species are sensitive to salinity changes
of less than one part per thousand and follow oceanic
water masses on the shelf. Patchy distribution in
certain zooplankton and benthic invertebrates may be
caused by the release of clumps of eggs, suitability of
substratum, and food availability. Predominantly
herbivorous euphausiids (but not carnivorous euphau-
siids) are known to occur in swarms following patches
of high primary productivity (Nemoto, 1970). Such
swarming may determine the foraging areas of some
pelagic birds and baleen whales which feed heavily on
euphausiids. The occurrence in dense patches of prin-
cipal food items of harvestable fish, is an important
ecological consideration. Several of the large cope-
pods which are a preferred food item of Pacific salmon
juveniles are known to occur in dense patches. Suc-
cessful encounters of juvenile salmon with such
patches, where they can obtain sufficient ration for
growth, probably are important in determining the
success of various year-classes. Pelagic birds, marine
mammals, and pelagic fish congregate in discrete areas
where the abundance of food varies temporally
(diurnally, seasonally, etc.), in response to primary
productivity, distribution of water properties, tidal
cycles, or influxes of eddies from adjacent waters.
Kamykowski (1974) showed that the interaction of diel
migration with changes in the phase and speed of tidal"
period internal waves with depth could produce separa"
tion and, ultimately, patchiness of plankton popula"
tions. But, in a more general explanation, Riley
(1976) demonstrated that the interaction between diel
migration with tidal currents and net drift can inten"
sify small horizontals variations in population distri"
bution that can gradually develop and produce patchi"
ness. It is also known that storms can create a peri"
odic forcing function with a time scale between those
of tidal forcing and upwelling events (Riley, 1976).
This could create patchiness on a fairly large scale,
such as is usually observed in open waters. All of
these mechanisms may be operative on the Kodiak shelf.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the high
biological productivity of the Kodiak shelf and the
richness of regional biota are the result of inter-
actions between biological and physical factors which
CallS6 .
O high primary productivity through vertical
mixing and replenishment of micronutrients in
the photic zone, both aided by the presence
of shallow banks on the shelf
O partitioning of energy resources between the
water column and the seabed and a potentially
crucial input of detritus from coastal areas
to the open shelf, particularly over the
banks
O a reduced number of trophic links leading to
apex carnivores and commercially desirable
274 Environment and Planning
fish determined, in part, by environmental
control of particle size at lower trophic
levels
O spatially aggregated distributions of fauna
probably caused by periodic tidal movements,
episodic events, and diel migration of organ-
isms, resulting in concentrations of food for
higher forms.
7.3 THE PROPOSED ACTION
The Western Gulf of Alaska (Kodiak) Lease Sale #46
includes 564 tracts on the continental shelf, compris-
ing 3.2 million acres (1.3 million hectares), for oil
and gas development. The method for developing esti-
mates of petroleum resources involves analyzing and
interpreting geophysical and geological data about the
subsurface and surface formations. The estimates are
subject to revision as more data become available.
Earlier resource estimates (Draft Environmental Impact
Statement for Sale #46, USDI 1977) of recoverable
resources indicated 0.25 to 1.9 billion barrels (1
barrel = 0.159 mº) of oil and 0.1 to 0.9 trillion cubic
feet (1 ft* = 0.0283 mº) of natural gas in this region.
Information acquired since 1977 suggests that the
proposed lease area has a much higher gas and gas
condensate fluid potential and that the probability of
oil discovery is very low. In March 1979, the U.S.
Geological Survey estimated the 5 percent (maximum)
level, the mean, and 95 percent (minimum) levels of
recoverable resources as follows:
Maximum Mean Minimum
Gas condensate fluids,
million barrels (MMbbl.) 501 176 22
Natural Gas,
trillion cubic feet (tcf) 13.9 5. 35 0.91
Most of the resource is believed to be in Alba-
tross Basin, and the rest, in much smaller quantities,
in Tugidak and Portlock Basins.
Because the Kodiak Tertiary Province, a potential
zone of hydrocarbon reserves, has no production his-
tory, estimates of recoverable resources are specula-
tive. The proposed lease area is, therefore, consid-
ered a high-risk area. There is only an 8 percent
chance that commercially exploitable resources will be
found. It is also believed that no oil field smaller
than 110 million barrels is economically producible in
the Gulf of Alaska with any production system tested in
100 m of water (BLM, 1979b). The minimum gas field
size for development is expected to be between 0.5 and
0.65 tof in 100 m of water and between 0.7 and 1.75 tof
in 200 m of water (BLM, 1979b). Ordinarily these are
very high thresholds for production. Of the 5,374
fields discovered in the United States between 1970 and
1978, only nine exceeded either 50 million barrels of
oil or 300 billion cubic feet of gas (Oil and Gas
Journal, July 13, 1978). However, the remoteness of
the area from major petroleum markets and sources of
supplies, and the hazardous working conditions may
preclude commitment of resources and equipment for
lower reserves, at least in the near future. If petro-
leum production occurs at all in the Kodiak area, it
will be on a moderately large scale but proceeding at a
modest and predictable pace.
On the basis of current estimates of mean values,
peak daily production of gas condensate and natural gas
are expected to be 38.3 thousand barrels and 1.13
billion cubic feet, respectively. The estimated pro-
duction life of Kodiak resources is 25 years (USDI,
1980b).
It is too early to determine the level of indus-
trial activity in the area. The location of support and
supply facilities, liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant
and terminal sites, and other onshore facilities will
depend mainly upon the location of producing fields.
The support and supply facility may be the only onshore
industrial development when exploration begins. During
exploration existing harbors and airport facilities
could be used.
Exploration is expected to begin in 1981 and
continue through 1986 with a total of 24 exploration
and delineation wells drilled. Jack-up rigs may be
used in water less than 60 m deep, and drillships and
submersibles in deeper water. It is possible that a
base may be constructed in the Chiniak Bay area •
Airfields at Seward, Kodiak City, and Cape Chiniak
could provide aircraft support.
Commercial development will depend on the amount
of proven recoverable resources. Assuming successful
exploration and discovery, production could begin in
1987 and involve increased development onshore and
offshore starting in 1983 or 1984. An outline of the
types of industrial activities contributing to develop-
ment of the mean estimated resources is given in Table
7.1 The information contained in this table assumes
discovery and that only natural gas and true gas con-
densates will be produced.
Environment and Planning 275
Table 7. 1. Hypothesized activities for development of
mean estimated hydrocarbon resources in the western
Gulf of Alaska (Sale #46). Data furnished by BLM,
Alaska OCS Office in Anchorage.
Exploration and Development Activities:
Exploration and delineation wells: 24
Production platforms: 4
Production and service wells: 40
Workover wells: 0
Gas pipeline (2 parallel 56 cm (22") pipes)
Offshore:
Total route length = 384 km (240 mi)
Total pipe length = 768 km (480 mi)
:
Onshore:
Total route length = 2-3 km (1–2 mi)
Total pipe length = 4-6 km (2-4 mi)
Gas terminal(s): 1
Estimated peak annual transportation of gas and gas
condensates
LNG: 122.8 MMbbls
Condensate: 14 MMbbls
Estimated volume of commercial muds and drill cuttings
(assume 40 wells with an average depth of 2000 meters)
Per Well Total for Field
Cuttings: 131 mº 5240 m3
Muds: 59.5 m3 2380 m3
Estimated volume of produced formation water:
negligible
Estimated land use requirements for onshore facilities:
Support/supply base: 10 hectares (25 acres)
LNG terminal and related facilities: 80 hectares
(200 acres)
Estimated pipeline burial disturbance (assuming 1849 m3
per km of pipe route):
Offshore: 7. 10x10° mº
Onshore: negligible
Four steel-jacketed, bottom-founded production
platforms may be installed, and by 1989, some 40 pro-
duction and service wells may have been drilled. It is
hypothesized that the extracted hydrocarbons will be
transported via pipeline to a cryogenic, air-cooled LNG
plant on Kodiak Island, probably near Ugak, Kiliuda, or
Chiniak Bay. In view of the size of the proposed lease
area and uncertainties about hydrocarbon potential, it
is premature to select optimum sites for an LNG plant,
support bases, or other petroleum-related development
The ultimate selection of transportation routes and
sites will be based on transportation management plan-
ning, local zoning, land use policies, industry inter-
est, and state and Federal regulations.
7.4 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Offshore petroleum development poses questions of
potential environmental impacts, economics, and poli-
tics. Major adverse environmental or technological
impacts could preclude a sale, result in a reduced
number of tracts offered for sale, or necessitate
strict mitigating measures. It is important to antici-
pate areas of conflict, environmental hazards to tech-
nology, and potential environmental impacts.
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has identified
nine major issues related to petroleum development in
Alaska: subsistence lifestyles, commercial fishing,
recreation, social infrastructure, marine and coastal
ecosystems, air and water quality, shipping conflicts,
and environmental hazards. All of these issues are
applicable to Sale #46 in varying degrees, but only
issues related to the natural environment are addressed
by OCSEAP. The following issues, as they apply to the
Kodiak region, formed the core of the OCSEAP study:
impacts on commercial fisheries, geological hazards to
structure and facilities, contaminant transport, and
protection of regional biota and important habitats.
7. 4.1 Commercial fisheries
Commercial fishing is the most important element
of the Kodiak economy. According to labor statistics
for 1977, commercial fishing and food processing indus"
tries accounted for 36 percent (or $23 million) of the
total payroll for non-agricultural industries and
involved about 40 percent of the non-agricultural work
force (Statistical Quarterly, 1977, Alaska Department
of Labor). An estimated $50 million was paid to
fishermen for Kodiak catches. Present fishing efforts
concentrate on shellfish, salmon, and halibut. Because
of the overlapping seasons of these fisheries and the
diversification of fishing activities, commercial
fishing is now a year-round business.
The following species are harvested commercially:
King crab Paralithodes camtschatică
Tanner (snow) crab Chionoecetes bairdi
Dungeness crab Cancer magister
Pink shrimp Pandalus borealis
King or Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Sockeye or red salmon Oncorhynchus nerka
Coho or silver salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch
Pink or humpback salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
Chum or dog salmon
Pacific halibut
Oncorhynchus keta
Hippoglossus stenolepis
Statistics of commercial and sport fisheries
(catch and value) are compiled and maintained by fish"
ery regulatory and management agencies within and
outside Alaska, such as the Alaska Department of Fish
276 Environment and Planning
and Game (ADF&G) and the International Pacific Halibut
Commission (IPHC). Catch statistics are summarized and
discussed elsewhere in this report: in Section 5.4 for
shellfish and Section 5.6 for salmon. The mean annual
Catch over the past two decades and standard deviation
about the mean for major species are shown in Table 7.2
to emphasize the highly variable nature of individual
fisheries. This table does not include the halibut
Catch, an important element of Kodiak fisheries. The
halibut fishery is international and regulated by IPHC;
its catch statistics are provided for regulatory areas
which are much larger than the management districts of
ADF&G used for salmon and shellfish. A marked decline
in halibut catch has occurred in the area extending
from Cape Spencer to the Aleutian Islands, from 13,000
mt catch in the early 1960's to 5,440 mt in 1978. The
Kodiak pink shrimp catch in 1978–79 crashed to less
than half of the normal yearly catch in recent years.
Weathervane scallop Patinopecten caurinus and razor
clam Siliqua patula fisheries, once quite substantial,
after declining markedly in recent years, are now
abandoned, probably as a result of poor market condi-
tions, loss of habitat resulting from the 1964 Great
Alaska Earthquake, and increased state and Federal
regulations over processing (BLM, 1979 c). There is now
great interest in the commercial exploitation of bottom
fisheries, mainly Pacific cod Gadus macrocephalus and
Walleye pollock Theragra chalcogramma. It is possible
that large-scale entry into bottom fishery will have an
adverse effect on halibut stocks. A modest U.S.
fishery for herring Clupea harengus pallasi exists in
Ugak, Uganik, and Chiniak Bays and in the Old Harbor
a rea .
Table 7.2. Mean and Standard Deviation of Annual
Commercial Catch of Salmon and Shellfish in the Kodiak
Region, 1960-78. N represents the number of years for
which statistics are given. (Source data from Alaska
Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial
Fisheries.)
Standard
Catch Mean Deviation N
Shellfish
(metric tons)
King crab 13,625 10,255 18
Tanner crab 7,016 5, 187 12
Dungeness crab 1, 280 1,056 16
Pandalid shrimp 18,624 9,769 18
Scallop 301 222 10
Razor clam 70 66 16
Salmon
(number of fish)
Pink Salmon 6,631,000 4,483,000 18
Chum salmon 692,000 392,000 18
Sockeye Salmon 481,000 218,000 18
Coho Salmon 34,000 20,000 18
King salmon 1,000 400 16
The highly variable commercial catches of shellfish and
fish species are not unusual and are to be expected.
They probably result from diversification of fisheries,
depletion of certain stocks or year-classes due to
overexploitation, the naturally fluctuating survival
rate among larvae and juveniles, and changes in
fecundity and growth due to yearly fluctuations in the
physical environment. It would be impossible to dis-
tinguish nondramatic effects of OCS oil and gas activi-
ties from other effects at the population level of the
commercially harvested species. However, there are
several notable features of seasonality and area-
specific activities during the life cycle of these
species that must be considered in the light of future
petroleum development.
A review of literature and commercial and experi-
mental trawl catch data and tagging studies by the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) has shown
that there are six relatively distinct stocks of king
crab around Kodiak. The boundaries of the areas occu-
pied by these studies coincide with bathymetric
features and have been designated as ADF&G management
districts (Fig. 5.8). For example, the Marmot-Chiniak
and Sitkalidak-Chirikof stocks on the east side of
Kodiak Island are separated by the Kiliuda Trough.
Available data suggest that these stocks vary in popu-
lation size and migratory behavior. Crabs of one stock
are believed to move to particular inshore areas for
spawning, fertilization, and early development. After
the mating season, adults move back offshore to deep
water within the stock's area. For example, stock I
(Marmot-Chiniak) crabs, when moving to shallow water to
mate, inhabit bays and inlets only from Kizhuyak Bay
south to Sitkalidak Strait. After mating, these crabs
move offshore to deeper waters of Portlock Bank or
northern Albatross Bank. Populations of other stocks
are also believed to migrate consistently within dis-
tinct environmental zones (Buck et al., 1975). This
phase of the life history has important implications,
as depletion or significant reduction of one stock (as
a possible result of OCS activities) will probably not
be compensated for by juvenile recruitment and migra-
tion of adults from other stocks.
It is not known whether populations of other
shellfish species are comparably segregated but the
timing and areas of larval release and the period of
early development are unique for each species. Certain
phases of life history are probably related to require-
ments for specific temperature, salinity, or other
physical properties of the environment. For example,
razor clams, which spawn in summer, require a specific
water temperature for incubation and fertilization, and
weathervane scallops, also summer spawners, depend on
Environment and Planning 277
the weak and inconsistent circulation over the shelf
banks, e.g., Portlock and Marmot Banks, for the aggre-
gated settlement of larvae and food supplies.
The coastal and shelf environments are heavily
used by salmon. On the average, 11.6 million fish
return to the Kodiak area annually from the open sea to
spawn and complete their migratory cycle. An estimated
average of 300 million juvenile salmonids enter the
Kodiak marine environment annually from lakes, rivers,
streams, and the intertidal zone. The five Pacific
salmon species found in the Kodiak area exhibit
markedly different life cycles (Fig. 5.38). Salmonids
en route from offshore waters to the spawning grounds
segregate spatially and temporally within specific
streams. The return of salmon to a spawning stream
occurs at about the same time each year and is believed
to be a function of . genetic makeup and environmental
conditions such as temperature. Because salmon rely on
environmental cues to find spawning areas, contamina-
tion of the environment or impairment of the habitat
could interfere with breeding. Such contamination,
depending on its extent and duration, could cause the
loss of a year-class or even of entire breeding popula-
tion units of the coastal areas affected.
The timing of spawning, larval development, and
juvenile outmigration vary with species and environ-
mental characteristics, such as the type of substratum
and water temperature, specific to the region. Because
pink salmon spawn in intertidal regions or at the
mouths of small coastal streams and the juveniles soon
migrate to the sea, this species is vulnerable to
physical disturbances and contamination of coastal
waters. Other species, such as the sockeye salmon,
spend a long period of time in freshwater streams and
lakes (12-36 months). Their juvenile forms in the sea
are strong and active swimmers and have greater ability
than the pink salmon juveniles to avoid or tolerate
environmental contamination.
Recognizing the importance and economic consequen-
ces of potential adverse effects of OCS oil and gas
development on regional fisheries (commercial, sport,
subsistence), BLM/0CSEAP created several research units
to address this issue and obtain data that would com"
plement the information already in the hands of the
fisheries management agencies. We are now able to
delineate areas and seasons of consistently high com-
mercial catch and large population aggregation, are
learning about the reproductive phenology of principal
shellfish, and are determining major trophic pathways
within the nearshore fish communities. Two OCSEAP
research units studying density distributions of
ichthyoplankton, planktonic fish eggs, and decapod
larvae on the shelf and in selected bays, and one
studying fish trophic relationships are expected to
complete studies in FY81. Despite our efforts to date,
it is still virtually impossible to distinguish among
natural sources of changes in fish population or com-
munities. Some of these sources may be physical prop-
erties and parameters of varying dimensions and scale.
Overlapping with those but of more significance, be-
cause they are not necessarily associated with physical
changes, are biological interactions, such as pred-
ation, spatial exclusion, repopulation potential, and
ontogenetic behavior. A wide spectrum of environmental
factors continuously affects the composition of
specific populations and communities; our understanding
of the interactions among these factors on the Kodiak
shelf is only rudimentary.
7.4.2 Geological hazards
The high level of seismic activity in the western
Gulf of Alaska represents a substantial risk to petro"
leum industry structures and facilities. Several
earthquakes of high magnitude have occurred in this
area during the past 75 years. The 1964 Great Alaska
Earthquake was perhaps the most significant event, and
caused extensive damage to Anchorage and neighboring
communities. The earthquake generated a tsunami which
caused great damage on Kodiak Island and along the
coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California. The
epicenter of this earthquake was 450 km from Kodiak,
and yet there was widespread seafloor deformation
throughout the region of the Kodiak lease tracts, in
the form of uplift and downwarping.
Since the inception of OCSEAP studies in the
Kodiak region, research efforts have been attempting to
assess the environmental risks associated with oil and
gas development over the shelf and to evaluate geologi"
cal hazards to structures and facilities. The Shumagin
Islands region is of particular concern. This region
has had subdued seismic activity over a number of years
and is considered a probable site for a major earth"
quake in the future. If a major seismic event does
occur in the Shumagin "seismic gap" and it is typical
of those that have occurred along the Aleutian/Alaska
plate margin in the past, the epicenter will be located
near the eastern edge of the gap (Hans Pulpan, pers.
comm.).
Even though the Shumagin region is at a consider"
able distance southwest of the proposed lease tracts
and expected industrial activities, a major earthquake
in the seismic gap might cause damage to onshore and
offshore structures and facilities on Kodiak Island and
its eastern shelf.
278 Environment and Planning
A network of seismic stations has been in exist-
ence in the western gulf/Aleutian area since the early
1970's. In its present configuration, the network
extends over an 1, 100 km arc of the Alaska/Aleutian
region. Continued monitoring and compilation of seis-
mic events, including those of low magnitude, are
expected to yield the required long-term data to evalu-
ate seismic hazards. Nearly all of the available
seismic data are from land-based instruments. As a
result, the detection threshold for offshore events is
higher than for onshore events, and the accuracy of
hypocentral locations is much less. To alleviate these
two problems with offshore events, portable arrays of
ocean bottom seismometers are being used to monitor
seismic activity offshore and possibly to identify
active offshore faults. In addition, data from instru-
ments which measure strong ground motion during an
earthquake are being collected, and will provide impor-
tant information to seismic risk analysis for the
Kodiak shelf.
Many shallow faults, some offsetting the seafloor,
cross the shelf. Two northeast-trending fault zones
occur in the area, one off the southeast coast of
Kodiak Island, roughly coinciding with a zone of after-
shock activity from the 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake,
and the other near the shelf break. The latter zone is
probably related to slumping and other gravity pro-
cesses. More recently, studies have concentrated on
improving the accuracy of location and determining the
recency of movement of faults. This information is
useful in identifying and delineating particularly
hazardous areas. Any wells that cut through or pipe-
lines that traverse a fault would have an added risk
related to movement of the fault. Any structures near
an active fault along which rupture occurs during a
major earthquake could be subjected to extreme ground
accelerations.
Sediment slumps and slides are not known to occur
on the Kodiak shelf although the shallow troughs inter-
secting the shelf have slopes conducive to their forma-
tion. They do occur on the upper continental slope on
the seaward side of a structural arch which parallels
the shelf break. Areas of apparently rapid sediment
movement seaward have been identified in the Stevenson
Trough; much of the sediment spills through breaches in
the arch onto the slope. The sill created by the arch
across the mouths of Chiniak and Kiliuda Troughs blocks
seaward movement of bottom sediments, creating quiet
depositional regimes in the troughs (Hampton et al.,
1979b).
There is evidence of gas-charged sediments on the
Kodiak shelf. A sample taken at the Chiniak Trough
contained natural gas, probably biogenic. Samples
from other locations (portions of middle Albatross Bank
and Kiliuda Trough) show anomalous concentrations of
gaS. Continued studies will determine the hazard
potential of these sediments and serve as guides for
future research on geotechnical properties at specific
localities.
7.4.3 Contaminant transport
OCSEAP studies to determine the mechanisms and
pathways of transport of released contaminants are
designed to: -
O provide data that can be used to minimize
risks to environmentally sensitive areas
during the various stages of oil and gas
development
O determine probable trajectories and landfalls
in the event of an accidental release of
contaminants
O provide information for cleanup operation
plans in coastal and nearshore areas.
OCSEAP studies, initiated in FY76, have provided a
substantial amount of data needed to accomplish the
stated objectives. These studies included literature
summaries, analysis of hydrographic data, description
and analysis of current meter data, drift buoy traject
tories, interpretation of satellite imagery data,
mesoscale wind fields, and a preliminary circulation
model.
It is now possible to describe shelf and oceanic
circulation off Kodiak on a seasonal basis and make
statements on the diffusive and advective processes
affecting the dispersion and trajectories of released
contaminants. A comparision of the relative magnitudes
of kinetic energy components (mean flow and its fluctu"
ations) shows that currents seaward of the shelf edge
are characterized by a strong mean flow and moderate"
to-weak high-frequency fluctuations. This implies a
rapid transport of contaminants in the direction of
mean flow. On the other hand, currents over the shelf,
notably on the banks, are characterized by a weak mean
flow (as much as an order of magnitude lower than those
off the shelf), but a high-energy tidal component.
Environment and Planning 279
This implies that, over the shelf, contaminants will
remain for a longer period of time but reduction in
their concentration will occur more rapidly through
relatively high dispersion and mixing. There is now
evidence of flow into and out of shelf troughs.
A contaminant trajectory model for the Kodiak
shelf is under development. Its primary purpose is to
describe, synthesize, and communicate observational and
theoretical studies on the distribution and movement of
hydrocarbon contaminants in the sea. The model is
expected to incorporate three submodels which describe
the regional winds, circulation regime, and oil
weathering. Since no crude oil reserves are assumed to
be present in this area (and consequently no production
or transportation of crude oil), the utility of this
model will probably be limited to accidental spills
from vessel traffic on the shelf and along tanker
routes to and from the lower Cook Inlet.
Site-specific studies along stretches of coastline
and in fiords have not yet been undertaken to determine
flushing rates, pollutant retention potential, or
probable effects of the construction of jetties, piers,
or causeways. These and atmospheric pollution studies
will be done after petroleum development areas have
been identified.
7.4.4 Protection of regional biota and important habi-
tats
The ultimate goal of the biological research
programs in Kodiak is to determine which populations,
communities, and ecosystems are at risk from either
acute or chronic impacts of offshore petroleum deve-
lopment and to develop strategies to mitigate adverse
effects. Particular attention is given to seabirds and
marine mammals because of their vulnerability to envir-
onmental disturbance (noise, physical barriers, chemi-
cal pollution), their recreational value, wide public
concern for their welfare, and legislative mandates for
the protection of certain species. The Kodiak Archi-
pelago supports large populations of birds and mammals,
some of which are the largest in the Gulf of Alaska or
the world. Besides being important elements of the
regional ecosystem, some of the species are of great
aesthetic significance and an important part of local
culture and tradition.
The largest seabird colonies are on the Barren
Islands, dominated by Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel (300,000
birds), Common Murre (60,000), and Tufted Puffin
(95,000) on East Amatuli Island. Other large colonies,
over 30,000 birds, are located at Flat Island and
Triplet (Tufted Puffin), Boulder Bay (Blacked-legged
Kittiwake), and Nord Island (Common Murre). Further-
more, millions of shearwaters visit the Kodiak area
from the Southern Hemisphere during spring and summer
and feed intensively in the pelagic zone. The largest
single concentration of harbor seals in the world,
13-20 thousand animals, is at Tugidak Island. Northern
(Steller) sea lions are abundant throughout the Kodiak
region, with major population aggregations in the
Barren Islands, Marmot Island, Twoheaded Island, and
Chirikof Island. These islands are also major rooker-
ies, supplying the majority of pups to other areas of
the Gulf of Alaska.
Seven species of whales (gray, sei, finback, blue,
humpback, Pacific right, and sperm) and three species
or subspecies of birds (Aleutian Canada Goose, American
Peregrine Falcon, and Arctic Peregrine Falcon), which
occur in the Kodiak Archipelago or the adjacent ocean
waters seasonally or at irregular intervals, have been
designated as endangered (Federal Register, 42 (135),
July 14, 1977). The species and their habitats, in-
cluding the migratory range, must be protected from
adverse effects of human activities or industrial
development.
The following general topics have been addressed
as part of the Kodiak biological research program:
O identification and delineation of areas of
major population aggregations, especially
those used for feeding, breeding, or migra-
tion
O identification of species (including juvenile
forms) that are highly sensitive to physical
disturbance or chemical pollution
O description and analysis of trophic relation-
ships, including identification of key tro-
phic links to predict the potential conse-
quences of selective population reduction or
removal of important food organisms.
Species-specific studies have not been uniform.
Sometimes high resolution (index level) data have been
obtained on population densities, feeding areas, repro-
ductive phenology, and habitat dependence at selected
sites--for example, for Black-legged Kittiwake, Tufted
Puffin, harbor seal, northern sea lion, and sea otter.
It would be possible to specify mitigating measures and
recommend stipulations governing OCS activities to
protect these species and their major habitats. For
other species (e.g., whales), only reconnaissance level
information is available through fragmentary, and often
unreliable, sighting records.
An issue of critical environmental concern, im-
pacts on coastal and nearshore ecosystems, has not yet
been addressed directly. Ecological balance within the
entire region, and consequently biological product
tivity, can be disrupted by adverse effects on species
of functional significance in an ecosystem. These
species, however, may not be the ones for which most
data have been obtained in the Kodiak area, i.e., those
of commercial, sport, or aesthetic value. The identi-
280 Environment and Planning
fication of such species requires intensive studies of
local ecosystems. The sites of such studies will be
selected on the basis of realistic estimates of the
nature and amount of potential contamination and habi-
tat disturbance likely to occur due to OCS development.
Such information is not currently available.
7. 5 RELATIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT AREAS
One of the major objectives of 00SEAP is to de-
velop a comprehensive understanding of the natural
environment of the Kodiak Archipelago and to identify
specific sensitive regions with respect to possible
impact from oil and gas development on the continental
shelf. These regions are usually geographically
limited and can be distinguished by their physical
characteristics, biotic communities, and susceptibility
to damage. The environmental criteria for identifying
these regions include one or more of the following:
O areas located along or near the end of water-
borne contaminant trajectories
O potential sites of offshore or onshore place-
ment of structures and facilities or areas
likely to receive physical disturbance or
chemical contaminants from such activities
O areas recognized as being highly susceptible
to geological or other natural hazards,
including those with high seismic risk, rapid
sediment movement, potential for ground
failure, and suspected geotechnical problems
O areas of major population aggregations,
especially feeding and breeding grounds of
species of commercial, sport, or aesthetic
value or those used for subsistence or pre-
servation of native cultural heritage and
tradition
O offshore areas or embayments where contami-
nants may be retained or recirculated for
long periods of time
habitats of species (including larval and
juvenile forms) that are highly sensitive to
petroleum-related contaminants and physical
disturbance.
Since the inception of 00SEAP studies in Kodiak,
significant progress has been made toward obtaining the
necessary data and acquiring the amount of environ-
mental knowledge necessary to classify areas according
to these criteria. A broad overview of the results
obtained and reported so far suggests that, for several
reasons, the entire east coast of the Kodiak Archi-
pelago and adjacent shelf waters must be considered a
unique and highly productive habitat. The most obvious
feature of the coastline and shelf waters is the abun-
dance and richness of the biota, a large part of which
sustains commercial fish and shellfish fisheries.
Other areas represent migratory corridors for fish,
shellfish, birds, and mammals, pose serious geological
hazards, and are conducive to long-term retention of
contaminants.
Participants at the Kodiak Synthesis Meeting, May
1979, were asked to evaluate the relative sensitivity
or vulnerability of three geographic lease tract clus-
ters in an attempt to assess different alternatives.
The three lease tract clusters suggested by the BLM
Alaska OCS Office were composed of tracts off Trinity
Islands (area A), those east of Kodiak Island (area B),
and those northeast of Kodiak and Afognak Islands (area
C) (Fig. 7. 1). Available data on the oceanography,
geology, and biology of the areas were discussed along
and across disciplinary lines in an attempt to rank
these areas. Several overlapping areas along the coast
and on the shelf are unique or significant in terms of
vulnerability to potential environmental hazards,
contaminant transport, and damage to important biotic
populations and areas of high productivity. It was
concluded that the available data do not permit us to
distinguish an area of the shelf as more or less vul-
nerable or sensitive than another. No specific tracts
within these clusters were recommended for deletion on
the basis of available environmental data. It was
assumed that the design and engineering criteria of the
industrial installations will take into consideration
the geological hazards of specific sites and that areas
with highly irregular topography, gas-charged sedi-
ments, sediment slumps, and shallow fault zones will be
avoided.
Environment and Planning 281
The following examples will amplify the signifi-
1579 156° 155° 154° 153° 1529 1519 150° 149° 148° 147°
cance of certain areas of the Kodiak Archipelago.
(1) The shallow seismicity over the shelf area is
diffuse and does not correspond to any known fault
system. There is evidence of tectonic segmenta-
tion (areal concentration of earthquake epicenters
and structural deformation), implying possible
areal variation in the severity of tectonic haz-
ards (Hampton et al., 1979b). A large earthquake
is less likely to occur on the Kodiak shelf than
in the Shumagin seismic gap, especially the east-
ern portion, to the southwest of the shelf.
However, the risk of damage as a result of a large
event in the Shumagin gap is still high. If the
event occurs in the eastern portion of the gap,
damage to offshore structures could result from
ground shaking and tectonic deformation. The
southwest part of Kodiak Island, the Trinity
Islands, and lease tracts in Area A may be more
vulnerable to strong ground shaking, tectonic
deformation, and tsunami damage than other parts
of the archipelago.
º
56°- LEASE TRACT CLUSTERS
–56°
- | —1– I I | I | —l- l
Figure 7.1 Kodiak lease tract clusters discussed at 156° 155° 15.4° 153° 1529 O 1500 O O
the Kodiak Synthesis Meeting (KSM, 1979). 5 151 5O 149 148 —

282 Environment and Planning
(2)
(3)
(4)
Shelf areas northeast and south of Kodiak Island
have weak and inconsistent circulation, as evi-
denced by the presence of eddies and frequent flow
reversals. Hydrographic and current meter data
imply that water could remain in these areas,
notably over the shallow banks, for a considerable
period of time, possibly one to two months. Such
long residence time probably promotes localized
high productivity and probably favors the settle-
ment of larvae in geographically restricted areas.
The same features of the circulation regime would
cause contaminants to be retained in a small area
and increase contaminant exposure and contact with
the biota.
A weak flow in and out of Kiliuda Trough, possibly
separating the circulation regimes on the Middle
and South Albatross Banks, is also observed. Such
a flow may play an important role in population
segregation of biota and biological productivity
of the embayments at the head of the trough. Such
a flow may also advect contaminants from offshore
waters into the highly productive Kiliuda Bay.
Very large (possibly some of the largest in the
world) northern (Steller) sea lion rookeries and
hauling grounds are located on Sugarloaf Island,
Marmot Island, Chirikof Island, and Chowiet Island
and in Puale Bay. Each of these rookeries is
known to contribute pups to other areas of the
Gulf of Alaska.
all along the coast.
Smaller populations are scattered
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
The world's largest known concentration of harbor
seals is at Tugidak Island. Large numbers are
also found at Sitkinak Island, Geese Island,
Aiaktalik Island, Ugak Island, and Shuyak Island.
Dozens of seabird colonies and areas of migratory
waterfowl concentrations have been identified.
There are major seabird colonies at the Barren
Islands, in the Sitkalidak Strait/Dangerous Cape
area, and in the Puale Bay/Portage Bay area. The
dominant breeding species in these areas include
Gull, Black-legged Kittiwake,
Common Murre, and Tufted Puffin.
Glaucous-winged
Pink salmon spawn throughout the archipelago,
particularly in Alitak and Uganik Bays. Chum
salmon spawning areas are also widespread, but the
southwest side of Kodiak is especially important.
In particular, sockeye salmon spawn in several
river drainage systems on the southwest side of
Kodiak Island and the west side of Shelikof
Strait.
Extensive macrophyte assemblages and kelp beds
around Kodiak Island manifest the high biological
productivity of the region. Kelp beds are partic-
ularly important and unique biological environ-
ments because they serve as a protective habitat
to a large number of species, such as larval and
juvenile salmon and juvenile king and Tanner
crabs. Macrophytes and the associated fauna and
flora are heavily utilized as food by mammals,
birds, and fish.
quantities of detritus as algal drift, to be
Kelp beds probably export large
consumed as food elsewhere over the shelf. Kelp
is also sensitive to environmental disturbances
such as increased sediment, thermal pollution, and
coating of blades or sporophylls by oil. Major
kelp beds and other assemblages of macrophytes are
at Sitkinak Island, the Aiaktalik/Cape
Sitkalidak Island, Right Cape/
Kiliuda Bay areas, Ugak Island, and north Afognak
Island.
found
Trinity area,
(9) All of the bays and fiords in the Kodiak area are
heavily used by fish and shellfish species for
feeding, spawning, and rearing. The intertidal
and subtidal area is important for pink salmon
juveniles for feeding and migration from July to
October. King crab feed on the rich intertidal
biota in spring. Herring, greenlings, sandfish,
capelin, and sand lance, which are important food
species for other fish, birds, and mammals, are
also abundant throughout in appropriate habitats,
i.e., gravel, sandy or muddy beaches, rocky inter-
tidal and subtidal areas, or kelp beds.
In view of the obvious overlap in population
distributions along the Kodiak coastline and the high
productivity of the entire region, it is not practical
to delineate specific regions as being more significant
than others in susceptibility to impact and recovery
potential from contamination or serious damage.
Neither is it feasible to eliminate particular regions
from consideration. Detailed information on the sea-
sonality and abundance of biota and habitat utilization
by different taxa (outlined in the main body of this
report and described in OCSEAP principal investigators'
Environment and Planning 283
reports) will be useful in guiding OCS oil and gas
decisions so as to minimize habitat disturbance and
protect important biotic resources of the region
through regulations, stipulations, and deletion of
lease sale blocks.
7.6 ENVIRONMENTAL INPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION
This section provides a general account of the
types and nature of potential environmental distur-
bances and implications of these for possible effects
on the quality of the environment as a result of pétro-
leum exploration, development, and production activi-
ties. Because the current petroleum development sce-
narios are provisional and imprecise, site-specific
information could not be included, nor could possible
effects of increased sport fishing, hunting and recre-
ational activities, competition for harbor facilities
and space, and marine traffic which, even though perti-
nent to the marine environment and biota, are more
appropriately included in the socioeconomic and socio-
cultural analyses of impacts.
7.6. 1 Loss of habitat
Coastal and marine habitats would be lost or
altered by dredging to maintain navigational channels,
leveling of land for the construction of shore facili-
ties including an LNG plant, construction of break-
waters to provide sheltered harbors, placement of
pipelines and platforms, and the settlement of dredged
sediment, drilling muds, and cuttings.
It was pointed out during discussions at the
Kodiak Synthesis Meeting (May 1979) that primary prin-
ciples for selecting a particular location will be
economic and sociopolitical; physical and biological
considerations may well be secondary. However, it was
stressed that shore facilities should be sited away
from critical biological habitats (e.g., major rooker-
ies, salmon spawning streams), and areas of landslide
and potential delta failures, and be designed to com-
pensate for seismic and tsunami hazards. The loss of
habitat along small stretches of coastline and offshore
is not considered a major problem, especially when
compared with socioeconomic effects and the require-
ments of the increased human population induced by
petroleum development.
7.6.2 Impacts on air and water quality
The quality of the environment around the Kodiak
Archipelago is good. There is no evidence that ambient
concentrations of total suspended particulates, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, petrochemical oxidants, and
oxides of nitrogen exceed primary air quality standards
(USEPA, 1978). Concentrations of air pollutants under
conditions of temperature inversion could reach higher
levels locally for short periods. No data are avail-
able for Kodiak during temperature inversions. Marine
waters in the bays and fiords and offshore are consid-
ered pristine. Large quantities of seafood processing
waste used to be dumped near Kodiak Harbor in Chiniak
Bay. This waste, high in organic content, caused high
oxygen demand upon decomposition and resulted in very
low dissolved oxygen concentration in the bay. How-
ever, water pollution control measures and sewage
treatment facilities, undertaken since 1972, have
markedly improved the marine water quality (Buck et
al., 1975).
Impacts, mostly local but significant, on regional
environmental quality will be caused by emissions,
effluents, and noise resulting from or associated with
petroleum actitivies. There might be increased turbid-
ity (e.g., from drilling muds, drill cuttings, pipeline
burial, dredging, etc.), microbial populations (e.g.,
pathogens, fecal coliform bacteria), oxygen demand
(from decomposition of organic matter), plant nutrients
(e.g., inorganic micronutrients such as phosphate,
nitrate, ammonia, urea), noise (e.g., from operations
of aircraft, supply boats), and air pollutants (e.g.,
from LNG carrier loading and unloading, boat traffic).
Some of these environmental disturbances may last
throughout the petroleum development period, 25 years.
All discharges into the atmosphere and the marine
environment must be regulated in accordance with cri-
teria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and the Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation.
7.6.3 Well blowouts
OCS regulations require detailed information from
operators on the drilling platform, casing program, mud
program, blowout prevention equipment, and well control
measures to ascertain that safe procedures and tech-
nology are employed. Blowout preventers and related
pressure-control equipment must be installed, used, and
tested in such a manner as to ensure well control.
Blowout prevention equipment is essentially a series of
valves, usually operated remotely and hydraulically,
that can be activated to shut the well in case of an
emergency. The system is usually reliable, but equip-
ment failure and human error can cause a well blowout
during either the exploration or production phase.
According to estimates based on petroleum develop-
ment in the Gulf of Mexico, one blowout occurs for
every 2,860 wells drilled (USDI, 1977). Since the
Kodiak region is a frontier petroleum development area
284 Environment and Planning
and subsurface pressures are unknown, BLM estimates
that one blowout may occur in this area during petro-
leum development and production (USDI, 1977).
A gas well blowout does not pose environmental
hazards comparable to an oil well blowout, since escap-
ing gas is either advected from the area in solution
(very small quantities) or reaches the sea surface in
bubble-phase and is dispersed into the atmosphere. The
water-soluble fractions, such as propane and butane,
may dissolve in seawater but owing to the low temper-
ature at which they vaporize, they will also be dis-
sipated into the atmosphere. A gas well blowout would
probably have only a very temporary and local effect on
the marine environment; other events associated with a
well blowout, such as fire, collapse of the drilling
rig, and discharge of muds would probably cause more
serious human and environmental damage near the acci-
dent site.
The environmental consequences of a well blowout
involving gas condensates may be more serious. Accord-
ing to Hunt (1979), gas condensate is a low-molecular-
weight hydrocarbon mixture that is gaseous in the
ground but condenses into fluid when produced. It may
include natural gas liquids (propane, butane, pentane)
and short-chained paraffins with five to ten carbon
atoms (comparable to the gasoline fraction). Gas
condensate, if spilled in fluid state, will evaporate
rapidly because of the volatile nature of its con-
stituents. McAuliffe (1977) has shown that short-
chained hydrocarbons (with nine or fewer carbon atoms)
evaporate from the water surface in less than one hour.
Only small amounts of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons
remain dissolved in water; they quickly evaporate near
the water surface (McAuliffe, 1977). Because many
short-chain petroleum fractions are more toxic than
long-chain spilled fractions, gas condensate fluid
could cause physiological stress or death to organisms
upon contact. The trajectories of spilled gas conden-
sate fluid will be short, both in time and space.
7.6.4 Liquefied natural gas (LNG) release
There is a remote possiblity that operational
mishaps, natural events (e.g., an earthquake), or an
accident (e.g., ship collision) would cause release of
a large amount of liquefied natural gas into the open
environment. Such a release can be caused by rupture
in the tanks, pipes, or other components of an LNG
plant or loading System, the failure of a relief valve
or an automatic shutdown device, or human error. The
probability of any such occurrence is very slight; the
estimated probability of a tank rupture is 1 x 10-% per
year and of a relief valve failure 1 x 10-5 per demand.
Offshore, probability of collision of an LNG carrier is
5.5 x 10-7 per year and of a cargo tank rupture 1 x
10-7 per year (SAI, 1976).
Although the probability of a major accident
involving LNG is very slight, the potential consequen-
ces of such a release can be very serious. The LNG
immediately upon release is so cold and dense that its
cloud spreads along the ground. Outside its special-
ized storage tanks, it causes flash-freezing and can
crack metal and asphyxiate people (Davis, 1979). LNG
vapor (mainly methane) upon release at atmospheric
pressure is 40 percent more dense than air. Mixing
with air will warm LNG vapor but also cool the air, so
that the density of the mixture will remain above that
of air. The LNG vapor will remain negatively buoyant
until entirely mixed and the gas is dispersed. When
heat from the surface of water is significant, the
vapor cloud can become neutrally buoyant. The diameter
of the negatively buoyant vapor cloud (thus the hori-
zontal area of spread) will be much greater than its
height, since the vertical spreading will be inhibited
by the higher density of the vapor cloud. The forma-
tion of the cloud will also depend on the wind direct
tion and speed. Once the plume is dispersed over an
area and mixed with air, it may be ignited by one of
the many sources usually found in industrial or resi"
dential areas. The minimum spark energy for ignition
of a methane cloud is 0.3 millijoule; flammable LNG
vapor may be ignited by any kind of open flame, elect
trical sparks, and even hot surfaces (SAI 1976).
Depending on the extent of the flammable plume,
damage and destruction due to fire and explosions could
be very severe (see example of the East Ohio Gas
Company LNG Plant accident in Chapter 6). However, it
must be reemphasized that the probability of such an
occurrence is very low. For the planned LNG plant at
Nikiski (Lower Cook Inlet), it was estimated that the
probability of fatality is one in 190 million per
person within 1 km of the site and the probability of
an accident causing 1,000-2,000 fatalities is one in 9
trillion per year (SAI, 1976).
7.6.5 Oil spills
According to the current provisional development
scenarios, no crude oil production or transportation
will occur as a result of OCS Sale #46. Therefore, the
possibility of an oil spill from production in the
Kodiak area is nil. However, an oil spill affecting
the region could occur along tanker routes to and from
lower Cook Inlet and Shelikof Strait lease areas (OCS
Lease Sale #60), or from accidents involving fishing
vessels and OCS structures and supply vessels. Because
accidental spills occur as a result of random events
such as equipment failures, operational mishaps, and
Environment and Planning 285
human error, the problem of predicting the magnitude,
location, and frequency of spills is difficult. Most
spills have occurred within 75 km of shore when a
vessel ran aground, rammed a fixed structure, or col-
lided with another vessel. Despite some recent large
and well-publicized oil tanker accidents and the re-
sulting large spills, e.g. , the Argo Merchant spill off
Nantucket Island, U.S.A., and the Amoco Cadiz spill off
the coast of Brittany, France, there is evidence of
reduction in the frequency of tanker spills from about
0.45 incidents per million barrels of oil handled
between 1969 and 1972 to 0.07 in 1973–74 (Stewart,
1975).
An oil spill of unknown quantity and source (prob-
ably "slop" or waste oil discharged by a tanker or
tankers) was reported in Kodiak in February 1970.
During February and March, oil clumps were found over
Portlock Bank. Small stretches of beaches, including
kelp beds from Afognak to Sitkinak Island, were found
smothered with oil.
According to the documentation of the spill
(Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, U.S.
Department of the Interior, unpublished report), hun-
dreds of birds, including seaducks, were found oiled
and dead on the Barren Islands, Old Afognak Village,
Shuyak Island, Marmot Island, Spruce Island, Gibson
Cove, Pasagshak Beach, and Kitoi Bay. Over fifty
harbor seals were found oiled and dead on Flat Island
and Geese Island, two sea lions at Long Island, one sea
otter at Mill Bay, and one fur seal at St. Paul Harbor.
A Bald Eagle with oiled talons was found dead at West
Amatuli Island.
It is virtually impossible to make a general
prediction of oil spill trajectories and landfalls in
Kodiak owing to the highly variable wind regime, re-
gional differences in water circulation, and the un-
known nature of the spilled oil. Participants at the
Kodiak Synthesis Meeting (May 1979) discussed a hypo-
thetical case of 20,000 tons of oil spilled on the
northern edge of the North Albatross Bank as a result
of a tanker accident. The spill location is inshore
from the strong, southwesterly flowing Alaska Stream
and offshore from coastal circulation. In the spill
area, currents are weak, variable in direction, and
dominated by winds. In the worst possible circum-
stances, oil would be expected to flow toward the coast
under the influence of strong northeasterly winds.
Landfalls in Marmot and Chiniak Bays could be expected.
Nearshore, oil would smear long stretches of coastline
as it was advected by winds and the coastal current.
It would reach the coastline in two to four days de-
pending on the strength and consistency of winds. It
is reasonable to assume that the effects of such an oil
spill would be seen over distances of hundreds of
kilometers. The area of impact would not be uniform,
as spilled oil would concentrate in bays with a wind-
ward exposure and along headlands exposed to winds.
Bays or fiords in the lee of capes or protected from
wind would hardly be affected (Galt, KSM 1979). Any
fraction (probably an insignificant amount) of oil
incorporated in bottom sediment or detritus might be
stored in the headward portions of Chiniak Trough for a
long time (Hampton, KSM, 1979).
Under conditions of variable wind speed and direct
tion, spilled oil might stay over the North Albatross
Bank for weeks and be dissipated by evaporation, dis-
solution, and flocculation of its constituents. If
consistent, strong winds were blowing to the northeast,
spilled oil would drift offshore toward the Alaska
Stream. Once such oil was picked up by the Alaska
Stream, it would be advected out of the area. Such
advection of spilled oil offshore was observed in the
Argo Merchant spill (Galt, KSM 1979).
During discussion at the Kodiak Synthesis Meeting,
it was not possible to determine the extent of spread-
ing of spilled oil. The total area covered by an oil
spill is important in determining the extent of faunal
mortality and other effects, particularly on birds,
planktonic fish eggs, and larval fish, which make
extensive use of the upper layers of the water column.
It is known that spreading occurs in three stages, each
governed by a different physical process (Fay, 1969).
Gravitational (inertial) effects control spreading
during the initial stage. This stage ends after one
minute to one hour for oil volumes of about 1 to 10° mº
respectively and, in axisymmetrical spread, diameters
of spread between 10 m and 1 km may be reached. The
second phase (governed by gravity effects related to
viscous friction in the water) may last for about 10
minutes for a 1 m” spill to a few days for a 10° m”
spill. The diameter of the slick increases with time.
The third phase (governed by surface tension balanced
by viscous forces) starts at some critical thickness of
the oil film, less than one cm. In this phase spread-
ing is determined by the "spreading force," that is ,
the difference between the surface tension of water and
the sum of the surface tensions of the oil and the
oil-water interface.
Theoretically, the spreading
could continue till a monomolecular layer is attained,
286 Environment and Planning
but weathering and the increase of water-oil inter-
facial tension resulting from dissolution of oil frac-
tions in water cause the spreading process soon to end
(Otto, 1973). In actual occurrence, the spreading
tendencies are greatly affected by wind, waves, and
currents, as well as by the physico-chemical nature of
the spilled oil (Fay, 1969).
The effects on biota at the spill location and
along and at the end of oil trajectories depend on the
relative amounts of the toxic fractions at different
locations and times after the spill, and on the sea-
sonal abundance of the biota. Without this informa-
tion, it is not possible to estimate environmental
damage. The example of the 1970 oil spill in Kodiak
illustrates the potential for widespread damage to the
Possible effects include:
environment and biota.
O direct mortality in the water column and on
the coast
O sublethal and possibly long-lasting effects
on biota, particularly physiological and
behavioral aberrations
O changes in species succession or competition,
affecting normal phenology and ecological
balance
O indirect effects through ingestion of con-
taminated food or loss of feeding grounds
O synergistic effects of oil pollution with
pathogens, municipal sewage, and other con-
taminants.
7. 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The continental shelf east of the Kodiak Archi-
pelago has been selected for the exploration and de-
velopment of petroleum resources (OCS Sale #46). The
available geological and geophysical data suggest that
this area may be expected to contain natural gas and
gas condensates rather than crude oil. If economically
recoverable gas reserves are found and developed,
production is not likely to start until 1987. Since
there is no major local market and no system of pipe-
lines to transport natural gas to other areas, virtu-
ally all of the natural gas will be liquefied and
shipped to the west coast of the United States. For
this reason, petroleum development off Kodiak will also
include construction and operation of a liquefied
natural gas (LNG) plant ashore and emplacement of
extensive pipelines to transport natural gas and gas
condensates from offshore wells to the plant.
The Kodiak Archipelago and adjacent shelf waters
are noted for high biological productivity, a number of
unique habitats, and the seasonal occurrence of some
endangered species of whales. The entire coastline is
described as highly vulnerable to damage from spilled
oil. A variety of probable impacts on the natural
environment and biota from normal operations and actiº
vities (i.e., dredging, emplacement of pipelines,
construction of shore facilities, waste discharges) and
accidental spills, well blowouts, or liquefied natural
gas releases have been noted. In addition, the rela-
tively high probability of the occurrence of a major
earthquake during OCS development in this area poses a
substantial risk to industrial structures, facilities,
and human populations.
OCSEAP studies in Kodiak have resulted in an
extensive data base on the biology, chemistry, geology,
microbiology, and physics of the marine environment, as
well as interpretive reports and proceedings of princi"
pal investigators' interdisciplinary workshops. Four
major environmental issues have been identified and
form the core of the studies program: impact on com"
mercial fisheries, geological hazards, contaminant
transport, and protection of the regional biota and
important habitats. These issues, along with other
pertinent environmental implications of planned petro"
leum development, must be addressed and the problems
resolved or mitigated in order to guide petroleum
development in this area in a manner that is environ-
mentally safe and minimizes conflicts among users of
the resources. The studies have not yet been com"
pleted. Additional data of value in the decision-
making process will become available before the planned
lease sale date (December 1980).
Environment and Planning 287 .
Glossary
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GLOSSARY
ACCRETION: a process of continental growth resulting
from convergence of two lithospheric plates; as the
subducted (or underthrust) plate descends, material
originally between the plates or on the surface of
the descending plate is compressed and added
(accreted) to the upper stationary plate.
ALCID: any member of the avian family Alcidae, a group
of marine diving birds. The family is confined to
the northern hemisphere and its members breed in
colonies on cliff ledges and in burrows. Includes
auks, murres, guillemots, murrelets, auklets, and
puffins.
ADF&G: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, a state
regulatory agency which conducts research on sport,
commercial, and other wildlife species.
ADVECTION: in oceanography, the horizontal or vertical
flow of seawater as a current without mixing with
the surrounding water.
AFTERSHOCKS: smaller earthquakes which follow the
largest earthquake of a series; all shocks occur in
a restricted crustal volume and are related to the
same strain release event.
ALEUTIAN ARC: prominent geographical feature which
includes the Aleutian Island chain and extends into
the Alaskan
topographically by volcanic peaks and ranges, and by
mainland; it is expressed
the Aleutian Trench; the arc is a product of
subduction of the Pacific Plate under the North
American Plate. (See also PLATE TECTONICS.)
ANADROMOUS: pertaining to the life history of such
fish as salmon and shad, in which young hatch in
fresh water and migrate to marine waters where most
of the adult stage is spent. Adults migrate back to
natal fresh water to spawn.
ANDESITIC:
composed of plagioclase feldspar and one or more
pertaining to Andesite, a rock type
mafic minerals, commonly associated with volcanism
on the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean (the "ring of
fire" which surrounds the Pacific lithospheric
plate).
ANNELID: any member of the phylum Annelida, including
the polychaete and oligochaete worms and the
Hirudinea (leeches). They are found in marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial environments. The major
distinguishing characteristic is the division of the
body into similar rings or segments.
ANNULUS: the space around a pipe suspended in a
wellbore; its outer wall may be either the wall of
the borehole or the casing.
ANTICLINE: a fold in a geological formation which is
convex upward, generally forming ridge or hill
topography. The oldest strata are in the core of
the fold.
AROMATICS: a group of organic compounds containing at
least one six carbon ring (benzene ring): abundant
in crude oil and derived petroleum products.
ATOMIC ABSORPTION: a spectrographic method for
detecting elements based on their characteristic
absorption of specific wavelengths of radiation.
AVIFAUNA: species of birds in a specific region.
BAROCLINIC CURRENT: A current that is driven
exclusively by the internal distribution of density
within a water mass.
BAROTROPIC cuRRENT: A current that is driven by the
slope of the sea surface.
BASALT: in general, any fine-grained, dark-colored,
extrusive volcanic rock. The principal component of
the crustal rock of the ocean floor.
BATHYMETRY: the topography of the ocean oottom or a
display of ocean depths.
BCF: Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, currently,
National Marine Fisheries Service. An agency within
NOAA for the research, development, and maintenance
of U.S. fishery resources.
BENIOFF ZONE: planar zone (within the earth) of
intense earthquake activity dipping in the direction
of a descending (subducting) lithospheric plate.
BENTHIC: refers to organisms (the benthos) living in
or on, or occasionally associated with aquatic sedi"
ments. These organisms include bacteria, plants,
and animals.
BIOGENIC HYDROCARBONS: organic compounds containing
only carbon and hydrogen, formed by the
physiological activities of organisms. Biogenic
hydrocarbons include saturated and unsaturated
aliphatic hydrocarbons, as well as branched-chain
hydrocarbons, especially the isoprenoids.
Naphthenic and aromatic hydrocarbons occur at Very
low levels in marine organisms.
Glossary 291
BIVALVE MOLLUSC: any member of the class Pelecypoda,
phylum Mollusca. Distinguishing characteristics
include two laterally compressed hinged shells and a
large, muscular, wedge-shaped foot for locomotion
and burrowing. Most are sedentary and are
filter-feeders involving gills. They range from
1 mm to 1 m in length.
scallops, mussels.
BLOWOUT PREVENTER: equipment installed at the wellhead
to control pressures in the annular space between
‘the casing and drill pipe, or in an open hole during
drilling and completion operations.
BOTTOMFISH:
usually enter the benthos as larval forms. They
bottom-living or demersal fish. They
prey on all size groups of bottom-dwelling
organisms. Most demersal fish species remain at or
just above the bottom as epifauna but some browse or
bury themselves in the sediment surface. Example:
flounder, sole.
BRYOZOA (POLYZOA): sea-mats, corallines. Phylum of
small, aquatic, usually fixed and colonial animals,
superficially resembling hydroid coelenterates but
considerably more complex. They have ciliated
tentacles with which they feed; anus; coelom; some
have horny or calcareous skeletons. Contains two
classes, Ectoprocta and Endoprocta, which are
sometimes regarded as distinct phyla.
CALANOID: any member of the order Calanoida, subclass
Copepoda, class Crustacea. Most species are marine,
freeliving, and planktonic, with global
distribution. The body is divided into
differentiated segments with varied appendages for
292 Glossary
Examples are clams,
CHEMOTROPHS:
swimming and feeding. An important source of food
for many other marine organisms. Size ranges from
0.1 to 1.0 cm.
CARNIVORE : an animal that feeds principally or
entirely on other animal tissues, either living or
dead.
CASH BONUS TRACT: a tract on which the bidder offers a
front end cash value on a dollars-per-acre basis; a
minimum of 16.6 percent of oil/gas profits passes to
the federal government.
CEPHALOPOD :
phylum Mollusca.
Any member of the class Cephalopoda,
Characterized by a crown of
tentacles surrounding the head and often a reduced
shell; highly mobile swimming animals. Examples:
squid, octopus.
CETACEAN: any member of the mammalian orders Mysticeti
and Odontoceti, all members of which are adapted for
a completely aquatic existence. The Mysticeti
consist of the baleen whales, which feed by
straining small organisms from the water through
baleen plates (or "whale bone"). The Odontoceti
include the toothed whales such as sperm whales and
killer whales, porpoises, and dolphins.
microbial organisms (bacteria) which
synthesize organic compounds from energy derived
through chemical reactions rather than from the sun.
CIRQUE: erosional morphologic feature remaining after
a mountain glacier has melted away; characterized by
a smooth, curved slope at the head of the valley
which the glacier occupied; similar in shape to a
Roman armchair.
COHORT: in a demographic (population) study, a group
of individuals having a statistical factor in
common, such as age or class membership.
COMMUNITY: an association of interacting populations
occupying a specific locality.
COMPACTION: decrease in volume of sediments due to
compression, usually resulting from continued de-
position above them, but also from drying and other
CallSeS .
COPEPOD: Any member of the subclass Copepoda, class
Crustacea. Exist in a variety of aquatic habitats,
have elongated segmented bodies, forked tails. May
be herbivorous or carnivorous. Often dominate
planktonic communities and are important food items
for fish and baleen whales. Size range is on the
order of mm.
CORIOLIS FORCE: apparent force due to the earth's
rotation, causing a moving particle to be deflected
to the right of motion in the northern hemisphere,
and to the left in the southern hemisphere; it is
proportional to the speed and latitude of the moving
particle and cannot change the speed (only the
direction) of the particle.
CPUE: catch per unit effort, i.e., the number of fish
or shellfish caught by a particular method over a
specified period of time.
&
ºi
CRITICAL HABITAT: (a) 'a limited area composed of
special physical qualities (i.e., temperature,
substrate type, food availability) used by a species
as a necessary site for some biological function
(e.g., spawning, denning, breeding). As a
consequence of an area's use, it may be a location
of high productivity (e.g., rookery, fishing
grounds). Impairment of the space may jeopardize
the viability of one or more species. (b) A
critical habitat may also be a "fragile" area,
vulnerable to physical perturbations, easily altered
in character, such as an area supporting high
species diversity, or an area that requires a long
recovery period following damage (i.e., tundra,
coral reefs, estuarine marshes). High-latitude
ecosystems are particularly susceptible because
temperature and climatic regimes preclude rapid
growth of many of the life forms. (c) An area may
also be considered as critical economically or
culturally. In this category are areas of economic
resources such as commercial fisheries and areas of
archaelogical and scenic value. (d) Any air, land,
or water area, including any elements thereof, that
the Secretary of the Interior, through the
Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or
National Marine Fishery Service, has determined is
essential to the survival of wild populations of a
listed species or to their recovery to a point at
which the measures provided pursuant to the
Endangered Species Act of 1973 are no longer
necessary. Such determinations are published in the
Federal Register.
CRYPTIC SPECIES: a species adapted by color, size,
texture, or morphology to appear as inconspicuous as
possible in its surroundings.
DEMERSAL SPECIES: organisms which spend most of their
life history at or near the ocean bottom, including
remaining at or just above the bottom or burrowing
or browsing in the sediment surface.
DEPOSIT-FEEDING: consuming of edible material from
sediment or detritus, either by ingesting material
unselectively and excreting the unusable portion, or
selectively by ingesting discrete particles.
DEPURATION: with reference to petroleum, the active or
passive discharge of hydrocarbons from the tissues
of an organism.
DETRITUS: non-living particulate debris in the sea,
including inorganic and organic materials and
particulates originating from dead organisms. An
important source of food for many organisms.
DEVIATION WELL: a well drilled at an angle from the
vertical.
DOWNWELLING: the downward motion of water caused by
the convergence of two or more water masses.
DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY: the height of the ocean surface
above some reference level, usually a level of
constant pressure. Differences in height are caused
by differences in the density of water between the
surface and the reference level.
ECHINODERM: any member of the invertebrate phylum
Echinodermata. They are characterized by radial
symmetry, no segmentation or well-defined head
region. All are marine, most are nearshore
bottom-dwellers. Examples: sea stars, Sea cu-
cumbers, sand dollars, sea lilies, sea urchins.
EDDY: circular movement of water, usually formed where
currents pass obstructions, between two adjacent
currents flowing counter to one another, or along
the edge of a current such as the Gulf Stream.
EDIS: Environmental Data and Information Service
(formerly EDS). Department within National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration composed of five data
collection and dissemination facilities on various
aspects of environmental sciences, including
oceanography, weather, marine geology, and
geophysics.
EKMAN LAYER: that part of a water column influenced by
frictional forces. Wind blowing over the ocean
surface causes a surface Ekman layer and the
friction of currents flowing across the bottom
causes a bottom Ekman layer.
ELASMOBRANCH: any member of the class of fish Elasmo-
branchii. Characterized by an internal skeleton
which is entirely cartilaginous. Includes sharks,
skates, and rays.
EPIBENTHOS: organisms that live at or just above the
sediment surface. Includes animals (epifauna) and
plants (epiflora) such as king crab and algae
respectively.
EPICENTER: point on the surface of the earth directly
above the focus (or hypocenter) of an earthquake.
EPIFAUNA: See EPIBENTHOS
Glossary 293
EULERIAN MEASUREMENTS: Eulerian current measurements
taken at a fixed point, such as a current meter
attached to a buoy. They differ from Lagrangian
measurements which are made by following a device
that drifts with the currents.
EUPHAUSIIDS: members of the order Euphausiacea, class
Crustacea. These are shrimplike animals differing
from true shrimps in not having the first three
pairs of thoracic limbs modified as mouthparts;
entirely marine, often occurring in dense
populations. They constitute the main food of
baleen whales. Also known as krill.
FAULT: a fracture or zone of fractures in rock along
which there has been relative displacement of the
adjacent sides; amount of displacement varies from
centimeters to kilometers and direction may be
vertical or horizontal.
FAULT SCARP: the cliff formed by vertical movement
along a fault.
FECUNDITY: rate at which a female individual produces
offspring.
FINES: the fine fraction of a sediment; finer than
0.074 mm in particle diameter.
FLUX: in oceanography, the rate of transport of fluid
properties such as momentum, mass, heat, or
suspended matter by advection or turbulent motion.
FOOD CHAIN: an abstract representation of the transfer
of energy from its primary source (the sun) to
plants and the various animals in a community.
Example: algae--insects--small fish--larger fish--
fish-eating birds or mammals.
FORMATION WATERS: water naturally occurring in
sedimentary strata.
FUMAROLE: hole or vent associated with volcanism,
through which fumes or vapors issue.
GADIDS: fish belonging to the family Gadidae; include
the cod fishes, hakes, and haddocks.
GAMMARID AMPHIPOD: any member of the suborder
Gammaridea of the order Amphipoda, class Crustacea.
Like other amphipods, these marine invertebrates are
laterally compressed. The gammarids comprise a
large and important group and are often associated
with the bottom of freshwater and marine systems.
An example is the sand hopper. Size range in mm.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY: a method for identifying molecules
based on their characteristic retention times on
liquid or solid substrates.
GASTROPOD: any member of the class Gastropoda, phylum
Mollusca. Aquatic and terrestrial, most possess a
shell which may be whorled. Locomotion is by means
of large muscular foot. Examples: snails, limpets,
slugs.
GEOSTROPHIC CURRENTS: ocean Currents resulting from
the balance of the pressure gradient force and the
Coriolis force, Q. V. The distribution of
geostrophic currents can be inferred from charts of
dynamic topography.
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES: the physical properties of
sediments and rocks that are especially important
for engineering purposes; these properties include
porosity, permeability, and shear strength.
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS: laboratory analytical procedure
made in terms of weight or mass units.
GYRE: a closed or nearly closed circulation pattern in
the horizontal plane.
HABITAT: the environment of animal or plant species,
characterized by the physical and biological
components that are necessary for the survival of
the species.
HEAVY METALS: transition elements on the periodic
table. Generally present in sea water in trace
amounts, i.e., quantities less than one pg/l.
Examples: zinc, nickel, lead.
HERBIVORE : an organism that feeds principally or
entirely on living plants or plant products.
HARPACTICOID: any member of the order Harpacticoida,
subclass Copepoda, class Crustacea. Marine and
freshwater invertebrates usually living on or in the
bottom sediments. See COPEPOD. Size range in mm.
HETEROTROPH: an organism incapable of synthesizing its
own food; it depends on other organisms, such as
green plants, as its source of food. Includes all
animals, fungi, parasites.
HEXAGRAMMID: fish
Hexagrammidae.
belonging to the family
Examples: greenlings, lingcod.
HOLOPLANKTON: any animal species which spends its
entire life in a planktonic form. Example:
copepods.
294 Glossary
HYPOCENTER: point within the earth where rupture first
occurs during an earthquake; also referred to as
focus or source.
INFAUNA: animals which live within the sediment,
utilizing either the interstitial space between
sediment particles, or burrows or tubes. Example:
razor clam.
INPFC: International North Pacific Fisheries
Commission. Member countries include the United
States, Canada, and Japan. Its purpose is primarily
to determine the oceanic distribution, abundance,
and migration of salmon.
INSTAR: in arthropods, the stages between molts.
INTENSITY: a subjective measure of earthquake size
based on felt effects and damage to structures; the
Mercalli scale sets forth the commonly used criteria
for various levels of intensity (described with
Roman numerals).
IPHC: International Pacific Halibut Commission. Member
countries include the United States and Canada. Its
purpose is to regulate catches of Pacific halibut in
order to keep the population healthy and sustain
maximum catches.
ISOPYCNAL : in oceanography, a line connecting all
points of equal water density on a map; an isopleth
of density.
ISOSEISMAL: a line or contour on a map connecting
observations of equal intensity of felt effects or
structural damage due to an earthquake.
KATABATIC WIND: any wind blowing downslope; a "foehn."
is a warm, dry downslope wind which has been heated
by adiabatic compression during descent; a "fall"
wind is a cold downslope wind.
KELP: any large brown seaweed of the family
Laminariaceae.
KEY SPECIES : a species that plays an important
ecological role in determining the structure and
dynamic relationships within a biotic community: a
component species of a biotic community whose
presence is essential to the integrity and stability
of a particular ecosystem. Key species may be
unimportant as energy transformers in a biotic
community (i.e., they may not be very abundant nor
consume large portions of the biotic productivity of
a community), but slight variations in their
abundance may result in great changes in the
abundance of other species and/or in
biotic-community relationships and Structure
(example: sea otter).
LAGRANGIAN (DRIFTER) MEASUREMENTS: Current
measurements made by tracking a device such as a
drogue, which drifts with the ocean currents. The
trajectory of the drifter is assumed to represent
the trajectory of the surrounding water.
LC
(lethal concentratione,) the concentration of a
50° 50
toxic substance necessary to kill 50 percent of a
test population. (Usually defined for a specific
time period.)
LIQUEFACTION: process during which soil and sand
behave as a dense fluid rather than as a wet solid;
may occur spontaneously in marine sediments during
an earthquake and result in severely reduced bearing
strength of the sediment.
LITHOSPHERE: the solid outer shell of the earth; the
earth's crust; contains the relatively rigid plates,
both oceanic and continental, which are in motion
and produce the near-surface physiography of the
earth. (See PLATE TECTONICS.) Primarily granite in
continental areas, basalt in oceanic areas.
LITTORAL :
subtidal waters. Sunlight is able to penetrate and
pertaining to intertidal and shallow
large seaweeds can grow.
MACROPHYTE: a macroscopic plant. In aquatic
communities, these include seaweeds and emergent
vascular plants (sea grasses).
MAGMA: naturally occurring mobile rock material
generated within the earth at high temperature and
pressure; may contain both solid and liquid phases;
the source of volcanic rocks extruded on the earth's
surface.
MAGNITUDE: a rough measure of earthquake size based on
the ground motion recorded by a seismograph. It is
calculated by taking the common logarithm of the
largest motion recorded during the arrival of a
seismic wave (as a deflection on the seismograph).
A correction for distance between the seismograph
station and the epicenter is applied. A unit
increase in magnitude indicates a tenfold increase
in earthquake size. Ground motion is represented by
three seismic wave types, any of which may be used
to determine magnitude: two are body waves (P and
Glossary 295
S), which travel through the earth, and the third is
a surface wave, which travels near the surface of
the earth. Magnitudes are identified by the wave
type used during the calculation: body wave
magnitude (mb) and surface wave magnitude (Ms).
"Richter" magnitude (M1) is based on the largest
seismograph deflection only and does not specify
wave type.
MARINE RISER: a telescopic pipe running from a
floating drilling rig to the ocean floor, used to
direct the drill stem and carry mud.
MARMAP: Marine Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction,
a program of the National Marine Fisheries Service
to evaluate the fisheries resources of the United
States.
MEIOFAUNA: animals between 0.1 and 1 mm long usually
living in the interstitial areas of the upper layer
of sediments in aquatic environments.
MERCALLI SCALE: See INTENSITY.
MEROPLANKTON: any species which spends only a portion
of its life in a planktonic form, such as fish
larvae (ichthyoplankton).
MESOPHILIC : of or pertaining to microbial organisms
which grow well at temperatures from 20° to 45°C but
which will not grow well at temperatures outside
this range.
MESOPLANKTON: phytoplankton, zooplankton, or larvae
between 0.5 and 1 mm in size.
MESOSCALE: a size scale of 10 to 100 km for measuring
oceanographic features.
MICROFLAGELLATE: microscopic plant or animal species
having one or more flagella, long whiplike
structures used for locomotion.
MOHO : Mohorovicic discontinuity; boundary between
crust and mantle as indicated by a rapid increase in
seismic wave velocity; occurs at a depth of 5 km
under the oceans and 30 to 45 km under continents.
MYSID : any member of the higher crustacean order
Mysidacea. Shrimplike animals which a Ce
characterized by having eight or nine thoracic
appendages. The females possess a brood pouch, are
planktonic in lifestyle. Size ranges on the order
of mm. Also called opossum shrimp.
NAUPLIUS : the first larval stage of crustaceans.
NEARSHORE: a term that is loosely defined and whose
meaning is dependent on the discipline of the user,
referring to : (l) that area of an aquatic
environment between the high water mark and the
point offshore where the wind influences currents in
the entire water column; (2) the area between the
high water mark and the point where the depth of the
water column becomes shallow enough to cause waves
to break; (3) oceanic waters of depths shallower
than 200 m (cf. NERITIC).
NEKTON: all swimming marine animals which are able to
migrate freely over considerable distances.
NEMERTEAN : any member of the invertebrate phylum
Nemertina or ribbon worms. Elongated, flattened
body with distinctive proboscis (an anterior feeding
appendage). They live in shallow marine habitat
under stones, or in sand or mud. All are
carnivores. Range in size from an inch to several
feet.
NERITIC :
shallower than 200 m.
referring to oceanic waters of depths
NEUSTON: organisms resting or swimming on the surface,
primarily bacteria and plankton.
NGSTDC: (or NGSDC) National Geopnysical Solar-Terres-
trial Data Center, part of the Environmental Data
and Information Service within the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration. One of the five
major facilities of the EDIS, its purpose is to ac-
quire and disseminate data in the fields of seismol-
ogy, marine geology and geophysics, geomagnetism,
and related fields.
NMFS: National Marine Fisheries Service, a branch of
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
whose purpose is to research the development and
maintenance of fish resources. (Formerly Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries.)
NODC: National Oceanographic Data Center, part of the
Environmental Data and Information Service within
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
One of the five major facilities of the EDIS, its
purpose is to acquire and disseminate oceanographic
data.
296 Glossary
NONSAPONIFIABLE : organic compounds which are not
soluble in an alkali solution.
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE :
includes most of the North American continent. See
PLATE TECTONICS.
lithospheric plate which
NPDES : National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System: a program in which the EPA regulates
permissible discharges from drilling platforms
through monitoring, establishment of standards, and
issuance of permits.
NUEE ARDENTE: extremely hot gaseous cloud of volcanic
ash ejected during an explosive eruption; may flow
downslope like an avalanche at high speeds;
associated with pyroclastic ash flows. (Also known
as "glowing avalanche.")
OFFSHORE: (1) those deeper waters beyond the nearshore
zone seaward to the edge of the continental shelf.
See NEARSHORE.
environment seaward of the high water mark, as
(2) All area of an aquatic
opposed to the onshore environment.
OLEFINIC HYDROCARBON: an unsaturated (i.e., containing
at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond), straight
or branched hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms
are arranged in an open chain.
ONSHORE : landward from the point of highest tidal
influence.
OROGRAPHY: branch of physical geography dealing with
mountains.
OSMERID: fish belonging to the family Osmeridae;
mainly small marine fish which spawn in fresh water.
Examples: smelts, eulachon, and capelin.
PACIFIC PLATE: lithospheric plate underlying most of
the Pacific Ocean. See also PLATE TECTONICS.
PELAGIC: relating to, or living or occurring in the
open sea; oceanic.
PELECYPOD: See BIWALVE MOLLUSC.
PHENOLOGY: the study of the periodically recurring
natural phenomena and their relation to climate and
changes in season.
PHEROMONE: a substance secreted by an organism that
influences the behavior or physiology, or both, of
other organisms of the same species.
PHYTOPLANKTON: algae which live in the open water,
passively drifting with the currents. Size ranges
from microns to a few centimeters.
PINNIPED: any member of the mammalian suborder
Pinnipedia, a group of carnivores adapted to marine
life, but which breed on land; for example, sea
lions.
PLANKTON:
which are weak swimmers or passive drifters.
organisms inhabiting aquatic environments
Includes phytoplankton (algae) and zooplankton
(invertebrates and larval fish).
PLATE TECTONICS: contemporary hypothesis which
explains the continuing evolution of the earth's
crust; proposes that the surface of the earth is
composed of approximately 12 rigid, relatively thin
(100 to 500 km) lithospheric plates which are in
continuous motion relative to one another;
earthquakes, volcanism, and mountain building are
concentrated at plate margins as a result of plate
motions; mechanism explaining Continental Drift.
PLEURONECTIDS: fishes which are members of the family
Pleuronectidae. These are the right-eyed flounders
(the eyes of the flatfish migrate to the right side
of the head at metamorphosis). Examples: halibut
and flounder.
PLUG DOME: a steep-sided protrusion of viscous lava
forming a dome-shaped or bulbous mass over a
volcanic vent.
POLYCHAETE: any member of the class Polychaeta of the
phylum Annelida. Segmented worms that are chiefly
marine, including sedentary (living in self-secreted
tubes O IC burrows) and free-moving forms.
Distinguishing characteristics include lateral
appendages (parapodia) on each segment for food
gathering and locomotion. The majority are 5-10 cm
in length.
PSYCHROPHILIC: of or pertaining to a type of microbial
organism which grows fairly rapidly in temperatures
of 10° to -8°C; these organisms may also grow well
in the mesophilic range (20° to 45°C).
PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL: hot, often incandescent, ash and
other debris ejected during an explosive volcanic
eruption.
Glossary 297
RICHTER MAGNITUDE: See MAGNITUDE.
RISER: a pipe through which liquid travels upward.
ROYALTY TRACT: tract lease for which the bidder offers
a minimal cash payment but instead proposes to pay
the federal government a significant royalty on any
oil/gas profits. Royalties in excess of 60 percent
have been proposed.
SALMONID: fish which are members of the family
Salmonidae. Examples: salmon, trout, char,
whitefish.
SATURATED HYDROCARBON: a hydrocarbon in which all the
carbon-to-carbon bonds in the molecule are single
bonds.
SEISMIC GAP: geographical area within a larger seismic
trend which displays a relative scarcity of seismic
activity; may also be used in a temporal sense to
indicate an inactive period during a longer period
of seismic activity.
SEISMICITY: physical disturbances in the earth caused
by earthquakes or explosions; the occurrence of
earthquakes.
SEISMIC REFLECTION SURVEY: technique of measuring the
depth to various geological horizons, such as the
bottom of unconsolidated sediment deposits and
various rock formations. An energy pulse is
projected into the earth and the travel time for the
pulse to penetrate and reflect back to the surface
is measured; this travel time is converted to
distance (i.e., depth, thickness, etc.) by knowing
the velocity at which the energy pulse travels
through the geological formation.
SEISMOGRAPH: an instrument which detects and records
ground motions caused by the passage of seismic
energy waves through the earth.
SESTON: all suspended particulate material in the
marine environment, including living organisms
(plankton) and detritus.
SHALE SHAKER: a vibrating sleeve that removes cuttings
from the circulating fluid stream in rotary drilling
operations.
SHELF BREAK: the transition seaward from continental
shelf to continental slope, marked by an abrupt
change in the bottom slope.
SIGMA-T (or): abbreviated value of the density of a
seawater sample after the effect of pressure on
density has been removed. To find the equivalent
value of density expressed in gm/cm’, divide Or by
T
1000 and add 1.0.
SLIDE: mass of unconsolidated material moving
downslope, with little coherency.
SLUMP: mass of material moving downslope, primarily as
a unit and along a single surface; often occurs with
a backward rotation on an axis parallel to the
strike (plane of inclination) of the slope.
SPARKER: a type of seismic reflection equipment for
marine surveys which uses an electrical spark to
generate an energy pulse.
SPUD: to commence actual drilling operations.
STD MEASUREMENTS: STD stands for
temperature, and depth.
salinity,
Measurements of the
salinity and temperature at various depths allow
dynamic topographies to be constructed. (See also
DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY.)
SUBDUCTION ZONE: lithospheric plate margin where one
crustal plate (generally oceanic) is thrust under
another (generally continental) as a result of the
convergence of two plates; a deep trench may be
formed, such as the Aleutian Trench or Peru-Chile
Trench. See PLATE TECTONICS.
SUBLITTORAL: pertaining to the area of an aquatic
environment below the littoral zone where sunlight
is able to penetrate.
SUSPENSION-FEEDING: filtering or trapping edible
particles that are suspended in the water; a feeding
mode typical of many zooplankters and other marine
organisms of limited mobility.
SVERDRUP: in oceanography, a unit of mass transport of
water equal to 10° m*/s.
SYNCLINE: fold in a geologic formation in which the
strata dip inward from both sides toward the axis,
generally forming valley topography, i.e., the
oldest rock strata are on the outside of the
feature.
298 Glossary
TECTONIC SUBSIDENCE (or UPLIFT): a lowering (or
raising) of sections of the earth's crust resulting
from adjustment to stresses within the earth;
"tectonic" generally refers to physical deformation
in the lithosphere.
TEMPLATE PLATFORM: an offshore platform whose
supporting legs fit into a frame constructed earlier
and anchored to the sea floor. The platform,
constructed on shore, is taken to the location and
set into the frame using a crane-barge.
TERRIGENOUS: land based or originating from a land
SOUllº Ce .
TEXTURE: (in reference to sediments) geometrical
aspects of the component grains, including size,
shape, and arrangement.
THERMOCLINE: in some layer of a water body, a vertical
TRAMMEL NET: a three-layered net with the center layer
finely meshed and slack so that fish passing through
carry some of the center layer through the coarser
opposite layer and are thus entangled.
TRY NET: a small trawl net towed behind a boat to
capture organisms within the net's path.
TSUNAMI: "seismic sea wave"; great wave generated by
submarine crustal displacement or landslides;
associated with major earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. Tsunamis travel at high speed and low
wave height in deep water, but slow in speed and
build to tremendous heights upon reaching
shorelines.
TUNICATE: marine chordate animals of the subphylum
Tunicata. Most are sessile as adults after passing
through a planktonic larval stage. Widely
distributed in all seas from nearshore to great
depth. They vary in size from microscopic forms to
several inches in length and have internal organs
surrounded by a non-living "tunic." Common name is
sea squirt.
UMBO: a lateral prominence just above the hinge of a
bivalve shell.
UNIB00M: type of seismic reflection equipment.
UNIVALVE MOLLUSC: animal of the phylum Mollusca
possessing a shell that is attached to the body at
one point. Examples: snails, limpets, abalone.
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS: hydrocarbons in which at
least one of the carbon-to-carbon bonds is a double
or triple bond.
UPWELLING (COASTAL): the upward motion of water caused
by forcing of surface waters away from a coastline.
The importance of upwelling is that it can bring
nutrient-rich waters into the surface layers where
they can be used by phytoplankton.
USGS: United States Geological Survey, Department of
the Interior. Primary responsibility is research
and development in seismology, geology, and
geophysics.
WAN WEEN GRAB SAMPLER: bottom sediment sampler having
two hinged jaws and a clamshell-like operation.
VELOCITY SHEAR: in oceanography, rate of change of
velocity with horizontal or vertical distance.
WIND STRESS CURL: the torque imposed on surface
currents in a non-uniform wind field.
ZOOPLANKTON: animals occupying aquatic environments
but considered weak swimmers or passive drifters.
Maximum size of organisms falling in this category
is a few cm and includes small jellyfish, larval
fish, and larval and adult forms of many
negative temperature gradient (temperature
decreasing with increasing depth) appreciably
greater than the gradients above and below it; a
layer in which such a gradient occurs. Principal
thermoclines in the ocean are either seasonal, due
to heating of the surface water in summer, or
permanent.
THERMOGENIC HYDROCARBONS:
produced through alteration of organic materials by
hydrocarbon compounds
temperature and pressure. Examples: crude oils and
products of industrial combustion.
invertebrates.
Glossary 299
References
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